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AN 

ANALYSIS  OF  RELIGIOUS  BELIEF 


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AN    ANALYSIS 


OF 


RELIGIOUS     BELIEF 


VISCOUNT  AMBERLEY 

A 


Ye  shall  know  the  Truth,  and  the  Truth  shall  make  you  Free. 


VOL.    IL 


LONDON 
TRUBNER    &    CO.,    LUDGATE    HILL 

1S77 

\^All  rights  reserved \ 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


BOOK   I. 

(Continued). 
MEANS   OF   COMMUNICATION   DOWNWARDS. 

CHAP. 

I.  Holy  Books,  or  Bibles    ,  . 

Sect.  i.  The  Thirteen  King 

Subdivision  i.  The  Lun  Yu 
„  2.  The  Ta  Heo 

„  3.  The  Chung  Yung 

„  4.  The  Works  of  Mang-tsze 

„  5.  The  Shoo  King   . 

„  6.  The  She  King     . 

„  7.  The  Ch'un  Ts'ew 

„      2.  The  Tao-te-King    . 

Appendix. — Translations   of    the    Tao-te-King, 
Chapter  XXV. 
„       3.  The  Veda  .... 
Subdivision  i.  The  SanhitS, 

„  2.  The  Brahnianas  . 


PAOE 
I 

30 

33 
34 
36 

39 

48 

54 
57 
62 

75 

77 

84 

100 


vi  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  PAQB 

I.  Holy  Books,  or  Bibles — continued. 

Sect.  4.  The  Tripitaka         .....         109 

Subdivision  I.  The  Vinaya-Pitaka         .  .         112 

„  2.  The  SUtra-Pitaka  .  .         133 

„  3.  The  Abhidharma-Pitaka  .         141 

„  4.  Theology  and  Ethics  of  the  Tripitaka  145 

„       5.  The  Zend-Avesta  .  .  .  .  -155 

Subdivision  i.  The  Five  G^thas  .  .         157 

„  2.  Tlie  Yagna  of  Seven  Chapters    .         162 

„  3.  YaQna,  Chapter  XII.      .  .         165 

„  4.  The  Younger  Ya^na,  and  Vispered      166 

„  5.  Vendidad  .  .  .172 

„  6.  The    Khorda  -  Avesta,    with   the 

Homa  Yaslit  .  .         180 

„       6.  The  Koran  .  .  ,  .  .         igi 

„       7.  Tlie  Okl  Testament  ....  202 

Subdivision  i.  The  Historical  Books     .  .  219 

„  2.  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  and  Eccle- 

siastes  .  .  .  .  264 

„  3.  The  Song  of  Solomon     .  .  272 

„  4.  The  Prophets       .  .  .  273 

„  5.  The  God  of  Israel  .  .  303 

„      8.  The  New  Testament  .  .  .  .323 

Subdivision  i.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  .        323 

„  2.  The  Epistles        .  .  .341 

„  3.  The  Apocalypse .  .  .         366 

„  4.  The  God  of  Cliristendom  .         368 


CONTENTS.  vii 

BOOK     11. 
THE   RELIGIOUS    SENTIMENT   ITSELF. 

mAP.  PAOE 

I.  The  Ultimate  Elements  .....  379 

II.  The  Objective  Element  .           .            .           .           .  387 

III.  The  Subjective  Element            ....  437 

IV.  The    Relation    of    the    Objective   and   Subjective 

Elements  ,  .  .  .  .  -453 

INDEX 497 


AN 

ANALYSIS  OF  RELIGIOUS  BELIEF. 


CHAPTER  1. 

HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Vast,  and  even  immeasurable,  as  the  influence  has 
been,  which  has  been  exercised  on  the  course  of 
human  development  by  the  great  men  of  whom  we 
have  spoken,  it  has  been  equalled,  if  not  surpassed,  by 
the  influence  of  the  peculiar  class  of  writings  which 
we  have  grouped  together  under  the  designation  of 
Holy  Books.  Of  this,  the  last  manifestation  of  the 
Religious  Idea,  it  will  be  necessary  to  speak  in  con- 
siderable detail ;  both  on  account  of  its  intrinsic 
importance,  and  because  it  is  a  branch  of  the  subject 
which  has  not  hitherto  received  the  attention  it  de- 
serves. 

We  have  been  far  too  much  accustomed  in  Europe 
to  treat  the  Bible  as  a  book  standing  altogether  by 
itself ;  to  be  admired,  reverenced  and  loved,  or,  it  may 
be,  to  be  criticised,  objected  to  and  rejected,  not  as 
one  of  a  class,  but  as  something  altogether  peculiar 
and  unparalleled  in  the  literary  history  of  the  world. 

VOL.  II.  '  A 


2  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

And,  uudoubtedly,  if  we  compare  it  with  ordinary 
literature  of  whatever  description,  whatever  age,  and 
whatever  nation,  this  opinion  is  just.  Neither  in  the 
poetry,  the  history,  or  tlie  philosophy  of  any  other 
nation  do  we  find  any  work  that  at  all  resembles  it. 
Nevertheless  it  would  be  a  very  rash  conclusion  to 
arrive  at,  that  because  in  the  whole  field  of  Greek 
or  Eoman,  Italian  or  French,  Teutonic  or  Celtic 
literature,  there  is  nothing  that  admits  of  being  put  in 
the  same  category  with  the  Bible,  therefore  the  Bible 
cannot  be  placed  in  any  category  at  all.  It  is  one  of 
a  numerous  class ;  a  class  marked  by  certain  distinct 
characteristics  ;  a  class  of  which  some  specimen  is 
held  in  honour  from  the  furthest  East  of  Asia,  to  the 
extreme  West  of  America,  or,  in  other  words,  through- 
out every  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  which  is 
inhabited  by  any  race  with  the  smallest  pretence  to 
civilisation  and  to  culture.  Wherever  there  is  litera- 
ture at  all,  there  are  Sacred  Books.  If  in  some  isolated 
cases  it  is  not  so,  these  cases  are  exceptions  too  trifling 
in  extent  to  invalidate  the  rule.  Speaking  generally 
we  may  say,  that  every  people  which  has  risen  above 
the  conditions  of  savage  life ;  every  nation  which 
possesses  an  organised  administration,  a  settled  do- 
mestic life,  a  religion  with  developed  and  complex 
dogmas,  possesses  also  its  Sacred  Books.  If  this  truth 
has  been  too  generally  forgotten  ;  if  the  Bible  has 
been  too  commonly  treated  as  something  exceptional 
and  peculiar  which  it  was  the  glory  of  Christianity  to 
possess,  this  omission  is  probaljly  in  great  part  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  attention  of  scholars  has  been  too 
much  confined  to  the  literature,  the  religion,  and  the 
ijeneral   culture  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.      From 


THEIR  CLASSIFICATION.  3 

special  circumstances  these  nations  had  no  Sacred 
writings  among  them.  Their  religion  was  independent 
of  any  such  authorities ;  and  our  notions  of  pagan 
religion  have  been  largely  drawn  from  the  religions  of 
Greece  and  of  Rome.  But  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were 
only  an  insignificant  fraction  of  the  Aryan  race;  and 
other  far  more  numerous  branches  of  that  race  had 
their  recognised  and  authoritative  Scriptures,  contain- 
ing in  some  portions  those  most  ancient  traditions  of 
the  original  stock  which  entered  into  the  intellectual 
property  of  the  Hellenic  family,  in  the  form  of  mytho- 
loojical  tales  and  current  stories  of  their  oods.  We 
must  not  therefore  be  led  by  the  example  of  classical 
antiquity  to  ignore  the  existence  of  these  writings,  or 
to  overlook  their  importance.^ 

We  may  classify  the  Sacred  Books  to  which  refer- 
ence will  be  made  in  this  chapter  as  follows,  proceed- 
ing (as  in  the  case  of  prophets)  from  East  to  West : — • 

1.  The  Thirteen  King,  or  Canon  of  the  Confucians. 

2.  The  Ta(3-t^-king,  or  Canon  of  the  Ta6-se. 

3.  The  Veda,  or  Canon  of  the  Hindus. 

4.  The  Tripitaka,  or  Canon  of  the  Buddhists. 

5.  The  Zend  Avesta,  or  Canon  of  the  Parsees. 

6.  The  Koran,  or  Canon  of  the  Moslems. 

7.  The  Old  Testament,  or  Canon  of  the  Jews. 

8.  The  New  Testament,  or  Canon  of  the  Christians. 

The  works  included  in  the  above  list, — which  are 
more  numerous  than  might  at  first  appear,  o wing- 
to   the  vast   collections  comprised  under  the   titles 

^  See  on  tliis  sul)ject  the  truly  admirable  remarks  of  Karl  Otfried 
^liiller,  in  liis  Prolegomena  zu  einer  Wissensohaftlichen  Mythologie 
(Gotlingen,  1825),  pp.  282-284. 


4  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

"  Vedas,"  and  "  Tripitaka," — are  distinguished,  as  has 
been  already  stated,  by  certain  common  character- 
istics. It  would  be  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  all  of 
these  characteristics  apply  to  each  one  of  the  writings 
accepted  by  any  portion  of  mankind  as  canonical. 
This  cannot  be  so,  any  more  than  the  peculiar  quali- 
ties which  may  happen  to  distinguish  any  given  race 
of  men  can  ever  belong  in  equal  measure  to  all  its 
members.  Hence  there  will  necessarily  be  some 
exceptions  to  our  rules,  but  on  the  whole  I  believe  we 
may  say  with  confidence  that  canonical  or  sacred 
books  have  the  following  distinctive  marks  : — 

A.  There  are  certain  external  marks,  the  presence  of 
which  is  essential  to  constitute  them  sacred  at  all. 

I.  They  must  be  accepted  by  the  sectaries  of  the 
religion  to  which  they  belong  as  being  either  inspired, 
or,  if  the  nature  of  the  faith  precludes  this  idea,  as 
containing  the  highest  wisdom  to  which  it  is  possible 
for  man  to  attain,  and  indeed  a  much  higher  wisdom 
than  can  be  reached  by  ordinary  men.  Nor  do  those 
who  accept  these  books  ever  expect  to  attain  it. 
They  regard  the  authors,  or  supposed  authors,  as 
enlightened  to  a  degree  which  is  beyond  the  reach  of 
their  disciples,  and  receive  their  words  as  utterances 
of  an  unquestionable  authority.  But  wherever  a 
divine  being  is  acknowledged,  these  books  are  regarded 
as  emanating  from  him.  Either  they  have  fallen 
direct  from  heaven  and  been  merely  "seen"  by  their 
human  editors,  as  was  the  case  with  the  Vedic  hymns  ; 
or  their  contents  have  been  communicated  in  collo- 
quies to  holy  men  by  the  Deity  himself,  as  happened 
with  the  Avesta ;  or  an  angel  has  revealed  them  to 
tlie  prophet  while  in  a  fit  or  a  state  of  ecstasy,  as 


CLAIMS  TO  INSPIRATION.  5 

IMahomet  was  made  acquainted  with  the  Suras  of  the 
Koran  ;  or  lastly,  as  is  held  to  have  been  the  case  with 
the  Jewdsh  and  Christian  Scriptures,  the  mind  of  the 
writer  has  been  at  least  so  guided  and  informed  by 
the  Spirit  of  God,  that  in  the  words  traced  by  his  pen 
it  was  impossible  he  should  err. 

Such  a  conviction  is  expressly  stated  in  the  Second 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  where  it  is  said  that  "  all  Scripture 
is  given  by  inspiration  of  God."  And  a  claim  to  even 
more  than  inspiration  is  put  forward  in  the  Apocalypse, 
whose  author  first  calls  his  work  "the  Revelation  of 
Jesus  Christ,"  which  he  says  God  sent  to  him  by  an 
angel  deputed  for  the  purpose,  and  then  proceeds  to 
describe  voices  heard,  and  visions  perceived ;  thus 
resting  his  prophetic  knowledge  not  on  supernatural 
information  communicated  to  the  mind,  but  on  the 
direct  testimony  of  his  senses. 

2.  AVith  this  theory  of  insjnration,  or  of  a  more  than 
human  knowledge  and  wisdom,  is  closely  connected 
an  idea  of  merit  to  be  obtained  by  reading  such  books, 
or  hearing  them  read.  With  tedious  iteration  is  this 
notion  asserted  in  the  later  Avorks  of  the  Buddhist 
Canon.  These  indeed  represent  the  degeneracy  of  the 
idea.  One  of  them  is  so  filled  with  the  panegyrics 
pronounced  upon  itself  by  the  Buddha  or  his  hearers, 
and  with  the  recital  of  the  advantages  to  be  obtained 
by  him  who  reads  it,  that  the  student  searches  in  vain 
under  this  mass  of  laudations  for  the  substance  of  the 
book  itself.^  A  Sutra  translated  by  Schlagintweit 
from  the  Thibetan,  and  bearing  the  marks  (according 
to  its  translator)  of  having  been  written  at  a  period 
of  "mystic  modification  of  Buddhism,"  promises  that, 
1  H.  B.  I.,  p.  536. 


6  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BJBLES. 

at  a  future  period  of  iutense  and  general  distress  this 
Sutra  "  will  be  an  ablution  for  every  kind  of  sin  which 
has  been  committed  in  the  meantime  :  all  animated 
beings  shall  read  it,  and  on  account  of  it  all  sins  shall 
be  wiped  away."  ^  In  another  Sutra,  termed  the 
Karanda  vyuha,  a  great  saint  is  introduced  as  exhort- 
ing his  hearers  to  study  this  treatise,  the  efficacious- 
ness of  which  he  highly  exalts.^  Another  speaker 
recites  in  several  stanzas  the  advantages  which  will 
accrue  to  him  who  either  reads  the  Karanda  vyuha  or 
hears  it  read.^  Such  was  the  force  of  the  idea  that 
the  mere  mechanical  reading  or  copying  of  the  sacred 
texts  was  in  itself  meritorious,  that,  by  a  still  further 
separation  of  the  outward  action  from  its  rational 
signification,  the  j^nrely  unintelligent  process  of  turn- 
ing a  cylinder  on  which  sentences  of  Scripture  were 
printed  came  to  be  regarded  as  equally  efficacious. 
An  author  who  has  given  an  interesting  account  of 
these  cylinders  observes  that,  as  few  men  in  Thibet 
knew  how  to  read,  and  those  who  did  had  not  time 
to  exercise  their  powers,  "  the  Lamas  cast  about  for 
an  expedient  to  enable  the  ignorant  and  the  much- 
occupied  man  also  to  obtain  the  spiritual  advantages " 
(namely,  purification  from  sin  and  exemption  from 
metempsychosis)  "attached  to  an  observance  of  the 
practice  mentioned ;  they  taught  that  the  mere  turn- 
ing of  a  rolled  manuscript  might  be  considered  an 
efficacious  substitute  for  reading  it."  So  completely 
does  the  one  process  take  the  place  of  the  other  that 
"  each  revolution  of  the  cylinder  is  considered  to  be 
equal  to  the  reading  of  as  many  sacred  sentences  or 
treatises  as  are  enclosed  in  it,  provided  that  the  turn- 
1  B.  T.,  p.  139.  2  H.  B.  I.,  p.  222.  3  Ibid.,  p.  226. 


MERIT  OF  READING  THEM.  7 

ing  of  the  cylinder  is  done  slowly  and  from  right  to 
left ; "  the  slowness  being  a  sign  of  a  devout  mind, 
and  the  direction  of  turnincr  beino^  a  curious  remnant 
of  the  original  practice  of  reading,  in  which,  as  the 
letters  run  from  left  to  right,  the  eye  must  move  over 
them  in  that  direction.^  Similar  sentiments,  though 
not  pushed  to  the  same  extra-ragance,  prevail  among 
the  Hindus.  One  of  the  Brahmanas,  or  treatises 
appended  to  the  metrical  portion  of  the  Vedas,  lays 
down  the  principle  that  "  of  all  the  modes  of  exertion, 
which  are  known  between  heaven  and  earth,  study  of 
the  Veda  occupies  the  highest  rank  (in  the  case  of 
him)  who,  knowing  this,  studies  it."  ^  Manu,  one  of 
the  highest  of  Indian  authorities,  observes  that  "a 
Brahman  who  should  destroy  these  three  worlds,  and 
eat  food  received  from  any  quarter  whatever,  would 
incur  no  guilt  if  he  retained  in  his  memory  the  Rig- 
Veda.  Repeating  thrice  with  intent  mind  the  Sanhita 
of  the  Rik,  or  the  Yajush,  or  the  Saman,  with  the 
Upanishads,  he  is  freed  from  all  his  sins.  Just  as  a 
clod  thrown  into  a  great  lake  is  dissolved  when  it 
touches  the  water,  so  does  all  sin  sink  in  the  triple 
Veda."^  Reading  the  Holy  Scriptures  is  with  the 
Parsees  a  positive  duty.  And  these  works,  read  in 
the  proper  spirit,  are  thought  to  exert  upon  earth  an 
influence  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  primaeval 
Word  at  the  origin  of  created  beings.*  It  is  jjeedless 
to  speak  of  the  importance  attached  among  Jews  and 
Christians  to  the  readinor  and  re-readino;  of  their 
Bibles,  or  of  the  spiritual  benefits  supposed  to  result 
therefrom.      It    is   worth   remarkinsf,  however,   that 

^  B.  T.,  pp.  230,  231.  3  Ibid.,  vol.  iii.  p.  25. 

'^  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  iii.  p.  22.  *  Z.  A.  Q.,  p.  595. 


8  HOL  V  BOOR'S,  OR  BIBLES. 

this  constant  perusal  of  Holy  Writ  is  altogether  a 
different  operation  from  that  of  studying  it  for  the 
sake  of  knowing  its  contents.  People  read  continu- 
ally what  they  are  already  perfectly  familiar  with, 
and  they  neither  gain,  nor  expect  to  gain,  any  fresh 
information  from  the  performance.  And  this  is  a 
species  of  reading  to  which  among  Christian  nations 
the  Bible  alone  is  subjected. 

The  genesis  of  this  notion  is  not  difficult  to  follow. 
Once  let  a  given  work  be  accepted  as  containing  infor- 
mation on  religious  questions  which  man's  unaided 
faculties  could  not  have  attained,  and  it  is  evident 
that  there  is  no  better  way  of  qualifying  himself  for 
the  performance  of  his  obligations  towards  heaven 
than  by  studying  that  work.  Its  perusal  and  re-per- 
usal will  increase  his  knowledge  of  divine  things,  and 
render  him  more  and  more  fit,  the  oftener  he  repeats 
it,  to  put  that  knowledge  into  23ractice.  But  if  it  is 
thus  advantageous  to  the  devout  man  to  be  familiar 
with  the  sacred  writings  of  his  faith,  it  is  plain  that 
the  attention  he  ogives  to  them  must  be  in  the  hiohest 
degree  agreeable  to  the  divinity  from  whom  they 
emanate.  For,  to  put  it  on  the  lowest  ground,  it  is  a 
sign  of  respect.  It  renders  it  evident  that  he  is  not 
indifferent  to  the  communication  which  his  God  has 
been  pleased  to  make.  It  evinces  a  jiious  and  reve- 
rential disposition.  Hence  not  only  is  the  reader 
benefited  by  such  a  study,  but  the  Deity  is  pleased  by 
it.  Or  if  the  books  are  not  conceived  as  inspired  by 
any  deity,  yet  a  careful  attention  to  them  shows  a 
desire  for  wisdom,  and  a  humble  regard  for  the 
instructions  of  more  highly-gifted  men  who  in  these 
religions  stand  in  the  place  of  gods.     Thus  the  action 


UNINTELLIGENT  RE  VERENCE  FOR  THEM.     9 

of  reading  these  works,  and  becoming  thoroughly 
familiar  with  their  contents,  is  for  natural  reasons 
regarded  as  meritorious.  But  this  is  not  all.  An  act 
which  at  first  is  meritorious  as  a  means,  tends  inevi- 
tably to  become  meritorious  as  an  end.  Moreover, 
actions  frequently  repeated  for  some  definite  reason 
come  to  be  repeated  when  that  reason  is  absent.  Thus, 
the  reading  of  Sacred  Books,  originally  a  profitable 
exercise  to  the  mind  of  the  reader,  is  soon  undertaken 
for  its  own  sake,  whether  the  mind  of  the  reader  be 
concerned  in  it  or  not.  And  the  action,  having 
become  habitual,  is  stereotyped  as  a  religious  custom, 
and  therefore  a  religious  obligation.  The  words  of 
the  holy  books  are  read  aloud  to  a  congregation, 
without  effort  or  intelligence  on  their  part,  perhaps 
in  a  tongue  which  they  do  not  comprehend.  Even  if 
the  vernacular  be  employed,  there  is  not  the  pretence 
of  an  effort  to  penetrate  the  sense  of  difficult  passages. 
Holy  Writ  has  become  a  charm,  to  be  mechanically  read 
and  as  mechanically  heard,  and  the  notion  of  merit — 
arising  in  the  first  instance  from  the  high  importance 
of  understanding  its  meaning  with  a  view  to  practis- 
ing its  precepts — now  attaches  to  the  mere  repetition 
of  the  consecrated  words. 

3.  The  exact  converse  of  this  unintelligent  rever- 
ence for  the  sacred  writings  is  the  excessive  and  over- 
subtle  exercise  of  intelligence  upon  them.  It  is  the 
common  fate  of  such  works  to  be  made  the  subject  of 
the  most  minute,  most  careful,  and  most  constant 
scrutiny  to  which  any  of  the  productions  of  the 
human  mind  can  be  subjected.  The  pious  and  the 
learned  alike  submit  them  to  an  unceasing  study. 
No  phrase,  no   word,   no    letter,   passes   unobserved. 


lo  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

The  result  of  tins  devout  investigation  naturally  is, 
that  much  which  in  reality  belongs  to  the  mind  of  the 
reader  is  attributed  to  that  of  the  writer.  Approached 
with  the  fixed  prepossession  that  they  contain  vast 
stores  of  superhuman  wisdom,  that  which  is  so 
eagerly  sought  from  them  is  certain  to  be  found. 
Hence  the  natural  and  simple  meaning  of  the  words  is 
set  aside,  or  is  relegated  to  a  secondary  place.  All 
sorts  of  forced  interpretations  are  put  upon  them  with 
a  view  of  compelling  them  to  harmonise  with  that 
which  it  is  supposed  they  ought  to  mean.  Statements, 
doctrines,  and  allusions  are  discovered  in  them  which 
not  only  have  no  existence  in  their  pages,  but  which 
are  absolutely  foreigrj  to  the  epoch  at  which  they  were 
written.  This  process  of  false  interpretation  is  greatly 
favoured  by  distance  of  time.  When  an  ancient  book 
is  approached  by  those  who  know  but  little  of  the 
external  circumstances,  or  of  the  intellectual  and  spiri- 
tual atmosphere,  of  the  age  in  which  it  was  composed, 
much  that  was  simple  and  plain  enough  to  the  con- 
temporaries of  the  writer  will  be  dubious  and  obscure 
to  them.  And  when  they  are  determined  to  find 
in  the  venerable  classic  nothing  but  perfect  truth,  the 
result  of  such  conditions  is  an  inevitable  confusion. 
Their  own  actual  notions  of  truth  must  at  all  hazards 
be  discovered  in  the  sacred  pages.  The  assumption 
cannot  be  surrendered  ;  all  that  does  not  agree  with 
it  must  therefore  be  suitably  explained. 

Are  proceedings  or  actions  which  shock  the  im- 
})roved  morality  of  a  later  age  spoken  of  with  appro- 
l)ation  in  the  canonical  books  ?  Some  evasion  must  be 
discovered  which  will  reconcile  ethics  with  belief.  Are 
doctrines  which    the   religion  of  a  later    age   rejects 


SUBTLETY  OF  INTERPRETATION.  it 

plainly  enunciated,  or  statements  of  facts,  which 
later  investigation  has  shown  to  be  impossible, 
■unequivocally  made  ?  The  inconvenient  passages 
must  be  shown  to  bear  another  construction.  Are 
there  portions  whose  character  appears  too  trivial  or 
too  mundane  to  be  consistent  with  the  dignity  of 
works  given  for  the  instruction  of  mankind  ?  These 
portions  must  be  shown  to  possess  a  mystical  signi- 
ficance ;  a  spirit  hidden  beneath  the  letter ;  profound 
instruction  veiled  under  ordinary  phrases.  Are  the 
dogmas  cherished  as  of  su^Dreme  importance  by  subse- 
quent generations  unhappily  not  to  be  found  in  the 
text  of  Kevelation  ?  These  dogmas  must  be  read  out 
of  them  by  putting  a  strain  upon  words  which  appar- 
ently refer  to  some  other  sul)ject.  Perhaps,  if  they 
are  not  contained  in  them  totidem  verbis,  they  may  be 
totidem  syllahis ;  or  if  not  even  totidem  syllabis,  at 
least  totidem  Uteris.  And  the  absence  of  a  letter  (like 
the  k  in  shoulder-knots)  can  always  be  got  over  some- 
how. Lastly,  are  there  palpable  contradictions  ?  At 
whatever  cost  they  must  be  explained  away,  for 
Holy  Writ,  being  inspired,  can  never  contradict 
itself. 

Let  us  consider  a  few  of  the  most  striking  examples 
of  these  methods  of  treatment.  China,  usually  so 
matter  of  f^ct,  has  manifested  in  this  field  a  subtlety 
of  interpretation  not  altogether  unworthy  of  the  more 
mystical  India.  The  Ch'un  Ts'ew,  one  of  the  books 
of  the  Chinese  Canon,  is  a  historical  compilation 
attributed  to  Confucius  himself,  and  is  therefore  of 
more  than  ordinary  authority  even  for  a  Sacred  Book. 
Concerning  one  of  the  years  of  which  it  contains  a 
record,  the  following-  statements  are  made  : — 


12  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

*'  In  the  ninth  month,  on  Kang-seuh,  the  first  day 
of  the  moon,  the  sun  was  eclipsed. 

*'  In  winter,  in  the  tenth  month,  on  Kang-shin,  the 
first  day  of  the  moon,  the  sun  was  eclipsed."  ^ 

Two  eclipses  in  such  close  proximity  were  of  course 
an  impossibility.  Chinese  scholars  were  fully  aware 
of  this,  and  knew,  moreover,  that  the  second  eclipse 
mentioned  did  not  take  place.  A  similar  mistake 
occurred  in  another  cha^oter,  so  that  there  were  two 
unquestionable  blunders  to  be  got  over.  No  wonder 
then  that  "  the  critics,"  as  Dr  Legge  says,  "  have 
vexed  themselves  with  the  question  in  vain."  But  one 
of  them  proposes  an  explanation.  "  In  this  year,"  he 
remarks,  "and  in  the  24th  year,  we  have  the  record  of 
eclipses  in  successive  months.  According  to  modern 
chronologists  such  a  thing  could  not  be ;  but  perhaps 
it  did  occur  in  ancient  times  !  "  ^  Dr  Legge  has  itali- 
cised the  concluding  words,  and  put  an  exclamation 
after  them,  as  if  they  embodied  a  surprising  absurdity. 
But  his  experience  of  Biblical  criticism  must  have 
presented  him  with  abundant  instances  of  similar  in- 
terpretations of  the  glaring  contradictions  to  modern 
science  found  in  Scripture.  Is  it  more  ridiculous  to 
suppose  that  two  eclipses  might  have  occurred  in  two 
months  than  to  believe  that  the  sun  stood  still,  in 
other  words,  that  the  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis  ceased  for  a  space  of  time  ?  or  that  an  ass  could 
be  endowed  with  human  speech  ?  or  that  a  man, 
instead  of  dying,  could  rise  from  earth  to  heaven?  And 
if  these  and  similar  strauge  occurrences  be  explained 
as  miracles,  then  such  miracles  "did  occur  in  ancient 

1  C.  C,  vol.  V.  p.  489.— Ch'un  Ts'ew,  b.  9.  ch.  xxi.  p.  5,  6. 
'''  Ibid.,  vol.  V.  p.  491. 


FORCED  INTERPRETATIONS.  13 

times,"  and  do  not  now.  Or  if  it  be  attempted,  as  it 
is  by  interpreters  of  the  rationalistic  school,  to  get 
over  the  difficulty  by  siipjDosing  a  natural  event  as 
the  foundation  of  the  story — as  one  writer  suggests 
that  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Pentecost  was 
a  strong  blast  of  wind — then  European  critics,  like 
those  of  China,  "  vex  themselves  in  vain." 

No  country,  however,  has  done  more  than  India, 
possibly  none  has  done  so  much,  in  the  peculiar 
exercise  of  ingenuity  by  which  all  sorts  of  senses  are 
deduced  from  sacred  texts.  The  Veda  formed  in  that 
highly  religious  land  the  common  basis  on  which  each 
variety  of  philosophy  was  founded,  and  by  which  each 
was  thought  to  be  justified.  Dr  Muir  has  collected  a 
number  of  facts  in  proof  of  the  diverse  interpretations 
that  found  defenders  among  the  champions  of  the 
several  schools.  In  these  facts,  according  to  him, 
"we  find  another  illustration  (1)  of  the  tendency 
common  to  all  dogmatic  theologians  to  interpret  in 
strict  conformity  to  their  own  opinions  the  unsyste- 
matic and  not  always  consistent  texts  of  an  earlier 
age  "udiich  have  been  handed  down  by  tradition  as 
sacred  and  infallible,  and  to  represent  them  as 
containing,  or  as  necessarily  implying,  fixed  and 
consistent  systems  of  doctrine ;  as  well  as  (2)  of  the 
diversity  of  view  which  so  generally  prevails  in  regard 
to  the  sense  of  such  texts  amono^  writers  of  difi"erent 
schools,  who  adduce  them  with  equal  positiveness  of 
assertion  as  establishing  tenets  and  princij)les  which 
are  mutually  contradictory  or  inconsistent."^ 

Exactly  the  same  methods  were  applied  to  the 
sacred  books  of  Buddhism.     "  It  is  in  general,"  says 

*  O.  S.  T,,  vol.  iii.  p.  XX. 


14  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Buruouf,  "the  same  texts  that  serve  as  a  foundation 
for  all  doctrines ;  only  the  explanation  of  these  texts 
marks  the  naturalistic,  theistic,  moral  or  intellectual 
tendency."^       To    meet    the    case    of    contradictions 
occurring    in  the    Buddhistic    Sutras   a  theory   of  a 
double   meaning    has   been   invented.       The    various 
schools  that  had  arisen  in  the  course  of  time  did  not 
venture  to  reject  the  Sutras  that  failed  to  harmonise 
with   their   own  opinions,   as   not    having    emanated 
from  Buddha,  but  maintained   he  had  not  expressed 
them  in  the  form  of  absolute  truth.     He  had  often, 
they  thought,  adapted  himself  to  the  conceptions  of 
his  hearers,  and  uttered  what  was  directly  contradic- 
tory to  his  veritable  ideas.     Hence  his  words  must 
be  taken  in  two  senses ;  the  palpable  and  the  hidden 
sense.^     As   it  has  been  with  the  Chinese    Classics, 
with  the  Veda,  and  with  the  Tripitaka,  so  it  has  been 
with  the  Zend  Avesta.     Speaking  of  the  progress  of 
scholarship  in  deciphering  the  sense  of  that  ancient 
work,    Professor    Max    Muller    justly    observes   that 
"greater  violence  is  done   by  successive  interpreters 
to  sacred  writings  than  to  any  other  relics  of  ancient 
literature.     Ideas  grow  and  change,  yet  each  genera- 
tion tries  to  find  its  own  ideas  reflected  in  the  sacred 
pages  of  their  early  prophets,  and  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  influences  which  blur  and  obscure  the  sharp 
features  of  old  words,  artificial  influences  are  here  at 
work  distorting  the  natural  expression  of  words  which 
have  been  invested  with  a  sacred  authority.     Passages 
in  the  Veda  or  Zend  Avesta  which  do  not  bear  on 
religious    or   philosophical    doctrines,    are    generally 
explained  simply  and  naturally,  even  by  the  latest  of 

'  H.  B.  I.,  p.  444.  -   Wassilj('-\v,  pp.  105,  329. 


FORCED  INTERPRETATIONS.  15 

native  commentators.  But  as  soon  as  any  word  or 
sentence  can  be  so  turned  as  to  support  a  doctrine, 
however  modern,  or  a  precept,  however  irrational, 
the  simplest  phrases  are  tortured  and  mangled  till  at 
last  they  are  made  to  yield  their  assent  to  ideas  the 
most  foreign  to  the  minds  of  the  authors  of  the  Veda 
and  Zend  Avesta."^ 

It  is  remarkable  that  almost  identical  expressions 
are  employed  by  a  Eoman  Catholic  writer  in  reference 
to  the  efforts  that  have  been  made  by  theologians  to 
discover  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  the  pages  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible.  I  am  glad  to  be  able  to  quote  an 
authority  so  unexceptionable  as  that  of  M.  Didron  for 
the  proposition,  that  the  poverty  of  the  Old  Testament 
in  texts  relating  to  the  Trinity  has  caused  the  com- 
mentators to  torture  the  sense  of  the  words  and  the 
signification  of  facts.  He  adds  the  interestino-  infor- 
mation  that  artists,  pushed  on  by  the  commentators, 
have  represented  the  signs  of  the  Trinity  in  scenes 
which  did  not  admit  of  them.  Thus,  commentators 
and  artists  have  united  to  find  a  revelation  of  the 
three  persons  of  the  Godhead  in  the  three  angels 
whom  Abraham  met  in  the  plain  of  Mamre ;  in  the 
three  companions  of  Daniel  who  were  thrown  into  the 
fiery  furnace,  and  in  other  passages  of  equal  relevance. 
No  w^onder,  when  such  are  the  texts  relied  upon  to 
prove  the  presence  of  this  cardinal  dogma,  that  M. 
Didron  should  observe  that  the  Old  Testament  contains 
very  few  texts  that  are  clear  and  precise  upon  the 
subject,  and  that  in  this  portion  of  the  Sacred  Books 
we  do  not  see  a  sufficient  number  of  real  and  un- 
questionable manifestations  of  the  Holy  Trinity.^ 

1  Chips,  vol.  i.  p.  134.  •^  Ic.  Ph..  pp.  514-517. 


1 6  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  most  conspicuous  instance  of 
the  power  of  preconceptions  in  deciding  the  sense  of 
Holy  Writ  is  the  traditional  interpretation  of  the  Song 
of  Solomon.  In  this  little  book,  which  is  altoo-ether 
secular  in  its  subject  and  its  nature,  the  love  of  a 
young  damsel  to  her  swain  is  described  in  peculiarly 
plain  and  sensuous  language.  But  precisely  because 
it  was  so  plain  was  it  necessary  to  find  allegorical 
allusions  under  its  rather  glowing  phrases.  Hence 
such  expressions  as  "let  him  kiss  me  with  a  kiss  of 
his  mouth  :  thy  caresses  are  softer  than  wdne,"  are 
held  to  refer  to  "the  Church's  love  unto  Christ,"  and 
an  enthusiastic  encomium  passed  by  the  Shulamite 
upon  the  physical  perfections  of  her  lover  is  called  *'  a 
description  of  Christ  by  his  graces."  So,  when  another 
speaker,  in  this  case  a  man,  flatters  a  woman  by 
enumerating  the  beauties  of  her  form,  the  feet,  the 
joints  of  her  thighs,  the  navel,  the  belly,  and  the  two 
breasts  so  passionately  praised  by  her  admirer,  are 
thought  in  some  mystic  way  to  signify  the  graces  of 
the  Church.  A  passage  referring  to  a  young  girl  not 
yet  fully  developed  is  made  out  to  be  a  foreshadowing 
of  "  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,"  and  the  natural  and 
simple  appeal  to  a  lover  to  make  haste  to  come  is 
"  the  Church  praying  for  Christ's  coming." 

Equal,  or  nearly  equal,  absurdities  are  found  in  the 
Chinese  interpretations  of  certain  Odes  contained  in 
their  classics.  These  Odes  are,  like  the  Song  of  Songs, 
mere  expressions  of  human  love.  But  the  critics  find 
in  them  profound  historical  allusions ;  history  being 
the  staple  of  the  Chinese  sacred  books,  as  theology  is 
of  the  Hebrew  ones.  Now  it  happened  in  China,  as 
it  has  happened  in  Europe,  that  there  was  a  traditional 


EXEGESIS  AAWA'G  THE  CHINESE.  17 

meaning  attached  to  this  portion  of  the  sacred  books  ; 
aud  the  traditional  meaning  was  embodied  in  a  Preface 
which  was  generally  supposed  to  have  descended  from 
very  ancient  times,  which  came  to  be  incorporated 
with  the  Odes,  and  tliiis  appeared  to  rest  on  the  same 
authority  as  the  text  itself.  But  a  Chinese  scholar, 
named  Choo  He,  who  examined  the  preface  in  a  freer 
spirit  tlian  was  usual  among  the  commentators,  formed 
a  very  diiferent  opinion  as  to  its  age  and  its  authority. 
He  believed  it  to  be  of  much  more  recent  date  than 
was  commonly  supposed,  and  by  no  means  to  form  an 
integral  portion  of  the  Odes.  The  prevailing  theory 
was  that  the  Preface  had  existed  as  a  separate  docu- 
ment in  the  time  of  a  scholar  named  Maou,  "  and  that 
he  broke  it  up,  prefixing  to  each  Ode  the  portion 
belonixino'  to  it.  The  natural  Conclusion,"  observes 
Choo  He,  "  is  that  the  Preface  had  come  down  from 
a  remote  period,  and  that  Hwang"  (a  scholar  who,  in 
one  account,  is  said  to  have  written  the  Preface) 
"merely  added  to  it  and  rounded  it  ofi".  In  accord- 
ance with  this,  scholars  generally  hold  that  the  first 
sentences  in  the  introductory  notices  formed  the 
original  Preface  which  Maou  distributed,  and  that 
the  following  portions  were'  subsequently  added.  This 
view  may  appear  reasonable,  but  when  we  examine 
those  first  sentences  themselves,  we  find  some  of  them 
which  do  not  agree  with  the  obvious  meaning  of  the 
Odes  to  which  they  are  prefixed,  and  give  merely 
the  rash  and  baseless  expositions  of  the  writers."  Choo 
He  adds,  that  after  the  prefatory  notices  were  pub- 
lished as  a  portion  of  the  text,  "they  appeared  as 
if  they  were  the  production  of  the  poets  themselves, 
and  the  Odes  seemed  to  be  made  from  them  as  so 

VOL.  II.  li 


1 8  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

many  themes.  Scholars  handed  down  a  faith  in  them 
from  one  to  another,  and  no  one  ventured  to  express 
a  doubt  of  their  authority.  The  text  was  twisted 
and  chiselled  to  bring  it  into  accordance  with  them, 
and  nobody  would  undertake  to  say  plainly  that  they 
were  the  work  of  the  scholars  of  the  Han  dynasty."  ^ 

Ample  confirmation  of  the  justice  of  Choo  He's 
opinion  will  be  found  on  turning  to  the  Odes  and 
comparing  them  with  the  notices  in  the  Preface,  which 
bear  a  family  likeness  to  the  headings  of  the  chapters 
in  the  Song  of  Songs.    Here,  for  example,  is  an  Ode  : — ■ 

"  If  yon,  Sir,  think  kindly  of  nie, 
I  will  hold  njj  my  lower  garments,  and  cross  the  Tsin. 
If  you  do  not  think  of  me, 
Is  there  no  other  person  [to  do  so  ?] 
You  foolish,  foolish  fellow !  "  ^ 

The  second  stanza  is  identical,  with  this  exception, 
that  the  name  of  the  river  is  changed.  Now  this 
young  lady's  coquettish  appeal  to  her  lover  is  said  in 
the  Preface  to  be  an  expression  "of  the  desire  of  the 
people  of  Ch'ing  to  have  the  condition  of  the  State 
rectified."  '     Another  Ode  runs  thus  : — ■ 

1.  "  The  sun  is  in  the  east, 

And  that  lovely  girl 

Is  in  my  chamber. 

She  is  in  my  chamber  ; 

She  treads  in  my  footsteps,  and  comes  to  me. 

2.  "  The  moon  is  in  the  east, 

And  that  lovely  girl 

Is  inside  my  door. 

She  is  inside  my  door  ; 

She  treads  in  my  footsteps,  and  hastens  away, 


"4 


^  C.  C,  vol.  iv.  Proleg.,  p.  33. 

*''  C.  C,  vol.  iv.  p.  140. — She  King,  pt.  i.  b.  7,  ode  13. 

'  C.  C,  vol.  iv.  Proleg.,  p.  51. 

*  C.  C,  vol.  iv.  p.  T53. — She  King,  pt.  i.  b.  8,  ode  4. 


A  CHINESE  SONG  OF  SONGS.  19 

This  simple  poem  is  supposed  by  the  Preface  to  be 
"directed  against  the  decay  [of  the  times]."  Observe 
the  theory  that  anything  appearing  in  a  sacred  book 
must  have  a  moral  purpose.  "  The  relation  of  ruler 
and  minister  was  neglected.  Men  and  women  sought 
each  other  in  lewd  fashion ;  and  there  was  no  ability 
to  alter  the  customs  by  the  rules  of  propriety."  ^  A 
commentator,  studious  to  discover  the  hidden  moral, 
urges  that  the  incongruous  fact  of  the  young  woman's 
coming  at  sunrise  and  going  at  moonrise  "  should 
satisfy  us  that,  under  the  figuration  of  these  lovers,  is 
intended  a  representation  of  Ts'e,  with  bright  or  with 
gloomy  relations  between  its  ruler  and  officers."^  In 
another  Ode  a  lady  laments  her  husband's  absence, 
pathetically  saying  that  while  she  does  not  see  him, 
her  heart  cannot  forget  its  grief : 

"  How  is  it,  how  is  it, 
That  he  forgets  me  so  very  much  1  " 

is  the  burden  of  every  stanza.  This  piece,  according 
to  the  Preface,  was  directed  against  a  duke,  "  who 
slighted  the  men  of  worth  whom  his  father  had  collected 
around  him,  leaving  the  State  without  those  who  were 
its  ornament  and  strength."  ^ 

With  such  methods  as  these  there  is  no  marvel 
which  may  not  be  accomplished.  And  when,  by  the 
lapse  of  many  centuries,  the  very  language  of  the 
sacred  records  has  been  forgotten, — as  the  Sanscrit  of 
the  Vedas  was  forgotten  by  the  Hindus,  the  Zend  by 
the  Parsees,  and  the  Hebrew  by  the  Jews — the  process 
of  perversion  is  still  further  favoured.      The  original 

^  C.  C,  vol.  iv.  Proleg.,  p.  52. 

^  C.  C,  vol.  iv,  p.  153,  note. 

^  C.  C,  vol.  iv.  p.  200,  and  the  note. — She  King,  pt.  i.  b.  11,  ode  7. 


20  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

works  are  theu  accessible  but  to  a  few  ;  and  when 
these  few  undertake  to  explain  them  in  the  ordinary 
tongue,  they  will  do  so  with  a  gloss  suggested  by  their 
own  imperfect  comprehension  of  the  thoughts  and 
language  of  the  past. 

These,  then,  may  be  accepted  as  the  external  marks 
of  Sacred  Books  :  i.  The  unusual  veneration  accorded 
to  them  by  the  adherents  of  each  religion,  on  the 
ground  that  they  contain  truths  beyond  the  reach  of 
human  intelligence  when  not  specially  enlightened;  or 
in  other  words,  the  theory  of  their  inspiration.  2. 
The  notion  of  religious  merit  attached  to  reading  them. 
3.  The  application  to  them  of  forced  interpretation, 
in  order  to  brinsf  them  into  accordance  with  the 
assumptions  made  regarding  them. 

B.  Passing  now  to  the  internal  marks  by  which 
writings  of  this  class  are  distinguished,  we  shall  find 
several  which,  taken  together,  constitute  them  alto- 
gether a  peculiar  branch  of  literature. 

I.  Their  subjects  are  generally  confined  within  a 
certain  definite  range,  but  in  the  limits  of  that  range 
there  is  a  considerable  portion  which  has  the  peculi- 
arity that  their  investigation  transcends  the  unaided 
powers  of  the  human  intellect.  Almost  the  whole  of 
the  vast  field  of  theoloQ;ical  doo;ma  comes  under  this 
head.  The  sublimer  subjects  usually  dealt  with,  and 
not  only  dealt  with,  but  emphatically  dwelt  upon,  in 
the  Sacred  Books  are,  the  nature  of  the  Deity  and  his 
mode  of  action  towards  mankind ;  the  creation  of  the 
world  and  its  various  constituent  parts,  including  man 
himself;  the  motives  of  the  Deity  in  these  exercises 
of  his  power  ;  the  dogmas  to  be  believed  in  reference 
to  the  Deity  himself  and  in  reference  to  other  super- 


SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  SACRED  BOOKS.        21 

liumau  powers  or  agencies,  whether  good  or  bad ; 
and  the  condition  of  the  soul  after  death  with  the 
rewards  and  the  punishments  of  vicious  conduct. 
Coming  down  to  matters  of  a  h\ss  purely  celestial 
character,  but  still  beyond  the  reach  of  the  uninspired 
faculties  of  ordinary  minds,  they  treat  of  tlie  primitive 
condition  of  mankind  when  first  placed  upon  the 
earth  ;  of  his  earliest  history  ;  of  the  rites'  by  which  the 
divine  being  is  to  be  worshipped  ;  of  the  sacrifices 
which  are  to  be  ofi'ered  to  him ;  of  the  ceremonies  by 
which  his  favour  is  to  be  won.  Here  we  move  in  a 
region  which  is  at  least  intelligible  and  free  from 
mysteries,  though  ib  is  plain  that  we  could  not  arrive 
at  any  certain  conclusions  on  such  things  as  these 
without  divine  assistance  and  superhuman  illumina- 
tion. Lastly,  the  Sacred  Books  of  all  nations  profess 
to  give  information  on  a  subject  the  nature  of  which 
is  altogether  mundane,  and  with  regard  to  which 
truth  is  accessible  to  all,  inspired  or  uninspired  ; — the 
rules  of  moral  conduct.  These  are,  I  believe,  the 
main  subjects  which  will  be  found  treated  of  in  the 
various  books  that  lay  claim  to  the  title  of  Sacred. 
These  subjects  may  be  briefly  classified  as,  i.  Meta- 
physical speculations  as  to  the  nature  of  the  Deity. 
2.  Doctrines  as  to  the  past  or  future  existence  of  the 
soul.  3.  Accounts  of  the  creation.  4.  Lives  of 
prophets  or  collections  of  their  sayings.  5.  Theories 
as  to  the  origin  of  evil.  6.  Prescriptions  as  to  ritual.  7. 
Ethics.  That  this  does  not  pretend  to  be  an  exhaus- 
tive classification,  I  need  hardly  say  ;  other  topics 
are  treated  in  some  of  them  to  which  no  allusion  is 
made,  and  all  of  these  topics  themselves  are  not 
treated  in  all.     But  they  are  those  with  which  the 


2  2  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

Sacred  Books  are  principally  concerned  ;  and  more 
than  this,  they  are  those  in  the  treatment  of  which 
these  books  are  especially  peculiar.  One  important 
feature  both  of  the  Chinese  and  the  Jewish  Canon  is 
passed  over,  namely,  their  historical  records.  If  these 
records  were  not  exceptional  appearances  in  sacred 
works,  or  if,  though  exceptional,  they  presented  some 
essential  singularity  marking  them  off  from  all 
ordinary  history,  they  should  be  included  in  the  list 
of  subjects.  But  as  the  Chinese  Shoo  King  are 
perfectly  commonplace  annals  of  matters  of  fact ;  and 
as  the  Books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles  are 
not  otherwise  distinguished  from  secular  history  than 
by  their  theological  theories — in  respect  of  which  they 
are  included  under  the  previous  heads — I  see  no 
reason  to  include  history  among  the  matters  generally 
treated  in  Sacred  Books.  It  is  right,  however,  to 
note  in  passing  that  in  these  two  instances  it  is  found 
in  them. 

2.  Since,  however,  it  will  be  obvious  to  all  that 
these  great  topics  are  discussed  in  many  other  works 
which  have  no  pretension  to  be  thought  sacred,  w^e 
must  seek  for  some  further  and  more  definite  criterion 
by  which  to  separate  them  from  general  literature. 
And  we  shall  find  it  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
.above-named  subjects  are  treated.  The  great  distinc- 
tion between  sacred  and  non-sacred  writings  in  their 
manner  of  dealing  with  these  great  questions  is  the 
tone  of  authority,  and  if  the  expression  may  be  used, 
of  finality,  assumed  by  the  former.  There  is  no 
appeal  beyond  them  to  a  higher  authority  than  their 
own.  Having  God  as  their  author  and  inspirer,  or 
being  the  product  of  the  supreme  elevation  of  reason, 


THEIR  ABSOLUTE  AUTH0RI7ATIVENESS.     23 

they  take  for  granted  that  human  beings  will  not 
question  or  cavil  at  their  statements.  While  other 
writers,  when  seeking  to  enforce  the  doctrines  of  any 
positive  religion,  invariably  rest  their  contentions, 
implicitly  or  explicitly,  on  some  superior  authority, 
referring  their  readers  or  hearers  either  to  the  Vedas, 
the  Koran,  the  Bible,  the  Church,  or  some  other  recog- 
nised standard  of  belief,  and  would  think  it  in  the 
last  degree  presumptuous  to  claim  assent  except  to 
what  can  be  found  in  or  deduced  from  that  standard  ; 
while  those  teachers  who  are  not  the  exponents  of  any 
positive,  revealed  religion,  endeavour  to  prove  their 
conclusions  from  the  common  intuitions  or  the  common 
reasoning  faculties  of  mankind ;  the  writers  of  these 
books  do  neither.  They  seem  to  speak  with  a  full 
confidence  that  their  words  need  no  confirmation 
either  from  authority  or  from  reason.  If  they  tell  us 
the  story  of  the  creation  of  the  w^orld,  they  do  not 
think  it  needful  to  inform  us  from  what  sources  the 
narrative  is  derived.  If  they  reveal  the  character  of 
God,  it  is  wdthout  explaining  the  means  by  which  their 
insight  has  been  obtained,  If  they  lay  down  the  rules 
of  religious  or  moral  conduct,  it  is  not  done  with  the 
modesty  of  fallible  teachers,  but  with  the  voice  of 
unqualified  command  emanating  from  the  plenitude 
of  power.  Of  their  decisions  there  can  be  no  discus- 
sion ;  from  their  sentences  there  is  no  appeal. 

3.  It  corresponds  with  this  character  that  Sacred 
Books  should  very  generally  be  anonymous ;  or  more 
strictly  speaking,  impersonal ;  that  is,  that  they  should 
]iot  be  put  forward  in  the  name  of  an  individual,  and 
that  no  individual  should  take  credit  for  their  author- 
ship.     Understanding  the   expression  in  this  some- 


24  noL  y  BOOKS,  or  bibles. 

what  wider  sense,  we  may  say  that  anonymity  is  a 
general  characteristic  of  this  class  of  writings.  Their 
authors  do  not  desire  to  invite  attention  to  their  own 
personality,  or  to  claim  assent  on  the  ground  of  respect 
or  consideration  towards  themselves.  On  the  contrary, 
they  withdraw  entirely  from  observation  ;  they  appear 
to  be  thoroughly  engrossed  in  the  greatness  of  the 
subject ;  and  to  write  not  from  any  deliberate  design 
or  with  any  artistic  plan,  but  simply  from  the  fulness 
of  the  inspiration  by  which  they  are  controlled. 
Hence  not  only  are  the  names  of  the  authors  in  most 
cases  completely  lost  to  us,  but  they  have  left  us  not 
a  hint  or  an  indication  by  which  we  could  discover 
what  manner  of  men  they  were.  Even  where  the 
name  of  a  writer  has  been  preserved  to  us,  it  is  often 
rather  b}^  some  accident  altogether  independent  of  the 
book,  and  which  i^  no  way  alters  its  anonymous 
character.  We  happen  to  know,  on  what  seems  to  be 
good  authority,  that  La5-ts(^  composed  the  Ta5-te- 
king,  but  assuredly  there  is  not  a  syllable  in  the  work 
itself  which  indicates  its  author.  We  happen  to  know 
beyond  a  doubt  that  Mahomet  composed  the  Koran  ; 
but  the  theory  of  the  book  is,  that  it  had  no  human 
author  at  all,  and  it  was  put  forth,  not  as  the  prophet  s 
composition,  but  as  the  literal  reproduction  of  revela- 
tions made  to  him  from  heaven.  The  most  note- 
worthy exceptions  are  the  prpphets  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  Pauline,  Petrine  apd  Jpha^uine  Epistles 
of  the  NeAv.  But  of  the  prophets,  t;hough  their  names 
are  indeed  given,  the  great  majority  are  little  more 
than  a  mere  name  to  us  ;  while  large  portions  of  the 
prophecies,  attributed  in  the  Jewish  Canon  to  some 
celebrated  prophet,  are  in  reality  the  work  of  unknown 


THEIR  ANONYMITY.  25 

writers.  This  is  notoriously  the  case  with  the  whole 
of  the  latter  part  of  our  Isaiah ;  it  is  the  case  with 
j^arts  of  Jeremiah  ;  it  is  the  case  with  Malachi  (whose 
real  name  is  not  preserved) ;  it  is  the  case  with  Daniel. 
The  Pauline  Epistles  offer  indeed  a  marked  excep- 
tion to  the  rule ;  and  some  of  them  are  of  doubtful 
authenticity.  The  Epistles  of  Peter,  of  John,  of 
James  and  Jude,  even  if  their  authorship  be  correctly 
assigned,  are  of  too  limited  extent  to  constitute  an 
exception  of  any  importance.  The  rest  of  the  Chris- 
tian Bible  follows  the  rule.  Like  the  Vedic  hymns, 
like  the  Sutras  of  Buddhism,  like  the  records  of  the 
life  and  doctrines  of  Khung-tse,  like  the  Avesta,  all 
the  larger  books  of  the  Bible — except  the  prophets — 
are  anonymous.  The  whole  of  the  historical  portion 
of  the  Old  Testament,  the  four  Gospels,  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  are — what- 
ever names  tradition  may  have  associated  with  them 
— strictly  the  production  of  unknown  authors.  This 
characteristic  is  one  of  very  high  importance,  because 
it  indicates — along  with  another  which  I  am  about  to 
mention — the  spirit  in  which  these  works  were  written. 
They  were  written  as  it  were  unconsciously  and 
undesignedly  ;  not  of  course  w^ithout  a  knowledge  on 
the  writer's  part  of  what  he  was  about,  but  without 
that  conscious  and  distinct  intention  of  composing  a 
literary  work  with  which  ordinary  men  sit  down  to 
write  a  book.  Flowing  from  the  depths  of  religious 
feeling,  they  were  the  reflection  of  the  age  that 
brought  them  forth.  Generations  jiast  and  present, 
nations,  communities,  brotherhoods  of  believers,  spoke 
in  them  and  through  them.  They  were  not  only  the 
work  of  him  Avho  first  uttered  them  or  wrote  them  ; 


26  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

others  worked  witli  him,  thought  with  him,  spoke 
with  him ;  they  were  not  merely  the  voice  of  an 
individual,  but  the  voice  of  an  epoch  and  of  a  people. 
Hence  the  utter  absence  of  any  apparent  and  palpable 
authorship,  the  disappearance  of  the  individual  in  the 
grandeur  of  the  subject.  This  phenomenon  is  not 
indeed  quite  peculiar  to  Sacred  Books.  It  belongs 
also  to  those  great  national  epics  which  likewise 
express  the  feelings  of  whole  races  and  communities 
of  men ;  to  the  Mahabharata,  to  the  Ramayana,  to 
the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  to  the  Volsungen  and 
Nibelungen  Sagas,  to  the  Eddas,  to  the  legends  of 
King  Arthur  and  his  knights.  These  poems,  or  these 
poetical  tales,  are  anonymous,  and  they  occupy  in 
the  veneration  of  the  people  a  rank  which  is  second 
only  to  that  of  books  actually  sacred.  In  some  other 
respects  they  bear  a  resemblance  to  Sacred  Books,  but 
these  books  differ  from  them  in  one  important  par- 
ticular, which  of  itself  suffices  to  place  them  in  a  dif- 
ferent category.  What  that  particular  is  must  now 
be  explained. 

4.  If  I  were  to  describe  it  by  a  single  word,  I 
should  call  it  their  formlessness.  The  term  is  an 
awkward  one,  but  I  know  of  no  other  which  so 
exactly  describes  tlus  most  peculiar  feature  of  Sacred 
Books.  Like  the  earth  in  its  chaotic  condition  before 
creation,  they  are  "without  form."  That  artistic 
finish,  that  construction,  combination  of  parts  into  a 
well-defined  edifi.ce,  that  arrangement  of  the  whole 
work  upon  an  apparent  plan,  subservient  to  a  distinct 
object,  which  marks  every  other  class  of  the  produc- 
tions of  the  human  mind,  is  entirely  wanting  to  them. 
They   read    not  unfrequently   as    if  they    had   been 


THEIR  FORMLESSNESS.  27 

carelessly  jotted  down  without  the  smallest  regard  to 
order,  or  the  least  attention  to  the  effect  to  be 
produced  on  the  mind  of  the  reader.  Sometimes 
they  may  even  be  said  to  have  neither  beginning, 
middle,  nor  end.  We  might  open  them  anywhere 
and  close  them  anywhere  without  material  difference. 
Sometimes  there  is  a  distinct  progress  in  the  narra- 
tive, but  it  is  nevertheless  wholly  without  methodical 
combination  of  the  separate  parts  into  a  well-ordered 
whole.  Herein  they  differ  also  from  those  poetical 
Epics  which  we  have  found  agreeing  with  them  in 
being  virtually  anonymous.  Nothing  can  exceed  the 
grace,  the  finish,  the  perfection  of  style,  of  those 
immortal  poems  which  are  known  as  Homeric.  The 
northern  Epics  are  indeed  simpler,  ruder,  far  more 
destitute  of  literary  merit.  The  first  part,  for 
instance,  of  the  Edda  Saemundar  (which  perhaps 
ought  not  to  be  called  an  Epic  at  all)  is  to  the  last 
degree  uncouth  and  barbarous,  But  then  the  subject- 
matter  of  this  portion  of  the  Edda  is  such  as  belongs 
properly  to  Sacred  Books,  and  had  it  ever  been 
actually  current  among  the  Scandinavians  as  a  canon- 
ical work — of  which  we  have  no  evidence — it  would 
be  entitled  to  a  place  among  them.  When  we  come 
to  the  second  or  heroic  portion  of  this  Edda,  the  case 
is  different.  The  mode  of  treatment  is  still  rude  and 
unattractive,  but  if,  unrepellcd  by  the  outward  form, 
we  study  the  longest  of  the  narratives  w^hich  this 
division  contains — the  Saga  of  the  Volsungs — we 
shall  discover  in  it  a  tale,  which  for  the  exquisite 
pathos  of  its  sentiments,  for  the  deep  and  tragic 
interest  which  centres  round  the  principal  characters, 
for  the  vivid  delineation  by  a  few  brief  touches  of  the 


2  8  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

intensest  suffering,  is  scarcely  surpassed  even  by  the 
far  more  finished  productions  of  Hellenic  genius.  No 
doubt  the  foundation  of  the  story  is  mythological, 
and  this  throws  over  many  of  its  incidents  a  gro- 
tesqueness  which  goes  far  in  modern  eyes  to  mar  the 
eflfect.  But  the  mythological  incidents  of  the  Iliad 
and  the  Odyssey  are  grotesque  also,  and  it  requires 
all  the  genius  of  the  poet  to  render  them  tolerable. 
Apart  from  this  groundwork,  the  Volsunga-Saga 
treats  its  personages  as  human,  and  claims  from 
its  readers  a  purely  human  interest  in  tlieir  various 
adventures.  It  relates  these  adventures  in  a  con- 
nected form,  it  depicts  the  feelings  of  the  several 
actors  with  all  the  sympathy  of  the  dramatist,  and 
(IraW'S  no  moral,  teaches  no  lesson.  In  the  w^hole 
range  of  sacred  literature  I  recollect  nothing  like  this. 
Stories  are  doubtless  told  in  it,  but  we  are  made  to 
feel  that  they  are  subservient  to  an  ulterior  purpose. 
In  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  New,  they  serve  to 
enforce  the  theological  doctrines  of  the  writers ;  in 
the  works  of  the  Buddhists  they  generally  impress 
on  the  hearers  some  useful  lesson  as  to  the  reward 
of  merit,  and  the  punishment  of  demerit,  in  a  future 
existence.  Of  the  genuine  and  simple  relation  of  a 
rather  elaborate  romance,  terminating  in  itself,  there 
is  i^robably  no  instance.  Such  stories  as  are  related 
are  moral  tales,  and  not  romances ;  and  they  are 
generally  too  short  to  absorb,  in  any  considerable 
degree,  the  interest  of  the  reader. 

While  this  is  the  difference  betw^een  secular  and 
Sacred  Books  in  respect  of  their  narrative  portions, 
the  sacred  are  ns  a  whole  even  more  decidedly  below 
the  secular  in  all  that  belongs  to  style  and  composi- 


DISREGARD  OF  LITERARY  EXCELLENCE.     2y 

tion.  The  dullest  historian  generally  contrives  to 
render  liis  chronicle  more  lucid,  and  therefore  more 
readable,  than  the  authors  of  canonical  Ijooks.  In 
these  last  there  is  the  most  absolute  disreg'ard  of 
artistic  or  literary  excellence.  Hence  they  are,  with 
scarcely  an  exception,  very  tedious  reading.  M. 
Eenan  observes  of  the  Koran  that  its  continuous 
perusal  is  almost  intolerable.  Burnouf  hesitates  to 
inflict  upon  his  readers  the  tedium  he  himself  has 
sufiered  from  the  study  of  certain  Tantras.  The 
inconceivable  tediousness  of  the  Buddhistic  Sutras — 
excepting  the  earlier  and  simpler  ones — is  well  known 
to  those  who  have  read  or  attempted  to  read  such 
works,  as,  for  instance,  the  Saddharma  Pundarika. 
The  Chinese  Classics  are  less  repulsive,  but  few 
readers  would  care  to  study  them  for  long  together. 
The  Vedic  hymns,  though  full  of  mythological 
interest,  are  yet  difficult  and  unpleasant  reading, 
both  from  their  monotony  and  the  looseness  of  the 
connection  between  each  verse  and  sentence.  The 
Brahmanas  are  barely  readable.  The  Avesta  is  far 
from  attractive.  The  Bible,  though  vastly  superior 
in  this  respect  to  all  the  rest  of  its  class,  is  yet  not 
easy  to  read  for  any  length  of  time  without  fatigue. 
Doubtless,  if  taken  as  a  special  study,  with  a  view  to 
something  which  we  desire  to  ascertain  from  it,  we 
may  without  difficulty  read  large  portions  at  a  time ; 
yet  we  see  that  Christians,  who  read  it  for  edification, 
invariably  choose  in  their  public  assemblies  to  confine 
themselves  to  very  moderate  sections  of  it  indeed, 
while  they  will  listen  to  sermons  of  many  times  the 
length.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  similar 
practice    is    pursued    in    private    devotion.       Single 


30  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

chapters,  or  at  most  a  few  chapters,  are  selected ; 
these  are  perused,  and  perhaps  made  the  object  of 
meditation ;  but  even  the  most  fervent  admirers  of 
the  Bible  would  probably  find  it  difficult  to  read 
through  its  longer  books  without  pausing.  They  do 
not,  so  to  speak,  "  carry  us  on."  It  was  essential  to 
dwell  on  this  tediousness  of  Sacred  Books,  because  it 
forms  one  of  their  most  marked  characteristics.  Nor 
does  it  arise,  as  is  often  the  case,  from  indifference 
or  aversion  on  the  part  of  the  reader.  Other  books 
repel  us  because  we  have  no  interest  in  the  subjects 
with  which  they  deal.  In  these,  the  keenest  interest 
in  the  subjects  with  which  they  deal  will  not  suffice 
to  render  their  presentation  tolerable. 

Section  I. — The  Thirteen  King.^ 

Sacred  Books  in  general  are  in  China  termed  King, 
But  as  the  Chinese  Buddhists  have  their  own  sacred 
literature,  and  as  Taou-ists  are  in  possession  of  a 
sacred  work  of  their  founder,  Lab-tse,  I  call  the  Books 

^  In  treating  of  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  Confucian  School  in  China, 
I  rely  entirely  upon  the  admirable  and  (so  far  as  it  has  yet  gone)  com- 
plete work  of  the  Rev.  Dr  James  Legge.  Although  I  have  consulted 
other  publications,  I  have  not  drawn  my  information  from  them, 
because  it  was  at  once  evident  that  Dr  Legge's  "  Chinese  Classics"  was 
immeasurably  superior  to  all  that  had  preceded  it  on  the  same  subject. 
Unfortunately,  the  very  thoroughness  of  the  work  renders  it  volu- 
minous ;  and  it  thus  happens  that  tlie  author  has  not  fulfilled  more 
than  a  portion  of  the  promise  held  out  at  its  commencement.  It  must 
be  the  earnest  hope  of  all  who  are  interested  in  these  studies  that  the 
learned  missionary  will  live  to  complete  his  design  ;  meantime,  we  are 
obliged  to  confine  ourselves  to  a  notice  of  that  portion  of  the  Classics 
which  he  has  translated.  For  Pauthier's  French  translation  of  the 
Chinese  Classics  (in  the  Pantheon  Litteraire :  "  Les  Livres  Sacres  de 
rOrient")  embraces  only  tliat  portion  of  the  King  which  is  to  be  found 
in  the  hitherto-pu&lished  volumes  of  Dr  Legge. 


SACRED  BOOKS  OF  THE  CHINESE.  31 

of  the  State  religion,  that  is,  of  the  followers  of  Con- 
fucius, ilie  King  'par  excellence.  For  Confucianism 
is  the  official  creed  of  the  Government  of  China,  and 
the  Confucian  Canon  forms  the  subject  of  the  Civil 
Service  examinations  which  qualify  for  office.  Accord- 
ing to  a  competent  authority,  "  a  complete  knowledge 
of  the  whole  of  them,  as  well  as  of  the  standard  notes 
and  criticisms  by  which  they  are  elucidated,  is  an 
indispensable  condition  towards  the  attainment  of  the 
higher  grades  of  literary  and  official  rank.''^ 

The  writings  now  recognised  as  especially  sacred  in 
China  are  "  the  five  Kino;,"  and  "  the  four  Shoo,"  ^ 
King  is  a  term  of  which  the  proper  signification  is 
*'  the  warp,  the  chain  of  a  web ;  thence  that  which 
progresses  equally,  that  which  constitutes  a  funda- 
mental law,  the  normal.  Applied  to  books,  it  indicates 
those  that  are  regarded  as  canonical ;  as  an  absolute 
standard,  either  in  general  or  with  reference  to  some 
definite  object."^  In  the  words  of  another  Sinologue, 
it  is  "  the  Rule,  the  Law,  a  book  of  canonical  authority, 
a  classical  book."*  The  word  seems  therefore  on  the 
whole  to  correspond  most  nearly  to  what  we  mean 
by  a  "canonical  book."  Shoo  means  "Writings  or 
Books."  The  four  Shoo,  of  which  I  shall  speak  first, 
are  these  : — A  i.  The  Lun  Yu,  or  Digested  Conver- 
sations (of  Confucius).  A  2.  The  Ta  Heo,  or  Great 
Learning.  A  3.  The  Chung  Yung,  or  Doctrine  of  the 
Mean.  A  4.  The  "Works  of  MS,ng-tsze,  or  Mencius. 
The  five  King  are  these  : — B  i .  The  Yih,  or  Book  of 

'  Chinese,  vol.  ii.  p.  48. 

2  Of  which  an  English  translation  by  David  Collie,  entitled  "  The 
Chinese  Classical  Work,  commonly  called  the  Four  Books,"  was  pub- 
lished at  Malacca  in  1828. 

'  T.  T.  K.,  p.  Ixviii.  ♦  L.  T.,  p.  ix. 


32  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Obauges.^  B  2.  The  Shoo,  or  Book  of  History.  B  3. 
The  She,  or  Book  of  Poetry.  B  4.  The  Le  Ke,  or 
Record  of  Rites.  B  5.  Tlie  Ch'im  Ts'ew,  or  Spring 
and  Autumn,  a  chronicle  of  events  from  B.C.  721- 
B.c.  480.  The  oldest  enumerations  specified  only  the 
five  King,  to  wliich  the  Yoke,  or  Record  of  Music 
(now  in  the  Le  Ke),  was  sometimes  added,  making  six. 
There  was  also  a  division  into  nine  King ;  and  in  the 
compilation  made  by  order  of  Tae-Tsuug  (who  reigned 
in  the  7th  century  a.d.)  there  are  specified  thirteen 
King,  which  consist  of  :  ^ —  1-7.  The  five  King,  includ- 
ing three  editions  of  the  Ch'un  Ts'ew.  8.  The  Lun 
Yu  (A  I.)  9.  Mang-tsze  (A  4.)  10.  The  Chow  Le, 
or  Ritual  of  Chow.  1 1 ,  The  E  Le,  or  Ceremonial 
Usages.  1 2.  The  Urh  Ya,  a  sort  of  ancient  dictionary. 
13.  The  Heaou  King,  or  Classic  of  Filial  Piety.  The 
apparent  omission  of  the  Ta  Heo  (A  2)  and  the 
Chung  Yung  (A  3)  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
both  are  included  in  the  Le  Ke  (B  4).  The  only 
works  which  it  is  at  present  in  my  power  to  speak  of 
in  detail  are  those  classified  as  A  i  to  A  4,  and  as 
B  2. 

The  authenticity  of  these  works  is  considered  to  be 
above  reasonable  suspicion ;  for  though  an  emperor 
who  reigned  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  did  indeed 
order  (B.C.  212)  that  they  should  all  be  destroyed,  yet 
this  emperor  died  not  long  after  the  issue  of  his  edict, 
which  was  formally  abrogated  after  twenty-two  years; 
and  subsequent  dynasties  took  pains  to  preserve  and 
recover   the  missing    volumes.      As    it    is  of    course 

^  Noticed  in  Pauthier,  p.  137. 

2  Sir  J.  Davis  (The  Chinese  ii.  48)  reckons  only  nine  King,  those  enu- 
merated above.  I  presume  that  the  remaining  four  enjoy  an  inferior 
degree  of  veneration. 


CONTENTS  OF  THE  L  UN  YU.  7,1 

improbable  that  every  individual  would  obey  the 
frantic  order  of  the  emperor  who  enjoined  their 
destruction,  there  appears  to  be  sufficient  ground  for 
Dr  Legge's  conclusion,  that  we  possess  the  actual 
works  which  were  already  extant  in  the  time  of 
Confucius,  or  (in  so  far  as  they  referred  to  him) 
were  compiled  by  his  disciples  or  their  immediate 
successors. 

Subdivision  i. — The  Lun  Yn,. 

I.  The  first  of  the  four  Books  is  the  Lun  Yu,  or 
"  Digested  Conversations."  From  internal  evidence 
it  seems  to  have  been  compiled  in  its  actual  form,  not 
by  the  immediate  disciples  of  Confucius,  but  by  their 
disciples.  Its  date  would  be  "  about  the  end  of  the 
fourth,  or  beginning  of  the  fifth,  century  before  Christ ;  " 
that  is,  about  400  B.C.  It  bears  a  nearer  resemblance  to 
the  Christian  Gospels  than  any  other  book  contained  in 
the  Chinese  Classics,  being  in  fact  a  minute  account,  by 
admiring  hands,  of  the  behaviour,  character,  and  doc- 
trine, of  the  great  Master,  Confucius.  Since,  however,  it 
contains  no  notice  of  the  events  of  his  life  in  chrono- 
logical order,  it  answers  much  more  accurately  to  the 
description  given  by  Papias  of  the ,"  Xoyta  "  com- 
posed by  Matthew  in  the  Hebrew  dialect  than  to  that 
of  any  of  our  canonical  Gospels. 

Biographical  materials  may  indeed  be  discovered  in 
it ;  but  they  occur  only  as  incidental  allusions,  subser- 
vient to  the  main  object  of  preserving  a  record  of  his 
sayings.  In  the  minute  and  painstaking  mode  in 
which  this  task  is  performed  there  is  even  a  resem- 
blance to  Bos  well's  "  Johnson  :  '  as  in  that  celebrated 
work,  we  have  as  it  were  a  photographic  picture  of 

VOL.  11.  c 


34  IJOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

the  great  man's  conversation,  taken  by  a  reverent  and 
humble  follower.  And  as  there  is  a  total  absence  of 
that  fondness  for  the  marvellous  and  that  tendency  to 
exaggerate  the  Master's  powers  which  so  generally 
characterise  traditional  accounts  of  relio-ious  teachers, 
we  may  fairly  infer  that  we  have  here  a  trustworthy, 
and,  in  the  main,  accurate  representation  of  Confucius' 
personality  and  of  his  teaching.  As  I  have  largely 
drawn  upon  this  work  in  writing  the  Life  of  that 
prophet,  I  need  not  now  detain  the  reader  with  any 
further  quotations. 

Subdivision  2.—  The  Ta  He6. 

Passing  to  the  Ta  Heo,  or  Great  Learning,  we  find 
ourselves  occupied  with  a  book  which  bears  the  same 
kind  of  relationship  to  the  Lun  Yu  as  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  does  to  the  Gospels.  This  work  is 
altogether  of  a  doctrinal  character ;  and  as  in  the 
Epistle,  the  exposition  of  the  doctrines  is  by  no 
means  so  clear  and  simple  as  in  the  oral  instructions 
of  the  founder  of  the  school.  The  Ta  Heo  is  attributed 
by  Chinese  tradition  to  K'ung  Keih,  the  grandson  of 
Confucius ;  but  its  authorship  is  in  fact,  like  that  of 
the  Epistle,  unknown.  It  was  added  to  the  Le  Ke,  or 
Kecord  of  Rites,  in  the  second  century  a.d. 

It  begins  with  certain  paragraphs  which  are  attri- 
buted, apparently  without  authority,  to  Confucius; 
and  all  that  follows  is  sujDposed  to  be  a  commentary 
on  this  original  text.     The  text  begins  thus  : — 

I.  "  What  the  Great  Learning  teaches,  is — to 
illustrate  illustrious  virtue;  to  renovate  the  people ; 
and  to  rest  in  tlie  hiohcst  excellence 


WHAT  THE  TA  Hl^d  TEACHES.  35 

4.  ''  The  ancients  who  wished  to  illustrate  illustrious 
virtue  throughout  the  Empire,  first  ordered  well  their 
own  States.  AVishing  to  order  well  their  States,  they 
first  regulated  their  families.  AVishing  to  regulate 
their  families,  they  first  cultivated  their  persons. 
Wishing  to  cultivate  their  persons,  they  first  rectified 
their  hearts.  Wishing  to  rectify  their  hearts,  they 
first  sought  to  be  sincere  in  their  thoughts.  Wishing 
to  be  sincere  in  their  tlioughts,  they  first  extended  to 
the  utmost  their  knowledge.  Such  extension  of 
knowledge  lav  in  the  investiofation  of  thino^s." 

After  a  few  more  verses  of  textj  we  come  to  the 
"  Commentary  of  the  philosopher  TsS-ng,"  which  is 
mainly  occupied  with  what  purports  to  be  an  explana- 
tion of  the  process  described  in  the  foregoing  verses. 
For  instance,  the  6tli  chapter  "  explains  making  the 
thoughts  sincere,"  the  seventh,  "  rectifying  the  mind 
and  cultivating  the  person  ; "  until  at  last  we  arrive  at 
the  right  manner  of  conducting  "the  government  of  the 
State,  and  the  making  of  the  Empire  peaceful  and 
happy."  The  object  of  the  treatise  is  therefore 
practical,  and  the  subject  a  favourite  one  with  the 
Chinese  Classics,  that  of  Government.  Great  stress 
is  laid  on  the  influence  of  a  good  example  on  the  part 
of  the  ruler;  and  those  model  sovereigns,  "Yaou  and 
Shun,"  are  appealed  to  as  illustrations  of  its  good 
effect  in  such  hands  as  theirs.  In  the  course  of  the 
exposition  of  these  principles,  we  meet  with  dry 
maxims  of  political  economy,  worthy  of  modern  times, 
such  as  this  : — 

"There  is  a  great  course  also  for  the  production  of 
v\ealth.      Let  the  producers  be  many   and  the  con- 


36  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

sumers  few.  Let  there  be  activity  iii  the  production, 
and  economy  in  the  expenditure.  Then  the  wealth 
will  always  be  sufficient."  ^ 

Subdivision  3. — The  Chung  Tung. 

The  composition  of  the  Chung  Yung,  or  "Doctrine 
of  the  Mean,"  is  universally  attributed  in  China  to 
K'ung  Keih,  or  Tsze-sze,  the  grandson  of  Confucius. 
The  external  evidence  of  his  authorship  is,  in  Dr 
Legge's  opinion,  sufficient  ;  though  if  that  which  he 
has  produced  be  all  that  is  extant,  it  does  not  seem  to 
be  at  all  conclusive.  Some  quotations  from  it  have 
already  been  made  in  the  notice  of  Confucius,  many 
of  whose  utterances  are  contained  in  it. 

Its  principal  object  is,  or  seems  to  be,  to  inculcate 
the  excellence  of  what  is  called  "the  Mean,"  but  the 
explanation  of  what  is  intended  by  the  Mean  is  far 
from  clear.  The  course  of  the  Mean,  however,  is  that 
taken  by  the  sage  ;  the  virtue  which  is  according  to 
the  Mean  is  perfect ;  the  superior  man  embodies  it  in 
his  practice  ;  ordinary  men  cannot  keep  to  it ;  mean 
men  act  contrary  to  it ;  and  Shun,  a  model  emperor, 
"  determined  the  Mean  "  between  the  bad  and  good 
elements  in  men,  "and  employed  it  in  his  government 
of  the  people."  The  Mean,  from  the  attributes  thus 
assigned  to  it,  would  appear  to  be  a  state  of  complete 
and  hardly  attainable  moral  perfection,  of  which  they 
who  have  oflfered  an  example  in  their  conduct  have  (at 
least  in  modern  times)  been  rare  indeed.  In  the  be- 
ainninof  of  the  treatise  we  learn  that : — 

»  Ta  Heo. 


DOCTRINES  OF  CHUNG   YUNG.  37 

I.  "  What  Heaven  has  conferred  is  called  the 
NATURE  ;  an  accordance  with  this  nature  is  called  the 
PATH  of  duty ;  the  regulation  of  this  path  is  called 
Instruction." 

4.  "  While  there  are  no  stirriugs  of  pleasure,  anger, 
sorrow,  or  joy,  the  mind  may  be  said  to  be  in  the 
state  of  Equilibrium.  AVheu  those  feelings  have 
been  stirred,  and  they  act  in  their  due  degree,  there 
ensues  what  may  be  called  the  state  of  Harmony. 
This  Equilibrium  is  the  great  voot  from  which  grov) 
all  the  human  actings  in  the  world,  and  this  Har- 
mony is  the  universal  path  ivhich  they  all  should 
2^ursue} 

5.  "  Let  the  states  of  equilibrium  and  harmony 
exist  in  perfection,  and  a  happy  order  will  prevail 
throughout  heaven  and  earth,  and  all  things  will  be 
nourished  and  flourish."  ^ 

In  another  part  of  the  work,  "  the  path"  is  described 
as  not  being  "  far  from  the  common  indications  of 
consciousness  ; "  and  the  following  rule  is  laid  down 
with  regard  to  it : — 

"When  one  cultivates  to  the  utmost  the  principles 
of  his  nature,  and  exercises  them  on  the  principle  of 
reciprocity,  he  is  not  far  from  the  path.  What  you 
do  not  like,  when  done  to  yourself,  do  not  do  to 
others."  ^ 

A  large  and  important  portion  of  the  goodness 
required  of  those  who  would  walk  in  the  path  is 
sincerity.  Sincerity  is  declared  to  be  the  "  way  of 
Heaven,"*  and  it  is  laid  down  that  "it  is  only  he  who 
is  possessed  of  the  most  complete  sincerity  that  can 

'  The  italics,  here  and  in  future  quotation!^,  are  in  Legge. 

^  Chung  Yung.  ^  Ibid.,  xiii.  3.  *  Il>id.,  xx.  \^ 


38  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

exist  under  Heaven,  who  can  give  its  full  develop- 
ment to  his  nature."  Having  this  power,  he  is  said  to 
be  able  to  give  development  to  the  natures  of  other 
men,  animals,  and  things,  and  even  "to  assist  the 
transforming  and  nourishing  powers  of  Heaven  and 
Earth,"  so  that  "  he  may  with  Heaven  and  Earth  form 
a  ternion."^ 

The  doctrine  of  "Heaven"  as  a  protecting  power 
holds  no  inconsiderable  place  in  this  short  treatise. 
Thus  it  is  stated  that  "  Heaven,  in  the  production  of 
things,  is  surely  bountiful  to  them,  according  to  their 
qualities."^  "In  order  to  know  men"  the  sovereign 
"may  not  dispense  with  a  knowledge  of  Heaven."^ 
"  The  way  of  Heaven  and  Earth  may  be  completely 
declared  in  one  sentence.  They  are  without  any 
doubleness,  and  so  they  produce  things  in  a  manner 
that  is  unfathomable. 

"  The  way  of  Heaven  and  Earth  is  large  and  sub- 
stantial, high  and  brilliant,  far  reaching  and  long  en- 
during." * 

And  in  a  very  high-flown  passage  on  the  character  of 
the  sage — said  to  refer  to  the  author's  grandfather — 
he  is  spoken  of  as  "  the  equal  of  Heaven."^ 

Heaven,  however,  is  not  the  only  superhuman 
power  that  is  mentioned  in  the  Chung  Yung.  In 
one  of  its  chapters  we  are  told  tliat  Confucius  thus 
expressed  himself : — 

"  How  abundantly  do  spiritual  beings  display  the 
j)Owers  that  belong  to  them  ! 

"We  look  for  them,  but  do  not  see  them;  we  listen 

^  Cluing  Yung,  xx.  7.  ^  Ibid.,  xxii. 

2  Ibid.,  xvii.  3.  *  Ibid.,  xxvi.  7,  Z, 

*  Ibid.,  xxxi.  3. 


THE  WORKS  OF  MANG.  39 

to,  but  do  not  liear  them  ;  yet  they  enter  into  all 
things,  and  there  is  nothing  without  them. 

"  They  cause  all  the  people  in  the  Empire  to  fast 
and  purify  themselves,  and  array  themselves  in  their 
richest  dresses,  in  order  to  attend  at  their  sacrifices. 
Then,  like  overflowing  water,  they  seem  to  be  over 
the  heads,  and  on  the  right  and  left  of  their  ivor- 
shippers. "  ^ 

This  positive  expression  of  opinion  is  scarcely 
consistent  with  the  habitual  reserve  of  Kung-tse  on 
subjects  of  this  kind,^  and  were  it  not  that  it  rests 
apparently  on  adequate  authority,  we  might  he 
tempted  to  reject  it  as  apocryphal. 

Subdivision  4. — I'he  works  of  Mdng-tsze. 

The  next  place  in  the  Chinese  Scriptures  is  occupied 
by  the  works  of  MSng-tsze,  the  philosopher  MSng,  or 
as  he  is  frequently  called,  Mencius.  M^ng  lived 
nearly  200  years  later  than  Confucius,  having  been 
born  about  371,  and  having  died  in  288  B.C.  He  was 
not  an  original  teacher  asserting  independent  authority, 
and  has  no  claim  to  the  title  of  prophet.  On  the 
contrary,  he  was  an  avowed  disciple  of  Confucius,  to 
whose  dicta  he  paid  implicit  reverence,  and  whom  he 
quoted  with  the  respect  due  to  the  exalted  character 
which  the  sage  had  already  acquired  in  the  eyes  of 
his  school. 

The  so-called  "  Works  of  MSng "  are  not  original 
compositions  of  this  philosopher,  but  collections  of  his 
sayings,  resembling  the  Lun  Yu,  or  Confucian  Analects. 
Whether  he  compiled  them,  or  took  any  part  in  their 

1  Chung  Yung,  xvi.  1-3.  ^  Lun  Yu,  vii.  20. 


40  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

compilation  himself,  is  uncertain.  But,  considering 
their  character,  the  more  probable  hypothesis  seems 
to  be  that  they  were  committed  to  writing  by  his 
friends,  or  disciples,  either  during  his  own  life,  or 
immediately  after  his  deatli. 

The  evidence  of  their  antiquity  and  authenticity 
must  be  very  briefly  touched,  upon.  The  earliest 
notice  of  MSng  is  antecedent  to  the  Ts'in  dynasty 
(255-206  B.C.),  that  is,  within  thirty-three  years  after 
his  death.  We  are  indebted,  for  it  to  Seun  K'ing,  who 
"several  times  makes  mention  of"  MSng,  and  who  in 
one  chapter  of  his  works,  "  quotes  his  arguments,  and 
endeavours  to  set  them  aside."  In  the  next  place, 
Ave  have  accounts  of  him,  and  references  to  his  writ- 
ings, in  K'ung  Foo,  prior  to  the  Han  dynasty, 
that  is,  before  206  B.C.  Thirdly,  he  is  quoted  by 
writers  from  186-178  B.C.,  under  the  Han  dynasty. 
About  100  B.C.  occurs  the  earliest  mention  now  known 
of  Ming's  works.  It  emanates  from  Sze-ma  Tseen, 
who  attributes  to  MS-ng  himself  the  composition  of 
"  seven  books."  While  in  a  cataloofue  of  the  date 
A.D.  I,  the  works  of  M3,ng  are  entered  as  being  "in 
eleven  books ;  "  a  discrepancy  which  has  given  rise 
to  perplexities  among  Chinese  scholars,  with  which 
we  need  not  concern  ourselves.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that 
Mftng's  works,  as  we  now  possess  them,  consist  only 
of  seven  books,  and  are  not  known  to  have  ever 
consisted  of  more. 

This  evidence  would  appear  to  be  sufficient  to  prove 
the  antiquity  of  the  collection,  though  not  its  Mencian 
authorship.  Whoever  may  have  been  its  author,  it 
was  not  admitted  among  the  Sacred  Books  till  many 
centuries  after  it  had  been  received  among  scholars 


DOCTRINES  OF  MANG.  41 

as  a  valuable,  though  not  classical,  work.  Under  the 
Sung  dynasty,  which  began  to  reign  about  a.d.  960- 
970,  the  works  of  MS,ng  were  at  length  placed  on  a 
level  with  the  Lun  Yu,  as  part  of  the  great  Bible  of 
China. 

On  the  whole,  Ming's  writings  are  of  little  interest 
for  European  readers,  and  I  shall  not  trouble  mine 
with  any  elaborate  account  of  them.  They  are  mainly 
occupied  with  the  question  of  the  good  government  of 
the  Empire.  What  constitutes  a  good  ruler  ?  on  what 
principles  should  the  administration  of  public  affairs 
be  carried  on  ?  how  can  the  people  be  rendered  happy 
and  the  whole  Empire  prosperous  ?  these  are  the  sort 
of  inquiries  that  chiefly  engaged  the  attention  of 
Ma,ng,  and  to  which  he  sought  to  furnish  satisfactory 
replies.  At  the  courts  of  the  monarchs  who  received 
him,  he  inculcated  benevolent  conduct  towards  their 
subjects,  with  a  paternal  regard  for  their  welfare,  and 
sometimes  boldly  reproved  unjust  or  negligent  rulers. 
Holding,  in  common  with  the  rest  of  his  school,  the 
doctrine  of  a  superintendence  of  human  affairs  by  a 
power  named  Heaven,  he  asserted  in  uncompromising 
terms  the  theory  that  Heaven  expresses  its  will  through 
the  instrumentality  of  the  people  at  large.  "Vox 
populi,  vox  Dei,"  is  the  sentiment  that  animates  the 
following  passage,  which  contains  one  of  the  most 
courageous  assertions  of  popular  rights  to  be  found  in 
the  productions  of  any  age  or  country  : — 

"  Wan  Chang  said,  '  Was  it  the  case  that  Yaou 
gave  the  empire  to  Shun  ? '  ^  Mencius  said,  '  No. 
The  emperor  cannot  give  the  empire  to  another.' 

*  Yaou  and  Shun  are  the  ideal  Chinese  emperors,  and  belong  tn  a 
mythical  age.     Shun  Mas  not  tJie  legitimate  successor  of  Yaou,  wlio 


42  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

"  '  Yes  ; — but  Shun  had  the  empire.  Who  gave 
it  to  him  ? ' 

" '  Heaven  gave  it  to  him,'  was  the  answer. 

"'Heaven  gave  it  to  him: — did  Heaven  confer 
its  appointment  on  liim  with  specific  injunctions  V 

" Mencius  replied,  'No.  Heaven  does  not  speak. 
It  simply  showed  its  will  by  his  personal  conduct, 
and  his  conduct  of  affairs.' 

" '  It  showed  its  will  by  his  personal  conduct  and 
his  conduct  of  affairs  : — how  was  this  ? '  Mencius' 
answer  was,  '  The  empire  [?  emperor]  can  present  a 
man  to  Heaven,  but  he  cannot  make  Heaven  give 
that  man  the  empire.  A  prince  can  present  a  man 
to  the  emperor,  but  he  cannot  cause  the  emperor  to 
make  that  man  a  prince.  A  great  officer  can  present 
a  man  to  his  prince,  but  he  cannot  cause  the  prince 
to  make  that  man  a  great  officer.  Yaou  presented 
Shun  to  Heaven,  and  the  people  accepted  him. 
Therefore  I  say,  Heaven  does  not  speak.  It  simply 
indicated  its  will  by  his  personal  conduct  and  his 
conduct  of  affiiirs.' 

"  Chang  said,  '  I  presume  to  ask  how  it  was  that 
Yaou  presented  Shun  to  Heaven,  and  Heaven 
accepted  him ;  and  that  he  exhibited  him  to  the 
people,  and  the  people  accepted  him.'  Mencius 
replied,  '  He  caused  him  to  preside  over  the  sacrifices, 
and  all  the  spirits  were  well  pleased  with  them ; — 
thus  Heaven  accepted  him.  He  caused  him  to 
preside  over  the  conduct  of  affairs,  and  affairs  were 
well  administered,  so  that  the  people  reposed  under 

had  raised  him  from  poverty,  and  given  him  his  two  daughters  in 
marriage.  On  Yaou's  death,  his  son  at  first  succeeded  him,  and  Shun 
withdrew  ;  but  the  latter  was  soon  called  to  the  tlirone  by  the  general 
desire. 


MANG'S  ASSERTION  OF  POPULAR  RIGHTS.    43 

him ; — thus  the  people  accepted  him.  Heaven  gave 
the  empire  to  him.  The  people  gave  it  to  him. 
Therefore  I  said,  The  emperor  cannot  give  the 
empire  to  another. 

"  '  Shun  assisted  Yaou  in  the  government  for  twenty 
and  eight  years ; — this  was  more  than  man  could 
Lave  done,  and  was  from  Heaven.  After  the  death 
of  Yaou,  when  the  three  years'  mourning  was 
completed,  Shun  withdrew  from  the  son  of  Yaou  to 
the  south  of  South  river.  The  princes  of  the  empire, 
however,  repairing  to  court,  went  not  to  the  son  of 
Yaou,  but  they  went  to  Shun.  Singers  sang  not  the 
son  of  Yaou,  but  they  sang  Shun.  Therefore  I  said, 
Heaven  gave  him  the  empire.  It  was  after  these 
things  that  he  went  to  the  Middle  kingdom,  and 
occupied  the  emperor's  seat.  If  he  had,  before  these 
thhigs,  taken  up  his  residence  in  the  palace  of  Yaou, 
and  had  applied  pressure  to  the  son  of  Yaou,  it  would 
have  been  an  act  of  usurpation,  and  not  the  gift  of 
Heaven. 

" '  This  sentiment  is  expressed  in  the  words  of 
The  great  Declaration, — Heaven  sees  according  as 
my  2^€,ople  see;  Heaven  hears  according  as  Tiiy people 
hear.'"^ 

Mang's  notion  of  what  a  really  good  government 
should  do  is  fully  explained  at  the  end  of  the  first 
part  of  the  first  book,  in  an  exhortation  to  the 
king  of  Ts'e.  His  Majesty,  he  observed,  should 
"institute  a  government  whose  action  shall  all  be 
benevolent,"  for  then  his  kingdom  will  be  resorted 
to  by  officers  of  the  court,  farmers,  merchants,  and 
persons  who  are  aggrieved  by  their  own  rulers.     The 

^  The  Italics  are  mine. — Mang-tsze,  b.  5,  pt.  i.  ch.  v. 


44  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

king  must  take  care  '*to  regulate  the  livelihood  of 
the  people,"  in  order  that  all  may  have  enough  for 
parents,  wives,  and  children ;  for  "they  are  only  men 
of  education,  who  without  a  certain  livelihood,  are 
able  to  maintain  a  fixed  heart.  As  to  the  people, 
if  they  have  not  a  certain  livelihood,  it  follows 
that  they  will  not  have  a  fixed  heart.  And  if 
they  have  not  a  fixed  heart,  there  is  nothing  which 
they  will  not  do,  in  the  way  of  self-abandonment, 
of  moral  deflection,  of  depravity,  and  of  wild  licence. 
When  they  have  thus  been  involved  in  crime,  to 
follow  them  up  and  punish  them, — this  is  to  entrap 
the  people.  How  can  such  a  thing  as  entrapping 
the  people  be  done  under  the  rule  of  a  benevolent 
man  ? "  With  a  view  then  to  their  material  and 
moral  well-being,  mulberry  trees  should  be  planted, 
the  breeding  seasons  of  domestic  animals  be  carefully 
attended  to,  the  labour  necessary  to  cultivate  farms 
not  be  interfered  with,  and  "careful  attention  paid 
to  education  in  schools."  And  it  has  never  been 
known  that  the  ruler  in  whose  State  these  things 
were  duly  performed  "  did  not  attain  to  the  Imperial 
dignity."^  The  only  virtue  required  for  "the  attain- 
ment of  Imperial  sway  "is  "  the  love  and  protection 
of  the  people ;  with  this  there  is  no  power  which  can 
prevent  a  ruler  from  attaining  it."^  In  accordance 
with  his  decided  opinions  as  to  the  right  of  the  people 
to  be  consulted  in  the  appointment  of  their  rulers,  he 
advised  the  same  king  to  be  guided  entirely  by 
popular  feeling  in  assuming,  or  not  assuming,  the 
government   of  a    neighbouring    territory    which  he 

*  MSng-tsze,  b.  i,  pt.  i.  ch.  vii.  pp.  18-24.. 
-  Ibid.,  b.  I,  pt.  i.  ch.  vii.  p.  3. 


3rAXG  A  POLITICAL  ECONOMIST.  45 

liad  conquered.  "  If  the  people  of  Yen  will  l»e 
pleased  with  your  taking  possession  of  it,  then  do 
so.  .  .  .  If  the  people  of  Yen  will  not  be  pleased 
with  your  taking  possession  of  it,  then  do  not  do  so."^ 
Ma,ng  was  something  of  a  political  economist  as 
well  as  a  statesman.  There  is  in  his  writings  a  just 
and  striking  defence  of  the  division  of  labour,  in 
opposition  to  the  primitive  simplicity  recommended 
by  a  man  named  Heu  Hing,  who  wished  the  rulers  to 
cultivate   the   soil   with    their  own    hands.       M^nsf's 

o 

answer  to  Heu  Ring's  disciple  is  in  the  form  of  an 
ad  hominem  argument,  showing  that,  as  Heu  Hing 
himself  does  not  manufacture  his  own  clothes  or 
make  his  own  pots  and  pans,  but  obtains  them  in 
exchange  for  grain,  in  order  that  all  his  time  may  be 
devoted  to  agriculture,  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that 
government  is  the  only  business  which  can  advan- 
tageously be  pursued  along  with  husbandry,  as  Heu 
Hing  desired.'* 

It  was  not  enough,  however,  in  MSng's  eyes  that 
a  sovereign  should  conduct  the  government  of  his 
country  in  accordance  with  the  great  etliical  and 
economical  maxims  he  laid  down ;  he  must  also  pay 
strict  attention  to  the  rules  of  Chinese  etiquette. 
On  some  occasions  M2,ng  insisted  even  haughtily 
on  the  observance  towards  himself  of  these  rules 
by  the  princes  who  wished  to  see  him,  even  though 
one  of  his  own  disciples  plainly  told  him  that  in 
refusing  to  visit  them  because  of  their  supposed 
failure  to  attend  to  such  minutise  he  seemed  to 
him  to  be  "standing  on   a  small  point. "^      In  fact 

'  MSnrr-tsze,  b.  i,  pt.  ii.  ch.  x.  p.  3.  '^  Ibid.,  b.  3,  pt.  i.  ch.  iv. 

•^  Ibid.,  b.  3,  pt.  ii.  ch.  i.  p.  i. 


46  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

the  "  rules  of  propriety "  held  in  his  estimation 
no  less  a  place  than  in  that  of  his  Master  and 
predecessor.  It  is  gratifying,  however,  to  find  him 
admitting  that  cases  may  arise  where  their  operation 
should  be  suspended.  Indecorous  as  it  is  for  males 
and  females  to  "  allow  their  hands  to  touch  in  orivinof 
or  receiving  anything,"  yet  when  "a  man's  sister- 
in-law"  is  drowning  he  is  permitted,  and  indeed 
bound  to,  "rescue  her  with  the  hand."  Nay,  M3,ng 
in  his  liberality  goes  further,  and  emphatically 
observes,  that  "he  who  would  not  so  rescue  a 
drowninsf  woman  is  a  wolf."  ^ 

The  most  important  doctrine  of  a  moral  character 
dwelt  upon  by  M3,ng  is  that  of  the  essential  goodness 
of  human  nature,  on  which  he  lays  considerable 
stress.  According  to  him,  "the  tendency  of  man's 
nature  to  good  is  like  the  tendency  of  w^ater  to  flow 
downwards,"  and  it  is  shared  by  all,  as  all  water  flows 
downwards.  You  may  indeed  force  water  to  go 
upwards  by  striking  it,  but  the  movement  is  un- 
natural, and  it  is  equally  contrary  to  the  nature 
of  man  to  be  "made  to  do  what  is  not  good."^ 
Yaou  and  Shun  were  indeed  great  men,  but  all 
may  be  Yaous  and  Shuns,  if  only  they  will  make 
the  necessary  effort.^  "  Mens  mouths  agree  in  having 
the  same  relishes ;  their  ears  agree  in  enjoying  the 
same  sounds ;  their  eyes  agree  in  recognising  the 
same  beauty  : — shall  their  minds  alone  be  without 
that  which  they  similarly  approve  ?  What  is  it  then 
of  which  they  similarly  approve  ?      It  is,  I  say.  the 

^   MSng-tsze,  b,  4,  pt.  i.  cli.  xvii.  p.  i. 
-  Ibid.,  b.  6,  pt.  i.  ch.  ii.  pp.  2,  3. 
■*  Ibid.,  b.  6,  pt.  ii.  ch.  ii.  \\\\.  1-5. 


MA  JVC'S  VIEWS  OF  HUMAN  NATURE.  47 

principles  of  our  nature,  and  the  determinations  of 
righteousness.  The  sages  only  apprehended  before 
me  that  of  which  my  mind  approves  along  with 
other  men.  Therefore  the  principles  of  our  nature 
and  the  determinations  of  righteousness  are  agreeable 
to  my  mind,  just  as  the  flesh  of  grass  [?-fed]  and 
grain- fed  animals  is  agreeable  to  my  mouth."  ^  It 
ought  not  to  be  said  that  any  man's  mind  is  without 
benevolence  and  righteousness.  But  men  lose  their 
goodness  as  "the  trees  are  denuded  by  axes  and 
bills."  The  mind,  *'hewn  down  day  after  day," 
cannot  "retain  its  beauty."  But  "the  calm  air  of 
the  morninor"  is  favourable  to  the  natural  feelinofs  of 

O  O 

humanity,  though  they  are  destroyed  again  by  the 
influences  men  come  under  during  the  day.  "This 
fettering  takes  place  again  and  again,"  and  as  "the 
restorative  influence  of  the  night"  is  insufficient  to 
preserve  the  native  hue,  "the  nature  becomes  not 
much  different  from  that  of  the  irrational  animals," 
and  then  people  suppose  it  never  had  these  original 
powers  of  goodness.  "But  does  this  condition," 
continues  MSng,  "represent  the  feelings  proper  to 
humanity?"^  What  some  of  these  feelings  are  he 
has  plainly  told  us.  Commiseration,  shame,  and 
dislike,  modesty  and  complaisance,  approbation  and 
disapprobation,  are  according  to  him  four  principles 
which  men  have  just  as  they  have  their  four  limbs. 
The  important  point  for  all  men  to  attend  to  is  their 
development,  for  if  they  are  but  completely  developed, 
"  they  will  sufiice  to  love  and  protect  all  within  the 
four  seas."^     And  in  another  place  he  insists  on  the 

*  Mungtsze,  b.  6,  pt.  i.  cli.  vii.  p.  8.         ^  Ibid.,  b.  6,  pt.  i.  cli.  viii.  p.  2. 
*  Ibid.,  b.  2,  pt.  1.  cli.  vi,  pp.  5-7. 


48  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

importance  of  studying  and  cultivating  the  nature 
which  he  asserts  to  be  thus  instinctively  virtuous. 
"He  who  has  exhausted  all  his  mental  constitution 
knows  his  nature.  Knowing  his  nature,  he  knows 
Heaven. 

" To  preserve  one's  mental  constitution,  and  nourisli 
one's  nature,  is  the  way  to  serve  Heaven."  ^ 

The  moral  tone  of  Ming's  writings  is  exalted  and 
unbending,  and  evinces  a  man  whose  character  will 
bear  comparison  with  those  of  the  greatest  philo- 
sophers or  most  eminent  Christians  of  the  western 
world. 

Subdivision  5. — The  Shoo  King. 

In  this  work  are  contained  the  historical  memorials 
of  the  Chinese  Empire.  The  authentic  history  of 
China  extends,  as  is  well  known,  to  an  earlier  date 
than  that  of  any  extant  nation.  It  possesses  records 
of  events  that  occurred  more  than  2000  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  althouofh  these  events  are  intermixed 
with  fabulous  incidents.  "From  the  time  of  T'ans" 
the  Successful,  however,"  Dr  Legge  informs  us, 
"commonly  placed  in  the  i8th  century  before  Christ, 
we  seem  to  be  able  to  tread  the  field  of  history  with  a 
somewhat  confident  step."^  The  exact  dates,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  fixed  with  certainty  till  the  year  775 
B  c.  "  Twenty  centuries  before  our  era  the  Chinese 
nation  ajDpears,  beginning  to  be."^ 

Without  entering  into  the  history  of  the  text  of  the 
Shoo  King,  it  may  be  stated  that  its  fifty-eight  books 
may  probably  be  accepted  as  "  substantially  the  same 

'  Mang-tsze,  b.  7,  pt.  i.  ch.  i.  pp.  1,  2.        -  C.  C,  vol.  iii.  Proleg.,  p.  4.8. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  90. 


THE  SHOO  KING  ON  ROYAL  DUTIES.         49 

with  those  which  were  known  to  Seun-tsze,  Mencius, 
Mih-tsze,  Confucius  himself,  and  others."^ 

Its  earliest  books — which  must  be  regarded  as  in 
great  part  legendary — contain  accounts  of  three 
Chinese  Emperors — Yaou,  Shun,  and  Yu — whose 
conduct  is  held  up  as  a  model  to  future  ages,  and 
who  represent  the  heau  ideal  of  a  ruler  to  the  Chinese 
mind. 

These  admirable  sovereigns  were  succeeded  by  men 
of  very  inferior  virtue.  T'ae-k'ang  (b.c.  2187),  the 
grandson  of  Yu,  "pursued  his  pleasure  and  wander- 
ings without  any  restraint."  An  insurrection  against 
his  authority  took  place,  and  his  five  brothers  took 
occasion  to  admonish  him  by  repeating  "the  cautions 
of  the  great  Yu  in  the  form  of  songs."  The  first  of 
these  songs  may  be  quoted  as  a  good  specimen  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Shoo  King  with  reference  to  the 
inperial  duties  : — 

"  It  was  the  lesson  of  our  great  ancestor  : — 
The  people  should  be  cherished  ; 
They  should  not  be  down-trodden  : 
The  people  are  the  root  of  a  country  ; 
The  root  firm,  the  country  is  tranquil. 
When  I  look  throughout  the  empire, 
Of  the  simple  men  and  simple  women, 
Any  one  may  surpass  me, 
If  I,  the  one  man,  err  repeatedly: — 
Should  dissatisfaction  be  waited  for  till  it  appears'/ 
Before  it  is  seen,  it  should  be  guarded  against. 
In  my  relation  to  the  millions  of  the  people, 
I  should  feel  as  much  anxiety  as  if  I  were  driving  six  horses  with 

rotten  reins. 
The  ruler  of  men — 
How  can  he  be  but  reverent  of  his  duhj  ?  "  ^ 


1  C.  C,  vol.  iii.  Proleg.,  p.  48. 
*  Shoo  King,  b.  3,  pt.  iii.  ch.  i.  pp.  6.  7. 
VOL.  ir. 


50  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  bibles;. 

Many  successive  dynasties,  comprising  sovereigns 
of  very  various  characters,  succeed  these  original 
Emperors.  Throughout  the  Shoo  King  we  find  great 
stress  laid  on  the  doctrine,  that  the  rulers  of  the  land 
enjoy  the  protection  of  Heaven  only  so  long  as  their 
government  is  good.  Should  the  prince  become 
tyrannical,  dissolute,  or  neglectful  of  his  exalted  duties, 
the  favour  of  the  Divine  Power  is  withdrawn  from 
him  and  conferred  upon  another,  who  is  thus  enabled 
to  drive  him  from  the  throne  he  is  no  longer  worthy 
to  fill.  The  emphatic  and  reiterated  assertion  of  this 
revolutionary  theory  is  very  remarkable.  Thus,  a 
king  who  has  himself  just  effected  the  overthrow  of 
an  incompetent  dynasty,  is  represented  as  addressing 
this  discourse  to  the  "  myriad  regions  :  " — 

*'Ah!  ye  multitudes  of  the  myriad  regions,  listen 
clearly  to  the  announcement  of  me,  the  one  man. 
The  great  God  has  conferred  even  on  the  inferior 
people  a  moral  sense,  compliance  with  which  would 
show  their  nature  invariably  right.  ^  But  to  cause 
them  tranquilly  to  pursue  the  course  which  it  would 
indicate,  is  the  work  of  the  sovereign. 

"The  kin«^  of  Hea^  extinguished  his  virtue  and 
played  the  tyrant,  extending  his  oppression  over  you, 
the  people  of  the  myriad  regions.  Suffering  from  his 
cruel  injuries,  and  unable  to  endure  the  wormwood 
and  poison,  you  protested  with  one  accord  your 
innocence  to  the  spirits  of  heaven  and  earth.  The 
way  of  Heaven  is  to  bless  the  good  and  to  punish  the 
bad.  It  sent  down  calamities  on  the  House  of  Hea,  to 
make  manifest  its  crimes. 

'  The  Pimie  doctrine  insisted  on  by  Maiig. 

^  The  monai-ch  Avhom  tlie  speaker  had  Bupersetled 


THE  CHINESE  SAGES  REBUKING  KINGS.     51 

*'  Therefore  I,  the  little  child,  charged  witli  the  decree 
of  Heaven  and  its  bright  terrors,  did  not  dare  to  for- 
give the  criminal.  I  presumed  to  use  a  dark-coloured 
victim,  and  making  clear  announcement  to  the  spiri- 
tual Sovereign  of  the  higli  heavens,  requested  leave  to 
deal  with  the  ruler  of  Hea  as  a  criminal.  Then  I 
sought  for  the  great  sage,  with  whom  I  might  unite 
inv  strength,  to  request  the  favour  of  Heaven  on  behalf 
of  you,  my  multitudes.  High  Heaven  truly  showed 
its  favour  to  the  inferior  people,  and  the  criminal  has 
been  degraded  and  subjected."  ^ 

It  is  true  that  this  speech,  proceeding  from  an 
interested  party  naturally  anxious  to  set  his  own 
conduct  in  the  fairest  light,  is  liable  to  suspicion. 
But  there  is  abundant  evidence  in  the  pages  of  the 
Shoo  King  that  the  views  expressed  above  were 
participated  in  by  its  writers,  who  constantly  hold  the 
fate  that  befalls  wicked  Emperors  as  a  punishment 
from  Heaven,  and  laud  those  who  effect  their  downfall 
as  Heaven's  agents.  They  also  frequently  introduce 
sage  advisers  who  reprove  the  reigning  Emperor  for 
his  faults,  and  admonish  him  to  walk  in  the  ways  of 
virtue  in  a  spirit  of  the  utmost  frankness.  One  of 
these  monarchs  candidly  confesses  the  benefit  he  has 
derived  from  the  instructions  of  such  a  counsellor, 
whose  lessons  have  led  him  to  effect  a  complete  refor- 
mation of  his  character.^  Another  charged  his  minister 
to  be  constantly  presenting  instructions  to  aid  his 
virtue,  and  to  act  towards  him  as  medicine  which 
should  cure  his  sickness.^  H,  however,  a  dynasty 
persisted  in  its  evil  courses,  in  spite  of  all  the  waru- 

'  shoo  King,  iv.  3.  2.  ^  Ibid.,  iv.  5.  pt.  ii, 

2  Ibid,  iv.  8.  pt.  i.  5-8. 


52  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

iugs  it  might  receive,  it  was  doomed  to  perish.  Losing 
the  attachment  of  the  people,  it  fell  undefended  and 
unregretted.  Such  was  the  case  with  the  House  of 
Yin.  The  Viscount  of  Wei,  who  is  stated  by  old 
authorities  to  liaA^e  been  a  brother  of  the  Emperor, 
thus  described  its  career  : — 

"The  Viscount  of  Wei  spoke  to  the  following 
effect : — '  Grand  Tutor  and  Junior  Tutor,  the  House  of 
Yin,  we  may  conclude,  can  no  longer  exercise  rule 
over  the  four  quarters  of  the  empire.  The  great 
deeds  of  our  founder  were  displayed  in  former  ages, 
but  by  our  being  lost  and  maddened  with  wine,  we 
have  destroyed  the  effects  of  his  virtue,  in  these  after 
times.  The  people  of  Yin,  small  and  great,  are  given 
to  highway  robberies,  villanies,  and  treachery.  The 
nobles  and  officers  imitate  one  another  in.  violating 
the  laws ;  and  for  criminals  there  is  no  certainty 
that  they  will  be  apprehended.  The  lesser  people 
consequently  rise  up,  and  make  violent  outrages  on 
one  another.  The  dynasty  of  Yin  is  now  sinking  in 
ruin; — its  condition  is  like  that  of  one  crossing  a 
large  stream,  who  can  find  neither  ford  nor  bank. 
That  Yin  should  be  hurrying  to  ruin  at  the  present 
pace ! ' — 

"  He  added,  '  Grand  Tutor  and  Junior  Tutor,  we 
are  manifesting  insanity.  The  venerable  of  our 
families  have  withdrawn  to  the  wilds ;  and  now  you 
indicate  nothing,  but  tell  me  of  the  impending 
ruin  ; — what  is  to  be  done  ? ' 

"The  Grand  Tutor  made  about  the  following 
reply : — '  King's  son.  Heaven  in  anger  is  sending 
down  calamities,  and  wasting  the  country  of  Yin.' " 
And   after  mentioning  the   crimes  of  the  Emperor, 


DOCTRINES  OF  THE  SHOO  KING.  53 

he  proceeds: — *'  'When  ruin  overtakes  Shang,  I  will 
not  be  the  servant  of  another  dynasty.  But  I  tell 
you,  0  king's  son,  to  go  away  as  being  the  course 
for  you.  .  .  .  Let  us  rest  quietly  in  our  several 
parts,  and  present  ourselves  to  the  former  kings.  I 
do  not  think  of  making  my  escape.' "  ^ 

In  another  portion  of  the  Shoo  the  causes  which 
lead  to  the  preservation  or  loss  of  Heaven's  favour 
are  thus  described  by  "The  Duke  of  Chow:" — "The 
favour  of  Heaven  is  not  easily  preserved.  Heaven  is 
hard  to  be  depended  on.  Men  lose  its  favouring 
appointment  because  they  cannot  pursue  and  carry 
out  the  reverence  and  brilliant  virtue  of  their  fore- 
fathers." Ao-ain  : — "Heaven  is  not  to  be  trusted. 
Our  course  is  simply  to  seek  the  prolongation  of  the 
virtue  of  the  Tranquillising  king,  and  Heaven  will 
not  find  occasion  to  remove  its  favouring  decree 
which  Kinor  Wan  received."^ 

The  paramount  importance  to  the  national  welfare 
of  a  wise  selection  of  ministers  and  officials  receives 
its  full  share  of  attention  in  the  Chinese  Bible.  The 
Duke  of  Ts'in,  another  province  of  the  Empire,  is 
represented  as  speaking  thus  : — 

"I  have  deeply  thought  and  concluded; — Let  me 
have  but  one  resolute  minister,  plain  and  sincere, 
without  other  abilities,  but  having  a  simple,  complacent 
mind,  and  possessed  of  generosity,  regarding  the 
talents  of  others,  as  if  he  himself  possessed  them  :  and 
when  he  finds  accomplished  and  sage-like  men,  loving 
them  in  his  heart  more  than  his  mouth  expresses, 
really  showing  himself  able  to  bear  them  : — such  a 
minister  would  be  able  to  preserve  my  descendants 

^  Shoo  Kill",  iv.  II.  '^  Ibid.,  v.  16.  i. 


54  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

and   my  people,   and    would    indeed   be   a    giver    of 
benefits.  '  ^ 

These  extracts,  without  giving  an  adequate  notion 
of  the  very  miscellaneous  contents  of  the  Shoo  King, 
a  work  which  could  not  be  accomplished  without  an 
undue  extension  of  the  subdivision  referring  to  it, 
will  serve  to  show  that  its  moral  tone  on  matters 
relatinsf  to  the  ofovernment  of  a  nation  is  not  inferior 
to  that  of  any  of  the  productions  of  classical  or 
Hebrew  antiquity. 

Subdivision  6. — The  She  King. 

Whatever  sanctity  or  authority  may  attach  to  the 
She  King  in  the  minds  of  the  Chinese,  must  belong  to 
it  solely  on  account  of  its  antiquity,  for  there  is  cer- 
tainly nothing  in  the  character  of  its  contents  that 
should  entitle  it  to  a  place  in  the  consecrated  litera- 
ture of  a  nation.  Similar  phenomena,  however,  are 
not  unknown  among  more  devout  races  than  the 
Chinese.  Thus  the  Hebrews  admitted  into  their 
Canon  the  Books  of  Euth  and  Esther,  and  the  Song  of 
Solomon,  which  contain  but  little  of  an  edifying 
nature,  though  full  of  human  interest.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  She  King.  The  play  of  human 
emotions  is  vividly  represented  in  it,  but  there  is  not 
much  in  which  moral  or  religious  lessons  are  to  be 
found,  except  by  doing  violence  to  the  text. 

The  She  King  is  a  collection  of  ancient  poems. 
Tradition  attributes  the  arrancjement  and  selection  of 
the  Odes  now  contained  in  it  to  Confucius,  who  is 
supposed  to  have  selected  them  in   accordance  with 

'   Slioo  King,  V.  30.     See  also  v.  IQ.  2. 


THE  POEMS  OF  THE  SHE  KING.  55 

some  wise  design  from  a  much  larger  number.  Tlie 
present  translator,  however,  assigns  reasons  for  reject- 
insf  this  tradition,  and  for  believinoj  that  the  She  Kino^ 
was  current  in  China  long  before  his  time  in  a  form 
not  very  different  from  that  in  which  we  now  possess 
it.  At  the  present  day,  its  songs  have  not  lost  their 
ancient  popularity,  for  it  is  stated  that  they  are  "  the 
favourite  study  of  the  better  informed  at  the  present 
remote  period.  Every  well-educated  Chinese  has  the 
most  celebrated  pieces  by  heart,  and  there  are  constant 
allusions  to  them  in  modern  poetry  and  writings  of  all 
kinds."  ^ 

The  poems,  which  were  collected  from  many  different 
provinces,  relate  to  a  great  variety  of  subjects.  Some 
are  political,  some  domestic ;  some  sacrificial,  others 
festive.  We  have  rulers  addressing  the  princes  of 
their  kingdom  in  laudatory  terms,  and  princes  in 
their  turn  extolling  the  ruler ;  complaints  of  unem- 
])loyed  politicians,  and  groans  from  oppressed  subjects ; 
husbands  deploring  their  absence  from  their  wives  on 
military  service ;  forlorn  wives  longing  for  the  return 
of  absent  husbands  ;  stanzas  written  by  lovers  to  their 
mistresses,  and  maidens'  invocations  of  their  lovers ; 
along  with  a  few  allusions  to  amatory  transactions  of 
a  more  questionable  character.  All  these  miscel- 
laneous matters  are  treated  in  short,  simple,  and  rather 
monotonous  poems,  which,  if  they  have  any  beauty  in 
the  original,  have  completely  lost  it  in  the  process  of 
translation.  There  is  sometimes  pathos  in  the  feelings 
uttered ;  but  the  expressions  are  of  the  most  direct  and 
unoruamental  kind,  and  the  whole  book  partakes 
largely  of  that  artlessness  which  we  have  noted  as  onn 
of  the  ordinary  marks  of  Sacred  Books. 

'  Davis'  Chinese,  ii.  60. 


56  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BJBLES. 

A  few  specimens  will  suffice.  Here  is  the  "protest 
of  a  widow  against  being  urged  to  marry  again  : " — 

1.  "  It  floats  about,  that  boat  of  cypress  wood, 

There  in  the  middle  of  the  Ho. 

With  his  two  tufts  of  hair  falling  over  his  forehead  ; 

He  was  my  mate  ; 

And  I  swear  that  till  death  I  will  have  no  other. 

O  mother,  O  Heaven, 

Why  will  you  not  understand  me  ? 

2.  "  It  floats  about,  that  boat  of  cypress  wood. 

There  by  the  side  of  the  Ho. 

With  his  two  tufts  of  hair  falling  over  his  forehead  ; 

He  was  my  only  one  ; 

And  I  swear  that  till  death  I  will  not  do  the  evil  thing. 

O  mother,  0  Heaven, 

Why  will  you  not  understand  m.e  1 "  ^ 

In  the  following  lines  a  young  lady  begs  her  lover 
to  be  more  cautious  in  his  advances,  and  that  in  a 
tone  which  may  remind  us  of  Nausikaa's  request  to 
Odysseus  to  walk  at  some  distance  behind  her,  lest 
the  busybodies  of  the  town  should  take  occasion  to 
gossip  : — 

1.  "I  pray  you,  I\[r  Chung, 

Do  not  come  leaping  into  my  hamlet ; 

Do  not  break  my  willow-trees. 

Do  I  care  for  thgrn  ? 

But  I  fear  my  parents. 

You,  0  Chung,  are  to  be  loved, 

But  the  words  of  my  parents 

Are  also  to  be  feared. 

2.  "  I  pray  you,  Mr  Chung, 

Do  not  come  leaping  over  my  wall ; 
Do  not  break  my  mulberry-trees. 
Do  I  care  for  them  ? 
But  I  fear  the  words  of  my  brothers. 
You,  O  Chung,  are  to  be  loved, 
But  the  words  of  my  brothers 
Are  also  to  be  feared. 

^  She  King,  i.  4.  i. 


SPECIMEN  ODES  FROM  THE  SHE  KING.       57 

3.  "I  pray  you,  Mr  Cliuiig, 

Do  not  come  leaping  into  my  garden  ; 

Do  not  break  my  sandal-trees. 

Do  I  care  for  tliem  ? 

But  I  dread  the  talk  of  people. 

You,  O  Chung,  are  to  be  loved, 

But  the  talk  of  people 

Is  also  to  be  feared."  ^ 

The  following  Ode,  conceived  in  a  different  spirit, 
will  serve  to  illustrate  one  of  the  most  prominent 
features  of  Chinese  character  as  depicted  in  these 
ancient  books, — its  filial  piety.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  composition  of  a  young  monarch  who  has  just 
succeeded  to  the  government  of  his  kingdom  : — 

"  Alas  for  me,  who  am  [as]  a  little  child, 
Ou  whom  has  devolved  the  unsettled  State  1 
Solitary  am  I  and  full  of  distress. 
Oh  my  great  Father, 
All  thy  life  long,  thou  wast  filial. 

"  Thou  didst  think  of  my  great  grandfather, 
[Seeing  him,  as  it  were]  ascending  and  descending  in  the  court, 
I,  the  little  child,2 
Day  and  night  will  be  so  reverent. 

"  Oh  ye  great  kings, 
As  your  successor,  I  will  strive  not  to  forget  you."^ 


Subdivision  -j.—The  Ch'im  Ts'ew. 

According  to  Chinese  tradition,  the  Ch'un  Ts'ew, 
or  Spring  and  Autumn,  was  the  production  of 
Confucius  himself;  not  indeed  his  original  com- 
position,   but    a    compilation    made    by   him    from 


^  She  King,  i.  7.  2. 

2  Not  literally  a  child.  "  Little  child  "  is  the  usual  style  of  Chinese 
rulers  when  designing  to  express  feelings  of  modesty  and  religious 
reverence. 

^  She  King,  iv.  i.  [iii,]  i. 


58  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

pre-existing  sources.  The  title  of  Ch'un  Ts  e\v  was 
not  of  his  own^'making.  It  was  the  name  already 
in  use  for  the  annals  of  the  several  States.  The 
annals  were  arranged  under  the  four  seasons  of  each 
year,  and  then  two  of  the  seasons — Spring  and 
Autumn — were  used  as  an  abbreviated  term  for  all 
the  four.  And  so  strictly  is  this  principle  of 
parcelling  out  the  annals  of  each  year  under  the 
several  seasons  adhered  to  in  the  work,  that  even 
when  there  is  no  event  to  be  recorded  we  have  such 
entries  as  these:  "It  was  summer,  the  fourth 
month."     "It  was  winter,  the  tenth  month." 

The  classical  Ch'un  Ts'ew  was  compiled  from  the 
Ch'un  Ts'ew  of  the  State  of  Loo.  It  is  even  doubtful 
whether  Confucius  did  anything  more  than  copy  what 
he  found  in  the  annals  of  that  country.  Dr  Legge 
evidently  inclines  to  the  belief  that  he  altered 
nothing.  At  any  rate,  the  work  can  only  be  regarded 
as  very  partially  his  own.  More  than  this,  it  is 
questionable  whether  the  text  we  have  at  present  is 
that  of  the  original  Ch'un  Ts'ew  at  all.  This  classic 
is  indeed  said  to  have  been  recovered  in  the  Han 
dynasty  after  the  destruction  of  the  books.  But 
there  are  circumstances  which  may  well  make  us 
hesitate  before  we  accept  the  Chinese  account  of  this 
recovery  as  a  fact.  MSng,  who  had  the  best 
opportunities  of  knowing  what  his  master  was 
believed  to  have  written,  if  not  what  he  actually 
had  written,  speaks  of  the  Ch'un  Ts'ew  in  terms 
wholly  inapplicable  to  the  work  before  us.  He 
asserts  expressly  that  it  was  composed  by  him 
because  right  principles  had  dwindled  away,  because 
unsceml}^    language    and    unrighteous    deeds     were 


GENUINENESS  OF  CirUN  TS'EW  CRITICISED.  59 

common,  and  he  attributes  to  its  completion  the 
result  that  "rebellious  ministers  and  villanous  sons 
were  struck  with  terror."  Now  we  may  allow  what 
limits  we  please  for  the  exaggeration  natural  to  a 
disciple  when  speaking  of  the  labours  of  a  revered 
master.  But  can  we  believe  that  MSng,  a  man 
whose  own  teaching  proves  him  to  have  been  a 
moderate  and  sensible  thinker,  would  have  spoken 
thus  of  a  compilation  which  from  beginning  to  end 
contains  absolutely  no  moral  principles  whatever  ? 
Yet  such  is  the  case  with  the  "  Spring  and  iVutumn  " 
as  we  possess  it.  There  is  not  in  it  the  faintest 
glimmer  of  an  ethical  judgment  on  the  historical 
events  which  it  records.  A  birth,  an  eclipse,  a  fall 
of  snow,  a  plague  of  insects,  a  murder,  a  battle,  the 
death  of  a  ruler,  are  all  chronicled  in  the  same  dry, 
lifeless,  unvarying  style.  Nowhere  would  it  be 
possible  for  an  unprejudiced  critic  to  detect  the 
opinions  of  the  compiler,  or  to  gather  from  his  words 
that  he  viewed  a  virtuous  action  with  more  favour 
than  an  abominable  crime.  Such  being  the  case,  I 
hesitate,  notwithstanding  the  high  authority  of  Dr 
Legge,  to  accept  the  genuineness  of  this  work  as  be- 
yond cavil. 

It  has  in  fact  been  questioned  in  China,  not  indeed 
on  very  valid  grounds,  by  a  scholar  whose  letter  he 
has  translated  in  his  Prolegomena,  and  he  himself 
candidly  acknowledges  the  extreme  difficulty  of 
reconciling  the  character  of  our  present  text  with 
the  statement  of  Mang.  But  he  considers  the 
external  testimony  to  the  recovery  of  the  book 
sufficiently  weighty  to  dispose  of  this  and  otlier 
difficulties.     Yet,  without  disputing  the  strength  of 


6o  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

the  grounds  on  wliicli  this  conclusion  rests,  we  mav 
still  permit  ourselves  to  entertain  a  modest  doubt 
whether  this  compilation  was  really  the  handiwork 
of  such  a  man  as  we  know  Confucius  to  have  been, 
and  that  doubt  will  be  strengthened  when  we  recall 
the  common  tendency  of  the  popular  mind  to  connect 
the  authorship  of  standard  works  with  names  of  high 
repute.  And  the  bare  existence  of  such  a  doubt 
will  compel  us  to  suspend  our  judgment  on  the  very 
serious  charges  of  misrepresentation  and  falsehood 
Avhich  Dr  Legge  has  brought  against  Confucius  in  his 
capacity  of  historian.  If  the  actual  Ch'un  Ts'ew  be 
shown  to  be  identical  with  that  edited  by  Confucius, 
and  if  he  simply  adopted,  without  alteration,  or  with 
very  trivial  alteration,  the  labours  of  his  predecessors, 
the  gravity  of  these  charges  will  be  very  considerably 
diminished.  For  we  know  not  but  what  some  feelinof 
of  respect  for  that  which  he  found  already  recorded 
may  have  stayed  his  hand  from  revision  and  im- 
provement. 

Passing  to  the  work  itself,  we  shall  find  little  in  it 
worthy  of  attention,  unless  by  those  who  may  be 
desirous  of  studying  the  history  of  China.  Chinese 
commentators  have  indeed  discovered  all  kinds  of 
recondite  meanings  in  it,  as  is  usually  the  case  with 
the  commentators  on  Sacred  Books,  but  these  are  of 
no  more  value  than  the  similar  discoveries  of  types 
and  mystic  foreshadowings  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
In  itself,  the  text  is  profoundly  uninteresting.  Here 
is  one  of  the  shortest  chapters  as  a  specimen.  The 
title  of  the  Book  from  which  it  is  taken  is  "Duke 
Chwang : "-  - 


SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  CH' UN  TS'EW.        6i 

XXVI.  I.  "In  his  twenty-sixtli  year,  in  spring,  the  duke 
invaded  the  Jung, 

2.  "In  summer,  the  duke  arrived  from  the  invasion  of  the 
Jung. 

3.  "  Ts'aou  put  to  death  one  of  its  great  officers. 

4.  "  In  autumn,  the  duke  joined  an  officer  of  Sung  and  an 
officer  of  Ts'e  in  invading  Seu. 

5.  "In  w^inter,  in  the  twelfth  month,  on  Kwei-hae,  the  first 
(lay  of  the  moon,  the  sun  was  eclipsed."  * 

The  events  noted  in  these  annals  refer  to  various 
States — for  it  appears  that  the  several  States  were 
in  the  habit  of  communicating  remarkable  oc- 
currences to  each  other — but  they  are  of  a  very 
limited  class,  and  are  invariably  recorded  in  the  brief 
manner  of  the  chapter  that  has  just  been  quoted. 
Eclipses  of  the  sun  are  duly  registered,  and  the 
record  thus  acquires  a  chronological  value  of  high 
importance  in  historical  researches.  Among  the 
other  facts  commonly  mentioned  are  sacrifices  for 
rain,  which  occur  very  frequently ;  wars,  with  the 
results  of  great  battles ;  the  marriages  or  deaths  of 
rulers  and  important  persons;  their  journeys;  oc- 
casionally their  murder ;  meetings  of  rulers  for  the 
purpose  of  common  action  in  matters  of  State ; 
diplomatic  missions,  invasions  of  locusts  or  other 
troublesome  insects ;  and  lastly,  peculiarities  of 
various  kinds  in  the  state  of  the  weather.  It  is  plain 
that  annals  of  this  kind  have  no  religious  sio-nificance 
beyond  that  which  they  derive  from  the  mere  fact  of 
being  reputed  sacred.  And  in  this  aspect  the  Ch'un 
Ts'ew  is  certainly  curious.  Having  been  assigned — 
rightly  or  wrongly — to  the   pen  of   the  prophet  of 

'  C'a'un  Ts'tiw,  iii.  26. 


62  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

China,  it  seems  to  liave  become  a  poiut  of  honour 
with  Chinese  scholars  to  extract  from  it,  by  hook  or 
by  crook,  the  profoundest  lessons  on  politics  and 
morals. 

Section  II. — The  Tao-te-K!ng.^ 

There  are  in  China  three  recognised  sects  or 
"religiones  licitse:" — Confucianism,  Buddhism,  and 
Tao-ism.  We  have  examined  the  Sacred  Books  of 
the  first ;  those  of  the  second  will  come  under  review 
in  another  section.  There  remains  the  comparatively 
small  and  unimportant  sect  of  the  Ta5-ss^,  or 
"  Doctors  of  Keason,"  who  derive  tKeir  origin  from 
La5-tse,  and  who  possess  as  their  classic  the  single 
written  composition  which  emanated  from  their 
founder.^     It  is  entitled  the  Tao-te-Kiug. 

1  By  far  the  best  European  work  on  the  Tao-le-King  is  that  of  Victor 
von  Strauss,  and  I  have  followed  his  translation,  though  not  without 
consulting  those  of  others.  I  am  fully  sensible  of  the  inconvenience  of 
a  double  translation,  and  I  should  have  preferred  to  follow  Chalmers' 
English  rendering  of  Lao-tse,  had  not  the  obscurity  of  his  version  been 
so  great  as  to  render  it  almost  unintelligible  to  the  general  reader. 
Eeinhold  von  Planckner's  translation  errs  on  the  other  side  by  excess  of 
clearness.  It  is  a  palpable  attempt  to  force  upon  the  ancient  Chinaman 
a  connected  system  professedly  unravelled  from  the  text  by  the  ingenuity 
of  the  modern  German.  It  should  be  used  only  with  extreme  caution, 
or  not  at  all. 

2  It  deserves  to  be  noted,  as  a  peculiarity  of  the  Chinese  prophets — 
Confucius  and  Lao-tse — that  they  alone  among  their  peers  have  left 
authentic  written  compositions.  The  Koran  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
have  been  written  by  Mahomet,  in  the  sense  in  which  we  talk  of 
writing  a  book.  And  neither  Zarathustra,  Jesus,  nor  the  Buddha,  were 
authors.  The  calmer  Chinese  temperament  permitted,  in  the  case  of 
these  two  great  teachers,  a  mode  of  conveying  instruction  which  is 
repugnant,  as  a  rule,  to  the  fervid  prophetic  nature.  Observe  that  of 
the  Jewish  (so-called)  prophets,  those  who  committed  their  prophecies 
to  writing,  generally  belonged  to  a  comparatively  late  age,  in  which  oral 
prophecy  was  no  longer  in  vogue,  and  the  state  of  feeling  that  had 
inspired  it  no  longer  j)revalent. 


THE  TAO-TR-K'ING—ITS  GENUINENESS.       63 

Ancient  as  tins  book  is  (probably  about  B.C.  520), 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  its  authenticity.  This  is 
sufficiently  guaranteed  by  quotations  from  it  which 
are  found  in  authors  belonging  to  the  fourth  century 
B.C.,  and  by  the  fact  that  a  scholar  who  wrote  in  B.C. 
163  made  it  the  subject  of  a  commentary,  which 
accompanies  it  sentence  by  sentence.  Nor  does 
Chinese  tradition  state  that  it  perished  in  the  Burning 
of  the  Books  (b.c.  212-209),  which  was  a  measure 
levelled  against  the  Confucian  school,  and  took  place 
under  an  Emperor  who  was  fsivourable  to  the  Ta5-sse. 
AVe  may  safely  conclude  that  we  are  in  possession  of 
the  genuine  composition  of  the  ancient  philosopher.^ 

Of  the  three  words  which  compose  its  title.  King 
has  already  been  explained,^  The  full  meaning  of 
Tab  will  appear  in  the  sequel :  we  may  here  term  it 
the  Absolute.  T8  means  Virtue  ;  and  the  title  would 
thus  imply  either  that  this  Canonical  Book  deals  with 
the  Absolute  and  with  Virtue,  or  with  that  kind  of 
virtue  which  emanates  from,  and  is  founded  upon,  a 
belief  in  and  a  spiritual  union  with  the  Absolute.^ 

Whatever  the  signification  of  its  name,  its  principal 
subjects  undoubtedly  are  Tab  and  Te  :  the  Supreme 
Principle  and  human  Virtue.  Let  us  see  w^hat  is 
La6-tse's  description  of  Tab,  the  great  fundamental 
Being  on  whom  his  whole  system  rests.  "Tab,  if  it 
can  be  pronounced,  is  not  the  eternal  Tab.  The 
Name,  if  it  can  be  named,  is  not  the  eternal  Name. 
The  Nameless  One  is  the  foundation  of  Heaven  and 
Earth;    he   who  has  a   Name  is  the  Mother  of  all 

1  T.  T.  K.,  Ixxiii.,  Ixxiv.  2  Supra,  p.  30. 

^  The  former  view  is  tliat  of  Stan.  Julien  ;  the  hitter  that  of  von 
Planckner. 


64  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

beings."  ^  These  enigmatical  sentences  open  the  Ta5 
philosophy.  The  idea  that  Ta6  is  unnameable  is  a 
prominent  one  in  the  author's  mind,  although  he 
seems  also  to  recognise  a  subordinate  creative  prin- 
ciple— like  the  Gnostic  ^ons — which  is  nameable. 
Thus  we  read  :  "  Tab,  the  Eternal,  has  no  Name.  .  .  . 
He  who  begins  to  create,  has  a  Name."^  Again: 
"For  ever  and  ever  it  is  unnameable,  and  returns 
into  non-existence."  Or  :  "I  know  not  its  Name  ;  if 
I  describe  it,  I  call  it  Tab."  ^  We  are  reminded  of 
Faust's  reply  in  Goethe  : — 

"  Ich  habe  keinen  Namen 
Dafiir  !  Gefiihl  ist  alles  ; 
Name  ist  Scliall  und  Raucli 
Umnebelnd  Himmelsglutli." 

Nor  is  Tub  only  without  a  Name ;  it  is  sometimes 
described  as  if  devoid  of  all  intellisfible  attributes. 
Thus,  in  one  chapter,  we  learn  that  it  is  eternally 
without  action,  and  yet  without  non-action.^  Nay, 
the  entire  absence  of  all  activity  is  not  unfrequently 
predicated  of  Tab,  whose  great  merit  is  stated  to  be 
complete  quiescence.  Tab  is  moreover  incompre- 
hensible, inconceivable,  undiscoverable,  obscure.^  Its 
upper  part  is  not  clear,  its  lower  part  not  obscure.  It 
returns  into  non-existence.  It  is  the  form  of  the 
Formless ;  the  image  of  the  Imageless.^  Mysterious 
as  this  Being  is,  yet  in  other  places  attributes  are 
ascribed  to  it  which  go  far  to  elucidate  the  author  s 
conception  of  its  nature.  Productive  energy,  for 
instance,  is  plainly  attributed  to  Tab,  for  it  is  stated 
that  Tab  produces  one,  one  two,  and  two  three,  while 

1  Oh.  I.  3  ch.  25.  «  Ch.  21. 

^  Ch.  32.  ■*  Ch.  37.  «  Ch.  14. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TAO.  65 

tliree  jDroduce  all  creatures/  The  following  account 
is  less  mystical  :  "  Ta5  produces  them  [creatures], 
its  Might  preserves  them,  its  essence  forms  them,  its 
power  perfects  them :  therefore  of  all  beings  there  is 
none  that  does  not  adore  Tab,  and  honour  its  Might. 
The  adoration  of  Tab,  the  honouring  of  its  Might,  is 
commanded  by  no  one  and  is  always  spontaneous. 
For  Tab  produces  them,  preserves  them,  brings  them 
up,  fashions  them,  perfects  them,  ripens  them, 
cherishes  them,  protects  them.  To  produce  and  not 
possess,  to  act  and  not  expect,  to  bring  up  and  not 
control,  this  is  called  sublime  Virtue."  ^  In  addition 
to  these  creative  and  preservative  qualities,  it  has 
moral  attributes  of  the  highest  'order.  Thus,  its  Spirit 
is  supremely  trustworthy.  In  it  is  faithfulness.^  All 
beinofs  trust  to  it  in  order  to  live.  When  a  work  is 
completed,  it  does  not  call  it  its  own.  Loving  and 
nourishing  all  beings,  it  still  does  not  lord  it  over 
them.  It  is  eternally  without  desire.  All  beings 
turn  to  it,  yet  it  does  not  lord  it  over  them.*  It  is 
eminently  straightforward.  It  dwells  only  with  those 
who  are  not  occupied  with  the  luxuries  of  this  world.^ 
Nay,  it  is  altogether  perfect.^  The  last  assertion  is 
found  in  a  chapter  which,  as  it  is  probably  the  most 
important  in  the  book  for  the  purpose  of  under- 
standing the  theology  of  the  author,  deserves  to  be 
translated  in  full : — "  There  existed  a  Being,  incon- 
ceivably perfect,  before  Heaven  and  Earth  arose.  So 
still !  so  supersensible !  It  alone  remains  and  does 
not  change.     It  pervades  all  and  is  not  endangered. 

;  ch.,  42. 

^  Ch.,  51.     I  have  borrowed  some  expressions  from  Chalmers,  O.  P. 
3  Ch.,  21.  4  Ch.,  34.  3  Ch.,  53.  «  Ch.,  25. 

VOL.    II.  K 


66  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  the  Mother  of  the  World.  I 
know  not  its  name ;  if  I  describe  it,  I  call  it  Tab. 
Concerned  to  give  it  a  Name,  I  call  it  Great ;  as 
great,  I  call  it  Immense ;  as  immense,  I  call  it 
Distant ;  as  distant,  I  call  it  Eeturning.  For  Tab  is 
great ;  Heaven  is  great ;  the  Earth  is  great ;  the 
King  is  also  great.  In  the  world  there  are  many 
kinds  of  greatness,  and  the  King  remains  one  of 
them.  The  measure  of  Man  is  the  earth ;  the 
measure  of  earth,  Heaven ;  the  measure  of  Heaven, 
Tab  ;   Tab's  measure  itself."  ^ 

Such  is  the  picture  of  Tab ;  but  the  Tab-t8-king  is 
much  more  than  a  treatise  on  theology;  it  is  even 
more  conspicuously  a  treatise  on  morals.  Tab  is 
indeed  the  transcendental  foundation  on  which  the 
ethical  superstructure  is  raised ;  but  the  superstructure 
occupies  a  much  more  considerable  space  than  the 
foundation,  and  seems  to  have  been  the  main  practical 
end  for  which  the  latter  was  laid  down.  Intermingled 
with  the  image  of  Tab  we  find  the  image  of  the  good 
man,  or,  as  we  may  call  him,  in  Scriptural  phraseology, 
the  righteous  man ;  an  ideal  of  perfect  virtue,  whom 
the  author  holds  uj),  not  as  an  actual  person,  but  as 
an  imaginary  model  for  the  guidance  of  human  con- 
duct. By  putting  together  the  scattered  traits  of  his 
character,  we  may  arrive  at  a  tolerable  comprehension 
of  the  author's  conception  of  perfect  goodness.  In 
the  first  place,  the  righteous  man  is  in  harmony  in  his 
actions  with  Tab ;  he  becomes  one  with  Tab,  and  Tab 
rejoices  to   receive  him.^     He  places  himself  in  the 

^  Ch.,  25.  For  the  sake  of  enabling  the  reader  to  compare  the 
interpretations  of  this  important  chapter  given  by  various  Sinologues, 
I  subjoin  in  an.  appendix  four  other  translations. 

2  Ch.,  23. 


I 


LAO-TSE  ON  THE  RIGHTEOUS  MAN.  67 

background,  and  by  that  very  means  is  brought 
forward.^  He  does  not  regard  himself,  and  therefore 
shines ;  lie  is  not  just  to  himself,  and  is  therefore  dis- 
tinguished ;  does  not  praise  himself,  and  is  therefore 
meritorious;  does  not  exalt  himself,  and  is  therefore 
j)re-eminent.  As  he  does  not  dispute,  none  can 
dispute  with  him.^  If  he  acts,  he  sets  no  store  by  his 
action ;  for  he  does  not  wish  to  render  his  wisdom 
conspicuous.^  He  knows  himself,  but  does  not  regard 
himself;  loves  himself,  but  does  not  set  a  high  price 
on  himself/  Unwilling  lightly  to  promise  great 
things,  he  is  thereby  able  to  accomplish  the  more ;  by 
treating  things  as  difficult,  he  finds  nothing  too  difficult 
during  his  whole  life.^  Inaccessible  alike  to  friendship 
and  enmity,  uninfluenced  by  personal  advantage  or 
injury,  by  honour  or  dishonour,  he  is  honoured  by  all 
the  world. ^  He  is  characterised  by  quiet  earnestness  ; 
should  he  possess  splendid  palaces,  he  inhabits  them 
or  quits  them  with  equal  calm.''  He  clothes  himself 
in  wool  (a  very  coarse  material  in  China),  and  hides 
his  jewels.*  He  is  ever  ready  to  help  others  ;  for  the 
good  man  is  the  educator  of  the  bad,  the  bad  man 
the  treasure  of  the  orood.®  "  The  riohteous  man  does 
not  accumulate.  The  more  he  spends  on  others,  the 
more  he  has ;  the  more  he  gives  to  others,  the  richer 
he  is." ^"  "He  who  knows  others  is  clever ;  he  who 
knows  himself  is  enlightened."  ^^  Thus  the  sage,  like 
Socrates,  makes  '^vwQi  aeavrov  a  main  principle  of  his 
conduct.  Should  he  be  called  to  the  administration 
of  the  realm,  he  adopts  a  policy  of  laisser  faire,  for 

^  Ch.,  7.  "  Ch.,  72.  7  ch.,  26.  1"  Ch.,  81. 

'"■  Ch.,  22.  5  Ch.,  63.  8  Ch.,  70.  "  Ch.,  33. 

3  Ch.,  77.  «  Ch.,  56.  'J  Ch.,  27. 


68  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

he  has  observed  the  evils  produced  by  over-legislation. 
It  is  his  belief  that  if  he  be  inactive,  the  people  will 
improve  by  themselves ;  if  he  be  quiet,  they  will  be- 
come honourable ;  if  he  abstain  from  intermeddling, 
they  will  become  rich  ;  if  he  be  free  from  desires,  they 
will  become  simple/  Compelled  to  engage  in  war,  he 
will  not  make  use  of  conquest  to  triumph  or  exalt 
himself,  neither  will  he  take  violent  measures.^ 
Mercy  is  a  quality  that  must  not  be  despised ;  the 
merciful  will  conquer  in  battle.^  Endowed  with  these 
characteristics,  the  good  man  need  fear  nothing.  Like 
Horace's 

"  Integer  vitce  scelerisque  purus," 

he  is  preserved  from  danger.  The  horn  of  the  rhino- 
ceros, the  claws  of  the  tiger,  the  blade  of  the  sword, 
cannot  hurt  him.*  He  is  like  a  new-bom  child : 
serpents  do  not  sting  it,  nor  wild  beasts  seize  it,  nor 
birds  of  prey  attack  it/ 

A  few  features,  which  do  not  directly  enter  into  the 
delineation  of  the  character  of  the  sage,  must  still  be 
added  to  complete  that  image.  And  first,  a  prominent 
place  must  be  assigned  to  a  quality  which  is  a  large 
ingredient  in  La5-tse's  conception  of  goodness,  both 
human  and  divine.  It  is  that  of  gentleness,  or,  as  he 
would  call  it,  weakness.  It  is  a  favourite  principle  of 
his  that  the  weak  thinas  of  the  earth  overcome  the 
strong,  and  that  they  overcome  in  virtue  of  that  very 
weakness.  He  has  an  aversion  to  all  conspicuous 
exercise  of  force.  The  deity  of  his  philosophy  is  one 
who  is  indeed  all-powerful,  but  who  never  displays 

1  Ch.,  57.  ''  Ch.,  30.  3  cii.,  67.  "  Ch.,  50. 

^  Ch.,  55.  Von  Strauss  explains  this  to  mean  that  lie  is  like  the 
child  in  its  unconscionsness  of  danger  from  these  sources. 


LAO-TSE  ON  THE  DIVINITY  OF  GENTLENESS.  69 

liis  power.  Tlie  method  of  Heaven — and  it  should  also 
be  that  of  man — is  apparent  yielding,  leading  to  real 
supremacy.  "  It  strives  not,  yet  is  able  to  overcome. 
It  speaks  not,  yet  is  able  to  obtain  an  answer.  It 
summons  not,  yet  men  come  to  it  of  their  own  accord  ; 
is  long-suffering,  yet  is  able  to  succeed  in  its  designs."^ 
The  superiority  of  the  weak — or  the  seeming  weak — 
to  the  strong,  is  further  illustrated  by  Lao-tse  in 
several  parallels.  We  enter  life  soft  and  feeble ;  we 
quit  it  hard  and  strong.  Therefore  softness  and 
feebleness  are  the  companions  of  life;  hardness  and 
strength  of  death.^  And  does  not  the  wife  overcome 
her  husband  by  her  quietness  ?  ^  Is  not  water  the 
softest  and  weakest  of  all  things  in  the  world,  yet  is 
there  anything  which  ever  attacks  the  hard  and  strong 
that  is  able  to  surpass  it  ?  *  Thus,  the  most  yield- 
ing of  all  substances  overcomes  the  most  inflexible. 
Hence  is  manifest  the  advantage  of  inactivity  and  of 
silence.^  It  is  fully  in  accordance  with  these  notions 
that  Lab-tse  should  distinctly  deprecate  warfare,  and 
should  assert  that  the  most  competent  general  will  not 
be  warlike.  Calmly  conscious  of  his  power,  he  is  not 
quarrelsome  or  eager  for  battle,  and  thus  possessing 
the  virtue  of  peaceable  and  patient  strength,  he  be- 
comes the  peer  of  Heaven.^  War  is  altogether  to  be 
condemned,  as  pregnant  with  calamity  to  the  state. ^ 
"The  most  beauteous  weapons  are  instruments  of 
misfortune ;  all  creatures  abhor  them ;  therefore  he 
who  has  Ta6  does  not  employ  them."  They  are  not 
the  instruments  of  the  wise  man.     If  he  must  needs 


'  Ch.,  72. 

^  Ch.,  61. 

'  Ch.,  43, 

«  Ch.,  76. 

*  Cli.,  78. 
^  Ch.,  30. 

«  Ch.,  68. 

70  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

resort  to  them,  yet  lie  still  values  peace  and  quietness 
as  the  highest  aims.  He  conquers  with  reluctance. 
"  He  who  has  killed  many  men,  let  him  weep  for  them 
with  grief  and  compassion.  He  who  has  conquered 
in  battle,  let  him  stand  as  at  a  funeral  pomj?."  ^ 

Another  striking  characteristic  of  Lao-tse's  moral 
system  is  his  dislike  of  luxury,  and  his  earnest  injunc- 
tion to  all  men  to  be  contented  with  modest  circum- 
stances. We  have  seen  that  the  sage  is  depicted  as 
wearing  coarse  clothing,  and  Lab-tse  considers  that 
the  very  j^resence  of  considerable  riches  indicates  the 
absence  of  Tao  from  the  minds  of  their  possessors. 
As  we  should  express  it,  the  devotion  to  worldly 
wealth  is  inconsistent  with  a  spiritual  life.  "  To 
wear  fine  clothes,  to  carry  sharp  swords,  to  be  filled 
v/ith  drink  and  victuals,  to  have  a  superfluity  of 
costly  gems,  this  is  to  make  a  parade  of  robbery ;  "^ 
truly  not  to  have  Tao."^  Moreover,  the  very  pomp 
of  the  palace  leads  to  uncultivated  jSelds  and  empty 
barns.*  Lao-tse  therefore  warns  every  one  not  to 
consider  his  abode  too  narrow  or  his  lifp  too  confined. 
If  we  do  not  think  it  too  confined,  it  will  not  be  so.^ 
Nay,  he  goes  further,  and  asserts  that  the  world  is 
best  known  by  staying  at  home.  The  further  a  man 
goes,  the  less  he  knows.®  A  truly  virtuous  and  well- 
governed  people  will  never  care  to  travel  beyond  its 
own  limits.  To  such  a  people  its  food  will  be  so 
sweet,  its  clothing  so  beautiful,  its  dwellings  so 
comfortable,  and  its  customs  so  dear,  that  it  will 
never  visit  the  territory  of  its  neighbours,  even  though 

»  Ch.,3i. 

2  Or,  this  is  "magnificent  robbery,"  O.  P.,  p.  41. 

3  Ch.,  53.  "5  Ch.,  72. 
«  Ibid.  6  Ch.,  47. 


THREE  CARDINAL   VIRTUES  OF  LAO-TSE.     71 

that  territory  should  lie  so  close  that  the  cackling  of 
the  hens  and  the  barking  of  the  dogs  may  be  heard 
across  the  boundary.^ 

It  results  from  the  above  exposition  of  his  ethical 
principles  that  Lao-tse  insists  mainly  upon  three 
virtues :  Modesty,  Benevolence,  and  Contentment. 
"For  my  part,"  he  says  himself,  "I  have  three 
treasures;  I  guard  them  and  greatly  prize  them'. 
The  first  is  called  Mercy,^  the  second  is  called  Frugal- 
ity, the  third  is  called  Not  daring  to  be  first  in  the 
kingdom,  Mercy — therefore  I  can  be  brave ;  Frugal- 
ity— therefore  I  can  give  away ;  Not  daring  to  be 
first  in  the  kins^dom — therefore  I  can  become  the  first 
of  the  gifted  ones."^ 

Of  all  sacred  books,  the  Tao-te-king  is  the  most 
philosophical.  It  stands,  indeed,  on  the  borderland 
between  a  revelation  and  a  system  of  philosophy,  par- 
taking to  some  extent  of  the  nature  of  both.  Since, 
however,  it  forms  the  fundamental  classic  of  a  reli- 
gious sect,  and  since  it  has  engaged  in  its  interpreta- 
tion a  multitude  of  commentators,*  it  appears  to  be 
fully  entitled  to  a  place  among  Scriptures.  Not  in- 
deed that  the  Chinese  regard  it  as  a  revelation  in  the 
same  sense  in  which  nations  of  a  more  theological  cast 
of  mind  apply  that  term  to  the  books  composing  their 

1  Ch.,  80. 

^  Or  Compassion ateness.  Chalmers  translates  "  compassion,"  but  this 
term  denotes  the  sentiment  rather  than  the  virtue. 

3  Ch.,  67. 

**  See  their  names  in  Le  Livre  de  la  Voie  et  de  la  Vertu  (hereafter 
abbreviated  thus — L.  V.  V.) .  Compose  dans  le  VI®  Siecle  avant  I'ere 
chretienne  par  le  Philosophe  Lao-Tseu,  Traduit  en  Frangais  et  publie 
avec  le  teste  chinois  par  Stanislas  Julien.  8vo.  Paris,  1872.  P. 
xxxvi. 


^2  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Cnnon.  But  I  see  no  reason  to  doubt  tliat  tlie  Tuo-sse, 
however  little  tliey  attend  to  its  precepts,  yet  treat  it 
as  a  work  of  unapproachable  perfection  and  unquestion- 
able truth.  Indeed,  the  writer  of  a  fabulous  life  of 
La(j-tse,  who  lived  many  centuries  after  his  death, 
expressly  ascribes  to  it  those  peculiar  qualities  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  are  the  special  attributes  of  sacred 
books.  ^ 

To  the  European  reader  who  approaches  it  for  the 
first  time  it  will  probably  appear  a  jDerplexing  study. 
Participating  largely  in  that  disorder  and  confused- 
ness  which  characterises  the  class  of  literature  to 
which  it  belongs,  it  presents,  in  addition,  considerable 
difficulties  peculiarly  its  own.  The  correct  translation 
of  many  j^assages  is  doubtful.  The  sense  of  still  more 
is  ambiguous  and  obscure.  La6-tse  is  fond  of  para- 
dox, and  his  constant  employment  of  paradoxical 
antitheses  seems  specially  designed  to  puzzle  the  reader. 
If  his  doctrine  was  understood  by  few,  it  must  be 
confessed  that  this  was  partly  his  own  fault.  More- 
over, the  reverence  with  which  he  speaks  of  Tao,  and 
the  care  with  which  he  insists  that  Ta5  does  nothing, 
seem  at  first  sight  inconsistent.  We  feel  ourselves  in 
an  atmosphere  of  hopeless  mysticism.  Nevertheless, 
these  superficial  troubles  vanish,  or  at  least  retire  into 
the  background,  after  repeated  perusals  of  the  work. 
There  are  few  books  that  gain  more  on  continued 
acquaintance.  Every  successive  study  reveals  more 
and  more  of  a  wisdom  and  a  beauty  which  we  miss  at 
first  in  the  obscurity  and  strangeness  of  the  style. 

And  first,  Ta5  itself  turns  out  to  be  a  less  incompre- 
hensible and  contradictory  being  than  we  originally 

'  L.  V.  v.,  pp.  xxxi.,  xxxii. 


LAO-TSE'S  CONCEPTIONS  OF  DEITY.  73 

supposed.  For  althougli  he  may  sometimes  Le  spoken 
of  as  doing  nothing,  or  even  as  destitute  of  all  distinct 
qualities,  yet  other  attributes  expressly  exclude  the 
notion  of  absolute  inaction.  A  being  which  creates, 
cherishes,  and  loves,  and  in  which  all  the  world 
implicitly  trusts,  is  not  the  kind  of  nonentity  that  can 
be  described  as  wholly  devoid  of  "  action,  thought, 
judgment,  and  intelligence."  ^  Moreover,  it  is  to  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  sage  is  to  imitate  Ta5  in  the 
quality — for  which  he  is  highly  lauded — of  doing 
nothing.  The  two  pictures,  that  of  Ta5  and  his 
follower,  must  be  held  side  by  side  in  order  to  be 
correctly  understood.  Now  what  is  the  peculiar 
beauty,  from  a  philosophical  point  of  view,  of  the 
order  of  Nature  ?  It  is  that  all  its  parts  harmoniously 
perform  their  several  offices,  without  any  violent  or 
conspicuous  intrusion  of  the  presiding  principle  which 
guides  them  all. 

Other  teachers,  indeed,  have  seen  God  mainly  in 
violent  and  convulsive  manifestations,  and  have  ap- 
pealed to  miraculous  suspensions  of  natural  order  as 
the  best  proofs  of  his  existence.  Not  so  La5-tse. 
He  sees  him  in  the  quiet,  unobtrusive,  unapparent 
guidance  of  the  world  ;  in  the  unseen,  yet  irresistible 
power  to  which  mankind  unresistingly  submit,  pre- 
cisely because  it  is  never  thrust  offensively  upon  them. 
The  Deity  of  Lao-tse  is  free  from  those  gross  and  un- 
lovely elements  which  degrade  his  cjiaracter  in  so  many 
other  religions.     He  rules  by  gentleness  and  love,  not 

^  Such  is  the  description  of  M.  Julien,  derived  from  the  most  ancient 
Chinese  commentators.  I  am  at  a  loss  to  reconcile  it  even  with  his 
own  translation,  though  it  would  be  presumjituous  in  me  to  deny  that 
the  learned  Sinologue  may  have  reasons  for  it  of  which  I  am  not 
aware. — See  L.  V.  V.,  p.  xiii. 


74  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

by  vindictiveness  and  anger.  So  sliould  it  be  with 
the  holy  man  who  takes  him  for  his  model.  Assur- 
edly we  are  not  to  understand  those  passages  which  en- 
join quiescence  so  earnestly  upon  him  as  meaning  that  he 
is  to  lead  a  life  of  absolute  indolence.  Like  Tao,  he 
is  to  guide  his  fellow-creatures  rather  by  the  beauty 
of  his  conduct  than  by  positive  commands  laid  im- 
peratively upon  them.  Let  him  but  be  a  shining 
example ;  they  will  be  drawn  towards  him.  The 
activity  from  which  a  wise  ruler  is  to  abstain  is  the 
vexatious  multiplication  of  laws  and  edicts,  which 
do  harm  rather  than  good.  But  neither  ruler  nor 
philosojiher  is  told  to  do  nothing ;  for  benevolence, 
love,  and  the  requital  of  good  for  evil,  to  say  nothing 
of  other  positive  virtues,  are  most  strictly  enjoined 
on  all.  Lab-tse  himself  no  doubt  lived,  and  loved,  a 
retired,  contemplative  life.  This  is  the  kind  of  exis- 
tence which  he  evidently  considered  the  most  perfect 
and  the  most  godlike.  He  counsels  his  followers  to 
be  wholly  unambitious,  and  to  abstain  from  all  active 
pursuit  of  political  honours.  Such  counsel  might 
possibly  be  well  adapted  to  the  time  in  which  he  lived. 
But  none  the  less  does  he  lay  down  rules  for  the  guid- 
ance of  kings,  statesmen,  and  warriors,  in  their 
several  spheres.  Nor  is  the  book  wanting  in  pithy 
apophthegms  applicable  to  all,  and  remarkable  alike 
for  the  wisdom  of  their  substance  and  the  neatness  of 
their  form.  Whether,  in  short,  we  look  to  the  sim- 
plicity and  grandeur  of  its  speculative  doctrine,  or  to 
the  unimpeachable  excellence  of  its  moral  teaching, 
we  shall  find  few  among  the  great  productions  of  the 
human  mind  that  evince,  from  beginning  to  end,  so 
lofty  a  spirit  and  so  pure  a  strain. 


(75  ) 
APPENDIX    TO    SECTION    II. 

Translations  of  the  Tao-te-Klng,  ch.  25. 

Abel  Remusat. — "  Avant  le  chaos  qui  a  pr^c^d6  la  naissance 
du  ciel  et  de  la  terre,  un  seul  etre  existait,  immense  et  silencieux, 
immuable  et  toujours  agissant  sans  jamais  s'alt^rer.  On  pent  le 
regarder  comme  la  mere  de  I'univers.  J'ignore  son  nom,  mais  je 
le  d^signe  par  le  mot  de  raison. 

Forc^  de  lui  donner  un  nom,  je  I'appelle  grandeur,  ^progression, 
eloignement,  opposition.  II  y  a  dans  le  monde  quatre  grandeurs  : 
celle  de  la  raison,  celle  du  ciel,  celle  de  la  terre,  celle  du  roi,  qui 
est  aussi  une  des  quatre.  L'homme  a  son  type  et  son  modele  dans 
la  terre,  la  terre  dans  le  ciel,  le  ciel  dans  la  raison,  la  raison  en 
elle-meme."  ^ 

Stanislas  Julien. — "II  est  un  6tre  confus  qui  existait  avant 
le  ciel  et  la  terre. 

0  qu'il  est  calme  !  0  qu'il  est  immat^riel  I 

II  subsiste  seul  et  ne  change  point. 

II  circule  partout  et  ne  p6riclite  point. 

II  pent  etre  regards  comme  la  mere  de  I'univers. 

Moi,  je  ne  sais  pas  son  nom. 

Pour  lui  donner  un  titre,  je  I'appelle  Voie  (Tao). 

En  m'efforQant  de  lui  faire  un  nom,  je  I'appelle  grand. 

De  grand,  je  I'appelle /^/(^acc. 

'Def^igace,  je  I'appelle  eloigne. 

D^eluigne,  je  I'appelle  (I'etre)  qui  revient. 

C'est  pourquoi  le  Tao  est  grand,  le  ciel  est  grand,  la  terre  est 
grande,  le  roi  aussi  est  grand. 

Dans  le  monde,  il  y  a  quatre  grandes  choses,  et  le  roi  en  est 
'.me. 

L'homme  imite  la  terre  ;  la  terre  imite  le  ciel ;  le  ciel  imite  le 
Tao ;  le  Tao  imite  sa  nature."  - 

^  Memoire  sur  la  Vie  et  les  Opinions  de  Lao-tseu,  par  M.  Abel  Remusat 
Paris,  1823,  p.  27.  2  L.  V.  V,,  p.  35, 


76  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

John  Chalmers. — "  There  was  something  chaotic  in  nature 
which  existed  before  heaven  and  earth.  It  was  still.  It  was 
void.  It  stood  alone  and  was  not  changed.  It  pervaded  every- 
where and  was  not  endangered.  It  may  be  regarded  as  the 
Mother  of  the  Universe.  I  know  not  its  name,  but  give  it  the 
title  of  Tau.  If  I  am  forced  to  make  a  name  for  it,  I  say  it  is 
Great;  being  great,  I  say  that  it  'passes  away  ;  passing  away,  I  say 
that  it  is/ar  off ;  being  far  off,  I  say  that  it  returns. 

Now  Tau  is  great ;  Heaven  is  great ;  Earth  is  great ;  a  king  is 
great.  In  the  universe  there  are  four  greatnesses,  and  a  king  is 
one  of  them.  Man  takes  his  law  from  the  Earth  ;  the  Earth  takes 
its  law  from  Heaven  ;  Heaven  takes  its  law  from  Tau  ;  and  Tau 
takes  its  law  from  what  is  in  itself."  ^ 

Eeinhold  VOnPlanckner. — "EsexistirteindasAllerfiillendes, 
durchaus  vollkommenes  Wesen,  das  friiher  war  denn  der  Himmel 
und  die  Erde.  Es  existirt  da  in  erhabener  Stille,  es  ist  ewig 
und  unveranderlich,  und  ohne  Anstoss  dringt  es  iiberall  hin, 
iiberall  da. 

Man  mochte  es  als  den  Schopfer  der  Welt  ansehen.  Seinen 
Namen  weiss  ich  nicht,  ich  nenne  es  am  liebsten  das  Tao  ;  soil 
ich  diesem  eine  bezeichnende  Eigenschaft  beilegen,  so  wiirde  es 
die  der  hochsten  Erhabenheit  sein, 

Ja,  erhaben  ist  das  Wesen,  um  das  sich  das  All  und  Alles  im  All 
bewegt,  als  solches  muss  es  ewig  sein,  und  wie  es  ewig  ist,  ist  es 
folglich  auch  allgegenwartig. 

Ja  das  Tao  ist  erhaben,  erhaben  ist  auch  der  Himmel,  erhaben 
die  Erde,  erhaben  ist  auch  das  Ideal  des  Menschen.  So  sind  denn 
vier  erhabene  Wesen  im  Universum,  und  das  Ideal  des  Menschen 
ist  ohne  Zweifel  eins  derselben. 

Denn  der  Mensch  stammt  von  der  Erde,  die  Erde  stammt  vom 
Himmel,  der  Himmel  stammt  vom  Tao. — Und  das  Tao  stammt 
ohne  Frage  allein  aus  sich  selbst."  ^ 


1  0.  P.,p.  i8.  *  L.  T.,  p.  113. 


(  77  ) 


Section  III. — The  Veda.^ 

The  word  Veda  is  explained  by  Sanskrit  scholars  as 
meaning  knowing  or  knowledge,  and  as  being  related 
to  the  Greek  olha.  The  works  comprised  under  this 
designation  are  manifold,  and  appertain  to  widely 
different  epochs.  In  the  first  place  they  fall  into  two 
main  classes,  the  Sanhitd  and  the  Brdhmcma.  The 
Sanhita  portion  of  the  Veda  consists  of  hymns  or 
metrical  compositions  addressed  to  the  several  deities 
worshipped  by  their  authors,  and  expressing  religious 
sentiment;  the  Brahmana  portion,  of  theological 
treatises  in  prose  of  an  expository,  ritualistic,  and 
didactic  character.  Across  this  subdivision  into  two 
classes  there  runs  another  of  the  whole  Veda  into  four 

^  The  literature  of  the  Veda  is  now  copious.  To  mention  only  a  few 
works,  H,  H.  Wilson  published  a  translation  of  the  first  five  Ashtakas 
of  the  Rig-Veda-Sanhita,  but  I  have  forborne  to  make  use  of  it,  from  a 
conviction  that  the  advance  of  Vedic  scholarship  has  to  a  great  degree, 
if  not  wliolly,  superseded  the  methods  of  interpretation  employed  by 
him.  Benfey  has  translated  the  whole  of  the  Sama-Veda-Sanhita  into 
(lerman,  and  I  liave  studied  his  translation,  but  have  preferred  to  rely 
mainly  on  the  labours  of  Englisli  scholars,  both  because  the  inherent 
obscurity  of  these  ancient  hymns  might  be  increased  by  the  process  of 
re-translation,  and  also  because  I  might  possiljly  fail  to  catch  the  exact 
shades  of  meaning  of  the  German  words.  His  work  should,  however,  be 
consulted  by  those  who  desire  to  acquaint  themselves  with  the  style  of 
the  Veda.  Max  Miiller  has  unhappily  published  but  one  volume  of  his 
translation  of  the  Rig-Veda-Sanhita,  which  is  doubtless  destined  (if 
completed)  to  become  the  standard  English  version  of  that  portion  of 
the  text.  The  same  eminent  scholar  has  translated  many  of  the  hymns 
in  his  "Ancient  Sanskrit  Literature.''  Another  source  from  wliicli  I 
have  derived  valuable  assistance  is  Dr  flair's  laborious  work  entitled 
"Original  S.inskrit  Texts."  Such  are  the  principal  autliorities  on  the 
liymns.  Of  the  Brahmanas,  the  whole  of  the  Aitareya  Brahmana  lias 
been  translated  by  Hang,  and  portions  of  others  by  Roer  and  by  Rajcn- 
dralal  Mitra. 


78  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

so-called  Vedas,  the  Eig-Veda,  the  Yajur-Veda,  the 
Sama-Veda,  and  the  Atharva-Veda.  Each  of  these 
has  its  own  Sauhitas,  and  its  own  Brahmanas ;  but 
the  Sanhit^,  or  hymns,  of  the  three  other  Vedas  are 
not  materially  different  from  those  of  the  Rig-Veda. 
On  the  Kig-Veda  they  are  all  founded ;  this  is  the 
fundamental  Veda,  or  great  Veda ;  and  in  knowing 
this  one  we  should  know  all.  The  other  three,  accord- 
ing to  Max  Miiller,  contain  "  chiefly  extracts  from  the 
Rig- Veda,  together  with  sacrificial  formulas,  charms, 
and  incantations."  ^  It  must  not  therefore  be  imagined 
that  we  have  in  these  four  Vedas  four  different  collec- 
tions of  hymns.  They  are  rather  four  different  versions 
of  the  same  collection,  the  Sama-Veda,  for  instance, 
containing  but  seventy-one  verses  which  are  wanting 
in  the  Rig-Veda,^  and  being  otherwise  "little  more 
than  a  repetition  of  the  Soma  Mandala  of  the  Rich,"  ^ 
or  of  that  book  of  the  Rig- Veda  which  is  devoted  to 
the  god  Soma.  The  Atharva-Veda-Sanhita  is  indeed 
to  a  certain  extent  an  exception  ;  belonging  to  a  later 
age,  it  has  some  hymns  altogether  peculiar  to  itself, 
and  its  15th  book  "has  something  of  the  nature  of  a 
Brahmana."  ^  It  must  be  noted,  moreover,  that  of  the 
Yajur-Veda  there  are  two  different  versions,  the  Black 
and  the  White  Yajur-Veda,-  said  to  have  descended 
from  two  rival  schools.  The  hymns  of  the  first  are 
termed  the  Taittiriya-Sanhita,  those  of  the  second  the 
Vajasaneyi-Sanhita. 

The  origin  of  these  four  distinct,  yet  not  different 
Vedas,  is  thus  explained.  In  certam  sacrifices, 
formerly  celebrated  in  India,  four  classes  of  priests 

^  Chips,  vol.  i.  p.  9.  •''  Wilson,  vol.  i.  p.  xxxvii. 

^  S.  v.,  p.  xxviii.  •*  O.  S.  T.,  vol  i.  p.  2. 


THE  FOUR   VEDAS.  79 

were  required,  eacli  class  being  destined  for  the 
performance  of  distinct  offices.  To  each  of  these 
classes  was  assigned  one  of  the  Vedas,  which  con- 
tained the  hymns  required  by  that  class.  Thus  the 
Sania-Veda  was  the  prayer-book  of  the  Udg4tri 
priests,  or  choristers,  who  chant  the  hymns.  The 
Yajur-Veda  was  the  prayer-book  of  the  Adhvaryu 
priests,  or  attendant  ministers,  who  prepare  the 
ground,  slay  the  victims,  and  so  forth.  The  Atharva- 
Veda  was  said  to  be  intended  for  the  Brahman 
who  was,  according  to  one  of  the  Brahmanas,  the 
"  physician  of  the  sacrifice ; "  the  general  superin- 
tendent who  was  to  tell  if  any  mistake  had  been 
committed  in  it.^  For  the  fourth  class,  the  Hotri 
priests,  or  reciters  of  hymns,  no  special  collection  was 
made  in  the  form  of  a  liturgy.  They  used  the  Big- 
Veda,  a  collection  of  the  hymns  in  general  without 
any  special  object,  and  they  were  supposed  to  know 
the  sacred  poetry  without  the  help  of  a  prayer- 
book.' 

Originally  preserved  by  scattered  individuals  (for 
the  Mantra  part  of  the  Vedas  [or  their  Sanhit4]  was 
composed  in  an  age  when  writing  was  not  in  use), 
the  hymns  were  subsequently  collected  and  arranged 
in  their  present  form  :  a  task  which  Indian  tradition 
assigns  to  Vyasa,  the  Arranger,  but  which  was  pro- 
bably the  work  of  many  different  scholars,  possibly 
during  many  generations.  The  same  tradition  asserts 
that  each  Veda  was  collected,  under  Vyasa's  superin- 
tendence, by  a  different  editor  ;  and  that  the  collec- 
tions, transmitted  from  these  primary  compilers  to 

1  A.  B.,  5.  5.— vol.  ii.  p.  376. 

*  A.  S.  L.,  pp.  175,  473.  and  Chips,  vol.  i.  p.  9. 


8o  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

their  disciples,  were,  in  the  course  of  transmission, 
rearranged  in  various  ways,  until  the  number  of 
Sanhitas  of  each  Veda  in  circulation  was  very- 
considerable.  Each  school  had  its  own  version,  but 
the  differences  are  supposed  by  Wilson  to  have 
concerned  only  the  order,  not  the  matter  of  the 
Sliktas. 

The  extreme  antiquity  of  our  extant  Veda  is 
guaranteed  by  the  amplest  testimony.  In  the  indexes 
compiled  by  native  scholars  500  or  600  years  before 
Christ,  "  we  find  every  hymn,  every  verse,  every 
word  and  syllable  of  the  Veda  accurately  counted."^ 
Before  this  was  done,  not  only  was  the  whole  vast 
collection  complete,  but  it  was  ancient ;  for  had  it 
been  a  recent  composition  it  would  not  have  enjoyed 
the  pre-eminent  sanctity  which  rendered  it  the  object 
of  this  minute  attention.  And  not  only  is  the  Veda 
ancient,  but  it  has  been  shown  that,  from  the  variety 
of  its  component  strata,  it  must  have  been  the  growth 
of  no  small  period  of  time,  its  earliest  elements  being 
of  an  almost  unfathomable  antiquity.  Max  Miiller, 
who  has  elaborately  treated  this  question,  divides  the 
Vaidik  acre — the  ao^e  durino;  which  the  Veda  was  in 
process  of  formation — into  four  great  epochs.  The 
most  primitive  hymns  of  the  Rig- Veda  he  attributes 
to  what  he  terms  the  Chhandas  period  (from 
Chhandas,  or  metre),  the  limits  of  which  cannot  be 
fixed  in  the  ascending  direction,  but  which  descends 
no  later  than  1000  B.C.  And  he  thinks  that  "  we 
cannot  well  assign  a  date  more  recent  than  1 200  to 
1500  before  our  era""  for  the  composition  of  these 
hymns.      The  ten  books  of  the  Rig- Veda,  however, 

1  Chips,  vol.  i,  p.  1 1.  -  Ibid.,  vol.  i.  p.  13. 


THE  EPOCHS  OP'  THE   VA/DIK  AGE.  8r 

comprise  the  poetry  of  two  different  ages.  Some  of 
the  hymns  betray  a  more  recent  origin,  and  must  be 
assigned  to  the  second,  or  Mantra  period.  These 
comparatively  modern  compositions  belong  to  a  time 
which  may  have  extended  from  about  looo  to  about 
800  B.C.  After  this  we  enter  on  the  BrdhmaiM 
pei'iod,  in  which  the  Rig-Veda-Sanhita  not  only 
existed,  but  had  reached  the  stage  of  being  misin- 
terpreted, its  original  sense  having  been  forgotten. 
During  this  period — which  we  may  place  from  B.C. 
800  to  600 — the  national  thought  took  the  form  of 
prose,  and  the  Brahmanas  were  written.  Here  the 
age  of  actually-inspired  literature  terminates,  and  we 
arrive  at  the  Sutra  'period,  which  may  have  lasted 
till  200  B.C.  Works  of  high  authority,  but  not  in 
the  strict  sense  revealed  works,  were  produced  during 
these  four  hundred  years. ^  An  equal,  or  greater 
antiquity  is  usually  claimed  by  other  Sanskritists  for 
these  several  classes  of  sacred  literature.  Wilson 
would  place  Manu  (who  belongs  to  the  Stitra  period) 
not  lower  than  the  fifth  or  sixth  century ;  the 
Brahmana  literature  in  the  seventh  or  eighth ;  and 
would  allow  at  least  four  or  five  centuries  before  this 
for  the  composition  and  currency  of  the  hymns,  thus 
reaching  the  date  of  1200  or  1300  before  the  Chris- 
tian era.^ 

Haug,  who  believes  that  "  a  strict  distinction 
between  a  Chhandas  and  Mantra  period  is  hardly 
admissible,"  and  that  certain  sacrificial  formulas, 
considered  by  Max  ]\I tiller  to  be  more  recent,  are  in 
fact  some  centuries  older  than  the  finished  hymns 
ascribed  by  that  scholar  to  the  Chhandas  age,  carries 

^  A.  S.  h.,  passim.  ^  Wilson,  vol.  i.  p.  xlvii. 

VOL.  II.  V 


82  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

back  the  composition  of  both  Sauhita  and  Brahman  a 
to  a  much  earlier  date.  "The  bulk  of  the  Brahmanas" 
he  assigns  to  B.C.  1400- 1200;  and  "the  bulk  of  the 
Sanhitas "  to  B.C.  2000-1400;  while  "the  oldest 
hymns  and  sacrificial  formulas  may  be  a  few  hundred 
years  more  ancient  still,"  and  thus  "  the  very  com- 
mencement of  Vedic  literature"  might  be  between 
B.C.  2400  and  2000.^  While  Benfey,  considering 
that  the  Pratisakhyas  (a  branch  of  the  Sutras)  must 
have  been  composed  from  B.C.  800  to  600,  observes 
that  the  text  of  the  Sama-Veda  must  extend  beyond 
this  epoch.  ^ 

Of  the  several  Sanhitas,  that  of  the  Kig-Veda 
(whose  name  is  derived  from  a  word  ricli^  praise)  is 
usually  considered  the  most  ancient,  though  Benfey 
expresses  the  opinion  that  the  text  of  the  S^ma-Veda 
may  possibly  be  borrowed  from  an  older  version  of 
the  Rig- Veda  than  that  before  us.^  Max  Miiller,  on 
the  other  hand,  conceives  the  Sama  and  Yajur-Vedas 
to  have  been  probably  the  production  of  the  Brahmana 
period.^  He  even  denies  to  any  but  the  Rich  the 
right  to  be  called  Veda  at  all.^  Whatever  claim,  or 
want  of  claim,  they  may  possess  to  the  honour,  it  is 
certain  that  they  have  for  more  than  2000  years 
invariably  received  it  at  the  hands  of  the  Hindus 
themselves.  So  far  from  admitting  the  pre-eminence 
of  the  Rich,  the  ancient  Hindus,  according  to  one  of 
their  descendants,  held  the  Sama  in  the  highest  vene- 
ration.^ If  a  doubt  can  exist  as  to  the  canonicity  of 
any  one  of  them,  it  can  only  apply  to  the  Atharva . 

1  A.  B.,  vol.  i.  jjp.  47,  48.  ''  A.  S,  L.,  1).  457. 

'''  S.  v.,  p.  xxix.  *  Chips,  vol.  i.  p.  9. 

**  Ibid.,  p.  xxi.x.'        _  "  Chhtind.  Up.,  inUodnction,  p.  i. 


THE   VEDA  ALONE  INSPIRED.  83 

Veda  ;  for  in  certain  texts  we  find  mention  made  of 
three  Vedas  only,  the  Atharva,  from  its  comparatively 
late  origin,  having  apparently  been  long  denied  the 
privilege  of  admission  to  an  equal  rank  with  its 
compeers. 

Whatever  their  antiquity,  the  sanctity  of  these 
works  in  Indian  opinion  is  of  the  highest  order. 
Never  has  the  theory  of  inspiration  been  pushed  to 
such  an  extreme.  The  Veda  was  the  direct  creation 
of  Brahma ;  and  the  Kishis,  or  Sages,  who  are  the 
nominal  authors  of  the  hymns,  did  not  compose  them, 
but  simply  "saw"  them.  Although,  therefore,  the 
name  of  one  of  these  seers  is  coupled  with  each  hymn, 
it  must  not  be  suj^posed  that  he  did  more  than  perceive 
the  divine  poem  which  was  revealed  to  his  privileged 
vision.  And  the  Veda  is  distinguished  as  Sruti, 
Kevelation,  from  the  Smriti,  Tradition,  under  which 
term  is  included  a  great  variety  of  works  enjoying  a 
high,  but  not  an  independent,  authority.  They  are  to 
be  accepted,  in  theory  at  least,  only  when  they  agree 
with  the  Veda,  and  to  be  set  aside  if  they  happen  to 
differ  from  it ;  while  no  such  thing  as  a  contradiction 
within  the  body  of  the  Veda  is  for  a  moment  to  be 
thought  of  as  possible,  apparent  inconsistencies  being 
only  due  to  our  imperfect  interpretations.  The  Sruti 
class  comprises  only  the  Mantra  of  each  Veda  and  its 
Brahmanas ;  the  Smriti  consists  of  the  great  national 
epics,  namely  the  Ramayana  and  Mahabharata ;  the 
M4nava-Dharma-Sastra,  or  Menu  ;  the  Puranas ;  the 
Sutras,  or  aphorisms ;  and  the  so-called  six  Vedangas, 
a  term  indicating  six  branches  of  study  carried  oh  by  the 
help  of  treatises  on  the  pronunciation,  grammar,  metre, 
explanation  of  words,   astronomv,  and  ceremonial  uf 


84  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

the  Veda.  How  thorougiily  the  Veda  was  analysed, 
how  minutely  every  word  of  it  was  investigated,  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  these  Vedangas  all  have  direct 
reference  to  it,  and  were  intended  to  assist  in  its  com- 
prehension. And  in  ancient  times  it  was  the  duty  of 
Brahmans  to  be  well  acquainted  both  with  the  Stiktas 
(hymns),  and  with  their  application  to  ritual.  A 
Brahman,  indeed,  who  w^anted  to  marry  was  not 
obliged  to  devote  more  than  twelve  years  to  learning 
the  Veda,  but  an  unmarrying  Brahman  might  spend 
forty- eight  years  upon  it.^ 

Subdivision  i. — The  SanMtd, 

Passino;  now  to  a  more  detailed  consideration  of  the 
Mantra  division,  we  find  that  the  Rig-Veda-Sanhita — 
the  most  comprehensive  specimen  of  this  division — ■ 
comprises  more  than  a  thousand-short  poems,  of  which 
the  vast  majority  are  addressed  to  one  or  more  of  the 
Indian  gods.  A  few  only,  and  those  believed  to  be  of 
later  origin,  are  of  a  different  character.  This  collection 
is  divided  in  two  ways ;  into  ten  Mandalas,  or  eight 
Ashtakas,  the  two  divisions  being  quite  independent 
of  one  another.  Under  each  of  these  greater  heads 
are  several  lesser  ones,  which  it  is  needless  to  enume- 
rate. The  deities  to  whom  the  hymns  are  devoted  are 
exceedingly  various  and  numerous,  but  as  this  is  not 
an  essay  specially  intended  to  elucidate  the  Veda,  but 
aiming  only  at  a  general  comparison  of  this  with  other 
sacred  books,  it  would  be  going  beyond  our  scope  to 
attempt  a  full  account  of  their  several  names,  attri- 
butes, and  honours.  A  few  only  of  the  more  con- 
spicuous gods  need  be  noticed. 

1  A.  s.  L.,  p.  503. 


PRAISES  OF  AG  NT,  THE  FIRE-  GOD.  85 

Of  these,  Agiii,  as  the  one  with  whose  praises  tlie 
Rig- Veda  opens,  and  who,  next  to  Indra,  is  the  prin- 
cipal character  in  the  Vedic  hymnology,  cLaims  our 
attention  first.  He  is  the  god  of  fire,  or  more  liter- 
ally, he  is  the  fire  itself,  and  a  god  at  the  same  time. 
His  name  is  almost  identical  with  the  Latin  Ignis. 
He  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  generated  by  the  rub- 
bing of  sticks,  for  in  this  manner  did  the  Rishis  kindle 
the  fire  required  for  their  sacrifices.  The  sudden 
birth  of  the  fiery  element  in  consequence  of  this  pro- 
cess must  have  impressed  them  as  profoundly  mys- 
terious. They  allude  to  it  under  various  images. 
Thus,  the  upper  stick  is  said  to  impregnate  the  lower, 
which  brings  forth  Agni.  He  is  the  bearer  of  human 
sacrifices  to  the  gods ;  a  kind  of  telegraph  from  earth 
to  heaven.  Many  are  the  blessings  asked  of  him. 
But  let  the  Rishis  speak  for  themselves.  Here  is  the 
first  Siikta  of  the  Rig-Veda-Sanhita  : — 

I.  "  I  praise  Agni,  the  liousehold  priest,  the  divine  offerer  of 
the  sacrifice,  the  inviter  who  keeps  all  treasures.  2.  Agni,  worthy 
of  the  praises  of  the  ancient  Rishis,  and  also  of  ours,  do  thou 
bring  hither  the  gods.  3.  By  Agni,  the  sacrificer  enjoys  wealth, 
that  grows  from  day  to  day,  confers  renown,  and  surrounds  him 
with  heroes.  4.  Agni,  the  sacrifice  which  thou  keepest  from  all 
sides  uninvaded,  approaches  surely  the  gods.  5.  Agni,  inviter, 
performer  of  gracious  deeds,  thou  who  art  truthful,  and  who 
shinest  with  various  glories,  come  thou,  0  God,  with  the  gods. 
6.  The  prosperity,  which  thou,  0  Agni,  bestowest  upon  the  wor- 
shipper, will  be  in  truth  a  prosperity  to  thee,  0  Angiras.  7.  We 
approach  thee  in  our  minds,  0  Agni,  day  after  day,  by  night  and 
(lay,  to  offer  thee  our  adoration.  8.  Thee  the  radiant  guardian 
of  the  meet  reivard  of  the  sacrifices,  who  is  resplendent  and 
increasing  in  his  sacred  hou8e.  9.  Be  thou,  0  Agni,  accessilde 
to  us,  as  a  father  is  to  the  son  ;  be  near  us  for  our  welfare."  ^ 

'  lloer,  pi. 


86  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Even  more  imjDortant  than  Agni  is  Indra,  the  great 
national  god  of  the  Hindus.  He  is  above  all  things 
a  combative  o-od.  His  streiioth  is  immense,  and  his 
worshippers  implore  him  to  give  them  victory  and 
power.  He  slays  the  demon  Vrittra,  a  myth  symbol- 
ising the  dispersion  of  clouds  by  the  sun.  Above  all, 
he  loves  the  juice  of  the  Soma  plant  {Asclepias  acida), 
which  is  poured  out  to  him  abundantly  in  sacrifice, 
which  he  consumes  with  avidity,  and  from  which  he 
derives  renewed  force  and  energy.  These  two  stanzas, 
taken  from  the  Sama-Veda,  express  some  of  his 
attributes  : — 

"  Thou,  0  Indra,  art  glorious,  thou  art  victorious,  thou  art  the 
lord  of  strength  ;  thou  conquerest  the  strong  enemies  singly  and 
alone,  thou  unconquered  refuge  of  men.  To  thee,  living  One,  we 
pray ;  to  thee  now  the  very  Avise,  for  treasures,  as  for  our  share  ; 
may  thy  blessing  be  granted  us."  ^ 

The  following  hymn  brings  into  especial  prominence 
the  more  warlike  functions  of  Indra,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  a  prayer  "  in  the  time  of  war  and 
tumults  : " — 

8.  "  May  Indra  be  the  leader  of  these  (our  armies) ;  may  Brihas- 
pati,  Largess,  Sacrifice  and  Soma  march  in  front ;  may  the  host 
of  Maruts  precede  the  crushing,  victorious  armies  of  the  gods. 
May  the  fierce  host  of  the  vigorous  Indra,  of  King  Varuna,  of 
the  Adityas,  and  the  Maruts  (go  before  us) ;  the  shout  of  the  great- 
souled,  conquering,  world-shaking  gods,  has  ascended.  ...  lo. 
Rouse,  0  opulent  god,  the  weapons,  rouse  the  souls  of  our  Avarriors, 
stimulate  the  power  of  the  mighty  men  ;  may  shouts  arise  from 
the  conquering  chariots,  ii.  May  Indra  be  ours  Avhen  the 
.standards  clash ;  may  our  arrows  be  victorious  ;  may  our  strong 
men  gain  the  upperhand  ;  preserve  us,  O  gods,  in  the  fray.      1 2. 

'  S.  v..  ii.  6.  2.  12. 


INDRA  AND  THE  SOMA.  87 

Bewildering  the  hearts  of  our  enemies,  O  Apva,^  take  possession 
of  their  limbs  and  pass  onward  ;  come  near,  burn  them  with  fires 
in  their  hearts  ;  may  our  enemies  fall  into  blind  darkness."  ^ 

Inclra's  Soma-drinking  propensities  are  not  par- 
ticularly alluded  to  in  these  verses :  elsewhere  they 
form  the  ever-recurring  burden  of  the  chants  of  which 
he  is  the  hero.  Thus,  to  take  but  one  specimen, 
which,  by  its  resemblance  to  others,  may  fitly  stand 
for  all,  he  is  thus  lauded  : — 

I.  "May  the  Somas  delight  thee!  bestow  grace,  0  hurler  of 
lightning  !  destroy  him  who  hates  the  priest.  2.  Thou  who  art 
praiseworthy,  drink  our  drink !  thou  art  sprinkled  with  streams 

of  honey  !   from  thee,  0  Indra,  glory  is  derived 4.  The 

Indus  ^  stream  into  thee,  like  rivers,  Indra !  into  the  sea,  and 
never  overfill  thee."  * 

Indra  is,  in  fact,  the  Zeus  of  Indian  mythology ; 
the  thunderer,  the  god  of  the  sky,  the  all-powerful 
protector  of  men  and  destroyer  of  the  demons  of 
darkness.  His  functions  are  easily  understood,  but 
it  is  curious  that  the  Soma,  which  is  offered  to  him 
in  sacrifice,  and  which  he  drinks  with  all  the  avidity 
of  a  confirmed  toper,  is  itself  celebrated  as  a  god  of 
very  considerable  powers.  Soma  appears  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  sort  of  mediator  between  the  greatest 
gods  and  men,  especially  between  man  and  Indra. 
He  is  repeatedly  entreated  to  go  to  Indra,  to  flow 
around  him,  and  thus  to  conciliate  and  deliofht  him. 
But  Soma  can  confer  benefits  independently.  One 
poet  implores  him  to  stream  forth  blessing  "  on  the 
ox,  the  man,  and  the  horse ;  and,  0  king,  blessing 

^  Apva  is  explained  as  a  disease  or  fear. 
*  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  p.  1 10.— Rig- Veda,  x.  103. 
3  The  Somas.  *  S.  V.,  i.  3.  i.  i. 


88  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

on  plants."^  In  tlie  liynins  devoted  to  him  lie  is 
raised  to  an  exalted  station  among  the  celestial 
beings,  while  the  sacrifice  in  which  he  is  drunk  by 
the  priests  is  the  capital  rite  in  the  Brahmanical 
liturgy.^  The  most  eminent  virtues  are  inherent  in 
this  divine  beverage,  when  taken  with  all  the  cere- 
monies prescribed  by  traditional  law.  The  Soma 
juice  has,  in  the  opinion  of  Hindu  theologians  "the 
power  of  uniting  the  sacrificer  on  this  earth  with  the 
celestial  King  Soma,"  and  making  him  "  an  associate 
of  the  oods,  and  an  inhabitant  of  tlie  celestial  world."  ^ 
Such  was  the  excellence  of  this  juice,  that  none  but 
Brahmans  were  permitted  to  imbibe  it.  Kings,  at 
their  inaugural  ceremonies,  received  a  goblet  which 
was  nominally  Soma,  but  on  account  of  their  inferior 
caste  they  were  in  fact  put  off  with  some  kind  of 
spirituous  liquor  which  was  supposed,  by  a  mystical 
transformation,  to  receive  the  properties  of  that  most 
holy  divinity.'^  Agreeably  to  this  theory  of  Soma's 
extensive  powers,  he  is  invoked  in  such  terms,  for 
instance,  as  these  : — 

7.  "  Place  me,  0  purified  god,  in  that  everlasting  and  imperish- 
able world  where  tliere  is  eternal  light  and  glory.  0  Indu  (Soma), 
tiow  for  Indra.  8.  Make  me  immortal  in  the  world  where  king 
Vaivasvata  (Yama,  the  son  of  Vivasvat)  lives,  where  is  the  inner- 
most sphere  of  the  sky,  Avhere  those  great  waters  flow."  & 

Singular  as  it  may  seem  that  the  juice  of  the  Soma- 
plant  should  be  at  once  an  object  sacrificed  on  the 
altar  to  other  gods  and  a  god  himself,  such  a  con- 
fusion of  attributes  will  be  less  surprising  to  those  who 

1  S.  v.,  ii.  I.  I.  I.  ^  IbiiL,  vol.  i.  pp.  40,  80. 

'■^  A.  B.,  vol.  i.  p.  59.  "  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.  p.  522. 

s  0.  S.  T..  vol.  t.  p.  -66.— Eig-Veda,  ix.  113. 


THE  MA  RUTS,   OR   TEMPEST-GODS.  S9 

are  familiar  with  the  Christian  theory  of  the  Atone- 
ment, in  which  the  same  God  is  at  once  the  person 
who  decrees  the  sacrifice,  the  person  who  accepts  it, 
and  the  victim.  At  least  the  double  function  of  Soma 
is  less  perplexing  than  the  triple  function  of  Christ. 

Considerable  among  Vedic  deities  are  the  Maruts, 
or  gods  of  tempest.  They  are  in  intimate  alliance 
with  Indra,  to  whom  their  violent  nature  is  closely 
akin.  Their  attributes  are  simple.  A  notion  of 
them  may  perhaps  be  gained  from  these  verses  : — 

I  "  What  then  now  %  When  will  you  take  (us)  as  a  dear  father 
takes  his  son  by  both  hands,  0  ye  gods,  for  whom  the  sacred 
grass  has  been  trimmed  ?  2.  Whither  now  %  On  what  errand  of 
yours  are  you  going,  in  heaven,  not  on  earth  %  Where  are  your 
cows  sporting  ?  3.  Where  are  your  newest  favours,  O  Maruts  ^ 
Where  the  blessings  ?  Where  all  delights  ?  ....  6.  Let  not 
one  sin  after  another,  difficult  to  be  conquered,  overcome  us  ; 
may  it  depart  together  with  lust.  7.  Truly  they  are  furious  and 
powerful  j  even  to  the  desert  the  liudriyas  bring  rain  that  is 
i.ever  dried  up.  8.  The  lightning  lows  like  a  cow,  it  follows  as 
a  mother  follows  after  her  young,  that  the  shower  (of  the  Maruts) 
may  be  let  loose.  9.  Even  by  day  the  ]\Iaruts  create  darkness 
with  the  water-bearing  cloud,  when  they  drench  the  earth.  10. 
From  the  shout  of  the  Maruts  over  the  whole  space  of  the  earth, 
11!  en  reeled  forward.  11.  Maruts  on  your  strong-hoofed  steeds 
go  on  easy  roads  after  those  bright  ones  (the  clouds)  which  are 
still  locked  up.  1 2.  May  your  felloes  be  strong,  the  chariots,  and 
their  horses  ;  may  your  reins  be  well  fashioned.  13.  Speak  out 
for  ever  with  thy  voice  to  praise  the  Lord  of  prayer,  Agni,  who 
is  like  a  friend,  the  bright  one.  14.  Fashion  a  hymn  in  thy 
mouth  !  Expand  like  a  cloud  !  Sing  a  song  of  praise.  15.  Wor- 
ship the  host  of  the  Maruts,  the  brisk,  the  praiseworthy,  the 
singers.     May  the  strong  ones  stay  here  among  us."  ^ 

The  most  charming  member  of  the  Vedic  pantheon, 
and  the  one  who  seems  to  have  called  forth  from  the 

1  11.  V.  S.,  vol.  i.  p.  65.— Riy-Veda,  i.  38. 


Qo  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Risliis  the  deepest  poetical  feeling,  is  Uslias  ('.E&i?), 
tlie  Dawn.  Her  continual  reappearance,  or  birth, 
morning  after  morning,  seems  to  have  filled  them 
with  delight  and  tenderness.  The  hymn  now  to  be 
quoted — too  long  to  be  extracted  in  full — gives 
expression  to  the  feelings  with  which  they  gazed 
upon  this  ever-recurring  mystery  : — 

2.  "The  fair  and  bright  Ushas,  with  her  bright  child  (the  Sun), 
has  arrived ;  to  her  the  dark  (night)  has  relinquished  her  abodes  ; 
kindred  to  one  another,  immortal,  alternating  Day  and  Night  go 
on  changing  colour.  3.  The  same  is  the  never-ending  path  of 
the  two  sisters,  which  they  travel,  commanded  by  the  gods.  They 
strive  not,  they  rest  not,  the  prolific  Night  and  Dawn,  concordant, 
though  unlike.  4.  The  shining  Ushas,  leader  of  joyful  voices  (or 
hymns)  has  been  perceived  \  she  has  opened  for  us  the  doors  (of 
the  sky);  setting  in  motion  all  moving  things,  she  has  revealed  to 
us  riches.  Ushas  has  awakened  all  creatures.  ...  6.  (Arousing) 
one  to  seek  royal  power,  another  to  follow  after  fame,  another  for 
grand  efforts,  another  to  pursue  as  it  were  his  particular  object, — 
Ushas  awakes  all  creatures  to  consider  their  different  modes  of 
life.  7.  She,  the  daughter  of  the  sky,  has  been  beheld  breaking 
forth,  youthful,  clad  in  shining  attire :  mistress  of  all  earthly 
treasures.  Auspicious  Ushas,  shine  here  to-day.  8.  Ushas  follows 
the  track  of  the  Dawns  that  are  past,  and  is  the  first  of  the  un- 
numbered Dawns  that  are  to  come,  breaking  forth,  arousing  life 
and  awaking  every  one  that  was  dead.  ...  10.  How  great  is  the 
interval  that  lies  between  the  Dawns  which  have  arisen,  and  those 
which  are  yet  to  arise  !  Ushas  yearns  longingly  after  the  former 
Dawns,  and  gladly  goes  on  shining  with  the  others  (that  are  to 
come).  II.  Those  mortals  are  gone  who  saw  the  earliest  Ushas 
dawning ;  we  shall  gaze  upon  her  now  ;  and  the  men  are  coming 
who  are  to  behold  her  on  future  morns.  ...  13.  PeriJetually  in 
former  days  did  the  divine  Ushas  dawn  ;  and  now  to-day  the 
magnificent  goddess  beams  upon  this  world :  undecaying,  immortal, 
she  marches  on  by  her  own  will."  ^ 

'  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  p.  188.— lliy- Vela,  i.  113. 


VARUNA,  THE  GOD  OF  NIGHT.  91 

Hardly  a  trace  of  a  moral  element  is  to  be  found  in 
those  productions  of  the  Eishis  which  have  hitherto 
})oen  quoted.  And  such  as  these  are  is  the  general 
character  of  the  Eig-Veda-Sanhita.  It  consists  in 
petitions  for  purely  material  advantages,  coupled  with 
unbounded  celebrations  of  the  power  of  thegod  invoked, 
often  under  the  coarsest  anthropomorphic  images.  But 
Avhile  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  sentiment  ex- 
pressed is  rarely  of  a  high  order,  it  must  not  be  sup- 
posed that  the  old  Hindu  gods  are  altogether  destitute 
of  ethical  attributes.  Marked  exceptions  to  the  general 
tenor  of  the  supplications  offered  to  them  certainly 
occur.  There  are  passages  which  betray  a  decided 
consciousness  of  sin,  a  desire  to  be  forgiven,  and  a 
conviction  that  certain  kinds  of  conduct  entail  divine 
disapprobation,  while  other  kinds  bring  divine 
approbation.  Thus,  in  the  hymns  addressed  to  the 
Adityas,  a  class  of  gods  generally  reckoned  as  twelve 
in  number,  and  to  Mitra  and  Varuna,  two  of  these 
Adityas,  such  feelings  are  plainly  expressed.^  Of 
these  two,  Mitra  is  sometimes  explained  as  the  Sun,  or 
the  god  of  Day,  Varuna  as  the  god  of  Night.  Varuna 
— whose  name  corresponds  to  that  of  Ouranos — is  a 
very  great  and  powerful  divinity,  who  is  endowed  by 
his  adorers  with  the  very  highest  attributes.  He  is 
said  to  have  meted  out  heaven  and  earth,  and  to 
dwell  in  all  worlds  as  their  sovereim,  embracins:  them 
within  him.^  He  is  said  to  witness  sin,  and  is 
entreated  to  have  mercy  on  sinners.  One  penitent 
poet  implores  Varuna  to  tell  him  for  what  offence  he 
seeks  to  kill  his  worshipper  and  friend,  for  all  the 
sages  tell  him  that  it  is  Varuna  who  is  angry  with 
1  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  p.  56  «'.  -  Ibid.,  vol.  V.  p.  61. 


02  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

him.  And  lie  pleadingly  contends  that  he  was  not  an 
intentional  culprit ;  he  has  been  seduced  by  "  wine, 
anger,  dice,  or  thoughtlessness."  Another  begs  the 
god  that,  in  whatever  way  mortals  may  have  broken 
his  laws,  he  will  be  gracious.  A  third  admits  that  he, 
who  was  Varuna's  friend,  has  offended  against  him, 
but  asks  that  they  who  are  guilty  may  not  reap  the 
fruits  of  their  sin  ;  concluding  with  this  amicable 
hint :  "  Do  thou,  a  wise  god,  grant  protection  to  him 
who  praises  thee."  ^  *' The  attributes  and  functions 
ascribed  to  Varuna,"  observes  Dr  Muir,  "impart  to 
his  character  a  moral  elevation  and  sanctity  far  sur- 
passing that  attributed  to  any  other  Vedic  deity."  ^ 
And  while  even  in  the  earlier  portion  of  the  Kig- 
Veda — from  which  the  above  expressions  have  been 
collected  by  Dr  Muir — such  qualities  are  ascribed  to 
Varuna,  we  shall  find  a  still  higher  conception  of  his 
character  in  a  later  work,  the  Atharva-Veda.  Here 
is  the  description  of  the  Lord  of  Heaven  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Indian  Psalmist  :— 

T.  "'The  great  lord  of  these  worlds  sees  as  if  ho  were  near. 
If  a  man  thinks  he  is  walking  by  stealth,  the  gods  know  it  all. 
2.  If  a  man  stands  or  walks  or  hides,  if  he  goes  to  lie  down  or 
to  get  up,  what  two  people  sitting  together  whisper,  King  Varuna 
knows  it,  he  is  there  as  the  third.  3.  This  earth,  too,  belongs  to 
Varuna,  the  king,  and  this  wide  sky  with  its  ends  far  apart.  The 
two  seas  (the  sky  and  the  ocean)  are  Varuna's  loins  ;  he  is  also 
contained  in  this  small  drop  of  water.  4.  He  who  should  flee 
far  beyond  the  sky,  even  he  would  not  be  rid  of  Varuna,  the 
king.  His  spies  proceed  from  heaven  towards  this  world  ;  with 
thousand  eyes  they  overlook  this  earth.  5.  King  Varuna  sees  all 
this  that  is  between  heaven  and  earth,  and  what  is  beyond.  He 
has  counted  the  twinklings  of  the  eyes  of  men.     As  a  player 


•  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  v  pp.  66,  67.  ^  Ibid.,  vol.  v.  p.  66. 


INCIPIENT  SENSE  OF  THE  DIVINE   UNITY.    93 

throws  the  dice,  he  settles  all  things.  6.  May  all  thy  fatal  nooses, 
which  stand  spread  out  seven  by  seven  and  threefold,  catch 
the  man  who  tells  a  lie  ;  may  they  pass  by  him  who  tells  the 
truth."  1 

A  consciousness  of  the  unity  of  Deity,  under  what- 
ever form  he  may  be  worshipped,  adumbrated  here  and 
there  in  earlier  hymns,  becomes  very  prominent  in  the 
later  portions  of  the  Veda.  From  the  most  ancient 
times,  possibly,  occasional  sages  may  have  attained 
the  conception  so  familiar  to  the  Hindu  thinkers  of  a 
later  age,  that  a  single  mysterious  essence  of  divinity 
pervaded  the  universe.  And  in  the  tenth  book  of 
the  Eig-Veda,  which  is  generally  admitted  to  belong- 
to  a  more  recent  age  than  the  other  nine  books,  as 
also  in  the  Atharva-Veda,  this  essence  is  celebrated 
under  various  names ;  as  Purusha,  as  Brahma,  as 
Prajapati  (Lord),  or  Skambha  (Support).  The  hymns 
in  which  this  consciousness  appears  are  extremely 
mystical,  but  a  notice  of  the  Veda,  however  slight, 
would  be  very  imperfect  without  a  due  recognition 
of  their  presence.  They  form  the  speculative  element 
partly  in  the  midst  of,  partly  succeeding  to,  the 
simple,  practical,  naked  j)resentation  of  the  common- 
place daily  wants  and  physical  desires  of  the  early 
Rishis.  Take  the  following  texts  from  the  first  book 
of  the  Rig- Veda.  They  give  utterance  to  an  incipient 
sentiment  of  divine  unity.  The  first  celebrates  a 
goddess  Aditi :  "Aditi  is  the  sky,  Aditi  is  the  air, 
Aditi  is  the  mother  and  father  and  son.  Aditi  is  all  the 
gods  and  the  five  classes  of  men.  Aditi  is  whatever 
has  been  born.     Aditi  is  whatever   shall  be  born."  ^ 

^  A.  S.  L. — Atharvii-Veda,  iv.  16. 

^  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  p.  354.— Ui--Vea:i,  i.  89.  10. 


94  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Alore  remarkable  than  this — for  we  may  suspect  here  a 
sectarian  desire  to  glorify  a  favourite  goddess — is  this 
assertion :  "  They  call  him  Indra,  Mitra,  Varuna, 
Agni ;  and  he  is  the  celestial  (well- winged)  Garutmat. 
Sages  name  variously  that  which  is  but  one  :  they 
call  it  Agni,  Yama,  Matarisvan."  ^  In  the  tenth  book 
of  the  Rig- Veda,  the  presence  of  the  speculative 
element  in  the  theology  of  the  Rishis, — their  longing 
to  find  a  universal  Being  whom  they  could  adore, — is 
much  more  marked.  Thus  do  they  express  this 
sentiment : — "  Wise  poets  make  the  beautiful-winged, 
though  he  is  one,  manifold  by  words."  ^  Or  more 
elaborately  thus  : — 

I.  "In  the  beginning  there  arose  the  golden  Child — He  was 
the  one  born  lord  of  all  that  is.  He  stablished  the  earth  and 
this  sky  ; — Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ] 
2.  He  who  gives  life,  He  who  gives  strength ;  whose  command 
all  the  bright  gods  revere  ;  whose  shadow  is  immortality,  whose 
shadow  is  death  ; — Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  ofter  our 
sacrifice  %  3.  He  who  through  his  power  is  the  one  King  of  the 
breathing  and  awakening  world  ;  He  who  governs  all,  man  and 
beast ;  Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  % 
4.  He  whose  greatness  these  snowy  mountains,  whose  greatness 
the  sea  proclaims,  with  the  distant  river — He  whose  these  regions 
are,  as  it  were,  His  two  arms ; — AVho  is  the  God  to  whom  we 
shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ?  5.  He  through  whom  the  sky  is  bright 
and  the  earth  firm — He  through  whom  the  heaven  was  stablished, 
— nay,  the  highest  heaven  ; — He  who  measured  out  the  light  in  the 
air  ; — Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ?  6,  He 
to  whom  heaven  and  earth,  standing  firm  by  His  will,  took  up, 
trembling  inwardly — He  over  whom  the  rising  sun  shines  forth  ; 
— Who  is  the  God  to  whom  Ave  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  %  7.  Where- 
ever  the  mighty  water-clouds  went,  where  they  placed  the  seed 
and  lit  the  fire,  thence  arose  He  who  is  the  sole  life  of  the  bright 

^  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  p.  353. — Eig-Veda,  i.  164.  46. 
*  Chijis,  vol.  i.  p.  29. — Rig- Veda,  x.  114.  5. 


rilE  PURUSHA  SUKTA.  95 

gods  \ — Who  is  the  God  to  whom  we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ? 
8.  He  Avho  by  his  might  looked  even  over  the  water-clouds,  the 
clouds  which  gave  strength  and  lit  the  sacrifice ;  He  who  alone 
is  God  above  all  gods  ; — Who  is  the  God  to  whom  Ave  shall  offer 
our  sacrifice  ?  9.  May  He  not  destroy  us — He  the  creator  of  the 
earth  J  or  He,  the  righteous,  who  created  the  heaven  j  He  also 
created  the  bright  and  mighty  waters  ; — Who  is  the  God  to  whom 
we  shall  offer  our  sacrifice  ?  "  ^ 

The  same  book  contains  a  very  important  hymn, 
entitled  the  Purusha  Stikta.  In  it  we  find  ourselves 
transported  from  the  transparent  elemental  worship 
of  the  ancient  Aryas  into  the  misty  region  of  Brah- 
manical  subtleties.  Purusha  appears  to  be  conceived 
as  the  universal  essence  of  the  world,  all  existences 
being  but  one  quarter  of  him.  The  theory  of  sacrifice 
occupies,  as  in  the  later  Indian  literature  generally,  a 
prominent  position.  Purusha's  sacrifice  involved  the 
mDmentous  consequences  of  the  creation  of  the  several 
Vedas  and  of  living  creatures.  The  four  castes 
sprang  from  different  parts  of  his  person,  the  parts 
corresponding  to  their  relative  dignity.  The  purj)ose 
of  this  portion  is  obvious,  namely,  to  give  greater 
sanctity  to  the  system  of  caste,  a  system  to  which  the 
earlier  hymns  make  no  allusion,  and  which  we  may 
suppose  to  have  grown  up  subsequently  to  the  era  of 
their  composition.  Tedious  as  it  is,  the  Purusha  Sukta 
is  too  weighty  to  be  quite  passed  over. 

I.  "  Purusha  has  a  thousand  heads,  a  thousand  eyes,  a  thousand 
feet.  On  every  side  enveloping  the  earth,  he  overpassed  (it)  by  a 
space  of  ten  fingers.  2.  Purusha  himself  is  this  whole  (universe), 
whatever  has  been  and  whatever  shall  be.  He  is  also  the  lord  of 
immortality,  since  (or  Avhen)  by  food  he  expands.  3.  Such  is  his 
greatness,  and  Purusha  is  superior  to  this.     All  existences  are  a 

'  Cliips,  vol.  i.  p.  29,  or  A.  S.  I^.,  p.  569. — Rig- Veda,  x.  121. 


96  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

quarter  of  him ;  and  three-fourths  of  him  are  that  which  is  immortal 
in  the  sky.  4.  With  three-quarters  Purusha  mounted  upwards. 
A  quarter  of  him  was  again  produced  here.  He  was  then  dif- 
fused everywhere  over  things  which  eat  and  things  which  do  not 
eat.  5.  From  him  was  born  Viraj,  and  from  Viraj,  Purusha. 
When  born,  lie  extended  beyond  the  earth,  both  behind  and 
before.  6.  When  the  gods  performed  a  sacrifice  with  Purusha  as 
the  oblation,  the  spring  was  its  butter,  the  summer  its  fuel,  and 
the  autumn  its  (accompanying)  offering.  7.  This  victim,  Purusha, 
born  in  the  beginning,  they  immolated  on  the  sacrificial  grass. 
With  him  the  gods,  the  Sadhyas,  and  the  Eishis  sacrificed.  8. 
From  that  universal  sacrifice  sprang  the  rich  and  saman  verses, 
the  metnes  and  the  yajush,  10.  From  it  sprang  horses,  and  all 
animals  with  two  rows  of  teeth ;  kine  sprang  from  it  ;  from  it 
goats  and  sheep.  11.  When  (the  gods)  divided  Purusha,  into 
how  many  parts  did  they  cut  him  up  ?  what  was  his  mouth  ? 
what  arms  (had  he)  ?  what  (two  objects)  are  said  (to  have  been) 
his  thighs  and  feetl  12.  The  Brahman  was  his  mouth;  the 
Rajanya  was  made  his  arms  ;  the  being  (called)  the  Vaisya,  he 
was  his  thighs  ;  the  Sudra  sprang  from  his  feet.  13.  The  moon 
sprang  from  his  soul  (manas),  the  sun  from  his  eye,  ludra  and 
Agni  from  his  mouth,  and  Vayu  from  his  breath.  14,  From  his 
navel  arose  the  air,  from  his  head  the  sky,  from  his  feet  the  earth, 
from  his  ear  the  (four)  quarters  ;  in  this  manner  (the  gods)  formed 
the  worlds.  15.  When  the  gods,  performing  sacrifice,  bound 
Purusha  as  a  victim,  there  were  seven  sticks  (stuck  up)  for  it 
(around  the  fire),  and  thrice  seven  pieces  of  fuel  were  made, 
16.  With  sacrifice  the  gods  performed  the  sacrifice.  These 
were  the  earliest  rites.  These  great  powers  have  sought  the  sky, 
where  are  the  former  Sadhyas,  gods."  ^ 

The  wide  interval  which  separates  theological 
theories  of  this  kind  from  the  primitive  hymns  to  the 
old  polytheistic  gods,  is  also  marked  by  a  tendency 
to  personify  abstract  intellectual  conceptions,  and  to 
confer  exalted  attributes  upon  them.  Skambha,  or 
Support,  mentioned  above ;  Kala,  Time,  celebrated  iu 

'  O.  S.  T,    vol.  i.  p.  9.— Rig-Veila,  x.  90. 


HYMN  TO   U7SD0M.  97 

tlie  AtLarva-Veda ;  Speech,  endowed  with  personal 
jiowers  in  the  tenth  book  of  the  Rig- Veda  ;  Wisdom, 
to  whom  prayer  is  offered  in  the  Atharva-Veda,  are 
instances  of  this  generalising  tendency.  As  a  speci- 
men, the  hymn  to  Wisdom  may  be  taken,  and  readers 
may  console  themselves  with  the  reflection  that  it 
is  our  last  quotation  from  the  Mantra  part  of  the 
Veda:— 

I.  "Come  to  us,  wisdom,  the  first,  with  cows  and  horses; 
(come)  tliou  with  the  rays  of  the  sun  ;  thou  art  to  us  an  object  of 
worship.  2.  To  (ol)tain)  the  succour  of  the  gods,  I  invoke 
wisdom  the  first,  full  of  prayer,  inspired  by  prayer,  praised  by 
rishis,  imbibed  by  Brahmacharins.  3.  We  introduce  within  me 
that  wisdom  which  Ribhus  know,  that  wisdom  which  divine 
beings  (asurah)  know,  that  excellent  wisdom  which  rishis  know. 
4.  Make  me,  0  Agni,  wise  to-day  with  that  wisdom  which  the 
wise  rishis — the  makers  of  things  existing — know.  5.  We  intro- 
duce wisdom  in  the  evening,  wisdom  in  the  morning,  wisdom  at 
noon,  wisdom  Avith  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  with  speech."  ^ 

Interestino^  as  the  Mantra  of  the  Vedas  is  from  the 
fact  of  its  being  the  oldest  Bible  of  the  Aryan  race, 
it  is  impossible  for  modern  readers  to  feel  much 
enthusiasm  for  its  contents.  The  patient  labour  of 
those  scholars  who  have  en2:afred  in  translations  of 
some  parts  of  it  for  the  benefit  of  European  readers 
is  highly  commendable,  but  it  is  probable  that  few 
who  have  read  any  considerable  number  of  these 
hymns  will  be  desirous  of  a  further  acquaintance 
with  them,  unless  for  the  purpose  of  some  special 
researches.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  the  devoted 
industry  of  Benfey,  Muir,  Max  Miiller,  and  others, 
has  placed  more  than  a  sufficient  number  of  thenr 
within  reach  of  the  general  public  to  enable  us  all 

1  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  i.  p.  255  note,— Atliarva-Yeda,  vi.  ic8. 
VOL.  II.  G 


q8  holy  books,  or  BIBLES. 

to  judge  of  their  literary  value  and  their  religions 
teaching.  With  regard  to  the  former,  it  would  be 
difficult  to  concede  to  them  anything  but  a  very 
modest  place.  In  beauty  of  style,  expression,  or 
ideas,  they  appear  to  me  to  be  almost  totally  deficient. 
Assuming,  as  we  are  entitled  to  do,  that  all  the  best 
specimens  have  been  already  culled  by  scholars  eager 
to  find  something  attractive  in  the  Veda,  it  must  be 
confessed  that  the  general  run  of  the  hymns  is  singu- 
larly monotonous,  and  their  language  by  no  means 
conspicuous  for  poetical  colouring.  No  doubt,  poetry 
always  loses  in  translation ;  but  Isaiah  and  Homer 
are  still  beautiful  in  a  German  or  English  dress ;  the 
Suktas  of  the  Kig-Veda  are  not.  A  few  exceptions 
no  doubt  occur,  as  in  the  stanzas  to  Uslias,  or  Dawn, 
quoted  above,  but  the  ordinary  level  is  not  a  high  one. 
Although,  however,  the  literary  merit  of  the  Veda 
cannot  be  ranked  high,  its  value  to  the  religious 
history  of  humanity  at  large,  and  of  our  race  in 
particular,  can  hardly  be  overrated.  To  the  compara- 
tive mythologist,  above  all,  it  possesses  illimitable 
interest,  fi'om  the  new  light  it  sheds  upon  the  origin 
and  significance  of  many  of  those  world-wide  tales 
which,  in  their  metamorphosed  Hellenic  shape,  could 
not  be  effectually  brought  under  the  process  of  dis- 
section by  which  their  primitive  elements  have  now 
been  laid  bare.  Mythology  is  beyond  the  province 
of  this  work,  and  therefore  I  purposely  refrain  from 
entering  upon  any  explanation  of  the  physical  mean- 
ing of  the  old  Aryan  gods,  or  of  the  stories  in  which 
they  figure.^    All  that  I  have  to  do  with  here  is  the 

^  All  tills  wiU  be  found  admirably  treated  in  Mr  Cox's  "  Mythology 
of  the  Aryan  Nations." 


FTRSr  CRUDE  CONCEPTIONS  OF  DEITY.      99 

grade  attained  in  the  development  of  religious  feeling 
among  those  who  worshipped  them.  And  this,  it  is 
plain,  was  at  first  a  very  elementary  one.  The  more 
striking  phenomena  of  nature — the  sun,  the  moon, 
the  sky,  the  storms,  the  dawn,  the  fire — at  first 
attracted  their  attention,  and  absorbed  their  adora- 
tion. To  these  personal  beings,  as  they  seemed  to 
the  awe-struck  Eishis,  petitions  of  the  rudest  type 
Avere  confidently  addressed.  Very  little  allusion,  if 
any,  was  made  to  the  necessities  of  the  moral  nature ; 
the  craving  for  spiritual  knowledge  was  scarcely  felt ; 
but  great  stress  was  laid  on  temporal  prosperity. 
Boons  of  the  most  material  kind  were  looked  for  at 
the  hands  of  the  gods.  Plenty  of  offspring,  plenty 
of  physical  strength,  plenty  of  property,  especially 
in  cattle,  and  victory  over  enemies ;  such  are  the 
requests  most  commonly  poured  into  the  ears  of 
Indra,  or  Agni,  or  the  Maruts.  These  gods  are 
regarded  as  the  sympathising  friends  of  men,  and  if 
they  should  fail  to  do  what  may  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected of  a  god,  are  almost  upbraided  for  their  negli- 
gence. The  conception  of  their  power  is  a  high  one, 
though  that  of  their  moral  nature;  is  still  rudimentary. 
Their  greatness  and  their  glory,  their  victories,  their 
splendour,  are  described  in  vigorous  and  high-sound- 
ing phrases.  The  changes  are  rung  upon  their  peculiar 
attributes  or  their  famous  exploits.  Each  god  in  his 
turn  is  a  great  god ;  but  all  are  separate  individuals  ; 
there  appears  in  the  crude  Aryan  mind  to  be  as  yet 
no  dawning  of  the  perplexing  questions  on  the  unity 
of  the  Divine  which  troubled  its  later  development. 
For  as  it  progresses,  the  Hindu  religion  gradually 
changes.     External  calm,  succeeding  the  wars  of  the 


loo  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

first  settlers,  promotes  internal  activity.  The  great 
problem  of  the  Universe  is  no  longer  solved,  five  or 
six  centuries  after  the  older  Risliis  had  passed  away, 
in  the  simple  fashion  which  satisfied  their  curiosity. 
Multiplicity  is  now  resolved  into  unity  ;  mystical  ab- 
stractions take  the  place  of  the  elementary  powers  of 
nature.  Speech  is  a  goddess ;  the  Vedas  themselves 
— as  in  the  Purusha  hymn — acquire  a  quasi-divinity '; 
the  Brahmacharin,  or  student  of  theology,  is  endowed 
with  supernatural  attributes,  due  to  the  sacred  char- 
acter of  his  pursuits.  Sacrifice,  fixed  and  regulated 
down  to  the  smallest  minutiae,  has  a  peculiar  efiicacy, 
and  becomes  something  of  far  deeper  meaning  than  a 
merely  acceptable  present  to  the  gods.  Every  posture, 
every  word,  every  tone  acquires  importance.  There 
are  charms,  there  are  curses,  there  are  incantations 
for  good  and  evil  purposes,  for  the  acquisition  of 
wealth  or  the  destruction  of  an  enemy.  It  is  by  its 
collection  of  such  magical  formulae  that  the  Atharva- 
Veda  is  distinguished  from  its  three  predecessors. 
It  forms  the  last  stone  laid  upon  the  edifice  of  the 
genuine  Veda,  an  edifice  built  up  by  the  labour  of 
many  centuries,  and  including  the  whole  of  that 
original  revelation  to  which  the  centuries  that  suc- 
ceeded it  bowed  down  in  reverence  and  in  faith. 

Subdivision  2. — The  Brdhmanas. 

Attached  to  this  edifice  as  an  outgrowth  rather  than 
an  integral  part,  the  treatises  known  as  Brahmanas 
took  their  place  as  appendages  of  the  Sanhita. 
Although  they  are  reckoned  by  the  Hindus  as  belong- 
in<T[  to  the  Sruti,  although  their  nominal  rank  is  thus 


HIND  U  FAITH  GROWN  SELF-  C  ONS  CIO  US.    i  o  i 

not  inferior  to  that  of  the  true  Veda,  yet  it  must  have 
taken  them  many  generations  to  acquire  a  position  of 
honour  to  which  nothing  but  tradition  could  possibly 
entitle  them.  For  any  gleams  of  poetical  inspiration, 
of  imaginative  religious  feeling,  of  naturalness  or 
simple  earnestness  that  had  shone  athwart  the  minds 
of  devout  authors  in  preceding  ages,  had  apparently 
passed  away  when  the  Br^hmanas  were  composed. 
They  are  the  elaborate  disquisitions  of  scholars,  not 
the  outpourings  of  men  of  feeling.  Religion  was  cut 
and  dried  when  they  were  written ;  every  part  of  it 
has  become  a  matter  of  definition,  of  theory,  of 
classification.  If  in  the  Vedic  hymns  w^e  are  placed 
before  a  stage  where  religious  ftiith  is  a  living  body, 
whose  movements,  perhaps  uncouth,  are  still  energetic 
and  genuine,  the  Brahmanas,  on  the  other  hand,  take 
us  into  the  dissecting  room,  where  the  constituent 
elements  of  its  corpse  are  exposed  to  our  observation. 
Not  indeed  that  a  true  or  deep  faith  had  ceased  in  the 
Brahmana  period ;  such  an  assertion  would  no  doubt 
be  extravao-ant :  but  the  Brahmanas  themselves  are 
the  products  of  minds  more  given  to  analysis  than  to 
sentiment,  and  of  an  age  in  which  the  predominant 
tendency,  at  least  among  cultivated  Brahmans,  was 
not  so  much  to  feel  religion  as  to  think  about  it.  It 
is  so  everywhere.  The  Hebrew  Bible,  once  fixed  and 
completed,  gives  rise  to  the  Mishnah.  The  Apostles 
and  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Church  are  followed  by 
a  race  of  schoolmen.  The  simple  Sutras  of  Buddhism, 
replete  with  plain,  world-wide  lessons  of  moral  truth, 
give  place  to  the  abstruse  developments  of  incompre- 
hensible theology.  Thus  the  Brahmanas  mark  the 
c})och  when  the  Veda  had  finally  ceased  to  grow,  and 


I02  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

its  every  word  and  letter  had  become  the  object  of  an 
unquestioning  adoration  as  the  immediate  emanation 
of  God. 

But  among  a  people  so  subtle  and  so  inquisitive  in 
all  matters  of  religious  belief  as  the  Hindus,  opinion 
could  not  rest  unmoved  upon  the  original  foundation. 
Their  minds  did  not,  like  those  of  the  Jews,  stop 
short  for  ever  in  their  intellectual  progression, 
chained  to  the  unshakeable  rock  of  a  god-given 
Eevelation.  Ever  active,  ever  attracted  to  the 
enigmas  of  life,  the  Brahmans  pushed  their  specula- 
tions into  new  regions  of  thought,  pondered  upon 
new  problems,  and  invented  new  solutions.  Not  that 
we  are  to  expect  to  find  in  the  literature  of  this 
period  any  valuable  discoveries  or  any  very  striking 
j)liilosophy.  The  true  philosophical  systems  came 
later.  But  still  we  do  find  a  restless  spirit  of  inquiry, 
ever  prompting  fresh  efforts  to  conceive  the  signi- 
ficance of  the  gods  or  to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of 
nature,  though  the  questions  discussed  are  often 
trifling,  and  the  results  arrived  at  frivolous. 

Every  Veda  has,  as  already  stated,  its  own 
Brahman  a  or  Brahmanas.  Thus,  two  of  these 
treatises  appertain  to  the  Eig-Veda;  three  to  the 
Sama-Veda,  one  to  the  Black  and  one  to  the  AVhite 
Yajur-Veda,  and  one  to  the  Atharva-Veda.^  Ap- 
pended to  the  Brahmanas,  and  forming,  according 
to  Dr  Muir,  their  "most  recent  portions,"  are  the 
Aranyakas  and  Upanishads,  a  kind  of  supplementary 
works  devoted  to  the  elucidation  of  the  highest  points 
of  theology.  The  Brahmanas  present  an  example  of 
Ritualism  in  all  its  glory.  They  fix  the  exact  nature 
1  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  i.  p,  5 


RITUALISM  IN  ALL  ITS  GLORY.  103 

of  every  part  of  every  ceremony;  describe  minutely 
the  mode  in  which  each  sacrifice  is  to  be  offered; 
mention  the  Mantras  to  be  recited  on  each  occasion  ; 
declare  the  benefits  to  be  expected  from  the  several 
rites,  and  explain  the  reasons — drawn  from  the 
history  of  the  gods — why  they  are  all  to  be  performed 
in  this  particular  way  and  order,  and  in  no  other. 
They  are  in  fact  liturgies,  accompanied  by  exposition. 
Hence  they  are  totally  unfit  for  quotation  in  a  general 
work,  for  they  would  be  incomprehensible  without  an 
accompanying  essay  on  the  Vedic  sacrifices,  entering 
into  details  which  would  interest  none  but  professional 
students  of  the  subject. 

Thus,  the  Aitareya  Brahmana  occupies  itself  en- 
tirely with  the  duties  of  the  Hotri  priests  ;  for  the 
recitation  of  the  Eig-Veda,  to  which  this  Brahmana 
belonged,  was  their  province.  Occasionally,  however, 
the  Brahmanas,  Upanishads,  and  Aranyakas  are 
enlivened  by  the  introduction  of  apologues,  intended 
to  illustrate  the  point  of  theological  dogma  to  which 
the  author  is  addressing  himself.  Some  of  these 
apologues  are  curious,  though  the  style  in  which 
they  are  related  is  generally  so  prolix  as  to  preclude 
extraction.  A  notion  of  them  may  be  gathered  from 
condensed  statements.  Thus,  in  the  Brihad  Aranyaka 
Upanishad  a  story  is  told  of  a  dispute  among  the 
vital  organs  as  to  which  of  them  w^as  "  best  founded," 
I.e.,  most  essential  to  life.  To  obtain  the  decision  of 
this  controversy  they  repaired  to  Brahma,  who  said, 
"He  amongst  you  is  best  founded  by  whose  departure 
the  body  is  found  to  suff'er  most."  Hereupon  Speech 
departed,  and  returning  after  a  year's  absence,  inquired 
how  the  others  had  lived  without  it.     "They  said, 


ro4  HOL  V  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

*As  dumb  people  who  do  not  speak  by  speech, 
l)reathing  by  the  vital  breath,  seeing  by  the  eye, 
hearing  by  the  ear,  thinking  by  the  mind,  and 
begetting  children,  so  have  we  lived.'"  The  eye, 
the  ear,  the  mind,  the  organ  of  generation,  each 
departed  for  a  year,  and,  mutatis  mutandis,  with 
similar  results ;  blindness,  deafness,  idiocy,  impotence, 
were  all  compatible  with  life.  Lastly,  "  the  vital 
breath  being  about  to  depart,  as  a  great,  noble  horse 
from  the  Sindhu  country  raises  its  hoofs,  so  it  shook 
those  vital  organs  from  their  places.  They  said,  '  Do 
not  depart,  0  Venerable.  We  cannot  live  without 
thee.'  'If  I  am  such,  then  offer  sacrifice  to  me.' 
(They  answered) — 'Be  it  so.'"  All  the  other  organs 
liereuj)on  admitted  that  their  own  existence  depended 
on  that  of  the  vital  breath.^ 

Several  narratives  in  various  Brahmanas  point  to 
tlie  fact  that  theoloo^ical  knowled^-e  was  not  in  these 
early  days  confined  to  the  single  caste  by  which  it 
was  afterwards  monopolised,  for  they  speak  of  well- 
read  kings  by  whom  Brahmans  were  instructed. 
In  the  Chhandogya  Upanishad,  for  example,  five 
members  of  the  Brahmanical  caste  engaged  in  a 
debate  upon  the  question  "Which  is  our  soul  and 
which  is  Brahma  ? "  Unable  to  satisfy  themselves, 
they  repaired,  accompanied  by  another  theologian  who 
had  been  unable  to  answer  them,  to  a  monarch  named 
As'vapati,  and  declining  his  proffered  gifts,  requested 
him  to  impart  to  them  the  knowledge  he  possessed  of 
the  Universal  Soul.  He  accordingly  asked  each  of 
them  in  turn  which  soul  he  adored.  The  first  replied 
that  he  adored  the  heaven  ;  the  second,  the  sun  ;  the 

'  B.  A.  U,,  ch.  vi.  \).  259. 


CONCEPTION  OF  A   UNIVERSAL  SOUL.       105 

third,  the  winds  ;  the  fourth,  the  sky  ;  the  fifth,  water ; 
the  sixth,  the  earth.  To  each  of  them  in  turn  the 
king  admitted  that  it  was  indeed  a  partial  manifesta- 
tion of  the  Universal  Soul  which  he  worshipped,  and 
that  its  adoration  would  confer  some  advantages. 
But,  he  finally  added,  "You  consume  food,  knowing 
the  Universal  Soul  to  be  many ;  but  he  who  adoreth 
that  Universal  Soul  w^hich  pervadeth  the  heaven  and 
the  earth,  and  is  the  principal  object  indicated  by  (the 
pronoun)  /,  consumeth  food  everywhere  and  in  all 
regions,  in  every  form  and  in  every  faculty."  Of 
that  all-pervading  Soul  the  several  phenomena  of  the 
visible  Universe  w^orshipped  by  the  Brahmans  in 
their  ignorance  are  but  parts.^  Other  Brahmanas 
tell  similar  stories  of  the  occasional  pre-eminence  of 
the  Kshattriya  caste  in  the  rivalry  of  learning.  Thus, 
tbe  Satapatha  Brahmana,  the  Brihad  Aranyaka 
Upanishad,  and  the  Kaushltaki  Brahmana  Upau- 
ishad,  all  refer  to  a  certain  king  Ajatasatru,  who 
proved  himself  superior  in  theological  disputation 
to  a  Brahman  named  Balaki,  "renowned  as  a  man 
well-read  in  the  Veda."  Let  us  take  the  version  of 
the  last-named  Upanishad.  Balaki  proposed  to 
"  declare  divine  knowledge  "  to  the  king,  who  offered 
to  give  him  a  thousand  cows  for  his  tuition.  But 
after  he  had  propounded  his  views  on  the  Deity,  and 
had  been  put  to  shame  by  the  king's  answers,  the 
latter  said,  "  Thou  hast  vainly  projDosed  to  me  ;  let  me 
teach  thee  divine  knowledge.  He,  son  of  Balaka,  who 
is  the  maker  of  these  souls,  whose  work  that  is, — he 
is  the  object  of  knowledge."  Convinced  of  his  ignor- 
ance, Balaki  proposed    to   become  the  king's  pupd. 

*  Chluiiul,  Up.,  cli.  V.  sectiun  11- 18,  p.  92-97. 


io6  HOI.  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

"The  king  replied,  'I  regard  it  as  an  inversion  of  the 
proper  rule  that  a  Kshattriya  should  initiate  a  Brah- 
man.    But  come,  I  will  instruct  thee.' "  ^ 

Both  these  stories  illustrate  the  striving  towards 
conceptions  of  the  unity  of  the  divine  essence  which 
is  characteristic  of  this  speculative  age.  The  next, 
from  the  Satapatha  Br^hmana,  has  reference  to 
another  important  point, — the  future  of  the  soul.  A 
young  Brahman,  called  Svetaketu,  came  to  a  monarch 
who  inquired  whether  he  had  received  a  suitable 
education  from  his  father.  The  youth  replied  that 
he  had.  Hereupon  the  king  proceeded  to  put  him 
through  an  examination,  in  which  he  completely 
l)roke  down.  One  of  the  questions  Avas  this  : — "  Dost 
thou  know  the  means  of  attaining  the  path  which 
leads  to  the  gods,  or  that  which  leads  to  the  Pitris  ;  ^ 
by  what  act  the  one  or  the  other  is  gained  ? "  In 
other  words,  did  he  know  the  way  to  heaven  ?  The 
student  did  not.  Vexed  at  his  failure,  the  young 
man  hastened  to  his  father,  reproached  him  with 
having  declared  that  he  was  instructed,  and  com- 
plained that  the  Kajanya  had  asked  him  five  ques- 
tions, of  which  he  knew  not  even  one.  Gautama 
inquired  what  they  were,  and  on  hearing  them, 
assured  his  son  that  he  had  taught  him  all  he  him- 
self knew.  "  But  come,  let  us  proceed  thither,  and 
become  his  pupils."  Eeceiving  his  guests  with  due 
respect,  the  king  offered  Gautama  a  boon.  Gautama 
begged  for  an  explanation  of  the  five  questions. 
"  That,"  said  the  king,  "  is  one  of  the  divine  boons ; 
ask  one  of  those  that  are  human."  But  Gautama 
protested  that  he  had  wealth  enough  of  all  kinds,  and 

1  0.  S,  T.,  vol.  i.  p.  431.  2  Ancestors  (patres). 


THE  MERIT  OF  PATIENCE.  107 

added,  "Be  not  illiberal  towards  us  in  respect  to  that 
which  is  immense,  infinite,  boundless."  The  king 
accordingly  accepted  them  as  his  pupils,  saying, 
*'  Do  not  attach  any  blame  to  me,  as  your  ancestors 
(did  not).  This  knowledge  has  never  heretofore 
dwelt  in  any  Brahman ;  but  I  shall  declare  it  to  thee. 
For  who  should  refuse  thee  when  thou  so  speakest  ?"  ^ 
Unhistorical  as  they  probably  are  in  their  details, 
these  traditions  are  curious  both  as  illustrating  the 
predominant  inclination  to  speculative  inquiries,  and 
the  fact  that  in  those  inquiries  the  priestly  caste  was 
sometimes  outshone  by  their  more  secular  rivals. 
The  following  quotation  bears  upon  another  doctrine, 
the  transcendent  merit  of  patience  under  trials,  even 
of  the  severest  kind.  Manu,  the  typical  ancestor  of 
mankind,  is  represented  as  resigning  his  most  precious 
possessions  to  enable  impious  priests  to  perform  a 
sacrifice  : — 

"  Manu  had  a  bull.  Into  it  an  Asura-slaying,  enemy-slaying 
voice  had  entered.  In  consequence  of  this  (bull's)  snorting  and 
bellowing,  Asuras  and  Eaksliasas  ^  were  continually  destroyed. 
Then  the  Asuras  said,  'This  bull,  alas!  does  us  mischief;  how 
shall  we  overcome  him  % '  Now  there  were  two  priests  of  the 
Asuras  called  Kilata  and  Akuli.  They  said,  '  Manu  is  a  devout 
believer  :  let  us  make  trial  of  him.'  They  went  and  said  to  him, 
*  Let  us  sacrifice  for  thee.'  '  With  what  victim  ? '  he  asked. 
'  With  this  bull,'  they  replied.  '  Be  it  so,'  he  answered.  When  it 
had  been  slaughtered,  the  voice  departed  out  of  it,  and  entered 
into  Manu's  wife  Manavi.  Wherever  they  hear  her  speaking,  the 
Asuras  and  Rakshasas  continue  to  be  destroyed  in  consequence 
of  her  voice.  The  Asuras  said,  '  She  does  us  yet  more  mischief , 
for  the  human  voice  speaks  more.'  Kilata  and  Akuli  said,  *  Manu 
is  a  devout  believer  .:  let  us  make  trial  of  him.'     They  came  and 


0.  S.  T.,  vol.  i.  p.  434.  ^  These  are  species  of  demons. 


io8  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

said  to  him,  '  Manu,  let  us  sacrifice  for  thee.'  '  With  what  victim  % ' 
he  asked.  '  With  this  (thy)  wife,'  they  replied.  *  Be  it  so,'  he 
answered."  ^ 

Sometimes,  though  not  often,  the  Brahmanas  con- 
tain references  to  moral  conduct.  A  very  theological 
definition  of  Duty  is  given  in  the  Chhandogya 
Upanishad,  where  it  is  stated,  "  Threefold  is  the 
division  of  Duty.  Sacrifice,  study,  and  chority  con- 
stitute the  first ;  penance  is  the  second ;  and  residence 
by  a  Brahmacharin^  exclusively  in  the  house  of  a 
tutor  is  the  third.  All  those  [who  attend  to  these 
duties]  attain  virtuous  regions ;  the  believer  in 
Brahma  alone  attains  to  immortality."  ^  In  another 
Brahmana  it  is  asserted  that  "the  marriage  of  Faith 
and  Truth  is  a  most  happy  one.  For  by  Faiih  and 
Truth  joined  they  conquer  the  celestial  world."  *  And 
the  story  of  ^unahsepa,  which  contains  an  emphatic 
repudiation  of  human  sacrifice,  has  a  moral  bearing. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  Brahmanas  do  not  concern 
themselves  with  ethical  questions.  The  rules  of  sac- 
rifice, and  the  doctrines  of  a  complicated  theology, 
are  their  main  business ;  and  the  topics  they  are  thus 
led  to  debate  in  elaborate  detail  must  frequently 
impress  the  European  reader  as  not  only  uninterest- 
ing, but  unmeaning. 

1  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  i.  p.  188.  3  A.  B.,  vii.  2.  10. 

2  A  student  of  theology.  *  Chhand,  Up.,  ch.  ii.  sec.  23. 


THE  TRIPITAKA.  109 


Section  IV.— The  Tripitaka.* 

When  the  master-mind  who,  by  oral  and  personal 
instruction,  has  led  his  disciples  to  the  knowledge  of 
new  and  invaluable  truths  passes  away — when  the 
lips  that  taught  them  are  closed  for  ever,  and  the 
intellect  that  solved  the  problems  of  human  life  is  at 
rest,  when  the  soul  that  met  the  spiritual  cravings  of 
their  souls  is  no  more  near  them — a  necessity  at  once 
arises  for  the  collection  of  the  sayings,  the  apologues, 
or  the  parables  which  can  now  be  heard  no  more,  and 
which  only  live  in  the  memories  of  those  who  heard 
them.  The  precious  possession  must  not  be  lost.  The 
light  must  not  be  suffered  to  die  out.  Either  the 
words  of  the  Departed  One  must  be  transmitted  orally 
from  disciple  to  disciple,  from  generation  to  generation 
(as  happens  in  countries  where  writing  is  uncommon 
or  unknown),  or  they  must  be  rendered  imperishable 
by  being  once  for  all  recorded  in  books. 

Such  was  the  course  of  events  upon  the  death  of 

^  No  complete  translation  of  the  Tripitaka  exists,  or  is  ever  likely  to 
exist,  in  any  European  language.  Its  vast  extent,  and  the  comparative 
worthlessness  of  many  of  its  parts,  would  preclude  its  publication  as  a 
whole.  But  complete  treatises,  or  portions  of  treatises,  have  been  trans- 
lated by  Burnouf,  in  his  "  Histoire  du  Buddhisme  Indien,"  and  "  Lotus 
de  la  Bonne  Loi  ;"  by  Beal,  in  his  "Chinese  Buddhist  Scriptures  ;"  by 
Schmidt,  in  "  Der  Weise  und  der  Thor  ;"  by  Hardy,  in  his  "  Manual  of 
Buddhism,"  and  by  Alabaster,  in  his  "  Modern  Buddhist."  An  exact 
analysis  of  the  contents  of  the  hundred  volumes  of  the  great  collection 
called  the  Kah-gyur  is  supjjlied  by  Csoma  Kdrosi  in  the  20th  vol.  of 
the  "Asiatic  Researches."  The  leading  features  of  the  books,  and  parts 
of  books  thus  translated,  are  so  well  marked  and  uniform,  that  nothing 
fi'.rther  is  needed  to  enable  us  to  estimate  the  general  character  of  each 
division  of  the  whole  Tripitaka. 


no  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Gautama  Buddha.  Tradition  tells  us  that  immediately 
after  that  great  Teacher  had  entered  into  Nirvana,  his 
disciples  assembled  in  council  to  collect  his  Xo'yta,  and 
to  fix  the  Canon  of  the  Faith.  This  Canon  consisted 
of  three  portions,  and  is  therefore  called  the  Tripitaka, 
or  Three  Baskets.  Of  these  baskets,  his  disciple  Upali 
was  appointed  to  recall  to  memory,  and  edit,  the  one 
termed  Vinaya,  or  the  Buddha's  instructions  on  dis- 
cipline ;  Ananda  (the  intimate  friend  of  Gautama), 
the  Sutras,  or  practical  teachings ;  and  Kasyapa,  the 
Abhiddharma,  or  metaphysical  lectures.  Into  these 
three  classes  the  Buddhist  Canon  remains  still  divided. 
But  the  text,  as  thus  established,  did  not  escape  the 
necessity  of  further  revision.  One  hundred  and  ten 
years  after  Sakyamuni's  decease,  certain  monks  brought 
considerable  scandal  on  the  Church  by  disregarding  his 
precepts.  To  meet  the  difficulty,  a  council  was  held 
under  the  Buddhist  king  Asoka,  the  orthodox  faith  was 
determined,  and  a  new  edition  of  the  Canonical  Works 
compiled  by  700  "  accomplished  priests."  Divisions 
and  heresies,  however,  could  not  be  prevented.  In 
Kanishka's  reign,  400  years  after  Buddha,  the  Church 
was  split  up  into  eighteen  sects,  and  a  third  council 
had  to  issue  a  third  Revision  of  the  Sacred  Texts. ^ 

All  this  is  not  to  be  taken  as  literally  true.  Especi- 
ally is  it  impossible  to  accept  the  story  that  a  Text  of 
the  Buddha's  precepts  and  lectures  was  formed  imme- 
diately after  his  death.  It  is  probable  that  not  even 
the  earliest  parts  of  the  Tripitaka  were  committed  to 
writing  till  long  after  that  event,  and  it  is  quite  cer- 
tain that  its  later  elements  could  not  have  been  added 

1  Southern  Buddhists  fix  the  dates  of  these  General  Councils  some- 
what differently. 


THE  BUDDHIST  CANOJSr.  rri 

till  some  centuries  after  it.  Nevertheless,  there  may 
be,  and  indeed  it  is  almost  beyond  doubt  that  there 
are,  some  works  in  this  Canon  which  were  already 
current  as  the  Word  of  Buddha  in  the  time  of  Asoka, 
who  reigned  in  the  third  century  B.C.  In  an  inscrip- 
tion quoted  by  Burnouf,  and  indisputably  emanating 
from  that  monarch,  it  is  stated  that  the  law  embraces 
the  following  topics : — "  The  limits  marked  by  the 
Vinaya,  the  supernatural  faculties  of  the  Ariyas,  the 
dangers  of  the  future,  the  stanzas  of  the  hermit,  the 
Sutra  of  the  hermit,  the  speculation  of  Upatisa  (Sari- 
puttra)  only,  the  instruction  of  Laghula  (Rahula), 
rejecting  false  doctrines.  This,"  adds  the  proclamation, 
"is  what  has  been  said  by  the  blessed  Buddha."^ 
In  this  enumeration  we  recognise,  as  Burnouf  has 
observed,  the  classes  Vinaya  and  Sutra,  which  still  form 
two  out  of  the  three  baskets,  and  we  find  also  that 
certain  texts  were  accepted  by  the  Church  as  contain- 
ino:  the  o^enuine  teach ino^  of  the  Buddha.  We  must 
suppose,  therefore,  that  at  the  ej)och  of  the  Council 
held  under  Asoka  in  B.C.  246,  there  were  already 
many  unquestioned  works  in  circulation.  Nor  is 
there  any  reason  to  doubt  that  some  of  these  have 
descended  to  our  times.  Burnouf  divides  the  Sutras 
(in  the  more  general  sense  of  instructions  or  sermons) 
into  two  kinds  :  simple,  and  developed  Sutras,  of 
which  the  simple  ones  bear  marks  of  antiquity  and  of 
fairly  representing  primitive  Buddhism,  while  the 
developed  Sutras  contain  the  fanciful  speculations  of 
a  later  age. 

Two  most  fortunate  discoveries,  the  one  made  by 
Mr  Hodgson  in  Nepaul,  the  other  by  Csoma  Korosi 

'  Lotuf,  p.  735. 


1 1 2  HOL  Y  BO OKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

ill  Thibet,  liave  placed  tlie  vast  collection  forming  the 
Canon  of  Buddhism  within  the  reach  of  European 
scholars.  Brian  Houohton  HodQ:son  was  the  British. 
Resident  in  Nepaul  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century,  and  he  there  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  large 
number  of  volumes  in  Sanskrit  which  he  presented 
to  the  Asiatic  Societies  of  London  and  Paris.  To 
the  latter  he  presented  first  twenty-four  works, 
and  subsequently  sixty -four  MSS.,  being  copies 
of  works  he  had  sent  to  the  Asiatic  Society  in 
London.  These  books  happily  fell  into  the  hands  of 
one  of  the  greatest  of  Sanskrit  scholars,  Eugene 
Burnouf,  who,  in  his  "  History  of  Lidian  Buddhism," 
translated  a  sufficient  number  of  them  to  serve 
as  specimens.  About  the  same  time  a  zealous 
Hungarian,  Csoma  Korosi,  undertook  an  adventur- 
ous journey  into  the  heart  of  Asia,  with  a  view  of 
discoverinor  the  orifjinal  stock  of  the  Huno^arian  race. 
Failing  in  this  object,  he  achieved  another  of  greater 
value,  that  of  unearthing  the  whole  of  the  sacred 
books  known  in  Thibet  under  the  name  of  the  Kah- 
gyur,  or  Kan-gyur  (properly  hkah-hgyur),  which  is 
the  Thibetan  translation,  in  one  hundred  volumes, 
of  the  very  works  of  which  Hodgson  in  Nepaul  had 
discovered  the  Sanskrit  originals.  Such  is  the  nature 
of  our  guarantees  for  the  authenticity  of  the  text. 

Subdivision  i. — The  Vinaya-Pitaka. 

Let  us  proceed  to  consider  in  detail  the  division 
which  stands  first  in  the  Buddhist  classification,  the 
Vinaya-Pitaka,  or  basketful  of  works  on  Discipline. 
These,   according  to   Burnouf,   are   of  very   difierent 


THE  LEGEND  OF  PURNA.  113 

ages,  some  beiug,  from  the  details  tliey  furnish  with 
reference  to  Siikyamuni,  his  institutions  and  his  sur- 
roundings, of  very  ancient  date,  and  others,  which 
relate  events  that  did  not  occur  till  two  hundred 
years  or  more  after  his  death,  belonging  to  a  more 
recent  period.  One  of  the  most  instructive  of  the 
legends  which  form  the  staple  of  the  works  on  Dis- 
cipline, is  that  of  Piirna.  Only  a  brief  abstract  of  it 
can  be  attempted  here. 

Bhagavat  (that  is,  the  Lord,  or  Buddha)  was  at 
Sravasti,  in  the  garden  of  Anathapindika.  (Anatha- 
pindika  was  a  householder  who  had  embraced  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Buddha,  and  in  whose  iijarden  he  was  ac- 
customed  to  preach.)  There  resided  at  this  time  in  the 
town  of  Surparaka  a  very  wealthy  householder,  named 
Bliava.  This  Bhava  had  three  sons  by  his  legiti- 
mate wife,  w4io  w^ere  christened  respectively  Bhavila, 
Bhavatrata,  and  Bhavanandin.  After  some  years  he 
fell  into  an  illness  which  led  to  his  usiuo;  lani>uaoe  of 
extraordinary  violence.  His  wife  with  her  three  sons 
deserted  him  in  consequence,  but  a  young  female 
slave,  reflecting  that  he  had  immense  wealth,  and 
that  it  would  not  be  suitable  for  her  to  desert  him, 
remained  in  the  house  and  nursed  him  throughout 
his  malady.  Seeing  that  he  owed  her  his  life,  Bhava 
on  his  recovery  told  her  that  he  would  give  her  a 
reward.  The  young  woman  begged  that  if  satisfied 
she  might  be  admitted  to  her  master's  bed.  Bhava 
endeavoured  to  get  off",  promising  a  handsome  sum 
of  money  and  her  liberty  instead,  but  the  girl  was 
determined,  and  obtained  her  wish.  The  result  was 
that  "after  eight  or  nine  months"  she  gave  birth  to 
a  beautiful  boy,  to   whom  the   name  of  Purna    (the 

VOL.  II.  H 


114  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Accomplished)  was  given.  Tiie  infant  Puma  was 
confidecl  to  eight  nurses,  and  subsequently  received 
a  first-rate  education.  In  due  time,  the  three  elder 
sons  were  married  by  their  father's  desire,  but  the 
father,  seeing  them  absorbed  in  mere  uxoriousness, 
reproved  their  indolence,  telling  them  that  he  had 
not  been  married  until  he  had  amassed  a  lac  (100,000) 
of  Suvarnas  (a  Suvarna  representing  about  twenty- 
eight  shillings).  Struck  by  this  reproof,  the  three 
sons  went  to  sea  on  a  mercantile  expedition,  and 
returned  after  having  each  made  a  lac  of  Suvarnas. 
But  Piirna,  who  had  remained  at  home  to  manage 
the  shop,  was  found  to  have  gained  an  equal  sum  in 
the  same  time.  Bhava,  perceiving  Piirna's  talents, 
impressed  on  his  sons  the  importance  of  union,  and 
the  duty  of  disregarding  what  was  said  by  their 
wives,  women  being  the  destroyers  of  family  peace. 
He  illustrated  his  remarks  by  a  striking  expedient. 
Having  desired  his  sons  to  bring  some  wood,  and  to 
kindle  it,  he  then  ordered  them  all  to  withdraw  the 
brands.  This  being  done,  the  fire  went  out,  and  the 
moral  was  at  once  understood  by  the  four  young  men. 
United,  the  fuel  burns  ;  and  thus  the  union  of  brothers 
makes  their  strength.  Bhavila  in  particular  was 
w^arned  by  his  father  never  to  abandon  Ptirna.  In 
course  of  time  Bhava  died,  and  the  three  legitimate  sons 
undertook  another  voyage.  During  their  absence,  the 
wives  of  the  two  younger  sons  fancied  themselves  ill- 
treated  by  Purna,  Avho,  in  the  midst  of  his  business  in 
the  shop,  did  not  supply  their  maids  fast  enough  with 
all  they  sent  for.  On  the  return  of  their  husbands, 
these  two  complained  to  them  that  they  were  treated 
as  happens  to  those  in  whose  family  the  son  of  a  slave 


THE  LEGEND  OF  TURN  A.  115 

exercises  the  command.  The  two  brothers  merely 
reflected  that  women  sowed  division  in  families. 
Unhappily,  however,  some  trifling  incidents,  in  which 
Bhavila's  child  appeared  to  have  been  treated  by 
Ptirna  with  undue  partiality,  gave  the  sisters-in- 
law  a  more  plausible  pretext  for  their  com- 
plaints. Such  was  the  efi'ect  of  their  jealousy,  that 
the  younger  brothers  determined  to  demand  a  division 
of  the  property,  in  which  PArna  (as  a  slave)  was  to 
form  one  of  the  lots.  Bhavila,  as  eldest  brother,  had 
first  choice,  and  remembering  his  father's  advice,  chose 
P^lrna.  One  of  the  other  brothers  took  the  house 
and  land,  and  ejected  Bhavila's  wife ;  the  other  took 
the  shop  and  the  property  in  foreign  parts,  and  ejected 
Ptirna.  Bhavila,  his  wife,  and  Purna,  retired  penniless 
to  the  house  of  a  relative.  The  wife  in  distress  sent 
out  Pilrna  with  nothinsf  but  a  brass  coin,  which  had 
been  attached  to  her  dress,  to  buy  provisions.  Ptirna 
met  a  man  who  had  picked  up  some  stranded  sandal- 
wood on  the  sea-shore,  and  buying  it  of  him  (on  credit) 
for  500  Karshapanas,  sold  a  portion  of  it  again  for 
1000.  With  this  sum  he  first  paid  the  man  who 
had  sold  the  wood,  and  then  obtained  provisions  for 
the  household.  He  had  still  in  his  possession  some 
pieces  of  the  sandal-wood,  which  was  of  a  very  valu- 
able species  called  Gosirsha.  Shortly  after  this,  the 
king  fell  ill,  and  his  doctors  having  prescribed  an 
unguent  of  this  very  wood,  it  was  found  that  no  one 
but  Piirna  had  any  in  his  possession.  Piirna  sold  a 
piece  of  it  to  the  Government  at  1000  Karshapanas, 
and  the  king  recovered.  Hereupon  he  reflected  that 
he  was  but  a  poor  sort  of  king  who  had  no  Gosirsha 
sandal-wood  in  his  establishment,  and  sent  for  Piirna. 


ii6  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

Purna,  guessing  liis  object,  approached  him  with  one 
piece  in  his  hand,  and  three  in  his  robe.  The  king, 
after  ascertaining  that  the  price  of  the  one  piece  would 
be  a  hxc  of  Suvarnas,  inquired  if  there  was  more. 
PArna  then  showed  him  the  three  other  pieces,  and 
the  king  would  have  given  him  four  lacs  of  Suvarnas. 
The  wily  merchant,  however,  offered  to  present  him 
with  one  piece,  and  when  the  grateful  monarch  offered 
him  a  boon,  requested  that  he  might  henceforth  be 
protected  against  all  insults,  which  was  at  once 
accorded. 

iVbout  this  time  five  hundred  merchants  arrived  at 
Surparaka  with  a  cargo  of  goods.  The  Merchants' 
Company  passed  a  resolution  that  none  of  them 
should  act  independently  of  the  rest  in  buying  any 
of  these  goods  ;  in  short,  that  there  should  be  no  com- 
petition. Any  one  dealing  with  the  merchants  alone 
was  to  pay  a  fine.  Piirna,  however,  at  once  went  to 
the  vessel  and  bought  the  whole  cargo  at  the  price  de- 
manded, eighteen  lacs  of  Suvarnas,  paying  the  three 
lacs  he  had  received  as  security.  The  Merchants'  Com- 
pany, finding  themselves  anticipated,  seized  Plirna  and 
exposed  him  to  the  sun  to  force  him  to  pay  the  fine. 
No  sooner  was  the  king  informed  of  this  than  he  sent 
for  the  Merchants'  Company  to  learn  the  cause  of 
their  proceedings.  They  told  him  ;  but  being  obliged 
to  confess  that  they  had  never  informed  Ptirna  or  his 
brother  of  the  resolution  passed,  they  had  to  release 
him  with  shame.  Fortune  still  favoured  him.  Soon 
after  this,  the  king  happened  to  require  the  very 
articles  which  Piirna  had  purchased,  and  desired  the 
Merchants'  Company  to  purchase  them.  Ptirna  here- 
upon sold  them  at  double  the  price  he  had  paid.     His 


THE  LEGEND  OF  FURNA.  117 

next  stcjj  was  to  undertake  a  sea- voyage  for  com- 
mercial purposes,  and  the  first  having  been  successful, 
it  was  followed  by  five  others,  all  equally  so.  His 
seventh  was  undertaken  at  the  instance  of  some 
Buddhist  merchants  from-  Sravasti,  where  Gautama 
was  teaching.  During  the  voyage  he  was  profoundly 
impressed  with  their  religious  demeanour.  "  These 
merchants,  at  night  and  at  dawn,  read  aloud  the  hymns, 
the  prayers  which  lead  to  the  other  shore,  the  texts 
which  disclose  the  truth,  the  verses  of  the  Sthaviras, 
those  relating^  to  the  several  sciences,  and  those  of 
the  hermits,  as  well  as  the  Sutras  containing  sections 
about  temporal  interests.  Ptirna,  who  heard  them, 
said  to  them,  '  GentlemcD,  what  is  that  fine  poetry 
which  you  sing  V  *  It  is  not  poetry,  0  prince  of  mer- 
chants ;  it  is  the  very  words  of  the  Buddha.'  Ptirna, 
who  had  never  till  now  heard  this  name  of  Buddha 
mentioned,  and  who  felt  his  hair  stand  up  all  over  his 
body,  inquired  with  deep  respect,  '  Gentlemen,  who 
is  he  whom  you  call  Buddha?'  The  merchants  replied, 
'  The  Sramana  Gautama,  descended  from  the  S4kya 
family,  w^ho  having  shaven  his  hair  and  beard,  having 
put  on  garments  of  yellow  hue,  left  his  house  with 
perfect  faith  to  enter  upon  a  religious  life,  and  who 
has  reached  the  supreme  condition  of  an  all- perfect 
Buddha ;  it  is  he,  0  prince  of  merchants,  who  is 
called  the  Buddha.'  '  In  what  place,  gentlemen,  does 
he  now  reside  V  *  At  Sravasti,  0  prince  of  merchants, 
in  the  wood  of  Jetavana,  in  the  garden  of  Anatha- 
pindika.'  "  The  result  of  this  conversation  was  that 
Purna,  on  his  return,  announced  to  his  brother  his 
intention  of  becoming  a  monk,  and  advised  him 
never  to  go  to  sea,  and  never  to  live  with  his  two 


ii8  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

brothers.  After  this  he  went  straight  to  Aiiatha- 
pindika,  and  was  Ly  him  presented  to  the  Buddha, 
who  received  him  with  the  remark  that  the  most 
agreeable  present  he  coukl  have  was  a  man  to  convert. 
Purna  then  received  the  investiture  and  tonsure  by 
miracle,  and  was  instructed  in  the  law  (in  an  abridged 
version)  by  his  master.  A  beautiful,  and  very 
characteristic  conversation  follows  the  reception  of 
the  new  doctrine.  The  Buddha  inquired  of  Puma 
where  he  would  now  reside,  and  the  latter  (who 
intended  to  lead  an  ascetic  life)  replied  that  he  would 
reside  "in  the  land  of  the  Sronaparantakas.^  '0 
Ptirna,'  says  Gautama,  *  they  are  violent,  these  men 
of  Sronaparanta :  they  are  passionate,  cruel,  aiigry, 
furious,  and  insolent.  When  the  men  of  Sronaparanta, 
0  Ptirna,  shall  address  thee  to  thy  face  in  wicked, 
coarse,  and  insulting  language,  when  they  shall 
become  enraged  against  thee  and  rail  at  thee,  what 
wilt  thou  think  of  that?'  *If  the  men  of  Srona- 
paranta, 0  Lord,  address  me  to  my  face  in  wicked, 
coarse,  and  insulting  language,  if  they  become  en- 
raged against  me  and  rail  at  me,  this  is  what  I  shall 
think  of  that :  They  are  certainly  good  men,  these 
Sronaparantakas,  they  are  gentle,  mild  men,  they  who 
address  me  to  my  face,  in  wicked,  coarse  and  insulting 
language,  they  who  become  enraged  against  me  and 
rail  at  me,  but  who  neither  strike  me  with  the  hand 
nor  stone  me.'"  The  rest  must  be  oiven  in  an 
abridged  form.  "But  if  they  do  strike  thee  with  the 
hand  or  stone  thee  ?  "  "I  shall  think  them  good  and 
gentle  for  not  striking  me  with  swords    or  sticks." 

'  Api)iirent]y  a  people  living  beyond  the  frontiers  (of  the  civilised 
norld).     See  H.  B.  I.,  p.  252,  n. 


THE  LEGEND  OF  PURNA.  119 

"  And  if  they  do  that  ?  "  "I  shall  think  them  good  and 
gentle  for  not  depriving  me  entirely  of  life."  "And 
if  they  do  that?"  ^  "If  the  men  of  Sronaj)aranta,  0 
Lord,  deprive  me  entirely  of  life,  this  is  what  I  shall 
think  :  There  are  hearers  of  Bhagavat  [the  Lord]  who 
hy  reason  of  this  body  full  of  ordure,  are  tormented, 
covered  with  confusion,  desj)ised,  struck  with  swords, 
who  take  poison,  who  die  of  hanging,  who  are  thrown 
down  precipices.  They  are  certainly  good  people, 
these  Sronaparantakas,  they  are  gentle  people,  they 
who  deliver  me  with  so  little  pain  from  this  body  full 
of  ordure."  "  Good,  good,  Piirna ;  thou  canst,  with 
tlie  perfection  of  patience  with  which  thou  art  en- 
dowed, yes,  thou  canst  live,  thou  canst  take  up  thy 
abode  in  the  land  of  the  Sronaparantakas.  Go,  Purna  ; 
delivered  thyself,  deliver  ;  arrived  thyself  at  the  other 
shore,  cause  others  to  arrive  there;  consoled  thyself, 
console  ;  having  come  thyself  to  complete  Nirvana, 
cause  others  to  arrive  there." 

Hereupon  Purna  took  his  way  to  Sronaparanta, 
where  he  converted  a  huntsman  who  had  intended  to 
kill  him,  and  obtained  five  hundred  novices  composed 
of  both  sexes. 

After  a  time,  Bhavila,  his  brother,  was  requested 
by  Bhavatrata  and  Bhavanandin  to  enter  into  part- 
nership with  them ;  and  his  repugnance  to  the  pro- 
posal was  overcome  by  the  reproaches  of  his  younger 
brothers,  who  said  that  he  would  never  have  dared 
to  go  to  sea  as  Piirna  had  done.  Stung  by  this 
taunt,  he  engaged  with  them  in  a  sea-voyage.  The 
vessel  was  attacked  by  a  furious  storm,  raised  by  a 
demon  in  consequence  of  the  merchants  having  cut 

^  Wliat  follows  is  literal 


120  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

some  saudiil-wood  which  was  under  this  demon'a 
protection.  Bhavila  stood  dumbfounded ;  and  when 
the  passengers  inquired  the  reason,  informed  them 
that  he  was  thinking  of  his  brother's  advice  never 
to  oo  to  sea.  It  turned  out  that  the  merchants  on 
board  knew  of  Purna's  great  sanctity,  and  they 
addressed  their  prayers  to  him.  He  came  through 
the  air,  after  the  manner  of  Buddhist  ascetics,  ap- 
peared sitting  cross-legged  over  the  vessel,  and 
allayed  the  tempest.  The  vessel,  loaded  with  sau- 
dal-wood,  was  brought  safely  back  to  Surparaka. 
The  sandal-wood  Piirna  took  possession  of  in  order 
to  make  a  palace  for  the  Buddha,  and  desired  his 
brothers  to  invite  that  personage  and  his  disciples 
to  a  repast.  The  invitation  was  miraculously  con- 
veyed to  the  Buddha  (who  was  a  long  way  off,  at 
Sravasti),  and  he  told  his  followers  to  prepare  to 
ar,cept  it.  Purna  returned  suddenly  to  the  Assembly 
(around  Buddlin)  and  performed  a  miracle.  The 
king  of  Surparaka,  on  his  side,  made  preparations 
on  the  grandest  scale  for  the  reception  of  the 
Buddhist  hierarchy,  which  came  to  his  city  by  all 
kinds  of  supernatural  means.  Purna,  standing  by 
liim,  explained  the  various  prodigies  as  they  occurred. 
Omitting  some  marvellous  conversions  wrought  l)y 
the  Buddha  on  his  way,  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  he  descended  into  the  middle  of  the  town  of 
Surparaka  from  the  air,  and  there  taught  the  law, 
by  which  liundreds  of  thousands  of  living  beings 
attained  the  several  deorrees  of  knowledsfe  which 
lead,  sooner  or  later,  to  salvation. 

Passing  over  a  passage  in  which  two  royal  Nagas 
(or  serpent-kings)  make  their  appearance  to  receive 


THE  LEGEND  OF  PURNA.  121 

the  law,  and  another  in  which  Gautama  proceeds  to 
another  universe  to  instruct  the  mother  of  his  dis- 
ciple Maudgalyayaua,  we  arrive  at  the  moral  which 
always  forms  the  conclusion  of  these  Buddhist  tales. 
The  monks  surrounding  the  Buddha  inquired  what 
actions  P{irna  had  performed  in  order,  first,  to  be 
l)orn  in  a  rich  family  ;  secondly,  to  be  the  son  of  a 
slave ;  and  lastly,  "  when  he  had  entered  on  a  re- 
li.o-ious  life,  to  behold  the  condition  of  an  Arhat  ^  face 
to  face,  after  having  annihilated  all  the  corruptions 
of  evil  ? "  Buddha  replied,  that  in  the  very  age  in 
which  we  live,  but  at  a  period  of  it  when  men  lived 
20,000  years,  there  was  a  venerable  Tathagata,  or 
Buddha,  named  Kasyapa,  who  resided  near  Benares. 
Piirna,  who  had  adopted  a  religious  life  under  him, 
"  fulfilled  among  the  members  of  the  Church  ^  the 
duties  of  servant  of  the  law."  The  servant  of  a 
certain  Arhat  set  himself  to  sweep  the  monastery, 
but  the  wind  blowing  the  dirt  from  side  to  side,  he 
gave  up  the  attempt,  intending  to  proceed  when  the 
wind  should  have  abated.  The  servant  of  the  law 
coming  in,  and  finding  the  monastery  unswept, 
allowed  himself  to  be  carried  away  by  rage,  and  to 
utter  these  off'eiisive  words  :  "  This  is  the  servant  of 
some  slave's  son."  When  he  had  had  time  to  re- 
cover his  calmness,  the  Arhat's  servant  presented 
himself,  and  asked  if  he  knew  him.     The  servant  of 

^  The  state  of  an  "Arhat"  is  the  highest  of  four  degrees  which  the 
liearers  of  the  Buddha  used  to  attain  ;  i.e.,  the  one  which  led  most 
directly  to  Nirvana.  The  other  three  degrees  were  those  of  Srot- 
apatti,  of  Sakriddgamin,  and  Anagamin,  The  Arhat  was  not  born 
again  ;  each  of  the  other  three  had  a  smaller  or  greater  number  of 
existences  to  undergo  before  Nirvana. 

^  I  translate  "  I'Assemblee"  by  this  phrase,  which  appears  to  render 
its  meaning  more  precisely  than  a  mure  literal  translation. 


122  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

the  law  replied  that  he  did,  and  that  they  both  had 
entered  into  a  religious  life  under  the  Buddha  Kas- 
yapa.  The  other  rejoined  that  while  he  had  fulfilled 
all  his  duties,  the  servant  of  the  law  had  been  guilty 
of  a  fault  in  giving  way  to  his  temper,  and  exhorted 
him  to  diminish  that  fault  by  confession.  The  latter 
repented,  and  was  thereby  saved  from  re-birth  in  hell  ; 
but  he  was  doomed  to  be  re-born  for  five  hundred 
generations  in  the  womb  of  a  slave.  In  this  last 
existence  he  Avas  still  the  ofispring  of  a  slave ;  but 
because  he  had  formerly  served  the  members  of  the 
Church,  he  was  born  in  a  rich  and  prosperous  family  ; 
and  because  he  had  formerly  read  and  studied 
Buddhist  theology,  he  now  became  an  Arhat  under 
Gautama  Buddha,  after  annihilating  evil.^ 

Such  is  a  favourable  specimen  of  a  vast  number  of 
legends  contained  in  the  Buddhist  Canon.  The  fol- 
lowing fragment  is  of  a  rather  difi'erent  kind.  It 
illustrates  the  extravagant  adoration  paid  to  the 
person  of  Buddha  some  generations  after  his 
death.  A  king  named  Kudrayana  had  sent  to 
another,  named  Bimbisara,  an  armour  of  marvel- 
lous properties  and  priceless  value.  Bimbisara,  at  a 
loss  what  present  he  could  send  back  which  would 
be  a  fitting  return  for  such  a  gift,  determined  to  seek 
out  Buddha  and  consult  him  on  the  point : — 

"  King  Bimbisara  addressed  him  thus  : — '  In  the  town  of 
Ronika,  Lord,  there  lives  a  king  called  Rudrayana;  he  is  my 
friend  ;  though  I  have  never  seen  him,  he  has  sent  me  a  present  of 
an  armour  composed  of  five  pieces.  What  present  shall  I  give 
him  in  return  % '  '  Have  the  representation  of  the  Tathagata  traced 
on  a  bit  of  stuff,'  answered  Bhagavat,  'and  send  it  him  as  a 
present.' 

1  H.  B.  I.,  p.  235  ff. 


PAINTING  THE  PICTURE  OF  BUDDHA.      123 

"  Bimbisara  sent  for  some  i)aiiiters,  and  said — '  Paint  on  a  bit  of 
stuff  the  image  of  the  Tathagata.'  The  blessed  Buddhas  are  not 
very  easy  to  get  at,  which  is  the  reason  why  the  painters  could 
find  no  opportunity  of  [painting]  Bliagavat,  So  they  said  to 
Bimbisara — *  If  the  king  would  give  a  feast  to  Bhagavat  in  the 
interior  of  his  palace,  it  would  be  possible  for  us  to  seize  the 
occasion  of  [painting]  the  blessed  one.  King  BimbisS,ra  having 
accordingly  invited  Bhagavat  to  his  palace,  gave  him  a  feast. 
The  blessed  Buddhas  are  beings  that  people  are  ncA'er  weary  of 
looking  at.  Whichever  limb  of  Bhagavat  the  painters  looked  at 
they  could  not  leave  off  contemplating  it.  So  they  could  not 
seize  the  moment  to  paint  him.  Bhagavat  then  said  to  the  king 
— *  The  painters  will  have  trouble,  0  great  king ;  it  is  impossible 
for  them  to  seize  the  moment  to  [paint  the]  Tathagata,  but  bring 
the  canvass.'  The  king  having  brought  it,  Bhagavat  projected 
his  shadow  on  it,  and  said  to  the  painters — '  Fill  that  outline  with 
colours  :  and  then  write  over  it  the  formulas  of  refuge  as  well  as 
the  precepts  of  instruction ;  you  will  have  to  trace  both  in  the 
direct  order,  and  in  the  inverse  order  the  production  of  the 
[successive]  causes  [of  existence],  which  is  composed  of  twelve 
terms ;  and  on  it  will  be  written  these  two  verses  : 

"  '  Begin,  go  out  [of  the  house]  ;  apply  yourself  to  the  law  of 
Buddha ;  annihilate  the  army  of  death,  as  an  elephant  upsets  a 
hut  of  reeds. 

"  '  He  who  shall  walk  without  distraction  under  the  discipline  of 
this  law,  escaping  birth  and  the  revolution  of  the  world,  will  put 
an  end  to  sorrow.^ 

"  '  If  any  one  asks  what  these  verses  are,  you  must  answer  :  The 
first  is  the  introduction  ;  the  second,  the  instruction  ;  the  third, 
the  revolution  of  the  world  ;  and  the  fourth,  the  effort.'"  2 

Bimbisara,  acting  under  Bhagavat's  dictation,  then 
wrote  to  Rudrayana  that  he  was  about  to  send  him 
the  most  precious  object  in  the  three  worlds,  and  that 
lie  must  adorn  the  way  by  which  it  woukl  arrive 
for  two  and  a  half  yojanas.     Rudrayana  was  rather 

'  These  two  verses  are  a  standing  foriimla  by  which  the  Buddha  of 
the  Canon  sunuuons  the  world  to  receive  his  hiw. 
^  H.B.L,p.  341. 


124  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

irritated  by  this  message,  and  proposed  immediate 
war,  but  was  dissuaded  by  his  ministers.  The  pic- 
ture therefore  was  received  with  all  honour,  and  not 
uncovered  till  after  it  had  been  didy  adored.  Certain 
foreign  merchants  who  happened  to  be  on  the  spot, 
on  seeing  the  portrait,  cried  out  altogether  :  *'  Ador- 
ation to  Buddha."  At  this  name  the  kinsj  felt  his 
hair  stand  on  end,  and  inquired  who  Buddha  was. 
His  position,  and  the  meaning  of  the  inscription,  w^as 
explained  to  him  by  the  merchants.  The  consequence, 
as  may  be  supposed,  was  his  conversion  to  Buddhism. 
He  reflected  on  the  causes  of  existence,  and  attained 
the  degree  of  Srot4patti.^ 

Very  little  allusion  is  made  in  these  legends  to  the 
immediate  subject  of  the  Vinaya-pitaka,  namely.  Dis- 
cipline. But  a  reference  to  Csoma's  Analysis  of  the 
Dulva  (the  Tibetan  title  for  the  Vinaya)  will  show 
that  it  is  in  fact  largely  occupied  in  laying  down  rules 
tor  the  guidance  of  monks  and  nuns,  these  rules  being 
frequently  supposed  to  have  arisen  out  of  particular 
events,  while  "moral  tales"  are  freely  intermingled 
with  the  treatment  of  the  main  business.  The  hap- 
hazard manner  in  which  the  regulations  needful  for 
the  government  of  the  Church  were  framed — according 
to  the  theory  of  the  Scriptures — may  be  illustrated 
by  a  few  specimens.  Thus,  two  persons  in  debt  had 
taken  orders.  "Shakya  (Sakyamuni)  prohibits  the 
admission  into  the  relifyious  order  of  anv  one  who  is 
in  debt."  ^  This  rule  entirely  agrees  with  the  general 
spirit  of  Gautama's  proceedings,  as  narrated  in  the 
]3uddhist  books,  and  we  are  warranted  in  supposing 
that  statements  so  harmonious  rest  on   a  historical 

1  H.  B.  I.,  p.  ^  As.  Re.,  vol.  xx.  p.  53. 


B  UDDHIST  MONASTIC  R  ULES.  1 25 

foundation.  Thus,  lie  is  said  to  have  refused  to  admit 
young  people  without  the  consent  of  their  parents,  or 
servants  of  a  king  without  their  royal  master's  sanction. 
Regulations  like  these  may  well  have  been  made  by 
Buddha  from  a  cautious  anxiety  to  avoid  all  conflict 
with  established  authorities.  Further  on  in  the  same 
volume  of  the  Dulva  the  reception  of  hermaphrodites 
is  likewise  prohibited.^  On  another  occasion,  leave  is 
given  to  learn  swimming.  "  Indecencies,"  are  then 
"  committed  in  the  Ajirapati  river.  They  are  prohi- 
bited from  touching  any  woman  ; — they  may  not  save 
even  one  that  has  fallen  into  the  river."  ^  Elsewhere 
we  are  told  of  a  pious  lady  who  provided  the  infant 
community  with  cloth  to  make  bathing  clothes,  since 
she  had  heard  that  both  monks  and  nuns  bathed  with- 
out any  garments.^  A  little  further  on,  the  dress  of  the 
priesthood  is  prescribed.  Some  of  the  disciples  wished 
to  wear  one  thing,  and  some  another;  others  to  go 
naked.  "  Shakya  tells  them  the  impropriety  and 
indecency  of  the  latter,  and  prohibits  it  absolutely; 
and  rebuking  them,  adds  that  such  a  garb,  or  to  go 
naked,  is  the  characteristic  sign  of  a  Mu-stegs-clian 
{Sansk.  Tirthika)."'^  Here  again  we  seem  to  have  a 
historical  trait,  for  it  was  one  of  the  distinctive  fea- 
tures of  Buddhism  that  its  votaries  were  never  naked, 
like  the  Tirthikas,  or  heretical  ascetics,  but  always 
wore  the  yellow  robe.  In  other  p»laces  there  are  rules 
on  lodging,  on  bedding,  on  the  treatment  of  quarrel- 
some priests,  the  use  of  fragrant  substances,  and  many 
other  trivial  points  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  The 
volumes  containing  all  these  instructions  are  followed 

^  As.  Re.,  vol.  XX.  p.  55.  ^  Ibid.,  vol.  xx.  p.  70. 

'^  Ibid.,  vol.  XX,  p.  59.  *  Ibid.,  vol  xx.  p.  71, 


126  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Ly  one  in  wliich  the  same  stories  are  told,  and  the 
same  morals  deduced  from  them,  concerning  the  nuns. 
Then  there  are  some  injunctions  apparently  peculiar 
to  this  sex,  as,  for  instance,  the  restraint  imposed 
on  their  possession  of  a  multiplicity  of  garments. 
Another  prohibition  was  called  forth  by  the  following 
conduct  of  a  nun.  A  king  had  sent  a  piece  of  fine 
linen  cloth  as  a  present  to  a  brother  king.  "  It  comes 
afterwards  into  the  hands  of  ^'tsug-Z^gah-Mo  (a  lewd 
or  wicked  priestess) ;  she  puts  it  on,  appears  in  public, 
but  from  its  thin  texture,  seems  to  be  naked.  The 
priestesses  are  prohibited  from  accepting  or  wearing 
such  thin  clothes."^ 

It  will  be  observed  from  these  few  quotations  that 
according  to  the  Canon  the  Buddha's  usual  mode  of 
proceeding  was  to  lay  down  rules  as  occasion  required. 
Some  instructive  anecdote  is  related,  and  the  new 
order  follows  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  event. 
]\Iore  probably  the  rules  were  in  fact  made  first,  and 
the  anecdotes  subsequently  composed  to  account  for 
them.  However  this  may  be,  there  exist  in  the 
Canon  some  undoubtedly  ancient  ordinances  not 
called  forth  by  any  special  circumstances,  conformity 
to  which  was  required  of  the  monks,  if  not  by  their 
founder  himself,  at  least  by  the  rulers  of  \\\&  Church 
in  its  most  primitive  condition.  Such,  for  example, 
are  "the  thirteen  rides  by  which  sin  is  shaken," 
reported  by  Burnouf,  which  are  also  found,  with  the 
exception  of  a  single  one,  in  a  Chinese  work  entitled 
"  the  sacred  book  of  the  twelve  observances."  ^  These 
rules  belong,  according  to  Burnouf,  to  an  epoch  when 
the   organisation    of  the    monks    under   a   powerful 

^  As.  Re.,  vol.  XX.  p.  85.  ^  H.  B.  I.,  p.  304. 


B  VDDIHST  MONA  STIC  R  ULES.  1 2  7 

liierarchy,  and  their  residence  in  settled  monasteries, 
liad  scarcely  begun.  Some  of  them  are  even  incon- 
siRtent  with  the  institution  of  such  monasteries,  or 
Viharas,  which  are  nevertheless  very  ancient.  The 
fact  that  the  above-named  Chinese  treatise,  the  penta- 
glot  Buddhist  Vocabulary,^  and  a  list  current  among 
the  Singhalese,  all  contain  these  articles  of  discipline 
(though  with  slight  variations)  proves,  moreover,  that 
they  appertain  to  that  common  fund  on  which 
Northern  and  Southern  Buddhists  drew  alike.  The 
first  article  (following  the  order  in  the  Vocabulary) 
sio^nifies  "  wearino;  rao-s  found  in  the  dust,"  and  refers 
to  an  injunction  addressed  to  the  monks  to  wear  vest- 
ments composed  of  rags  picked  up  in  heaps  of  ordure, 
in  cemeteries,  and  such  places.  The  second,  "  he  who 
has  three  garments,"  corresponds  to  an  order  found 
in  the  Chinese  book  forbidding  monks  to  have  more 
than  three  garments.  Of  the  third  article,  which  is 
corrupt,  Burnouf  can  give  no  satisfactory  explanation  ; 
and  the  fourth  means  "  he  who  lives  by  alms,"  a 
practice  at  all  times  imposed  on  the  monastic  orders. 
Fifthly,  the  ascetic  is  described  as  "he  who  has  but 
one  seat ;  "  sixthly,  as  ''  one  who  eats  no  sweatmeats 
after  his  meal,"  all  eating  for  the  day  having  to  be 
finished  by  noon.  Seventhly,  he  "  lives  in  the  forest," 
that  is,  in  lonely  places ;  and  eighthly,  he  is  "  near  a 
tree,"  the  Chinese  injunction  requiring  him  to  sit  near 
a  tree,  and  to  seek  no  other  shelter.  The  ninth  order 
obliges  them  to  sit  on  the  ground,  that  is,  to  live  in 
the  open  air  ;  the  tenth,  to  dwell  among  tombs,  which 

'  This  Vocabulary  is  a  Chinese  compilation,  forming  one  of  a  class  of 
catalogues  drawn  up  in  ancient  times  by  Buddhist  preachers.  Such 
catalogues  are  found  in  the  midst  of  canonical  books,  and  are  of  high 
authority  among  Buddhists. 


128  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

the  Singhalese  interpret  as  an  order  to  visit  cemeteries 
and  meditate  on  the  instability  of  human  affairs ;  the 
eleventh,  to  sit,  and  not  to  lie  down.  Of  the  meaning 
of  the  twelfth  there  is  some  doubt ;  it  may  signify 
that  the  monk  is  to  remain  where  he  is,  or  that  he 
is  not  to  change  the  position  of  his  mat  when  once 
laid  down.  To  these  twelve  the  Singhalese  add  a 
thirteenth  article,  that  the  monk  is  to  live  by  begging 
from  house  to  house. 

Not  less  remarkable  are  the  ten  commandments  of 
Buddhism,  which  are  doubtless  also  of  considerable 
antiquity.  Burnouf  states  that  he  has  found  them 
in  the  sequel  of  the  Pratimoksha  Sutra  in  the  Pali- 
Burman  copy  of  that  most  important  work  (to  which 
reference  will  shortly  be  made).  These  arc  the  ten 
commandments  as  given  in  that  authority  :— 

1.  Not  to  kill  any  living  creature. 

2.  Not  to  steal. 

3.  Not  to  break  the  vow  of  chastity. 

4.  Not  to  lie. 

5.  Not  to  drink  intoxicating  liquors. 

6.  Not  to  take  a  meal  except  at  the  appointed  time. 

7.  Not  to  visit  dances,  performances  of  vocal  or  instrumental 
music,  or  dramatic  representations. 

8.  Not  to  wear  garlands,  or  use  perfumes  and  unguents. 

9.  Not  to  sleep  on  a  high  or  large  bed. 
10.  Not  to  accept  gold  or  silver.^ 

Of  these  commandments,  some  are  evidently  gene- 
ral, being  founded  on  the  fundamental  principles  of 
ethics ;  others  are  addressed  only  to  those  in  orders. 
Such  is  the  case  with  the  last  five,  all  of  which  bear 
reference  to  certain  disciplinary  laws  imposed  upon 
the  monks  and  nuns.      Their  object  is  to  ])rohibit 

'  Lotus,  p.  444. 


BUDDHIST  MONASTIC  RULES.  129 

luxury  of  various  kinds,  such  as  the  use  of  a  hirge  bed, 
and  to  restrain  the  love  of  sensual  enjoyments,  such 
as  plays,  music,  and  dancing.  Another  list  of  offences, 
after  enumerating;  the  first  five  of  those  contained  in 
the  preceding  list,  adds  five  more,  namely  : — 

1.  Blasphemy  of  the  Buddha. 

2.  Blasphemy  of  the  Law. 

3.  Blasphemy  of  the  Church. 

4.  Heresy. 

5.  Violation  of  a  nun.^ 

Such  are  the  leading  points  of  monastic  discipline 
among  the  primitive  Buddhists.  A  more  elaborate 
and  formal  treatise  on  the  subject  of  the  sins  to  be 
avoided,  and  the  pe^jialties  to  be  imposed  on  their 
commission,  is  the  Pratimoksha  Sutra,  or  Sutra  on 
Emancipation.  It  is  the  standard  work  on  this 
subject,  and  should  be  recited  before  the  assembled 
Vihara  twice  in  each  month,  any  guilty  brother  con- 
fessing any  transgression  of  its  precepts  of  which 
he  might  be  conscious.  Its  antiquity  is  undoubted, 
for  in  a  Sutra  known  to  have  been  brought  to  China 
from  India  in  a.d.  70  (and  therefore  already  of 
established  repute)  the  Pratimoksha  is  referred  to  as 
the  "  250  rules."  ^  It  does,  in  fact,  contain  250  rules 
in  its  Chinese  form,  while  the  Thibetan  version 
contains  253,  and  the  Pali  version  but  227.^  While 
the  Pratimoksha  Sutra  now  to  be  quoted  is  destined 
for  monks,  or  Bhikshus,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  there 
exists  likewise  a  "  Bhikshunt  Pratimoksha  Sutra,"  or 
Treatise  on  Emancipation  for  Nuus.^  The  rules  are, 
mutatis  mutandis,  the  same  for  both  sexes. 

^  Lotus,  p.  445.  ^  H.  B.  I.,  p.  303. 

2  C.  B.  S.,  p.  189.  ■»  As.  Re,  vol.  .XX.  pp.  79,  84. 

VOL.   n.  I 


I30  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  glance  rapidly  at  the 
nature  of  the  faults  and  crimes  the  confession  of 
which  is  here  imposed  on  Bhikshus  and  Bhikslmnis.^ 

The  Sutra  opens  with  certain  stanzas  designed  to 
celebrate  the  Buddhist  Trinity, — the  Buddha,  the 
Law,  and  the  Church.  Then  follow  some  "prepara- 
tory questions : " — 

"  Are  the  priests  assembled  ?  (They  are.)  Are  all  things 
arranged?  (seats,  water,  sweeping,  &c.)  (They  are.)  Let  all 
depart  who  are  not  ordained.  (If  any,  let  them  go ;  if  none  are 
present,  let  one  say  so.)  Does  any  Bhikshu  here  present  ask  for 
absolution?  (Let  him  answer  accordingly.)  Exhortation  must 
be  given  to  the  priestesses  (but  if  there  are  none  present,  let  one 
say  so).  Are  we  agreed  what  our  present  business  is  ?  It  is  to 
repeat  the  jjrecepts  in  this  lawful  asserr^ly. 

"  Venerable  brethren,  attend  now  !  On  this  ....  day  of  the 
month  ....  let  the  assembled  priests  listen  attentively  and 
l)atiently,  whilst  the  precepts  are  distinctly  recited. 

COMMENCEMENT. 

"  Brethren  !  I  desire  to  go  through  the  Pnitimoksha.  Bhikshus  ! 
assembled  thus,  let  all  consider  and  devoutly  reflect  on  these 
precepts.  If  any  have  transgressed,  let  him  repent !  If  none 
have  transgressed,  then  stand  silent !  silent !  Thus,  brethren,  it 
shall  be  known  that  ye  are  guiltless. 

"  Now  if  a  stranger  ask  one  of  us  a  question  we  are  bound  to 
reply  truthfully  :  so,  also,  Bhikshus,  we  who  reside  in  community, 
if  we  know  that  we  have  done  wrong,  and  yet  decline  to  acknow- 
ledge it,  we  are  guilty  of  prevarication.  But  Buddha  has  declared 
that  prevarication  efi'ectually  prevents  our  religious  advancement. 
That  brother,  therefore,  who  is  conscious  of  transgression,  and 
desires  absolution,  ought  at  once  to  declare  his  fault,  and  after 
proper  penance  he  shall  have  rest  and  peace. 

"Brethren  !  having  repeated  this  preface,  I  demand  of  you  all 


^  The  translation  of  this  Sutra  is  due  to  Mr  Beal,   to  whose  most 
Ujiofiil  labours  on  Buddhism  I  am  much  indebted. — C.  B.  S.,  p.  206. 


B  UDDIIIST  MONASTIC  R  ULES.  1 3  t 

• — Is  this  assembly  pure  or  not?  (Repeat  this  three  times.) 
Brethren  !  this  assembly  is  pure  ;  silent !  silent !  ye  stand  !  So 
let  it  be  !  Brethren,  I  now  proceed  to  recite  the  four  parajika 
laws,  ordered  to  be  recited  twice  every  month." 

These  four  Laws  are  then  repeated,  and  the  penalty 
of  excommunication,  which  attaches  to  a  breach  of 
any  one  of  them,  is  enunciated.  The  first  of  the  four 
prohibits  impure  conduct ;  the  second,  theft.  The 
third  runs  as  follows  : — 

"  If  a  Bhikshu  cause  a  man's  death,  or  hold  a  weapon  and  give 
it  a  man  (for  the  purpose),  or  if  he  speak  of  the  advantages  of 
death,  or  if  he  ceaselessly  exhort  one  to  meet  death  (saying), 
'  Tush,  you  are  a  In-ave  man,'  or  use  such  wicked  speech  as  this, 
'  It  is  far  better  to  die  and  not  to  live,'  using  such  considerations 
as  these,  bringing  every  sort  of  expedient  into  use,  praising 
death,  exhorting  to  death  :  this  Bhikshu  ought  to  be  excluded 
and  cut  off." 

The  fourtli  rule  is  against  pretending  to  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  Truth  which  the  Bhikshu  does  not 
in  fact  possess. 

At  the  end  of  the  recitation  of  these  four  rules  it  is 
declared  that  a  brother  who  has  transgressed  any  one 
of  them  "has  acquired  the  guilt  which  demands 
exclusion,  and  ought  not  to  live  as  a  member  of  the 
priesthood."  The  question  as  to  the  purity  of  the 
Assembly  is  then  again  put,  and  the  priest  (after 
declaring  it  pure)  proceeds  to  thirteen  rules,  the 
breach  of  which  is  punished  by  sus]3ension.  The  first 
restrains  a  monk  from  pampering  lustful  thoughts, 
the  second  from  bringing  any  part  of  his  body  into 
contact  with  that  of  a  woman,  the  third  from  lewd 
talk  with  a  woman,  the  fourth  from  obtainiiiix  a 
woman  to  minister  to  him.     For  a  violation  of  this 


1 3 2  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

last  injunction  the  highest  penance,  as  well  as  suspen- 
sion, is  appointed.  There  follow  rules  against  building 
a  residence  of  illegal  size,  or  without  due  consecration, 
or  on  an  inconvenient  site  ;  against  building  a  Vihara 
on  an  inconvenient  site  ;  against  slander  of  a  Bhikshu 
(two  rules),  against  causing  disunion  in  a  community, 
against  forming  a  cabal  for  mutual  protection  against 
just  censure,  against  disorderly  conduct  when  living 
in  a  house,  against  a  refusal  to  listen  to  expostulation 
or  reproof.  Solitary  confinement,  and  six  days  of 
penance,  are  the  penalties  imposed  on  these  offences  ; 
after  the  infliction  of  the  sentence  absolution  is  to  be 
given.  Next  we  have  two  rules  "not  capable  of  exact 
definition,"  but  relating  to  licentious  talk  with  "  a 
faithful  lay  woman."  Thirty  rules  relating  to  priests' 
robes  and  the  like  matters  are  now  recited.  They 
seem  to  be  aimed  at  covetousness  in  receiving  or 
asking  gifts.  After  the  usual  inquiry  as  to  the  purity 
of  the  brethren,  ninety  rules  against  ofiences  requiring 
*'  confession  and  absolution  "  are  to  be  read.  Some  of 
these  seem  to  be  repetitions  of  previous  ones  belonging 
to  a  more  serious  category,  as  the  first  two,  on  lying 
and  slander,  and  the  eighth,  against  pretended  know- 
ledge. Then  the  Pratimoksha  proceeds  to  say  that  if 
a  Bhikshu  use  hypocritical  language,  if  he  occupy  the 
same  lodging  as  a  woman,  or  the  same  as  a  man  not 
yet  ordained  above  two  nights,  if  he  chant  prayers 
with  a  man  not  yet  ordained,  if  he  rail  at  a  priest, 
if  he  use  water  containing  insects  (so  as  to  destroy 
life),  if  he  give  clothes  to  a  Bhikshuni,  or  nun,  if  he  go 
with  a  Bhikshuni  in  any  boat  except  a  ferry-boat,  if 
he  a«rree  to  walk  with  a  Bhikshuni  alono^  tlie  road,  if 
he  gambol  in  the  water  while  bathing,  if   he  drink 


THE  SUTRAS.  133 

clistilleJ  or  fermented  liquor,  or  commit  any  of  the 
many  other  faults,  partly  against  morality  in  general, 
partly  against  conventual  rule,  he  is  guilty  of  a  trans- 
gression of  this  class.  Four  rules  follow  against  re- 
ceiving food  from  a  nun,  against  allowing  a  nun  in 
a  layman's  house  to  point  out  certain  dishes,  and  have 
them  given  to  certain  monks ;  against  going  to 
dinner  uninvited ;  against  the  omission  on  the  part 
(^f  a  monk  residing  in  a  dangerous  place  to  warn  those 
who  may  bring  him  victuals  of  the  risk  they  run.  A 
hundred  rules,  mostly  trifling,  are  now  entered  on. 
They  arc  such  as  these  :  "  Not  to  enter  a  layman's 
house  in  a  bouncing  manner."  "Not  to  munch  or 
make  a  munching  noise  in  eating  rice,"  and  likewise, 
"not  to  make  a  lapping  noise."  "Not  to  clean  the 
teeth  under  a  pagoda ; "  with  many  other  minute  regu- 
lations on  a  multitude  of  trivial  points.  The  seven 
concluding  laws  refer  simply  to  the  mode  of  decidino- 
ca?es. 

Subdivision  7.~-The  SMra-Pitaka. 

We  have  thus  concluded  our  notice  of  the  Prati- 
nioksha  Stitra,  and  may  pass  on  to  the  S<itra-pitaka, 
the  second  of  the  three  baskets  into  which  the  Canon 
is  divided.  Stitra  is  a  term  signifying  a  discourse, 
or  lecture,  and  the  SAtras  of  Buddhism  are  frequently 
moral  stories,  supposed  to  emanate  from  Gautama 
Buddha  himself,  and  embodying  the  great  features  of 
his  gospel,  as  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  and  the 
Parables  do  those  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus.  A  very 
interestinpr  collection  of  such  stories  belonoinsr  to  the 
Stitra-pitaka  is  contained  in  a  work  translated  from 
the   Thibetan    by   a    Eussian    scholar,    and    forming, 


134  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

under  the  title  of  the  iZclsangs-Z^hiu,  or  the  Wise  Mim 
and  the  Fool,  a  portion  of  the  28th  volume  of  the 
ilido,  or  Sutra-pitaka.  From  Csoma's  Analysis  it 
appears  that  many  other  narratives  of  a  similar 
nature  are  embodied  in  this  section  of  the  Canon, 
though  much  of  it  also  consists  of  more  direct 
dogmatic  instruction.  From  "  The  Wise  Man  and  the 
Fool  "  I  select  a  chapter  which  affords  a  good  illus- 
tration of  the  boundless  charity  which  Buddhism 
inculcates. 

The  victoriously-perfect  One  was  living  at  Sravasti. 
When  the  time  came  to  receive  alms,  he  set  out  with 
his  disciple  Ananda,  alms-bowl  in  hand,  along  the 
road.  It  so  happened  that  he  met  two  men  who  had 
been  condemned  to  death  for  repeated  robberies,  and 
were  being  led  to  execution.  Their  mother,  seeing 
the  Buddha,  thus  addressed  him  : — "  0  chief  of  gods, 
think  of  us  with  mercy,  and  vouchsafe  to  take  under 
thy  protection  these  my  sons  who  are  going  to  execu- 
tion." Buddha  accordingly  interceded  with  the  king, 
who  gave  them  a  free  pardon.  Touched  with  grati- 
tude, the  two  men  asked  leave  to  become  monks,  and 
on  Buddha's  consenting  to  receive  them,  their  hair  at 
once  fell  off  from  head  and  face,  and  their  garments 
assumed  the  yellow  hue  of  the  order.^  Both  mother 
and  sons  attained  high  spiritual  grades.  Ananda 
marvelled  what  good  deed  these  three  could  have  ]Der- 
formed  to  meet  with  the  victoriously-perfect  One, 
to  be  saved  from  such  great  evils,  and  to  obtain  the 
prospect  of  Nirvana.  Buddha  thereupon  informed 
him  that  this  was  not  tlie  first  occasion  on  which  he 
had  saved  their  lives,  and  on   Ananda's  request  for  a 

'  This  is  a  standing  miracle  on  the  reception  of  novices  by  Buddha. 


THE  PRINCE  AND  THE  TIGRESS.  135 

fiuther  explanation,  related  the  following  circum- 
stances. Countless  ages  ago,  there  lived  in  Jambud- 
■\vipa  (India)  a  certain  king  who  had  three  sons.  The 
youngest  son  was  mild  and  merciful  from  his  childhood 
upwards.  One  day,  when  the  king,  with  his  ministers, 
wives  and  sons,  was  at  a  picnic  outside  the  town,  the 
three  sons  went  into  a  wood,  where  they  found  a 
tigress,  with  young  recently  littered,  so  nearly  starved 
that  she  w^as  almost  on  the  j^oint  of  devouring  her  own 
brood.  The  youngest  asked  his  brothers  what  food  a 
tigress  would  eat.  "Newly-killed  meat  and  warm 
blood."  "  Is  there  any  one  who  would  support  its  life 
with  his  own  body?"  "No  one,"  replied  the  elder 
brothers;  "that  would  be  too  difficult."^  Then  the 
youngest  prince  thought  within  himself :  "  For  a 
long  time  I  have  been  driven  about  in  the  circle  of 
births,  and  have  thrown  away  my  body  and  my  life 
innumerable  times ;  often  have  I  sacrificed  it  for  the 
passion  of  the  desires,  often  for  that  of  rage,  often 
too  for  folly  and  ignoratice ;  what  value  then  has 
this  body,  which  has  not  one  single  time  trodden  the 
field  of  meritorious  actions  for  the  sake  of  religion  1  " 
Meantime,  all  three  had  w^alked  on  ;  but  the  youngest, 
pleading  some  business  of  his  own,  desired  them  to 
go  on,  leaving  him  to  follow.  Having  returned  to 
the  cave  of  the  tigress,  he  laid  himself  down  beside 
her,  but  found  her  too  weak  to  open  her  mouth. 
Hereupon  the  prince  contrived  to  bleed  himself  with 
a  sharp  splinter  of  wood,  and  the  tigress,  after  lick- 
ing the  blood  that  flowed  from  him,  w\as  suflaciently 
refreshed  to  consume  him  altogether.     The  two  elder 

^  I  give  only  the  substance  of  this  colloq^ny. 


136  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

brothers,  wondering  at  his  long  ahsenfc,  returned  to 
the  tiger's  hole,  where,  on  finding  his  remains,  they 
rolled  upon  the  ground  and  fainted,  overcome  with 
grief.  The  queen,  who  had  had  an  alarming  dream, 
questioned  them  anxiously  on  their  return  as  to  their 
brother,  and  she  too  on  learning  the  sad  event,  which 
their  choking  voices  for  some  time  prevented  them 
from  telling,  fell  senseless  to  the  ground.  Soon  after, 
both  king  and  queen  visited  the  den,  but  could  find 
nothing  but  bones.  Meantime,  the  prince  had  been 
born  again  in  the  Tushita  heaven.  Looking  about  to 
discover  what  good  action  of  his  had  brought  him  to 
this  place,  he  saw  the  bones  of  his  former  body  in  the 
tigress's  den,  and  his  parents  sighing  and  groaning 
around  them.  He  returned  from  his  heavenly  abode 
to  give  them  some  consolation  and  some  good  advice. 
They  were  at  length  somewhat  comforted,  and  collect- 
ing his  bones,  buried  them  in  a  costly  sarcophagus. 

Buddha  then  turns  to  Ananda  and  asks  him  whom 
he  supposes  the  actors  in  this  tragedy  to  have  been. 
He  tells  him,  without  waiting  for  an  answer,  that  the 
king  was  his  present  father,  the  queen  his  present 
mother,  the  elder  princes  certain  personages  named 
Maitreya  and  Vasumitra,  and  the  youngest  prince 
no  other  than  himself.  The  young  tigers  were,  it 
need  hardly  be  said,  the  condemned  felons  whom  he 
had  now  again  delivered  from  death. 

While  this  anecdote  inculcates  charity  in  its  fullest 
extent,  the  one  which  is  now  to  be  quoted  illus- 
trates another  most  conspicuous  point  in  the  ethics 
of  Buddhism, — the  regard  paid  by  it  to  personal 
purity  and  the  deadening  influence  it  exercised  on  the 


UP  A  GUPTA  AND    VASAVADAITA.  137 

senses.     The  translation  of  this  curious  legend  is  clue 
to  Burnouf : — 

"  There  was  at  IMathura  a  courtesan  called  Vasavadatta.  Her 
maid  went  one  day  to  TJpagupta  to  buy  her  some  perfumes. 
V&savadattii  said  to  her  on  her  return  :  '  It  seems,  my  dear, 
that  this  perfumer  pleases  you,  as  you  always  buy  from  him.' 
The  maid  answered  her :  '  Daughter  of  my  master,  Upagupta, 
the  son  of  the  merchant,  who  is  gifted  with  beauty,  with  talent, 
and  with  gentleness,  passes  his  life  in  the  observance  of  the  law.' 
On  hearing  these  words  Vasavadatta  conceived  an  affection  fur 
Upagupta,  and  at  last  she  sent  her  mai<l  to  say  to  him  :  '  My 
intention  is  to  go  and  find  you  ;  I  wisli  to  enjoy  myself  with  you.' 
The  maid  delivered  her  message  to  Upagupta  ;  but  the  young 
man  told  her  to  answer  her  mistress  :  '  My  sister,  it  is  not  yet 
time  for  you  to  see  me.'  Now  it  was  necessary  in  order  to  obtain 
the  favours  of  Vasavadatta  to  give  five  hundred  Puranas,  Thus 
the  courtesan  imagined  that  [if  he  refused  her,  it  was  because] 
he  could  not  give  the  five  hundred  Puranas.  For  this  reason, 
she  sent  her  maid  to  him  again  to  say,  '  I  do  not  ask  a  single 
K&rchapana  from  the  son  of  my  master ;  I  only  wish  to  enjoy 
myself  with  him.'  The  maid  again  delivered  this  new  message, 
and  Upagupta  answered  her  in  the  same  way  :  '  My  sister,  it  is 
not  time  yet  for  you  to  see  me.' 

"  However,  the  son  of  a  master-workman  had  come  to  settle  with 
Vasavadatta,  when  a  merchant,  Avho  was  bringing  from  the  north 
five  hundred  horses  which  he  wished  to  sell,  came  to  the  town  of 
Mathura,  and  asked  who  was  the  most  beautiful  courtesan.  He 
was  answered  that  Vasavadatta  was.  Immediately,  taking  500 
Puranas  and  a  great  number  of  presents,  he  went  to  the  courtesan. 
Then  Vasavadatta,  urged  by  covetousness,  assassinated  the  son  of 
the  master-workman,  who  was  at  her  house,  threw  liis  body  into 
the  middle  of  the  filth  of  the  town,  and  gave  herself  up  to  the 
merchant.  After  some  days,  the  young  man  was  extricated  from 
the  filth  by  his  parents,  who  denounced  the  murder.  The  king 
at  once  gave  orders  to  the  executioners  to  go  and  cut  off  V^sava- 
datta's  hands,  feet,  ears,  and  nose,  and  to  leave  her  in  the  cemetery. 
Tlie  executioners  carried  out  the  orders  of  the  king,  and  left  the 
courtesan  in  the  place  named. 

"  Now  Upagupta  heard  of  the  punifchment  that  had  been  inflicted 


1 3 8  HOL  Y  BO OKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

on  Vasavadatta,  and  at  once  this  idea  came  into  his  mind  :  'Some 
time  ago,  this  woman  wished  to  see  me  for  a  sensnal  object,  and 
I  did  not  consent  that  she  should  see  me.  But  now  that  her 
hands  and  feet,  ears  and  nose,  have  been  cut  off,  it  is  time  she 
should  see  me,'  and  he  pronounced  these  verses  : 

"  '  When  her  body  was  covered  with  beautiful  attire,  when  she 
shone  with  ornaments  of  different  sorts,  the  best  thing  for  those 
who  aspired  to  deliverance  and  Avho  wished  to  escape  the  law  of 
renewed  birth  was  not  to  go  and  see  this  woman. 

"  '  To-day,  when  she  has  lost  her  pride,  her  love  and  her  joy, 
when  she  has  been  mutilated  by  the  edge  of  the  knife,  when  her 
body  is  reduced  to  its  true  nature,  it  is  time  to  see  her.' 

"  Then  sheltered  by  a  parasol  carried  b}^  a  young  man  who 
accompanied  him  as  a  servant,  he  went  to  the  cemetery  with  a 
measured  step.  Vasavadatta's  maid  had  stayed  with  her  mistress 
out  of  gratitude  for  her  past  kindness,  and  she  prevented  the 
crows  from  approaching  her  body.  [Seeing  Upagupta]  she  said 
to  her  :  '  Daughter  of  my  master,  he  to  whom  you  sent  me  several 
times,  Upagupta,  is  coming  this  way.  No  doubt  he  comes  attracted 
by  the  desire  for  pleasure.'  But  VS.savadatta,  hearing  these  words, 
answered  : 

'"When  he  sees  me  deprived  of  beauty,  racked  with  grief,  lying 
on  the  ground  all  covered  with  blood,  how  can  he  feel  love  of 
jileasure  ? ' 

"  Then  she  said  to  her  maid :  '  Friend,  pick  up  the  limbs  that 
have  been  severed  from  my  body.'  The  maid  picked  them  up 
at  once,  and  hid  them  under  a  bit  of  linen.  At  this  moment 
Upagupta  arrived,  and  he  stood  up  before  Vasavadatta.  The 
courtesan,  seeing  him  standing  up  before  her,  said  to  him  :  '  Son 
of  my  master,  when  my  body  was  whole,  when  it  was  made  for 
enjoyment,  I  several  times  sent  my  maid  to  you,  and  you  answered 
me  :  "  My  sister,  it  is  not  time  for  you  to  see  me."  To-day,  when 
the  knife  has  carried  off  my  hands  and  feet,  my  ears  and  nose, 
when  I  am  thrown  in  the  dirt  and  in  blood,  why  do  you  come?' 
And  she  uttered  the  following  verses  : 

" '  When  my  body  Mas  soft  like  the  lotus-flower,  when  it  was 
adorned  with  ornaments  and  rich  clothes,  when  it  had  all  which 
attracted  the  eye,  I  was  so  unhappy  as  not  to  see  you. 

'•'To-day  why  do  you  come  to  contemj^late  a  body,  the  sight  of 


THE  SUTRAS,  SIMPLE  AND  DEVELOPED.    139 

whiclx  the  eyes  cannot  bear,  which  games,  pleasure,  joy,  and 
beauty  have  abandoned,  which  inspires  horror,  and  is  stained 
with  blood  and  dirt  ? ' 

"  Upagupta  answered  her  :  '  I  have  not  come  to  you,  my  sister, 
attracted  by  the  love  of  pleasure  ;  but  I  am  come  to  see  the  real 
nature  of  the  miserable  objects  of  the  enjoyments  of  man.'  "  ^ 

Such  is  the  character  of  the  more  ancient  portions 
of  the  Stitra-pitaka.  It  consists  largely  of  tales,  most 
of  which  have  much  the  same  outward  form,  the  de- 
tails only  being  varied  ;  and  all  of  which  are  intended 
to  impress  some  kind  of  moral  upon  their  hearers. 
But  the  Sutra  collection  is  composed  of  two  dif- 
ferent classes  of  works,  the  one  class  being  named  by 
Burnouf  simple  Sutras,  tlie  other  developed  Stitras. 
The  developed  Strtras  belong,  according  to  the  same 
authority,  to  a  much  later  period,  and  are  marked 
off  from  the  simple  Sutras  by  certain  well-defined 
characters.  They  are  indeed  of  a  kind  which  abso- 
lutely precludes  the  notion  that  they  can  emanate 
in  any  way  whatever  from  Sakyamuni,  or  that  they 
could  have  been  composed  during  the  modest  begin- 
nings of  his  Church,  when  his  followers  were  rather 
iutent  on  practical  goodness  than  on  pompous  and 
high-flown  descriptions  of  their  Master's  magnificence. 
Not  that  all  the  Siitras  classed  by  Burnouf  as  simple 
must  needs  belong  to  a  very  early  age  ;  but  that 
the  developed  Sutras  certainly  could  not  have  been 
written  until  some  centuries  after  Sakyamuni's  death, 
when  his  disciples,  instead  of  using  their  voices  in 
actual  conversation,  enjoyed  the  leisure  and  the  means 
to  employ  their  pens  in  attempted  fine  writing. 
Burnouf  has  given  the  public  a  single  specimen  of  a 

^  II,  B.  I.,  p.  14611'. 


I40  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

Slitra  of  this  class,  and  they  must  be  very  devoted 
students  of  Oriental  literature  who  wish  for  another. 
Here  is  a  sample  of  its  style  : — 

"  Then  the  Bodhisattva  Mah^sattva  Akshayamati 
having  risen  from  his  seat,  after  throwing  his  upper 
garment  over  his  shoulder,  and  placing  his  right  knee 
on  the  ground,  directing  his  joined  hands,  in  token  of 
respect,  to  the  quarter  where  Bhagavat  was,  addressed 
him  in  these  words  :  '  Why,  0  Bhagavat,  does  the 
Bodhisattva  Mahasattva  Avalokitesvara  bear  that 
name  ? '  This  having  been  said,  Bhagavat  spoke  thus 
to  the  Bodhisattva  Akshayamati :  '  0  son  of  a  family, 
all  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  myriads  of  creatures 
existing  in  the  world  who  suffer  pains,  have  but  to 
hear  the  name  of  the  Bodhisattva  Avalokitesvara  to 
be  delivered  from  this  mass  of  pains.'  "  ^ 

The  extraordinary  diffuseness  of  this  kind  of  com- 
position is  scarcely  credible.  Not  only  is  every 
doctrine  elaborated  in  the  utmost  number  of  words 
j)ossible,  but  its  exposition  in  prose  is  regularly 
followed  by  a  second  exj^osition  in  verse.  Add  to 
this  peculiar  feature  of  developed  Stitras  another, 
namely,  that  innumerable  crowds  of  supernatural 
auditors  (especially  Bodhisattvus,  or  future  Buddhas) 
are  present  at  their  delivery  by  the  Buddha,  and  take 
part  in  the  dialogue,  or  demand  explanations  on  knotty 
points,  and  some  conception  may  be  formed  of  their 
wholly  unreal  and  unnatural  character.  Thus,  the 
Lotus  concludes  with  the  statement  that  innumerable 
Tathagatas  (Buddhas)  come  from  other  universes, 
seated  on  thrones  near  diamond  trees,  innumerable 
Bodhisattvas,  and  the  whole  of  the  four  assemblies  of 

1  Lotus,  p.  261. 


BUDDHIST  METAPHYSICS.  141 

tlie  universe,  with  Devas  (gods),  men,  Asuras,  and 
Gandharvas,  transported  with  joy,  praised  what 
Bhagavat  had  said.  Although  the  simple  SAtras 
mention  the  presence  of  gods  at  the  Buddha's  teach- 
ing, yet  they  do  not  (so  far  as  I  am  aware)  introduce 
these  hosts  of  Bodhisattvas  and  Buddhas  belonging 
to  other  worlds  than  ours.  Their  horizon  had  not 
extended  itself  to  such  vast  limits,  and  they  confined 
themselves  to  the  universe  in  which  w^e  live. 

Subdivision  3. — TJie  A bhidharma-pita'ka. 

A  third  section  of  the  Canon  remains,  the  Abhi- 
dharma,  or  Metaphysics.  Buddhist  metaphysics  are 
so  absolutely  mystical  that  it  would  be  a  w^aste  of 
time  to  enlarge  upon  them  in  a  work  not  specially 
consecrated  to  Oriental  subjects.  The  subtleties  of 
the  Indian  mind  would  require  far  more  space  to 
explain  than  would  be  consistent  with  the  objects 
in  view  here,  even  if  the  writer  were  competent  to 
explain  tliem.  The  impression  left  on  the  mind  by 
the  perusal  of  the  Abhidharma  is  that  we  delude 
ourselves  if  we  believe  in  the  reality  of  anything 
whatever.  There  is  no  material  world  ;  all  we  see, 
hear,  feel,  or  believe,  is  illusion ;  our  thoughts  them- 
selves are  no-thoughts :  this  doctrine  is  that  of  wis- 
dom and  truth,  but  there  is  no  wisdom  and  no  truth. 
The  Buddha  arrives  by  his  meditations  at  this  sublime 
knowledge ;  but  there  is  no  meditation  and  no  know- 
ledge. He  conducts  living  creatures  to  Nirvana ;  but 
there  are  neither  creatures  to  be  conducted,  nor  a  Buddha 
to  conduct  them.  All  is  nothinmess,  and  nothina^ness 
is  all.    That  this  nihilism  is  common  to  all  the  schools 


142  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

into  which  Buddliists  are  divided,  I  do  not  mean  to 
assert.  There  are  in  Nepaul  certain  schools  which  hold 
a  peculiar  modification  of  theism,  and  they  probably 
may  not  embrace  these  strange  and  unintelligible 
systems.  But  the  views — if  views  they  can  be  called 
— which  have  just  been  described,  do  mark  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Abhidharma  with  which  I 
am  acquainted ;  such  as  the  so-called  PradjnA,  Para- 
mit4,  or  Perfection  of  Wisdom.  There  is,  however, 
one  metaphysical  theory  which  is  not  a  mere  series 
of  contradictions,  and  which,  from  its  close  connec- 
tion with  the  deepest  roots  of  the  Buddhistic  faith, 
deserves  more  than  a  mere  cursory  mention.  It  is 
the  dogma  known  as  that  of  the  twelve  Nidanas, 
or  successive  causes  of  existence. 

It  has  already  been  explained  that  the  original 
aim  of  Buddhism — the  salvation  offered  by  Sakya- 
muni— was  deliverance  from  this  painful  existence. 
The  four  truths  which  formed  the  foundation  of  his 
system  have  also  been  spoken  of.  It  may  be  well 
to  remind  the  reader  that  they  are  these  : — i.  The 
existence  of  Pain ;  2.  The  production  of  Pain  ;  3. 
The  annihilation  of  Pain ;  4.  The  way  to  the  anni- 
hilation of  Pain.  Now  if  existence  was,  as  the 
Buddhists  believed,  the  source  of  pain,  it  was  im- 
portant to  discover  the  source  of  existence.  This  the 
theory  of  the  Nidanas  professes  to  do.  It  is  there- 
fore not  only  intimately  related  to  the  four  great 
truths,  but  forms  an  essential  supplement  to  them. 
A  very  ancient  formula,  discovered  not  only  in  books 
but  on  images,  declares  that,  "  Of  all  things  proceed- 
ing from  cause,  the  cause  of  their  procession  hath  the 
Tathagata  explained.     The  great  Sramana  has  like- 


B  UDDHIST  ME  TA PHYSICS.  1 43 

wise  declared  the  cause  of  tlie  extinction  of  all 
tliinjrs."  Whether  this  formula  refers  to  the  four 
truths,  or  to  the  Nidanas,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The 
Nidanas,  however,  might  well  be  referred  to  in  these 
terms.  They  are  described  in  a  passage  which 
Burnouf  has  quoted  from  the  Lalitavistara,  in  which 
the  Bodhisattva  (afterwards  Buddha)  is  stated  to  have 
risen  through  prolonged  meditation  from  the  know- 
ledge of  each  successive  consequent  to  that  of  its  ante- 
cedent. The  Bodhisattva,  we  are  told,  collected  his 
thou  oh ts,  and  fixed  his  intelli^'ence  in  the  last  watch 
of  night,  just  before  the  dawn  appeared.  "  Then  this 
thought  came  into  his  mind :  The  existence  of  this 
world,  which  is  born,  grows  old,  dies,  falls,  and  is 
born  again,  is  certainly  an  evil.  But  he  could  not 
recognise  the  means  of  quitting  this  world,  which  is 
nothing  but  a  great  accumulation  of  sorrows,  which 
is  composed  but  of  decrepitude,  illnesses,  death,  and 
other  miseries,  which  is  altogether  formed  of  them. 

"This  reflection  brousfht  the  followino^  thouo;htinto 
his  mind  :  What  is  the  thing  the  existence  of  which 
leads  to  decrepitude  and  death,  and  what  cause  have 
decrepitude  and  death  ?  This  reflection  came  into  his 
mind :  Birth  existing,  decrepitude  and  death  exist ; 
for  decrepitude  and  death  have  birth  as  their  cause." 

A  similar  process  of  reasoning  led  him  to  see  that 
the  cause  of  birth  was  existence ;  that  of  existence, 
conception  ;  that  of  conception,  desire;  that  of  desire, 
sensation  ;  that  of  sensation,  contact ;  that  of  contact, 
the  six  seats  of  sensible  qualities ;  that  of  the  six 
seats,  name  and  form  ;  that  of  name  and  form,  know- 
ledge ;  that  of  knowledge,  the  concepts ;  that  of  the 
concepts,    ignorance.       "  It    is    thus,"    exclaims    the 


144  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

Bodliisattva  when  this  great  light  had.  burst  upon 
him,  "it  is  thus  that  the  production  of  this  world, 
which  is  but  a  mass  of  sorrows,  takes  place."  And  by 
an  inverse  process  he  went  on  to  reflect  that  if  ignor- 
ance did  not  exist,  neither  would  the  concepts,  and  so 
on,  through  every  link  of  the  chain.  Until  at  length, 
"  from  the  annihilation  of  birth  results  the  annihilation 
of  decrepitude,  of  death,  of  sufferings,  of  lamentations, 
of  sorrow,  of  regret,  of  despair.  It  is  thus  that  the 
annihilation  of  this  world,  which  is  but  a  mass  of 
sorrows,  takes  place."  ^ 

This  speculation  is  by  no  means  easy  to  understand. 
Apparently  it  means  that  ignorance,  in  the  sense  of  a 
mistaken  notion  of  the  reality  of  the  material  world, 
leads  to  a  whole  series  of  blunders,  ending  inevitably 
in  birth.  From  this  fundamental  error  of  belief  in 
the  existence  of  sensible  objects  spring  certain  other 
false  conceptions.  Knowledge,  which  next  ensues, 
may  mean  not  merely  cognition,  but  consciousness, 
knowledge  of  our  existence ;  and  in  this  sense,  or 
in  something  like  it,  it  must  be  taken  in  order  to 
explain  the  apparent  paradox  of  a  deduction  of  the 
pedigree  of  knowledge  directly  from  ignorance.  Hence 
name  and  form,  a  still  further  distinction  of  the 
individual — a  specialisation  of  the  vague  knowledge 
of  himself  which  the  last  stage  brought  him  to.  The 
next  step  carries  us  on  to  the  six  seats  of  sensible 
qualities;  a  phrase  expressing  the  organs  by  which 
sensible  qualities  are  perceived — the  five  senses,  and 
Manas,  the  heart,  which  the  Indians  considered  as  a 
sixth  sense.  It  appears  also  from  Burnouf's  remarks 
that  the  Sanskrit  term  includes  alono-  with  the  organs 
1  n.  B.  I.,  p.  487. 


B  UDDHIST  ME TA PHYSICS.  145 

tlie  qualities  they  perceive,  the  Law  being  assigned  to 
tlie  heart  or  internal  sense  as  the  object  of  its  percep- 
tion.     The  six  seats  being  given,   contact   follows ; 
contact  implies  sensation,  and  sensation  naturally  leads 
to    desire.     Conception  is   represented    as  the  effect 
of  desire,   but   another  translation   of  this   term   by 
attachment,  fondness  for  material  things,  renders  the 
sequence  easier  to  understand.     Attachment  to  any- 
thing but  the  three  gems — the  Buddha,  the  Law,  and 
the  Church — is,  however,  a  fatal  error,  and  leads  to 
the  melancholy  result  of  existence.     Evidently,  how- 
ever, the  being  whose  downward  progress  has  been 
thus   described   must   have    existed   before,   and  the 
event  here  alluded  to  must  probably  be  the  passage 
into  the  definite   condition  of   the  human   embryo. 
And  this  is  rather  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  next 
step  is  that  of  birth,  followed,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
by  the  miseries  of  human  life,  terminating  in  death.^ 
And  death,  unless  every  remnant  of  attachment  to,  and 
desire  for,  all  worldly  things  has  been  purged  away, 
unless  every  trace  of  sinful  tendencies  has  been  oblite- 
rated, is  but  a  fresh  beginning  of  the  same  weary  round. 

Subdivision  /^.—Theology  and  Ethics  of  the  Tripitala. 

Thus  we  have  examined  in  succession  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  Buddhist  Canon.  We  may  pass  over 
a  comparatively  late  and  spurious  addition  to  it,  the 
Tantras— full  of  the  worship  of  strange  gods  and 
goddesses,  and  of  magical  formularies — to  consider 
the  general  features  of  these  sacred  works  in  reference 

^  I  do  not  pretend  to  any  certainty  that  the  above  interpretation  is 
correct,  but  I  have  in  the  main  followed  a  trustworthy  guide,  Burnouf. 
*^ee  n.  B.  I.,  p.  491-507. 

VOL.  II.  jr 


146  IIGL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

to  their  theological  teaching  and  to  their  moral  ten- 
dency. Theology  is  perhaps  a  term  that  will  be  held 
to  be  misplaced  in  sjDeaking  of  a  system  which  acknow- 
ledges no  God.  Yet  Buddhism  is  so  full  of  super- 
natural creatures,  and  the  Buddha  himself  occupies  a 
position  so  nearly  divine,  that  it  would  be  hard  to  find 
a  more  appropriate  word.  Buddha  himself  is  the 
central  figure  of  the  whole  of  his  system,  far  more 
completely  than  Christ  is  the  central  figure  of  Chris- 
tianity, or  Mahomet  of  Islam.  There  is  no  Deity 
above  him ;  he  stands  out  alone,  unrivalled,  unequalled, 
and  unapproachable.  The  gods  of  the  Hindu  pantheon 
are  by  no  means  annihilated  in  the  Buddhist  Scriptures. 
On  the  contrary,  they  play  a  certain  part  in  them, 
as  when  some  of  the  greatest  among  their  number 
assist  at  the  delivery  of  Mayd.  But  the  part  assigned 
to  them  is  always  a  subordinate  one ;  they  are  j)rac- 
tically  set  aside,  not  by  the  sceptical  process  of  ques- 
tioning their  existence,  but  by  the  more  subtle  one  of 
introducing  them  as  humbly  seated  at  the  Buddha's 
footstool,  and  devout  recipients  of  his  instructions. 
Hostility  to  Gautama  Buddha  there  may  be,  but  not 
from  them.  It  proceeds  from  heretical  Brahmans — 
rivals  in  trade — and  from  those  whom  they  may  for  a 
time  deceive.  The  gods  are  among  the  most  docile  of 
his  pupils,  and  display  a  praiseworthy  eagerness  to 
acquire  the  knowledge  he  may  condescend  to  imjiart. 
Infinitely  above  gods  and  men,  because  possessing 
infinitely  deeper  knowledge  and  infinitely  higher 
virtue,  stands  the  Tathagata,  the  man  w^ho  walks  in 
the  footsteps  of  his  predecessors.  His  position  is  the 
greatest  to  which  any  mortal  creature  can  attain. 
But  it  has  been  attained  by  many  before,  and  will  be 


SUCCESSIVE  INCARNATIONS  OF  BUDDHA.    147 

by  many  hereafter.  Far  away  into  ages  separated 
from  ours  by  millions  of  millions  of  years  stretches  th(5 
long  list  of  Bucldhas,  for  every  age  has  received  a 
similar  light  to  lighten  up  its  darkness.  All  have  led 
lives  marked  by  the  same  incidents,  and  have  taught 
the  same  truths.  But  by  and  by  the  darkness  has 
returned;  the  doctrines  of  the  former  Buddha  have 
been  forgotten,  and  a  new  one  has  been  needed. 
Then  in  due  season  he  has  appeared,  and  has  again 
opened  to  mankind  the  path  of  salvation.  Thus 
K4syapa  Buddha  preceded  Gautama  Buddha,  and 
Maitreya  (now  a  Bodhisattva)  will  succeed  him.  The 
Buddha  is  an  ol^ject  of  the  most  devout  adoration. 
Prayers  are  addressed  to  him  ;  his  relics  are  enshrined 
in  Sttipas,  or  buildings  erected  by  the  piety  of  believers 
to  cover  them  ;  his  footprints  are  viewed  with  rever- 
ential awe,  and  his  tooth,  preserved  in  Ceylon,  receives 
the  constant  liomage  of  that  pious  population.  Thus 
his  position  is  not  unlike  that  of  a  true  Deity,  though 
the  theory  of  Buddhism  would  recjuire  us  to  suppose 
that  he  is  non-existent,  and  therefore  wholly  unable 
to  aid  his  worshippers.  But  this  theory  is  not  acted 
upon,  and  is  probably  not  held  in  all  its  strictness  ; 
for  Buddha — though  to  some  extent  superseded  in 
Northern  Buddhism  by  other  divinities — is  the  object 
of  a  decided  worship  in  both  its  elements  of  prayer 
and  praise. 

But  the  pre-eminent  station  occupied  by  a  Buddha 
is  not  reziched  without  a  long  and  painful  education. 
Through  ages,  the  length  of  which  is  scarcely  to  be 
expressed  by  numbers,  they  are  qualifyiiig  themselves 
for  their  glorious  task.  During  this  period  they  are 
termed  Bodhisattvas,  that  is,  beings  who  have  taken 


148  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

a  solemn  resolution  to  become  Budcllias,  and  are 
practising  the  necessary  virtues.  The  very  fact  of 
taking  this  resolution  is  an  exercise  of  exalted  bene- 
volence, for  their  excellence  is  such  that  they  might, 
if  they  pleased,  enter  at  once  into  Nirvana.  But  such 
is  their  love  for  the  human  race,  that  they  prefer  to  be 
born  again  and  again  in  a  world  of  woe,  in  order  to 
throw  open  Nirvana  to  others  besides  themselves. 
To  attain  their  end,  they  must  make  an  offering  to 
some  actual  Buddha,  wishing  at  the  same  time  that  by 
virtue  of  this  act  they  may  become  Buddhas  them- 
selves ;  and  they  must  receive  an  assurance  from  the 
object  of  their  gift  that  this  wish  will  be  fulfilled. 
Thus  Gautama,  who  happened  at  the  time  to  be  a 
prince,  presented  a  golden  vessel  full  of  oil  to  a  Buddha 
named  Purana  Dipankara,  with  the  wish  alluded  to, 
and  was  assured  by  him  that  he  would  in  a  future  age 
become  a  supreme  Buddha.^  The  tales  of  the  pains 
endured,  the  sacrifices  made,  the  virtues  practised  by 
Gautama  during  this  ^probationary  period  are  numerous 
and  varied.  He  himself,  by  virtue  of  his  faculty  of 
knowing  the  past,  related  them  to  his  disciples.  He 
had  sacrificed  wife,  children,  property,  even  his  own 
person,  for  the  good  of  other  living  creatures ;  he  had 
endured  all  kinds  of  sufferings  ;  he  had  shown  himself 
capable  of  the  rarest  unselfishness,  tlie  most  j^erfect 
purity,  the  most  unswerving  rectitude.  The  tale  of 
his  endurances  might  move  compassion,  had  it  not 
been  crowned  at  last  with  the  his^hest  reward  to  which 
a  mortal  can  aspire. 

A\niile  the  Buddha   occupies  the  first  rank  among 
human  and  superhuman  beings,   and   a  Bodhisattva 
'  ■\r.  B.,  p.  92. 


DIVERSITY  OF  SPIRITUAL  GRADES.         149 

the  second,  the  Scriptures  introduce  us  to  others  hold- 
ing very  conspicuous  places  among  the  spiritual  no- 
bility. Such,  for  instance,  are  the  Pratyeka  Buddhas. 
These  are  persons  of  very  high  intelligence  and  very 
extraordinary  merit.  But  they  are  unable  to  commu- 
nicate their  knowledge  to  others.  They  can  save 
themselves ;  others'  they  cannot  save.  Herein  lies 
their  inferiority  to  supreme  Buddhas, — that  while 
their  spiritual  attainments  are  sufficient  to  ensure  their 
entry  into  Nirvana,  they  are  inadequate  to  enable 
them  to  obtain  the  same  privilege  for  any  other 
person. 

In  addition  to  these  not  very  interesting  Buddhas, 
the  legends  speak  of  certain  grades  of  intelligence 
attained  by  Gautama's  hearers.  Thus,  we  are  often 
told  that  many  of  the  audience — perhaps  hundreds  or 
thousands — after  hearing  a  sermon  from  him,  became 
Arhats ;  others  are  said  to  have  become  Anagamin, 
Sakridagximin,  or  Srot^panna.  These  degrees  are  based 
upon  the  reception  of  the  four  truths.  According  to 
the  manner  in  which  a  man  received  these  truths,  he 
entered  one  of  eight  paths,  each  of  the  four  degrees 
having  two  classes,  a  higher  and  a  lower  one.  Some- 
times these  paths  are  called  "  fruits ; "  a  disciple  is 
said  to  obtain  the  fruits  of  such  and  such  a  state.  An 
Arhat  is  a  person  of  very  high  station  indeed. 
Excepting  a  Buddha,  none  is  equal  to  him,  either  in 
knowdedge  or  miraculous  powders,  both  of  which  he 
possesses  to  a  pre-eminent  extent.  The  Arhat  after 
his  death  enters  at  once  into  Nirvana.  The  Anagamin 
enters  the  third  path  (from  the  bottom),  and  is  exempt 
from  re-birth  except  in  the  world  of  Devas,  or  gods. 
He  who  obtains  or  "  sees  "  the  fruit  of  the  second  path 


I50  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

is  born  once  more  in  tlie  world  of  go<ls  or  in  that  of 
men.  Finally,  the  Srotapanna  undergoes  re-birth 
either  among  gods  or  men  seven  times,  and  is  then 
delivered  from  the  stream  of  existence.^ 

Below  the  fortunate  travellers  along  the  paths  stands 
the  mass  of  ordinary  believers.  All  of  these,  of  course, 
aim  ultimately — or  should  aim — at  that  perfection  of 
knowledge  and  of  character  which  ensures  Nirvana ; 
but  in  popular  Buddhism  at  the  present  day  this 
distant  goal  appeal's  to  be  well-nigh  forgotten,  and  to 
have  given  place  to  some  heaven,  or  place  of  enjoyment, 
above  which  the  general  hope  does  not  rise. 

Believers  in  general  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
Bhikshus  and  Bhikshunis,  or  monks  and  nuns  ;  and 
Uj)asakas,  lay  disciples.  The  distinction  between  these 
classes  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  extract 
from  a  sacred  book,  the  consideration  of  which  will 
lead  us  from  the  domain  of  theology  into  that  of 
morality: — "What  is  to  be  done  in  the  condition  of  a 
mendicant  ? — The  rules  of  chastity  must  Ije  observed 

^  The  authorities  do  not  entirely  agree  in  the  accounts  they  give  of 
the  speed  with  which  these  paths  lead  to  Nirvana.  The  above  state- 
ment appears  to  me  unquestionably  the  oldest  and  most  authentic.  It 
is  in  agreement  with  Eitel,  Sanskrit-Chinese  Dictionary,  suh  vocihiis 
(Sakrid^gamin,  however,  is  omitted),  and  with  Hardy,  E.  M.,  p.  280. 

Eitel  indeed  adds  that  an  Arhat,  if  he  does  not  enter  Nirvana,  may 
become  a  Buddha,  but  this  is  probably  a  Northern  perversion  of  the 
original  notion.  In  the  genuine  authorities,  a  Bodhisattva  is  quite 
distinct  from  an  Arhat.  The  account  derived  by  Burnouf  (H  B.  I, 
pp.  291  ff.)  from  Northern  sources  is  palj>ably  a  corruption  of  the  older 
doctrine,  proceeding  from  that  unbounded  love  of  exaggerated  numbers 
which  is  the  besetting  sin  of  Buddliist  writers.  According  to  this  ver- 
sion, the  Srotapanna  must  pass  through  80,000  ages  before  his  seven 
births  ;  tlie  Sakridagamin,  after  60,000  ages,  is  to  be  born  once  as  a  man 
and  once  as  a  god  ;  tlie  Anagamin,  after  40,000  ages,  is  exempted  from 
re-birth  in  tlie  world  of  desire,  and  arrives  at  supreme  knowledge  ; 
■which  the  Arhat  reaches  after  20,000  ages.  Poor  comfort  this  to  souls 
longing  for  their  eternal  rest.     Cf.  Kojjpen,  R.  B.,  vol.  i.  p.  498, 


B  UDDHIST  MORALITY.  1 5 1 

during  the  wliole  of  life. — That  is  not  possible  ;  are 
there  no  other  means  ? — There  are  others,  friend ; 
namely,  to  be  a  devotee  (Upasaka). — What  is  to  be 
done  in  this  condition  ? — It  is  necessary  during  the 
whole  of  one's  life  to  abstain  from  murder,  theft, 
pleasure,  lying,  and  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquors." 
The  injunctions  thus  stated  to  be  binding  on  the  laity 
are  in  fact  the  first  five  of  the  ten  commandments, 
pleasure  being  simply  a  designation  of  unchastity, 
which  the  layman  as  well  as  the  monk  is  here  ordered 
to  eschew.  The  first  five  commandments  are  in  fact 
general,  referring  to  universal  ethical  obligations,  not 
merely  to  monastic  discipline,  like  the  other  five. 
But  Buddhist  morality  is  by  no  means  merely  negative. 
It  enjoins  not  only  abstinence  from  such  definite  sins 
as  these,  but  the  practice  of  positive  virtues  in  their 
most  exalted  forms.  In  no  system  is  benevolence,  or, 
as  it  is  termed  in  the  English  New  Testament,  charity, 
more  emphatically  inculcated.  Exhibited,  as  we  have 
seen  it  is,  in  the  highest  degree  by  Buddha  himself, 
it  should  be  illustrated  to  the  extent  of  their  capa- 
bilities by  all  his  followers.  Chastity  is  the  subject 
of  almost  equal  praise.  And  the  other  virtues  come 
in  for  their  share  of  recognition,  the  general  object  of 
the  examples  held  up  to  admiration  being  to  exhort 
the  faithful  to  a  life  spotless  in  all  its  parts,  like  that 
of  their  master.  With  this  aim  the  legends  related 
generally  fall  into  some  such  form  as  this :  Characters 
appear  who  undergo  some  sufi'ering,  but  receive  also 
some  great  reward,  such  as  meeting  with  Buddha,  and 
embracing  his  religion.  It  is  then  explained  by 
Buddha  that  the  sufierings  were  the  result  of  some 
bad   action   done  in  a  former  life,  and   the  benefit 


152  HOLY  BOOKS.  OR  BIBLES. 

received  the  result  of  some  good  action  ;  while  he  will 
probably  add  that  he  himself  in  that  bygone  age 
stood  in  the  relation  of  a  benefactor  to  the  recipient 
of  his  faith.  Or  a  number  of  persons  are  introduced 
playing  various  parts,  good  and  evil,  and  receiving 
blessings  or  misfortunes.  One  of  these  is  conspicuous 
by  the  excellence  of  his  conduct.  Then,  at  the  end 
of  the  story,  the  discij^les  are  told  not  to  imagine  tliat 
this  model  of  virtue  is  any  other  than  Sakyamuni 
himself,  while  the  other  characters  are  translated, 
according  to  their  special  peculiarities,  each  into  some 
individual  living  at  the  time,  and  forming  either 
one  of  Buddha's  retinue,  or  connected  with  him  by 
ties  of  kindred,  or  (if  wicked)  marked  by  hostility 
to  his  person  or  doctrine.  Thus,  the  bad  parts  in 
these  dramas  are  often  allotted  to  his  cousin  Deva- 
datta,  who  figures  in  these  Scriptures  as  his  typical 
opponent. 

The  essential  doctrine  of  all  these  moral  fictions — 
the  corner-stone  of  Buddhist  ethics — is  that  every 
single  act  of  virtue  receives  its  reward,  every  single 
transgression  its  punishment.  The  consequences  of 
our  good  deeds  or  misdeeds,  mystically  embodied  in 
our  Karma,  follow  us  from  life  to  life,  from  earth  to 
heaven,  from  earth  to  hell,  and  from  heaven  or  hell 
to  earth  again.  Karma  expresses  an  idea  by  no 
means  easily  seized.  Perhaps  it  may  be  defined  as 
the  sum  total  of  our  moral  actions,  good  and  bad, 
conceived  as  a  kind  of  entity  endowed  with  the  force 
of  destiny.  It  is  our  Karma  that  determines  the 
character  of  our  successive  existences.  It  is  our 
Karma  that  determines  whether  our  next  birth  shall 
l)e  in  heaven  or  hell,  in  a  happy  or  miserable  condi- 


THE  CORNER-STONE  OE BUDDHIST  ETHICS.   153 

tion  liere  below.  And  as  Karma  is  but  the  result 
of  our  own  actions,  each  of  which  must  bear  its 
proper  fruit,  the  balance,  either  on  the  credit  or  debit 
side  of  our  account,  must  always  be  paid ;  to  us  or 
by  us,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Let  us  illustrate  this  by  an  instance  or  two.  A 
certain  prince,  named  Kunala,  remarkaljle  for  his 
personal  beauty,  had  been  deprived  of  his  eyes 
through  an  intrigue  in  his  father's  harem.  S4kya- 
muni,  in  pointing  the  moral,  informs  his  disciples 
that  Kunala  had  formerly  been  a  huntsman,  who 
finding  500  gazelles  in  a  cave,  had  put  out  their  eyes 
in  order  to  preclude  their  escape.  For  this  cruelty 
he  had  sufiered  the  pains  of  hell  for  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  years,  and  had  then  had  his  eyes  put 
out  in  500  human  existences.  But  Kunala  also 
enjoyed  great  advantages.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
king,  he  possessed  an  attractive  person,  and,  above 
all,  he  had  embraced  the  truths  of  Buddhism. 
Why  -was  this  ?  Because  he  had  once  caused  a 
Stupa  of  a  former  Buddha,  which  an  unbelieving 
monarch  had  suffered  to  be  pulled  to  pieces,  to  be 
rebuilt,  and  had  likewise  restored  a  statue  of  this 
same  Buddha  which  had  been  spoilt.^  The  truly 
Buddhistic  spirit  of  this  young  prince  is  evinced  by 
the  circumstance  that  he  interceded  earnestly  with 
his  father  for  the  pardon  of  the  step-mother  who  had 
caused  him  to  be  so  cruelly  mutilated. 

In  another  case,  a  poor  old  woman,  who  had  led  a 
miserable  existence  as  the  slave  of  an  unfeeling  master 
and  mistress,  was  re-born  in  one  of  the  heavens,  known 
as  that  of  the  three-and-thirty  gods.       Five  hundred 

1  II.  B.  I.,  p.  414, 


154  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

goddesses  descended  to  the  cemetery,  where  she  had 
beeu  heedlessly  thrown  into  the  ground,  strewed  flowers 
on  her  bones,  and  offered  them  spices.  The  reason  of 
all  this  honour  was,  that  on  the  previous  day  she  had 
met  with  K4tyayana,  an  apostle  of  Buddhism,  had 
drawn  water  and  presented  it  to  him  in  his  bowl,  and 
had  consequently  received  a  blessing  from  him,  with 
an  exhortation  to  enter  her  mistress's  room  after  she 
had  gone  to  sleep,  and  sitting  on  a  heap  of  hay,  to  fix 
her  mind  exclusively  upon  Buddha.  This  advice  she 
had  attended  to,  and  had  consequently  received  the 
above-named  reward.^ 

Good  and  evil,  under  this  elaborate  sytem,  are  thus 
the  seeds  which,  by  an  invariable  law,  produce  their 
appropriate  fruits  in  a  future  state.  The  doctrine 
may  in  fact  be  best  described  in  the  words  attributed 
to  its  author: — "A  previous  action  does  not  die  ;  be 
it  good  or  evil,  it  does  not  die  ;  the  society  of  the 
virtuous  is  not  lost ;  that  which  is  done,  that  which 
is  said,  for  the  Aryas,^  for  these  grateful  persons, 
never  dies.  A  good  action  well  done,  a  bad  action 
wickedly  done,  when  they  have  arrived  at  their 
maturity,  equally  bear  an  inevitable  fruit."  ^ 

^  W.u.  T.,p.  153. 

2  Aryas  is  a  term  comprehending  the  several  classes  of  believers. 

•"  H.  B.  I.,  p.  98. 


2^HE  ZEND-AVESTA.  155 


Section  V. — The  Zend-Avesta.* 

Persica  was  once  a  great  power  in  the  world ;  the 
Persian  religion,  a  conquering  and  encroaching  faith. 
The  Persian  Empire  threatened  to  destroy  the  inde- 
pendence of  Greece.  It  held  the  Jews  in  actual  sub- 
jection, and  its  religious  views  profoundly  influenced 
the  development  of  theirs.  Through  the  Jews,  its 
ideas  have  penetrated  the  Christian  world,  and 
leavened  Europe.  It  once  possessed  an  extensive  and 
remarkable  sacred  literature,  but  a  few  scattered 
fragments  of  which  have  descended  to  us.  These 
fragments,  recovered  and  first  translated  by  Anquetil 
du  Perron,  have  been  but  imperfectly  elucidated  as 

1  There  is  a  complete  translation  of  the  Zend-Avesta  by  Spiegel.  It 
contains  useful  intio.ductory  essays  ;  but  in  the  present  state  of  Zend 
scholarship  the  translation  cannot  be  regarded  as  final.  Dr  Haug,  in 
a  German  treatise,  has  elucidated  as  well  as  translated  a  small,  but 
very  important,  portion  of  the  Zend-Avesta,  termed  the  five  Gathas. 
The  same  scholar  has  also  published  a  volume  of  Essays  on  the  Parsee 
language  and  religion,  which  contains  some  translated  passages,  and 
may  be  consulted  with  advantage,  though  Dr  Hang's  English  stands  in 
great  need  of  revision.  Burnouf  has  translated  but  a  very  small  part 
of  the  Zend-Avesta,  in  a  work  entitled  "  Le  Yagna."  Unfortunately 
Dr  Haug  and  Dr  Spiegel — both  verj'  eminent  Zend  scholars — are 
entirely  at  variance  as  to  the  proper  method  of  translating  these 
ancient  documents  ;  and  pending  the  settlement  of  this  question,  any 
interpretation  proposed  must  be  regarded  by  the  uninstructed  reader 
as  inicertain.  1  cannot  refrain  from  adding  an  expression  of  regret 
that  Dr  Haug,  to  whose  labours  in  the  interpretation  of  these  obscure 
fragments  of  antiquity  we  owe  so  much,  should  have  so  far  forgotten 
himself  as  to  fall  foul  of  Dr  Spiegel  in  a  tone  wholly  unbecoming  a 
sc'holar  and  inappropriate  to  the  subject.  It  is  not  by  this  kind  of 
learned  Billingsgate  that  the  superiority  of  his  translation  to  that  of 
his  rival,  as  he  evidently  considers  him,  or  his  fellow-labourer,  as  I 
should  prefer  to  call  him,  can  be  established. 


156  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

yet  by  European  scholars  ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  much  more  b'ght  remains  to  be  cast  upon  them 
by  philology  as  it  progresses,  ouch  as  they  are,  how- 
ever, I  shall  make  use  of  the  translations  already 
before  us  to  give  my  leaders  an  imperfect  account 
of  the  character  of  the  Parsee  Scriptures. 

These  compositions  are  the  productions  of  several 
centuries,  and  are  widely  separated  from  one  another 
in  the  character  of  their  thought,  and  in  the  objects  of 
worship  proposed  to  the  faithful  follower  of  Zarathus- 
tra.  The  oldest  among  them,  which  may  belong  to 
the  time  of  the  prophet  himself,  are  considered  by 
Haug  to  be  as  ancient  as  B.C.  1200,  while  the  youngest 
were  very  likely  as  recent  as  B.C.  500. 

Haug  considers  the  Avesta  to  be  the  most  ancient 
text,  while  the  Zend  was  a  kind  of  commentary  upon 
this  already  sacred  book. 

Taking  the  several  portions  of  the  Zend-Avesta  in 
their  chronological  order  (as  far  as  this  can  be  ascer- 
tained), we  shall  begin  with  the  five  Gathas,  which 
are  pronounced  by  their  translator  to  be  "by  far  the 
oldest,  weightiest,  and  most  important  pieces  of  the 
Zend-Avesta."^  Some  portions  of  these  venerable 
hymns  are  even  attributed  by  him  to  Zarathustra  him- 
self; but  this — except  where  the  prophet  is  in  some 
way  named  as  the  author — must  be  considered  only 
as  an  individual  opinion,  which  can  carry  no  positive 
conviction  to  other  minds  until  it  is  supported  by 
stronger  evidence  than  any  at  present  accessible. 
Meantime,  we  may  rest  assured  that  we  possess  among 
these  hymns  some  undoubted  productions  of  the 
Zarathustrian  age. 

1  F.  G.,  xiii. 


THE  FIVE  GATHAS.  157 


Subdivision  i. — The  Five  GdtMs. 

Proceeding  to  the  individual  Gathas,  we  find  tbnt 
the  first,  which  begins  with  the  28th  chapter  of  the 
Yacna,  bears  the  following  heading  :  "  The  revealed 
Thought,  the  revealed  Word,  the  revealed  Deed  of  the 
truthful  Zarathustra. — The  immortal  saints  chanted 
the  hymns."  ^ 

The  Gatha  Ahunavaiti — such  is  its  title — then 
proceeds  : — 

1.  "Adoration  to  you,  ye  truthful  hymns  ! 

2.  "  I  raise  aloft  my  hands  in  devotion,  and  worship  first  all 
true  works  of  the  wise  and  holy  Spirit,  and  the  Understanding  of 
the  pious  Disposition,  in  order  to  participate  in  this  happiness. 

3.  "  I  will  draw  near  to  you  with  a  pious  disposition,  O  AVise 
One  !  0  Living  One  !  with  the  request  that  you  will  grant  me 
the  mundane  and  the  spiritual  life.  By  truth  are  these  posses- 
sions to  be  obtained,  which  he  who  is  self-illuminated  bestows  on 
those  who  strive  for  them."  ^ 

The  most  important  portion  of  this  Gath^  is  the 
30th  chapter,  because  in  it  we  have  a  vivid  picture  of 
the  conflict  in  which  the  religion  of  Ahura-Mazda  was 
born.  Philological  inquiry  has  rendered  it  clear 
beyond  dispute,  that  Parseeism  took  its  rise  in  a 
religious  schism  between  two  sections  of  the  great 
Aryan  race,  at  a  period  so  remote  that  the  occupation 
of  Hindostan  by  an  offshoot  of  that  race  had  not  yet 
occurred.      The   common    ancestors    of   Hindus   and 

^  Throughout  the  Gathas  I  follow  Haug  ;  and  I  need  make  no 
apology  for  neglecting  Spiegel's  translatiim,  because  that  scholar  him- 
self admits,  with  creditable  candour,  that  even  his  indefatigable  per- 
severance was  baffled  by  the  ditficulties  of  this  portion  of  the  Ya9na. — ■ 
A  v.,  2.  xi. 

■■'  F.  G.,  vol.  i.  p.  34. — Ya9na,  xxviii,  1-3. 


158  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Persians  still  dwelt  together  iu  Central  Asia,  when  the 
great  Parsee  Eeformation  disturbed  their  harmony ; 
the  one  section  adopting,  or  adhering  to,  the  Vedic 
polytheism  which  they  subsequently  carried  to  India; 
the  other  embracing  the  more  monotheistic  creed 
which  afterwards  became  the  national  relig-ion  of 
Persia. 

The  following  hymn  of  the  reformers  carries  us  into 
the  very  midst  of  the  strife  : — 

1.  "I  will  now  tell  you  who  are  assembled  here,  the  wise  say- 
ings of  the  most  wise,  the  praises  of  the  living  God,  and  the 
songs  of  the  good  spirit,  the  sublime  truth  which  I  see  arising 
out  of  these  sacred  flames. 

2.  "  You  shall,  therefore,  hearken  to  the  soul  of  nature  {i.e., 
plough  and  cultivate  the  earth)  ;  ^  contemplate  the  beams  of  fire 
with  a  most  pious  mind  !  Every  one,  both  men  and  women, 
ought  to-day  to  choose  his  creed  (between  the  Deva  and  the 
Ahura  religion).  Ye  ofispring  of  renowned  ancestors,  awake  to 
agree  with  us  {i.e.,  to  apjDrove  of  my  lore,  to  be  delivered  to  you 
at  this  moment) ! " 

(The  prophet  begins  to  deliver  the  words,  revealed 
to  him  through  the  sacred  flames.) 

3.  "  In  the  beginning  there  was  a  pair  of  twins,  two  spirits, 
each  of  a  peculiar  activity ;  these  are  the  good  and  the  base,  in 
thought,  word,  and  deed.  Choose  one  of  these  two  spirits !  Be 
good,  not  base  ! 

4.  "And  these  two  spirits  united  created  the  first  (material 
things) ;  the  one,  the  reality,  the  other,  the  non-reality.  To  the 
liars  (the  worshippers  of  the  devas,  i.e.,  gods)  existence  will 
become  bad,  whilst  the  believer  in  the  true  God  enjoys  pros- 
perity. 


1  The  sentences  enclosed  in  brackets  are  Ilaug's  explanations  of  the 
sense  of  the  text. 


HYMN  OF  THE  PARSER  REFORMATION.     159 

5.  "  Of  these  two  spirits  you  must  choose  one,  either  the  evil, 
the  originator  of  the  worst  actions,  or  the  true  holy  spirit.  Some 
may  wish  to  have  the  hardest  lot  (^'.e.,  those  who  will  not  leave 
the  polytheistic  deva-religion),  others  adoi'e  Ahura-Mazda  by 
means  of  sincere  actions. 

6.  "  You  cannot  belong  to  both  of  them  {i.e.,  you  cannot  be 
worshippers  of  the  one  true  God  and  of  many  gods  at  the  same 
time).  One  of  the  devas,  against  whom  we  are  fighting,  might 
overtake  you,  when  in  deliberation  (what  faith  you  are  to  em- 
brace), whispering  you  to  choose  the  no-mind.  Then  the  devas 
flock  together  to  assault  the  two  lives  (the  life  of  the  body,  and 
that  of  the  soul),  praised  by  the  prophets."  ^ 

In  another  portion  of  this  Gatha  it  is  interesting 
to  observe  the  spirit  of  religious  zeal  breaking  out, 
as  it  so  generally  does,  into  the  language  of  perse- 
cution : — 

xxxi.  18.  "  Do  not  listen  to  the  sayings  and  precepts  of  the 
wicked  tlie  evil  spirit),  because  he  has  given  to  destruction 
house,  village,  district,  and  province.  Therefore  kill  them  (the 
wicked)  with  the  sword  !  "  ' 

The  wicked,  as  appears  from  the  context,  are  those 
who  did  not  accept  the  Zarathustrian  revelation. 

In  the  second  GAth4,  or  Gath4  Ustavaiti,  there  are 
some  very  curious  passages.  A  few  have  been  quoted 
in  the  notice  of  Zarathustra.  The  folio wino^  verses 
indicate  the  nature  of  the  worship  addressed  to 
Ahura-Mazda  in  the  most  ancient  period  of  the  Parsee 
reliojion : — 

o 

xliii.  2.  "  I  believe  thee  to  be  the  best  being  of  all,  the  source 
of  light  for  the  world.  Everybody  shall  choose  thee  (believe  in 
thee)  as  the  source  of   light,  thee,   thee,  holiest  spirit  Mazda  ! 

^  Parsees,  pp.  141,  142. — Yasna,  30. 


i6o  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Thou  Greatest  all  good  true  things  by  means  of  the  power  of  tliy 
good  mind  at  any  time,  and  promisest  us  (who  believe  in  thee)  a 
long  life. 

4.  "  I  will  believe  thee  to  be  the  powerful,  holy  (god)  Mazda ! 
For  thou  givest  with  thy  hand,  filled  with  helps,  good  to  the 
pious  man,  as  well  as  to  the  impious,  by  means  of  the  warmtli 
of  the  fire  strengthening  the  good  things.  For  this  reason  the 
vigour  of  the  good  mind  has  fallen  to  my  lot. 

5.  "  Thus  I  believed  in  thee  as  the  holy  God,  thou  living 
Wise  One  !  Because  I  beheld  thee  to  be  the  primeval  cause  of 
life  in  the  creation.  For  thou  hast  made  (instituted)  holy  cus- 
toms and  words,  thou  hast  given  a  bad  fortune  (emptiness)  to  the 
base,  and  a  good  one  to  the  good  man.  I  will  believe  in  thee, 
thou  glorious  God  !  in  the  last  (future)  period  of  creation."  1 

xliv.  3.  "  That  which  I  shall  ask  thee,  tell  it  me  right,  thou 
living  God  !  Who  was  in  the  beginning  the  father  and  creator 
of  truth  %  Who  made  the  way  for  the  sun  and  stars  %  Wlio 
causes  the  moon  to  increase  and  wane,  if  not  thou  1  This  I  wish 
to  know  besides  what  I  already  know. 

4.  "  That  I  will  ask  thee,  tell  it  me  right,  thou  living  God  ! 
Who  is  holding  the  earth  and  the  skies  above  it  ?  Who  made 
the  waters  and  the  trees  of  the  field  %  Who  is  in  the  winds  and 
storms  that  they  so  quickly  run  %  Who  is  the  creator  of  the 
good-minded  beings,  thou  Wise  One  % 

5.  "  That  I  will  ask  thee,  tell  it  me  right,  thou  living  God  ! 
Who  made  the  lights  of  good  efi"ect  and  the  darkness  1  Who 
made  the  sleep  of  good  effect  and  the  activity  %  Who  made 
morning,  noon  and  night,  always  reminding  the  priest  of  his 
duties  r' 2 

xlvi.  7.  "  Who  is  appointed  protector  of  my  property,  Wise 
One  !  when  the  wicked  endeavour  to  hurt  me  ?  Who  else,  if 
not  thy  fire,  and  thy  mind,  through  which  thou  hast  created  the 
existence  (good  beings),  thou  living  God !  Tell  me  the  power 
necessary  for  holding  up  the  religion."  ^ 

The  tliird  Gatlia  is  termed  Qpenta-Mainyus.  It 
begins  with  praise  of  Ahura-Mazda  as  the  giver  of  the 
two  forces  of  perfection  and  immortality.     From  this 

1  Parsees,  p.  149.  -  Ibid.,  p.  150.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  156. 


PARSEE  HYMNS.  i6i 

holiest  spirit  proceeds  all  the  good  contained  in  the 
words  uttered  by  the  good  mind.  He  is  the  father  of 
all  truth.  Of  such  a  spirit  is  he  who  created  this 
earth  with  the  fire  resting  in  its  lap.  Ahura-Mazda 
j)laced  the  gift  of  fire  in  the  sticks  that  are  rubbed 
together  by  the  duality  of  truth  and  piety.  The 
following  verse  refers  to  Mazda's  prophet,  Zara- 
thustra  : — 

xlviii.  4.  "  He  who  created,  by  means  of  his  wisdom,  the  good 
and  the  no-mind  in  thinking,  words,  and  deeds,  rewards  his 
obedient  followers  with  prosperity.  Art  thou  (Mazda)  not  he 
in  whom  the  last  cause  of  both  intellects  (good  and  evil)  is 
Uddm  ?  "  1 

The  concluding  chapter  of  this  Gath^  is  a  hymn  of 
praise  supposed  to  emanate  from  the  Spirit  of  Earth 
and  to  be  addressed  to  the  highest  genii.  It  is  not 
without  beauty  and  sublimity,  but  I  forbear  to  make 
quotations  from  it,  as  some  of  its  most  interesting 
verses  are  noticed  elsewhere. 

The  fourth  and  fifth  Gathas  are  much  shorter, 
and  are  considered  by  Haug  as  an  appendix.  The 
following  verses  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the 
former : — 

lii.  20.  "May  you  all  together  grant  us  this  your  help,  truth 
through  the  good  mind,  and  the  good  word  in  which  piety 
consists.  Be  lauded  and  praised.  The  Wise  One  bestows 
happiness. 

21.  "Has  not  the  Holy  One,  the  living  Wise  One,  created  the 
radiant  truth,  and  possession  with  the  good  mind  by  means  of 
the  wise  sayings  of  Armaiti,  by  her  actions  and  her  faith  1 

22.  "  The  living  Wise  One  knows  what  is  always  the  best  for 


*  Parsees,  p.  159. 
VOL.  II. 


i62  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

me  in  the  adoration  of  those  who  existed  and  still  exist.  These 
I  will  invoke  with  mention  of  their  names,  and  I  will  approach 
them  as  their  panegyrist."  ^ 

Of  tlie  first  three  verses  of  the  fifth  Gatha  I  have 
spoken  above.^    The  fourth  and  fifth  run  thus  : — 

liii.  4.  "  I  will  zealously  confess  this  your  faith,  which  the 
blessed  one  destined  to  the  landlord  for  the  country  people,  to 
the  truthful  householder  for  the  truthful  people,  ever  extending 
the  glory  and  the  beauty  of  the  good  mind,  which  the  living  Wise 
One  has  bestowed  on  the  good  faith  for  ever  and  ever. 

5.  "I  proclaim  formulae  of  blessing  to  girls  about  to  be  married  : 
Attend !  attend  to  them !  You  possess  by  means  of  those 
formulae  the  life  of  the  good  mind.  Let  one  receive  the  other 
with  upright  heai't ;  for  thus  only  will  you  prosper."  ^ 


Subdivision  2. — Yat^na  35-41,  or  the  Yapia  of  seven  chapters. 

The  Ya9na  of  seven  chapters,  which  in  the  present 
arrangement  of  the  text  is  inserted  between  the  first 
and  second  Gathas,  is  of  more  recent  date  than  the 
Gathas,  but  more  ancient  than  the  rest  of  the  Zend- 
Avesta.  "  It  appears  to  be  the  work  of  one  of  the 
earliest  successors  of  the  prophet,  called  in  ancient 
times  Zaratliustra  or  Zarathustivtema,  who,  deviat- 
ing somewhat  from  the  high  and  pure  monotheistic 
principles  of  C^pitama,  made  some  concessions  to  the 
adherents  of  the  ante-Zoroastrian  religion  by  address- 
ing prayers  to  other  beings  than  Ahura-Mazda."* 
The  seven  chapters  may  be  most  accurately  described 
as  Psalms  of  praise,  in  which  a  great  variety  of 
objects,  spiritual  and  natural,  receive  a  tribute  of  pious 

^  F.  G.,  vol.  ii.  p.  56.  3  F.  G.,  vol,  ii.  p.  57, 

2  Vol.  i.  p.  229.  *  Parsees,  p.  2iq. 


OBJECTS  OF  PARSER   WORSHIP,  163 

reverence  from  the  worshipper.  They  are  not,  how- 
ever, on  that  account  to  be  considered  as  gods,  or  as 
in  any  way  the  equals  of  Ahura- Mazda,  v/ho  is  still 
supreme.  The  beings  thus  addressed  are  portions  of 
the  "  good  creation,"  or  of  tlie  things  created  by  the 
good  power,  Ahura-Mazda;  and  they  are  either  subjects 
in  his  spiritual  kingdom,  such  as  the  Amesha-9pentas 
(seven  very  important  spirits),  or  they  are  simply  por- 
tions of  the  material  universe  treated  as  semi-divine, 
and  exalted  to  objects  of  religious  worship.  Thus 
in  the  last  chapter  of  this  section,  the  author  directs 
his  laudations  to  the  following,  among  other,  genii 
and  powers  :  the  dwelling  of  the  waters,  the  parting 
of  the  ways,  mountains,  the  wind,  the  earth,  the  pure 
ass  in  Lake  Vouru-Kasha,  this  lake  itself,  the  Soma, 
the  flowing  of  the  waters,  the  flying  of  the  birds.  It 
is  plain  from  this  enumeration  that  we  are  already  a 
step  beyond  the  simple  adoration  of  Ahura-Mazda  so 
conspicuous  in  the  Gath4s,  and  that  the  door  is  opened 
to  the  multitude  of  spirits  and  divinities  that  make 
their  appearance  in  other  parts  of  the  Parsee  ritual. 

This  section  of  the  Yagna  opens,  however,  with  a 
striking  address  to  Ahura-Mnzda  :  ^ — 

XXXV.  I.  "  We  worship  Ahura-Mazda  the  pure,  the  master  of 
purity.  We  worship  the  Amesha-9pentas  (the  archangels),  the 
possessors  of  good,  the  givers  of  good.  We  worship  the  whole 
creation  of  the  true  spirit,  both  the  spiritual  and  terrestrial,  all 
that  supports  (raises)  the  welfare  of  the  good  creation,  and  the 
spread  of  the  good  Mazdaya9na  religion. 

2.  "  We  praise  all  good  thoughts,  all  good  words,  all  good 
deeds,  which  are  and  will  be  (which  are  being  done  and  which 


'  It  is  a  satisfaction  to  find  that  Spiegel's  translation  does  not  differ 
BO  widely  from  Hang's  after  we  leave  the  territory  of  the  Gathas.  As 
a  SDscimen,  I  quote  the  following  verses  from  his  Avesta,  vol.  ii.  p.  135, 


i64  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

have  been  done),  and  we  likewise  keep  clean  and  pure  all  that 
is  good. 

3.  "  0  Ahura-Mazda,  thou  true  happy  being  !  we  strive  to  think, 
to  speak,  and  to  do  only  those  of  all  actions  which  might  be 
best  fitted  to  promote  the  two  lives  (that  of  the  body  and  of  the 
soul). 

4.  "  We  beseech  the  spirit  of  earth  by  means  of  these  best  works 
(agriculture)  to  grant  us  beautiful  and  fertile  fields,  to  the  believer 
as  well  as  to  the  unbeliever,  to  him  who  has  riches  as  well  as  to 
him  who  has  no  possession."  ^ 

The  following  invocation  of  fire  deserves  to  be  men- 
tioned before  we  quit  this  portion  of  the  Yacna  : — 

xxxvi.  4.  "  Happy  is  the  man  to  whom  thou  comest  in  power, 
0  Fire,  Son  of  Ahura-Mazda. 

5.  "  Friendlier  than  the  friendliest,  more  deserving  of  adora- 
tion than  the  most  adorable. 

6.  "  Mayest  thou  come  to  us  helpfully  to  the  greatest  of  trans- 
actions. ... 

9.  "0  Fire,  Son  of  Ahura-Mazda,  we  approach  thee 

10.  "with  a  good  spirit,  with  good  purity."  - 

which  the  reader  may  compare  witli  the  Euglish  rendering  of  the  same 
passage  in  the  text  :• — 

Yagna  Haptaghditi. 

XXXV.    I. 

I.  "  (Ragpi).  Den  Ahura-Mazda,  «leii  reinen  Herrn  des  Reinen, 
preisen  wir.  Die  Amesha-Qpenta,  die  guten  Herrscher,  die  weisen, 
preisen  wir.  2.  Die  ganze  Welt  des  Reinen  preisen  wir,  die  hiuimlische 
wie  die  irdische,  3.  mit  Verlangen  nach  der  guten  Reinheit,  niit 
Verlangen  nach  dem  giiten  mazdayagnischen  Gesetze.  4.  (Zaota.) 
Der  guten  Gedanken,  Worte  und  Werke,  die  liier  und  anderswo  5. 
gethan  worden  sind  oder  noch  gethan  werden,  6.  Lobpreiser  und 
Verbreiter  sind  wir,  damit  wir  zu  den  Guten  gehoren  mogen.  7,  Das 
glauben  wir,  Ahura-Mazda,  Reiner,  Schoner,  8.  Das  wollen  wir 
denken,  sagen  und  tlnm  :  9.  was  das  Beste  ist  unter  den  Handlungen 
der  Menschen  fiir  beide  Welten.  10.  Durch  diese  Thaten  nun  erbitten 
wir,  dass  fur  das  Vieh  11.  Annehmlichkeit  und  Futter  gespendet 
werden  moge  12.  den  Gelehrten  wie  den  Ungelehrten,  den  Miichtigen 
wie  den  Unniiichtigen." 

^  Parsees,  p.  163.  '■'  A  v.,  ii.  137. 


A  PARSEE  CONFESSION  OF  FAITH.         165 


Subdivision  3. — Ya<^na,  Chapter  XII. 

This  chapter  is  stated  by  Haug  to  be  written  in  tlie 
Gath4  dialect  ;  it  is  therefore  extremely  ancient,  and 
as  it  contains  the  Confession  of  Faith  made  by  Zara- 
thustrian  converts  on  their  abandonment  of  idolatry, 
or  worship  of  the  Devas,  it  is  of  sufficient  importance 
to  be  quoted  at  length  : — 

xii.  I.  "I  cease  to  be  a  T)e.\z,  worshipijer.  I  profess  to  be  a 
Zoroastrian  Mazdaya^na  (worshipper  of  Ahura- Mazda),  an  enemy 
of  the  Devas,  and  a  devotee  to  Ahura,  a  praiser  of  the  immortal 
saints  (Araesha-9pentas),  a  worshipper  of  the  immortal  saints.  I 
ascribe  all  good  things  to  Ahura-Mazda,  who  is  good,  and  has 
good,  who  is  true,  lucid,  shining,  who  is  the  originator  of  all  the 
best  things,  of  the  spirit  in  nature  (gaus),  of  the  growth  in  nature, 
of  the  luminaries  and  the  self-shining  brightness  which  is  in  the 
luminaries, 

2.  "I  choose  (follow,  profess)  the  holy  Armaiti,  the  good; 
may  she  be  mine  !  I  abominate  all  fraud  and  injury  committed 
on  the  spirit  of  earth,  and  all  damage  and  destruction  of  the 
quarters  of  the  Mazdayapnas. 

3.  "  I  allow  the  good  spirits  who  reside  on  this  earth  in  the 
good  animals  (as  cows,  sheep,  &c.),  to  go  and  roam  about  free 
according  to  their  pleasure.  I  praise,  besides,  all  that  is  offered 
with  prayer  to  promote  the  growth  of  life.  I  shall  cause  neither 
damage  nor  destruction  to  the  quarters  of  the  Mazdaya^nas, 
neither  with  my  body  nor  my  soul. 

4.  "  I  forsake  the  Devas,  the  wicked,  bad,  false,  untrue,  tho 
originators  of  mischief,  who  are  most  baneful,  destructive,  the 
basest  of  all  beings.  I  forsake  the  Devas  and  those  who  are 
Devas-like,  the  witches  and  their  like,  and  any  being  whatever 
of  such  a  kind.  I  forsake  them  with  thoughts,  words  and  deeds  ; 
I  forsake  them  hereby  publicly,  and  declare  that  every  lie  and 
falsehood  is  to  be  done  away  with. 

5.  6.  "  In  the  same  way  as  Zarathustra  at  the  time  when 
Ahura-Mazda  was  holding  conversations  and  meetings  with  him, 


i66  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

and  both  were  conversing  with  each  other,  forsook  the  Devas ; 
so  do  I  forsake  the  Devas,  as  the  holy  Zarathustra  did. 

7.  "  To  that  party  to  which  the  waters  belong,  to  whatever 
party  the  trees,  and  the  animating  spirit  of  nature,  to  that  party 
to  which  Ahura- Mazda  belongs,  who  has  created  this  spirit  and 
the  pure  man  ;  to  that  party  of  which  Zarathustra,  and  Kava 
VistaQpa  and  Frashaostra  and  Jama9pa  were,  of  that  party  of 
which  all  the  ancient  fire-priests  (Soshyanto)  were,  the  pious,  who 
were  spreading  the  truth :  of  the  same  party  and  creed  am  I. 

8.  "  I  am  a  Mazdayagna,  a  Zoroastrian  Mazdayagna.  I  profess 
this  religion  by  praising  and  preferring  it  to  others  (the  Deva 
religion).  I  praise  the  thought  which  is  good,  I  jjraise  the  word 
which  is  good,  I  praise  the  work  which  is  good. 

9.  "  I  praise  the  Mazdayagna  religion,  and  the  pure  brother- 
hood which  it  establishes  and  defends  against  enemies,  the 
Zoroastrian  Ahura  religion,  which  is  the  greatest,  best,  and 
most  prosperous  of  all  that  are,  and  that  will  be.  I  ascribe  all 
good  to  Ahura-Mazda.  This  shall  be  the  praise  (profession)  of  the 
Mazdayagna  religion." 


Subdivision  4. — The  Yoxmger  Ya(^na,  and  Vispered. 

While  tlie  Gathas  and  the  confession  just  quoted 
represent  the  most  ancient  phase  of  the  Mazdayacna 
faith,  we  enter,  in  the  remaining  portion  of  the  Ya9na, 
on  a  much  later  stage  of  the  growing  creed.  So  njany 
new  divinities,  or  at  any  rate,  objects  of  reverential 
addresses,  now  enter  upon  the  scene,  that  we  almost 
lose  sight  of  Ahura-Mazda  in  the  throno;  of  his  attend- 
ants.  We  seem  to  be  some  ages  away  from  the  days 
when  Zarathustra  bade  his  hearers  choose  between 
the  one  true  God  and  the  multitude  of  fjxlse  gods 
worshipped  by  his  enemies.  Ahura-Mazda  is  safely 
enthroned,  and  Zarathustra  shines  out  gloriously  as 
his  prophet ;  but  Zarathustra's  creed  is  overloaded 
with    elements  of  which  he  himself  knew  nothing. 


LATER  PARSER   WORSHIP.  167 

The  first  chapter  of  the  Yacna,  a  liturgical  prayer, 
brings  these  elements  conspicuously  before  us.  It  is 
an  invocation  and  celebration  of  a  great  variety  of 
powers  belonging  to  what  is  termed  the  good  creation, 
or  the  world  of  virtuous  beings  and  good  things,  as 
opposed  to  the  malicious  beings  and  bad  things  who 
form  the  realm  of  evil.^     Thus  it  opens : — 

"  I  invoke  and  I  celebrate  the  creator  Ahura-Mazda,  luminous, 
resplendent,  very  great  and  very  good,  very  perfect  and  very 
energetic,  very  intelligent  and  very  beautiful,  eminent  in  purity, 
who  possesses  the  excellent  knowledge,  the  source  of  pleasure ; 
him  who  has  created  us,  who  has  formed  us,  who  has  nourished 
us,  the  most  accomplished  of  intelligent  beings."  ^ 

Every  verse,  until  we  approach  the  end,  commences 
with  the  same  formula  ; — "  I  invoke  and  I  celebrate  ;  " 
or,  as  Spiegel  translates  it,  "  I  inyite  and  announce  it:" 
the  sole  difference  is  in  the  beings  invoked,  Many  of 
these  are  powers  of  more  or  less  eminence  in  the  Parsee 
spiritual  hierarchy,  but  it  would  be  going  beyond  our 
object  here  to  enumerate  their  names  and  specify 
their  attributes.  To  a  large  proportion  of  them  the 
epithets  "pure,  lord  of  purity,"  are  added,  while 
some  are  dignified  with  more  special  titles  of  hon- 
our. After  the  above  homage  to  Ahura-Mazda,  the 
writer  invokes  and  celebrates,  among  others  :  Mithra 

^  I  follow  Burnouf's  translation,  because  the  strict  accuracy  of  his 
method  is  acknowledged  by  both  Haug  and  Spiegel.  There  are  con- 
siderable differences  in  the  text  followed  by  Burnouf  and  Spiegel, 
which  I  need  not  Aveary  the  reader  by  particularising  in  detail. 

^  Y.,  p.  146. — Cf.  Spiegel:  i.  "Ich  lade  ein  und  thiie  es  kund  : 
dem  Schopfer  Ahura-Mazda,  dem  glanzenden,  majestatischen,  grossten, 
besten,  scliiinsten,  2.  dem  starksten,  verstandigsten,  niit  besteni  Korper 
versehenen,  durch  Heiligkeit  hochsten.  3.  Der  sehr  weise  ist,  dcr 
A'eithin  erfreut,  4,  welcher  uns  schuf,  welcher  uns  bildete,  welcher 
uiis  erhielt,  der  Heiligste  unter  den  Hinimlischen." — A  v.,  ii.  35. 


i68  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

(a  very  famous  god),  who  increases  oxen,  who  has 
looo  ears,  and  10,000  eyes ;  the  fire  of  Ahura-Mazda ; 
the  water  given  by  Ahura-Mazda ;  the  Fravashis 
(angels  or  guardian  spirits)  of  holy  men  and  of  women 
who  are  under  men's  protection ;  energy,  with  a  good 
constitution  and  an  imposing  figure ;  victory  given  by 
Ahura ;  the  months  ;  the  new  moon ;  the  full  moon ; 
the  time  of  fecundation ;  the  years ;  all  the  lords  of 
purity,  and  thirty-three  genii  surrounding  Havani, 
who  are  of  admirable  purity,  whom  Mazda  has  made 
known,  and  Zarathustra  has  proclaimed ;  the  stars, 
especially  a  star  named  Tistrya ;  the  moon,  which 
contains  the  germ  of  the  ox  ;  the  sun,  the  eye  of 
Ahura-Mazda  ;  trees  given  by  Mazda ;  the  Word  made 
known  by  Zarathustra  against  the  Devas ;  the  excel- 
lent law  of  the  Mazdayaynas  ;  the  perfect  benediction  ; 
the  pure  and  excellent  man ;  these  countries  and  dis- 
tricts ;  pastures  and  houses ;  the  earth,  the  sky,  the 
wind ;  the  great  lord  of  j)urity ;  days,  months,  and 
seasons  ;  the  Fravashis  of  the  men  of  the  ancient  law ; 
those  of  contemporaries  and  relations,  and  his  own ; 
all  genii  who  ought  to  be  invoked  and  adored.  It  is 
manifest  from  this  invocation,  in  which  I  have  omitted 
many  names  and  many  repetitions,  how  far  we  are 
from  the  stern  and  earnest  simplicity  of  the  Gathas. 
Regular  liturgical  forms  have  sprung  up,  and  these 
express  the  more  developed  and  complicated  worship 
which  the  Parsee  priesthood  has  now  engrafted  on 
the  Zarathustrian  monotheism. 

The  concluding  verses  run  as  follows  : — 

"  0  thou  who  art  given  in  this  world,  given  against  the  Devas, 
Zai'athustra  ^  the  pure,  lord  of  purity,  if  I  have  wounded  thee, 

'  No  mention  of  Zarathustra  here  in  Spiegel. — Av.,  ii.  44. 


LATER  PARSER   WORSHIP,  169 

either  in  thought,  word,  or  deed,  voluntarily  or  involuntarily,  I 
again  address  this  praise  in  thine  honour ;  yes,  I  invoke  thee  if  I 
have  failed  against  thee  in  this  sacrifice  and  this  invocation. 

"  0  all  ye  very  great  lords,  pure,  masters  of  purity,  if  I  have 
wounded  you,  <fec.  [as  above]. 

"May  I,  a  worshipper  of  Mazda,  an  adherent  of  Zarathusti-a, 
an  enemy  of  the  Devas,  an  observer  of  the  precepts  of  Ahura, 
address  my  homage  to  him  who  is  given  here,  given  against  the 
Devas ;  to  Zarathustra,  pure,  lord  of  purity,  for  the  sacrifice,  for 
the  invocation,  for  the  prayer  that  renders  favourable,  for  the 
benediction.  (May  I  address  my  homage)  to  the  lords  (who  are) 
the  days,  the  parts  of  days,  &c.,  for  the  benediction ;  that  is  to 
say :  (may  I  address  my  homage)  to  the  lords  (who  are)  the  days, 
the  parts  of  days,  the  months,  the  seasons  of  the  year  (Gahanbars), 
the  years ;  for  the  sacrifice,  for  the  invocation,  for  the  prayer  that 
renders  favourable,  for  the  benediction."  ^ 

The  rest  of  tlie  Ya9na  consists  mainly  of  praises  or 
prayers  addressed  to  the  very  numerous  objects  of 
Parsee  adoration,  and  most  of  it  is  of  little  inte- 
rest. The  following  short  section,  however,  deserves 
remark : — 

Ya(^na  12. 

1.  "  I  praise  the  thoughts  rightly  thought,  the  words  rightly 
spoken,  and  the  deeds  rightly  done. 

2.  *'  I  seize  upon  (or  resort  to)  all  good  thoughts,  words,  and 
deeds. 

3.  "  I  forsake  all  bad  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds. 

4.  "I  bring  you,  0  Amesha-gpentas, 

5.  "  Praise  and  adoration, 

6.  "  With  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds,  with  heavenly  mind, 
the  vital  force  from  my  own  body."  ^ 


*  Y.,  pp.  585,  588,  592.  Tlie  coiiclucling  stanza  is  simpler  and  more 
intelligible  in  Spiegel. — A  v.,  ii.  44. 

^  Av.,  vol.  ii.  p.  85. — Ya(jna,  12.  The  ch.  xii.  quoted  above  is  No.  13 
in  Spiegel. 


170  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

In  the  following  verses  again  there  is  some  ex- 
cellence : — 

1.  "May  that  man  attain  that  which  is  best  who  teaches  us 
the  right  way  to  our  profit  in  this  world,  both  the  material  and 
the  spiritual  world,  the  plain  way  that  leads  to  the  worlds  where 
Ahura  is  enthroned,  and  the  sacrificer,  resembling  thee,  a  sage,  a 
saint,  0  Mazda. 

2.  "May  there  come  to  this  dwelling  contentment,  blessing, 
fidelity,  and  the  wisdom  of  the  pure." 

8.  "In  this  dwelling  may  ^raosha^  (obedience)  put  an  end  to 
disobedience,  peace  to  strife,  liberality  to  avarice,  wisdom  to 
error,  truthful  speech  to  lying,  which  detests  purity."  ^ 

The  prominent  position  occupied  by  fire  in  the 
Parsee  faith  is  well  known.  The  presence  of  fire  is 
indeed  an  essential  part  of  their  ritual,  in  which  it  is 
treated  with  no  less  honour  than  the  consecrated 
wafer  in  that  of  Catholic  Christians.  Not  only, 
however,  is  it  employed  in  their  rites,  but  it  is 
addressed  as  an  independent  being,  to  whom  worship 
is  due.  Not  that  its  place  in  the  hierarchy  is  to  be 
confounded  with  that  of  Ahura-Mazda.  It  is  not 
put  upon  a  level  with  the  supreme  being,  but  it  is 
addressed  as  his  son,  its  rank  being  thus  still  more 
closely  assimilated  to  that  of  the  host,  which  is  in 
like  manner  a  part  of  the  liturgical  machinery  and 
an  embodiment  of  the  son  of  God.  A  special  chapter 
of  the  Ya9na — the  6ist — is  devoted  to  Fire,  and  a 
summary  of  its  contents  will  help  us  to  understand 
the  light  in  which  this  deity  was  regarded. 

The  sacrificer  begins  by  vowing  offerings  and  praise 

^  ^raoslia  is  an  important  divinity  in  Parsee  worship,  who  is  con- 
sidered by  Spiegel  to  express  the  moral  quality  of  obedience. 
2  Av.,  ii.  1 86,  187. — Yaqna,  59. 


FAR  SEE  EIRE-  WOE  SHIP.  1 7 1 

and  good  nourisliment  to  "Fire,  son  of  Ahura- 
Mazda."  He  trusts  that  Fire  may  ever  be  provided 
with  a  proper  supply  of  wood,  and  may  always  burn 
brightly  in  this  dwelling,  even  till  the  final  resurrec- 
tion. He  beseeches  Fire  to  give  him  much  property, 
much  distinction,  holiness,  a  ready  tongue,  wit  and 
understanding,  activity,  sleeplessness,  and  posterity. 
Fire  is  said  to  await  nourishment  from  all ;  who- 
ever comes,  he  looks  at  his  hands,  saying :  *'  What 
does  the  friend  bring  his  friend,  the  coming  one  to 
him  who  sits  alone  ? "  And  this  is  the  blessing  he 
bestows  on  him  who  brings  him  dry  wood,  picked 
out  for  burning :  "  Mayest  thou  be  surrounded  with 
herds  of  cattle,  with  abundance  of  men.  May  it  be 
with  thee  according  to  the  desire  of  thy  heart,  accord- 
ing to  the  desire  of  thy  soul.  Be  joyous,  live  thy 
life  the  whole  time  that  thou  shalt  live."  ^ 

The  last  chapter  but  one  of  the  Yagna  is  a  hymn 
in  universal  praise  of  the  good  creation.  All  the 
objects  belonging  to  that  creation — that  is,  made  by 
Ahura-Mazda,  and  standing  in  contrast  with  the  bad 
creation  of  Agra-Mainyus — are  enumerated,  and  as 
a  catalogue  of  these  the  hymn  is  interesting.  Ahura- 
Mazda  himself  is  named  first ;  then  Zarathustra ; 
after  this  follows  the  Fravashi  (angel)  of  Zarathustra, 
the  Amesha-9pentas,  the  Fravashis  of  the  pure,  and 
so  forth,  through  a  long  list  of  animate  and  inanimate 
beings.  Each  is  named  with  the  formula  "  we  praise  " 
following  the  title,  as :  "  The  whole  earth  we 
praise."^ 

So  close  is  the  resemblance  between  the  Vispercd 

*  Av.,  vol.  ii.  p,  191. — Ya^na,  61.     This  blessing  is  repeated,  Khonla- 
A vesta,  II.  2  _^y_^  ^qI  jj^  p^  202.— Ya9iia,  70. 


172  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

and  that  portion  of  the  Ya9na  which  we  have  just 
examined,  that  it  will  be  needless  to  dwell  upon  the 
contents  of  the  former.  AVe  may  therefore  at  once 
pass  on  to  a  very  important  section,  for  theological 
purposes,  of  the  Zend-Avesta,  namely — 


Subdivision  5. — Vendidad. 

Totally  unlike  either  the  Ya9na,  the  Vispered,  or 
the  Yashts,  the  Vendidad  is  a  legislative  code — dealing 
indeed  largely  with  religious  questions,  but  not  con- 
fining itself  exclusively  to  them.  It  differs  from  the 
remainder  of  the  sacred  volume  much  as  Leviticus 
differs  from  the  Psalms,  or  as  the  Institutes  of  Menu 
differ  from  the  hymns  of  the  Rig- Veda.  It  is  re- 
garded as  equally  holy  with  the  rest  of  the  Avesta, 
and  is  recited  in  divine  service  along  with  Vispered 
and  Yagna,  the  three  together  forming  Avhat  is 
termed  the  Vendidad-Sade.^  Its  abrupt  termination 
indicates  that  the  code  is  not  before  us  in  its  en- 
tirety ;  the  portion  which  has  been  preserved,  how- 
ever, does  not  appear  to  have  suffered  great  mutila- 
tion. Let  us  briefly  summarise  its  contents,  first 
premising  that  the  form  they  assume  (with  trifling 
exceptions)  is  that  of  conversations  between  Ahura- 
Mazda  and  his  prophet. 

The  first  Fargard  (or  chapter)  is  an  enumeration 
of.  the  good  countries  or  places  created  by  Ahura- 
Mazda,  and  of  the  evils — such  as  the  serpent,  the  wasp, 
and  various  moral  offences,  including  that  of  doubt — 
created  in    opposition  to  him  in  each    case    by  tlie 

*  Av.,  ii.  Ixzv. 


PARSER  REGARD  FOR  AGRICULTURE.      173 

president  of  the  bad  creation,  Agra-Main y us.  Tlie 
second  Fargard  is  a  long  narrative  of  the  proceedings 
of  a  mythological  hero  named  Yima  (the  Indian 
Yama),  to  whom  Ahura-Mazda  is  stated  to  have  once 
committed  the  government  of  the  world,  or  of  some 
part  of  it.  Thus  far  we  have  not  entered  on  the 
proper  subject-matter  of  the  Vendidad.  The  third 
Fargard,  while  still  introductory,  approaches  more 
nearly  to  the  subsequent  chapters,  alike  in  its  form 
and  its  contents.  In  it  Zarathustra  lays  certain 
queries  before  Ahura-Mazda,  and  the  replies  given  by 
that  deity  are  of  high  importance  for  the  compre- 
hension of  both  the  social  and  moral  status  of  the 
Parsees  at  the  time  when  this  dialogue  was  written. 
The  stress  laid  upon  the  virtue  of  cultivating  the  soil 
is  especially  to  be  noticed.  Similar  sentiments  are 
frequently  repeated  in  the  Vendidad,  and  indicate 
a  people  among  whom  agriculture  was  still  in  its 
infancy,  the  transition  from  the  pastoral  state  to  the 
more  settled  condition  of  tillers  of  the  soil  being  still 
incomplete.  The  compilers  of  this  code  evidently 
felt  strongly  the  extreme  value  to  their  youthful 
community  of  agricultural  pursuits,  and  therefore  en- 
couraged them  at  every  convenient  opportunity  by 
representing  them  as  peculiarly  meritorious  in  the 
sight  of  God. 

Zarathustra  begins  his  inquiries  by  asking  what  is 
in  the  first  place  most  agreeable  to  this  earth,  and 
successively  ascertains  what  are  the  five  things  which 
give  it  most  satisfaction,  and  what  the  five  which 
cause  it  the  most  displeasure.  Ahura-Mazda  answers 
that,  in  the  first  place,  a  holy  man  with  objects  of  sacri- 
fice is  the  most  agreeable  ;  then  a  holy  man  making 


174  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

his  dwelling-place,  aud  storiug  it  with  all  that  pertains 
to  a  happy  and  righteous  life ;  then  the  production  of 
grain  and  of  fruit-trees,  the  irrigation  of  thirsty  land, 
or  the  drainage  of  moist  land ;  fourthly,  the  breeding 
of  live-stock  and  draught-cattle ;  fifthly,  a  special  in- 
cident connected  with  the  presence  of  such  animals 
on  the  land.  The  five  displeasing  things  are,  the 
meetings  of  Daevas  and  Drujas  (evil  spirits),  the 
interment  of  men  or  dogs  (which  was  contrary  to  the 
law),  the  accumulation  of  Dakhmas,  or  places  where 
the  bodies  of  the  dead  were  left  exposed,  the  dens 
of  animals  made  by  Agra-Mainyus,  and  lastly,  unbe- 
coming conduct  on  the  part  of  the  wife  or  son  of  a 
holy  man.  Further  questions  are  then  put  as  to  the 
mode  of  conduct  which  wins  the  approbation  of  the 
earth,  and  it  is  stated  to  consist  in  actions  which  tend 
to  counteract  the  evils  above  enumerated.  In  the 
course  of  these  replies  occasion  is  again  taken  to 
eulogise  the  man  who  vigorously  cultivates  the  soil, 
and  to  censure  him  who  idly  leaves  it  uncultivated. 
Certain  penalties  are  then  imposed  on  those  who 
bury  dogs  or  men,  but  the  sin  of  leaving  them  under- 
ground for  two  years  is  declared  to  be  inexpiable, 
except  by  the  Mazdayacna  Law,  which  can  purify  the 
worst  offenders  : — 

"For  it  (the  Law)  will  take  away  these  (sins)  from  those  who 
praise  the  Mazclaya9na  Law,  if  they  do  not  again  commit  Avicked 
actions.  For  this  Mazdaya<;na  Law,  0  holy  Zarathustra,  takes 
away  the  bonds  of  the  man  who  praises  it.  It  takes  away  deceit. 
It  takes  away  the  niiu'der  of  a  pure  man.  It  takes  away  the 
burial  of  the  dead.  It  takes  away  inexpiable  actions.  It  takes 
away  accumulated  guilt.  It  takes  away  all  sins  which  men 
commit."  ^ 

^  Av.,  vol.  i.  p.  87,  88. — Vendidad,  iii.  140-1^8. 


MEDICAL  TRAINING  AMONG  THE  PARSERS.  175 

"We  see  from  this  that  the  power  of  the  Law  to 
deliver  sinners  from  the  burden  of  their  offences  was 
in  no  way  inferior  to  that  of  the  Atonement  of  Christ. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  the  fourth  Fargard, 
which  deals  with  the  penalties — consisting  mainly  of 
corporal  punishment — for  breach  of  contract  and  other 
offences.  The  fifth  and  sixth,  being  concerned  with 
the  regulations  to  be  observed  in  case  of  impurity 
arising  from  the  presence  of  dead  bodies,  are  of  little 
interest.  A  large  part  of  the  seventh  is  occupied  with 
the  same  subject,  but  its  course  is  interrupted  by 
certain  precautions  to  be  attended  to  in  the  gradua- 
tion of  students  of  medicine,  which  may  be  commended 
to  the  notice  of  other  religious  communities.  Should 
a  Mazdaya9na  desire  to  become  a  physician,  on  whom, 
inquires  Zarathustra,  shall  he  first  try  his  hand,  the 
Mazdayacnas  (orthodox  Parsees),  or  the  Daevayacnas 
(adherents  of  a  false  creed)  ?  Ahura-Mazda  replies 
that  the  Daevaya9nas  are  to  be  his  first  patients.  If 
he  has  performed  three  surgical  operations  on  these 
heretics,  and  his  three  patients  have  died,  he  is  to  be 
held  unfit  for  the  medical  profession^  and  must  on  no 
account  presume  to  operate  on  the  adherents  of  the 
Law.  If,  however,  he  is  successful  with  the  Daeva- 
yagnas,  he  is  to  receive  his  degree,  and  may  proceed 
to  practise  on  the  more  valuable  bodies  of  faithful 
Parsees.  So  careful  a  contrivance  to  ensure  that  none 
but  infidels  shall  fall  victims  to  the  knife  of  the 
unskilful  surgeon  evinces  no  little  ingenuity. 

The  eighth  Fargard  relates  chiefly  to  the  treatment 
of  dead  bodies,  while  the  ninth  proceeds  to  narrate 
the  rites  for  the  purification  of  those  who  have  come 
in  contact  with  them.      A  terrible  penalty — that  of 


176  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

decapitation — is  enacted  against  the  man  wlio  ven- 
tures to  perform  this  rite  without  having  learnt  the 
law  from  a  priest  competent  to  purify.  The  tenth 
Fargard  prescribes  the  prayers  by  which  the  DrukJis, 
or  impure  spirit  supposed  to  attach  itself  to  corpses, 
and  to  come  from  them  upon  the  living,  is  to  be  driven 
away ;  and  the  subject  is  continued  in  the  eleventh, 
which  contains  formularies  for  the  purification  of 
dwellings,  fires,  and  other  objects.  Along  with 
injunctions  as  to  the  purification  of  houses  where  a 
death  has  occurred,  the  twelfth  Fargard  informs  its 
hearers  how  many  prayers  they  are  to  ofi'er  up  for 
deceased  relatives.  The  number  varies  both  accord- 
ing to  their  relationship,  being  highest  for  those  that 
are  nearest  akin,  and  according  to  their  purity  or 
sinfulness,  double  as  many  being  required  for  the 
sinful  as  for  the  pure.  After  a  short  introduction 
expounding  the  merit  of  killing  a  certain  species  of 
animal  and  the  demerit  of  killing  another  (what  they 
are  is  uncertain),  the  thirteenth  Fargard  proceeds  to 
enumerate  in  detail  the  various  kinds  of  off"ences 
against  dogs,  and  the  corresponding  penalties.  Dogs 
were  evidently  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the 
community,  and  their  persons  are  guarded  with 
scarcely  less  care  than  those  of  human  beings.  They 
are  held  to  have  souls,  which  migrate  after  their 
decease  to  a  canine  Paradise.  It  seems,  too,  that 
shades  of  departed  dogs  are  appointed  to  watch  the 
dangerous  bridge  over  which  men's  souls  must  travel 
on  the  road  to  felicity,  and  which  the  wicked  cannot 
pass ;  for  we  are  informed  of  the  soul  of  a  man  who 
has  killed  a  watchdog,  that  "  the  deceased  dogs  who 
guard  against  crime  and   watch    the  bridge  do  not 


PARSER  RESPECT  FOR  THE  DOG.  177 

make  friends  with  it  on  account  of  its  abominabJe 
and  horrible  nature;"^  while  a  man  who  has  killed 
a  water-dog  is  required  to  make  "  offerings  for  its 
pious  soul  for  three  days  and  three  nights."  ^  The 
place  to  which  the  souls  of  these  animals  repair  is 
termed  "  the  water-dwelling,"  and  it  is  stated  that 
two  water-dogs  meet  them  on  their  arrival,  apparently 
to  welcome  them  to  their  aqueous  heaven.^  Not  only 
killing  dogs,  but  wounding  them  or  giving  them  bad 
food,  are  crimes  to  be  severely  punished ;  and  even  in 
case  of  madness  the  dog's  life  is  on  no  account  to  be 
taken.  On  the  contrary,  the  utmost  care  is  to  be 
taken,  by  fastening  him  so  as  to  prevent  escape,  that 
he  should  do  himself  no  injury,  for  if  he  should 
happen  in  his  madness  to  fall  into  water  and  die,  the 
community  will  have  incurred  sin  by  the  accident.'' 
The  following  verses  convey  an  interesting  notion  of 
the  esteem  in  which  the  dog  was  held  among  the 
early  Parsees.     The  speaker  is  Ahura-Mazda : — 

"  I  have  created  the  dog,  0  Zarathustra,  with  his  own  clothes 
and  his  own  shoes  ;  with  a  sharp  nose  and  sharp  teeth  ;  attached 
to  mankind,  for  the  protection  of  the  herds.  Then  I  created  the 
dog,  even  I  Ahura-Mazda,  with  a  body  capable  of  biting  enemies. 
When  he  is  in  good  health,  when  he  is  with  the  herds,  when  he 
is  in  good  voice,  0  holy  Zarathustra,  there  comes  not  to  his 
village  either  thief  or  wolf  to  carry  off  property  unperceived  from 
the  villages. "  * 

'  Av.,  vol.  i.  p.  192. — Vendidad,  xiii.  25. 

^  Av.,  vol.  i.  p.  201. — Vendidad,  xiii.  173. 

^  Av.,  vol.  1.  p.  200. — Vendidad,  xiii.  167. 

■*  There  is,  indeed,  a  passage  which  permits  the  mutilation  of  a  mad 
dog  by  cutting  off  an  ear,  or  a  foot,  or  ihe  tail  ;  Spiegel,  however,  regards 
it  as  interpolated,  and  it  is  palpably  at  variance  with  the  remainder  of 
tlie  chapter. 

*  Av.,  vol.  i.  p.  197. — Vendidad,  xiii.  106- 113. 
VOL.  II.  M 


178  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

In  the  fourteenth  Fargard,  water-dogs  are  further 
protected  against  wounds  ;  while  in  the  fifteenth,  the 
preservation  of  the  canine  species  at  large  is  ensured 
bv  elaborate  enactments.  To  give  a  dooj  bones  which 
it  cannot  gnaw,  or  food  so  hot  as  to  burn  its  tongue, 
is  a  sin ;  to  frighten  a  bitch  in  pup,  as  by  clapping 
the  hands,  is  likewise  to  incur  guilt ;  and  they  are 
gravely  criminal  who  suffer  puppies  to  die  from  inat- 
tention. If  born  in  camel-stalls,  stables,  or  any  such 
places,  it  is  incumbent  on  the  proj^rietor  to  take 
charge  of  them ;  or,  if  the  litter  should  be  at  large, 
at  least  the  nearest  inhabitant  is  bound  to  become 
their  protector.  Strangely  intermingled  with  these 
precautions  are  rules  prohibiting  cohabitation  with 
women  in  certain  physical  conditions,  and  enactments 
for  the  prevention  of  abortion,  and  for  ensuring 
the  support  of  a  pregnant  girl  by  her  seducer,  at 
least  until  her  child  is  born.  The  crime  of  abortion 
is  described  in  a  manner  which  curiously  reveals  the 
practices  occasionally  resorted  to  by  Parsee  maidens. 
Should  a  single  woman  be  with  child,  and  say,  "  The 
child  was  begotten  by  such  and  such  a  man  " — 

"  If  then  this  man  says, '  Try  to  make  friends  with  an  old  woman 
and  inquire  of  her  ; '  if  then  this  girl  does  make  friends  with  an 
old  woman  and  inquire  of  her,  and  this  old  woman  brings  Baga, 
or  Shaeta,  or  Ghnana,  or  FraQpata,  or  any  of  the  vegetable  purga- 
tives, saying,  '  Try  to  kill  this  child  ; '  if  then  the  girl  does  try  to 
kill  the  child,  then  the  girl,  the  man,  and  the  old  woman  are 
all  equally  criminal." 

Neither  tlie  sixteenth  nor  the  seventeenth  Fargard 
need  detain  us.  They  relate,  the  one  to  the  above- 
mentioned  rules  to  be  observed  towards  women,  the 
other    to   the  disposal  of  the  hair  and   nails,   which 


PARSEE  RESPECT  FOR  CLEANLINESS.       179 

are  held,  to  pollute  the  emrtli.  The  eighteenth  Fargard 
begins,  as  if  in  the  middle  of  a  conversation,  with  an 
address  by  Ahura-Mazda  on  the  characteristics  of 
true  and  false  priests,  some,  it  appears,  having 
improperly  pretended  to  the  priesthood.  After  some 
questions  on  other  points  of  doctrine  put  by  Zara- 
thustra,  we  are  suddenly  introduced  to  a  conversation 
between  the  angel  Qraosha  and  the  Drukhs,  or  evil 
spirit,  in  which  the  latter  describes  the  several 
offences  that  cause  her  to  become  pregnant,  or,  in 
other  words,  increase  her  influence  in  the  world. 
After  this  interlude,  we  return  to  Ahura-Mazda  and 
Zarathustra.  The  prophet,  having  been  exhorted  to 
put  questions,  inquires  of  his  god  who  causes  him 
the  greatest  annoyance.  Ahura-Mazda  replies  that 
it  is  "he  who  miugles  the  seed  of  the  pious  and  the 
impious,  of  Daeva-worshippers  and  of  those  who  do 
not  worship  the  Daevas,  of  sinners  and  non-sinners." 
Such  persons  are  "rather  to  be  killed  than  poisonous 
snakes."  Hereupon  Zarathustra  proceeds  to  ascer- 
tain what  are  the  penalties  for  those  who  cohabit 
with  women  at  seasons  when  the  law  requires  them 
to  be  separate.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth Fargard,  we  have  an  account  of  the  tempta- 
tion of  the  prophet  by  the  evil  one,  to  which,  allusion 
has  been  made  in  another  place.  Zarathustra 
seeks  for  information  as  to  the  means  of  getting 
rid  of  impurities,  and  is  taught  by  Ahura-Mazda 
to  praise  the  objects  he  has  created.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  chapter  we  have  a  remarkable 
account  of  the  judgment  of  departed  souls.  In  con- 
clusion, we  have  a  psalm  of  praise  recited  by  the 
prophet  in  honour  of  God,  the  earth,  the  stars,  the 


I  So  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

G4tli4s,  and  numerous  other  portions  of  the  good 
creation.  There  is  little  in  the  twentieth  Fargard 
beyond  the  information  that  Thrita  was  the  first 
physician,  and  a  formula  of  conjuration,  apparently 
intended  to  be  used  in  order  to  drive  away  diseases. 
In  the  twenty-first,  we  find  praises  of  the  cloud,  the 
sun,  and  other  heavenly  bodies.  The  last  Fargard 
of  the  Vendidad  difi'ers  widely  from  the  rest  in  its 
manner  of  representing  Ahura-Mazda.  It  is,  no 
doubt,  as  Spiegel  observes,  of  late  origin.  Ahura- 
Mazda  complains  of  the  opposition  he  has  encountered 
from  Agra-Mainyus,  who  has  afllicted  him  with 
illness  (whether  in  his  own  person,  or  in  that  of 
mankind,  is  not  clear).  He  calls  upon  Manthra- 
Qpenta,  the  Word,  to  heal  him,  but  that  spirit  declines, 
and  a  messenger  is  accordingly  sent  to  Airyama  to 
summon  him  to  the  task.^  Airyama  commences  his 
preparations  on  an  extensive  scale,  but  at  this  point 
the  Vendidad  breaks  ofi",  and  we  are  left  in  doubt  as 
to  the  result  of  his  eff"orts. 


Subdivision  6. — The  KJm-Ja-Avesta,  with  the  Roma  Yasht. 

The  term  Khorda- Avesta,  or  little  Avesta,  is  applied, 
according  to  Spiegel,  to  that  part  of  the  Zend-Avesta 
which  includes  the  Yashts,  and  certain  prayers,  some 
of  them  of  extreme  sanctity,  and  constantly  employed 
in  Parsee  worship.  He  informs  us  that,  while  the 
remainder  of  the  sacred  texts  serve  more  especially 
for  priestly  study  and  for  public  reading,  the  Khorda- 
Avesta  is  mainly  used  in  private  devotion.^     Some 

^  Spiegel  holds  that  Airyama  is  only  a  certain  prayer  hypostatised. — 
Cf.  Ar.,  vol.  iii.  p.  34.  ^  Av,.  vol.  iii  p  i. 


PARSER  PRAYERS.  18 1 

of  its  prayers  belong  to  a  comparatively  recent  period, 
being  composed  no  longer  in  the  Zend  language,  but 
in  a  younger  dialect ;  and  we  meet  in  them  with  the 
Persian  forms  of  the  old  names — Ormazd  standing 
for  Ahura-Mazda,  Ahriman  for  Agra-Mainyus,  and 
Zerdoscht  for  Zarathustra.  The  names  of  the  genii 
have  undergone  corresponding  alterations.  We  find 
ourselves  in  these  prayers,  and  indeed  throughout  the 
Yashts,  many  centuries  removed  from  the  age  of 
Zarathustra  and  his  immediate  followers.  Some  of 
the  more  celebrated  prayers,  however  (not  belonging 
to  the  class  of  Yashts),  must  be  of  considerable 
antiquity,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  fact  of  their 
being  mentioned  in  the  Yacna.  Thus,  in  the  19th 
chapter  of  the  Ya^na,  we  find  an  elaborate  exaltation 
of  the  powers  of  the  Ahuna-Vairya,  which  stands 
second  in  the  Khorda-Avesta.  Zarathustra  is  repre- 
sented as  asking  Ahura-Mazda,  "What  was  the 
speech  which  thou  spokest  to  me,  as  existing  before 
the  sky,  before  the  water,  before  the  earth,  before  the 
ox,  before  the  trees,  before  the  fire,  son  of  Ahura- 
Mazda,  before  the  pure  men,  before  the  Daevas  with 
perverted  minds,  and  before  men,  before  the  whole 
corporeal  world,  before  all  things  created  by  Mazda 
which  have  a  pure  origin  ? "  This  speech,  existing 
prior  to  all  created  objects,  is  declared  to  have  been 
a  part  of  the  Ahuna-Vairya.  The  immense  benefits 
of  repeating  this  prayer,  which  is  stated  to  ensure 
salvation,  are  then  recounted  to  the  prophet.  The 
20th  chapter  is  occupied  with  the  merits  of  another 
of  these  short  formularies,  the  Ashem-v6hti.  These 
prayers  are  in  continual  use,  not  only  in  the  liturgy, 
but  among  the  laity.     They  are  sometimes  required 


1 8 2  HOL  Y  BO OKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

to  recite  great  numbers  of  Aliuna-Vairyas  at  one 
time,  and  at  the  commencement  of  sowing,  or  of  any 
good  work,  it  is  proper  to  repeat  it.  The  Ashem- 
vohti  is  to  be  said  on  various  occasions,  particularly 
on  waking  and  before  going  to  sleep/  The  higher 
sanctity,  as  well  as  greater  antiquity,  of  these  prayers 
is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  we  find  them  constantly 
introduced  in  the  course  of  others,  to  which  they  form 
a  necessary  supplement.  There  are  often  several 
Ashem-vohus  in  a  single  brief  prayer.  The  Ashem- 
vohti,  in  fact,  fulfils  a  function  much  like  that  of  the 
Lord's  prayer  in  the  liturgies  of  some  Christian 
Churches. 

Let  us  now  see  what  these  most  sacred  forms  of 
adoration  contain.  The  Ashem-vohti  is  to  this 
efiect : — 

"  Purity  is  the  best  possession. 
Hail,  hail  to  him  : 
Namely,  to  the  pure  man  best  in  purity."  ' 

It  is  strange  that,  in  a  formulary  occupying  so  con- 
spicuous a  place  in  Parsee  devotion,  there  should  be  no 
acknowledgment  of  God.  But  this  want  is  supplied 
in  the  Ahuna-Vairya,  or  Yatha  -  ahti  -  vairyo,  which 
follows  it. 

Yatha-ahu-vairyo  : — 

"  As  it  is  the  Lord's  will,  so  (is  he)  the  ruler  from  purity. 
(We  shall  receive)  gifts  from  Vohu-mano  for  the  works  (we  do) 
in  the  world  for  Mazda. 

And  (he  gives)  the  kingdom  to  Ahura  who  protects  the  poor."' 


'  Av.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  Ixxxii.,  Ixxxiii. 

^  Av.,  vol.  iii.  p.  3. — Khorda-Avesta,  i, 

■^  Av.,  vol.  iii. — Khorda-Avesta,  2. 


PRAYERS  TO  PARTICULAR  DEITIES.        183 

Certainly  this  is  not  very  intelligible,  but  the  last 
clause  is  remarkable,  as  implying  that  the  way  to 
advance  God's  kingdom  on  earth  is  to  confer  benefits 
on  the  poor. 

Passing  over  a  number  of  other  prayers,  we  enter 
upon  the  Yashts,  which  are  distinguished  from  all 
other  parts  of  the  Avesta  by  the  fact  that  each  of 
them  is  written  in  celebration  of  some  particular  god 
or  genius.  Ahura-Mazda,  indeed,  still  retains  his 
supremacy,  and  every  Yasht  begins  with  a  formula,  of 
which  the  first  words  are  "  In  the  name  of  the  God 
Ormazd,"  while  the  first  Yasht  is  devoted  exclusively 
to  his  praise.  Subject  to  this  recognition,  however, 
the  inferior  potentates  are  each  in  turn  the  object  of 
panegyrics  in  that  exaggerated  style  in  which  Oriental 
literature  delights.  We  need  not  stop  to  recount  the 
particular  honours  rendered  to  each.  One  Yasht, 
however,  is  sufficiently  curious  to  merit  our  attention, 
the  more  so  as  we  possess  a  translation  of  it  by 
Burnouf.^  It  is  termed  the  Homa  Yasht,  and  is 
intended  to  extol  the  brilliant  qualities  of  the  god 
whose  name  it  bears.  At  that  period  of  the  day  which 
is  termed  H4vani — so  it  begins — Homa  came  to  find 
Zarathustra,  who  was  cleaninor  his  fire,  and  sino-inof 
the  Gathas.  "  Zarathustra  asked  him :  '  What  man  art 
thou  who  in  all  the  existing  world  appearest  to  my 
sight  as  the  most  perfect,  with  thy  beautiful  and 
immortal  person  ? '     Then  Homa,  the  holy  one,  who 

^  In  the  "  Journal  Asiatique,"  4me  Serie,  torn.  4,  5,  6,  7,  8.  I  have 
followed  it  exclusively.  The  Homa  Yasht  is  not  formally  included 
in  the  Khorda- Avesta  ;  it  forms  the  9th  chapter  of  the  Yaqna.  But  the 
fact  that,  while  utterly  alien  to  the  rest  of  the  Yaqna,  it  is  truly  a 
Yasht— being  in  honour  of  a  special  personage— induced  me  to  defer  its 
consideration  till  now. 


1 84  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

banishes  death,  answered  me  :  *I  am,  0  Zarathustra, 
Homa,  the  holy  one,  who  banishes  death.  Invoke 
me,  0  Qpitama,^  extract  me  to  eat  me,  praise  me  to 
celebrate  me,  in  order  that  others,  who  desire  their 
good,  may  praise  me  in  their  turn.'  Then  Zarathus- 
tra said  :  *  Adoration  to  Homa  !  Who  is  the  mortal, 
Homa,  who  first  in  the  present  world  extracted 
thee  for  sacrifice  ?  What  holiness  did  he  acquire  ? 
What  advantage  accrued  to  him  thereby?'"  Homa 
replies  that  Vivanghat  was  the  first  to  extract  him 
for  sacrifice,  and  that  he  acquired  the  advantage  of 
becoming  father  to  the  glorious  Yima,  in  whose  reign 
"  there  was  neither  cold  nor  (excessive)  heat,  nor  old 
age  nor  death,  nor  envy  produced  by  the  Deva. 
Fathers  and  sons  alike  had  the  figure  of  men  of  fifteen 
years  of  age,  as  long  as  Yima  reigned."  Similar  ques- 
tions are  then  put  by  Zarathustra  regarding  the 
second,  third,  and  fourth  mortals  who  worshipped 
Homa,  and  similar  replies  are  given.  All  had  dis- 
tinguished sons ;  but  the  last,  Puruchaspa,  was  re- 
warded beyond  all  others  by  the  birth  of  Zarathustra 
himself.  Homa  thereupon  magnifies  Zarathustra 
in  the  usual  style  of  the  later  parts  of  the  Zend- 
Avesta,  and  Zarathustra,  who  is  not  to  be  outdone  in 
the  language  of  compliment,  thus  addresses  him  in 
return  :  "  Adoration  to  Homa !  Homa,  the  good,  has 
been  well  made  ;  he  has  been  made  just ;  made  good  ; 
he  bestows  health  ;  he  has  a  beautiful  person ;  he  does 
good ;  he  is  victorious ;  of  the  colour  of  gold  ;  his 
branches  are  inclined  to  be  eaten;  he  is  excellent;  and 

^  The  term  Qpitama,  xisually  coupled  with  the  name  of  Zarathustra,  is 
translated  by  Spiegel  "  holy,"  but  is  treated  by  Haug  and  Burnouf  as  a 
l)roper  name.  There  are  indications  that  it  may  have  been  the  family 
name  of  the  prophet.     See  Av.,  vol.  iii.  p.  219,  n. 


PRAYERS  TO  HOMA.  185 

he  is  the  most  celestial  way  for  the  soul.  0  thou 
who  art  of  the  colour  of  gold,  I  ask  thee  for  prudence, 
energy,  victory,  beauty,  the  force  that  penetrates  the 
whole  body,  greatness  which  is  spread  over  the  whole 
figure;"  and  so  forth,  through  several  other  by  no 
means  modest  petitions.  In  a  more  formal  manner 
Zarathustra  then  demands  of  Homa  the  following 
favours  :  ist,  the  excellent  abode  of  the  saints  ;  2dly, 
the  duration  of  his  body ;  3dly,  a  long  life ;  4thly 
and  5thly,  to  be  able  to  annihilate  hatred  and  strike 
down  the  cruel  man  ;  6thly,  that  they  (the  faithful  ?) 
may  see  robbers,  assassins,  and  wolves  before  being 
seen  by  them.  After  this,  Homa  is  praised  generally. 
He  gives  many  good  gifts,  among  them  posterity 
to  sterile  mothers,  and  husbands  to  spinsters  of  ad- 
vanced years.  He  is  finally  requested,  if  there  should 
be  in  the  village  or^  the  province  a  man  who  is 
hurtful  to  others,  to  take  from  him  the  power  of 
walking,  to  darken  his  intelligence,  and  to  break  his 
heart.  ^ 

The  Yashts  are  succeeded  by  various  pieces,  of  which 
one  relates  to  Parsee  eschatology,  and  the  others, 
celebrating  numerous  supernatural  objects  of  worship, 
do  not  call  for  any  special  remark.  After  these  we 
come  to  the  so-called  Patets,  which  belong  to  the 
most  recent  portions  of  the  book,  and  indicate  a  highly 
developed  consciousness  of  sin,  and  of  the  need  of 
divine  forgiveness.  They  correspond  in  tone  and 
character  to  the  General  Confession  which  has  been 
placed  by  the  Church  of  England  in  the  forefront  of 
her  Liturgy,  except  that  they  contain  long  enumera- 
tions of  the  several  classes  of  ofiences  for  which  pardon 

1  For  anotlier  Yasht,  see  Book  i,  pt.  i,  ch.  i. 


i86  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

is  to  be  entreated.     One  of  them,  after  such  a  cata- 
logue, thus  addresses  the  Deity  : — 

"  Whatever  was  the  wish  of  the  Creator  Ormazd,  and  I  ought 
to  have  thought  and  did  not  think,  whatever  I  ought  to  have 
said  and  did  not  say,  whatever  I  ought  to  have  done  and  did 
not  do, — I  repent  of  these  sins,  with  thoughts,  words,  and  works, 
both  the  corporeal  and  the  spiritual,  the  earthly  and  the  heavenly 
sins,  with  the  three  words.^  Forgive,  0  Lord  ;  I  repent  of  the 
sin. 

"  Whatever  was  the  wish  of  Ahriman,  and  I  ought  not  to  have 
thought  and  yet  did  think,  whatever  I  ought  not  to  have  said 
and  yet  did  say,  whatever  I  ought  not  to  have  done  and  yet  did, 
— I  repent  of  these  sins  with  thoughts,  words,  and  works,  both 
the  corporeal  and  the  spiritual,  the  earthly  and  the  heavenly  sins, 
with  the  three  words.     Forgive,  0  Lord  ;  I  repent  of  the  sin."  ^ 

Another  of  these  Patets  contains  the  following 
comprehensive  formula : — 

"  In  whatever  way  I  may  have  sinned,  against  whomsoever  I 
may  have  sinned,  howsoever  I  may  have  sinned,  I  repent  of  it 
with  thoughts,  words,  and  works  ;  forgive  !  "  ^ 

The  same  Patet  contains  a  confession  of  faith, 
which,  as  it  alludes  to  the  several  dogmas  that  were 
held  to  be  of  first-rate  importance  in  the  creed  of  the 
true  disciple  of  Zarathustra,  may  be  worth  quoting 
before  we  quit  the  subject : — 

"I  believe  in  the  existence,  the  purity,  and  the  indubitable 
truth  of  the  good  Mazdaya9na  faith,  and  in  the  Creator  Ormazd 
and  the  Amschaspands,  in  the  exaction  of  an  account,  and  in  the 
resurrection  and  the  new  body.     I  remain   in   this   faith,   and 


^  That  is,  with  thoughts,  words,  and  works. 

^  Av.,  vol.  iii.  p.  21 1. — Khorda-Avesta,  xlv.  8,  9. 

^  At.,  voL  iii.  p.  216. — Khorda-Avesta,  xlvi.  i. 


THE  PA  JETS  AND  CONFESSION.  187 

confess  that  it  is  net  to  be  doubted,  as  Ormazd  imparted  it  to 
Zertuscht,  Zertusclit  to  Fraschaostra  and  Jamagp,  as  Aderbat,  the 
son  of  Mahresfand,  ordered  and  purified  it,  as  the  just  Paoiryo- 
tkaeshas  and  the  Degttirs  in  family  succession  have  brought  it  to 
us,  and  I  thence  am  acquainted  with  it."  ^ 

In  more  than  one  respect  this  confession  is  interest- 
ing. First,  it  asserts  the  excellence  and  the  unques- 
tionable infallibility  of  the  traditional  faith  in  terms 
which  a  Catholic  could  hardly  improve  upon. 
Secondly,  it  brings  before  us  in  succinct  form  the 
leading  points  included  in  that  faith — the  Creator,  at 
the  head  of  all  the  created  world ;  the  seven  Amshas- 
pands  or  Amesha-Qpentas,  heavenly  powers  of  whom 
Ormazd  himself  was  chief;  the  judgment  to  be 
expected  after  death,  and  the  strict  account  then  to 
be  required  ;  lastly,  the  general  resurrection  with  its 
new  body.  Proceeding  next  to  the  manner  in  which 
this  faith  had  been  handed  down  from  generation  to 
generation,  we  have  first  the  cardinal  doctrine  that 
God  himself  was  the  direct  teacher  of  his  prophet ; 
after  that,  a  statement  that  the  prophet  communicated 
it  to  others,  from  whom  it  descended  to  still  later 
followers,  one  of  whom  is  declared  to  have  "  ordered 
and  purified  it."  Thus  the  consciousness  of  subse- 
quent additions  to  the  original  law  is  betrayed.  Thus 
amended,  the  priests,  or  De§turs,  are  said  to  have 
transmitted  it  to  the  time  of  the  speaker,  the  authority 
of  the  ecclesiastical  order  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
sacred  records  being  thus  carefully  maintained. 

How  many  generations  had  elapsed  before  the 
transmission  of  the  law  could  thus  become  the  subject 
of  deliberate  incorporation  among  recognised  dogmas, 

'  Av.,  vol.  ill.  p.  218. — Khorda-Avesta.  xlvi.  28. 


1 88  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

it  is  impossible  to  say.  Undoubtedly,  however,  we 
stand  a  long  way  oflf — not  only  in  actual  time,  but  in 
modes  of  thought  and  forms  of  w^orship — from  the 
ancient  Iranian  prophet.  The  change  from  the  faith 
of  Peter  to  that  of  St  Augustine  is  not  greater  than 
that  from  the  faith  of  Zarathustra's  rude  disciples  to 
that  of  the  subtle,  self-conscious  priests  who  composed 
these  later  formularies,  or  the  laity  who  accepted 
them.  Still,  after  all  has  been  said,  after  it  has  been 
freely  admitted  that  subsequent  speculation,  or 
imagination,  or  the  influence  of  neighbouring  creeds, 
introduced  a  host  of  minor  spirits  or  quasi-gods,  of 
whom  Zarathustra  knew  nothing,  it  must  also  be 
emphatically  asserted  that  the  God  of  Zarathustra 
never  loses,  among  the  multitude  of  his  associates, 
either  his  supremacy  or  his  unique  and  transcendent 
attributes.  While  in  the  Gathas  Ahura-Mazda  alone 
is  worshipped ;  wdiile  in  the  later  chapters  of  the 
Yagna  many  other  personages  receive  a  more  or  less 
limited  homage  along  with  him  ;  while  in  the  Yaslits 
these  personages  are  singled  out  one  after  another  for 
w^hat  appears  unbounded  adoration, — the  original  God 
invariably  maintains  his  rank  as  the  Creator ;  the  one 
Supreme  Lord  of  mankind,  as  of  all  his  other  creatures  ; 
the  instructor  of  Zarathustra  ;  the  Being  compared  to 
whom  all  others  stand  related  as  the  thing  made 
towards  its  Maker.  Theism  does  not  in  the  Avesta 
pass  into  polytheism.  Strictly  speaking,  its  spirit  is 
monotheistic  throughout,  though  w^e  might  often  be 
betrayed  into  thinking  the  contrary  by  the  extrava- 
gance of  its  language.  Nor  can  I  discover  in  its 
23ages  the  doctrine  which  some  have  held  to  be  con- 
tained in  it,  namely,  that  above  Ahura-Mazda,  some- 


MORAL  ELEMENT  IN  ZEND-AVESTA.        189 

where  in  the  dark  background  of  the  universe,  was  a 
God  still  greater  than  him,  the  ultimate  Power  to 
which  even  he  must  yield,  Zrvana-Akarana,  or  Infinite 
Time.  The  very  name  of  this  highly  abstract  being 
appears  but  rarely  in  the  Avesta,  and  never,  so  far  as 
I  am  able  to  discover,  in  the  character  thus  assigned 
to  him.  Ahura-Mazda  remains  throughout  the  God 
of  Gods  ;  his  is  the  highest  and  most  sacred  name 
known  to  his  worshippers,  and  none  can  compare  with 
him,  the  Infinite  Creator,  in  greatness,  in  glory,  or  in 
power. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that,  in  the  early  stage  of 
social  progress  at  which  a  great  part  at  least  of  the 
Avesta  was  written,  its  moral  doctrines  should  be 
altogether  faultless.  Nevertheless,  it  may  well  sustain 
a  comparison  in  this  respect  with  the  codes  which 
have  been  received  as  authoritative  by  other  nations. 
Subject  to  the  drawback,  common  to  all  theologically- 
influenced  systems  of  ethics,  of  laying  as  much  stress 
upon  correct  belief  and.  the  diligent  performance  of 
the  customary  rites  as  upon  the  really  fundamental 
duties  of  men,  the  Zend-Avesta  upholds  a  high 
standard  of  morality,  and  honestly  seeks  to  inculcate 
upon  believers  the  immense  importance  of  leading 
an  upright  and  virtuous  life.  Such  a  life  alone  is 
pleasing  to  God ;  such  a  life  alone  can  insure  a  safe 
passage  over  the  hazardous  bridge  by  which  the  soul 
must  pass  to  Paradise.  Not  only  are  the  more  obvious 
virtues — respect  for  life,  careful  observance  of  promises, 
industrious  conduct — sedulously  enjoined  on  the 
faithful  Parsee,  but  some  others,  less  obvious  and  too 
frequently  overlooked,  are  urged  upon  them.  The 
seducer  is  bound  to  provide  both  for  the  infjint  he 


igo  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

has  called  into  existence,  and  for  its  mother,  at  least 
for  a  certain  period.  Domestic  animals  are  not  for- 
gotten, and  humanity  towards  these  dependent  crea- 
tures is  commanded  in  a  series  of  precepts,  the  spirit 
of  which  would  do  honour  to  any  age.  And,  in 
general,  the  blamelessness  required  in  thoughts,  words, 
and  works  imposed  on  the  devout  Mazdaya9na  a 
comprehensive  attention  to  the  many  ways  in  which 
he  might  lapse  from  virtue,  and  held  before  him  an 
exalted  conception  of  moral  purity. 

Yet,  when  all  this  has  been  said,  it  must  still  be 
admitted  that  the  Zend-Avesta  hides  its  lio-ht,  such 
as  it  is,  under  a  bushel.  Such  is  the  number  of  supra- 
mundane  spirits  to  be  lauded,  such  the  mass  of 
ceremonies  to  be  attended  to,  so  great  the  proportion 
of  space  devoted  to  guarding  against  legal  impurities 
as  compared  with  that  consigned  to  preventing  moral 
evil,  that  the  impression  left  upon  the  minds  of  un- 
believing readers  is  on  the  whole  far  from  favourable. 
Morality  has,  in  fact,  got  buried  under  theology.  The 
trivialities,  inanities,  and  repetitions  that  abound  in 
the  sacred  text  draw  off  the  mind  from  the  occasional 
excellences  of  thought  and  expression  which  it 
contains.  Thus  he  who  toils  through  the  verbose 
Fargards  of  the  Vendidad,  the  obscure  chapters  of 
the  older  and  younger  Ya9na,  or  the  panegyrical 
rhapsodies  of  the  Yashts,  will  find  but  little  to  reward 
his  search.  With  the  Gathas  indeed  it  is  otherwise. 
These  are  full  of  interest,  and  not  quite  devoid  of  a 
simple  grandeur.  But  as  a  whole,  the  Avesta  is  a 
mine  which,  among  vast  heaps  of  rubbish,  discloses 
but  here  and  there  a  grain  of  gold. 


THE  KORAN.  191 


Section  VI. — The  Koran.* 

Alone  among  the  Scriptures  of  the  several  great 
religions,  the  Koran  is  the  work  of  a  single  author. 
It  is,  therefore,  characterised  by  greater  uniformity 
of  style,  subject,  and  doctrine  than  the  sacred  col- 
lections of  other  nations.  Considerable  as  the  differ- 
ence is  between  its  earlier  and  its  later  Suras,  a 
consistent  line  of  thought  is  visible  throughout,  and 
pious  Moslems  are  free  from  the  difficulty  that  has 
always  beset  Christian  theologians  of  "  harmonising  " 
contradictory  passages  both  supposed  to  emanate  from 
God.  There  are,  indeed,  earlier  revelations  incon- 
sistent with  later  ones ;  but  in  this  case,  the  former 
are  held  to  have  been  abrogated  by  the  latter. 
Mediocre  in  the  order  of  its  thought,  diffuse  in  style, 
abundant  in  repetitions,  there  are  few  books  more  cal- 
culated to  task  the  patience  of  a  conscientious  reader. 
But  we  must  recollect,  in  judging  it,  that  its  author 
did  not  write  it,  and  very  possibly  never  contemplated 
its  existence  as  a  complete  work.  He  published  it 
from  time  to  time  as  occasion  required,  much  as  a 
modern  statesman  would  announce  his  views  by 
means  of  speeches,  pamphlets,  or  election  addresses. 

When  a  revelation  arrived,  Mahomet  in  the  first 
instance  dictated  it  to  his  secretary  Zaid,  who  wrote 
it   on   palm-leaves  or   skins,   or  tablets   of  any  kind 

^  Complete  translations  of  the  Koran  into  English  have  been  made  by- 
Sale  and  by  Rodwell.  Considerable  portions  have  been  rendered  into 
German  by  Sprenger,  "  Das  Leben  und  die  Lehre  des  Mohammed  ;" 
and  by  Gustav  Weil,  "  Mohammed  der  Prophet ;"  and  into  English  by 
Dr  Mnir,  in  his  "  Life  of  Mahomet." 


192  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

that  might  be  at  hand.  Of  the  remaining  Moslems, 
some  took  copies,  but  many  more  committed  the 
revelations  to  memory;  the  Arab  memory  being 
remarkably  retentive.  Under  the  reign  of  Abu  Bekr, 
the  prophet's  successor,  Omar,  finding  that  some 
one  who  knew  a  piece  of  the  Koran  had  been  killed, 
suggested  that  the  whole  should  be  collected.  The 
suggestion  was  adopted,  and  Abu  Bekr  intrusted  the 
work  of  collection  to  the  secretary  Zaid.  The  Koran 
was  then  put  together,  not  only  from  the  leaves  that 
had  been  left  by  Mahomet,  and  thrown  without  any 
regard  to  order  into  a  chest,  but  also  from  the 
fragments,  either  written  or  preserved  in  the  memory, 
that  were  contributed  by  individual  believers.  The 
copy  thus  made  was  not  published,  but  was  committed 
for  safe  custody  to  Hafsa,  daughter  of  Omar,  and  one 
of  the  widows  of  the  prophet.  She  kept  it  during 
the  ten  years  of  her  father  Omar's  caliphate.  But 
as  there  were  no  official  and  authorised  copies  of  this 
genuine  Koran,  it  came  to  pass  that  the  various 
missionaries  who  were  sent  as  teachers  to  the  newly 
conquered  countries  repeated  it  differently,  and  that 
various  readings  crept  into  the  transcripts  in  use. 
Hence  serious  threatenings  of  division  and  scandal 
among  the  Moslems.  The  caliph  Othman,  foreseeing 
the  danger,  appointed  a  commission,  with  the  secretary 
Zaid  at  its  head,  to  copy  the  copy  of  Hafsa  and 
return  it  to  her,  their  duty  being  to  determine  on 
differences  of  reading,  and  to  be  careful  to  restore  the 
Meccan  idiom  where  it  had  been  departed  from  in 
any  of  the  versions.  Several  copies  were  made  by 
the  commissioners,  of  which  one  was  kept  at  Medina, 
and  the  others  sent  to  the  great  military  stations. 


SUBJECT-MATTER  OF  THE  KORAN.  193 

This  was  the  official  text,  prepared  about  a.h.  25-30 ; 
and  after  its  establishment,  all  private  copies  or 
fragments  of  the  Koran  were  ordered  by  Othman  to 
be  destroyed.^  The  original  Koran,  which  Mahomet 
did  but  reproduce,  is  supposed  by  those  who  accept 
it  as  divine  to  be  preserved  in  heaven,  in  the  very 
presence  of  its  original  author,  on  an  enormous 
table. 

In  the  Koran,  as  arranged  by  Zaid,  there  is  appar- 
ently no  fixed  principle  in  the  order  of  the  Suras  or 
chapters.  In  the  main,  the  longest  Suras  come  first, 
but  even  this  rule  is  not  adhered  to  consistently. 
Of  chronological  arrangement  there  is  not  a  trace, 
and  it  has  been  left  to  the  ingenuity  of  European 
scholars  to  endeavour  to  discover  approximately  the 
date  of  the  several  revelations.  Of  some,  the  occa- 
sions of  their  publication  are  known,  but  in  the  case 
of  the  great  majority,  nothing  beyond  a  conjectural 
arrangement  can  be  attained. 

The  principal  themes  with  which  the  Koran  is 
occupied  are  the  unity  of  God ;  his  attributes ;  the 
several  prophets  preceding  Mahomet,  whom  he  has 
sent  to  convert  unbelievers;  the  joys  of  Paradise  and 
terrors  of  hell ;  and  the  legislative  edicts  promulgated 
for  the  government  of  the  Arabs  under  the  new 
religion.  Of  these  several  subjects,  the  first  two 
occupy  a  predominant  place  in  the  earliest  revela- 
tions. Legends  of  prophets,  of  whom  Mahomet 
recognised  a  considerable  number,  form  one  of  the 
standing  dishes  set  before  the  faithful  during  all  but 
the  very  beginning  of  his  career.     He  was  also  fond 

^  L.  L.  M.,  vol.  iii.,  Vorrede. — Sale,  preliminary  discourse,  p.  46.— 
K.,  p.  vii. 

VOL.  IL  N 


194  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

of  speakiug  of  the  contrast  between  the  position  of 
believers  and  sceptics  in  a  future  state  ;  but  he  seems 
at  first  to  have  expected  a  temporal  judgment  on 
his  Meccan  opponents,  and  afterwards  to  have  been 
contented  witli  awaiting  the  divine  vengeance  in 
another  world.  Legislation,  of  course,  belongs  only 
to  that  portion  of  the  Koran  which  was  revealed  after 
the  Hegira. 

A  few  specimens  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  give  a 
notion  both  of  the  earlier  and  later  style  of  this  sacred 
volume.  Here  is  a  Sura  revealed  at  Mecca  during 
the  first  struggles  of  the  prophet's  mind,  when  it 
Avas  completely  possessed  with  the  awfulness  of  the 
new  truth : — 

"  0  thou  enfolded  in  thy  mantle,  stand  up  all  night,  except  a 
small  portion  of  it,  for  pi-ayer.  Half;  or  curtail  the  half  a  little, 
— or  add  to  it :  and  with  measured  tone  intone  the  Koran,  for 
we  shall  devolve  on  thee  weighty  words.  Verily,  at  the  coming 
of  night  are  devout  ^  impressions  strongest,  and  words  are  most 
collected ;  but  in  the  daytime  thou  hast  continual  employ — and 
commemorate  the  name  of  thy  Lord,  and  devote  thyself  to  him 

with  entire  devotion Of  a  truth,  thy  Lord  knoweth  that 

thou  prayest  almost  two-thirds,  or  half,  or  a  third  of  the  niglit, 
as  do  a  part  of  thy  followers."  ^ 

This  is  the  opening  Sura  of  the  Koran  : — 

"  Praise  be  to  God,  Lord  of  the  worlds !  the  compassionate  ! 
the  merciful !  King  on  the  day  of  reckoning  !  Thee  only  do  we 
worship,  and  to  thee  do  we  cry  for  help.  Guide  thou  us  on  the 
straight  path,  the  path  of  those  to  whom  thou  hast  been  gracious ; 
with  whom  thou  art  not  angry,  and  who  go  not  astray."  ^ 


^  Italics,  here  and  elsewhere,  in  Rodwell. 

*  K.,  p.  7. — Sura,  j^.  ^  K.,  p.  11. — Sura,  i. 


HOW  THE  PROPHET  CONSOLED  HIMSELF.    195 

In  the  Sura  now  to  be  quoted  we  find  an  allusion 
to  one  of  the  prophets  whom  Mahomet  regarded  as 
precursors — the  prophet  Saleh,  who  had  been  sent  to 
a  people  called  Themoud  to  bid  them  worship  God. 
The  legend  associated  with  his  name  is,  that  he 
appealed  to  a  she-camel  as  a  proof  of  his  divine 
mission,  commanding  the  people  to  let  her  go  at  large 
and  do  her  no  hurt.  Some  of  the  Themoudites 
beheved ;  but  they  were  ridiculed  by  the  sceptical 
chiefs  of  the  nation,  whose  wickedness  went  so  far 
as  actually  to  hamstring  the  apostolic  camel.  Here- 
upon an  earthquake  overtook  them  by  night,  and 
they  w^ere  all  found  dead  in  the  morning.^  Such 
things  were  Mahomet's  stock-in-trade  ;  and  the  follow- 
ing Sura  exemplifies  the  mixture  of  his  early  poetic 
thoughts  with  the  prosaic  narratives  which  did  duty 
so  constantly  during  the  maturity  of  his  apostle- 
ship  : — 

"  By  the  Sun  and  his  noonday  brightness  !  by  the  Moon  when 
she  followeth  him !  by  the  Day  when  it  revealeth  his  glory  !  by 
the  Night  when  it  enshroudeth  him  !  by  the  Heaven  and  him 
who  built  it !  by  the  Earth  and  him  who  spread  it  forth  !  by  a 
Soul  and  him  who  balanced  it,  and  breathed  into  it  its  wickedness 
and  its  piety  !  blessed  now  is  he  who  hath  kept  it  pure,  and 
undone  is  he  who  hath  corrupted  it ! 

"  Themoud  in  his  impiety  rejected  the  message  of  the  Lord, 
when  the  greatest  wretch  among  them  rushed  up  :— Said  the 
apostle  of  God  to  them,— The  camel  of  God  !  let  her  drink.  But 
they  treated  him  as  an  impostor  and  hamstrung  her.  So  their 
Lord  destroyed  them  for  their  crime,  and  visited  all  alike  :  nor 
feared  he  the  issue."  2 

The  same  Sura  which  contains  the  history  of  Saleb, 
prophet  of  Themoud,  refers  also  to  various  other  divine 

*  K.,  p.  376.-Sura,  7.  71-77.  2  k_^  p.  24.— Sura,  91. 


196  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

messengers  who  liad  fulfilled  the  same  office  of  announc- 
ing tlie  judgments  of  God.  Mahomet's  general  view 
of  the  prophetic  function  seems  to  be  expressed  in 
these  words  : — 

"  Every  nation  hath  its  set  time.  And  Avhen  their  time  is  come 
they  shall  not  retard  it  an  hour ;  and  they  shall  not  advance  it. 
0  children  of  Adam !  there  shall  come  to  you  Apostles  from 
among  yourselves,  rehearsing  my  signs  to  you  ;  and  whoso  shall 
fear  God  and  do  good  works,  no  fear  shall  be  upon  them,  neither 
shall  they  be  put  to  grief.  But  they  who  charge  our  signs  with 
falsehood,  and  turn  away  from  them  in  their  pride,  shall  be  in- 
mates of  the  fire  :  for  ever  shall  they  abide  therein."  ^ 

The  prophets  whom  he  mentions  in  this  Sura  are 
Noah,  who  was  sent  to  warn  his  people  of  the  Deluge  ; 
Houd,  sent  to  Ad,  an  unbelieving  nation  whom  God 
cut  off,  with  the  exception  of  those  who  had  accepted 
Houd ;  Saleh,  sent  to  Themoud  as  above  related ;  Lot, 
sent  to  Sodom  to  warn  it  against  sin ;  Shoaib,  sent  to 
Madian,  a  people  of  which  the  unbelieving  members 
were  destroyed  by  earthquake ;  Moses,  sent  with  signs 
to  Pharaoh  and  his  nobles,  as  also  to  the  Israelites,  of 
whom  some  worshipped  the  calf,  and  were  overtaken 
by  the  wrath  of  their  Lord."  In  another  Sura  he 
makes  mention  of  other  prophets  besides  these  ;  namely, 
of  John  the  Baptist,  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  Abraham, 
Ishmael,  and  Enoch.^ 

His  view  of  Jesus  Christ  is  peculiar  and  interesting. 
He  invariably  treats  him  with  the  highest  respect  as  a 
servant  of  God  and  his  own  precursor,  but  he  is  careful 
to  protest  that  the  opinion  of  his  divinity  was  not 

^  K.,  p.  371.— Sura,  7.  32-34. 

2  K.,  p.  375-386.— Sura,  7.  57-154. 

3  K.,  p.  127  IF. — Sura,  19. 


MAHOMET S  ESTIMATE  OF  CHRIST.         197 

held  by  Jesus  himself,  and  was  a  baseless  invention  of 
his  followers.  The  notion  that  God  could  have  a  son 
seems  to  him  a  gross  profanation,  and  he  often  recurs 
to  it  in  terms  of  the  strongest  reprobation.  Thus  he 
endeavours  to  claim  Christ  as  a  genuine  Moslem,  and 
to  include  Christianity  within  the  pale  of  the  new 
faith.  A  Christian  who  adopted  it  might  continue, 
indeed  must  continue,  to  believe  everything  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  except  such  passages  as  expressly 
assert  the  incarnation  and  divinity  of  Jesus.  Yet 
Mahomet's  own  version  of  this  prophet's  conception 
involves  a  supernatural  element,  and  only  differs 
from  that  of  Luke  in  not  asserting  the  paternity 
of  God. 

"And  make  mention  in  the  Book,"  he  says,  "of 
Mary,  when  she  went  apart  from  her  family,  eastward, 
and  took  a  veil  to  shroud  herself  from  them,  and  we 
sent  our  spirit  to  her,  and  he  took  before  her  the  form 
of  a  perfect  man.  She  said :  '  I  fly  for  refuge  from 
thee  to  the  God  of  Mercy !  If  thou  fearest  him,  begone 
from  me.'  He  said:  '  I  am  only  a  messenger  of  thy 
Lord,  that  I  may  bestow  on  thee  a  holy  son.'  She 
said  :  'How  shall  I  have  a  son,  when  man  hath  never 
touched  me,  and  I  am  not  unchaste.'  He  said :  *  So 
shall  it  be.  Thy  Lord  hath  said  :  easy  is  this  with 
me,  and  we  will  make  him  a  sign  to  mankind  and  a 
mercy  from  us.  For  it  is  a  thing  decreed.'  And  she 
conceived  him,  and  retired  with  him  to  a  far-off 
place." ^ 

Her  virginity  is  expressly  asserted  in  another  place, 
where  she  is  described  as   "Mary,   the   daughter  of 

^  K.,  p.  128. — Sura,  ig.  16-22. 


198  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Imran,  who  kept  her  maidenhood,  and  into  whoso 
womb  we  breathed  of  our  spirit,"^ 

When  the  child  was  born,  his  mother  was  accused 
of  unchastity,  but  the  infant  j^rophet  at  once  opened 
his  mouth  and  declared  his  prophetic  character.  From 
this  narrative  it  appears  that,  in  Mahomet's  opinion, 
Jesus  was  neither  begotten  by  a  human  father,  nor 
was  the  son  of  God.  He  finds  a  via  media  in  the 
doctrine  that  he  was  created,  like  Adam,  by  an  express 
exertion  of  the  power  of  the  Almighty.  ^'  He  created 
him  of  dust :  He  then  said  to  him,  '  Be,'  and  he 
was."^  And  again,  in  the  Sura  above  quoted:  "It 
beseemeth  not  God  to  beget  a  son,  Glory  be  to  him  ! 
when  he  decreeth  a  thing,  he  only  saith  to  it,  Be, 
and  it  is."^ 

He  is  very  indignant  against  those  who  hold  the 
doctrine  of  the  incarnation,  which  he  apparently  con- 
sidered as  equivalent  to  that  of  physical  generation 
by  the  Deity,  and  which,  under  any  aspect,  is  certainly 
shocking  to  a  genuine  monotheist. 

"  They  say  :  '  The  God  of  Mercy  hath  gotten  oflf- 
spring.'  Now  have  ye  done  a  monstrous  thing! 
Almost  might  the  very  heavens  be  rent  thereat,  and 
the  earth  cleave  asunder,  and  the  mountains  fall  down 
in  fragments,  that  they  ascribe  a  son  to  the  God  of 
Mercy,  when  it  beseemeth  not  the  God  of  Mercy  to 
beget  a  son  !  "  *  "  And  they  say,  '  God  hath  a  son  : ' 
No  I  Praise  be  to  him !  But  his  whatever  is  in  the 
heavens  and  the  earth  I     All  obeyeth  him,  sole  Maker 

^  K.,  p.  604. — Sura,  66.  12.  She  is  called  the  daughter  of  Imran, 
by  a  confusion  between  Mary,  mother  of  Jesus,  and  Miriam,  sister  of 
Moses.  2  K.,  p.  502. — Sura,  3.  52. 

2  K.,  p.  130.— Sura,  19.  36.  *  K.,  p.  135. — Sura,  19.  91-93. 


MAHOMET S  ACCOUNT  OF  HIMSELF.        199 

of  the  heavens  and  of  the  earth  1  And  when  he 
decreeth  a  thing,  he  only  saith  to  it,  Be,  and  it 
is,'" 

Mahomet's  conception  of  his  own  character  is  most 
clearly  expressed  in  the  seventh  Sura,  where,  after 
enumerating  some  of  the  prophets  who  had  gone 
before  him  (as  already  related),  he  proceeds  to  describe 
a  supposed  dialogue  between  Moses  and  God,  in  which 
the  Deity  speaks  thus  : — 

"  My  chastisement  shall  fall  on  whom  I  will,  and  my  mercy 
embraceth  all  things,  and  I  write  it  down  for  those  who  shall 
fear  me,  and  pay  the  alms,  and  belieA^e  in  our  signs,  who  shall 
follow  the  Apostle,  the  unlettered  Prophet — whom  they  shall 
find  described  with  tliem  in  the  Law  and  Evangel.  What  is 
right  will  he  enjoin  them,  and  forbid  them  what  is  wrong,  and 
will  allow  them  healthful  viands  and  prohibit  the  impure,  and 
will  ease  them  of  their  burden,  and  of  the  yokes  which  were  upon 
them ;  and  those  who  shall  believe  in  him,  and  strengthen  him, 
and  help  him,  and  follow  the  light  which  hath  been  sent  down 
with  him, — these  are  they  with  whom  it  shall  be  well." 

The  revelation  to  Moses  now  ceases,  and  God  con- 
tinues to  address  Mahomet  with  the  usual  preliminary 

-Say:"- 

"  Say  to  them  :  0  men  !  Verily  I  am  God's  apostle  to  you  all : 

whose  is  the  kingdom  of  the  Heavens  and  of  the  Earth  !    There 

is  no  God  but  he  !  He  maketh  alive  and  killeth  !  Therefore  believe 

on  God  and  his  apostle — the  unlettered  Prophet — who  believeth 

in  God  and  his  word.  And  follow  him  that  ye  may  be  guided 
aright."  2 

Mahomet  liked  to  describe  himself  as  unlettered, 
and  thus  to  obtain  for  the  scriptural  knowledge  and 

*  K.,  p,  445.— Sura,  2.  no,  in.       ^  K.,  p.  386.—  Sura,  7.  155-158. 


200  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

literary  skill  displayed  in  the  Koran  the  credit  of  its 
being  due  to  inspiration. 

In  another  place  he  again  describes  his  prophetic 
character  in  the  following  strain  : — 

"  Muhammacl  is  not  the  father  of  any  man  among  you,  but  he 
is  the  Apostle  of  God  and  the  seal  of  the  prophets :   and  God 

knoweth  all  things 0  Prophet !   we  have  sent   thee   to 

be  a  witness,  and  a  herald  of  glad  tidings,  and  a  warner  ;  and 
one  who,  through  his  own  permission,  summoneth  to  God,  and  a 
light-giving  torch."  ^ 

A  conspicuous  feature  of  the  Koran  to  which  allusion 
has  not  yet  been  made  is  its  frequent  reference  to  the 
pleasures  of  Paradise  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  faithful, 
and  the  pains  of  hell  to  be  sufiered  by  the  infidels. 
The  day  of  judgment  is  continually  held  out  as  an 
encouragement  to  the  former,  and  a  terror  to  the 
latter.  The  56th  Sura  contains  a  description  of 
heaven  which  is  enough  to  make  the  mouth  of  good 
Moslems  water.  "  The  people  of  the  right  hand  "  are 
to  be  happy  ;  those  of  the  left  hand,  wretched.  The 
former  are  to  have  "  gardens  of  delight,"  with 
"inwrought  couches," whereon  reclining,  "aye-bloom- 
ing youths  "  are  to  bring  them  "  flowing  wine  "  of 
the  best  celestial  vintage.  They  are  to  enjoy  their 
favourite  fruits,  and  to  eat  whatever  birds  they  long 
for.  "  Houris  with  large  dark  eyes,"  and  "  ever 
virgins,"  never  growing  old,  are  to  supply  them  with 
the  pleasures  of  love,  so  strangely  overlooked  in  the 
Christian  pictures  of  heavenly  life.  On  the  other 
side,  we  have  "  the  people  of  the  left  hand,"  who  are 
to  be  tormented  with  "  pestilential  winds "  and 
"  scalding  water,"  and  are  to  live  "  in  the  shadow  of 

1  K.,  p.  567.— Sura,  ly  40,  44,  45- 


THE  HEAVEN  AND  HELL  OF  THE  KORAN    201 

a  black  smoke,"  with  the  fruit  of  a  bitter  tree  to  eat 
and  boiling  water  to  drink/  The  prophet  delights 
in  warning  his  enemies  of  their  coming  fate, 
"  Verily,"  says  God  in  another  place,  "  we  have  got 
ready  the  flame  for  the  infidels."  ^  "  0  Prophet ! " 
we  read  elsewhere,  "  make  war  on  the  infidels  and 
hypocrites,  and  deal  rigorously  with  them.  Hell 
shall  be  their  abode !  and  wretched  the  passage 
to  it  I"^  "God  promiseth  the  hypocritical  men  and 
women,  and  the  unbelievers,  the  fire  of  hell — therein 
shall  they  abide — this  their  sufficing  portion !  "  * 
Some,  who  had  declined  to  march  with  the  Prophet 
from  Medina  on  account  of  the  heat,  are  sternly 
reminded  that  "  a  fiercer  heat  will  be  the  fire  of 
helL"^ 

In  contradistinction  to  the  deplorable  state  of  the 
hypocrites  and  unbelievers — blind  in  this  world  and 
destined  to  suffer  eternally  in  the  next — we  have  a 
pleasing  picture  of  the  condition  of  the  faithful 
Moslems  : — 

"  Muhammad  is  the  Apostle  of  God ;  and  his  comrades  are 
vehement  against  the  infidels,  hut  full  of  tenderness  among 
themselves.  Thou  mayst  see  them  bowing  down,  prostrating 
themselves,  imploring  favours  from  God,  and  his  acceptance. 
Their  tokens  are  on  their  faces,  the  marks  of  their  prostrations. 
This  is  their  picture  in  the  Law  and  their  picture  in  the  Evan- 
gel ;  they  are  as  the  seed  which  putteth  forth  its  stalk ;  then 
strengtheneth  it,  and  it  groweth  stout,  and  riseth  upon  its  stem, 
rejoicing  the  husbandman — that  the  infidels  may  be  wrathful  at 
them.  To  such  of  them  as  believe  and  do  the  things  that  are 
right,  hath  God  promised  forgiveness  and  a  noble  recompense."  ® 

1  K.,  p.  60.— Sura,  56.  4  K.,  p.  621.— Sura,  9.  69. 
-  K.,  p.  598.— Sura,  48.  13.                 »  K.,  p.  623.— Sura,  9.  ^^2. 

2  K.,  p.  603.— Sura,  66.  9.  «  K.,  p.  601.— Sura,  48.  2g. 


HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 


Section  VII. — The  Old  Testament. 

Before  entering  upon  the  comparative  examination 
of  the  Hebrew  Canon,  it  is  necessary  to  say  a  few- 
words  of  the  extraordinary  race  who  were  its  authors. 
There  is  probably  no  other  book  of  which  it  may  be 
said,  with  the  same  depth  and  fuhiess  of  meaning, 
that  it  is  the  work  of  a  nation  and  the  reflection  of  a 
nation's  life.  The  history  of  the  Bible  and  the  history 
of  the  Jews  are  more  intimately  bound  up  together 
than  is  that  of  any  other  nation  with  that  of  any  other 
book.  During  the  period  of  their  political  existence 
as  a  separate  people  they  wrote  the  Canon.  During 
the  long  period  of  political  annihilation  Avhich  has 
succeeded,  they  have  not  ceased  to  write  com- 
mentaries on  the  Canon.  This  one  great  production 
has  filled  the  imaginations,  has  influenced  the  in- 
tellect, has  fed  the  religious  ardour  of  each  succeeding 
generation  of  Jews.  To  name  the  Canonical  Scrip- 
tures, and  the  endless  series  of  writings  suggested  by 
them  or  based  upon  them,  would  be  almost  to  sum  up 
the  results  of  the  literary  activity  of  the  Hebrew 
race. 

Our  first  historical  acquaintance  with  the  Hebrews 
brings  them  before  us  as  obtaining  by  conquest,  and 
then  inhabiting,  that  narrow  strip  of  territory  border^ 
ing  the  Mediterranean  Sea  which  is  known  as  Pales- 
tine. Their  own  legends,  indeed,  carry  us  back  to  a 
still  earlier  period,  when  they  lived  as  slaves  in  Egypt ; 
but  on  these,  from  the  character  of  the  narrative,  very 
little  reliance   can  be  placed.     The  story,  gradually 


EARL  Y  JE  WISH  HISTOR  Y.  203 

becoming  less  and  less  mythical,  tells  us,  what  is  pro- 
bably true,  that  they  overcame  the  native  inhabitants 
of  Palestine  in  war,  and  seized  upon  their  land  ;  that 
they   then   passed    through     an    anarchical     period, 
during  which  the  centre  of  authority  seems  to  have 
been  lost,   and  the  national  unity  was  in  no   small 
danger  of  being  destroyed,  had  not  vigorous  and  able 
leaders  interposed  to  save  it ;  that,  under  the  pressure 
of  these  circumstances,   they  adopted  a  monarchical 
constitution,  by  which  the  dangers  of  this  time    of 
anarchy  were  at  least  to  a  large  extent  averted,  and 
the  discordant  elements  brought  into  subjection  to  n 
common  centre.     Thus  united,  the  Jewish  monarchy 
rapidly  attained  a  considerable  height  of  splendour 
and  of  power.     Surrounding  nations  fell  under  its 
sway,  and  it  took  rank  as  one  of  the  great  powers 
which  divided  Western  Asia.     But  this  glory  was  not 
to   last   long.     The   monarchy,   broken  up  into  two 
hostile  parts  by  the  folly  of  Rehoboam,  lost  alike  its 
unity  and  its  strength  ;  and  after  a  long  series  of  kings, 
whom  it  is  needless  to  enumerate,  both  its  branches 
fell  victims,  at  separate  times,  the  one  to  Shalmaneser, 
king  of  the  Assyrians,  the  other  to  Nebuchadnezzar, 
king  of  the  Chaldees.     The  latter  event,  while  it  put 
an  end  to  the  very  existence  of  the  Jewish  nation  as 
an  independent   political   power — for   it  was   but   a 
fitful  independence  which  was  recovered  under  the 
Asmoneans — marks  an  epoch  which  severs  the  history 
of  the  Jews  into  two  periods,  distinguished  from  one 
another  by  the  completely  difi"erent  character  borne 
by  the  people  in  each.     It  is  customary,  for  theological 
purposes,  to  represent  the  religious    development  of 
the  Jews  as  pervaded  by  a  fundamental  unity.    They 


204  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES, 

are  supposed  to  have  known  and  worshipped  the 
true  God  from  the  beginning,  to  have  been  sharply- 
marked  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  their  strict 
monotheism,  and  to  have  been  unfaithful  to  their 
inherited  creed  only  when  they  refused  to  re- 
cognise Christ  and  his  apostles  as  its  authorised 
interpreters.  Their  own  records  tell  a  very  different 
story.  According  to  these,  the  religion  of  the  Jews, 
like  that  of  other  nations,  progressed,  changed,  im- 
proved, underwent  purification  and  alteration,  and 
was,  in  its  earlier  forms,  not  much  unlike  that  of  the 
surrounding  heathens.  Their  leaders,  indeed,  and  all 
those  whom  their  Scriptures  uphold  as  examples 
of  excellence,  worshipped  a  national  God,  Jehovah, 
whom  they  may  have  considered  the  only  god  who 
enjoyed  actual  existence  and  possessed  actual  power. 
But  whether  or  not  this  were  the  case,  he  was,  for  all 
practical  purposes,  simply  the  tutelary  deity  of  the 
Hebrews.  In  his  name  the  conquerors  of  Palestine 
pillaged,  murdered,  and  inflicted  cruelties  on  the 
vanquished ;  to  him  they  looked  for  aid  in  their 
belligerent  undertakings ;  to  him  they  offered  the 
first-fruits  of  victory.  It  was  under  his  direct  leader- 
ship that  they  professed  to  subdue  the  heathens,  and 
to  attain  national  security.  The  ark  was  his  dwelling, 
and  it  could  only  bring  destruction  to  the  Philistines, 
who  were  not  under  the  protection  of  its  inmate. 
And  when  the  Jews  asked  to  be  placed  under  the  rule 
of  a  monarch,  they  were  told  by  the  mouthpiece  of 
Jehovah  that  it  was  his  divine  government  which  they 
were  rejecting.  The  morality  of  the  chiefs  who  con- 
ducted the  invasion  and  subjugation  of  Palestine  was 
not  one  whit  superior  to  that  of  their  enemies,  nor 


THE  GOD  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  205 

was  the  god  on  whose  power  they  relied  of  an 
essentially  higher  nature  than  many  other  national 
or  local  divinities  who  were  worshipped  by  other  na- 
tions. They  were  the  rude  leaders  of  a  rude  people 
worshipping  a  rude  deity.  His  character  was  such  as 
we  might  expect  the  tutelary  divinity  of  a  tribe  of 
wandering  and  unsettled  Bedouins  to  be.  Having  to 
establish  their  right  to  a  permanent  home  and  an 
organised  government  by  force  of  arms,  it  was  only 
natural  that  they  should  represent  their  God  as 
favouring  the  exploits  of  those  arms,  and  even  urging 
them  on  to  the  most  ruthless  exercise  of  the  rights  of 
conquerors.  It  was  natural  that  even  their  most 
revolting  acts  should  be  placed  under  the  especial 
patronage  of  this  approving  god.  It  was  natural,  too, 
that  when  the  conquest  had  been  at  least  in  great 
part  effected,  while  yet  the  anarchical  and  semi-savage 
condition  of  the  victors  continued  (as  it  did  more  or 
less  until  after  the  accession  of  David),  and  internal 
strife  took  the  place  of  external  warfare,  the  national 
god  should  become  to  some  extent  a  party-god ; 
should  favour  one  section  against  another,  and  even 
excite  the  ferocious  passions  of  those  to  whose  side 
he  inclined.  The  god  of  Moses,  of  Joshua,  and  the 
Judges  was  thus  a  passionate,  relentless,  and  cruel 
partisan.  No  doubt  the  facts  were  not  precisely  such 
as  they  are  represented  to  us  by  the  writers  in  the 
Old  Testament,  since  in  the  internecine  conflicts 
which  occasionally  broke  forth  we  may  assume  that 
each  side  claimed  for  itself  the  approbation  of  Jehovah. 
But  still  the  story  of  the  Hebrew  annals  is  clear 
enough  to  show  us  the  semi-savage  character  of  the 
people  in  these  early  days,  and  their  utter  failure  to 


2o6  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

form  that  lofty  conception  of  the  Deity  with  which 
they  have  been  so  largely  credited  by  believers  in  the 
supernatural  inspiration  of  their  historical  records. 

The  primitive  conception  entertained  at  this  period, 
which  corresponded  with  that  generally  found  among 
uncivilised  nations,  was  improved  and  elevated  to 
some  extent  during  the  age  of  comparatively  settled 
government  which  succeeded.  As  the  Israelites  ad- 
vanced in  the  practice  of  the  arts,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  wealth,  in  the  cultivation  of  the  literary  or 
musical  attainments  that  refine  domestic  life,  in  the 
peaceful  organisation  of  a  society  that  had  become 
more  industrial  and  less  warlike,  their  idea  of  Jehovah 
underwent  the  modifications  which  these  chanofes 
imply.  The  god  of  Samuel  is  widely  difi'erent  from 
the  god  of  Isaiah  or  Jeremiah.  Whether  the  popular 
notion  had  risen  to  the  height  attained  by  these 
prophets  may  indeed  be  doubted  ;  but  this  too  must 
have  altered  in  order  to  make  such  prophets  possible. 
Yet,  in  spite  of  the  comjDarative  improvement,  there 
are  abundant  indications  during  the  kingly  period 
that  the  old  Hebrew  deity  still  retained  the  ferocious 
characteristics  by  which  he  had  formerly  been  distin- 
guished. Elijah's  patron  is  gracious  enough  to  his 
own  adherents,  but  the  attributes  of  mercy  or  gentle- 
ness towards  human  beings  generally  are  uudiscover- 
able  in  his  character.  And  the  deeds  of  blood  which 
pious  monarchs  from  time  to  time  were  guilty  of 
in  his  honour,  and  which  received  his  approbation, 
show  that  if  the  process  of  his  civilisation  had  begun, 
it  was  still  very  far  from  being  completed. 

But  the  special  glory  of  the  Jewish  race  is  supposed 
to  consist  even  more  in  the  fact  that  this  God,  such  as 


JE  WISH  MONO  THEISM.  2  o  7 

he  was,  stood  alone,  than  in  the  excellence  of  the 
manner  in  which  they  conceived  of  his  nature.  The 
constancy  of  their  monotheism,  amid  the  polytheism 
of  surrounding  nations,  has  appeared  to  subsequent 
generations  so  marvellous  as  to  require  a  revelation  to 
account  for  it.  The  facts,  however,  as  related  to  us 
by  the  Jews  themselves,  do  not  warrant  the  supposi- 
tion that  monotheism  actually  was  the  creed  of  the 
people  until  after  the  CajDtivity.  It  appears,  indeed, 
that  that  form  of  belief  was  held  by  those  who  are 
depicted  to  us  as  the  most  eminent  and  the  most 
virtuous  among  tliem,  and  it  would  seem  that  there 
was  generally  a  considerable  party  who  adhered  to 
the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and  at  times  succeeded  in 
forcing  it  upon  the  nation  at  large.  But  that  Jeho- 
vism  was  the  authorised  and  established  national 
religion,  and  that  every  other  form  and  variety  of  faith 
was  an  authorised  innovation,  is  a  far  wider  conclusion 
than  the  facts  will  warrant  us  in  drawing.  This,  no 
doubt,  and  nothing  less  than  this,  is  the  contention  of 
the  historical  writers  of  the  Old  Testament ;  but  even 
their  own  statements,  made  as  they  are  under  the 
influence  of  the  strongest  Jehovistic  bias,  point  with 
tolerable  clearness  to  a  different  conclusion.  They 
inform  us  that  while  the  most  ancient  leaders  of  the 
Israelites  who  conducted  them  to  the  promised  land, 
the  distinguished  Judges  who  from  time  to  time  arose, 
and  all  the  most  virtuous  kings,  belonged  to  the 
religion  of  Jehovah,  the  people,  notwithstanding  these 
great  examples,  were  continually  guilty  of  relapses 
into  idolatry  of  the  most  flagrant  kind.  This  tendency 
manifested  itself  so  early,  and  reappeared  with  such 
persistence  during  the  whole  history  of  the  Israelites 


2o8  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

of  both  branches  up  to  the  destruction  of  their 
respective  monarchies,  that  we  cannot,  consistently 
with  the  admitted  facts,  suppose  that  Jehovism  had 
at  any  time  taken  very  deep  root  in  the  mind  of  the 
people.  They  seem,  on  the  contrary,  to  have  been 
readily  swayed  to  and  fro  by  the  example  of  the 
reigning  monarch.  Whether  indeed  they  sincerely 
adopted  monotheism  under  a  monotheistic  sovereign, 
may  perhaps  be  doubted ;  but  the  emphatic  denun- 
ciations of  the  Biblical  writers  leave  us  no  room  to 
question  the  perfect  sincerity  of  their  idolatry.  All 
therefore  that  we  can  be  justified  in  inferring  from 
what  they  tell  us  is,  that  a  succession  of  priests  and 
prophets  maintained  the  faith  of  Jehovah  from  age  to 
age,  and  that  from  time  to  time  a  sovereign  arose  who 
favoured  their  views,  and  did  all  in  his  power,  some- 
times by  fair  means  and  not  unfrequently  by  foul,  to 
advance  the  interests  of  the  Jehovistic  j)arty.  Indian 
history  acquaints  us  with  very  similar  fluctuations  in 
the  religion  of  a  province,  according  as  the  priests  of 
one  or  the  other  contending  sect  succeeded  in  obtain- 
ing influence  over  the  mind  of  the  reigning  Eajah.  But 
although  we  maintain  that  monotheism  was  not,  pre- 
vious to  the  Captivity,  the  popular  religion  of  the 
Jews,  we  need  not  go  the  length  of  asserting  that 
there  was  no  difierence  in  their  minds  between  Jeho- 
vah and  the  other  deities  whom  they  adopted  from 
surrounding  nations.  Jehovah  was  unquestionably 
the  national  god,  who  was  held  to  extend  a  peculiar 
protection  over  the  Hebrew  race.  Nor  does  it  follow 
that  those  who  betook  themselves  to  some  idolatrous 
cultus  necessarily  abandoned  that  of  Jehovah.  Both 
might  well  have  been  carried  on  together,  and  there 


MOI^OTHEISM  NOT  RADICAL  TO  JUDAISM.  20 ) 

is  abuiiduiit  evidence  that  the  Jews  of  this  period  had 
much  of  that  elasticity  which  characterises  j)olytheism, 
and  makes  it  ever  ready  to  add  new  members  to  its 
pantheon  without  discarding  old  favourites.  So  fixr 
as  there  was  a  national  worship  carried  on  by  a 
national  priesthood,  Jehovah  must  have  been  its 
object.  But  we  are  not  therefore  compelled  to  imagine 
that  the  nation  had  adopted  Jehovism  in  so  solemn 
and  binding  a  manner  as  to  render  its  abandonment  a 
gross  violation  of  their  fundamental  institutions.  No 
doubt,  according  to  the  Scriptural  writers,  it  was  a 
deliberate  breach  of  the  original  constitution  to  for- 
sake, even  for  a  moment,  the  exclusive  service  of  the 
national  god  for  that  of  any  other  deity  whatsoever. 
But  the  supernatural  origin  assigned  by  them  to  this 
original  constitution  throws  a  doubt  on  their  assertions, 
while  the  facts  they  report  serve  to  increase  it.  For 
while  w^e  learn  that  Jehovah  was  deserted  by  one 
generation  after  another  in  favour  of  more  popular 
rivals,  much  to  the  indignation  of  his  priests  and  pro- 
phets, we  do  not  perceive  any  traces  of  a  conscious- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  idolaters  that  they  were  guilty 
of  infidelity  to  fundamental  and  unchangeable  laws. 
They  rather  appear  to  have  acted  in  mere  levity,  and 
the  repeated  objurgations  of  the  Jehovistic  party 
would  tend  to  the  conclusion  that  the  people  were  not 
aware  of  any  binding  obligation  to  adhere  to  the 
worship  of  this  deity  to  the  exclusion  of  that  of  every 
other.  The  efforts  of  the  Jehovists  may  indeed  show 
that  they  believed  such  an  obligation  to  exist ;  but  not 
that  their  opponents  were  equally  aware  of  it.  More- 
over, we  are  not  without  some  more  positive  testimony 
which  strongly    favours    this    view    of   their   nmtuaJ 

VOL.  II. 


2IO  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

relations.  Under  the  reign  of  the  pious,  and  no  douLt 
credulous,  Josiali,  a  certain  priest  professed  to  have 
discovered  a  "  book  of  the  law  "  mysteriously  hidden 
in  the  temple.  Without  discussing  in  this  place  what 
book  this  may  have  been,  it  is  plain  that  it  inculcated 
Jehovism  under  the  penalty  of  curses  similar  to  those 
found  in  Deuteronomy,  and  it  is  plain  too  that  its 
contents  caused  the  monarch  a  painful  surprise,  which 
expressed  itself  by  his  rending  his  clothes  and  sending 
a  commission  to  "  inquire  of  the  Lord  "  "concerning  the 
words  of  this  book  that  is  found."  Now  is  it  possible 
to  suppose  that  the  words  of  such  a  book  as  this  could 
have  inflicted  on  Josiah  so  great  a  shock,  or  have 
required  the  ap^Dointment  of  a  special  commission  to 
inquire  concerning  them,  if  it  had  been  a  matter  of 
familiar  and  general  knowledge  among  the  Jews  that 
their  forefathers  had  solemnly  adopted  Jehovism  as 
the  only  lawful  national  creed,  invoking  upon  them- 
selves those  very  curses  which  the  most  devout  of 
monarchs  was  now  unable  to  hear  without  astonish- 
ment and  alarm  %  And  how  are  we  to  explain  the 
production  of  this  book  by  the  priests  as  a  new  dis- 
covery ?  If  it  had  been  merely  the  rediscovery  of  a 
lost  volume,  would  the  language  of  the  narrative  have 
been  at  all  appropriate  ?  Must  not  Josiah  in  that  case 
have  rejoiced  at  the  restoration  to  Judah  of  so  precious 
a  treasure,  however  much  he  might  have  regretted  the 
failure  of  the  nation  to  observe  its  precepts  ?  The 
difficulty  of  supposing  such  facts  to  have  been  forgot- 
ten is  equally  great.  It  would  be  scarcely  possible  to 
imagine  that  not  only  the  people,  but  the  priests,  could 
at  any  period  have  lost  all  memory  of  the  fact  that 
they  were  bound,  under  the  most  terrible  penalties,  to 


MONOTHEISM  A  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  PRIESTS.   211 

adhere  to  the  faith  of  Jehovah.  At  least  the  spiritual 
advisers  of  so  religious  a  monarch  must  have  been  well 
aware  that  their  own  creed  formed  an  essential  part 
of  the  Jewish  constitution  ;  and  w^e  cannot  doubt  that 
they  would  carefully  have  impressed  this  fact  on  their 
willing  pupil,  not  as  a  startling  disclosure  made  only 
after  he  had  been  seventeen  years  on  the  throne  and  had 
attained  the  age  of  twenty-five,  but  as  one  of  his 
earliest  and  most  familiar  lessons.  In  fact,  this  sudden 
discovery,  in  some  secret  recess  of  the  temple,  of  a 
hitherto  unknown  volume,  concerning  whose  claims 
to  authority  or  antiquity  the  writers  preserve  a, 
mysterious  silence,  rather  suggests  the  notion  of 
a  Jehovistic  coup  cVetat,  prepared,  by  the  zeal  of 
Hilkiah  the  priest  and  Shaphan  the  scribe.  A  long 
time  had  passed  since  the  accession  of  the  king.  His 
favourable  dispositions  were  well  known.  Since  the 
eighth  year  of  his  reign  at  least  he  had  been  under  the 
influence  of  the  priests,  and  in  the  twelfth  he  had 
entered  (no  doubt  under  their  directions)  upon  that 
career  of  persecuting  violence  which  was  usual  with 
pious  monarchs  in  Judaea.^  His  mind  was  undoubtedly 
predisposed  to  receive  with  implicit  confidence  any 
statements  they  might  make.  Hence,  if  Hilkiah  and 
his  associates  had  conceived,  the  idea  of  compiling,  from 
materials  at  their  command,  a  book  which,  while 
recapitulating  some  events  in  the  ancient  history  of 
Israel,  should  represent  those  events  in  a  light  favour- 
able to  their  designs,  they  could  hardly  have  chosen  a 
l)etter  moment  for  the  execution  of  such  a  scheme. 


1  So  in  2  Chron.  xxiv.  3-7,  But  in  2  Kings  ,xxii.  i,  2,  there  is  no 
mention  of  the  period  at  which  "  he  began  to  seek  after  the  God  of 
David." 


212  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

That  they  actually  did  this,  it  would  be  going  beyond 
the  evidence  in  our  possession  to  assert.  It  may  be 
that  the  book  was  an  old  one  ;  and  in  any  case,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  suppose  that  it  was  an  original  com- 
position of  Hilkiah's,  palmed  off  upon  the  king  as 
ancient.  All  that  appears  to  me  clearly  to  follow  from 
the  terms  of  the  narrative  is,  that  the  law  which  this 
book  contained  (evidently  the  law  of  Jehovah)  had 
not  hitherto  been  regarded  as  the  established  law  of 
the  country,  and  that  the  production  of  this  volume, 
in  which  its  claims  to  that  dignity  were  emphatically 
asserted,  and  its  violation  rej^resented  as  entailing  the 
most  grievous  curses,  was  one  of  the  plans  taken  by 
the  priestly  party  to  procure  for  it  the  recognition  of 
that  supremacy  which  they  declared  it  had  actually  en- 
joyed in  the  days  of  their  forefathers.  But  although 
the  history  of  Israel  has  been  written  by  adherents  of 
this  party,  and  we  are  unfortunately  precluded  from 
checking  their  statements  by  any  document  recount- 
ing the  same  events  from  the  point  of  view  of  their 
opponents,  their  records,  biassed  as  they  are,  clearly 
show  us  a  nation  whose  favourite  and  ordinary  creed 
was  not  monotheism  ;  which  was  ever  ready  to  ado2:)t 
with  fervour  the  idolatrous  practices  of  its  neighbours  ; 
and  which  was  not  converted  to  pure  and  exclusive 
monotheism  till  after  the  terrible  lesson  of  the  Cap- 
tivity in  Babylon. 

This  great  event  was  turned  to  excellent  account 
by  the  priests  and  prophets  of  Jehovah.  Instead  of 
regarding  it  as  a  natural  consequence  of  the  political 
relations  of  Judaea  with  more  powerful  empires,  they 
represented  it  as  the  fulfilment  of  the  penalties 
threatened  by  Jehovah  for  infidelity  towards  himself. 


THE  CAPTIVITY;  ITS  EFFECTS.  213 

And  us  this  view  offered  a  plausible  explanation  of 
their  unparalleled  misfortunes,  it  was  naturally  ac- 
cepted by  many  as  the  true  solution  of  sufferings  so 
difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  protection  supposed  to 
be  accorded  by  their  national  god.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances a  double  process  went  on  during  their 
compulsory  residence  in  heathendom.  Great  numbers, 
who  were  either  not  Jehovists,  or  whose  Jehovism  was 
but  lukewarm,  gradually  adapted  themselves  to  their 
situation  among  idolaters,  and  became  at  length 
indistinguishably  fused,  as  the  ten  tribes  liad  been, 
with  the  alien  races.  But  a  few  remained  ftiithful  to 
their  God.  These  few  it  was  who  formed  the 
whole  of  the  nation  which,  when  return  was  possible, 
returned  to  their  native  soil.  Those  who  were  not 
inspired  by  a  deep  sense  of  the  sanctity  of  their  national 
religion;  those  to  whom  the  restoration  of  their  national 
rites  was  not  the  one  object  of  overwhelming  impor- 
tance ;  those  whose  hopes  of  national  restoration  were 
of  a  temporal  rather  than  a  spiritual  nature,  had  no 
sufficient  motive  to  return  to  their  native  soil. 
Jerusalem  could  have  no  attractions  for  them  which 
Babylon  did  not  possess.  Thus,  by  a  natural  process, 
the  most  ardent,  the  most  spiritual,  the  most  un- 
bending monotlieists  were  weeded  out  from  the 
mass  of  the  community,  and  it  was  they  who  accom- 
panied Zerubbabel  or  Ezra  on  his  sacred  mission. 
Misfortune,  which  had  not  shaken  their  faith,  had 
deepened  and  purified  it.  Not  only  were  they 
Jehovists,  but  they  were  Jehovists  of  the  sternest 
type.  There  was  among  them  none  of  that  admix- 
ture of  levity,  and  none  of  that  facile  adaptability 
to  foreign  rites,  which  characterised  the  older  Jews 


214  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

From  tliis  time  forward  their  monotheism  has  never 
been  broken  by  a  single  relapse. 

Thus  the  Captivity  forms  the  turning-point  in  the 
character  of  the  Jews  ;  for,  in  fact,  the  nation  which 
was  conquered  by  Nebuchadnezzar  was  not  the  nation 
which,  in  the  days  of  Kyros  and  Artaxerxes,  returned 
to  recolonise  and  rebuild  Jerusalem.  The  conquered 
people  belonged  to  a  monarchy  which,  if  it  was  now 
feeble  and  sunken,  was  directly  descended  from  one 
which  had  been  glorious  and  mighty,  and  which  had 
aimed  at  preserving  for  Juda3a  the  status  and  dignity 
of  an  independent  power.  Under  its  influence  the 
Jews  had  been  mobile,  idolatrous,  deaf  to  the  voice  of 
Jehovistic  prophets,  neglectful  of  Jehovistic  rites ; 
desirous  of  conquest,  and,  when  that  was  impossible, 
unwilling  on  political  grounds  to  submit  to  foreign 
domination  ;  rude  if  not  semi- barbarous  in  morals, 
and  distracted  by  the  contention  of  rival  religious 
parties.  But  this  polity,  of  which  the  ruling  motives 
M^ere  mainly  political,  was  succeeded  after  the  return 
of  the  exiles  by  a  polity  of  which  the  ruling  motives 
Avere  exclusively  religious.  All  were  now  adherents 
of  Jehovah  ;  all  were  zealous  performers  of  the  rites 
conceived  to  be  his  due. 

This  chano^e  must  be  borne  in  mind  if  we  would 
understand  Jewish  history ;  for  the  same  language 
is  not  applicable  to  the  Jew^s  before  and  after  the 
Captivity,  nor  can  we  regard  in  the  same  light  a 
struggling  and  feeble  race  upholding  its  unanimous 
faith  in  the  midst  of  trials,  and  an  independent  nation 
in  which  a  party,  from  time  to  time  victorious, 
endeavours  to  imp(jse  that  faith  by  force.  We  may 
without   inconsistency    censure  the   violence    of  the 


RISE  OF  JE  WISH  EXCL  USIVENESS.  2 1 5 

Jehovistic  sectaries,  and  admire  the  courage  of  the 
Jehovistic  people.  But  although  there  is  much  in  this 
change  that  is  good,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  has 
its  had  side.  While  becoming  more  conscientious, 
more  scrupulously  true  to  its  own  principles,  and  more 
penetrated  with  a  sense  of  religion,  Judaism  be- 
came at  the  same  time  more  rigid,  more  formal,  more 
ritualistic,  and  more  unsocial.  Ewald  has  remarked 
that  the  constitution  established  after  the  return  from 
captivity  is  one  that  lays  undue  stress  upon  the 
exterior  forms  of  religion,  and  may  in  time  even 
become  hostile  to  what  is  truly  holy.  As  it  claims  to 
be  in  possession  of  something  holy  which  temporal 
governments  do  not  possess,  it  cannot  submit  to  their 
dominion ;  hence,  he  observes,  Israel  could  never 
l)ecome  an  independent  nation  again  under  this 
constitution.^  Nor  was  this  all.  Even  apart  from 
its  tendency  to  magnify  external  forms,  which  was 
perhaps  not  of  its  essence,  the  religion  of  Jehovah 
had  inherent  vices.  The  Jews,  believing  their  god  to 
be  the  only  true  one,  and  insisting  above  all  on  the 
supreme  importance  of  preserving  the  purity  of  his 
cultus,  were  necessarily  led  to  assume  a  haughty  and 
exclusive  attitude  towards  all  other  nations,  which 
could  not  fail  to  provoke  their  hostility.  This  unlove- 
able spirit  was  shown  immediately  after  their  return 
l)y  their  contumelious  rejection  of  the  Samaritan 
proposals  to  aid  in  building  the  temple — proposals 
which  seem  to  have  been  made  in  good  faith  ;  by  the 
Sabbatarian  legislation  of  Nehemiah ;  and  even  more 
l)y  the  excessively  harsh  measures  taken  by  Ezra  for 

^  Ewald,   Geschichte   des   Volkes   Israel,  vol.   iv. — Die   Heiligherr- 
schaft,  3.     Die  bestiiumtere  Gestaltung  der  Zeit  der  neuen  Weiiduiig. 


2i6  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

the  j^urifi cation  of  the  race.  It  was  simply  inevi- 
table that  all  heathen  nations  who  came  in  con- 
tact with  them  should  hate  a  people  who  acted  on 
such  principles.  Nor  were  the  fears  of  the  heathen 
altogether  without  foundation.  AVhen  the  Jews  re- 
covered a  temporary  independence  under  the  Mac- 
cabees, their  intolerance,  now  able  to  vent  itself  in 
acts  of  conquest,  became  a  source  of  serious  danger. 
Thus,  John  Hyrcanus  destroyed  the  temple  of  the 
Samaritans  (who  also  worshipped  Jehovah)  on  Mount 
Gerizim,  and  the  Jews  actually  commemorated  the 
event  by  a  semi-festival.  Alexander  Jannasus,  too, 
carried  on  ware  of  conquest  against  his  neighbours. 
In  one  of  these  he  took  the  town  of  Gaza,  and  evinced 
the  treatment  to  be  expected  from  him  by  letting 
loose  his  army  on  the  inhabitants  and  utterly  destroy- 
ing tlieir  city.  It  was  no  doubt  their  unsocial  and 
proud  behaviour  towards  all  who  were  not  Jews  that 
provoked  the  heathens  to  try  their  temper  by  so  many 
insults  directed  to  the  sensitive  point — their  religion. 
Culpable  as  this  was,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  was 
in  some  degree  the  excessive  scrupulosity  of  the  Jews 
in  regard  to  things  indifferent  in  themselves  that 
exposed  them  to  so  much  annoyance.  Had  they  been 
content  to  permit  the  existence  of  Hellenic  or  Roman 
customs  side  by  side  with  theirs,  they  might  have  been 
spared  the  miseries  which  they  subsequently  endured. 
But  the  Scriptures,  from  beginning  to  end,  breathed 
a  spirit  of  fierce  and  exclusive  attachment  to  Jehovah  ; 
he  was  the  only  deity ;  all  other  objects  of  adoration 
were  an  abomination  in  h.is  sio^ht.  Penetrated  with 
this  spirit,  the  Jews  patiently  submitted  to  the  yoke 
of  every  succeeding  authority — Chaldeans,    Syrians, 


THE  JE  WS  BE  COME  MONO  THE  I  STIC.        2 1 7 

Egyptians,  Romans — until  the  stranger  presumed  to 
tamper  with  the  national  religion.  Then  their 
resistance  was  fierce  and  obstinate.  The  great 
rebellion  which  broke  out  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  under  the  leadership  of  Mattathias,  was 
jtrovoked  by  the  attempt  of  that  monarch  to  force 
Greek  institutions  on  the  Jewish  people.  The  glorious 
dynasty  of  the  Asmoneans  were  priests  as  well  as 
kings,  and  the  royal  office,  indeed,  was  only  assumed 
by  them  in  the  generation  after  that  in  which  they  had 
borne  the  priestly  office,  and  as  a  consequence  of  the 
authority  derived  therefrom.  Under  the  semi-foreign 
family  of  the  Herods,  who  supplanted  the  Asmoneans, 
and  ruled  under  Roman  patronage,  as  afterwards 
under  the  direct  government  of  Rome,  it  was  still 
nothing  but  actual  or  suspected  aggressions  against  the 
national  faith  that  provoked  the  loudest  murmurs  or 
the  most  determined  opposition.  It  was  this  faith 
which  had  upheld  the  Jews  in  their  heroic  revolt 
against  Syrian  innovations.  It  was  this  which 
inspired  them  to  support  every  offshoot  of  the 
Asmonean  family  against  the  odious  Herod.  It  was 
this  which  led  them  to  entreat  of  Pompey  that  he 
would  abstain  from  the  violation  of  the  temple  ;  to 
implore  Caligula,  at  the  peril  of  their  lives,  not  to  force 
his  statue  upon  them  ;  to  raise  tumults  under  Cu- 
manus,  and  finally  to  burst  the  bonds  of  their  alle- 
oiance  to  Rome  imder  Gessius  Florus.  It  was  this 
which  sustained  the  war  that  followed  upon  that  out- 
break— a  war  in  which  even  the  unconquerable  power 
of  the  Roman  Empire  quailed  before  the  unrivalled 
skill  and  courage  of  this  indomitable  race  ;  a  war  of 
which  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  it  is  probably  the 


2i8  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

most  wonderful,  tlie  most  heroic,  and  the  most  daring 
which  an  oppressed  people  has  ever  waged  against  its 
tyrants. 

But  against  such  discipline  as  that  of  Rome,  and 
such  generals  as  Vespasian  and  Titus,  success,  however 
brilliant,  could  be  but  momentary.  The  Jewish 
insurrection  was  quelled  in  blood,  and  the  Jewish 
nationality  was  extinguished — never  to  revive.  One 
more  desperate  effort  was  indeed  made  ;  once  more  the 
])est  legions  and  the  best  commanders  of  the  Empire 
were  put  in  requisition  ;  once  more  the  hopes  of  the 
people  were  inflamed,  this  time  by  the  supposed 
appearance  of  the  Messiah,  only  to  be  doomed  again  to 
a  still  more  cruel  disappointment.  Jerusalem  was 
razed  to  the  ground  ;  Aelia  Capitolina  took  its  place  ; 
and  on  the  soil  of  Aelia  Capitolina  no  Jew  might 
presume  to  trespass.  But  if  the  trials  imposed  on  the 
faith  of  this  devoted  race  by  the  Romans  were  hard, 
they  were  still  insignificant  compared  to  those  which 
it  had  to  bear  from  the  Christian  nations  who  in- 
herited from  them  the  dominion  of  Europe.  These 
nations  considered  the  misfortunes  of  the  Jews  as 
proceeding  from  the  divine  vengeance  on  the  crime 
they  had  committed  against  Christ ;  and  lest  this 
vengeance  should  fail  to  take  effect,  they  made  them- 
selves its  willing  instruments.  No  injustice  and  no 
persecution  could  be  too  bad  for  those  whom  God 
himself  so  evidently  hated.  Besides,  the  Jews  had  a 
miserable  habit  of  acquiring  wealth  ;  and  it  was 
convenient  to  those  who  did  not  share  their  ability  or 
their  industry  to  plunder  them  from  time  to  time. 
But  the  Jewish  race  and  the  Jewish  religion  survived 
it  all.     Tormented,  tortured,  robbed,  put    to    death, 


STERNNESS  OF  THE  JE  WISH  FAITH.        219 

liunted  from  clime  to  clime;  outcasts  in  every  land, 
strangers  in  every  refuge,  the  tenacity  of  their  char- 
acter was  proof  against  every  trial,  and  superior  to 
every  temptation.  In  this  unequal  combat  of  the 
strong  against  the  weak,  the  synagogue  has  fairly 
beaten  the  Church,  and  has  vindicated  for  itself  that 
liberty  which  during  centuries  of  suffering  its  enemy 
refused  to  grant.  Eighteen  hundred  years  have 
passed  since  the  soldiers  of  Titus  burned  down  the 
temple,  laid  Jerusalem  in  ashes,  and  scattered  to  the 
winds  the  remaining  inhabitants  of  Judaea ;  but  the 
relio-ion  of  the  Jews  is  unshaken  still  ;  it  stands 
unconquered  and  unconquerable,  whether  by  the 
bloodthirsty  fury  of  the  legions  of  Eome,  or  by  the 
still  more  bloodthirsty  intolerance  of  the  ministers  of 
Christ. 

Subdivision  i.  —  The  Historical  Books, 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  no  complete 
account  of  the  contents  of  the  Old  Testament  can  be 
attempted  here.  To  accomplish  anything  like  a  full 
description  of  its  various  parts,  and  to  discuss  the 
numerous  critical  questions  that  must  arise  in  connec- 
tion with  such  a  description,  w^ould  in  itself  require 
a  large  volume.  In  a  treatise  on  comparative  religion, 
anything  of  this  kind  would  be  out  of  place.  It  is 
mainly  in  its  comparative  aspect  that  we  are  con- 
cerned with  the  Bible.  Hence  many  very  interesting 
topics,  such,  for  instance,  as  the  age  or  authorship 
of  the  several  books,  must  be  passed  over  in  silence. 
Tempting  as  it  may  be  to  turn  aside  to  such  inquiries, 
they  have  no  immediate  bearing  on  the  subject  in 
hand.      Whatever  may  be   the  ultimate    verdict  of 


2  20  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Biblical  Criticism  respecting  tliem,  the  conclusioDs 
here  reached  will  remain  unaffected.  All  that  I  can 
do  is  to  assume  without  discussion  the  results  ob- 
tained by  the  most  eminent  scholars,  in  so  far  as 
they  appear  to  me  likel}^  to  be  permanent.  That  the 
Book  of  Genesis,  for  example,  is  not  the  work  of  a 
single  writer,  but  that  at  least  two  hands  may  be 
distinguished  in  it ;  that  the  Song  of  Solomon  is,  as 
explained  both  by  Renan  and  Ewald,  a  drama,  and 
not  an  effusion  of  piety ;  that  the  latter  part  of  Isaiah 
is  not  written  by  the  same  prophet  who  composed 
the  former, — are  conclusions  of  criticism  which  I 
venture  to  think  may  now  be  taken  for  granted  and 
made  the  basis  of  further  reasonino;.  At  the  same 
time  I  have  taken  for  granted — not  as  certain,  but  as 
likely  to  be  an  approximation  to  the  truth — the 
chronological  arrangement  of  the  prophets  proposed 
by  Ewald  in  his  great  work  on  that  portion  of 
Scripture.  Further  than  this,  I  believe  there  are  no 
assumptions  of  a  critical  character  in  the  ensuing 
pages. 

First,  then,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  problems 
which  occupied  the  writers  of  the  Book  of  Genesis, 
and  which  in  their  own  fashion  they  attempted  to 
solve,  were  the  same  as  those  which  in  all  ages  have 
enoaoed  the  attention  of  thouohtful  men,  and  which 
have  been  dealt  with  in  niany  other  theologies  besides 
that  of  the  Hebrews.  The  Hebrew  solution  may  or 
may  not  be  superior  in  simplicity  or  grandeur  to  the 
solutions  of  Parsees,  Hindus,  and  others ;  but  the 
attempt  is  the  same  in  character,  even  if  the  execution 
be  more  successful.  Tiie  authors  of  Genesis  endeavour 
especially  to  account  for : — 


THE  HEBRE  W  COSMO  GO  NY.  221 

1.  The  Creation  of  the  Universe. 

2.  The  Origin  of  Man  and  Animals. 

3.  The  Introduction  of  Evil. 

4.  The  Diversity  of  Languages. 

Although  the  fourth  of  these  questions  is,  so  far  as 
I  am  aware,  not  a  common  subject  of  consideration 
in  popular  mythologies,  the  first  three  are  the  standard 
subjects  of  primitive  theological  speculation.  Let  us 
begin  with  the  Creation. 

One  of  the  earliest  inquiries  that  human  beings 
address  themselves  to  when  they  arrive  at  the  stage  of 
reflection  is  : — How  did  this  world  in  which  we  find 
ourselves  come  into  being  ?  Out  of  what  elements 
was  it  formed  ?  Who  made  it,  and  in  what  way  ? 
A  natural  and  obvious  reply  to  such  an  inquiry  is, 
that  a  Being  of  somewhat  similar  nature  to  their  own, 
though  larger  and  more  powerful,  took  the  materials 
of  which  the  world  is  formed  and  moulded  them,  as 
a  workman  moulds  the  materials  of  his  handicraft,  into 
their  present  shape.  The  mental  process  gone  through 
in  reaching  this  conclusion  is  simply  that  of  pursuing 
a  familiar  analogy  in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  the 
unknown  within  the  range  of  conceptions  applicable 
to  the  known.  The  solution,  as  will  be  seen  shortly, 
contrives  to  satisfy  one-half  of  the  problem  only  by 
leaving  the  other  half  out  of  consideration.  This 
difficulty,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  occurred 
to  the  ancient  Hebrew  writers  who  propounded  the 
following  history  of  the  Creation  of  the  universe  : — 

"In  the  beginning,"  they  say,  "God  created  the 
heavens  and  the  earth.  And  the  earth  was  desolate 
and  waste,  and  darkness  on  the  face  of  the  abyss,  and 


2  22  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

the  Spirit  of  God  lioveriug  on  the  face  of  the  waters. 
And  God  said :  Let  there  be  light,  and  there  was 
light.  And  God  saw  the  light  that  it  was  good,  and 
God  divided  between  the  liofht  and  the  darkness. 
And  God  called  the  light  Day,  and  the  darkness  he 
called  Night.  And  it  was  Evening,  and  it  was 
Morning :  one  day. 

"And  God  said:  Let  there  be  a  vault  for  separa- 
tion of  the  w^aters,  and  let  it  divide  between  waters 
and  waters."  Hereupon  he  made  the  vault,  and 
separated  the  waters  above  it  from  those  below  it. 
The  vault  he  called  Heavens.  This  was  his  second 
day's  work.  On  the  third,  he  separated  the  dry  land 
from  the  sea,  "and  saw  that  it  was  good;"  besides 
which  he  caused  the  earth  to  bring  forth  herbs  and 
fruit-trees.  "  And  God  said  :  Let  there  be  lights  in 
the  vault  of  the  heavens  to  divide  between  the  day 
and  between  the  night,  and  let  them  be  for  signs  and 
for  times  and  for  days  and  for  years."  Hereupon  he 
made  the  sun  for  the  day,  the  moon  for  the  night, 
and  the  stars.  "And  God  put  them  on  the  vault  of 
the  heavens  to  give  light  to  the  earth,  and  to  rule  by 
day  and  by  night,  and  to  separate  between  the  light  and 
the  darkness ;  and  God  saw  that  it  was  good.  And  it 
was  evening,  and  it  was  morning :  the  fourth  day."  ^ 

Let  us  pause  a  moment  here  before  passing  on  to 
the  next  branch  of  the  subject :  the  creation  of 
animals  and  man.  The  author  had  two  questions 
before  him ;  how  the  materials  of  the  universe  came 
into  being,  and  how,  when  in  being,  they  assumed 
their  present  forms  and  relative  positions.  Of  the 
first  he  says  nothing,  unless  the  first  verse  be  taken  to 

'  Gen.  i.  1-19. 


LEGENDS  SIMILAR  TO  THE  HEBREW.      223 

refer  to  it.  But  this  cau  scarcely  be  ;  for  the  expres- 
sion, "God  made  the  heavens  and  the  earth,"  cannot 
easily  be  supposed  to  refer  to  the  original  production 
of  the  matter  out  of  which  the  heavens  and  the  earth 
were  subsequently  made.^  Kather  must  we  take  it 
as  a  short  heading,  referring  to  the  creation  which  is 
about  to  be  described.  And  in  any  case,  the  manner 
in  which  there  came  to  be  anything  at  all  out  of 
which  heavens  and  earth  could  be  constructed  is  not 
considered.  We  are  left  apparently  to  suppose  that 
matter  is  coeval  with  the  Deity ;  for  the  author 
never  faces  the  question  of  its  origin,  which  is  the 
real  difficulty  in  all  such  cosmogonies  as  his,  but  hastens 
at  once  to  the  easier  task  of  describing  the  separation 
and  classification  of  materials  already  in  existence. 

Somewhat  similar  to  the  Hebrew  legend,  both  in 
what  it  records  and  in  what  it  omits,  is  the  story  of 
creation  as  told  by  the  Quiches  in  America  : — 

"  This  is  the  first  word  and  the  first  speech.  There  were 
neither  men  nor  brutes,  neither  birds,  fish,  nor  crabs,  stick  nor 
stone,  valley  nor  mountain,  stubble  nor  forest,  nothing  but  the  sky ; 
the  face  of  the  land  was  hidden.  There  was  naught  but  the 
silent  sea  and  the  sky.  There  was  nothing  joined,  nor  any  sound, 
nor  thing  that  stirred ;  neither  any  to  do  evil,  nor  to  rumble  in 
the  heavens,  nor  a  walker  on  foot ;  only  the  silent  waters,  only 
the  pacified  ocean,  only  it  in  its  calm.  Nothing  was  but  stillness, 
and  rest,  and  darkness,  and  the  night ;  nothing  but  the  Maker 
and  Moulder,  the  Hurler,  the  Bird-Serpent."  2 

Another  cosmogony  is  derived  from  the  Mixtecs, 
also  aborigines  of  America  : — 

"  In  the  year  and  in  the  day  of  clouds,  before  ever  were  either 
years  or  days,  the  world  lay  in  darkness  ;  all  things  were  order- 

>  On  the  meaning  of  J.}"!^  (to  create),  see  Chips,  vol.  i.  pp.   134,  135. 
^  M.  N.  W.,  p.  196.— Popol  Vuh,  p.  7. 


2  24  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

less,  and  a  water  covered  the  slime  and  the  ooze  that  the  earth 
then  was."  ^ 

Two  winds  are  in  tliis  myth  the  agents  employed 
to  effect  the  subsidence  of  the  waters,  and  the  appear- 
ance of  dry  land.  In  another  account,  related  by 
some  other  tribes,  the  muskrat  is  the  instrument  which 
divides  the  land  from  the  waters.  These  myths,  as 
Mr  Brinton,  who  has  collected  them,  truly  remarks,  are 
"not  of  a  construction,  but  a  reconstruction  only,  and 
are  in  that  respect  altogether  similar  to  the  creative 
myth  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis." 

In  the  Buddhistic  history  of  the  East  Mongols,  the 
creation  of  the  world  is  made,  as  in  Genesis,  the 
starting-point  of  the  relation.  But  the  creative  forces 
in  this  mythology  are  apparently  supposed  to  be  in- 
herent in  primeval  matter.  Hence  we  have  a  Lucre- 
tian  account  of  the  movements  of  the  several  parts  of 
the  component  mass  without  any  consideration  of  the 
question  how  the  impulse  to  these  movements  was 
originally  given.  "  In  the  beginning  there  arose  the 
external  reservoir  from  three  different  masses  of 
matter  ;  namely,  from  the  creative  air,  from  the  waving 
water,  and  from  the  firm,  plastic  earth."  A  strong 
wind  from  ten  quarters  now  brought  about  the  blue 
atmosphere.  A  large  cloud,  pouring  down  continu- 
ous rain,  formed  the  sea.  Dry  land  arose  by  means 
of  grains  of  dust  collecting  on  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  like  cream  on  milk.^ 

1  M.  N.  W.,  p.  196. 

2  Gescliichte  der  Ost-Mongolen  und  ihres  Fiirstenhauses  verfasst  von 
Ssanang  Ssetsen  Chungtaidschi.  Aus  dem  Mongolischen  ubersetzt  vou 
J.  J.  Schmidt,  St  Petersburg,  1829.    4to,  p.  3. 

This  work  will,  in  the  following  pages,  always  be  referred  to  under 
«  G.  0.  M." 


PARSER  AND  HEBREW  COSMOGONY  AKIN.  225 

Although  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Parsees  con- 
tain no  connected  account  of  the  creation,  yet  this 
void  is  fully  supplied  by  traditions  which  have 
acquired  a  religious  sanction,  and  have  entered  into 
the  popular  belief.  These  traditions  are  found  in  the 
Bundehesh  and  the  Shahnahmeh,  works  of  high  au- 
thority in  the  Parsee  system.  According  to  them, 
Ahura-Mazda,  the  good  principle,  induced  his  rival, 
Agra-Mainyus,  the  evil  principle,  to  enter  into  a  truce 
of  9000  years,  foreseeing  that  by  means  of  this  inter- 
val he  would  be  able  to  subdue  him  in  the  end.  Agra- 
Mainyus,  having  discovered  his  blunder,  went  to  the 
darkest  hell,  and  remained  there  3000  years.  Ahura- 
Mazda  took  advantage  of  this  repose  to  create  the 
material  world.  He  produced  the  sky  in  45  days, 
the  water  in  60,  the  earth  in  75,  the  trees  in  30,  the 
cattle  in  80,  and  human  beings  in  75  ; — 365  days 
were  thus  occupied  with  the  business  of  creation.  It 
will  be  observed  that,  though  the  time  taken  is  longer, 
the  order  of  production  is  the  same  in  the  Parsee  as 
in  the  Hebrew  legend.  This  fact  tends  to  confirm 
the  supposition,  which  will  hereafter  appear  still  more 
probable,  of  an  intimate  relation  between  the  two. 

Always  prone  to  speculation,  the  Hindus  were 
certain  to  find  in  the  dark  subject  of  creation  abun- 
dant materials  for  their  mystic  theories.  Various 
explanations  are  accordingly  given  in  the  Pig- Veda. 
Thus,  the  following  account  is  found  in  the  tenth 
Book  :— 

"  Let  us,  in  chanted  hymns,  with  praise,  declare  the  births  of 
the  gods, — any  of  us  who  in  this  latter  age  may  behold  them. 
Brahmanaspati  blew  forth  these  births  like  a  blacksmith.  In 
the    earliest    age    of  the   gods,   the   existent   sprang    from   the 

VOL.  II.  ? 


2  26  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

non-existent :  thereafter  the  regions  sprang  from  Uttanapad. 
The  earth  sprang  from  Uttanapad,  from  the  earth  sprang  the 
regions  :  Daksha  sprang  from  Aditi,  and  Aditi  from  Daksha. 
Then  the  gods  were  born,  and  drew  forth  the  sun,  which  was 
hidden  in  the  ocean."  ^ 

With  higher  wisdom,  another  Vaidik  Eishi  declares 
it  impossible  to  know  the  origin  of  the  universe  : — 

"There  was  then  neither  non-entity  nor  entity  :  there  was  no 
atmospliere,  nor  sky  above.  What  enveloped  [all]  ?  Where,  in 
the  receptacle  of  what,  [was  it  contained]  %  Was  it  water,  the 
profound  abyss  %  Death  was  not  then,  nor  immortality  ;  there 
was  no  distinction  of  day  or  night.  That  One  breathed  calmly, 
self-supported  ;  there  was  nothing  different  from,  or  above,  it. 
In  the  beginning  darkness  existed,  enveloped  in  darkness.  All 
this  was  undistinguishable  water.  That  One  which  lay  void,  and 
wrapped  in  nothingness,  was  developed  by  the  power  of  fervour. 
Desire  first  arose  in  It,  which  was  the  primal  germ  of  mind  ; 
[and  which]  sages,  searching  with  their  intellect,  have  discovered 
in  their  heart  to  be  the  bond  which  connects  entity  with  non-entity. 
The  ray  [or  cord]  which  stretched  across  these  [worlds],  was  it 
below  or  was  it  above  %  There  were  there  impregnating  powers 
and  mighty  forces,  a  self-supporting  principle  beneath,  and  energy 
aloft.  Who  knows,  who  here  can  declare,  whence  has  sprung, 
whence,  this  creation  ?  The  gods  are  subsequent  to  the  develop- 
ment of  this  [universe] ;  who  then  knows  whence  it  arose  % 
From  what  this  creation  arose,  and  whether  [any  one]  made  it  or 
not,  he  who  in  the  highest  heaven  is  its  ruler,  he  verily  knows,  or 
even  he  does  not  know."  ^ 

A  later  narrative  ascribes  creation  to  the  god 
Prajapati,  who,  it  is  said,  having  the  desire  to  mul- 
tiply himself,  underwent  the  requisite  austerities,  and 
then  produced  earth,  air,  and  heaven.^ 

We  now  return  to  Genesis,  which  proceeds  to  its 
second  problem  :  the  creation  of  living  creatures  and 

1  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  p.  48.— Rig- Veda,  x.  72. 
«  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  p.  356.— Rig-Veda,  X.  129. 
^  A.  B.,  vol.  ii.  p.  372. 


CREATION:  TWO  ACCOUNTS  IN  GENESIS.  227 

of  man.  This  is  solved  in  two  distinct  fashions  by 
two  different  writers.  The  first  relates  that  on  the 
fifth  day  God  said,  "Let  the  waters  swarm  with  the 
swarming  of  animals  having  life,  and  let  birds  fly  to 
and  fro  on  the  earth,  on  the  face  of  the  vault  of  the 
heavens."  Having  thus  produced  the  inhabitants  of 
ocean  and  air  on  the  fifth  day,  he  produced  those  of 
earth  on  the  sixth.  On  this  day  too  he  made  man 
in  his  own  image,  and  created  them  male  and  female. 
The  whole  of  his  work  was  now  finished,  and  on  the 
seventh  day  he  enjoyed  repose  from  his  creative  exer- 
tions, for  which  reason  he  blessed  the  seventh  day.'^ 

Here  the  first  account  of  creation  ends  ;  the  second 
begins  with  a  descriptive  title  at  the  fourth  verse  of 
the  second  chapter.  The  writer  of  this  version, 
unlike  his  predecessor,  instead  of  ascribing  the 
creation  of  man  to  the  immediate  fiat  of  Elohim, 
describes  the  process  as  resembling  one  of  manufacture, 
God  formed  the  human  figure  out  of  the  dust  of  the 
earth,  and  then  blew  life  into  it,  a  conception  drawn 
from  the  widespread  notion  of  the  identity  of  breath 
with  life.  Again,  the  narrator  of  the  second  story 
varies  from  the  narrator  of  the  first  about  the  creation 
of  the  sexes.  In  the  first,  the  male  and  female  are 
made  together.  In  the  second,  a  deep  sleep  falls 
upon  the  man,  during  which  God  takes  out  a  rib  from 
his  side  and  makes  the  woman  out  of  it.  Generally 
speaking,  it  may  l)e  remarked  that  the  former  writer 
moves  in  a  more  transcendental  sphere  than  the  latter. 
He  likes  to  conceive  the  origin  of  the  world,  with  all 
its  flora  and  all  its  fauna,  as  arising  from  the  simple 
pow'cr  of  the  word  of  God.  How  they  arise  he  never 
^  Geii.  i.  i-ii.  3.  ■  :      -■    ■ 


2  28  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBL ES. 

troubles  himself  to  say.  The  latter  is  more  terrestrial. 
God  with  him  is  like  a  powerful  artist ;  extremely- 
skilled  indeed  iu  dealing  with  his  materials,  but 
nevertheless  obliged  to  adapt  his  proceedings  to 
their  nature  and  capabilities.  This  author  delights  in 
the  concrete  and  particular  ;  and  not  only  does  he  aim 
at  relatincr  the  order  of  the  creation,  but  also  at 
making  the  modus  operandi  more  or  less  intelligible 
to  his  hearers. 

A  somewhat  different  account  of  the  origin  of  man 
is  given  in  the  traditions  of  Samoa,  one  of  the  Fiji 
islands.  These  traditions  also  describe  an  epoch 
when  the  earth  was  covered  with  water.  "  Tangaloa, 
the  great  Polynesian  Jupiter,"  sent  his  daughter  to 
find  a  dry  place.  After  a  long  time  she  found  a  rock. 
In  subsequent  visits  she  reported  that  the  dry  land 
was  extending.  *'  He  then  sent  her  down  with  some 
earth  and  a  creeping  plant,  as  all  was  barren  rock. 
She  continued  to  visit  the  earth  and  return  to  the 
skies.  Next  visit,  the  plant  was  sjDreading.  Next 
time,  it  was  withered  and  decomposing.  Next  visit, 
it  swarmed  with  worms.  And  the  next  time,  the 
worms  had  become  men  and  women !  A  strange 
account  of  man's  origin ! "  On  which  it  may  be 
remarked,  as  a  curious  psychological  phenomenon, 
tending  to  illustrate  the  effects  of  habit,  that  the 
missionary  considers  it  "a  strange  account  of  man's 
origin"  which  represents  God  as  making  him  from 
worms,  but  readily  accepts  another  in  which  he  is 
made  out  of  dust. 

The  third  question  dealt  with  in  Genesis  is  that  of 
the  origin  of  evil.  This  is  a  problem  which  has  en- 
gaged the  attention  and  perplexed  the  minds  of  many 


HEBREW  MYTH  GF  THE  ORIGIN  OF  EVIL.  229 

inquirers  besides  these  ancient  Hebrews,  aiid  for  which 
most  religions  provide  some  kind  of  solution.  The 
manner  in  which  it  is  treated  here  is  as  follows  : — 
When  God  made  Adam,  he  placed  him  in  a  garden 
full  of  delights,  and  especially  distinguished  by  the 
excellence  of  its  fruit-trees.  There  was  one  of  these 
trees,  however,  the  fruit  of  which  he  did  not  wish 
Adam  to  eat.  He  accordingly  gave  him  strict  orders 
on  the  subject  in  these  words  :  "  Of  every  tree  of  the 
garden  thou  mayst  eat ;  but  of  the  tree  of  knowledge 
of  good  and  evil,  of  that  thou  mayst  not  eat,  for  on 
what  day  thou  eatest  thereof,  thou  diest  the  death."  ^ 
This  order  we  must  suppose  to  have  been  imparted  by 
Adam  to  Eve,  who  was  not  produced  until  after  it 
had  been  given.  At  any  rate,  we  find  her  fully 
cognisant  of  it  in  the  ensuing  chapter,  where  the 
serpent  appears  upon  the  scene  and  endeavours,  only 
too  successfully,  to  induce  her  to  eat  the  fruit.  After 
jdelding  to  the  temptation  herself,  she  induced  her 
husband  to  do  the  like  ;  whereupon  both  recognised 
the  hitherto  unnoticed  fact  of  their  nudity,  and  made 
themselves  aprons  of  fig-leaves.  Shortly  after  this 
crisis  in  their  lives  God  came  down  to  enjoy  the  cool  of 
the  evening  in  the  garden  ;  and  Adam  and  Eve,  feeling 
their  guilt,  I'an  to  hide  themselves  among  the  trees. 
God  called  Adam,  and  the  latter  replied  that  he  had 
hidden  himself  because  he  was  naked.  But  God  at 
once  asked  who  had  told  him  he  was  naked.  Had  he 
eaten  of  the  forbidden  tree  ?  Of  course  Adam  and 
Eve  had  to  confess,  and  God  then  cursed  the  serpent 
for  his  gross  misconduct,  and  punished  the  man  by 
imposing  labour  upon  him,  and  tlie  woman  l)y  rendering 

^  Geii.  ii.  16,  17. 


2  30  HOLY  BOOKS.  OR  BIBLES. 

her  liable  to  the  pains  of  cliildbirtli.  He  also  con- 
descended so  far  as  to  become  the  first  tailor,  making 
garments  of  skins  for  Adam  and  Eve.  But  though 
he  had  thus  far  got  the  better  of  them  ])y  his  superior 
strength,  he  was  not  without  apprehension  that  they 
might  outwit  him  still.  "And  God,  the  Everlasting,^ 
spoke :  See,  the  man  is  become  as  one  of  us,  to  know 
ofood  and  evil :  and  now,  lest  he  should  stretch  out  his 
hand  and  take  also  of  the  tree  of  life,  and  eat  and  live 
for  ever!  Therefore  God,  the  Everlasting,  sent  him 
out  of  the  garden  of  Eden,  to  cultivate  the  ground 
from  which  he  had  been  taken."  ^  And  in  order  to 
make  quite  sure  that  the  man  should  not  get  hold  of 
the  tree  of  life,  a  calamity  which  would  have  defeated 
his  intention  to  make  him  mortal,  he  guarded  the 
approach  to  it  by  means  of  Cherubim,  posted  as 
sentinels  with  the  flame  of  a  sword  that  turned  about. 
In  this  way  he  conceived  that  he  had  secured  himself 
against  any  invasion  of  his  privilege  of  immortality 
on  the  part  of  the  human  race. 

Like  the  myth  of  creation,  the  myth  of  a  happier 
and  brighter  age,  when  men  did  not  sufier  from  any 
of  the  evils  that  oppress  them  now,  is  common,  if 
not  universal.  Common  too,  if  not  equally  common,  is 
the  notion  that  they  fell  from  that  superior  state  by 
contracting  the  stain  of  sin.  I  need  scarcely  refer  to 
the  classical  story  of  a  golden  age,  embodied  by 
Hesiod  in  his  "  Works  and  Days,"  nor  to  the  fable  of 
Pandora  allowing  the  ills  enclosed  in  the  box  to 
escape  into  the  world.  But  it  may  be  of  interest  to 
remark,  that  the  conception  of  a  Paradise  was  no  less 

1  I  have  followed  Zunz's  rendering  of  D''"7 ''?!?  •^j'^N 
*  (j(;ii.  iii.  22,  23. 


TRADITIONS  OF  A  GOLDEN  AGE.  231 

familiar  to  the  natives  of  America  tlian  to  those  of 
Europe.  "  When  Christopher  Columbus,"  observes 
Brinton,  "fired  by  the  hope  of  discovering  this  terres- 
trial paradise,  broke  the  enchantment  of  the  cloudy 
sea  and  found  a  new  world,  it  was  but  to  light  upon 
the  same  race  of  men,  deluding  themselves  with  the 
same  hope  of  earthly  joys,  the  same  fiction  of  a  long- 
lost  garden  of  their  youth."  ^  Elsewhere  he  says  : 
"  Once  again,  in  the  legends  of  the  Mixtecas,  we  hear 
the  old  story  repeated  of  the  garden  where  the  first 
two  brothers  dwelt.  .  .  .  'Many  trees  were  there, 
such  as  yield  flowers  and  roses,  very  luscious  fruits, 
divers  herbs,  and  aromatic  spices.'  "  ^  Corresponding 
to  the  golden  age  among  the  Greeks  was  the  Parsee 
conception  of  the  reign  of  Yima,  a  mythological 
monarch  who  was  in  immediate  and  friendly  inter- 
course with  Ahura-Mazda.  Yima's  kingdom  is  thus 
described  in  the  Vendidad  :  "There  was  there  neither 
quarrelling  nor  disputing ;  neither  stupidity  nor 
violence ;  neither  begging  nor  imposture ;  neither 
poverty  nor  illness.  No  unduly  large  teeth ;  no 
form  that  passes  the  measure  of  the  body;  none  of 
the  other  marks,  which  are  marks  of  Agra-Mainyus, 
that  he  has  made  on  men."  ^  In  another  passage, 
found  in  the  Khorda-Avesta,  not  only  is  the  happiness 
of  Yima's  time  depicted,  but  it  is  also  distinctly 
asserted  that  he  fell  through  sin.  "  Durinsf  his  rule 
there  was  no  cold,  no  heat,  no  old  age,  no  death,  no 
envy  created  by  the  Devas,  on  account  of  the  absence 
of  lying,  previously,  before  he  (himself)  began  to  love 
lying,  untrue  speeches.     Then,  when  he  began  to  love 

1  M.  N.  W.,  p.  87.  2  M.  N.  W,,  p.  90. 

^  Av,,  vol.  i.  p.  76. — Vendidad,  Fargard  ii.  116  fl'. 


232         '  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

lying,  untrue  speeches,  Majesty  fled  from  him  visih])- 
with  the  body  of  ca  bird."  ^ 

More  elaborately  than  in  any  of  these  systems  is 
the  fall  of  man  described  in  the  mythology  of  Bud- 
dhism.     In  this  religion,  as  in  that  of  the  Jews,  man  is 
of  divine  origin,  though  after  a  somewhat  different 
fashion.     A  spiritual  being,  or  god,  fell  from  one  of 
the  upper  spheres,  to  be  born  in  the  world  of  man. 
Through  the  j)rogressive  increase  of  this  being  arose 
"  the  six    species    of  living   creatures   in    the   three 
worlds."     The  most  eminent  of  these  species,  Man, 
enjoyed  an  untold  duration  of  life  (another  point  in 
which    Buddhistic    legends    resemble    those   of    the 
Hebrews).     Locomotion  was  carried  on  throuoh   the 
air;    they  did  not  consume  impure  terrestrial  food, 
but   lived   on    celestial   victuals ;    and   propagation, 
since  there  was  no  distinction  of  sex,  was  carried  on 
by  means  of  emanation.     They  did  not  require  sun  or 
moon,  for  they  saw  by  their  own   light.     Alas  I   one 
of  these  pure   beings  was  tempted  by  a  food   called 
earth-butter  and  ate  it.    The  rest  followed  its  example. 
Hereupon  the  heavenly  food  vanished ;  the  race  lost 
their  power  of  going  about  the  sky,  and  ceased  to 
shine  by  their  own  light.     This  was  the  origin  of  the 
evil  of  the  darkening  of  the  mind.      As  a  consequence 
of  these  deeds,  sun,  moon,  and  stars  appeared.     Still 
greater  calamities  were  in  store  for  men.     Another,  at 
another  time,  ate  a  different  kind  of  food,  an  example 
again  followed  by  the  rest.     In  consequence  of  this, 
the   distinctions   of   sex    were    established   in  them  ; 
passion  arose;  they  began  to  beget  childr.  n.     This  was 
the  origin  of  the  evil  of  sensual  love.      On  a  further 
1  Av..  vol.  iii.  p.  175.— Khorda-Avesta,  XXXV.  32,  34. 


BUDDHIST  MYTH  OF  ORIGIN  OF  EVIL.     233 

occasion,  one  of  them  ute  wild  rice,  and  all  lived  for 
a  time  on  wild  rice,  gathered  as  it  was  needed  for 
immediate  consumption.  But  when  some  foolish  fellow 
took  it  into  his  head  to  collect  enough  for  the  follow- 
ing day,  the  rice  ceased  to  grow  without  cultivation. 
This  was  the  origin  of  the  evil  of  idle  carelessness.  It 
Leing  now  necessary  to  cultivate  rice,  persons  began 
to  appropriate  and  quarrel  about  land,  and  even  to 
kill  one  another.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  evil  of 
ano-er.  Airain,  some  who  were  better  off  hid  their 
stores  from  those  who  were  not  so  well  oj0f.  This  was 
the  oriofin  of  the  evil  of  covetousness.  In  course  of 
time  the  age  of  men  began  to  decline  so  as  to  be 
expressible  in  numbers.  It  continues  gradually  to 
decline  until  a  turning-point  arrives,  at  which  it  again 
increases.^ 

Several  points  of  similarity  between  the  Hebrew 
myth  and  that  just  narrated  will  doubtless  occur  to 
the  reader.  The  fall  of  man  is  due,  in  this,  as  in 
Genesis,  to  the  eating  of  a  peculiar  food  by  a  single 
person  ;  and  this  example  is  followed,  in  the  one  case, 
by  the  only  other  inhabitant  ;  in  the  other,  by  all. 
The  calamity  thus  entailed  does  not  terminate  in  the 
loss  of  former  pleasures,  but  extends  to  the  intro- 
duction of  crime  and  sexual  relations.  Eve  is  cursed 
by  having  to  bear  children ;  the  same  misfortune 
happened  to  the  Buddhist  women.  Cain  quarrelled 
with  Abel  and  killed  him  ;  so  did  the  landed  proprie- 
tors in  the  Indian  legend  quarrel  with  and  kill  one 
another. 

The  fourth  question  which  appeared  to  have 
engaged  the  attention  of  the  authors  of  Genesis 
>  G.  0.  M,  p.  5-9. 


234  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

was  that  of  the  variety  of  kmguages.  How  was  it,  if 
all  mankind  were  descended  from  a  single  pair,  and  if 
again  all  but  the  Noachian  family  had  been  drowned, 
that  they  did  not  all  speak  the  pure  language  in  which 
Adam  and  Eve  had  conversed  with  their  Creator  in 
Paradise  ?  Embarrassed  by  their  own  theories,  the 
writers  attempted  to  account  for  the  phenomenon  of 
the  diverse  modes  of  speech  in  use  among  men  by 
an  awkward  myth.  Men  had  determined  to  build 
a  town,  with  a  tower  Avhich  should  reach  to  heaven. 
Jehovah,  however,  came  down  one  day  to  see  what 
they  were  about,  and  was  filled  with  apprehension  that, 
if  they  succeeded  in  this  undertaking,  he  might  find 
it  impossible  to  prevent  them  from  carrying  out  their 
wishes  in  other  ways  also,  whatever  those  wishes 
midit  be.  So  he  determined  to  confound  their  Ian- 
guage,  that  they  might  not  understand  one  another, 
and  by  this  happy  contrivance  put  an  end  to  the 
construction  of  the  dangerous  tower.^ 

We  have  anticipated  the  course  of  the  narrative  in 
order  to  consider  the  solutions  offered  in  Genesis  of 
the  four  principal  problems  with  which  it  attempts  to 
deal.  We  must  now  return  to  the  point  at  which  we 
left  the  parents  of  the  race,  namely,  immediately  after 
their  expulsion  from  Eden.  They  now  began  to  beget 
children  rapidly ;  and  Adam's  eldest  son,  Cain,  after- 
wards killed  his  second  son,  Abel,  for  which  Jehovah 
cursed  him  as  he  had  previously  cursed  his  parents. 
Adam  and  Eve  had  several  other  children,  and 
(though  this  is  nowhere  expressly  stated,  but  only 
implied)  the  brothers  and  sisters  united  in  marriage 
to    carry   on    the    propagation    of   the  species.       In 

1  Geii.  xi.  1-9. 


THE  NO  A  CHI  AN  DEL  UGE.  235 

course  of  time,  however,  the  "  sons  of  God  "  began 
to  admire  the  beauty  of  the  "  daughters  of  men,"  and 
to  take  wives  from  among  them.  Jehovah,  indignant 
at  such  a  scandal,  fixed  the  limits  of  man's  life — 
which  had  hitherto  been  measured  by  centuries — at 
120  years.  At  the  same  time  there  were  giants  on 
earth.  Now  Jehovah  saw  that  the  human  race  was 
extremely  wicked,  so  much  so,  that  he  began  to  wish 
he  had  never  created  it.  To  remedy  this  blunder, 
however,  he  determined  to  destroy  it ;  and  in  order 
that  the  improvement  should  be  thorough,  to  destroy 
along  with  it  all  cattle,  creeping  things,  and  birds, 
who  had  not  (so  far  as  we  are  aware)  entered  into  the 
same  kind  of  irregular  alliances  with  other  species  as 
men.  Nevertheless,  he  had  still  a  lingering  fondness 
for  his  handiwork,  badly  as  it  had  turned  out;  and 
therefore  determined  to  preserve  enough  of  each  kind 
of  animal,  man  included,  to  carry  on  the  breed  with- 
out the  necessity  of  resorting  a  second  time  to  crea- 
tion. Acting  upon  this  resolve,  he  ordered  an  indi- 
vidual named  Noah  to  build  an  ark  of  gopher-wood, 
announcing  that  he  would  shortly  destroy  all  flesh, 
but  wished  to  save  Noah  and  his  three  sons,  with 
their  several  wives.  He  also  desired  him  to  take  two 
members  of  each  species  of  beasts  and  birds,  or, 
according  to  another  account,  seven  of  each  clean 
beast  and  bird,  and  two  of  each  unclean  beast ;  but 
in  any  case  taking  care  that  each  sex  should  be  repre- 
sented in  the  ark.  When  Noah  had  done  all  this,  the 
waters  came  up  from  below  and  down  from  above,  and 
there  was  an  increasing  flood  for  forty  days.  All  ter- 
restrial life  but  that  which  floated  in  the  ark  was 
destroyed.     At    last   the  waters  began   to    ebb,  and 


236  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

finally  the  ark  rested  on  the  17th  day  of  the  7th 
month  on  Mount  Ararat.  After  forty  more  days  Noah 
sent  out  a  raven  and  a  dove,  of  which  only  the  dove 
returned.  In  seven  days  he  sent  the  dove  again,  and  it 
returned,  bringing  an  olive-leaf:  and  after  another 
week,  when  he  again  sent  it  out,  it  returned  no  more. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  the  27th  of  the  2d  month  of 
the  ensuing  year  (these  chroniclers  being  very  exact 
about  dates)  that  the  earth  was  dried,  and  that 
Noah  and  his  party  were  able  to  quit  the  ark.  To 
commemorate  the  goodness  of  God  in  drowning  all 
the  world  except  himself  and  his  family,  Noah  erected 
an  altar  and  offered  burnt-offerings  of  every  clean 
beast  and  every  clean  fowl.  The  effect  was  instan- 
taneous. So  pleased  was  Jehovah  with  the  *'  pleasant 
smell,"  that  he  resolved  never  to  destroy  all  living 
beings  again,  though  still  of  opinion  that  "  the  imagi- 
nation of  man's  heart  is  evil  from  his  youth."  ^ 

The  myth  of  the  deluge  is  very  general.  The 
Hebrews  have  no  exclusive  property  in  it.  Many 
different  races  relate  it  in  different  ways.  We  may 
easily  suppose  that  the  partial  deluges  to  which  they 
must  often  have  been  witnesses  suggested  the  notion 
of  a  universal  deluge,  in  which  not  only  a  few  tribes 
or  villages  perished,  but  all  the  inhabited  earth  was 
laid  under  water ;  or  the  memory  of  some  actual 
flood  of  unusual  dimensions  may  have  survived  in 
the  popular  mind,  and  been  handed  down  with  traits 
of  exaggeration  and  distortion  such  as  are  commonly 
found  in  the  narratives  of  events  preserved  by  oral 
tradition.  I^et  us  examine  a  few  instances  of  the 
fiood-myth 

1  Gen.  vi.  7,  8. 


FLOOD-MYTHS  OF  OTHER  NATIONS.         237 

The  Fijians  relate  that  the  god  "  Degei  was  roused 
every  morning  by  the  cooing  of  a  monstrous  bird,"  but 
that  two  young  men,  his  grandsons,  one  day  acciden- 
tally killed  and  buried  it.  Degei  having,  after  some 
trouble,  found  the  dead  body,  determined  to  be 
avenged.  The  youths  "took  refuge  with  a  powerful 
tribe  of  carpenters,"  who  built  a  fence  to  keep  out  the 
god.  Unable  to  take  the  fence  by  storm,  Degei  brought 
on  heavy  floods,  which  rose  so  high  that  his  grandsons 
and  their  friends  had  to  escape  in  "  large  bowls  that 
happened  to  be  at  hand."  They  landed  at  various 
places  ;  but  it  is  said  that  two  tribes  became  extinct.^ 

The  Greenlanders  have  "  a  tolerably  distinct  tradi- 
tion" of  a  flood.  They  say  that  all  men  were  drowned 
excepting  one.  This  one  beat  with  his  stick  upon  the 
ground  and  thereby  produced  a  woman.^ 

Kamtschatka  has  a  somewhat  similar  legend,  except 
that  it  admits  a  larger  number  of  survivors.  Very 
many,  according  to  this  version,  were  drowned,  and  the 
waves  had  sunk  those  who  had  got  into  boats ;  but 
others  took  refuge  in  rafts,  binding  the  trees  together 
to  make  them.  On  these  they  saved  themselves 
Avith  their  provisions  and  all  their  property.  When 
the  waters  subsided,  the  rafts  remained  on  the  high 
mountains.^ 

Among  the  North  Americans  "  the  notion  of  a 
universal  deluge  "  was,  in  the  time  of  the  Jesuit  De 
Charlevoix,  "  rather  widespread."  In  one  of  their 
stories,  told  by  the  Iroquois,  all  human  beings  were 
drowned ;  and  it  was  necessary,  in  order  to  repopulate 
the  earth,  to  change  animals  into  men.* 

^  Viti,  p.  394.  ^  Kamtschatka,  p.  273. 

'  Gronland,  p.  246.  *  N   F.,  vol.  iii.  p.  345. 


238  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

The  Tupis  of  Brazil  are  supposed  to  be  named 
after  Tupa,  the  first  of  men,  "  who  alone  survived 
the  flood." ^  Again,  "the  Peruvians  imagined  that 
two  destructions  had  taken  place,  the  first  by  a 
famine,  the  second  by  a  flood ;  according  to  some 
a  few  only  escaping,  but,  after  the  more  widely 
accepted  opinion,  accompanied  by  the  absolute 
extirpation  of  the  race."  The  present  race  came 
from  eggs  dropped  out  of  heaven.^  Several  other 
tribes  relate  in  diverse  forms  this  world-wide  story. 
In  one  of  the  versions,  found  in  an  old  Mexican 
work,  a  man  and  his  wife  are  saved,  by  the  direc- 
tions of  their  god,  in  a  hollow  cypress.  In  another, 
the  earth  is  destroyed  by  water,  because  men  "  did 
not  think  nor  speak  of  the  Creator  who  had  created 
them,  and  who  had  caused  their  birth."  "  Because 
they  had  not  thought  of  their  Mother  and  Father, 
the  Heart  of  Heaven,  whose  name  is  Hurakan,  there- 
fore the  face  of  the  earth  grew  dark,  and  a  pouring 
rain  commenced,  raining  by  day,  raining  by  night."  ^ 

The  diluvian  legend  appears  in  a  very  singular 
form  in  India  in  the  Satapatha  Brahmana.  There  it 
is  stated,  that  in  the  basin  which  was  brought  to 
Manu  to  wash  his  hands  in,  there  was  one  mornini]: 
a  small  fish.  This  fish  said  to  him,  "Preserve  me, 
I  shall  save  thee."  Manu  inquired  from  what  it 
would  save  him.  The  fish  replied  that  it  would 
be  from  a  flood  which  would  destroy  all  creatures. 
It  informed  Manu  that  fishes,  while  small,  were 
exposed  to  the  risk  of  being  eaten  by  other  fishes ; 
he  was  therefore  to  put  it  first  into  a  jar  ;  then 
when  it  grew  too   large  for  that,   to  dig  a  trench 

1  M.  N.  W.,  p.  185.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  213.  ^  Ibid.,  p.  206  ff. 


INDIAN  VERSION  OF  THE  DELUGE.        239 

and  keep  it  in  that ;  then  when  it  grew  too  large 
for  the  trench,  to  carry  it  to  the  ocean.  Straight- 
way it  became  a  large  fish,  and  said  :  "  Now  in 
such  and  such  a  year,  then  the  flood  will  come ; 
thou  shalt  therefore  construct  a  ship,  and  resort  to 
me ;  thou  shalt  embark  in  the  ship  when  the  flood 
rises,  and  I  shall  deliver  thee  from  it."  Manu  took 
the  fish  to  the  sea,  and  in  the  year  that  had  been 
named,  "  he  constructed  a  ship  and  resorted  to  him. 
When  the  flood  rose,  Manu  embarked  in  the  ship. 
The  fish  swam  towards  him.  He  fastened  the  cable 
of  the  ship  to  the  fish's  horn.  By  this  means  he 
passed  over  this  northern  mountain.  The  fish  said, 
'  I  have  delivered  thee  ;  fasten  the  ship  to  a  tree. 
But  lest  the  water  should  cut  thee  ofl^  whilst  thou 
art  on  the  mountain,  as  much  as  the  water  subsides, 
so  much  shalt  thou  descend  after  it.'  He  accordingly 
descended  after  it  as  much  (as  it  subsided).  .  .  . 
Now  the  flood  had  swept  away  all  these  creatures; 
so  Manu  alone  was  left  here."  ^  The  story  goes  on 
to  relate  that  Manu,  being  quite  alone,  produced  a 
woman  by  "arduous  religious  rites,"  and  that  with 
this  woman,  who  called  herself  his  daughter,  "  he 
begot  this  off'spring,  which  is  this  ofispring  of  Manu," 
that  is,  the  existing  human  race. 

After  the  flood,  the  history  proceeds  for  some 
time  to  narrate  the  lives  of  a  series  of  patriarchs, 
the  mythological  ancestors  of  the  Hebrew  race.  Of 
these  the  first  is  Abram,  afterwards  called  Abraham ; 
to  whom  a  solemn  promise  was  made  that  he  was 
to  be  the  progenitor  of  a  great  nation ;  that  Jehovah 
would  bless  those  who  blessed  him,  and  curse  those 

1  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  i.  p.  183. 


240  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

wlio  cursed  him ;  and  that  iu  him  all  generations  of 
the  earth  should  be  blessed.^  When  Abraham  visited 
Egypt,  he  desired  his  wife  Sarah  to  call  herself  his 
sister,  fearing  lest  the  Egyptians  should  kill  him  for 
her  sake.  She  did  so,  and  was  taken  into  Pharaoh's 
harem  in  consequence  of  her  false  statement ;  but 
Jehovah  plagued  Pharaoh  and  his  house  so  severely 
that  the  truth  was  discovered,  and  Sarah  was  restored 
to  her  lawful  husband.  It  is  remarkable  that 
Abraham  is  stated  to  have  subsequently  repeated 
the  same  contemptible  trick,  this  time  alleging  by 
w^ay  of  excuse  that  Sarah  really  was  his  step-sister ; 
and  that  Abraham's  son,  Isaac,  is  said  to  have  done 
the  same  thing  in  reference  to  Rebekah.^  Abimelech, 
king  of  Gerar,  who  was  twice  imposed  upon  by  these 
patriarchs,  must  have  thought  it  a  singular  custom 
of  the  family  thus  to  pass  ojff  their  wdves  as  sisters. 
Apparently,  too,  both  of  them  were  quite  prepared 
to  surrender  their  consorts  to  the  harems  of  foreion 

o 

monarchs  rather  than  run  the  smallest  risk  in  their 
defence. 

Abraham,  at  ninety-nine  years  of  age,  was  for- 
tunate in  all  thino's  but  in  one  :  he  had  no  legitimate 
heir.  But  this  too  was  to  be  given  him.  Jehovah 
appeared  to  him,  announced  himself  as  Almighty 
God,  and  established  with  Abraham  a  solemn  cove- 
nant. He  promised  to  make  him  fruitful,  to  give 
his  posterity  the  land  of  Canaan,  in  which  he  then 
was,  and  to  cause  Sarah  to  have  a  son.  At  the  same 
time  he  desired  that  all  males  should  be  circumcised, 
an  operation  which  was  forthwith  performed  on 
Abraham,  his   illegitimate  son   Ishmael,   and  all   the 

1  Geu.  xii.  1-3.  ^  Gen.  xii.  10-20,  xx.,  xxvi.  6-1 1. 


STORY  OF  THE  OFFERING   UP  OF  ISAAC.      241 

men  in  his  house.^  In  due  time  Sarah  had  a  sou 
whom  Abraham  named  Isaac.  But  when  Isaac  was 
a  lad,  and  all  Abraham's  hopes  of  posterity  were 
centred  in  him  as  the  only  child  of  Sarah,  God  one 
day  commanded  him  to  sacrifice  him  as  a  burnt- 
offering  on  a  mountain  in  Moriah.  Without  a 
murmur,  without  a  word  of  inquiry,  Abraham  pre- 
pared to  obey  this  extraordinary  injunction,  and  was 
only  withheld  from  plunging  the  sacrificial  knife  into 
the  bosom  of  his  son  by  the  positive  interposition  of 
an  angel.  Looking  about,  he  perceived  a  ram  caught 
in  a  thicket,  and  offered  him  as  a  burnt-offering 
instead  of  Isaac.  For  this  servile  and  unintelligfent 
submission,  he  was  rewarded  by  Jehovah  with  further 
promises  as  to  the  amazing  numbers  of  his  posterity 
in  future  times.  ^ 

The  tradition  of  human  sacrifice,  thus  preserved 
in  the  story  of  Abraham  and  Isaac,  is  found  also  in 
a  curious  narrative  of  the  Aitareya  Brahmana.  That 
sacred  book  also  commemorates  an  important  person- 
age, in  this  instance  a  king,  who  had  no  son.  Al- 
though he  had  a  hundred  wives,  yet  none  of  them 
bore  him  a  male  heir.  He  inquired  of  his  priest, 
Narad  a,  what  were  the  advantages  of  having  an  son, 
and  learned  that  they  were  very  great.  *'The  father 
pays  a  debt  in  his  son,  and  gains  immortality,"  such 
was  one  of  the  privileges  to  be  obtained  by  means 
of  a  son.  The  Eishi  Narada  therefore  advised  King 
Harischandra  to  pray  to  Varuna  for  a  son,  promising 
at  the  same  time  to  sacrifice  him  as  soon  as  he  was 
born.  The  king  did  so.  "Then  a  son,  Rohita  by 
name,  was  bom  to  him.    Varuna  said  to  him,  '  A  son 

1  Gen.  xvii.  '■^  Gen.  xxi.  1-8  ;  xxii.  1-19. 

VOL.  II.  Q 


242  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

is  born  to  thee,  sacrifice  him  to  me.'  Harischandra 
said,  'All  auimal  is  fit  for  being  sacrificed,  when  it  is 
more  than  ten  days  old.  Let  him  reach  this  age, 
then  I  will  sacrifice  him  to  thee.'  At  ten  days 
Varuna  again  demanded  him,  but  now  his  father 
had  a  fresh  excuse,  and  so  postponed  the  sacrifice 
from  asfe  to  a^e  until  Rohita  had  received  his  full 
armour."  Varuna  having  again  claimed  him, 
Harischandra  now  said,  "Well,  my  dear,  to  him 
who  gave  thee  unto  me,  I  will  sacrifice  thee  now." 
But  Rohita,  come  to  man's  estate,  had  no  mind 
to  be  sacrificed,  and  ran  away  to  the  wilderness. 
Varuna  now  caused  Harischandra  to  suffer  from 
dropsy.  Rohita,  hearing  of  it,  left  the  forest,  and 
went  to  a  village,  where  Indra,  in  disguise,  met 
him  and  desired  him  to  wander.  The  advice  was 
repeated  every  year  until  Rohita  had  wandered  six 
years  in  the  forest.  This  last  year  he  met  a  poor 
Rishi,  named  Ajigarta,  who  was  starving,  to  whom 
he  ofiered  one  hundred  cows  for  one  of  his  three  sons 
as  a  ransom  for  himself  in  the  sacrifice  to  be  offered 
to  Varuna.  The  father  having  objected  to  the  eldest, 
and  the  mother  to  the  youngest,  the  middle  one 
Sunahsepa,  was  agreed  upon  as  the  ransom,  and 
the  hundred  cows  were  paid  for  him.  Rohita  pre- 
sented' to  his  father  the  boy  Sunahsepa,  who  was 
accepted  by  the  god  with  the  remark  that  a  Brahman 
was  worth  more  than  a  Kshattriya.  "Varuna  then 
explained  to  the  king  the  rites  of  the  Rajasuya  sacri- 
fice, at  which  on  the  day  appointed  for  the  inaugura- 
tion he  replaced  the  (sacrificial  animal)  by  a  man." 

But   at   the  sacrifice  a  strange  incident  occurred. 
No  one  could  be  found  willinof  to  bind  the  victim  to 


A 


HUMAN  SACRIFICE  AND  BRAHMA NISM.     243 

the  sacrificial  post.  At  last  his  father  offered  to  do 
it  for  another  hundred  cows.  Bound  to  the  stake, 
no  one  could  be  found  to  kill  him.  This  act  also  his 
father  undertook  to  do  for  a  third  hundred.  "  He 
then  whetted  his  knife  and  went  to  kill  his  son. 
Sunahsepa  then  got  aware  that  they  were  going  to 
butcher  him  just  as  if  he  were  no  man  (but  a  beast). 
'Well,'  said  he,  'I  will  seek  shelter  with  the  gods.' 
He  applied  to  Prajapati,  who  referred  him  to  another 
god,  who  did  the  same  ;  and  thus  he  was  driven  from 
god  to  god  through  the  pantheon,  until  he  came  to 
Ushas,  the  dawn.  However,  as  he  was  praising 
Ushas,  his  fetters  fell  ofif,  and  Harischandra's  belly 
became  smaller  ;  until  at  the  last  verse  he  was  free, 
and  Harischandra  well."  Sunahsepa  was  now  received 
among  the  priests  as  one  of  themselves,  and  he  sat 
down  by  Visvamitra,  an  eminent  Eishi.  Ajigarta,  his 
father,  requested  that  he  might  be  returned  to  him, 
but  Visvamitra  refused,  "for,"  he  said,  "the  gods 
have  presented  him  to  me."  From  that  time  forward 
he  became  Visvamitra  s  son.  At  this  point,  however, 
Ajigarta  himself  entreated  his  son  to  return  to  his 
home,  and  the  answer  of  the  latter  -is  remarkable. 
"Sunahsepa  answered,  'What  is  not  found  even  in  the 
hands  of  a  Shudra,  one  has  seen  in  thy  hand,  the 
knife  (to  kill  thy  son) ;  three  hundred  cows  thou 
hast  preferred  to  me,  0  Angiras.'  Ajigarta  then 
answered,  '  0  my  dear  son  !  I  repent  of  the  bad  deed 
I  have  committed ;  I  blot  out  this  stain !  one 
hundred  of  the  cows  shall  be  thine  ! '  Sunahsepa 
answered,  '  Who  once  might  commit  such  a  sin,  may 
commit  the  same  another  time.  Thou  art  still  not  free 
from  the  brutality  of  a  Shudra,  for  thou  hast  com- 


244  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

mitted  a  crime  for  wliicli  no  reconciliation  exists.* 
'Yes,  irreconcilable  (is  this  act),'  interrupted  Vis- 
vamitra  I"  ^ 

On  the  likeness  of  this  story  to  the  Hebrew  legend 
of  the  intended  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  and  on  the  difference 
between  the  two,  I  shall  comment  elsewhere.  From 
the  days  of  Abraham  the  history  proceeds  through  a 
series  of  patriarchal  biographies — those  of  Isaac  and 
Rebekah,  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  of  Joseph  and  his 
brothers — to  the  captivity  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt 
under  the  successor  of  the  monarch  whose  prime 
minister  Joseph  had  been.  It  is  at  this  point  that 
the  history  of  the  Hebrews  as  a  distinct  nation  may 
be  said  to  begin.  The  patriarchs  belong  to  universal 
history.  But  from  the  days  of  the  Egyptian  captivity 
it  is  the  fortunes  of  a  peculiar  tribe,  and  afterwards 
of  an  independent  people  that  are  followed.  We 
have  their  deliverance  from  slavery,  their  progress 
through  the  wilderness,  their  triumphant  establish- 
ment in  their  destined  home,  the  rise,  decline,  and 
fall  of  their  national  greatness,  depicted  with  much 
graphic  power,  and  intermingled  with  episodes  of  the 
deepest  interest.  It  would  not  be  consistent  with  the 
plan  or  limits  of  this  work  to  follow  the  history  through 
its  varied  details ;  all  we  can  do  is  to  touch  upon  it 
here  and  there,  where  the  adventures,  institutions,  or 
imaginations  of  the  Hebrews  present  points  of  contact 
with  those  of  other  nations  as  recorded  in  their 
authorised  writings. 

It  was  only  by  the  especial  favour  of  Jehovah  that 
the  Hebrew  slaves  were  enabled  to  escape  from  Egypt 
at  all.  That  deity  appointed  a  man  named  Moses  as 
1  A.  B.,  p.  460-469. 


THE  DECALOGUE  GIVEN  ON  SINAI.         245 

their  leader ;  and,  employing  him  as  his  mouthpiece, 
desired  Pharaoh  to  let  them  go.  On  Pharaoh's 
refusal,  he  visited  Egypt  with  a  series  of  calamities ; 
all  of  them  inadequate  to  the  object  in  view,  until  at 
length  Pharaoh  and  all  his  army  were  overwhelmed 
in  the  Red  Sea,  which  had  opened  to  allow  the 
Israelites  to  pass.  These  last  now  escaped  into  the 
wilderness,  where,  under  the  guidance  of  Moses,  they 
wandered  for  forty  years,  undergoing  all  sorts  of 
hardships,  before  they  reached  the  promised  land. 
During  the  course  of  their  travels,  Jehovah  gave 
Moses  ten  commandments,  which  stand  out  from  a 
mass  of  other  injunctions  and  enactments,  by  the 
solemnity  with  which  they  were  delivered,  and  by 
the  extreme  importance  of  their  subject-matter.  They 
are  reported  to  have  been  given  to  Moses  by  Jehovah 
in  person  on  Mount  Sinai,  in  the  midst  of  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  noise  and  smoke,  apparently 
intended  to  be  impressive.  By  these  laws  the  Israel- 
ites were  ordered — 

1.  To  have  no  other  God  but  Jehovah. 

2.  To  make  no  image  for  purposes  of  worship. 

3.  Not  to  take  Jehovah's  name  in  vain. 

4.  Not  to  work  on  the  Sabbath  day. 

5.  To  honour  their  parents. 

6.  Not  to  kill. 

7.  Not  to  commit  adultery. 

8.  Not  to  steal. 

9.  Not  to  bear  false  witness  against  a  neighbour. 
10.  Not  to  covet. 

Concerning  these  commandments,  it  may  be 
observed  that  the  acts  enjoined  or  forbidden  are  of 
very  different  characters.  Some  of  the  obligations 
thus     imposed    are     universally    binding,    and     the 


246  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

precepts  relating  to  them  form  a  portion  of  universal 
ethics.  Others  again  are  of  a  purely  special  theo- 
logical character,  and  have  no  application  at  all 
except  to  those  who  hold  certain  theological  doctrines. 
Lastly,  others  command  states  of  mind  only,  which 
have  no  proper  place  in  positive  laws  enforced  under 
penalties.  To  illustrate  these  remarks  in  detail :  the 
four  commandments  against  killing,  stealing,  adultery, 
and  calumny  are  of  universal  obligation,  and  though 
they  are  far  from  exhausting  the  list  of  actions  which 
a  moral  code  should  prohibit,  yet  properly  belong 
to  it  and  are  among  its  most  important  constituents. 
But  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  commandments 
presuppose  a  nation  believing  in  Jehovah  as  their 
God  ;  and  even  with  that  proviso  the  fourth,  requir- 
ing the  observance  of  a  day  of  rest,  is  purely  arbi- 
trary ;  belonging  only  to  ritual,  not  to  morals.  To 
place  it  along  with  prohibitions  of  murder  and  theft, 
is  simply  to  confuse  in  the  minds  of  hearers  the  all- 
important  distinction  between  special  observances 
and  universal  duties.  Again,  the  fifth  and  tenth 
commandments  require  mere  emotional  conditions  ; 
respect  for  parents  in  the  one  case,  absence  of  covet- 
ousness  in  the  other.  No  doubt  both  these  mental 
conditions  have  actions  and  abstinences  from  action 
as  their  correlatives ;  but  it  is  with  these  last  that 
law  should  deal,  and  not  with  the  mere  states  of 
feeling  over  which  no  commandment  can  exercise  the 
smallest  control.  Law  may  forbid  us  to  annoy  our 
neighbour,  or  do  him  an  injury  on  account  of  his 
wife  whom  we  love,  or  his  estate  which  we  desire  to 
possess ;  but  it  is  idle  to  forbid  us  to  wish  that  the 
wife  or  the  estate  were  ours. 


MORAL  LA  W  OF  BUDDHISM.  247 

These  errors  are  avoided  in  the  five  fundamental 
commandments  of  Buddhism,  which  relate  wholly 
to  matters  that,  if  binding  upon  any,  are  binding 
upon  all.     They  are  these  : — 

1.  Not  to  kill 

2.  Not  to  steal. 

3.  Not  to  indulge  in  illicit  pleasures  of  sex. 

4.  Not  to  lie. 

5.  Not  to  drink  intoxicating  liquors.^ 

No  doubt  the  fifth  is  not  of  equal  importance  with 
the  rest;  yet  its  intention  is  simply  to  put  a  stop  to 
drunkenness,  and  this  it  accomplishes,  like  teetotal 
societies,  by  requiring  entire  abstinence.  Probably 
in  hot  climates,  and  with  populations  not  capable  of 
much  self-control,  this  was  the  wisest  way.  The 
third  commandment,  as  I  have  presented  it,  is  some- 
what vague,  but  this  is  because  the  form  in  which 
it  is  given  by  the  authorities  is  not  always  the  same. 
Sometimes  it  appears  as  a  mere  prohibition  of  all 
unchastity ;  but  the  more  probable  view  appears  to 
be  that  of  Burnouf,  who  interprets  it  as  directed 
against  adultery,  in  substantial  accordance  with 
Alabaster,  who  renders  it  as  an  injunction  "not  to 
indulge  the  passions,  so  as  to  invade  the  legal  or 
natural  rights  of  other  men." 

In  the  eight  principal  commandments  of  the  Parsees, 
the  breach  of  which  was  to  be  punished  with  death, 
there  is  the  same  confusion  of  theological  and  natural 
duties  as  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  The  Parsees  were 
forbidden — 

1.  To  kill  a  pure  man  (i.e.,  a  Parsee). 

2.  To  put  out  the  fire  Behram. 

'  R.  B.,  vol.  i.  p.  334. — Lotus,  p.  447. — Wheel,  p.  xliii. 


248  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

3.  To  throw  the  impurity  from  dead  bodies  into  fire  or  water. 

4.  To  commit  adulter}''. 

5.  To  practise  magic  or  contribute  to  its  being  practised. 

6.  To  throw  the  impurity  of  menstruating  women  into  fire  or 

water. 

7.  To  commit  sodomy  with  boys. 

8.  To  commit  highway-robbery  or  suicide.^ 

Besides  these  commandments,  Jehovah  gave  his 
people  a  vast  mass  of  laws,  amounting  in  fact  to  a 
complete  criminal  code,  through  his  mouthpiece 
Moses.  Among  these  laws  were  those  which  were 
written  on  the  two  tables  of  stone,  commonly  though 
erroneously  supposed  to  have  been  the  ten  command- 
ments of  the  20th  chapter.  The  express  statement 
of  Exodus  forbids  such  a  supposition.  It  is  there 
stated  that  when  God  had  finished  communing  with 
Moses  he  gave  him  "  two  tables  of  testimony,  tables 
of  stone,  written  with  the  finger  of  God."  This  most 
valuable  autograph  Moses  had  the  folly  to  break  in 
his  anger  at  finding  that  the  Israelites,  led  by  his 
brother  Aaron,  had  taken  to  worshipping  a  golden 
calf  in  his  absence.^  God,  however,  desired  him  to 
prepare  other  tables  like  those  he  had  destroyed,  and 
kindly  undertook  to  write  upon  them  the  very  words 
that  had  been  on  the  first.  Apparently,  however, 
he  only  dictated  them  to  Moses,  who  is  said  to  have 
written  upon  the  tables  "  the  words  of  the  covenant, 
the  ten  commandments."  What  these  words  were 
there  can  be  no  doubt,  for  he  had  begun  his  address 
to  Moses  by  saying,  "Behold,  I  make  a  covenant;" 
and  had  concluded  it  by  the  expression,  "Write  thou 
these  words :    for  after  the  tenor  of  these  words  have 

^  Av.,  vol.  ii.  p.  Ix.  -  Ex.  xxxi.  18,  and  xxxii.  IQ. 


THE  LA  W  OF  THE  TABLES  OF  STONE.      249 

I  made  a  covenant  with  thee  and  with  Israel."  ^  Now 
the  commandments  thus  asserted  to  have  been  written 
on  the  tables  of  stone  were  very  different  from  the 
ten  sfiven  before  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  resemble  more 
closely  still  the  style  of  those  quoted  from  the  Parsee 
books.  Yet  they  were  evidently  deemed  by  the 
writers  of  great  importance,  from  the  honour  ascribed 
to  them  of  having  been  originally  written  in  God's 
own  handwriting  on  stone.  Their  purport  is: — i. 
To  forbid  any  covenant  with  the  inhabitants  of  the 
land  to  which  the  Israelites  were  going,  and  to  enjoin 
them  to  "  destroy  their  altars,  break  their  images,  and 
cut  down  their  groves ;  " — 2.  To  require  the  observ- 
ance of  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread ; — 3.  To  lay 
claim  to  firstlings  for  Jehovah,  and  demand  their 
redemption  ; — 4.  To  command  the  Sabbatical  rest ; — 

5.  To  enjoin  the  observance  of  the  feast  of   weeks ; 

6.  To  desire  that  all  males  should  appear  thrice 
yearly  before  the  Lord  ; — 7.  To  forbid  the  sacrifice 
of  blood  with  leaven; — 8.  To  forbid  leaving  the 
sacrifice  of  the  feast  of  the  passover  till  morning ; 
— 9.  To  demand  the  first-fruits  for  Jehovah  ; — 10.  To 
forbid  seething  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk.^ 

Eminent  as  Moses  was,  and  high  as  he  stood  in  the 
favour  of  his  God,  he  was  not  permitted  to  lead  his 
people  to  Canaan.  Jehovah  punished  him  for  a 
momentary  weakness  by  depriving  him  of  that 
privilege,  which  was  reserved  for  Joshua.  Just  as 
the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  were  cleft  in  two  to  allow 
the   Israelites  to  quit  Egypt,  so  were  those  of  the 

^  Ex.  xxxiv.  1-28. 

■''  My  attention  was  drawn  to  the  fact  that  these  were  the  contents  of 
the  tables  by  Goethe's  interesting  essay  :  "  Zwei  wichtige,  bisher  uneror- 
leite,  biblische  Fragen." 


250  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Jordan  cleft  in  two  to  allow  them  to  enter  Canaan. 
No  sooner  did  the  feet  of  the  priests  bearing  the  ark 
touch  the  water,  than  the  portion  of  the  river  below 
was  cut  off  from  that  above,  the  upper  waters  rising 
into  a  heap.^  Striking  as  this  miracle  is,  it  is  not 
more  so  than  that  performed  by  Visvamitra,  an  Indian 
sage.  When  he  arrived  at  a  river  which  he  desired 
to  cross,  that  holy  man  said :  "  Listen,  0  sisters,  to 
the  bard  who  has  come  to  you  from  afar  with  waggon 
and  chariot.  Sink  down ;  become  fordable ;  reach 
not  up  to  our  chariot-axles  with  your  streams.  (The 
rivers  answer) :  We  shall  listen  to  thy  words,  0  bard  ; 
thou  hast  come  from  far  with  wao^gpon  and  chariot. 
I  will  bow  down  to  thee  like  a  woman  with  full  breast 
(suckling  her  child),  as  a  maid  to  a  man  will  I  throw 
myself  open  to  thee.  (Visvamitra  says) :  When  the 
Bharatas,  that  war-loving  tribe,  sent  forward,  impelled 
by  Indra,  have  crossed  thee,  then  thy  headlong 
current  shall  hold  on  its  course.  I  seek  the  favour 
of  you  the  adorable.  The  war-loving  Bharatas  have 
crossed ;  the  Sage  has  obtained  the  favour  of  the 
rivers.  Swell  on,  impetuous  and  fertilising  ;  fill  your 
channels  ;  roll  rapidly."  ^ 

So  that  the  very  same  prodigy  which,  according  to 
the  Book  of  Joshua,  was  wrought  for  the  benefit  of 
the  Hebrew  people  in  Palestine,  was,  according  to  the 
Eig-Veda,  wrought  for  the  benefit  of  a  warlike  tribe 
in  India. 

After  their  arrival  and  settlement  in  Palestine  the 
Israelites  passed  through  a  period  of  great  trouble 
and  disturbance.  The  government  was  a  direct 
theocracy ;    men    appointed    by  God,    that   is,   self- 

1  Josh.  iii.  2  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  i.  p.  340. 


SAMUEL  AND  SAUL.  251 

appointed,  put  themselves  at  the  head  of  affairs  and 
governed  with  more  or  less  success  under  the  inspira- 
tion, and  in  the  name  of  Jehovah.      During  this  time 
the  people  M^ere  exposed  to  great  annoyance  from 
their  enemies  the  Philistines,  by  whom  they  were  for 
a  certain  space  held  in  subjugation.       The  legend  of 
the  national  hero  and  deliverer,  Samson,  falls  within 
this    period    of    depression    under   a    foreign    yoke. 
Samson  is  the  Jewish  Herakles,  and  his  exploits  are 
altogether    as    fabulous    as    those    of    his    Hellenic 
counterpart ;  though  it  is  not  impossible  that  such  a 
personage  as  Samson  may  have  lived  and  may  have 
led  the  people  with  some  glory  against  their  heredi- 
tary    enemies.      Many   internal    disturbances   contri- 
buted to  render  the  condition  of  the  Israelites  under 
their  theocracy  far  from    enviable ;    and   at   length, 
under   the   government   of    Samuel,    the  last   repre- 
sentative of  this   state  of  things,   the  people  could 
l)ear  their  distresses  no  longer  and  united  to  demand 
a  king.     The  request  was  undoubtedly  a  wise  one ; 
for  the  authority  of  a  monarch  was  eminently  needed 
to  give  internal  peace  and  protection  against  external 
attacks  to  the  distracted  nation.     Samuel,  however, 
was  naturally  opposed  to  such  a  change.     His  feelings 
and  his  interests  were  alike  concerned  in  the  mainten- 
ance of    the  direct  government  of    Jehovah,   whose 
plenipotentiary  he  was.     But  all  his  representations 
that  the  proposal  to  elect  a  king  was  a  crime  in  the 
eyes  of  God,  were  unavailing.       He  was  compelled  to 
yield,  and   selected,  as   the   monarch    appointed   by 
Jehovah  himself,  a  young  man  named  Saul.      Before 
long,  however,  Jehovah  discovered  that  he  had  made 
a  mistake,  and  that  Saul  was  not  the  kind  of  man 


252  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

he  had  hoped  to  find  him.  Samuel  was  therefore 
desired  to  anoint  David,  to  supplant  him.  In  other 
words,  Saul  did  not  prove  the  obedient  instrument 
which  Samuel  had  hoped  to  make  of  him,  and  he 
therefore  entered  into  a  secret  conspiracy  to  procure 
his  deposition.  The  conduct  of  Saul,  and  his 
relations  to  David,  have  probably  been  misrepresented 
by  the  ecclesiastical  historians,  who  persistently 
favour  David.  Nevertheless,  they  cannot  wholly 
diso;uise  the  lawless  and  savaoje  career  of  this 
monarch  before  his  accession  to  the  throne,  of  which 
at  length  he  obtained  possession.  Nor  was  his 
conduct  during  his  occupation  of  it  altogether  exem- 
plary. He,  however,  promoted  the  views  of  the 
priestly  party,  and  this  was  enough  to  cover  a 
multitude  of  sins. 

His  son  Solomon  who  succeeded  him  was  the  most 
masfnificent  of  the  monarchs  of  Israel,  and  the  last 
who  ruled  over  the  undivided  kingdom.  He  was 
especially  renowned  for  his  wisdom,  which  is  exempli- 
fied by  a  famous  decision.  Two  women  came  before 
him  to  dispute  the  ownership  of  an  infant.  One  of 
them  stated  that  the  other,  who  was  alone  in  the 
same  house  with  her,  had  killed  her  owti  child  by 
lying  upon  it  during  the  night,  and  taken  the  living 
child  from  its  mother  while  that  mother  was  asleep. 
The  other  asserted  that  the  living  child  was  hers. 
Having  heard  the  two  statements,  the  king  ordered 
the  living  child  to  be  cut  in  two  and  half  given  to 
each  woman.  Hereupon  the  one  declared  that  she 
would  prefer  to  resign  it  altogether;  but  the  other 
professed  her  acquiescence  in  the  judgment.  The 
king  at  once  awarded  it  to  her  who  had  been  willing 


JEWISH  PROPHETS  AND  KINGS.  253 

to  resign  it  rather  than  see  it  divided.^  Equal,  or 
perhaps  even  greater  wisdom,  was  displayed  by  a 
monarch  whose  history  is  recorded  in  one  of  the 
sacred  books  of  Buddhism.  Two  women  were 
contending  before  him  about  their  right  to  a  boy. 
He  desired  each  of  them  to  take  hold  of  it  by  one  of 
its  hands  and  to  pull  at  it;  the  one  who  succeeded 
in  getting  it  to  keep  it.  She  who  was  not  the  mother 
pulled  unmercifully ;  whereas  the  true  mother,  though 
stronger  than  her  rival,  only  pulled  gently  in  order 
to  avoid  hurting  it.  The  king  perceived  the  truth, 
and  adjudged  it  to  the  one  who  had  pulled  it 
gently.' 

Rehoboam,  the  son  and  successor  of  Solomon, 
failing  to  conciliate  the  people  at  his  accession, 
brought  about  the  schism  between  Samaria  and 
Judsea,  between  the  ten  tribes  and  the  two,  which  was 
never  afterwards  healed.  After  this  the  government 
in  each  kingdom  may  be  described  as  absolute 
monarchy  tempered  by  prophetical  admonition.  The 
prophets,  who  formed  a  kind  of  professional  body  of 
advisers  in  the  interest  of  Jehovah,  made  it  their 
business  to  reprove  the  crimes,  and  especially  the 
idolatries  of  the  kings.  They  exercised  the  kind  of 
influence  which  a  cor^s  diplomatique  may  sometimes 
exercise  on  a  feeble  court.  The  monarchs  sometimes 
attended  to  their  advice ;  sometimes  rejected  it ;  and 
they  receive  commendation  or  reproof  at  the  hands 
of  the  historians  according  to  their  conduct  in  this 
respect.  Two  of  these  prophets,  Elijah  and  Elisha, 
were  men  of  great  eminence,  and  their  actions  are 
recorded  at  length.     Such  was  the  power  of  Elisha 

^  I  Kings  iii.  16-28.  2  q  q.  M.,  p.  344, 


254  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

that  when,  on  one  occasion,  he  cursed  some  children 
who  had  called  him  bald  head,  she-bears  came  out  of 
the  wood  and  ate  forty-two  of  them/  Kespect  for 
ecclesiastics  or  prophets  is  sometimes  inculcated  by 
such  decided  measures  as  these.  A  young  Buddhist 
monk  once  laughed  at  another  for  the  alacrity  with 
which  he  leapt  over  a  grave,  saying  he  was  as  active 
as  a  monkey.  The  man  whom  he  had  ridiculed  told 
him  that  he  belonged  to  the  highest  rank  in  the 
Church ;  that  is,  that  he  was  an  Arhat.  Upon 
hearing  this  the  young  monk  was  so  alarmed  that  all 
his  hair  stood  on  end,  and  he  begged  for  forgiveness. 
His  repentance  saved  him  from  being  born  in  hell ; 
but  because  he  had  laughed  at  an  Arhat  he  was  con- 
demned to  be  born  500  times  as  a  monkey.^ 

Elisha's  powers  in  other  respects  were  not  less 
wonderful.  He  could  cause  iron  to  swim,  could 
foretell  the  course  of  events  in  a  war,  could  restore  the 
dead  to  life,  and  could  smite  the  king's  enemies  with 
blindness.^  In  this  last  accomplishment  he  has  rivals, 
as  Canon  Callaway  has  correctly  noted,  among  the 
Amazulu  priests.  The  Amazulus  have  a  word  in 
their  language  to  describe  the  practice.  "It  is  called 
an  umlingo"  they  say,  if,  when  a  chief  is  about  to 
fight  with  another  chief,  his  doctors  cause  a  darkness 
to  spread  among  his  enemies,  so  that  they  are  unable 
to  see  clearly.* 

The  kingdom  of  Israel,  unfaithful  to  the  worship 
of  Jehovah,  fell  under  the  yoke  of  Shalmaneser  King 
of  Assyria ;  while  Judah,  though  attacked  and 
summoned  to  submit,  by  his  successor,  Sennacherib 

1  2  Kings  ii.  23-25.  '  2  Kings  vi.  7. 

2  G..  0.  M.,  p.  351.  *  R.  S.  A ,  vol.  iii.  p.  338. 


SENNACHERIB  AND  HEZEKTAH.  355 

(or  more  correctly  Sanlierib),  remained  independent 
some  time  lonoer.  The  Kino^  of  Judali  was  at  this 
time  Hezekiah,  a  man  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
principles  of  the  Jehovistic  party,  and  therefore  much 
lauded  by  the  historians.  The  prophet  of  the  day 
was  Isaiah,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  those  who 
have  filled  the  prophetic  office.  Isaiah  warmly  en- 
couraged Hezekiah  to  resist  the  designs  of  conquest 
cherished  by  Sanherib,  and  promised  a  successful 
issue.  The  messengers  of  the  Assyrian  monarch 
had  insultingly  reproached  Jehovah  with  his  inability 
to  deliver  the  land,  alleging  that  none  of  the  gods 
of  the  territories  which  he  had  conquered  had 
availed  them  anything.  But  a  signal  confutation 
of  this  profane  belief  in  large  armies  as  against 
deities  was  about  to  be  given,  and  that  in  a  manner 
which  gave  an  equally  signal  triumph  to  Jehovah,  the 
god  of  the  Jews,  and  Ptah,  the  god  of  the  Egyptians. 
Sanherib  was  engaged  in  an  expedition  against  Egypt, 
which  was  governed  at  this  time  by  a  priest-king, 
resembling  Hezekiah  in  the  piety  of  his  character. 
This  priest  was  in  bad  odour  w^ith  his  army,  who 
refused  to  assist  him  against  the  invaders.  During 
his  trouble  on  this  account,  the  god  whom  he  served 
appeared  to  him  in  his  sleep  and  promised  that  he 
should  suffer  nothing,  for  he  would  send  him  his 
divine  assistance,  just  as  Jehovah  promised  deliver- 
ance through  the  mouth  of  Isaiah.  He  therefore  went 
with  some  followers  to  Pelusium,  and  when  there,  a 
number  of  field-mice,  pouring  in  upon  the  Assyrians, 
devoured  their  quivers,  their  bows,  and  the  handles 
of  their  shields,  so  that  on  the  next  day  they  fled 
defenceless,  and  many  were  killed.    Herodotus  tells  us 


256  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

that  in  his  clay  there  was  still  to  be  seen  the  statue  of 
the  king  in  the  temple  of  Ptah,  a  mouse  in  his  hand, 
and  this  inscription  :  "  Whoever  looks  on  me,  let  him 
revere  the  ofods."^  In  the  Hebrew  version  of  this 
catastrophe,  the  field-mice  are  converted  into  the 
angel  of  the  Lord,  and  the  destruction  of  tlie  weapons 
into  the  slaughter  by  that  angel  of  185,000  men. 
Sanherib,  it  is  added,  returned  to  Nineveh,  where  he 
was  assassinated  by  his  two  sons.^  But  Sanherib 
himself,  in  a  deciphered  inscription,  declares  that  he 
had  beaten  the  Egyptians,  subjected  Judaea,  carried 
off  many  of  its  inhabitants,  and  only  left  Jerusalem 
to  the  king.^  Certainly  this  statement  is  strongly 
confirmed,  so  far  as  Judsea  is  concerned,  by  the 
admission  of  the  historians  themselves,  that  Sanherib 
had  taken  the  fenced  cities*  of  the  country ;  that 
Hezekiah  had  made  an  unreserved  submission  to  him, 
and  had  even  sent  him,  by  way  of  tribute,  not  only  all 
the  treasures  in  his  own  palace  and  in  the  temple, 
but  the  very  gold  from  the  doors  of  the  temple,  and 
from  the  pillars  which  he  himself  had  overlaid/  So 
humiliating  a  position  went  far  to  justify  the  taunts 
of  the  Assyrian  ambassadors,  that  the  god  of  Judaea 
was  no  more  to  be  trusted  as  a  defence  against 
material  weapons  than  the  gods  of  the  subjugated 
nations. 

A  remarkable  instance  of  the  favour  of  Heaven 
towards  Hezekiah  was  subsequently  evinced.  The 
king  fell  dangerously  ill,  and  was  warned  by  Isaiah 
to  make  the  necessary  arrangements  in  view  of  his 
death,  which  was  about  to  happen.     Hezekiah  did 

1  Herod.,  ii.  141.  ^  R.  I.,  p.  328. 

*  2  Kings  xix,  35-37.  *  2  Kings  xviii,  13-16. 


HEZEKIAH'S  PRAYER;  A  PARALLEL.        257 

not  bear  the  announcement  with  much  dignity. 
He  passionately  implored  Jehovah  to  remember  his 
piety  and  his  good  deeds,  and  then  "wept  sore." 
Moved  by  this  pitiable  supplication,  Jehovah  sent 
Isaiah  back  again  to  promise  him  fifteen  years'  morci 
life.  On  Hezekiah's  asking  for  a  sign  that  he  would 
1)6  healed,  Isaiah  asked  him  whether  he  would  prefer 
that  the  shadow  on  the  dial  should  advance  or  go 
back  ten  degrees.  Hezekiah,  thinking  that  it  was 
a  mere  trifle  for  a  god  to  cause  it  to  advance,  desired 
that  it  might  turn  backwards.^ 

A  similar  grace  was  shown  towards  King  Woo  in 
China,  but  in  this  case  it  was  the  prayer  of  otliers, 
not  his  own,  that  effected  his  recovery.  His  brother, 
the  Duke  of  Chow,  erected  -four  altars,  put  certain 
symbols  upon  them,  and  addressed  himself  to  three 
departed  kings.  "  The  grand  historian  hy  his  order 
wrote  on  tablets  his  prayer  to  the  following  effect  : — 
'  A.B.,  your  chief  descendant,  is  suffering  from  a  severe 
and  dangerous  sickness  ; — if  you  three  kings  have  in 
lieaven  the  charge  of  tcatching  over  him.  Heavens 
great  son,  let  me,  Tan,  be  a  substitute  for  his  person. 
I  have  been  lovingly  obedient  to  my  father ;  I  am 
possessed  of  many  abilities  and  arts  which  fit  me  to 
serve  spiritual  beings.  Your  chief  descendant,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  not  so  many  abilities  and  arts  as  I, 
and  is  not  so  capable  of  serving  spiritual  beings.  And, 
moreover,  he  was  appointed  in  the  hall  of  God  to 
extend  his  aid  to  the  four  quarters  of  the  empire, 
so  that  he  might  establish  your  descendants  in  this 
lower  world.  The  people  of  the  four  quarters  stand 
in  reverent  awe  of  him.     Oh  !  do  not  let  that  pre- 

^  2  Kind's  XX.  i-i  I. 
VOL,  II.  K 


25S  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

cious  heaven-conferred  appointment  fall  to  the  ground, 
and  all  our  former  kings  will  also  have  a  perpetual 
reliance  and  resort.     I  will  now  seek  for  your  ordei-s 
from  the  great  tortoise."^    After  this  prayer,  the  Duke 
divined    with    the    tortoises,   which    gave  favourable 
indications.      "  The  oracular  responses  "  were  favour- 
able too.      Accordingly  the  king  recovered,  but  the 
devoted  brother,  though  he  did  not  die,  suffered  for 
some  time  from  unjust  suspicions,  and  retired  from 
court.     This  was    after  the   decease   of   King  Woo. 
The  discovery  of  the  tablets  by  Woo's  successor  led  to 
his  restoration  to  favour.     The  relation  of  the  reigu 
of  Hezekiah,  one  of  the  most  inglorious  of  Judah's 
rulers,  is  an  example  of  the  use  made  of  a  theory 
which  pervades  and  colours  the  whole  history  of  the 
kings  from  beginning  to  end.     That  theory  is,  that 
God   favoured   and   protected   those   monarchs   who 
worshipped    him  and  obeyed  his  prophets,  while  he 
punished    those   who   worshipped    other    gods    and 
neglected   his   orders.     The  deposition  of  Saul,    the 
glory  of  David,  the  destruction  of  the  families  of 
Jeroboam  and  Baasha,  the  miserable  fate  of  Ahab  and 
his    seventy    sons,    the    exaltation    of   Jehu  and  his 
milder    punishment  proportioned    to    his    mitigated 
idolatry,  are  all  examples  of  the  prevalence  of  this 
theory.       Some    of    the    facts    indeed   were    rather 
difficult  to  deal  with ;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  pal- 
pable   decline    of  Judsea   under    Hezekiah,   and  the 
continuance  of  its  previous  misfortunes  under  Josiah, 
the  most  praiseworthy  of  the  kings,  who,  in  spite  of 
his  unrivalled  piety,  was  slain  in  a  battle  against  a 
mere  pagan.      But  inconsistencies   like  these  might 

^  C.  C,  vol.  iii.  p.  353.— Shoo  King,  part  5,  book  6. 


THE  JE  WISH  THE  ORY  OF  S  UCCESS.  2  5  9 

be  glossed  over  or  explained  away.  The  best  kings 
might  meet  with  the  greatest  calamities,  aud  the 
people  of  Jehovah  might  prove  even  more  unfortunate 
than  the  heathen.  It  mattered  not.  They  were  still 
under  his  protection ;  and  if  they  suffered,  it  was 
because  they  had  not  worshipped  him  enough,  or  not 
worshipped  him  exclusively.  With  this  elastic  hypo- 
thesis the  key  to  all  historical  events  was  found. 

IVaces  of  a  similar  theory  are  to  be  found  in  the 
sacred  books  of  China,  though  in  one  instance  it  is 
placed  in  the  mouth  of  a  successful  sovereign 
desirous  of  vindicating  his  supersession  of  a  former 
dynasty.  It  is,  however,  precisely  in  such  cases, 
where  some  David  or  Jehu  has  deposed  a  former  mon- 
arch aud  taken  his  throne,  that  this  theory  is  useful, 
transferring,  as  it  does,  the  responsibility  of  the  issue 
to  a  higher  power.  Thus  speaks  the  Chinese  king : — 
"I  have  heard  the  saying — 'God  leads  men  to 
tranquil  security,'  but  the  sovereign  of  Hea  would 
not  move  to  such  security,  whereupon  God  sent  down 
corrections,  indicating  his  mind  to  him.  Kee, 
however,  would  not  be  warned  by  God,  but  proceeded 
to  greater  dissoluteness  and  sloth  and  excuses  for 
himself.  Then  Heaven  no  longer  regarded  nor  heard 
him,  but  disallowed  his  great  appointment,  and 
inflicted  extreme  punishment.  Hereupon  it  charged 
your  founder,  T'ang  the  Successful,  to  set  Hea  aside, 
and  by  means  of  able  men  to  rule  the  empire.  From 
T'ang  the  Successful  down  to  the  Emperor  Yih, 
every  sovereign  sought  to  make  his  virtue  illustrious, 
and  duly  attended  to  the  sacrifices.  And  thus  it  was 
that  while  Heaven  exerted  a  great  establishing  in- 
fluence, preserving  and  regulating  the  house  of  Yiu, 


26o  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

its  sovereigns  on  their  part  were  humbly  careful  not 
to  lose  the  favour  of  God,  and  strove  to  manifest  a 
good-doing  corresponding  to  that  of  Heaven.  But  in 
these  times,  their  successor  showed  himself  greatly 
ignorant  of  tlie  vmys  of  Heaven,  and  much  less  could 
it  be  expected  of  him  that  he  would  be  regardful  of 
the  earnest  labours  of  his  fathers  for  the  country. 
Greatly  abandoned  to  dissolute  idleness,  he  paid  no 
regard  to  the  bright  principles  of  Heaven,  nor  the 
awfulness  of  the  people.  On  this  account  God  no 
longer  protected  him,  but  sent  down  the  great  ruin 
which  we  have  witnessed.  Heaven  was  not  with  him 
because  he  did  not  seek  to  illustrate  his  virtue. 
Indeed,  with  regard  to  all  states,  great  and  small, 
throughout  the  four  quarters  of  the  empire,  in  every 
(iase  there  are  reasons  to  be  alleged  for  their  punish- 
ment. .  .  .  The  sovereigns  of  our  Chow,  from  their 
great  goodness,  were  charged  with  the  w^ork  of  God. 
There  was  the  charge  to  them.  Cut  off  Yin.  They 
proceeded  to  perforrti  it,  and  announced  the  correcting 
work  of  God.  .  .  .  The  thing  was  from  the  decree  of 
Heaven ;  do  not  resist  me ;  I  dare  not  have  any 
further  change  for  you.'  "  ^ 

But  it  \vas  not  only  by  interested  parties  that  this 
doctrine  was  proclaimed  in  China.  The  She  King, 
a  sacred  book  corresponding  in  character  to  the 
Psalms,  distinctly  adopts  it,  and  thus  gives  it  the 
highest  sanction.  This  is  the  language  of  one  of 
the  Odes  : — 

"  Great  is  God, 
Beholding  this  lower  world  in  majesty. 
He  surveyed  the  four  quarters  [of  the  kingdom], 

^  C.  C,  vol.  iii.  p.  460. — Shoo  King,  part  5,  b.  14,  ii.  1-18. 


JEWISH  VIEWS  IN  CHINA  AND  THIBET,     261 

Seeking  for  some  one  to  give  settlement  to  the  people. 

Those  two  [earlier]  dynasties 

Had  failed  to  satisfy  him  with  their  government ; 

So  throughout  the  various  States 

He  sought  and  considered 

For  one  on  which  he  might  confer  the  rule. 

Hating  all  the  great  [States], 

He  turned  his  kind  regards  on  the  west, 

And  there  gave  a  settlement  [to  king  T'se].  .  .  . 

God  having  brought  about  the  removal  thither  of  this  In- 
telligent ruler, 

The  Kwan  hordes  fled  away ;  .  .  . 

God,  who  had  raised  the  State,  raised  up  a  proper  ruler 
for  it.  .  .  , 

This  King  Ke 

Was  gifted  by  God  with  the  power  of  judgment, 

So  that  the  fame  of  his  virtue  silently  grew. 

His  virtue  was  highly  intelligent. 

Highly  intelligent  and  of  rare  discrimination  ; 

Able  to  lead  ;  able  to  rule, — 

To  rule  over  this  great  country  ; 

Rendering  a  cordial  submission,  effecting  a  cordial  union. 

When  the  sway  came  to  King  Wan, 

His  virtue  left  nothing  to  be  dissatisfied  with. 

He  received  the  blessing  of  God, 

And  it  was  extended  to  his  descendants." 

The  Ode  proceeds  to  relate  how  completely  victorious 
this  virtuous  king  was  over  his  enemies,  and  how 
perfect  was  the  security  from  invasion  enjoyed  by  the 
country  while  he  governed  it.^ 

Feelings  like  those  that  inspired  the  Jewish  chro- 
niclers are  still  more  clearly  visible  in  the  history  of 
Thibet  than  in  that  of  China.  Here  the  orthodox 
compilers  frequently  inform  us  that  the  reign  of  a 
king  who  observed  the  law  and  honoured  the  clergy 
was  distinguished  in  a  peculiarly  high  degree  by  the 

^  C.  C,  vol.  iv.  p.  448. — She  King,  part  3,  b.  I,  ode  7. 


262  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

prosperity  of  the  land  and  the  happiness  of  its  people. 
Of  one,  for  instance,  who  "  entered  the  portals  of 
religion "  at  thirty-eight  years  of  age,  it  is  noted 
that  "  he  founded  the  constitution  of  the  whole 
great  nation  on  order,  and  furthered  its  welfare  and 
peace."  ^  His  son  made  the  whole  great  nation  happy 
by  promoting  religion  and  the  laws."  ^  Another 
monarch  receives  a  still  higher  panegyric.  "  By  the 
unbounded  lionour  he  showed  towards  the  clergy,  he 
exalted  religion,  so  that  by  the  religious  care  which  he 
bestowed  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  snow-kingdom,  the 
welfare  of  the  people  of  Thibet  equalled  that  of  the 
Tegri "  (gods  or  spirits).  A  painful  contrast  is  pre- 
sented by  his  successor  on  the  throne,  Lang-Dharma, 
who  belonged  to  the  heretical  "  black  religion,"  who 
destroyed  the  temples  of  Buddhism,  persecuted  its 
adherents,  burnt  its  books,  and  deg^raded  its  ministers. 
So  impious  was  he,  that  the  very  names  of  tlie  three 
gems  and  of  the  four  orders  of  clergy  ceased  to  be 
mentioned  in  the  land.  He  met,  however,  with  his 
well-deserved  punishment  at  the  hands  of  a  faithful 
Buddhist,  who  assassinated  him  with  a  bow  and  arrow, 
at  the  same  time  using  words  to  the  effect  that,  as 
Buddha  overcame  the  unbelievers,  so  he  had  killed  the 
wicked  king.^  Another  king  "showed  respect  to  the 
hidden  sanctuaries,  whereby  his  power  and  the  welfare 
of  the  land  increased."  *  Comparable  to  Josiah  in  his 
piety  and  reverence  for  the  true  religion  was  a  king 
whose  reign  is  described  in  glowing  language  by  his 
admiring  historians.  "  This  powerful  ruler,"  they  say, 
"who  regarded  the  religion  of  Buddha  as  the  most 

1  G.  0.  M.,  p.  20I.  3  ibid^  p_  4^, 

*  Ibid.,  p.  203.  *  Ibid.,  p.  321. 


THIBETAN  KING  OF  THE  JOSIAH  TYPE.     263 

|)recious  gem,  gave  great  freedoms  and  privileges  to 
the  clergy."  He  honoured  temples  and  respected  the 
pious  endowments  of  his  ancestors.  Not  only  did  he 
punish  thieves,  robbers,  and  similar  criminals,  but  if 
any  man,  of  high  or  low  position,  was  inimical  or 
ill-disposed  towards  the  faith,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
property  and  reduced  to  the  greatest  distress.  Some 
of  those  whose  heresy  was  visited  with  this  severe 
chastisement  were  so  unreasonable  as  to  grumble,  and 
pointed  out  that  it  was  only  the  clergy  who  were 
fattening  on  their  misery  and  oppression.  In  saying 
this  they  pointed  at  the  spiritual  men  who  passed  by ; 
whereupon  the  faithful  king  issued  a  decree,  saying, 
"  It  is  strictly  prohibited  to  look  contemptuously  at 
my  clergy  and  to  point  at  them  with  the  finger ;  " 
whoever  dared  to  do  so  was  to  have  his  eyes  put  out 
and  his  finger  cut  off.  Unfortunately  "  these  orders 
of  the  pious  king  "  led  to  the  formation  of  a  party 
of  malcontents,  by  two  of  whom  he  was  strangled 
in  his  sleep.  The  lamentations  of  the  historian 
at  this  untoward  event  are  unmeasured.  The 
power  and  strength  of  the  Thibetan  kingdom 
ran  away  like  the  stream  of  spring  waters ;  the 
happiness  and  welfare  of  the  people  were  extin- 
guished like  a  lamp  whose  oil  is  exhausted  ;  the 
royal  power  and  majesty  vanished  like  the  colours 
of  the  rainbow  ;  the  black  religion  began  to  pre- 
vail like  a  destructive  tempest ;  the  inclination  to 
good  dispositions  and  good  deeds  was  forgotten 
like  a  dream.  Moreover,  the  translation  of  reli- 
gious writings  remained  unfinished — for  this  king- 
had  also  resembled  Josiah  in  his  interest  in 
sacred    books  ; — and    those  great  men    who   adhered 


204  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

to  the  true  religion  could  only  weep  over  its  decline 
and  fall.' 

Not  less  pitiable  was  the  fate  of  Judaea  under  the 
irreligious  monarchs  who  followed  upon  Josiah.  One 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  king  of  Egypt ;  two  others 
were  carried  off  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar ; 
under  the  fourth,  the  national  independence  was 
finally  extinguished,  and  the  people  reduced  to 
a  condition  of  captivity  in  a  foreign  land.  This 
calamity  is  distinctly  ascribed  to  their  neglect  of 
the  true  religion,  and  their  contempt  for  the  mes- 
sengers of  God." 

Strictly  speaking,  the  history  of  the  Jewish  nation 
ends  with  the  Captivity.  But  there  are  still  three 
books  of  a  historical  character  in  the  Old  Testament, 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  relating  the  fortunes  of  a  small 
number  of  Jews  who  returned  to  the  land  of  their 
forefathers,  when  a  change  of  policy  in  their  rulers 
rendered  this  return  possible ;  and  Esther,  containing 
the  account  of  the  reception  of  a  Jewish  woman  into 
the  harem  of  a  heathen  king,  and  showing  how  ably 
she  contrived  to  use  her  influence  in  favour  of  the 
interests  of  her  race. 

Subdivision  2. — Job,  Psalms,  Provei-bs,  and  Ecclesiastes. 

The  Book  of  Job,  the  Psalms  attributed  to  David, 
and  the  Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes  attributed  to 
Solomon,  resemble  one  another  in  teaching  religion 
and  morality  by  the  method  of  short  sentences  or 
maxims.  They  do  not,  like  the  books  we  have  just 
examined,  convey  their  moral  by  means  of  historical 

^  G.  0.  M.,  p.  361.  '^  2  Cluon.  xxxvi.  14-17. 


THE  STORY  OP  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB.  265 

narrative ;  nor  do  they,  like  the  prophets,  impress  it 
in  flowing  and  continuous  rhetoric.  Between  the 
sober  and  even  course  of  the  history,  and  the  im- 
passioned emotional  torrents  poured  out  by  the 
prophets,  they  occupy  a  medium  position.  They  are 
more  introspective,  more  occupied  with  feelings  and 
reflections,  than  the  first ;  more  heedful  of  external 
Hature,  more  able  to  contemplate  facts,  apart  from  their 
peculiar  construction  of  those  facts,  than  the  last. 

Job  is  the  story  of  a  wealthy  landowner,  concerning 
whom  God  and  Satan  enter  into  a  sort  of  wager  ; 
God,  in  the  first  instance,  challenging  Satan  to 
consider  his  piety  and  general  good  character,  and 
Satan  replying  that,  if  only  his  prosperity  were 
destroyed,  he  would  curse  God  to  his  face.  God  then 
gives  Satan  leave  to  put  his  theory  to  the  test  by 
attacks  directed  against  Job's  property,  desiring  at 
the  same  time  that  his  person  may  be  spared.  Job 
bears  the  loss  of  his  wealth  with  resignation ;  but  at 
a  second  colloquy  Satan  insinuates  that  his  virtue 
would  give  way  if  his  misfortunes  extended  to  his 
person.  Hereupon  God  gives  Satan  leave  to  attack 
him  in  every  respect  so  long  as  he  spares  his  life. 
Poor  Job  is  accordingly  covered  with  boils  from  head 
to  foot,  and  his  patience,  proof  against  poverty,  breaks 
down  under  this  terrible  infliction.  He  loudly  curses 
the  day  of  his  birth,  and  wishes  he  had  died  from  the 
womb.  After  this  introduction,  which,  in  its  familiar 
conversations  between  Jehovah  and  the  devil,  resembles 
the  grotesque  legends  of  the  middle  ages,  the  bulk  of 
the  book  is  occupied  with  the  complaints  of  Job,  the 
discourses  of  his  three  friends  who  come  to  comfctrt 
him,  the  reproaches  directed  against  his  self-righteous- 


266  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

ness  by  a  person  named  Eliliu,  and,  finally,  a  long  ad« 
dress — containing  as  it  were  the  moral  of  the  tale— 
from  the  Almighty  himself.  At  the  close  of  the  book 
Job  expresses  his  abhorrence  of  himself  and  his  pro- 
found repentance,  and  his  former  prosperity  is  then 
not  only  restored  but  amplified  to  a  high  degree. 
He  has  seven  sons  and  three  beautiful  daughters,  and 
dies  140  years  after  the  events  narrated,  having 
seen  four  generations  of  his  descendants.  What  was 
the  effect  on  the  mind  of  Satan  of  this  result,  whether 
he  considered  himself  defeated,  or  whether  he  was 
confirmed  in  his  malicious  opinion  that  Job  did  not 
*'  fear  God  for  nought,"  is  nowhere  stated.  But  one 
of  the  most  curious  features  of  this  book  is  the 
picture  it  gives  of  that  person,  as  a  being  not  alto- 
gether bad,  though  fond  of  mischief,  taking  a  some- 
what cynical  view  of  the  motives  of  human  conduct, 
and  anxious,  in  the  interests  of  his  theory,  to  try 
experiments  upon  a  subject  selected  for  him  by 
his  antagonist,  and  therefore  peculiarly  likely  to  dis- 
appoint his  expectations.  It  does  not  appear  that 
he  had  any  desire  to  hurt  Job  further  than  was 
necessary  for  his  purpose,  nor  is  there  a  trace  of  the 
bad  character  he  subsequently  obtained  as  a  mere 
devil,  longing  to  involve  men's  souls  in  eternal  de- 
struction. 

In  the  Psalms  we  have  a  series  of  religious  songs 
of  varying  character — praising,  blessing,  supplicating, 
complaining,  lamenting,  invoking  good  or  evil  upon 
others,  according  to  the  mood  of  the  several  writers, 
or  of  the  same  writer  at  different  seasons.  Some  of 
them  are  of  considerable  beauty,  and  express  much 
depth  of  religious  feeling.     Others,  again,  are  inspired 


HEBREW  PSALMS  OF  CURSING.  267 

l)y  sentiments  of  malevolence,  and  merely  appeal  to 
God  in  support  of  national  or  private  animosities. 
As  examples  of  the  latter  class,  take  the  i  loth  Psalm, 
supposed  to  have  been  addressed  to  David,  where  it 
is  predicted  that  "  the  Lord  at  thy  right  hand  shall 
strike  through  kings  in  the  day  of  his  wrath,"  and 
that  "  he  shall  fill  the  places  with  the  dead  bodies; 
he  shall  wound  the  heads  over  many  countries."  In 
the  immediately  preceding  Psalm,  the  109th,  the  writer 
is  still  more  vindictive,  and  his  enemy  is  more 
exclusively  his  own.  He  begins  by  calling  him 
*'  wicked  "  and  "  deceitful,"  and  says  he  has  spoken 
against  him  with  a  lying  tongue.  Premising  that  he 
is  altogether  in  the  act  of  prayer,  he  prays  against  the 
adversary  in  somewhat  emphatic  language  : — 

"  Set  thou  a  wicked  man  over  him,  and  let  the  accuser  stand  at 
his  right  hand.  When  he  shall  be  judged,  let  him  be  found 
guilty,  and  let  his  prayer  become  sin.  Let  his  days  be  few,  and 
let  another  take  his  office.  Let  his  children  be  fatherless,  and 
his  wife  a  widow.  Let  his  children  wander  about  and  beg,  and 
seek  food  far  from  their  desolate  places.  Let  the  creditor  catch 
all  that  he  hath,  and  strangers  rob  the  fruit  of  his  industry. 
Let  there  be  none  to  extend  mercy  to  him,  and  let  none  be 
merciful  to  his  fatherless  children.  Let  his  posterity  be  cut  off, 
and  in  the  following  generation  let  their  name  be  blotted  out. 
Let  the  iniquity  of  his  fathers  be  remembered  with  the  Lord,  and 
let  not  the  sin  of  his  mother  be  blotted  out.  Let  them  be  before 
the  Lord  continually,  and  let  him  cut  off  the  memory  of  them 
from  the  earth."  ^ 

In  the  following  verse  the  enemy  is  declared  to 
have  persecuted  the  poor  and  needy,  and  this  is  put 
forward  as  the  excuse  for  imprecations  evidently  in- 
spired   by    personal    illwill.     In   another    of  these 

^  Psalm  cix.  1-15. 


a68  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Psalms,  Jehovah  is  entreated  to  persecute  the  enemies 
of  Israel  with  storm  and  tempest,  as  fires  burn  up 
woods  and  flames  set  mountains  on  fire/  Elsewhere 
the  king  is  said  to  trust  in  the  Lord,  and  he  therefore 
hopes  that  the  Lord  will  find  out  his  enemies,  and 
will  make  them  as  a  fiery  oven  in  the  time  of  his 
ano-er  :  that  the  fire  will  devour  them  ;  and  that  he 
will  destroy  their  fruit  from  the  earth  and  their  seed 
from  among  the  children  of  men.^ 

Parallels  to  these  Psalms  of  cursing  may  be  met 
with  in  the  Veda,  just  as  the  Psalms  in  general 
are  more  nearly  paralleled  by  the  Vedic  hymns  than 
by  those  of  any  other  sacred  book.  One  poet  writes 
as  follows : — 

"  Blinded  shall  ye  be,  0  enemies,  like  headless  snakes,  and 
thus  plagued  by  Agni,  may  Indra  always  kill  the  best  of  you. 
Whatever  relation  troubles  us,  whatever  stranger  wishes  to  kill 
us,  him  may  all  the  gods  destroy ;  prayer  is  my  powerful  protec- 
tion, my  refuge  and  powerful  protection."  ^ 

Kemarkably  close  is  the  similarity  between  the 
assertion  of  the  Hindu  Rishi  that  prayer  is  his  power- 
ful protection,  and  that  of  the  Hebrew  Psalmist  that 
he  is,  or  gives  himself  to,  prayer.  In  another  hymn 
the  aid  of  a  goddess  Apva  (said  to  mean  "  disease 
or  fear")  is  invoked  against  the  enemies  of  the 
singer  : — 

"  Bewildering  the  hearts  of  our  enemies,  0  Apva,  take  possession 
of  their  limbs  and  pass  onward ;  come  near,  burn  them  with  fires 
in  their  hearts  ;  may  our  enemies  fall  into  blind  darkness.*  .  .  , 
Attack,  ye  heroes,  and  conquer  ;  may  Indra  grant  you  proteo- 

»  Psalm  Ixxxiii.  14,  15.  ^  s.  V.,  p.  297.— Sama  Veda,  2.  9.  3.  8. 

>  Psalm  xxi.  8-10.  <  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  v.  p.  no. 


HINDU  PRAYERS  OF  CURSING.  269 

tion  ;  may  our  arm  be  productive  of  terror,  that  ye  may  be  un- 
conquerable. Arrow-goddess,  sharpened  by  prayer;  fly  past  as 
when  shot  off ;  reach  the  enemies  ;  penetrate  into  them ;  let  not 
even  one  escape  thee."  ^ 

But  these  expressions  of  hostility,  directed  appar- 
ently against  enemies  who  were  engaged  in  actual  war 
with  the  friends  of  the  writer,  make  no  approach 
in  the  bitterness  of  their  curses  to  the  language  of 
the  Psalmist  when  dealing  with  his  personal  foes.  A 
parallel  to  this  more  private  enmity  may  be  found  in 
the  Atharva-Veda,  where  the  god  Kama  is  invoked 
to  bring  down  the  severest  evils  upon  the  objects  of 
the  imprecation  : — 

"  With  oblations  of  butter  I  worship  Kama,  the  mighty  slayer 
of  enemies.  Do  thou,  when  lauded,  beat  down  my  foes  by  thy 
great  might.  The  sleeplessness  which  is  displeasing  to  my  mind 
and  eye,  which  harasses  and  does  not  delight  me,  that  sleepless- 
ness I  let  loose  upon  my  enemy.  Having  praised  Kama,  may  I 
rend  him.  Kama,  do  thou,  a  fierce  lord,  let  loose  sleeplessness, 
misfortune,  childlessness,  homelessness,  and  want  upon  him  who 
designs  us  evil.  .  .  .  May  breath,  cattle,  life,  forsake  them.  .  .  . 
Indra,  Agni,  and  Kama,  mounted  on  the  same  chariot,  hurl  ye 
down  my  foes  ;  when  they  have  fallen  into  the  nethermost  dark- 
ness, do  thou,  Agni,  burn  up  their  dwellings.  Kama,  slay  my 
enemies ;  cast  them  down  into  thick  [literally,  blind]  darkness. 
Let  them  all  become  destitute  of  power  and  vigour,  and  not  live 
a  single  day.  .  .  .  Let  them  (my  enemies)  float  downwards  like  a 
boat  severed  from  its  moorings.  ...  Do  thou,  Kama,  drive  my 
enemies  far  from  this  world  by  that  [same  weapon  or  amulet] 
wherewith  the  gods  repelled  the  Asuras,  and  Indra  hurled  the 
Dasyus  into  the  nethermost  darkness."  ^ 

As  corresponding  to  the  many  expressions  to  be 
found  in  the  Psalms  of  trust  in  God,  of  pious  belief 
in  his  protection,  and  of  sensibility  to  his  all-embrac- 

1  S.  v.,  p.  297.— Sama  Veda,  2.  9.  3.  5.  -J  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  v.  p.  404. 


270  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

ing  knowledge,  we  may  quote  the  language  of  a 
Chinese  monarch  in  one  of  the  Odes  of  the  She  King, 
'i^he  first  six  lines  are,  it  appears,  held  by  the  current 
interpretation  in  China  to  contain  the  admonition 
addressed  by  the  ministers  to  the  king,  and  the  last 
six  the  king's  reply.  But  we  may  more  reasonably 
suppose,  with  Dr  Legge,  that  the  whole  Ode  is  spoken 
by  the  king  himself : — 

"  Let  me  be  reverent,  let  me  be  reverent  [in  attending  to  my 
duties]  ; 
[The  way  of]  Heaven  is  evident, 
And  its  appointment  is  not  easily  [preserved]. 
Let  me  not  say  that  It  is  high  aloft  above  me. 
It  ascends  and  descends  about  our  doings  ; 
It  daily  inspects  us  wherever  we  are. 

I  am  [but  as]  a  Httle  child, 

Without  intelligence  to  be  reverently  [attentive  to  my  duties]  ; 

But  by  daily  progress  and  monthly  advance, 

I  will  learn  to  hold  fast  the  gleams  [of  knowledge],  till  I  arrive 

at  bright  intelligence. 
Assist  me  to  bear  the  burden  [of  ray  position], 
And  show  me  how  to  display  a  virtuous  conduct."  ^ 

We  may  fairly  place  this  simple  expression  of  the 
author's  desire  to  do  his  duty,  and  of  his  reveren- 
tial consciousness  that  Heaven  is  ever  about  us  and 
"  inspects  us  wherever  we  are,"  beside  the  words 
attributed  to  David  : — 

"  0  Jehovah,  thou  hast  searched  me,  and  known  me.  Thou 
knowest  my  down-sitting  and  mine  uprising,  thou  understandest 
my  thought  afar  off.  Thou  winnowest  my  path  and  my  lying 
down,  and  art  acquainted  with  all  my  ways."  ^ 

^  C.  C,  vol.  iv.  p.  598. — She  King,  part  4,  b.  i  [iii.]  3. 
'■^  Psalm  c.vxxix.  i  3. 


THE  PROVERBS  OF  SOLOMON:  27 r 

We  need  not  dwell  upon  the  Proverbs,  traditionally 
ascribed  to  Solomon,  but  scarcely  worthy  of  the 
renowned  wisdom  of  that  monarch.  Some  of  them 
are  indeed  shrewd  and  well  expressed;  others  are 
commonplace ;  and  others  again  display  more  worldly 
wisdom  than  religion  or  virtue.  Such  is  the  recom- 
mendation of  bribery  :  "  A  gift  in  secret  pacifieth 
anger,  and  a  reward  in  the  bosom  strong  wrath ; "  ^ 
which,  if  written  by  a  king  and  dispenser  of  justice, 
would  be  a  tolerably  broad  hint  to  his  loving  subjects. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  Christ  had  studied  this  book, 
and  that  it  had  sunk  deep  into  his  mind.^  The  two 
concluding  chapters  are  not  by  the  same  author,  at  least 
if  we  may  believe  in  their  superscriptions.  In  the  last 
of  all,  a  king  named  Lemuel  repeats  for  the  benefit  of 
posterity  the  advice  given  him  by  his  mother,  and  no 
doubt  by  many  mothers  to  many  sons  both  before 
and  after  him,  to  be  careful  about  women  and  not 
to  drink  wine  or  spirituous  liquors. 

Ecclesiastes,  or  Koheleth,  composed  (according  to 
Ewald)  in  the  latter  end  of  the  Persian  dominion,  is 
the  work  of  a  cynic  who  has  had  much  experience  of 
the  world,  and  has  found  it  hollow  and  unsatisfactory. 
He  is  not  a  man  of  very  devout  mind,  and  can  find  no 
comfort  in  the  ordinary  commonplaces  about  the  good- 
ness of  God,  or  the  manner  in  which  misfortunes  are 
sent  as  punishments  for  sin.  There  is  much  good 
sense  mixed  with  his  lamentations  over  the  vanity  of 
life.  He  has  seen  all  the  works  done  under  the  sun, 
and  all  are  in  his  opinion  "vanity  and  vexation  of 
spirit." 

"  Wisdom  and  knowledge  do  but  bring  more  grief. 

*  Prov.  xxi.  14.  2  j^^^  Ytov.  XXV.  21,  22,  and  xxvii.  i. 


^72  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Kolieleth  tried  various  kinds  of  pleasure  and  found 
them  vain  too.  He  built,  tie  planted,  he  made  pools 
of  water.  He  procured  menservants  and  maidservants, 
and  (as  a  natural  consequence)  had  servants  born  in 
his  house.  All  was  equally  fruitless.  But  whatever 
a  man  does,  he  has  nothing  but  sorrow  and  grief. 
Even  wisdom  is  of  little  use,  for  a  dolt  may  inherit 
the  fruit  of  the  wise  man's  labours.  Men  are  no 
better  than  animals ;  they  all  die  equally ;  all  return 
to  the  dust.  Who  can  say  that  man's  spirit  goes  up- 
wards, and  the  animal's  downwards  ?  Just  men  are 
often  rewarded  like  wicked  men,  and  wicked  men 
like  just  ones ;  this  is  one  of  the  many  vanities  on 
earth.  So  then  the  best  thing  a  man  can  do  is  to  eat, 
drink,  and  enjoy  life  with  an  agreeable  wife  ;  for  this 
life  is  all  he  has.  Once  dead,  there  is  no  further  con- 
sciousness, or  participation  in  anything  that  is  going 
on.  Whatever  a  man's  hand  finds  to  do,  let  him  do  it 
with  all  his  might ;  for  there  is  neither  action  nor 
knowledge  in  the  grave.  It  is  well  to  remember  God 
in  youth  before  the  evil  days  come.  Words  of  the 
wise  are  as  goads,  but  bookmaking  and  preaching  are 
both  of  them  a  bore."  Lastly,  Koheleth  concludes 
with  the  pious  advice  to  the  young  man  whom  he  is 
addressing,  to  fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments, 
for  that  God  will  judge  every  action,  be  it  good  or 
be  it  bad. 

SUBDFVISION  2,— The  Song  of  Solomon.^ 

It  is  a  singularly  fortunate  circumstance  that  the 
Song  of  Songs,  a  little  work  of  an  altogether  secular 

'  For  information  on  the  character  and  signification  of  this  book,  see 
"  Le  Cantique  des  Cantiques,"  par  Ernest  Renan. 


THE  SONG  OF  SOLOMON,  273 

nature  and  wholly  unlike  any  other  portion  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  should  have  been  admitted  into 
the  Canon.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  delusion, 
whether  its  reputed  Solomonian  authorship  or  some 
other  theory  about  it,  under  which  it  obtained  this 
privilege,  we  owe  it  to  this  mistake  that  the  solitary 
example  of  the  Jewish  drama  in  existence  should 
have  been  preserved  for  the  instruction  of  modern 
readers.  I  say  modern  readers,  because  it  is  not 
until  quite  recently  that  the  dramatic  character  of 
this  piece  has  been  ascertained  and  established  beyond 
reasonable  doubt.  Thanks  to  the  scholarship  of 
Germany  and  France,  we  are  now  able  to  read  the 
Song  in  the  light  of  common  sense.  The  stern  theo- 
logy of  Judaism  is  for  once  laid  aside,  and  we  have 
before  us  a  common  love-story  such  as  might  happen 
among  any  Gentile  and  unbelieving  race.  A  young 
girl,  called  a  Sulamite,  who  is  attached  to  a  young 
man  of  her  own  rank  in  life,  has  been  carried  off  to 
the  harem  of  Solomon  against  her  will.  She  is 
indifferent  to  the  splendour  of  the  royal  palace,  and 
resists  the  amorous  advances  of  the  king.  Thus  she 
succeeds  in  "  keeping  her  vineyard ;"  and  is  rewarded 
by  rejoining  her  shepherd  lover  in  her  native  village. 
The  play  is  not  without  beauty,  although  it  evinces 
a  somewhat  primitive  condition  of  the  drama  at  the 
time  of  its  composition. 

Subdivision  4. — The  Prophets. 

"We  have  in  the  prophetical  books  a  class  of  writ- 
ings altogether  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
The  prophets  were  men  who  during  the  whole  course  of 

VOL.   II.  s 


2 7 4  HOL  Y  BO OKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

the  Hebrew  monarchy,  and  even  long  after  its  close, 
acted  as  the  inspired  organs  of  the  Almighty  ;  admon- 
ishing, reproving,  warning,  or  counselling  in  his 
name.  At  first  the  method  by  which  the  revelations 
they  received  were  made  known  by  them,  was  oral 
communication.  Writing  was  not  employed  by  them 
as  an  instrument  of  prophetic  discourse  until  after 
the  earliest  and  most  flourishius^  stag^e  of  the  mon- 
archy  was  past.  Perhaps  they  were  the  most 
powerful  of  the  propliets  who  addressed  their  ex- 
hortations directly  to  those  for  whom  they  were 
intended  in  eloquent  discourse  or  timely  parable. 
Such  prophets  were  Samuel,  Nathan,  Elijah,  and 
Elisha,  at  the  courts  of  the  several  kings  in  whose 
days  they  lived.  Prophecy  had  declined  a  little  in 
its  influence  on  the  people  when  its  representatives 
betook  themselves  to  the  calmer  method  of  written 
composition.  Nevertheless,  some  of  the  prophets 
who  have  left  us  their  works  in  writing  continued 
at  the  same  time  to  employ  the  older  instrument  of 
spoken  addresses.  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  are  conspicu- 
ous instances  of  this  employment  of  the  two  organs 
of  communication  downwards.  Durinsi:  this  same 
period  there  were  many  prophets  who  trusted  exclu- 
sively to  writing ;  while  in  the  latest  stage  of 
prophetical  inspiration,  oral  instruction  was  altogether 
dropped,  and  literary  means  alone  were  employed  to 
make  known  the  mind  of  Jehovah  to  his  chosen 
people. 

The  constant  theme  of  all  the  propliets  whose 
works  have  come  down  to  us  is  the  future  greatness  of 
the  Hebrew  race  ;  their  complete  triumph  over  all  their 
enemies ;  the  glory  of  their  ultimate  condition,  and 


THE  B  URDEN  OF  HEBRE  W  PR  OPHE  CY.      275 

the  confusion  or  destruction  of  those  who  have  opposed 
their  march  to  this  final  victory.  The  human  agent 
by  whom  this  great  revolution  is  to  be  effected  is  the 
Messiah.  He  is  the  destined  weapon  in  the  hand  of 
God  by  whom  Jewish  religion,  Jewish  institutions, 
and  Jewish  rulers  are  to  attain  that  supremacy  over 
heathen  religion,  heathen  institutions,  and  heathen 
rulers  which  is  their  natural  birthright.  Continual 
disappointment  had  no  effect  upon  these  sanguine 
expectations.  The  Messiah  iniiist  come,  Israel  Ttiust 
be  victorious  over  every  other  nation  that  came  in 
the  way  :  this  was  the  word  of  God,  and  it  could  not 
fail  to  be  fulfilled.  Troubles  of  many  kinds  might 
beset  the  people  in  the  meantime  ;  but  of  the  attain- 
ment of  the  goal  at  last  there  could  be  no  doubt. 

Of  course  this  ever-recurring  burden  of  the  prophetic 
song  is  varied  by  many  strains  on  subordinate  or 
outlying  topics.  The  prophets  constantly  refer  to  the 
events  of  the  day,  and  use  them  for  their  own 
purposes.  They  reprove  the  sins  of  kings  and  people, 
endeavouring  to  show  that  these  bring  upon  them  the 
misfortunes  from  which  they  suffer  and  which  postpone 
the  day  of  their  triumph  over  the  Gentiles.  They  connect 
special  calamities  with  special  offences.  They  indicate 
the  conduct  which  under  existing  circumstances  ought 
to  be  pursued.  They  draw  eloquent  and  beautiful 
pictures  of  the  state  of  their  own  and  of  foreign 
countries.  And  they  endeavour  to  raise  the  popular 
conceptions  of  the  majesty  of  God,  of  his  character, 
and  his  requirements,  to  the  level  they  have  them- 
selves attained. 

Turning  now  to  tlie  individual  books  which  have 
come  down  to  us  in  the  Canon,  and  which  must  by 


2  76  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

no  means  be  taken  as  compreliending  all  the  works 
of  the  prophets  who  wrote  their  prophecies,  we  find 
that  the  oldest  of  these  is  that  of  Joel,  the  son  of 
Pethuel.^  Joel  is  supposed  by  the  highest  authority 
to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  King  Jehoash,  or  Joash, 
who  is  praised  for  his  devout  obedience  to  Jehoiada, 
the  priest.^  His  prophecy  was  occasioned  by  a  devas- 
tation of  locusts.  Locusts  had  wasted  the  land  for 
some  years,  and  there  had  been  drought  at  the  same 
time.  On  the  occasion  of  a  long  drought  Joel  feared 
a  fresh  invasion  of  locusts,  and  therefore  summoned 
his  people  to  a  festival  of  repentance  at  the  temple. 
This  festival  occurred,  and  rain  soon  followed.^  Here 
the  old  notion  of  a  direct  connection  between  the 
attention  paid  by  the  people  to  Jehovah  and  his  care 
for  them  is  almost  grotesquely  manifested.  Locusts 
are  to  be  averted  by  fasting ;  rain  obtained  by  rather 
more  than  usual  devotion  to  God.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  more  spiritual  view  of  religion  to  which  the 
prophets  generally  tend,  is  shown  in  the  order  to  the 
people  to  rend  their  hearts  and  not  their  garments. 
After  thus  attendinof  to  immediate  necessities,  Joel  in 
stirring  language  exhorts  the  people  to  war,  hoping 
that  they  would  thus  get  rid  of  the  foreign  oppressors 
who  had  broken  into  the  sunken  kingdom  of  David. 
He  bids  them  beat  their  ploughshares  into  swords,  and 
their  pruning-hooks  into  spears,  and  desires  the  weak 
to  say  that  they  are  strong.  He  promises  his  people 
revenge  over  their  enemies,  and  holds  out  the  cheering 
prospect  of  a  time  when,  instead  of  their  sons  and 

^  Throughout  these  descriptions  of  the  prophetic  books,  I  follow  the 
chronological  arrangement  of  Ewald. 

^  2  Kings  xii.  ^  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  i.  p.  87  ff. 


THE  PROPHET  AMOS.  277 

daughters  being  sold  as  slaves  to  strangers,  they  will 
themselves  make  slaves  of  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
the  heathen. 

Some  short  passages  subsequently  embodied  by 
Isaiah  in  his  works  are  considered  by  Ewald  to  belong 
to  the  same  early  age  as  Joel.  The  next  complete 
prophet,  however,  in  order  of  time,  was  Amos,  whose 
revelations  applied  to  the  northern  kingdom  and 
threatened  it  with  invasion  by  the  Assyrians.  Amos 
in  fact  utters  a  series  of  threatening  predictions 
against  various  peoples,  and  his  tone  is  mainly  that  of 
reproof.  While,  however,  he  foretells  the  captivity  of 
Israel,  and  holds  out  nothing  but  the  most  depressing 
prospects  of  ruin  and  misery  throughout  the  bulk  of 
his  book,  he  falls  at  the  end  into  the  accustomed 
strain  of  hopeful  exultation.  "  The  tabernacle  of 
David  "  is  to  be  raised  up ;  Israel  is  to  be  supreme 
over  the  heathen ;  and  the  Israelites  are  not  to  be 
disturbed  again  from  the  land  which  God  has  given 
them,  where  exuberant  prosperity  is  to  be  their  lot. 
Incidentally,  Amos  tells  us  a  little  of  his  personal 
history,  which  is  not  without  interest.  He  attributes 
his  consecration  to  the  prophetic  office  to  the  direct 
intervention  of  Jehovah.  He  had  originally  no  con- 
nection with  other  prophets,  but  was  a  simple  herds- 
man, and  was  employed  to  gather  sycamore  fruit. 
But  Jehovah  took  him  while  he  was  following  the 

o 

flock,  and  said,  "  Go,  prophesy  unto  my  people  Israel." 
His  is  thus  a  typical  case  of  the  belief  in  immediate 
inspiration,  and  he  is  an  example  of  the  kind  of 
character  which  led  to  the  existence  among  the 
Israelites  of  the  peculiar  and  powerful  class  who  were 
holy,   but  not  consecrated.    Amos  also  tells  us  of  a 


278  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

quarrel  lie  had  had  with  Amaziah,  a  priest  at  the 
court  of  Jeroboam.  This  j)riest  had  complained  of  his 
dismal  predictions  to  the  king,  and  had  bidden  him 
go  to  Judah  and  prophesy  there.  In  return  for  this 
evidence  of  hostility  Amos  informs  the  priest  that  his 
wife  is  to  become  a  prostitute  in  the  town,  that  his 
sons  and  his  daughters  are  to  fall  by  the  sword,  that 
his  land  is  to  be  divided  by  lot,  and  that  he  himself 
is  to  die  on  polluted  soil.'^  Such  were  the  courtesies 
that  passed  between  rival  teachers  of  religion  at  the 
court  of  Jeroboam. 

Hosea  also  tells  us  something  of  his  personal  affairs, 
more  especially  of  his  matrimonial  relations,  in  which 
he  was  far  from  fortunate.  We  feel,  in  his  opening 
chapters,  the  soreness  of  a  husband  whose  wife  has 
contemned  his  company  and  sought  the  amusement  of 
a  troop  of  lovers.  Gomer,  in  fact,  was  shockingly 
unfaithful,  and  Hosea  uses  her  as  a  type  of  the 
infidelity  of  Israel  to  Jehovah.  At  length  she  deserted 
him  altogether,  and  went  to  another  house,  but  he 
brought  her  back  as  a  slave  and  put  her  under  strict 
conjugal  discipline.  In  like  manner  is  Israel  to  return 
to  her  God,  whom  she  has  deserted  for  a  time,  and 
under  the  influence  of  God's  love,  freely  bestowed 
after  his  anger  has  passed  away,  is  to  enjoy  a  period 
of  great  prosperity.  Hosea,  it  will  be  observed, 
belonged  to  the  northern  kingdom,  and  his  book  is 
pre-eminently  the  Ephraimitic  book  of  prophecy. 
But  he  wrote  it  in  Judah.  He  worked  in  the  north 
at  two  distinct  epochs,  first  towards  the  close  of 
Jeroboam  II.'s  reign,  afterwards  in  the  time  of  Zacha- 
riah,  Shallum,  and  Menahem.^ 

'  Amos  vii.  10-17.  ^  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  i.  p.  171  ff. 


AN  ANONYMO  US  PR OPHE  T.  279 

An  anonymous  prophet,  contemporary  with  Isaiah, 
stands  next  in  order  of  time.  He  is  the  author  of 
Zechariah  ix.-xi.  inclusive,  and  of  Zechariah  chap.  xiii. 
ver.  7-9.^  These  chapters  contain  the  first  distinct 
announcement  of  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  who  is 
described  in  the  famous  prediction  of  a  King  coming 
to  Jerusalem  on  an  ass,  and  on  a  colt,  the  foal  of  an 
ass.  Here  too  we  find  the  curious  allegory  of  the  two 
staves,  Beauty  and  Bands,  whereof  one  was  broken  by 
the  prophet  in  token  of  the  breach  of  his  covenant 
with  all  the  nations ;  the  other,  in  token  of  the  rup- 
ture of  fraternal  relations  between  Israel  and  Judah. 
In  the  course  of  this  allegory,  the  prophet  demands 
his  price,  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  and  throws  it  into  the 
temple  treasure ;  a  passage  which,  by  an  accidental 
obscurity  in  the  Hebrew,  has  been  mistranslated  as 
referring,  not  to  the  treasure,  but  to  "the  jDottcr 
in  the  house  of  Lord,"  and  then  misapplied  to  the 
betrayal  of  Christ  and  the  purchase  of  the  potter's 
field. 

In  the  concluding  words  of  this  prophet  it  is 
announced  that  two-thirds  of  the  people  will  perish, 
but  that  the  remaining  third  will,  after  refining  and 
trial,  be  accepted  by  God  as  his  own  people. 

We  enter  now  upon  the  consideration  of  a  prophet 
who  stands  in  the  foremost  rank  of  those  distin- 
guished leaders  of  opinion  whose  works  have  been 
included  in  the  Canon.  There  is  no  greater  name 
among  the  prophets  of  Israel  than  that  of  Isaiah. 
But  in  speaking  of  Isaiah  we  must  not  fall  into  the 
confusion  of  includins:  under  his  writings  the  com- 
positions  of  a  prophet  of  far  later  date,  which  have 
1  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  i.  p.  247  ft 


28o  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

been  mistakenly  bound  up  with  his.  Isaiali  himself 
cannot  receive  credit  for  all  that  is  published  in  his 
name.  But  that  which  he  has  actually  left  us  is 
enough  to  entitle  him  to  admiration  as  a  master  of 
rhetoric. 

Isaiah  lived  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  and  enjoyed 
a  position  of  high  public  consideration.  Some  of  his 
prophetic  sayings  he  wrote  down  soon  after  he  had 
uttered  them ;  others  not  till  long  after.  He  had 
begun  to  come  forward  as  a  prophet  in  the  last  year 
of  the  reign  of  Uzziah.  When  he  had  laboured  a 
long  time  in  his  vocation  of  teacher,  he  determined  to 
collect  his  sayings  in  a  book.  His  oldest  work  was 
written  about  the  year  740  B.C.,  just  after  the  acces- 
sion of  the  young  and  weak  Ahaz  at  Jerusalem,  when 
the  Assyrians  had  rendered  the  northern  kingdom 
tributary  but  had  not  yet  come  to  Judaea.  His  second 
was  written  apparently  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  in 
724;  and  his  third  in  the  days  of  the  same  king, 
when  the  service  of  Jehovah  had  been  restored.  Such 
at  least  are  the  conclusions  of  the  his^hest  livinor 
authority  on  the  literature  of  the  Hebrew  race.^ 

The  earliest  stratum  discernible  (according  to  that 
authority)  in  the  Book  of  Isaiah  is  from  chap.  ii.  2  to 
chap.  V.  inclusive,  and  chap.  ix.  7-x.  4.  The  last 
five  verses  of  chap.  v.  should  not  be  taken  along  with 
the  rest  of  the  chapter,  but  should  follow  upon  chap. 
X.  4.^  These  passages  begin  with  a  beautiful  descrip- 
tion of  the  happiness  of  the  Israelites  in  the  days  of 
their  coming  glory,  when  the  mountain  of  the  Lord's 
house  will  be  establiBhed  on  the  top  of  the  mountains, 
and  exalted   above  the  hills ;  and  when  all  nations 

1  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  i.  p.  271  ff.         2  Y^^  vol.  i  p.  286  ff. 


THE  PR0PHE7  ISAIAH.  281 

will  flow  to  it,  to  worship  and  to  learn  the  true  faith. 
It  is  remarkable  as  evidence  of  the  wide  distinction 
between  the  view  of  Joel  and  that  of  Isaiah,  that 
Isaiah  exactly  reverses  the  image  of  his  predecessor, 
declaring  that  swords  will  be  beaten  into  plough- 
shares and  spears  into  pruning-hooks.  Joel  was  look- 
ing to  the  necessities  of  the  immediate  present ; 
Isaiah  to  the  prospects  of  the  future.  These  chapters 
also  contain  an  amusing  ironical  account  of  the 
finery  of  the  Jerusalem  ladies,  which  might  apply 
with  slight  alterations  to  the  rich  women  of  all  ages 
and  countries.  No  doubt  it  was  very  ofi'ensive  to 
Isaiah  that  they  should  go  about  with  necks  erect  and 
wanton  eyes,  walking  with  a  mincing  gait ;  but  a 
prophet  who  should  threaten  the  women  of  London 
or  Paris  with  scab  on  the  head  and  the  exposure  of  their 
persons  on  account  of  sins  like  these,  would  certainly 
bring  more  reprobation  on  himself  than  on  them. 
But  manners  in  Isaiah's  days  were  not  so  delicate. 
A  time  is  predicted  when  Jehovah  will  wash  away 
the  filth  of  Zion's  daughters,  and  when  all  in 
Jerusalem  shall  be  called  holy. 

In  the  second  part  of  his  book  (chap.  vi.  i-chap. 
ix.  6,  and  chap.  xvii.  i-ii)  Isaiah  gives  an  interest- 
ing, though  only  figurative,  account  of  his  consecra- 
tion to  the  prophetic  ofiice.  In  the  year  of  King 
Uzziah's  death  he  says  he  saw  the  Lord  sitting  on  his 
throne  with  a  train  so  long  as  to  fill  the  temple. 
When  he  cried  out  that  he  was  undone,  for  that  he, 
a  man  of  unclean  lips,  had  seen  the  King,  the  Lord 
of  hosts,  a  seraph  flew  up  to  him  with  a  live  coal  in 
a  pair  of  tongs,  laid  the  coal  on  his  mouth,  and  told 
him  that  his  iniquity  was  now  taken  away  and  his 


282  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

sin  purged.  After  this  the  voice  of  the  Lord  was 
heard  inquiring  whom  he  should  send,  and  Isaiah 
offered  to  take  the  post  of  his  ambassador :  "  Here 
am  I,  send  me."  The  proposal  was  accepted,  and 
he  at  once  received  his  instructions  from  head- 
quarters. The  prophet  began  to  j)reach  in  the 
manner  desired,  and  among  much  discouraging 
matter  he  uttered  the  magnificent  description  of  the 
Messiah,  which  is  familiar  to  all : — 

"  For  unto  us  a  child  is  born,  unto  us  a  son  is  given  :  and  the 
government  shall  be  upon  his  shoulder :  and  his  name  shall  be 
called  Wonderful,  Counsellor,  the  mighty  Gud,  the  everlasting 
Father,  the  Prince  of  Peace." 

Isaiah's  third  work  (composed  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah)  begins  at  the  first  chapter  of  the  canonical 
book.  It  opens  with  a  pathetic  lamentation  over  the 
infidelity  of  the  children  of  Israel  to  their  God,  and 
jjroceeds  at  chap  xiv.  28  to  recount  a  "  burden  "  which 
came  in  the  death-year  of  King  Aliaz.  A  prophecy  by 
a  much  older  prophet  (belonging,  as  is  supposed,  to  the 
time  of  Joel)  is  embodied  in  "  the  burden  of  Moab," 
and  extends  tljrough  chap.  xv.  and  chap.  xvi.  7-12, 
after  which  Isaiah,  having  mentioned  that  this  was 
formerly  the  w^ord  of  the  Lord  about  Moab,  proceeds 
to  say  that  his  present  word  is  that  within  three 
years  the  glory  of  Moab  shall  be  contemned.  The 
latter  part  of  chap.  xxi.  (ver.  i  i-i  7),  dealing  with 
Dumah  and  Arabia,  also  belongs  to  this  period. 

Further  divisions  are  distinguishable  in  the  writings 
of  Isaiah  after  these  three  parts  have  been  separated 
from  the  rest.  Thus,  we  have  a  fourth  division  con- 
sisting of  the  2 2d  and  23d  chapters,  and  containing 


THE  PROPHECIES  OF  ISAIAH.  283 

a  personal  attack  on  Shebna  and  a  prediction  of  the 
fall  of  Tyre.  A  fifth  division,  from  cliap.  xxviii.  to 
xxxii.  inclusive,  ends  with  a  beautiful  description  of 
the  happier  time  that  is  to  come,  when  the  fruit  of 
justice  wdll  be  peace,  and  the  result  of  justice  quiet- 
ness and  security,  when  the  people  will  dwell  in  sure 
habitations  and  untroubled  abodes.  There  is  another 
writing,  the  sixth  in  order,  which  begins  at  chap.  x. 
5,  and  extends,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  end  of 
chap.  xii.  This  prophecy  is  remarkable,  even  in  this 
eloquent  book,  for  the  marvellous  eloquence  with 
which,  in  his  visions  of  future  glory,  the  inspired  seer 
depicts  the  government  of  the  "rod  out  of  the  stem 
of  Jesse,"  the  "Branch"  that  is  to  "grow  out  of  his 
roots,"  in  whose  reign  the  wild  beasts  will  no  longer 
persecute  their  prey,  nor  Ephraim  and  Judah  keep 
up  the  memory  of  their  ancient  feud ;  who  will  cause 
his  beloved  people  to  put  the  Philistines  to  flight,  to 
conquer  Edom  and  Moab,  and  reduce  the  children  of 
Amnion  to  submission.  Prophecies  directed  against 
Ethiopia  and  Egypt  (chap.  xvii.  1 2-xviii.  7,  and  chap. 
XX.)  belong  to  the  same  portion  of  Isaiah's  collected 
works.  Threats  against  the  Assyrians  are  contained 
in  additional  chapters,  namely,  chap,  xxxiii.  and  chap. 
xxxvii.  22-35.  Lastly,  a  seventh  portion  of  Isaiah 
consists  of  chap,  xix.,  which,  after  holding  out  the 
prospect  of  great  misfortunes  to  Egypt,  ends  in  a  some- 
what unusual  strain  by  admitting  both  Egyptians  and 
Assyrians  to  be  equal  sharers  with  the  Israelites  in 
the  ultimate  prosperity  of  the  earth,  and  declaring 
that  the  Lord  himself  will  bless  them  all,  saying, 
"  Blessed  be  Egypt  my  people,  and  Assyria  the  work 
of  my  hands,  and  Israel  mine  inheritance." 


284  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

It  should  be  noted  that,  if  Ewald's  supposition  be 
correct,  the  four  first  sections  of  the  work,  thus  decom- 
posed into  its  several  constituents,  were  edited  by 
Isaiah  himself,  while  the  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
were  added  by  subsequent  compilers  to  the  collection 
he  had  left  behind/ 

A  very  short  prophecy  called  by  Obadiah's  name 
follows  upon  the  genuine  writings  of  Isaiah  in  chrono- 
logical order.  It  is  in  fact  anonymous.  In  its  present 
form  it  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Captivity.  The 
object  of  the  unknown  prophet  was  to  reprove  the 
Idu means  for  rejoicing  in  and  profiting  by  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  In  his  writing  he  embodied 
an  older  prophecy  by  the  actual  Obadiah,  referring  to 
a  calamity  that  had  befallen  Edom,  when  a  part  of  its 
territory  had  been  surprised  and  completely  plundered 
by  a  people  with  whom  it  had  just  been  in  alliance. 
The  same  old  piece  was  used  by  Jeremiah  (chap.  xlix. 
7)  in  his  prophecy  upon  Edom.'^ 

Micah,  the  next  prophet,  v/as  a  younger  contempo- 
rary of  Isaiah,  but  lived  in  the  country.  When  he 
wrote,  the  northern  kingdom  was  approaching  its  end, 
and  he  threatens  Judah  with  chastisement  and  de- 
struction. He  foresaw  the  fulfilment  of  Messianic 
hopes  as  arising  only  from  the  ruin  of  the  existing 
order  of  things.  No  more  than  the  first  five  chapters 
are  by  Micah  himself.^  His  book  is  remarkable  for 
the  extremely  warlike  description  he  gives  of  Messianic 
happiness.  Many  other  prophets  conceive  it  as  an 
important  element  in  that  happiness  that  the  Israelites 
shall  be  victorious  over  their  enemies ;  but  few,  if  any, 

1  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  i.  p.  488.  ^  lb.,  vol.  i.  p.  489  ff. 

3  lb.,  vol.  i.  p.  498  ff. 


MICAH  AND  NAHUM.  285 

have  come  up  to  Micah  in  the  fervour  with  which  he 
foretells  the  desolation,  the  carnage,  the  utter  sup- 
pression of  rival  nations,  which  will  accompany  that 
ase.  The  author  of  these  scenes  of  blood  will  be  the 
ruler  who  is  to  come  from  Bethlehem-Ephratah.  The 
j^rophet  who  has  added  the  last  two  chapters  also  looks 
forward  to  an  age  when  Jehovah  will  at  length 
perform  his  promises  to  Abraham  and  Jacob,  to  the 
terror  of  the  unbelieving  nations. 

Next  after  Micah  stands  Nahum.  The  occasion  of 
his  prophecy  was  a  hostile  attack  directed  against 
Nineveh.  He  must  have  seen  the  danger  with  his 
own  eyes,  and  he  was  therefore  a  descendant  of  one 
of  the  Israelites  who  had  been  carried  off  to  Assyria. 
He  evidently  lived  far  from  Palestine,  and  was  familiar 
witli  Assyrian  affairs.  Elkosh,  where  the  inscription 
places  his  residence,  was  a  little  town  on  the  Tigris. 
His  book  may  refer  to  the  siege  of  Nineveh  by  the 
Median  king  Phraortes  about  636.^  The  interest  of 
Nahum's  prophecy  is  merely  local ;  he  does  not  rise 
beyond  the  politics  of  the  hour,  and  we  need  not 
therefore  stop  to  examine  his  utterances  in  detail. 
It  may  be  noted,  however,  that  an  expression  Avhich 
lias  become  famous  through  its  adoption  by  a  much 
later  prophet,  "Behold,  upon  the  mountains  the  feet 
of  him  that  bringeth  good  tidings,  that  publisheth 
peace,"  is  first  found  in  Nahum. 

Zephaniah's  prophecy  arose  out  of  a  great  movement 
of  nations.  He  lived  in  the  reign  of  Josiah,  but  wrote 
before  the  reformation  effected  by  that  monarch.  The 
movement  alluded  to  by  him  must  have  been  the 
great  irruption  of  the  Scythians  mentioned  by 
VP.  A,  B.,  vol.  ii.  p.  I. 


286  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Herodotus  as  having  interrupted  the  siege  of  Nineveh 
by  Kyaxares,  King  of  the  Medes.^  These  last  days  of 
the  Assyrian  kingdom  gave  rise  to  long  disturbances 
in  which  the  Chaldeans  became  conquerors.^  After 
various  threatenings  against  divers  people,  the  prophecy 
of  Zephaniah  ends  with  a  beautiful  vision  of  the  age 
to  come,  when  the  suppliants  of  Jehovah  will  come 
from  beyond  the  rivers  of  Ethiopia ;  and  when  a 
virtuous  and  happy  remnant  will  be  left  in  Israel. 

When  Habakkuk,  the  next  prophet,  wrote  his 
thoughts,  and  composed  the  public  prayer  or  psalm 
which  forms  his  concluding  chapter,  the  Chaldeans 
were  already  in  the  land.  This  "bitter  and  hasty 
nation  "  was  quite  a  new  phenomenon  there.  Habakkuk 
lived  after  the  reformation  of  Josiah,  and  therefore  in 
the  reign  of  Jehoiakim.*  He  seems  to  have  written  to 
plead  with  the  Almighty  for  deliverance,  and  to 
express  unabated  confidence  in  him  ;  and  he  hoped 
that  his  words,  set  to  music  and  sung  in  public  wor- 
ship, would  induce  him  to  abate  his  anger  as  mani- 
fested in  the  Chaldean  scourge. 

An  anonymous  prophet*  (Zechariah  xii.  i-xiii.  6,  and 
xiv.)  predicts  the  siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem,  with 
all  the  miserable  incidents  of  conquest  :  the  rifling  of 
her  houses,  the  ravishing  of  her  women,  the  condem- 
nation to  captivity  of  half  her  inhabitants.  Like 
other  prophets,  however,  he  looks  forward  in  san- 
guine anticipation  to  a  day  when  the  heathen  nations 
who  now  make  war  upon  Jerusalem  will  regularly  go 
up  there  every  year  to  worship  Jehovah,  and  keep  the 
feast  of  tabernacles.     At  least  if  any  of  them  do  not, 

'  Herod.,  i.  103.  ^  lb.,  vol.  ii.  p.  29. 

2  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  ii.  p.  14.  *  lb.,  vol.  ii.  p.  52. 


THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH.  287 

tliey  will  have  no  rain.  In  that  glorious  age  the  very- 
pots  in  the  Lord's  house  will  be  like  the  bowls  for 
offerings  ;  nay,  every  pot  in  Judah  and  Jerusalem  will 
be  holy  to  the  Lord  of  hosts. 

We  pass  now  to  the  consideration  of  a  prophet  who 
stands  second  in  eminence  only  to  Isaiah,  and  to  the 
unknown  author  of  the  later  work  which  in  the  Canon 
is  included  in  the  Book  of  Isaiah.  Jeremiah  beoran  to 
prophesy  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  Josiah,  and  continued 
to  do  so  during  the  reigns  of  Jehoiakim  and  Zedekiah. 
His  active  life,  like  that  of  Isaiah,  extended  over  a 
period  of  half  a  century.^  It  is  noteworthy  that 
Jeremiah  was  a  priest,  and  therefore  combined  in  his 
person  the  double  qualification  of  consecration  and 
of  exceptional  holiness  :  that  is,  he  was  consecrated 
to  Jehovah,  and  also  appointed  expressly  by  Jehovah. 
The  manner  of  his  appointment  to  be  a  holy  person 
resembles  the  manner  of  the  appointment  of  Isaiah. 
The  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  him,  saying,  that 
before  God  had  formed  him  in  the  belly  he  had 
known  him,  and  before  he  had  come  forth  from  the 
womb  he  had  sanctified  him,  and  ordained  him  a 
prophet  unto  the  nations.  Jeremiah  objected  that  he 
was  but  a  child.  But  Jehovah  told  him  not  to  say 
he  was  a  child,  for  that  he  was  to  go  where  he  was 
sent,  and  speak  what  he  was  commanded.  He  was 
not  to  be  afraid  of  men's  faces,  for  he,  the  Lord,  would 
deliver  him.  Then  he  touched  Jeremiah's  mouth 
with  his  hand,  and  said :  "  Behold,  I  put  my  words 
in  thy  mouth.  See,  I  appoint  thee  this  day  over  the 
nations  and  over  the  kingdoms,  to  root  out,  and  to 
pull  down,  and  to  destroy,  and  to    throw  down,  to 

1  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  ii.  p.  63  ff. 


288  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

build  and  to  plant."  After  this  solemn  dedication  to 
his  duties  Jeremiah  was  certainly  endowed  with  the 
fullest  qualifications  for  the  prophetic  office.  He 
immediately  began  to  see  images ;  namely,  a  rod  of 
an  almond-tree  and  a  seething  pot,  and  it  continued 
afterwards  to  be  one  of  his  characteristics  to  employ 
material  imagery  of  this  nature  for  the  purpose  of 
illustrating  the  truths  he  had  to  communicate. 

After  this  introduction,  we  have  a  long  section  of 
the  work,  namely,  from  the  second  chapter  to  the 
twenty-fourth,  beginning  with  the  prophecies  of  the 
thirteenth  year  of  Josiah.  Among  other  things  this 
portion  includes  Jeremiah's  bitter  imprecation  upon 
his  personal  enemies,  the  "  men  of  Anathoth,"  on 
whom  he  begs  to  be  permitted  to  witness  the  ven- 
geance of  God,  and  concerning  whom  he  receives  the 
consoling  assurance  that  their  young  men  will  die  by 
the  sword,  and  their  sons  and  daughters  by  famine, 
and  that  there  will  not  be  a  remnant  left.  This 
section  contains  also  the  terrible  prayer  against  those 
who  *'  devised  devices "  against  Jeremiah,  in  other 
words,  did  not  believe  in  his  predictions.  In  its 
intense  intolerance,  in  its  unblushing  disclosure  of 
private  malignity,  in  its  unscrupulous  enumeration 
of  the  ills  desired  for  these  opponents  of  the  pro- 
phet, it  is  perhaps  unrivalled  in  theological  literature. 
To  do  Jeremiah  justice  it  ought  to  be  quoted  at 
length  : — 

*'  Give  heed  to  me,  0  Jehovah,  and  listen  to  the  voice  of  my 
opponents.  Shall  evil  be  recompensed  for  good,  that  they  dig  a 
pit  for  my  life  %  Remember  how  I  stood  before  thee,  to  speak  a 
good  word  for  them,  to  turn  away  thy  wrath  from  them.  There- 
fore give  their  sons  to  famine,  and  deliver  them  into  the  power  of 


THE  PROPHECIES  OF  JEREMIAH.  289 

tlie  sword  ;  and  let  their  wives  be  bereaved  of  their  children  and 
widowed,  and  let  their  men  be  put  to  death  ;  let  their  young 
men  be  slain  by  the  sword  in  battle.  Let  a  cry  be  heard  from 
their  houses,  when  thou  suddenly  bringest  troops  upon  them  :  for 
they  have  digged  a  pit  to  take  me,  and  hid  snares  for  my  feet. 
Yet  thou,  Jehovah,  knowest  all  their  counsel  against  me  to  slay 
me;  and  blot  not  out  their  sin  from  thy  sight,  and  let  them  be 
overthrown  before  thee  ;  deal  with  them  in  the  time  of  thine 
anger."  ^ 

In  another  chapter  there  is  a  curious  account  of  an 
incident  with  Pashur,  superintendent  of  the  Temple, 
who  had  caused  Jeremiah  to  be  put  in  the  stocks  for 
a  day.  Jeremiah  complains  bitterly  of  the  treatment 
he  meets  with  on  account  of  his  prophesying,  and 
wishes  to  resign  the  office,  but  the  impulse  proves  too 
strong  for  him.  He  consoles  himself  with  a  pious 
hope  that  Jehovah  will  let  him  see  his  vengeance  on 
his  enemies.^  He  continues  to  predict  misfortunes, 
but  intermingles  with  his  gloomier  forebodings  a  fine 
vision  of  the  time  when  God  shall  gather  together  the 
remnant  of  his  flock  from  the  countries  to  which  he 
has  driven  them,  and  raise  up  "  a  righteous  Branch  " 
of  the  house  of  David,  who  will  reign  and  prosper, 
who  will  execute  justice  and  equity,  in  whose  days 
Judah  will  be  saved,  and  Israel  dwell  secure.^ 

In  a  third  section  of  his  work  (chap.  xlvi.  1-12, 
and  chap,  xlvii.  49)  Jeremiah  deals  with  foreign 
nations,  and  then  (in  chap,  xxv.)  declares  that  he 
has  been  prophesying  a  long  time  without  being 
able  to  get  the  Jews  to  listen  to  him,  foretells  their 
subjugation  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  (rather  unfor- 
tunately for  his  own  and  Jehovah's  reputation  for 
correct   foresight)    commits   himself   to   the   definite 

^  Jer.  xviii.  19-23.  ^  Jer.  xx.  »-i2.  ^  Jer.  xxiii.  2-6. 

VOL.  II.  T 


290  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES, 

term  of  seventy  years  as  the  duration  of  the  coming 
captivity.  A  wise  prophet  would  have  kept  within 
the  safe  reo-ion  of  vag-ueness,  where  he  could  not 
come  into  collision  with  awkward  dates,  nor  drive 
orthodox  interpreters  into  such  pitiable  straits  as 
those  in  which  Ewald,  for  example,  finds  himself, 
when  he  is  compelled  to  say  that  seventy  years  is 
a  perfectly  general  indication  of  a  future  that  cannot 
be  more  precisely  fixed,  and  that  it  merely  refers  to 
the  third  generation  from  the  writer.^  The  remainder 
of  this  section  (chap,  xxvi.-xxix.)  relates  certain  en- 
counters with  other  prophets  whose  predictions  had 
turned  out  false,  and  one  of  whom,  as  Jeremiah 
exulting] y  relates,  died  during  the  year,  exactly  as 
Jeremiah  had  declared  he  would.  Interesting  evi- 
dence is  supplied  by  these  chapters  of  the  existence 
of  numerous  prophets  who  differed  from  each 
other,  and  between  whose  claims  only  the  event 
could  decide. 

In  the  fourth  section  (chap,  xxx.-xxxv.)  Jeremiah 
prophesies  the  restoration  of  Israel,  and  tells  his 
readers  how  he  bought  a  field  from  his  cousin  on 
the  strength  of  his  hopes  that  the  captivity  would 
have  an  end.  A  fifth  part  (chaps,  xxxvi.,  xlv.) 
relates  to  Barucli,  Jeremiah's  secretary  ;  and  an 
appendix  (chap,  xxxvii.-xliv.,  and  chap.  xlvi.  13-28) 
contains  historical  matter,  and  predictions  about 
Egypt,  but  concludes  with  the  usual  promise  of 
the  ultimate  return  of  the  Jewish  nation  to  its 
ancestral  home. 

The  last  chapter  of  Jeremiah  is  purely  historical, 
and,  like  the  historical  jDortions  of  Isaiah,  need  not 
^  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  ii.  p.  23a 


THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL.  tgt 

he  considered  under  the  prophets ;  but  it  must  be 
noted  that  chaps.  1.  and  li.  are  not  by  Jeremiah, 
beinir  the  work  of  a  much  later  writer,  who  lived 
in  Palestine,  and  who  composed  them  to  show  that 
the  words  of  the  genuine  Jeremiah  were  fulfilled 
in  the  destruction  of  Babylon  by  the  Medes,  which 
was  taking  place  at  this  time.^  The  small  Book 
of  Lamentations  over  the  unhappy  fate  of  Jerusalem, 
ascribed  to  Jeremiah,  is  an  artistic  attempt  to 
embody  the  grief  of  the  writer  in  a  song  of  which 
each  verse  begins  with  a  new  letter,  in  alphabetical 
order. 

We  pass  now  to  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  a  Jew  who 
was  taken  into  captivity  with  Jehoiachin,  and  lived 
at  a  small  town  of  Mesopotamia.  He  felt  'the  first 
jjrophetic  impulses  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  Captivity.'' 
At  this  time  the  heavens  were  opened  ;  he  saw 
visions,  and  the  word  of  the  Lord  came  expressly 
to  him.  Such  was  the  nature  of  his  consecration. 
The  first  section  of  Ezekiel  extends  from  chap.  i. 
to  xxiv.,  and  contains  utterances  about  Israel  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  second  section 
(chap,  xxv.-xxxii.)  deals  with  foreign  nations,  and 
the  third  (chap,  xxxiii.-xlviii.)  holds  out  promises  of 
restoration. 

Ezekiel  is  very  inferior  to  his  great  predecessors, 
Isaiah  and  Jeremiah.  He  has  neither  the  fervid, 
manly  oratory  of  the  first,  nor  the  pathetic,  though 
rather  soft  and  feminine  flow  of  the  second.  He 
takes  pleasure  in  rather  coarse  images,  such  as  that 
of  the  bread  baked  with  human  duno^,^  that  of 
Jehovah    with    his    two    concubines,    who    bore    him 

1  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  iii.  p.  140  ff.       ^  lb.,  vol.  ii.  p,  322  flf.      ^  g^ek.  iv. 


292  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

sons  and  vexed  him  with  their  hcentious  conduct,* 
or  that  of  the  chikl  whose  navel  was  not  cut,  who 
grew  up  into  a  w^oman,  over  Avhom  Jehovah  spread 
his  skirt  and  covered  her  nakedness.^  And  in 
general,  Ezekiel  is  particularly  prone  to  teaching 
by  means  of  similes  and  illustrations.  Sometimes 
he  sees  visions  in  which  God  explains  his  meaning; 
at  other  times  he  acts  in  a  manner  which  is  designed 
to  be  typical  of  coming  events.  Thus,  on  one  occa- 
sion, he  openly  brings  out  his  furniture  for  removal, 
as  a  siofn  to  the  rebellious  house  of  Israel.^ 

As  in  Jeremiah,  so  in  Ezekiel  we  find  traces  of 
hostility  towards  rival  prophets,  w^hom  he  denounces 
in  no  measured  terms.  It  is  interesting,  too,  to 
observe  that  there  were  female  prophets  in  his  day, 
who  prophesied  out  of  their  own  hearts.  To  them  also 
he  conveys  the  reprobation  of  the  Almighty.'*  The 
form  in  which  he  looks  forward  to  the  restoration 
of  Israel  and  Judah  to  their  homes,  is  somewhat 
different  from  that  in  which  it  was  expected  by  his 
predecessors.  In  a  very  singular  vision,  he  relates 
that  his  God  took  him  into  a  valley  which  was  full 
of  bones,  and  told  him  that  these  were  the  bones  of 
the  whole  house  of  Israel.  Ezekiel  is  then  informed 
that  God  w^ill  open  the  graves  of  the  dead,  and  cause 
these  bones  to  live  again,  and  will  bring  them  to  the 
land  of  Israel.  Afterwards,  he  is  told  to  join  two 
sticks  into  one,  this  junction  representing  the  future 
union  of  Ephraim  and  Judah,  who  are  to  be  gathered 
from  among  the  heathen,  and  are  to  form  one  nation 
governed  by  one  king.  That  king  is  to  be  David, 
who  will  be  their  prince  for  ever.     God  will  make  an 

1  Ezek.  xxiii.       ^  Ezek.  xvi.  8.       ^  Ezek.  xii.  1-7.       •*  Ezek.  xiii. 


THE  GREAT  PROPHET  OF  ISRAEL.  293 

everlasting  covenaut  of  peace  with  them,  and  put 
his  sanctuary  in  their  midst  for  evermore.  Here 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  return  of  David, 
instead  of  the  appearance  of  a  new  king,  are  peculiar 
features. 

An  anonymous  prophet  is  supposed  to  have  written 
Isaiah  xxi.  i-io,  and  another  Isaiah  xiii.  2-xiv.  23, 
the  latter  referring  to  Babylon,  and  containing  the 
imaginary  exultation  of  the  restored  Israelites  over 
the  fallen  Babylonians.  After  these  fragments  we 
have  the  work  of  one  who  is  perhaps  the  greatest  of 
all  the  prophets,  but  who  also  is  unknown  to  us  by 
name.  As  the  most  fitting  description  we  may 
perhaps  call  him  the  anonymous  prophet.  The 
whole  of  the  latter  portion  of  Isaiah,  from  chap,  xl, 
to  the  end,  is  his  work.  The  anonymous  prophet 
lived  in  Egypt.  His  j)eculiar  conception  was  that 
Israel  was  the  servant  of  the  Lord  for  the  peace 
and  the  salvation  of  nations,  as  Kyros  was  his  servant 
in  war.^  Alike  in  beauty  of  language  and  sublimity 
of  thought  he  is  supreme  among  the  writers  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible.  He  is  the  prophet  of  sorrow ;  yet  also 
the  prophet  of  consolation.  Whether  by  a  curious 
accident,  or  whether  by  virtue  of  a  tendency  (not 
uncommon  among  truly  great  writers)  to  withdraw 
his  personality  from  observation  and  confine  himself 
wholly  to  the  message  he  had  to  deliver,  he  tells  us 
nothing  of  himself.  Hence  he  has  for  centuries  been 
hidden  behind  the  fio-ure  of  Isaiah,  whom  nevertheless 
he  surpasses  in  the  purity  of  his  ideal.  To  him  we 
owe  the  beautiful  passage  beginning  "Comfort  ye, 
comfort  ye,  my  people/'  with  the  description  afterwards 

1  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  iii.  p.  20  ff. 


294  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

applied  by  Jesus  Christ  to  John  the  Baptist.  From 
him  also  we  have  the  most  exalted  conceptions  of  the 
Messiah,  the  moral  element  in  his  character  being 
raised,  as  compared  with  the  element  of  material 
power,  to  a  height  hitherto  imexampled  in  prophetic 
vision.  Take,  for  instance,  this  description  of  his 
mildness  combined  with  indomitable  perseverance  : — 

"He  shall  not  cry,  nor  lift  up,  nor  cause  his  voice  to  be  heard 
in  the  street.  A  bruised  reed  shall  he  not  break,  and  the 
smoking  flax  shall  he  not  quench  :  he  shall  bring  forth  judgment 
unto  truth.  He  shall  not  fail  nor  be  discouraged,  till  he  have 
set  judgment  in  the  earth,  and  the  isles  shall  wait  for  his  law."  ^ 

It  is  the  anonymous  prophet,  too,  who  has  given  us 
the  familiar  passage,  "He  is  despised  and  rejected  of 
men ; "  a  passage  describing  the  career  of  a  great  man 
whose  teachings  involved  him  in  persecution  and 
ultimately  in  martyrdom,  but  nowise  applicable 
to  the  Messiah.  That  a  historical  incident,  known 
to  the  writer,  is  alluded  to  in  this  touching  account 
of  suffering  goodness,  admits  of  no  reasonable  doubt. 

The  anonymous  prophet  is  pre-eminently  the 
prophet  of  consolation.  Living  in  the  days  of 
Kyros  and  of  the  restoration  of  the  Temple,  he 
had  the  elements  of  soothing  speech  ready  to  his 
hand ;  and  as  his  predecessors  had  prophesied 
destruction  and  woe,  occasionally  varied  with 
strains  of  hope,  so  he  prophesies  in  strains  of  hope, 
occasionally  varied  with  sterner  language.  It  is 
his  especial  mission  to  heal  the  wounds  that  have 
been  made  in  the  spirit  of  Judah.  God  had  indeed 
forsaken  her  for  a  while;  but  he  will  now  take 
her  back  as  a  deserted  wife,  who  had  suffered  her 

^  Is.  xlii.  2-J.. 


THE  GREAT  PROPHET  OF  ISRAEL.  295 

pimisliment.  He  liad  liiclden  his  face  in  a  little 
•wrath  for  a  moment;  but  with  everlasting  kindness 
will  he  now  have  mercy  upon  her.^  The  concluding 
chapter  of  the  anonymous  prophet  contains  a 
magnificent  description  of  the  ultimate  gathering 
of  all  nations  and  tongues,  when  Jerusalem  will 
be  the  central  point  of  human  worship,  and  the 
glory  of  God  will  be  seen  by  all.  The  picture  is  not 
indeed  unmingled  with  darker  shades,  for  great 
numbers  are  to  be  destroyed  by  Jehovah  in  his 
indignation.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  trait 
exhibiting  the  superiority  of  tliis  prophet  to  his  pre- 
decessors in  toleration  for  the  Gentiles :  namely, 
the  remarkable  prediction  that  some  of  them  also 
are  to  be  priests  and  Levites.^  The  man  who 
could  utter  this  sentiment  had  made  a  signal  advance 
upon  the  ordinary  narrow  and  exclusive  notions  of 
the  prerogatives  of  the  Jewish  race. 

It  was  mentioned  that  the  fiftieth  and  fifty-first 
chapters  of  Jeremiah  were  added  by  a  later  hand. 
'The  same  hand  (in  Ewald's  opinion)  composed  the 
thirty-fourth  and  thirty-fifth  chapters  of  Isaiah,  of 
which  the  second  describes  in  very  eloquent  terms  the 
coming  glory,  when  "  the  ransomed  of  the  Lord  shall 
return,  and  come  to  Zion  with  songs,  and  everlasting 
joy  upon  their  heads :  they  shall  obtain  joy  and 
gladness,  and  sorrow  and  sighing  shall  flee  away."^ 
Another  unknown  writer  {Isaiah  xxiv.-xxvii.)  predicts 
in  the  first  place  the  desolation  which  the  Lord  is  about 
to  effect,  and  then  the  happiness  of  the  Jews  who 
will  be  brought  to  their  own  land  again,  to  worship 
Jehovah  in  the  holy  mount  at  Jerusalem.     One  of  his 

^  Is.  liv.  s-8.  *  Is.  Ixvi.  12-24.  ^  Is-  XXXV,  10. 


296  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

expressions,  "He  will  swallow  up  death  in  victor}^," 
lias  been  adopted  by  St  Paul ;  another,  "  The  Lord 
God  will  wipe  away  tears  from  off  all  faces/'  by  the 
author  of  the  Apocalypse. 

The  interest  of  Haggai's  prophecy  is  purely  special : 
it  refers  to  the  building  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
in  the  reign  of  Darius.  It  was  the  unexpected 
obstacles  by  which  the  building  was  hindered  that 
kindled  his  zeal ;  he  made  his  five  speeches  in  three 
months  of  the  same  year.  Probably  he  had  not  seen 
the  first  temple,  and  he  left  his  prophetic  work  to  his 
younger  contemporary  Zecliariah.'^ 

Zechariah  also  lived  in  the  time  of  Darius,  and 
dealt  principally  with  the  building  of  the  temple.^  A 
series  of  visions  which  he  professes  to  see  shows  how 
his  mind  was  running  upon  this  absorbing  theme ; 
and  he  even  expects  the  Messiah,  whom  Isaiah  and 
Jeremiah  had  called  a  Branch  of  David,  and  whom  he 
more  em23hatically  terms  tlie  Branch,  to  aptpear  at  the 
head  of  affairs  and  to  carry  the  works  to  their  comple- 
tion.^ He  supposes  that  he  will  then  sit  and  rule 
upon  his  throne ;  a  priest  will  be  beside  him,  and 
there  will  be  a  counsel  of  peace  between  these  two 
— the  monarch  and  his  ecclesiastical  minister.* 

It  was  probably  more  than  half  a  century  later  that 
the  short  book  bearing  the  title  of  Malachi  was 
written.  The  true  name  of  its  author  is  unknown, 
and  that  of  Malachi,  ""t"^;^,  my  messenger,  was 
taken  by  its  editor  from  the  first  verse  of  the  third 
chapter.*     He  is  not  a  prophet  of  a  high  calibre,  as 

1  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  iii.  p.  177  ff.  3  Zech.  iii.  8,  and  vi.  12. 

2  lb.,  vol.  iii.  p.  187  flf.  4  Zech.  vi.  13. 

5  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  iii.  p.  214.  ff. 


TEE  BOOK  OF  JONAH.  297 

is  shown  by  his  denunciation,  already  quoted,  of  those 
among  the  JeM^s  who  offered  Jehovah  their  least 
valuable  cattle.  Nor  is  his  conception  of  the  Messianic 
epoch  in  any  way  comparable  to  that  of  the  great 
prophets  whose  works  he  might  have  studied.  He  says 
indeed  that  the  Sun  of  righteousness  will  arise  with 
healing  in  his  wings  ;  but  it  appears  that  this  healing 
is  to  consist  in  the  Israelites  treading  down  the 
wicked,  who  will  be  as  dust  under  their  feet.  He 
concludes  by  announcing  the  return  of  Elijah,  before 
*'the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord,"  and  says, 
in  his  threatening  tone,  that  this  prophet  will  turn  the 
hearts  of  the  fathers  to  the  children,  and  of  the 
children  to  the  fathers,  lest  God  should  come  and 
smite  the  earth  with  a  curse. 

The  Book  of  Jonah,  which  may  have  been  written 
in  the  fifth  or  sixth  century  B.c.,^  is  a  story  with  a 
moral  rather  than  a  prophecy.  Jonah  was  desired  by 
Jehovah  to  preach  against  Nineveh,  but  fled  from  his 
duty,  and  took  passage  in  a  ship  to  Tarshish,  duly 
paying  his  fare.  However,  when  a  terrible  storm 
arose,  Jonah  knew  that  it  was  sent  as  a  penalty  for 
his  disobedience,  and  told  the  sailors  to  throw  him 
overboard.  This  they  did,  but  he  was  swallowed 
alive  by  a  large  fish  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and 
remained  within  it  three  days.  By  this  lesson  he 
was  prepared  to  execute  God's  commands,  and  was 
accordingly  thrown  up  by  the  fish  on  dry  land.  He 
preached  to  the  people  of  Nineveh,  as  desired,  the 
coming  destruction  of  their  city  ;  but  when  they 
repented,  Jehovah  changed  his  mind,  much  to  the 
annoyance  of  his  prophet,  who  represented  that  his 

^  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  iii.  p.  233  fF. 


298  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

unfortunate  tendency  to  clemency  was  the  very 
reason  why  he  had  not  wished  to  enter  his  service. 
But  Jehovah,  by  causing  him  to  regret  the  destruc- 
tion of  a  gourd  which  had  sheltered  him,  showed  him 
that  there  would  be  much  more  reason  to  spare  so 
large  a  city  as  Nineveh,  which  contained,  not  only  a 
vast  population,  but  also  a  great  deal  of  cattle. 

If  Malachi  and  Jonah  stand  in  unfavourable  con- 
trast to  the  works  composed  during  the  golden  age  of 
Hebrew  literature,  Daniel,  the  latest  book  of  the  Old 
Testament,  represents  the  complete  degeneracy  of 
prophecy.  It  is  from  beginning  to  end  artificial ; 
professing  to  be  written  at  one  time  and  by  an  author 
whose  name  and  personality  are  given;  in  reality  writ- 
ten at  another  time,  and  l)y  an  author  whose  name  and 
personality  are  concealed.  Hence  it  contains  pseudo- 
prophecies,  which  are  comparatively  clear,  extending 
from  the  imagined  date  of  the  supposed  prophet  to 
the  actual  date  of  the  real  prophet ;  and  it  contains 
genuine  prophecies  which  are  obscure,  and  which 
extend  from  the  actual  date  into  the  actual  future. 
It  contains  also  much  that  relates  to  the  politics  of 
the  day,  and  which,  for  obvious  reasons,  is  cast  into 
an  enigmatic  form.  Daniel  was  written  about  the 
year  B.C.  i68,  a  little  before  the  death  of  Antiochus 
Ejiiphanes,  and  the  allusions  to  that  monarch  are  of 
course  made  under  the  veil  of  prophecy,  in  a  style 
designed  to  be  intelligible,  without  being  direct.  The 
predictions  of  the  eleventh  chapter  refer  to  the  wars  of 
the  Syrian  and  Egyptian  kings,  and  especially  to  Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes,  who  is  the  "  vile  person  "  mentioned 
in  its  twenty-first  verse.  The  purpose  of  the  work 
was  to  set  an  example  of  fidelity  to  Jehovah  to  the 


THE  PROPHET  DANIEL.  299 

powerful  Jews  wlio  were  connected  with  the  Syrian 
court,  and  especially  to  the  younger  members  of  great 
Jewish  families,  who  were  in  danger  of  being  cor- 
rupted by  its  seductions.^ 

The  form  chosen  to  effect  the  writer's  objects  is 
autobiographical.  In  this  way  he  was  able  to  utter 
his  political  views — which,  directly  expressed,  would 
have  been  dangerous  to  his  safety — under  the  guise 
of  sentiments  uttered  by  Daniel,  the  fictitious  narrator 
of  the  story.  Daniel  was  taken  as  a  captive  child 
along  with  other  children  of  Jewish  race  to  serve  at 
the  court  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  remained  at  the 
Chaldean  court  until  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
son,  Belshazzar,^  and  the  subjugation  of  his  empire 
by  the  Medes  and  Persians.  He  continued  to  hold 
an  honourable  position  at  the  Persian  court  under 
Darius  and  Kyros.  He  first  rose  to  distinction  by 
relating  and  interpreting  to  Nebuchadnezzar  a  dream 
which  that  king  had  himself  forgotten.  Thus,  from 
being  a  mere  page  he  rose  to  be  a  sort  of  astrologer 
royal.  His  life  was  not,  however,  free  from  trouble. 
Among  the  children  who  had  been  brought  with  him 
from  Judaea  he  had  three  friends,  Hananiah,  Mishael, 
and  Azariah,  whom  the  Chaldeans  called  Shadrach, 
Meshech,  and  Abednego.  When  Daniel  had  success- 
fully interpreted  the  king's  dream,  he  contrived  to 
obtain  lucrative  situations  in  the  province  of  Babylon 
for  Shadrach,  Meshech,  and  Abednego.  But  these 
three  having  refused  to  worship  a  golden  image 
which  the  king  had  set  up  in  that  province  were  by 
the  king's  orders  cast  into  a  burning  fiery  furnace, 
heated  beyond  its  usual  temperature.     But  though 

1  P.  A.  B.,  vol.  iii.  p.  298  ff. 


300  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

they  fell  bound  into  tlie  midst  of  it,  they  were  not 
burnt,  and  were  seen  walking  about  at  their  ease  in 
it,  accompanied  by  a  fourth,  who  looked  like  the  Son 
of  Man.' 

It  is  remarkable  that  a  precisely  similar  prodigy 
occurred  in  one  of  the  innumerable  previous  exist- 
ences of  the  Buddha  Sakyamuni.  He  was  at  this 
time  the  son  and  heir  of  a  great  king,  and  to 
prove  his  devotion  to  the  true  doctrine  he  literally 
obeyed  the  instructions  of  a  Brahman,  who  desired 
him  to  fill  a  ditch  ten  yards  deep  with  glowing  coals 
and  jump  into  it.  On  this  condition  the  Brahman 
had  consented  to  teach  him  the  holy  doctrine.  Ee- 
sisting  all  entreaties  to  preserve  his  life,  the  prince 
caused  the  pool  of  fire  to  be  prepared  and  leapt 
into  it  without  shrinkinor  for  a  moment.  On  the 
instant  it  was  converted  into  a  basin  of  flowers,  and 
he  appeared  sitting  on  a  lotus- flower  in  its  midst, 
while  the  gods  caused  a  rain  of  flowers,  that  rose 
knee-deep  to  fall  upon  the  assembled  people.^ 

Nor  is  this  the  only  other  example  of  a  wise 
discrimination  being  exercised  by  the  fiery  element. 
During  the  reign  of  the  Indian  king  Asoka,  who 
in  the  early  part  of  his  career  was  ferocious  and 
irreligious,  the  public  executioner  enjoyed  the  singu- 
lar privilege  of  being  entitled  to  retain  in  his  house 
every  one,  whatever  his  position  or  character,  who 
misfht  cross  the  threshold  of  his  door.  Now  the 
outside  of  the  executioner's  house  was  beautiful  and 
attractive,  though  within  it  was  full  of  instruments 
of  torture,  with  which  he  inflicted  on  his  victims  the 
punishments  of  hell.     One  day  a  lioly  monk,  named 

1  Dan.  iii.  «  G.  O.  M.,  p.  14. 


THE  STORY  OF  SAMUDRA.  301 

Samudra,  arriving  at  this  apparently  charming  house, 
entered  it,  but  on  discovering  the  nature  of  its 
interior  wished  to  make  his  exit.  But  it  was  too  late. 
The  executioner  had  seen  him,  and  told  him  that 
he  must  die.  After  seven  days'  respite,  he  threw  the 
monk  into  an  iron  caldron  filled  with  water  mixed 
with  loathsome  materials,  and  kindled  a  fire  below  it. 
But  the  fire  would  not  burn.  Far  from  experiencing 
any  pain,  the  holy  man  appeared  calmly  seated  on  a 
lotus.  The  executioner  having  informed  Asoka  of 
this  fact,  the  king  arrived  with  a  suite  of  thousands  of 
persons.  Seeing  this  crowd,  the  monk  darted  into  the 
air,  and  there  produced  miraculous  appearances.  The 
king,  struck  by  the  extraordinary  sight,  requested  the 
ascetic  to  say  who  he  was,  declaring  that  he  honoured 
him  as  a  disciple.  Samudra,  perceiving  that  the 
moment  had  arrived  at  which  the  king  was  to  receive 
the  grace  of  instruction  in  the  law,  replied  that  he 
was  a  son  of  Buddha,  that  merciful  Being,  and  that 
he  was  delivered  from  the  bonds  of  existence.  "  And 
thou,  0  great  king,  thj  advent  was  predicted  by 
Bhagavat,  when  he  said :  A  hundred  years  after  I 
shall  have  entered  into  complete  Nirvana,  there  will 
be  in  the  town  of  Pataliputtra  a  king  called  Asoka, 
a  king  ruling  over  the  four  quarters  of  the  world,  a 
just  king,  who  will  distribute  my  relics,"  and  so  forth. 
He  proceeded  to  point  out  to  Asoka  the  wickedness  of 
establishing  a  house  of  torment  like  that  he  was  in, 
and  entreated  him  to  give  security  to  the  beings  who 
implored  his  compassion.  Hereupon  the  king  accept- 
ed the  lav/  of  Buddha,  and  determined  to  cover  the 
earth  with  monuments  for  his  relics.  But  when  the 
royal  party  were  about  to  leave  the  place,  the  execu- 


302  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

tioner  had  the  audacity  to  remind  Asoka  of  his  promise 
that  no  one  who  had  once  entered  his  doors  might  ever 
go  out.  "  What,"  cried  Asoka,  "  do  you  wish  then  to 
put  me  also  to  death  ? "  "  Yes,"  replied  the  man. 
On  this  he  was  seized  and  thrown  into  the  torture- 
room,  where  he  died  in  the  flames,  and  his  house  was 
destroyed.^ 

Daniel  himself  met  with  an  adventure  of  the  same 
perilous  nature  as  that  which  had  befallen  his  three 
friends,  though  under  another  government.  Darius, 
by  the  advice  of  some  counsellors  who  desired  to 
destroy  Daniel,  had  made  an  order  that  no  one  should 
ask  a  petition  of  any  god  or  man  save  himself  for 
thirty  days.  But  Daniel  of  course  continued  to 
worshiD  Jehovah  as  before,  and  was  sentenced  in  the 
terms  of  the  edict  to  be  thrown  into  a  lions'  den. 
But  the  lions  would  no  more  eat  Daniel  than  the  fire 
would  burn  his  co-religionists;  and  just  as  Asoka, 
when  he  had  witnessed  the  escape  of  the  ascetic, 
worshipped  Buddha,  so  Darius,  having  discovered 
Daniel  uninjured  in  the  lions'  den,  immediately 
ordered  that  in  all  parts  of  his  dominions  people 
should  tremble  and  fear  before  the  God  of  Daniel." 

Of  the  prophecies  contained  in  this  book  the  most 
remarkable  is  that  concerning  the  Messiah,  who  is 
announced  as  destined  to  come  at  a  time  fixed  by  a 
mystical  calculation  expressed  in  weeks.  The  object 
of  the  writer  was  to  fix  a  date  for  the  Messiah's 
appearance,  without  expressing -himself  in  such  unam- 
biguous terms  as  would  be  universally  understood. 
Such  is  the  true  method  of  prophecy  in  all  religions, 
for  a  prophet  who  utters  his  forecast  of  the  future  in 

^  H.  B.  I.,  p.  365-372.  ^  Dan.  vi. 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL.  30^ 

such  a  manner  as  to  render  his  meaning  unmistak- 
able, exposes  himself  to  the  hazardous  possibility  that 
the  event  in  history  may  turn  out  altogether  unlike 
the  event  foretold. 


Subdivision  5. — The  God  of  Israel. 

One  great  question  has  hitherto  been  left  untreated 
— that  of  the  theology  and  morals  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible.  Theology  and  morals  are  so  intimately 
blended  in  its  pages  that  the  one  can  scarcely  be 
discussed  without  involvino-  the  other.  The  char- 
acter  of  Jehovah  is  the  pattern  of  morality ;  his  will 
is  its  fundamental  law ;  his  actions  its  exemplifica- 
tion. Hence  to  consider  the  character  of  Jehovah  is 
of  necessity  to  consider  also  the  Hebrew  notions  of 
ethics ;  while  to  inquire  into  the  Hebrew  standard  of 
ethics  is  to  inquire  into  the  commands  of  Jehovah. 
Let  us  try  then  to  ascertain  what  manner  of  deity 
Jehovah  is.  To  do  so,  our  best  course  will  be  to 
select  the  salient  features  of  his  history,  as  related  by 
the  sacred  writers. 

Now,  at  the  very  outset  of  his  proceedings  we 
observe  that  he  takes  up  towards  mankind  a  very 
definite  attitude :  that  of  a  superior  entitled  to 
demand  implicit  obedience.  Whether  the  fact  that 
he  was  man's  creator  justified  so  extensive  a  claim  it 
is  needless  in  this  place  to  discuss.  Suffice  it  that  he 
had  the  power  to  enforce  under  the  severest  penalties 
the  submission  he  demanded.  But  it  might  have 
been  expected  that  a  divine  being,  who  assumed  such 
unlimited  rights  over  a  race  so  vastly  his  inferiors  in 
knowledge  and  in  strength,  should  at  least  exercise 


304  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

them  with  discretion  and  moderation.  It  might  have 
been  expected  that  where  he  claimed  obedience  it 
would  be  with  a  view  to  the  wellbeing  of  Ids  creatures  J 
not  merely  as  an  arbitrary  exercise  of  his  enormous 
power.  What,  on  the  contrary,  is  the  conduct  he 
pursued  ?  His  very  first  act  after  he  had  created 
Adam  and  Eve  and  placed  them  in  Paradise  was  to 
forbid  them,  under  penalty  of  death,  to  eat  the  fruit  of 
a  certain  tree  which  grew  in  their  garden.  There  is 
not  even  a  vestige  of  a  pretence  in  the  narrative  that 
the  fruit  of  this  tree  would  in  itself,  and  apart  from 
the  divine  prohibition,  have  done  them  any  harm. 
Quite  the  contrary :  the  fact  of  eating  it  enlarged 
their  faculties  ;  making  them  like  gods,  who  know 
good  and  evil.  And  Jehovah  was  afraid  that  they 
might,  after  eating  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge, 
eat  also  that  of  the  tree  of  life,  after  which  he  would 
be  unable  to  kill  them.  So  that  it  was  his  deliberate 
purpose  in  issuing  this  injunction  to  keep  mankind 
feeble,  ignorant,  and  dependent.  Nor  is  this  by  any 
means  the  whole  extent  of  his  misconduct.  One  of 
two  charges  he  cannot  escape.  Either  he  knew  when 
he  created  Adam  and  Eve  that  their  nature  was  such 
that  they  would  disobey,  or  he  did  not.  In  the  first 
case,  he  knowingly  formed  them  liable  to  fall,  know- 
ingly placed  them  amid  conditions  which  rendered 
their  fall  inevitable;  and  then  jDunished  tbem  for  the 
catastrophe  he  had  all  along  foreseen  as  the  necessary 
result  of  the  character  lie  had  bestowed  upon  them. 
In  the  second  case,  he  was  ignorant  and  shortsighted, 
being  unable  to  guess  what  would  be  the  nature  of 
his  own  handiwork ;  and  should  not  have  meddled 
with  tasks  which  were  obviously  beyond  the  scope  of 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL.  305 

his  faculties.  And  even  in  this  hitter  case,  the  most 
favourable  one  for  Jehovah,  he  acted  with  unpardon- 
able injustice  towards  the  man  and  woman  in  first 
creating  them  with  a  nature  wliose  j)owers  of  resist- 
ance to  temptation  he  could  not  tell,  then  placing 
temptation,  raised  to  its  utmost  strength  by  a 
mysterious  order,  continually  under  their  noses,  then 
allowing  a  serpent  to  suggest  that  they  should  yield 
to  it,  and  lastly  punishing  the  unhappy  victims  of 
this  chain  of  untoward  circumstances  by  expulsion 
from  their  garden.  A  human  parent  who  should 
thus  treat  his  children  would  be  severely  and  justly 
censured.  It  is  a  striking  proof  how  rudimentary 
were  the  Hebrew  conceptions  of  justice,  that  they 
should  have  accepted,  in  reference  to  their  deity,  a 
story  which  evinces  so  flagrant  a  disregard  of  its 
most  elementary  requirements.^  Just  as,  in  the  case 
of  Adam  and  Eve,  he  required  implicit  obedience  to 
an  arbitrary  command,  so  in  the  case  of  Abraham  he 
required  implicit  obedience  to  an  immoral  one.  There 
was  with  him  no  fixed  system  of  morality.  Submission 
to  his  will  was  the  alpha  and  omega  of  virtue.  Observe 
now  how  superior  is  the  feeling  shown  in  the  Hindu 
legend  which  has  been  quoted  as  a  parallel  to  that  of 
the  projected  sacrifice  of  Isaac.  Although  i:a  that 
story  the  father  was  bound  by  a  solemn  promise  to 
sacrifice  his  son,  yet  he  is  never  blamed  for  his  reluc- 
tance to  do  so,  though  Abraham  is  praised  for  his 
willingness  ;  while  the  Brahman  who  is  actually  pre- 
pared to  plunge  the  sacrificial  knife  into  his  child's 
breast  is  treated  with  scorn  and  reprobation  for  his 
unfeeling  behaviour.     Even  the  service  of  the  gods  is 

*  Gen.  ii.  8,  aiul  iii. 
VOL.  ir.  u 


3o6  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

not  made  supreme  over  every  liuman  emotion.  But 
the  conception  of  tlie  existence  of  duties  independent  of 
the  divine  will  seems  not  to  have  entered  the  minds 
of  the  Hebrew  theolofjians  who  wrote  these  books. 

The  further  proceedings  of  Jehovah  are  quite  in 
keeping  with  his  beginning  in  the  garden  of  Eden. 
Throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  history  he  shows 
the  most  glaring  partiality.  In  its  earlier  period  he 
is  partial  to  individuals  ;  in  its  later,  to  the  Hebrew 
race.  Let  us  notice  a  few  cases  of  this  favouritism  as 
shown  towards  individual  favourites.  Immediately 
after  the  curse  upon  Adam  and  Eve,  and  their  banish- 
ment from  Eden,  we  have  the  instructive  story  of  Cain 
and  Abel,  so  magnificently  dramatised  by  Byron. 
These  two  brothers,  sons  of  the  original  couple,  both 
brought  offerings  to  Jehovah  ;  Cain,  the  fruit  of  the 
ground ;  Abel,  the  firstlings  of  his  flock.  But  the 
Lord  had  respect  to  Abel  and  his  ofiering,  but  not 
to  Cain  and  his  offering.  Why  was  this  diflerence 
made  ?  Absolutely  no  reason  is  assigned  for  it,  and 
it  is  not  surprising,  however  lamentable,  that  it 
should  have  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  brother  who 
was  thus  ill-treated.^  Again,  it  has  been  remarked 
above  that  Abraham  and  Isaac  had  a  singular  way  of 
passing  off  their  wives  as  their  sisters.  Pharaoh  was 
once  deceived  in  this  way  about  Sarah  ;  Abimelech 
of  Gerar,  once  about  Sarah,  and  once  about  Rebekah. 
These  two  monarchs  were  plagued  by  Jehovah  on 
account  of  their  innocent  mistake  ;  the  patriarchs 
were  not  even  reproved  for  this  cowardly  surrender 
of  their  consorts  to  adulterous  embraces.^  Jacob  is 
another  favourite,   while  his   brother    Esau  is  coldly 

1  Gen.  iv.  '-8,  "^  Gen.  xii.  11-20,  xx.,  xxvi.  7-1 1- 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL.  307 

treated.  Yet  the  inherent  meanness  of  Jacol/s 
character,  and  the  comparative  excellence  of  Esau's, 
?ire  too  obvious  to  escape  even  a  careless  reader. 
What  can  be  more  pitiful  than  the  conduct  of  Jacol) 
in  taking  advantage  of  a  moment  of  weakness  in  his 
brother  to  purchase  his  birthriglit  ?  ^  AVhat  more 
ungenerous  tlian  the  odious  trick  by  which  he  imposed 
upon  his  father,  and  cheated  Esau  of  his  blessing  ?  ^ 
What  again  can  be  more  magnanimous  than  the  long 
subsequent  reception  by  Esau  of  the  brother  whose 
miserable  subserviency  showed  his  consciousness  of 
tlie  wrong  he  had  done  him?^  Yet  this  is  the  man 
whom  Jehovali  selects  as  the  object  of  his  peculiar 
blessing,  and  whose  very  deceitfulness  towards  a 
kind  employer  he  suffers  to  become  a  means  of 
aggrandisement.^ 

The  same  partisanship  which  in  these  cases  forms 
so  conspicuous  a  trait  in  the  character  of  Jehovali 
distinguishes  the  whole  course  of  his  proceedings  in 
reference  to  the  delivery  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt 
and  their  settlement  in  Palestine.  Every  other 
nation  is  compelled  to  give  way  for  their  advantage. 
Pharaoh  and  all  the  Egyptians  are  plagued  for  hold- 
ing them  in  slavery,  not  in  the  least  because  Jehovah 
was  an  abolitionist  (for  he  never  troubled  himself 
about  slavery  anywhere  else),  but  because  it  was  his 
own  peculiar  pcoj^le  who  were  thus  in  subjugation  to 
a  race  whom  he  did  not  equally  affect.  Throughout 
tlie  long  journey  from  Egypt  to  the  promised  land, 
Jeliovah  accompanies  the  Israelites  as  a  sort  of  com- 
mander-in-chief,   directing    them   what    to    do,    and 

'  Gen.  XXV.  29-34.  •'  Gfiii.  xxxiii.  1-15, 

^  Gen.  xxvii.  •!  Gen.  xxx.  41-43. 


3o8  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

giving  them  tlie  victory  over  tlieir  enemies.  As  the 
Red  Sea  was  divided  to  enable  them  to  escape  from 
their  enemies  on  the  one  side,  so  the  Jordan  was 
cleft  in  two  to  enable  them  to  conquer  their  enemies 
on  the  other.  ^  The  walls  of  a  fortified  city  were 
thrown  down  to  enable  them  to  enter.^  The  sun 
was  arrested  in  his  course  to  enable  them  to  win 
a  battle.^  Hornets  w^ere  employed  to  accomplish  the 
expulsion  of  hostile  tribes  without  trouble  to  the 
Israelites.*  Thus,  as  Jehovah  afterwards  took  care 
to  remind  them,  he  gave  them  a  land  for  which 
they  did  not  labour,  and  cities  which  they  did  not 
build.^ 

Nevertheless  the  lot  of  the  race  who  were  thus 
highly  favoured  was  far  from  happy.  Their  God  was 
indeed  a  powerful  protector,  but  he  was  also  an 
exacting  ruler.  His  service  was  at  no  time  an  easy 
one,  and  he  was  liable  to  outbursts  of  passion  which 
rendered  it  peculiarly  oppressive.  Tolerant  as  he 
might  be  towards  some  descriptions  of  immorality,  he 
had  no  mercy  whatever  for  disloyalty  towards  him- 
self. On  one  occasion  he  characterised  himself  by 
the  name  of  "  Jealous,"  ®  which  w\as  but  too  appro- 
priate, and  implied  the  possession  of  one  of  the  least 
admirable  of  human  weaknesses.  Now  the  Israelites 
were  unfortunately  prone  to  lapses  of  this  kind.  Such 
was  the  severity  with  Avhich  these  offences  were  treated 
that  it  is  questionable  whether  it  would  not  have  been 
a  far  happier  fate  to  be  drowned  in  the  Red  Sea  with 
the  Egyptians   than  preserved   with  the  children  of 

'  Ex.  xiv.  21,  22. — Josh.  iii.  7-17.      ■*  Josli.  xxiv.  12. 
^  Josh.  vi.  20.  ^  Josh.  xxiv.  13. 

^  J<jsh.  X.  12-14.  "  ^*^^-  xxxiv.  14. 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL.  309 

Israel.     A  few  instances  of  what, they  had  to  undergo 
will  illustrate  this  remark. 

Moses  had  impressed  upon  the  people  the  impor- 
tance of  having  no  other  deity  Init  Jehovah,  and  had 
succeeded  while  he  was  actually  among  them  in 
restricting  them  to  his  worship  alone.  But  no  sooner 
was  he  absent  for  a  season  than  they  immediately 
forsook  Jehovah,  and  took  to  worshipping  a  golden 
calf.  Worst  of  all,  this  new  divinity  was  set  up  by 
Aaron,  the  brother  of  Moses,  and  high  priest  of  the 
Jehovistic  faith.  That  Jehovah  should  be  rather 
vexed  at  such  ungrateful  behaviour,  after  all  the 
trouble  he  had  taken  in  plaguing  and  slaughtering 
the  Egyptians,  was  only  natural ;  but  it  was  surely 
an  extraordinary  want  of  self-control  to  propose  to 
consume  the  whole  nation  at  once,  reserving  only 
]\Ioses  as  the  progenitor  of  a  better  race.  Here,  as  in 
other  cases,  Moses  showed  himself  more  merciful  than 
his  God.  He  ingeniously  lU'ged  as  a  motive  to 
clemency  that  the  Egyptians  would  say  extremel}^ 
unpleasant  things  if  the  Israelites  were  destroyed  ; 
and  after  his  return  to  the  camp  he  contrived  to 
appease  him  by  inducing  the  Levites  to  perpetrate  a 
fratricidal  massacre,  whereby  three  thousand  people 
fell.  This  measure  was  described  by  Moses  as  a  con- 
secration of  themselves  to  the  Lord,  that  he  might 
bestow  his  blessing  upon  them.  It  proved  successful, 
for  Jehovah  now  contented  himself  with  merely 
plaguing  the  people  instead  of  exterminating  them.^ 
Thus,  he  had  scarcely  finished  plaguing  the  Egyptians 
l)efore  he  began  plaguing  the  Israelites  in  their  turn. 
Indeed  he  was  at  this  period  peculiarly  prone  to  send- 

^  Ex.  xxxii. 


3IO  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

iiig  piagues  of  one  kind  or  another.  Some  complaints 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  were  visited  by  fire 
which  burnt  up  those  who  were  at  the  extremities  of 
the  camp.^  When  they  began  to  pine  for  the  varied 
food  they  had  enjoyed  in  Egypt,  and  to  lament  the 
absence  of  flesh  meat,  he  sent  them  quails  indeed,  but 
accompanied  the  gift  with  a  very  great  plague,  of 
which  large  numbers  perished.^  When  they  were 
dismayed  by  the  reports  brought  them  concerning  the 
inhabitants  of  Palestine,  and  complained  of  their  God 
for  the  position  lie  had  brought  them  into,  lie  again 
fell  into  a  rage  and  proposed  to  destroy  them  all  by 
pestilence  except  Moses,  But  Moses  a  second  time 
appealed  to  him  on  what  seems  to  have  been  liis  weak 
side, — his  regard  for  his  reputation  among  the 
Egyptians.  These  had  all  heard  of  what  he  had 
been  doing,  and  would  not  they  and  the  other 
neialibourins:  nations  ascribe  the  destruction  of  the 
Israelites  in  the  wilderness  to  his  inability  to  bring 
them  into  the  promised  land  ?  Moved  by  this 
reasoning,  Jehovah  consented  to  spare  the  people,  but 
determined  at  the  same  time  to  avenge  himself  upon 
them  by  not  permitting  any  of  those  that  had  come 
from  Egypt  (except  Joshua  and  Caleb,  who  had  re- 
ported in  the  proper  spirit  about  Palestine)  to  set  foot 
within  the  country  to  which  he  had  solemnly  engaged 
himself  to  conduct  them.^  Thus,  they  were  only 
saved  from  the  Egyptians  to  perish  in  the  wilderness. 
Truly,  the  tender  mercies  of  the  Lord  were  cruel. 

But  the  miseries  of  these  unfortunate  wanderers 
were  by  no  means  ended.  When,  oppressed  by  the 
trou])les  and  weariness   of   the    way,   they    dared    to 

'  Num.  xi.  1-3.  ^  Num.  xi.  4-J4.  ■'  Num.  xiv.  1-39. 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL.  311 

murmur,  and  inquired  of  Moses  wliy  he  liad  brought; 
them  out  of  Egypt  to  die  in  the  wilderness,  where 
there  was  neither  tolerable  bread,  nor  water,  the 
resentment  of  Jehovah  was  excited  by  this  audacity. 
They  ought  to  have  been  only  too  grateful  that  they 
had  remained  alive,  Jehovah  had  not  caused  the 
earth  to  swallow  them  as  it  had  done  Korah,  Dathan, 
and  Abiram,  with  their  wives  and  little  children, 
because  they  had  ventured  to  complain  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Moses  ;  nor  had  he  destroyed  them  by  plague, 
as  he  had  destroyed  14,700  people  because  there  had 
been  some  expressions  of  dissatisfaction  at  the  sudden 
death  of  those  seditious  men.  If  then  they  had 
hitherto  escaped  destruction,  they  were  certainly 
foolish  in  complaining  of  the  hardships  of  the  desert. 
At  any  rate  Jehovah  soon  convinced  them  that  their 
grumbling  was  useless.  No  constitutional  opposition 
w^as  permitted  in  those  days.  Fiery  serpents  were 
despatched  to  bite  them,  and  many  of  them  died  in 
consequence.  Such  was  the  extent  of  the  calamity 
that  Moses,  always  more  merciful  than  his  God, 
interceded  for  the  people  ;  and  was  directed  to  set 
up  a  brazen  serpent,  by  looking  at  which  the  bites  of 
the  living  serpents  were  healed.^ 

The  extraordinary  cruelty  ascribed  by  the  Hebrews 
to  their  national  deity  is  shown  in  many  other  instances 
besides  those  that  have  been  mentioned.  And  it  is  to 
be  noticed  that  it  is  cruelty  mingled  with  caprice. 
No  one  could  tell  beforehand  precisely  what  actions  he 
would  visit  with  punishment,  nor  what  would  be  the 
punishment  with  which  he  would  visit  them.  Every- 
thing   with    him    was  uncertain.     He  had   no    fixed 

'  Nuiu.  xxi.  1-9. 


312  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

system  of  laws  at  all,  and  lie  sometimes  condemned  a 
criminal  in  virtue  of  ex  'post  facto  legislation.     The 
deluge  is  an  example  of  all  these  vices  combined.     It 
was  an  excessively  cruel  punishment ;  it  was  inflicted 
capriciously,  and  once  in  a  way  only,  because  God  had 
changed  his  mind  as  to  the  propriety  of  having  created 
man  ;  and  it  was  the  result  of  a  resolution  arrived  at 
after  the  off'ences  it  was    designed    to    chastise    had 
already    been    committed.     No    human    being   could 
possibly    have    guessed    beforehand    that    his    crimes 
would  be  jDunished  in  that  particular  way.     And  after 
the  crimes  of  the  antediluvians  had  been  thus  punished, 
the  survivors  received  a  promise  that  no  misconduct 
on  their  part  would  ever  be  visited  upon  them  in  the 
same  way.     So  that  any  conceivable  utility  which  the 
deluge  might  have  had  as  a  warning  for  the  future 
was    utterly  destroyed.     Equal  caprice,    though   not 
equal  cruelty,  was  shown  towards  the  builders  of  the 
tower  of  Babel,  who    were  suffered   to   begin   their 
labours  without  hindrance,  but  were  afterwards  stopped 
by  the  confusion  of  their  languages.     AVhy  it   was 
wrong  to  erect  such  a  tower  is  never  stated.     Could 
any  of  those  engaged  upoii  it  have  guessed  that, the 
attempt   was    one    deserving   of  punishment  ?     Still 
worse  was  Jehovah's  behaviour  to  the  prophet  Balaam, 
for  he  first  ordered  him  to  go  with  the  men  who  were 
sent  for  him,  and  then  Avas  angry  with  him  because 
he  went.^     Such  conduct  was  on  a  level  with  that  of 
a   pettish    woman.     Instances    of  barbarous    severity 
may  be  found  in  abundance.     Nadab  and  Abdhu,  sons 
of   Aaron,   were  devoured  by  "fire  from  the  Lord," 
because    they  had   taken   their   censers,  and   offered 

^  Num.  xxii.  20,  22, 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL.  313 

strange  fire  before  liim.^  A  man  who  on  the  father's 
side  was  Egyptian,  was  ordered  to  be  stoned  for 
bLaspheming  and  cursing  the  name  of  the  Lord ; 
Jehovah  being  peculiarly  eager  in  avenging  personal 
affronts,^  On  this  occasion  no  doubt  a  general  law 
was  announced  affixing  the  penalty  of  stoning  to  the 
offence  of  blasphemy  ;  but  the  law  was  ex  post  facto 
so  far  as  the  individual  who  suffered  by  its  operation 
was  concerned.  On  another  occasion  the  heads  of  the 
people  were  ordered  to  be  all  hung  for  wlioredom  with 
the  daughters  of  Moab,  and  for  idolatry.  Pliinehas, 
Aaron's  son,  seeing  an  Israelite  with  a  Midianitish 
woman,  ran  them  both  through  the  body  with  a 
javelin  ;  for  which  heroic  exploit  against  an  unpre- 
pared man  and  a  defenceless  woman  he  was  specially 
praised ;  was  declared  to  have  turned  away  God's 
wrath  from  Israel,  and  received  a  "  covenant  of  peace  " 
for  himself  and  his  posterity.^  At  a  much  later  period, 
when  David  was  causing  the  ark  to  be  brought  back 
from  the  Philistines,  an  unfortunate  man  wlio  had 
jiut  out  his  hand  to  touch  it  because  the  oxen  shook 
it,  was  immediately  slain  ;  an  act  at  which  even  the 
pious  David  was  displeased,  and  which  caused  him, 
not  unnaturally,  to  be  "afraid  before  the  Lord  that 
day."  *  In  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  a  prophet  who  had 
only  been  guilty  of  the  involuntary  error  of  believing 
another  prophet  who  had  told  him  a  falsehood,  was 
killed  by  a  lion  sent  expressly  for  his  punishment, 
while  the  man  who  had  deceived  him  escaped  scot- 
free.*  Another  man  suffered  for  refusing  to  obey  the 
word  of  a  prophet   what  this   one  had  suffered  for 

^  Lev.  X.  I,  2.  '  Lev.  xxiv.  10-16.  ^  Num.  xxv.  1-15. 

*  2  Sam.  vi.  6-9.  ^  i  Kiugs  xiii.  1-32. 


314  HOLY  BOOKS,    OR  BIBLES. 

obeying  it.  Being  desired  by  one  of  tlie  "  sons  of  the 
prophets "  to  smite  him  so  as  to  cause  a  wound,  and 
havinof  declined  the  office,  he  was  informed  that  for 
liis  disobedience  to  the  voice  of  the  Lord  he  would  be 
slain  by  a  lion,  which  accordingly  happened.^  Mercy 
towards  a  conquered  enemy  was  sometimes  an  actual 
crime.  Because  he  spared  Agag,  Saul  was  rejected 
from  being  king  over  Israel,  and  the  Lord  repented  that 
he  had  appointed  so  weak-minded  a  man.  Samuel, 
who  was  made  of  sterner  stuff,  had  no  scruple  in 
carrying  out  the  behests  of  his  God,  for  he  "  hewed 
Agag  in  pieces  before  the  Lord."^  In  like  manner 
Ahab  was  reproved  for  sparing  the  life  of  Ben-hadad, 
King  of  Syria.^  The  same  monarch  whose  leniency 
had  thus  brought  him  into  trouble  was  afterwards  the 
victim  of  a  sanguinary  fraud  practised  upon  him  by 
Jehovah.  Tired  of  his  reign,  and  eap;er  to  effect  his 
destruction,  the  Lord  put  a  lying  spirit  into  the  mouth 
of  all  his  prophets,  who  were  thus  induced  to  prophesy 
victory  in  an  engagement  which  actually  terminated 
in  his  defeat  and  death.*  Observe,  that  however 
foolish  Ahab  may  have  been  in  believing  the  false 
prophets  and  disbelieving  Micaiah,  this  does  not  excuse 
Jehovah,  who  according  to  his  own  chosen  spokes- 
man, deliberately  arranged  this  scheme  for  the  over- 
throw of  the  king  in  the  court  of  heaven.  Other 
barbarous  deeds  followed  upon  this.  To  gratify  Eli- 
jah, a  hundred  men  who  were  guiltless  of  any  crime 
whatever,  were  consumed  by  fire.^  To  assuage  the 
wounded  vanity  of  Elisha,  forty-two  little  children 
were  eaten  by  bears.^    To  maintain  the  glory  of  the 

'   1  Kings  XX.  35,  36.       -^  1  Kings  xx.  42,  43.       '-'  2  Kings  i.  9-12. 
-  I  Sam.  XV.  ■"  I  Kings  xxii.  i  -40.       ^  2  Kings  ii.  23,  24. 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL,  315 

true  God,  Elijah  slauglitered  the  prophets  of  Baal  to 
tiic  number  of  many  hundreds.^  To  re-establish  the 
orthodox  faith,  Jehu  got  rid  of  the  worshippers  of 
Baal,  collected  together  by  an  infamous  trick,  in  one 
indiscriminate  massacre  ;  an  atrocity  for  which  he 
was  specially  praised  and  rewarded  by  "the  Lord."^ 

It  is  needless  to  j)rolong  the  list  of  cruelties  jDractised 
upon  private  individuals.  But  the  subject  would  be 
incompletely  treated,  did  we  not  observe  that  the 
same  spirit  prevailed  in  the  dealings  of  Jehovah  with 
nations.  Thus,  when  the  Israelites  were  about  to 
enter  the  land  of  Canaan,  they  were  desired  utterly 
to  destroy  the  seven  nations  who  possessed  it  already.^ 
When  they  captured  Jericho,  they  slew  all  its  inhabi- 
tants, young  and  old,  except  the  household  of  the 
prostitute  with  whom  their  messengers  had  lodged,  and 
who  had  shamelessly  betrayed  her  countrymen.  Her, 
with  her  family,  they  saved. ^  All  the  inhabitants  of 
Ai  were  utterly  destroyed.^  All  the  inhabitants  of 
Makkedah  were  utterly  destroyed.^  All  the  inhabi- 
tants of  many  other  places  were  utterly  destroyed.^ 
One  city  alone  made  peace  with  Israel ;  all  the  rest 
were  taken  in  battle,  and  that  because  Jehovah  had 
deliberately  and  of  set  purpose  hardened  the  hearts 
of  their  inhabitants,  tliat  they  might  be  utterly 
destroyed.^ 

Such  a  'catalogue  of  crimes — and  the  number  is  by 
no  means  exhausted — would  be  sufficient  to  destroy 
the  character  of  any  pagan  divinity  whatsoever.  I 
fail  to  perceive  any  reason  why  the  Jews  alone  should 

'   I  Kings  xviii.  17-40.  *  Josh.  viii.  26. 

''■  2  Kings  X.  18-30.  *  Josh,  x.  28. 

•■'  Deut.  vii.  2.  ''  Josh,  X.  29-43,  and  xi.  11,  14. 

*  Jnsh.  vi.  1-25,  «  Josh,  xi,  20. 


3i6  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

be  privileged  to  represent  tlieir  God  as  guilty  of  such 
actions  without  suffering  the  inference  which  in  other 
cases  would  undoubtedly  be  drawn — namely,  that 
their  conceptions  of  deity  were  not  of  a  very  exalted 
order,  nor  their  principles  of  morals  of  a  very  admir- 
able kind.  There  is,  indeed,  nothing  extraordinary 
in  the  fact  that,  living  in  a  barbarous  age,  the 
ancient  Hebrews  should  have  behaved  barbarously. 
The  reverse  would  rather  be  surprising.  But  the 
remarkable  fact  is,  that  their  savage  deeds,  and  the 
equally  savage  ones  attributed  to  their  God,  should 
have  been  accepted  by  Christendom  as  flowing  in  the 
one  case  from  the  commands,  in  the  other  from  the 
immediate  action  of  a  just  and  beneficent  Being. 
When  the  Hindus  relate  the  story  of  Brahma's 
incest  with  his  daughter,  they  add  that  the  god  was 
bowed  down  with  shame  on  account  of  his  subjuga- 
tion by  ordinary  passion.^  But  while  they  thus 
betray  their  feeling  that  even  a  divine  being  is  not 
superior  to  all  the  standards  of  morality,  no  such 
consciousness  is  ever  apparent  in  the  narrators  of 
the  passions  of  Jehovah.  While  far  worse  offences 
are  committed  by  him,  there  is  no  trace  in  his  character 
of  the  grace  of  shame. 

Turning  now  to  the  legislation  which  emanated 
from  him,  we  shall  find  evidence  of  the  same  spirit 
whicii  has  been  seen  to  mark  his  daily  dealings.  It 
is  impossible  here  to  examine  that  legislation  in  detail, 
and  it  may  be  freely  conceded  that  much  of  it  was 
well  adapted  to  the  circumstances  under  which  it 
was  delivered.  Some  of  the  precepts  given  are 
indeed  trivial,  such  as  the  order  to  the  Israelites 
I  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  i.  p.  112. 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL.  317 

not  to  round  the  corners  of  their  heads,  ncr  mar 
the  corners  of  their  beards/  and  others  are  [such  a« 
are]  merely  special  to  the  Hebrew  religion.  But  the 
mass  of  enactments  may  very  probably  have  been 
wise,  or,  at  least,  not  conspicuously  the  reverse. 
Those  to  which  tlie  chief  exception  must  be  taken, 
are  such  as  demonstrate  the  essentially  inhuman 
character  of  the  authority  from  whom  they  emanated. 
Thus,  death  is  the  penalty  affixed  to  the  insignificant 
offence  of  Sabbath-breaking.^  If  the  nearest  relation, 
or  even  the  wife  of  his  bosom,  or  the  friend  who  is 
as  his  own  soul,  secretly  entice  a  man  to  go  and 
worship  other  gods,  he  himself  is  to  put  the  tempter 
to  death,  his  own  hand  being  the  first  to  fling  the 
stones  by  which  he  is  to  perish.^  The  Inquisition 
itself  could  have  had  no  more  detestable  law  than 
this.  If  it  is  a  city  that  is  guilty  of  such  heresy,  it 
is  to  be  burnt  down,  and  all  its  inhabitants  put  to 
the  sword.*  The  mere  worship  of  pagan  divinities, 
apart  from  any  efibrt  to  seduce  others,  is  likewise 
punished  with  stoning.''  In  cities  not  in  Palestine, 
taken  in  w^ar,  all  the  males  only  are  to  be  put  to 
death  ;  but  in  the  cities  of  Palestine  itself,  nothing 
that  breathes  is  to  be  saved  alive.®  A  "stubborn 
and  rebellious  son"  may  be  put  to  death  by  stoning, 
and  that  at  the  instance  of  his  parents.^  In  appear- 
ance this  terrible  process  for  dealing  with  a  naughty 
boy  is  less  severe  than  the  patria  potestas  of  the 
Romans,  by  which  the  power  of  life  and  death  was 
lodged    in  the    father   alone.     Practically,   however, 

'  Lev.  xix.  27.  ^  Dent.  xiii.  6-1 1.  ®  Deut.  xx.  13-18. 

'^  Ex.  XXXV.  2.  ■•  Dent.  xiii.  12-16.  ^  Deut.  xxi.  18-21. 

*   Dent.  xvii.  2-7. 


3i8  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

the  exercise  of  tliis  unlimited  legal  right  was  pre- 
vented to  a  large  extent,  for  a  religious  curse  rested 
on  the  father  who  even  sold  his  married  son,  and  he 
could  not  pronounce  sentence  on  any  child  till  after 
consulting  the  nearest  blood-relations  on  both  sides, 
without  incurrinoj  the  same  anathema.^  No  doubt 
the  purely  legal  power  of  the  head  of  the  family 
was  unaffected  by  these  restraints.  Human  authority 
still  permitted  him  to  expose  his  children  at  birth,  to 
sell  them,  or  to  sentence  them  to  death.  But  the  dif- 
ference between  Eoman  and  Jewish  institutions  was, 
that  in  Eome,  religion  sought  to  mitigate  the  cruelty 
of  the  civil  law;  in  Palestine,  religion  not  only  did 
nothing  to  soften,  but  positively  sanctioned,  by  its 
august  commands,  the  most  revolting  enactments  of 
barbaric  legislation.  It  is  true  that  no  instance  is 
known  to  history  of  the  employment  of  this  law  by 
Jews  against  their  children,  but  this  can  only  show  that 
tlieir  parental  morality  was  superior  to  the  morality 
of  the  divine  law.  At  a  much  later  time  than  that 
at  which  this  enactment  was  given,  when  the  Israelites 
returned  from  the  Captivity,  the  same  harsh  and 
intolerant  spirit  as  we  have  observed  in  their  earlier 
legislation  broke  forth  again.  By  a  cruel  measure, 
enacted  by  Ezra  the  representative  of  Jehovah,  and 
taking  the  form  of  a  covenant  with  God,  the  people 
were  forced  to  repudiate  all  their  wives  who  were  not 
of  pure  Israelitish  blood. ^  Nehemiah,  who  was  likewise 
zealous  in  the  service  of  Jehovah,  was  no  less  an  enemy 
to  "  outlandish  women,"  and  took  rather  strong 
measures  against  those  who  had  married  them,  such 
as  cursing  them,  smiting  them,  plucking  off  their  hair, 

^  Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  vol.  i.  p.  65.  -  Ezra  ix.  aiul  £. 


THE  GOD  OF  ISRAEL.  319 

<nud    making  tliem  swear  not  to  give  their  sons  or 
(laughters  in  marriage  to  foreisfners.^ 

Such  beino-  the  moral  cliaracteristics  of  the  Hebrew 
God,  can  it  be  said  that  the  intellectual  ideas  of  the 
divine  nature  found  in  the  Old  Testament  are  of  a 
highly  refined  and  sj^iritual  order  ?  On  the  contrary, 
as  compared  with  the  gods  of  other  races,  Jehovah  is 
remarkably  anthropomorphic  and  materialistic.  He 
does  not  approach  in  spirituality  to  the  higher  concep- 
tioijs  of  the  Hindus,  nor  is  he  even  equal  to  those  of 
less  subtle  and  speculative  nations.  He  is  on  a  level 
with  the  gods  of  popular  mythologies,  but  not  with 
those  more  mysterious  powers  who  often  stand  above 
them.  The  evidence  of  this  proposition  is  to  be 
found  in  the  whole  tenor  of  the  historical  books. 
Thus,  in  the  very  beginning  of  Genesis,  we  find  that 
he  "rested  on  the  seventh  day,"  ^  as  if  he  were  a 
being  altogether  apart  from  the  forces  of  nature,  and 
might  leave  the  world  to  go  on  without  him.  A 
little  later  he  is  found  "  walking  in  the  garden  in 
the  cool  of  the  day."^  He  clearly  had  a  body  re- 
sembling that  of  man,  for  on  one  occasion  Moses 
was  so  highly  favoured  as  to  be  permitted  to  see 
his  "back  parts,"  and  was  covered  with  his  hand 
Avhile  he  was  passing  by.  His  face  Moses  was  not 
permitted  to  behold,  as  it  would  have  caused  his 
death.*  In  order  to  pass  by  he  "  descended"  in  a 
cloud,  implying  local  habitation,  and  at  this  time 
he  magniloquently  proclaimed  his  own  titles  and 
virtues,  which  he  might  more  gracefully  have  em- 
ployed an  angel  to  do  for  him.     Elsewhere  it  is  stated 

^  Xeh.  xiii.  23-28.  *  Gen.  iii.  8. 

^  Gen.  ii.  2.  *  Ex.  .vxxiii.  20-23. 


320  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

tiiut  Moses  aud  the  elders  "saw  the  God  of  Israel," 
and  that  he  had  some  sort  of  paved  work  of 
sapphire  stone  under  his  feet.  When  Moses  went  up 
alone  into  the  mount,  "  the  sight  of  the  glory  of  the 
Lord  was  like  devourins:  fire."  God  was  at  this  time 
supposed  to  be  on  the  mount,  and  there  he  held  dis- 
course with  Moses.^  In  the  course  of  it  he  says  that  he 
will  "  commune  "  from  above  the  mercy-seat  in  the 
tabernacle,  again  (as  in  so  many  other  places)  imply- 
ing occupation  of  definite  space. ^  He  promises  to 
"  dwell  among  the  children  of  Israel,"  that  is,  to  be  a 
national  and  local  God.^  Confirmation  of  the  view 
here  taken  of  his  limited  nature  is  found  in  tlic  fiict 
that  he  thought  it  necessary  to  "go  down"  to  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah,  to  verify  the  reports  which  had 
reached  him  concernin2:  the  conduct  of  their  inhabit- 
ants.  And  when  Abraham  appealed  to  him  for  mercy 
for  those  of  them  who  were  righteous,  his  several 
answers  clearly  implied  that  when  he  went  to  those 
cities  he  would  discover  how  many  of  them  came 
under  that  denomination.  "  If  I  find  in  Sodom  fifty 
righteous,"  and  so  forth,  is  the  language  of  one  who 
does  not  know  a  fact,  but  is  going  to  ascertain  it. 
And  accordingly  at  the  end  of  the  colloquy  "  the  Lord 
went  his  way."  *  So  completely  anthropomorphic  is  the 
conception  of  deity  that,  although  the  expression 
occurs  only  in  a  parable,  it  is  not  at  variance  with  the 
mode  in  which  he  is  usually  spoken  of  when  wine  is 
said  "  to  cheer  God  and  man."  ^  Evidently  there 
was  nothing  shocking  to  the  Hebrew  mind  in  such  an 
expression.     And  when  they  pictured  their  God  as 

^  Ex.  xxiv.  10-25.  ^  Ex.  XXV.  22.  ^  Ex.  xxix.  45,  46. 

■•  Gen.  xviii.  20-33.  ''  Judg.  ix.  13. 


TOKENS  OF  A  BETTER  IDEAL.  321 

walking,  talking,  indignant,  angry,  repenting,  jealous, 
sliowing  himself  to  human  beings,  and  generally 
indulging  in  the  passions  of  mortals,  it  was  perfectly 
easy  to  conceive  that  wine  might  exercise  the  same 
effect  on  him  as  it  did  on  them. 

No  doubt  the  Hebrew  mythology  is  free  from  all 
that  class  of  stories  in  which  a  divine  being  is  repre- 
sented as  making  love  to  or  cohabiting  with  women. 
Or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  they  never  represent 
Jehovah  himself  as  induloino^  in  such  amusements. 
There  is  a  reminiscence  of  this  form  of  myth  in  the 
statement  that  before  the  deluo^e  the  sons  of  God 
intermarried  with  the  daughters  of  men  ;  ^  but  their 
supreme  Being  was  free  at  least  from  sexual  passion. 
So  far  as  it  goes,  this  is  well ;  but  if  I  had  to  choose 
between  a  God  who  was  somewhat  licentious  in  his 
relations  with  mankind,  and  one  who  did  not  stick  at 
deeds  of  bloodshed  of  the  most  outrageous  character, 
I  confess  I  should  see  no  very  powerful  reason  to 
prefer  the  latter. 

That,  in  spite  of  all  these  drawbacks,  there  are 
some  better  elements  in  the  Hebrew  ideal  1  do  not  at 
all  deny.  The  poetical  description  of  God  as  a  "  still 
small  voice  "  is  both  eloquent  and  spiritual ;  and  the 
prayer  of  Solomon,  with  its  admission  that  the  heaven 
of  heavens  cannot  contain  the  Infinite  Power  who  is 
entreated  to  dwell  in  the  Temple,  is  in  many  respects 
beautiful  and  admirable.  So  also  the  views  of 
Jehovah  attained  and  uttered  by  some  of  the  prophets 
are  far  loftier  than  those  generally  expressed  in  the 
historical  books.  Many  of  the  Psalms,  again,  are  full 
of  beauty  in  the  manner  in  which  they  speak  of  him 

^  Gen.  vi.  2. 
VOL.  II.  X 


322  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

to  whom  tliey  are  adtlrcsscd.  In  a  nation  so  deeply 
religious  as  the  Jews,  and  so  much  given  to  meditation 
on  God,  it  was  inevitable  that  the  higher  class  of 
minds  should  conceive  him  more  spiritually  than  the 
lower,  and  it  is  this  class  to  whom  we  owe  the 
poetical  and  prophetic  writings.  It  was  inevitable 
also  that  as  civilisation  advanced,  the  grosser  elements 
of  the  conception,  which  belonged  to  a  barbarous 
people,  should  be  eliminated,  and  that  the  finer  ones 
should  remain.  The  entire  supersession  of  the  older 
God  by  the  newer  was  prevented  by  the  fact  that  the 
Old  Testament  was  a  sacred  book,  and  that  hence 
every  one  of  its  statements  had  to  be  received  as 
absolutely  true.  The  inconsistency  between  the 
wrathful  monarch  of  ancient  times  and  the  loving 
Spirit  of  more  recent  ages  was  sought  to  be  sur- 
mounted by  those  processes  of  interpretation  which 
have  been  shown  to  be  invariably  adopted  when  it  is 
desired  to  bring  the  infallible  Scriptures  of  any  nation 
into  harmony  with  the  opinions  of  their  readers. 
But  happily  the  language  of  the  historical  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament  is  singularly  plain,  and  no  ingen- 
ious manipulation  of  the  text  can  with  the  smallest 
plausibility  put  aside  the  obvious  meaning  of  the 
broad  assertions  on  which  is  founded  the  above 
delineation  of  the  God  of  Israel. 


THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  323 


Section  VI  II. — The  New  Testament. 

Since  a  considerable  portion  of  the  New  Testament 
has  ah^eady  been  dealt  with  in  the  life  of  Jesus,  we 
have  only,  in  the  present  section,  to  consider  the 
remaining  works  of  which  it  is  composed.  These  will 
not  require  a  very  elaborate  treatment.  They  con- 
sist of  one  historical  book,  continuing  the  history  of 
the  Christian  community  from  the  death  of  its  founder 
till  the  imprisonment  of  Paul  at  Rome,  of  a  series  of 
letters,  partly  genuine,  partly  spurious,  bearing  the 
names  of  eminent  apostles  as  their  authors,  and  of  one 
composition  somewhat  akin  in  its  nature  to  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Hebrew  prophets.  Of  these  several  parts 
of  the  New  Testament  (excluding  the  Gospels)  some 
of  the  Epistles  are  probably  the  most  ancient ;  Ijut  as 
it  would  be  difficult  to  establish  any  precise  chrono- 
logical sequence  among  the  several  books,  it  will  be 
most  convenient  to  beijin  with  that  which  stands  first 
in  actual  order. 


Subdivision  i. — The  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

The  author  of  the  third  gospel,  having  written  the 
life  of  Jesus,  proceeded  to  compose,  in  addition  to  it,  a 
history  of  the  proceedings  of  his  apostles  after  his 
decease.  We  are  greatly  indebted  to  him  for  having 
done  so,  for  this  book  is,  notwithstanding  some  extra- 
vngances,  of  considerable  value,  and  is  the  most  trust- 
worthy of  the  five  historical  books  in  tlie  New  Testa- 
ment.     It  brought  the  narrative  of  events  nearer  to 


324  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

the  date  cat  wliicli  it  was  written  tliaii  the  gospel  could 
do,  and  it  dealt  with  events  concerning  which  better 
evidence  was  accessible  to  the  writer.  There  was 
thus  not  the  same  scope  for  fiction  as  there  had  been 
in  the  life  of  Christ.  Nevertheless  the  story  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  by  no  means  free  from  legen- 
dary admixture. 

Beginning  with  the  ascension,  which  has  been 
already  noticed  in  connection  with  the  gospel,  it  pro- 
ceeds to  rela4;e  the  choice  of  a  new  apostle  in  place  of 
the  unfaithful  Judas.  The  ceremony  by  which  the 
choice  was  made  evinces  a  singular  superstition  on 
the  part  of  the  apostles.  Having  selected  two  men, 
Joseph  and  Matthias,  they  simply  prayed  that  God 
would  show  which  he  had  chosen.  They  then  drew 
lots,  and  the  lot  fell  upon  Matthias.^ 

The  next  important  event  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  thus  recruited,  was  the  reception  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  On  this  occasion  the 
Christians  were  all  assembled,  when  suddenly  there 
was  a  sound  like  that  of  strong  wind ;  cloven 
tongues  appeared  and  sat  upon  them ;  they  were  filled 
with  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  suddenly  acquired  the 
power  of  speaking  foreign  languages.^  Since  the 
"gift  of  tongues"  has  not  been  unknown  in  certain 
communities  in  recent  times,  we  might  perhaps  form 
a  tolerably  correct  notion  from  the  reports  of  modern 
observers  as  to  what  the  scene  among  the  discij^les 
was  like.  Even,  however,  without  this  modern  ex- 
perience, we  should  not  be  altogether  in  the  dark 
as  to  the  character  of  the  phenomenon  of  which  the 
author  of  the  Acts  makes  so  much.     For  althougli  it 

1  Acts  i.  15-26.  -  Acts  ii.  1-13. 


THE  GIFT  OF  TONGUES.  325 

is  indeed  stated  that  some  of  tlie  strangers  who  were 
present  heard  each  his  own  language  spoken  by  the 
disciples,  it  is  added  that  the  conviction  produced 
upon  others  was  that  the  Christians  were  drunk. 
It  must  have  been  a  wild  and  singular  exhibition  which 
could  lead  to  the  formation  of  such  an  opinion.  But 
if  we  wanted  further  explanation  we  should  find  it  in 
the  words  of  Paul,  whose  strong  practical  judgment 
led  him  to  depreciate  the  value  of  the  gift  of  tongues 
as  compared  with  that  of  preaching.  Had  this  gift 
consisted  in  the  power  of  speaking  their  own  languages 
to  foreign  nations,  there  is  none  to  whom  it  would 
have  been  of  greater  service  than  the  apostle  of  the 
Gentiles.  Yet  it  is  he  who  tells  us  that  at  a  meeting 
lie  w^ould  rather  speak  five  words  with  his  understand- 
ing, that  he  might  teach  others  also,  than  ten  thousand 
in  a  tongue.  So  that  the  words  spoken  "in  tongues" 
were  not  spoken  with  the  understanding ;  they  were 
mere  sounds  without  a  meaning  to  him  who  uttered 
them.  Equally  clear  is  the  evidence  of  Paul  to  the 
fact  that  they  were  without  a  meaning  to  him  who 
heard  them.  His  reason  for  desiring  his  correspond- 
ents to  cultivate  the  gift  of  prophesying  (or  preaching) 
rather  than  that  of  tongues  is  that  "  he  that  speaks  in 
a  tongue  speaks  not  to  men,  but  to  God,  for  nobody 
understands  him,  l)ut  in  the  spirit  he  speaks  mysteries. 
But  he  that  preaches  speaks  to  men  edification,  and 
exhortation,  and  comfort.  He  that  speaks  in  a  tongue 
edifies  himself;  but  he  that  preaches  edifies  the 
Church."  ^  Tongues,  he  says  further  on,  are  for  a  sign 
to  unbelievers;  that  is,  they  are  of  use  merely  to 
impress  the  senses  of  those  whose  minds  cannot  yet 

^  I  Cor.  xiv.  2-4. 


326  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

be  a}»pealed  to.  But  if  the  unbelieving  or  unlearned 
should  happen  to  enter  a  meeting  where  the  disciples 
were  all  speaking  with  tongues,  they  would  consider 
them  mad  :  a  striking  testimony  to  the  tumultuous 
character  of  scenes  like  that  presented  by  the  enthusi- 
astic assembly  of  the  Christians  at  Pentecost.  Hence 
Paul  desires  that  two,  or  at  most  three,  should  speak 
with  tongues  at  a  time,  and  that  there  should  always 
be  somebody  to  interpret,  in  other  words,  to  translate 
nonsense  into  sense.  Without  an  interpreter,  he  will 
not  sanction  any  exercise  of  his  peculiar  faculty  on 
the  part  of  the  inspired  linguist.^ 

To  satisfy  the  doubts  of  those  who  attributed  the 
sudden  attainments  of  the  apostles  to  intoxicating 
drinks,  Peter  delivered  a  discourse,  which  ended  in 
the  addition  of  3000  members  to  the  rising  sect.  It 
is  remarkable  that  these  new  members  at  once  became 
communists,  both  they  and  all  the  disciples  having 
all  things  in  common ;  a  noteworthy  indication  of 
what  Avas  required  by  the  religion  of  Christ  as  under- 
stood by  his  immediate  disciples.^  Further  evidence, 
if  any  were  needed,  of  the  communistic  character  of 
the  Church  is  contained  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
cliai:)tcr,  while  the  fifth  informs  us  of  the  tolerably 
severe  measures  taken  to  enforce  it.  "  There  was  one 
heart  and  one  soul  among  the  multitude  of  those  who 
believed,  nor  did  a  single  one  say  that  any  of  the 
things  he  possessed  was  his  own  ;  but  they  had  all 
things  common."  Unhappily  the  one  heart  and  one 
mind  did  not  extend  to  Ananias  or  to  his  wife  Sapphira, 
for  this  naughty  couple  "sold  a  possession  and  kept 
back  part  of  the  price."     But  Peter  was  not  thus  to 

*  I  Cor.  xiv.  1-28.  ■''  Acts  ii.  14  47. 


STORY  OF  ANANIAS  AND  SAPPHIRA.       327 

be  taken  in.  It  does  not  appear  from  the  account 
that  Ananias  was  asked  whether  the  sum  he  produced 
was  the  whole  price  of  the  land,  or  that  he  told  any 
falsehood  reoardiuo:  it.  However,  Peter  remarked 
that  he  might  have  kept  either  the  property  or  its 
price,  had  he  thought  proper,  and  charged  him  with 
lying  to  God ;  whereupon  the  poor  man  fell  down 
dead.  About  three  hours  later,  Sapphira  came  in ; 
and  she  distinctly  stated  that  the  sum  produced  by 
Ananias  was  the  full  price.  Peter  told  her  that  the 
feet  of  those  who  had  buried  her  husband  were  at  the 
door,  and  would  carry  her  out  too.  She  then  fell 
down  at  his  feet,  and  expired  in  her  turn.^ 

No  wonder  that  "great  fear  came  upon  all  the 
Church "  when  they  heard  these  things.  Peter's 
proceedings  were  indeed  alarming,  and  could  we 
jbr  a  moment  accept  the  account  of  his  historian, 
we  should  have  no  option  but  to  hold  him  guilty 
of  the  wilful  murder  of  Sapphira.  He  knew,  accord- 
ino;  to  his  own  statement,  what  the  effect  of  his 
words  upon  this  woman  would  be,  and  he  should 
have  abstained  from  any  expression  that  could  bring 
about  so  terrible  a  catastrophe.  Happily,  we  may 
reject  the  whole  story  as  either  a  fiction  or  a  per- 
version of  fact.  Had  it  been  true,  it  would  have 
called  for  very  much  sterner  measures  than  those 
taken  by  the  Sanhedrim,  who,  having  already  desired 
Peter  and  John  to  keep  silence  about  the  new  religion, 
now  merely  imprisoned  the  apostles,  and  afterwards, 
on  the  prudent  advice  of  Gamaliel,  determined  to 
release  them  ;  not  indeed  till  after  they  had  beaten 
them  and  again  prohibited  their  propagandist  efforts.'^ 

^  Acts  iv.  31-V.  II.  2  ^Ycts  V.  17-42. 


328  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

It  is  interestinof  to  observe  that  Luke  effects  t)if; 
deliverance  of  the  apostles  from  prison  by  the  inter- 
vention of  an  angel,  and  that  at  a  later  period,  when 
Peter  had  been  imprisoned  by  Herod,  he  again  gets 
him  out  by  means  of  an  angel  who  appears  to  him 
while  sleeping,  and  at  whose  presence  his  chains  fall 
off/  This  is  quite  in  accordance  with  the  proceedings 
of  the  same  author  in  the  gospel,  where  his  partiality 
for  angels  as  part  of  his  theatrical  machinery  has 
been  shown  to  be  characteristic. 

The  infant  community  was  now  increasing  in 
numbers,  and  aloncf  with  this  increase  there  arose 
the  customary  consequences — dissension  and  mutual 
distrust.  We  are  fortunate  in  possessing  in  the  Acts 
an  account  of  the  very  first  quarrel  in  the  Church ; 
the  earliest  symptom  of  those  discords  and  hostilities, 
which,  since  that  time,  have  so  incessantly  raged 
within  her  limits.  It  was  on  a  question  of  money ; 
the  Greeks  murmurinof  ao^ainst  the  Hebrews,  because 
they  thought  their  widows  were  neglected  in  the  daily 
ministration.  The  apostles  tided  over  the  immediate 
difficulty  by  appointing  subordinate  officers  to  attend 
to  matters  of  business.  The  p]an  succeeded  ;  but 
their  peace  was  soon  to  be  disturbed  again  by  graver 
questions.^ 

Among  those  appointed  to  superintend  the  pecu- 
niary interests  of  the  Church  was  one  named  Stephen. 
This  man  is  reported  to  have  performed  great  wonders 
"and  miracles,  but  some  of  the  Jews  accused  him  of 
blasphemy,  and  after  an  eloquent  defence,  which  to 
Jewish  ears  amounted  to  an  admission  of  the  charge, 
he  was  sentenced  to  death  by  stoning.      Foremost  in 

1  Acts  xii.  1-19.  '^  Acts  vi.  I-S. 


CONVERSION  OF  PAUL.  329 

the  execution  of  the  sentence  was  a  man  named  Saul, 
who  was  conspicuous  at  this  time  for  the  bitterness 
with  which  he  pursued  the  Christians,  entering  their 
private  houses,  and  causing  them  to  be  imprisoned/ 

If  any  proof  were  needed  of  the  entire  conscien- 
tiousness of  the  Jewish  persecutors  of  Christianity  at 
this  time  we  should  find  it  in  the  character  of  Saul. 
Of  the  honesty  of  his  religious  zeal,  of  the  single- 
minded  sense  of  duty  from  which  he  acted  in  his 
an ti- Christian  period,  his  subsequent  career  makes 
it  impossible  to  entertain  a  doubt.  Men  like  the 
apostle  Paul  are  not  made  out  of  selfish,  dishonest, 
or  cruel  natures.  He  was  at  the  martyrdom  of 
Stephen  as  honourable  and  fearless  an  upholder  of 
the  ancient  faith  as  he  was  afterwards  of  the  new. 
He  himself  several  times  refers  in  his  writinos  to 

o 

his  persecution  of  the  Church,  and  always  in  the 
tone  of  a  man  who  had  nothinoj  to  be  ashamed  of 
but  a  mistake  in  judgment.  As  touching  the 
righteousness  which  is  in  the  law,  he  tells  us  he  was 
blameless.^  And  although  in  intellectual  power  he 
was  doubtless  above  the  average  of  his  class,  in  point 
of  genuine  devotion  to  his  creed,  he  may  fairly  be 
taken  as  a  type  of  the  men  with  whom  he  consented 
to  act. 

Saul  had  probably  been  impressed  by  the  conduct 
of  the  Christians,  whom  he  had  so  ruthlessly  deliv- 
ered up  to  justice.  At  any  rate  the  subject  of  the 
Christian  religion  had  taken  great  hold  upon  his 
mind,  for  on  his  way  to  Damascus  he  saw  a  vision 
whicli  induced  him  to  become  himself  a  follower  of 
Jesus.     It  is   unfortunate  that  we  have  no  detailed 

*  Acts  vi.  9-viii.  3.  2  p},j^  jjj  g_ 


330  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

account  of  the  nature  of  the  event  which  led  to  his 
conversion  from  Paul  himself.  He  often  alludes  to 
it,  but  nowhere  describes  it. 

The  most  important  passage  bearing  upon  the 
subject  is  in  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
where  he  thus  mysteriously  refers  to  his  experience 
on  this  occasion  :  "I  knew  a  man  in  Christ  above 
fourteen  years  ago  (whether  in  the  body  I  do  not 
know,  whether  out  of  the  body  I  do  not  know)  such 
an  one  caught  up  to  the  third  heaven.  And  I  knew 
such  a  man  (whether  in  the  body,  whether  out  of 
the  body,  God  knows),  that  he  was  caught  up  into 
paradise,  and  heard  unspeakable  words,  which  it  is 
not  lawful  for  a  man  to  utter."  ^  So  far  as  it  goes, 
this  account  does  not  very  well  agree  with  that  of 
the  Acts,  since  there  we  are  told  exactly  what  were 
the  words  Paul  heard,  and  what  he  answered.  We 
are  left  in  doubt  then  whether  the  conversation 
between  Christ  and  the  apostle  there  related  rests 
on  the  authority  of  Paul  himself,  or  represents 
merely  the  imagination  of  others  as  to  what  might 
have  passed  between  them.  But  that  Paul  saw  some 
kind  of  vision,  which  he  himself  believed  to  be  a 
vision  of  Christ,  there  can  be  no  doubt. 

From  Luke  we  have  two  versions  of  this  incident, 
one  in  the  form  of  historical  narrative,  the  other  in 
that  of  a  speech  put  into  the  mouth  of  Paul.  Accord- 
ing to  these  he  saw  a  light,  and  heard  a  voice  saying, 
"  Saul,  Saul,  why  persecutest  thou  me  ?  "  On  inquiry, 
he  learnt  that  the  voice  emanated  from  Jesus,  and  he 
was  desired  to  proceed  to  Damascus,  where  further 
instructions    would   be   given    him.      Luke   has   not 

^  2  Cor.  xii,  2-4. 


THE  CONVERSION  OF  CORNELIUS.  331 

taken  sufficient  pains  to  make  his  two  versions 
liarmonise,  for  in  the  first  we  are  told  that  his 
companions  heard  a  voice,  hut  saw  no  man  ;  in  the 
second  that  they  saw  the  light,  but  did  not  hear  the 
voice  of  him  tliat  spoke. ^  At  Damascus  a  man 
named  Ananias,  directed  also  by  a  vision,  went  to 
Saul  to  restore  his  sight,  which  had  been  destroyed 
for  the  moment  by  the  brilliancy  of  the  celestial 
light.  After  this,  Saul,  subsequently  called  Paul, 
escaping  from  the  pursuit  of  tlie  Jews  who  had. 
designs  upon  his  life,  began  to  preach  in  the  name 
of  Jesus. ^ 

Another  convert  of  some  consideration,  from  his 
official  position  and  from  the  fact  that  he  was  a 
heathen,  Avas  added  to  the  community  al)Out  this 
time.  This  was  Cornelius,  the  Centurion  of  the  Italian 
baud.  Cornelius  was  a  religious  man,  much  given 
to  prayer.  Tired  perhaps  of  visions,  of  which  there 
had  been  two  in  the  last  chapter  and  was  to  be 
another  in  this,  Luke  introduces  liis  angel — a  sort 
of  supernumerary  ever  ready  to  appear  when  wanted 
— to  effiict  the  conversion  of  Cornelius.  The  ans^el 
told  him  to  apply  to  Peter,  now  at  Joppa,  for  further 
advice  as  to  what  he  should  do.  Meanwhile  Peter 
had  on  his  part  been  j)repared  by  a  vision  of  unclean 
l)easts,  which  he  was  desired  to  eat,  for  tlie  reception 
of  the  Gentile  embassy,  and  the  admission  of  Gentiles 
to  the  flock.  He  accordingly  proceeded  to  Csesarea, 
where  Cornelius  was,  and  baptized  both  him  and 
other  heathens,  upon  whom,  to  the  great  astonish- 
ment of  the  Jews,  the  Holy  Ghost  was  poured  out 
and  the  gift   of   tongues   conferred.     Thus    did    the 

'  Acts  ix.  7,  and  .\.\ii.  9.  2  ^(.[^  jj^  1-3 1. 


332  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Church  of  Christ  begin,  timidly  and  feeling  her  way 
with  caution,  to  extend  her  boundaries  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  Hebrew  people.^ 

Some  scandal  was  created  in  the  congregation  at 
Jerusalem  by  Peter's  violation  of  Jewish  rules  in 
dining  with  uncircumcised  people,  but  there  was  no 
gainsaying  a  vision  like  that  which  he  produced  in 
reply.  Shortly  after  these  events  the  apostle  James, 
one  of  those  two  brothers  whose  mother  had  peti- 
tioned that  they  might  sit  on  two  thrones,  one  on 
each  side  of  Jesus,  when  his  kingdom  came,  was 
executed  by  Herod,  the  tetrarch;  who  also  imprisoned 
Peter,  but  was  unable  to  keep  him  on  account  of  the 
angelic  intervention  mentioned  above.  The  death 
of  this  monarch  from  a  painful  internal  disease,  is 
curiously  perverted  by  the  writer  into  a  sudden 
judgment  of  God,  inflicted  upon  him  because  he 
accepted  divine  honours  at  the  hands  of  his  flat- 
terers.^ 

The  history  now  proceeds  to  follow  the  fortunes  of 
Paul.  It  is  stated  that  there  were  at  Antioch  certain 
prophets  and  teachers,  who  were  inspired  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  appoint  Barnabas  and  Saul  to  the  work 
whereunto  they  were  called.  Having  laid  their 
hands  upon  them,  they  sent  them  away.  Paul  no\v 
began  to  travel  from  place  to  place,  making  converts 
among  the  heathen.  At  Paphos  he  met  with  a 
Jew^ish  sorcerer  named  Ely  mas,  whom  he  caused  to 
be  blind  for  a  season,  thereby  inducing  the  Roman 
proconsul  Sergius  Paulus  to  believe  in  Christianity, 
which  had  thus  shown  itself  able  to  produce  more 
powerful  sorcerers  than  the  rival  creed. ^ 

^  Acts  X.  2  Acts  xi.  xii.  ^  Acts  xiii.  1-12. 


PAUL  TAKEN  FOR  A  GOD.  333 

It  is  a  striking  proof  of  the  li1)erality  of  the  Jews 
at  this  period  that  when  Paul  and  his  companions 
had  gone  into  the  synagogue  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia, 
the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  invited  them  to  speak  ; 
a  freedom  which  even  in  the  present  day  would 
scarcely  be  granted  in  any  Christian  Church  to  those 
who  were  reo-arded  as  heretics.  Paul  took  advantao^e 
of  the  proffered  opportunity  to  deliver  a  speech  which 
ended  in  the  conversion  of  some  of  the  Jews.  On  the 
following  Sabbath  great  crowds  came  to  hear  Paul, 
but  the  Jews,  as  was  natural,  opposed  him  and  con- 
tradicted him.  After  this  they  stirred  up  pious 
women  and  the  principal  men  of  the  city  against 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  (it  is  stated)  expelled  them 
from  their  coasts.^  These  apostles  having  already 
determined  to  go,^  it  was  not  a  severe  treatment  that 
was  thus  inflicted  on  them.  They,  however,  left 
Antioch  in  no  very  charitaljle  frame  of  mind,  for 
they  shook  off  the  dust  of  their  feet  against  its  in- 
habitants.^ 

The  cure  of  an  impotent  man  at  Lystra  led  the 
multitude  of  that  place  to  adore  Paul  and  Barnabas 
as  gods.  Paul,  as  the  orator,  they  called  Hermes, 
and  Barnabas,  Zeus.  The  priest  of  Zeus  brought  oxen 
and  garlands,  and  intended  to  sacrifice  to  them,  an  in- 
tention which  the  people  were  barely  prevented,  by  the 
indignant  protests  of  the  two  apostles,  from  carrying 
into  effect.*  This  was  not  the  only  occasion  on  which 
Paul  was  taken  for  a  god  ;  for  when  he  was  cast  by 
shipwreck  on  the  island  of  Melita,  his  escape  from 
injury  by  a  venomous  reptile  which  had  fastened  ou 

1  Acts  xiii.  50.  3  ^ctg  xiii.  14-52. 

■■'  Acts  ziii.  46.  ■«  Acts  xiv.  8-1 8. 


334  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

liis  hand  was  regarded  by  the  savages  of  that  island 
as  a  proof  of  divinity.^ 

Extremely  similar  to  these  incidents,  especially  to 
the  first,  is  a  circumstance  recounted  by  Sir  Francis 
Drake  in  his  voyage  of  circumnavigation.  His  vessel 
having  sprung  a  leak,  while  he  was  exploring  the 
coast  of  Nortli  America,  was  brought  to  anchor  to  be 
repaired,  and  the  sailors  landed  to  build  tents  and 
make  a  fort  for  purposes  of  defence.  The  natives 
approached  them  in  companies,  armed,  and  as  if 
designing  an  attack,  but  it  appeared  that  they  had 
"  no  hostile  meaning  or  intent ; "  for  when  they  came 
near,  they  stood  "  as  men  ravished  in  their  minds, 
with  the  sight  of  such  things  as  they  never  had  seen 
or  heard  of  before  that  time  :  their  errand  being 
rather  with  submission  and  feare  to  worship  us  as 
gods,  than  to  have  any  warre  with  us  as  with  mortall 
men.  Which  thing,  as  it  did  partly  show  itself  at 
that  instant,  so  did  it  more  and  more  manifest  itself 
afterwards,  during  the  whole  time  of  our  abode 
amongst  them."  The  General  gave  them  materials 
for  clothing,  "  withall  signifying  unto  them  we  were 
no  gods,  but  men,  and  had  neede  of  such  things  to 
cover  our  own  shame ;  teaching  them  to  use  them  for 
the  same  ends,  for  which  cause  wee  did  eate  and 
drinke  in  their  presence,  giving  them  to  understand 
that  without  that  wee  could  not  live,  and  therefore  were 
but  men  as  well  as  they  "  ("  we  also  are  men  of  like 
passions  with  you."^)  "Notwithstanding  nothing 
could  persuade  them,  nor  remove  that  opinion  which 
they  had  conceived  of  us,  that  wee  should  be  gods."  ^ 

And,    as    the   heathens   of   Lystra   were    eager   to 

'  Acts  xxA'iii.  1-6.  "''  Acts  xiv.  15.  ^  W.  E.,  p.  120. 


A  PARALLEL  CASE.  33'5 

sacrifice  to  Barnabas  and  Paul,  so  those  of  this 
country  actually  conferred  this  mark  of  divinity  upon 
some  of  the  white  men  in  the  company  of  Drake, 
nor  were  the  utmost  protests  of  the  travellers  of  avail 
to  put  a  stop  to  what  appeared  to  them,  just  as  it 
did  to  the  apostles,  an  impious  rite,  derogating  from 
the  honour  due  to  the  true  God.  The  people  had 
come  in  a  large  body,  accompanied  by  their  king, 
to  make  a  formal  j^rescntation  of  the  sovereignty  to 
him,  and  the  kino;  had  made  over  into  his  hands 
the  insignia  of  the  royal  office,  when  the  scene  now 
described  by  Sir  Francis  took  place. 

"The  ceremonies  of  this  resigning  and  receiving  of  the  King- 
dome  being  thus  performed,"  says  Sir  Francis,  "the  common  sort, 
both  of  men  and  women,  leaving  tlie  king  and  his  guard  about 
him,  with  our  Generall,  dispersed  themselves  among  our  people, 
taking  a  diligent  view  or  survey  of  every  man  ;  and  finding  such 
as  pleased  their  fancies  (which  commonly  were  the  youngest  of 
us),  they  presently  enclosing  them  about  offred  their  sacrifices 
unto  them  crying  out  with  lamentable  shreekes  and  moanes, 
weeping  and  scratching  and  tearing  their  very  flesh  off  their 
ftices  with  their  nailes ;  neither  were  it  the  women  alone  which 
did  this,  but  even  old  men,  roaring  and  crying  out,  were  as 
violent  as  the  women  were. 

**  We  groaned  in  spirit  to  see  the  power  of  Sathan  so  farre 
prevaile  in  seducing  these,  so  harmlesse-  soules,  and  laboured  by 
all  meanes,  both  by  shewing  our  great  dislike,  and  when  that  served 
not,  by  violent  withholding  of  their  hands  from  that  madnesse, 
directing  them  (by  our  eyes  and  hands  lift  up  towards  heaven) 
to  the  living  God  whom  they  ought  to  serve  ;  but  so  mad  were 
they  upon  their  Idolatry,  that  forcible  witMiolding  them  would 
not  prevaile  (for  as  soon  as  they  could  get  liberty  to  their 
hands  againe,  they  would  be  as  violent  as  they  were  before)  till 
such  time,  as  they  whom  they  worshipped  were  conveyed  from 
them  into  the  tents,  whom  yet  as  men  besides  themselves,  they 
would  with  fury  and  outrage  seeke  to  have  again."  ^ 

'  W.  E..  1-.  129. 


336  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

We  are  aoain  reminded  of  tlie  Acts  :  "  And  with 
these  sayings  scarce  restrained  they  the  people,  that 
they  had  not  done  sacrifice  unto  them."  ^ 

An  unfortunate  change  in  the  popular  mind  soon 
occurred  ;  for  on  the  arrival  of  some  Jews  who  stirred 
them  up  to  hostility  against  the  Apostles,  they  flew 
from  one  extravagance  to  another,  and  stoned  Paul 
so  severely  that  he  was  left  by  them  for  dead.  But 
as  the  disciples  stood  about  him  he  rose,  and  was  able 
to  continue  his  journey  on  the  next  day. 

The  Christians  at  Jerusalem  were  now  required  to 
consider  the  difficult  question  of  the  circumcision  of 
the  Gentiles  ;  their  decision  upon  which  has  already 
been  discussed.  After  the  council  Paul  (who  had 
returned  to  Antioch)  proposed  to  revisit  the  places 
where  he  had  formerly  preached,  and  Barnabas  in- 
tended to  go  with  him.  But  a  difference  of  opinion 
as  to  whether  they  should  take  Mark  with  them  led 
to  a  violent  quarrel  between  these  two  apostles ;  as 
the  result  of  which  Paul  chose  Silas  as  his  compan- 
ion, and  left  Barnabas  to  pursue  his  own  course 
v/ith  his  friend  Mark.^ 

The  writer  now  follows  the  fortunes  of  Paul  in  his 
missionary  work  in  various  countries,  and  it  is 
remarkable  that  in  the  sixteenth  chapter  he  drops  the 
third  person,  and  begins  to  speak  in  the  first  person 
plural,  implying  that  he  himself  was  one  of  the 
company.  The  fact  that  from  this  point  onwards  the 
book  becomes  practically  not  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
but  the  Acts  of  Paul,  who  is  evidently  the  hero  of  the 
story,  indicates  an  author  who  belonged  to  the  Pauline 
section  of  the  Church,  and  to  whom  Paul  was  the  chief 
livino:  embodiment  of  the  Christian  faith.  Who  this 
*  Acts  xiv.  1 8  ^  Acts  xv. 


CHRISTIANITY  PASSES  INTO  EUROPE.      337 

author  was — whether  Silas,  or  some  other  companion 
■ — it  would  be  hard  to  say,  but  he  seems  to  have 
written  under  the  direct  inspiration  of  Paul  him- 
self. 

Increased  by  the  addition  of  Timotheus,  the  party, 
guided  by  a  vision  seen  l)y  Paul  of  a  Macedonian 
entreating  them  to  come,  went  into  Macedonia.  At 
Philippi  they  met  with  some  success  among  women, 
making  particular  friends  with  a  purple-seller  named 
Lydia.  But  the  conversion  of  a  divining  girl  who 
was  a  source  of  profit  to  her  employers,  led  to  the 
imprisonment  of  Paul  and  Sihis,  from  which,  however, 
an  opportune  earthquake  set  them  free.^ 

At  Athens  Paul  made  a  speech  on  the  Areopagos, 
in  which  he  ingeniously  availed  himself  of  an  altar  he 
had  noticed,  inscribed  "  To  an  Unknown  God,"  to 
maintain  that  this  unknown  God  was  no  other  than 
the  Jehovah  of  the  Jews.^  At  Corinth  he  was  allowed 
to  preach  every  Sabbath  in  the  synagogue  (as  he  had 
done  at  Thessalonica,  and  did  again  at  Ephesus), 
another  evidence  of  the  tolerant  spirit  of  the  Jews  as 
compared  with  Christians.  Not,  of  course,  that  the 
Jews  were  not  bigoted  adherents  of  their  narrow  creed, 
or  that  they  had  any  scrujjle  about  supporting  it  by 
physical  force  ;  but  they  were  willing  to  allow  tliose 
who  had  a  reformation  to  propose  to  be  heard  in  the 
synagogues.  The  effect,  as  might  be  expected,  was 
to  embitter  those  who  remained  orthodox  against 
Paul.  But  an  attempt  on  their  part  to  bring  him 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  civil  tribunals  failed,  and 
after  remaining  a  long  time  at  Corinth,  he  went  on  to 
Ephesus,    and  thence   continued    his  course    through 

1  Acts  xvi.  "-^  Acts  xvii.  16-34. 

VOL.  II.  Y 


33S  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Galatia  autl  Plirygia.^  Au  eloquent  and  able  Alexan- 
drian, Apollos  by  name,  came  to  Ephesiis,  after  Paul 
had  left  it.  He  was  a  believer  in  John  the  Baptist, 
and  was  received  into  the  Church  by  Paul's  friends, 
Aquila  and  Priscilla,  whom  he  had  left  behind. 

A  singular  incident  occurred  on  a  subsequent  visit 
of  Paul's  to  Ephesus.  He  found  some  disciples  there 
and  asked  them  wdiether  they  had  received  the  Holy 
Ghost.  They  replied  that  they  did  not  even  know 
whether  there  was  a  Holy  Ghost.  Such  crass  igno- 
rance must  have  astonished  Paul,  who  inquired  into 
what  they  had  been  baptized.  They  said,  into  John's 
baptism,  and  the  apostle  accordingly  bajjtized  them 
in  the  name  of  Jesus,  with  the  striking  result  that 
they  immediately  received  the  Holy  Ghost  and  began 
to  speak  in  tongues.^  Curious  incidental  evidence  is 
thus  supplied  by  the  case  of  Apollos  and  by  that  of 
these  Ephesians  of  the  existence  of  a  Johannine  sect 
w^hich  Christianity  sujDcrseded  and  swept  into  oblivion  ; 
and  it  is  remarkable,  as  afibrding  a  presumption  that 
the  Baj^tist  did  not  regard  himself  as  the  mere  pre- 
cursor of  Christ,  that  these  Johannists  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  looking  forward  to  any  further  develop- 
ment of  their  principles  such  as  the  religion  of  Jesus 
supplied. 

At  Ephesus  Paul  preached  for  three  months  in  the 
synagogue,  and  then,  meeting  with  much  opposition, 
betook  himself  to  a  public  room,  where  he  disputed 
daily.  But  after  he  had  taught  two  years,  a  danger- 
ous riot  was  excited  by  the  tradesmen  who  dealt  in 
silver  shrines  for  the  Ephesian  Artemis,  and  Paul, 
after  the  disturbance  had  been  quelled,  determined  to 

'  Acts  xviii.  1-23.  '  Acts  xix.  1-7. 


PAULS  TROUBLES  IN  JERUSALEM.         339 

go  iuto  Macedonia.^  Wliile  lie  was  preaching  at 
Troas,  a  young  man,  wlio  had  faJlen  asleep,  fell  from 
the  window  at  which  he  was  sitting,  and  was  supposed 
to  have  been  killed.  Paul,  however,  declared  that  he 
was  still  alive,  and  told  them  not  to  be  disturbed. 
This  opinion  proved  to  be  correct.  To  this  simple 
incident  the  historian,  by  stating  that  he  was 
"  taken  up  dead,"  has  contrived  to  give  the  aspect  of 
a  miracle.  The  case  exactly  resembles  the  su|)posed 
miracle  of  Jesus,  discussed  above,^  and  is  another 
illustration  of  the  facility  with  which  natural  occur- 
rences may,  by  the  turn  of  a  phrase,  be  converted  into 
marvels.^ 

No  arouments  were  now  availino-  to  dissuade  tlie 
apostle  from  visiting  Jerusalem,  where  it  was  well 
known  that  peril  awaited  him.  Arrived  at  the  centre 
of  Judaism,  his  first  business  was  to  clear  himself  from 
the  suspicions  entertained  of  his  rationalistic  tenden- 
cies by  taking  a  vow  according  to  the  Mosaic  ritual. 
After  this  the  Asiatic  Jews  raised  a  clamour  ao-ainst 
him  which  ended  in  a  danoerous  tumult.  From  the 
violent  death  which  threatened  him  at  the  hands  of 
the  enraged  multitude  he  was  rescued  by  tlie  Roman 
troops,  under  cover  of  whose  protection  he  made  his 
defence  before  the  people.^  It  naturally  did  not 
conciliate  the  Jews  ;  and  the  Roman  officer  who  had 
made  him  prisoner,  having  been  deterred  from  the 
application  of  torture  by  Paul's  Roman  citizenship, 
desired  his  accusers  to  appear  in  court  to  prefer  their 
charges  on  the  following  day.^  But  w^hen  the  case 
came    on,    Paul     ingeniously    contrived    to    set    the 

'  Acts  xix.  8-xx.  I.  -  Supra,  vtJ.  i.  p.  320-323.  ^  Acts  xx.  7-12, 

*  Acts  xxi.  27-xxii.  21.  5  Acts  xxii.  22-30. 


340  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

Pharisees  against  the  Sadducees  by  the  assertion  that 
he  himself  was  a  Pharisee,  and  that  he  was  charo'ed 
with  beUeving  in  a  future  state.  By  this  not  very 
candid  shift  he  obtained  the  support  of  the  Pharisaic 
party,  and  produced  among  his  prosecutors  a  scene  of 
clamour  and  discord  from  which  it  was  thought  expe- 
dient to  remove  him.  Defeated  in  the  courts  of  law, 
the  more  embittered  of  his  enemies  formed  a  scheme 
of  private  assassination  which  was  revealed  to  the 
captain  of  the  guard  by  Paul's  nephew,  and  from 
which  he  was  rescued  by  being  sent  by  night  under  a 
strong  military  escort  to  the  governor  of  the  province, 
a  man  named  Felix. ^  Ananias,  the  high  priest,  and 
others  of  the  prosecutors,  followed  Paul  to  Csesarea  in 
five  days,  but  the  nature  of  their  charges  was  such 
that  they  made  little  impression  upon  the  mind  of  the 
governor.  He  nevertheless  kept  Paul  in  confinement, 
perhaps  hoping  (as  the  narrator  suggests)  that  he 
would  receive  a  bribe  to  set  him  free.^  After  two 
years  Festus  succeeded  Felix,  and  when  this  governor 
visited  Jerusalem  he  was  entreated  by  the  priests  to 
send  for  Paul,  which,  however,  he  refused  to  do,  and 
required  the  prosecutors  to  come  to  him  at  Csesarea. 
They  went,  and  charged  Paul  with  offences  which  it 
is  said  they  could  not  j)rove.  When  Festus  asked 
him  whether  he  would  go  to  Jerusalem  to  be  tried  by 
him,  Paul  replied  that  he  ought  to  be  tried  at  Cgesar's 
judgment-seat,  as  he  had  done  the  Jews  no  wrong, 
and  that  he  appealed  to  Caesar.  The  policy  of  this 
appeal  was  questionable,  for  after  a  time  Festus  was 
visited  by  King  Agrippa,  to  whom  he  related  the  facts 
of  the  case  ;  and  the  kincj,  havinsj  heard  the  statement 

^  Acts  xxiii.  ^  Acts  xxiv. 


PAUL  AT  ROME.  341 

of  tlie  prisoner  himself,  declared  that  he  might  have 
been  set  at  liberty  had  he  not  appealed  to  CsGsar.^ 

Paul  therefore  was  now  sent  with  a  gang  of  prisoners 
to  Rome,  on  the  way  to  which  the  ship  he  was  in  was 
wrecked  off  the  island  of  Melita,  where  the  winter 
months  were  accordingly  passed.  Here  he  cured 
numerous  inhabitants  of  diseases,  and  received  high 
honours  in  consequence.  After  three  months  an 
Alexandrine  vessel  conveyed  the  shipwrecked  com- 
pany to  the  capital.  Arrived  at  Rome, Paul  summoned 
the  Jews  to  come  to  the  house  where,  guarded  by  a 
soldier,  he  was  allowed  to  live,  and  endeavoured  to 
convert  them.  Meeting  with  indifferent  success,  he 
dismissed  them  with  insulting  words  drawn  from 
Isaiah,  and  roundly  informed  them  that  the  salvation 
of  God  was  now  sent  to  the  Gentiles,  and  that  these 
would  hear  it.^  What  was  the  ultimate  fate  of  this 
great  teacher  of  Christianity,  wdiether  his  case  was 
ever  heard,  and  if  so,  how  it  was  decided ;  whether 
he  lived  a  prisoner,  or  was  set  free,  or  died  a  martyr, 
we  have  no  historical  information,  and  it  is  useless,  in 
the  absence  of  evidence,  to  attempt  to  conjecture. 


Subdivision  2. — The  Epistles. 

In  the  epistles  which  have  been  preserved  to  us, 
and  which  are  no  doubt  but  a  few  rescued  from  a 
much  larger  correspondence,  the  apostolic  authors  en- 
force uj)on  their  respective  converts  or  congregations 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity  as  understood  by  them. 
They  explain  the  relation  of  Jesus  to  the  Jewish  law ; 
they  inculcate    morality ;    they  reply   to    objections ; 

*  Acts  xxv.  xxvi.  '^  Act«  xxvii.  xxviii. 


342  HOL  Y  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

tliey  bold  out  the  prospect  of  the  speedy  revolution 
which  they  expect.  Since  their  opinions  on  all  the 
topics  upon  which  they  touch  cannot,  within  the  limits 
of  a  general  treatise,  be  discussed  in  detail,  all  that 
is  necessary  noAv  is  to  glance  rapidly  at  the  more 
general  characteristics  of  the  several  writers. 

A  letter  addressed  to  the  twelve  tribes  scattered 
abroad,  and  traditionally  ascribed  to  the  apostle  James, 
may  best  be  taken  in  connection  with  an  anonymous 
epistle  addressed  to  the  Hebrews.  They  have  these 
two  features  in  common,  that  they  are  written  to 
Jewish  Christians,  and  that  they  discuss  the  relation 
of  faith  to  works.  It  is  true  that  this  question  is 
treated  by  their  authors  from  opposite  points  of  view. 
Theological  controversy  began  early  in  the  history  of 
the  Christian  Church,  and  its  first  controversial 
treatises  have  been  embodied  in  the  Canon  of  its 
Sacred  Books.  It  appears,  moreover,  to  be  highly  pro- 
bable, not  only  that  the  two  epistles  were  written  on 
opposite  sides  of  a  disputed  question,  but  that  the 
chapter  in  the  one  dealing  with  that  question  was 
designed  as  an  answer  to  the  corresponding  chapter  in 
the  other.  It  may  be  difficult  to  say  which  was  the 
original  statement,  which  the  reply;  but  when  we 
find  the  very  same  examples  chosen  by  both,  the  one 
maintaining  that  Abraham  and  Eahab  were  justified 
by  faith,  the  other  that  they  were  justified  by  works, 
it  is  not  easy  to  believe  that  so  exact  a  coincidence  in 
the  mode  of  treating  their  subject  was  accidental. 
The  more  argumentative  tone  taken  by  James — as  of 
one  answering  an  opponent — induces  me  to  believe 
that  his  epistle  was  the  later  of  the  two.  The  author 
of  the  Hebrews  insists  upon  the  paramount  necessity 


DISPUTE  ABOUT  FAITH  AND   WORKS.       343 

of  faith  ;  showing  Ly  a  number  of  historical  examples 
that  the  conduct  of  the  great  heroes  of  the  Hebrew 
race,  besides  that  of  many  inferior  models  of  excel- 
lence, was  wholly  due  to  tliis  cause.  The  author  of 
James,  on  the  contrary,  strenuousl}"  maintains  that 
faith  is  of  no  value  without  works,  and,  as  if 
endeavouring  to  set  aside  the  force  of  the  examples 
produced  on  the  other  side,  selects  for  his  considera- 
tion the  history  of  two  persons  who  had  been  held  up 
as  illustrations  of  the  doctrine  that  we  are  justified 
by  faith.  Abraham,  he  says,  was  not  justified  by 
faith  only,  but  by  works ;  for  he  offered  Isaac  on  the 
altar,  which  was  a  very  practical  illustration  of  his 
faith.^  Eahab  again,  who  according  to  you  was  saved 
from  destruction  with  the  unbelievers  by  faith,  was  in 
reality  justified  by  works,  for  it  was  a  work  to  receive 
the  messengers  and  send  them  out  another  way." 
Not  that  we  deny  the  importance  of  faith  altogether ; 
but  we  do  deny  the  exclusive  position  which  you,  in 
your  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  assign  to  it.  Without 
works  faith  is  a  dead,  unj)roductive  thing ;  like  a 
body  without  its  animating  spirit.  Indeed  a  man 
may  say  to  him  who  relies  upon  his  faith  alone,  Show 
me  your  faith  without  works,  and  I  will  show  you 
mine  by  my  works.  What  is  the  use  of  a  faith 
unaccompanied  by  works  ?  can  it  save  any  one  by  it- 
self? Certainly  not,  answers  James;  Certainly,  says 
the  author  of  the  Hebrews.  The  whole  question  turns 
on  those  hair-splitting  distinctions  in  which  theo- 
logians have  ever  delighted  ;  for  while  the  one  party 
considers  faith  as  the  producing  cause  of  good  ac- 
tions, the  other  treats  good  actions  as  the  evidence  of 

^  James  ii.  21-23.  '  Jtimes  ii.  25. 


344  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

faith.  Neitlier  the  one  nor  the  other  really  meant  to 
question  the  necessity  of  either  element  in  the  com- 
bination. 

In  other  respects  there  is  a  broad  difference  between 
the  two  epistles.  That  to  the  Hebrews  is  Judaic  in 
tone  and  spirit ;  its  main  object  beini^  to  prove  that 
Christ  is  a  sort  of  high -priest,  endowed  with  authority 
to  set  aside  the  old  Jewish  institutions  and  substitute 
something  better.  James  is  more  catholic  and  more 
practical.  He  insists  upon  the  necessity  of  not  only 
hearing,  but  doing  the  word  ;  of  keeping  the  whole 
moral  law ;  of  bridling  the  tongue,  and  of  showing  no 
respect  to  persons  on  account  of  their  worldly  position. 
He  is  extremely  hostile  to  the  rich,  and  draws  a  very 
unfavourable  picture  of  their  conduct.^  He  encourages 
the  poor  Christians  to  endure  patiently  till  Christ 
comes,  which  will  be  very  soon.^  Lastly,  he  emphati- 
cally urges  the  duty  of  proselytism  ujDon  his  flock ; 
remarking  that  one  who  converts  another  when 
wandering  from  the  truth,  both  saves  the  soul  of  the 
wanderer  and  hides  a  multitude  of  his  own  sins.^ 

Two  epistles  are  attributed  to  the  apostle  Peter,  the 
first  of  which,  addressed  to  the  strangers  in  Pontus, 
Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia,  purports  to 
be  written  from  Babylon.  He  holds  out  to  his  corres- 
pondents the  hope  of  salvation  which  they  have  through 
Jesus,  which  is  a  source  of  joy,  notwithstanding  their 
present  troubles.  Among  other  precepts  he  counsels 
husbands  and  wives  as  to  their  mutual  behaviour ; 
exhorting  wives  to  be  obedient,  and  not  to  care  too 
much  for  dress ;    and  requiring  husbands  to  honour 

^  James  ii.  6,  7,  and  v.  1-6.  ^  James  v.  7,  8. 

2  Jaines  v.  19,.  20. 


THE  EPJSTLES  OF  ST  JOHN.  345 

tlieir  wives  as  the  weaker  vessels.^  The  Second  Epistle 
of  Peter  would  appear  to  be  by  a  rather  late  author, 
for  he  has  read  the  epistles  of  Paul.  He  is  troubled 
about  "false  teachers,"  who  introduce  "heresies  of 
destruction,"  and  denounces  them  in  no  measured 
terms.^  Having,  as  above  described,  comforted  the 
Christians  for  the  long  delay  in  the  second  coming  of 
the  Saviour,  he  exhorts  them  not  to  be  led  away  by 
the  error  of  the  wicked,  but  to  grow  in  grace  and  in 
the  knowledge  of  their  Lord.^ 

Of  the  three  epistles  bearing  the  name  of  John,  the 
first  only  is  of  any  considerable  length.  The  style 
of  this  epistle  is  extremely  simple,  and  it  reads  like 
the  kindly  talk  of  an  old  man  to  children.  He  tells 
his  flock  not  to  sin,  not  to  love  the  world,  and  to  love 
one  another.  So  much  does  he  keep  to  these  purely 
general  maxims,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  gather 
any  really  useful  instruction  from  his  benevolent 
garrulity.  It  is  characteristic  of  him  to  insist  again 
and  again  upon  love  as  the  cardinal  virtue  of  a 
Christian.  Besides  this,  perhaps  the  most  definite 
advice  he  gives  is  to  pray  for  anything  desired,  and 
to  entreat  of  God  the  forgiveness  of  a  brother  who 
has  committed  a  sin  not  unto  death,*  With  great 
self-complacency  he  calmly  asserts  that  he  and  his 
friends  are  of  God,  and  that  the  whole  world  lies  in 
wickedness ;  *  a  pleasant  mode  of  putting  those  to- 
wards whom  it  was  impossible  to  practise  the  love 
about  which  he  spoke  outside  the  pale  of  brotherhood. 

The  writer  of  John's  second  epistle,  addressed  to  a 
lady  and  her  children,  illustrates  the  kind  of  charity 

1  I  Pet.  iii.  1-7.  22  Pet.  ii.  s  3  p^.^^  jij,  17,  18. 

"•  I  John  v.  14-16.  ,  *  I  Joliu  V.  19, 


346  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

resulting  fioni  such  views  as  tins,  when  he  tells  them 
not  to  receive  into  their  house,  nor  bid  "  farewell "  to 
any  one  who  does  not  hold  correct  doctrines.^  The 
third  epistle,  written  to  Gains,  contains  little  beyond 
matters  of  purely  personal  interest.  The  Epistle  of 
Jude,  who  calls  himself  brother  of  James,  denounces 
certain  *'  ungodly  men,"  who  have  "  crept  in  una- 
w^ares,"  and  are  doing  great  mischief  in  the  Church. 
It  is  principally  interesting  from  its  reference  to  the 
les^end  of  the  contest  of  Michael  the  archano;el  with 
the  devil  for  the  body  of  Moses,  w^iich  popular 
tale  tlie  writer  seems  to  accept  as  unquestionably 
authentic.^ 

Havino^  thus  referred  to  the  writinfjs  which  bear, 
whether  correctly  or  not,  the  names  of  the  original 
apostles  of  Jesus,  we  come  to  those  of  one  who  was 
far  greater  than  any  of  these — the  apostle  who  was 
not  converted  until  after  the  death  of  his  Master. 
Paul,  to  whom  the  great  majority  of  the  epistles 
preserved  in  the  New  Testament  are  ascribed,  and  by 
whom  many  of  them  were  undoubtedly  written,  is 
the  central  figure  of  the  apostolic  age,  and  the  one 
who  redeems  it  from  the  somewhat  unintellectual 
character  it  would  otherwise  have  had,  Throuo^h 
him  it  principally  was  that  Christianity  passed  from 
the  condition  of  a  Jewish  sect  to  that  of  a  compre- 
hensive relioion.  What  Christ  himself  had  been 
unable  to  do,  he  did.  What  the  apostles  of  Christ 
shrunk  from  attempting,  he  accomplished.  He  him- 
self was  not  unconscious  of  the  magnitude  of  his 
labours.  Hence  there  is  noticeable  now  and  then  in 
his  writings,  though  veiled  under  respectful  phrases, 

^  2  John  lo.  -  Jude  9. 


PA  UrS  APOSTLESHIP.  347 

a  sort  of  intellectual  contempt  for  the  older  apostles, 
who  were  not  always  prepared  for  the  thoroughgoing 
measures  which  appeared  to  him  so  obviously  ex- 
pedient. He  is  extremely  anxious  not  to  be  thought 
one  whit  inferior  to  them  by  reason  of  his  compara- 
tively late  appointment  to  the  apostleship.  He 
carefully  rebuts  the  suspicion  that  he  acted  in  subor- 
dination to  them,  or  even  in  conjunction  with  them, 
after  his  conversion.  His  course,  he  is  anxious  to  let 
every  one  know,  was  taken  in  entire  independence 
of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem.  Moreover,  he  insists 
emphatically  upon  his  personal  qualifications.  Was 
any  one  a  Hebrew  ?  so  was  he.  Had  others  received 
visions  or  revelations  ?  so  had  he.  Had  others  been 
persecuted  ?  so  had  he.  He  is  fond  of  dwelling  upon 
his  individual  history  in  order  to  support  his  claims. 
Thus  he  tells  us  that  in  former  times  he  persecuted 
the  Church  of  God,  and  that  he  was  more  Jewish 
than  the  Jews,  being  even  more  zealous  than  they  of 
the  traditions  of  his  fathers.  It  was  therefore  entirely 
by  special  revelation  from  God,  and  not  by  any 
human  agency  whatever,  that  he  was  consecrated  to 
his  present  work.  Indeed  his  revelations  were  so 
abundant  that  it  needed  a  "thorn  in  the  flesh"  to 
prevent  him  from  being  too  jjroud  of  them — a  work, 
however,  in  which  the  thorn  was  not  entirely  success- 
ful. His  suflferings  for  the  sake  of  the  gospel  afforded 
him  another  and  more  legitimate  cause  of  satisfaction. 
He  says  of  these  that  he  received  thirty-nine  stripes 
from  the  Jews  on  five  occasions  ;  that  he  was  thrice 
beaten  with  rods ;  once  stoned  ;  thrice  shipwrecked ; 
a  day  and  night  in  the  deep  (in  an  open  boat  ?)  ; 
often  in  all  sorts   of  perils,  in   watchings,  cold   and 


348  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

thirst,  Imnger  and  nakedness.  Once  too  lie  escaped 
from  arrest  at  Damascus,  which  does  not  seem  a  very 
serious  calamity.^ 

Now  the  object  of  all  these  autobiographical  state- 
ments is  evidently  to  place  himself  on  a  level  with 
other  apostles  who  might  seem  at  first  to  be  more 
highly  privileged  than  he  was.  Not  so,  he  contends  : 
if  they  are  ministers  of  Christ,  I  am  quite  as  much  so  ; 
if  they  saw  Christ  before  his  death,  I  have  seen  him 
after  it ;  if  they  have  laboured  in  his  cause,  I  have 
laboured  more  ;  if  they  have  suflfered  for  his  sake,  I 
have  sufi'ered  more.  Hence  my  authority  is  in  every 
respect  equal  to  theirs,  and  should  there  be  a  difier- 
ence  of  opinion  between  us  you  must  believe  me, 
your  pastor,  rather  than  them.  Nay,  even  if  an  angel 
from  heaven  should  preach  any  other  gospel  than 
that  which  I  have  preached,  you  must  not  believe 
him  :  much  more  then  must  you  disbelieve  an  apostle. 
Besides,  appearances  are  deceptive,  and  as  Satan  may 
appear  in  the  character  of  an  angel  of  light,  so  the 
ministers  of  Satan  may,  and  do  appear  in  the  char- 
acter of  apostles  of  Christ.^  There  was  therefore  a 
section  of  the  Church — probably  the  Judaic  section, 
under  the  guidance  of  one  of  the  original  apostles — 
with  whom  Paul  was  at  issue,  and  whom  he  con- 
sidered it  incumbent  upon  him  to  oppose  by  every 
argument  in  his  power.  These  are  they  whom  he 
refers  to  as  "  troubling  "  the  Galatians,  and  perverting 
the  gospel  of  Christ.^ 

Such  was  the  view  taken  by  Paul  of  his  function 
in  the   rising   sect.     AVhatever  may   have   been   its 

^  2  Cor.  xi.  22-28.— Gal.  i.  11-24.        ^  2  Cor.  xi.  13-15. — Gal.  i.  8. 
3  Gal.  i.  7. 


PAULS  EPISTLES.  349 

logical  justificatiou,  it  was  fully  justified  by  facts. 
In  power  of  reasoning,  in  grasp  of  principles,  in 
comprehensiveness  of  view,  lie  was  not  only  "  not 
a  whit  behind  the  chiefest  apostles,"  but  far  before 
them.  His  letters  are  by  far  the  most  remarkable 
of  the  writings  which  the  New  Testament  contains. 
They  evince  a  mind  almost  overburdened  by  the  mass 
of  feelings  struggling  for  expression.  He  is  pro- 
foundly penetrated  with  the  new  truth  he  has  dis- 
covered, or  rather  which  Christ  has  discovered  to  him, 
and  he  seems  to  have  scarcely  time  to  consider  how 
he  may  best  express  it.  His  mind,  though  wealthy 
in  ideas  and  fertile  in  applying  them  to  practice,  is 
not  always  clear.  It  seems  rather  to  struggle  with 
its  thouiihts  than  to  command  them.  Hence  a 
certain  confusedness  in  style,  a  crowding  together  of 
notions  in  a  single  sentence,  and  a  want  of  logical 
arrangement  in  his  presentation  of  a  suljject,  which 
render  his  epistles  not  altogether  easy  reading.  It 
may  have  been  those  characteristics  which  caused 
another  apostle  (or  one  who  wrote  in  that  apostle's 
name)  to  say  that  there  were  some  things  in  the 
writings  of  his  beloved  brother  Paul  that  were  "  hard 
to  be  understood."^ 

When,  however,  the  uncouth  style  is  surmounted,  the 
thoughts  will  be  found  well  worthy  of  consideration. 
Of  all  the  writers  in  the  New  Testament  Paul  is  the 
one  who  presents  the  largest  materials  for  intellectual 
reflection.  Whether  or  not  we  agree  in  his  views, 
we  can  scarcely  refuse  to  consider  his  arguments. 
And  lierein  he  is  peculiar  among  his  associates.  He 
is  the  only  one  of  the  canonical  writers  who  has  any 

*  2  Pet.  iii,  16. 


350  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

uotion  of  presenting  arguments  for  consideration  at 
all.  While  others  dogmatise,  he  reasons.  He  may 
reason  badly,  but  he  has  at  least  the  merit  of  being 
able  to  enter  in  some  degree  into  the  views  of  his 
opponents,  and  of  attempting  to  reply  to  them  on 
rational  cfrounds. 

Another  strikino-  feature  of  the  mind  of  Paul  is  its 
robustness.  Brought  up  a  Pharisee,  a  sect  devoted 
to  extending  the  regulations  of  the  law  to  the  utmost 
minutiae,  he  nevertheless  rose  completely  above  the 
domination  of  trifles.  Even  matters  which  in  most 
religions  are  regarded  as  of  capital  importance,  he 
treated  as  of  little  moment  in  themselves.  Cere- 
monies, observances,  outward  forms  of  every  kind 
he  held  in  slight  esteem  in  comparison  with  moral 
conduct.  Not  the  mere  knowledofe  of  the  Jewish  law 
or  the  power  of  teaching  it  to  others,  is  of  any  avail, 
but  the  ob^rvance  of  its  ethical  precepts.^  Uncir- 
cumcision  is  just  as  good  as  circumcision,  provided 
the  uncircumcised  man  keep  the  law.  The  true  Jew 
is  not  he  who  is  a  Jew  outwardly,  nor  true  circum- 
cision that  performed  upon  the  flesh.  He  is  the 
true  Jew  who  is  one  inwardly,  and  that  is  true 
circumcision  which  is  in  the  heart.  ^  Indeed,  in  the 
renovated  condition  which  is  effected  by  Christianity, 
there  is  neither  Greek  nor  Jew  ;  neither  circumcision 
nor  uncircumcision  ;  neither  barbarian,  Scythian, 
slave,  nor  freeman  ;  but  Christ  is  everything  and 
in  everything.^  In  the  same  rationalistic  spirit  he 
lays  down  the  admirable  rule  that  external  forms 
are  valuable  only  to  those  who  think  them  so.  One 
man  believes  he  may  eat  everything  ;   another  eats 

^  Rom.  ii.  17-23.         -  Rom.  ii.  24-29.         ^  Col.  iii.  11. — Gal.  iii.  28. 


THE  ETHICS  OF  PAUL.  351 

only  herbs.  One  man  esteems  all  clays  alike  ;  another 
esteems  one  clay  above  another.  The  freethinker 
must  not  despise  the  one  who  holds  himself  bound 
by  such  things,  nor  must  this  latter  condemn  the 
freethinker.  The  really  important  matter  is  that 
every  one  should  have  a  complete  conviction  of  his 
own.  In  that  case,  whatever  conduct  he  pursues  in 
these  trivialities,  being  dictated  by  his  conscience,  is 
religious  conduct.  On  the  one  side,  the  more  scrupu- 
lous must  not  pass  judgment  on  the  less  scrupulous, 
that  being  the  office  of  Christ ;  but,  on  the  other 
side,  the  less  scrupulous  must  endeavour  not  to  give 
offence  to  the  more  scrupulous.  In  illustration  of 
this  doctrine  Paul  confesses  that  to  him  personally 
the  Jewish  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean 
meat  is  totally  unmeaning  ;  yet  if  his  brother  were 
grieved  by  his  eating  the  so-called  unclean  meats, 
he  would  rather  give  up  the  practice  than  destroy 
by  his  meat  one  for  whom  Christ  had  died.  All 
things,  indeed,  are  pure  in  themselves,  yet  it  is  not 
well  to  eat  flesh  or  drinli;  wine  if  another  is  scandalised 
thereby.  We  who  are  strong-minded,  and  have  sur- 
mounted these  childish  scruples  of  our  forefathers, 
must  bear  the  infirmities  of  the  weak  rather  than 
please  ourselves.'^ 

Certainly  when  the  things  are  in  themselves  totally 
indifferent,  the  principle  of  concession  to  the  super- 
stitions of  minds  governed  by  traditional  beliefs  may 
sometimes  be  advantageously  adopted.  But  the 
importance  of  protesting  against  the  bondage  exer- 
cised by  such  beliefs  over  human  life  is  also  not  to 
be  underrated,  and   Paul  seems  scarcely   to  give  ifc 

*  Rom.  xiv.  XV.  i. 


352  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

sufficient  weight  in  the  preceding  argument.  No 
doubt  on  the  ground  of  policy,  and  in  reference  to 
the  desirability  of  keeping  the  members  of  the 
nascent  sect  from  internal  quarrels,  Paul  was  right ; 
but  a  principle  which  in  certain  cases  may  be  ex- 
pedient for  a  given  end,  is  not  to  be  set  up  as  a 
universal  rule  of  ethics.  Nor  is  it  obvious  that  Paul 
intended  to  do  this.  He  himself,  if  questioned,  Avould 
probably  have  admitted  that  there  were  limits  beyond 
which  concession  ouoht  not  to  fi-o,  those  limits  being 
fixed  by  the  consideration  that  such  concession,  if 
pushed  too  far,  must  end  in  the  perpetual  subordina- 
tion of  the  whole  of  the  Christian  body  to  the 
weaknesses  of  its  least  enlightened  members.  The 
morality  expressed  in  the  lines 

"  Leave  tliou  thy  sister  when  she  praj-s 
Her  early  heaven,  her  happy  views, 
Nor  thou  with  shadowed  hint  confuse 
A  life  that  leads  melodious  days,'' 

is  good  morality  under  certain  conditions,  but  there 
is  too  great  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  those  who 
retain  their  "  early  heaven  "  to  press  this  conduct 
upon  those  whose  "  faith  has  centre  everywhere,  nor 
cares  to  fix  itself  to  form."  It  ought  not  to  be  for- 
gotten that  but  for  the  Christian  disregard  of  forms, 
persevered  in  in  despite  of  the  scandal  to  the  Jews, 
Christianity  must  always  have  remained  a  branch  of 
Judaism. 

A  peculiar  merit  to  be  set  to  Paul's  account  is, 
that  he  is  the  only  one  of  all  the  writers  in  the  New 
Testament  who  treats  the  supremely  important  ques- 
tion of  the  relations  of  the  sexes,  a  subject  so  remark- 
ably  overlooked   by    Christ   himself.      Whether  the 


PA  UnS  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  SEXES.  353 

gukUiiice  he  affords  liis  converts  on  this  liead  is  good 
guidance  or  not,  be  does  at  least  attempt  to  guide  them. 
Let  us  notice  first  what  he  considers  abnormal  rela- 
tions, and  then  proceed  to  what  he  lays  down  as  a 
normal  one.     In  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  he 
is  loud  in  his  denunciations  of  a  man  who  cohabited 
with  his  father's  wife,  the  father  being,  I  presume, 
deceased.     Whether  the   son  had  married   his  step- 
mother, or  merely  lived  with  her,  is  not  altogether 
clear,  since,  in  either  case,  the  apostle  might  brand 
their  connection  with  the  title  of  fornication.     How- 
ever, he  condemns  it  utterly  and  without  reference  to 
any  accompanying  circumstances,  desiring  the  Corin- 
thian community  to  deliver  up  the  man  to  Satan  for 
the  destruction  of  the  flesh,  in  the  name  and  with  the 
power  of  their  Lord  Jesus,  in  order  that  his  spirit  might 
be  saved  at  the  day  of  judgment.^    Here  tlien  we  have 
an  early  example  of  excommunication,  accompanied 
by  the  formula  to  be  used  in  performing  the  solemnity. 
Tliat  the  severe  reproof  bestowed   by  Paul  upon 
the  Corinthians  for  permitting  such  conduct  greatly 
affected  them,  we  gather  from  the  tenderer  language 
employed  in  the  subsequent  epistle,  where  he  admits 
having  at  one  moment  repented  that  he  had  caused 
them  so  much  sorrow,  though  he  soon  saw  that  it  had 
been  for  their  good.^     It  is  gratifying,  also,  to   find 
that    his    tone    towards    the    unfortunate    individual 
who    had    been    excommunicated    at    his    desire    is 
greatly  softened,  and  that  he  desires  the  Corintliians 
to    forgive    him,    and    receive    him    back    into    their 
body,  lest  he  should  be  swallowed  up  with  too  much 
soiTow.^    It   would    have   been    interesting    had    he 

'   I  Cor.  V.  2  2  Cor.  vii.  8-13.  ^  2  Cor.  ii.  6,  7. 

VOL,   II.  Z 


354  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

informed  us  wliy  he  considered  cohabitation  with  t», 
stepmother  so  terri!  le  a  crime,  but  such  a  recurrence 
to  first  principles'  was  not  to  be  expected.  He,  no 
doubt,  acted  on  a  purely  instinctive  sentiment  of  re- 
pugnance to  such  an  arrangement. 

A  second  kind  of  relation  between  the  sexes  wdiicli 
the  apostle  condemns  is  that  of  prostitution.  Here 
he  has  not  left  us  equally  in  the  dark  as  to  the 
grounds  upon  which  his  condemnation  is  founded. 
Not  only  does  he  prohibit  prostitution  to  the  Chris- 
tians, but  he  tells  them  exactly  why  they  ought 
not  to  indulge  in  it  ;  and  his  argument  upon  this 
subject  is  sufficiently  curious  to  merit  a  moment's 
examination.  In  the  first  place,  then,  he  tells  his 
disciples  that  neither  fornicators,  nor  adulterers,  nor 
Sodomites,  nor  practisers  of  various  other  vices  not 
of  a  sexual  nature,  will  inherit  the  kiugdom  of  God.^ 
Fornication  should  not  even  be  named  among  the 
Christians.^  They  must  mortify  their  members  upon 
earth,  for  impure  connections  and  sexual  license 
bring  down  the  wrath  of  God.^  They  must  exclude 
from  their  society  any  one  who  is  guilty  of  such 
irregularities.^  "  The  body  is  not  for  prostitution, 
but  for  the  Lord,  and  the  Lord  for  the  body."  The 
bodies  of  Christians  are  the  members  of  Christ : 
"  Shall  I  then  take  the  members  of  Christ,  and  make 
them  the  members  of  a  prostitute  ?  God  forbid. 
What  !  do  you  not  know  that  he  who  is  joined  to 
a  prostitute  is  one  body  ?  for  the  two  [he  says  ^]  shall 
be  one  flesh."®  It  was  surely  a  very  original  notion 
of  Paul's  to  extend  to  the  casual  connections  formed 

^  I  Cor.  \'i.  9,  lo. — Eph.  v.  5.     ^  Col.  iii.  5,  6.         '  ^^o-iV  is  doubtful. 
'  Eph.  V.  3.  *  I  Cor.  V.  9-1 1,     **  I  Cor.  vi.  13-16. 


PAULS  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  SEXES.  355 

by  temporary  passion  the  solemu  sanction  bestowed 
upon  the  permanent  union  of  man  and  wife.  It  is 
said  in  Genesis  that  a  man  and  his  wife  are  to  be 
one  flesh,  and  this  is  obviously  an  emphatic  mode 
of  expressing  the  closeness  and  binding  character 
of  the  alliance  into  which  they  enter.  But  what 
may  appropriately  be  said  of  married  persons  cannot 
of  necessity  be  said  of  persons  linked  together  only 
by  the  most  fleeting  and  mercenary  kind  of  ties. 
The  very  evil  of  prostitution  is,  that  the  prostitute 
and  her  companion  are  not  one  flesh  in  the  allegorical 
sense  in  which  husband  and  wife  are  so  ;  and  to 
condemn  it  on  account  of  the  presence  of  the  very 
circumstance  which  is  conspicuously  absent,  is  to 
cut  the  ground  from  under  our  feet.  But  let  us 
hear  the  apostle  further.  "But  he  that  is  joined 
to  the  Lord  is  one  spirit.  Flee  prostitution.  Every 
sin  that  a  man  commits  is  outside  of  the  body  [what 
can  this  mean  ?],  but  the  fornicator  sins  against  his 
own  body.  What  !  do  you  not  know  that  your 
body  is  the  temple  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  you  ? 
which  you  have  of  God,  and  you  are  not  your 
own."  ^  Now  in  this  singular  argument  it  is 
noticeable  that  the  ground  taken  up  is  entirely 
theological.  Destroy  the  theological  foundation,  and 
the  ethical  superstructure  is  involved  in  its  ruin. 
Thus,  if  we  do  not  believe  that  our  bodies  are  the 
members  of  Christ,  nor  the  temples  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
Paul  has  no  moral  reason  to  give  us  against  the  most 
unlimited  indulgence  in  prostitution.  While,  even 
if  we  admit  his  premises,  it  is  not  very  easy  to  see 
how    his    conclusion    follows.     For    why    should    we 

*  I  Cor.  vi.  17-19. 


356  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

not  make  the  members  of  Christ  those  of  a  prosti- 
tute, unless  it  be  previously  shown  that  it  would 
in  any  case  be  wrong  to  do  so  with  our  own 
members  ?  It  would  not  (according  to  Paul  himself) 
be  wrono;  to  make  the  members  of  Christ  members 
of  a  wife  ;  why,  then,  should  it  be  wrong  to  make 
them  members  of  any  other  woman  wdiatever  ? 
Clearly  this  question  could  not  be  answered  without 
an  attempt  to  prove,  on  independent  grounds,  the 
evil  of  promiscuous  indulgence  of  the  sexual  passion. 
But  no  such  attempt  is  made  by  Paul.  He  has  there- 
fore failed  completely  to  make  out  a  case  against  even 
the  most  unbridled  license.  Not  that  his  conclusion 
need  therefore  be  rejected.  On  the  contrary,  the  dan- 
oer  of  his  aro-uments  is  not  that  his  view  of  morals  is 
fundamentally  erroneous,  but  that  he  rests  an  impor- 
tant precept  upon  a  dangerously  narrow  basis. 

Pass  we  now  to  that  which  he  considers  as  the 
normal  relation  between  the  sexes.  The  subject  may 
be  divided  into  three  heads  :  that  of  the  formation  of 
such  relations,  that  of  their  character  when  formed, 
and  that  of  their  disruption.  Upon  all  of  these  the 
apostle  has  advice  to  give. 

In  the  first  place  it  appears  that  the  Corinthians 
had  applied  to  him  for  a  solution  of  some  question  that 
had  been  raised  among  them  as  to  the  propriety  of 
enterinor  at  all  into  the  matrimonial  state.     In  answer 

O 

to  their  inquiries  he  begins  by  informing  them  that  it 
is  o-ood  for  a  man  not  to  touch  a  woman.  He  would 
prefer  it  if  every  one  were  like  himself,  unmarried. 
To  unmarried  people  and  widows  he  says  that  they 
had  better  remain  as  they  are.  Concerning  virgins  of 
either  sex  he  delivers  his  private  opinion  that  their 


PAULS  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  SEXES.  357 

couditioii  is  a  good  one  for  the  present  necessity.  A 
married  man  indeed  should  not  endeavour  to  get  rid 
of  his  wife  ;  but  neither  should  an  unmarried  man 
endeavour  to  obtain  a  wife.  The  time  is  so  short  till 
the  final  judgment  of  the  world  that  it  makes  little 
difi"erence  ;  before  long  both  married  and  unmarried 
will  be  in  the  same  position.  Meantime,  however, 
celibacy  is  the  preferable  state ;  and  that  because 
celibates  care  for  the  things  of  the  Lord,  how  they 
may  please  the  Lord  ;  but  married  people  care  for  one 
another,  and  study  to  please  one  another.^  Why  Paul 
should  suppose  that  married  people,  even  while  study- 
ino-  one  another's  happiness,  might  not  also  endeavour 
to  please  the  Lord,  it  is  hard  to  understand.  He 
seems  in  this  passage  to  lend  his  sanction  to  the  very 
dangerous  doctrine  that  a  due  discharge  of  tbe  ordinary 
duties  of  life  is  incompatible  Math  attention  to  the 
service  of  God.  As  if  the  highest  type  of  Christian  life 
were  not  precisely  that  in  which  both  were  comljined 
in  such  a  manner  that  neither  should  be  sacrificed  to 
the  other.  But,  apart  from  this  fundamental  objection 
to  his  theory,  it  is  liable  to  the  remark  that  the 
assumptions  on  which  it  rests  are  untrue.  Unmarried 
persons,  unless  the  whole  literature  of  fiction,  dramatic 
and  novelistic,  utterly  belies  them,  care  at  least  as 
much  to  become  married  as  married  persons  care  to 
promote  one  another's  comfort.  Indeed,  it  would  be 
no  less  true  to  nature  to  say,  that  the  unmarried  in 
general  take  more  pains  to  please  some  persons  of  the 
opposite  sex  than  husbands  take  to  please  their  wives, 
or  wives  their  husbands.  Not  to  dwell  upon  the  fiict 
that  courtship  involves  a  greater   effort,  mental  and 

'  1  Cor.  vii.  1-34. 


358  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

pliysical,  than  the  mere  contiuuance  of  love  assured  of 
being  returned,  there  is  the  obvious  consideration  that 
the  mere  outward  circumstances  of  the  unmarried  are 
far  less  favourable  than  those  of  the  married  to  the 
enjoyment  of  their  mutual  society  without  consider- 
able sacrifice  of  time.  Hence  the  estimate  made  by 
Paul  of  the  relative  advantages  of  the  two  states  is 
untrue  to  fticts,  except  in  the  rare  cases  of  those  who 
have  firmly  resolved  upon  a  life  of  celibacy,  and  who, 
in  addition  to  this,  have  so  perfect  a  control  over  their 
passions,  or  so  little  passion  at  all,  as  to  be  untroubled 
by  sexual  imaginations. 

That  these  objections  are  w^ell  founded  might  be 
proved  by  reference  to  a  picture  (drawn  either  by 
Paul  himself  or  by  some  one  who  assumed  his  name) 
of  the  conduct  of  young  widows.  Having  to  consider 
the  question  what  Avidows  may  properly  be  supported 
by  the  charity  of  the  Church,  this  writer  refuses  to 
admit  any  of  them  to  the  number  of  pensioners  until 
they  are  sixty  years  old,  apparently  on  the  ground 
that  they  cannot  be  trusted  to  give  up  flirting  alto- 
gether before  they  have  reached  that  age.  Young 
widows  are  to  be  rejected,  for  when  they  have  begun 
to  wax  wanton  against  Christ,  tliey  wish  to  marry ;  a 
damnable  tendency,  but  one  which  it  is  so  hopeless  to 
get  rid  of,  that  the  best  thing  they  can  do  is  to  marry, 
to  have  children,  and  manage  their  households.  Other- 
wise they  will  gad  about  gossiping  and  tale-bearing 
from  house  to  house ;  not  only  idle,  but  mischie- 
vous.^ So  that  the  ideal  conception  of  unmarried  per- 
sons caring  only  to  please  the  Tuord  had  at  least 
no  application  to  Christian  widows. 

'    I  'I'ini.  V.  9-55. 


PA  Urs  PREFERENCE  FOR  CELFBA  CY.      359 

While  recommending  celibacy,  Paul  is  careful  not  to 
encourage  breach  of  promise  of  marriage.  If  a  man 
thinks  he  is  behaving  unhandsomely  towards  his 
betrothed,  who  is  passing  the  flower  of  her  age,  he 
may  marry  her  :  he  is  not  doing  wrong.  Nevertheless 
if  he  feel  no  necessity  for  a  sexual  relation,  and  resolve 
to  keep  her  a  virgin,  he  does  well.  So  then  marriage 
is  good,  but  celibacy  is  better.^ 

Notwithstanding  these  views,  Paul,  or  at  least  the 
Pauline  Christian  who  wrote  the  first  Epistle  to 
Timothy,  by  no  means  contemplates  a  celibate  clergy. 
It  is  specially  enumerated  among  the  qualifications  of 
a  l)ishop  that  he  is  to  be  a  good  manager  of  his  house- 
hold, keeping  his  children  well  in  order ;  for  (it  is 
argued)  if  a  man  cannot  rule  his  own  house,  how- will 
he  be  al>le  to  take  care  of  the  Church  of  God  ?  The 
only  limitation  placed  upon  the  bishops  is  that  they 
are  not  to  be  polygamists.  They,  as  well  as  the 
deacons,  are  to  keep  to  a  single  wife.^ 

Notwithstanding  his  general  preference  for  celi- 
bacy Paul  recognises  certain  reasons  as  sufficing  to 
excuse  the  establishment  of  a  sexual  relation,  and  it  is 
important  to  note  what,  in  the  apostle's  judgment, 
these  reasons  are.  Now  it  is  remarkable  that  he  seems 
to  perceive  no  consideration  whatever  in  favour  of 
the  matrimonial  condition  but  its  ability  to  satisfy  the 
sexual  appetite.  To  avoid  fornication  a  man  is  to 
have  his  own  wife ;  if  people  cannot  restrain  them- 
selves, they  should  marry,  for  it  is  better  to  marry 
than  to  burn.  Those  who  marry  are  not  guilty  of  sin, 
although  they  will  have  trouble  in  the  flesh."  Such  a 
view  of  the  functions  of  matrimony  as  this  is  simply 

*  I  Cor.  vii.  36-3S.  2  J  Yxm.  iii.  1-5.  ^  j  q^^^  yjj^  3^  ^^  28. 


36o  HOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

degrading.  It  treats  it  as  exactly  equivalent  to 
j)rostitiition  in  the  uses  it  fulfils,  and  as  differing  only 
in  the  durability  of  the  connection.  But  if  the  whole 
object  of  the  connection  is  merely  to  gratify  passion, 
its  greater  durability  is  but  a  questionable  advantage. 
For  exactly  as  marriage  is  recommended  "  to  avoid 
fornication,"  so  divorce  might  often  be  recommended 
to  avoid  adultery.  A  union  of  which  the  main  purpose 
is  to  give  a  convenient  outlet  to  desire,  had  better  be 
broken  when  it  ceases  to  fulfil  that  office  to  the  satis- 
faction of  both  the  parties.  It  is  strange  that  Paul 
should  seem  to  have  no  conception  Avhatever  of  the 
intellectual  or  moral  advantages  to  be  derived  from 
the  sympathetic  companionship  of  one  of  the  opposite 
sex.  Perhaps  his  age  presented  him  with  scarcely 
any  examples  of  marriages  in  which  that  companion- 
ship was  carried  into  the  higher  fields  of  human 
thought  or  action.  Yet  he  might  still  have  acknow- 
ledjred  somethinfj'  more  in  the  emotion  of  love 
than  a  special  condition  of  the  human  body.  Chris- 
tianity has  done  much  to  raise  the  cliara(itcr  of 
marriage,  but  not  one  of  its  achievements  in  that 
respect  can  be  credited  to  the  writings  of  its  chief 
apostle. 

Such  beino-  the  o-rounds  on  which  the  matrimonial 
bond  was  to  be  contracted,  it  was  natural  that  when 
contracted,  the  relation  of  the  parties  to  each  other 
should  not  be  one  of  a  very  exalted  order.  Paul  has, 
in  fact,  little  of  moment  to  recommend  under  the 
second  head  (that  of  the  character  of  these  relations) 
except  the  subjection  of  women,  and  on  this  he  is 
certainly  emphatic  enough.  Wives  are  to  submit 
themselves    to    their    own    husl)ands  ;    husbands    are 


FAVL  ON  HUSBAND  AND   WIFE.  361 

to  love  their  wives.^  An  extraordinary  reason  is 
given  in  one  epistle  (possibly  indeed  not  written  by 
Paul)  for  requiring  women  to  learn  with  subjection, 
and  forbidding  them  to  teach,  or  usurp  authority 
over  men.  It  is  that  Adam  was  formed  first,  and 
Eve  after  him,  and  that  Adam  was  not  deceived, 
but  Eve  was.^  Scarcely  less  absurd  than  this  is 
the  argument  (and  again  I  must  note  that  it  occurs 
in  an  epistle  of  doubtful  authenticity)  that  the 
husband  is  the  head  of  the  wife,  as  Christ  is  of 
the  Church,  and  that  just  as  the  Church  is  subject 
to  Christ,  so  must  wives  be  subject  to  their  husbands. 
And  as  Christ  loved  the  Church,  so  are  husbands  to 
love  their  wives,  considering  them  as  equivalent  to 
their  own  bodies,  which  they  cannot  hate  ^  (although 
it  did  not  appear  that  Avhen  a  man  became  "  one 
body "  with  a  prostitute  he  was  therefore  to  love 
her).  These  views  of  the  duty  of  submission  on 
the  2:)art  of  wives  are  not  indeed  surprising  in  that 
early  age,  for  they  have  continued  to  the  present 
day.  The  writer  of  these  epistles  is  only  chargeable 
with  not  being  in  advance  of  his  fellow-men.  It 
required  all  the  genius  of  Plato,  whom  not  even 
the  greatest  apostle  could  approach,  to  foreshadow 
for  women  a  position  of  equality  which  they  are 
but  now  beginning  to  attain. 

Besides  these  rules  there  is  another  laid  down  by 
Paul  for  the  conduct  of  married  parties  which  evinces 
his  strong  common  sense.  Husbands  and  wive^  are 
mutually  to  render  one  another  their  "due.'"*     They 

*  Col.  iii.  18,  19. — Eph.  v.  22,  25. 
'^  I  Tim.  ii.  1 1-14, 

•"  Eph.  V.  22-33. 

*  I  follow  Lachmann  in  icadiiiis  o^etXijc  instead  of  o<^iCkojxivi]v  ^womv^ 
ir  vol.  iii. 


302  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

have  not  absolute  power  over  tlieir  own  bodies.  They 
must  not  therefore  defraud  one  another  of  conjugal 
rights,  unless  for  a  short  time  with  a  view  to  fasting 
and  prayer,  and  then  only  with  mutual  consent/ 
Paul  therefore  would  have  given  no  sanction  to  that 
very  questionable  form  of  asceticism  in  which  hus- 
bands deserted  their  wives,  or  wives  their  husbands, 
to  pursue  their  own  salvation,  regardless  of  the  hap- 
piness of  their  unfortunate  consorts.  All  such  persons 
he  would  have  bidden  to  return  to  the  more  indis- 
putable duties  of  the  marriage-bed. 

Such  a  doctrine,  however,  to  make  it  properly 
applicable  to  practice,  would  require  to  be  supple- 
mented by  a  doctrine  of  divorce  ;  otherwise  there 
is  no  provision  for  the  case  of  an  invincible  repug- 
nance arising  in  one  of  the  parties  towards  the  other, 
or  in  both  towards  each  other.  And  this  brings  me 
to  the  third  head  of  the  apostle's  teaching ;  his  views 
on  the  disruption  of  the  marriage-tie.  Here  he  has 
little  to  say  except  that  the  wife  is  not  to  quit  her 
husband,  or  that,  if  she  do,  she  must  remain  unmar- 
ried or  be  reconciled  to  her  husband ;  and  that  the 
husband  is  not  to  put  away  his  wife.  In  cases  where 
one  is  a  Christian  and  the  other  not,  they  are  not 
absolutely  under  bondage  ;  they  may  separate,  though 
it  does  not  appear  that  they  may  marry  again.  But 
the  apostle  strongly  advises  them  to  keep  together, 
in  the  hope  that  the  believing  member  of  the  couple 
may  save  the  other.^  It  is  plain  from  this  summary 
tliat  the  apostle,  no  more  than  his  Master,  faces  the 
real  difficulties  of  the  question  of  divorce.  For  the 
case  of  unhappy  unions,  except  in  the  single  instance 
of  the  one  party  being  a  Christian,  he  has  no  provi- 

1  I  Cor.  vii.  3-5.  -  I  Cor.  vii.  10-16. 


PAUL  ON  THE  RESURRECTION.  ^(^^ 

wion  whatever.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  he 
several  times  intimates  in  the  course  of  this  chapter 
that  he  is  not  speaking  with  the  authority  of  Christ, 
but  simply  expressing  his  personal  opinions  ;  a  proviso 
which  looks  as  if  he  himself  were  unwilling  to  invest 
these  views  with  full  force  of  the  sanction  they  would 
otherwise  have  derived  from  his  apostolical  commission. 
There  is  another  subject  on  which  the  opinions 
expressed  by  Paul  are  open  to  considerable  com- 
ment—the resurrection  of  the  dead.  In  a  chapter 
which  for  its  beauty  and  its  eloquence  is  unparalleled 
in  the  New  Testament,  he  discusses  the  Christian 
prospect  of  another  life.  Had  he  confined  himself 
to  rhetoric,  I  should  have  been  contented  simply  to 
admire,  but  he  has  unfortunately  mingled  argument 
Avith  poetic  vision  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  manner. 
In  the  first  place,  he  attempts  to  deduce  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead  from  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  If, 
he  contends,  there  be  no  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
then  Christ  is  not  risen  ;  our  preaching  is  vain,  and 
so  also  is  your  faith. ^  He  fails  to  perceive  that  the 
resurrection  of  Christ — a  man  whose  whole  life, 
according  to  him,  was  full  of  prodigies — could  be 
no  guarantee  for  the  resurrection  of  any  other  indi- 
vidual whatever.  Christ  had  already  been  restored 
to  life  in  a  manner  in  which  no  other  person  had 
ever  been  restored.  His  body  had  been  reanimated 
after  two  days,  before  it  had  had  time  to  suffer 
decomposition,  and  that  without  the  intervention  of 
any  other  person,  competent,  like  Christ  himself,  to 
]>erforni  a  miracle.  How  then  could  so  unprece- 
dented an  occurrence  warrant  the  expectation  of  tho 

^  I  Cor.  XV.  I2-20. 


364  HOL  V  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

reanimation  of  tliose  who  had  long  been  dead,  and 
whose  bodies  had  suffered  decomposition  ?  Plainly 
there  is  here  a  palpable  non  sequitur.  Christ  might 
l)e  raised  without  this  fact  involving  a  general  resur- 
rection ;  and  a  general  resurrection  might  happen 
without  Christ  having  been  raised.  Further  on  he 
makes  a  still  more  amazing  blunder.  Answering  a 
supposed  antagonist,  who  puts  the  natural  question, 
"  With  what  body  are  the  dead  raised  ?  "  he  exclaims, 
"  Fool !  that  which  thou  sowest  is  not  quickened 
except  it  die ; "  ^  implying  that  he  conceived  the 
change  undergone  by  seed  dropped  into  the  ground 
to  resemble  the  death  of  the  human  body.  Now  it 
is  needless  to  point  out  that  the  organic  processes 
constituting  physical  life  do  not  cease  in  the  grain 
which  (as  he  says)  grows  up  into  wheat  or  some 
other  corn  ;  and  that  if  they  did  cease,  that  "  body 
that  shall  be,"  which  he  compares  to  the  bodies  of 
men  in  their  expected  resurrection,  never  would 
appear  at  all.  The  grain,  in  short,  would  not  grow. 
An  adversary,  had  he  been  on  the  alert,  might  have 
retorted  upon  Paul  (borrowing  his  own  courteous 
phraseology)  :  "  Idiot !  that  which  thou  sowest  is  not 
quickened  if  it  die."  Such  a  retort  would  have  been 
completely  crushing.  Another  very  fatal  mistake  of 
Paul's  is  the  contention  that  if  the  dead  do  not  rise, 
we  have  no  reason  to  do  anything  but  enjoy  the 
passing  hour.  "  Let  us  eat  and  drink,  for  to-morrow 
we  die."  ^  Nothing  can  be  more  dangerous  than 
such  language  as  this  ;  for  if  a  man  bases  his  moral 
system  upon  the  belief  in  a  future  life,  the  destruc- 
tion   of    that    belief    will    involve    the    destruction 

'  I  Cor.  XV.  36.  ^  I  Cor.  xv.  32. 


MURAL  PRECEPTS  OF  PAUL.  365 

of  his  moi'iil  system.  It  is  foiindijig  the  more  cer- 
tain upon  the  less  so ;  universal  conceptions  upon 
special  ones;  that  which  is  essential  to  human  existence 
upon  the  doctrines  of  a  pai'ticular  creed  held  only  by  a 
portion  of  the  human  race.  The  argument  is  a  favourite 
one  with  theologians,  because  it  enlists  in  favour  of  the 
doctrine  of  a  future  state  all  the  strong  attachment  by 
which  we  cling  to  principles  of  morals.  None  the  less 
is  it  illegitimate,  and  ought  it  to  be  sternly  rejected. 

Next  in  beauty  to  this  eloquent  description  of  the 
future  state  of  man  ma}^  be  reckoned  the  extremely  fine 
chapter  on  brotherly  love  in  the  same  epistle.  Brotherly 
love,  according  to  Paul,  never  fails,  though  intellectual 
gifts,  such  as  prophecies,  tongues,  and  knowledge,  wdll 
pass  away.  Hope,  faith,  and  brotherly  love  are  joined 
together  by  him  as  a  trinity  of  virtues  which  "  now 
abide  ;  "  but  the  greatest  of  these  is  brotherly  love.^ 

Scattered  about  in  the  writings  of  this  apostle  there 
are  also  some  admirable  maxims  of  conduct,  extremely 
similar  in  tone  to  those  of  Jesus.  Thus,  he  tells  his 
fellow-Christians  to  be  kindly  aifectioned  one  to  an- 
other; to  bless  those  that  persecute  them — to  bless 
and  not  to  curse  ;  to  return  no  man  evil  for  evil ;  give 
food  to  a  hungry  enemy  and  drink  to  a  thirsty  one  ; 
and  generally,  not  to  be  overcome  by  evil,  but  to 
overcome  evil  by  good,^  It  were  much  to  be  wished 
til  at  he  himself  had  remembered  these  beneficent  rules 
of  conduct  in  the  case  of  Alexander  the  coppersmith, 
who  he  savs  did  him  "much  evil,"  and  concerninc: 
whom  he  utters  the  significant  prayer  that  the  Lord 
may  reward  him  according  to  his  works.^ 

*  I  Cor.  xiii.  ^  p.f^,,^  ^jj    io_2j  _j  xhess.  v.  15. 

^  2  Tim.  iv.  14. 


366  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 


Subdivision  3. — The  Apocalypse, 

The  author  of  the  Apocalypse,  or  Book  of  Eevela- 
tion,  who  professes  to  have  seen  the  vision  he  describes 
at  Patmos,  gives  himself  the  name  of  John  ;  a  circum- 
stance which  led  in  former  times  to  the  belief  that 
the  work  was  the  composition  of  John  the  disciple  of 
Jesus.  It  is  a  rather  late  production,  having  been 
written  subsequently  to  the  establishment  by  Paul 
of  Gentile  Christian  communities  in  various  parts  of 
Asia.  It  also  presupposes  the  existence  of  a  sect  of 
heretics  termed  Nicolaitanes,  who  had  arisen  in  some 
places,  and  was  therefore  probably  not  written  until 
some  time  after  the  foundation  of  these  churches  by 
the  great  apostle. 

The  author  endeavours  to  add  lustre  to  his  work  by 
proclaiming  at  its  outset  that  it  was  committed  to 
writing  under  the  direct  inspiration  of  Jesus  Christ 
himself,  who  dictated  it  to  him,  or  rather  showed  it 
to  him,  when  he  was  "in  the  Spirit  on  the  Lord's 
day.''  Notwithstanding  this  exalted  authorship,  it  is 
a  production  of  very  inferior  merits  indeed.  It  is 
conceived  in  that  style  of  overloaded  allegory  of  w^hicli 
the  art  consists  in  concealing  the  thought  of  the 
writer  under  images  decipherable  only  by  an  initiated 
few.  The  P>ook  of  Daniel  is  an  example  of  the  same 
kind  of  thing.  A  false  interest  is  excited  by  this 
style  from  the  mere  difficulty  of  comprehending  the 
meaning.  How  widely  it  differs  from  that  mode  of 
allegory  which  possess  a  real  literary  justification, 
may  be  shown  by  comparing  the  Apocalypse  with  the 
"  Pilgrim's    Progress."     hi  Bunyan,  the    thought    is 


I 


THE  APOCALYPSE.  3C7 

revealed  under  clear  and  transparent  images  ;  in  John, 
it  is  concealed  under  obscure  and  turbid  ones.  Hence 
there  have  been  endless  interpretations  of  the  Apoca- 
Ivpse ;  there  has  been  only  one  of  the  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress."  That  characteristic  which  Holy  Writ  has 
been  shown  to  possess  of  calling  forth  a  multitude 
of  comments  and  speculations  upon  its  meaning 
belongs  in  a  pre-eminent  degree  to  the  Kevelation  of 
John. 

After  writing  by  the  instructions  of  Clirist  a  letter 
to  each  of  the  Seven  Churches,  the  author  proceeds 
to  describe  his  vision.  There  was  a  throne  in 
heaven,  upon  which  God  himself  was  seated.  He  had 
the  singular  appearance  of  a  jasper  and  a  sardine 
stone.  Beasts,  elders,  angels,  saints,  and  a  promiscuous 
company  besides  were  around  the  throne,  engaged  in 
performing  the  ceremonies  of  the  celestial  court. 
Various  works  were  executed  according  to  orders  by 
the  attendant  angels.  A  beast  then  arises  out  of  the 
sea,  and  is  worshipped  by  those  whose  names  are  not 
in  Christ's  book.  "Babylon  the  Great,"  under  the 
form  of  a  harlot,  is  judged  and  put  an  end  to.  An 
angel  comes  down  from  heaven  and  binds  "that  old 
serpent,  which  is  the  Devil  and  Satan,"  for  a  thousand 
years.  During  this  millennium  Christ  reigns  on  earth, 
and  all  who  have  been  martyrs  for  his  sake,  or  have 
not  worshipped  the  beast,  rise  from  the  dead  to  reign 
with  him.  After  the  thousand  years  are  over  Satan 
is  unfortunately  released  from  prison,  and  does  a  great 
deal  of  mischief,  but  is  ultimately  recaptured  again 
and  cast  into  a  lake  of  fire  and  brimstone.  A  second 
resurrection,  for  the  unprivileged  multitude,  now  takes 
place.     All  the  dead  stand  before  God,  and  are  judged 


368  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

by  reference  to  the  records  which  have  been  carefully 
kept  in  heaven  in  books  provided  for  the  purpose. 
All  who  are  not  in  the  book  of  life  are  thrown  into 
the  lake  of  fire,  to  which  death  and  hell  are  consigned 
also.  The  inspired  seer  is  now  shown  a  new  heaven, 
a  new  earth,  and  a  new  Jerusalem  which  comes  down 
from  heaven.  For  a  moment  he  rises  from  the 
extremely  commonplace  level  upon  which  he  usually 
moves  to  an  eloquent  picture  of  that  happier  world  in 
which  "  God  shall  wipe  away  all  tears  from  "  the  eyes 
of  men  ;  wlien  "  there  shall  be  no  more  death,  neither 
sorrow,  nor  crying,  neither  shall  there  be  any  more 
paiii."  The  book  concludes  with  a  curse  upon  any  one 
who  shall  in  any  manner  tamper  with  it,  either  by 
way  of  addition  or  erasure,  and  with  a  promise  from 
Jesus  that  he  will  come  quickly. 

Subdivision  4. — The  God  of  Christendom. 

Although  the  God  whom  Jesus  thought  himself 
commissioned  to  represent,  and  in  whom  his  disciples 
believed,  is  the  historical  continuation  of  the  Jehovah 
of  Hebrew  Scripture,  yet  his  character  is  in  many 
important  aspects  widely  different.  No  longer  the 
arbitrary  and  irascible  personage  who  continually 
interfered  with  the  current  of  human  affairs,  rew^arding 
here,  punishing  there  ;  now  overthrowing  a  monarch, 
now  destroying  a  nation ;  he  exercises  a  calmer  and 
more  equitable  sway  over  the  destinies  of  the  world. 
As  the  servile  occupants  of  the  beuch  in  former  days 
too  often  combined  the  functions  of  prosecutors  with 
those  of  judges,  so  Jehovah  in  the  ancient  times  of 
Israel  had  sometimes  thrown  off  the  judicial   dignity 


THE  GOD  OF  CHRISTENDOM.  369 

to  act  with  all  the  animus  of  a  party  to  the  cause. 
This  was  natural  perhaps  where  the  subject-matter  of 
the  inquiry  was  the  worship  and  honour  to  be  paid  to 
himself.  It  was  natural  that  he  should  take  a  strong 
personal  interest  in  such  cases ;  but  as  all  opposition 
(among  the  Jews  at  least)  had  passed  away,  and  he 
remained  in  exclusive  possession  of  the  throne,  he 
could  afford  to  treat  the  charges  with  which  he  had 
now  to  deal — mere  infractions  of  morality,  for  example 
— in  a  much  more  impartial  spirit. 

In  addition  to  this  cause  of  transformation,  the 
natural  grow'th  of  religious  feeling  had  tended  to 
replace  the  older  deity  by  a  modified  conception,  and 
Jesus,  falling  in  in  this  respect  with  the  course  of 
thought  already  in  progress,  contributed  to  effect  a 
still  further  modification  in  the  same  direction. 
Hence,  although  there  is  nowhere  an  absolute  break 
between  the  old  and  the  new  conceptions,  the  God 
of  the  New  Testament  is  prac-tically  a  very  different 
person  from  the  God  of  the  Old.  We  cannot  conceive 
him  doino:  the  same  thino;s.  The  worst  action,  in  the 
way  of  interference  in  mundane  matters,  of  which 
the  God  of  the  New  Testament  is  guilty,  is,  perhaps, 
the  sudden  slaughter  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira,  But 
what  is  this  to  such  enormities  as  the  deluge,  the 
destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  or  the  commis- 
sion of  bears  to  devour  little  children  who  had 
ridiculed  the  baldness  of  a  prophet  ?  Horrors  like 
these,  so  consistent  with  the  general  mode  of  pro- 
cedure of  the  ancient  Jehovah,  are  wholly  incompat- 
ible with  the  characteristics  so  often  ascribed  to  the 
more  recent  God.  According  to  the  theories  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  crime  committed  by  the  Jews  in 

VOL.  II.  '2  X  ■ 


370  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

executiDg  Jesus  was  at  least  as  gTeat  as  the  crimes 
for  which  the  antediluvians  and  the  Sodomites  had 
been  so  ruthlessly  exterminated.  Yet  we  cannot 
imagine  Jesus  as  even  wishing  for  the  extermination 
of  his  contemporaries  by  water  or  by  fire.  The  God 
whose  love  for  mankind  he  had  been  teaching  could 
not  for  a  moment  be  thought  of  as  consenting  to  such 
a  course.  While  Elijah  the  Tishbite  is  represented  as 
positively  praying  for  the  instant  death  of  one  hun- 
dred men  who  came  to  him  with  a  message  from  his 
king,  Jesus,  on  the  contrary,  is  depicted  as  actually 
healing  the  only  one  of  his  enemies  who  had  been 
in  any  way  injured  in  effecting  his  arrest.  Plainly 
when  the  conduct  of  the  prophets  is  thus  dissimilar, 
the  deity  whom  they  represent  on  earth  is  dissimilar 
also. 

Another*  very  marked  alteration  to  be  observed  in 
passing  from  the  character  of  Jehovah  to  that  of  God, 
is  the  emancipation  of  the  object  of  worship  from  the 
limits  of  race.  Jehovah  was  altogether  a  Jew.  He 
kept  the  Sabbath-day ;  he  loved  fasts  and  festivals ; 
he  believed  strongly  in  the  virtue  of  circumcision  ;  he 
was  interested  not  so  much  in  the  general  wellbeing 
of  the  human  species,  as  in  the  success  of  the  single 
people  of  whom  he  was  the  true  leader  in  battle 
and  the  ultimate  sovereign  at  home.  What  happened 
to  all  the  remainder  of  mankind  was  to  him  a  matter 
of  trivial  moment,  although  it  might  suit  him  occa- 
sionally to  use  them  as  instruments  either  for  the 
chastisement  or  the  restoration  to  favour  of  his 
beloved  Israel.  But  God  in  the  New  Testament  has 
largely  cast  off  the  special  features  of  his  race,  and 
although  he  sometimes  betrays  his  Judaic  origin,  he 


THE  GOD  OF  CHRISTENDOM.  371 

is  in  the  main  cosmopolite  in  his  sympathies  and 
impartial  in  his  l^ehavioiir.  Thongh  by  no  means 
catholic  in  rc^ligion,  but  holding  exclusively  to  a  single 
faith,  he  receives  all  who  embrace  that  faith,  of  what- 
ever nation,  within  the  range  of  his  fLivour.  This 
great  and  deeply  important  change,  though  begun  by 
Jesus,  was  in  the  main  the  work  of  Paul.  If  it  was 
Jesus  who  constructed  the  tabernacle,  it  was  Paul 
who  built  the  temple. 

While,  however,  there  is  an  enormous  improvement 
if  we  compare  the  administration  of  human  affairs  by 
Jehovah  and  by  God,  there  is  nevertheless  a  blot 
upon  the  character  of  God  which  suffices,  if  rigorously 
balanced  ac^ainst  the  failino;s  of  Jehovah,  to  outweio-h 
them  all.  It  is  the  eternity  of  the  punishment  which 
he  inflicts  in  a  future  life.  No  amount  of  sophistry 
can  ever  justify  the  creation  of  beings  whose  lives 
are  to  terminate  in  endless  suffering.  But  while 
tlie  reality  of  condemnation  to  such  endless  suff"ering 
would  be  a  far  more  gigantic  crime  than  any  of  the 
merely  terrestrial  penalties  inflicted  by  the  Hebrew 
Jehovah,  the  belief  m.  such  endless  suflering  is  cpiite 
consistent  with  a  much  higher  general  conception  of 
the  divinity  than  the  one  that  coexisted  with  the 
belief  in  those  terrestrial  penalties.  The  explanation 
of  this  apparent  paradox  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  necessary  injustice  of  eternal  punishment  is 
not  very  easily  perceived  ;  that,  in  ftict,  it  is  not 
understood  at  all  in  the  ruder  stages  of  social  evolu- 
tion,  and  not  by  every  individual  even  in  so  advanced 
a  society  as  our  own.  Some  degree  of  punishment 
for  offences  is  felt  to  be  requisite  ;  and  it  is  not  observed 
without  considerable  reflection  that  that  punishment 


372  HOLY  BOOKS,  OR  BIBLES. 

in  order  to  be  just  must  needs  be  finite ;  must  needs, 
if  imposed  by  absolute  power,  aim  at  the  ultimate 
reformation  of  the  criminal,  not  at  his  ultimate 
misery.  And  it  takes  a  far  higher  degree  of  mental 
cultivation  to  feel  this  than  it  takes  to  feel  the 
injustice  of  the  violent  outbursts  attributed  in  the  Old 
Testament  to  Jehovah.  Tradition  and  custom  alone 
could  have  prevented  Jesus  and  his  disciples  from 
feeling  shocked  at  these  ;  while  it  was  intellectual 
capacity  which  was  needed  to  enable  them  to  reject 
eternal  punishment  as  incompatible  with  justice. 
Add  to  these  considerations  the  very  important  fact 
that  the  conduct  conducing  to  salvation,  and  avoidinfr 
condemnation  in  the  future  state,  was  supposed 
to  be  known  to  all  men  beforehand,  being  fixed  by 
unalterable  rules ;  while  the  conduct  necessary  to 
ensure  the  terrestrial  rewards,  and  escape  the  terres- 
trial penalties  of  the  Old  Testament,  was  not  known 
till  the  occasion  arose  ;  sometimes  not  till  after  it  had 
arisen.  Thus,  Jesus  lays  down  in  his  teaching  both 
the  rules  to  be  observed  by  human  beings  if  they 
would  obtain  the  approbation  of  his  Father,  and  the 
exact  manner  in  which  the  violation  of  those  rules 
will  be  visited  upon  them  if  they  fail  to  repent  and 
obtain  forgiveness.  But  Jehovah  only  made  his  rules 
from  time  to  time,  and  never  announced  beforehand 
what  his  punishments  would  be.  Who,  for  instance, 
could  tell  what  he  would  do  to  the  Israelites  for 
worshipping  the  golden  calf  ?  who  could  say  whether 
he  would  treat  gathering  sticks  on  the  Sabbath,  as  to 
which  there  was  as  yet  no  law,  as  a  capital  crime  ? 
still  more,  who  could  imagine  that  he  would  visit  the 
action  of  a  monarch  in  taking  a  census  of  Israel  by  a 


STEP  TOWARDS  A  MILDER  IDEA.  373 

pestilence  inflicted  on  the  unoffending  people  ?  Pluiniy 
it  was  a  very  rude  notion  of  deity  indeed  wliicli  was 
satisfied  to  suppose  an  arbitrary  interposition  in  all 
sucli  cases.  The  God  of  the  New  Testamenit  may 
be  more  cruel,  but  he  is  also  more  consistent.  If  I 
may  venture  on  a  homely  comparison,  I  should  say 
that  the  Jehovah  of  the  Israelites  is  like  a  capricious 
oriental  despot,  whose  subjects'  lives  are  in  his  hand, 
while  the  God  of  Christendom  rather  resembles  a 
judge  administering  a  Draconian  code  in  which  there 
should  be  no  gradations  between  capital  punishment 
and  entire  acquittal.  The  laws  may  in  fact  demand 
more  bloodslied  than  the  tyrant ;  but  their  existence 
and  administration  by  fixed  rules  would  undoubtedly 
imply  that  a  people  bad  reached  a  higher  grade  of 
civilisation.  Moreover,  exactly  as  government  con- 
ducted by  laws  is  capable  of  improvement  by  modi- 
fication of  the  legislative  enactments,  while  despotic 
government  is  essentially  vicious,  so  the  character  of 
God  admits  of  easy  adaptation  to  the  needs  of  a  more 
cultivated  state,  while  that  of  Jehovah  can  by  no 
possibility  be  rendered  consistent  with  a  high  ideal 
of  divinity. 

Such  adaptation  of  the  Christian  God  has  actually 
taken  place  to  a  very  large  extent.  The  doctrine  of 
Purgatorj^,  leaving  only  the  most  incorrigible  offenders 
to  be  consigned  to  hell,  was  already  a  considerable 
step  in  advance  of  the  teaching  of  the  New  Testament. 
It  got  rid  of  the  fundamental  weakness  in  the  con- 
ception of  Jesus,  wherein  there  was  no  proportion  of 
punishment  to  offence ;  every  sin,  small  or  great,  was 
either  absolutely  forgiven  or  punished  to  the  utter- 
ni(jst  extent.     It  eflected  the  same  beneficent  change 


374  irOLY  BOOKS,   OR  BIBLES. 

a-s  E-omilly  effected  in  the  English  hiw.  Precisely  n,s 
our  former  code  punished  even  trifling  crimes  with 
death  or  not  at  all,  so  the  God  of  Jesus  punished  sin 
either  eternally  or  not  at  all.  Precisely  as  the 
excessive  severity  of  Eiiglish  law  led  to  the  entire 
acquittal  of  many  criminals  who  should  have  received 
some  degree  of  punishment,  so  the  excessive  severity 
of  God  led  to  the  belief  and  hope  that  many  sinners 
would  be  entirely  pardoned  who  should  in  justice 
have  received  some  measure  of  correction.  Thus,  in 
both  these  cases,  the  undue  harshness  of  the  threatened 
penalty  tended  to  defeat  the  very  object  in  view. 

But  the  character  of  the  God  of  Christendom  admits 
of  a  much  more  thorough  reformation  than  that  effected 
by  the  Catholic  Church.  Tendej-  spirits,  offended,  like 
Uncle  Toby,  at  the  notion  that  even  the  worst  of 
beings  should  be  damned  to  all  eternity,  have  simply 
refused  to  accept  the  notion  of  endless  torture. 
Thinkers,  aiming  at  a  system  of  abstract  justice,  have 
sought  to  prove  that  it  could  not  be.  Theologians 
have  contrived  all  sorts  of  shifts  to  dispense  with  the 
necessity  of  believing  it.  Modern  feeling,  whether 
on  grounds  of  logic  or  of  sentiment,  has  gradually 
come  to  suppress  it  more  and  more  as  an  inconvenient 
article  in  the  nominal  creed,  to  be,  if  not  consciously 
rejected,  at  least  instinctively  thrust  as  much  jis 
possible  out  of  sight.  There  has  resulted  an  idea  of 
the  Deity  in  which  the  harsher  elements  are  swept 
away,  and  the  gentler  ones,  such  as  his  fatherhood, 
his  care,  and  his  love,  are  left  behind.  Such  writers 
as  Theodore  Parker,  Francis  W.  Newman,  and  Frances 
Power  Cobbe,  have  carried  this  ideal  to  the  highest 
point  of  perfection  of  which  it  appears  to  be  capable. 


THE  LA  TEST  DE  VEL  OPMENTS.  3  7 S 

Tlieir  God  is  still  the  God  of  Cliristeudom,  but  refined, 
purified  and  exalted.  The  work  which  the  Jewish 
prophets  began,  AA^hich  Jesus  carried  on,  at  which 
all  the  nations  of  Christendom  have  laboured,  they 
have  most  worthily  completed.  Whether  the  ideal 
thus  attained  is  destined  to  be  final,  whether  it 
really  represents  the  ultimate  possibilities  of  religious 
thouoht  that  can  remain  as  the  corner-stone  of  a 
universal  faith,  are  questions  that  can  be  answered 
only  when  we  have  undertaken  the  complete  analysis 
of  those  most  general  constituents  of  all  theological 
systems  which  the  foregoing  examination  has  dis- 
closed.    On  that  last  analysis  we  are  about  to  enter. 


BOOK     IT. 


THE   RELIGIOUS   SENTIMENT   ITSELF. 


**  Ach,  meiu  KiiiJclien,  schon  als  Kiiu'ue, 
Als  ich  sass  auf  Mutters  ISchoss, 
Glaubte  ich  an  Gott  den  Vater, 
Der  da  waltet  gut  und  gross. 

"  Der  die  schone  Erd'  erscbaffen, 
Und  die  schouen  Menschen  d"rauf, 
Der  den  Sonnen,  Monden,  Sternen, 
Vorgezeichnet  ihren  Lauf. 

**  Als  ich  grosser  wurde,  Kindchen, 
Noch  vielmehr  begriff  ich  schon, 
Und  begriff,  und  ward  verniinftig, 
Und  ich  glaub'  auch  an  den  Sohu  ; 

•'  An  den  lieben  Sohn,  der  liebend 
Una  die  Liebe  offenbart, 
Und  zum  Lohne,  wie  gebrauchlich, 
Von  dem  Volk  gekreuzigt  ward. 

"  Jetzo,  da  ich  ausgewachsen, 
Viel  gelesen,  viel  gereist, 
Schwillt  mein  Herz,  nnd  ganz  vou  Herzen 
Glaub,  ich  an  den  heil'gen  Geist." 

— Hir.iNiE. 


THE 

RELIGIOUS    SENTIMENT   ITSELF. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  ULTIMATE  ELEMENTS. 

We  have  now  examined  and  classified  the  various 
phenomena  manifested  by  the  religious  sentiment 
tliroughoLit  the  world.  We  have  found  those  pheno- 
mena to  have  been  in  all  ages  of  history,  and  to  be 
now  among  all  races  of  men,  fundamentally  alike. 
Diverse  as  the  several  creeds  existing  on  the  face 
of  the  earth  appear  to  a  superficial  observer,  yet 
the  rites,  the  practices,  the  dogmas  they  contain, 
admit  of  beino^  rano;ed  under  certain  definite  cateo-ories 
and  deduced  from  certain  invariable  assumptions. 
The  two  leading  ideas  of  consecration  and  of  sanctity 
pervade  them  all,  and  while  the  mode  of  consecra- 
tion, the  objects  consecrated,  the  things,  places,  men, 
or  books  regarded  as  sacred,  diflfer  in  every  quarter 
of  the  globe,  the  feelings  of  the  religious  man  remain 
the  same. 

Let   us   take   a   rapid   survey,    before    proceeding 


38o  THE  ULTIMATE  ELEMENTS. 

further,  of  the  ground  we  have  already  traversed. 
AVherever  any  religion  exists  at  all  we  have  found 
consecrated  actions;  that  is,  actions  devoted  to  the 
service  of  God.  Such  actions,  it  is  assumed,  have 
some  kind  of  validitv  or  force,  either  in  brinoino- 
from  the  deities  addressed  by  the  worshipper  some 
species  of  temj^oral  blessing,  or  in  ensuring  happi- 
ness in  a  future  state,  or  in  improving  his  moral 
character  in  this.  Secondly,  we  no  sooner  rise 
above  the  very  rudest  forms  of  religion,  than  we 
find  places  set  apart  for  worship,  and  entirely 
abstracted  from  all  profaner  uses.  Thirdly,  we  find 
that  it  is  a  universal  practice  to  dedicate  certain 
objects  to  the  special  use  of  the  divine  beings  received 
in  the  country;  such  objects  being  various  in  their 
nature,  but  very  frequently  consisting  of  gifts  to 
the  accredited  ministers  of  the  God  for  whom  they 
are  intended.  Fourthly,  we  find  in  all  the  greater 
religions — the  Confucian  possibly  excepted — a  number 
of  persons  who  have  devoted  tliemselves  to  a  mode 
of  life  supposed  to  be  especially  pleasing  to  God, 
and  carrying  with  it  in  their  minds  the  notion  of 
superior  sanctity.  Lastly,  we  have  in  almost  every 
form  of  faith  a  special  class,  generally  of  male 
persons  only,  who  are  set  apart,  by  some  distinctive 
rite,  to  the  performance  of  the  consecrated  actions 
re(|uired  b}^  the  community  to  be  done  on  their 
behalf ;  these  actions  thus  acquiring  a  double  con- 
secration, derived  primarily  from  their  own  nature, 
and  secondarily  from  the  character  of  those  by  whom 
they  are  performed. 

Passing  to  the  second  of  our  main  divisions,  we 
found    the   conception   of  sanctity  applied  generally 


SURVEY  OF  THE  GROUND  TRAVERSED.     38 1 

"wlicrc  that  of  consecration  liacl  been  applied,  the 
distinction  being  that  while  the  latter  was  imparted 
by  man,  the  former  w^as  the  gift  of  God.  Thus,  in 
the  first  place,  just  as  human  beings  consecrate 
some  of  their  actions  to  the  service  of  God,  so  he, 
in  his  turn,  sanctifies  certain  events  to  the  enlighten- 
ment of  mankind.  It  is  the  same  in  the  second 
case,  that  of  places;  for  here  the  deity  sometimes 
points  out  a  holy  spot  by  some  special  mark  of 
his  presence,  sometimes  (and  more  commonly)  con- 
descends to  sanctify  those  which  man  has  devoted 
to  his  worship.  And,  thirdly,  as  men  set  apart 
some  of  their  property  for  him,  so  he  imparts  to 
some  of  the  objects  in  their  possession  a  holy  character, 
which  endows  them  with  peculiar  powers,  either 
over  external  nature,  or  over  the  mind  and  conscience 
of  those  who  see,  touch,  or  otherwise  use  them. 
Fourthly,  he  endows  the  class  who  perform  the 
ceremonies  of  religion  with  his  peculiar  grace  ;  a 
grace  commonly  evinced  in  their  power  to  consecrate 
places,  things,  and  men,  to  forgive  sins,  to  convey 
the  apostolic  succession,  to  administer  sacraments, 
and  so  forth ;  but  occasionally  manifested  in  the 
fhape  of  supernatural  endowments.  And  fifthly,  as 
there  are  many  of  both  sexes  who  give  themselves 
to  him,  so  there  have  been  a  few  men  to  whom  he 
may  be  said  to  have  given  himself,  having  invested 
them  with  authority  to  teach  infallible  truth,  and 
found  religions  called  after  their  names.  Sixthly, 
he  has  revealed  himself  in  a  way  to  which  there  is 
nothing  corresponding  on  the  human  side,  by  means 
of  hooks  composed  li)y  authors  whom  he  inspired 
with  the  words  he  desired  them  to  write. 


38 J  THE  ULTIMATE  ELEMENTS. 

Viewed  in  the  gross,  as  we  have  viewed  theiu 
now,  these  several  manifestations  of  religious  feeling 
cancel  one  another.  That  feeling  has  indeed  expressed 
itself  in  the  same  general  manner,  but  with  differences 
in  detail  which  render  all  its  expressions  equally  un- 
important in  the  eyes  of  science.  For,  to  take  the 
simplest  instance,  nothing  can  be  said  by  a  Christian, 
on  behalf  of  the  inspiration  of  his  Scriptures,  which 
might  not  be  said  by  the  Buddhist,  the  Confucian, 
or  the  Mussulman  on  behalf  of  the  inspiration  of  theirs. 
If  his  appear  to  him  more  beautiful,  more  perfect, 
more  sublime,  so  do  theirs  to  them  ;  and  even  if  we 
concede  his  claims,  the  difference  is  one  of  degree, 
and  not  of  kind.  So  it  is  in  reference  to  miracles. 
Christianity  can  point  to  no  miracles  tending  to 
establish  its  truth,  which  may  not  be  matched  by 
others  tend  in  o^  to  establish  the  truth  of  rival  creeds. 
And  if  we  find  believers  of  every  kind  in  every 
clime,  attaching  the  most  profound  importance  to 
the  exact  performance  of  religious  rites  in  certain 
exact  ways,  while,  nevertheless,  those  ways  differ 
from  age  to  age  and  from  place  to  place,  we  cannot 
but  conclude  that  every  form  of  worship  is  equally 
good  and  equally  indifferent ;  and  that  the  faith 
of  the  Christian  who  drinks  tlie  blood  of  Christ  on 
the  banks  of  the  lliames,  stands  on  the  same  intellec- 
tual level  with  that  of  the  Brahman  who  quaffs  the 
juice  of  the  Soma  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges. 

But  this  line  of  aro^ument  seems  to  tend  to  no- 
thinof  short  of  the  absolute  annihilation  of  reli- 
gion.  Under  the  touch  of  a  comparative  anatomy 
of  creeds,  all  that  was  imposing  and  magnificent 
in  the  edifice  of  theology  crumbles  into  dust.     Sys- 


THE  RELIGIOUS  SENTIMENT.  383 

terns  of  tliought  piled  up  witli  elaborate  care, 
philosophies  evolved  by  centuries  of  toilsome  pre- 
paration, fall  into  shapeless  ruins  at  our  feet.  And 
all  this  by  the  simple  process  of  putting  them  side 
by  side. 

Can  we,  however,  rest  content  in  the  assumption 
that  so  vast  a  superstructure  as  that  of  religion  has 
no  solid  foundation  in  the  mind  of  man  ?  And  is 
it  destined,  like  the  theologies  it  has  evolved  in  the 
course  of  its  existence,  to  disappear  entirely  from 
a  w^orld  enlightened  by  scientific  knowledge  % 

Two  questions  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  one  another  in  replying  to .  the  doubt  thus 
suggested.  The  first  is  whether  religion,  although 
it  may  contain  no  objective  truth,  or  no  objective 
truth  ascertainable  by  us,  nevertheless  possesses,  from 
some  circumstance  in  its  own  nature,  or  in  the 
nature  of  the  world  we  live  in,  a  hold  upon  the 
human  race,  of  which  it  cannot  by  any  advance  of 
knowledge  be  deprived.  Is  there,  in  short,  if  not 
an  everlasting  truth,  yet  an  everlasting  dream  from 
which  there  is  to  be  no  awakening,  and  in  which 
spectral  shapes  do  duty  for  external  realities  ?  An 
affirmative  reply  would  admit  the  existence  of  reli- 
gious sentiment  to  be  a  necessary  result  of  the  con- 
stitution of  the  human  mind,  but  would  not  concede 
the  inference  that  conclusions  reached  by  means  of 
that  sentiment  had  any  objective  validity,  or  any 
intellectual  worth  beyond  that  which  they  derive 
from  the  imagination  of  those  who  believe  them. 
The  second  question  is  whether  there  are  in  the 
fundamental  composition  of  religious  sentiment  any 
elements  not   only   necessary,  but   true  ;    and   if   so, 


384  THE  ULTIMATE  ELEMENTS. 

v/liat  those  elements  are,  and.  what  is  the  proof  of 
their  credibility,  if  proof  there  be. 

As  a  preliminary  to  answering  either  of  these  ques- 
tions, it  is  needful  to  ascertain  whether  in  the  midst  of 
the  variety  we  have  passed  in  review,  there  is  any 
fundamental  unity ;  in  other  words,  whether  the 
varied  forms  of  religion  are  all  we  can  ever  know  of 
it,  or  whether  underlying  those  forms  there  is  a  per- 
manent structure  upon  which  they  are  superposed. 
For  only  when  we  know  whether  there  is  in  all  the 
creeds  of  the  world  a  common  element,  can  we  pro- 
(•eed  to  inquire  whether  there  is  an  element  which  is 
a  necessary  result  of  the  constitution  of  our  minds. 
If  the  phenomena  evinced  by  the  several  religions  to 
which  we  have  referred  in  the  previous  book  have  no 
common  source  in  human  n;iture  ;  if,  while  they  differ 
in  every  article  of  their  theology,  there  is  nothing 
beyond  theology  in  which  they  agree ;  then  religion 
is  a  mere  superficial  product  of  circumstances,  having 
no  jnore  solid  guarantee  tlian  the  authority  of  the 
particular  teachers  of  each  sj)ecial  variety.  There  is 
in  fact  no  religion ;  there  are  only  religions.  There 
is  no  universal  Faith ;  there  is  only  particular 
Belief. 

These,  then,  are  the  queries  to  which  our  attention 
must  be  addressed  : — 

1.  Are  there  in  the  several  reliarions  of  mankind 
any  common  elements  ? 

2.  If  so,  are  those  common  elements  a  necessary, 
and  therefore  permanent,  portion  of  our  mental 
furniture  ? 

3.  If  so,  arc  those  elements  the  correlatives  of  any 
actual  truths,  or  not  ? 


THE  ONE  NECESSARY  ASSUMPTION.        385 

It  may  have  been  observed  that  all  tlie  phenomena 

we  have  examined  in  the  previous  Book  imply  one 

assumption,  and  cannot  be  understood  without  that 

assumption.     All  of  them  imply  some  kind  of  power 

or  powers  either  behind,  beyond,  or  external  to  the 

material  world  and  the  hupnan  beings  who  inhabit  it, 

or  at  least  involved  in  and  manifested  through  that 

world  and  its  inhabitants ;  some  power  whose  iiature 

is  not  clear  to  us,  but  whose  effects  are  perceptible  to 

our  senses  ;  some  power  to  which  we  ourselves  and 

the  material  world  are  equally  subject.     Sometimes 

indeed    the    power   which    religion   thus    assumes    is 

broken  up  into  several  minor  forces,  and  instead  of  a 

single  deity  we  have  several  deities  controlling  the 

operations    of  nature.      But,   without    dwelling   now 

upon  the  ftxct  that  polytheistic  creeds  often  look  above 

the  lesser  beings  whom  they  commonly  put  forward 

to   a  more   mysterious   and  greater  God,   it  may  be 

observed   that  these  minor  forces  are  no  more  than 

forms  of  the   one  great  force   from   which   they  are 

parted  ofi'  by  an  imaginative  subdivision.     To  place 

the  ocean  under  one  divinity,  the  winds  under  another, 

and  the  sun  under  a  third,  is  practically  a  mental 

process  of  the  same  kind  as  to  place  them  all  under  ;i 

single  divinity  ;  and  the  existence  of  some  such  cause 

of  material  phenomena  being  granted,  it  is  a  mere 

question    of  less    or   greater  representative   capacity 

whether  we  range   them   under   numerous  chiefs   or 

comprehend  them  all  under  one.     In  either  case  we 

assume   extra-mundane  and  superhuman  power,  and 

this  is  the  essential  assumption  of  all  religion.     The 

least   assumption  a  religion   can   make  is   that   of  a 

single   such   power,   and  this   (or  more   than  this)  it 
VOL.  II.  2  n 


386  THE  ULTIMATE  ELEMENTS. 

always  must  assume.  For  witliout  this  we  should 
remain  within  the  boundaries  of  science  ;  we  should 
examine  and  classify  phenomena,  but  we  could  never 
pass  beyond  the  phenomena  themselves  to  their  mys- 
terious oriofin  or  their  hidden  cause. 

But  this  is  not  the  only  assumption  involved  in 
every  possible  religion.  Every  religion  assumes  also 
that  there  is  in  human  nature  something  equally 
hyperphysical  with  the  power  which  it  worships, 
whether  we  call  this  something  soul,  or  mind,  or 
spirit.  And  between  this  human  essence  and  the 
divine  power  there  is  held  to  be  a  singular  correspond- 
ence, their  relationship  finding  its  concrete  expression 
in  religious  worship  on  the  one  side  and  theological 
dogma  on  the  other.  All  the  practices  and  all  the 
doctrines  of  every  positive  religion  are  but  the  modes 
in  which  men  have  sought  to  give  body  to  their  idea 
of  this  relationship. 

We  have  then,  strictly  speaking,  three  fundamental 
postulates  involved  in  the  religious  idea : — 

First,  that  of  a  hyperphysical  power  in  the  universe. 

Secondly,  that  of  a  hyperphysical  entity  in  man. 

Thirdly,  that  of  a  relation  between  the  two. 

The  power  assumed  in  the  first  postulate  we  may 
term  the  objective  element  in  religion  ;  the  entity 
assumed  in  the  second  postulate  we  may  term  the 
subjective  element.  In  the  following  chapter  we  shall 
deal  with  the  objective  element  in  the  religious  idea 


[  387  ] 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

The  general  result  which  has  thus  been  reached  by  the 
decomposition  of  religion  into  its  ultimate  constituents 
must  now  be  rendered  somewhat  more  specific  by 
illustrative  examples  tending  to  explain  the  character 
of  the  power  the  idea  of  whose  existence  forms  the 
foundation  of  the  religious  sentiment,  and  such  exam- 
ples will  tend  to  throw  light  upon  the  question  whether 
the  admission  of  such  a  power  is  or  is  not  a  necessity 
of  thought.  For  the  proof  of  necessity  is  twofold ; 
d  2)osterion  and  a  priori.  We  may  show  by  the 
first  mode  that  certain  assumptions  are  always  made 
under  certain  conditions  as  a  matter  of  fact ;  not  that 
they  are  ah\'ays  made  by  every  human  being,  but  that 
given  the  appropriate  grade  of  culture,  the  beliefs  in 
question  arise.  And  we  may  show  by  the  second  that 
no  effort  of  ours  is  able  to  separate  certain  ideas  which 
have  become  associated  in  our  minds  ;  that  the  asso- 
ciation persists  under  every  strain  we  can  put  upon  it, 
and  that  the  resulting  belief  is  therefore  a  necessary 
part  of  the  constitution  of  the  mind.  Both  modes  of 
proof  must  be  attempted  here. 

Now,  in  the  first  place,  it  must  be  remarked  that 
few,  if  any,  of  the  nations  of  the  world  are  wholly 
destitute   of  some    religious   creed ;    and   that   those 


388  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

which  have  been  supposed,  rightly  or  wrongly,  to  he 
without  it,  have  generally  been  savage  tribes  of  the 
lowest  snide  of  culture.  So  slender  is  the  evidence  of 
the  presence  of  a  people  without  some  theological 
conception  that  it  may  be  doubled  whether  the 
travellers  who  have  reported  such  facts  have  not  been 
misled,  either  by  inability  to  comprehend  the  language, 
or  unfamiliarity  with  the  order  of  thought,  of  those 
with  whom  they  conversed. 

Sometimes  the  absence  of  religion  seems  to  be 
predicated  of  a  people  which  does  not  present  an 
example  of  the  kind  of  belief  which  the  European 
observer  has  been  accustomed  to  consider  as  religious. 
An  instance  of  this  is  afforded  in  Angas'  account  of 
"  Savage  Life  in  Australia."  Of  the  Australians  he 
states  that  "they  appear  to  have  no  religious  obser- 
vances whatever.  They  acknowledge  no  Supreme 
Being,  worship  no  idols,  and  believe  only  in  the 
existence  of  a  spirit  Avhom  they  consider  as  the  author 
of  ill,  and  regard  with  superstitious  dread."  So  that 
in  the  very  act  of  denying  a  religion  to  these  people 
he  practically  ascribes  one  to  them.  They,  like 
Christians,  appear  to  acknowledge  a  powerful  spirit  ; 
and  if  they  dwell  upon  the  evil  side  of  his  works  more 
than  upon  the  good  side,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
Christians  too  consider  their  deity  "  as  the  author  of 
ill "  by  his  action  in  cursing  Adam  with  all  his  pos- 
terity ;  and  that  they  too  regard  him  "  with  supersti- 
tious dread  "  as  a  being  who  will  send  them  to  eternal 
torture  if  they  fail  to  \\'orship,  to  think,  and  to  act 
as  he  enjoins  them.  Immediately  after  this,  the 
author  informs  us  that  the  Australians  constantly 
carry  firesticks  at  night,  to  repel  malignant  spirits. 


ANCESTOR   WORSHIP.  389 

aTid  lluit  they  place  great  faith  in  sorcerers  who  profess 
to  "counteract  the  influence  of  the  spirits."^  So  that 
their  destitution  of  "  relio-ious  observances"  is  in  like 
manner  merely  comparative. 

Very  little,  if  any,  belief  in  deity  appears  to  exist 
in  Kamschatka.  Steller,  who  has  described  the  creed 
of  its  inhabitants,  states  that  they  believe  in  no  pro- 
vidence, and  hold  that  they  have  nothing  to  do  with 
God,  nor  he  with  tliem.^  Whether  this  amounts  to  a 
denial  of  his  existence  I  cannot  say.  They  have, 
however,  another  element  of  religion,  belief  in  a  future 
state,  as  will  afterwards  appear. 

In  primitive  religions  the  abstract  form  of  Deity  is 
often  filled  up  with  the  concrete  figures  of  departed 
relatives.  Indeed  this  is  one  of  the  modes  in  w^hich 
that  form  acquires  definiteness,  becoming  comprehen- 
sible to  the  savaoe  mind  from  this  limitation  of  its 
generality.  Thus  in  Fiji,  although  a  supreme  God 
and  various  other  gods  exist,  the  ancestors  appear  to 
be  the  most  popular  objects  of  worship.  Deceased 
relations  of  the  Fijians  (according  to  Seemann)  take 
their  places  at  once  among  the  family  gods.^  Another 
author  confirms  this  testimony.  In  Sandwich  Island, 
in  the  Fijian  group,  he  states  that  there  are  no  idols. 
"The  people  worship  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors."* 
In  Savage  Island  again  they  j^ay  their  forefathers 
similar  homage,  and  remark  that  they  once  had  an 
image  which  they  worshipped,  Ijut  that  they  broke  it 
in  pieces  during  an  epidemic  which  they  ascribed  to 
its  influence.*  Among  the  Kafirs  the  spirits  of  the 
dead  are  believed  to  possess  considerable  power  for 

*  S.  L,  A.,  vol.  i.  p.  88.     ■-  Kamschatka,  p.  269.      ^  Viti,  p.  389-3^1 
••  N.  Y.,  p.  394.  s  lU,  p.  470. 


3go  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

good  and  evil ;  "  they  are  elevated  in  fact  to  the  rank 
of  deities,  and  (except  where  the  Great-Great  is 
worsliipped  concnrrently  with  them)  they  are  the 
oidy  objects  of  a  Kafir's  adoration."  ^ 

Similar  evidence  is  given  by  Acosta  in  reference  to 
Peru.  In  that  country  there  existed  a  highly-deve- 
loped and  elaborated  worship  of  the  dead.  The  bodies 
of  the  Incas,  or  governors  of  Peru,  were  kept  and 
worshipped.  Eegular  ministers  were  devoted  to  their 
service.  Living  lucas  had  images  of  themselves  con- 
structed, termed  brothers,  to  which,  both  during  the 
lifetime  of  their  original  and  after  his  death,  as  much 
honour  was  shown  as  to  the  Incas  themselves.  These 
images  were  carried  in  processions  designed  to  obtain 
rain,  and  fair  weather,  and  in  time  of  war.  They  were 
also  the  objects  of  feasting  and  of  sacrifices.^  But  the 
adoration  of  the  dead  was  not  of  such  exclusive 
importance  in  Peru  as  in  some  countries  of  inferior 
culture,  and  the  most  prominent  positions  in  their 
system  were  occupied  by  the  Sun  and  the  soul  of  the 
world,  Pachacamac,  who  was  in  fact  their  highest 
God.' 

These  last  examples  introduce  us  to  the  more 
general  conception  of  deity  which,  in  all  religions  but 
the  very  lowest,  is  found  along  with  the  belief  in 
supernatural  beings  of  an  inferior  class,  and  in  some 
of  them  overshadows  and  expels  it.  The  Peruvians, 
as  just  stated,  assigned  the  first  rank  to  him  whom 
they  conceived  to  have  created  and  to  animate  the 
universe.  The  Fijians  adored  a  supreme  Being 
Deo-ei  or  Taniraroa.  Lastly,  the  "Great-Great," 
mentioned  in  the  above  quotation  from  Shooter,  is  a 

1  K.  N.,  p.  i6i.  '^  H.  I.,  b.  5,  ch,  vi.  ^  C.  R.,  b.  2,  ch.  iii. 


AFRICAN  IDEAS  OF  GOD.  391 

beiug  who  seems  from  the  somewhat  contradictory 
evidence  of  travellers  to  have  been  regarded  as  God 
hy  some  of  the  Kafirs,  Liit  to  have  been  wholly 
neglected  by  others.  Thus,  in  a  passage  quoted  from 
a  work  of  Captain  Gardiner's  by  Canon  Callaway,  we 
find  a  conversation  of  the  writer's  with  a  native,  in 
which  the  latter  denies  all  knowledge  of  deity  wliat- 
ever,  and  expresses  a  vague  notion  that  the  things  in 
the  world  may  "  come  of  themselves."  Of  another 
tribe  the  same  writer  asserts  that  "  they  acknow- 
ledged, indeed,  a  traditionary  account  of  a  Supreme 
Being,  whom  they  called  Ookoolukoolu  (literally  the 
Great-Great),  but  knew  nothing  further  respecting 
him,  than  that  he  originally  issued  from  the  reeds, 
created  men  and  cattle,  and  taught  them  the  use  of 
the  assagai."  Canon  Callaw^ay  is  apparently  of 
o[)inion  that  the  w^ord  Unkulunkulu  was  not  in  use 
among  the  natives  of  South  Africa  in  the  sense  of 
God  until  it  w^as  introduced  by  Captain  Gardiner.^ 
Considerable  suspicion  is  thus  thrown  upon  any 
statements  in  which  this  name  is  employed  for  the 
Creator.  If,  however,  we  may  accept  a  statement  of 
Shooter's,  "  the  Kafirs  of  Natal  have  preserved  the 
tradition  of  a  Being  whom  they  call  the  Great-Great 
and  the  First  Appearer  or  Exister."  According  to 
this  writer  "he  is  represented  as  having  made  all 
things,"  but  this  tradition  "  is  not  universally  known 
among  the  people."  A  chief  who  was  asked  about 
Unkulunkulu,  the  Great-Great,  knew  nothing  about 
him,  but  one  of  his  old  men,  when  a  child,  "had  been 
told  by  women  stooping  with  age  that  there  was  a 
great  being  above."    There  is  also  "  a  tribe  in  Natal 

1  11.  S.  A.,  vol.  i.  pp.  54,  55. 


392  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

whicli  still  worsliips  the  Great-Great,  tliongli  its 
recollection  of  him  is  very  dim."  This  tribe  calls 
upon  Unkuliinkulu  in  the  act  of  sacrifice  and  in 
sickness/  While  this  testimony  leaves  it  douLtful 
whether  Uukulunkulu  is  worshipped  at  all,  except  by 
this  single  tribe,  the  traditions  collected  by  Canon 
Callaway  in  the  first  volume  of  his  valuable  work 
j^oint  to  the  presence  of  a  well-marked  legend  of 
creation  in  which  that  deity  figures  as  the  originator 
of  human  life.  True,  he  is  also  spoken  of  as  the  first 
man,  and  in  this  fact  we  have  the  probable  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  view  which  treats  him  as  the  Su]3reme 
Being,  with  that  which  denies  that  his  name  was 
used  with  this  signification.  Unkulunkulu  was  the 
primaeval  ancestor  of  mankind,  but  he  was  also  the 
Creator.  Ancestor-worship  finds  its  culmination  in 
him.  But  he  has  been  much  neglected  in  comparison 
with  minor  deities,  and  the  word  Unkulunkulu  has 
been  applied  to  the  ancestor  of  special  tribes  instead  of 
to  the  ancestor  of  all  mankind. 

The  general  result  seems  to  be  that  some,  though 
not  all  of  the  Zulus,  have  in  their  minds  a  more  or 
less  definite  idea  of  a  First  Cause  of  existence,  but 
that  this  First  Cause  is  not  worshipped  and  is  but 
little  spoken  of.  Thus,  an  old  woman  questioned  by 
an  emissary  of  Canon  Callaway's  related  this  : — 

"  When  we  spoke  of  the  origin  of  corn,  asking, 
'Whence  came  this?'  the  old  people  said,  'It  came 
from  the  Creator  who  created  all  things.  But  we  do 
not  know  him.'  AVhen  we  asked  continually,  '  Where 
is  the  Creator  ?  for  our  chiefs  we  see  ? '  the  old  men 
denied,  saying,  '  And  those  chiefs  too  whom  we  sec, 
^  K.  N.,  pp.  159,  160. 


AFRICAN  IDEAS  OF  GOD.  393 

tliey  were  created  by  the  Creator.'  And  wlieu  we 
asked,  '  Where  is  he  ?  for  he  is  not  visible  at  all. 
Where  is  he  then  ? '  we  heard  our  fathers  pointing 
towards  heaven  and  saying,  *  The  Creator  of  all  things 
is  in  heaven.  And  there  is  a  nation  of  people  there 
too.'"^ 

But  while  Unkiduukulu  is  generally  considered  as 
the  Creator  by  the  Zulus,  it  would  appear  that  a 
neighbouring  people,  called  the  Amakxosa,  had  heard 
of  a  "loi^  in  heaven  "  even  greater  than  him,  whom 
they  called  Utikxo.  According  to  the  evidence  of  an 
old  native  the  word  Utikxo  is  not  of  foreisrn  orioin. 
Utikxo  was  appealed  to  when  a  man  sneezed,  and 
"  as  regards  the  use  of  Utikxo,  we  used  to  say  it  when 
it  thundered,  and  we  thus  knew  that  there  is  a  power 
which  is  in  heaven  ;  and  at  length  we  adopted  the 
custom  of  saying,  Utikxo  is  he  who  is  above  all.  But 
it  was  not  said  that  he  was  in  a  certain  place  in 
heaven  ;  it  was  said  he  filled  the  whole  heaven.  No 
distinction  of  place  was  made."^  In  the  opinion  of 
this  authority,  Utikxo  had  been  in  a  manner  suj)er- 
seded  by  Unkulunkulu,  who,  because  he  was  visible 
while  the  original  power  was  invisible,  was  mistaken 
for  the  Creator  and  for  God.^ 

Testimony  of  a  similar  nature  is  given  in  regard  to 
other  regions  of  Africa.  In  Juda  it  is  stated  that 
the  most  intellectual  of  the  great  men  had  a  confused 
idea  of  the  existence  and  unity  of  a  God.*  Oldendorp 
states  broadly  that  "  all  negro  peoples  believe  that 
there  is  a  God,  Mdiom  they  represent  to  themselves 
as  very  powerful    and   beneficent."      He  adds   that 

'  R.  S.  A.,  vol.  i.  p.  52.  3  i\^^  yo2  j^  p_  5-,_ 

'^  lb.,  vol.  i.  p.  65.  ^  V.  G.,  vol.  ii.  p.  160. 


394  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEATENT. 

among  all  the  black  nations  lie  lias  known,  there  is 
none  that  has  not  this  belief  in  God  and  that  does 
not  regard  him  as  the  author  of  the  world.  They 
call  him  by  the  same  name  as  heaven,  and  it  is  even 
doubtful  whether  they  do  not  take  heaven  for  the 
supreme  Being.  "But  perhaps,"  he  adds,  " they  do 
not  even  think  so  definitely."  ^  So  that  the  concep- 
tion of  the  Highest  God  in  the  regions  visited  by 
this  missionary  is  still  vague  and  indefinite,  like  that 
we  have  found  in  Juda  and  in  Natal. 

If  now  we  turn  to  another  quarter  of  the  globe 
we  find  the  peculiarly  degraded  and  ignorant  Green- 
landers  asserting  that,  although  they  knew  nothing 
of  God  before  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries,  yet 
that  those  of  them  who  had  reflected  on  the  subject 
had  perceived  the  necessity  of  creative  power,  and 
had  inferred  that  there  must  be  a  being  far  superior 
to  the  cleverest  man.  They  had,  in  fact,  used  the 
argument  from  design,  and  thus  prepared,  they  had 
gladly  believed  in  the  God  preached  by  the  mission- 
aries, for  they  found  that  it  was  he  whom  they  had 
in  their  hearts  desired  to  know.^  A  similar  convic- 
tion of  the  existence  of  a  supreme  God  prevailed  in 
the  new  Avorld  when  it  was  discovered  by  Europeans. 
Such  a  God  was  acknowledged  in  Mexico  and  Peru, 
as  also  in  the  less  civilised  reo-ions  of  the  North. 
Speaking  of  the  American  Indians,  Charlevoix 
observes  that  nothing  is  more  certain,  yet  nothing 
more  obscure,  than  the  idea  which  these  savages 
have  of  a  primaeval  Being.  All  agree  in  regarding 
him  as  the  first  Spirit,  the  Euler  and  the  Creator  of 
the  world ;  but  when  further  pressed,  they  have 
1  G.  (1.  M.,  p.  318.  2  H.  a,  p.  240. 


THE  GOD  OF  THE  ANCIENT  CREEDS.      395 

nothino-  to  offer  but  grotesque  fancies,  ill-cousidered 
fables,  and  undigested  systems.  Nearly  all  the 
Algonquin  nations  (he  adds)  call  the  first  Spirit 
the  Great  Hare  ;  some  term  him  Michabou  and 
others  Atahocan.  He  wns  apparently  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  a  kind  of  quadruped,  and  to 
have  created  the  eartli  from  a  grain  of  sand  drawn 
from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  men  from  the 
dead  bodies  of  animals/ 

The  great  relio-ions  of  the  world  have  all  of  them 

O  O 

(Buddhism  alone  excepted)  acknowledged  a  God, 
whom  they  pictured  to  their  minds  in  various  ways 
according  to  the  degree  of  their  development  and 
their  powers  of  abstract  thought.  Dimly  shadowed 
forth  in  the  Confucian  system  under  the  title  of 
Heaven,  plainly  acknowledged,  yet  mystically  de- 
scribed by  the  Hindoos  under  many  titles,  whereof 
Brahma  is  one  of  the  most  usual,  celebrated  in 
plainer  language  by  the  classical  heathens  as  Zeus 
or  Jupiter,  this  great  being  appears  in  the  three 
kindred  creeds  of  Judaism,  Islam,  and  Christianity, 
as  Jehovah,  as  Allah,  and  as  God.  In  Buddhism, 
liowever,  there  is  no  article  of  faith  corresponding 
to  the  belief  in  God.  The  Buddha  is  himself  the 
most  exalted  Ijeing  in  the  universe,  and  he  is  neither 
almighty  nor  eternal.  The  creation  of  matter  as  also 
of  man  appears  to  be  unaccounted  for.  There  is  no 
single  being  who  can  be  regarded  as  the  ruler  of  all 
things,  and  the  highest  object  of  Buddhist  worship. 
But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  Buddhism  has 
escaped  the  universal  necessity  of  admitting  spiri- 
tual powers  superior  to  human  beings.     In  the  first 

1  K.  F,,  vol.  iii.  p.  343. 


396  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

place  it  retained  tlie  Indian  deities,  such  as  Bialnua., 
Indra,  and  otliers,  and  tliougli,  subordinating  all  of 
them  to  Buddha,  yet  left  them  in  possession  of  enor- 
mous capacities.  In  the  second  place,  the  Bu.ddha 
in  fact,  though  not  in  name,  assumed  the  rank  of  a 
God.  Practically,  he  is  far  more  than  human.  He 
himself  determines  the  place,  time,  and  manner  of 
his  incarnation.  He  delivers  infallible  doctrine.  He 
becomes  an  object  of  adoration,  receiving  divine 
honours  from  his  followers.  And  although  the  reign- 
ing Buddha  (having  entered  Nirvana)  is  non-existent, 
and  cannot  aid  his  disciples,  the  future  Buddha,  or 
Boddhisattva,  can  do  so,  and  he  is  addressed  in 
prayer  for  the  same  purposes  for  which  a  Christian 
would  invoke  the  intercession  of  his  Saviour. 
Thirdly,  it  is  to  be  remarked  that  Buddhism,  free 
from  the  single  idea  of  God,  is  not  free  from  the 
multitudinous  idea  of  supernatural  essences.  Its 
theology,  so  to  speak,  is  quite  full  of  celestial  beings 
of  various  ranks  and  functions,  who  swarm  around 
the  terrestrial  believers  and  perform  all  kinds  of 
wonders.  To  these  remarks  it  may  be  added  that 
in  Nepaul,  one  of  the  countries  wdiere  Buddhism 
prevails,  the  non-theistic  form  has  been  superseded 
by  a  theistic  form,  in  which  there  are  divine  Buddhas 
corresponding  to  the  human  Buddhas ;  the  highest 
of  these,  Adi-Buddha,  being  equivalent  to  the  highest 
God  of  other  creeds.  And  it  is  at  least  noteworthy, 
that  in  Ceylon,  where  the  non-theistic  form  prevails 
in  all  its  purity,  the  people  have  a  habit  of  invoking 
demons  to  their  aid,  and  of  employing  the  priests  of 
these  demons,  in  all  the  more  imj^ortant  emergencies 
of  their  domestic  lives. 


THE  SUPREME  GOD  OF  BUDDHISM.        397 

It  must  not  be  imagined,  however,  that  I  wish  to 
undervalue  the  importance  of  the  exception  which 
Buddhism  presents  to  the  general  rule.  Far  from  it. 
It  ought,  in  my  opinion,  to  be  always  borne  in  mind 
as  a  refutation  of  the  statement  that  belief  in  a  per- 
sonal God  is  a  necessary  element  of  all  religion. 
Europeans  are  apt  to  carry  with  them  throughout 
the  world  their  clear-cut  notions  of  deity  as  a  power- 
ful being  who  created  the  world,  put  man  into  it, 
goverus  it  in  a  certain  manner,  and  assigns  punish- 
ments and  rewards  to  the  souls  of  men  in  a  future 
state.  This  belief  appears  to  them  so  necessary  and 
so  natural  that  they  expect  to  find  it  universally 
prevailing,  ard  regard  it  as  the  indispensable  founda- 
tion on  which  all  religion  must  be  built.  Buddhism, 
however,  the  creed  which,  after  Christianity,  has  pro- 
l)ably  exerted  the  greatest  and  most  widespread 
influence  on  human  affairs,  knows  no  such  article 
of  faith ;  and  our  general  ideas  of  the  universal  con- 
stituents of  reliction  must  needs  be  modified  to 
embrace  this  fact. 

Some  superhuman  power  must,  ho\vever,  be  recog- 
nised in  every  religion,  and  it  is  the  manner  in  which 
this  superhuman  power  is  described,  the  qualities 
ascribed  to  it,  its  unity  or  plurality,  its  relation 
towards  man,  and  similar  distinctions,  which  serve  to 
differentiate  one  form  of  religion  from  another.  The 
degree  of  definiteness  is  one  of  the  most  important 
features  in  this  difierentiation.  Generally  speaking, 
the  definiteness  of  this  ide.T,  and  the  development  of 
the  religion  vary  inversely  as  one  another.  Tliis  law, 
however,  is  obscured  by  the  continual  tendency  to 
put    fi^rward,    to    worship,    and    to   speak    about    in 


398  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMEN'T. 

ordiuary  cases,  some  inferior  deity  or  deities,  while 
there  is  lurking  behind  the  vague  idea  of  a  higher 
entity  who  is  seldom  mentioned,  little  or  never 
worshipped,  and  who  possibly  has  no  name  in  the 
language.  So  that  the  gods  or  idols  who  are  wor- 
shipped by  the  people  must  not  be  taken  as  embody- 
ing the  best  expression  of  their  religious  thoughts. 
Some  instances  of  the  occurrence  of  this  pheno- 
menon will  serve  as  illustrations  of  the  foregoing 
statement. 

On  the  coast  of  Guinea  the  people  "  have  a  faint 
idea  of  the  true  God,  and  ascribe  to  him  the  attributes 
Almighty  and  Omnipresent ;  they  believe  he  created 
the  universe,  and  therefore  vastly  prefer  him  before 
their  idol-gods ;  but  yet  they  do  not  pray  to  him,  or 
oifer  any  sacrifices  to  him ;  for  which  they  give  the 
following  reasons.  God,  they  say,  is  too  highly  exalted 
above  us  and  too  great  to  condescend  so  much  as  to 
trouble  himself,  or  think  of  mankind  :  wherefore  he 
commits  the  government  of  the  world  to  their  idols,  "^ 
The  manner  in  which  Utikxo,  the  highest  god,  is 
thrown  into  the  shade  by  the  more  intelligible  and 
human  Unkulunkulu  (as  shown  in  a  previous  extract) 
is  another  example  of  the  operation  of  this  law.  And 
it  is  especially  noteworthy  that  the  Amazulu  have 
also  a  "  lord  of  heaven,"  with  attributes  corresponding 
to  those  of  Utikxo,  for  whom  they  have  no  name. 
Anonymity,  or  if  not  absolute  anonymity,  the  absence 
of  any  name  commonly  employed  in  the  popular 
language  is,  as  we  shall  see,  one  of  the  most  usual 
features  of  this  most  exalted  Being.  Other  travellers 
give  similar  accounts  of  other  regions  of  Africa. 
^  C.  G.,  p.  34S. 


AN  UNSEEN  GOOD  GOD.  399 

AVinterbottom,  who  was  especially  acquainted  with 
Sierra  Leone  and  its  neighbourhood,  says  that  "the 
Africans  all  acknowledge  a  supreme  Being,  the  creator 
of  the  universe  ;  but  they  suppose  him  to  be  endowed 
with  too  much  benevolence  to  do  harm  to  mankind, 
and  therefore  think  it  unnecessary  to  ofier  him  any 
homage."^  Of  Dahomey  we  learn  from  Winwood 
Keade  (a  writer  not  likely  to  be  partial  to  theism,  or 
to  discover  it  where  it  does  not  exist),  that  the  natives 
erect  temples  to  snakes,  but  "have  also  the  unknown, 
unseen  God,  whose  name  they  seldom  dare  to  men- 
tion."^ In  another  country  in  Africa  the  same  writer 
found  that  the  natives  worshipped  numerous  spirits, 
and  believed  also  in  an  evil  Genius  and  a  good  Spirit. 
The  former  they  were  in  the  habit  of  propitiating  by 
religious  service ;  but  the  latter  "  they  do  not  deem  it 
necessary  to  pray  to  in  a  regular  way,  because  he  will 
not  harm  them.  The  w^ord  by  which  they  express 
this  supreme  Being  answers  exactl}^  to  our  word 
God.  Like  the  Jehovah  of  the  Hebrews,  like  that 
word  in  masonry  which  is  only  known  to  masters  and 
never  pronounced  but  in  a  whisper  and  in  full  lodge, 
this  word  they  seldom  dare  to  speak  ;  and  they  dis- 
play uneasiness  if  it  is  uttered  before  them."  The 
writer  states  that  he  only  heard  it  on  tw^o  occasions ; 
once  when  his  men  cried  it  out  in  a  dano-erous  storm, 
and  once  when  having  asked  a  slave  the  name  for 
God,  the  man  "  raised  his  eyes,  and  pointing  to  heaven, 
said  in  a  soft  voice,  Njamhiy^  Again,  in  a  lecture 
on  the  Ashantees,  Mr  Eeade  informed  his  hearers 
that  "  the  Oji  people,"  although  believing  in  a  supreme 
Bcii]g,  do  not  worship  him  ;  while  they  do  worsliip 

'  S.  L.,  vol.  i.  J).  222.  -  S.  A..  i>.  4y.  ^  II,.,  p.  250. 


400  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

"  a  number  of  inferior  gods  or  demons,"  to  whom  tliey 
believe  the  superior  God,  offended  with  mankind,  has 
left  the  management  of  terrestrial  affairs. 

Strange  to  say,  the  peculiarity  thus  observed  in  the 
old  world  is  precisely  repeated  in  the  new.  Of  the 
Mexicans  it  is  stated  that  "  they  never  offered  sacri- 
fices to  "  Tonacatecotle,  who  was  "  God,  Lord,  Creator, 
Governor  of  the  Universe,"  and  whom  "  they  painted 
alone  with  a  crown,  as  lord  of  all."  As  their  explana- 
tion of  this  conduct  "  they  said  that  he  did  not  regard 
them.  All  the  others  to  whom  they  sacrificed  were 
men  once  on  a  time,  or  demons."'^  Concerning  the 
Peruvians,  Acosta  tells  us  that  they  give  their  deity  a 
name  of  great  excellence,  Pachacamac,  or  Pachayachacic 
(creator  of  heaven  and  earth),  and  Usapu  (admirable). 
He  remarks,  however,  with  much  surprise,  that  they 
had  no  proper  (or  perhaps  general)  name  in  their 
language  for  God.  There  was  nothing  in  the  language 
of  Cuzco  or  Mexico  answering  to  "  Deus,"  and  the 
Spaniards  used  their  own  word  "  Dios."  AVhence  he 
concludes,  somewhat  hastily,  that  they  had  but  a 
slight  and  superficial  knowledge  of  God.^ 

In  reference  to  Peru,  however,  we  have  still  more 
trustworthy  evidence  from  a  member  of  the  governing 
family,  or  lucas.  From  his  statements  it  appears 
that  the  name  applied  to  the  Highest  was  pronounced 
only  on  rare  occasions,  and  then  with  extremest  rever- 
ence. This  name  was  Pachacamac,  a  word  signifying 
"  he  who  animates  the  whole  world,"  or  the  Universal 
Soul,  as  it  would  be  termed  in  Indian  philosophy. 
Like  other  creeds  that  of  Peru  had  its  secondary  deity, 
the  Sun,  in  whose  honour  sacrifices  were  offered  and 

1  A.  M.,  vol.  vi.  p.  107,  plate  i.  ^  H.  I.,  b.  5,  ch.  iii. 


THE  SUPREME  GOD  OF  THE  SABAEANS.   401 

festivals  held,  while  no  temples  were  erected,  and  no 
sacrifices  offered  to  Pachacamac,  although  the  Peru- 
vians adored  him  in  their  hearts  and  looked  upon 
him  as  the  unknown  God.^ 

Ancient  religion  presents  similar  facts.  In  his 
exhaustive  work  on  Sabaeism,  Chwolsohn  observes 
that  the  fundamental  idea  of  that  form  of  faith  was 
not,  as  is  often  supposed,  astrolatry.  To  Shahrastani 
(tlie  Arabian  scholar),  and  many  others  who  followed 
him,  Sabaeism  expressed  the  idea  "  that  God  is  too 
sublime  and  too  great  to  occupy  himself  with  the 
immediate  management  of  this  world  ;  that  he  has 
therefore  transferred  the  government  thereof  to  the 
gods,  and  retained  only  the  most  important  affairs  for 
himself ;  that  further,  man  is  too  weak  to  be  able  to 
apply  immediately  to  the  Highest;  that  he  must 
therefore  address  his  prayers  and  sacrifices  to  the 
intermediate  divinities,  to  whom  the  management 
of  the  world  has  been  intrusted  by  the  Highest." 
Further  on,  the  author  asks  himself  whether  this  con- 
ception was  peculiar  to  the  Harranian  Sabaeans,  and 
replies,  "  Certainly  not.  This  fundamental  idea  is 
tolerably  old,  and  in  later  times  found  admission  to 
some  extent  even  among  the  strictly  monotheistic 
Jews.  ...  In  the  heathen  world  this  view  was 
universally  shared  by  the  cultivated  classes,  at  least 
in  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era."^ 

Indian  theology  teems  with  the  conception  of  a 
sublime  but  unknowable  deity  far  superior  to  the 
deities  of  popular  adoration,  who  has  no  name  and 
whose  greatness  cannot  be  adequately  expressed  ia 
human  language.     Indian  philosophy  loses  itself,  in  a 

'  C.  K,  b,  2,  ch.  iii.  ^  Ssabismus,  vol.  i.  p.  725. 

VOL.  II.  2  C 


402  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

sea  of  mystic  terms  when  it  endeavours  to  speak  of 
this  all-pervading  and  pre-eminent  Being.  Take,  for 
example,  the  following  from  the  Chhandogya  Upanis- 
had,  one  of  the  treatises  appended  to  the  Sama  Veda. 
A  father  is  instructino:  his  son  : — 

" '  Dissolve  this  salt  in  water,  and  appear  before 
me  to-morrow  morning.'  He  did  so.  Unto  him  said 
(the  father),  '  My  child,  find  out  the  salt  that  you  put 
in  that  water  last  night.'  The  salt,  having  been 
dissolved,  could  not  be  made  out.  (Unto  Swetaketu 
said  his  father),  'Child,  do  you  taste  a  little  from 
the  top  of  that  water.'  (The  child  did  so.  After  a 
while  the  father  inquired),  '  How  tastes  it  ? '  '  It  is 
saltish'  (said  Swetaketu)."  The  same  result  followed 
with  water  taken  from  the  middle  and  the  bottom. 
"  '  If  so  (throwing  it  away),  wash  your  mouth  and 
grieve  not.'  Verily  he  did  so  (and  said  to  his  father), 
'  The  salt  that  I  put  in  the  water  exists  for  ever ; 
(though  I  perceive  it  not  by  my  eyes  it  is  felt  by  my 
tongue).'  (Unto  him)  said  (his  father),  '  Verily,  such 
is  the  case  with  the  Truth,  my  child.  Though  you 
perceive  it  not,  it  nevertheless  pervades  this  (body). 
That  particle  which  is  the  soul  of  all  this  is  Truth  ;  it 
is  the  Universal  Soul.  0  Swetaketu,  Thou  art 
that.'"' 

Similar  notions  of  an  all-pervading  and  infinite 
Being  are  found  in  the  Bhagavat-Gita,  a  theological 
episode  inserted  in  the  great  epical  poem  known  as 
•the  Mahabharata.  There  Vishnu  is  not  merely  the 
ordinary  god  Vishnu  of  Indian  theology;  but  the 
universe  itself  is  expressed  as  an  incarnation  of  that 
deity  who  is  seen  in  everything  and  himself  is  every- 

^  Ch.  Up.,  cli.  vi.  Sec.  13,  p.  113. 


THE  UNIVERSAL  SOUL  OF  THE  HINDUS.  403 

thing.  "  I  am  tlie  soul,  0  Arjuna,"  thus  he  addresses 
his  mortal  pupil,  "  which  exists  in  the  heart  of  all 
beings,  and  I  am  the  beginning  and  the  middle  and 
also  the  end  of  existing  things."  ^ 

Again,  Vishnu  thus  describes  himself  in  language 
which,  translated  into  ordinary  prose,  would  serve  to 
convey  the  idea  embodied  in  Mr  Herbert  Spencer's 
Unknow\able : — 

"  Know  that  that  brilliance  which  enters  the  sun 
and  illumines  the  whole  earth,  and  which  is  in  the 
moon,  and  \\\  fire,  is  of  me.  And  I  enter  \X\^  ground 
and  support  all  living  things  by  my  vigour  ;  and  I 
nourish  all  herbs,  becoming  that  moisture  of  which 
the  peculiar  property  is  taste.  And  becoming  fire,  I 
enter  the  body  of  the  living,  and  being  associated 
with  their  inspiration  and  expiration,  cause  food  of 
the  four  kinds  to  digest.  And  I  enter  the  heart  of 
each  one,  and  from  me  come  memory,  knowledge,  and 


reason."^ 


Nor  did  the  writers  of  the  Veda  and  the  commen- 
taries thereupon  omit  to  look  above  the  concrete  forms 
of  the  mythological  gods  who  people  their  Pantheon  to 
a  more  comprehensive  and  less  comprehensible  prim- 
ordial Source.  The  gods  were  unfitted  to  serve  as 
explanations  of  the  origin  of  the  universe  by  reason 
of  the  theory  that  they  were  not  eternal,  and  that 
they  came  into  existence  subsequently  to  the  creation 
of  the  world.  The  writer  of  a  hymn  in  the  tenth 
book  of  the  Rig- Veda  asserted  that  "the  One,  which 
in  the  beginning  breathed  calmly,  self-sustained,  is 
developed  by  .  .  ,  its  own  inherent  heat,  or  by 
rigorous  and   intense   abstraction."     But   this   Rishi 

'  Bh.  G.,  cb.  X.  p.  71.  2  lb.,  cb.  xv.  p.  100. 


404  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

avowed  himself  unable  to  say  anything  of  ereaticn,  or 
even  to  know  whether  there  was  a  creator.  "Even 
its  ruler  in  the  highest  heaven  may  not  be  in  posses- 
sion of  the  great  secret."  Explaining  this  passage,  a 
commentator,  writing  at  a  much  later  date,  observes 
that  "the  last  verse  of  the  hymn  declares  that  the 
ruler  of  the  universe  knows,  or  that  even  he  does  not 
know,  from  \A'liat  material  cause  this  visible  world 
arose,  and  whether  that  material  cause  exists  in  any 
definite  form  or  not.  That  is  to  say,  the  declaration 
that  '  he  knows,'  is  made  from  the  stand-point  of 
that  popular  conception  which  distinguishes  between 
the  ruler  of  the  universe  and  the  creatures  over  whom 
he  rules  ;  while  the  proposition  that  '  he  does  not 
know'  is  asserted  on  the  ground  of  that  highest 
principle  which,  transcending  all  popular  conceptions, 
affirms  the  identity  of  all  things  with  the  supreme 
Soul,  which  cannot  see  any  other  existence  as  distinct 
from  itself."  ^ 

In  this  sentence  the  commentator  correctly  points 
out  the  distinction  between  the  Unknown  Cause  of 
philosophic  thought  and  the  gods  of  popular  theo- 
logy, the  latter  being  limited,  and  having  the  uni- 
verse outside  of  and  objective  to  them,  the  former 
comprehending  it  within  itself,  and  having  nothing 
objective  whatever.  And  he  perceives  apparently  that 
these  are  but  difi'erent  modes  of  conceiving  the  same 
Ultimate  Essence,  dependent  on  the  varying  repre- 
sentative capacities  of  those  by  whom  they  are 
employed. 

In  India,  as  elsewhere,  this  Ultimate  Essence  had 
no  proper  name.     Sometimes  it  is  spoken  of  as  "  That." 

'  O.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  pp.  363,  364. 


AN  UNKNOWN  ULTIMATE  ESSENCE.        405 

Thus,  in  a  passage  quoted  by  Dr  Muir  from  the 
Taittiriya  Brahmana  we  find  the  following:  "This 
[universe]  was  not  originally  anything.  There  was 
neither  heaven,  nor  earth,  nor  atmosj^here.  That 
being  non-existent  (asat)  resolved  'Let  me  be.'  That 
became  fervent,"  and  so  forth.  Hereupon  the  com- 
mentator states  that  "the  Supreme  Spirit  was  non- 
existent only  in  respect  of  name  and  form,  but  that 
nevertheless  it  was  really  existing  (sat)."'' 

Professor  Max  Mliller,  in  his  essay  on  the  Veda, 
has  observed  that  after  naming  the  several  powers  of 
nature,  and  worsliipping  them  as  gods,  the  ancient 
Hindu  found  that  there  was  yet  another  power  within 
him  and  around  him  for  which  he  had  no  name.  This 
he  termed  in  the  first  instance  "  Brahman,"  force,  will, 
wish.  But  when  Brahman  too  had  become  a  person, 
he  called  the  mysterious  and  impersonal  power 
"  atman,"  originally  meaning  breath  or  spirit,  subse- 
quently Self.  "  Atman  remained  always  free  from 
myth  and  worship,  difi'ering  in  this  from  Brahman 
(neuter),  who  has  his  temples  in  India  even  now,  and 
is  worshipped  as  Brahman  (masculine),  together  with 
Vishnu  and  Siva  and  other  popular  gods."^  Distin- 
guishing these  two  deities,  for  the  convenience  of 
English  readers,  as  Brahm,  the  neuter,  and  Brahma, 
the  masculine  God,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  even  the 
latter,  who  holds  in  theology  the  function  of  Creator, 
is  but  little  worshipped  in  India,  and  holds  no  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  popular  mind.  Thus  Wilson 
says,  "  It  is  doubtful  if  Brahma  was  ever  worshipped. 
Indications  of  local  adoration  of  him  at  Pushkara, 
near  Ajmir,  are   found  in  one  Purana,   the  Brahma 

*  0.  S.  T.,  vol.  V.  p.  366.  2  Chips,  vol.  i.  \)\\  70,  71. 


4o6  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

Purana,  but  in  no  other  part  of  India  is  there  the 
slightest  vestige  of  his  worship."  ^  Elsewhere  the 
same  most  competent  authority  states  "  it  might  be 
difficult  to  meet  with  "  any  Brahma-worshippers  now  : 
"  exclusive  adorers  of  this  deity,  and  temples  dedicated 
to  him,  do  not  now  occur  perhaps  in  any  part  of 
India  ;  at  the  same  time  it  is  an  error  to  suppose  that 
public  homage  is  never  paid  to  him."  Hereupon  he 
mentions  a  few  places  where  Brahma  is  particularly 
reverenced.  While,  however,  there  may  be  discovered 
some  faint  traces  of  the  worship  of  Brahma  the 
Creator,  and  first  member  of  the  Hindu  Trinity,  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  any  worship  whatever  of  the 
more  impersonal  and  abstract  Brahm.  Brahm  is 
related  to  Brahma  much  as  the  Absolute  or  the 
Unknowable  of  philosophy  is  related  to  the  God  of 
the  Hebrew  and  Christian  Scriptures.  In  the  concep- 
tion of  Brahm  the  idea  of  deity  is  pushed  to  the 
utmost  limits  of  which  human  thought  is  capable,  and 
we  have  a  being  whose  very  exaltation  above  the 
mythological  personages  who  pass  for  gods  among  the 
people  precludes  him  from  receiving  the  adoration  of 
any  but  philosophic  minds.  When  therefore  Professor 
Max  Miiller  speaks  of  temples  dedicated  to  Brahm  I 
presume  that  he  is  speaking  of  the  temples  of  Brahma, 
the  corporeal  form  of  this  unembodied  idea.  For 
Brahm  is  stated  to  be  "  immaterial,  invisible,  unborn, 
uncreated,  without  beginning  or  end  ;  "  to  be  "  inap- 
prehensible by  the  under-standing,  at  least  until  that 
is  freed  from  the  film  of  mortal  blindness  ; "  to  be 
devoid  of  attributes,  or  to  have  only  purity,  and  to  be 
*'  susceptible  of  no  interest  in  the  acts  of  man  or  thq 

1  W.  W.,  vol.  ii.  p.  63. 


THE  JEWISH  UNNAMEABLE.  407 

administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  universe."  Con- 
formably to  these  views,  adds  Wilson,  ''no  temples 
are  erected,  no  prayers  are  even  addressed  to  the 
Supreme."^  Thus  Brahma,  the  God,  is  but  little 
worshipped ;  Brahra,  the  infinite  being,  and  4tman, 
spirit,  are  not  worshipped  at  all.  Now  Brahma,  the 
creative  and  formative  power,  corresponds  to  God  the 
Father  ;  while  Brahm  and  atman,  especially  the  latter, 
bear  more  resemblance  to  the  Holy  Ghost ;  a  fact  to 
be  especially  noted  in  reference  to  the  comparison 
hereafter  to  be  made  between  the  positions  occupied 
by  the  more  and  the  less  spiritual  members  of  the 
Christian  Trinity. 

Thus  we  have  this  singular  neglect  of  the  Supreme 
Divinity  prevailing  among  ancient  heathens,  among 
modern  Africans,  amonor  Hindus  of  all  ajjes,  and 
among  pre-Christian  Mexicans  and  Peruvians.  Do 
Judaism,  and  its  offshoot,  Christianity,  offer  no  sign 
of  a  similar  relegation  of  the  highest  to  an  invisible 
background  ?  I  think  they  do.  The  evidence  is  not 
indeed  quite  so  simple  as  in  the  other  cases.  But  it 
is  deserving  of  remark  that  the  ordinary  name  for  God 
in  Hebrew,  Elohim  (a^■^'?^^),  is  plural,  and  must 
at  one  time  have  signified  gods ;  while  the  word 
which  is  sometimes  used  alone,  but  more  commonly 
in  combination  with  it  (mn^),  is  regarded  as  so 
sacred  that  the  Jews  in  reading  the  Scriptures  never 
pronounce  it,  but  substitute  Adonai  (^J■T^*),  my 
Lord,  in  its  place.  Owing  to  this  ancient  custom  the 
very  sound  of  the  word  mn^  has  been  absolutely 
forgotten,  and  Jehovah,  by  which  w^e  commonly  render 
it,  has  been  merely  constructed  by  supplying  tlie 
1  W.  W.,  vol.  ii.  p.  91, 


4o8  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

vowels  from  Adoiiai.  Now  the  existence  of  a  most 
holy  name,  but  rarely  used,  and  then  only  with  great 
reverence,  is  a  manifestation  of  religious  feeling  exactly 
corresponding  to  that  related  by  Reade  concerning 
the  African  name  Njambi.  Suppose  that  witli  the 
progress  of  theological  dogmas  and  ecclesiastical 
usages  the  use  of  the  word  Njambi  should  be  entirely 
dropped,  its  pronunciation  might  then  be  entirely 
lost  (if,  as  in  Hebrew,  its  vowel  sounds  Avere  never 
written).  And  with  the  adoption  of  a  monotheistic 
creed  some  name,  now  belonging  to  an  idol,  might  be 
used  as  synonymous  with  Njambi.  Now  something 
of  this  kind  may  have  hapf)ened  with  the  Hebrews. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  Elohim  were  origi- 
nally gods  accepted  by  the  Hebrews  as  part  of  a 
polytheistic  system.  Deep  in  the  minds  of  Hebrew 
thinkers  lay  the  more  abstract  notion  of  a  single  God, 
more  powerful  and  more  mysterious  than  the  Elohim. 
They  called  him  Jahveh,  or  whatever  else  may  have 
been  the  name  expressed  by  mn\  But  as  the 
monotheistic  view  triumphed  over  the  polytheistic, 
the  Elohim  were  adopted  into  the  framework  of  the 
new  reliofion,  and  in  a  manner  subordinated  to  Jahveh 
by  a  process  of  fusion.  The  name  of  Jahveh,  which 
must  once  have  been  in  common  use,  was  now  treated 
as  too  holy  to  be  ever  uttered  by  mortal  lips.  The 
ancient  God  who  had  stood  at  the  head  of  the  system 
of  his  party,  was  in  a  certain  sense  withdrawn  from 
active  life,  but  retained  as  the  nominal  occupant  of 
supreme  authority.  Whether  this  conjectural  account 
is  probable  or  not,  must  be  left  to  better  judges  to 
decide,  but  it  tends  at  least  to  bring  the  history  of  the 
Jewish  faith  into  harmony  with  that  of  other  religions. 


CONCRETE  OBJECT  OF  CHRISTIAN  WORSHIP.  409 

Moreover,  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  a  process 
extremely  similar  to  that  here  imagined  as  occurring 
in  the  development  of  Judaism,  was  actually  passed 
tlirough  by  its  younger  rival.  Christianity,  arising  in 
the  midst  of  a  people  who  had  arrived  at  highly 
abstract  views  of  deity,  proceeded  at  once  to  do  what 
so  many  other  creeds  have  done,  to  embody  the 
conception  of  divine  power  in  a  concrete  object.  This 
concrete  object  was  in  the  Christian  theology  a  man. 
And  as  generally  happens  in  these  cases,  the  more 
abstract  idea  was  overshadowed  and  to  some  extent 
driven  from  the  field  by  the  more  concrete.  Christ 
occupies  a  larger  place  both  in  authorised  Christian 
worship  and  in  the  popular  Christian  imagination  than 
does  his  Father.  The  creed  no  doubt  treats  them  both 
with  equal  reverence,  as  persons  in  a  single  God ;  but 
to  understand  what  is  truly  felt  and  believed  by  the 
people,  we  must  look  not  to  the  letter  of  their  creeds, 
but  to  their  actual,  and  above  all  their  unconscious 
practice.  Doing  this  we  find  first  an  entire  absence 
of  any  special  festival  in  honour  of  the  Father.^ 
Look  at  the  large  place  occupied  by  the  history  of 
Jesus  in  ecclesiastical  fastdays  and  feastdays.  We 
have  the  Annunciation,  the  Nativity,  the  forty  days 
of  Lent,  the  Crucifixion,  the  Resurrection,  the  Ascen- 
sion, all  referring  to  him.  But  we  have  quite  forgotten 
to  celebrate  the  creation  of  the  human  species,  the 
expulsion  from  Eden,  the  deluge,  the  destruction  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  other  mighty  works  due  to 
his  Father.     The  weekly  holiday,  originally  a  memo- 

^  The  remark  is  not  mine,  but  is  made  by  Didron,  a  devout  Roman 
Catholic  writer,  to  whom  I  am  much  indebted  for  this  and  other  hints. — 
Ic.  Ch.,  p.  572  n. 


410  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

rial  of  Ins  repose  on  the  seventh  day,  has  indeed  been 
retained  from  Judaism ;  yet  even  here  its  reference 
has  been  changed  from  the  history  of  the  first  person 
to  that  of  the  second  by  its  transfer  from  the  last  day 
of  the  week  to  the  first.  But  this  is  not  all.  Didron 
remarks  that  in  early  works  of  art  Jesus  is  made  to 
take  the  place  of  his  Father  in  creation  and  in  similar 
labours,  just  as  in  heathen  religions  an  inferior  divinity 
does  the  work  under  a  superior  one.  Dishonourable 
and  even  ridiculous  positions  were  assigned  to  God 
the  Father.  The  more  ancient  artists  were  reluctant 
to  paint  the  whole  of  the  First  Person,  just  as  iVfricans, 
Peruvians  and  Hebrews  were  reluctant  to  speak  his 
name.  A  mere  hand  or  an  arm  is  held  sufficient  to 
represent  him.  But  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries, 
God  the  Father  begins  to  manifest  his  figure  ;  at  first 
his  bust  only,  and  then  his  whole  person.  In  the 
14th  century  we  take  part  in  the  birth  and  develop- 
ment of  the  fiorure  of  the  eternal , Father.  At  first 
equal  to  his  Son  in  age  and  station,  he  begins  in 
process  of  time  to  become  slightly  different,  until, 
towards  1360,  the  notion  of  paternity  is  attached 
irrevocably  to  him ;  he  is  henceforth  uniformly  older 
than  his  Son,  and  assumes  the  first  place  in  the  Trinity. 
The  middle  age  may  be  divided  (according  to  Didron) 
into  two  periods.  In  the  first,  precediug  the  14th  cen- 
tury, we  have  the  Father  in  the  image  and  similitude 
of  the  Son.  In  the  second,  after  the  13th  century 
until  the  i6th,  Jesus  Christ  loses  his  iconographic 
distinctness,  and  is  conquered  by  his  Father.  He  in 
his  turn  puts  on  the  likeness  of  the  Father,  becoming 
old  and  wrinkled  like  him.^     Basing  his  conclusions 

^  Ic.  Ch,,  p.  148-203. 


THE  SPIRIT  HARDL  Y  RECOGNISED.        41 1 

on  these  remarkable  disclosures,  Michelet,  in  his 
"History  of  France,"  observes  with  considerable  reason 
that  from  the  ist  century  until  the  12th  God  was  not 
worship[)ed  by  Christians.  Nay,  even  for  fifteen 
centuries  not  a  temple,  not  an  altar  was  erected  to 
him.  And  when  he  did  venture  to  appear  beside  his 
Son  in  Christian  art,  he  remained  neglected  and  soli- 
tary. Nobody  made  an  offering  to  him,  or  caused  a 
mass  to  be  said  in  his  honour.'^ 

But  while  the  first  Person  of  the  Trinity  has  now 
obtained,  especially  in  Protestant  countries,  a  degree 
of  recognition  which  he  did  not  always  enjoy,  there 
remains  behind  another  Person,  who  is  more  abstract, 
more  spiritual,  more  undefinable  than  either  the 
Father  or  the  Son.  Formally  included  in  the  litur- 
gies of  the  Church,  having  an  ofiice  established 
in  his  honour,  churches  dedicated  to  his  name, 
this  member  of  the  Trinity  has  nevertheless  been 
strangely  neglected  by  all  Christian  nations.  No- 
body practically  worships  the  Holy  Ghost ;  nobody 
pays  him  especial  attention  ;  nobody  appears  to  be 
much  concerned  about  his  proceedings.  Artists  have 
treated  him  with  a  degree  of  indifference  which  they 
have  never  manifested  towards  Jesus  Christ.  Not 
only  have  they  sometimes  forgotten  to  include  the 
Holy  Ghost  in  their  representations  of  the  Godhead, 
but  they  have  omitted  him  even  from  a  scene  where 
he  had  the  best  possible  claim  to  figure,  namely, 
the  reception  of  the  Spirit  by  the  apostles  at 
the  feast  of  Pentecost.  Elsewhere  they  have  not 
completely  left  him  out,  but  have  placed  him  in  an 
attitude   of   subordination    and    indignity,    evincing 

1  Michelet,  "  Histoire  de  France,  "  vol.  vii.  p.  xlix. 


412  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

but  scant  respect,  as  where  an  artist  has  depicted 
an  angel  as  apparently  restraining  the  impetuosity 
of  the  dove  by  holding  its  tail  in  both  his  hands. 
While  in  the  Catacomljs  it  was  the  Father  who  was 
suppressed,  in  the  Trinities  of  tlie  12th,  15th,  and 
1 6th  centuries  it  is  the  Holy  Ghost  who  is  found 
to  be  missing.  "Thus,"  observes  the  Roman  Catholic 
author  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  these  facts,  "the 
Holy  Ghost  has  sometimes  had  reason  to  complain 
of  the  artists."  ^ 

"Were  this  Person,  in  fact,  disposed  to  be  punctil- 
ious, it  is  not  only  artists,  mere  reflectors  of  the 
general  sentiment,  but  the  whole  Christian  world 
of  whom  he  would  have  reason  to  complain.  So 
little  does  he  occupy  the  ordinary  thoughts  of  Chris- 
tians, that  Abailard  gave  the  greatest  offence  by 
naming  a  monastery  after  him,  and  this  procedure 
of  the  great  theologian  remains,  I  believe,  a  solitary 
example  in  ecclesiastical  history  of  such  an  honour 
being  paid  to  the  Paraclete.  Yet  surely  he  who 
bears  the  great  office  of  the  Comforter  is  deserving  of 
some  more  express  recognition  than  he  now  receives  ! 
What  is  the  cause  of  this  universal  oblivion  ?  I 
suspect  it  is  that  which  leads  to  the  neglect  by  the 
Africans  of  their  highest  god,  namely,  his  entire 
innocuousness.  We  saw  that  various  tribes,  while 
omitting  to  worship  a  benevolent  deity,  who  will 
never  do  them  any  kind  of  harm,  address  their 
prayers  to  a  class  of  gods  who  are  described  by 
travellers  as  demons,  or  evil  spirits,  but  whom  they 
no  doubt  regard  as  mixtures  of  good  qualities  with 
bad  ;  capable  of  propitiation  by  prayer,  but  resentful 

'  Ic.  Clir.,  p.  489-49!;. 


LATER   WORSHIP  OF  SAINTS.  413 

of  irreverence.  Now  tlie  Father  and  the  Son  cor- 
respond in  some  degree  to  these  inferior  gods.  Not 
that  they  are  actively  malevolent,  but  they  have 
certain  characteristics  of  a  terrifying  order.  God 
the  Father  is  throughout  the  Bible  the  author  of 
chastisements  and  scourges.  God  the  Son,  merciful 
though  he  be,  yet  intimates  that  he  will  return  to 
judge  the  world,  and  that  he  will  disavow  those  who 
are  not  truly  his  disciples,  thus  consigning  them  to 
the  secular  arm  of  God  the  Father,  who  will  condemn 
them  to  eternal  punishment.  But  God  the  Spirit 
has  no  share  in  these  horrors.  AVhenever  he  appears 
upon  the  scene,  he  is  quiet,  gentle,  and  inoffen- 
sive ;  and  these  qualities,  combined  with  the  absence 
of  the  more  definite  personality  possessed  by  his 
colleagues,  have  effectually  ensured  his  comparative 
insignificance  in  Christian  worship  and  in  Christian 
thought. 

While  this  has  been  the  course  of  affairs  in  refer- 
ence to  the  persons  in  the  Trinity — who,  though 
dogmatically  one,  are  popularly  and  practically  three 
— a  simultaneous  displacement  of  all  its  members 
by  still  more  comprehensible  objects  of  worship  has 
been  going  on.  First  in  rank  among  these  stands 
the  Virgin  Mary,  so  universally  worshipped  in  Catholic 
countries.  After  her  come  the  mass  of  saints,  some 
of  general,  some  of  local  celebrity  ;  but  who,  no 
doubt,  receive,  each  from  his  or  her  particular  devotees, 
a  far  larger  share  of  devotional  attention  than  the 
Father  or  the  Son  themselves.  For  they  are  requested 
to  intercede  with  these  more  exalted  potentates ;  and 
we  naturally  pay  more  regard  to  our  intercessors, 
show  them  more  assiduous  respect,  feel  towards  them 


414  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

more  gratitude,  than  we  do  to  those  with  whom  they 
intercede,  and  who  stand  too  far  above  us  to  be 
approached  directly  by  us.  Keightley,  in  his  "  History 
of  England,"  expresses  himself  as  shocked  by  the  far 
larger  share  of  the  offerings  of  the  pious  received  at 
Canterbury  by  the  altar  of  Thomas-^-Becket  than 
was  received  by  tlie  altars  of  the  Virgin  and  of  the 
Son.  The  proportion  is  as  follows  : — In  one  year  St 
Thomas  received  ;^832,  12s.  3d. ;  the  Virgin  ^63,  5s. 
6d.  ;  Christ  only  ^3,  2s.  6d.  Next  year  the  martyr 
had  ^954,  6s.  3d.  ;  Mary  £\,  is.  8d.  ;  and  Christ 
nothing  at  all.  This  relation  is  perfectly  natural. 
Thomas-a-Becket  was  the  local  saint.  He  stood  nearer 
to  the  people,  was  more  intelligible  to  their  minds, 
than  the  Virgin  Mary ;  and  the  latter,  again,  was 
more  intelligible  to  them  than  Jesus  Christ,  whose 
mystic  attributes  she  did  not  share.  This  fact  does 
but  illustrate  the  common  tendency  of  mankind  to 
neglect  the  worship  of  the  highest  deity  recognised 
in  their  formal  creed,  and  to  offer  their  prayers  and 
their  sacrifices  to  idols  of  lower  pretensions  and  more 
human  pro^^ortions. 

That  which,  as  the  upshot  of  these  speculations, 
we  are  chiefly  concerned  to  note,  is  that  religion 
everywhere  contains,  as  its  most  essential  ingredient, 
the  conception  of  an  unknown  power ;  which  power, 
thus  offered  by  religion  to  the  adoration  of  mankind, 
becomes  the  object  of  a  double  tendency  :  a  tendency 
on  the  one  hand  to  preserve  it  as  a  dim  idea,  repre- 
sented to  the  mind  under  highly  abstract  forms  ;  a 
tendency  on  the  other  hand,  to  bring  it  down  to 
common  comprehension  by  presenting  it  to  the  senses 


PERMANENCY  OF  THE  RELIGIOUS  INSTINCT.  415 

under  concrete  symbols.  But  under  all  images,  how- 
ever material ;  under  all  embodiments,  however  gross ; 
the  central  thought  of  a  power  hidden  behind  sen- 
sible phenomena,  unknown  and  unknowable,  still 
remains. 

So  far  then  as  historical  inquiry  throws  light  upon 
the  answer  to  the  second  question  in  the  previous 
chapter,  that  answer  will  be  in  the  affirmative.  It 
renders  it  at  least  highly  probable  that  the  common 
elements  of  religion  are,  from  their  universal  or  all 
but  universal  prevalence,  "a  necessary  and  therefore 
permanent  portion  of  our  mental  furniture."  Nor 
is  this  conclusion  invalidated  by  the  hypothetical 
objection  that  there  are  races  without  a  religion  at 
all.  Granting  the  fact,  it  admits  of  an  explanation 
quite  consistent  with  this  view.  For  the  races  which 
are  destitute  of  the  religious  idea  may  be  so,  not 
because  they  are  superior  to  it,  and  can  do  without 
it,  but  because  they  are  inferior  to  it,  and  have  not 
yet  perceived  it.  Thus,  the  savage  nations  who 
cannot  count  beyond  their  fingers,  prove  nothing 
against  the  necessity  of  numerical  relations.  Even 
though  they  cannot  add  their  10  toes  to  their  10 
fingers,  and  thus  make  20,  yet  the  moment  we  per- 
ceive that  10+10  =  20  we  perceive  also  that  this 
relation  is  an  absolute  necessity,  and  it  remains  an 
unalterable  fact  in  our  intellectual  treasury.  No 
inability  on  the  part  of  the  savage  to  understand  us 
can  shake  our  conviction.  Now  the  same  thing  may 
hold  good  of  the  ultimate  elements  of  religious 
feeling.  These  also,  when  once  the  conditions  are 
realised  in  thought,  may  prove  necessary  beliefs. 
Whether  they  are  so  or  not  is  a  question  for  philo- 


41 6  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

sophy.     To  the  examination  of  that  question  we  must 
now  proceed. 

Religion,  as  the  foregoing  analysis  has  shown,  puts 
forward  as  its  cardinal  truth  the  conception  of  a  j^ower 
which  is  neither  perceptible  by  the  senses  nor  definable 
by  the  intellect.  For  sensible  perception  requires  a 
material  object  and  a  material  organ ;  and  intellectual 
definition  requires  an  object  which  can  be  compared 
with  other  objects  that  are  like  it,  discriminated  from 
others  that  are  unlike  it,  and  classified  according  to 
that  likeness  and  that  unlikeness.  In  either  case 
therefore  the  object  must  be  a  phenomenon  having 
its  place  among  phenomena,  whether  those  of  the 
sensible  or  those  of  the  intelligible  sphere.  But  if 
the  power  accepted  by  religion  be  neither  perceptible 
nor  definable,  are  we  obliged  to  believe  in  the  exis- 
tence of  so  abstract  an  entity  at  all,  or  may  we  reject 
it  as  a  figment  of  the  human  brain  ? 

Perhaps  we  shall  best  be  able  to  discover  whether 
such  a  belief  is  necessary  or  not  by  endeavouring  to 
do  without  it,  and  to  frame  a  consistent  conception 
of  the  universe  from  which  it  is  entirely  excluded. 

There  are  various  ways  in  which  such  a  conception 
might  be  attempted.  We  may  regard  the  w^orld  from 
the  platform  of  Realism  or  from  that  of  Idealism,  and 
the  nature  of  our  Realism  or  of  our  Idealism  may 
vary  with  the  special  school  of  thought  to  which  we 
may  belong.  Realism  in  the  first  instance  admits  of 
two  main  subdivisions :  into  Common,  or  as  Mr 
Spencer  calls  it,  Crude  Realism,  and  into  Metaphysical 
Realism ;  and  these  two  forms  of  it  require  separate 
treatment. 


COMMON  REALISM  UNPHILOSOPHIC.        417 

Common  Realism  is  the  primitive  opinion  of  un- 
educated and  of  unreflecting  persons,  and  is  in  fact 
simply  the  absence  of  any  genuine  opinion  at  all. 
They,  I  imagine,  regard  the  external  objects  by  which 
they  are  surrounded  as  so  many  actual  entities,  not 
only  having  an  independent  existence  of  their  own, 
but  an  existence  like  that  which  they  possess  in  our 
consciousness.  Thus,  an  o^gg  they  would  take  to  be  in 
reality  a  white,  brittle,  hard  thing  on  the  outside,  hav- 
ing a  certain  shape,  size,  and  weight,  and  containing 
inside  the  shell  a  quantity  of  soft,  whitish  and 
yellowish  substance  with  a  given  taste.  These  quali- 
ties, not  excepting  the  taste,  taken  along  with  any 
other  qualities  that  may  be  disclosed  by  more  careful 
inquiry,  they  would  conceive  to  constitute  the  whole 
of  the  Qgg.  It  is  the  same  with  other  objects.  What 
we  perceive  by  our  senses  is  thought  by  them  to  be  a 
copy  of  the  real  things  as  they  exist  in  nature,  much 
as  the  retina  of  the  eye,  regarded  from  without,  is 
seen  to  contain  a  copy  in  miniature  of  the  surrounding 
scene.  Common  Realism,  however,  while  it  tacitly 
takes  for  granted  an  infinite  number  of  separate 
entities,  cannot  account  either  for  the  origin  of  those 
entities  or  for  their  nature.  Nor  has  it  any  account  to 
give  of  the  origin  of  life,  for  material  things  are  in  this 
system  utterly  destitute  of  life,  and  indeed  opposed 
to  it.  They  are  precisely  what  our  senses  inform 
us  of,  and  nothing  more.  Hence  they  furnish  no 
answers  to  the  questions  :  How  did  this  world  come 
into  being,  and  how  did  it  reach  its  present  shape  ? 
How  do  men  come  to  exist  in  it ;  for  matter  contains 
no  vitality  and   no  power  of  infusing   vitality  into 

itself  %     Therefore  it  is  that  the  adherents  of  Common 
VOL.  II.  '?.  r* 


4i8  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

Kealism  are  invariably  driven  back  upon  a  superior 
being,  whom  tliey  term  a  Creator,  and  who  supplies 
the  motive  impulse  which  is  wanting  in  their  world. 

Metaphysical  Eealism  professes  to  be  the  improve- 
ment of  scholars  upon  the  unsifted  notions  of  the 
vulgar.  It  is  the  system  to  which,  in  its  earlier  and 
cruder  form,  Berkeley  a  century  ngo  gave  what  once 
appeared  to  be  its  death-blow,  but  what  may  perhaps 
turn  out  to  have  been  a  wound  sufficiently  severe  to 
cause  prolonged  insensibility,  but  not  al)solute  extinc- 
tion. It  is  not,  however,  with  the  purpose  of  complet- 
ing the  work  of  destruction,  but  of  examining  whether 
it  affords  a  possible  escape  from  the  necessity  of  the 
religious  postulate,  that  I  refer  to  it  here.  Metaphy- 
sical Eealists  perceived  clearly  enough  that  the 
apparent  qualities  of  sensible  objects  could  not  be 
the  objects  themselves.  Even  if  they  did  not  recog- 
nise this  with  regard  to  all  the  apparent  qualities, 
they  did  so  with  regard  to  those  termed  "secondary," 
such  as  taste,  smell,  and  colour.  Later  representa- 
tives of  the  school,  such  as  Kant,  extended  the  process 
by  which  this  conclusion  was  reached  to  all  apparent 
qualities  whatsoever.  Below  the  apparent  qualities, 
however,  these  thinkers  assumed  a  substance,  "  ^uh- 
stantia,"  in  which  they  inhered,  and  by  which  they 
were  bound  together,  so  as  to  constitute  the  object. 
And  this  substance  —  something  unperceived  under- 
lying the  qualities  perceived — was  their  notion  of 
matter.  Observe  now  the  position  we  have  arrived 
at.  No  sooner  does  Realism  abandon  the  untenable 
hypothesis  that  the  qualities  of  the  object  are  the 
object  itself,  than  it  is  driven  upon  the  assumption  of 
an  utterly  unknowable    and  inconceivable  entity;  a 


THE  METAPHYSICAL  SUBSTRATA.  419 

matter  which  is  not  perceptible  by  any  of  our  senses, 
which  is  below,  or  in  addition  to,  phenomena  con- 
cerning which  we  can  predicate  nothing,  and  whose 
relation  to  the  qualities  it  is  supposed  to  support 
we  cannot  understand.  But  the  necessity  of  some 
such  assumption  is  the  very  assertion  implied  in  all 
forms  of  religious  faith.  Realism,  then,  does  not 
escape  the  pressure  of  this  necessity,  even  though 
the  entity  it  assumes  is  not  precisely  of  the  same 
character. 

But  is  the  difference  in  its  character  one  that  tells 
in  favour  of  this  variety  of  Realism,  or  in  favour  of 
religion  ?  Assuredly  substance,  or  matter,  imagined 
as  the  bond  between  apparent  qualities,  is  not  an 
easier,  simj^ler,  or  more  intelligible  conception  than 
that  of  a  universal  power  as  the  origin,  source,  or 
objective  side  of  all  physical  phenomena.  Granting 
even  that  the  latter  conception  cannot  be  represented 
to  the  mind,  a  representation  of  the  former  is  equally 
impossible.  But  does  it  explain  the  facts  better  ? 
Let  us  see.  In  the  first  place,  we  must  demand  an 
accurate  definition  of  what  this  supposed  matter  is. 
Is  it  passive,  inanimate,  incapable  of  independent 
action,  and  unable  to  develop  out  of  itself  the  living 
creatures  which  in  some  way  have  come  to  exist  ? 
If  so,  we  plainly  require  another  entity  in  addition  to 
matter,  both  to  account  for  the  active  forces  of  our 
universe,  and  to  originate  the  phenomenon  of  life. 
For  if  the  qualities  of  body  need  a  substratum,  so 
also  do  those  of  mind.  If  it  be  held  that  the  power 
from  which  mind  emanates  be  the  same  as  that  which 
is  evinced  in  so-called  physical  forces,  then  we  have 
two  distinct,  if  not  independent,  substances,  beings, 


420  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

or  whatever  we  may  prefer  to  call  tliem :  matter, 
pervading  material  objects  in  their  statical  condition, 
and  force  or  life,  pervading  both  consciousness  and 
material  objects  in  their  dynamical  condition.  Or 
if  the  first  be  regarded  as  sufficient  to  account  for 
motion  as  well  as  matter,  then  we  have  still  two 
powers,  one  subsisting  throughout  the  physical,  the 
other  throughout  the  mental  world.  How  are  these 
two  substances  related  to  one  another  ?  Is  the  sub- 
stance of  mind  supreme,  governing  its  material 
colleague  ?  or  is  that  of  matter  at  the  head  of  affairs, 
and  that  of  mind  subordinate  ?  or  are  they  equal  and 
co-ordinate  authorities,  as  in  the  Gnostic  philosophy  ? 
Suppose  we  endeavour  to  elude  these  difficulties  by 
the  assertion  that  there  is  nothing  else  but  the  unper- 
ceivable  substratum  supporting  material  objects,  and 
that  in  this  all  modes  of  existence  take  their  rise, 
we  are  met  by  further  and  still  more  troublesome 
questions.  For  if,  under  the  manifestations  of  this 
substance  we  include  consciousness,  then  the  dis- 
tinction between  matter  and  mind  has  vanished,  and 
in  calling  this  substance  matter  we  are  simply  giving 
it  an  unmeaning  name.  In  fact,  it  is  a  substance 
supporting  not  only  the  qualities  of  bodies,  but  also 
the  chemical,  electric,  molar,  molecular,  and  other 
forces  throughout  the  universe,  as  well  as  sensation, 
thought,  antl  emotion.  Matter  in  short  docs  every- 
thing which  deity  can  be  required  to  do  ;  it  originates 
motion ;  it  produces  living  creatures ;  it  feels ;  it 
thinks  ;  it  lives.  Thus  we  have  but  stumbled  upon 
God  in  an  unexpected  quarter.  Suppose,  however, 
that  we  take  what  is  in  this  system  the  easier  and 
more  natural  hypothesis  of  a  substance  of  matter,  a 


IDEALISM:  MODERATE  AND  EXTREME.     421 

substance  of  miud,  and  a  still  more  hidden  power 
superior  to  both,  and  from  which  both  are  derived, 
then  we  have  but  abandoned  the  perplexing  questions 
raised  by  metaphysical  Eealism  to  take  refuge  in  the 
religious  position  from  which  it  seemed  to  offer  a 
plnusible  deliverance. 

Does  Idealism  help  us  ?  Idealism  is  of  several 
forms.  That  represented  by  Berkeley  need  not  occupy 
us  here,  for  Berkeley  not  only  admitted,  but  expressly 
asserted,  the  existence  of  an  all-comprehending  Power, 
and  without  this  his  philosoj)hy  would  have  appeared 
to  himself  unmeaning  and  incomprehensible.  Nor 
need  we  stop  to  examine  that  more  recent  species  of 
Idealism,  as  I  hold  it  to  be,  which  its  illustrious 
author,  Mr  Herbert  Spencer,  has  christened  Trans- 
figured Eealism.  Whatever  differences  may  exist 
between  Spencer  and  Berkeley — and  I  believe  them 
to  be  more  apparent  then  real — they  are  at  one  in 
the  cardinal  doctrine  that  sensible  phenomena  are 
but  the  varied  manifestations  of  this  ultimate  Power. 
All  such  Idealism  as  this  is  in  harmony  with  religion. 
But  there  are  two  forms  which  seem  to  be  at  variance 
with  it,  one  of  which  I  will  term  Moderate,  and  the 
other  Extreme  Idealism. 

Moderate  Idealism  agrees  with  Berkelev  in  dismiss- 
ing  to  the  limbo  of  extinct  metaphysical  creatures  the 
substance  supposed  to  lurk  beneath  the  apparent 
qualities  of  bodies.  It  holds  that  there  is  no  such 
substance,  and  that  these  qualities,  and  therefore 
bodies  themselves,  exist  only  in  consciousness.  But 
it  differs  from  Berkeley  in  omitting  to  provide  any 
source    whatever,  external  to  ourselves,   from  which 


422  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

these  bodies  can  be  derived.  Not  only  are  tbey  in 
their  phenomenal  aspect  mere  states  of  our  own 
consciousness,  but  they  have  no  other  aspect  than  the 
phenomenal  one,  and  are  in  themselves  nothing  but 
phenomena.  Rather  inconsistently,  this  school  of 
Idealism  does  not  push  its  reasoning  to  its  natural 
results,  but  concedes  to  other  human  beings  some- 
thing more  than  a  merely  phenomenal  existence. 
Nothing  exists  but  states  of  consciousness ;  but  those 
peculiar  states  of  my  consciousness  which  I  term  men 
and  women  may  be  shown,  by  careful  reasoning,  to  pos- 
sess (in  all  probability)  an  existence  of  their  own,  even 
apart  from  my  seeing,  hearing,  or  feeling  them.  The 
process  1;y  which  we  reach  this  conclusion  "  is  exactly 
parallel  to  that  by  which  Newton  proved  that  the  force 
which  keeps  the  planets  in  their  orbits  is  identical 
with  that  by  which  an  apple  falls  to  the  ground."  ^ 

Those  peculiar  modifications  of  colour,  and  that 
special  mode  of  filling  up  empty  space  which  I  term 
"my  friend,"  do  indeed  seem,  if  we  push  matters  to 
an  extreme,  to  come  into  existence  only  when  he 
enters  my  room,  and  to  cease  to  exist  the  moment  he 
quits  it.  If  he  has  any  further  vitality,  it  is  only  in 
the  shape  of  that  state  of  consciousness  which  is 
known  as  recollection.  But  Moderate  Idealism  escapes 
from  this  consequence,  on  the  ground  that  modifica- 
tions of  body  and  outward  actions,  since  they  are 
connected  with  feelings  in  ourselves,  must  be  con- 
nected with  feeling's  also  in  the  case  of  those  other 
phenomena  which  we  term  human  beings,  and  per- 

1  Mill's  "  Exammation  of  Six  W.    Hamilton's  Philosophy,"  p.   2oy 
(zmi  eil.) 


MODERATE  IDEALISM  UNTHINKABLE.      42.-, 

haps  in  the  case  of  those  we  term  animals.^  But  if 
this  be  so,  how  did  so  extraordinary  a  fact  as  that  of 
consciousness  arise  ?  Ex  hypothesi,  there  was  nothing 
before  it.  Did  it  then  suddenly  spring  into  being, 
full-grown  like  Minerva,  but,  unlike  Minerva,  with  no 
head  of  Jupiter  to  spring  from  ?  Or  was  it  a  gradual 
growth,  and  if  so,  from  what  origin  ?  Go  back  as  far 
as  you  will,  you  can  find  nothing  but  consciousness, 
and  that  the  consciousness  of  limited  beings  (either 
men  or  animals)  ;  and  it  is  no  less  difficult  to  con- 
ceive the  beofinnino;,  from  nothinof  at  all,  of  the  least 
atom  of  conscious  life,  than  to  conceive  that  of  the 
profoundest  philosopher.  Observe,  there  is  no  world 
of  any  kind  ;  and  in  this  no-world  (the  contradiction 
is  unavoidable)  there  suddenly  arises,  from  no  ante- 
cedent, a  consciousness  of  external  objects  which  are 
no-objects.  Geology  upon  this  theory  is  a  myth ;  so 
is  that  branch  of  astronomy  which  treats  of  the  forma- 
tion of  our  planetary  system  from  nebular  matter. 
Stars,  suns,  planets,  and  crust  of  the  earth  only  arose 
when  they  were  perceived,  and  will  cease  to  be  when 
there  is  no  living  creature  to  perceive  them  any 
longer.  Since,  however,  conclusions  like  tliese  are  in 
reality  unthinkable,  whatever  efforts  metaphysicians 
may  make  to  think  them.  Moderate  Idealism  must  of 
necessity  complete  its  fabric  by  the  admission  of  a 
Power  from  which  both  consciousness  and  the  objects 
of  consciousness  have  taken  their  rise.  Should  it 
persist  in  denying  anything  but  a  mental  reality  to 
the  objects  of  consciousness,  it  must  still  suppose  an 

^  Mr  Mill,  in  treating  the  point,  seems  to  have  forgotten  the  animal 
world,  but  his  argument  would  cover  it. — Mill's  "  Examination  of  Sir  W. 
Hamilton's  Pliilosophy,"  p.  208,  209. 


424  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

unknown  source  from  which  consciousness  itself  has 
been  derived  ;  otherwise  it  will  entangle  itself  in  two 
unthinkable  propositions.  First,  that  before  men  (or 
animals)  existed  there  was  absolute  nothingness,  an 
idea  which  we  cannot  frame  ;  secondly,  tliat  where 
there  was  nothing  at  one  moment  there  was  the  next 
moment  something,  a  process  which  we  cannot  realise 
without  supposing  a  time  antecedent  to  that  some- 
thing, and  which  we  may  not,  without  the  contradic- 
tion of  introducing  time  in  the  midst  of  nothingness, 
realise  by  supposing  a  time  antecedent  to  that  some- 
thing. 

It  was  no  doubt  the  vague  feeling  of  these  perplexi- 
ties that  forced  John  Stuart  Mill,  the  most  eminent 
defender  of  this  school  of  thought,  to  denominate 
matter  a  Permanent  Possibility  of  Sensation.  This 
singular  phrase  well  exemplifies  the  difficulties  of  his 
position.  For  is  matter  an  external  substance,  existing 
independently,  or  not  ?  If  it  is,  then  what  becomes 
of  the  Berkeleyan  doctrine  %  Mill  and  his  followers 
are  simply  metaphysical  Kealists.  But  if  not,  what 
becomes  of  the  permanence  ?  It  is  not  in  us,  for  our 
sensations  are  not  permanent ;  it  is  not  in  the  matter, 
for  there  is  none.  And  what  is  there  a  possibility  of  ? 
Causing  sensation,  or  having  it  ?  Not  the  former,  for 
there  is  nothing  to  cause  it ;  not  the  latter,  for  the 
possibility  of  our  having  sensations  is  a  mere  fact  of 
our  nature,  and  cannot  serve  to  define  matter.  And 
where  is  the  sensation  located  ?  The  phraseology 
would  seem  to  imply,  that  matter  is  in  the  permanent 
condition  of  possible  feeling ;  just  as  a  nerve  may  be 
in  the  permanent  condition  of  possible  excitation. 
But  this  would  be  placing  sensation  in  the .  wrong 


EXTREME  IDEALISM  UNTHINKABLE.       425 

quarter.  And  if  sensation  be  in  us,  we  have  not  a 
permanent  possibility,  but  a  permanent  actuality  of 
sensation.  So  that  unless  the  words  be  construed  to 
mean  that  there  is  outside  of  us  a  permanent  some- 
thino;  which  excites  sensation,  of  which  the  modes 
vary  (for  this  is  the  sense  of  possibility),  they  have  no 
assignable  meaning  whatever.  Mill,  in  fact,  had  been 
compelled,  without  wishing  it,  to  recognise  an  ultimate 
power  in  nature  ;  and  his  perception  of  this  truth 
conflicted  strangely,  in  his  candid  mind,  with  his 
idealistic  prepossessions. 

A  more  consistent  and  rigorous  form  of  Idealism  is 
that  which  has  been  referred  to  as  the  strict  conse- 
quence of  ]\Ioderate  Idealism.  This  form,  which  I  will 
term  Extreme  Idealism,  denies  the  existence  of  per- 
sons as  well  as  things.  The  Extreme  Idealist  believes 
liimself  to  be  the  only  being  in  the  universe.  There 
is  to  him  no  period  preceding  his  own  existence  ;  none 
succeeding  it.  Past  and  future,  except  in  his  own  life, 
have  no  meaninjx  for  him.  We  cannot  reason  with 
him,  for  all  we  may  say  is  only  a  transient  mode  of 
his  own  sensations.  Obviously,  to  such  a  philosophy 
there  is  no  reply  but  one  :  it  is  simply  unthinkable. 
Were  any  one  seriously  to  defend  it,  the  very  serious- 
ness of  his  defence  would  prove  that  he  did  not  believe 
it.  For  airainst  what  or  whom  would  he  be  contending? 
Against  a  phantom  of  his  own  mind.  And  the  more 
pains  he  took  to  prove  to  us  that  he  believed  us  to  have 
no  existence  but  as  a  part  of  himself,  the  less  credit 
should  we  attach  to  his  assertions. 

Philosophy,  therefore,  is  under  a  logical  compulsion 
to  make  the  same  fundamental  assumption  as  Religion 
•—that  of  an  ultimate,  unknown,  and  all-pervading 


426  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

Power,  Origin,  or  Cause.  Science,  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  does  the  same.  It  does  so,  first,  in  its  belief  of  a 
past  and  a  future  in  tlie  history  of  the  solar  system 
far  transcending  the  past  and  future  of  humanity,  or 
indeed  of  any  form  of  life  whatever.  Passing  at  a 
dance  over  our  brief  abode  on  the  face  of  the  earth. 
Geology  pushes  its  researches  back  into  a  tnne  preced- 
ing by  innumerable  ages  the  existence  of  mankind, 
while  her  elder  sister  Astronomy  carries  her  vision  to 
a  still  remoter  age,  when  even  the  planet  we  now 
inhabit  was  but  a  fragment  in  one  indistinguishable 
mass.  But  it  is  not  only  these  two  sciences  that  assume 
the  continuance  of  nature  quite  independently  of  our 
presence  or  absence  ;  every  other  science  does  the  like. 
The  botanist,  the  chemist,  the  physicist,  all  believe 
that  the  facts  they  assert  are  facts  in  an  external 
nature,  the  relations  of  Avhich  as  now  discovered  by 
their  several  sciences  held  good  before  man  existed, 
and  will  hold  good  after  he  has  ceased  to  exist.  But 
to  say  this,  is  to  say  in  effect  that  there  is  something 
more  than  the  mere  phenomena  disclosed  by  investi- 
gation ;  namely,  an  external  reality  persisting  through 
all  time  in  which  the  varied  series  of  phenomena  take 
their  rise. 

More  clearly  still  does  Science  assert  some  such 
reality  in  its  great  modern  doctrine  of  the  Persistence 
of  Force.  Not  that  this  doctrine  is  entirely  new  ;  for 
regarded  in  its  metaphysical  rather  than  its  physical 
aspect  it  is  but  an  expression  in  \\\^  language  of  the 
day  of  a  truth  which  has  long  been  realised  as  a 
necessity  of  thought.  It  is  the  converse  of  the  ancient 
axiom,  "Nihil  ex  niliilo  fit"  for  if  nothing  can  be 
made  from  nothing,  neither  can  something  pass  into 


SCIENCE:  n^S  ONTOLOGICAL  BASIS.        427 

nothing.  The  Persistence  of  Force  is  an  expression 
of  the  fact  that  every  cause  must  have  an  adequate 
effect ;  that  in  nature  nothing  can  be  lost,  no  particle 
of  force  pass  into  nonentity.  Concentrated  forces 
may  be  dissipated,  and  dissipated  forces  may  be 
concentrated  ;  or  one  variety  of  force  may  pass  into 
another.  But  the  ultimate  fund  of  force  remains 
ever  unchangeable  ;  nothing  is  ever  created,  nothing 
destroyed. 

Observe,  then,  that  Science,  however  cautiously  it 
may  keep  within  the  range  of  the  material  world, 
however  eagerly  it  may  repudiate  all  investigation  of 
ultimate  causes  as  fruitless  and  unprofitable,  cannot 
take  one  single  step  towards  proving  the  propositions 
it  advances  without  tacitly  laying  down  an  ontological 
entity  as  the  basis  of  its  demonstration.  For  to  speak 
of  its  discoveries  as  laws  of  nature  is  simply  to 
predicate  a  constant,  unvarying  force,  which  under 
like  conditions  always  produces  like  results.  And  to 
declare  the  uniformity  of  nature,  is  merely  to  say 
that  the  methods  of  that  force  do  not  change — that  it 
is  the  same  now  as  it  ever  was,  and  will  be  the  same 
throuo-liout  the  eternal  ages. 

"  Thus,"  writes  Mr  Herbert  Spencer,  "  by  the 
Persistence  of  Force,  we  really  mean  the  persistence 
of  some  Power  which  transcends  our  knowledge  and 
conception.  The  manifestations,  as  occurring  in  our- 
selves or  outside  of  us,  do  not  persist ;  but  that  which 
persists  is  the  Unknown  Cause  of  these  manifestations. 
In  other  words,  asserting  the  Persistence  of  Force, 
is  but  another  mode  of  asserting  an  Unconditional 
liealicy,  without  beginning  or  end."  ^ 

^  Spencer's  "  First  Principles,"  §  60,  p.  189. 


428  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

Philosophy,  or  Reasoned  Thought,  and  Science,  or 
Reasoned  Observation,  have  both  led  us  to  admit,  as 
a  fundamental  principle,  the  necessary  existence  of 
an  unknown,  inconceivable,  and  omnipresent  Power, 
whose  operations  are  ever  in  progress  before  our  eyes, 
but  whose  nature  is,  and  can  never  cease  to  be,  an 
impenetrable  mystery.  And  this  is  the  cardinal  truth 
of  all  religion.  From  all  sides  then,  by  every  mode  of 
contemplation,  we  are  forced  upon  the  same  irresistible 
conclusion.  The  final  question  still  remains,  Is  this 
ultimate  element  of  all  religion  "  the  correlative  of 
any  actual  truth  or  not  ?  " 

But  for  the  prevalence,  in  recent  times,  of  a  philo- 
sophy which  denies  all  connection  between  the  neces- 
sity of  a  belief  and  its  truth,  I  should  have  regarded 
such  a  question  as  scarcely  worth  the  answering.  To 
say  that  a  belief  is  necessary  and  to  say  that  it  is  true, 
would  appear  to  all,  but  adherents  of  the  extreme 
experiential  school,  one  and  the  same  thing.  But  in 
the  present  day  this  cannot  be  taken  for  granted,  and 
I  should  be  the  last  to  complain  that  even  that  which 
seems  most  obvious  should  be  tested  by  adverse  criti- 
cism. 

Ingenious,  however,  as  their  arguments  are,  philo- 
sophers of  this  school,  when  driven  to  reason  out  their 
views,  cut  their  own  throats.  They  commit  a  logical 
suicide.  For  what  is  the  test  of  truth  they  liold  up 
to  us  in  lieu  of  necessity  ?  Experience.  But  what  in 
the  last  resort  does  our  belief  in  experience  rest 
upon  ?  Simply  upon  a  mental  necessity.  Nol)ody 
can  tell  us  why  he  believes  that  the  laws  of  nature 
will  hold  good  to-morrow  as  they  do  to-day.  He  can 
indeed  tell  us  that  he  has  always  found  them  constant 


GROUNDED  IN  NECESSARY  TRUTHS.       429 

before,  and  therefore  expects  them  to  remain  so.  But 
this  is  merely  to  state  the  belief,  not  to  justify  it. 
Experience  itself  cannot  be  appealed  to,  to  support 
our  confidence  in  experience.  True,  we  habitually 
say  that  we  believe  such  and  such  results  will  follow 
such  and  such  antecedents  because  we  have  always 
found  them  follow  before.  But  our  past  experience  is 
not  the  whole  of  the  fact  involved  in  the  belief.  It 
is  our  past  experience,  conjoined  with  the  mental 
necessity  of  thinking  that  the  future  will  resemble 
the  past,  that  forms  the  convictions  on  Avhicli  we  act. 
Experience  alone,  without  that  mental  necessity,  could 
teach  us  nothing.  If  therefore  our  necessary  beliefs 
need  not  be  true,  the  belief  in  experience  falls  to  the 
ground  along  with  the  rest,  and  experience  cannot  be 
put  in  place  of  necessity  as  a  test  of  truth. 

In  fact,  every  argument  drawn  from  the  past  falli- 
bility of  the  test  of  necessity  might  be  retorted  with 
tenfold  force  against  the  test  of  experience.  Observa- 
tion has  constantly  misled  mankind,  and  thousands 
of  alleged  facts,  accepted  upon  imagined  experience, 
have  been  disproved  by  more  accurate  examination. 
Observation  and  reasoning  combined  (as  they  often 
are)  are  exposed  to  the  double  danger  of  false  pre- 
mises and  false  inferences  from  true  premises  ;  while 
the  addition  of  an  element  of  testimony  (a  circum- 
stance common  in  scientific  inquiries)  exposes  every 
conclusion  to  a  threefold  possibility  of  error.  Human 
beings  are  no  more  exempt  from  the  possibility  of 
mistaken  science  than  from  that  of  hasty  metaphysics. 
But  as,  in  matters  of  physical  research,  we  do  not  dis- 
credit the  use  of  our  eyes  because  their  perceptions 
are  sometimes  inaccurate,  so  in  matters  of  metaphy- 


430  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT 

sical  inquiry  we  need  not  discredit  the  use  of  our 
minds  because  their  apparent  intuitions  are  now  and 
then  fallacious.  In  the  one  case,  as  in  the  other,  the 
proper  course  is  not  to  cast  contempt  upon  the  only- 
instruments  of  discovery  we  have,  but  to  apply  those 
instruments  again  and  again,  omitting  no  precaution 
that  may  serve  to  correct  an  observation  and  to  test 
an  aiguuient.  But  when  we  have  done  our  utmost 
to  attam  whatever  certainty  the  nature  of  the  subject 
permits,  we  cannot  reasonably  turn  round  upon  our- 
selves and  say  :  "  True,  my  eyes  assure  me  of  this 
fact,  but  human  eyes  have  erred  so  often  that  I  can- 
not accept  their  verdict ;  "  or,  "  No  doubt  my  mind 
forces  this  conclusion  upon  me  as  a  necessity  of  thought, 
l)ut  so  many  assumed  necessities  have  turned  out  not 
to  be  necessary  at  all  that  I  must  refuse  to  listen 
to  my  mind ;  "  for  this  is  not  really  the  caution  of 
science,  but  the  rashness  of  philosophic  theory.  For 
we  can  have  no  higher  conviction  than  that  arising  in 
a  necessity  of  thought.  Nothing  can  surpass  the 
certainty  of  this.  Grant  that  we  may  yet  be  wrong  : 
we  can  never  know  it,  and  we  can  have  no  reason  to 
think  it.  To  oppose  to  a  necessary  belief  such  a  train 
of  reasoning  as  this  : 

Necessary  beliefs  (so-called)  have  often  proved  false  : 
This  is  a  necessary  belief  (so-called) : 
Therefore  it  may  prove  false, 

is  in  reality  to  seek  to  overthrow  a  strong  conviction 
by  a  weak  one  ;  an  intuition  by  a  syllogism ;  a  pro- 
position felt  immediately  to  be  true  by  an  inference 
open  to  discussion.  Arguments  like  this  resemble 
the  procedure  of  a  man  who  should  tell  us,  when  we 


RELIGION  A  NE CESSAR  Y  POSTULA  TE.       431 

meet  a  friend,  tliat  we  cannot  possil)lj  be  sure  of  his 
identity  because  on  some  previous  occasion  in  our 
lives  we  mistook  Jones  for  Thompson. 

Exaggerated  as  this  doctrine  of  the  experiential 
school  is  thus  seen  to  be,  yet  it  has  done  good  service 
by  putting  thinkers  on  their  guard,  not  to  accept  as 
necessary  and  ultimate  some  beliefs  which  are  only 
continefent  and  dissoluble.  Two  conditions  must  be 
fulfilled  in  order  to  effect  a  presumption  of  necessity. 
The  belief  must  always  arise  under  certain  conditions  ; 
that  is,  it  must  be  universal  in  the  only  sense  in 
which  that  term  can  fitly  be  applied.  Having  arisen, 
it  must  be  incapable  of  expulsion  from  the  mind  ;  its 
terms  must  adhere  together  so  firmly  that  they  cannot 
be  parted  by  adverse  criticism,  either  our  own  or  that 
of  others.  Both  these  conditions  are  fulfilled  by  the 
fundamental  postulate  of  religion.  Given  the  appro- 
priate conditions — human  beings  raised  even  a  little 
above  the  lowest  savagery — and  it  at  once  takes 
possession  of  their  minds.  After  this,  it  persists  in 
spite  of  every  attempt  to  do  without  it,  and  the  high- 
est philosophy  is  compelled  to  give  it  the  place  of 
honour  in  the  forefront  of  its  teaching. 

Observe  now,  that  what  this  philosophy  accepts  and 
incorporates  into  its  system  is  religion  and  not  theo- 
logy. These  two  must  be  broadly  distinguished  from 
one  another.  Eelic^ion  might  be  described  as  the  soul 
of  which  theology  is  the  body.  Religion  is  an  ab- 
stract, indefinable,  pervading  sentiment;  theology  a 
concrete,  well-defined,  limited  creed.  The  one  is 
emotional  ;  the  other  intellectual.  The  one  is  a  con- 
stant element  of  our  nature ;  the  other  fluctuates 
from  generation  to  generation,  and  varies  from  place 


432  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

to  place.  Theology  seeks  to  bind  down  religion 
within  immovable  forms.  Against  these  forms  there 
is  constantly  arising  both  an  intellectual  and  an 
emotional  protest.  The  intellect  objects  to  them  as 
untrue  in  the  name  of  science  (in  the  largest  sense) ; 
the  emotions  struggle  against  them  as  cramping 
their  freedom  in  the  name  of  religion  itself.  Thus 
between  the  human  mind  and  dogma,  between  the 
religious  sentiment  and  dogma,  there  is  going  on  a 
perpetual  warfare.  Eeligious  sentiment  is  no  sooner 
born  than  the  tendency  to  limit  and  to  define  makes 
itself  felt.  It  is  confined  within  a  set  of  dogmas,  and 
forbidden  under  every  species  of  pains  and  penalties 
to  pass  over  its  allotted  bounds.  Sooner  or  later, 
religious  sentiment  bursts  through  every  restriction ; 
seems  for  a  moment  to  breathe  the  invigorating  air  of 
freedom,  but  falls  again  into  the  hands  of  new  theo- 
logians, with  another  framework  of  dogmas  ;  to  be 
ao-ain  broken  throuoh  in  its  turn  when  its  fettering 
influence  can  be  no  longer  borne.  In  carrying  on  this 
continually  renovated  contest — which  is  seen  in  its 
highest  activity  in  great  religious  reformations — the 
religious  sentiment  seeks  the  alliance  of  intellect, 
which  latter  supplies  it  with  deadly  weapons  drawn 
from  the  armouries  of  science,  logic,  and  historical 
research.  Thus  the  overthrow  of  theology  is  in  great 
part  an  intellectual  work.  But  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  very  deepest  hostility  to  theological 
systems  is  inspired  by  the  very  emotion  to  which 
these  systems  seek  to  give  a  formal  and  definite 
expression. 

The  historical  progress  of  religion  is  thus  in  some 
degree  a  counterpart  of  the  progress  described   by 


THE  DIVINE  BECOMES  FLESH  AND  SPIRIT.  433 

Heine  (in  the  lines  heading  this  Book)  as  that  of  his 
individual    mind.      First   of   all   there    arises   in    the 
mind  of  man,  so  soon  as  he   begins  to  speculate  on 
the  world  in  which  he  lives,  the  idea  of  a  Creator. 
He  cannot  conceive  the    existence    of  the   material 
objects  with  which  he  is  familiar  without  conceiving 
also  some  being  more  powerful  than  himself  who  has 
made  them  what  they  are.     His  notions  of  creation 
may  be,  no  doubt  often  are,  extremely  limited.     He 
may  confine  the  operations  of  his  God  to  that  small 
portion    of  the    universe    with    which    he    is    most 
familiar.     But  that  the  idea  of  an  invisible  yet  pre- 
eminent deity  arises  very  early  in  the  mental  develop- 
ment of  the  human  race,  and  remains  brooding  dimly 
above   the   popular    idolatry,    has   been    abundantly 
shown.    This  is  the  belief  in  God  the  Father.     The 
second  stage,  so  closely  interwoven  with  the  first  as 
to  be   inseparable  from  it  in  actual  history,  is   the 
incarnation  of  this  idea.     The  supreme  Creator  is  too 
lofty,   too   abstract,  too   great,    to   be    held  steadily 
before  the  mind   and  worshipped  in  his   unclouded 
glory.     The  children  of  Israel  cannot  bear  the  imme- 
diate presence  of  Jehovah,  nor  can  even  Moses  meet 
the  brightness  of  his  face.     Hence  the  material  shapes 
in   which    the    objects    of    adoration    are    embodied. 
When  divine  attributes  are  given   to  idols  ;  when  a 
golden   calf  is  taken  instead  of  the  invisible   God ; 
when  the  Father  is  said  to  assume  the  form  of  a  man, 
to  live  a  human  life,  and  die  a  human  death,  when 
apostles,  saints,  and  virgins  are  addressed  in  prayer 
or  celebrated  in  praise,  an  incarnation  has  occurred. 
In  the  language  of  the  traditions  we  have  quoted,  the 
supreme    God   has  gone  away  and  left  the  govern- 

VOL.  II,  2  li 


434  THE  OBJECTJVE  ELEMENT. 

ment  of  the  world  to  liis  inferiors.  Practically,  such 
incarnations  belong  to  the  earliest  period  of  religion, 
and  no  popular  creed  has  ever  been  entirely  without 
them.  No  sooner  is  the  religious  idea  conceived  in 
the  mind,  than  it  l)egins  to  be  clothed  in  flesh  and 
bones.  But  in  the  order  of  thouoht  these  two  stages 
are  separable.  For  idols  are  not  worshipped  until  the 
notion  of  some  power  which  is  not  human,  of  which 
the  nature  is  not  understood,  has  arisen  in  the  wor- 
shippers. Then  a  concrete  expression  is  desired,  and 
we  have  in  poetical  language  the  belief  in  God  the 
Son. 

Last  of  all  comes  the  belief — more  properly  an 
emotion  than  a  belief — in  the  Holy  Spirit.  With 
this  step  a  far  higher  grade  of  religious  sentiment  is 
reached.  For  God  is  now  conceived,  not  only  as 
creating  or  as  governing  the  world  without,  but  as 
entering  into  the  mind  of  man  to  inspire  his  actions 
and  influence  his  heart.  A  rehxtion  which  up  to  this 
point  was  merely  external — like  that  of  the  Creator 
to  the  created,  or  of  superif^r  to  inferior — is  rendered 
internal  and  intimate.  The  Holy  Spirit  not  only 
speaks  to  our  souls,  but  it  speaks  in  them  and 
through  them.  We  receive,  not  the  arbitrary  com- 
mand of  an  almighty  potentate,  but  the  inspiring 
force  of  a  being  who,  while  raising  us  above  ourselves, 
is  still  a  part,  the  best  part,  of  ourselves.  This  indeed, 
in  the  deep  imagination  of  the  poet,  makes  all  men 
noble. 

Yet  not  in  such  a  creed  as  this,  sublime  as  it  is  in 
comparison  with  those  that  have  gone  before  it,  is 
the  final  resting-place  of  religious  feeling.  For  every 
word  or  phrase  in  which  we  endeavour  to  give  form 


NECESSITY  OF  THINKING  AN  UNKNOWN  435 

to  that  feeling  tends  to  lower  and  to  corrupt  it  by 
the  admixture  of  elements  which  are  foreign  to  its 
genuine  nature.  To  clothe  this  sentiment  in  language 
is  itself  an  incarnation.  For  whether  we  speak  of  a 
Force,  a  Power,  or  a  Spirit,  of  an  ultimate  Cause,  or 
an  all-pervading  Essence ;  of  the  Absolute,  or  of  the 
Reality  beyond  phenomena,  these  terms  are  but  sym- 
bols of  the  Supreme,  not  the  Supreme  itself. 

"  Name  ist  Schall  und  Rauch 
Umnebelnd  Himmelsgluth." 

All  that  we  can  say  is,  that  while  we  hioio  nothing 
but  that  which  either  our  senses  perceive,  or  our 
minds  understand,  we  fed  that  there  is  something 
more.  Both  the  world  without  and  the  world  within, 
both  that  which  is  perceived  and  that  which  perceives, 
require  an  origin  beyond  themselves.  Both  compel 
us  to  look,  as  their  common  source,  to  a  Being  alike 
unknown  and  unknowable,  wdiose  nature  is  shrouded 
in  a  mystery  no  eye  can  pierce,  and  no  intellect  can 
fathom. 

This  is  the  great  truth  which  religion  has  presented 
to  philosophy,  and  which  philosophy,  if  she  be  truly 
(as  her  name  implies)  the  love  of  wisdom,  will  not 
disdain  to  incorporate  with  the  more  recently  dis- 
covered treasures  belonging  to  her  peculiar  sphere. 
For  it  is  not  the  part  of  wisdom  to  spurn  as  worthless 
even  the  childish  lispings  prompted  by  the  profound 
idea  that  has  inspired  the  faith  of  men,  from  that  of 
the  far  past  to  that  of  the  present  hour,  from  that  of 
the  rudest  African  to  tiiat  of  the  most  enlightened 
European.     Rather  is  it  the  part  of  wisdom  to  excavate 


436  THE  OBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

that  idea  from  amidst  the  strange  incrustations 
under  which  it  is  hidden,  to  understand  its  signi- 
ficance, and  to  recognise  its  value.  Thus  may  we 
assign  to  it  a  fitting  place  within  the  limits  of  a 
system  which  does  equal  honour,  and  accords  equal 
rights,  to  the  scientific  faculty  and  to  the  emotional 
instinct. 


[  437 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE   SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

"When  speaking  of  the  fundamental  postulates  in- 
volved in  the  religious  idea,  we  pointed  out  that, 
besides  the  unknown  cause  of  physical  phenomena, 
**  every  religion  assumes  also  that  there  is  in  human 
nature  something  equally  hyperphysical  with  the 
object  which  it  worships,  whether  we  call  this  some- 
thing soul,  or  mind,  or  spirit."  Let  us  call  it  soul.  And 
first  let  us  examine  what  it  is  that  religion  says  of  the 
soul,  after  which  we  may  be  in  a  position  to  consider 
what  degree  of  truth,  if  any,  is  involved  in  its  as- 
sertions. 

Now  the  great  fact  which  presents  itself  to  our  notice 
in  this  inquiry  is  the  broad  line  of  demarcation  which 
religion  has  everywhere  drawn  between  the  mental 
and  corporeal  functions  of  man,  or  in  other  words, 
between  his  soul  and  his  body.  Generally,  it  expresses 
this  grand  distinction  by  the  assertion  that  the  soul 
continues  to  live  after  the  body  is  dissolved.  This 
doctrine  is  very  ancient  and  very  widespread.  A  few 
illustrations  of  its  prevalence  are  all  that  can  be  given 
here.^ 

^  See  much  interesting  evidence  in  DuLaure,  "  Histoire  Abreg6e  de 
differens  Cultes,"  vol.  i.  clis.  xxiv.-xxvii. ;  and  a  valuable  discussion  of 
whole  the  subject  in  Tylor's  "  Primitive  Culture." 


438  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

The  rude  people  of  Kamscliatka,  wlio  liad  so  little 
notion  of  a  providence,  believed  in  a  subterranean 
life  after  death.  The  soul  they  thought  was  immortal, 
and  the  body  would  at  some  time  rejoin  it,  when  the 
two  would  live  on  together,  much  as  they  do  here  but 
under  happier  conditions.  Their  place  of  abode  was 
to  be  under  the  earth,  where  there  was  another  earth 
resembling  ours.  Some  of  them  objected  to  be  bap- 
tized, because  they  would  then  be  compelled  to 
meet  their  enemies  the  Eussians,  instead  of  living 
among  their  own  people  under  ground.  Animals 
too  were  all  of  them  to  live  again. ^  The  Tartars, 
when  visited  by  Carpin,  had  some  notion  that 
after  death  they  would  enjoy  another'  life  where 
they  \vould  perform  the  same  actions  as  in  this.'' 
"  The  most  intelligent  Greenlanders,"  writes  a 
traveller  among  that  people,  "  assert  that  the  soul  is 
a  spiritual  being  quite  different  from  the  body  and 
from  all  matter,  that  requires  no  material  nourishment, 
and  while  the  body  is  decaying  in  the  ground,  lives 
after  death  and  needs  a  nourishment  that  is  not  cor- 
poreal, but  which  they  do  not  know."  ^  The  American 
Indians  firmly  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  They  thought  it  would  keep  the  same  ten- 
dencies after  death  as  the  living  man  had  evinced  ; 
hence  their  custom — one  that  is  widely  spread — of 
burying  the  property  of  the  dead  along  with  the  body. 
The  souls  were  oblioed  after  death  to  take  a  long 
journey,  at  the  end  of  which  they  arrived  at  their 
appropriate  places  of  suffering  and  enjoyment.  The 
Paradise  of   virtuous  Indians  consisted  in  the  very 

^  Kamscliatka,  p.  269-273.  ^  Bergeron,  vol.  i.  art.  3,  p.  32. 

3  H.  G.,  p.  242. 


GENERAL  BELIEF  IN  THE  SOUL.  439 

definite  pleasures  of  good  hunting  and  fishing,  eternal 
spring,  abundance  of  everything  with  no  work,  and  all 
the  satisfixctions  of  the  senses.^  The  Kafirs,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  worship  their  ancestors,  whose 
"  Amadhlozi,"  or  spirits,  they  believe  to  continue  in 
existence  after  death.  What  they  mean  by  Amadhlozi 
they  explain  with  tolerable  clearness  by  saying  that 
they  are  identical  with  the  shadow.  These  sj^irits  are 
the  true  objects  of  a  Kafir's  worship,  being  supposed 
to  possess  great  power  over  the  affairs  of  their  de- 
scendants and  relatives  for  weal  or  woe.  They  are 
believed  to  reappear  in  the  form  of  a  certain  species  ot 
harmless  snakes,  and  should  a  man  observe  such  a  snake 
on  the  grave  of  his  deceased  relation,  he  will  say, 
''  Oh,  I  have  seen  him  to-day  basking  on  the  top  of  the 
grave."  ^  Similar  reverence  for  the  dead  is  shown  in 
other  parts  of  Africa.  In  his  lecture  on  the  Ashantees, 
Mr  Eeade  says  that,  "  on  the  death  of  a  member  of 
the  household  he  is  sometimes  buried  under  the  floor 
of  the  hut,  in  the  belief  that  his  spirit  may  occa- 
sionally join  the  circle  of  the  living.  Food  also  is 
j^laced  upon  the  grave,  for  they  think  that  as  the  body 
of  man  contains  an  indwelling  spirit,  so  there  exists 
in  the  corruptible  food  an  immaterial  essence  on  which 
the  ghost  of  the  departed  will  feed." 

To  come  to  races  standinsf  hiofher  in  the  scale  of 
civilisation  :  the  Peruvians  had  definite  notions  of  a 
future  state,  wdth  an  upper  world  in  which  the  good 
lived  a  quiet  life,  free  from  trouble,  and  a  lower  world 
in  which  the  bad  were  punished  by  suff'ering  all  the 
miseries  and  troubles  of  this  terrestrial  condition  with- 

1  N.  R,  tome  3,  p.  351-353. 

2  E.  S,  A.,  pt.  2,  p.  142. — K.  N.,  pp.  161,  162. 


440  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

out  intermission.^  lu  China  the  utmost  respect  is 
paid  to  deceased  progenitors,  who  are  the  objects  of  a 
regular  cultus.  India  has  had  from  early  ages  its 
highly-developed  and  subtle  notions  of  the  distinc- 
tion of  spirit  from  body,  and  the  former  is  held  to 
prolong  its  existence  after  its  separation  from  the  latter, 
both  as  disembodied  in  heavens  or  hells,  and  embodied 
in  animals  or  other  men.  Some  schools  believed  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul ;  others  asserted  that  its 
final  destination  was  extinction.  Buddhism  ranged 
itself  with  the  latter  opinion,  while  still  maintaining 
the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis,  and  of  rewards  and 
punishments  both  in  this  world  and  in  numerous 
others  to  which  spirits  went  in  the  course  of  their 
wanderings.  Parsee  souls  hover  about  the  grave  a 
few  days  ;  then  proceed  upon  a  long  journey.  At  its 
conclusion  they  pass  over  a  narrow  bridge,  which  the 
good  traverse  in  safety  to  enter  Paradise,  while  the 
bad  fall  over  it  and  go  into  hell.  In  the  Mussul- 
man faith  there  are  likewise  but  two  destinies 
open  to  man — eternal  happiness  and  eternal  suffering. 
Amonix  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Christ  two  doctrines 
prevailed.  Their  ancient  religion,  while  aware  of  the 
distinction  between  the  spirit  and  the  body,  left  the 
continued  life  of  the  former  an  open  question.  Hence 
the  Pharisees  asserted,  while  the  Sadducees  denied,  a 
future  state.  Christ  was  in  this  respect  a  Pharisee  of 
the  Pharisees.  He,  however,  like  Mahomet,  provided 
only  two  abodes  for  the  souls  of  men ;  one  in  heaven 
with  his  Father,  the  other  in  hell,  where  the  fire  was 
never  quenched.  It  was  felt,  however,  by  the  general 
Christian  world  that  this  sharp  separation  of  all  man- 

^  C.  K,  b.  2,  cli.  vii. 


FAITH  IN  THE  SOULS  IMMATERIAIITY.     441 

kind  into  black  and  white,  goats  and  sheep,  was  quite 
■untenaLle.     Hence  the  Catholic  institution  of  Puro-a- 

o 

tory,  which,  whatever  may  be  said  against  it,  is  a  wise 
and  liberal  modification  of  the  harsh  doctrine  of  Christ, 
affordino'  a  resource  for  the  vast  intermediate  mass 
who  are  neither  wholly  virtuous  nor  wholly  wicked, 
and  providing  an  agreeable  exercise  for  that  natural 
piety  which  prompts  us  to  mingle  the  names  of  de- 
parted friends  in  our  devotions,  whether  (as  in  Africa) 
to  pray  to  them,  or  (as  in  Europe)  to  pray  for  them. 

From  this  brief  review  of  the  opinions  of  various 
races,  it  will  be  evident  that  some  conception  of  a 
spirit  in  man  as  distinguished  from  his  body  prevails 
and  always  has  prevailed  throughout  the  world. 
The  special  characteristic  of  this  spiritual  essence 
has  always  been  held  to  be  its  immateriality.  All 
religions  conceive  it  as  distinct  from  the  body,  most 
of  them  evincing  this  view  by  treating  it  as  capable 
of  independent  existence.  Many  of  them  no  doubt 
invest  the  spirit  after  death  with  a  material  form, 
but  this  is  the  clothinix  of  the  idea,  not  the  idea  itself. 
The  form  is  received  after  the  spirit  has  left  its  ter- 
restrial body,  and  does  not  originally  belong  to  it ;  as 
in  the  case  of  the  serpents  in  South  Africa,  in  which 
ancestral  souls  are  thought  to  dwell.  This  immate- 
rial nature  is  clearly  expressed — so  far  as  such  an 
abstract  idea  can  find  clear  expression  from  a  rude 
people — by  those  Kafirs  who  compare  the  soul  to  a 
shadow.  Nothing  in  the  external  world  seems  to  have 
so  purely  subjective  a  character  as  shadows ;  things 
which  cannot  be  felt  or  handled,  and  which  appear  to 
have  no  independent  substance. 

Immateriality  then  is  universally  asserted  (or  at- 


442  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

tempted  to  be  asserted)  of  the  soul.  This  is  of  tlie 
very  essence  of  the  idea.  No  race  believes  that  any 
portion  of  the  body,  or  the  body  as  a  whole,  is  the 
same  thing  as  mind  or  spirit.  But  immortality  is  not 
equally  involved  in  the  idea  or  inseparable  from  it. 
Notably  the  Buddhistic  creed — held  by  a  consider- 
able fraction  of  mankind — teaches  its  votaries  to  look 
forward  to  utter  extinction  as  the  summum  honum. 
True,  the  masses  of  average  believers  may  not  dwell 
upon  the  hope  of  Nirvana,  but  upon  that  of  heaven.'^ 
But  the  authorised  dogma  of  the  Church  is,  that 
"  not  enjoyment  and  not  sorrow  is  our  destined  end  "  or 
goal,  but  the  absolute  rest,  if  so  it  may  be  called,  of 
ceasing  to  exist.  And  that  this  dogma  was  fervently 
accepted  and  thoroughly  believed  in  as  a  genuine 
"gospel,"  the  early  literature  of  Buddhism  amply 
proves.  The  Jews,  a  most  religious  people,  had  no 
settled  hope  of  immortality  provided  by  their  creed, 
though  the  account  of  the  creation  of  Adam  shows 
how  clearly  they  distinguished  mind  from  matter. 
AVarburton  indeed  infers  the  authenticity  of  the 
Hebrew  Revelation  from  the  very  fact  of  the  absence 
of  the  doctrine  of  immortality ;  for  no  author  of  a 
popular  religion,  except  God  himself,  could  have 
afforded  to  dispense  with  so  important  an  article. 
The  more  defective  Judaism  was,  the  more  clearly 
it  was  divine.  Nor  were  the  classical  nations  of 
Greece  and  Rome  at  all  more  certain.  AVith  them  also 
opinions  differed — some,  like  Plato  and  his  followers, 
asserting  the   immortality    of  the  soul ;    others,  like 

^  See  some  evidence  bearing  on  this  point  in  a  paper  by  the  autlior, 
entitled  "Recent  Publications  on  Buddhism,"  "Theological  Review," 
July  1872,  p.  313. 


SPIRIT  AND  MATTER  ENTIRELY  DISTINCT.  443 

Epicurus  and  liis  school,  denying  it.  Cicero  discusses 
it  as  an  open  question,  though  himself  holding  to  the 
belief  in  future  existence.  His  two  possible  alterna- 
tives are  continued  life  in  a  condition  of  happiness, 
or  utter  cessation  of  life ;  either  of  which  he  accepts 
with  equal  calmness.  The  fear  of  hell  did  not  torment 
him  :  "  post  mortem  quidem  sensus  aut  optandus  aut 
nullus  est."  ^  Even  if  we  are  not  to  be  immortal,  as 
he  hopes,  nevertheless  it  is  a  happy  thing  for  man  to 
be  extinguished  at  the  fitting  season.^  Less  philo- 
sophical people,  however,  were  troubled,  like  Christians, 
with  the  notion  of  a  future  world  of  punishment ;  and 
Lucretius  addresses  himself  with  all  the  ardour  of  a 
man  proclaiming  a  beneficent  gospel  to  the  dissipation 
of  this  popular  delusion  : — 

"  Nil  igitur  mors  est,  ad  nos  neqiie  pertinet  hilum, 
Qiiandoquidem  natura  animi  mortalis  habetur."^ 

Like  other  thinkers  of  his  time,  he  distinguishes 
between  the  animus  and  anima — spirit  and  soul,  and 
this  threefold  division  of  the  nature  of  man  subsisted 
for  a  time  in  the  lano;ua2:e  and  ideas  of  Christians. 
But  the  essential  point  is  that,  whatever  further  sub- 
divisions may  have  been  made,  all  schools,  ancient 
and  modern,  pagan  and  Cliristian,  agreed  in  the 
fundamental  distinction  between  the  spiritual  prin- 
ciple and  the  material  instruments  ;  between  mind 
and  matter,  or  soul  and  body. 

Such,  then,  is  the  universal  voice  of  the  religious 
instinct.  Let  us  test  the  truth  of  this  second  postu- 
late as  we  did  that  of  the  first :  by  endeavouring  to 

'  Cato  Major,  xx.  74.  -  Ibid.,  xxiii.  86. 

^  De  IvL'i'um  Nat.,  iii.  830. 


444  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

do  without  it.     Then  we  have  matter  and  motion  of 
matter;  and  the  problem  is: — Given  these  elements 
to  find  the  resultant,  mind.    Motion  is  merely  change 
of  matter  from  place  to  ]»lace  ;  therefore  the  question 
is,  whether  in  any  kind  of  matter  and  any  changes  of 
matter  we  can  discover  mind.     Consider  the  material 
world  statically.     As  known  to  science  (and  we  have 
no   right  to  go  beyond  scientific  observation  now), 
it  contains  certain  properties  perceptible  to  the  senses, 
such   as   colour,  sound,  taste,  and   smell,  rouo-hness 
smoothness,  and  other  tangible  qualities,  with   exten- 
sion and  resistance,  discoverable  by  the  muscular  sense 
and  touch  combined.     Any  further  properties  which 
a  deeper  analysis  may  disclose  will  still  belong  to  the 
domain  of  sensible  perception,  the  senses  being  the 
instruments  employed  in  their  discovery.     In  which 
of  these  statical   conditions  of  matter  can  mind  be 
shown   to   be   involved?     Or   what  combination    of 
statical  conditions  can  produce  mind  as   a   part   of 
the  compound  ?    Plainly  any  attempt  to  discover  it  in 
matter  at  rest  would  be  an  absurdity.     Now  consider 
the  world  dynamically.     Here   we    have    matter  in 
motion,  matter  as  the  recipient  and  the  transmitter  of 
certain  quantities  of  force.     The  mode  of  motion  may 
be  either   molar  (that  of  masses   through  space),  or 
molecular  (that  of  particles  within  a  mass).     In  either 
case  it  is  nothing  but  change  of  position  relatively  to 
other  objects.    Now,  how  can  change  of  position  either 
be  mind,  or  result  in  mind  ?    Take  the  case  of  a  planet 
whirling  through  space.     Does  this  molar  motion,  con- 
sidered in  any  conceivable  light,  bring  us  one  step 
nearer  to  mental  phenomena  ?    But  all  molar  motion 
is  of  the  same  kind,  and  however  completely  analysed. 


I 


NO  BRIDGE  BETWEEN  MIND  AND  MATTER.  445 

can  lead  to  nothing  but  matter  changing  its  position 
in  space.  Is  molecular  motion  in  better  case  ?  When 
light  is  transmitted  to  the  eye,  the  vibrations  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  form  the  objective  side  of  this 
phenomenon,  arriving  at  the  optic  nerve,  cause  corre- 
sponding vibrations  in  it,  and  these  transmitted  to 
the  brain  result  in  certain  movements  in  its  compo- 
nent particles.  Which  of  all  these  vibrations  and 
movements  is  sensation  ?  At  what  point  does  the 
physical  fact  of  changes  in  molecules  of  matter  pass 
into  the  mental  fact  of  changes  in  the  quantity  or 
quality  of  the  light  perceived  ?  Evidently  no  such 
point  of  transition  can  be  found.  And  not  only  can 
it  not  be  found,  but  the  bare  hypothesis  of  its  existence 
is  negatived  by  the  fact  that  every  physical  move- 
ment produces  an  exactly  equivalent  amount  of 
physical  movement ;  so  that  there  is  nothing  what- 
ever in  the  resultant  which  is  not  accounted  for  in 
the  antecedents,  and  nothing  in  the  antecedents 
which  has  not  its  full  effect  in  the  resultant.  There  is 
thus  no  room  left  for  the  passage  of  the  objective 
fact  of  molecular  motion  into  the  subjective  fact  of 
feeling. 

Although  these  considerations  practically  exhaust 
the  question,  yet  another  aspect  of  it  may,  for  the  sake 
of  greater  clearness,  be  briefly  touched  upon.  If  the 
doctrine  of  abiogenesis  be  accepted,  it  may  be  thought 
to  afford  some  confirmation  to  the  materialistic  hypo- 
thesis that  mind  is  but  a  function  or  property  of 
matter.  Do  we  not  here  see  (it  may  be  asked)  life  and 
sensation  arising  out  of  non-sentient  materials  ?  And 
if  a  single  living  creature  can  thus  arise,  then,  by  the 
doctrine  of  evolution,  all  mind  whatever  is  affiliated 


446  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

on  matter.  Such  a  conclusion,  however,  would  be 
quite  unwarranted  by  the  facts  observed.  In  abio- 
genesis  unorganic  matter  is  seen  to  pass  into  organic 
matter,  and  this  is  the  whole  of  the  process  known  to 
science.  To  assume  that  at  some  period  in  this  process 
the  material  constituents  of  the  newly- formed  creature 
acquire  the  property  of  sensation  is,  to  say  the  least, 
a  very  unscientific  proceeding.  For,  tliroughout  all 
their  permutations,  the  component  elements  can  (or 
could  with  improved  instruments)  be  exactly  observed, 
measured,  and  weighed  ;  enabling  us  to  say  that  so 
and  so  much,  such  and  such  of  the  inorganic  elements 
has  become  so  and  so  much,  such  and  such  of  the 
organic  compound.  Now  the  factors  of  this  compound 
do  not  {ex  hypotliesi)  contain  sensation.  How,  then, 
did  the  compound  acquire  it  ?  Where  is  your  warrant 
for  suddenly  introducing  a  consequent  sensation — 
for  which  you  have  no  assignable  antecedent  ? 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  between  mind  and  matter, 
between  spirit  and  body,  between  internal  and  external 
phenomena,  there  is  a  great  gulf  fixed,  which  no 
scientific  or  metaphysical  cunning  can  succeed  in 
bridging  over.  Matter  is  never  sensation,  and  cannot 
be  conceived  as  ever  becoming  sensation.  The  chain 
of  material  phenomena,  with  its  several  series  of  causes 
and  efiects,  is  never  broken ;  no  ph3'^sical  cause  is 
without  its  adequate  physical  effect,  nor  is  any 
physical  efiect  without  a  physical  cause  sufficient  to 
produce  it.  The  body  is  to  the  mind  an  external, 
material  phenomenon ;  closely  connected  indeed  with 
mental  states,  and  always  more  or  less  j)i'esent  to 
consciousness,  but  no  part  of  our  true  selves,  no 
necessary    element   in    our    conception    of    what    we 


NO  SPACE-RELATIONS  IN  CONSCIOUSNESS.    447 

actually  are.  Every  portion  of  the  bodily  frame  can 
be  regarded  by  us  as  an  outward  object,  wholly 
independent  of  ourselves,  and  logically,  if  not  practi- 
cally, separable  from  ourselves.  Many  portions,  such 
as  the  limbs,  are  actually  so  separable  ;  and  all  of  them 
are  separable  in  thought. 

Still  more  impassable  is  this  chasm  in  nature  seen 
to  be  when  we  remark,  that  there  are  two  all-pervading 
elements  in  which  mind  and  matter  have  their  beinfr, 
and  that  the  phenomena  within  each  element  have 
definite  relations  to  other  phenomena  within  the  same 
clement,  but  are  incapable  of  being  brought  into  a 
like  relation  with  those  of  the  other  element.  These 
two  elements  are  Space  and  Time.  Material  particles 
are  related  to  one  another  in  space,  and  in  space  alone. 
They  are  nearer  to,  or  more  distant  from,  above  or  below, 
to  the  north,  south,  east,  or  west  of,  the  other  material 
particles  with  which  we  compare  them.  But  they  are 
not  earlier  or  later  than  other  particles.  The  exist- 
ence of  concrete  objects  may  be  earlier  or  later  than 
that  of  other  concrete  objects  ;  but  when  we  talk  of 
their  existence  as  earlier  or  later,  we  are  talking  of 
their  relation  to  consciousness,  not  of  their  relation  to 
one  another.  It  is  the  total  framed  and  classified  by 
the  mind  that  has  a  relation  in  time  to  some  other 
similar  total ;  each  total,  analysed  into  its  ultimate 
atoms,  has  only  relations  in  space  to  the  other  total, 
likewise  analysed  into  its  ultimate  atoms.  Contrari- 
wise, mental  objects,  or  states  of  consciousness,  are 
related  to  one  another  in  time,  and  in  time  alone. 
States  of  consciousness  can  be  compared  as  earlier  or 
later,  simultaneous  or  successive.  They  have  no 
space-relations  either  to  one  another  or  to  the  material 


448  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

world.  It  is  common  indeed  to  consider  the  mind 
as  located  in  the  body,  but  tliis  is  incorrect.  For 
absolutely  nothing  is  meant  by  saying  that  anytliing 
is  in  a  given  place  except  that  it  stands  in  given  space- 
relations  to  surrounding  objects.  My  body  is  in  a 
place  because  it  is  upon  the  ground,  in  the  air,  heloiv 
the  clouds,  amid  a  certain  environment  which  consti- 
tutes the  country  and  locality  of  that  country  which  it 
is  in.  But  my  mind  has  no  surrounding  objects  of 
this  nature  at  all.  The  thought,  say,  of  a  distant 
friend  can  by  no  possibility  be  imagined  as  enclosed 
within  the  grey  matter  of  the  brain,  just  to  the  right 
of  a  nerve  A,  and  in  contact  with  a  ganglion  B.  This 
thought,  and  its  accompanying  emotion,  could  not  be 
found  by  any  vivisection  (if  such  were  possible),  though 
its  correlative  physical  condition  might.  Hence  the 
mind  is  not  in  the  body,  but  is  an  independent  entity 
whose  phenomena,  successive  in  time,  run  parallel  to 
but  never  intermingle  with  the  phenomena  of  body, 
extended  in  space. 

From  the  view  here  stated  of  the  irremovable 
distinction  between  mind  and  matter  an  important 
corollary  will  be  seen  to  follow.^  No  physical  move- 
ment (it  has  been  shown)  can  be  conceived  as  passing 
into  a  state  of  consciousness,  for  each  physical  move- 
ment begets  further  physical  movement,  and  while  it 
is  fully  spent  in  its  physical  consequent  is  itself  fully 

^  The  doctrine  here  stated  is  not  my  own  invention.  It  was  first 
pnblished  (so  far  as  I  know)  by  Mr  Shadworth  Hodgson  in  his  "  Tlieory 
of  Practice,"  vol.  i.  p.  416-436,  §  57;  hut  I  am  indebted  for  my 
acquaintance  with  it  to  Mr  D.  A.  Spalding,  who  discovered  it  inde- 
pendently, and  announced  it  in  the  Examiner,  December  30,  1871  ; 
September  6,  1873;  March  14,  1874;  and  in  Nature,  ivuviavy  8,  1874. 
See  also  his  letter  to  tiie  Spectator,  November  21,  1874. 


CONSCIOUS  STATES  AND  PHYSICAL.        449 

accounted  for  by  its  physical  antecedent.  The  con- 
verse of  this  doctrine  must  therefore  l)e  equally  true. 
That  is  to  say,  no  state  of  consciousness  can  pass  into 
a  physical  movement,  for,  if  it  could,  this  movement 
would  have  another  than  a  physical  antecedent.  In 
other  words,  the  mind  can  in  no  way  influence  the 
actions  of  the  body.  It  cannot  stand  in  a  causal 
relation  to  any  physical  fiict  whatever.  Hence  the 
doctrine  of  the  will  (not  only  of  free  will  but  of  any 
will)  falls  to  the  ground.  For  the  current  conception 
of  a  will  supposes  that  a  chain  of  material  events 
passes  at  some  point  in  its  course  into  a  state  of 
consciousness,  and  that  this  state  of  consciousness 
again  originates  a  chain  of  material  events.  Say  that 
I  hear  some  one  call  my  name,  and  go  to  the  window 
to  ascertain  who  it  is.  Then  the  common  explanation 
would  be,  not  only  that  the  atmospheric  undulations, 
which  are  the  material  correlative  of  sound  passing 
into  the  brain  by  the  auditory  nerves,  produced  the 
sensation  of  hearing,  which  is  true,  but  that  this 
sensation  in  its  turn  produced  those  exertions  of  the 
limbs  which  result  in  my  arrival  at  the  window, 
which  is  erroneous.  According  to  the  view  here 
adopted,  the  atmospheric  undulations  stand  in  a  direct 
relation  of  causation  to  the  affection  of  the  auditory 
nerve,  and  this  affection,  in  a  direct  relation  of  causa- 
tion, to  the  resulting  movements.  The  states  of  con- 
sciousness in  like  manner  stand  in  a  direct  relation  of 
simple  sequence  to  each  other  ;  the  sensation  of  sitting 
in  a  room  being  followed  by  that  of  hearing  my  name, 
this  by  the  thought  that  there  is  some  one  outside 
calling  me,  this  by  the  sensation  of  motion  through 

VOL.  II.  2  F 


450  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

space,  and  tliis  last  by  that  of  seeing  the  person  from 
whom  the  call  emanated  standing  in  the  expected 
place.  But  at  no  point  can  the  one  train  of  events  be 
converted  into  the  other.  And  while  the  train  of 
external  sequences  does  influence  the  train  of  internal 
sequences,  this  latter  has  no  corresponding  influence 
upon  the  former.  For  this  would  imply  that  at  some 
period  in  the  succession  physical  movements  lost 
themselves  in  consciousness ;  ceased  to  he  physical 
movements,  and  became  something  of  an  alien  nature. 
It  would  imply  further  that  such  movements  originated 
de  novo  from  something  of  an  alien  nature  having  no 
calculable  or  measurable  relation  to  them.  Either  of 
which  implications  would  constitute  an  exception  to 
the  Persistence  of  Force. 

Man  is,  in  short,  as  the  adherents  of  this  opinion 
have  called  him,  a  "  conscious  automaton."  He  does 
not  will  his  own  actions,  nor  do  external  manifesta- 
tions, whether  those  of  the  unconscious  or  the  con- 
scious orders  of  existence,  influence  his  will  But 
along  with  the  set  of  objective  facts  there  is  always 
present  a  parallel  set  of  subjective  facts,  and  the  sub- 
jective facts  stand  in  an  invariable  relation  to  the 
objective  facts.  So  that  where  the  material  circum- 
stances, both  those  of  the  surrounding  world  and 
those  of  the  body,  are  of  a  given  character,  the  non- 
material  circumstance,  the  state  of  mind,  is  also  of 
a  given  and  precisely  corresponding  character.  Varia- 
tions in  the  one  imply  variations  in  the  other  ;  feel- 
ings in  the  one  change  or  remain  fixed  with  changes 
or  fixity  in  the  other. 

Could  the  friends  of  dogmatic  religion  know  the 


MATERIALISM  UNPHILOSOPHIC.  451 

things  belonging  to  their  peace,  they  would  bestow 
upon  this  doctrine  their  most  earnest  support ;  for  it 
deals  the  death-blow  to  that  semi-scientific  materi- 
alism which  derives  a  certain  countenance  from  the 
discoveries  of  the  day,  and  which  is — second  to 
religious  dogmas  themselves — the  most  dangerous 
enemy  of  the  spiritual  conception  of  the  universe  and 
of  mankind.  Not  that  in  liftinor  a  voice  ao-ainst 
materialistic  views,  I  mean  for  a  moment  to  lend  a 
helping  hand  to  the  vulgar  and  irreverent  outcry 
which  is  so  often  raised  aoainst  matter  itself  as  some- 
thing  gross  and  degraded,  and  deserving  only  of  a 
contemptuous  tolerance  at  our  hands.  I  should  have 
thought  that  the  endless  beauty  of  the  material  uni- 
verse, and  the  varied  enjoyments  to  be  derived  from 
its  contemplation,  as  also  the  profound  instruction 
to  be  obtained  by  its  study,  would  have  sufficed 
to  give  it  a  higher  place  in  the  estimation  of  religious 
minds.  With  such  opposition  to  materialism  as  this 
I  can  have  no  vestige  of  sympathy.  The  form  of 
materialism  which  I  contend  against,  not  as  irre- 
ligious but  as  unphilosophic,  is  that  which  con- 
founds the  two  orders  of  phenomena — physical  and 
mental — under  one  idea,  that  of  matter.  Matter  is 
supposed  in  this  philosophy  to  be  the  parent  of  mind. 
A  bridge  is  sought  to  be  thrown  across  the  great  gulf 
which  is  fixed  between  us  and  the  world  without. 
But  the  moment  we  seek  to  walk  over  this  imaginary 
bridge  it  crashes  beneath  our  feet,  and  we  are  hurled 
into  the  abyss  below. 

Between  that  which  feels,  thinks,  perceives,  and 
reasons   on   the    one   hand,  and   that  which    is  felt. 


452  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

thought  about,  perceived,  and  reasoned  on,  there  is  no 
community  of  nature.  The  distinction  between  these 
two,  though  it  need  not  be  ultimate  in  the  order  of 
things,  is  absolutely  ultimate  in  the  order  of  thought. 
In  their  own  undiscoverable  nature  these  two  mani- 
festations may  be  one  ;  in  their  relation  to  us  they 
are  for  ever  two. 


[  453  1 


CHAPTER  IV. 

TITE    RELATION    OF   THE   OBJECTIVE   TO    THE  SUBJECTIVE 

ELEMENT. 

One  final  postulate  has  been  found  to  be  involved  in 
all  religion,  namely,  that  between  the  human  essence 
spoken  of  as  the  subjective  element,  and  the  power 
spoken  of  as  the  objective  element,"  there  is  held  to 
be  a  singular  correspondence,  their  relationship  find- 
ing its  concrete  expression  in  religious  worship  on 
the  one  side  and  theological  dogma  on  the  other." 
Ritual,  consecration  of  things  and  places,  ordination 
of  priests,  omens,  inspiration  of  prophets  and  of 
books,  all  of  them  imply  the  supposed  possibility  of 
such  a  relation.  All  of  them,  however,  from  their 
contradictory  and  variable  character,' prove  that  they 
are  but  imperfect  efforts  to  find  utterance  for  the 
emotion  which  underlies  them  all.  But  that  this 
emotion  is  incapable  of  an  explanation  consistent 
with  rational  belief  is  not  therefore  to  be  taken  for 
granted. 

Consider,  first,  that  in  order  to  be  aware  of  the 
existence  of  the  ultimate  and  unknown  power,  we 
must  possess  some  faculty  in  our  constitution  by 
which  that  power  is  felt.  It  must,  so  to  speak,  come 
in  contact  with  us  at  some  point  in  our  nature. 

Now,  no   sensible   perception  can  lead  us  to  this 


454    RELATION  OF  OBJECTIVE  TO  SUBJECTIVE. 

conception  as  a  generalisation.  The  whole  universe, 
regarded  merely  as  a  series  of  presentations  to  the 
senses,  contains  not  a  single  object  which  can  pos- 
sibly suggest  it.  Nor  can  any  combination  of  such 
presentations  be  shown  to  include  within  them  any 
such  idea.  Neither  can  the  existence  of  such  a  power 
be  inferred  by  the  exercise  of  the  reasoning  faculty. 
There  is  no  analogical  case  from  which  the  inference 
can  be  drawn.  When  we  reason  we  proceed  from 
something  known  to  something  unknown,  and  con- 
clude that  the  latter,  resembling  the  former  in  one 
or  more  of  its  qualities,  will  resemble  it  also  in  the 
quality  yet  to  be  established.  In  exploring,  for  in- 
stance, some  deserted  spot,  we  find  traces  of  a  build- 
ing. Now,  previous  experience  has  taught  us  that 
such  buildings  are  only  found  where  human  builders 
have  made  them.  We  conclude,  therefore,  that  we 
have  stumbled  upon  a  work  of  human  hands.  Sup- 
pose we  explore  further  and  find  the  remains  of  the 
building  very  extensive.  We  now  draw  the  further 
inference  that  it  was  inhabited  by  a  wealthy  man, 
because  we  know  that  only  the  wealthy  can  afford  to 
live  in  magnificent  houses.  But  if  prolonged  excava- 
tion lead  to  the  discovery  of  long  rows  of  buildings, 
of  various  sizes  and  having  streets  between  them, 
we  confidently  assert  that  we  have  unearthed  a  ruined 
city ;  for  we  are  aware  that  no  single  man,  however 
rich  or  powerful,  is  likely  to  have  built  so  much.  Of 
these  three  inferences,  the  first  only  is,  strictly  speak- 
ing, infallibly  true.  But  the  others  are  rendered  by 
familiar  analogies  so  highly  probable  as  to  be  practi- 
cally certain.  Now  let  the  thing  sought  be,  not  some 
single  cause  of  a  single  phenomenon,  or  the  various 


THE  UNKNOWN  SUBJECTIVELY  WARRANTED.  455 

causes  of  various  phenomena,  but  the  ultimate  cause  of 
all  phenomena  whatever, — where  is  the  corresponding 
case  on  which  we  can  proceed  to  argue  ?  Plainly  there 
is  none.  There  is  no  otlier  world  or  system  to  which 
we  can  appeal  and  say,  "Those  stars  and  those  planets 
were  made  by  a  God,  therefore  our  own  sun  and  its 
planets  must  have  been  made  by  a  God  also."  Every 
single  argument  we  can  frame  to  establish  the  exist- 
ence of  deity  assumes  in  its  major  premiss  the  very 
thing  to  be  proved.  It  takes  for  granted  that  pheno- 
menal objects  require  a  cause,  and  were  not  the  idea 
of  this  necessity  already  in  the  mind  it  could  not 
take  one  single  step.  For  if  it  be  contended,  say, 
that  the  world  could  not  exist  without  a  Creator,  we 
have  but  to  ask,  "  AVhy  not  ?  "  and  our  adversary  can 
proceed  no  further  with  his  argument.  All  he  can 
ever  do  is  to  appeal  to  a  sentiment  in  us  corresponding 
to  the  sentiment  of  which  he  himself  is  conscious. 

Thus  it  appears  that  neither  direct  observation,  nor 
reasoning,  which  is  generalised  observation,  supplies 
the  materials  for  an  induction  as  to  the  existence  of 
an  Unknowable  Cause.  Yet  this  idea  is  so  persistent 
in  the  human  race  as  to  resist  every  effort  to  do  with- 
out it.  In  one  form  or  another  it  invariably  creeps  in. 
There  is  but  one  possible  explanation  of  such  a  fact : 
namely,  that  it  is  one  of  those  primary  constituents  of 
our  nature  which  are  incapable  of  proof  because  they 
are  themselves  the  foundations  on  which  proof  must 
be  erected.  We  cannot  demonstrate  a  single  law  of 
nature  without  supposing  a  world  external  to  our- 
selves. And  we  cannot  suppose  a  world  external  to 
ourselves  without  referring  explicitly  or  implicitly 
to  an  unknown  entity  manifested  in  that  world.     The 


456    RELATION  OF  OBJECTIVE  TO  SUBJECTIVE. 

faculty  by  wliicli  tLis  truth  is  known  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a  kind  of  internal  sense.  It  is  a  direct 
perception.  And  precisely  as  objects  of  direct  per- 
ception by  the  senses  appear  widely  dissimilar  at  dif- 
ferent distances,  to  different  men,  and  to  the  same  man 
at  different  times,  so  the  object  of  the  religious  emo- 
tion is  variously  conceived  in  different  places  and 
ages,  by  different  men,  and  by  the  same  man  at 
different  times.  Moreover,  as  the  religious  sentiment 
in  the  mind  of  man  perceives  its  object,  the  Ultimate 
Being,  so  that  Being  is  conceived  as  making  itself 
known  to  the  the  mind  of  man  through  the  religious 
sentiment.  A  reciprocal  relation  is  thus  established  ; 
the  Unknowable  causing  a  peculiar  intuition,  the  mind 
of  man  receiving  it.  And  this  is  the  grain  of  fact  at 
the  foundation  of  the  numerous  statements  of  religious 
men,  that  they  have  felt  themselves  inspired  by  God, 
that  he  speaks  to  them  and  speaks  through  them,  that 
they  enter  into  communion  with  him  in  prayer,  and 
obey  his  influence  during  their  lives.  We  need  not 
discard  such  feelino;s  as  idle  delusions.  In  form 
they  are  fanciful  and  erroneous ;  in  suljstance  they  are 
genuine  and  true.  And  in  a  hioher  sense  the  adhe- 
rent  of  the  universal  religion  may  himself  admit  their 
title  to  a  place  in  his  nature.  To  use  the  words  of  a 
great  philosopher,  "he,  like  every  other  man,  may 
consider  himself  as  one  of  the  myriad  agencies 
through  whom  works  the  Unknown  Cause;  "  "he  too 
may  feel  that  when  the  Unknown  Cause  produces  in 
him  a  certain  belief,  he  is  thereby  authorised  to  profess 
and  act  out  that  belief."  ^ 
But  we  may  go  still  deeper  in  our  examination  of 

^  Spencer's  "  First  Principles,"  2nd  ed.,  §  34,  p,  123. 


REALISTIC  AND  IDEALISTIC  HYPOTHESIS.  457 

the  nature  of  the  relation  between  the  Ultimate  Being 
and  the  mind  of  man.  To  do  so  we  must  briefly 
recur  to  the  philosophical  questions  touched  upon  in 
the  second  chapter  of  this  Book.  We  there  discussed 
four  possible  modes  of  viewing  the  great  problem 
presented  by  the  existence  of  sensible  objects : 
Common  and  Metaphysical  Realism,  Moderate  and 
Complete  Idealism.  Let  us  briefly  reconsider  these 
several  systems  to  discover  whether  any  one  of  them 
afibrds  a  satisfactory  solution. 

Common  Realism  is  excluded  by  the  consideration 
tbat  it  treats  the  qualities  of  external  objects  as  exist- 
ing in  those  objects  and  not  in  the  percipient  subject. 
It  requires  but  little  reflection  to  prove  that  such 
qualities  are  modes  of  consciousness  ;  not  modes  of 
absolute  being.  This  defect  is  surmounted  in  Meta- 
physical Realism,  which,  however,  is  liable  to  the  fatal 
objection,  that  it  takes  for  granted  an  abstract  sub- 
stance in  material  things,  which  substance  is  like 
the  Unknowable,  utterly  inconceivable,  yet  is  not  the 
Unknowable,  and  is  incapable  of  accounting  for  any 
of  the  manifestations  belono-ino:  to  the  mental  order. 
So  that  we  should  have  a  superfluous  entity  brought 
in  to  form  the  substance  of  matter,  of  wdiich  entity 
neither  our  senses,  nor  our  reason,  nor  our  emotions, 
give  us  any  information.  For  matter,  in  the  abstract, 
is  not  the  matter  perceived  by  the  senses  ;  nor  is  it 
the  object  of  the  religious  sentiment ;  nor  is  its  exist- 
ence capable  of  any  kind  of  proof  save  that  which 
consists  in  establishing  the  necessity  of  some  kind  of 
Permanent  Reality  below  phenomena.  And  this 
Reality  is  not  only  the  substratum  of  material,  but  of 
all  phenomena  whatsoever.     Moderate  Idealism  is  in 


458    RELATION  OF  OBJECTIVE  TO  SUBJECTIVE. 

no  better  case.  For  in  denyiug  all  true  existence 
except  to  living  creatures  it  fails  utterly  to  give  any 
rational  account  of  that  order  of  events  which  is 
universally  and  instinctively  referred  to  external 
causes,  nor  can  it  find  any  possible  origin  for  the 
living  creatures  in  whose  reality  it  believes.  Extreme 
Idealism  recognises  no  problem  to  be  dealt  with,  and 
can  therefore  offer  no  solution. 

Each  of  these  systems,  however,  while  false  as  a 
whole,  contains  a  j)f^i'tial  truth.  Extreme  Idealism  is 
the  outcome  of  the  ordinary,  unreflecting  Realism  ;  for 
if  the  Common  Realist  be  convinced  that  aj)pearances 
do  not  imply  existence,  and  if  he  believe  in  no  exist- 
ence but  appearances,  the  ground  is  cut  from  under 
his  feet,  and  he  remains  standing  upon  nothing.  He 
knows  only  phenomena,  and  the  phenomena  are  mere 
ideas  of  his  own  mind.  The  truth  common  to  these 
two  extremes  is  that  so  emphatically  asserted  by 
Berkeley,  that  the  esse  of  material  objects  mpercipi; 
that  we  exhaust  the  physical  phenomenon  when  we 
describe  its  apparent  qualities,  and  need  not  introduce 
besides  these  a  material  substance  to  which  those 
qualities  are  related  as  its  accidents.  They  are  not 
the  accidents,  but  the  actual  thing,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
material.  Metaphysical  Realism  and  moderate  Ideal- 
ism are  united  in  the  recoonition  of  the  truth  that 
the  phenomena  are  not  the  ultimate  realities,  and  that 
the  qualities  of  bodies,  when  analysed,  are  subjective, 
not  objective  ;  forms  of  the  human  mind,  and  not  inde- 
pendent, external  existences. 

Hence  these  various  philosophies,  like  the  various 
religions  of  which  they  are  in  some  sort  metaphysical 
parallels,  must  be  considered  as  preparing  the  way  for 


THE  UNKNOWABLE  ALL-COMPREHENDING.  459 

tlie    admission  of  that  all-embracing  truth  which  is 
the  common  ground  of  metaphysics  and  religion. 

Examine  a  simple  objective  phenomenon.  Then  you 
find  that  you  can  separate  it  into  all  its  component 
qualities  :  its  colour,  taste,  smell,  extension,  and  so 
forth  ;  and  that  after  all  these  qualities  have  been  taken 
into  account  nothing  of  the  object  remains  save  the 
vague  feeling  of  an  unknown  cause  by  which  the 
whole  phenomenon  is  produced.  All  the  apparent 
qualities,  without  exception,  are  resolvable  into  modes 
of  consciousness,  but  the  whole  object  is  not  so  resolv- 
able. For  the  question  still  remains.  How  did  we  come 
to  have  those  modes  of  consciousness?  Thus  the  ana- 
lysis of  the  commonest  material  object  leads  us  straight 
to  an  unknowable  orio^in  of  known  manifestations.  And 
each  particular  phenomenon  brings  us  to  the  same  result. 
But  are  we  to  assume  a  special  Unknowable  for  each 
special  object?  A  little  consideration  will  show  that 
the  division  and  subdivision  we  make  of  the  objects  of 
sensible  perception  resembles  their  apparent  qualities 
in  being  purely  subjective,  and  indeed  more  than 
subjective,  arbitrary.  For  I  consider  an  object  as  one 
or  many,  according  to  the  point  of  view  from  which 
I  regard  it.  The  glass  which  I  hold  in  my  hand  is  at 
this  moment  one ;  but  the  next  moment  it  is  shivered 
into  a  thousand  atoms,  and  each  of  these  atoms  is  of 
complex  character,  and  resolvable  into  still  simpler 
parts.  The  planet  we  inhabit  is,  for  the  astronomer,  one 
object ;  for  the  geologist  a  number  of  distinct  rocks  ; 
for  the  botanist  it  is  composed  of  mineral  and  A^ege- 
tablc  constituents,  and  of  these,  the  latter,  which  alone 
engage  his  attention,  are  numerous  and  various  ;  for 
the  chemist  it  consists  of  an  infinite  multitude  of  elo- 


46o    RELATION  OF  OB/ECTIVE  TO  SUBJECTIVE. 

mentary  atoms  variously  combined.  Hence  unity  and 
multiplicity  are  mere  modes  of  subjective  reflection  ; 
not  ultimate  modes  of  objective  being.  And  the 
Unknowable  cannot,  strictly  speaking,  be  regarded  as 
either  one  or  many,  since  each  alike  implies  limitation 
and  separation  from  something  else.  Eather  is  it 
all-comj)rehending  ;  the  Universal  Foundation  upon 
Avhich  unity  and  multiplicity  alike  are  built. 

Material  things,  then,  are  analysable  into  modes  of 
consciousness  with  an  unknown  cause  to  which  these 
modes  are  due.  But  what  is  consciousness  itself? 
Like  matter,  it  has  its  subjective  and  its  objective 
aspect.  The  subjective  aspect  consists  of  its  various 
phenomenal  conditions ;  the  sensations  which  we 
ascribe  to  outward  objects  as  their  producing  causes, 
and  the  emotions,  passions,  thoughts,  and  feelings 
which  we  conceive  as  of  internal  origin.  The  objective 
aspect  consists  of  the  unknown  essence  itself  which 
experiences  these  various  states  ;  of  the  very  self  which 
is  supposed  to  persist  through  all  its  changes  of  form  ; 
of  the  actual  being  which  is  the  ultimate  Reality  of 
our  mental  lives.  The  existence  of  this  ultimate  Eofo 
is  known  as  an  immediate  fact  of  consciousness,  and 
cannot  be  called  in  question  without  impugning  the 
direct  assurance  which  every  one  feels  of  his  own 
being  as  ai)art  from  his  particular  and  transient 
feelings.  Nobody  believes  that  he  is  the  several  sen- 
sations and  emotions  which  he  experiences  in  life ;  he 
believes  that  he  has  them.  And  if  the  existence  of 
the  Unknowable  underlying  material  manifestations 
is  perceived  by  a  direct,  indubitable  inference,  the  exist- 
ence of  the  Unknowable  underlying  mental  manifes- 
tations is  perceived  without  an  inference  at  all  by  an 


THE  ONE  ASSURED  BY  EXISTENT  REALITY.  461 

intuition  from  which  there  is  no  appeal.  For  no  one 
can  even  attempt  to  reason  with  me  about  this  convic- 
tion without  resting  his  argument  upon  facts,  and 
inferences  from  facts,  which  are  in  themselves  less  cer- 
tain than  this  primary  certainty  which  he  is  seeking 
to  overthrow. 

Existence,  then,  is  known  to  us  immediately  in  our 
own  case ;  mediately  in  every  other — consequently, 
the  only  conception  we  can  frame  of  existence  is 
derived  from  ourselves.  Hence  when  we  say  that 
anything  exists,  we  can  only  mean  one  of  two  things: 
either  that  it  exists  as  a  mode  of  human  consciousness, 
as  in  the  case  of  material  things ;  or  that  it  exists  'per 
se,  and  is  the  very  substance  of  consciousness  itself. 
And  the  former  of  these  modes  of  existence  is  alto- 
gether dejDendent  upon  a  conscious  subject.  A  mate- 
rial object  is  a  congeries  of  material  qualities,  none 
of  which  can  be  conceived  at  all  except  in  relation 
to  some  percipient  subject.  Take  away  the  subject, 
and  colour,  extension,  solidity,  sound,  smell,  and  every 
other  quality,  vanish  into  nothing.  The  existence  of 
these  qualities,  and  hence  the  existence  of  matter  itself 
in  its  phenomenal  character,  is  relative  and  second- 
ary. There  remains  therefore  only  the  second  of  these 
two  modes  of  existence  as  absolute  and  primary. 
The  substance  of  consciousness,  then,  is  the  one  real- 
ity which  is  known  to  exist ;  and  in  no  other  form  is 
existence  in  its  purity  conceivable  by  us.  For  if  we 
attempt  to  conceive  a  something  as  existent  which  is 
neither  object  nor  subject,  neither  that  which  is  felt 
nor  that  which  feels,  neither  that  which  is  thought 
nor  that  which  thinks,  we  must  inevitably  fail. 
There  is  no  tcrtiiun  quid  which  is  neither  mind  nor 


462    RELATION  OF  OBJECTIVE  TO  SUBJECTIVE. 

matter  of  which  we  can  frame  the  most  remote  con- 
ce23tion.  We  may,  if  we  please,  imagine  the  existence 
of  such  a  tertium  quid,  but  the  hyjDothesis  is  alto- 
gether fanciful,  and  would  have  nothing  in  science, 
nothing  in  the  construction  of  the  human  mind,  to 
render  it  even  plausible.  Indeed,  it  would  be  making 
an  illegitimate  use  of  the  word  "existence"  to  apply  it 
in  such  a  sense.  Existence  to  us  means  consciousness, 
and  never  can  mean  anything  else.  We  cannot  by 
any  efibrt  conceive  a  universe  previous  to  the  origin 
of  life  in  which  there  was  no  consciousness ;  for  the 
moment  we  attempt  to  conceive  it,  we  import  our  own 
consciousness  into  it.  We  think  of  ourselves  as  see- 
ing or  feeling  it.  The  effort,  therefore,  to  frame  an 
idea  of  any  existing  thing  without  including  conscious- 
ness in  the  idea  is  self-defeating,  and  when  we  pre- 
dicate Existence  of  the  Unknown  Cause,  we  predicate 
its  kinship  to  that  ultimate  substance  of  the  mind  from 
which  alone  our  conception  of  absolute  existence  is 
derived. 

Here,  then,  we  have  a  second  and  more  intimate 
relationship  between  the  objective  and  the  subjective 
elements  in  the  religious  emotion.  They  are  found 
to  be  of  kindred  nature  ;  or,  to  speak  with  stricter 
caution,  it  is  found  that  we  cannot  think  of  them  but 
as  thus  akin  to  one  another.  We  must  ever  bear  in 
mind,  however,  that  our  thoughts  upon  such  a  subject 
as  this  can  be  no  more  than  partial  approximations  to 
the  truth ;  tentative  explorations  in  a  dark  region  of 
the  mind  rather  than  accurate  measurements  of  the 
ground.  Thus,  in  the  present  instance,  we  have  spoken 
of  the  Unknowable  as  more  or  less  akin  to  the  mind 
of  man  ;  yet  we  cannot  think  of  the  Unknowable  as 


THE  UNKNOWN  INCLUDES  CONSCIOUSNESS.  463 

resemblinfr  the  fleetinof  states  which  are  all  that  we 
know  by  direct  observation  of  the  constitution  of  the 
mind.  It  is  not  the  passing  and  variable  modes,  but 
the  fixed  and  unchangeable  substratum  on  which  those 
modes  are  conceived  to  be  impressed,  which  the  Un- 
knowable must  be  held  to  resemble.  And  this  sub- 
stratum itself  is  an  absolute  mystery.  We  can  in  no 
way  picture  it  to  ourselves  without  its  modes,  which 
nevertheless  we  cannot  regard  as  appertaining  to  its 
ultimate  being.  One  further  consideration  will 
establish  a  yet  closer  relationship  than  that  of  like- 
ness. The  Unknown  Reality,  which  is  the  source  of 
all  phenomena  whatsoever,  mental  and  physical,  must 
of  necessity  include  within  itself  that  mode  of  exist- 
ence which  is  manifested  in  consciousness  ;  for  other- 
wise, we  must  imagine  yet  another  power  as  the 
originator  of  conscious  life,  and  we  should  then  have 
two  unknown  entities,  still  requiring  a  higher  entity 
behind  them  both,  to  effect  that  entire  harmony 
which  actually  subsists  between  them.  Tlie  Unknow- 
able is,  therefore,  the  hidden  source  from  which  both 
the  great  streams  of  being,  internal  and  external, 
take  their  rise.  Since,  then,  our  minds  themselves 
originate  in  that  Universal  Source,  since  it  compre- 
hends every  form  of  existence  within  itself,  we  stand 
to  it  in  the  relation  of  parts  to  a  whole,  in  which  and 
by  which  those  parts  subsist.  There  is  thus  not  only 
likeness  but  identity  of  nature  between  ourselves  and 
our  unknown  Origin.  And  it  is  literally  true  that 
in  it  "we  live,  and  move,  and  have  our  being." 

From   the   summit  to  which   we   have   at   length 
attained,  we  may  survey  the  ground  we  have  already 


464    RELATION  OF  OBJECTIVE  TO  SUBJECTIVE. 

traversed,  and  compreliend,  now  tliat  tliey  lie  below 
us,  a  few  of  the  intricacies  wliicU  we  met  with  on 
our  way.  The  apparent  puzzle  of  automatism,  for 
example,  may  be  resolved  into  a  more  comprehensive 
law.  It  was  shown,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  preceding 
chapter,  that  a  train  of  physical  events  could  in  no 
way  impinge  upon,  or  pass  over  into,  a  train  of  mental 
events,  nor  a  state  of  consciousness  be  converted  into 
physical  movements.  But  it  was  hinted  that,  while 
the  distinction  between  the  two  great  series  of  mani- 
festations, those  of  mind  and  those  of  matter,  was 
ultimate  in  the  order  of  thought,  it  need  not  be  ulti- 
mate in  the  order  of  things.  Of  this  suggested  pos- 
sibility we  have  now  found  the  confirmation ;  for  we 
have  seen  that  material  phenomena,  analysed  to  their 
lowest  terms,  resolve  themselves  into  forms  of  con- 
sciousness, and  forms  of  consciousness,  analysed  in 
their  turn,  23rove  to  be  the  varied  modes  of  an  unknown 
subject ;  and  this  unknown  subject  has  its  roots  in 
the  ultimate  Being  in  which  both  these  great  divisions 
of  the  phenomenal  universe  find  their  foundation  and 
their  origin.  The  distinction,  therefore,  between  the 
mental  and  the  material  train  belono;s  to  these  trains 
in  their  character  of  phenomena  alone.  They  are 
distin2:uished  in  the  human  mind,  not  in  the  order  of 
nature.  Thus,  if  we  recur  to  the  illustration  used  in 
explaining  automatism,  we  pointed  out  that  in  the 
circumstance  of  hearing  a  call  and  going  to  the  win- 
dow, two  series  might  be  thus  distinguished  :  i.  The 
material  series,  consisting  of  atmospheric  undulations, 
affections  of  the  nerves  and  matter  of  the  brain, 
movements  of  the  body ;  2.  The  mental  series,  con- 
sisting of  the  sensations  of  sitting  still,  and  hearing 


CONSCIOUS  CAUSE  AND  PHYSICAL  EFFECT.  465 

of  the  thought  of  a  person,  of  the  sensations  of  motion, 
and  seeing  the  person.  Now,  if  we  take  the  trouble 
to  observe  the  terms  of  which  the  first  series  is  com- 
posed, we  shall  see  that  they  also  express  states  of 
consciousness,  though  states  of  a  different  kind  from 
those  contained  in  the  terms  of  the  second  series. 
Undulations,  nervous  affections,  movements,  and  so 
forth,  are  only  intelligible  by  us  as  modifications  of 
our  consciousness.  To  conceive  in  any  degree  the 
atmospheric  perturbations  which  are  the  physical 
correlatives  of  sound,  we  must  imagine  them  as  some- 
how felt  or  perceived — for  instance,  as  a  faint  breeze. 
To  conceive  the  cerebral  changes  implied  in  hearing, 
we  must  imagine  ourselves  as  dissecting  and  examin- 
ing the  interior  of  the  brain.  In  other  words,  the 
external  train  of  events  to  which  consciousness  runs 
ever  parallel  can  only  be  represented  in  thought  by 
translating  it  into  terms  of  consciousness ;  and  the 
absolute  harmony  of  both  these  trains,  the  fact  that 
while  states  of  consciousness  do  not  originate  the 
movements  of  our  bodies,  they  yet  bear  so  unvarying 
a  relation  to  them  as  to  be  mistaken  for  their  causes, 
finds  its  solution  in  the  reflection  that,  when  we  look 
below  the  appearances  to  the  reality  pervading  both, 
it  is  the  same  Universal  Being  which  is  manifested  in 
each  alike. 

Hence,  too,  the  sense  of  independent  power  to 
produce  physical  efiects  in  accordance  with  mental 
conceptions,  which  forms  the  great  obstacle  to  the 
freneral  admission  of  the  doctrine  of  human  automa- 
tism.  Eeason  as  we  may,  we  still  feel  that  we  are 
reservoirs  of  force  which  we  give  out  in  the  shape  of 
material   movement  whenever  we   please  and  as  we 

VOL.  II.  2  G 


466    RELATION  TO  THE  SVBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

please.  And  if  the  doctrine  of  the  Persistence  of  Force 
appears,  by  showing  that  every  physical  consequent 
has  a  purely  physical  antecedent,  to  contradict  this 
feeling,  we  naturally  give  the  preference  to  the  feeling 
over  the  doctrine.  But  since  the  Persistence  of  Force 
is  itself  no  less  firmly  seated  in  consciousness  than  the 
sense  of  independent  power — since  all  nature  would 
be  a  chaos  without  the  Persistence  of  Force — it  is 
the  part  of  true  philosophy  to  give  its  due  to  each. 
And  this  may  be  done  by  admitting  the  particle  of 
truth  contaiued  in  the  belief  that  the  human  will 
influences  the  external  world.  We.  are  indeed  reser- 
voirs of  force.  But  it  is  not  our  own  peculiar  force 
that  is  exerted  through  us ;  it  is  the  Universal  Force, 
which  is  evinced  no  less  in  the  actions  of  men  than  in 
the  movements  of  inanimate  nature.  And  since  those 
actions  are  in  constant  unison  with  their  wishes,  there 
is  not,  and  cannot  be,  the  sense  of  constraint  which 
is  usually  opposed  to  voluntary  performance.  Thus, 
to  take  a  simple  illustration,  the  necessities  of  our 
physical  constitution  absolutely  compel  us  to  support 
ourselves  by  food  ;  yet  no  man  feels  that  in  eat- 
ing his  meals  he  is  acting  under  external  compul- 
sion. 

It  would  be  a  strange  exception  indeed  to  the  uni- 
versal prevalence  of  unvarying  law,  if  human  beings 
were  permitted  to  exert  independent  influence  upon 
the  order  of  events.  Not  in  so  slovenly  a  manner  has 
the  work  of  nature  been  performed.  We  are  no  more 
free  to  disturb  the  harmony  and  beauty  of  the  universe 
than  are  the  stars  in  their  courses  or  the  planets  in  their 
orbits.  Our  courses  and  orbits  are  no  less  fixed  than 
theirs,  and  it  is  but  the  imperfection  of  our  knowledge, 


EVOLUTION-THEORY  AND  CONSCIOUSNESS.  467 

if  they  have  not  been,  and  cannot  yet  be  discovered. 
But  it  would  be  a  lamentable  blot  upon  a  universe, 
where  all  things  are  fixed  by  a  Power  "  in  whom 
there  is  no  variableness  nor  shadow  of  turning,"  were 
there  permitted  to  exist  a  race  of  creatures  ^^"llo  were 
a  law  unto  themselves. 

Again,  the  relation  now  established  between  the 
human  mind  and  the  ultimate  Source  both  of  mind 
and  matter,  serves  to  throw  light  upon  that  dark  spot 
in  the  hypothesis  of  evolution — the  origin  of  consci- 
ousness. For  while  in  this  hypothesis  there  is  a 
continual  progression,  of  which  each  step  is  the 
natural  consequence  of  another,  from  the  gaseous 
to  the  solid  condition  of  our  system,  from  inorganic 
to  organic  substances,  from  the  humblest  organisation 
to  the  most  complex,  there  is  absolutely  no  traceable 
gradation  from  the  absence  to  the  presence  of  con- 
scious life.  No  cunnino-  contrivances  of  science  can 
derive  sensation  from  non-sentient  materials,  for  the 
difference  between  the  two  is  not  a  difference  in 
degree  of  development,  but  in  kind.  There  is  a 
radical  unlikeness  between  the  two,  and  it  is  un- 
philosophic,  as  well  as  unscientific,  to  disguise  the  fact 
that  a  mere  process  of  material  evolution  can  never 
lead  from  the  one  to  the  other.  "The  moment  of 
a  rising  of  consciousness,"  says  Mr  Shad  worth 
Hodgson,  "  is  the  most  important  break  in  the  world 
of  phenomena  or  nature  taken  as  a  whole ;  the  pheno- 
mena above  and  the  phenomena  below  it  can  never  be 
reduced  completely  into  each  other ;  there  is  a  certain 
heterogeneity  between  them.  But  this  is  not  the 
only  instance  of  such  a  heterogeneity."  ^     1  venture  to 

^  Hodgson's  "  Theory  of  Practice,"  vol.  i.  p.  340. 


468   RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

say  that  it  is  the  only  instance,  and  that  there  is 
nothing  else  in  nature  which  can  properly  be  com- 
pared with  it.  The  instances  of  similar  heterogeneity 
which  Mr  Hodgson  gives  appear  to  me  less  carefully 
considered  than  might  have  been  expected  from  so 
careful  a  writer.  That  between  Time  and  Space, 
which  is  his  first  case,  is  involved  in  that  between 
mind  and  matter,  and  is  only  another  expression  of  it 
(see  supra,  p.  447);  while  "  curves  and  straight  lines," 
and  "  physical  and  vital  forces,"  are  not  truly 
heterogeneous  at  all,  unless  under  "  vital  forces  "  we 
include  mental  effort,  and  so  again  illustrate  the 
primary  unlikeness  by  a  case  included  under  it. 
But  the  last  example  is  remarkable.  "  Until  Mr 
Darwin  propounded  his  law  of  natural  selection,  it  was 
supposed  also  [that  there  was  heterogeneity]  between 
species  of  living  organisms  in  physiology."  Now 
it  is  the  great  triumph  of  the  evolutional  system 
to  have  rid  us  of  this  unintelligible  break,  and  to 
have  shown  that  the  whole  of  the  material  universe, 
inorganic  and  organic,  is  the  result  of  the  unchange- 
able operation  of  laws  which  are  no  less  active  now 
than  they  have  ever  been.  In  other  words,  evolution 
dispenses  with  the  necessity  of  supposing  the  existence, 
at  some  point  in  the  history  of  the  planet,  of  a  sjDCcial 
law  for  the  production  of  species  brought  into  opera- 
tion ad  hoc. 

But  the  general  principles  which  apply  to  the  origin 
of  organic  products  must  apply  also  to  the  origin  of 
conscious  life.  This  also  must  be  figured  as  an 
evolution.  This  also  must  take  place  without  the  aid 
of  a  special  law  brought  into  operation  ad  hoc.  Like 
the  evolution  of  material  products,  it  can  only  be  con- 


i 


CONSCIOUS  BEING  IMPIIES  CAUSE.         469 

ceived  as  taking  place  from  a  pre-existing  fund, 
containing  potentially  the  whole  of  tlie  effects  which 
are  afterwards  found  in  actual  existence. 

Let  us  test  this  by  trying  to  conceive  the  process  in 
other  ways.  Consciousness  might  be  supposed  to  arise 
in  two  ways :  by  special  creation,  and  by  uncaused 
origin,  from  nothing.  Both  possibilities  are  in  ab- 
solute contradiction  to  the  fundamental  principles 
of  evolution.  Creation  by  a  superior  power  is  a 
hypothesis  standing  on  a  level  with  that  of  the 
creation  of  man  out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth.  To 
realise  it  in  thought  at  all  we  must  suppose  the  very 
thing  intended  to  be  denied,  namely,  the  material  of 
mind  already  existing  in  the  universe,  as  that  of  body 
existed — in  the  earth.  Otherwise,  we  should  be 
obliged  to  admit  the  unthinkable  hypothesis  of  the 
origin  of  something  from  nothing.  This  latter 
difficulty  presses  with  its  full  force  upon  the  second 
supposition.  Mind  would  thereby  be  represented  as 
suddenly  springing  into  being  without  any  imaginable 
antecedent.  For  no  material  antecedent  can  produce 
it  without  an  exception  to  the  Persistence  of  Force, 
which  requires  a  material  consequent.  And  it  cannot 
arise  without  any  antecedent  but  by  a  similar  excep- 
tion. 

Neither  creation  nor  destruction  can  in  fact  be 
represented  as  occurring  in  nature.  We  cannot  con- 
ceive a  new  being  arising  out  of  nothing,  or  passing 
into  nothing.  As  the  development  of  the  physical  uni- 
verse takes  place  by  the  change,  composition,  decom- 
position, and  recomposition  of  pre-existing  constitu- 
ents, so  it  must  be  with  the  development  of  mind. 
We  cannot  suppose  the  origin  of  sensation,  its  advance 


470  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

to  more  varied  and  complex  kinds,  through  emotions, 
passions,  and  reasonings  to  the  most  subtle  feelings 
and  the  profoundest  thoughts,  without  believing 
that  all  of  these  have  their  source  in  the  Ultimate 
Reality  of  nature,  which  comprehends  not  these  only, 
but  every  further  perfection  of  which  we  may  yet  be 
capable  in  ages  to  come. 

Here,  then,  is  the  solution  of  the  difficulty  which 
was  shown  (p.  446)  to  beset  the  theory  of  abiogenesis ; 
a  theory  which,  if  ultimately  accepted  by  science,  as  I 
believe  it  will  be,  wall  for  the  first  time  bring  perfect 
unity  into  our  conceptions  of  the  development  of  the 
world  we  live  in.  While  science  will  thus  show  that 
there  is  no  impassable  break  between  inorganic  and 
organic  forms  of  matter,  philosophy  will  confirm  it  by 
showinof,  that  there  is  no  real  distinction  between  the 
universal  life  which  is  manifested  in  the  (so-called) 
inanimate  forces  and  constituents  of  our  system  and 
the  fragmentary  life  which  comes  to  light  in  animated 
creatures.  There  is  heterogeneity  nowhere.  There 
are  no  breaks  in  nature.  There  are  no  unimaginable 
leaps  in  her  unbroken  course. 

From  the  point  of  view^  now  reached  we  can  under- 
stand also— so  far  as  understanding  is  possible  in  such 
a  case — the  apparent  riddle  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
existence  of  the  Unknowable,  We  can  explain  the 
universal  sentiment  of  religious  minds  that  there  is 
some  direct  relation  between  them  and  the  object  of 
their  worship.  The  sense  of  an  intuitional  perception 
of  that  object,  the  sense  of  undefinable  similarity 
thereto,  the  sense  of  inspiration  and  of  guidance 
thereby,  are  included  under  and  rendered  intelligible 
by  the  actual  identity  in  their  ultimate  natures  of  the 


RELATION  OF  THE  MIND  TO  ITS  SOURCE.    471 

subject  and  the  object  of  religious  feeling.  And  the 
incomprehensibility  of  the  latter  is  shown  to  have  an 
obvious  reason.  For  the  part  cannot  comprehend  the 
Mdiole  of  which  it  is  a  part.  It  can  but  feel  that  there 
is  a  whole,  in  some  mysterious  way  related  to  itself. 
But  what  that  whole  is,  the  conditions  of  its  existence 
render  it  impossible  that  it  should  even  guess. 

Imagine  the  whole  of  the  atmosphere  divided  into 
two  great  currents  :  a  hot  current  continually  ascend- 
ing, and  a  cold  current  continually  descending.  And 
let  the  hot  current  represent  the  stream  of  conscious 
life,  the  cold  current  the  stream  of  material  things. 
To  complete  the  simile,  conceive  that  there  is  a  sharp 
boundary  between  the  two  currents,  so  that  atoms  of 
air  can  never  cross  to  and  fro  ;  while  yet  the  conscious 
atoms  in  the  hot  current  are  aware  of  the  existence 
of  the  unconscious  atoms  in  the  cold  one.  Now  if 
the  atoms  or  particles  in  the  conscious  current 
should  be  gifted  with  senses  in  proportion  to  their 
size,  they  will  see  and  feel  an  infinitely  minute  portion 
both  of  the  ascending  current  in  which  they  them- 
selves are  placed,  and  of  the  descending  current  they 
are  passing  by.  But  of  the  whole  of  the  atmosphere 
of  which  they  are  themselves  fragmentary  portions 
they  will  be  able  to  form  no  conception  whatever. 
Its  existence  they  will  be  aware  of,  for  it  will  be 
needed  to  explain  their  own.  But  of  its  nature  they 
will  have  no  idea,  except  that  in  some  undefinable 
way  it  is  like  themselves.  Nor  will  they  be  able  to 
form  any  picture  of  the  cause  which  is  continually 
carrying  them  upwards,  and  forcing  their  homologues 
in  the  opposite  current  downwards.  While,  if  we 
suppose  these  opposite   movements  to   represent  the 


472  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

elements  of  Time  and  Space,  tliey  will  be  conscious 
of  themselves  only  in  terms  of  movement  upwards, 
and  of  tlie  unconscious  particles  in  terms  of  move- 
ment downwards.  They  will  suppose  these  two 
movements  to  be  of  the  very  essence  of  hot  and  cold 
particles,  and  will  be  able  to  conceive  them  only 
under  these  terms  Suppose,  lastly,  that  at  a  certain 
point  in  their  jDrogress  the  hot  particles  become  cold 
and  pass  into  the  opposing  current,  losing  their  indi- 
vidual, particular  life,  then  their  fellow-particles  in 
the  hot  current  will  lose  sight  of  them  at  that  point, 
and  they  will  be  merged  in  the  general  stream  of 
being;  to  emerge  again  in  their  turn  into  the  stream 
of  conscious  being. 

Imperfect  as  this  simile  is,  and  as  all  such  similes 
must  be,  it  serves  in  some  faint  measure  to  express 
the  relation  of  the  mind  of  man  to  its  mysterious 
Source.  And  it  serves  also  to  illustrate  the  leading 
characteristics  of  Eeligion  and  Theology,  or  Faith  and 
Belief,  the  function  of  the  first  having  ever  been  to 
conceive  the  existence  of  that  relation,  and  the  func- 
tion of  the  second  to  misconceive  its  character.  Thus 
there  runs  through  the  whole  course  of  religious 
history  a  pervading  error  and  a  general  truth.  In  all 
its  special  manifestations  these  two  have  been  mingled 
confusedly  together,  and  the  manifold  forms  of  error 
have  generally  obscured  from  sight  the  single  form  of 
truth. 

The  relation  held  by  Faith  to  Belief,  by  the  true 
elements  to  the  false,  in  special  creeds,  may  be  thus 
expressed  :  That  the  creeds  have  sought  to  indivi- 
dualise, and  thus  to  limit  that  which  is  essentially 
general  and  unlimited.     Thus  worship,  in  its  purest 


THE  ROOT-ERROR  OF  THE  CREEDS.         473 

character  a  mere  communing  of  the  mind  with  its 
unknown  Source,  has  been  narrowed  to  the  presenta- 
tion of  petitions  to  a  personal  deity.  Particular 
places  and  peculiar  objects  have  been  selected  as 
evincing,  in  some  exceptional  manner,  the  presence 
of  the  infinite  Being  which  pervades  all  places  and 
thimis  alike.  Certain  men  have  been  reo;arded  as  the 
exclusive  organs  of  the  ultimate  Truth  ;  certain  books, 
as  its  authorised  expressions ;  whereas  the  several 
races  of  men  in  their  different  modes  of  life,  and  in 
the  diverse  products  of  their  art  and  their  culture, 
are  all  in  their  variety,  and  even  in  their  conflict, 
inspired  workers  in  the  hands  of  that  Truth  which  is 
manifested  completely  in  none,  partially  in  all. 

And  as  it  has  been  with  the  special  objects  upon 
which  Theology  has  fixed  its  gaze,  so  it  has  been  with 
the  general  object  which  underlies  them  all.  This,  too, 
has  been  individualised,  limited,  and  defined.  It  has 
been  forgotten  that  we  are  but  forms  of  that  which 
we  are  seeking  to  bring  within  the  grasj)  of  our 
reason,  and  cannot  therefore  see  around  it,  above  it, 
and  below  it.  But  this  truth,  which  Theology  is  ever 
forgetting.  Religion  must  ever  proclaim.  The  pro- 
clamation of  this  truth  is  the  title-deed  of  its  accept- 
ance by  mankind.  Without  this,  it  would  sink  into 
the  dishonoured  subject  of  incessant  wranglings  and 
profitless  dispute.  When  it  begins  to  define  the 
Infinite,  it  ceases,  in  the  purer  sense  of  the  Avord,  to 
be  Religion,  and  can  only  command  the  assent  of 
reasonable  beings  in  so  far  as  its  assertions  comj)ly 
with  the  rigorous  methods  of  losfical  demonstration. 
But  this  condition  is  in  fact  impossible  of  fulfilment, 
for  the   nature  of  the  object   concerning  which  we 


474  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

reason,  renders  the  exact  terms  of  logical  proposi- 
tions misleading  and  inadequate.  The  Unknowable 
Reality  does  not  admit  of  definition,  comprehension, 
or  description.  How  should  we,  mere  fragments  of 
that  Reality,  define,  comprehend,  or  describe  the 
Infinite  Being  wherein  we  have  taken  our  rise,  and 
whereto  we  must  return  ? 

Thus  is  Religion  analysed,  explained,  and  justified. 
Its  varied  forms  have  been  shown  to  be  unessential 
and  temporary  ;  its  uniform  substance  to  be  essential 
and  permanent.  Belief  has  melted  away  under  the 
comparative  method ;  Faith  has  remained  behind. 
From  two  sides,  however,  objections  may  be  raised 
to  the  results  of  this  analysis.  Those  who  admit  no 
ultimate  residuum  of  truth  in  the  religious  sentiment 
at  all,  may  hold  that  I  have  done  it  too  much  honour 
in  conceding  so  much ;  while  those  who  adhere  to 
some  more  positive  theology  than  is  admitted  here, 
will  think  that  I  have  left  scarcely  anything  worth 
the  havino;  in  concedino;  so  little. 

To  the  first  class  of  objectors  I  may  perhaps  be 
permitted  to  point  out  the  extreme  improbability  of 
the  presence  in  human  nature  of  a  universally-felt 
emotion   without   a    corresponding    object.      Even  if 

thev  themselves  do  not  realise  in  their  own  minds 

■J 

the  force  of  that  emotion  they  will  at  least  not  deny 
its  historical  manifestations.  They  will  scarcely 
question  that  it  has  been  in  all  ages  known  to  his- 
tory as  an  inspiring  force,  and  often  an  overmastering 
passion.  They  will  believe  the  evidence  of  those 
who  affirm  that  they  are  conscious  of  that  emotion 
now,  and    cannot  attribute  it  to  anything  but  the 


VALIDITY  OF  THE  RELIGIOUS  SENTIMENT.  475 

kind  of  Cause  which  religion  postulates.  The  actual 
presence  of  the  emotion  they  will  not  deny,  though 
the  explanation  attempted  of  its  origin  they  will. 
But  those  who  make  the  rather  startling  assertion 
that  a  deep-seated  and  widespread  emotion  is  abso- 
lutely without  any  object  resembling  that  which  it 
imagines  to  be  its  source,  are  bound  to  give  some 
tenable  account  of  the  genesis  of  that  emotion.  How 
did  it  come  into  beino-  at  all  ?  How  havincr  come 
into  being,  did  it  continue  and  extend  ?  How  did  it 
come  to  mistake  a  subjective  illusion  for  an  objec- 
tive reality  ? 

These  are  questions  pressing  for  an  answer  from 
those  who  ask  us  to  believe  that  one  of  our  strongest 
feelings  exists  merely  to  deceive.  But  it  will  be 
found,  I  believe,  that  all  explanations  tending  to 
show  that  this  emotion  is  illusory  in  its  nature 
assume  the  very  unreality  they  seek  to  prove.  Should 
it,  for  example,  be  contended  that  human  beings, 
conscious  of  a  force  in  their  own  bodies,  extend  the 
conception  of  this  force  to  a  superhuman  being,  which 
extension  is  illegitimate,  it  is  assumed,  not  proved,  in 
such  an  argument  as  this,  that  the  force  manifested  in 
the  universe  at  large  is  not  in  some  way  akin  to  that 
manifested  in  human  beings.  Again,  should  it  be 
urged  that  man,  being  aware  of  design  in  his  own 
works,  fancies  a  like  design  in  the  works  of  nature,  it 
is  a  mere  assumption  that  this  attribution  of  the  ideas 
of  his  own  mind  to  a  mind  greater  than  his  is  an 
unwarrantable  process.  The  argument  from  design 
may  be,  and  in  my  opinion  is,  open  to  other  grave 
objections;  but  its  mere  presence  cannot  be  used  as 
explaining  the  manner  in  Avhich  the  religious  emotion 


476   RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

lias  come  to  exist.  Eatlier  is  it  the  religious  emotion 
which  has  found  expression  in  the  argument  from 
design.  The  same  criticism  applies  to  all  accounts  of 
this  sentiment  which  aim  at  finding  an  origin  for  it 
sufiicient  to  explain  its  presence  without  admitting 
its  truth.  They  all  of  them  assume  the  very  point 
at  issue. 

But  the  real  difficulty  that  is  felt  about  religion  lies 
deeper  than  in  the  mere  belief  that  a  given  emotion 
may  be  deceptive.  It  lies  in  the  doubt  whether  a 
mere  emotion  can  be  taken  in  evidence  of  the  j^resence 
in  nature  of  any  object  at  aU.  Emotions  are  by  their 
very  nature  vague,  and  this  is  of  all  perhaps  the 
vaguest.  Nor  are  emotions  vague  only;  they  are 
inexpressible  in  precise  language,  and  even  when  we 
express  them  as  clearly  as  we  can,  they  remain  unin- 
telligible to  those  who  have  not  felt  them.  Now  this 
general  and  unspecific  character  of  emotions  renders 
it  hard  for  those  who  are  wanting  in  any  given 
emotion  to  understand  its  intensity  in  others,  and 
even  fully  to  believe  in  their  statements  about  it. 
Were  religion  a  case  of  sensible  perception  they  would 
have  no  such  doubt.  Colour-blind  persons  do  not 
question  the  faculty  of  distinguishing  colours  in 
others.  But  while  the  sharp  definitions  of  the  senses 
compel  us  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  their  objects, 
the  comparatively  hazy  outlines  drawn  by  the  emo- 
tions leave  us  at  least  a  physical  possibility  of  dis- 
puting the  existence  of  theirs. 

Yet  the  cases  are  in  their  natures  identical.  We 
see  a  table,  and  because  we  see  it  we  infer  the  exist- 
ence of  a  real  thing  external  to  ourselves.  The  pre- 
sence of  the  sensations  is  conceived  to  be  an  adequate 


VALIDITY  OF  THE  RELIGIOUS  SENTIMENT.  477 

warrant  for  asserting  the  presence  of  their  cause. 
Precisely  in  the  same  way,  we  feel  the  Unknowable 
Being,  and  because  we  feel  it  we  infer  the  existence 
of  a  real  object  both  external  to  ourselves  and  within 
ourselves.  The  presence  of  the  emotion  is  conceived 
to  be  an  adequate  warrant  for  asserting  the  presence 
of  its  cause.  Undoubtedly,  the  supposed  object  of 
the  sensations  and  the  supposed  object  of  the  emotion 
might  be  both  of  them  illusory.  This  is  conceivable 
in  logic,  though  not  in  fact.  But  there  can  be  no 
reason  for  maintaining  the  unreality  of  the  emotional, 
and  the  reality  of  the  sensible  object.  Existence  is 
believed  in  both  instances  on  the  strength  of  an 
immediate,  intuitional  inference.  The  mental  pro- 
cesses are  exactly  parallel.  And  if  it  be  contended 
that  sensible  perception  carries  with  it  a  stronger 
warrant  for  our  belief  in  the  existence  of  its  objects 
than  internal  feeling,  the  reasons  for  this  contention 
must  be  exhibited  before  we  can  be  asked  to  accept 
it ;  otherwise,  it  will  again  turn  out  to  be  a  pure 
assumption,  constituting,  not  a  reason  for  the  rejec- 
tion of  religion  by  those  who  now  accept  it,  but  a 
mere  explanation  of  the  conduct  of  those  who  do 
not. 

In  fact,  however,  the  denial  of  the  truth  of  religion 
is  no  less  emotional  then  its  affirmation.  It  is  not 
denied  because  those  who  disbelieve  in  it  have  any- 
thing to  produce  against  it,  but  because  the  inner 
sense  which  results  in  religion  is  either  absent  in  them, 
or  too  faint  to  produce  its  usual  consequences.  For 
this  of  course  they  are  not  to  blame,  and  nothing  can 
be  more  irrational  than  to  charge  them  with  moral 
delinquency  or  culpable  blindness.     If  the  Unknown 


478   RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

Cause  is  not  perceptible  to  them,  that  surely  is  not  u 
deficiency  to  be  laid  to  their  charge.  But  when  they 
quit  the  emotional  stronghold  wherein  they  are  safe 
to  speak  of  those  to  whom  that  Unknown  Cause  is  per- 
ceptible as  the  victims  of  delusion,  these  latter  may 
confidently  meet  them  on  the  field  which  they  them- 
selves have  chosen. 

First,  then,  it  is  at  least  a  rather  startling  supposi- 
tion that  their  fellow-creatures  have  always  been,  and 
are  still,  the  victims  of  a  universal  delusion,  from 
which  they  alone  enjoy  the  privilege  of  exemption. 
Presumption,  at  all  events,  is  against  a  man  who  asserts 
that  everybody  but  himself  sees  wrongly.  He  may 
be  the  only  person  whose  eyes  have  not  deceived  him, 
but  we  should  require  him  to  give  the  strongest  proof 
of  so  extraordinary  an  assertion.  And  in  all  cases 
which  are  in  the  least  degree  similar,  this  condition  is 
complied  with  without  the  smallest  hesitation.  There 
are,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  instances  of  proved  uni- 
versal delusions,  save  those  arising  from  the  misleading 
suggestions  of  the  senses.  That  the  earth  is  a  flat  sur- 
face, that  the  sun  moves  round  it,  that  the  sun  and 
moon  are  larger  than  the  stars,  that  the  blue  sky 
begins  at  a  fixed  place,  are  inferences  which  the  unin- 
structed  observer  cannot  fail  to  draw  from  the  most 
obvious  appearances.  But  those  who  have  combated 
these  errors  have  not  done  so  by  merely  telling  the 
world  at  large  that  it  was  mistaken ;  they  have 
pointed  out  the  phenomena  from  which  the  erroneous 
inferences  were  drawn,  and  have  shown  at  the  same 
time  that  other  phenomena,  no  less  evident  to  the 
senses  than  these,  were  inconsistent  with  the  explana- 
tion given.    They  have  then  substituted  an  explana- 


COUNTER-PROOF  TO  BE  LED.  479 

tion  wliicli  accounted  for  all  the  phenomena  alike, 
both  the  more  obvious  phenomena  and  the  less  so. 
Precisely  similar  is  the  method  of  procedure  in  history 
and  philosophy,  though  the  methods  of  proof  in 
these  sciences  are  not  equally  rigorous.  Great  his- 
torical delusions — such  as  the  Popish  plot — are  put 
to  rest  by  showing  the  misinterpreted  facts  out  of 
which  they  have  grown,  exposing  the  misinterpreta- 
tion, and  substituting  true  interpretation.  Imperfect 
psychological  analysis,  say  of  an  emotion,  is  super- 
seded by  showing  from  what  facts  this  analysis  has 
been  obtained,  and  what  other  facts  it  fails  to  account 
for. 

Observe,  then,  that  in  all  these  cases  the  appeal  is 
made  from  the  first  impressions  of  the  mistaken  person 
to  his  own  impressions  on  further  examination ;  not 
to  those  of  another.  Considerations  are  laid  before 
him  which  it  is  supposed  will  cause  him  to  change 
his  mind,  and  in  all  that  class  of  cases  where  strict 
demonstration  is  possible  actually  do  so.  To  a  man 
who  believes  the  earth  to  be  a  flat  extended  surface 
we  point  out  the  fact  that  the  top  of  a  ship's  mast  is 
the  first  j)art  of  it  to  appear,  and  that  this  and  other 
kindred  phenomena  imply  sphericity.  Our  appeal  is 
from  the  senses  to  the  senses  better  informed ;  not 
from  another  man's  senses  to  our  own.  And  we  justly 
assume  that  were  all  the  world  in  jDossession  of  the 
facts  we  have  before  us,  all  the  world  would  be  of 
our  opinion. 

What,  then,  is  the  conclusion  from  these  analogies  ? 
It  surely  is,  that  those  who  would  deny  the  reality  of 
the  object  of  religious  emotion  must  show  from  what 
appearances,  misunderstood,  the  belief  in  that  object 


48o   RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

has  arisen,  and  must  point  out  other  appearances 
leadino;  to  other  emotions  which  are  in  conflict  with 
it.  As  the  astronomer  appeals  from  sensible  percep- 
tion to  sensible  perception,  so  they  mast  appeal  from 
emotion  to  emotion.  But  it  must  not  be  their  own 
emotions  to  which  they  go  as  forming  a  standard  for 
ours.  They  can  demand  no  hearing  at  all  until  they 
attempt  to  influence  the  emotions  of  those  whom  they 
address. 

Generality  of  belief  need  not,  for  the  purposes  of 
this  argument,  be  taken  as  even  a  presumption  of 
truth.  AVe  can  grant  our  adversaries  this  advantage 
which,  in  the  parallel  cases  of  the  illusions  of  the 
senses,  was  neither  asked  nor  given.  But  we  must 
ask  them  in  return  to  concede  to  us  that,  if  the 
generality  of  a  belief  entitles  it  to  no  weight  in  philo- 
sophic estimation,  the  singularity  of  a  belief  entitles 
it  to  none  either.  All  mankind  may  be  deluded  :  well 
and  good  :  a  fortiori  a  few  individuals  among  man- 
kind may  be  deluded  too.  Grant  that  the  human 
faculties  at  large  are  subject  to  error  and  deception, 
it  follows  from  this  that  the  faculties  of  individuals 
lie  under  the  same  disability.  No  word  can  be  said 
as  to  the  general  liability  to  false  beliefs,  which  does 
not  carry  with  it  the  liability  to  false  beliefs  of  the 
very  persons  who  are  seeking  to  convince  us. 

By  whom,  in  fact,  are  we  asked  to  admit,  in  the 
interests  of  their  peculiar  theory,  the  prevalence  of  a 
universal  deception,  and  a  deception  embracing  in  its 
grasp  not  only  the  ignorant  multitude,  but  men  of 
science,  thinkers  and  philosophers  of  the  very  highest 
altitude  of  culture  ?  By  whom  is  it  that  the  great 
mass  of  humankind  is  charged  with  baseless  thoughts, 


THE  RELIGIO  US  POSITION  NO  T  DISPR  O  VED,    48 1 

illusory  emotions,  and  untenable  ideas  ?  By  those 
who,  in  thus  denying  the  capacity  of  the  whole  human 
race  to  perceive  the  truth,  nevertheless  maintain  their 
own  capacity  to  see  over  the  heads  of  their  fellow-men 
so  far  as  to  assert  that  they  are  all  the  victims  of  an 
error.  By  those  who,  while  bidding  us  distrust  the 
strongest  feelings,  nevertheless  require  us  to  trust 
them  so  far  as  to  banish,  at  their  bidding,  those  feel- 
ings from  our  hearts.  Not  from  our  reason  to  our 
more  instructed  reason  do  they  appeal,  only  from  our 
reason  to  their  own.  But  I  deny  the  competence  of 
the  tribunal ;  and  I  maintain  that  until  not  merely 
disbelief,  but  disproof,  of  the  position  of  Keligion  can 
be  offered.  Religion  must  remain  in  possession  of  the 
field. 

Yet  there  is  one  mistake  which,  as  it  may  tend  to 
obscure  the  issue,  it  will  be  desirable  to  clear  away. 
It  is  often  contended,  oftener  perhaps  tacitly  assumed, 
that  the  burden  of  proof  must  rest  on  those  who  in 
any  case  maintain  the  affirmative  side  of  a  belief,  while 
the  negative  on  its  side  requires  no  proof,  but  can 
simply  claim  reception  until  the  affirmative  is  estab- 
lished. Now  this  principle  is  true,  where  the  negative 
is  simply  a  suspension  of  judgment ;  the  mere  non- 
acceptance  of  a  fact  asserted,  without  a  counter-asser- 
tion of  its  opposite.  To  understand  the  true  applica- 
tion of  the  rule  we  must  distinguish  between  what  I 
will  term  substantial  affirmations  or  negations,  and 
affirmations  or  negations  in  form.  Thus,  to  assert  that 
A.  B.  is  six  feet  tall,  is  a  substantial  affirmation.  Out 
of  many  possible  alternatives  it  selects  one,  and 
postulates  that  one  as  true,  while  all  the  rest  it 
discards  as  false.     Since,  however,  there  are  numerous 

VOL.  II.  2  H 


482    RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

possibilities  besides  this  one  with  regard  to  A.  B.'s 
height — since  he  may  be  either  taller  or  shorter  by 
various  degrees — the  negative,  in  the  absence  of  all 
knowledge  on  the  subject,  is  inherently  more  probable, 
for  it  covers  a  larger  ground.  It  is  a  suljstantial 
negation.  That  is,  it  affirms  nothing  at  all,  but  simply 
questions  the  fact  affirmed,  leaving  the  field  open  to 
countless  other  substantial  affirmations.  So,  in  law, 
it  is  the  prosecution  which  is  required  to  prove  its 
case ;  for  the  prosecution  affirms  that  this  man  was  at 
a  given  place  at  a  given  time  and  did  the  criminal 
action.  The  opposite  hypothesis  of  this  covers  innu- 
merable alternatives  :  not  this  man,  but  another,  may 
have  been  at  that  place ;  or  he  may  have  been  there 
and  not  done  the  action  charged,  or  some  other  man 
may  have  done  it,  or  the  crime  may  not  have  been 
committed  at  all,  and  so  forth.  These  are  cases  of 
substantial  affirmations  ;  asserting  one  alone  out  of 
many  conceivable  possibilities,  and  therefore  needing 
proof.  And  their  opposites  are  substantial  negations  ; 
questioning  only  the  one  fact  affirmed,  and  even  with 
reference  to  that  merely  maintaining  that  in  the 
absence  of  proof  there  is  an  inherent  probability  in 
favour  of  the  negative  side. 

Widely  different  is  the  case  before  us.  Here  the 
affirmation  and  the  negation  are  affirmative  and  nega- 
tive in  form  alone.  The  assertions,  "  An  Unknowable 
Being  exists,"  and  "  An  Unknowable  Being  does  not 
exist,"  are  not  opposed  to  one  another  as  the  affirma- 
tive and  the  negative  sides  were  opposed  in  the  pre- 
vious cases.  The  latter  proposition  does  not  cover  a 
number  of  possible  alternatives  whereof  the  former 
selects  and  affirms  a  single  one.     Both  propositions  are 


THE  ALTERNATIVE  IN  DEBATE.  483 

true  and  substantial  affirmations.  Both  assert  a 
supposed  actual  fact.  And  the  latter  does  not,  as  the 
previous  negative  propositions  did,  leave  the  judgment 
in  simple  suspense.  It  requires  assent  to  a  given 
doctrine.  That  the  one  is  cast  in  a  negative  form  is 
the  mere  accident  of  expression,  and  without  in  any 
way  affecting  their  substance,  their  positions  in  this 
respect  may  be  reversed.  Thus,  we  may  say  for  the 
first,  "  The  universe  cannot  exist  without  an  Unknow- 
able Being  ;  "  and  for  the  second,  "  The  universe  can 
exist  without  an  Unknowable  Beino."  There  are  not 
here  a  multitude  of  alternatives,  but  two  only,  and 
of  these  each  side  affirms  one.  Each  proposition  is 
equally  the  assertion  of  a  positive  belief.  Thus,  the 
reason  which,  in  general,  causes  the  greater  antecedent 
probability  of  a  denial  as  against  a  positive  assertion, 
in  no  way  applies  to  the  denial  of  the  fundamental 
postulate  of  Religion.  The  statement  that  there  is 
nobody  in  a  certain  room  is  not  in  itself  more  probable 
than  the  statement  that  there  is  somebody.  And  the 
proposition  :  "  all  men  are  not  mortal,"  though  nega- 
tive in  form,  is  truly  as  affirmative  as  the  counter- 
proposition  :  "all  men  are  mortal." 

But  this  argument,  inasmuch  as  it  places  the 
denial  of  all  truth  in  the  religious  emotion  on  a  level 
with  its  affirmation,  fails  to  do  justice  to  the  real 
strength  of  the  case.  There  are  not  here  two  contend- 
ing beliefs,  of  which  the  one  is  as  probable  as  the 
other.  In  conceding  so  much  to  the  sceptical  party  we 
have  given  them  a  far  greater  advantage  than  they 
are  entitled  to  demand.  Generality  of  belief  is,  in  the 
absence  of  evidence  or  argument  to  the  contrary,  a 
presumption  of   truth ;    for,    unless    its    origin    from 


484  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

some  kind  of  fallacy  can  be  shown,  its  generality  is 
in  itself  a  proof  that  it  persists  in  virtue  of  the 
general  laws  of  mind  which  forbid  the  separation  of 
its  subject  from  its  predicate.  And  it  is  not  only 
that  we  have  here  a  general  belief,  or,  more  correctly 
speaking,  a  general  emotion,  but  we  have  categories 
in  the  human  mind  which  are  not  filled  up  or  capable 
of  being  filled  up  but  by  the  objective  element  in  the 
religious  idea.  There  is,  for  example,  the  category 
of  Cause.  Nature  presents  us  not  with  Cause,  but 
with  causes  ;  and  these  causes  are  mere  antecedents, 
physical  causation  in  general  being  nothing  whatever 
but  invariable  antecedence  and  invariable  sequence. 
But  this  analysis  of  the  facts  of  nature  by  no  means 
satisfies  the  conception  of  causation  which  is  rooted 
in  the  human  mind.  That  conception  imperiously 
demands  a  cause  which  is  not  a  mere  antecedent,  but 
a  Powder.  Without  that,  the  idea  would  remain  as  a 
blank  form,  having  no  reality  to  fill  it.  And  how  do 
we  come  to  be  in  the  firm  possession  of  this  idea  if 
there  be  nothing  in  nature  corres^^onding  to  it  ? 
From  what  phenomena  could  it  be  derived  ?  Akin 
to  our  notion  of  Cause  is  our  notion  of  Force.  When 
the  scientific  man  speaks  of  a  Force,  he  merely  means 
an  unknown  something  w^hich  efi"ects  certain  move- 
ments. And  Science  cannot  possibly  dispense  with 
the  metaphysical  idea  of  Force.  Yet  Force  is  not 
only  unknowable  ;  but  it  is  ilie,  Unknowable  mani- 
fested in  certain  modes.  Again,  therefore,  I  ask, 
whence  do  w^e  derive  the  ineradicable  feeling  of  the 
manifestation  of  Force,  if  that  feeling  be  a  mere 
illusion  ?  Similar  remarks  apply  to  other  categories 
which,  like  these,  have  no  objects  in  actual  existence 


THE  FOUNDATION  OF  RELIGIOUS  FAITH.      485 

if  the  couformity  of  the  religious  sentiment  to  truth 
be  denied.  Such  is  the  category  of  Reality.  Ima- 
gination cannot  picture  the  world  save  as  containing, 
though  in  its  essence  unknown  to  us,  some  real  and 
permanent  being.  We  know  it  only  as  a  compound 
of  phenomena,  all  of  them  fleeting,  variable,  and 
unsubstantial.  There  is  nothing  in  the  phenomena 
which  can  satisfy  our  mental  demand  for  absolute 
being.  As  being  transient,  and  as  being  relative,  the 
phenomena  in  fact  are  nothing.  But  our  intellectual, 
our  emotional,  and  our  moral  natures  demand  the 
TO  oi/T&)9  ov — that  which  really  is,  as  the  necessary  com- 
pletion of  ra  ^atvo/xeva — that  which  only  appears.  And 
it  is  precisely  the  unshakeable  belief  in  an  unchange- 
able, though  unknowable  Reality ;  an  everlasting 
Truth  amid  shifting  forms,  a  Substance  among 
shadows,  which  forms  the  universal  foundation  of 
relio-ious  faith. 

o 

A  ship  that  has  been  dfiven  from  her  intended 
course  is  drifting,  with  a  crew  who  have  no  clear 
knowledge  of  her  whereabouts,  upon  an  unexplored 
ocean.  Suddenly  her  captain  exclaims  that  he  sees 
land  in  the  distance.  The  mate,  however,  summoned 
to  verify  the  captain's  observation,  f;incies  that  the 
black  speck  on  the  horizon  is  not  land,  but  a  large 
vessel.  The  sailors  and  passengers  take  part,  some 
with  the  one,  some  with  the  other ;  while  many  of 
them  form  opinions  of  their  own  not  agreeing  with 
that  of  either,  one  maintaining  it  to  be  a  whale, 
another  a  dark  cloud,  a  third  something  else,  and  so 
forth.  Minor  differences  abound.  Those  who  take  it 
to  be  land  are  at  issue  as  to  its  being  a  plain  or  a 
mountain,  those  who  think  it  a  vessel  cannot  agree  as 


486  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

to  the  description  of  the  craft.  One  solitary  passenger 
sees  nothing  at  all.  Instead  of  drawing  what  would 
appear  to  be  the  most  obvious  conclusion,  that  he  is 
either  more  shortsighted  or  less  apt  to  discover  dis- 
tant objects  than  the  rest,  he  infers  that  his  vision 
alone  is  riglit,  and  that  of  all  the  others,  captain,  pas- 
sengers, and  crew,  defective  and  misleading.  Obli- 
vious of  the  fact  tliat  the  mere  failure  to  perceive  an 
object  is  no  proof  of  its  non-existence,  he  persists  in 
asserting  not  only  that  the  speck  seen  in  the  distance, 
being  so  variously  described,  probably  does  not 
resemble  any  of  the  ideas  formed  of  it  on  board  the 
ship,  but  that  there  is  no  speck  at  all.  Even  the  fact 
that  the  crews  of  many  other  ships,  passing  in  this 
direction,  perceive  the  same  dim  outline  on  the  hori- 
zon, does  not  shake  his  conviction  that  it  is  a  mere 
"  idol  of  the  tribe."  Such  is  the  procedure  of  those 
who  deny  the  reality  of  the  object  of  the  religious 
idea.  Instead  of  drawing  from  the  diversity  of  creeds 
the  legitimate  inference  that  the  Being  of  whom  they 
severally  speak  is  of  unknown  nature,  they  con- 
clude, from  the  mere  absence  of  the  idea  of  that  Being 
in  their  individual  consciousness,  that  its  very  exist- 
ence is  a  dream. 

Lastly,  a  few  words,  and  a  few  only,  must  be  said 
in  reply  to  those  who  will  think  that  the  conception 
of  the  Unknowable  resulting  from  our  analysis  is  too 
vague  and  shadowy  to  form  the  fitting  foundation  for 
religious  feeling.  They  will  probably  object  that  the 
Being  whom  that  feeling  requires  is  not  an  incon- 
ceivable Cause  or  Substance  of  the  Universe,  but  a 
Personal  God  ;  not  an  undefined  something  which  we 
can  barely  imagine,  but  a  definite  Some  one  whom 


AIM  OF  THE  PRECEDING  ANALYSIS.        487 

we  can  adore  and  love.  There  is  nothing,  they  will 
say,  in  such  a  conception  as  this  either  to  satisfy  the 
affections  or  to  impress  the  moral  sentiments.  And 
both  purposes  were  fulfilled  by  the  Christian  ideal  of 
a  loving  Father  and  a  righteous  Judge. 

To  these  objections  I  would  reply,  first  of  all,  that 
I  have  simply  attempted  to  analyse  religion  as  I  found 
it,  neither  omitting  what  was  of  the  essence  of  the 
religious  idea,  nor  inserting  what  was  not.  If  this 
analysis  is  in  any  respect  defective,  that  is  a  matter 
for  criticism  and  discussion.  But  if  it  has  been  cor- 
rectly performed — of  which  I  frankly  admit  there  is 
abundant  room  for  doubt — then  I  am  not  responsible 
for  not  finding  in  the  universal  elements  of  religion 
that  which  is  not  contained  within  them.  The 
expression  found  for  the  ultimate  truths  must  em- 
brace within  it,  if  possible,  the  crude  notions  of  deity 
formed  by  the  savage,  and  the  highly  abstract  ideal 
formed  by  the  most  eminent  thinkers  of  modern 
times.  Even  then,  if  I  myself  held  the  doctrines  of 
the  personality  and  the  fatherhood  of  God,  I  could 
not  have  required  from  others  any  admission  of  these 
views  of  mine  as  universal  ingredients  in  religious 
faith.  The  utmost  I  could  have  done  would  have 
been  to  tack  them  on  as  supplementary  developments 
of  the  idea  of  the  ultimate  Being.  And  this  it  is  still 
open  to  any  one  who  wishes  it  to  do.  Difficult  as  it  is 
to  reconcile  the  ideas  of  Love  and  Justice  with  un- 
limited Power  and  absolute  Existence,  yet  if  there  are 
some  who  find  it  possible  to  accomplish  the  reconci- 
liation, it  may  be  well  for  them  so  to  do.^ 

1  See  an  ingenious  attempt  to  maintain  the  personality,  along  with 
the  moral  qualities  of  God,  in  Mr  Sliad worth  Hodgson's  "Theory  of 
Practice,"  vol.  i.  p.  305  ff. 


488  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

Undoubtedly,  however,  all  sucli  efforts  do  appear 
to  me  mere  hankerings  after  an  incarnation  of  that 
idea  which,  by  its  very  nature,  does  not  admit  of 
representation  by  incarnate  forms,  even  though  those 
forms  be  moral  perfections.  And  I  would  reply, 
secondly,  to  the  above  objection,  that,  while  we  lose 
something  by  giving  up  the  definite  personality  of 
God,  we  gain  something  also.  If  we  part  with  the 
image  of  a  loving  Father,  we  part  also  with  that  of  a 
stern  monarch  and  an  implacable  judge.  If  we  can 
no  longer  indulge  in  the  contemplation  of  perfect 
virtue,  embodied  in  an  actual  Person,  we  are  free 
from  the  problem  that  has  perplexed  theologians  of 
every  age  :  how  to  reconcile  the  undoubted  evil  in 
the  world  with  the  omnipotence  of  that  Person.  I 
know  that  there  are  some  who  think  it  possible  to 
retain  the  gentler  features  in  the  popular  conception 
of  deity,  while  dropping  all  that  is  harsh  and  repul- 
sive. To  them  the  idea  of  God  is  as  free  from  terror 
as  the  idea  of  the  Unknowable,  and  the  fi.rst  of  these 
gains  is  therefore  no  gain  to  them.  But  the  problem 
of  the  existence  of  evil  presses  perhaps  with  greater 
severity  upon  them  than  upon  any  other  class  of 
theologians.  To  suppose  that  God  could  not  prevent 
the  presence  of  wickedness,  or  could  not  prevent  it 
without  some  greater  calamity,  is  to  deny  his  omni- 
potence ;  to  suppose  that  he  could,  and  did  not,  is  to 
question  his  benevolence.  But  even  admitting  the 
improvement  made  by  purging  from  the  character  of 
God  all  its  severity,  its  vindictiveness,  and  its  ten- 
dency to  excessive  punishment,  the  fact  remains  that 
the  concejDtion  thus  attained  is  not  that  of  the  popular 
creed  at  all,  but  that  of  a  few  enlightened  thinkers. 
And  it  is  with  the  former,  not  with  the  latter,  that  the 


AGNOSTICISM  AKIN  TO  MYSTICISM.         489 

doctrine  of  the  Unknowable  must  be  compared,  in  order 
fairly  to  estimate  its  advantages  or  disadvantages  iu 
relation  to  the  current  belief  in  a  personal  God. 

Moreover,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  dim 
figure  we  have  shadowed  out  of  an  inconceivable  and 
all-embracing  ultimate  Existence,  if  widely  different 
from  the  more  ordinary  theological  embodiments  of 
the  religious  idea,  is  altogether  in  harmony  with 
mnny  of  its  expressions  by  the  most  devoutly  reli- 
gious minds.  If  religion  has  always  had  a  tendency 
to  run  to  seed  in  dogma,  it  has  also  always  had  a 
tendency  to  revert  to  its  fundamental  mysticism. 
The  very  best  and  highest  minds  have  ccjntinually 
evinced  this  tendency  to  mysticism,  and  it  has  mixed 
itself  up  with  the  logical  definitions  of  others  who  did 
not  rise  to  so  exalted  a  level.  So  that  the  examina- 
tion of  the  writings  of  religious  men  will  continually 
disclose  that  profound  impression  of  the  utterly  in- 
comprehensible and  mysterious  nature  of  the  Supreme 
Being  which  is  now,  in  its  complete  development  in 
the  form  of  Agnosticism,  stigmatised  as  incompatible 
with  genuine  religious  faith. 

That  tendency  to  be  deeply  sensible  of  the  impossi- 
bility of  conceiving  the  Absolute  which  Religion  has 
thus  evinced,  it  is  the  result  of  Science  to  strengtlien 
and  to  increase.  Science  shows  the  imperfection  of  all 
the  concrete  expressions  which  have  been  found  for 
the  Unknowable.  It  proves  that  we  cannot  think 
of  the  Unknowable  as  entering  in  any  peculiar  sense 
into  special  objects  in  nature,  dwelling  in  special 
places,  or  speaking  through  special  channels.  Mira- 
culous phenomena,  which  were  supposed  to  constitute 
the  peculiar  sphere  of  its  manifestations,  are  thrown 


490  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

by  Science  completely  out  of  the  account.  But  all 
phenomena  whatsoever  are  shown  to  manifest  the 
Unknowable.  Thus,  while  scientific  inquiry  tends  to 
diminish  the  intensity  of  religious  ideas,  it  tends  to 
widen  their  extension.  They  do  not  any  longer  cling 
to  partial  symbols.  They  do  not  attach  themselves 
with  the  same  fervour  to  individual  embodiments. 
But,  in  becoming  more  abstract,  they  become  also 
more  pervading.  Religion  is  found  everywhere  and 
in  everything.  All  nature  is  the  utterance  of  the 
idea.  And,  as  it  gains  in  extension  while  losing  in 
intensity  in  reference  to  the  external  world,  it  goes 
through  a  similar  process  in  relation  to  human  life. 
No  longer  a  force  seizing  on  given  moments  of  our 
existence,  at  one  moment  inspiring  devotional  obser- 
vances, at  the  next  forgotten  in  the  pleasures  or  the 
business  of  the  day  ;  at  one  time  filling  men  with  the 
zeal  of  martyrs  or  crusaders,  at  another  leaving  them 
to  the  unrestrained  indulgence  of  gross  injustice  or 
revolting  cruelty,  it  becomes  a  calm,  all-pervading 
sentiment,  shown  (if  it  be  shown  at  all)  in  the  general 
beauty  and  spirituality  of  the  character,  not  in  the 
stated  exercises  of  a  rigorous  piet}%  or  in  the  pas- 
sionate outbursts  of  an  enthusiastic  fervour. 

But  these  considerations  would  lead  me  on  to  a 
subject  which  I  had  once  hoped  to  treat  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  present  volume,  but  which  I  am 
now  compelled,  owing  to  the  enlargement  of  the 
scheme,  to  postpone  to  a  future  time.  That  subject  is 
the  relation  of  religion  to  ethics.  It  may  have  struck 
some  readers  as  an  omission  that  I  have  said  nothing 
of  religion  as  a  force  inspiring  moral  conduct,  which 
is  the  principal  aspect  under  which  it  is  regarded  by 


LOSS  SUSTAINED  BY  THE  NEW  FAITH.      491 

some  competent  authorities.  But  the  omission  has 
been  altoaether  intentional.     It  would  take  me  a  lonfj 

o  o 

time  to  explain  what  in  my  judgment  has  been  the 
actual  influence  of  religion  upon  morals  in  the  past, 
and  what  is  likely  to  be  its  influence  in  the  future. 
Meanwhile  I  merely  note  the  fact  that  this  analysis 
professes  to  be  complete  in  its  own  kind ;  that  I  have 
endeavoured  to  probe  the  religious  sentiment  to  the 
bottom,  and  to  discover  all  that  it  contains.  Thus,  if 
religion  be  not  only  an  emotion,  but  a  moral  force,  it 
must  acquire  this  character  in  virtue  of  the  relation 
of  its  emotional  elements  to  human  character,  not  in 
virtue  of  the  presence  of  ethical  elements  actually 
belonging  to  the  religious  emotion,  and  comprehended 
under  it  by  the  same  indefeasible  title  as  the  sense  of 
the  Unknowable  itself. 

At  present,  however,  I  can  attempt  no  answer  to 
the  objection  which  will  no  doubt  be  urged,  that  so 
abstract  and  cold  a  faith  as  that  expounded  here  can 
afi'ord  no  satisfaction  to  the  moral  sentiments.  Indeed 
I  must  to  a  certain  extent  admit  the  reality  of  the  loss 
which  the  adoption  of  this  faith  entails.  There  is 
consolation  no  doubt  in  the  thought  of  a  Heavenly 
Father  who  loves  us  ;  there  is  strength  in  the  idea 
that  he  sees  and  helps  us  in  our  continual  combat 
against  evil  without  and  evil  within  ;  there  is  happiness 
in  the  hope  that  he  will  assign  us  in  another  life  an 
infinite  reward  for  all  the  endurances  of  this.  Above 
all,  there  is  comfort  in  the  reflection  that  when  we  are 
parted  by  death  we  are  not  j)arted  for  ever  ;  that  our 
love  for  tho>e  whom  we  have  cherished  on  earth  is  no 
temporary  bond,  to  be  broken  ere  long  in  bitterness 
and  despair,  but  a  possession  never  to  be  lost  again. 


492  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

a  union  of  souls  interrupted  for  a  little  while  by  the 
separation  of  the  body,  only  to  be  again  renewed  in 
far  greater  perfection  and  carried  on  into  far  higher 
joys  than  can  be  even  imagined  here.  All  this  is 
beautiful  and  full  of  fascination  :  why  should  w^e  deny 
it  ?  Candour  compels  us  to  admit  that  in  giving  it 
up  with  the  other  illusions  of  our  younger  days  we  are 
resigning  a  balm  for  the  wounded  spirit  for  which  it 
would  be  hard  to  find  an  equivalent  in  all  the  reper- 
tories of  Science,  and  in  all  the  treasures  of  philosophy. 
Yet  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  every  step  from  a 
lower  to  a  higher  creed  involves  a  precisely  similar  loss. 
How  much  more  beautiful  was  nature  (as  Schiller  has 
shown  us  in  his  poem  on  the  gods  of  Greece)  when 
every  fountain,  tree  and  river  had  its  presiding  genius, 
when  the  Sun  was  driven  by  a  divine  charioteer,  when 
the  deities  of  Olympus  intervened  in  the  affairs  of  men 
to  prevent  injustice  and  to  maintain  the  right.  How 
cold  and  lifeless,  nay,  how  profoundly  irreligious, 
would  our  modern  conception  of  the  earth  and  the 
solar  system  have  appeared  to  the  worshipper  of 
Poseidon  and  Apollon.  And  if  the  loss  of  the  Christian 
as  compared  to  the  Pagan  is  thus  great,  how  great 
also  is  the  loss  of  the  enlio-htened  Protestant  as 
compared  to  the  ignorant  Catholic  peasant.  What 
comfort  must  be  found  in  the  immediate  intervention 
of  the  Virgin  in  answer  to  prayer,  what  security 
afforded  by  the  protection  of  the  local  saint.  Or 
again,  how  great  the  pleasure  of  contributing  by  our 
piety  to  the  release  of  a  friend  from  purgatorial 
torment,  and  of  knowing  that  our  friends  in  their  turn 
will  do  us  the  same  kindly  service. 

Even  without  contrasting  such  broad  and  conspi- 


THE  LOSS  A  GAIN. 


493 


cuous  divisions  of  Christianity  as  tliese,  we  shall  find 
enough  of  the  same  kind  of  difference  within  the 
limits  of  Protestantism  itself.  What  mere  intellectual 
conviction  of  a  future  state  can  vie  with  the  consoling 
certainty  offered  by  the  Spiritualistic  belief,  that  those 
whom  we  have  lost  on  earth  still  hover  around  us  in 
our  daily  course  ;  sometimes  even  appear  to  us  in 
bodily  form,  and  converse  with  us  in  human  speech. 
No  mere  hope  of  meeting  them  again  can  for  a  moment 
equal  the  delight  of  seeing  their  well-known  shapes 
and  hearing  their  familiar  tones.  Hence  the  Spiritua- 
list has  undoubtedly  a  source  of  comfort  in  his  faith 
which  more  rational  creeds  can  offer  nothing  to  supply. 
But  who  that  does  not  share  it  can  envy  "them  so 
baseless  a  conviction,  so  illusory  a  joy  ? 

It  is,  in  fact,  the  very  condition  of  progress  that,  as 
we  advance  in  knowledge  and  in  culture,  we  give  uj) 
something  on  the  road.  But  it  is  also  a  condition  that 
we  do  not  feel  the  need  of  that  which  we  have  lost. 
Not  only  as  we  become  men  do  we  put  away  childish 
things,  but  we  can  no  longer  realise  in  thought  the 
enjoyment  which  those  childish  things  brought  with 
them.  Other  interests,  new  occupations,  deeper  affec- 
tions take  the  place  of  the  interests,  the  occupations, 
and  the  affections  of  our  early  years.  So  too  should 
it  be  in  religion.  Men  have  dwelt  upon  the  love  of 
God  because  they  could  not  satisfy  the  craving  of 
nature  for  the  love  of  their  fellow-men.  They  have 
looked  forward  to  eternal  happiness  in  a  future  life 
because  they  could  not  find  temporary  happiness  in 
this.  It  is  these  reflections  which  point  out  the  way 
in  which  the  void  left  by  the  removal  of  the  religious 
afiections  should  hereafter  be  supplied.     The  effort  of 


494  RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

those  who  cannot  turn  for  consolation  to  a  friend  in 
heaven  should  be  to  strengthen  the  bonds  of  friendship 
on  earth,  to  widen  the  range  of  human  sympathy  and 
to  increase  its  depth.  We  should  seek  that  love  in 
one  another  which  we  have  hitherto  been  required  to 
seek  in  God.  Above  all,  we  should  sweep  away  those 
barriers  of  convention  and  fancied  propriety  which 
continually  hinder  the  free  expression  of  affection,  and 
force  us  to  turn  from  the  restrictions  of  the  world 
to  One  towards  whom  there  need  be  no  irksome  con- 
formity to  artificial  regulation,  and  in  speaking  to 
whom  we  are  under  no  shadow  of  reserve. 

Were  we  thus  permitted  to  find  in  our  fellow- 
creatures  that  sympathy  which  so  many  mourners, 
so  many  sufferers,  so  many  lonely  hearts,  have  been 
compelled  to  find  only  in  the  idea  of  their  heavenly 
Father,  I  hesitate  not  to  say  that  the  consolations 
of  the  new  religion  would  far  surpass  in  their  strength 
and  their  perfection  all  those  that  were  offered  by 
the  old.  Towards  such  increasing  and  such  deepen- 
ing of  the  sympathies  of  humanity  I  believe  that 
we  are  continually  tending  even  now.  Meantime, 
while  we  are  still  far  from  the  promised  land,  the 
adherents  of  the  universal  religion  are  not  wdthout  a 
happiness  of  their  own.  Their  faith  is  at  least  a  faith 
of  perfect  peace.  Untroubled  by  the  storms  of  con- 
troversy, in  which  so  many  others  are  tossed  about, 
they  can  welcome  all  men  as  brothers  in  faith,  for 
all  of  them,  even  the  most  hostile,  contribute  to 
supply  the  stones  of  the  broad  foundation  upon  which 
their  philosophy  is  built.  Those  therefore  who  con- 
tend against  them,  be  it  even  with  vehemence  and 
passion,  yield  them  involuntary  help  in  bringing  the 


DEEPER  CONSOLATIONS.  495 

materials  upon  which  their  judgment  is  formed.  No 
man  can  truly  oppose  their  religion,  for  he  who  seems 
to  be  hostile  to  it  is  himself  but  one  of  the  notes 
struck  by  the  Unknowable  Cause,  which  so  plays 
upon  the  vast  instrument  of  humanity  as  to  bring 
harmony  out  of  jangling  sounds,  and  to  produce 
the  universal  chords  of  truth  from  the  individual  dis- 
cords of  error.  Scientific  discoveries  and  philosophic 
inquiries,  so  fatal  to  other  creeds,  touch  not  the 
universal  religion.  They  who  accept  it  can  but  desire 
the  increase  of  knowledge,  for  even  though  new  facts 
and  deeper  reasoning  should  overthrow  something  of 
what  they  have  hitherto  believed  and  taught,  they 
will  rejoice  that  their  mistakes  should  be  corrected, 
and  their  imperfections  brought  to  light.  They  desire 
but  the  Truth,  and  the  Truth  has  made  them  free. 
And  as  in  their  thoughts  they  can  wish  nothing  so 
much  as  to  know  and  to  believe  that  which  is  true,  so 
in  their  lives  they  will  express  the  serenity  which 
that  desire  will  inevitably  bring.  They  are  not 
pained  or  troubled  because  other  men  see  not  as 
they  see.  They  have  no  vain  hope  of  a  unity  of 
thought  which  the  very  conditions  of  our  being  do 
not  permit.  They  aim  not  at  conquering  the  minds 
of  men ;  far  rather  would  they  stimulate  and  help 
them  to  discover  a  higher  Truth  than  they  themselves 
have  been  permitted  to  know.  And  as  their  action 
will  thus  be  insj^ired  with  the  hope  of  contributing 
their  mite  to  the  treasury  of  human  knowledge,  well- 
being,  and  moral  good,  so  their  death  will  be  the 
expression  of  that  peaceful  faith  which  has  sustained 
their  lives.  Even  though  torn  away  when,  in  their 
own  judgment,  they  have  still  much  to  do,  they  will 


496    RELATION  TO  THE  SUBJECTIVE  ELEMENT. 

not  repine  at  the  necessity  of  leaving  it  undone,  even 
thougli  they  are  well  aware  that  their  names,  which 
might  have  been  illustrious  in  the  annals  of  our  race, 
will  now  be  buried  in  oblivion.  For  the  disappear- 
ance of  a  single  life  is  but  a  ripple  on  the  ocean  of 
humanity,  and  humanity  feels  it  not.  Hence  they 
will  meet  their  end  "sustained  and  soothed  by  an 
unfaltering  trust," 

"  Like  one  wlio  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
About  him,  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams." 

But  the  opposite  fate,  sometimes  still  more  terrible, 
that  of  continuing  to  live  when  the  joys  of  life  are 
gone,  and  its  purest  happiness  is  turned  iuto  the 
bitterest  pain,  will  be  accepted  too.  Thus  they  will 
be  willing,  if  need  be,  to  remain  in  a  world  where 
their  labour  is  not  yet  ended,  even  though  that 
labour  be  wrought  through  suffering,  despondency, 
and  sorrow ;  willing  also,  if  need  be,  to  meet  the 
universal  lot, — even  though  it  strike  them  in  the 
midst  of  prosperity,  happiness,  and  hope ;  bowing  in 
either  case  to  the  verdict  of  fate  with  unmurmuring 
resignation  and  fearless  calm. 


THE  END. 


I 


I  ]^  D  E  X. 


VOL.  11, 


2i 


i 


INDEX. 


AbhidHARMA-Pitaka,  its  metapliysics, 
ii.  141-145 

Abiogenesis,  the  theory  of,  ii.  446 ;  its 
destined  function,  ii.  470 

Abraham,  a  Hanyf,  i.  247  ;  story  of,  ii. 
239-241 

Acts,  the  book  of,  its  value,  ii.  323  :  re- 
view of,  ii.  323-341 

Atliti,  the  goddess,  ii.  93 

Africa,  burial  rites  in,  i.  84  ;  divination 
in,  i.  137  ;  ordeals  in,  i.  143 

Africans,  western,  sacrifice  among,  i.  34  ; 
drink-otferings  among,  i.  41 

Agag  hewn  in  pieces,  ii.  314 

Age,  a  golden,  traditions  of,  ii.  230-232 

Agni,  the  god,  ii.  85 

Agnosticism  allied  to  mysticism,  ii.  4S9 

Ahab,  his  troubles,  ii.  314 

Ahuna-Vairya,  the,  ii.  181,  182 

Ahura-Mazda  and  Zaratliustr.i,  i.  229, 
230  ;  the  god  of  the  Parsees,  i.  233  ; 
ancient  worship  of,  ii.  159,  100  ;  praise 
of,  ii.  100,  161 ;  rank  and  character,  ii. 
163 ;  address  to,  ii.  163,  164  ;  worship 
of,  ii.  165-167  ;  fire  and  water  given  l)y, 
ii.  168  ;  questioned  by  Zaratlmstra,  ii. 
173-180 ;  things  which  please  and 
things  wliich  displease,  ii.  173,  174  ; 
prescribes  for  medical  training,  ii.  175  ; 
the  same  as  Ormazd,  ii.  181 ;  through- 
out the  god  of  the  Parsees,  ii.  189; 
creates  the  world,  ii.  225 

Aischylos,  his  conception  of  the  commer- 
cial relation  between  gods  and  men,  i. 
28. 

Akaba,  the  vow  of  the  first  and  second, 
i.  238 

Ali,  sign  at  liis  birth,  i   292 

Amatongo,  sncritice  to  the,  i.  .32 

Amazulus,  sacrihce  among  the,  i.  42; 
sneezing  as  an  omen  among,  i.  131 

Amos,  his  prophecy  and  history,  ii.  277  ; 
conduct  towards  Amaziah,  ii.  278 

Anagamin,  tlie,  ii.  149,  150  (note) 

Analysis,  ultimate  metapliysical,  ii.  464 

Ananda  and  the  Matangi  girl,  i.  376  ; 
and  Buddha,  ii.  134,  136 

Ananias  and  his  wife,  story  of,  ii.  327 


Ancestors,    worsliip    of,    in     Fiji     and 

among   the    Kafirs,   ii.   389,  390  ;    in 

Peru,  ii.  390 
Angekoks,  the,   consecration  of,  i.  114, 

115 
Apocalypse,  the,  its  author,  ii.  366  ;  its 

style,  ii.  366  ;  compared  with  the  "Pil- 
grim's Progress,"  ii.   366;  its  visions, 

ii.  367,  368   _ 
Apollo,   worship  of,  i.  29  ;   his  sense  of 

gratitude  appealed  to,  i.  29 ;  oracle  of 

the  Clarian,  i.  155 
Aranyakas,  the,  ii.  102,  103 
Arhats,  the,  rank  of,  ii.  149,  150 
Asceticism,  various  degrees  of,  i.  99 ;  in 

Mexico  and  Peru,  i.  100-104  ;  rules  of 

Chinese,  ii.  127 
Ashem-vohu,  the.  ii.  181,  182 
Asita,  the  Hishi,  the  child  and  Buddha, 

i.  298 
Asoka,  the  Buddhist  king,  ii.  110,  111 
Astrology,  1.  142 
Astrologers  in  Thibet,  i.  177 
Asvagosha,  a  Buddhist  preacher,  i.  14S 
Atharva-VedaSanhita,  the,  ii.  78,  79 
Atinan,  ii.  405 
Atmospheric  currents,  an  illustration,  ii. 

471 
Atomatism,  apparent  puzzle  of,  resolved, 

ii.  464,  466 
Australia,  burial  rites  in,  i.  84 

Babel,  confusion  at,  ii.  312 

Balaam,  treatment  of,  ii.  312 

Balaki,  the  Brahman,  ii.  105 

Banshee,  the  Irish,  i.  130 

Baptism,  a  general  religious  rite,  i.  57  ; 
in  Fantee,  i.  .58;  among  tlie  Oherokees, 
Aztecs,  Arc,  i.  5S  ;  in  Mexico,  i.  58, 
61  ;  in  Mongolia  and  Thibet,  i.  61  ; 
among  the  Parsees,  i.  61,  62 ;  in  the 
Christian  Church  i.  62,  63 ;  meaning  of 
the  rite,  i.  63,  64 

Barabbas,  i.  277,  278 

Barnabas,  and  Paul  in  Antioch,  ii.  .3.3I5 ; 
taken  for  Zeus,  ii.  333  ;  separation,  ii. 
336 

Beatitudes,  tho,  i.  471,  472 


500 


INDEX. 


Beauty  and  Bamls,  allegory  of,  ii.  279 

Beliefs,  necessary,  vindication  of,  ii.  42S- 
431 ;  conditions  of,  iL  431 ;  example,  ii. 
455,  456 

Benfey,  translation  of  the  Sama-Veda- 
Sanhita,  ii.  77 

Bhiksbu,  a,  defined,  i.  106 

Bhikshus  and  Bhikshunis,  the,  ii.  150 

Bible,  the,  though  above,  yet  among  the 
sacred  books  of  the  world,  ii.  1,  2; 
forced  interpretations  of,  ii.  15,  16  ; 
mostly  anonymous,  ii.  25 ;  style  of,  ii. 
28,  29 

Birth,  religiou.=;  rites  at,  amorig  savage 
nations,  i.  55,  56  ;  in  Mexico,  i.  58-61 ; 
in  Mongolia  and  Thibet,  i.  61 

Bodhisattva,  i.  220-226 ;  in  the  womb, 
1.  289 ;  the  nature  of,  ii._  147,  148  ; 
their  sacrifice  of  Nirvana,  ii.  148 

Bogda,  thauraaturgic  powers  of,  i.  148 

Books,  sacred,  all  civilised  nations  nearly 
have,  ii.  2,  3  ;  Greeks  and  Romans 
without,  ii.  3 ;  list  of,  ii.  3 ;  their  exter- 
nal marks— recognised  inspiration,  ii. 
4,  5,  supposed  merit  of  reading  or  re- 
peating them,  ii.  5-9,  subjection  to 
forced  interpretations,  ii.  9-20  ;  inter- 
nal marks— transcendentalsubject-mat- 
ter,  ii.  20-22,  authoritativeness,  ii.  22, 
23,  general  anonymity,  ii.  23-26,  form- 
lessness, ii.  26-29 ;  of  the  Chinese,  ii. 
30-76  ;  seldom  written  by  the  autliors 
of  the  religion,  ii.  62  ;  of  India,  ii. 
77-108  ;  of  the  Buddhists,  ii.  109-154  ; 
necessity  for,  ii.  109  ;  of  the  Parsees, 
ii.  155-190  ;  of  the  Moslems,  ii.  191- 
204  ;  of  the  Jews.  ii.  202-322 ;  of 
Christianity,  ii.  323-375 

Bo-tree,  sanctity  of,  in  Ceylon,  i.  154 ; 
Buddha  under,  i.  226,  227 

Brahma,  his  incest,  ii.  316 ;  not  wor- 
shipped, ii.  405,  406;  and  Brahm,  ii. 
406,  407 

Brahman,  the  caste,  i.  183;  the  supreme, 
ii.  405 

Brahmanas,  the,  ii.  29,  77,  78;  their 
character,  ii.  101,  102  ;  ritualistic 
appendages  to  the  Vedas,  ii.  102,  103 ; 
teaching  by  apologue,  ii  103  ;  on  a 
universal  soul,  ii.  104,  105 ;  on  the 
future  of  the  soul,  ii.  106  ;  on  patience, 
ii.  107  ;  references  to  moral  conduct, 
ii.  108 

Bread  and  wine  in  the  Eucharist,  virtue 
of,  i.  164 

Buddha,  Gautama,  a  thaumaturgist,  i. 
147  ;  the  tooth  of,  i.  163,  164  ;  prepara- 
tion for  his  last  manifestation,  i.  213  ; 
uncertain  data  to  go  upon  for  his  life,  i. 
214  ;  when  he  lived,  i.  215  ;  early  asce- 
ticism, i.  215,  216  ;  abolishes  caste,  i. 
216  ;  his  theoretic,  i.  217  ;  his  four 
truths,  i.  217  ;  the  interpretation  of 
these,  i.  217  ;  his  death,  i.  218 ;  his 
chief  disciples,   i.   218  ;  spread  of  his 


religion,  i.  218 ;  essential  principles,  i. 
218,  219  ;  his  blamelessness,  i.  219 ; 
the  mythical  twelve  periods  of  his 
life,  i.  220  ;  resolution  to  be  born, 
i.  220 ;  choice  of  parents,  i.  220 ; 
his  birth,  i.  222  ;  various  names  of, 
i.   222  ;  adoration  by  an  old  llishi,  i. 

223  ;  qualifies  himself  for  marriage,  i. 
223 ;  enjoyment  of  domestic  life,  i. 
224 ;  departure  from  home  and  as- 
sumption of  the  monastic  character,  i. 

224  ;  temptations,  i.  225 ;  his  horse 
Kantaka,  i.  225  ;  his  penances,  i.  226  ; 
his  triumpli  over  tlie  devil,  i.  226 ; 
becomes  perfect  Buddha,  i.  226,  227  ; 
turns  the  Wheel  of  th'>  L^w,  i.  227  ;  his 
reception  by  kings,  i.  227  ;  his  first 
conversions,  i.  227  ;  founds  monastic 
institutions,!.  227;  enters  Nirvana,  i. 
228 ;  funeral  rites,  i.  228 ;  relics,  i. 
228  ;  aristocratic  descent,  i.  284  ;  ges- 
tation of,  i.  288,  289  ;  signs  at  his  birth, 
i.  292 ;  the  infant,  recognised  Simeon- 
wise  by  the  llishi  Asita,  i.  298  ;  his 
temptation  in  the  wilderness,  i.  30S  ; 
and  the  Matangi  girl,  i.  376  ;  compared 
with  Christ,  i.  459^61 ;  and  the  widow's 
mite,  i.  459,  460  ;  and  the  cup  of  cold 
water,  i.  461;  as  a  fisher  of  men,  i.  461  ; 
exalts  humility  and  poverty,  i.  462  ; 
on  divorce,  i.  462,  463  ;  and  Christ,  i. 
487-490  ;  his  sayings  collected,  ii.  110  ; 
sects  in  the  Church  of,  ii.  110  ;  extra- 
vagant adoration  of,  ii.  122  ;  painting 
the  picture  of,  ii.  122,  123  ;  and  the 
two  condemned  felons,  ii.  134-136 ; 
central  figure  of  Buddhism,  ii.  146 ; 
successive  manifestations,  ii.  147  ; 
worship  of,  ii.  147 ;  training  of,  ii, 
147,  148,  1-52 ;  disciples  of,  ii.  149 

Buddha  Sakyamuni,  leaps  into  the  fire, 
ii.  300 

Buddhas,  the,  Pratyeka,  ii.  149 

Buddhism,  ascetic  nature  and  rules  of, 
i.  105-107;  fathers  of,  miracle-workers, 
i.  147,  148  ;  goal  of,  i.  213  ;  its  sacred 
canon,  ii.  110-112  ;  ten  commandments 
of,  ii.  128  :  boundless  charity  of,  ii. 
1.34  ;  regard  for  personal  purity,  ii. 
136-139  ;  its  four  truths,  ii.  142 ; 
Buddha  its  central  figure,  ii.  146  ;  gods 
of,  ii.  146;  grades  in,  ii.  148,  149  ;  mor- 
ality of,  ii.  151-154  ;  five  command- 
ments of,  ii.  247;  not  witliout  a  god, 
ii.  395-397 

Buildhists,  i.  105-107 ;  antecedent  to  Bud- 
dhism, i.  108  ;  in  India,  i.  108, 109  ;  of 
Visvarnitra,  i.  108,  109. 

Bunyau's  "Pilgrim's Progress"  compared 
with  the  Apocalypse,  ii.  366,  367 

Caaba,  the,  i.  238,  240 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  forestalled  by  Con- 
fucius, i.  209  ;  his  "  Everlasting  No," 
i.  236  ;  on  I^Iahomet,  i.  244 


I 


INDEX. 


501 


C:iuse,  the  notion  of,  ii.  484;  the  Un- 
known.    See  PowEB 

Ceylon,  religious  observances  in,  i.  47  ; 
festivals  in,  i.  50  ;  nianiage  in,  i.  81, 
82  ;  burial  rites  in,  i.  86  ;  omens  in,  i. 
134,  135 ;  divination  in,  i.  141 ;  the 
Bo-tree  in,  i.  154 

Child,  myth  of  the  dangerous,  i.  293- 
296 

China,  Emperor  of,  praying  for  rain,  i. 
26  ;  sacrifice  in,  i.  35 ;  divination  in, 
i.  140,  141 ;  in  the  days  of  Confucius, 
i.  197  ;  official  creed  of,  ii.  31  ;  sacred 
writings  of,  ii.  31 ;  authentic  history 
of,  remote,  ii.  48;  fate  of  the  early 
Emperors  of,  as  good  or  bad,  ii.  49-53; 
its  sages  and  kings,  ii.  51-53 ;  the  "  re- 
ligiones  licitfe"  of,  ii.  62 

Chinese,  the,  sacred  books  once  nearly 
destroyed,  ii.  32  ;  their  political  doc- 
trines, ii.  35  ;  their  etliics,  ii.  37,  38 ; 
their  loyalty  to  heroes  as  heaven-ap- 
pointed, ii.  42,  43 

Cliiist,  Jesus,  conceived  neces.sity  of  his 
death,  i.  44  ;  his  appeal  to  niirncles,  i. 
149  ;  divinity  of,  not  found  in  the  New 
Testament,  i.  436,  437 ;  Mahomet's 
view  of,  ii.  196,  197  ;  worship  of,  ii. 
410.      See  Jesus 

Christians,  the  early,  communists,  ii.  326; 
first  breach  among,  ii.  328 ;  severe 
discipline  among,  ii.  337 

Cliristianity,  fundamental  conception  of, 
i.  43,  44 ;  festivals  of,  i.  49 ;  ascetic  spirit 
of  early,  i.  110  ;  ascetic  developments 
of,  i.  110,  111 ;  powerless  over  the  Jews 
since  the  death  of  Christ,  i.  418,  419  ; 
originally  Judaic,  i.  446 ;  its  worship  of 
Christ,  ii.  409;  its  treatment  of  the 
Father  and  the  Spirit,  ii.  409-411 

Christmas,  a  pagan  festival,  i.  50 

Church,  the,  necessary  infallibility  of,  i. 
188 

Choo  He,  his  criticism  of  preface  to 
Chinese  odes,  ii.  17,  18 

Chow,  the  Duke  of,  on  the  favour  of 
heaven,  ii.  53 

Ch'un  Ts'ew,  the,  forced  interpretation 
applied  to,  ii.  11-13,  58 ;  its  subject- 
matter  and  authorship,  ii.  .58-60  ; 
opinions  of  Dr  Legge,  ii.  58-60,  of 
Mang,  ii.  58,  59  ;  extract,  ii.  61 ;  topics, 
ii.  61 

Chung  Yung,  the,  authorship  of,  ii.  36  ; 
its  doctrine  of  the  "  Mean,"  ii.  3(5,  37  ; 
its  doctrine  of  virtue  and  heaven,  ii.  37, 
38 

Cicero  on  immortality,  ii.  443 

Circumcision,  widespread  practice  of, 
i.  64;  among  the  Jews,  i.  65:  of 
women  among  the  Suzees  and  IMan- 
dingoes,  i.  78,  79 

Clement,  quotation  from,  on  second 
coming,  i.  452,  453 


Clergy,  secular  and  regular,  i.  114 

Cobbe,  Frances  Power,  ii.  374 

Coming,  the  second,  apostolic  doctrine 
on,  i.  447-453 

Confucius,  neither  an  ascetic  recluse  nor 
a  religious  enthusia.st,  i.  195,  196; 
regard  for  ritual,  i.  196,  199  ;  birth 
and  early  life,  i.  196  ;  as  a  teacher,  i. 
196;  subject  of  his  doctrines,  i.  197; 
refuses  state  endowments,  i.  197  ; 
chief  magistrate  of  Loo,  i.  197  ;  resigna- 
tion, i.  197  ;  deatli,  i.  198 ;  charac'ter, 
i.  198  ;  wanting  in  the  bold  originality 
of  the  other  reformers  of  religion, 
i.  198  ;  charge  of  insincerity,  i.  198  ;  his 
purity,  i.  199  ;  his  courteous  manners, 
i.  200  ;  formal  deportment,  i.  201 ;  re- 
lations with  his  disciples,  i.  201  ;  four 
virtues  of  wliich  he  was  master,  i.  202  ; 
sense  of  a  mission,  i.  202,  203  ;  pain  at 
being  misunderstood,  i.  203;  had  no 
theological  beliefs,  i.  203 ;  lays  all 
stress  upon  terrestrial  virtues,  i.  204  ; 
had  an  esoteiic  doctrine,  i.  205  ;  sub- 
jects on  which  he  did  not  talk,  200  ; 
minds  not  things  too  high  for  him,  but 
is  silent,  i.  206 ;  summary  of  moral 
duties,  i.  207  ;  moral  perfection,  i.  207  ; 
<ioctrine  of  reciprocity,  i.  208;  some 
of  his  sayings,  i.  208,  209 ;  Carlylcan 
utterances,  i.  209;  Tsze-Kung's  admira- 
tion for  him,  i.  209 ;  interview  with  and 
opinion  of  Lao-tse,  i.  210,  211  ;  ante- 
natal signs,  i.  290  ;  his  teaching  similar 
to  Christ's,  i.  4.58;  doctrine  of  recom- 
l)ense,  i.  475-478 ;  idea  of  ]ierfect  vir- 
tue, i.  486;  .and  Christ,  i.  487-490;  on 
unseen  spiritual  beings,  ii.  38,  39  ;  left 
writings,  ii.  62 

Confucianism  the  official  creed  in  China, 
ii.  31 

Consciousness,  its  rise  unaccounted  for 
by  material  evolution,  ii.  467  ;  neces- 
sarily of  spiritual  evolution,  ii.  468, 
469 ;  not  by  creation,  nor  from  no- 
thing, ii.  409 

Consecration,  power  of,  among  the  Mon- 
golians, i.  96  ;  among  the  Catholics,  i. 
%^  ;  differs  from  sacrifice,  i.  96  ;  per- 
manence of,  i.  97 

Consecrated  objects  in  Sierra  Leone,  i. 
!t4  ;  among  the  Tartars,  i.  94  ;  in  Cey- 
lon, i.  94  :  value  of,  i.  96 

Cornelius,  conversion  of,  i.  4.38,  ii.  331 

Creation  of  the  universe,  Hebrew  ac- 
count of,  ii.  221-223  :  account  of  the 
Quiches,  ii.  223,  of  the  Mixtecs,  ii. 
2l'3,  224,  of  the  Buddliists,  ii.  224,  of 
the  Parsees,  ii.  224,  225,  of  the  Kig- 
Yeda,  ii.  225,  226  ;  of  animals  and  nian, 
Helirew  account,  ii  22()-228,  Fijiiui 
account,  ii.  228;  inijiossible.  ii.  46!' 

Creeds,  the  eiTor  of,  ii.  472,  473 

Cylinders,  lotary,  in  Thibet,  with  sacred 
texts,  ii.  6,  7 


502 


INDEX. 


Dakhmas,  the,  i.  87,  88 

Daniel,  the  book  of,  ii.  298,  299  ;  the 
prophet,  ii.  299,  300,  302 

Darwinianism,  an  epoch,  ii.  468 

Death,  rites  at,  in  New  South  Wales,  i. 
84  ;  in  AVestern  Africa,  i.  84,  85  ;  iu 
Polynesia,  i.  85  ;  in  Mexico,  i.  8G  ;  in 
Ceylon,  i.  86  ;  in  Thibet,  i.  87  ;  among 
Christians,  i.  88,  89 

Death-watch,  the,  in  Scotland,  1.  136 

Debt  a  disqualification  in  Buddhism,  ii. 
124 

Delphi,  oracle  at,  i.  152 

Deluge,  the,  Hebrew  account  of,  ii.  235, 
236 ;  other  traditions,  ii.  237,  238  ; 
Indian  tradition,  ii.  238,  239 ;  the 
judgment  by,  ii.  312 

Demoniac  possession  in  the  days  of 
Christ,  i.  26'.),  270  ;  in  .Tudea,  Aljyssi- 
nia,  Polynesia,  and  Ceylon,  i.  318,  319 

Design,  argument  from,  ii.  475,  476 

Destruction,  impossible,  ii.  469 

Devadatta,  ii.  152 

Devas,  the  worship  of,  renounced  by  the 
Parsees,  ii.  165 

Didron,  M.,  on  the  Scripture  proof  of 
the  Trinity,  ii.  15  ;  on  mediaeval  repre- 
sentations of  the  Father  and  the  Son 
in  the  Trinity,  ii.  410,  411 

Disciples,  the,  rebuked  by  Christ  for  not 
casting  oixt  a  devil,  i.  317  ;  and  Juda- 
ism, i.  438-441,  445 

Disease,  moral  theory  of,  i.  173 

Disease-makers  in  Tannn,  i.  170 

Divination  a  profession,  i  137  ;  in  South 
Africa,  i.  137 ;  from  sticks  and  bones, 
i.  137,  138  ;  by  familiar  spirits,  i.  138, 
139;  among  tlie  American  Indians,  i. 
139,  140  ;  among  the  Ostiacks,  i.  140  ; 
in  China,  i.  140, 141 ;  in  Ceylon,  i.  141; 
by  the  stars,  i.  142 

Diviners,  methods  of,  in  Sierra  Leone, 
i.  175 ;  in  Mexico,  i.  175  ;  among  the 
Jews,  i.  177 

Divorce,  Christ's  doctrine  of,  i.  403 ; 
Paul's  doctrine,  ii.  362 

Dogs,  Parsee  respect  for,  ii.  176-178 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  and  his  men,  divine 
honours  paid  to,  i.  334,  335 

Dreams,  presumed  supernatural  origin 
of,  i.  125;  theory  of,  i.  126;  interpre- 
tation of,  i.  126 ;  Jewish  ceremony 
against  bad,  i.  126,  127  ;  in  Scripture, 
1.  127-129  ;  in  Homer,  i.  130  ;  horn  and 
ivory  gates  of,  i.  130 

Dream,  Joseph's,  as  a  main  proof  of  the 
incarnation,  i.  128 

Dress,  Buddhist  rule  for  nuns,  ii.  126 

Duty,  Chinese  definition  of,  ii.  37 

Easter,  i.  52 

Ebionite,  the,  a  sect  apart,  i.  445  ;  their 

f.-vte,  i.  446 
Ecclesiastes,  the  work  of  a  cynic,  ii.  271  ; 

account  of,  ii.  272 


Eddas,  the  Xorse,  ii.  27 

Ego,  consciousness  of  the,  ii.  4C0 

Elisha,  an  Amazulu,  ii.  254 

Elohim,  the,  ii.  407,  408 

Epistles,  the,  of   the   New    Testament, 

general  burden  of,  ii.  341,  342 
Equilibrium  of   soul,  Chinese  definition 

of,  ii.  37 
Essenes,  the,  i.  109 
Essence,  the  ultimate,  of  Brahmanism, 

ii.  404,  405 
Evil,  origin  of,  Hebrew  account  of,  ii. 

228,   229 ;    Buddhist  account,  ii.  232, 

233 
Evolution  theory,  its  dark  spot,  ii.  467  ; 

its  great  triumph,  ii.  468 
Existence  the  source  of  evil,  ii.  142-144  ; 

at  bottom,  what?  ii.  462 
Exorcism    among    tlie    Jews,    i.    270 ; 

among  the  disciples  of  Christ,  i.  271 
Experience  as  a  test  of  truth,  ii.  428, 

429 
Ezekiel  the  prophet  and  his  prophecies, 

ii.  291-293 

Faith  and  belief  distinguished,  i.  6 ; 
and  works,  Scripture  controversy  on, 
ii.  342,  343 ;  and  belief,  relations  of, 
ii.  472,  474 

Fasting  as  a  religious  rite,  i.  52 

Festivals,  idea  of,  i.  48;  natural  senson 
of,  i.  48  ;  in  Guinea,  China,  &c..  i.  49  ; 
New-Year's  day  in  China,  i.  50  ;  Christ- 
mas, i.  50 ;  among  the  Jews,  i.  51 ; 
three  kinds  of,  i.  51,  52 ;  of  Peru- 
vians, i,  53 

Fetisli,  idea  of  a,  i.  160 ;  power  to 
charm,  i.  161  ;  -jiriests  as  healers,  i. 
172 

Fire  a  sacred  symbol,  i.  64  ;  invocation 
of,  ii.  164 ;  Parsee  worship,  ii.  170, 
171 

Force,  persistence  of,  ii.  420-427  ;  Her- 
bert Spencer  on,  ii.  427,  466 ;  the  no- 
tion of,  ii.  4S4 

Frashaostra,  i.  230,  231 

Fravashis,  the,  ii.  168 

Gadarene  demoniac,  the,  i.  316 

Gatha,  the  fifth,  i.  2-!9  ;  account  of  the 
first,  ii.  157-159  ;  the  second,  ii,  159, 
160 ;  third,  ii.  160,  161  ;  fourth  and 
fifth,  ii.  161,  162 

Gathas,  the  five,  antiquity  of,  ii.  156 ; 
accou)\t  of,  ii.  157-162 

Gentleness,  Lao-tse  on,  ii,  69 

Ghost,  the  Holy,  in  Ciiristian  art,  ii. 
411,412;  generally  unworshipped,  ii. 
413 

God,  personality  of,  not  an  essential 
element  in  religious  belief,  ii.  487 ; 
loss  of  personality  of,  a  gain,  ii.  488 

God  of  Israel,  the,  his  imperious  atti- 
tude, ii.  303;  arbitrary  conduct  towards 
man   in   I'aradise,    ii.    304,  305;    his 


INDEX. 


503 


command  to  Abraham,  ii.  305  ;  a  Bra- 
maiiical  contrast,  ii.  305  ;  his  favourit- 
ism for  Abel,  ii.  306,  for  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  ii.  306,  307  ;  partisan- 
ship in  delivering  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt,  ii.  307,  and  giving  them  Ca- 
naan, ii.  308  ;  exacting  and  "jealous," 
ii.  308  ;  anger  at  tlie  calf -idolaters,  ii. 
309  ;  treatment  of  the  Israelites  in  tlie 
wilderness,  ii.  310,  311 ;  capricious- 
ness,  ii.  311,  312,  in  tlie  punishment 
by  deluge,  ii.  312,  towards  the  builders 
of  Babel,  ii.  312,  in  regard  to  Balaam, 
ii.  312.  Nadab  and  Abihu,  ii.  313,  the 
man  that  touched  the  ark,  ii.  313  ;  his 
rejection  of  Saul,  ii.  314  ;  preference 
for  Samuel,  ii.  314 ;  treatment  of 
Ahab,  ii.  314  ;  his  treatment  of  alien 
nations,  ii.  315 ;  his  legislation,  ii. 
316,  in  regard  to  the  Sabbath,  ii.  317, 
idolatry,  ii.  317,  filial  impiety,  ii.  317  ; 
anthroiiomorphic  conceptions  of,  ii. 
319,  320  ;  better  elements  in  the  ideal, 
ii.  321,  322. 

God  of  Christendom,  the,  differs  fi'om 
the  God  of  Israel,  ii.  368  ;  his  worst 
action,  ii.  369  ;  the  change  accounted 
for,  ii.  3(59,  370  ;  no  longer  the  God  of 
a  race,  ii.  370  ;  one  blot  on  his  ch.ar- 
acter,  makes  punishment  eternal,  ii. 
371,  372  ;  step  towards  a  milder  view. 
Purgatory,  ii.  373 ;  recent  still  milder 
conceptions,  ii.  374 

God  the  Father  in  mediaeval  art,  ii.  410, 
411 

God,  belief  in,  as  Father,  ii.  433  ;  as  Son, 
ii.  433,  434  ;  as  Spirit,  ii.  434 

God  among  tlie  Fijians,  ii.  389,  390  ; 
among  the  Kafirs,  ii.  390-393  ;  the  Ne- 
groes, ii.  393,  394;  the  Greenlanders,  ii. 

394  ;  original  Americans,  ii.  394,  395  ; 
the  great  religions  of  the   world,  ii. 

395  ;  of  Buddhism,  ii.  395-397  ;  inferior 
and  superior,  ii.  397 

God,  the  highest,  recognised  amidst  in- 
ferior, worshipped  gods,  in  Guinea,  ii. 
398;  among  the  Kafirs,  ii.  398;  in  Sierra 
Leone,  ii.  399  ;  in  Dahomey,  ii.  399  ; 
among  the  Ashantees,  ii.  399,  400  ;  in 
Mexico  and  Peru,  ii.  400;  in  Sabaeism, 
ii.  401;  amongthe  Hindus,  ii.  401-407; 
in  Judaism,  ii.  407,  408;  in  Christianity, 
ii.  409-411 ;  various  explanations  of  the 
idea  of,  ii.  416,  of  common  realism,  ii. 

417,  4.57,  of  metaphysical  realism,  ii. 

418,  419,  457;  comparative  estimate 
of  these  theories,  ii.  419-421 ;  of  mode- 
rate idealism,  ii.  421-425,  458,  of  ex- 
treme idealism,  ii.  425.  458  ;  philo- 
sophical conclusion,  ii.  426-428 

Gods  appealed  to  as  men,  i.  29,  30 
Goethe,  quotation,  ii.  64 
Gopa,  wife  of  Buddha,  i.  223-225 
Gospels,  the,    i.   255  ;    criticism  of  the 
narratives,  i.  255-260  ;  discrepancies  in 


regard  to  the  genealogies,  i.  280-284  ; 
accounts  of  Christ's  birth,  i.  285,  286  ; 
discrepancies  regarding  Christ's  habi- 
tation, i.  310  ;  regarding  the  calling  of 
his  first  disciples,  i.  311,  312;  discre- 
pancies about  the  sermon  on  the 
Mount,  i.  315  ;  hopelessness  of  chrono- 
logy, i.  315  ;  account  of  Christ's  entry 
into  Jerusalem,  i.  330  ;  account  of  the 
fig-tree,  i.  331 ;  account  of  Clirist's 
anointing,  i.  332  ;  accounts  of  Christ's 
betrayal  by  Judas,  i.  335,  336;  accounts 
of  Christ's  last  passover,  i.  337-339  ; 
accounts  of  Christ's  passion,  340,  341  ; 
account  of  Christ's  arrest,  i.  341, 
342,  of  Jesus  before  the  Sanhedrim, 
i.  343,  344,  of  Jesus  before  Pilate,  i. 
345-347,  of  the  crucifixion,  i.  348-352, 
of  the  resurrection,  i.  353-361;  account 
of  Christ's  lineage  and  birthplace,  i. 
390-393 

Greece,  gods  of,  ii.  492 

Groves,  sacred,  in  Africa  and  the  South 
Seas,  i.  153 

Habakktjk,  the  prophet,  ii.  286 
Haggai,  his  prophecy,  ii.  296 
Hanyfitea,  i.  247 
Haoma,  the  plant,  i.  40,  41 
Harischandra,  legend  of,  ii.  241-244 
Harmony,  Chinese  spiritual,  ii.  37 
Haug,  Dr,  on  the  ages  of  the  Vedas,  ii. 

81,  82 ;  his  translation  of  the  Gatlias, 

ii.  155 
Hea,  decree  against  the  King  of,  ii.  50, 

51 
Heaven  and  hell,  IMahometan,  ii.  200,  201 
Heaven,  Chinese  definition  of,  ii.  38 
Hebrews,  the,  its  teaching,  as  contrasted 

with  that  of  James,  ii.  342-344 
Hegira,  the,  i.  239 

Here's  conception  of  Hephaistos,  i.  287 
Hermits,  Indian,  i.  108 
Herod  and  the  birth  of  Christ,  i.  293- 

295 
Herod  the  Tetrarch,  fate  of,  ii.  3.32 
Heu  Hing,  political  economy  of,  ii.  45 
Hezekiah,    and   Isaiah,   ii.    255 ;    divine 

favour  to,  ii.  256 ;  inglorious  reign  of, 

ii.  258 
Hilkiah,  and  his  associates,  and  Josiah. 

ii.  210-212 
Hindus,  ritual  among  the,  i.  47  ;  festi- 
vals among  the,  i.  49,  51 
Hodgson,  his  discovery  in  Nepaul,  ii.  112 
Honia,  the  god,  ii.  183-185 
Homa-Yasht,  the,  ii.  183 
Homer,  poems  of,  ii.  27,  28 
Horace,  quotation,  ii.  68 
Hosea,  the  prophet,  ii.  278 
How-tseih,  miraculous  birth  of,  i.  288 
Huron,  prayer  of  a,  i.  22 
Hymn.s  Vedic,  of  cursing,  ii.  268,  269 
Hysteria  in  Judiea  in  the  days  of  Chri.st, 

i.  269,  270 


S04 


INDEX. 


Ibos,  sacrifices  among  tbe.  i.  34 
Idealism,  its  forms,  ii.  421  ;  moderate, 
as  a  solution,  ii.    421-425;   extreme, 
ii.  425 
Idolatry,  the  crime  of,  among  the  Jews, 

ii.  317 
Immortality  of  the  soul,  not  an  article 
in  either  the  Buddhist  or  Jewish  creed, 
ii.'  442 ;  the  Greek  and  Roman  philo- 
sophers on,  ii.  442,  443 
Tncas,  the  worship  of,  by  images,  ii.  390 
Indian,  Nootka,  prayer  of,  i.  22 
Indra,    his    praises,    ii.    86 ;    his    soma- 
drinking,  ii.  87  ;  the  Indian  Zeus,  ii.  87 
Infallibility  of  the  clergy,  i.  188 
Inspiration   of  sacred   books,   ii.    4,   5  ; 

among  the  Chinese,  ii.  17-19 
Instruction,  Chinese  definition  of,  ii.  .37 
Interpretation,  forced,  of  sacred  books, 

ii.  9-20 
Isaac,  the  sacrifice  of,  an  Indian  parallel 

to,  ii.  241-244 
Isaiah  quoted  to  prove  Messiahship  of 
Christ,  i.  393-39(3 ;  53d  as  a  pro- 
phecy of  Christ,  i.  396  ;  his  rank  as  a 
prophet,  ii.  279  ;  dates  of  his  pro- 
phecies, ii.  280 ;  earliest  stratum  of 
his  prophecies,  ii.  280 ;  contrast  with 
Joel,  ii.  281 ;  on  the  Jerusalem  ladies, 
ii.  281 ;  second  part,  ii.  281  ;  accepts 
the  divine  call,  ii.  282 ;  third  part, 
ii.  282;  fourth  part,  ii.  282,  283; 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  pants,  ii.  283  ; 
vision  of  the  future,  ii.  283 

Jacob,  his  bargain  with  Jehovah,  i.  29 ; 
his  conduct  to  Esau,  ii   307 

Jahveh,  the  boly  name,  ii.  408 

James,  the  Epistle  of,  its  teaching  con- 
trasted with  that  of  the  Hebrews, 
ii.  342,  343 

Jehovah,  his  praises  in  the  Psalms,  i.  28 
and  Adonai,  ii.  407,  408 

Jeremiah,  the  prophet,  ii.  287  ;  his  call, 
ii.  287,  288  ;  denunciatory  prophecies, 
ii.  288,  289;  and  Pashur,  ii.  289; 
analysis  of  his  prophecies,  ii.  289, 
290  ;  lamentations  of,  ii.  291 

Jesus  Christ,  the  historical  (see  Christ), 
difficulties  in  regard  to  materials  for 
his  life,  i.  254 ;  compared  with  the 
mythical,  and  the  ideal,  i.  255 ; 
his  sayings  credibly  reported,  i. 
256  ;  criticism  of  his  doings,  i.  257  ; 
further  tests  applied,  i.  257-260  ;  his 
parents  and  family,  i.  260-262 ;  his 
mother,  i.  261  ;  birth  at  Nazareth,  i. 
262 ;  originally  a  carpenter,  i.  2i>3  ; 
influence  of  John  the  Baptist,  i.  263, 
264  ;  comes  forth  a  Jlessiah,  i.  264  ; 
boldly  asserts  his  claim,  i.  265  ;  his 
early  disciples,  the  three  most  inti- 
mate, i.  265,  266  ;  female  followers,  i. 
266  ;  his  own  family  and  neighbours 
unfriendly  to  his  mission,  i.  267,  268  ; 


his  public  teaching,  i.  268 ;  state  of 
Judsea  at  the  time,  i.  268,  269;  casts 
out  di!vils,  i.  270,  271 ;  his  sermons 
and  parables,  i.  272  ;  authority  as  a 
teacher,  i.  272,  273  ;  offends  tlie  Jews 
by  forgiving  sin,  i.  273  ;  disregard  of 
Sabbatical  customs,  i.  273  ;  claiming 
Messiahship,  i.  273,  274  ;  abusing  his 
enemies,  i.  274  ;  violent  conduct  in  the 
Temple,  i.  274  ;  his  betrayal  and  ap- 
prehension, i.  275 ;  accusation  and 
trial,  i.  276  ;  the  witnesses  and  his  de- 
fence, i.  276,  277  ;  his  condemnation, 
i.  277  ;  before  Pilate,  i.  277  ;  cruci- 
fixion, i.  278  ;  interment,  i.  278 
Jesus,  of  the  Gospels,  indifference  to  .nl- 
leged  lineage  and  birtliplace,  i.  389  ; 
believed  to  be  of  Nazareth,  i.  391 ;  mis- 
applies a  prophecy  to  himself,  i.  395, 
396 ;  and  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  i.  399- 
401 ;  offence  taken  at  the  company  he 
kept  and  free  living,  i.  401  ;  his  neglect 
of  the  tradition  of  the  elders,  i.  402  ; 
views  of  divorce,  i.  403  ;  on  paying  tri- 
bute, i.  403-405  ;  and  the  Sadducees  in 
regard  to  the  future  state,  i. 405-408;  on 
the  two  chief  commandments,  i.  408  ; 
denunciation  of  the  Scribes,  i.  409,  410 ; 
provokes  ojiposition,  i.  411  ;  expulsion 
of  the  money-changers,  i.  411,  412  ;  de- 
fence of  his  conduct,  i.  413,  414  ;  gives 
offence  to  the  Sanhedrim,  i.  415;  before 
the  Sanhedrim,  i.  415;  before  Pil.ate,  i. 
417  ;  his  faith  in  his  Messiahship,  i. 
422  ;  conscious  of  being  son  of  God,  i. 
422,  423  ;  comparative  modesty  of  the 
claim,  i.  423;  .asserted  inferiority  to 
the  Father,  i.  424  ;  his  relation  to  the 
law,  i.  425,  426 ;  his  mission  confined 
to  the  Jews,  i.  427,  428  ;  his  idea  of 
his  mission  his  one  thought,  i.  42S, 
435  ;  his  warning  to  his  disciples  to  be 
ready,  i.  429-431 ;  his  ideas  of  his  king- 
dom, i.  432  ;  his  one  qualification  for 
admission,  i.  433  :  his  kingdom  to  be 
on  earth,  i.  434  ;  Peter's  confession  of, 
i.  436  ;  doctrine  of  his  divinity  not 
found  in  the  New  Testament,  i.  436  ; 
not  thought  to  have  a  design  of  sub- 
verting the  INIosaiclaw,  i.  438  ;  modern 
laudation  of,  i.  454  ;  materials  for  cri- 
ticism, i.  454,  455  ;  his  fondness  for 
contrasts,  i.  455.  456  ;  his  resemblance 
to  Lao-tse,  i.  456  ;  .aversion  to  wealth 
.and  wealthy  men,  i.  464-466  ;  his  doc- 
trine in  regard  to  invitations  to  feasts. 
i.  467  ;  parable  of  the  labourers  in  the 
vineyaid,  i.  468  ;  his  assertion  of  eter- 
nal punishment,  i.  469  ;  his  false  esti- 
mate of  the  power  of  prayer,  i.  470; 
his  sermon  on  the  Mount,  i.  471-487  ; 
his  doctrine  of  murder,  adultery,  and 
perjury,  i.  472,  473  ;  of  resisting  evil 
by  doing  good,  i.  473,  474  ;  his  model 
prayer,  i.  478-481  ;  on  the  superiority 


INDEX. 


505 


of  lieaveiily  to  temporal  interests,  i. 
481-4S3;  founder  of  scientific  ethics, 
1.  485  ;  as  a  prophet,  compared  with 
Buddha  and  Confucius,  i.  487-490; 
compared  witli  Socrates,  i.  490-492;  his 
transcendent  moral  grandeur,  i.  493  ; 
as  a  man  of  sorrows,  i.  493-495 

Jes\is  Christ,  IMahomet's  view  of,  ii. 
196,  197  _ 

Jesus,  the  ideal,  of  St  John,  peculiarities 
of  the  narrative,  i.  3G5,  36G  ;  improba- 
hilities,  i.  36G  ;  raising;  Lazarus,  i.  366, 
368  ;  at  the  marriage  feast,  i.  368,  369 ; 
heals  by  a  word,  i.  369  ;  at  the  pool 
of  Bethesda,  i.  369  ;  interviews  with 
Nathanael,  &c  ,  i.  369,  370,  375;  sym- 
bolic teachings,  i.  370-372  ;  last  dis- 
course to  Ins  disciples,  i.  373 ;  as  the 
Logos,  i.  373,  374  ;  oneness  with  God, 
as  his  fatlier,  i.  374  ;  last  days  and 
moments,  i.  377,  378 

Jesus,  the  mythical,  the  accounts  of,  i. 
278,  279  ;  variety  of  these,  i.  279  ;  the 
genealogies,  i.  279-284  ;  conception  and 
nativity,  i.  285-287  ;  mythological  par- 
allels, i.  287-291 ;  mediaeval  painting 
of.  in  the  womb,  i.  289  ;  recognition  by 
the  shepherds,  i.  291,  292 ;  by  the  Magi, 
i.  293,  and  Herod,  i.  293,  294  ;  a  dan- 
gerous child,  i.  294-297  ;  circumcision, 
i.  297  ;  recognised  by  Simeon,  i.  298, 
by  Anna,  i.  299;  in  the  Temple.  i..299, 
300 ;  called  a  Nazarene,  i.  303 ;  his 
baptism,  i.  303-305;  message  from  John 
the  Baptist,  i.  306  ;  temptation,  i.  307  ; 
comes  to  Capernaum,  i.  308  ;  reasons 
for  leaving  Nazareth,  i.  308,  309;  recep- 
tion in  Nazai-eth  as  a  preacher,  i.  309  ; 
has  an  abode,  i.  310  ;  no  ascetic,  i.  311  ; 
in  comfortable  circumstances,  i.  311 ; 
collects  followers,  i.  311,  312;  calls 
Peter,  i.  312;  calls  Matthew,  i.  313; 
appoints  twelve,  i.  313 ;  his  four 
select,  i.  313,  314  ;  works  miracles,  i. 
314  ;  sermon  on  the  Mount,  i.  314,  315  ; 
heals  the  Gadarene  demoniac,  i.  316; 
expels  a  devil,  and  rebukes  his  dis- 
ciples for  tlieir  want  of  faith,  i.  317 ; 
heals  the  Syrophenician  damsel,  i.  317, 
318  ;  heals  a  leper,  i.  319,  a  paralytic, 
i.  320  ;  raises  Jaiiais'  daughter,  i.  320- 
323:  heals  a  woman  with  an  issue  of 
blood,  i.  323,  the  centurion's  servant, 
i.  323,  324  ;  heals  a  deaf  mute,  i.  325  ; 
heals  a  blind  man,  i.  325,  ten  lejiers, 
i.  325  ;  raises  tlie  widow's  son,  i.  326  ; 
miraculously  feeds  a  multitude,  i.  326  ; 
walks  on  the  water,  i.  327 ;  stills  the 
storm,  i.  327  ;  his  transhgijration,  i. 
327,  328  ;  foretells  his  crucinxioi;  and 
resurrection,  i.  329 ;  triump'ial  entry 
into  Jerusalem,  i.  329,  330  ;  blasts  the 
fig-tree,  i.  331  ;  ]nirges  the  te:nj)le,  i. 
3'!1  ;  last  anointing,  i.  332;  betrayal 
by  Judas,  i.  335  ;  keeps  his  last  pass- 


over,  i.  S37  ;  institutes  the  supper,  i. 
339  ;  washes  his  disciples'  feet,  i.  340 ; 
in  Gethsemane,  i.  340 ;  arrest,  i.  341  ; 
before  the  Sanhedrim,  i.  342-344  ;  be- 
fore Pilate,  i.  344-348 ;  before  Ilerod,  i. 
346  ;  mockery,  i.  348 ;  crucifixion,  i. 
348-351  ;  last  words,  i.  351  ;  wonders 
accompanying  his  deatli,  i.  351  ;  his 
burial,  i.  352,  353  ;  resunection,  i.  353- 
359 ;  ascension,  i.  360,  361 

Jews,  sacrifices  among  the,  i.  35,  37 ; 
prayers,  i.  46  ;  festivals  of,  i.  49-51  ; 
passover  among,  i.  52  ;  rite  of  circum- 
cision among,  i.  65  ;  historical  result  of 
their  rejection  of  Christ,  i.  379,  380 ; 
unjust  treatment,  i.  381  ;  considera- 
tions in  extenuation,  i.  382  ;  their  pro- 
vocations, i.  383,  384 ;  credulity  of 
scepticism  in  regard  to  Messianic  pre- 
tensions, i.  385 ;  justification  of  their 
Messianic  expectations,  i.  385-387  ; 
excusable  ignorance  as  to  Christ's 
lineage,  i.  390,  391  ;  and  their  own 
prophecies,  i.  392-396  ;  treatment  of 
Christ's  miracles,  i.  397  ;  their  esteem 
for  the  Sabbath  law,  i.  398,  399  ; 
their  offence  at  Christ  for  his  disre- 
gard of  ceremonial  observance,  i.  393- 
403  ;  their  right  to  interrogate  Christ, 
i.  402  ;  question  to  Jesus  about  tri- 
bute, i.  403-405  ;  just  offence,  as  nio- 
notheists,  at  Christ,  i.  416  ;  and 
Christianity,  i.  418,  420 ;  justification 
of  their  rejection  of  Clirist,  i.  420  ; 
identified  with  tlieir  Bible,  ii.  202  ; 
settlement  in  Judoea,  ii.  202,  203; 
under  kings,  ii.  203;  in  captivity,  ii. 
203;  epoch  in  their  history,  ii.  203; 
their  national  god,  ii.  204-206 ;  early 
creed  not  monotheistic,  ii.  207  ;  idola- 
trv,  208  ;  not  Jehovistic,  only  the 
priests,  ii.  209-212;  effects  of  the  cap- 
tivity, ii.  212-215  ;  under  the  Macca- 
bees, ii.  216 ;  their  iiride  and  intoler- 
ance, ii.  216,  217  ;  under  the  Asino- 
neans  and  the  Herods,  ii.  217  ;  under 
the  Romans,  ii.  218;  in  Cliristendom, 
ii.  218  ;  their  toughness,  ii.  219 

Job,  story  of  the  book  of,  ii.  265,  266 

"  Jocelyn,"  Lamartine's,  i.  118,  119 

Joel,  his  prophecy,  ii.  276;  and  Isaiah, 
ii.  281 

John  Baptist,  asceticism  of,  i.  110,  263, 
264  ;  baptizes  Christ,  i.  305  ;  message 
from  prison  to  Christ,  i.  306  ;  Christ's 
estimate  of,  i.  306 

John,  Gospel  of,  silence  about  miracu- 
lous conception,  i.  285;  account  of- 
Christ's  baptism,  i.  305;  account  of 
the  crucifi.xion,  i.  352;  on  Christ's 
divinity,  i.  436,  437 ;  its  value  in  evi- 
dence, i.  437 

John,  the  apostle,  the  beloved  disciple, 
i.  .370  ;  his  Gospel,  its  fomlness  foi'  sym- 
bolic speech,  i.  370-372 ;   for  obscure 


5o6 


INDEX. 


theological  questions,  i.  372,  373  ;  doc- 
trine of  the  Lo^os,  i.  373,  374  ;  his 
Gospel  as  regards  Clirist's  birthplace 
and  lineage,  i.  391,  392 

John,  the  three  epistles  of,  ii.  345,  346 

Jonah,  book  and  story  of,  ii.  297,  298 

Jongleurs,  the,  in  New  France,  installa- 
tion of,  i.  115 

Jordan,  crossing  the,  an  Indian  parallel, 
ii.  250 

Joseph,  the  father  of  Jesus,  i.  2G0,  280, 
285,  295,  301 

Josiah,  Jehovistic  coup  d'etat  under,  ii. 
210-212 

Judas,  his  betrayal  of  Jesus,  i.  275 ; 
slander  against,  i.  333  ;  l)etra\'s  Christ, 
i.  345  ;  myth  of  his  utdiappy  end,  i. 
336,  337  ;  charged  with  liis  intended 
crime  at  the  last  supper,  i.  338,  339; 
arrest  of  Christ,  i.  341,  342 

Judaism, antagonism  to  asceticism,  i.  109; 
of  John  tlie  Baptist,  i.  110  ;  tendency 
of  Christianity  to  encourage,  i.  110  ; 
idea  of,  i.  Ill ;  Protestant  disregard  of, 
i.  112  ;  and  Christianity,  i.  43S  ;  and  the 
apostle  Paul,  i.  441-444  ;  and  the  early 
Cliurch,  i.  446 

Kafirs,  prayer  of,  i.  23  ;  sacrifice  among 
the,  i.  34,  35  ;  sneezing  an  omen  among, 
i.  131  ;  other  omens  among,  i.  134 

Kama,  burning  of,  i.  52 ;  invoked  to 
curse,  ii.  209 

Kiintaka,  horse  of  Buddha,  i.  225 

Karma,  the,  of  Buddhist  ethics,  ii.  152 

Kava-Vistaspa,  i.  230,  231 

Keightley,  data  from,  on  saint-worship 
in  England,  ii.  414 

Khadija,  tlie  first  wife  of  Mahomet,  i. 
235  ;  her  rehitions  with  the  propliet,  i. 
235  ;  her  death,  i.  238 

Khorda-Avesta,  the,  ii.  180-190;  its  use, 
ii.  180 ;  subject-matter  and  date,  ii. 
181 

King,  the,  meaning  of  the  term,  ii.  31 ; 
the  five,  ii.  31,  32 

Kiiigihun  of  heaven,  Christ's  idea  of.  i. 
428-433  ;  Paul's,  i.  448  ;  Peter's,  i.  449 

Koran,  style  of.  i.  245,  ii.  14. 29;  the  staple 
of,  i.  253;  the  single  autliorship  and 
unity  of,  ii.  191  ;  apology  for  its  style, 
ii.  191  ;  translations,  ii.  191  ;  origin  and 
formation  of,  ii.  191,  192 ;  original 
copy,  ii.  192.  193;  arrangement,  ii.  193  ; 
themes,  ii.  193,  194  ;  specimens,  ii.  194- 
201;  its  paradise,  ii.  200;  its  hell,  ii. 
201 

Korosi,  his  discovery,  ii.  112 

Kosti,  investiture  with  the,  i.  80 

Kronos,  liis  dread  of  his  children,  i.  295 

Kunala,  legend  of,  ii.  153 

Kyros,  a  dangerous  child,  i.  296 

liAiiY,  a  pious,  ii.  125 

Lao-tse,  probable  date  of  birth,  i.  210; 


admonition  to  Confucius,  i.  210;  nc- 
count   of  himself,  i.  211  ;    resembled 
Plato's  philosopher,  i.  212;   his  style 
similar  to  Christ's,  i.  456  ;  the  Chris- 
tianity of,  i.  474  ;  left  writings,  ii.  62  ; 
description  of  Tao,  ii.  63;  conception 
of  goodness,  ii.  68  ;  on  gentleness,  ii. 
69  ;  against  luxury,  ii.  70  ;  has  three 
cardinal  virtues,  ii.  71  ;  mysticism,  ii. 
72  ;  conception  of  God,  ii.  73,  74  ;  his 
character  and  teaching,  ii.  74 
Lazarus,    story   of,    peculiar   to   John's 
Gospel,  i.  333  ;  his  resurrection,  i.  366- 
368 
Lazarus  and  Dives,  i.  462,  466,  469 
Legge,  Dr  James,  his  Chinese  classics,  ii. 
30 ;    his  opinion  of  the  authorship  of 
Ch'un  Ts'ew,  i.  58 
Legislation,  Hebrew,  ii.  316-319 
Libations  in  sacrifice,  i.  41  ;  in  Tartary, 

Samoa,  Thibet,  &c.,  i.  41 
Life,  vital   forces,    Indian   apologue,    ii. 

103,  104 
Linga,  the,  worship  of,  i.  51 
Lucretius  on  immortality,  ii.  443 
Luke,  his  genealogy  of  Jesus,  i.  280-284  ; 
account  of  miraculous  conception  and 
birth,  i.  286,  287  ;  account  of  the  shep- 
herds, i.  291,  292  ;  account  of  Christ's 
infancy,  i.  297;  discrepancies  with  Mat- 
thew, i.  300-303  ;  his  freer  spirit,  i.  303  ; 
account    of  the  call  of  Peter,  i.  312 ; 
version  of  the  sermon  on  the  Mount,  i. 
315  ;   account  of  lunatic  boy,  i.  317  ; 
his  partiality  for   angels,  ii.  328 ;    ac- 
companies Paul,  ii.  336 
Lun   Yu,  the,  date   of,  ii.  33 ;  subject- 
matter,  ii.  33;  its  Hoswellian  minute- 
ness of  detail,  ii.  33 
Luxury,  Lao-Tse  on,  ii.  70 

Magi  and  the  birth  of  Christ,  i.  293-295 
Mahomet,  pretensions  of,  to  the  super- 
natural, i.  148  ;  the  last  of  the  great 
prophets,  i.  234  ;  his  religion  self-de- 
rived, i.  235  ;  his  parents  and  birth,  i. 

235  ;  his  original  social  position,  i.  235  ; 
marries  Khadija,  i.  235  ;  liis  first  reve- 
lation, i.  235;  passes  through  the 
period   of  the    "Everlasting   No,"   i. 

236  ;  Gabriel  his  guardian  angel,  i.  236  ; 
first  disciples,  i.  236  ;  his  doctrines 
provoke  ]iersecution,  i.  2.36  ;  his  mo- 
mentary relapse  into  idolatry,  and  re- 
pentance, i.  237  ;  ])ersecution  of  his 
family,  i.  237  ;  binds  by  a  vow  pilgrims 
from  Medina,  i.  238  ;  his  flight  to 
Medina,  i.  239  ;  success  there,  i.  239  ; 
war  with  Alecc.a,  i.  2.J9  ;  truce  with  the 
Meccans,  i.  240 ;  summons  crowned 
heads  to  submit  to  his  religion,  i.  241 ; 
first  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  i.  241  ;  enters 
Mecca  in  triumph,  i.  242;  proclama- 
tion to  the  inhabitants,  i.  243  ;  final 
triumph  and  death,  i.  244  ;  his  char- 


INDEX. 


507 


eoter  au  open  question,  i.  244 ;  his 
sincerity,  i.  'I^h-IAI ;  sense  of  inspira- 
tion, i.  245  ;  time-serving  witlinl,  i. 
245  ;  inspired  poetic  style,  i.  245  ;  his 
]iredecessors,  i.  247  ;  his  sources  of  in- 
formation, i.  247  ;  takes  to  the  sword,  i. 
248  ;  conduct  to  the  Jews,  i.  248,  249  ; 
liis  weak  point,  i.  249,  250  ;  his  harem, 
i.  250 ;  his  marriages,  i.  251  ;  his  jeal- 
ousy, i.  252 ;  triumph  of  his  religion, 
i.  253,  254  ;  aristocratic  descent,  i.  285  ; 
ante-natal  intimations  of  his  greatness, 
i.  291 ;  the  infant  recognised  by  his 
grandfather,  i.  299  ;  his  awe  under  the 
new  revelation,  ii.  194  ;  his  stock-in- 
trade,  ii.  195  ;  view  of  his  prophetic 
function,  ii.  196  ;  prophets  acknow- 
ledged by,  ii.  196 ;  views  of  Christ,  ii. 
196-198  ;  of  himself,  ii.  199,  200 ;  ad- 
dress of  God  to,  ii.  199 

Malachi  on  sacrifices  to  God,  i.  38  ;  pro- 
phecies of,  ii.  296,  297 

M;in,  the  wise  and  the  fool,  chapter  from, 
ii.  134 

]\Iang,  on  high-mindedness,  his  teaching 
similar  to  Clirist's,  i.  457  ;  a  discijde  of 
Confucius,  ii.  39  ;  his  works,  ii.  39,  40  ; 
late  introduction  to  the  canon,  ii.  40, 
41  ;  his  democratic  philosophy,  ii.  41 ; 
his  view  of  how  heaven  makes  known 
its  will,  ii.  42,  43 ;  notions  of  good 
government,  ii.  43,  44  ;  a  political  eco- 
nomist, ii.  45  ;  his  regard  for  propriety, 
ii.  45,  46 ;  his  faitli  in  human  nature, 
ii.  46,  47  ;  his  moral  tone,  ii.  48 

Manu,  code  of,  on  legal  and  illegal  foinis 
of  marriage,  i.  82,  83  ;  the  typical  an- 
cestor of  men,  ii.  107  ;  and  the  deluge, 
ii.  238,  239 

Mark,  Gospel  of,  its  credibility,  i.  259  ; 
omits  miraculous  conception,  1.  285  ; 
account  of  Christ's  baptism,  i.  304  ; 
reference  to  Christ's  temptation,  i. 
307 

Marriage,  rites  at,  peculi.ar  to  civilised 
nations,  i.  81  ;  in  Ceylon,  i.  81 ;  in  Thi- 
bet, i.  82  ;  according  to  the  code  of 
Manu,  i.82  ;  among  Parsees,  Jews,  and 
Chi'istians,  i.  83  ;  witii strangers,  among 
the  Jews,  ii.  318 

Marriage-tie,  the,  Christ  on,  i.  463 

Marnts,  the,  prayer  to,  i.  24,  28  ;  their 
nature,  ii.  89 

Mary,  tlie  mother  of  Jesus,  i.  261,  267, 
280,  2S5-287,  301,  303 ;  at  the  cross,  i. 
350 

Masses  for  the  dead,  i.  88 

Materialism,  unphilosophic,  ii.  451 

Matthew,  his  genealogy  of  Jesus,  i.  260- 
284  ;  account  of  miraculous  concejition, 
and  birth,  i.  2S.5,  280  ;  account  of  tlie 
Mngi,  i  293  ;  reticence  about  infancy 
of  Christ,  i.  297  ;  discrepancies  with 
Luke,  i.  300-303  ;  call  of,  i.  313  ;  ver- 
sion of  sermon  on  the  Jlount,  i.  315  ; 


his   mis.appropriation   of  projihecy,  i. 
393-395 
Maya  Devi,  her  dream,  i.  221  ;  her  preg- 
nancy, i.  221  ;  delivery  of  a  son,  i.  222  ; 
death  thereafter,  i.  222 
Maya,  her  gestation-time,  i.  289 
Mean,  the,  Chinese  doctrine  of,  ii.  36,  37 
Mencius.     See  Mang 
Messiah,  the,  the  term,  i.  386,  387  ;  Jew- 
ish ideas  of,  i.  386,  387  ;  these  ideas  not 
responded  to  by  Christ,  i.  387  ;    pre- 
sumptuous Christian  interpretations,  i. 
388,  389  ;  predictions  as  to  lineage  and 
birth,  i.  389-393  ;  as  son  of  David,  i. 
390  ;  predictions  of  his  birth  from  a  vir- 
gin, i.  393,  394  :  in  53d  of  Isaiah,  i.  396 
Metaphysics,  Buddhist,  ii.  141,  145 
Mexico,  human  and  other  sacrifices  in,  i. 
33,  35,  36;  worship  in,  i.  47  ;  burial  rites 
in,  86  ;  monasticism  in,  i.  100-102 
Mexican  festival  for  rain,  i.  25 
Micali,  the  prophecy  of,  ii.  285 
Mill,  J.  S.,  a  metaphysical  realist,  ii.  424 
Mind,  not  resolvable  in  matter,  or  phy- 
sical cause,  ii.  444-449. 
Miracles  as  credentials  of  the  divine,  i. 
146,  147  ;  of  Buddlnsm,  i.  147  ;  among 
the  Mongols,  i.  148  ;  among  the  Mos- 
lems, i.  148  ;  of  Christianity,  i.  149  ; 
in  the  early  Church,  i.  149, 150  ;  of  the 
Mormons,  i.  150,  151 ;  insufficiency  of 
the  evidence  in  the  case  of  Christ,  i. 
397,  398 
Mite,  the  widow's,  i.  4.')9,  460 
Mithra,  the  god,  ii.  133,  139,  168 
Mitra,  ii.  91 

Moments,  four  sacred,  i.  55 
Monasticism  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  i.  100- 
104  ;  among  the  Buddhists,  i.  105-108  ; 
in  Siam,  i.  107 ;  in  Nepaul,  i.  107  ;  in 
Christianity,  i.  110,  111 
Monk,  Buddliist,  condemned  to  monkey- 
hood,  ii.  254 
Monotheism,  fate  of,  i.  416 
Montezuma  and  human  sacrifices,  i.  33 
Mormons,   the,    claim    to    supernatural 

gifts,  i.  150,  151 
Moses,  a  dangerous  child,  i.  296 ;  address 
of  God  to,  ii.  199  ;  the  ten  conmiand- 
ments  of,  ii.  245,  246  ;  commandments 
of  the  tables  of  stone  given  to,  ii.  248, 
249 ;    mercifulness,    ii.    309 ;     divine 
manifestations  to,  ii.  320 
Jloslems,  prayer  among  the,  i.  47 
Muir,  Dr,  Sanskrit  texts,  ii.  77 
Muiler,  ]Max,  translator  of  Eig-Veda-San- 
hita,  ii.  77;  account  of  the  Yedas,  ii. 
80,  81  ;    on  tlie  supreme  god  of   tlie 
Hindus,  ii.  405,  406 
Myths,  three  classes  of,  about  Jesus,  i. 
279  ;  instance  of  first  order,  i.  284,  285, 
287  ;  of  the  dangerous  child,  i.  293 ;  of 
Perseus'  birth,  i.  295  ;  of  Oidipous,  i. 
295  ;  of  Christ's  baptism,  i.  305  ;  illus- 
tration of  the  growth  of,  i.  334 


5o8 


INDEX. 


Nagardjuna,  thaumaturgic  powers  of, 

i.  147 
Xahum,  the  prophet,  and  his  prophecy, 

ii.  285 
Nathaiiael,  i.  369,  375 
Nature,  Chinese  definition  of,  ii.  37 
Nrtusikaa,  a  Chinese,  ii.  56 
Nazareth   Christ's    reputed    birthitlace, 

i.  391 
Nazarites,  the,  i.  109 
Neander  on  the  Judaism  of   tlie  early 

Church,  i.  446,  447 
Newman,  Francis  W.,  ii.  374 
Nicodemus,  i.  352,  .369,  371,  373,  375 
Nidanas,  the  twelve,  ii.  142-145 
Nirvana,  theory  of,  ii.  143,  144  ;  sacrifice 

of,  ii,  148 

Obadiah,  prophecy  of,  ii.  284 

Objects,  holy,  in  Peru,  i.  161 ;  trees  as, 
i.  162  ;  animals  as,  i.  162;  serjjents  as, 
i.  163 ;  images  as,  i.  164 

Odes,  Cliinese,  traditional  interpretation 
of,  ii.  16-19 

Offerings,  religious,  in  Sierra  Leone,  i. 
93  ;  in  Tartary,  i.  94 

Oidipous,  i.  295 

Omar,  his  conversion  to  Mahometanism, 
i.  237 

Omens,  divine,  i.  125  ;  in  dreams,  i.  125- 
130  ;  in  sneezing,  i.  130-132  ;  interpre- 
tation of,  i.  133  ;  from  flight  of  eagles, 
133;  from  a  horse  turning  back,  i. 
133  ;  from  bleating  of  a  sheep,  i.  133  ; 
among  the  Kafirs  and  Chinese,  i.  133, 
134;  in  Ceylon,  i.  134,  135;  in  the 
heavens,  i.  135 ;  in  Tacitus,  i.  135, 
136  ;  in  Ireland  and  Scotland.  1.  136  ; 
at  birth  of  great  men,  136,  137 

Ophites,  the,  their  worship,  i.  163 

Oideals,  as  a  moral  test,  i.  143;  in 
Western  Africa,  i.  143;  among  the 
Hebrews,  i.  144 ;  among  the  Negroes, 
i.  145  ;  among  the  Ostiacks,  i.  146 

Orders,  holy,  in  the  Church  of  England, 
i.  117,  118  ;  Buddhist  monastic  rules, 
ii.  124,  125 

Ormazd.     See  Ahura-Mazda 

Pachacamac,  or  the  universal  soul,  ii. 
400 

Palestine,  state  of,  m  days  of  Christ, 
i.  268,  269 

Parker,  Theodore,  ii.  374 

Parsees,  sacrifices  among  the,  i.  37 ; 
prayers,  i.  46 ;  festivals  of,  i.  49 ; 
baptism  among,  i.  61,  62 ;  burial  rites, 
i.  87,  88 

Parseeism,  rise  of,  ii.  157 ;  reformers' 
hymn,  ii.  158  ;  religious  zeal  of,  ii.  159  ; 
objects  of  worship,  ii.  163 ;  fire-wor- 
ship, ii.  164,  171  ;  confession  of  faith, 
ii.  165,  16(5;  new  divinities,  ii.  166- 
J68;  re.spect  for  dogs,  ii.  176-178; 
respect  for  luuity,  ii.  178,  179;  later 


times  of,  ii.  188,  189  ;  eight  command- 
ments of,  ii.  247,  248 

Passover,  the  Jewish,  i.  52 

Patets,  the  Parsee,  ii.  185-187 

Patria  Potestas,  the,  in  Judrea  and 
Rome,  ii.  317,  318 

Paul,  his  independence  and  concession  to 
Jewish  prejudices,  i.  441,  442 ;  his 
views  of  the  Mosaic  law,  i.  443,  444  ; 
idea  of  the  coming  of  Christ,  i.  448, 
449  ;  as  a  persecutor,  ii.  329  ;  accounts 
of  his  conversion,  ii.  329-331  ;  his  con- 
secration, ii.  332  ;  at  Paphos,  ii.  332  ;  iu 
Antioch,  ii.  333  ;  at  Lystra,  taken  for 
Hermes,  ii.  333  ;  for  a  god,  ii.  333 ; 
parallel  in  the  case  of  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  ii.  .334,  335  ;  stoned,  ii.  336  ; 
parts  with  Barnabas,  ii.  336  ;  chooses 
Silas,  ii.  336  ;  at  Philippi,  ii.  337  ;  at 
Athens,  ii.  337  ;  at  Corinth,  ii.  337  ;  at 
Ephesus,  ii.  337,  338  ;  at  Troas,  ii.  339 ; 
at  Jerusalem,  ii.  339,  340  ;  appeal  to 
Csesar,  ii.  340  ;  in  Rome,  ii.  341 ;  his 
equal  apostleship,  ii.  346-348  ;  his 
epistles,  their  style  and  spirit,  ii.  349  : 
his  reasoning  powers,  ii.  349,  350 :  his 
exclusive  regard  for  essential  prin- 
ciples, ii.  350,  351 ;  denunciation  of  co- 
habitation with  a  stepmother,  ii.  3,5.3, 
354 ;  against  prostitution,  ii.  354 ; 
views  on  matrimony,  ii.  356,  358,  .359, 
3G2  ;  rules  affecting  widows,  ii.  358  ; 
preference  for  celibacy,  ii.  359  ;  allows 
bishops  and  deacons  to  mai-ry,  ii.  359  ; 
on  divorce,  ii.  362  ;  on  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  ii.  363-365  ;  on  l>ro- 
tlierly  love,  ii.  365;  other  maxims,  ii. 
365 

Perseus,  myth  of  his  birth,  i.  295 

Persia,  power  of,  ii.  155 

Peru,  monasticism  in,  i.  103,  104 

Peruvians,  festivals  of,  i.  53;  baptism 
among,  i.  58 

Peter,  call  of,  i.  312 ;  his  denial  of 
Christ,  i.  344;  his  confession,  i.  436; 
his  vision,  i.  438 ;  and  Judaism,  i. 
440,  441;  idea  of  kingdom  of  heaven,  i. 
449,  450 ;  conduct  towards  Ananias 
and  Sapphira,  ii.  326,  327  ;  deliverance 
by  an  angel,  ii.  328  ;  scandal  caused 
by,  ii.  332 ;  his  epistles,  ii.  344 

Pharisee,  the,  and  publican,  i.  462 

Pharisees,  and  Clnist,  i.  398,  405  ;  de- 
nounced by  Christ,  i.  409,  410 

Phinehas  and  the  Midianitish  woman,  ii. 
313 

Pilate,  as  governor  of  Judfea,  i.  .344,  345 ; 
treatment  of  Christ,  i.  345-.347  ;  Christ 
before,  i.  417 

"  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  ii.  366,  367.     See 

BUNYAN 

Places,  holy,  i.  90,  91  ;  special  haunts 
of  the  divine,  i.  152.  1.53;  in  Afiica 
and  South  Seas,  i.  153  ;  in  Ceylon  (the 
Bo-tree),  i.  154  ;  graves  as,  i.  154,  lo-j  ; 


INDEX. 


509 


in  liistoiy,  i.  155  ;  oracles,  i.  155 ;  by 
cousecration, — the  Temple,  i.  155, 15(j  ; 
holy  of  holies,  i.  158 

Plato,  his  description  of  a  philosopher  ia 
his  "  Theietetus,"  i.  212 

Polynesia,  burial  rites  in,  i.  85 

Positivism,  weak  point  in,  i.  194 

Pourutschista,  St,  i.  230,  231 

Power,  the  Unknown,  not  a  suggestion 
of  sense,  ii.  454,  or  of  reason,  ii.  454, 
455,  but  of  religious  sentiment,  ii. 
455,  456;  idea  of,  unaccounted  for  by 
liealism,  common  and  metaphysical, 
ii.  457,  moderate  and  extreme  Idealism, 
ii.  458  ;  neither  one  nor  many,  but 
all,  ii.  459,  460  ;  sense  of,  an  intuition, 
ii.  460,  461  ;  of  kin  to  mind,  as  in 
man,  ii.  462,  463 ;  includes  conscious- 
ness, ii.  463 ;  includes  our  nature,  ii. 
463 ;  the  universal  solvent,  ii.  464, 
465  ;  fountain  of  all  reservoirs  of 
force,  ii.  466 ;  allows  nothing  to  be 
a  law  to  itself,  ii.  467  ;  our  know- 
ledge of,  no  riddle,  ii.  470 ;  illustra- 
tions, ii.  471,  477 ;  the  denial  of, 
an  affirmation,  ii.  483  ;  faith  in, 
the  foundation  of  religious  faith,  ii. 
485 ;  answer  to  charge  of  vagueness, 
ii.  486,  487  ;  not  a  father,  not  a  judge, 
ii.  487 ;  harmony  of  the  idea  of,  with 
deep  religious  feeling,  ii.  489 

Praise  conjoined  with  prayer,  i.  21,  27  ; 
part  of  worship,  i.  27,  28  ;  Christian 
and  heathen  compared,  i.  28 

Prajapati,  ii.  226 

Prayer,  its  influence,  i.  21;  its  concomi- 
tant, praise,  i.  21 ;  its  primitive  form 
and  purpose,  i.  22 ;  specimens  of  pri- 
mitive, i.  22  ;  of  Indians,  preparing  for 
war,  i.  22 ;  of  a  Huron,  i.  2:i  ;  of  Ka- 
firs, i.   23  ;  of  Caribbean  islanders,   i. 

23  ;  of  the  Samoaus,  i.  23  ;  Polynesian, 
i.  23  ;  Ve<lic,  i.  24,  27  ;  Solomon's,  i. 

24  ;  special,  i.  24  ;  efficacy,  i.  25  ;  for 
rain  and  other  physical  benefits,  i.  25, 
26  ;  for  Thebes,  i.  28  ;  s])ccimens  of,  i. 
28-30  ;  and  sacrifice,  i.  30  ;  forms  of,  i. 
46  ;  Christ's  doctrine  of,  i.  470 ;  the 
Lord's,  i.  478-481 

Pre-Adamites,  Buddhist,  ii.  125 
Priests,  special  function  of,  i.  113  ; 
in  relation  to  the  monastic  order,  i. 
113,  114  ;  consecration  of,  in  Green- 
land, i.  114 ;  among  the  American 
tribes,  i.  115  ;  among  certain  Negroes,  i, 
115  ;  in  Mexico,  i.  116;  among  the  Jews, 
i.  116,  117  ;  in  the  Christian  Church,  i. 
117,  118;  sanctity  of,  i.  165;  authority 
of,  i.  165-167 ;  grades  of,  i.  166 ;  propb  ets 
versus,  i.  167  ;  privileges  of,  i.  167 ; 
primitive,  i.  168,  169 ;  formation  as  a 
separate  class,  as  medical  practitioners, 
i.  169,  170  ;  disease-making,  i.  170 ;  as 
doctors  in  Australia,  Africa,  kc,  i. 
171;  as  healers  among  the  Negroes,  i. 


171,  172  ;  as  mediators  for  the  sick,  i. 
173  ;  irregular,  i.  174  ;  miscellaneous 
functions,  i.  174  ;  in  North  America 
as  soothsayers,  i.  176  ;  as  fortune-tell- 
ers, &c.,  in  Thibet,  L  177  ;  claim  to  in- 
spiration, i.  178 ;  Jewish  high,  claims 
and  powers  of,  i.  179  ;  protected  liy 
heaven,  i.  180  ;  repute  of  Brahmanical, 
i.  180;  functions  of,  i.  181  ;  as  rain- 
makers, &c.,  i.  181;  ]iower  and  sanctity 
of,  i.  182,  183 ;  in  Ceylon  and  Siam,  i. 
183;  rewards  of,  i.  184;  tithes  to,  i. 
184  ;  the  duty  and  privilege  of  offering, 
i.  185;  privileges  of.  i.  185;  herecli- 
tary,  i.  186 ;  internally  called,  i.  187 ; 
a  demand  for,  i.  187  ;  infallibility,  i. 
188 

Priestesses  in  Guinea,  i.  182,  183 

Prophet,   anonymous,  ii    279 ;    another, 

ii.  286  ;  iAe  anonymous,  his  rank  among 

•  the  prophets,  ii.  293  ;  his  prophecies, 

iL  294 ;  the  prophet  of  consolation,  ii. 

294,  295 

Prophets  of  the  world,  the,  i.  190  ;  their 
ultimate  authority,  i.  191  ;  mystically 
invested  with  superhuman  endcjwment, 
i,  192 ;  their  absolute  consciousness, 
i.  192,  193 ;  their  conservative  spirit, 
i.  193  ;  the  Hebrew,  civil  standing,  ii. 
253,274;  Elijah  and  Elisha,  ii.  253; 
the  most  powerful,  ii.  274 

Prophecy,  Hebrew,  originally  oral,  then 
written,  ii.  274  ;  constant  theme  of, 
ii.  274,  275 ;  minor  topics,  ii.  275 

Prosperity,  national  or  royal,  Jewish, 
Chinese,  and  Thibetan  theories  of,  ii. 
259,  260 

Protestantism  and  asceticism,  i.  112 

Proverbs,  the,  a  criticism,  ii.  271 

Psalms,  the,  their  character,  ii.  266,  267  ; 
of  cursing  (ex.  and  cix.),  ii.  267  ;  Vedic 
parallels,  ii.  268,  269 

Psalmists,  the,  their  praises  of  Jehovah, 
i.  28 

Puberty,  rites  of,  cruel  and  mysterious, 
i.  66,  67  ;  meaning  of  the  rites,  i. 
67,  68  ;  Catlin's  account  of  the  rite 
among  the  IMandans,  i.  68,  70  ;  School- 
craft's account,  i.  71 ;  rite  in  New 
South  Wales,  i.  71-74;  and  in  other 
parts  of  Australia,  i.  74-76 ;  of  a 
Phallic  nature  in  Africa,  i.  76-79  ;  iu 
South  Seas,  i.  79  ;  among  the  Hindus, 
i.  79,  80 ;  among  the  Parsees,  i.  80 ; 
among  Jews  and  Christians,  i.  80 

Punishment,  eternal,  doctrine  of,  i.  469; 
in  the  Christian  system,  ii.  371-373 

Purgatory,  a  merciful  suggestion,  ii.  373 

Purua,  the  Christianity  of,  i.  475;  the 
legend  of,  ii.  113-122 

Puruslia  Sukta,  the,  a  universal  essence, 
ii.  95,  96 

11 A  IN,  prayers  for,  i.  25,  26 
Kavs  of  Buddha,  i.  135 


5IO 


INDEX. 


Realism,  coninion,  in  reLitiDn  to  Goil, 
ii.  417,  418  ;  metaphysical,  do.,  ii. 
418,  419  ;  comparative  estimate,  ii. 
419-421 ;  and  Idealism,  unable  to  solve 
the  religious  problem,  ii.  457,  458 

Reality,  the  one,  ii.  461 

Reason,  the  process  of,  ii.  454 

Relations,  the,  of  time  and  space  to 
mind  and  matter,  ii.  447,  448 

Religion,  interest  and  importance  of  the 
subject,  i.  1,  2  ;  fallacious  evidences, 
i.  3,  4;  method  of  inquiry,  i.  5,  6 ; 
universality  and  varied  phases,  i.  5,  G  ; 
substance  and  form,  i.  6 ;  its  root- 
principle,  i.  13  ;  craving  after,  i.  14  ; 
twofold  aspect  and  function,  i.  15  ; 
analysis  of  treatment  of  the  subject 
in  these  volumes,  i.  15-18  ;  two 
distinct  questions  regarding,  ii.  383, 
384  ;  these  resolved  into  three,  ii.  384  ; 
essential  assumption,  ii.  385  ;  three 
fundamental  postulates,  ii.  386  ;  two 
kinds  of  proof,  ii.  387  ;  universal,  ii. 
387,  388;  meagre  among  the  Austra- 
lians, ii.  388  ;  in  Kamtschatka,  ii. 
389 ;  the  permanent  in,  ii.  414,  415  ; 
question  suggested  by,  as  regards  God, 
ii.  416  ;  conclusion  of  science,  ii.  426- 
428;  tendencytolimititself  in  theology, 
ii.  431,  432  ;  historical  progress  of,  ii. 
432-434  ;  the  great  truth  in,  offered 
to  philosophy,  ii.  435  ;  involves  a 
faith  in  the  soul,  ii.  437-452  ;  final 
postulate,  ii.  453  ;  conclusion  of, 
neitlier  from  sense  nor  reason,  but 
sentiment,  ii.  454  ;  conclusion  of, 
necessary,  ii.  455;  a  pervading  error 
and  a  general  truth  in,  ii.  472  ;  real 
dilficulty  about,  ii.  476  ;  denial  of  its 
truth  emotional  as  well  as  the  affirma- 
tion, ii.  477  ;  objections  met.  ii.  474- 
496  ;  the  one  universal  foundation  of, 
ii.  485 

Religions,  founders  of  new,  i.  190  ;  their 
comparison,  ii.  382 

Resurrection,  of  Christ,  accounts  of  the, 
i.  353 ;  the  germ  of  these  in  ]\Iark,  i. 
353,  354  ;  Matthew's,  i.  354,  355  ; 
Luke's,  i.  355,  356  ;  John's,  i.  356,  357  ; 
Paul's,  i.  357,  358;  summary  of  ac- 
counts, i.  358,  359  ;  psychological  ex- 
planation of  the  myth,  i.  361-3G4  ;  of 
Lazarus,  i.  306-368 

Reverend,  the  title  of,  i.  184 

Review,  general,  ii.  379  381 

Rig- Veda,  the,  ii.  78,  79,  82 

Rig-Veda-Sanhita,  its  contents,  ii.  84, 
91 ;  its  praise  of  Agni,  ii.  85  ;  of  Indra 
and  the  Soma,  ii.  86-89  ;  of  the  INIaruts, 
ii.  89  ;  of  Ushas,  the  dawn,  ii.  90  ;  of 
Varuna,  ii.  91,  92  ;  consciousness  of  one 
God,  ii.  93,  94  ;  speculative  element,  ii. 
94  ;  on  the  Purusha  Sukta,  ii.  95,  96  ; 
personification  of  abstractions,  ii.  96, 
97  ;  general  estimate  of,  ii.  97,  98  ;  in- 


terest to  tlie  mythologist,  ii.  98 ;  eU* 
lueutary  religious  ideas,  ii.  99,  100 
Ritual,  early,  universal  development  of, 
a  fixed,  i.  45,  46  ;  in  pr.ayer,  i.  46  ;  in 
worship,  i.  47  ;  in  Mexican  and  other 
•worships,  i.  47  ;  Griggories,  charms  in 
Sierra  Leone,  i.  161 
Rome,  Church  of,  and  Paganism,  i.  54 
Rudrayana,  legend  of  his  conversion  to 
Buddhism,  ii.  122-124 

Sabaeisji,  god  of,  ii.  401 

Sabbath,  the  Jewish,  Christ's  treatment 

of,  i.  398-401 
Sacrament,  the  Christian,  i.  40,  41 
Sacrifice,  idea  and  origin  of,  i.  30,  32,  34, 
35,  43;  motives  to  and  duty  of,  i.  31, 
32  ;   to  the  Amatongo,  i.  32 ;   objects 
of,  i.  32-38  ;   in  Kamtschatka,  i.  33  ; 
human,    i.    33 ;    animal,    among    the 
Kafirs  and  in  Western  Africa,  i.  34  ; 
among  the  American  Indians,  i.  35  ;  in 
China,  i.  35  ;  among  the  Jews,  i.  35, 
40 ;    the   Ibos,    i.   35 ;    in   South   Sea 
Islands,  i.  36  ;   among  the  Mexicans, 
Peruvians,    Incas,    i.  36 ;    among   the 
Hindus,  i.  36  ;  among  the  Parsees,  i.  37  ; 
Malachi  on,  i.  38 ;   among  the    Bu<l- 
dhists,    i.  3S  ;    a   requirement   of  the 
religious  sentiment,  i.  38  ;  part  of ,  the 
priests' and  worshippers',  i.  40;  among 
the  Tembus,  i.  40 ;  by  libation,  i.  41  : 
supposed  effects   on  the  deity,  i.  42  ; 
theory  of,  among  the  Hindus,   i.  42  ; 
idea  of,  fundamental  to  Christianity, 
i.  43,  44 
Sadducees,  the,  and  Christ,  i.  405-409 
Saints,  worship  of,  ii.  413,  414 
Sakyamuni.    See  Buddha 
Salch,    the  legend   of    the  prophet,    ii. 

195 
Sama-Veda,  the,  ii.  79-82 
Samaria,  tlie  woman  of,  i.  370-376 
Samoans,  prayer  of  the,  i.   23  ;    drink- 
offerings  of,  i.  41 
Samson,  the  Jewish  Hercules,  ii.  251 
Samudra,  the  legend  of,  ii.  300,  301 
Samuel,  government  of,  ii.  251,  252 
Sanhitas,  the,  what  ?  ii.  77,  78 
Satan  in  the  book  of  Job,  ii.  265.  266 
Saturdaj',  holy,  in  the  Catholic  Church, 

i.  53 
Scala  Santa,  the,  i.  155 
Sect,  Johannine,  trace  of  a,  ii.  338 
Self-consecration    common    to    all   reli- 
gions, i.  98;  its  nature,  i.  99;  its  ele- 
ments, i.  99 
Sennacherib,  legend  of,  ii.  2.55.  2.56 
Sermon  on  the  Mount,  i.  471-487 
Shakers,  the,  i.  112 

She  King,  the,  slight  religious  interest  of, 
ii.  54  ;  popularity  of  its  songs,  ii.  55  ; 
varied  themes  of  these,  ii.  55;  the 
widow's  protest,  ii.  56  ;  young  lady's 
request    to  her  lover,   ii.  56 ;    ode  of 


INDEX. 


5'i 


filial  piety,  ii.   .57  ;   theory  of  kingly 
success,  ii.  2G1  ;  ode  similar  to  out;  of 
|)salmist  David's,  ii.  270 
Siiip  adrift,  a  parallel,  ii.  485,  486 
Shoo,  the  four.  ii.  31 
Shoo  Kiug,  the,  its    antiquity,    ii.   49; 
doctrine  of  imperial  duties  and  rights, 
ii.    49,    50 ;    respect   for    the   popular 
mind,  ii.  50  ;  on  the  house  of  Hea,  ii. 
50,  51 ;  on  the  house  fif  Yin,  ii.   52  ; 
counsels  of  the  Duke  of  Chow,  ii.  5o  ; 
of  the  Duke  of  Ts'in,  ii.  53 
Shun,  heaven's  choice  of,  as  king,  ii.  42, 

43,  46,  49 
Simecjn,   his  reco2;nition  of    the    infant 

Christ,  i.  298-303 
Sin,  supposed  physical  effects  of,  i.  26 
Sincerity,  a  Chinese  virtue,  ii.  37 
Sneeze,  a  famous,  in  Xenophon,  1.  132 
Sneezing,  an  omen,  i.  130  ;  exclamations 
connected  with,  in  Polynesia,  Germany, 
Africa,    &c.,  i.   131;     as    an  omen  in 
Germany,  i.  132 
Socrates,  and  Christ,  his  superior  gift,  i. 

490-492  ;  a  Chinese,  ii.  67 
Solomon,  prayer  of,  i.  24  ;  dedication  of 

Temple,  i.  91 ;  an  Indian,  ii.  252 
Soma,  a  god  as  well  as  a  juice,  ii.  87-89 
Son,  tlie,  in  the  Trinity,  ii.  433,  434 
Song  of  Solomon,  traditional  interpreta- 
tion of,  ii.  IH  ;  dramatic  character  of, 
ii.  272,  273;  brief  account  of,  ii.  273 
Sophokles,  prayer  to  Apollo,  i.  29 
Soul,  Indian  conception  of  a  universal, 
ii.  104,  105  ;  Indian  idea  of  the  future 
of  the,  ii.  106  ;   the  universal,  of  the 
Veda,  ii.  402-404  ;  faith  in,  involved  in 
every  religion,  ii.  437;  in  Kamtschatka, 
Tartary,  America,  ii.  438  ;  the  Kafirs, 
the  Ashantees,  ii.  439  ;  immateriality 
of,  ii.  442  ;   faith   in  its  immortality 
not  universal,  ii.  442,  443 
Space  and  time  as  elements,  ii.  447 
Spiegel,   Dr,    translation   of   the   Zend- 
Avesta,  ii.  155 
Spirit,  the,  in  the  Trinity,  ii.  434  _ 
Spirits,  familiar,  divination   by,  i.  138, 

139 
Spiritualism,  ii.  493 
Srama,  a,  defined,  i.  106 
Srotapanna,  the,  ii.  150  (note) 
Suddliodana   and   l)is   queen  worthy  to 

produce  Buddha,  i.  220 
Sunday,  Jewish  notions  of,  i.  400 
Serpent,  worship  of  the.  i.  162,  163 
Suras,  showing  how  Maliomet  was  pos- 
sessed by  his  idea,  ii.  194  ;  the  opening 
of  the  Koian,  ii.  194;  of  the  prophet's 
maturity,  ii.  195 
Sutras,  the  Buddhistic,  the  interpreta- 
tion of,  ii.  14  ;  tediousness,  ii.  29 ;  the 
simple  and  developed,  ii.  Ill ;  diffuse- 
nes.s  and   supernatural  gear,  ii.    140  ; 
tlie  simple,  ii.  141 
Sutra  Piatimoksha.  the,  monastic  rules 


of,  i.  107 ;  its  subject,  ii.  129 ;  an- 
tiquity, ii.  129 ;  monastic  rules  of, 
130-133 

Sutra-Pitak.a,  the,  ii.  133,  134;  stories 
from,  ii.  134-1.39;  contents  of,  ii.  139 

Svetaketu,  the  ill-educated  young  Brali- 
man,  ii.  106 

Syrophoenicia,  woman  of,  i.  317,  318 

Swinjming,  mixed,  ii.  125 

Tables  of  stone,  commandments  of,  ii. 
248,  249 

T'ae-Kang,  the  Shoo  King  on,  ii.  49 

Ta  Heo,  the,  its  doctrinal  character,  ii. 
34 ;  the  original  text,  ii.  34,  35 ; 
Tsang's  commentary,  ii.  35  ;  its  poli- 
tico-practical character,  ii.  35 

Talapoins,  the,  i.  182,  183 

Tantras,  the,  ii.  145 

Tao,  description  of,  ii.  63-66;  his  char- 
acter, ii.  73 

Tao-te-King,  book  of  the  Tao-sse,  ii.  62  ; 
European  translations,  ii.  02  ;  authen- 
ticity of,  ii.  63  ;  meaning  of  the  title, 
ii.  63;  its  principal  subjects,  ii.  63; 
on  Tao,  ii.  65,  66;  its  ideal  man.  ii. 
66-68  ;  its  moral  doctrines,  ii.  68-70  ; 
most  philosophical  of  sacred  books,  ii. 
71  ;  a  perplexing  study,  ii.  72  ;  its  con- 
ception of  God,  ii.  73,  74  ;  extract  in 
French  and  German,  ii.  75,  76. 

Tao-sse,  the  sect,  ii.  62 

Tartars,  drink-offerings  among  the,  i.  41 

Tathagata,  the,  ii.  146 

Temple,  rudest  form  of,  known,  i.  91  ; 
Solomon's,  its  dedication,  i.  91 ;  usual 
splendour  of  such  structures,  i.  92 ; 
the  Jewish,  as  a  holy  place,  i.  156  ; 
Fijian,  i.  156,  157 ;  in  Mexico  and 
Peru,  i.  157,  158 

Testament,  the  Old,  the  sum  of  the  lite- 
rary activity  of  the  Jews,  ii.  202  ;  his- 
torical books,  ii.  219-204  ;  doctrine  of 
creation  of  the  universe,  ii.  221,  222  ; 
of  animals  and  man,  ii.  226-230:  ac- 
count of  the  deluge,  ii.  2.35,  236  ;  of 
Abraham,  ii.  240,  241  ;  of  the  Jews  in 
Egypt  and  their  deliverance,  ii.  244, 
245  ;  of  the  law,  ii.  245  ;  of  the  laws  of 
the  stone  tables,  ii.  249  ;  of  settlement 
in  Palestine,  ii.  251  ;  of  the  kings,  ii. 
251,  252  ;  of  the  schism,  ii.  253  ;  of  the 
captivity,  ii.  204 

Testament,  New,  its  contents,  ii.  323 

Theologians,  royal,  ii.  104-107 

Theology  and  religion,  ii.  4.32 

Theology,  misconception  of,  ii.  473 

Therapeutae,  the,  i.  109 

Thibet,  Tnarriage  in,  i.  82  ;  death  rites 
in,  i.  87. 

Thread,  investiture  witli  the,  among  the 
Hindus,  i.  79,  80 

Tombs,  sacred,  i.  154 

Tongues,  the  gift  of,  at  Pentecost,  ii.  324, 
S-J.-. ;  Paul's  view  of,  ii.  325,  320 


/      512 


INDEX 


Tree,  tlie  Runiinal,  i.  135 
Trees,  holy,  i.  154,  161,  162 
Tribute,  Christ  on  paying,  i.  403-405 
Trinity,  Scripture  proof  of  the  doctrine, 

ii.  15  ;  rationally  viewed,  ii.  433,  434 
Tripitaka,  the,  translations  of,   ii.   109 ; 
its  origin,   ii.    110 ;    its   divisions   and 
their  authorshii>,  ii.  110 ;  second  and 
third  editions  called  for,  ii.   110;  real 
antiquity,  ii.  Ill;  discoverie.s  connected 
with.  ii.  112;  theology  and  ethics  of, 
ii.  145-154 
Taang,  commentary  of,  ii.  35 
Ts'iu  on  the  choice  of  rulers,  ii.  53 
Tsze-Kung,  hero-worship  of,  i.  209 

Unkdlunkulu,  the  Great-great  of  the 

Kafirs,  ii.  390-393 
Upagupta  and   the   courtesan,   ii.   137- 

139 
Upauishad,  the,  ii.  102,  103 
Upsakas,  ii.  150,  151 
Ushas,  the  Indian  aurora,  ii.  90 
Utikxo,  a  greater  than  the  Great-great, 

ii.  393 
Utilitarianism   sanctioned   by  Christ,  i. 

485 
Utshaka,  his  prayer  for  rain,  i.  25 

Varuna,  his  power  and  attribute.s,  ii,  91- 
93 

Veda,  the,  merit  of  studying,  ii.  7 ;  forced 
interpretation  of,  ii.  13, 14  ;  its  inspira- 
tion, ii.  83 

Vedas,  the,  meaning  of  the  term,  ii.  77  ; 
subdivisions,  literature,  and  versions, 
ii.  77,  78 ;  the  Sanhita  portion,  ii.  77  ; 
the  Brahmana,  ii.  77  ;  origin  of  the 
four,  ii.  79  ;  arrangement,  ii.  79,  80  ; 
antiquity,  ii.  80-83;  four  epochs  of 
development,  ii.  80;  theories  of  them, 
ii.  81-83 ;  division  into  S'ruti  and 
Smriti,  ii.  83  ;  the  study  of,  ii.  84 

Vedic  hymns,  prayer  and  praise  in,  i.  27, 
28  ;  the  style  of,  ii.  29 

Vendidad,  the,  a  legislative  code,  ii.  172- 
180 ;  on  agriculture,  ii.  173,  174  ;  on 
penalties,  ii.  175  ;  on  surgical  training, 
ii.  175 

Vinaya-Pitaka,  the  date,  ii.  112.  113; 
specimen  legend  of  Purna,  ii.  113-122  ; 
immediate  subject  of,  ii.  124,  125  ; 
monastic  rules,  ii.  125-129 

Virgin,  the  terra  in  Scripture,  i.  393 

Vishnu,  a,  the  unknowable  of  Spencer, 
ii.  402,  403 

Visvamitra,  his  merits  and  trials  as  an 
ascetic,  i.  108,  109  ;  an  Indian  Joshua, 
ii.  250 

Vocabulary,  Pentaglot  Buddhist,  rules, 
ii.  127,  128 


Voice,  the  still  small,  ii.  321 
Volsunga-Saga,  the,  ii.  27,  28 

Water,  holy,  i.  52  ;  virtues  of,  i.  164 
Wilson,    H.    H.,  translation  of  first  five 
Ashtakas,  ii.   77  ;  on   the  age  of   tiie 
Vedas,  ii.  81 
Wisdom,  Indian  hymn  to,  ii.  97 
Worship,  a  universal  necessity,  i.  19  ;  its 
elements,  i.  19  ;  its  grades,  i.  20  ;  effi- 
cacy of,  i.  21 ;    often  selti.sh,   i.    27 ; 
considered  as  pleasing  to  deity,  i.  27 ; 
matter  of  commerce,  i.  28  ;  of  Zeus  and 
Apollo,  i.  29  ;  ritual  in,  i.  147 
Woo,  King,  legend  of,  ii.  257,  258 

Xenophon,  encouraged  by  a  sneeze,  i, 
132 

Ya^NA,  the,  of  .seven  chapters,  antiquity, 
ii.  162  ;.  theme  of,  ii.  162-164  ;  chap- 
ter xi.,  165, 1()6  ;  the  younger,  ii.  166- 
172;  hynm  of.  in  praise  of  the  good 
creation,  ii.  171 

Yajua-Veda,  the,  ii.  78,  79,  82 

Yaou,  the  Emperor,  and  Shun,  ii,  41- 
43  ;  a  great  man,  ii.  45;  a  model  ruler, 
ii.  49 

Ynshts,  the,  ii.  180,  181  ;  nature  of,  ii. 
183 

Yin,  the  house  of,  fate  of,  ii.  52,  53,  259, 
260 

Yu,  the  great,  ii.  49 

Zacharias  and  Elizabeth,  story  of,  i. 
286,  301,  387 

Zaratliustra,  absence  of  documents,  i. 
229 ;  fragment  of  biography,  i.  229 ; 
his  daughter  a  disciple  and  apostle  of 
his  faith,  i.  230 ;  his  disciples,  i.  230 ; 
the  opponents  of,  i.  231 ;  without 
honour  in  his  own  country,  i.  232  ;  re- 
jected and  despised,  i.  233;  chief  ar- 
ticle of  liis  creed,  233  ;  faith  in  Ahura- 
Mazda  as  the  one  god,  i.  234  ;  high 
descent  of,  i.  284 ;  his  temptation,  i. 
308 ;  interrogates  Ahura-Mazda,  ii. 
173-181 ;  the  favours  he  asks  from 
Homa,  ii.  185 

Zayd,  a  forerunner  of  Mahomet,  i.  247 

Zealand,  preternatural  birth  in,  i.  287, 
288 

Zecliariah,  prophecies  of,  ii.  296 

Zend-Avesta,  the  interpretation  of,  ii.  14, 
15 ;  style,  ii.  29  ;  translation  of,  ii.  155  ; 
chronology  of,  ii.  156 ;  etliics  of,  ii. 
189  ;  theology,  ii.  190 

Zei)haniah,  the  prophecy  of,  ii.  285,  286 

Zeus,  worship  of,  i.  28,  29 

Zoroaster.   See  Zakathustra 


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