Full text of "The anatomy and physiology of the horse : with anatomical and questional illustrations : containing, also, a series of examinations on equine anatomy and physiology, with instructions in reference to dissection, and the mode of making anatomical preparations : to which is added, glossary of veterinary technicalities, toxicological chart, and dictionary of veterinary science"

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EXPLANATION OF FIGURE I.

OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

Frontal bone.

Parietal

Occipital.

Temporal.

Nasal.

Lachrj-mal.

Malar.

Superior maxillary.

Anterior "

10.

Inferior "

Cervical vertebrae.

33.

Scapula.

34.

Humerus.

From 4 to 7 is the zj-gomatio arch.

Alveolar processes.

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD, NECi^ AND SHOtlLDEH.

Ligamentiim colli.

a".

Trapezius.

b".

Rhomboideus longus.

c".

Scalenus.

e".

Sterno scapularis— pectoralis traasv^rauK

/"■

Antea spinatus.

9"-

Postea spinatus.

h".

Teres.

Dilator naris lateralis.

" " anterior.

Orbicularis oris.

Nasalis longus.

Levator labii superioria.

Buccinator.

Zygomaticus.

J-

Retractor labii inferioris.

Masseter.

Abducens aurem.

Attolentes ct adducens aurem.

Retrahentes aurem.

Adducens vel deprimens aurem.

P-

r. Tendon of the splenius and complexus m^er.

Obliquus capitis superior.

Splenius.

Obliquus capitis, inferior.

Levator humeri.

Sterno ma.xillaris.

Subscapulo-hyoideus.

VEIMB.

1. Temporal vein.

2. Facial vein.

3. Jugular vein.
10. Parotid gland.

THE

^JSr^TOMY A.^D PHYSIOLOaY

THE HORSE:

ANATOMICAL AND QUESTIONAL ILLUSTRATIONS.

CONTAINING, ALSO,

A SERIES OF EXAMINATIONS ON EQUINE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, WITH INSTRUO

TIONS IN REFERENCE TO DISSECTION, AND THE MODE OF MAlilNG

ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS.

TO WHICH IS ADDED,

dlossarg of Mtmnx^ f a^nkHlitieg, Siontologkal Cfeart, anJr gidiimafg of ^tkxmti^ §amt.

GEORGE H. DADD, M. D., V. S.,

AUTHOE OF "the MODEEN HORSE DOCTOR," "CATTLE DOCtOE," BTC.j SIC

NEW YOEK:
PUBLISHED BY C. M. SAXTON,

AGRICULTURAL BOOK PUBLISHER.
1863.

NEW BOLTOJt
CiiHTEfi

P123

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the yetl X36e, br
JOBttJ P. JEWETT AND OOMPAKY,

In the Clerk's Office of the Difltrict Court of the District of Maseachusects.

MIHOTVPED UV THE AMERICAN STEI!i;OTllE COMrAIfT,
rUCENIX liL'ILDlNG, BOSTON.

PREFACE.

American Veterinary Literature has hitherto possessed no work devoted to
the o.natomy and physiology of the Horse; consequently such subjects are
either discussed theoretically and imperfectly, or else fail to be noticed. But
a new era is now dawning upon Veterinary Science ; a spirit of inquiry is
abroad; and the people of this Republic find themselves in possession of some
of the most magnificent specimens of "live stock" to be found in the world.
The natural inquiiy is, "How shaU we protect oun property?" And the
conclusion anived at is, "Veterinary science offers the vonly probaljle and
practicable security against the numerous casualties incidental to the habitats
of the I}arn and stable."

Hitherto, much indifference has been manifested regarding this science, in
consequence of the difficulty encovmtered in its study, for want of proper
text-books and teachers ; and its unsatisfactory residts when tested by men
unacquainted with its fundamental principles. The Avell-known works of
English and French authors furnish all the necessary information, yet their
cost is beyond the means of many, and, therefore, their cu-cidation is very
limited.

In view, therefore, of supplying the above deficiency, which is disclosed in
the barrenness of our anatomical and physiological knowledge, and for the
purpose of furnishing a work that shall come within the reach and financial
means of all men, the author has imdertaken the double task ; and it is hoped
that the eflfoi't will not be thought untimely.

There are a vast number of highly educated physicians in this country
who are often urged by their employers to give advice in the management,
medical and surgical treatment, of the infer m' orders of creation ; yet decline
to do so, in consequence of a lack of authoritative knowledge regarding
anatomy, physiologv, therapeutics, and pathclosy. To such, whose sympathies -
lean in the right direction, and who are willing to give counsel, and lend a
helping hand in the restoration of a sick or dying animal, this work is offered,
and the author, therefore, submits it to their candid perusal and criticisiu.

The work, however, is principally intended for veterinary surgeons, teachers
of the art, and students of veterinary medicine, whose wants the author
V professes to have some knowledge of; and he has endeavored, to the best of
his ability, to cater to the same.

The necessity for such a work, at the present time, is evident from the facts,
that three veterinary colleges have lately come into legislative existence, and

!V PREFACE.

it is very natural to suppose that, ere long, many candidates for the honors of
these institutions will knock at the door of science, and seek admittance ; they
must then need fexi-hooks ; and, in view of furnishing a part of what the author
foresees every teacher and student must necessarily need, he offei's this, not as
a work pregnant with his own ideas, for that were presumptuous, when anat-
omy and physiology are the texts ; but, as a work carefully prepared from the
writings of our best authorities, the work may be considered as the legitimate
offspring of scientific observation and experience.

Another argument in favor of the necessity that will soon exist for a text-
book of anatomy and physiology is founded on the fact, that agricultural
colleges will soon be endowed in every State of the Union ; many already
exist ; and each will, probably, endow a professorship of veterinary science.
With such, and among the young and aged men that may seek for knowledge^
the author hopes that his work may find favor; and, if such should be the result,
he will have the satisfaction of knowing that he has not labored in vain.

There are other classes of men that need a work of this description; namely,
the husbandman, the horse-o\\mer, and the horse-lover, as well as the purely
scientific man. The three first, incited by laudable sentiments, or pecuniary
motives, will read the following pages, and study the anatomical illustrations ;
some with veneration of that Avonderful piece of mechanism, a horse's structure;
others for the purpose of making themselves acquainted with the form, action,
and capacities of the same.

The imreli) scientific man, who desires to inform himself how veterinary
science is to be studied, — what are its legitimate objects, and its appi'opriate
sjihere, — will read these pages with considerable profit.

GEORGE H. DADD.

Boston, January, 1857.

REMARKS L\ REGARD TO THE COMPOSITION OF THIS WORK.

The plan of the anthor, in the commencement of this work, was to prepare a
ycompMc manual of examinations on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Horse ;
but, finding that he could not bring the matter within the prescribed limits, the
plan was speedily abandoned. The examinations, excepting those descriptive
of the osseous structure, are intended, either to ehcit some physiological fact,
or to introduce topics that have not been treated of in the body of the Avork.

In attempting to furnish the public with a systematic treatise on Anatomy
and Plnsiology, it will be obvious that the author must necessarily avail
himself of the labor of others ; for, as regards the science of anatoni};, no one
has anything new to ofter. The industrious anatomists and dissectoi's of early
times have borne oft' all the laurels, and there remains but httle, if anything,
for future discovery. As regards physiology, also, there are very few facts to
discover; we now allude, however, to practical physiology — that science which
teaches us the functions of the animal body, or the vises of its parts. Tlie
author has, however, occasionally stepped beyond the details of practical
physiology, and has endeavored to throw some light on the complex combina-
tions in which vital phenomena present themselves, and the nature of their
dependencies one upon another. Matter of this kind he has thought best to
introduce in the fonn of examinations.

In preparing this work, the author has endeavored to select the most recent
and rehable information. The following list of authors consulted and com-
piled from, together with the foot notes and the writers' names appended, will
serve to indicate the principal sources on Avhich the anthor has relied for
information:

Mr. PercivaU's Anatonvj of the Horse has been freely employed in composing
the anatomical part of the work. The description of the abdominal viscera
is from the pen of Mr. Gamgee, and was written as a ^;/-<>c essay, and pub-
lished in the London Veterinarian. Carpenter's Phi/siolof/i/, general and compar-
ative, is also quoted. Liebig's Chenmtry, Hooper's Dictionar//, PercivaU's IUppo-
patholof///, Roget's Outlines of PJv/siologj/, have also been consulted, and extracts
made from the same. The illustrations, not otherwise indi'L'ated, are by Girard;
explanations, translated by the author. For the loan of 'the French plates, the
author is indebted to C. C. Grice, V. S., of New York City.

The plan of the examinations was suggested to the author by Ludlow's 3Iamtal
of Examinations, — a work which he fonnerly, while studying medicine, had
occasion to use. The subject matter, in this work, of course dift'crs from that -of
the former.

In preparing the "Definitions of Veterinary Technicalities," and "Diction-
ary," the author has availed himself of the works of Cooper, Hooper, Cleve-
land, Blaine, Mahew, and White ; and, regarding the method of making ana-
tomical preparations, etc., the works of Parsons., Pope, and Swan, have been
consulted. ' G. H. D.

CONTENTS.

PASI

Preface, - 3

Remarks regarding the composition of the work, -.-- 5

Remarks on the osseous, cartilaginous, and ligamentous structm-es, ------ 1 1

TegL'MENT.uiY System. — On the hair of horses ; examinations on the common integument ; physiol-

ogj' of the skin, of the cellular membrane, of the adipose tissue ; examinations on the same, 14-17

Of the Extekx.U- Paets. — The hoof; its form, spread, color, magnitude ; the wall ; its situation and
relation, coimection, figure, di\ision, solar border, lamina?, quarters, heels, coronarj* border and

bars, 17-23

The Sole. — Situation and connection, figure, arch, division, surfaces, and thickness, - - 23-25

The Frog. — Its situation and connection, figure, division, surfaces j the cleft of the frog, its supe-
rior surface, the sides, the commissures, toe, heels or bulb, coronarj- frog band ; development of
hoof; structiire of the hoof; production of the hoof; properties of horn, - . - - 25-30

ISTERX.U/ P.iRTS OF THE HooF. — The coronary substance j its situation, connection, structure, and

organization, ..-.--.-------- 30-31

The CtRniAGES. — Their situation, attachment, and form ; the false cartilages, and their use ; the

sensitive laminae ; di\ision of the same ; elasticity, number, dimensions, and organization ; the

sensitive sole ; its structure, connection, thickness, and organization ; the sensitive frog ; its

situation, division, structure, and organization, -.-.---.- 31-34

A tabular view of the bones of the horse, -..---.-.. 35

Anatomy of the skeleton, introduced in the form of questions and answers, embracing a complete

system of osteology, -------------- 36-54

Remarks on the changes which horses' teeth undergo, with examinations on the same, - - 54-56

Myology. ^ A table of the names and number of muscles, divided into regions, ... 57-60

A tabular s)-nopsis of the number, name, region, situation, insertion, and action of all the

muscles, .-....--....-.-- 61-78

On Dissection'. — Dissecting instruments; subjects suitable for dissection; rules in reference to

dissection of muscles, .....------.. 79-80

AxATOsncAL Prep.ul\tions. — Injecting instruments; directions for using the s)Tinge, - 80-81

On the Different kinds of Injections. — Formulae for coarse warm injections ; fine injections;
minute do; plaster injection ; cold injection; as regards the course of injections ; quicksilver
injections ; mode of injecting the hmphatics with quicksilver ; method of injecting the lac-
teals, and parotid gland ; wet preparations ; preparations by distension ; method of prepai'ing
and distending the lungs ; menstrua for preserving specimens ; method of preserving the brain
and lungs ; method of macerating and cleaning bones ; to render bones flexible and transpa-
rent ; method of cleaning and separating the bones of the cranium ; exposition of Mr. Swan's
new method of mjiking dry anatomical preparations, -------- 81-87

Digesti^'e System. — The mouth, hps, cheeks, gums, palate, tongue, salivai-y glands, pharjiix,
oesophagus, and nasal fossa ; cavity of the cranium ; the orbits and cavities of the nose ; the
mouth, peritoneum, stomach, intestines ; the vessels, nerves, and li,-mphatics of the intestines ;
the spleen, Uver, pancreas, kidneys, supra-renal capsides, ureters, bladder, urethra, - - 87-119

Generative Organs of the M.ale. — Vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, ejaculatory ducts, pros-
trate gland, Cowper's glands, --..--..•.-- 119-121
ORG.4N3 of GEN'ER.iTloN CONTINUED. — Testicles and scrotiun, spermatic cord, epididj-mis, penis,

and urethra, - -. 121-125

Female Organs of Generation, ------------ 125-128

Physiological con.siderations on the reproduction of organized beings, . . - - . 128-136

Examination on the digestive system, 136-133

Remarks and examinations on the eye, 139-143

(vii)

Vlll CONTENTS.

RESPrRATOEY SYSTEM. — Observation on the same; the krj-nx, glottis, epiglottis, trachea, bron-
chial tubes, pleura, mediastinum, lungs, bronchial glands, ------- 144-154

ClECULATOKY System. — Remarks on the blood ; examinations resumed on the blood, pericardium,

and heart, ..------.------ 155-157

Aeterlu, System. — Distribution of the arteries, - - . 158-163

A table shomng the mode of the distribution of the arteries, ------ 164-166

Distribution of the veins, -....- - 166-168

A table showing the mode of distribution of the veins, -------- 169-170

The brain and its appendages ; the nervous system, --------- 171-177

Examinations on neurology, -..--.-..-.- 177-180

Distribution of the IjTnphatics, --.-.-.--.-. 181-184

A glossary of veterinary technicalities, ---------- 185-193

Toxicological chart, ..--.---. ...-- 195-209

A dictionary of veterinary science, ----.--...- 211-287

Appendix. — Ligamentary mechanism of articulations and joints, . . , - . 289-291

INDEX OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIGUllE I. — Presents two \iews : one of a portion of the osseous stnacture, shomng the head, neck,
and shoulders ; and the other is composed of the supei-ficial muscles, covering the above parts ;
precedes the title page. .----.-----...

FIGUKR n. — Is a section of the osseous structure, ginng a side of the spinal column, ribs, and a part

of thenear, anterior, and posterior extremities. ----..--. lo

FIGURE m. — Is a representation of the supei-ficial muscles of the body, of a part of the neck, and

of the extremities. ------- ---20

FIGURE IV. — Has four illustrations of the hind extremities, as follows : No. 1 is a side view of tlie
bones of the ofl'-hind leg ; No. 2 shows the muscles and tendons of the off-hind leg ; No. 3 is a
front view of the liones of the same ; No. 4 shows the muscles and tendons in the anterioi- region,
or front pai't, of the o3-hind extremity. --.- 30

FIGURE V. — Presents two illustrations : the first shows the superficial muscles in the region of the ''
head, neck, and shoulders, on the near side ; and the other is a corresponding section of the osse-
ous structure, on wliich the insertions of the hgamentum colh into the occiput, cervical vertebra-,
and dorsal S])ines, are shown. --------.-..-40

FIGURE VI. — Presents four views of the forward extremities : No. 1 shows the bones which enter
into the comjjosition of the near fore-leg ; No. 2 is a side \iew of the muscles and tendons of the
near fore-leg ; No. 3 is an anterior view of No. 1 ; No. 4 is an anterior view of No. 2. - - 50

FIGURE VII. — Presents four views of the near fore-extremity : Nos. 1 and 3 are side and j)ostcrior
views of the bones of the near fore-limb ; Nos. 2 and 4 show the muscles and tendons belonging
to the above regions. ------------.-CO

FIGURE ^^II. — Has four views of the off-hind extremity: Nos. 1 and 3 are side and ])Ostcrior \'iews
of tlie bones entering into the composition of the Hmb; Nos. 2 and 4 show the muscles and ten-
dons of the same. --------..-.-. 70

FIGUliE IX. — Presents two views : one, of the bones ; the other shows the sujierficial muscles of the

head, neck, shoulders, and breast, viewed in an anterior direction. ----- 80

FIGURE X. — Has two cuts; one of wliich shows a portion of the osseous framework; the other

shows the superficial muscles belonging thereto. --------- 90

FIGURIC XI. — Is illustrated by two cuts : one of which shows a portion of the muscles of the body,
neck, and limbs ; it is a sort of anterior side view ; the second cut shoAvs the bones which enter into
the comjjosition of these parts. - - - - - - - - - - - -100

FIGURE XII.- Has two illustrations, which are the counterpart of Fig. XL, as seen from liie o]]po-

site or posterior direction. ------.-..-.- jjg

FIGURE Xni. — Presents a side view of the deep-seated muscles : it is taken from Mr. Blaine's " Out-
lines," and is one of the most magnificent plates ever presented to the public. - - - - 120
FIGURE XIV. — Is a view of the muscles and tendons of the fore and hind extremities. - - 140

FIGURE XV. — Is illustrated -with five views of the off and near fore extremity : Nos. 1, 2, 3 show very
distinctly the action of the flexors of the limb, as well as their location, and that of the extensor
tendons and muscles. The triceps extensor brachii, and pectoral muscles, are also quite jiromincnt
and easily recognized ; N'o. 4 is the same limb chvested of the soft parts ; No. 5 is an interior view
of the near fore-leg, and shows some of the tendons and muscles which are not seen in the other
cuts. ------ ----.[.jO

FIGL RE XVI. — Presents five views of the hind extremities, in which the use and action of several very
imjiortant muscles and tendons are accurately dehneated : Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 compose the bones,
muscles, and tendons of the near-hind extremity ; No. 5 shows the muscles and tendons on the

inside of the near-hind leg. -- J 60

2 (i^)

X INDEX TO TIIK ILLUSinATIOXS.

FIGURE XVII. — Presents two views (as seen from a posterior direction) ; one contains a great portion
of the superficial muscles of the body and liinl)s, and the other sliows the basis of their super-
structure. 170

FIGURE XVni. — Is ilie skeleton of a horse, for which the author is indebted to Blaine's "Outlines

of the Veterinary Art." - - - - - - - - - - - • - - ISO

FIGURE XIX. — Is a counterpart of Fig. XVII., as seen from an opposite direction. ... 17 j

FIGURE. XX. — Is an excellent representation of the muscles of one side of the head, neck, body, and

limbs. - 211

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE II.

OSSEOUS STRUCTUEE.

11.

Cervical vertebra.

12.

Dorsal

13.

Liimb-y "

14.

Sacrum.'

15.

Cocevseal bonpo.

1(3.

•r._....o.

17.

False "

18.

Sternum.

19.

Peh-is.

20.

Posterior part of the pelvis, or isehiatic spines

21.

Inferior, or pubic region.

22.

Fonuu-.

23.

Patella.

24.

Tibia.

33.

Scapula.

34.

Himierus.

35.

Radius.

Fibula.

/•

Ulnar.

REMARKS

ox THE

OSSEOUS, CARTILAGINOUS, AND LIGAMExNTOUS STRUCTURES.

The bones are the solid fmmework which
gives stability to the whole fabric, and af-
ford fixed bearings upon which the powers
regulating the varied inovetnents oj)erate.
The bones, then, are considered as the most
dense and solid structures of the animal
frame : affording support, and in many parts
protection, to some of the softer parts ; at.
the same time, the leverage which regulates
the action of a limb is derived from the
osseous structure.

On making an examination of a bone,
we find that its external surface is the hard-
est part, and it difl'ers very much in thick-
ness in difl'erent bones, and in different
animals. The long bones (or cylindrical)
of the horse contain less marrow, and are
more cancellated within, than the bones of
the human subject: in many of the former
the whole arena is occupied by cancelli.
The bones of the ribs have an osseous plat-
ing differing in thickness in various sub-
jects, and within is a cellular structure which
may be termed diploe.

The marrow, as it is termed, is a soft
substance of an oleaginous character, con-
tained in an infinite luimber of sacs, depos-
ited and suspended in the cavities of bones
and in the cancelli. The marrow sacs are
composed of a delicate vascular membrane,
which isolates them from each other, and
prevents the marrow from gravitating or
passing into the osseous structure.

Bones present the appearance of lamellas
yet they are fibrous; the fibres of the cylin-
drical bones are longitudinal; in the flat
bones they have a radiated appearance, and
in the short and peculiar shaped bones, the

fibrous arrangement is more irregular and
difficult to trace.

The basis of the osseous structure is
nearly the same as the membranous parts,*
beii;g composed of fibrous lamintc or plates,
which are connected together so as to form,
by their intersection, a series of cells anal-
ogous to those of the cellular structm-e.
This theory has been disputed by some
distinguished physiologists ; the moderns
contend that the osseous fabric is cellular.f

Bones are invested, on their exterior, ex-
cept those parts plated with cartilage, with
a membrane termed periosteum. Through
this medium an arterial and venous com-

* " The analysis of a bone into its two constituent parts

is easily effected by the agency either of acids or of heat.

j By macerating a full-grown bone for a sufficient time in

diluted muriatic acid, the earthy portion of the bone,

: amounting to nearly one-third of its weight, is dissolved

I by the acid; the animal portion only remaining. This

animal basis retains the bulk and sliape of the original

bone, but is soft, flexible, and clastic ; possessing, in a

word, all t!ie properties of membranous parts, and coiTes-

I ponding in its chemical character to condensed albumen.

! A portion of tliis solid animal substam-e aH'ords gelatin by

j long boiling in water, especially under the pressure, ad-

1 mitting of a high temperature, to whicli it may be su'i-

' jectcd in I'apin's digester. On the other liantl, by sub-

! jecting a bone to the action of fire, the animal part alone

j wiil he consumed, and the earth left untouched, preserv-

I ing, as before, the form of the bone, but having lo.st the

material whicii united the particles, presenting a fragile

mass whicli easily crumbles into ])Owder. This earthy

I basis, wiien chemically examineil, is found to consist prin-

I cipally of phosphate of lime, which comi)Oses eighty-two

I hunilrcdths of its weight ; and to contain also, according

to Berzelius, minute portions of Hnate and carbonate of

lime, together with the jihosphates of magnesia and of

soda." — Hoyet.

t The best authority in support of the cellular theory is
Scarpa. I'crclvall advocate.^ the laminated and (ihrous
theories.

(11)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

inuiiication is established between the dense
and soft parts. The periosteum is anal-
ogous to the fibrous textures, being com-
posed of numerous inelastic fibres of great
strength and density.

The inner surface of the periosteum is
connected with the bone by the vessels pass-
ing from Ihe one to the other, and also by
numerous prolongations, which pervade the
osseous substance.

The blood-vessels of the periosteum are
numerous, and are easily demonstrated by
injection.

CARTILAGE.*

The structure which appears most inti-
mately connected with the osseous is carti-
lage. It is a firm and dense substance,
apparently homogeneous in its texture, semi-
pellucid, and of a milk-white or pearly color.

The surface of cartilage is smooth and
uniform, presenting neither eminences nor
cavities, pores nor inequalities. It has,
however, minute capillary vessels, the diam-
eters of which are too small for ocular
demonstration. Notwithstanding its den-
sity, it has a minute circulating apparatus,
which is demonstrated in diseases known
as spavin and ringbone, in which absorp-
tion of cartilage occurs.
^^j, Cartilaginous structures are chiefly com-

* " Tlje incdiaiiical pniperty wliich partii-tilarly distiii-
guislics carlilaj.'C is clastkity, a quality vvliioli it possesses
in a greater degree than any other animal structure, ami
which adapts it to many useful purposes in the eeonomy.
Hence it forms the basis of many parts where, contrary to
the puqioses answered by the hones, ])lianey and resistance
as well as firmness are required ; and hence cartilage is
employed when a certain shajie is to he preserved, to-
gether with a capability of yielding to an external force.
The flexibility of cartilage, however, does not extend
beyond certain limits ; if these be exceeded, fracture takes
place. Great density bestowed upon an animal sti'uciure,
indeed, appears to he in all cases attended Hn'tli a jn'opor-
tionate degree of hrittleness. These mechanical proper-
ties of cartilages, as well as their intimate structure,
although nearly homogeneous in all, are subject to modifi-
cation in diH'erent kinds of cartilage. Cartilages are
c((\ercd with a line membrane, termed the perirhoiuli-itim,
analogous in its structure and office to the periosteum,
which Hc have already had occasion to point out among
the fibrous membrane.'!, as investing the bones." — I\ogcl.

posed of gelatin, albumen, and phosphate
of calcium.

Cartilage occurs in two forms, temporary
and permanent. The former prevails pre-
vious to adult life ; the latter are identical
with Ihe permanent structures after the
animal has migrated from colthood.

There are three or four ditlerent forms of
cartilages, viz : the membriform, interosseal,
articular, and inter-articular.

The membriform are iibro-cartilaginous ;
they furnish a basis of support to the softer
parts, supply the place of bone, and give
form, shape, and firmness, to parts unossi-
fied. By their elasticity, they admit of con-
siderable variation of figure and form, yield
to external pressure, and recover their proper
shape as soon as pressure is removed. This
kind of cartilage is found in the nostrils,
ears, larynx, and trachea.

The interosseal cartilages pass from one
bone to another, adhering firmly by their
extremities to each. They permit of an
increase of extent or motion, as observed
between the ribs; when macerated, they are
divisable into laminEe of an oval shape,
i which are united by fibres passing obliquely
between theiu.

The articular cartilages are those plates
of articular substance which adhere firmly
and inseparably to the surfaces of bones
which are opposed to each other in the
joints, or over which tendons and ligaments
play. The elastic resistance of this carli-
lage has a powerful tendency to lessen the
shocks incident to sudden and violent
actions.

The inlrr-artinilar cartilages do not dif-
fer in com[)osition from the preceding.
They are attached to the inside of 1h(^ cap-
sular ligament, by which Ihoy are reiulen^d
somewhat movable; anti, being interposed
between the bones of the knee and hock,
allow them a greater latitude of motion,
while at the same time they contribute to
adapt their surfaces more perfectly to each
other. The structure of these cartilages is
laminated.

THE HORSE.

FIBRO-CAIITILAGINOUS STRUCTURES.

Fibro-cartilage appears to be of an in-
termediate nature between ligament and
cartilage. Having a fibrous texture united
to a cartilaginous basis, it combines the
characteristic properties of both of the above
textures.

Fibro-cartilaginous structures are found
to unite the bodies of the bones of the ver-
tebrcB ; they then get the name of inter- verte-
bral substance. They impart great elasticity
to the spine, and also diminish the effects of
concussion.

LIGAMENTOUS STRUCTURES. i

The ligamentous structures are dense;
possess a considerable degree of solidity in
some parts, wlule in others they are modi-
fications of fibrous membrane. The liga-
mentous system includes a number of parts
which have received difierent names, such
as ligaments, tendons, faschia aponeurosis,
capsules or bursa; mucosa?; and fibres of
ligamentous matter also enter into the com-
position of other organs, imparting to them
different degrees of mechanical strength.
The ligamentous structures vary ; we find
tliat in some places they are expanded into
faschia, etc., at others they collect into dense,
cnlongated cords. The first division in-'

eludes fibrous membranes, fibrous capsules,
tendinous sheaths, and aponcarosc?.

Fibrous membranex : these resemble or-
dinary membranes, only that their fibres are
denser. The periosteum is a membrane of
this description, and the diu-a mater has a
similar structure.

Fibrous capsules are presented in the
form of sacs, which surround various ten-
dons and joints. These capsules are also
lined by a synovial membrane, which secretes
the synovia.

Tendinous sheaths are formed by fibrous
membranes which surround the tendons, in
those parts that are subjected to friction, or
liable to displacement, during the action of
the muscles which move the joint.

Aponenro:rs arc those extended sheets
of fibrous texture which in some instances
form coverings of parts, while in others
they constitute points of attachment to
muscles. In the former case they are termed
faschiae, and either surround the muscles of
a limb, forming a sheath for it, or else invest
or confine some particular muscle.

In the latter case the aponeurosis presents
brodd or narrow surfaces and fibres which
give attachment to particular portions of
muscle.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.

ON THE HAIR OF HORSES.

IIaik is a peculiar tegumentary appendage,
characteristic of tile horse and other mam-
mals. It is developed on the interior of
follicles which are formed by a depression of
the true skin. These follicles are lined by a
continuation of the epidermis, the cells of
which are developed in peculiar abundance
from a spot at its deepest portion ; the dense
exterior of the cluster thus formed being
known as the bulb of the hair, while the
softer interior is termed its pulp. The
elementary parts of hair are: a cortical or
investing substance of a dense horny tex-
ture ; and a medullary or pith-like sub-
stance, of a much softer character, occupy-
ing the interior. The cortical envelope of
hairs is 3 ccrlji^uation of the outer scaly
layers of the epidermis that lines the follicle ;

whilst the medullary is derived from the
deeper stratum whose cells are produced in
unusual abundance at the ccecal extremity ;
and it is by the constant development of
new cells at this point, that the continual
gi'owth of the hair is kept up.

An excoriation or moulting of the hair,
which falls off, is replaced by a new growth,
which as it comes to maturity assumes the

original color.

This change in the covering

with which nature has so wisely clothed
the horse, usually takes place either in spring
or autumn, or at both periods. The hair
of the mane and tail, however, is not sub-
jected to these periodical changes; hence,
it acquires considerable calibre and length.

By analysis, the hair yields carbon, hy-
drogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, and
its variation in color is due to the presence
of different shades of matter which infil-
trates the cortical substance.

EXAMINATIONS ON TIIK CO:\niON«?NTEGUMENTS.

Q. Of how many parts do the common integuments
consist ? — A. Three : cuticle, cutis, and rete-mucosnm.

Q. Describe the cuticle or epidermis? — .-1. It is a
thin, traiisi)areut, tough, and elastic porous membrane,
serving as an envelo])e to the cutis, or ti'ue sldn. It is
composed of flexible lamella', so arranged as to bear
some analogy to tlie scales of fish ; it pervades the
whole body, and insinuates itself into ])orous struc-
tures and follicular passages, inlets, and outlets of the
system ; it is supposed to be continuous from the moutli
to the anus.

Q. Describe the pores or ]:erforatIons. — ,1. There
are three. First, those siu'rountUng the hair. Sec-
ondly, exhakmt pores. Thirdly, absorbent pores.

Q. llow is the cutis designated? — A. As the cutis
vera, or true skin. j

Q. What is the structure of the cutis? — A. It is of j
a fibrous texture, tougli, elastic, vascular, and highly!
sensitive, and is what we commonly denominate leather. !

Q. What are the attachments of the cutis? — A.
The cutis is attached to the subjacent parts by cellu-
lar membrane, in some places so tensely that little or
no motion is admitted of; in others so loosely that it
admits of being thrown into folds. About the forehead,
upon the bach, around the tail, and upon the pasterns,
it can scarcely be pinched up ; but upon the sides of the
face and necl;, upon the ribs, along the flanks, and upon
the anus and thighs, it will easily admit of duplication.

Q. AVliat varieties are there in the density of the
cutis ? — .1. It varies in den.sity, not only where it covers
different jiarts in the same animal, but in horses of
different breeds and temperaments, it varies very essen-
tially.

Q. What is the organization of the rete mucosum?
A. It is composed of a fine, delicate, laminated tissue,
interposed between the cuticle and cutis, and serves as
their connecting medium, and is supposed to secrete
the coloring matter of the external surface and hvlr.

(14)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE IIOKSE.

niYSIOI.OGY OF THE SKIN.

The skill is hii^hly sensitive ; yet those
persons vvho arc in the habit of making free
use of the whip scarcely ever realize the
fact. The author has an impression that
the skin of a horse is more sensitive than
that of man ; for example, let a small quan-
tity of turpentine be applied to a horse's
back, — very soon he evinces signs of pain,
which cannot be elicited wh^ a man be-
comes the subject of the same experiment.
Every horse-owner, also, must have noticed
the uneasiness a horse manifests when a
common fly, or gad-fly, alights on him; and
in a variety of other ways the highly sensi-
tive state of a horse's skin admits of dem-
onstration.

The skin is one of the principal emunc-
tories of the body, from the surface of which
passes off a large quantity of morbid fluid
in the form of perspiration, sensible or in-
sensible, as the case may be. The skin is
(he great external outlet; and, should the
kidneys or any other organ fail to play their
part in eliminating useless fluids, the skin
opens its flood-gates, and thus purifies the
body. The amount of fluid exhaled from
the external surface has been the subject of
some very interesting experiments, and the
results are truly astonishing.

OF THE CELLULAIl MEMBRANE BENEATH THE
SKIN.

This tissue abounds in almost every part
of the body; thus, says Carpenter, "it binds
together the ultimate fibres of the muscles
into minute fasciculi, unites these fasciculi
into larger ones, these again into still larger,
which are obvious to the eye, and these into
the entire muscle ; and also forms the mem-
branous divisions between distinct muscles.
In like manner it unites the elements of
nerves, glands, etc., binds together the fat-
cells into minute masses, these into larger
ones, and so on; and in this manner pene-
trates and forms a considerable part of all
llic softer tissues of the body. It also serves
as the bed in which blood-vessels, nerves,
and lymphatics may be carried into the
substance of the different organs."

This tissue consists of a net-work of
minute fibres and bands, which arc inter-
woven in every direction, so as to leave in-
numerable areolfe or spaces, which commu-
nicate freely with one another.

Of these libres, ^mc are of the yellov/ or
elastic kind, but the majority arc composed
of the white fibrous tissue; and, as in the
other form of elementary structure, they
frequently present the form of broad flat-
tened bands, or membranous shreds, in
which no distinct fibrous arrangement is
visible. The proportion of the two forms
varies, according to the amount of elasticity
or simple resisting power which the en-
dowments of the part require. The inter-
stices or areolae are filled, during life, with
a fluid which resembles very dilute serum
of the blood ; consisting chiefly of water, but
containing a sensible quantity of common
salt and albumen. It is the undue accumu-
lation of this fluid which constitutes drop-
sical eflusion, the influence of gravity upon
the seat of which, shows the free communi-
cation that exists among the interstices.
Tliis freedom of communication is still
more shown, however, by the fact, that
either air or water may be made to pass, by
a moderate continued pressure, into almost
every part of the body containing cellular
or areolar tissue, although introduced only
at a single point. In this manner it is the
habit of butchers to inflate veal; and
impostors have thus blown up the scalps
and faces of their children, in order to ex-
cite commiseration. The whole body has
been thus spontaneously distended with air
by emphysema in the lungs; the air having
escaped from the air-ceUs into the surround-
ing areolar tissue, and thence, by tlie con-
tinuity of this tissue with that of the body
in general at the root or apex of the lungs,
into the entire fabric.

The structure of the serous and synovial
membranes is essentially the same as the
above. The true cellular membrane is
sometimes termed reticular, while that con-
taining fat is called adipose.

ANATOMY AND PHVSIOI.OGV (1F

ADIPOSE OR FATTY TISSLK.

The adipose tissue is composed t>f it^o-
lated cells, which appropriate fatty matter
from the blood after the same manner as
the secreting ceUs appropriate the elements
of bile, urine, and inilkT " The portion of
fatty matter separated from the circulating
fluid to form adipose tissue, is only that
which can be spared from the other pur-
poses to which they have to be applied ; and
hence the production of this tissue depends,
in part, upon the amount of fatty matter
taken in as food* This is not entirely the

* " Depuxition. — In almost all animals that are licaltliv,
copions (bod of a nutritive kind, combined witli little labor,
will increase the deposition of fat ; but in tlie human sub-
ject, and, indeed in many quadrupeds, the animal spirits
a|)pcar to have very considerable influence over this secre-
tion. We sec numberless examples of people, who ajipear
to enjoy t!io best bodily health, and yet are coustantlv
inca^'rc, though their food and habits of life tend to an op-
jiositc state ; and we may occasionally observe horses and
do.Ljs, particularly circumstanced, in which, from their
natural leanness, or poorness u]x>n the rib, sometiiing of
a mental nature would appear to be operating ; indeed, it
is a well known truth, that if j-ou separate a horse of an
irritable disposition from others with whom he is accus-
tomed to be stalled, he will fall away in condition, in con-
sequence of (to use the vulgar expression) freltiiif/ from
beiny alone; and so much does this act of segregation affect
some, that I have known them even refuse their food.
Those horses are commonly the fattest that are fed on
cisily digestible food — such as braised or scalded corn,
roots of a nutritive kind, chopped hay, etc., and that
have little or no exerci.se : a fact well appreciated by tlie
horsc-ilealer, wliose horses urafine and Jit for side, but in-
capable of fatigue.

Absorption. — Constitutional diseases, generally speak- j
ing, extenuate the body, and more particularly such as are
of the acute or painful description ; hence, the irritation j
caused by a simjrle puncture in the foot, will, if it be of j
long duration, induce a state of emaciation : under which
circumstances, the absorbents are supposed to act with more
than ordinary effect, and to take up the adeps from the
interior of its cells. "-Perc/m//

case, however, as some have maintained;
for there is sufficient evidence that animals
may produce fatty matter by a process of
chemical transformation, from the starch or
sugar of their food, when there is an unusual
deficiency of it in the aliment." Liebig
writes : " Whatever views we may entertain
regarding the origin of Ihc fatty constitu-
ents of the body, this much, at least, is un-
deniable, thaffjhe herbs and roots consumed
by the cow contain no butter; that, in the
hay or other fodder of o.xen, no beef-suet
exists ; that no hog's-lard can be found in
the potato refuse given to swine ; and that
the food of geese or fowls contains no
goose nor capon fat. The masses of fat
found in the bodies of these animals are
formed in thek organism ; and, when the
full value of this fact is recognized, it entitles
us to conclude, that a certain quanlity of
oxygen, in some form or other, separates
from the constituents of their food, for
without such a separation of o.xygen, no
fat could possibly be formed from any one
of these substances."

The chemical analysis of the constituents
of the food of the graminivora shows in
the clearest manner that they contain carbon
and oxygen in certain proportions; which,
when reduced to equivalents, yield the fol-
lowing series :

" In vegetable fibrine, albumen, and cas-
einc, there are contained, for —
129 cq. carbon,

In starch, 120 "

" cane sugar, 120 " "

" gum, 120 "

" sugar of milk, 120 " "

" grape sugar, 120 " "

36 cq. oxygen.
100 " "
110 "
110 "

120 " "
140 " "

EXAMIXATIOXS RESUMED.

rKLI.UI..^E MEMBRANE.
Q. What is the ])rincipal use of cellular mcnihranc?

— A. It is employed in uniting, covering, and defending
various ])arts of tlic body.

Q. Does cellular differ fi-om serous or nenous mem-
branes ? — .1. No, they are all resolvable into the same
constituents.

Q. How docs the ])eriosteum differ from the above ?

— A. It i,rc.sent,.s itself in a more condensed form.

Q. IIow do capsules of joints differ fi-om common
cellular membrane? — J. They are a modification of
it, under a condensed form.

Q. In what part of the animal does cellular mem-
brane exi.st in greatest abundance? — A. Immediately
beneath the skin ; ujjon the ribs, and about the breast,
and under the jaws, in the scrotum, on the inside of
the elbow and tliigh.

THE HORSE.

" Now in all fatty bodies there are con-
tained, on an average:

" For 120 cq. carbon, only 10 eq. oxygen.

" Since the carbon of the fatty constit-
uents of the animal body is derived from
the food, seeing that there is no other
source from whence it can be derived, it is
obvious, if we suppose fat to be formed
from albumen, fibrine, or casein, that for
every. 120 equivalents of carbon deposited
as fat, 26 equivalents of oxygen must be
separated from the elements of these sub-
stances ; and, further, if we conceive fat to
be formed from starch, sugar, or sugar of
milk, that for the same amount of carbon
there must be separated 90, 100, and 110
equivalents of oxygen from these com-
pounds respectively.

" There is therefore but one way in which
the formation of fat in the animal body is
possible, and this is absolutely the same in
wliich its formation in plants takes place ;

it is a separation of oxygen from the ele-
ments of food."

OF THE EXTERNAL PARTS.

THE HOOF.*

" The hoof is the horny case or covering
nature has provided for the protection of
the sensitive parts of the foot. It may be
said of itself to constitute such a shoe or
defence, as enables the animal in his wild
state to travel about in quest of food, not
only without injury to the structures under-
neath it, but with a degree of elasticity that
preser\'es his whole frame from concussion.
Were one forced into any comparison of
the sort, it must be admitted that the hoofs
of animals bear some anatomical affinity
to the human nails, or claws of other
animals ; though they are vastly superior
in physiological importance to any such
appendages as these.

* Pcrcivall's Anatomy.

EXAMINATIONS RESUMED.

ADIPOSE TISSlii:.

Q. What is the fatty matter contained in the adipose
cells composed of? — A. Stearine, margarine, and
oleine.

Q. How do they appear when isolated? — -4. The
two former are solid, and the latter is fluid.

Q. How are they preserved in a fluid state in the
animal body? — A. By the ordinai-y temperature of
the body.

Q. What are the observable (hflerenccs in color
occurring in different parts of the body, and in animals
of diverse temperaments? — ,1. In .some parts of the
body it is white, in others it has a yellow tinge ; in
animals of hinphatic and nervous temperaments it is
wliitej in the sanguine it has somewliat of a red
tinge ; in the bilious it presents a yellow ajjjjcarance.

Q. The fat at the ordinaiT temjierature of the hnng
body being fluid, how is it retained m the fat cells with-
out transudation ? — A. The intervals of the fat cells
are traversed by a minute net-work of blood vessels,
fi'om which they derive their secretion ; and it is prob-
ably by the constant moistening of their walls with a
watery fluid, that their contents are retained.

Q. What are uses of the adipose tissue? — A. It is
intended to fill up spaces ; forms a sort of cushion or
pad for the support of movable parts. It also acts as
a non-conductor of heat, thus preser\ing the animal
temperature; it serves as a reservoir of combustible
3

' matter, at the expense of which the resjiiration may be
maintained when other materials ai'e deficient.

Q. Suppose you desh-ed to fatten a horse or an ox,
what method should you adopt? * — A. I should keep
the animal at rest, and furnish him with an abundance
of nitrogemzed food.

Q. In what vegetable constituents does nitrogen
abound ? — ^-1. In vegetable fibrine, albumen, and
caseiiie.

[ * Experience teaches us that, in poultry, the maximum of fht ia
obtained by tying the fet^t. and by a medium temperature. These
animal:^ in sucheircumsur,<-es may he compared to a plant possessin;;
in the hijrliest dei^reethe power of converting all the food into parts of
its own structure. The excess of the constituents of blood fomtj
fle.ih and other org;inized ti^uci, while that of starch, sugar, etc., U
converted into fat. When animals are f.ittened on food destitute of
nitrogen, only cert^iin parts of their structure increzisy in size. Thus,
in a goose, fattened in the method above alluded to. the liver become!?
three or four times larger than in the same animal, when well fed
with free motion, while we cannot say that the organized structure
of the liver is thereby increased. The liver of a goose fed in the
ordinary way is firm and elastic ; that of the imprisoned animal is
soft and spongy. The difference consists in a greater or less expan-
sion of its cells which are filled with fat.

In some diSKises, the stjirch, sugar, etc., of the food obviously do not
undergo the changes which enable them to .a.ssist in respiration, and
con.sequentty to be converted into fat. Thus, in diabetes Ulellitus,
the starch is only converted into grape sugar, which is expelled
from the body without further change.

In other diseases, as for example in inflammation of the liver, we
find the blood loaded ^vith fat and oil; and in the composition of the
bile there is nothing at all inconsistent with the supposition that
some of its constituents m.iy be transformed into lat.

•.•^-*

ANATOMY AXD PHVSIOLOGV OF

" Form. — Saiiibel viewed tLe fciot as
'the segment of an oval, opened at the
back, and nearly round in front.' To a
conamon observer, the hoof exliibits a coiioid
form ; (he part resting upon the ground
being the basis, the vacuity above, the ob-
truncated apex. Mr. Bracy Clark asserts
that tliis view is incorrect, and that the
general figure of the hoof is a cylinder,
very obliquely truncated upon its ground
surface. This he demonstrates in two
ways ; either by rolling up a piece of paper
into the shape of a cylinder, and afterwards
cutting one of its ends in a very slanting
direction ; or by taking a carpenter's square,
and placing one limb beneath the foot
across the quarters, then sloping the other
backward against the side of the quarters,
parallel to the front, when the edge of the
iron will be found parallel to the wall of
the hoof. This corrected view of its figure
will serve to account for the general equi-
formity manifest in the hoof, and also for
the undeviating correspondence found to
exist between its slope or slant, as well in
front as behind, which in an ordinary or
healthy foot may be estimated at an angle
of 45°. Around the coronet, where the
hoof unites with the skin, the cylinder is
cut directly across its perpendicular — at
right angles with it : it is the oblique trun-
cation of its ground-surface that occasions
the slant, which latter we may consequently
increase at pleasure by any means that
augment the former, viz. : by lowering the
heels ; by cutting away a prominent frog ;
or by putting on thin-heeled shoes. At the
same time that we increase the slant of the
hoof, we increase the obliquity of the pas-
terns, and likewise proportionately augment
the ground-surface of the hoof, from heel to
toe, the breadth remaining unaltered ; and
in the same ratio, consequently, extend the
surface of tread.*

" Spread. — By the spread, is meant the
inclination the hoof manifests, when left
unshod, around the toe and sides, to bulge

* For fiirilRT elucidation on the cylindrical form of the
foot, consult Mr. Bracy Clark's works on the Foot of the
Horse.

or protrude at bottom, whereby its ground-
surface becomes augmented, particularly
around the outer quarter. To a certain ex-
tent tliis is worthy of observation; although,
in my opinion, it is to be regarded i-ather as
an effect of pressure than one of abstract
growth. The surface of inclination upon
which the horn is produced has no such
spread, nor can the hoof itself be said, /row
grou'th alone, to have any such natural ten-
dency ; but, as it continues to grow and
shoot beyond the inner foot that produced
it, and to which it was so intimately united,
it yields to the pressure of the anima'.'s
weight, and bulges or spreads out, and
inore at the outer side than the inner, in
consequence of the pressure tending more
in that direction. K we examine a num-
ber of hoofs of neglected growth, and con-
sequent exuberance and deformity, of va-
rious descriptions, we may discover thai,
in them all, the spread seems to have been
the first or incipient deviation from that line
of growth viewed as consistent with the
health and well-doing of the foot. It ij
only in the unshod hoof that any spread is
found : as soon as the ground-surface comc.-j
to be confined by a shoe, pressure can no
longer exert its influence to produce such
consequences.

" Mr. Goodwin aptly observes, that 'to
take the form of the hoof correctly, we must
strip it of its exuberant or superfluous
parts, the same as one would pare the su-
perabundant growth off our own nails.
The neglect of this necessary preparative
has led to a considerable difference of
opinion about the natural, healthy, or true
form of the ground-surface of the foot.
Mr. Bracy Clark, I conceive, has inclined
to the side of error in this particular ;
though, in the substitution of the cylin-
drical for the conical figure of the entire
hoof, he has certainly the advantage of
other -writers. His natural foot is one
with great spread to it, much of which
the smith would find it necessary to de-
prive it of, even on the first shoeing ; and
the protuberance of the outer quarter
(which Mr. C. points out as an attribute

THE HORSE.

of health) being wholly owing to the spread,
will, of course, disappear with the annihi-
lation of the spread.' *

" Although RL-. Goodwin has not here
explained what he conceives to be the
origin or cause of the spread, it is evident
we both concur in viewing it rather as a
deviation from health or nature than a cir-
cumstance worthy of the consideration it
has been accounted of by Mr. Clark.

" Color. — Hoofs are black or white, or
some intermediate shade, or they may ex-
hibit a black and white striped or marbly
aspect. It is an old observation, and one
that passes current among us at the present
day, that black or dark-shaded hoofs pos-
sess greater strenglh and durability, and
indicate less proneness in the feet to dis-
ease, than such as are composed of white
or striped horn. The rationale of which
appears to be, that white horn (the same as
white hair) is the product of parts weaker
by nature than such as produce dark or
black horn, and, being wealier, consequently
are more liable to disease, less able to resist
those impressions that tend to disorder.
White hoofs are more porous than black
ones, and consequently absorb moisture and
lose it again by evaporation with more fa-
cility: a fact that may probably aid us in
accounting for the failures attributed to
them.

" Magnitude. — It requires no veterinary
skill to discover any very material dispro-
portion in the magnitude of the foot : it
will strike us at once as being large or
small, in comparison to the limb or the size
of the animal. A foot of any description
that is out of proportion is to the horse
possessing it more or less objectionable :
but, for all that, these out-of-proportion feet,
abstractedly considered, have their advan-
tages as well as their disadvantages. Sain-
bel tells us, that a large wide hoof, by ex-
tending the surface of tread, ' will increase
the stability and firmness of the fabric ; '
but then, he adds, ' this partial advantage
grows into an evil when it becomes applied

* Goodwin's New System of Shoeing, edit, second,
pase 33.

to a body capable of translation, and con-
sidered in a state of actual motion ; be-
cause, then, the mass and weight of the
foot overburthen the muscles of tiie ex-
tremity.' And because, I would add, the
surfaces of contact being greater, the attrac-
tion of cohesion becomes greater, and so
much the more muscular force is required
to raise the foot (particularly in moist
ground) from the earth. Besides which, a
large foot is apt to become objectionable
from its striking, during action, the opposite
leg. On the other hand, it is contended,
that a large foot will not sink so deep into
soft ground as a small one, and conse-
quently will not demand so great an effort
of strength to draw it out. This is an
argument, however, that can only hold good
under the supposition, that in both cases
the muscular sireugth is equal, which wc
know but rarely to happen, — in general,
broad or flat-footed horses possessing supe-
rior strength ; small, narrow-footed ones,
superior speed. There cannot be a doubt
about a large foot being unfavorable for
speed, a small one for stability ; neither
one nor the other can be indiscriminately
found fault with ; both within certain limits
possess their respective advantages ; though
to turn out as sucii, they each of them re-
quire to be combined with suitable confor-
mation and action.

" Large bulky hoofs are found to be
mechanically weaker than others, in conse-
quence of being composed of a thin, soft,
porous description of horn. Sainbel ascribes
all this to ' a relaxation of the fibres com-
posing the hoof: in which case, the diame-
ters of the vessels are increased, the porosi-
ties are multiplied, and the fluids abound
in them in too great quantities ; conse-
quently this kind of foot is soft, tender, and
sensible.' S.Tiall feet, on the contrary, in
general possess a close -woven horn, thick
in substance, and consequently prove strongj
they are rather oval than circular in figure,
with great depth of substance, and are
found to be of a durable nature. ' In feet
of this description,' says Sainbel, ' from the
too close union and too close tension of

AXATOMY A.\D PHYSIOLOGY OF

their fibres, the vessels destined to conduct
the nutritious fluid are contracted and
obliterated ; Avhencc proceeds that dryness
of the part which renders the horn brittle
and liable to split.' *

" Division. — To the common observer
the hoof appears to consist of one entire
or indivisible case ; but the anatomist finds,
by subjecting it to maceration, or coction,
or even to putrefaction, that it resolves
itself into three separate pieces : still, so
long as the hoof maintains its integi'ity,
such is the force of cohesion existing be-
tween these three parts, that we as easily
rend it in any other place as dissever one
of its jointures. These constituent parts
are the tvall, the sole, and the//-o^.

THE WALL.

" The wall or crust is the part of the
hoof which is visible while the foot stands
upon the ground. It forms a circular
bovindary-wall or fence inclosing the inter-
nal structures. On taking up the foot, we
find the wall prominent all round beyond
the other parts, making the first impression
upon the ground, and evidently taking the
largest share of bearing. It is the part to
which the shoe is nailed. It is, in fact, the
most important division of the hoof; ap-
pearing to form (in the words of Mr. Clark)
' the basis or first principle in the mechan-
ism of the hoof, the other parts being all
subordinate to this.'

" Siiuations and Relations. — The wall
takes its beginning at the coronet, from the
terminating circular border of the skin,
with which it is intimately united ; their
line of union being concealed by a row of
overhanging hairs. From the coronet the
wall descends in an oblique direction to
the bottom of the foot, where it em-
braces the sole, and terminates in a cir-
cular projecting border. The anterior and
lateral parts of the hoof are formed entirely
by the wall ; but at (he posterior part, in-
stead of the heels of the v.'all being con-
tinued one into the other so as to complete
the circle, they become inflected, first down-

* Sainbel's Lectures on tlie Elements of Farriery.

ward, afterwards forward and inward, and
are elongated in the latter direction until
they reach the centre of the bottom of the
foot, where they terminate : these inflec-
tions or processes of the wall constitute the
bars. Altogether, the wall may be said to
form about two-thu'ds of the entire hoof.

" Connection. — Superiorly, around the
coronet, the wall is united with the skin;
inferiorly, within its circumferent border,
with the sole ; posteriorly, between its heels,
with the heels of the frog; inferiorly, be-
tween the bars, with the sides of the frog ;
and internally, with the sensitive laminae.
Let us now consider the wall in its detached
or separate state.

" Fig-ure. — That of a hollow cylinder,
having the sides presented to the ground cut
much aslant, and whose circle exhibits a
hiatus or deficiency behind, from the lateral
boundaries of which issue two narrow pro-
cesses or appendages. Taking a lateral
view, the wall assumes a conical shape,
being broad and deep in front, and gradually
narrowing as it stretches backward.

^^ Division. — For facility of reference, and
in aid of our descriptions, we distinguish
in the wall. First, the toe; secondly, the
quarters; thirdly, the heels; fourthly, the
superior or coronary border ; fifthly, the in-
ferior or solar border ; sixthly, the lamince
or lamella; lastly, the bars or appendages.

" The Toe forms the bow or front of the
hoof, and comprehends about two-thirds of
the superficies of the wall. It is the deep-
est, broadest, and thickest part of the wall ;
for reasons that will appear hereafter. It
exhibits a degree of slant about equal, nat-
urally, to an angle of forty-five degrees;
though there are variations from this which
(as was explained before) will be found, in
a measure, to be dependent upon the oblique
truncation of the cylinder. When we come
to understand the physiology of this part,
however, a more operative and efficient
cause for this variation will be found in the
weight the wall has to sustain, and in its
own mechanical strength or force of resist-
ance: on which principle it is that light
horses, thorough-breds, and ponies, as well

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE III.

MUSCUI,AR STRUCTURE.

a". Trapezius.

6. llliomboidcus longiis.

c-''. Scalenus; and /. Si)!emus.

e'. I'ectoralis transversali.''.

f. Antea .spinatu.s.

r/'. Pnslea spinatus.

D. Scrralus magnus.

b\ Intercostales.

c. ObKquus externus abdominis.

iV. Obliijuus internus abdominis.

e'. Erector coccygis.

./'. Depressor coccygis.

(/'. Compressor coccygis.

//'. r. Gluteii muscles. J- Triceps abductor.

K. ]5lceps abductor femoris.

»('. Tensor vagina'. ^

n\ Rectus.

«'. Vastus externus.

»■'. s'. Gastrocnemius externus, and plantaris.

»'. Elexor jjedis accessorius ; its lleshy belly.

)/'. I'eroneus.

x'. E.\tensor iiedis.

7i". Teres major.

i". I.atissimus dorsi.

J. I'ectoralis magnus.

K. Humero cubital. (Pectoral region.)

v. .Scapulo-ulnaris.

j»". »". Triceps extensor bracliii.

o". I'ectoralis transvcrsalis.

;>". Flexor metacarpi externus.

K. V. Levator humeri, and Stcrno maxillaris.

.»". Extensor metacarpi magnus.

x". Extensor pedis.

At the inferior part of the abdomen tlie letter /;. occurs; it should be 4. 4
The .subcutaneous thoracic vein h., however, serves to indicate the region of
tlie rectus abdominalis.

7. The sheath.

*. Ligaraentum colli.

A. (Region of the back.) Levatores costarura.

THE HORSE.

as mules and asses, have upright or strong
feet (i. c), walls but moderately sloped;
whereas heavy horses, cart-horses, and
coach-horses, have commonly flat or iceak
feet (i. e.), walls that slant immoderately.
And (as was before observed) upon the
degree of obliquity of the wall must very
much depend that of the pasterns. In esti-
mating the slant or slope of the wall, it is
proper to distinguish between that which is
consequent on the detruncation of the hoof,
and such as is the effect of a burthen under
which the wall succumbs. The depth of
horn in front of the toe, measuring from the
termination of the skin to the most promi-
nent point below (and supposing the hoof
to be cut and ready to receive the shoe),
may be rated at about three and a half
inches. The bow or degree of convexity
of the toe in front must depend upon its
obliquity as well as upon the circularity of
the foot. The thickness of the horn com-
posing the toe may be estimated at three-
eighths of an inch, or from that to half an
inch, and this substance is the same from
immediately beneath the coronary circle to
the junction of the wall with the sole ; at
which part there is. an accession of horny
matter to block up the interstices between
the laminse, and also to fill the angular
vacuity that would otherwise exist here
between the wall and sole. In the fore-feet,
the toe is thicker in substance than either
the quarters or heels ; but (we have it from
Sainbel) ' in the hind, on the contrary, the
heels and quarters are generally thicker than
the toe.'

" The Quarters are the portions of the
wall intermediate between the toe and the
heels. They are commonly described as
standing upright, and, according to a car-
penter's square set against the wall, so they
appear to do ; this is not, however, the view
the anatomist ought to take of their posi-
tion : to him the oblique course of their
component fibres, together with the slant of
their laminae, demonstrate that they slope
in the same manner and degree as the toe
does. The quarters do not run in straight
lines from before backward, but by theii-

prominence describe gcnllccurves, the outer
making a wider sweep than the inner.
This gives the hoof altogether a sort of
ticisted appearance, and makes the inner
part of the toe look more projecting than
the outer; a deviation that seems principally
to have originated in the spread, and one,
methinks, that has had more attention given
it than any consequences attachable to it
render it deserving of. The quarters range
in depth from two to three inches ; and
measure in thickness from one-fourth to
three-eighths of an inch.

" The Heels are the two protuberant por-
tions of the wall by which it is terminated
posteriorly. They are the shallowest, and
thinnest, and (in connection) only flexible
parts of the wall. Though their surfaces
recede from the perpendicular, they main-
tain the same slope as the toe and quarters.
At their angles of inllection, from which
are continued the bars, they form (in con-
junction with the heels of the sole) pouches
or sockets into which are received the heels
of the sensitive foot. In depth they range
from one and a half to two inches. In sub-
stance they do not exceed a quarter of an
inch, the outer heel being rather thicker than
the inner.

" TJie Superior or Coronary Border is the
circular, attenuated, concavo-convex part
entering into the composition of the coronet.
Its extent is marked exteriorly by the whitish
aspect it exhibits, and also by some partial
separation and evcrsion of the outer flakes
of horn around its junction with the wall
below. Externally, it assumes the same
character as the wall below it ; but its in-
ternal surface is altogether ditlerent. In-
stead of possessing laminae, the surface is
smooth and uniformly excavated, being
moulded to the form of the sensitive coro-
net, and everywhere presenting numerous
pores for the purpose of receiving the secret-
ing villi. Superiorly, the coronary border
presents two edges, having a groove be-
tween them for the reception of the termi-
nating border of the cutis. It is this gi-oove
that marks the reception of the coronary
border into two parts : the internal edge

AXATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

belonging to the inner part, which is the
beginning of the wall itself; the external
edge to the white band by which the other
is embraced, and to which Mr. Clark has in
particular drawn our attention, under the
appellation of Coronary Frog-band. This
covers the proper or veritable coronary bor-
der of the hoof; having, through its fibres,
which are very fine, a sort of dove-tailed
conneciion with it. As it recedes backward,
it grows broader to that degree, that its
breadth at length becomes doubled ; being
about half an inch broad in front, and one
inch behind. It is thickest around its mid-
dle parts ; its inferior edge, like the superior,
becoming attenuated, until it grows so fine
as to end in imperceptible union with the
substance of the wall, giving it its beauti-
fully polished surface : from the heat, how-
ever, to which the hoof is artificially exposed,
the thin part below the coronet often grows
arid, splits from the crust, and becomes
everted ; turning, at the same time, in con-
sequence of dryness, of a whitish complex-
ion. Posteriorly, we find it continued round
the heels of the wall and frog, and from
thence across the back of the cleft, forming
altogether a complete circle, and everywhere
showing itself to be the medium of connec-
tion between the skin and the hoof. It has
been already stated that the cutis terminates
in a circular border, let into a groove around
the summit of the wall: the cuticle, how-
ever, does not end here — it is continued
down ; in fact, we trace it to the horny
band we have been describing, the one being
continuous in substance with the other. In-
deed, the only detectible differences in them
are, that one is thicker than the other, and
grows hard, and dry, and white, from the
effects of heat upon it from without, and
the want of moisture from within. This
cuticular origin and assimilation may be
demonstrated in the putrefied foot; -or, bet-
ter still, in the foot of the foetus. The band
is broader at the heels than elsewhere, in con-
sequence of the greater breadth of exposed
cutis at those parts. In its texture it is
fibrous, and its fibres pursue the same direc-
tion as those of the wall, from which they

differ only in being of a finer texture. Mr.
Bracy Clark appears to entertain some sin-
gular notions in regard to the structure, but
more particularly the uses, of this part;
which, in the respect 1 bear for theix author,
I shall consider, when the time may arrive
for me to treat of the physiology of the
foot.

" The Inferior or Solar Border offers but
little worthy of observation. It constitutes
the ground or wearing surface of the wall,
and is the part to which we nail the shoe.
It grows thicker and more exuberant around
the toe than in other places, and, from its pro-
jecting beyond the sole, presents a conven-
ient and suitable hold for the nails of the
shoe. Around the anterior and lateral parts,
it embraces the sole ; behind, it joins the
bars, which two points of union form two
principal bearing places for the shoe. The
inferior border possesses a larger circumfer-
ence than the superior, in consequence of
the oblique detruncation of the hoof.

" This is a part that requires paring down
every time the horse is shod. Such is its
exuberating nature, that (like the human
nail), were it not continually kept worn
down, or broken, or cut off, it would elon-
gate very considerably, and gradually turn
up, exhibiting forms not only of the most
unsightly but even grotesque description,
and proving incommodious to a degree to
be almost entirely destructive of progres-
sion.

" The Lamina (better named lamellce)
consist of numerous narrow thin plates or
processes, arranged with the nicest order
and mathematical precision upon the inter-
nal surface of the wall. They extend, in
uniform parallels, in a perpendicular direc-
tion from the lower edge of the superior
border down to the line of junction of the
wall with the sole ; and are so thickly set
that no part of the superficies remains un-
occupied by them. They are likewise con-
tinued upon the surfaces of the bars. In
the recent subject they are found soft, yield-
ing, and elastic ; but from exposure they
become dry and rigid.

" Every lamellae exhibits two edges and

THE HORSE.

two surfaces. By one edge it grows to the
wall ; the other, which is somewhat attenu-
ated, hangs loose and floating within the
cavity of the hoof. The surfaces, which are
two lateral, are smooth, and, considering
the magnitude of the lamella itself, of enor-
mous extent ; so much so that it might be
said almost to be constituted entirely of
superficies. And this leads us to the con-
templation of the great and magnificent
design which Nature evidently had in view
in their formation, viz., the production of
ample surface within a small space, an end
that has been obtained through the means
of multiplication. Mr. Bracy Clark pro-
cured from the late Thos. Evans, L.L. D.,
mathematical teacher of Christ's Hos-
pital, a calculation of what their united
superficies amounted to ; and it appeared
to afford an increase of actual surface more
than the simple internal area of the hoof
would give of about twelve times, or about
212 square inches, or nearly one square foot
and a half.

" The lamellae exhibit no diflerences but
in their dimensions. In length they corres-
pond to the respective depths of the wall ;
being longest, and likewise broadest, around
the toe, and gradually decreasing towards
the hinder parts.

" In composition they are horny. Viewed
through a microscope, Mr. Clark discovered
in their substance two planes of fibres, ' the
one running in parallel lines to the axis of
the hoof, the other obliquely intersecting
these.' When stretched, they exhibit signs
of elasticity ; but this appears greater in
the transverse than in the perpendicular
direction.

" By means of its lamellae, the wall
presents a superficies of extraordinary am-
plitude for the attachment of the coffin-
bone. A structure consisting of similarly
formed lamellae envelops the bone, and these
are dovetailed in such a manner with the
horny lamellae, as to complete a union
which, for concentrated strength, combining
elasticity, may vie wdth any piece of animal
mechanism at present known to us.

" The Bars are processes of the wall, in-

flected from its heels obliquely across the
bottom of the foot. For a long time, by
farriers, they were confounded with the sub-
stance of the sole, an error that owed its
origin and perpetuation to the malpractice
they exercised in paring the foot — incut-
ting both bars and sole down, without any
distinction, to a common level. In the
natural healthy foot the bars appear, exter-
nally, as elongated sharpened prominences,
extending from the bases of the heels into
the centre of the foot, between the sole and
the frog ; posteriorly, they lire continuous
in substance with the wall, with which they
form acute angles ; anteriorly, they stretch
as far as the point of the frog, constituting
two inner walls or lateral fences between
that body and the sole. Sainbel conceives,
from their position, that they offer resistance
to the contraction of the heels. Their in-
ternal surfaces exhibit rows of lamella,
continued from those lining the wall, but
which are here sliort^ and in their direction
transverse, two circumstances referable to
the narrowness and inflection of the bar.
Towards the extremity of the bar they
gradually gi-ow shorter, and less distinctly
marked, until we at length lose all vestige
of any more of them. While the promi-
nence of the bars is such as to give them a
secondary bearing upon the groitnd, their
sharpened forms will sink them more or
less deeply into every impressible surface.

"the sole.
" The sole is the arched plate entering
into the formation (as its name impfies) of
the bottom of the hoof: or, to adopt Sain-
bel's definition, ' it is that part which covers
the whole inferior surface of the foot, ex-
cepting the frog.' It is a very just practical
observation of Mr. Coleman's, that although
a knowledge of every part of the foot is in-
dispensably necessary to render us scientific
overseers of the farrier's art, no individual
part requires such undivided attention, as
regards shoeing, as the sole, since the suc-
cess of this mechanical operation mainly
depends on the paring and defence of this
arched horny plate.

ANATOMY AND rilVSIOLOGY OP

"Situation and Conner/ion. — It fills up
the interspaces between the outer and inner
walls (or bars) of tiie crust. I differ in
opiiiion from those who describe it to sur-
round the toe of the frog. I hold its circum-
fcrent support and connection to be the wall
of the hoof, to which it is firmly cemented
by nn interstitial horny matter, filling the
crevices between the laminas.

'• Figure. — The circumferent outline of
the sole measures about two-thirds of a cir-
cle, the remaining third being omitted to
form a triangular-shaped hiatus or opening
for the reception of the frog and bars. This
circular form, however, is by no means true,
or even invariably the same, in its dimen-
sions. Generally, the longitudinal exceeds
the transverse diameter. Its greatest diam-
eter is shown by a line extended from either
heel across its middle to the opposite point
of the toe.

" Arch. — Commonly, the sole presents
an arch of more or less concavity interiorly,
and convexity superiorly. But it is not a
regular or uniform arch, being one that
rather waves or undulates, so as to bear a
comparison, made of it by Mr. Clark, ' to
the mouth of a bell extremely extended or
flattened.' Like that of the bell, the arch
is highest in the middle, from which it
slopes, laterally, down to a flat, subsequently
to rise again around its border, in order to
present a dilated surface for attachment
towards the waU. There is, however, vast
variety in the degree of arch of the sole: in
some feet it is of surprising depth ; in
others, the arcli is converted into a flattened
surface ; and yet both seem to perform
equally well. In the hind feet the sole is
generally more arched than in the fore, and
approaches in figure nearer to the oval than
the circle.

"Division. — In the sole we distinguish
an anterior part or toe; a middle or central
part ; two points or lieels ; and two surfaces.
These divisions are not very well defined :
Jut they prove serviceable in aid of our de-
scriptions. The toe of the sole is the part
encircled by the toe of the wall, against
which it abuts, and to which it is intimately

united by horny matter, the two together
forming a stout bulwark of defence to those
parts of the internal foot included between
them. The points or heels are the two pos-
terior salient angles received into the angu-
lar intervals between the outer and inner
walls or bars. Although naturally the
least exposed, these are the parts most sub-
ject to injury or pressure from the shoe,
being the seat of that disease mistakenly
called corn. The middle or centre of the
sole is the portion more immediately sur-
rounding the fore parts of the frog, and
would (were the sole a regular arch) be the
most elevated part ; but, in general, we find
the sole flattened hereabouts ; the highest
parts of the arch being the angles alongside
of the bars ; the lowermost, those around
the toe.

" Surfaces. — Of the surfaces, the supe-
rior (as was mentioned before) is unevenly
convex ; the inferior, eorrespondently con-
cave. The former is everywhere pitted,
particularly about the heels, with numerous
circular pores, running in an oblique direc-
tion, the marks of which remain evident
upon the inferior surface Likewise. These
pores are the impressions made in the soft
horn by the villi of the sensitive sole, from
whose orifices the horny matter is produced.
They also form the bond of union between
the horny and the sensitive soles : which is
of a nature so strong and resisting, that it
requires the whole strength of a man's arm
to effect their separation — an operation of
a cruel description that was wont to be
practised in times past, under the fallacious
notion that ' drawing the sole ' was extir-
pating the malady.

" Thickness. — The natural thickness of
the sole may be estimated at about one-
sixth of an inch. There will be found,
however, variations from this standard in
different horses ; and it will also very much
depend on the part selected for measiure-
ment. The portion of the sole most ele-
vated from the gi-ound — that which forms
a union with the bars — is nearly double
the thickness of the central or circumferent
parts ; and netxt to this, in substance, comes

THE HORSE.

tlie heel. I do not find that the sole 'grows
thinner from the circumference to the
centre,' as lias been stated by an author
of celebrity.

"the frog.

" The frog is the prominent, triangular,
spongy body, occupying the chasm left by
the inflection of the bars.

" Situation and Connection. — The frog
is fitted into the interval between the bars ;
the three, altogether, filling up the vacuity
ill the sole, and thereby completing the
circle, and establishing the solidungulous
character of the foot. The frog extends
forward, towards the toe, about two-thirds
of the longitudinal diameter of the ground-
surface of the hoof, terminating a little be-
yond the central point (or what would be
the central point) of the sole — or rather;
shooting directly through it, so as to anni-
hilate the spot. Posteriorly, it is embraced
by the heels of the waU; laterally, it pos-
sesses firm and solid junctions with the
bars, and through their medium with the
sole : and these unions are efi'ected not by
simple apposition and cohesion of surface,
but by a lamellated structure, apparent on
the sides both of the frog and bars, by which
the parts are reciprocally dovetailed into
each other. Lamella; are discoverable upon
its sides, even all round the toe of the frog;
and this is a circumstance that confirms me
in my belief that the bars reach thus far.

" Figure. — The frog may be caUed pyra-
midal, or cuneiform, or triangular in figure;
its outline forming the geometrical figure
denominated an isosceles triangle. I know
of no comparison so familiarly apt as that
of resembling it to a ploughshare : not only
do they both correspond, as near as such
comparisons can be expected to do, in out-
line and make, but they likewise exhibit a
singular coincidence in function ; the frog,
like the ploughshare, being intended by its
point to plough or divide the surface of the
earth, and in that manner serve as a stay or
stop to the foot.

" Division. — Wc distinguisii in the frog
two surfaces, an inferior and a superior;

two sides ; a point or tor ; and two bulbs or
heefs.

" Surfaces. — Both surfaces of the frog
manifest striking irregularities, and these
are respectively reversed, making one sur-
face the exact counterpart of the other. In
other respects, the only dilTerence they ex-
hibit, is, that the superior exceeds the in-
ferior both in length and breadth.

" The inferior surface presents to our
view a remarkable cavity, broad, deep, and
triangular in its shape, bounded on the
sides by two sloping prominences, which
divaricate from the convexity forming the
toe of the frog, and terminate, after a short
divergent course, at the heels. This cavity
or hollow is denominated

" The Cleft of the Frog: with seeming
reference to the relationship existing,
through its presence, between the horse's
foot and the cloven one of tiie ox, deer,
sheep, etc. In consequence of its sides
sloping inward, the cleft at bottom gapes
wide open ; but along the top is roofed by
a simple linear mark running from before
backward. The horn is kept continually
soft and pliant within the cleft by a pecu-
liar secretion from the sensitive parts it
covers, the odor of which is notorious.

" The solid wedge-like portion of horn
in front of the cleft, extending from it to
the point of the toe, has been observed by
Mr. Clarli to exhibit, in the natural foot at
its full growth, 'a considerable bulbous en-
largement,' which, by way of distinction,
he calls the cushion of the frog. On making
a perpendicular section of the foot, Mr. C.
finds this part is situated ' nearly opposite
or under the navicular bone.' And it would
appear (according to this author) that this
' rotundity, or swell of the frog,' is never
reproduced after it has once been annihi-
lated by the knife of the smith.

" The superior surface of the frog, eveiy-
where continuous, uniform', and porous,
being the counterpart in form of the infe-
rior, presents us with nothing but reverses :
where the one is hollow or depressed the
other rises into swells and eminences, and
vice versa. This accounts for our finding

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

the part opposite to the cleft elevated into
a conspicuous eminence, bounded on its
sides by two deep channels, and a hoUow
of broader but sliallowcr dimensions in the
front. To this central conical elevation
Mr. Clark has given the name of frog-stay,
from some novel notions he entertains of its
physiology. Such a bold promontory of
horn rising in the middle of broad and
deep channels is well calculated to form
that dovetailed sort of connection with the
sensitive foot, which greatly augments their
surfaces of apposition, and establishes their
union beyond all risk or possibility of dislo-
cation. It is a part which (as far as my
observations " on it have extended) grows
and becomes developed together with other
parts of the foot ; and one that is apt to
vary in its relative volume in different feet.
In front of the frog-stay, the lateral borders,
bounding the hollow in the middle, describe
a waving line, which, near half-way to the
point of the toe, exhibits a dip or impres-
sion : Ihis marks the impression of the
navicular bone, and is the part immediately
opposite to the ' cushion of the frog,' — a
coincidence important to be borne in mind,
as tending to throw some light on the na-
ture of this new-christened structure.*

" The Sides are the parts by which the
frog establishes its union with the borders
of the triangular vacuity in the hoof into
which it is admitted. Along their superior
borders they are transversely lamellated, or
rather indentated, in order that they may be
fitted to the internal surfaces of the bars,
which exhibit a similar structure.

" The Commissures are the two deep
triangular-shaped hollows between the bars
and the sides of the frog. It being only
the superior borders of these parts that are
engaged in their union, their broad, unat-
tached parts, below, form the boundary
walls of the commissures. Looking into
the interior of the hoof, we discover that
the commissures, internally, are converted
into rounded promontories, similar in ap-

* In f.ict, llic cushion of the frog appears to be nothing
more tlian a bulge of tlie ])art produced by the saperin-
camb','nt pressure of the navicular bone.

pearance and texture to the one in the mid-
dle— the frog-stay — on the sides of which
they are rising. In the natural state,
the commissures must unavoidably get
plugged with dirt, or whatever the animal
may happen to tread upon ; a circumstance
from which some far-fetched notions have
been extracted concerning their use.

" The Toe or point of the frog is the ante-
rioi-, undivided, elongated portion ; that which
forms the apex of the pyramid or wedge —
the acute or extended angle of the triangle
— the only part displaying that prominent
or rounded form that would waiTant us in
using the epithet ' conical ' to the frog. It
possesses solidity of substance, firmness of
texture, and luxuriance of growth in an
eminent degree ; facts well known to the
farrier, who, in paring the foot, seldom fails
to make more free with this than any other
part of the frog.

" The Heels or bulbs of the frog are the
posterior protuberant parts embraced by the
heels of the wall, and separated from each
other by the cleft, forming, together, the
base of the wedge or triangle. They pre-
sent greater depth of substance than the
toe, but are of a softer, more spongy tex-
ture, and are less resisting and stable, in
consequence of being deprived of mutual
support by the division of the cleft. Ante-
riorly, the heels unite with the lateral promi-
nences bounding the cleft ; inferiorly, they
present two surfaces of tread to the ground,
eivdently designed to take ~a share in the
bearing of the foot ; posteriorly and supe-
riorly, they exiiibit a bulbous fulness, in
consequence of receiving at this part a sup-
plementary covering from a production
which has been (in the description of the
wall) adverted to, under the appellation
given it by Mr. Clark, of

" Coronary Frog-band. — It was there
stated, that the coronary groove (the gi-oovc
or canal in the coronary border of the cutis)
broadened considerably as it descende'd to
and turned round upon the heels ; in like
manner does the horny band produced by
it broaden, and not only grow broader but
thicker in substance, and consequently in

THE HORSE.

-27

the same degree augments the substance of
the heels, occasioning that swell of them
which has suggested the appellation ' bulb.'
The horny band itself is everywhere lamel-
lated upon its internal surface ; but these
broadened parts of it display lamellae of a
much bolder character, and consequently
render their union with the heels so much
the more intimate and enduring. The in-
ferior edge of the band is denticulated, and
the denticulations become so interlaced
with the lamellated fibres of the wall, that
their union is rendered, in the ordinary
state of the hoof, altogether imperceptible.
For drawing our attention to this part^we
are indebted to Mr. Clark ; and, insomuch
as he considers it to be a production of the
cutis (not having any connection with the
glandular circle that secretes the wall), and
to serve the purpose of ' uniting the sensible
parts with the insensible,' I agree with him.
I find something very similar to this gi-ow-
ing upon the human nail, issuing from the
superior edge of the terminating border of
the cutis, and continued from the cuticle,
which proceeds for some way upon the nail,
uniting it more closely and firmly with the
cutis, and protecting the latter from exter-
nal injury. This production is no more the
beginning of the nail itself than is the so-
called //■og--band the commencement of the
wall : they are both distinct parts, though
but supplementary ones, and seem to be of
a nature partaking both of horn and cuti-
cle. It has no more important relation to
the frog, in my opinion, than it has to the
wall : it serves the same purpose to both,
— that of strapping up the heels of the
frog and binding them in closer and more
intimate connection with the neighboring
parts. Were I asked what other use it ap-
peared to have, I should say, that it was
formed to cover and protect from injury ths
new-formed horn of the hoof, guarding it in
its passage downward, until it has acquired
substance and hardness sufficient to resist
external impressions of itself. •

"developiment of the •amot.
" During the early months of fcetality, no

horn or hoof is to be found. Tlie foot is
covered with a substance, white, firm, and
elastic, resembling cartilage in its appear-
ance, but proving more of the nature of
cuticle on examination, which supplies the
place of hoof. At the coronet this substance
takes its origin from the cutis, being found
to be continuous with the cuticle ; but that
which covers the bottom of the foot is a
production from the sensitive sole and frog.
Altogether, it possesses the general form
and appearance of the hoof, differing how-
ever in these particulars — that the sub-
stitute for the wall is comparatively thin in
its substance; while that which grows from
the bottom of the foot is enormously thick,
and, instead of being shaped into sole and
frog, exuberates to a degree to constitute
club-footedness. About the same period
at which the pastern and coffin-bones take
on ossification, horn makes its appearance
underneath this cuticular wall, in the forra
of plates descending from the -coronet, ex-
hibiting with peculiar distinctness the lamel-
lated structure. The horny wall becomes
considerably advanced before we perceive
any change in the bottom of the foot. At
length, horn is detected forming underneath
the cuticular substance, which, increasing in
thickness, gradually represents sole and frog.
Not, however, in an undeveloped state ; for
even at birth these parts are yet concealed
by the exuberant cuticular covering, now
become loose in its texture, and shaggy and
ragged, in consequence of not receiving any
further supply from the parts that produced
it, and of being near its decadence ; for it
not long after falls off, disclosing sole and
frog both ready formed.

"structure of the nooF.
" Horn is found to differ in its texture or
quality, not only in the many animals in
which it is met Vi'ilh, but in different parts,
and even in the same part of the body of
the same animal. That which composes
the hoof of the horse is a remarkable ex-
ample of this. How different is the hora
of the frog from the horn of the wall ; and
yet neither of them agree in texture with

ANATOMY A.VD PHYSIOLOGY OF

1he sole. The horny substance of the wall
is resolvable into fibres, bearing a resem-
blance to thick or coarse hairs, which in the
entire hoof are so intimately matted and
glued togetiier, as to have the appearance
and strength of solidity. By close and ac-
curate inspection these fibres may be seen
descending in parallel lines, taking the
obliquity of the wall, from the coronet to
the inferior or solar border; they do not run
promiscuously, but are arranged in rows,
forming sorts of beds or strata, lying one
upon another — a disposition made manifest
in the foot of tlie fcetus. A clean-cut trans-
verse section of the wall exhibits upon its
surface numerous minute, circular, whitish
spots, which grow larger and more distinct
towards the internal part, and through a
glass appear to be hollow or tubular.
These spots I take to be produced by sec-
tions of the horny tubes, apparently contain-
ing a wliitish matter, a sort of pith, or pulp,
or gelatinous instillation which pervades
them from their origin from the villi of the
coronary circle; the same as hairs derive
their unctuous matter from the bulbs pro-
ducing them, and (as this matter does the
hair) renders the horny fibre tougli and
elastic-^in fact, imbues it with the pecuhar
attributes so well known to smiths by the
appellation of living horn ; the epithet
"living" being iiere used to denote the ob-
vious differences the hoof of a living animal
evinces from one that has been long detached
from the body, or that is dead. We are too
apt to believe that the various agents known
to act upon the dead hoof or horn must
take similar efl'ect on the living ; and upon
this erroneous belief we employ hot and
cold water, etc., etc., in treating disease of
the feet, forgetting that we have opposed to
our remedies the resisting or self-preserving
j)roperties of living horn.

" The sole, as well as the wall, is fibrous
in its structure; but its fibres appear to be
of a finer quality, and, in course, are very
much shorter : they, however, take an ob-
lique direction, from behind forwards, fol-
lowing the same degree of slope as those
of the wail. They issue from the villi

penetrating the superior surface. To iho
fineness of its fibres, combined with the rel-
ative magnitude of the tubular canals, and
consequent proportions of horny and gela-
tinous sitbstances, may be ascribed the
comparative softness and elasticity of the
sole.

" The frog, however, displays these
qualities in such a remarkable degree as to
appear, in fact, to be composed of quite
another kind of horn ; though, on examina-
tion, we find it to evince the same fibrous
structure, the only ]3erceivable difi'ercnces
being the comparative fineness of the fibres
and their proportionably greater tubularity :
their direction is oblique, correspondent with
those of the wall.

" PRODUCTION OF THE HOOF.

" The wall is produced by the coronary
substance, a sensitive and glandular part we
shall have occasion soon to examine. Its
villi, by some peculiar, mysterious, secretory
process, convert the blood circulating
through them into a soft pulpy gelatinous
matter, which by exposure becomes hard
horn,des.'ending from the villous point that
produced it, in the form of a tubular fibre,
down to the sole. The fibres are united
together at their very origin, but their tubes
or canals diminish, the lower they descend;
which accounts for the porous or honey-
comb-like structure of the interior of the
coronary border and the comparative solidity
of the parts below. The outer layers or
strata of fibres are found to be more com-
pact and of closer texture than the inner;
which arises, in part, from the villi produc-
ing them being removed to a greater dis-
tance, and to the comparative smallness of
their canals, and which, consequently, the
sooner become obliterated. The use of
Mr. Clark's coronary frog-band becomes
now more apparent, serving, as it evidently
does, to cover and protect these external
fibres until they grow sufficiently firm and
solid of themselves to bear exposure and
resist casualties.

" The se"nsitive laminae make no addition
to the substance or tliickness of the wall :

THE HORSE.

they simply produce the horny lame?lla;
arranged along its interior; as one proof
of which, the wall measures as much in
thickness at the place where it quits the
coronet as it does at any point lower down.
Other demonstrations of this fact come
every day before such practitioners as have
to treat canker, quittor, sandcrack, and
other diseases of the feet.

" The horny sole is a production from the
villi of the sensitive sole ; after the same
process as that by which the horny frog is
secreted from the villi of the sensitive frog.

" In a state of health of the foot, the se-
cretion of horn is unceasingly going on.
Disease or injury of the glandular parts may
diminish or altogether suspend the process;
disease, under certain other forms, appears
also to have the effect of increasing it; but
whether we have any artificial means of
eiVecting this, seems questionable. The
V\all grows from above downwards. If a
mark be made in any part of the wall, it
will remain until it grows down and be-
comes cut otT below, at the inferior border;
and by observations made on the gradual
descent and disappearance of these marks,
calculations may be formed of the period
of time required for the renewal or restora-
tion of the wall.

"properties of HORN.

" Horn is a tough, flexible, elastic sub-
stance, consisting of tubular fibres, more or
less intimately connected together, taking
the direction from the surface of the body
on which it grows. Its property of tough-
ness or resistance much depends on its con-
dition in regard to moisture ; for if it is
exposed to a degree of heat sulRcient to
abstract nmch of its natural juice or imbibed
moisture, it loses its flexibility and tough-
ness, and becomes brittle. On the other
hand, saturated with moisture, it is con-
verted into a soft and highly flexible sub-
stance, but at the same time becomes weak
and unresisting. This known effect aids us
to account for the flat-footedness of horses
reared in low, fenny, or marshy situations ;
the hoof being constantly in a state of

saturation with moisture, the wall and sole
yield to the superincumbent burthen of the
body, and the latter grows flat (instead of
remaining concave or arched), and even in
some instances bulges. If oily or unctuous
applications have any effect in softening the
hoof, they appear to do so by filling the
crevices and interstices between the fibres
on the surface, and in this vnanner checking
or suppressing evaporation. Horn takes a
high and beautiful polish. Although much
inferior in transparency to tortoise-shell, it
may be worked up to bear so near a resem-
blance to it as to be often, in manufactures,
substituted for it, as in combs, etc. The
hoof admits of an elegant polish ; and in
that altered and improved state has been
manufactured into articles no less useful
than valuable and ornamental:* even the
hoofs of the living animal may, by being
kept clean, and when dry rubbed with lin-
seed oil, be numbered among the ornamen-
tal beauties Nature has bestowed upon
quadrupeds.

" By chemical analysis horn has been
found to consist of membranous substance,
having the properties of coagulated albumen,
and of some gelatine. The horns of some
animals, the deer species, from containing
bone, become exceptions to this. Mr.
Hatchett burnt five hundred grains of ox's
horn, and the residuum proved only one
and a half grain, not half of which was
phosphate of lime.

" Shavings of hoof thrown into nitric
acid become soft, and speedily melt into a
yellow mass, which in about eight hoitrs
disappear in complete solution.

" The same thrown into sulphuric acid
turn black, in becoming soft, and require
thrice the time for their solution. Muriatic
acid also turns horn black, and corrodes
it, but has so little effect towards its solu-
tion, that after ten days a piece of hoof
soaked in it was found to have become only
more brittle or rotten. Common vinegar
will turn horn dark-colored, but does not

* The Ec-lipsc Iioof, presented liy liia Majesty at Ascot
II.1CCS, as tlie reward of the best horse on the turf, forms
a notable illustration of tliis.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

appear to have any power in impairing its
texture, or, at least, in dissolving it. Liquor
potassse will not only turn it black, but will
corrode the horn of the hoof. Ammonia
does not change its color, but slowly destroys
its texture, rendering it brittle and rotten.

"INTERNAL PARTS OF THE
FOOT.

"The internal, sensitive, organic parts of
the foot, comprise the bones, ligaments, ten-
dons, coronary substance, cartilages, sensitive
lamincE, sensitive sole, and sensitive frog.

" The bones entering into the composition
of the foot are the coffin and navicular
bones: to which may be added (as forming
part of the coffin-joint, and consequently
having intimate relation to them), the coro-
net bone.

" The tendons immediately connected
with the foot are those of the extensor pedis
and the flexor pedis perforans : the former
being inserted into the coronal process ; the
latter into the posterior concavity of the
coffin-bone.

"the coronary substance.

" A less inappropriate name for the part
commonly called the coronary ligament.*

" To revert, for the sake of elucidation
here, to former description — after the hoof
has been detached by a process of macera-
tion or putrefaction, in a perfectly entire,
uninjured condition, it presents around its
summit a circular groove, bounded in front
by a soft whitish substance, having a thin
edge, and being of a nature between horn
and cuticle ; and behind, by an attenuated
margin, more horny in its character, whose
thin edging is denticulated or serrated. Into
this circular groove or canal is received the
terminating margin of the cutis: the cuti-
culo-horny layer of the hoof, in front of it,
having every appearance of being a continu-
ation of the cuticle.

" Situation — Dimension. — The coronary

* Averse as I nm to changing or altering names, noth-
ing less than a palpable contriidiction, in regard lioth to
structure and function, would have induced me to do so in
the present instance.

substance occupies the concavity formed
upon the inside of the superior or coronary
border of the wall of the hoof: it is the
part constituting the basis of the circular
prominence commonly distinguished in the
living animal as the coronet. It is broadest
around the toe of the wall, diminishing in
breadth towards the quarters and heels, and
being somewhat broader around the outer
than the inner side. It is thickest in sub-
stance around its middle and most promi-
nent parts, growing gradually thinner both
above and below.

" Connection. — Externally, the coronary
substance is connected with the hoof; and
the connection appears to be principally, if
not entirely, of a vascular nature : the sur-
face of the wall presenting a porous honey-
comb-like texture, and the villi or vessels
issuing from the coronary substance enter-
ing the pores, and thus establishing an inti-
m.ate and extensive vascular union between
these organic and inorganic parts. Inter-
nally, the coronary substance is connected
with the coffin-bone, the extensor tendon,
and the cartilages, by a fine, dense, copious
cellular tissue, which at the same time forms
a bed for the assemblage and ramification of
the blood-vessels concerned in the secretion
of the wall of the hoof. Superiorly, its
union with the skin is so intimate and com-
pleti^, that one has been thought to be a
continuation of the other ; and, so far as
meets the eye of a common observer, they
might be taken as such ; but, when we
come to examine them by anatomical tests,
we not only find a line of external demar-
cation between them, but discover such
difference of internal structure as forbids
the adoption of this delusive notion. As it
descends upon the coffin-bone, the coronary
substance not only grows thinner, but in
growing attenuated becomes imperceptibly
gathered or puckered into numerous points,
from which issue a like number of plaits or
folds, which afterwards form the sensitive
laminee. It is worthy of remark, that the
part of the bone upon which this transfor-
mation takes place is smaller in circumfer-
ence than the coronet; consequently the

EXPLANATION OF FIGUEE IV.

NO. 1. — OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

OFF-HIND EXTREMITY.

22. Femur or thigh bone.

23. PateUa.

24. Tibia.

25. Os calcis.

26. Astragalus.

27. One of the tarsal bones.

28. Metatarsi magnum.

29. The sessamoids.

30. Os suffraginis.

31. Os coronae.

32. Os pedis.
e. The fibula.

The above explanation will answer for •• Xo. 3," of this plate.

NO. 2. — MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.

SIDE VIEW OF THE OFF-HIND EXTREMITY.

J. Triceps.

)i. Rectus.

o'. Vastus.

r. s'. Gastrocnemii and perforans.

o. 0. Flexor pedis accessorius.

«'. (At the hock.) The insertion of the gastrocnerhius uito the point of the hock.

a;'. Extensor pedis.

y. if. Feroneus.

V. (Beneath the pastern.) Flexor perforatus and perforans.

z. Biftuxation of the suspensory Ugameiit.

S,-. The hoof.

NO. 4. MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.

A>'TERIOR VIEW OF THE OFF HIND EXTREMITY.

H. Rectus.

o'. Vastus externus.

J. Triceps abductor tibialis.

y. y'. Peroncus.

x\ x\ Extensor pedis.

y. Flexor pedis accessorius.

8. Bifiircation of the susjiensor)' ligament.

5. Saphena veui. •

i{. The hoof.

THE HORSE.

same measure of coronary substance which
but tensely and smoothly covered the latter,
admitted of being disposed in gathers or
folds so soon as it reached the former. Pos-
teriorly, the coronary substance forms a
junction, indeed becomes continuous in
substance, with the heels of the sensitive
frog.

" Structure. — The coronary substance
discloses tinree different parts in its com-
position : 1. A fibro-cartilaginous circling
band, forming the substratum and basis of
the entire structure. 2. A culicidar cover-
ing, so called from its resemblance in tex-
ture to the cutis. 3. A nettuork of blood-
vessels, reposing upon the former, and
covered by the latter. The cartilaginous
structure, freed fi-om its vascular connec-
tions, is found to be wrought in the form
of a coarse, opeU; irregular network, and
appears designed mainly for the purpose of
affording a bed for the lodgment and rami-
fication of the blood-vessels destined to pro-
duce the wall. The looseness of its con-
nection, added to its own elasticity, renders
this substance peculiarly adapted to accom-
modate itself to the motions of the coffin-
joint, and thus preventing those movements
from operating prejudicially to the super-
imposed glandular structm'e.

" Organization. — The coronary sub-
stance may be ranked among the most vas-
cular parts of the body : no gland even
possesses, for its magnitude, a greater abun-
dance of blood-vessels, or of blood-vessels
(taking them generally) of larger size ; nor
does there exist any part in which greater
care appears to have been taken to arrange
its vessels so as to insure an uninten-upted
supply of blood. These vessels it is that
produce the wall : and there is every reason
to believe that they perform this office
without any assistance from the vessels of
the laminae.

" THE CARTILAGES

" Are two broad, scabrous, concavo-con-
vex, cartilaginous plates, erected upon the
sides and wings of the coffin-bone. Pro-
fessor Coleman calls them ' the lateral car-

tilages,' in contradistinction to two others
he has named ' the inferior cartilages.'

" Situation. — The cartilages form the
postero-lateral parts of the sensitive foot,
extending the surface considerably in both
these directions.

" AUacliment. — The cartilages are fixed
into fossae excavated in the supero-lateral
borders of the coffin-bone. Their anterior
parts become united, on each side, with
descending lateral expansions from the ex-
tensor tendon, and are also attached to the
coronet bone by cellular'membrane. Their
posterior parts surmount the alcB or wings
of the bone, to which they are firmly fixed,
and from which they project backwards,
beyond the bone, giving form and substance
to the heel. Supposing one of the carti-
lages to be divided into two equal parts by
a line drawn horizontally across its middle,
the superior half, which extends as high as
the pastern-joint, is covered by skin only ;
and on that account is quite perceptible to
the feel, and (in form) to the sight, as the
animal stands with his side towards us.
The lower half is covered, superiorly, by
the encircling coronary substance; inferiorly,
by sensitive laminae : consequently, over all
by the hoof, which envelopes both the coro-
nary substance and the laminae. The ex-
treme posterior ends of the cartilages incur-
vate downward and backward ; but, being
overreached by the heels of the sensitive
frog, any abrupt or exposed termination of
them is prevented. Around these points
also the coronary substance makes its in-
flections upon the sensitive frog, thereby
giving them additional substance and sup-
port.

" Form. — Considered in the detached
state, the cartilage in its general figure de-
scribes an irregular quadrangle, of which
the supero-anterior and infero-posterior an-
gles are the most projecting ; the latter at
the same time being incurvated inwards.
Externally, the cartilage is pretty regularly
convex ; internally, it is unevenly concave,
the suiTOunding border turning inwards into
the substance of the sensitive frog. The
posterior part of the cartilage is somewhat

ANATOMY AND rHYSIOLOCY OF

thinner than tlic anterior, and has several
foramina llirough it — throe or four of
large size — which transmit vessels to the
frog.

" The False Cartilages. — From the in-
ferior and posterior sides of the true carti-
lages, proceed in a direction forward —
tovi'^ards the heels of the coffin-bone — two
fibro-cartilaginous productions, to which
Mr. Coleman has given the name of ' infe-
rior cartilages.' If they are to be consid-
ered as cartilages at all, I prefer denomi-
nating Wiem false ; they being, as well in
structure as in use, different from the true
or lateral cartilages. They spread inwards
upon the surface of the tendo perforans ;
become united at their inner sides with the
superior margin of the sensitive frog ; are
covered interiorly by the sensitive sole ; and
at the same time assist in the support of
the sensitive frog. They are triangular in
their figure, and are arched in the same
manner as the sole.

" Use. — Their use appears to me to be,
to fill up the triangular vacant spaces left
between the tendo perforans and heels of
the coffin-bone, thereby completing the sur-
face of support for the sensitive frog, and
extending that for the expansion of the
sensitive sole. Bone in these places must
have proved inconvenient by more or less
impeding the impression upon, and con-
sequent reaction of, the sensitive frog.

"the sensitive LAMhNjE OR LAMELLA.

" So is denominated the laminated, mem-
branous, vascular structure clothing the wall
of the coffin-bone.

" Production. — The sensitive laminae
appear to be derived from the coronary sub-
stance — the one, in fact, seems to be a con-
tinuation from the other; for if, in a foot in a
putrid condition, we attempt to part them
by force, we may make an artificial rent
somewhere, but can find no natural separa-
tion between them. The cuticular covering
of the coronary substance having descended
upon Ihc coffin-bone, the circumference of
which is less than that of the coronet, be-
cause thereupon gathered into numerous

little plaits or folds, which proceed in paral-
lel slanting lines down the wall of the bone :
a transformation it may be dilficult lo ex-
plain, since the laminee unfolded would
occupy a much larger surface than the
coronet ; at the same time, it is one that
has its parallels in the animal constitution,
and a remarkable one in the instance of the
ciliary processes.

" Division. — According to this mode of
derivation, every lamina consists of one
entire plait or duplication of substance,
having its inumrd sides intimately and in-
separably united ; its outward sides being
the surfaces of attachment for the horny
laminae. It has also two borders : one op-
posed to the coffin-bone, the other to the
hoof; and two ends or extremities, one issu-
ing out of the coronary substance, the
other vanishing in the sensitive sole.

" Structure. — The substance of the la-
mina; when held to the light evinces a
degree of transparency ; although its nature
is extremely dense, and it possesses extra-
ordinary toughness and tenacity. Veteri-
nary writers and lecturers have endowed
the laminas with a high degree of elasticity:
but it appears to me that the property
is referable to their connections, and not
one that is inherent in their own sub-
stance.

" Elastic Structure. — This is a substra-
tum of a fibrous periosteum-like texture,
attaching the laminae to the coffin-bone, in
which it is that the property of elasticity
resides to that remarkable extent usually
ascribed to the lamins themselves : indeed,
so elastic is it found to be, that it can be
made to stretch and recede the same as a
piece of India rubber. Its fibres take a
direction downward and baclcward. At
the same time, it affords a commodious bed
for the ramification of blood-vessels issuing
from the substance of the bone, in which
they are (particularly in the si retched con-
dition of the substance) protected from in-
jurious compression and consequent inter-
ruption to their circulation.

^^ Number. — In round numbers we may
estimate the lamina at about 500; not in-

THE HORSE.

3.3

eluding those of the bars. They vary,]
however, in number : I have reckoned up-
wards of 600.

'^ Dinioixions. — In lengtli ihey decrease
from around the toe towards the sides and
heels in a corresponding ratio with the
wall ; those in front, the longest, being
rather more than two inches in extent ; the
shortest, those at the heels, being rather less
than one inch. In breadth there is no vari-
ation : all measure alike, one-tenth of an
inch.

" Organization. — The laminee are highly
organized, though they are not equally so
with either the sensitive sole or sensitive
frog ; nor are they so red as those parts :
and the obvious explanation of this i.s,
that (over and above what is requisite for
their own nutrition) all the blood they have
occasion for is only that which is suffi-
cient for the secretion of the horny la-
minae.

'•THE SENSITIVE SOLE.

" The sensitive sole, or (as Sainbel calls
it) the fleshy sole, is the fibro-vascular sub-
stance covering the arched concave, or
ground surface, of the cotRn-bone ; in fact,
is the part corresponding to the horny sole.

" Structure. — The same kind of elastic
fibrous structure that sustains the laminae
is found constituting the groundwork of the
sensitive sole ; only thai in the latter case it
is closer, denser, and firmer in its texture.
Upon this is spread a remarkably beautiful
venous network. And the whole is en-
veloped in an outer cuticular covering,
derived from the heels and frog, from which
are sent villous processes, loaded with the
points of arteries into the porosities of the
horny sole: not, however, perpendicularly
downward, but in an oblique direction —
downward and forward — the same in
which the horny fibres grow.

" Connection. — Around the circumfer-
ence of the coffin-bone, the sensitive sole
is connected with the fibrous substance de-
scending from the wall, together with the
tapering, vanishing points of the laminar.
In the centre, it is united with the bars and

frog. But its principal attachment consists
in its being firmly rooted into the sole of
the coffin-bone ; a connection that receives
considerable addition from the blood-vessels
issuing out of the substance of the bone.

" Thickness. — The sensitive sole varies
in thickness at ditl'erent places. On an
average, it may be said to measure one-
eighth of an inch in thickness. In the vi-
cinity of the frog, it is something less than
this. At the heels, it possesses double that
thickness. .

" Organization. — This is one of the
most vascular and sensitive parts in the
body. Independently of the much ad-
mired venous network expanded over the
fibrous substance of the sole, arteries enter
it issuing from the substance of the bone,
and penetrate its villi, which, by taking this
course, elude alJ compression and obstruc-
tion : there are also others — the nutrient
arteries ; but these have an external origin,
from the inferior coronary artery. The
chief assemblage of arteries takes place
within the villi, upon the cuticular surface
— those issuing out of the interior of the
bone simply passing through (without ram-
ifying within) the fibrous substance : so
that, if the substance of the sole is laid
open by transverse section, the incised
edge, near the surface, exhibits a deep red
tint ; while the interior, nearer the bone,
has a pinkish or -pale red aspect.

"the sensitive frog.

" Under this head is included the cleft,
cuneiform body, projecting from the bottom
of the foot, together with the substance
continued from it and filling the interval
between the cartilages. Sainbel calls it
' the fleshy frog.'

" Division. — We distinguish, in the
sensitive as in the horny frog, an apex or
toe ; two heels, separated by the cleft ; and
a portion intermediate between these, which
is the body.

" Situation and Connection. — The sensi-
tive frog occupies the posterior and central
parts of the bottom of the foot, forming in
the tread a firm and secure point d^appui

'Si

ANATOMY AND PfrVSIOLOGV OK THE HOKSE.

Being in the hoofless foot equally jiroini-
nent with the projecting edge of the coffin-
bone, one might be led to infer that the
horny frog should take the same line of
bearing with the crust. The frog, alto-
gether, is lodged in a capacious irregular
space, bounded superiorly by the tendo-
perforans and common skin, laterally by the
cartilages, and inferiorly by the homy frog :
with all which parts it has connections ;
besides being continuous with the sensitive
bars and sole, and at the heels with the
coronary substance. On its sides aje two
shallow, ill-defined hollows, corresponding
to the commissures of the horny frog, into
which are received the horny prominences
opposed to them.

" Structure. — Entering into the com-
position of this body we distinguish four
parts: An exterior or cuticular covering;
a congeries or network of blood-vessels ; a
fibro-cartilaginous texture ; and an elastic
interstitial matter.

" The exterior or cuticular covering in-
vests the prominent bulbous portion of the
frog, and also gives a lining to the cleft.
Superiorly, it is continuous with the sldn
descending upon the heels ; anteriorly, with
the cuticular covering of the coronet ; infe-
riorly, with that of the sole. Numerous
villous processes sprout from its surface,
and enter the porosities in the interior of
the horny frog, taking a direction down-
ward and forward, the same as that in
■which the fibres of the horn grow.

" The vascular covering succeeds the
cuticular, lying immediately underneath it.
It consists of a network of blood-vessels,
principally veins, but which are not so
thicldy set as upon the sole.

" The fibro-cartilaginous case comes next.
We find it spread over those parts most
subjected to pressure, and to be, in many
places, one-fourth of an inch in thickness.
From its interior are sent ofT numerous
processes, pervading the elastic matter of
the frog, forming so many septa intercross-
ing one another, and dividing it without any
notable regularity into many unequal com-
partments. In the posterior and bulbous
parts, the septa exist in greater numbers,
and are closer arranged than in the middle
parts. The fibres of this vaginal substance
run obliquely downward and forward, and
become intermixed around the borders with
those of the bars and sole.

" The elastic interstitial matter, however,
composes the bulk of the sensitive frog.
It consists of a pale yellowish soft sub-
stance, which has been mistaken for fat or
oil, and hence has been named 'the fatty
frog.' When cut deeply into, it exhibits a
granulated appearance, and the fibrous in-
tersecting chords become apparent, putting
on the ramous arrangement of a shrub or
tree. Altogether, the sensitive frog forms
a peculiar, spongy, elastic body, for which
we lack some more appropriate name."

A TABULAR VIEW OF THE BONES OF THE HORSE.

BONES OF THE CRANIUM.

Number.

Frontal, 1

Parietal 2

Temporal, two pairs, 4

Occipital, ...... 1

Ethmoid, 1

Sphenoid, 1

BONES OF THE FACE.

Nasal, 2

Superior and anterior maxillar)', . . 4

Malar 2

LacrjTnal, ...... 2

Palatine, 2

Superior and inferior turbinated, . . 4

Vomer, 1

Lowerjaw, 1

TEETH.
Incisors, . . . . . x . .12

Canine, 4

Molars, . 24

BONE OF THE TONGUE.

Os Hyoideus, 1

BOXES OF THE E.\K.

Malleus, 2

Incus, 2

Stapes 2

Orbiculare, 2

BONES OF THE SPINE.

Cer\ical, ....... 7

Dorsal, 18

Lumbar (sometimes G are found), . . 5

BONES OF THE SACRUM AND T.UL.

Sacral 1

Coccygeal (tail), about . . . .15

BOXES OF THE CHEST.

Ribs, on each side 18, ... . 3G

Sternum, .... . . 1

PELVIS.

Innominata (or bones inthout a name), . 2
BOXES OF THE SHOULDER.

Scapidar, . . .... 2

BONES OF THE ARM.

Humeral, 2

BONES OF THE FORE-ARM.

Radial and ulnar. The ulnar being, in the
adults, connected mth the radius, we shall con-
sider them as one bone. Radial, . . 2

BONES OF THE KNEE.

The carpal bones are thus named.:

(J f Scaphoid, | f Pisiform,

a J Lunar, « J Trapezoid,

g I Cuneiform, g | Magnum,

E 1^ Trapezium. S [_ Unciform.

Eight bones to each knee, ... 16

BONES BELOW THE KNEE.

Metacarpal, 2

Splents 4

Pastern, 2

Coronet, ...... 2

Sessamoid, ...... 4

Nancular, 2

Pedal or foot bones, 2

BONES OF THE HIND EXTREMTIT.
Femur, ....... 2

Stifle, 2

BOXES OF THE LEG.

Tibia and fibula. These we shall consider as
one to each extremity, .... 2

BONES OF THE HOCK.

Astragalus, ...... 2

Os C'alcis, 2

Cuboid, . 2

Cuneiform, ...... 6

BONNES OF THE LEG.

Two camions and four splents, ... 6

BONES BENEATH THE CANNON.

Pastern, 2

Coronet, 2

Sessaraoids, ...... 4

NaTOular, 2

Pedal or foot bones, .... 2

Total number of bone.s, . . 238
Tlie correct technical nomenclature of the above
bones will be found in " Osteology," wliich see.

(35)

ANATOMY OF THE SKELETON- OSTEOLOGY.

OSSEOUS SYSTEM OF THE
HORSE.

In the form of answers to a series of
questions, the student will become ac-
quainted with the name, location, form, use,
and general peculiarities of the various
bones composing the horse's skeleton.

Q. What is understood by the natural
skeleton ? — A. The term is applied when
the whole bones are held together by their
natural attachments : ligaments, cartilages,
and synovial membranes.

Q. Why is the term, artificial, sometimes
applied to the skeleton ? — A. Because the
bones, having been divested, by maceration
or otherwise, of their connecting ligaments,
etc., are united artificially, by wire and
plates of metal.

BONES OF THE CRANIUM.

Q. Enumerate the cranial bones. — A.
Frontal, two parietal, occipital, four tempo-
ral, ethmoid, sphenoid : ten.

FRONTAL BONE (oS FRONTIs).

Q. Describe the situation of -the frontal
bone. — A. It occupies the antero-superior
part of the cranium in the region known as
the forehead.

Q. What are its peculiarities ? — A. In
form it is irregular, having two surfaces
and four borders. Its surfaces are flat
externally, concave internally. Its internal
surface is divided by a septum into anterior
and posterior concavities. The posterior
one is occupied by a portion of the anterior
lobe of the cerebrum ; the anterior consti-
tutes the frontal sinuses, they being sepa-
rated from each other by the nasal spine.
The concavity is further divided into shal-
low chambers by imperfect septa.

Q. Describe the borders of the os frontis.
— A. They are denticulated and squamous.
The posterior is arched, describing segments
of two circles. The anterior or nasal is
waving, inclines backwards and outwards.
The frontal border is straight, anteriorly
broad and triangular. The ethmoidal or
outer border is irregular, and unites with
the lachrymal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones.

PARIETAL BONES (OSSA PARIETALIa).

Supposing the horse to be an adult, we
shall consider these bones as one.

Q. What is the situation of the parietal
bone ? — A. It occupies the mesio-superior
part of the cranium.

Q. Describe the same. — A. Its form is
quadrilateral : vaulted, concave internally,
and convex externally. It has two sur-
faces and four borders, denticulated and
squamous.

Q. What is observable on the convex sur-
face?— A. A longitudinal messian crest,
bifurcating anteriorly ; which indicates the
location of the sutures, now obliterated by
age. Between the bifm-catures arises an
eminence above the cranial surface.

Q. Describe the appearance of the inter-
nal surface? — A. It is indented by, and
receives, the lobular eminences of the cere-
brum, and it is also furrowed by arterial
ramifications which supply the diu-a mater.

TEMPORAL BONES (oSSA TEMPORUm).

Q. What portion of the cranium do the
ossa temporum occupy ? — A. Its sides and
base.

Q. How do these bones differ from those
in man ? — A. In man they are divided into
three portions, squamous, petrous, mastoid ;
yet in reality they are united. . In the horse

(36)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP THE HORSE.

they constitute four distinct bones, two on
each side.

Q. Name them. — A. Two ossa tempo-
rum, pars squamosa, pars petrosa : four.

Q. Describe their appearance. — One
pair is composed of lamina;, vaulted ; form
ovoid, surmounted by irregular projections ;
the other pair are solid and convex.

OCCIPITAL BONE (oS OCCIPITls).

Q. What is the situation of the os occi-
pitis ? — A. It is located in the postcro-
superior and inferior parts of the cranium.

Q. What is its form ? — A. Convex
externally, irregular, having an occipital
tuberosity and condyles.

Q. What are the connections of this
bone ? — A. It unites, superiorly, with the
parietal bones ; inferiorly and anteriorly with
the sphenoid ; laterally, with the temporal,
and it articulates posteriorly with the atlag.

Q. What is the foetal state of the bone ?
A. It is easily separable into four portions.

Q. State its use. — A. It forms the pos-
terior and inferior parts of the cranium,
protects this portion of the brain, and gives
exit to the spinal cord.

SPHENOID BONE (oS SPHENOIDEs).

Q. What is the situation of the os
sphenoides ? — A. It passes from one tem-
poral region to the other, across the antero-
inferior part of the brain.

Q. What are its general divisions? — A.
It is divided into body, situated in the mid-
dle, alas or wings, on each side, and tvvo
pterygoid processes, considered as legs.

Q. To what bones is it connected? — A.
Occipital, ethmoid, squamous-temporal, pal-
ate, and vomer.

ETHMOID BONE (oS ^THMOIDEs).

Q. What part of the cranium does the
OS agttmoides occupy ? — A. Anterior to
the sphenoid, and is the boundary of the
cranial, and commencement of the nasal,
cavities.

Q. Describe its form. — A. The posterior
portion bears resemblance to a bird with its
wings extended, having no legs, but a long

erected neck and a small round head; the
anterior part consists of a slim, brittle,
porous, spongy structure of considerable
volume.

Q. What are its connections ? — A.
With the sphenoid, frontal, vomer, and
superior turbinated bones; and with the
cartilaginous septum of the nose.

BONES OF THE FACE.

Under this head we shall consider the

Ossa nasi, .....

" maxillaria superiora, .

" maxillaria anteriora, .

" malarum, . . . .

" lacrymalia, ....

" palati, .....

" turbinata, superiora et inferiora,

" vomer, .....

Os maxillare inferius (lower jaw,)

I'otal,

We shall now consider these bones in the
above order.

NASAL BONES (ossa NASi).

Q. How many nasal bones are there ? —
A. Two.

Q. Where are they situated? — A. In
the superior part of the face.

Q. Describe their form? — A. They re-
semble the form of a pear ; are broad pos-
teriorly, pointed anteriorly ; they are convex
externally and concave internally.

Q. To what bones are they connected ?
— A. To the frontal, superior and anterior
maxillaria, and lachrymal.

Q. Wliat is theu'use?— A To defend
the nares, and retain in position the septum
nasi.

SUPERIOR MAXILLARY BONES (oSSA MAXIL-
LARIA superiora).

Q. Where are they situated? — A. In
the supero-lateral parts of the face.

Q. Describe their form ? — A. They are
somewhat irregular — tri-lateral; from the
centre (which is thickest) they taper, the
anterior part being much thinner than the
posterior.

Q. How are they divided? — A. Each

AXATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

bone lias a facial, palatine, and nasal sur-
face. It has also nasal, alveolar, and pala-
tine borders, and two extremities : posterior,
which forms the maxillary tuberosity ;
anterior, or dental extremity.

Q. What are the connections of the ossa
maxilaria ? — A. With the squamous tem-
poral, nasal, anterior maxiUary, malar,
lachrymal, palate, and inferior turbina'ted
bones.

ANTERIOR MAXILLARY BONES (osSA JIAXIL-
LARIA ANTERIORa).

Q. What is the situation of these bones?
— A. They are placed in the supero-anterior
and antero-lateral parts of the face.

Q. What is the general form of these
bones ? — A. Very irregular ; consisting of
a broad, thick base, turned forwards, from
which is sent off a thin flexible plate ; and
a narrow, elongated, tapering portion
turned backwards.

Q. How is each bone divided ? — A. Into
three surfaces and three borders.

Q. Describe the surfaces. — A. The
superior or nasal surface is smooth, con-
vex, and oblong. The inferior or palatine
is vaulted, it contributing to the formation
of the palate ; within it, of an oval form, is
the interdental space, which is occupied by
two thin, flexible plates, the palatine pro-
cesses, denticulating along the sides with
each other. In the side of the bone is a
deep hollow, for the reception of that por-
tion of the superior maxillary bone v.^hich
holds the tiisk ; and the remainder of the
surface, posteriorly, is articulated with the
same. The anterior or labial siLrface is
broad, smooth, and convex, and gives at-
tachment to the depressor labii suporioris,
and gums.

Q. Describe the borders. — A. Tiie
anterior border is broad and curved, and is
composed of two laniince, formed apart and
divided into septa for the insertion of six
incisors. The posterior border is naiTOw
and sloped, and denticulates with the nasal
bone. The internal border is broad,
quadrilateral, curved, and denticulates with
its fellow, forming thereby the superior

maxiUary symphysis, through which runs
the foramen incisivum, for the transmission
of the palatine arteries.

Q. How is this bone connected? — A.
It connects with the superior maxillary and
nasal bones, and with its fellow.

MALAR BONES (oSSA MALARUm).

Q. What is the situation of the ossa
malarum? — vl. They occupy the antero-
external part of the orbit.

Q. Describe their form. — A. Irregularly
triangular, presenting a broad basis forwards.

Q. How is the bone divided ? — A. Into
three surfaces, three angles, a basiform and
an apiform extremity.

Q. Name the surfaces. — A. Facial,
maxillary, and orbital.

Q. Describe the same. — A. The facial
surface is divided into two portions by the
zygomatic spine ; the upper division is
smooth and nearly flat; the lower ]")art is
narrow and roughened, for the insertion of
the masseter muscle. From this surface,
posteriorly, arises the zygomatic process,
which is very obliquely sloped oflT, and
laminated for adaptation to the process
of the same name, meeting it from the tem-
poral bone, the two together forming the
zygomatic arch. The maxillary surface is
concave. The orbital surface has a smooth
concavity which forms the infero-external
part of the orbit.

Q. Describe the angles. — A. There are
three, superior, inferior, and posterior. The
superior constitutes the external portion of
the orbital circumference. The inferior
forms the zygomatic spine. The posterior
is not so prominent nor defined, but forms
an irregular link with the superior maxillary
bone.

Q. What of the extremities ? — A. The
anterior extremity is broad, irregular, and
denticulated, and articulates with the Supe-
rior maxillary and lachrymal bones. The
posterior or apiform extremity forms the
zygomatic process.

Q. With what bones do the ossa mala-
rum connect? — A. With the temporal,
superior, maxillary, and lachrymal bones.

THE HORSE.

LACHRYMAL BONES (oSSA LACHRYMALIa).

There are tvvo lachmyral bones : we shall
describe but one, considering that they are
both alike, as indeed are those ahready refer-
red to, in a plural sense.

Q. What is the situation of the lachry-
mal bone ? — A. It occupies the antero-
external part of the orbit.

Q. How is it divided ? — A. Into three
surfaces and five borders.

Q. Name the surfaces. — A. Liternal,
external, and orbital.

Q. Name the borders. — A. External
and internal facial, nasal, and external and
internal orbital.

Q. What is observable in the orbital ex-
cavation of this bone? — A. The laclirymal
fossa.

Q. What occupies this fossa or groove ? —
A. The lachrymal vessels, sac, and duct.

Q. With what bones is it connected ? —
A. With the frontal, nasal, malar, and supe-
rior maxillary bones.

PALATE BONES (oSSA PALATi).

Q. What is the situation of the palate
bones ? — A. They are placed in the infe-
rior posterior part of the face, adjoining the
base of the cranium.

Q. What does the palatine surface form?
-=-yl. The palatine arch or roof of the
mouth.

Q. What of the nasal surface ? — A. It
forms the posterior surface of the nasal
outlet.

Q. What other surfaces do these bones
present? — A. Ethmoidal and orbital.

Q. To what part of the bone is the vel-
um palati attached? — A. To the palatine.

Q. How are the palate bones united to
the superior maxillary? — A. By their supero
and infero lateral borders ; each being den-
ticidated.

Q. What other connections have the pal-
ate bones ? — A. They are joined to the
frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, vomer, and in-
ferior turbinated bones.

TURBINATED BONES (oSSA TVRBINATA SUPE-
RIORA ET INFERIORa).

Q. Where are the ossa turbinata located ?

— A. Within the nasal cavity : the superior
above, and the inferior below.

Q. What is their form, and how are they
divided ? — A. In form they are oblong, thin,
foliated, convoluted, scroll-like, and cavern-
ous. They are divided into external and
internal surfaces ; superior and inferior ex-
tremities.

Q. How many bones are there? — A.
Four.

Q. Describe the bones. — A. Their ex-
ternal surface is convex, and presents series
of longitudinal grooves which mark the
ramifications of smaU blood-vessels. The
internal surface is cellular, being unequally
divided by transverse septa. Their interior
is capacious ; they are open superiorly and
closed anteriorly. They are porous and
elastic. The superior bone exceeds in
volume the inferior, and makes its convolu-
tion from below, its superior border being
attached ; whereas, the reverse is the case
with the inferior one.

Q. What are their connections ? — A.
The turbinated bone is connected above with
the ethmoid ; and laterally, with the nasal
bone.

VOMER.

Q. From what does the name of this
bone arise ? — A. From its resemblance to
a ploughshare.

Q. What are its uses ? — To divide the
nasal chambers and permit the expansion
of olfactory nerves.

Q. What is inserted into its superior
groove ? — A. The septum narium.

Q. What are its connections ? — A. It
unites with the ethmoid, sphenoid, superior
and anterior maxillary, and palate bones.

LOWER JAW. LNFERIOR MAXILLARY BONE

(oS MAXILLARE INFERIUs).

Q. What is the situation of this bone ? —
A. It composes the inferior and posterior
parts of the face.

Q. What is the foetal state of the bone ?

— A. In the fcetal state it is divided, at its
inferior junction, by a connecting cartilage,
hence the part has been called its symphysis.

Q. How is the bone divided ? — A. Into

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

body, neck, sides, and branches ; external
and internal surfaces, and corresponding
borders.

Q. What do you understand by these
terms ? ^ — A. Body signifies the anterior
part reaching posterior to the tusks ; neck
signifies the contracted part, immediately
posterior to the body; sides are the parts
comprehended between the neck and the
branches ; the branches are the parts poste-
rior to the neck, which terminate in the con-
dyles. As regards surfaces, the external is
convex, rounded, rough, and porous, and
affords attachment for muscle and gum.
The internal surface is concave, rough, and
porous, and answers for the attachment of
muscles and gum, and as a channel for the
tongue, and attachment for the frcenum
linguae.

Q. What do you understand by borders ?
— A. Each superior border exhibits six
alveolar cavities for the molar teeth; the
septum is composed of osseous laminse.
The inferior border is thin and irregular.
The posterior border is broad and roughened
for the insertion of muscles.

GENERAL INQUIRIES.

It is now presumed that we understand
the location and names of the different bones
composing the cranium and face; and, be-
fore we proceed further, it may be profitable
to make some general inquiries regarding
the bqny structure.

Q. Is not the number of bones greater
during colthood than at mature life ? — A.
Yes, many of the bones separable at that
period become united in the adult.

Q. How are bones divided ? — A. They
are divided into long or cylindrical, broad
or flat, and thick.

Q. What do you vmderstand by epiphy-
sis of bones? — A. The region where car-
tilage is interposed between bones that
finally become ossified.

Q. What is the structure of bones? —
A. They consist of a cellular, reticular, and
vascular parenchyma, and of osseous mat-
ter deposited in it : their base, therefore,
is the same as that of the soft parts.

Q. Are bones vascular ? — A. Yes.

Q. How can you demonstrate their vas-
cularity ? — A. By numerous small fora-
mina and by the tinge they receive from the
coloring matter of the food.

Q. Name the investing membrane of
bones ? — A. Periosteum.

Q. What is its organization ? — A. Fi-
brous.

Q. Of what use is this periosteum ? —
A. It limits the growth of bones, is the
medium of circulation and nutrition, and
affords attachment for ligaments and mus-
cles, and favors the free articulation of the
latter.

Q. What does its internal surface se-
crete ? — A. An oleaginous fluid, depos-
ited in the cellular structure and cavity of
bones.

Q. What are foramina? — A. Holes
perforating the substance of bones.

Q. What are sinuses ? — A. Occurring
in bones, they are large cavities with small
openings.

Q. What are sinuosities? — A. Superfi-
cial but broad irregular depressions.

Q. What are furrows ? — A. Long, nar-
row, and superficial canals.

Q. What are notches? — A. Cavities in
the margin of bones.

Q. What are fossae? — A. Deep and
large cavities on the surface of bones.

Q. What are glenoid cavities? — A.
Cavities for articulation.

Q. What are tubercles? — A. SmaU em-
inences.

Q. What are tuberosities ? — A. Rough
elevations.

Q. What are spines? — A. Long pro-
jections upon a bone.

Q. What are heads? — A The round
tops of bones.

Q. What are necks ? — The narrow por-
tion of bones beneath their heads.

Q. What are processes ? — A. Short pro-
jecting portions of bones.

THE TRUNK (REMARKS ON THE SAMe).

We shall now consider the peculiarities
of the trunk ; which comprehends the verte-

EXPLANATIONS OF FIGURE Y.

MUSCULAR STRUCTUKE.
LATERAL VIEW OF THE HEAD, NECK, -VXD SHOULDER. — Till: HEAD.

a. Orbicularis ])alpcl)raruni.

b. Levator palpobra'.

c. Dilator naris lateralis,

d. " " anterior.

e. Orbicularis oris.
_f. Nasalis longus.

(/. Levator labii superioris.

?'. Zygomaticus.

j. Retractor labii inferioris.

Jc. Buccinator.

A'. Masseter.

I. Tcm])oraIis.

in. Attolentcs et abducens aurcn:.

/'. Facial veins.

THE NECK.

*. Lijcamentum colli.

6". Rhomboideus longus.

s. A portion oi' the splenius.

a". Scalenus.

e". Pectoralis transversalis.

o. Abducens vel deprimens aurem.

r. Tendon of the splenius and conijilexus major.

t. Obliquus capitis inferior.

tt. Levator humeri.

V. Sterno maxillaris.

X. Subscapulo hyoideus.

3. Jugular vein.

REGION OF THE SHOULDER.

a". Trapezius,
y". Antea spinatus.
g". Postea spinatus.
Ji". Teres major.

OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

Liganientum colli, or subclavium,

Temporal bone.

Parietal bone.

Zygomatic arch.

Nasal bone.

Lachrymal lione.

Malar.

Sui)erior maxilla.

10.

Liferior "

The neck of the same.

Cervical vertebrfe.

33.

Scapula.

34.

Humerus.

The molars.

The incisors.

The hning membrane of the ear.

Nasal cartilage.

THE HOKSE.

bra! chain, thorax, and pelvis. It is gener-
ally called the spine, or back bone, and
extends from the occipital bone to the sac-
rum. The spuie is divided into three
regions, denominated cervical, dorsal, and
lumbar. The spine, as a whole, exhibits
three surfaces and two extremities. The
surfaces are named superior, inferior, and
lateral. The superior surface is flat in the
region of the neck ; in the back and loins
it ofl'ers a series of projections. The infe-
rior smface is more uniform, and the lateral
juIe

cervical vertebrje.

Q. How many cervical vertebree are
there ? — A. Seven.

Q. What is the name of the fii-st ? — A.
It is called alias.

Q. How does it differ from the rest ? — A.
It has no superior spinous process nor body ;
the vertebral hole is larger than in the
others, and its transverse processes are very
broad. It has three pairs of foramina :
one posteriorly, through which run the verte-
bral arteries ; and two anteriorly.

Q. What is the name of the second cer-
vical vertebra ? — A. It is named dentata.

Q. How is it recognized from the rest ?
— A. By its anterior projection, which in
the human subject resembles a tooth.

Q. W^ith what does this tooth-like pro-
cess -articulate ? — A. It articulates with
the infero-posterior part of the ring of the
atlas.

Q. Describe the third, fourth, and ffih
cervical vertebra. — ^1. They possess the
genuine characters of cervical vcriebrrr. and
closely resemble each other; the third, how-
ever, has commonly a more elevated supe-
rior spine than either of the others, and is
narrower across the mesio-sitperior part of
the body (measuring from the roots of the
ai'ticular processes), which dimension in-
creases in the fourth, but is greatest in the
fifth.

Q. What of the sixth vertebral — A. It
has no inferior spine ; and its transverse pro-
cesses are trifid, consisting each of three
eminences.

Q. What of the seventh ? — A. It is the
shortest, and in its general conformation re-
sembles the first dorsal. Its body, pos-
teriorly, presents two semilunar articular
depressions, constituting a part of the socket
for the first rib.

DORSAL VERTEBRAE.

Q. How many dorsal vertebrce are there ?

— A. Eighteen.

Q. W'hat is peculiar to the dorsal ver-
tebra; ? — A. They have each a bodi/, spinous
process, and transverse process, and arc
generally distinguished by the length, form,
and direction of their spines.

Q. How is the first dorsal vertebrce dis-
tinguished from the rest? — A. By the
sharpness of its spinous, and singleness of
transverse, processes, and by the breadth of
its articulatory surfaces.

Q. How do the articular depressions for
the insertion of the ribs differ in each bone ?

— A. They are less deeply marked, as we
proceed posteriori//.

Q. How are the seventeenth and eight-
eenth distinguished from the rest? — A.
They have perfect articulatory depressions
on the bodies for the insertion of ribs.

LUMBAR VERTEBRAE.

Q. How many lumbar vertebrs are
there?— A Five.

Q. How are the bodies of the lumbar
vertebrce distinguished from the dorsal? —
A. They are larger, contracted in the centre,
and their edges are more prominent.

VERTEBRAL CANAL.

Q. What is the form of the vertebral
canal? — A. In the cervical region it is ca-
pacious and semi-oval ; through the dorsal,
transversely oval and smaller. In the lum-
bar it is semi-circular, of less diameter than
the cervical and greater than the dorsal.

Q. With what does the spinal canal con-
nect?— A. Anteriorly, with the cranial
cavity ; posteriorly, with the sacral canal.

PELVIS, SACRUM, AND TAIL BOXES.

We shall now consider the posterior
boundary of the trunk.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

OS SACRUM.

Q. What is the popular name of this
bone? — A. It is called the ^^ rump bone."

Q. Where is it located? — A. At the
superior part of the pelvis, between the ossa
ilia.

Q. What is the popular name of the
ossa ilia? — A. They are called the haunch
bones.

Q. How many pieces enter into the com-
position of the sacral bone, in the foal? —
A. It is composed of five pieces.

Q. How are they united ? — A. Hy fibro-
cartilaghious substance.

Q. What ultimate change takes place in
this substance? — A. It becomes ossified,
and hence the solid bone.

Q. How is the sacral bone divided ? — A
Into three surfaces, l^vo borders, base, and
apex.

Q. Describe its surfaces. — A. They are
named superior, inferior, and lateral. The
superior is convex, very irregular ; on its
central line are five eminences, and laterally
are superficial grooves pierced by the four
sacral foramina. The inferior surface is
smooth and slightly concave. The lateral
smface is thick anteriorly, gradually tapering
posteriorly ; they are roughened for the re-
ception of the sacro-iliac figament.

Q. Describe, briefly, the base and apex.
— A. The base is composed of a central and
two lateral parts. The apex is oval, and
articulates with the anterior bones of the taU.

BONES OF THE TAIL (oSSA COCCYGIS).

Q. What is the situation of the ossa
coccygis ? — A. Posterior to the sacrum.

Q. Of how many bones is the tail com-
posed ? — A. Fifteen.

PELVIS OR HAUNCH BONES (oSSA INNOMINATa).

Q. How do anatomists divide these
bones, in the foetal state? — A. Into ilium,
ischium, and pubes.

Q. In the adult horse are there more
than two bones ? — A. They are considered
as two, yet in reality they are united at the
pubes so as to constitute but one bone. In

this state, however, they are denominated
ossa innominata — unnamed bones.

Q. What is the situation of the iliatic,
ischiatic, and pubic portions? — xL They
are in the anterior, superior, and lateral parts
of the pelvic region. The ischiatic extends
posteriorly and the pubic inferiorly.

Q. What are the connections of the
ossa innominata? — A. They are connected,
anteriorly and inferiorly, to the os sacrum;
posteriorly and inferiorly, to each other,
forming the symphysis pubis ; laterally,
with the thigh bones.

Q. What are the uses of the pelvis? —
A. It affords an arch for supporting the
posterior parts. It contains the urinary or-
gans, rectum, etc., gives protection to blood-
vessels and nerves, and origin and insertion
to various muscles and ligaments.

. CHEST OR THORAX.

The thorax or chest is formed by the
dorsal vertebrae, superiorly ; ribs, laterally ;
and sternum, inferiorly. It also affords pro-
tection to the principal organs of circula-
tion and respiration.

Q. State the number of ribs and their
arrangement? — ^4. Their number is gener-
ally thirty-six ; eighteen on each side, eight
of which are termed true, and the remainder
false, ribs.

Q. Why are the anterior eight called
true ribs ? — A. Because they have a direct
cartilaginous insertion into the breast bone
or sternum.

Q. Why are the posterior ten termed
false ribs ? — A. Because they are indi-
rectly connected with the sternum.

Q. What is the general conformation
of a rib ? — A. It is lengthy, curved ; con-
vex outwardly or laterally ; terminating in
a sharp border posteriorly, which forms a
posterior convexity. On the inner surfaces
it is concave, and of course the reverse of
the external.

Q. What are the variations in ribs ? —
A. They vary in length, degree of cinrva-
ture, and obliquity of direction.

Q. How shall we divide each rib ? — A

THE HORSE.

Into a body, external convexity , internal
concavity, a superior and inferior termina-
tion , anterior and posterior edges.

Q. What do you understand when the
teim, head, is applied to a rib? — A. It
signifies its protuberance — its superior
portion; presenting a smooth convexity for
articulation with the bodies of vertebrss.

Q. Where is the neck of a rib situated?
A. Immediately below the head.

Q. What is the difference between the
anterior and posterior edges of the ribs ? —
A. The anterior edge is circular and the
posterior is sharp.

Q. Where is the tubercle of the rib
situated ? — A. Posterior to the head , at
the root of the neck.

Q. How is the first rib distinguished
from the rest ? — A. It is the shortest and
thickest, and is almost straight.

Q. How does the second rib differ from
the first ? — A. It is longer, less dense,
and has a greater curvature in the region of
its neck. ■

Q. How do the ribs differ from the
second to the seventh ? — A. They increase
in breadth.

Q. How do they differ in length ? — A.
Up to the ninth.

Q. How do they differ in curvatvire ? —
A. Gradually up to the eighteenth, which
is the most curved of all.

BREAST BONE (sTERNUM).

Q. What is the situation of the sternum ?
— A It occupies the anterior and inferior
portion of the thorax.

Q. How does it differ from the human
sternum ? — A. In the human subject it is
composed of three pieces ; in the adult
horse it is considered as a single bone. It
is made up, however, of seven irregularly
formed bones.

Q. What is the structure of the ster-
num ? — A. It is composed of an osseous
cellular substance and cartilages.

Q. Name the cartilages ? — A. Erisi-
form and cariniform.

Q. What is the use of the cariniform
It affords attachment to

cartilage ? — A

the sterno-maxillares and sterno-tliyro-hy-
oidei muscles.

Q. To what part of the sternum is the
ensiform cartilage inserted ? — A. To its in-
ferior and posterior part.

Having now considered the bones of the
head (with the exception of the teeth), and
hyoides (appendages), spine- thorax, and
pelvis, we now commence on the bones
composing the extremities. These are four
in number, disposed in pairs, and known
as the fore and hind extremities. Our
examination will be conducted with refer-
ence only to one fore, and one hind, ex-
tremity ; presuming that a description of the
bones on one side will suffice for those on
the other.

- FORE EXTREMITIES.

Q. What is the situation of the fore
extremities ? — A. They occupy the antero-
lateral parts of the trunk, from which they
proceed inferiorlij.

Q. How are the bones divided ? — A.
Into shoulder, arm, knee, leg, pastern, coro-
net, and foot.

Q. Name the bones composing eack
region ? — A.

SHOULDER BONES.

Scapida, Humerus.

AR5I BONES.

Ra<lius, Ulnar.
BONES OF THE KNEE.

g f Scaphoid,
^ J Lunar,
■S I Cuneiform,
S [^ Trapezium.

t rPisifonn,
~ J Tra])ezoid,
I I Os Magnum,
£ I Unciform.

BONES OF TlUi LEG.

Large Metacarpal.
Two smaU Metacarpal (splents.),

LN THE REGION OF THE FCTLQCK.

Two Sessamoid Boues.

PASTKIN BONE.

Os Suffraginie.

■CORONET BONE.

Os Corona".

FOOT BONES.

Na\icular and Coffin-beaes.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

Q. How many bones compose one of
the fore extremities ? — A. Twenty -one.

OF THE SHOULDER.

Q. The shoulder being composed of the
scapula and humerus, what portion of the
thorax do they occupy ? — A. They occupy

its antero-lateral region.

SCAPULA, (shoulder blade).

Q. What is the position of the scap-
ula ? — A. It occupies the antero-lateral
parts of the thorax.

Q. Describe the bone. — A. It is trian-
gular, broad, and thin superiorly ; narrower
and thicker inferiorly ; its external surface
is uneqtially divided into two superficial
concavities, named fossas antea, et postca
spinatre. Its internal surface is smooth, yet
excavated.

Q. Describe the borders. — A. The su-
perior has a thin, roughened summit for
the insertion of the cartilage of the scap-
iila ; the anterior is thin in its upper half,
yet below it becomes rounded ; the posterior
is obtuse and rounded.

Q. How does the scapula terminate in-
feriorly ? — A. By a glenoid cavity.

Q. What are the connections of the
scapula ? — A. It has a ligamentous con-
nection with the spines of some of the dorsal
vertebra; to the thorax, it is connected by
muscular faschite; and its inferior connec-
tion is by means of the glenoid cavity, to
the head of the humerus ; this latter forms
the shoulder joint.

Q. Is diere anything remarkable about
the shoulder joint? — A. Its most remark-
able feature is, the great disproportion in
size between the head of the humerus and
the glenoid cavity.

Q. How is this disproportion in magni-
tude compensated for? — A. By an exten-
sive capsular membrane, which admits of
extensive motion.

Q. AVhat are the insertions of this cap-
sular membrane ? — A. It has a circular
insertion into the rough margin of the
glenoid cavity, and also around the neck of
the humerus.

Q. How is this membrane protected in-
ternally and externally ? — A. Internally it
is clothed with a synovial membrane ; ex-
ternally by adherent muscles.

HUMERUS.

Q. What is the situation of the
humerus ? — A. It is situated beneath the
scapula, occupying a diverse direction, viz.,
downwards and backwards, and is in con-
tiguity with the lateral parts of the thorax.

Q. Describe the form of the humerus.
— A. It is irregular, cylindroid, having a
convoluted appearance, and its superior
extremity is much larger than the inferior.

Q. How is this bone divided ? — A.
Into a body, superior and inferior extremi-
ties.

Q. Describe the bodi/. — A. It is angu-
lar, with sides, contracted superiorly and
flattened and rounded inferiorly. From its
superior-anterior-lateral margin projects a
roughened tuberosity, into which the leva-
tor humeri is inserted. The lateral part of
the body is lioUow or excavated. The in-
ner side is somewhat roughened and promi-
nent.

Q. Describe the superior extremity. —
A. The superior extremity being much
larger than the inferior, presents a head
and several tubercles : it has a projecting,
hemispherical surface, designed for exten-
sive articulation. It presents a smooth
surface, yet has an irregular, indented
groove for the insertion of a capsular liga-
ment.

Q. What is the use of the tubercles ? —
A. The anterior, three in number, serve as
articulations for the flexor brachii to tra-
verse. The fourth serves as a protection
against dislocation.

Q. Describe the inferior extremity. — A.
It consists of two heads or condyles, sepa-
rated by deep ovoid fossse into which is
received the olecranon of the ulna.

Q. What are the connections of the
humerus ? — A. Superiorly, it connects
with the scapula ; inferiorly, it articulates
with the radial and ulnar extremity of the
Os Brachii.

THE HORSE.

OS BRACHII (arm bone).

Q. Describe the location of the os
brachii. — A. It is located beneath the tho-
rax, in the inferior region of the Immerus.

Q. How does this bone differ from those
of the human subject ? — A. By being con-
solidated into a single bone.

Q. How is it divided ? — A. Into radial
and tdnar portions.

Q. Describe the radial. — A. It consists
of a body, superior and inferior extremi-
ties. The body is lengthy, compared with
other bones of the fore extremity ; posteri-
orly it is excavated and roughened ; ante-
riorly it projects with a smooth, cylindrical
surface.

Q. Describe the superior extremity. —
A. The superior extremity presents an in-
terrupted articulatory surface, having a
central eminence, with two cavities, which
correspond to the articulations of the os
humerii.

Q. Describe the inferior extremity. —
A. It appears to consist of three articulatory
surfaces, which correspond with those of the
bones of the carpus.

Q. Describe the ulnar portion of the os
brachii. — A. It presents a tapering trian-
gular projection, firmly connected with the
radius; at its junction with the same, it
presents a semilunar concavity ; this, with
the articulatory surface of the radius, forms
the humero-brachial articulation.

Q. Name the projection of the ulnar,
commonly termed point of the elbow. — A.
Olecranon.

Q. What muscle is inserted into the ole-
cranon ? — A. The triceps extensor brachii.

Q. What is the state of this bone in
early colthood ? ■ — A. It is composed of two
pieces named radius and ulnar, which after-
wards become consolidated.

Q. With what bones does the inferior
portion of the os brachii articulate ? — A.
With the scaphoid, lunar, and cuneiform
bones.

BONES OF THE KNEE (cARPUs).

The bones of the knee correspond to the
•wrist, or carpus, of man.

Q. How are these bones arranged ? — A.
They are ranged in two rows, or tiers ; one
of the number, trapezium, is located in the
posterior part of the carpus.

Q. Name the bones of the first row ? —
A. Scaphoid, lunar, cuneiforme, trapezium.

Q. Name the bones crossing the second
row ? — A. Pisiform, trapezoid, magnum,
unciform.

Q. What is the general form and situa-
tion of each of the bones of the first row?
— A. The OS scaphoides is semi-ovoid in
form, its superior surface is sigmoid and
smooth, the inferior surface is somewhat
oval, and rests upon the trapezoides and
magnum of the second row. Its internal
surface comes in contact with the os lunare.
The OS lunare is the second bone of the first
row; it articulates superiorly with the
brachii ; inferiorly, with the ossa magnum
and unciforme; its superior surface is trian-
gular ; inferior, oblong ; on one side, inter-
nally, it articulates with the scaphoid, on
the other with the cuneiforme. The cunei-
forme is known as the external, yet smallest
bone of the knee. Its superior surface is
concave ; inferior, smooth ; its internal sur-
face articulates with the os lunare, and pos-
teriorly it unites with the trapezium.

Q. What is the general form and situa-
tion of each of the bones of the second
row ? — • A. The os trapezoides is situated
on the inner side of the knee, resting on the
inner splent bone, and articulating with the
OS magnum ; its form is that of an irregular,
curvated, flattened cone ; its superior surface
is convex, and its inferior flat. The os
magnum is the middle bone of the second
row, and is known as the largest bone of
the knee. Its superior surface presents two
articulatory surfaces, one sigmoid and ob-
long for the OS lunare, and the other ovoid
and flat, to correspond with the sm-face of
OS scaphoides; its interior surface is flat,
and articulates with large metacarpal bone.
The OS unciform is situated on the outer
side of the second row, and in form resem-
bles a blunt hook; its superior surface is
convex ; its inferior irregular, articulating
with the outer splent and cannon. The os

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

trapezium is situated in the posterior part
of the carpus, and presents two smooth sur-
faces for articulation with the ossa cunei-
forme and brachii. Its external, lateral sur-
face is convex ; its internal concave ; its
superior border gives attachment to the
flexores metacarpi ; and into the inferior is
inserted a ligament. The ossa pisiform ia
— for sometimes there are two present — is
situated posterior to the trapezoides ; its
form is orbicular or pea-shape.

METACARPAL BONES.

The metacarpal bones are three in num-
ber, viz : metacarpi magnum, 1 ; metacar-
\u parvTtm, 2. There seems, however, so
great a disproportion between the os mag-
num and ossa parva, that the former may
be considered as the principal support of
the fore extremities.

Q. What is the situation of the metacar-
pus ? — A. Immediately beneath the carpus.

Q. Describe the form of the metacarpi
magnum. • — A. It is a long cylindrical
bone, presenting on its anterior surface a
circular, smooth appearance ; its posterior
surface is somewhat flattened and depressed.

Q. How is the bone divided 1 — A. Into
a body, and tAvo extremities.

Q. Describe the extremities. — A. The
superior presents a smooth articulatory sur-
face, tapering towards its outer edges, yet
more depressed on its inner and posterior
part ; in the anterior region is a roughened
prominence, for the insertion of the extensor
metacarpi, and on the lateral side of the
bone are eminences which afford insertion
for the lateral ligaments. The inferior ex-
tremity presents a pulley-like surface, with
two unequal condyloid surfaces, separated
by a seini-circular eminence, which corre-
sponds to a counterpart found on the supe-
rior cud of the sufFraginis.

Q. What are the articulations of the
metacarpi magnum ? — A. It articulates su-
periorly with the carpus; inferiorly, with the
OS suflragiuis ; j^osteriorly and laterally, with
the ossa icssamoidea and metacarpi parva.

OSSA METACARPI PARVA (sPLEXT BONEs).

Q. How many bones compose the ossa

metacarpi parva ? — A. Two : external and
internal.

Q. Describe their situation. — A. They
are attached to the lateral and posterior
parts of the metacarpi magnitm.

Q. How do you divide them ? — A. Into
bases, middles, and apices.

Q. Describe the base. — A. It is sur-
mounted by a smooth qrtictolatory surface,
corresponding to the inferior portion of a
part of the knee joint. '

Q. Describe the middle. — A. It is tri-
facial: Ihe anterior surface is roughened
for the insertion of inter-articular tissue,
which connects it with the cannon ; the inner
surface is excavated ; the outer surface is
rounding, and terminates, posteriorly, acu-
minately.

Q. Describe the apex. — A. It tapers, and
ends in a tubercle, which curvates in an
inferior and superior direction.

Q. How do the ossa metacarpi parva
differ ? — A. The external is generally larger
than the internal, and has a broader articu-
latory surface.

Q. What bone does the external splent
articulate with ? — A. The unciform.

Q. What bone does the internal splent
articulate with ? — A. The trapezoid.

Q. How are the splents connected to the
cannon ? — A. By cartilago-ligamentous tis-
sue.

Q. What changes does this cartilaginous
tissue undergo, subsequent to adult life ? —
A. In a majority of cases it becomes ossified.

PASTERN BONE (oS SUFFRAGINIs).

Q. Describe the location of this bone. —
A. It is located beneath the cannon, and
takes an oblique direction from tiie same ;
it articulates superiorly with the cannon ;
posteriorly with the ossa sessamoidea.

Q. Describe the form of the os suffra-
ginis. — A. It is a flattened cylinder, yet its
superior portion is more bulky than tlie in-
ferior; it is generally considered as being
about one-third the length of the cannon,
and is divided into a body, superior and
inferior extremities.

Q. Describe the body of the os staffra-

THE KORSE.

giniff. — ^1. The body presents two sui'faces,
anterior and posterior; the anterior is con-
vex, the posterior flattened and uneven ; it
lessens in bulk in an inferior direction.

Q. How is the superior extremity of the
pastern bone recognized from the inferior ?

— A. The superior is the largest, and pre-
sents two shallow articular cavities; between
them is a groove, v.iiich receives the central
eminence of the inferior extremity of the
cannon bone. The inferior extremity is
much smaller than the superior; it is bi-
convex, and consists of two articular con-
vexities, separated by a transverse shallow
depression.

SESSAMOID BOXES (OSSA SESSAMOIDSa).

Q. Where are the two sessamoids situ-
ated ? — A. At the posterior part of the
articulation formed~ by the cannon and
pastern bones.

Q. What is the form of these bones ? —
A. Trapezoid : three sides present triangular
faces, whose apices unite in one point, which
is directed upwards ; the bases of the same
form a fourth side, which is turned down-
wards ; and are therefore divided into three
sides, base, and apex.

Q. Give a general description of the
faces or surfaces of these bones. — 'A. They
are known as anterior, posterior, and lateral
faces ; the anterior are excavated, smooth,
and articulatory, and along their inward
borders — which are opposed to each other

— are levelled off, so that the two form a
groove for the reception of the central
eminence of the inferior portion of the can-
non. The posterior surfaces are convex and
rough ; the lateral surfaces are grooved and
roughened ; the bases are narrow and uneven.

Q. What appears to be the object in ex-
cavating the anterior surfaces of these
bones? — A. To extend the articulatory
surface of the pastern joint, and admit of
extensive anterior and posterior motion.

Q. For what purposes are the posterior
surfaces roughened ? — A. For the insertion
of the suspensory ligaments.

Q. What occupies the cavity which
occurs in consequence of uniting the inter-

nal surfaces of these bones ? — A. The flexor
tendons.

Q. What ligaments are inserted into the
bases of these bones? — .di^The long
short, and crucial ligaments.

CORONET BONE (oS CORONiE).

The OS coroncB is situated beneath, or
rather interiorly, to the pastern, and may
therefore be termed the inferior pastern ;
it occupies a location between the superior
pastern and coffin bone.

Q. Describe the os coronae, or inferior
pastern. — A. It presents a square body; its
breadth, however, somewhat exceeds its
longitudinal measurement. It has four sur-
faces, viz., superior, inferior, anterior, and
posterior ; the superior surface is bi-concave,
corresponding to the projections of the
superior pastern ; the inferior surface is bi-
convex, consisting of two condyloid prom-
inences, separated by a slight transverse
depression, corresponding to the articulatory
surface of the coffin-bone ; the anterior sur-
face is convex, yet rough and irregular ; the
posterior surface is quite smooth, yet exca-
vated.

Q. What are the connections of the os
coronffi ? — A. It connects with the pastern,
coffin, and navicular bones.

BONES OF THE FOOT.

THE COFFIN BONE (oS PEDIs).

The coffin bone is considered as the base
of the osseovTS structure of the fore extremity.

Q. What is the form of the coffin bone ?
— A. It presents a semilunar outline ; an-
teriorly and superiorly it is convex ; pos-
teriorly and interiorly it is concave ; it is
divided into wall, sole, tendinous surface,
articulatory surface, and wings.

Q. Describe the wall. — A. It is a
miniature of the form of the hoof; it exhibits
a porous and furrowed surface, and has in-
numerable perforations, varying in size and
form ; its superior part is surmounted by
the coronal process; the inferior edge of the
wall is somewhat oval, and is notched and
serrated.

ANATOMY AND rilYilOLOGY OP

Q. What are the uses of the porosities
and furrows ? — A. Tliey serve as so many
attachments for the fibrous tunic of the
sensible hiniinas

Q.^V'liat name is generally applied to
'the* largest o{ the perforations found in the
eotlin bone ? — A. They are termed for-
amina.

Q. What occupies these foramina? —
A. Blood-vessels and nerves.

Q. Describe the sole of the eotlin bone?
— ^-1. The sole exhibits a broad, uniform,
concave surface, resembling in most cases
the figure of the inferior part of the hoof; it
has porosities similar to those formed on
the wall ; it is bounded anteriorly and later-
ally by the cireumferent edge of the wall;
posteriorly, by a sharp, imeven, semi-circular
edge, which divides it from the tendinous
surface.

Q. What do we find on the tendinous
surface? — A. 1st, a rough depression in
its fore and middle part, marlung the inser-
tion of the tendo jierforans. 'Jndly, tsvo
lateral grooves, passing obliquely inwards,
and terminating each in a large foramen.
Srdly, a porous space intermediate between
the two former divisions, into which is fixed
the inferior navicular ligament.

Q. What occupies the lateral grooves? —
A. The trunks of the arteries and nerves
which occupy the interior of the coffin bone.

Q. What are the peculiarities of the ar-
ticulatory sirrfaee of the coffin bone ? — A.
It has two lateral depressions, which extend
posteriorly to the alte ; a broad eminence
runs transversely between them ; this emi-
nence is terminated in front by the coronal
processes, having an incurvation backwards;
behind it, the surface is bevelled off, to
which part is opposed the navicular bone ;
the depressions alluded to are deepened by
the prominent edge running around the an-
terior and lateral parts.

Q. What portion of the coffin bone does
the articulatory surface occupy ? — ^1. The
superior part.

Q. What is the form of this surface? —
A. It is half-moon shaped.

Q. Describe the alse, or wings ? — They

consist of a protuberance on the posterior
part of each side of the coffin bone ; the
protuberance, however, is generally bifid;
the lower portion which is the largest, is
in-egular and asperous, and projects in a
posterior direction ; the upper portion is tu-
bercular, yet smooth; between the divisions
of the akc is a notch, which, at a certain
period in the life of the animal becomes a
perfect foramen.

Q. What is attached to the irregular sur-
face of the larger division of the kite ? — A.
The cartilage of the foot.

Q. What is affixed to the tuberculated
portion of the alse ? — A. The coffin liga-
ments.

Q. What vessel passes tlu-ough the
notch ? — A. The lateral artery.

Q. What is there remarkable about the
structure of the coffin bone ? — A. It has a
spongy, fragUe texture, pervaded in every
direction by minute canals for the trans-
mission of blood-vessels and nerves ; it dif-
fers very essentially from many bones of
the body, which, in healihy subjects, are
remarkable for compactness and solidity.

NAVICULAR BONE (oS NAVICULARe).

Q. What is the general form and division
of the navicular bone ? — A. It is semi-lu-
nar: its lunated border, however, only forms
about one third the circle of its dimensions;
it is divided into two surfaces, two borders,
and two extremities.

Q. Where is this bone situated ? — A.
At the posterior part of the coffin joint.

Q. Describe the superior and inferior sur-
faces of the navicular bone. — A. The
superior surface bears a corresponding
aspect to the articulating surface of the
coffin bone, having two superficial lateral
depressions, with an eminence between
them. The inferior siufaee is also articu-
latory ; and exhibits lateral depressions yet
more superficial than the superior; it has
also an eminence across the middle, nar-
rower yet more prominent than the former.

Q. Name the tendon which articulates
over the inferior surface. — A. Tendo per-
forans.

THE HOUSE.

Q. Dcscribo thn bordors. — A. Thobor-j
ders arc lunatod and slr.iiglit: the luiiated|
is broadest in the centre, and narrows to-
wards tlie exirernities ; superiorly it lias a
smooth narrow strip of surface along the
middle, which is adapted to the bevelled
portion of the articnlatory surface of the
coffin bone ; the part beneath is fluted and
porous, into which is inserted a ligament
which connects it with the codin bone.
The straigiit border is thinner than the
opposite one ; superiorly it is rough and
porous ; inferiorly it is smooth and lipped.

Q. What is the form and direction of
the extremities of ihv. navicular bone? — A.
They are obtusely pointed, one directed
outward and the other inward.

Q. What ligaments are inserted info the
extremities ? — A. The lateral ligaments.

HIND EXTREMITIES.

Q. What is the situation of the hind
extremities? — A. They occupy the inferior
and posterior parts of the pelvis, and sup-
port the posterior parts of the trunk.

Q. How are the bones of the hind ex-
tremities divided? — A. They are thus
divided: Femur, stifle, thigh, hock, leg, pas-
tern, coronet, and foot.

Q. Name the bones comprising these
parts. — A.

FEMUR.

STIFI.K liONK.
ratella.

THIGH nO.VES.

Tibia and Filiula.

HOCK I!ONl;S.
A.stragalus, ()s calcls.

Culjoid bone,
Three Cuneiform bones.

BONES OF Tin; li;g.

Metatarsi Mngnum.

Metatarsi Parva, two bones (splents).

PASTER.\ JOINT.

Ossa Schsamoidea (two bones),
Os Suffi-nginis (pastern).

COROXIT.

Os Coronae.

BOXES OF THE FOOT.

Os Pedis and Os Naviculare.

Q. Where is the femur situated? — A.
Between the pelvis and thigh bones.

Q. How is it divided? — A. Into a body
and two extremities.

Q. What are the peculiarities of the
superior extremity? — A. It consists of two
parts: a hemispherical, smooth, articnlatory
head, directed upwards and inwards, and
joined to the body by a flattened neck,
and exhibiting on its inner side a fissure,
into which is fixed the teres or round liga-
ment. The other part is a large irregular
projection at the base, and posterior to the
same is a deep oval cavity; at the superior
part is a roughened crest; inwardly it pre-
sents a concave, smooth surface.

Q. What is the proper name of the pro-
jection ? — A. The great external tro-
chanter.

Q. What muscles are inserted into the
the same? — A. The gluteii.

Q. What is inserted into the concave
smooth surface? — A. The capsular liga-
ment.

Q. What is the form of the body of the
OS femoris ? — A. It is cylindrical.

Q. How does it correspond in size and
weight with other bones of the body ? — A.
It is the longest and weightiest.

Q. W^hat is the form of inferior extrem-
ity?— A. It is broad and thick, and has a
trochleal prominence and two condyles.

Q. Give a description of the same. — yi.
The articular or pully-like surface anteriorly
consists of a broad, semi-circular groove
bounded on either side by a prominence ;
the condyles much resemble each other,
excepting that the external is the thickest,
and the internal most projecting; they
exhibit prominent, convex, articnlatory sur-
faces; pn their sides are rough eminences;
between them is a deep fossa ; at the base
of the external condyle is a pit.

Q. What articulates over the pulley-like
surface ? — yl. The patella or stifle bone.

Q. What is inserted into the rough emi-
nences ? — yl. The lateral ligaments.

Q. What occupies the fossa ? — A. The
inter-articular ligament

ANATUiMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

Q. What is inserted into the pit? — A.
The tendon of the extensor pedis.

Q. What is the state of this bone during
colthood ? — .4. Extremities are attached to
the body of the bone by means of cartilage.

Q. Wiiat changes do the extremities
undergo just prior to adult life ? — A. They
become consolidated with the body of the
bone.

STIFLE BONE (paTELLa).

Q. What is the situation of the patella?

— .1. It is situated on the anterior and infe-
rior extremity of the femur.

Q. What is its general form ? — A.
Quadrangular, convex externally, UTegularly
concave internally.

Q. How is it divided? — A. Into three
surfaces and four angles.

Q. Describe the surfaces. — A. The an-
terior surface is convex, yet quite prominent
rn the centre ; it has a roughened surface,
and is porous. The superior surface is
angular, uneven, and roughened. The pos-
terior surface is articulatory, and unequally
divided by an eminence running across it
into two shallow concavities, which are
adapted to the condyles of the inferior ex-
tremity of the femur.

Q. Describe the form of the angles of the
patella. — A. They are obtuse.

Q. Why is the anterior surface of the
bone roughened ? — A. For the insertion of
tendinous and ligamentary attachments.

Q. What is implanted into the uneven
and roughened part of the superior border?

— A. The tendons of the rectus and vasti
muscles.

Q. What is inserted into the inferior and
lateral angle ? — A, The ligamentum pa
tella.

Q. What are the connections of this
tone ? — A. It is connected to the inferior
portion of the femiu- by tendinous and
capsular ligaments ; to the tibia it is con
nected by similar ligaments.

THIGH BONES (tibia AND FIBULa).

In consequence of a horse having a very
large femur, and that bone appearing to

enter into the composition of the haunch,
the tibia and fibula are termed thigli bones,
althougli in man they are termed bones of
the leg ; the fibula of the horse, however, is
a very small, slender bone, affixed to the
superior part of the external side of the
tibia.

Q. What is the situation of the thigh
bone ? — A. It is situated between the stifle
and hock.

Q. What is the form of this bone ? — A.
It is long, straight, prismatic ; its superior
extremity is larger than the inferior.

Q. What is its direction ? — A. Oblique
in a contrary direction to the femur.

Q. How is the tibia divided ? — A. Into
a body, superior and inferior extremities.

Q. What is the general form of the
body ? — A. It is irregularly triangular, the
posterior face is broadest, the anterior angle
is rounded, and the sides are roughened.

Q. What is peculiar to the superior ex-
tremity of the bone? — A. We find two
irregular ovoid articulatory surfaces, corre-
sponding to the eminences on the inferior
extremity of the femur ; these are separated
by an acute elevation, and two fossa, into
which is inserted the lateral ligament.

Q. Describe the inferior extremity. — A.
It is flattened, and has two deep articular
grooves running in an anterior and posterior
direction ; its exterior margin is roughened.

Q. What are its connections ? — A. It
connects with the femur and patella supe-
riorly ; inferiorly, with the bones of the hock.

fibula.

Q. What is the situation of the fibula?
— A. At <he posterior part of the tibia.

Q. How is it connected to the tibia ? —
A. By cartilago-ligamentous substance.

Q. What is the form of the two ends of
the bone? — A. The superior is bulky, flat-
tened from side to side, and roughened.
The inferior is slender and tapering, and
extends about half way down the tibia.

BONES OF THE IIOCK (taRSUS).

The tarsus, or hock, comprises a part of
the osseous structure of the horse, that

S<1

EXPLANATIONS OF FIGURE VL

KO. 1.— FORE EXTREMTITES.

/. The Ulna.

34. Humerus.

35. Radius.

36. Carpus.

37. Metacarpus.

38. Sessamoids.

s. or 39. Os suffraginis.

40. Os coronop.

41. Os pedis.

The above description also answers for No. 3, — the bony structure.

NO. 2. — MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.

LATERAL VIEW OF THE NEAK-FORE E.\TEEMITY.

s". Extensor metacarpi magnus.

i". Humero cubital.

n". Levator humeri.

p". Flexor metacarpi extemus.

a;", x". Extensor pedis.

m". u." v". Flexors.

«". Flexor tendons.

y. Extensor tendon.

z. Suspensory hgament.

&{. The hoof.

NO. 4.

ANTEEIOR VIEW OF THE NEAE-FOEE EXTREMITY

s. Extensor metacarpi magnus.

t. Extensor metacarpi obliquus.

x". Extensor pedis.

y". Extensor suffraginis. '^

If. The hoof

8. Bifurcation of the suspensorj' hgament.

THE HORSE.

e\ery veterinary student should aim to be
well acquainted with ; it is a part that seems
to be, in this country, more liable to anchy-
losis and exostosis than any other region ;
here is the seat of spavin, and no one can
possibly understand the nature of such dis-
ease unless he be conversant with the ana-
tomical mechanism of the hock. The hock
corresponds to the tarsus or instep of man,
and is composed of six bones, viz., os calcis,
astragalus, os cuboides, ossa cuneiformis ;
which comprise three small bones, viz., ex-
ternal, internal, and middle cuneiforme. We
shall first consider the os calcis,

"Q. What is the situation of the os cal-
cis ? — A. It forms the posterior projec-
tion icnown as the point of the hock — the
superior and posterior bone of the tarsus.

Q. Give a general description of the
bone. — A. Its figure is kregular ; presents
a body, tuberosity, posterior surface, and
base ; the body is most bulky at its inferior
part ; as a whole, it is irregularly convex ;
concave and expanded at its base, where
it presents four surfaces for articulation
with the astragalus ; the tuberosity is ob-
long, flattened on each side, and terminates
in a rougii tubercle, into which is inserted
the tendons of the gastrocnemii. It is sit-
uated on the superior part of the hock.

THE knuciclt; bone (astragalus).

Q. What is the situation of the astra-
galus ? — A. It is situated in the superior
part of the hock, and is the principal sup-
port of the tibia.

Q. How do you distinguish it from
other Ixincs ? — A. It is readily distin-
guished by its double pulley-like articula-
tory surfaces, which consist of two semi-
circular prominences, having between them
a deep groove, well adapted to receive the
projection found on the inferior extremity
of the tibia.

Q. What is the. appearance of the pos-
terior surface? — A. It has four articulatory
sui-faces, corresponding to those of the os
calcis.

Q. What is the appearance of the base
or inferior extreniitv ? — A. It has an irre-

gularly flattened articulatory surface, which
comes in contact with the large cuneiform
bone.

CUBOID BONE {os CUBOIDES).

Q. What is the situation of the cuboid
bone ? — A. On the outer part of the
hock.

Q. How is the bone divided ? — A. Into
four surfaces, viz., external, internal, supe-
rior, and inferior.

Q. How do you distinguish the externa?
from the internal surface ? — A. The exter-
nal surface is Jjroad, irregular, curved, and
roughened ; on (he other hand, the internal
is excavated, and has three articulatory
surfaces.

Q. How does tlie superior surface difi'er
from the inferior? — A. The superior sur-
face has two articulations, with a fossa
between them ; the inferior surfaces are
smaller, and correspond, one to the articula-
tory head of the splent bone, and the other
to the cannon.

large- cuneiform bone (os cuneifotime
magnum).

Q. What is the situation of the cunei-
form bone ? ■ — A. Directly beneath the
astragalus.

Q. What is the appearance of this bone ?
— A. It presents a triangular form ; its
acute termination being in a posterior direc-
tion, it has superior and inferior surfaces,
sides, and angles.

Q. How is the superior surface distin-
guished from the inferior? — yL The supe-
rior surface has a uniform articulatory
surface, with the exception of a small,
rough grove running to its centre, from the
outer side, which terminates in a central
pit. The inferior surface is rather convex,
yet presenting a flat appearance ; its poste-
rior angle has an articulatory surface, cor-
responding to that of the cuboid bono.

Q. What are the articulations of this
bone ? — A. It articulates with the astra-
galus, cuboid, middle and small cjjoei-
form bones.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

jiiddle cuneiform bone (os cuneiforme
medium).

Q. What is the situation of the middle
cuneiform bone ? — A. It is situated be-
neath the large cuneiform.

Q. What is the relative size of the ossa
cuneiformia? — A. The one beneath the
astragalus is (he largest; the middle is the
medium; and that at the posterior part of
the hock is the smallest.

small cuneiform bone (os cuneiforme
parvum).

Q. What is the situation of the small
cuneiform bone ? — A. It is situated at the
posterior ipart of the hock.

Q. What are the articulations of this
bone ? — A. It articulates superiorly with
the internal angle of the large cuneiform ;
anteriorly, with the same angle of the mid-
dle cuneiform ; posteriorly, with the inter-
nal splent bone and cannon.

HIND CANNON (oS METATARSI MAGNUm).

Q. What is the popular name of the
hind cannon ? — A. Shank-bone.

Q. How does it compare in length with
the cannon of the fore extremities ? — A. It
is about one-sixth part longer than the fore
cannon.

Q. Is there any difference in the supe-
rior surfaces of the fore and hind cannons ?
— A. Yes ; the superior surface of the fore
cannon corresponds to the surfaces of the
inferior bones of the carpus ; the superior
extremity of the hind cannon closely resem-
bles the surfaces of the middle and small
cuneiform bones, and also that of the
cuboid.

Q. How do the hind and fore cannons
differ in conformation ? — A. The bone of
the hind extremity is more circular and
prominent, anteriorly, than the forward
me.

HIND SPLENTS (METATARSI PARVa).

Q. What is the situation of the metatarsi
parva ? — A. They are situated at the pos-
terior part of the hind cannon.

Q. How are the hind splents recognized

from those of fore limbs ? — A. The hind
splents are longer than the fore ; their bodies
are more circular and prominent forward,
and the superior extremities correspond (o
a part of the cuneiform and cuboid bones ;
while the superior extremities of the forward
splents correspond to a portion of the in-
ferior row of the bones of the knee.

We now come to the bones articulating
beneath the inferior extremity of the hind
cannon, viz., pastern, sessamoid, coronet,
colHn, and navicular bones. These, according
io the opinion of Mr. Percivall, "so closely
resemble their fellows of the fore extremity"
that we sh;ill dispense with examinations
regarding them, merely remarking that the
bones of the hind feet are generally broader
in a lateral and posterior direction than
those of the fore ; the pastern and coronet
bones are somewhat longer than their fellows
forward.

BONES OF THE EAR.

Q. Name the bones of the ear. — A.
Malleus, incus, stapes, and orbiculare.

Q. What is the form of the malleus? —
A. It appears to resemble a mallet.

Q. Name the long process or handle. — •
A. Manubrium.

Q. To what is the manubrium attached?

— A. To the membrana tympani.

Q. Describe the form of the incus. — A.
It is said to resemble a blacksmith's anvil,
but, probably, approaches nearer to the
figure of a molar tooth ; it has a depression
on its surface, which receives the head of
the malleus.

Q. Describe the stapes. — A. It resem-
bles in form a common iron stirrup, yet has
a more triangular appearance.

Q. With what bone does it articulate?

— A. The OS orbiculare.

Q. Describe the OS orbiculare. — A. It is
the smallest bone of the body, not exceeding
in size a grain of muslard-sccd.

Q. What is its use in the mechanism of
the ear? — A. It forms the medium of
junction and communication between the
incus and stapes, and facilitates the motions
of the latter bones.

THE HORSE.

BONE OF THE TONGUE (oS HYOIDES).

Q. What is the situation of the os
hj'oides ? — A. It is located at tlic root of
the tongue, at the anterior part of the larynx.

Q. How is the bone divided? — A. Into
a body and four horns.

Q. What is the form of the body ? — A.

sharp. The converse is the case with regard
to the permanent teeth.

Q. What is the popular theory regarding
the periods of cutting the teeth? — A. A
foal is said, at birth, to be in the act of cut-
ting twelve molars, three on each side of
the jaw bone ; at this time, there is no ap-

In shape, it resembles a spur, consisting of pearance of incisors ; and when they do

appear, wliich period will be about the
second or third week from birth, sometimes
sooner, the front incisors of the upper jaw
are the first to show themselves, and be-
tween the fourth and fifth week, they are
succeeded by the middle incisors ; the side
or lateral incisors make their appearance
between the si.xth and tenth month. The
animal is then said to have a full set of
temporary teeth. After the animal has at-
tained his first year, the fourth molars make
their appearance. Between the period of
the first and second years, the fifth molars,
in each side of the jaw, are apparent. Be-
tween the second and third years, the front
permanent incisors displace the temporary,
and, at the same time, the first temporary
molars are shed, and replaced by the perma-
nent. Between the thii'd and fourth years,
the middle temporary incisorsare succeeded
by the permanent, and about the same time
the second temporary molars are shed.
During the interval of the fourth and fifth
years, the lateral permanent incisors appear ;
the sixth and last, permanent molars are
up, and then the tusks also appear. At this
period the horse is said to have a full mouth ;
a complete set of permanent teeth.*

We have now arrived at an era (or rc-

neck and branches ; the neck is inserted
into the root of the tongue, and the branches
are in a posterior direction, embracing the
superior border of the thyroid cartilage.

Q. What is the appearance of the horns ?
— A. There are two long and two short
horns; the short, or inferior, ascend oblique-
ly from their articulations with the body of
the bone, and terminate in oblong, smooth
extremities. The long or superior horns
constitute two long, flattened, thin bones,
extending backward in a horizontal direc-
tion from the summits of the inferior horns.

Q. What are the connections of the os
hyoides? — A. It is connected with the
temporal bone, larynx, pharynx, tongite, and
some of the mttscles of the neck.

OF THE TEETH.

Q. How many teeth do we find in the
jaws of the adult horse ? — A. Forty. In
the mare, however, the canine teeth are
generally imperfect or undeveloped.

Q. How are the teeth divided? — A.
Into three classes, viz.: incisors, or nippers;
molars, or grinders ; canini, or tusks.

A. Enumerate each class. — A. There
are twelve incisors, twenty-four molars, and
four canine.

Q. Is there anything peculiar about the
development of horses' teeth? — A. Yes;
the teeth with which the animal is furnished |

* On this side the Athintic we are not in possession of
any rcliahle information as regards the periods of cuttin;,'
, and shedding teeth ; we have to dejiend entirely on Engiisli
during Colthood are termed temporary, and j ^utliority. Tlieir theory is. that the .age of a rac'e-liorse shall
are generally shed ere the animal arrives at be reckoned from the month of Jlay in the year of his

the age of five ; the temporary teeth are
twenty-four in number, twelve incisors and
twelve molars ; they differ from what is
termed the "permanent set," in being small-
er and whiter, and in having necks or con-
tractions at the superior part of the fang,
and the eminences on their face are quite

birtli, without any in(|uiry whatever as to the season,
month, or day of foaling ; so tliat tJie produce of Januarj-
arc actually four months older than by reckoning, or as
their ages appear on the calendar, and these are called
early fuals ; w liereas those foaled in March are denomi-
nated late. These thia are more arbitrary than truthful ;
may suit the convenience of English turfmen, but will not
pass current among our breeders, — who, generally, pay
/utiiicular attention to the time of foaling, and date the
birih of the colt aecordin^lv

a:;atom\" axd physiology oj

markable period) in the age of (lio horse ;
have briefly considered a series of changes
which the teeth of a colt undergo, up to
the period of maturity, and shall now turn
our attention to the changes observed in
the process of wear and tear of the perma-
nent teeth.

REMARKS ON THE CHANGES
WHICH A HORSE'S TEETH
UNDERGO.

The nippers or front teeth of a fuU-
moutlicd horse, just having shed all the
temporary ones, present a beautiful ap-
pearance : the contrast between the lily
whiteness of the teeth, and the rose-tinted
color of the gums and their membranes, are
never so much the subject of admiration as
at this period.

Teeth, when first cut, present a sharp
border externally, from which a gi'adual
depression commences until the internal
border is reached ; in the coui'se of about
a year, in consequence of friction on the
external, and gi-owth of the internal, the
surface presents two elliptical enamelled
rims, one of which borders the face of the
tooth, the other encircles the depression or
pit.

Within this pit is a black incrustation,
which is denominated " bean " or " mark ; "
at a period of about three years from the
time of cutting the permanent teeth, the pit
or cavity is consolidated or filled up, and
the surface of the tooth is worn down so as
to present a comparatively smooth one.
We must not expect, however, to find the
face of the teeth uniform ; for cribbers, and
voracious feeders, deface the surfaces very
mucii, which gives to the teeth the appear-
ance of age. Still, a good judge, who takes
into consideration not only the appearances
of surfaces, but also the form and direction
of the teeth themselves, is not apt to be
deceived regarding the age of a full-mouthed
horse.

Pessina, from whose work I\Ir. Percivall
quotes, concludes that —
. " At the age of eight (in most horses).

the disappearance of the marks vs perfect:
the teeth are all oval, the central enamel
upon the face is triangular, and nearer to
the outward than the inward border, and
the cavity of the tooth appears A\athin the
outward border like a yellowish band carried
from one side to the other.

" At nine years, the front teeth appear
round, the middle and the lateral contract
their oval faces, and the central enamel di-
minishes and approaches the inward border.

" At ten, the middle teeth become round,
and the central enamel has approximated
the inward border and is rounded.

" At eleven, the middle teeth are rounded,
and the central enamel is almost worn off
the posterior incisors.

" At twelve, the lateral teeth are rounded,
the central enamel has quite disappeared :
the yellow band has grown wider, occupies
the centre of the face of the tooth, and
the central enamel continues in the teeth
of the upper jaw.

" At thirteen, all the incisors are rounded,
the sides of the front teeth spread out, and
the central enamel continues in the upper
jaw, but is round and approaches the inward
border.

" At fourteen, the faces of the front inci-
sors put on a triangular appearance, the
middle gi-ow out at their sides, and the cen-
tral enamel of the upper teeth diminishes,
but still exists.

" At fifteen, the front teeth have become
triangular, the middle enter upon that
figure, and the central enamel of the upper
jaw is still visible.

" At sixteen, the middle are triangular,
the lateral commence that shape, and the
enamel of the upper teeth has disappeared.

" At seventeen the triangular figures of
the posterior jaw are completed; but their
triangles are equilateral until the eighteenth
year. Then their sides lengthen in succes-
sion from the front to the lateral teeth, in
such a manner that —

" At nineteen, the front teeth are flat-
tened from side to side ;

" At twenty, the middle incisors have
taken on the same shape ; lastly —

THE HORSE.

" At twenty-one the lateral teeth are also
flattened."

Professor Pnssini * " systematically di-
vides the lifetime of the horse, which he
computes at thirty years, into six periods,
that take their rise from and are determined
by an equal number of changes the teeth
naturally undergo, in regular succession.

" The first period is that during which
the animal retains all or any of his mUk
teeth ; it extends from birth to the fifth year.

" The second period includes the sixth
year, and continues so long as the marks
remain visible upon the faces of the pos-
terior incisors; which is generally about
three years.

" In many instances, however, and espe-
cially among horses that have been kept at
pasture, the faces of the front teeth, and
sometimes those of the middle, are worn off
earlier.

" The third period is that during v.'liich
the teeth retain the oval form. As the pits
and marks degenerate, the face of the tooth
slowly and gradually undergoes a deviation
of figm-e, from that of a pretty regular ellip-
sis, whose long to its short axis bears the
proportion of sLx to tliree, to an irregular
one, in which these proportions are as five
to four. This period requires, on an aver-
age, the space of six years for its comple-
tion ; the front teeth enter it in the seventh
and conclude it at the expiration of the
twelfth ; the middle pass through it one
year later; and the lateral, cr side teeth, one
year later still.

" In the fourth period the faces of the
teeth assume a circular figure, and hence
have been denominated round. At the
commencement of this period, the breadth
of the face to its thickness is as 5 to
4 ; at the conclusion, it measures in an
inverse ratio, as 4 to 5 ; about the middle
of it, the diameters are equal. This period
also endm-es six years ; so that the front
teeth, which enter it in the thirteenth year,
complete it by the expiration of the
eighteenth ; the middle follow one year
later ; the lateral, one year later still.

* See Percivall's Lectures.

" During the fifth period, the face of the
teeth deviates by slov/ degrees from the
round, and passes into the triangular state.
In the beginning, its thickness exceeds its
breadth as 5 does 4 ; in the end, as 6 does
3. It is the professor's opinion, yet uncon-
firmed by experience, that this period, like-
wise, on an average, includes a space of six
years ; the front teeth, therefore, complete
it with the twenty-fourth, the middle with
the twenty-fifth, and the lateral with the
twenty-sixth yearc-.

" The sixth and last period is one, in the
course of which an additional angle is
projected from the anterior or inferior part
of the tooth ; Pcssina distinguishes it by
the epithet biangular; he has never met with
a horse that had lost his teeth from age ;
but he has seen their faces elliptrical con-
trariwise, looking outwards or forwards.
This period is unlimited.

" In the anterior, or upper jaw, the marks
disappear from the front teetii in the course
of the ninth year ; from the middle in the
tenth; and from the lateral in the elev-
enth.

" What progi'ess these upper teeth have
not made in transformation during the
second period, equivalent with the poste-
rior, they gain it in the third ; notv.-ith-
standing the depth of pit, their proportions
are then the same. They continue three
years longer in the second, and consequently
are only three in the third period; so that,
by the twelfth year, the third period is
completed by the front upper teeth, and
so on. During the fourth, fifth, and last
periods, the changes are alike, and equally
perceptible in either jaw.

" So far, the upper teeth are entitled to
an equal share of our regard; though, in
the generafity of cases, they need not be
inspected. In such a remarlcable man-
ner the lateral teetli of the upper jaw wear
away so that they often appear as if
notched or indented.

" In regard to the tusk or tush, Pessina
remarks that he has found the least regu-
larity in its changes of any tooih. The
very facts that tlie tushes are not in all

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOESE.

horses cut at the same age, that they have
little or no attrition against each other, and
that they are worn by the tongue and food,
sometimes more, at others less, should lead
us to draw conclusions from them with
great caution ; in fact, as indications of
age, they can only be trusted to when they
accord with the incisors. The tush or
tusk makes its appearance by the fifth, and
is completely evolved by the sixth year.
In the seventh, the apex of the cone is
worn off. In the eighth, its furrows grow
shallow ; in the ninth they are obliterated.
Then the apex gradually wears away , in
the twelfth year it becomes round ; from
which time, though it gradually becomes
shorter, its shape varies but little. But it
is not uncommon to see the tush blunted

like an acorn in the ninth year, nor to find
it still pointed in the sixteenth year.

" Pessina concludes his account of the
changes to which the teeth are subject,
by observing, that, as they are dependent
on wear, which is no law of nature, but
an effect of mechanical and accidental
causes, they cannot, but under certain lim-
itations, be implicitly relied on."

We are now supposed to be in posses-
sion of some of the most important facts
tending to elucidate the changes which the
teeth undergo ; and, in view of making our-
selves more conversant with this subject,
we shall re-commence our examinations,
for it is a matter of the highest importance
that a veterinary surgeon shall understand
the method of ascertaining a horse's age.

EXAMINATIONS ON THE TEETH.

Q. Does the evolution of the tush ahvays indicate
that the animal is five years of age ? — A. No. It lias
been seen between the third and fourth years.

Q. Wliich teeth do you jjlace the most reliance on
in ascertaining the age of a horse ? — ,-l. The side or
lateral of the lower jaw. They make their appearance
last; their pits are the last to disappear; after the
age of eight or nine, however, the pits in the incisors
of the upper jaw are also indicative of age; they, being
deeper, of course remain some time after all vestiges
of the same have disapjjcarcd in the lower jaw.

Q. In adult life is there any continued accretion or
after-growth of the teeth ? — A. Yes. If it were not
60, the animal would, in course of time, hav^to gather
food, and grind the same with liis gums ; for, acccord-
ing to the law of loear and tear, destruction of the in-
struments — grinders of food — must more or less reg-
ularly take place.

Q. What changes take place as the horse advances
in age, in the inclination of the incisors ? — A. They
acquire a horizontal direction.

Q. How is this change of direction compensated for
in the grinders ? — A. The faces of the latter are worn
doTMi by friction, and thus the nippers come in contact.

Q. Are there not times when the consumption of the
faces of the teeth, by friction, is not in proportion to
growth, in issue from the socket .' — A. Yes.

Q. "What is the result? — A. The faces of the grind-
ers do not come in contact, and the food is, conse-
quently, im])erfectly masticated.

Q. How is tliis rectified ? — A. By sawing off the
nippers to their natural length.

Q. Taldng it for granted that there is a time when
the teeth cease to grow, how do you account for the
lengthy teeth observed in aged horses? — A. The fang
shrinks, and is carried upward in the lower and down-
ward in the upper jaw, and the gums also shrink; thus
we get length of teeth.

Q. What are the general appearances of age, uncon-
nected mth the teeth? — A. The muscles of the head
and face condense, and give to the same a lean appear-
ance ; the cavities above the eyes are dee]) ; the gums
and ])alate become pale and callous ; the sul)ma.\illary
space is capacious, and gray hairs make their appear-
ance in various places ; the neck appears small and
wiry, the withers sharp, the back curves, and the
limbs a])peai- sinewy.

MYOLOGY.

PUELIJIIXARY KE:\IACKS ON THE MUSCLES.

To the naked eye, the muscles appear to
be composed of fasciculi, or bundles of
fibres, which are arranged side by side in
the du-ection in which the muscle is to act,
and which are united by areolar tissue.
These fasciculi when separated appear like
simple fibres, but when examined under a
microscope are found to be themselves fas-
ciculi, composed of miimter fibres, bound
together by delicate filaments of areolar tis-
sue. By carefully separating these, we may
obtain the ultimate muscular fibre. This
fibre exists under two forms, (he striated
and non-striated. The former is chiefly
distinguished by the transversely-striated
appearance which it presents. The non-
striated consist of a series of filaments
which do not present transverse markings.
At an early stage of the development of
muscular fibre", however, there is no differ-
ence in the forms of cither striated or non-
striated. Both are simple tubes, containing
a granular matter in which no definite
arrangement can be traced, yet presenting
enlargements occasioned by the presence of
nuclei. But, whilst the striated fibre goes
on in its development, until the cells of the
fibrilliE are fully produced, the non-striated

fibre retains throughout life its original
embryonic condition ; the contents of the
tube remaining granular. The non-striated
muscular fibre is the kind of structure proper
to the muscular coat of the alimentary
canal, bladder, uterus, trachea, bronchial
tubes, etc. They seem to be arranged in a
parallel manner into bands or fasciculi,
without any very definite points of attach-
ment. On the other hand, striated muscular
fibre has attachments to its extremities of
fibrous tissue, through the medium of which
it exerts its contractile power on the part
it is destined to move.

At the truncated extremity of the striated
muscles we find tendons. To the ordinary
observer, tendons appear to unite abruptly
with muscular fibre; but this is not the case,
for tendinous fibres are distributed over the
whole muscle, crossing it diagonally in both
directions, so as to form a double-spirally
extensible sheath ; the tendinous fibre finally
collects at the extremity of a muscle, and
forms the tendon.

Each muscle is surrounded by cellular
membrane, which dips into its substance,
and, by means of the fat which its cells con-
tain, lubricates the parts, and thus guards
against friction.

A. TABLE OF THE NAMES AND NUMBER OF MUSCLES, DIVIDED INTO REGIONS.

SUBCUTANEOUS EEGION (BENE.4TH THE SKIN).

1. Panniculus carnosus.

AURICULAR EEGION (MUSCLES OF THE EAR).

2. Attollcntcs maximi.

3. Attollcntcs antcriores.

4. Attollentes posteriores.

5. Anterior concha?.

6. Posterior conchx.

7. Retrahentes extern!.

8. Retrahentes interni.

9. Alxlucens vel deprimens auris.

PALPERAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE ETELIDS).

10. Levator palpebral siiperioris.

11. Orbicularis palpebrarum.

OCULAR REGION (MUSCLES OF THE EYE).

12. Levator palpebrae superioris intemus.

13. Levator oculi.

(57)

5S1

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

14. Depressor oculi iiitenius.

lo. Ahiluctor ocuU externus.

16. Adductor oculi iiitenm.s.

17. Obliquus superior.

18. Oblii|iius iMtcrlor.

19. Hctitictor oculi.

A-NTliUIOR MAXII.LAKY UKGIO.V (MUSCLES OF THE NOSE
ASV I'ACK).

20. Zygomaticus.

21. Le\-ator lal)ii superloris aliqua; nasi.

22. Dilator naris lateralis.

23. Xasalis longiis lahii superioris.

24. Caaiiuis vel levator aiigiili oris.

25. Buccinator.

26. Depressor lahii iuilrioris.

27. Levator mcnti.

28. Dilator iiariiim anterior.

29. Nasalis bre\is laliii su])erioris.

30. Depressor labii superioris.

31. Orbicularis oris.

POSTEIUOK lL'i.\lLL.UlY RIXION (JIUSCLF-S OF TlIE IIE.\U
.^NI) tIlr.EK.S).

32. Temporalis.

33. Masseter.

34. Stylo-maxillaris.

3ij. PteiTgoideus internus.

36. Pterygoideus externus.

HYOIDE.VL REGIO.N (jIUSCLIiS BETWEEN TIIE BE-OJCIIES
OF THE LOWER JAW).

37. Digastricus.

38. Mylo-hyoideus.

39. Genio-liyoidcus.

40. Hyoideus magnus.

41. Hyoideus jiarvus.

42. Stylo-hyoideus.

GLOSSAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE TONGUE).

43. Hyo-glossus longus.

44. Hyo-glossus brevis.

45. Genio-hyo-glossus.

46. Lingualis.

PH.UITNGIAL UKGION (MUSCLES ABOUT THE PIIXRYN.X).

47. Hyo-pharyugeus.

48. Palato-pharjngeus.

49. Stylo-pliaryngcus.

49^. Constrictor pharjngis, anterior.

50. Constrictor pharyngis, raedius.

51. Constrictor ])hanngis, posterior.

LAEYNGHU, KEGION (MUSCLES ABOUT THE LARYX.X).

52. Hyo-tliyroideus.

53. Crico-thjToideus.

54. Crlco-arytenoideus posticus.

55. Crico-arytenoideus lateralis.

56. ThyTO-arytenoidcus.

57. Arytenoidcus.

58. Hyo-epiglottideus.

PALATINE REGION (.MUSCLES OF THE PALATE).

59. Tensor palati.

60. Circiimilexus palati.

MUSCLES OF THE XECK.

IIUMERO-CERVICAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED OX THE
UI'PEK .VNU LOWER PARTS OF THE NECK).

01. Ithomboideus longus.

02. Levator humeri.

L.4TERAL CERVIC.U. REGION (SIDE OF THE NECK).

03. Splenius.

04. Complexus major.

65. Trachelo-mastoideus.

66. Spinalis colli.

SUPERO-CEKTICO-OCCIPIT.AL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED
ABO'S'E THE HHiD).
G7. Complexus minor.
08. Kectus ca])itis jiosticus, major.

69. Rectus cajjitis ])0sticus, minor.

70. Obliquus capitis, superior.

71. Obliquus cajjitis, inferior.

IXF1;RI0R CERVICAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED I.V
THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE NECK).

72. Sterno maxillai-is.

73. Storno-thyro-hyoideus.

74. Subscapulo-hyoideus.

75. Scalenus.

76. Longus colli.

INFERIOR CERTICO-OCCIPIT.Ai REGION (MUSCLES CU-
NEATH THE BASE OF THE ATLAS).

77. Rectus capitis anticus, major.

78. Rectus capitis anticus, minor.

79. ObHquus capitis, anticus.

MUSCLES OF THE CHEST.

DORSO SCAPULAR REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED ABOUT
THE SHOULDER BLADE).
SO. Trapezius.
8L Latissimus dorsi.

82. Rhomboideus hreris.

PECTOPvAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED IN FRONT OP
THE BREAST liOXE).

83. Pectoralis transversus.

84. Pectoralis magnus.

85. Pectoralis par^■us.

COSTAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATED E.\TERNAL AND
INTERNAL TO THE RIBS).

86. Serratus magnus.

87. Intcrcostales cxterni.

88. Intercostalcs intcrni.

STEPJsAL REGION (.MUSCLES OF THE BREAST BONE).

89. Lateralis sterhi.

90. Sterno-costales extern!.

91. Sterno-costales interiii.

THE HORSE.

DORSO-COSTAL REGION (MUSCLES ON THE SIDES .UJD
UPPER PART OE THE CHEST).

02. Superficialis costarum.

93. Transvcrsalis costarum.

94. Levatores costai'um.

DORS.VL REGION (MUSCLES OE THE BACK, A-VTERIOR TO
THE LUMB.tR ^^2RTEBRa:).

95. Longissimus dorsi.

96. Spinalis dorri.

97. Semi spinalis dorsi.

DLiPIIRAGJLiTIC REGION.

98. Diaphragm or midriff.

MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN.

LUMBAR REGION (JIUSCLES OE THE LOINS).

99. Semi s]-,inalis lumborum.

100. IntertrauKversalcs lumborum.

101. Sacro lumbalis.

102. Psoas Magnus.

103. Iliacus.

104. Psoas parvus.

ABDOMIN;VL REGION (MUSCLES OE THE AUDOMEN).

105. Obliquus externus abdominis.

106. Obliquus internus abdominis.

107. Transvcrsalis abdominis.

108. Rectus abdominis.

ANAL REGION (jIUSCLES OF THE ANUS).

109. Retractor ani.

110. Spliincter ani.

GENITAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE MALE ORGANS OF
GENERATION).

111. Cremastcr.

112. Erector penis.

1 13. Triangularis penis.

114. Accelerator urinic.

The muscles in the genital regions of the female are
named : Erector Clitoridis, Sphincter Vaginae.

COCCYGEAL REGION (MUSCLES OF THE TAIL).

115. Erector coccygis.

116. Depressor coccygis.

117. Curvator coccygi.<;.

118. Compressor coccygis.

MUSCLES OF THE FORE EXTREMiriES.

E.XTEEN,VL SC^VPLTAR REGION (MUSCLES OS THE OUT-
SIDE OF THE SHOULDER P.LADE).

119. Antea-spinatus.

120. Postea-spinatus.

INTERNAL SCAPUL.UI REGION (MUSCLE ON THE INSIDE
OF SHOULDER BLADE).

121. Subscapularis.

POSTERIOR SCAPULAR REGION (MUSCLES BEHIND TIU:
SHOULDER BLADE).

122. Teres major.

123. Teres minor.

A.VTERIOR IIUMER,4.L REGION (MUSCLES IN FRONT OF
THE OS HUMERI).

124. Coraco-humeralis.

125. Flexor brachii.

126. Hiuncrahs externus.

POSTERIOR IIUME.RAL REGION (MUSCLE.S BEIIIMl THF.
08 HUMERI).

] 127. ^ , (' Ca]iut magnum.

I 128. |i| I Caput medium.

I ''^^- i^S'^1 Caput parvum.

I 130. ^s=' 1^ Anconeus.

! MUSCLES OF THE AR.M AXD FORE LEG.

.O.TEUI0R BUACH10-CRUR.AL REGION (MUl5CLi;S IN FR0N1
OE THE AR.M).

131. Extensor raetacarpi magnus.

132. Extensor pedis.

133. Extensor suftraginis.

134. Extensor metacarpi obliquus.

SUPERFICIAL POSTERIOR I!iL\CHIO- CKUllAL REGION
(MUSCLES ON THE E.XTERNAL SIDE OI' THE ARM).

135. Flexor metacarpi externus.

136. Flexor metacar];i mcdius.

137. Flexor metacai-pi internus.

138. Flexor accessorius sublimis.

DEEP POSTERIOR BRACHIO-CRUEAI. REGION. (THESE
MUSCLES ARE SITUATED BENE.\ni TJIE FORMER.)

139. Flexor pedis ]icrforatus.

140. Flexor pedis perforans.

141. Flexor jiedis accessorius jirofundus.

142. Lumbrici, anterior.
1424. Lumbrici, ])ostcrior.

MUSCLES OF THE HIND ILXTRl'MITIES.

GLUTE.U, REGION (MUSCLES OF THIC SUPiailOR PART
OF THE QUARTER).

143. Gluteus externus.

144. Gluteus ma.ximus.

145. Gluteus minimus.

I PELVI-TROCHA-VTERLVN REGION (:MUSCL1:S SII-UATED -AT
I THE UPPER PART OF Till-: TIIICIl liONl:).

I 146. PjTiformis.

147. Obturator externus.

148. Obtm-ator internus.

149. 150. Gemiiu.

ANTERIOR ILIO-FEMORAL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATEB
AT THE FORI-; PART OF THE IIAUNdl)-

151. Tensor vagina^.

152. Rectus.

153. Triceps vasti.

154. Rectus parvus.

INTERN.AL ILIO FE.MOR.VL REGION (MUSCLES SITUATES
AT THE I.VNER PART OF THE IIAUXai),

155. Sartorious.

ANATOMY AKD PHYSIOLOGY OP

loG. Gracilis.

157. PcctineuB.

158. g^c C Adductor brevis.

159. .1 3 s Adductor iongus.
IGO. t^'g C Adductor magnus.

rOSTERIOR ILIO-FEMOllAI. REGION (MUSCLES O.V THE
OUTER AND POSTERIOR F.ART OF THE HAUNCH).

IGl. Biceps abductor.
1G2. Abductor tibialis.

MUSCLES OF THE THIGH AND LEG.

ANTERIOR AND FEMORO-CRURAL REGION (MUSCLES IN
FRONT OF THE TIBU).

1G3. Extensor pedis.

1G4. Peroncus.

165. Fle.\or metatarsi.

SUPERFICIAL POSTERIOR IT:M0R0-CRURAL REGION
(5IU.S(I,i:s IN THE REGION OF THE HOCK).

1G6. Gastrocnemius cxternus.

167. Gastrocnemius internus.

168. Plantaris.

DEEP POSTERIOR FEMORO-CRUR.U, REGION (MUSCLES
WHICH ARE FOUND BENE.WH THE FORMER).
1G9. Po])litcus.

170. Flexor pedis.

171. Flexor pedis accessorius.

The muscles of the internal ear are named:

Laxator tympani, 2

Mcmhrana "..... 2

Tensor " 2

Stapedius, ..... 2

Total, 8

RECAPITULATION.

W(; shall now recapitulate, as regards
what lias preceded, in reference to the iitim-
ber of muscles ; for there exist various
opinions regarding the same. It may be
jH'oper for us to bear in mind, however, that
VRTEUiNARY SCIENCE, here, is yet in its in-
fancy ; and it is well known to some prac-
titioners, that there are several muscles
which remain to be named by some future
compiler of veterinary literature. But for
all practical purposes we know enough of
the anatomy of the horse. The industrious
individual, however, who not only desires to
make himself conversant with what is al-
ready known, but aims to improve in the

future, will not rest satisfied with the pro-
ductions of his predecessors. To such an one
we bow with due deference, and encourage
him to proceed in the work of progression.
There is a fine field for exploration, and a
discerning public are ready and willing to
crown the industrious laborer with the laurel
of merit.

In the preceding table, the number of
muscles, including those marked 49 1-2 and
142 1-2, appears to be 173; among these
are ten single ones, which are thus expressed:

Whole number,
Deduct single ones,

Pairs,

Multiply by

173
10

163
2

Single muscles, ..... 326
Add muscles of the internal ear, four pairs, 8

334

Single muscles, as above added, . .10

344

It appears, therefore, that there are in the
system of the horse three hundred and forty-
four muscles.

It should be borne in mind, that in the
preceding classification all are considered as
muscles. Among them are found tendons,
which are component parts, or rather ap-
pendages, to the same. Mr. Percivall says
there are, in tlie horse, 151 pairs, and 10
single muscles; add the four pairs of the in-
ternal ear, which he has omitted in the cal-
culation, and we get 155 pairs. On page
72, " Hippopathology," the number of

muscles is, —

312

Add muscles of the ear, omitted, . . 8

The author's estimate,

320
344

DiiTerence, .....

Probably the above author considers the
• 24 " as tendons.

•f^

■^^

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE VII.

NO. 1. — OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

35. Radius.

g. Trapezium.

36. Lower row of the carpal bones.

37. Metacarpi magnum.

38. Sessamoids.

39. Os suifi-aginis. *

40. Os coronae.

41. Os pedis.

NO. 2. — MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.

INTERj;.\L VIEW OF THE NEAR-FORE LEG.

o". Pectoralis transversalis.

g". Flexor metacarpi medium.

>•". " " internus.

s". Extensor metacarpi magnus.

i". " " obliquus.

?t". ti". Flexors pedis — perforatus et perforana.

r". Suspensory ligament.

x'\ Extcusor pedis.

z. 8. Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament.

8. The hoof.

NO. 3.

The description of No. 1 answers also for No. 3. The letter/", is intended to
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g. Region of the carpus.

NO. 4.

n". Triceps extensor brachii.

o". PectoraUs transversahs.

o'. P". Flexor metacarpi extemus.

g". Flexor metacarpi medius.

j(". Fleshy belly of the perforatus. and perforans.

x". Extensor pedis.

</". Extensor suflraginis.

2". «". v". Flexor tendons.

i{. Hoof.

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NO. 1.— OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

22.

Femur.

23.

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24.

Fibula.

25.

Os calcis.

26.

Astragalus.

27.

Inferior row of the tarsal bones.

28.

Metatarsi magnum.

29.

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30.

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31.

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32.

Os pedis.

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NO. 2.

INSIDE VIEW OF THE OFF-HIND. LEG.

g. Rectus.

p\ Vastus internus.

q'. X. X. Extensor pedis.

q. Extensor metatarsi.

r'. v'. Gastrocnemius externus et internus.

t. Peroneus.

u. The insertion of the gastrocnemius.

«'. Tendon of the flexor metateirsi.

z'. Suspensor)- Hgaments.

^■. The hoof.

5. 5. The saphena vein.

K. Abductor fenioris.

8. Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament.

u'. (Beneath the pastern) Perforatus et perforans.

NO. 4.

E. J. Biceps, showing the manner in which it bifurcates.

»•'. Gastrocnemius internus.

f. Flexor metatarsi internus.

v\ Flexor pedis accessorius.

5. " " externus.

u'. Liscrtion of the gastrocnemius.

y'. Peroneus.

«. u\ v'. Flexors of the foot.

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ON DISSECTION.

No man can ever expect to become a
practical anatomist nor pathologist, unless
he practise dissection. It is the only possi-
ble way by which he can familiarize him-
self with the healthy structural organiza-
tion of the horse. Having made himself
acquainted with the healthy aspect of the
various parts, their uses, etc., he next is
able to judge of the various grades of
textural change which occur and exist,
between the part that has been studied
under its healthy aspect, and that which
has now departed from its healthy con-
dition. Thus, in the prosecution of the
study of anatomy, the student linally be-
comes a pathologist ; and, although lie may
be a beginner, he places himself in a posi-
tion only a few removes from the old and
experienced practitioner, and can venture
to " measure a lance " with the renowned
knights of the healing art.

DISSECTING INSTRUJIENTS.

The dissector should supply himself with
a beak-pointed scalpel (which is one of Ger-
man- origin), for superficial dissection, and
a myology knife, strong and rounded at its
point. For the dissection of blood-vessels
and nerves, a more delicate and pointed
scalpel is needed. The forceps should be
sti-ong, and armed at the points Vv-irh teeth ;
two pair of scissors are needed, one
pointed and the other blunt ; a saw and
blunt chisel, for opening the cranium. A
blow-pipe, curved needles, and a few extra
scalpels, are all that the student requires.

SUBJECTS SUITABLE FOR DISSECTION.

For demonstration of the muscular sys-
tem, a well-proportioned and fully-developed
subject should, if possible, be selected, and

one that has died suddenly, or been kOled
in consequence of some accident, is to be
preferred. For making wet and diy prepa-
rations, lean, emaciated subjects should be
selected. The lymphatic system is best
shown on animals of a flabby and cedema-
tous organization. Young animals are the
best subjects for dissection, in view of de-
monstrating the circulatory and nervous
systems.

RULES IN REFERENCE TO DISSECTION OF THE
MUSCLES.

As there are abundance of subjects to be
had in the United States, and it being in-
convenient for one individual to dissect a
whole subject, he had better divide it into
six parts, viz. : 1st, The head and neck.
2nd and 3rd, The anterior extremities,
which include the thorax, its contents, and
the diaphragm. 4th and 0th, The poste-
rior extremities, to which belong the pelvic
and abdominal viscera. 6th, Those viscera
which cannot be advantageously divided,
as the heart, stomach, bladder, organs of
generation, &c. Should the dissector de-
cide to commence on the ivhole subject, he
first removes the skin, in order to expose
the panniculus carnosus ; this will require
some care, as some of the fibres of this
subcutaneous muscle are intimately con-
nected with the former. There are various
ways of removing Ihe skin: the author pre-
fers to commence on the back, and dissect
off towards the feet. Supposing the sub-
ject to lie on the off-side, we commence an
incision at the anterior part of the nasal re-
gion, and continue the same upward until
we arrive at the occiput ; we then in-
cline the scalpel from the superior part of
the neck, in order to avoid the mane, and

(79)

ANATOMY AND niYSIOLOGY OP

continue the incision along the lateral part
of i\\e dorso lumbar spines until the coccyx
is reached; the overlapping portion can
then be dissected, and turned over to the
ofl-side, so as to expose the tendinous in-
sertions of the panniculus into the ligamen-
tum nucha?, etc., etc. The panniculus being
exposed, it may be divided into three parts,
viz. : 1st, The Cervical portion, which com-
prises the head, neck, shoulders, and fore-
arms. 2nd, The Thoracic portion. 3rd,
The Abdominal portion.

Having traced the attachments of the
panniculus, the muscles then engage our
attention ; they being composed of nearly
parallel fibres, the manner of displaying
them is indicated. The cellular tissue
should if possible be detached with the
skin and panniculus ; without this precau-
tion the surface of some of the coarser
muscles would have a mangled appearance.
The knife should always follow the direc-
tion of the muscular fibres, and the part on
which a muscle is to be dissected should be
placed, if possible, in such a situation as to
produce a forcible extension of that muscle;
thus, in tracing the origin and insertion of
a muscle, the dissector becomes acquainted
with its use.

After exposing the external layer of mus-
cles they may be detached from their in-
sertion, or divided in their centre ; if di-
vided, we thus preserve the two points of
origin and insertion. The deeper seated mus-
cles may be demonstrated in the same way.

In the dissection of muscles the scalpel
should be used in a free and prompt man-
ner; the strokes should be long and bold,
using the little finger to steady the move-
ment of the hand. In making autopsies
and in examining the viscera, the subject is
generally placed on his back.

ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS.

It is highly important that every student
should be acquainted with the methods of
making wet and dry preparations, and of
injecting the blood-vessels; for specimens
of this kind are the best means of familiar-
izing us with the structui'cs of quadi'upeds.

and such, when properly prepared, possess
a real and practical value.

INJECTING INSTRUMENTS.

Pole describes three kinds of instruments
used in making injected preparations.

The first consists of a brass syringe,
made of various sizes ; the nozzle is adapted
to pipes into which the syringe is to be in-
serted ; a short pipe, with stop-cock, also
accompanies the syringe, which is to be •
applied between the syringe and cither of
the pipes. ^

The second is a similar instrument, only
much smaller ; its pipe is very minute, and
its piston is furnished with a ring, so that
the thumb may be used to throw its con-
tents into a vessel.

The tliird instrument is generally used
for injecting the glands and lymphatics with
quicksilver. It consists of a glass tube,
terminating with a steel end, and having an
extremely fine steel pipe, which screws on
to the latter. The syringe used by the
author of this work is one manufactured in
England (and can be found in some of our
agricultm'al stores), for the purpose of syr-
inging plants ; it has the most accurate
bore and finely-adjusted piston of any in-
strument now in use, and being of medium
size it can be used for either large or minute
injections. Some alterations, however, have
to be made in the nozzle and pipes fitted
accordingly.

DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE SYRINGE.

In using the syringe, a certain amount of
tact or experience is necessary, and the be-
ginner must not feel disappointed should he
fail in a first or second attempt ; for some
little oversight might frustrate the whole
process. Everything should l^c in readiness,
such as ligatm-es, forceps, scissors, sponge,
hot and cold water, etc.

The pipes should be inserted into the ves-
sels, and confined there by strong ligatures;
and, before the syringe is introduced, its noz-
zle must be turned upwards, and the piston
pressed until aU the air and froth arc ejected ;
then introduce the nozzle into the stop-pipe

EXPLANATION OP FIGURE IX,

OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

Frontal bones.

Parietal.

Occipital.

TemporaK

Nasal.

Lachrj-mal.

Malar.

Superior maxillary.

Anterior "

10.

Inferior "

11.

Cervical vertebrse.

16.

The true ribs.

18.

The sternum.

33.

The scapula.

34.

The humerus.

The incisors.

Dorsal spines.

MUSCULAR STRUCl'URE.

ANTERIOR VIEW.

a".

Trapezius.

c".

Scalenus.

e".

Pectorahs transvcrsalis.

/"■

Antoa spinatus.

9"-

Postea spinatus.

Teres major.

IS» A portion of the trice])s e.xtensor braehii.

The faschial covering of the splenius.

The masseter.

Levator labii superioris.

NasaUs longus.

Orbicularis oris.

Dilator narium lateralis.

Dilator narium anterior.

I. Attolentes et abducens aurem.

Levator palpebrsc.

Orbicularis palpebrarum.

o".

Pectoralis magnus.

Levator humeri.

Sterno maxillaris.

Subscapulo hyoideus.

Maxillary vein.

Jugular vein.

THE HORSE.

and press the piston steadily until a sensible
resistance is felt. If much force be used,
rupture of a vessel may take place. After
a prudent force has been applied for some
time, the sj-ringe may be withdravrn, pre-
viously securing the stop-cock. A steady
and uniform pressure on the piston will be
more likely to secure uniform injection than
force, or sudden jerks. Should the first in-
jection fail to fill the vessels, it must be
immediately followed liy a second. When
injecting through a very small pipe, the in-
jector must be patient, and steadily con-
tinue the pressure on the piston.

When using warm injections, the syringe
must be kept icarm by immersing it in hot
water, and the part to be injected must also
be kept at the same temperature, by the
same means.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF INJEC-
TIONS.

There are six kinds of injections now in
use, viz., the cold, coarse, and fine injection,
the minute, the mercurial, and, finally, the
plaster of Paris injection. The five first
are most employed ; the plaster of Paris is
objectionable because it is easily fractured.

FORMULAE FOR COARSE WAn:W INJECTIONS.

Red. — Beeswax, sixteen ounces; white
resin, eight ounces ; turpentine varnish, sLx
ounces ; vermilion, three ounces.

First liquify the wax, resin, and turpen-
tine varnish, in an earthen pot, over a slow
fire, or in a water bath ; then add the Ver-
million, pre^aously reducing it to a fine
powder, so that the coloring ingredients
may be intimately and smoothly blended,
then add the same to the above ingredients,
and, when they have accrued due heat, the
injection is fit for immediate use.

Yellow Injection. — Take beeswax, eight
ounces; resin, four ounces; turpentine var-
nish, three ounces ; yellow ochre, one ounce
and a quarter.

White Injection. — Clarified beeswax,
eight ounces; resin, four ounces; turpen-
tine varnish, three ounces ; flake white, two
oixnces and a quarter.
11

Pale Blue Injection. — Take the preced-
ing ingredients, and add to them a small
portion of indigo.

Black Injection. — Beeswax, resin, and
tm-pentine varnish in the above proportions;
and add lamp-black ad libitum.

The same rules are to be observed in pre-
paring all the injections.

roUMUL.E FOR FIXE INJECTIONS.

Red. — Brown and white spirit varnishes,
of each four ounces ; turpentine varnish,
one ounce; vermilion one ounce.

Yellow. — Brown and white spirit varnishes,
of each four ounces ; turpentine varnish, one
ounce ; king's yellow, one ounce and a half.
To make a white injection, add to the last
formula two ounces of flake-white instead
of king's rjeUoic.

Blue. — Brown and white spirit varnishes,
of each four ounces ; turpentine varnish, one
ounce ; Prussian blue, one ounce and a
half. This may be made black by adding
ivory black instead of Prussian blue.

FORMUL.E FOR MINUTE INJECTIONS.

The liquifying principle in minute injec-
tions is " sizc,^' v.-hich is made in the fol-
lowing manner :

Takf^ fine transparent glue, one pound,
break it into pieces; put it into an earthen
pot, and pour on it three pints of cold water ;
let it stand twenty-four hours, stirring it
occasionally with a sticl; ; then set it over a
slow fire until it is perfectly dissolved ;
skim off all the scum from the surface, and
strain the remainder through flannel ; it
will then be fit for the coloring ingredients.

Minute Red Injection. — Size, one pint;
vermilion, three ounces and a half

Yelloiv. — Size, one pint ; king's yellow,
two ounces and a half

White. — Size, half a pint ; flake white,
one ounce and three quarters.

Blue. — Size, half a pint ; fine blue smalt,
six ounces.

PLASTER INJECTION.

Before mixing the plaster of Paris, the
pipes must be secured to the mouths of

ANATOMY AND PHVSIOLOGV OF

the vessels at which the injcc\ioii is to
enter. Plaster of Paris (to which some
of the preceding dry coloring materials,
suitable to the fancy, can be added) must
be put in a mortar and rubbed with a
pestle in order to pulverize it completely ;
water is then to be added until the mixture
is of the consistence of cream ; the syringe
being in readiness, it is to be filled and im-
mediately injected into the vessels. In the
author's opinion, liiis injection is only suit-
able for injecting lirst-class vessels, for it
coagulates or '■'■sets" so ciuickly that it
cannot be used as a minute injection. It is
said that a small quantity of olive oil, in- j
corporatcd with the liquid plaster, retards
its coagulation ; yet if too much were
added it would spoil the preparation.

The moment tiie parts are injected the
syringe should be washed out in cold
water, and when the injection " sets " in
the veins, the pipes must be removed and
lilcewise cleansed.

FORMUL.E FOR COLD INJECTION.?.

Dr. Parsons recommends, for coarse cold
injections, the foilov\ing formula : Take
coloring matter and grind it in Ixiilcd lin-
seed oil, on a painter's marble, until it has
acquired the consistence of common white
lead, as eold at tlie stores. After being
finely Icgivated, a little lime-water, in pro-
portion of two table-spoonsful to a pint, is
to be incorporated by stirring. At the mo-
ment of lining the syringe with the injec-
tion, there should be added to it about one-
third of its measure of Venice turpentine,
which should be stirred in briskly and used
immediately, as it very soon hardens.

For a temporary cold coarse injection,
white lead ground in oil answers every
purpose ; it requires no addition of lime-
water, because the lead is generally adul-
terated with carbonate of lime, which
hardens the mixture, and it can be colored
to suit the taste, or the vessels can be
colored with a pencil brush, before varnish-
ing.

For filling the arteries, to dry and pre-
serve, red lead is the best and cheapest

material ; vermilion, however, lesembles
more the color of arterial blood.

Whatever part we expect to inject with
warm injections, must be immersed in water
very hot, — not hot enough, hoVv'ever, to crisp
the vessels. Attention to this matter is
highly important, in view of successful in-
jection.

THE COURSE OF INJECTIONS.

Injections must follow the course of the
circulation ; the arteries, however, having
no valves, are easily injected in any direc-
tion; but the veins are fm-nishcd with nu-
merous valves, which prevent the How of
injection from the heart. Sometimes it is
necessary to break these valves by means
of a small whalebone probang. In the
region of valves are often found coagula-
tions, which must be washed out before the
injection can be introduced ; and tliis, also,
must be performed in the direction of the
circulation. Small pipes are to be intro-
duced, and warm water must be thrown in,
v.lnch can be made to escape tlu'ough an
incision made with a lancet in a region ap-
proaching the right auricle. The incision
can afterwards be closed by suture, or
otherwise. Many of the veins of the
horse, however, are destitute of valves, and
therefore admit of injection in a direction
conh'ary to their circulation.

To inject a portion of tlie animal, — the
l;nec or hock, for example, — it is necessary
to secure all the branches o'f the vessels that
have been divided where it is separated
from the body. Tire part is then to be in-
jected in the same manner as if we were
injecting the whole body.

QUICKSII.VER INJECTION AND PREPARATIONS.

Tlie fluid specific gravity and beautiful
metallic lustre of quicksilver render it val-
uable for displaying minute vessels. Dr.
Parsons remarks that the principal objec-
tion to its general use is the continuance of
its fluidity, which renders dissection, after
injection, almost impracticable. Yet there
are some very fine specimens of quicksilver
injections of glands and deep-seated lym-

THE HORSE.

phatics, in the WaiTen museum of this
dry, that cannot be surpassed by any other
kind of injection. The same authority re-
marks, that the spccilic gravity of quick-
silver, when supported in a column, is such
as to exert strong pressure upon a blood-
vessel or lymphatic that receives it, and
therefore in some cases a syringe is unne-
cessary. It is to be borne in mind that
the force of the injection depends upon the
perpendicular height of the column, and
not on its diameter, and the former may be
such as to burst the vessel. The injections
should ahvays be conducted in a shallow
dish or tray, so that the quicksilver may not
be wasted. When injecting the lym-
phatics, it id necessary to be provided with
small lancets, straight, curved, and deli-
cately-pointed fine needles, which must be
armed with waxed threads. For common
blood-vessel preparations, glass tubes of
the shape of a straight blow-pipe are
needed.

INJECTING THE LYJIPUATICS Vv'lTlI JIEKCUUV
OR QUICKSILVER.*

In injecting the lymphatics, otur success
depends, perhaps, more on the body we
choose, than on any other circumstance:
bodies slightly anasarcous, if they be ema-
ciated, are the best. From the valvular
structure of the lymphatics, it is necessary
to inject from the extremities towards the
trunli.

It is almost impossible for one person to
succeed in injecting the lymphatics without
assistance ; there are so many things requi-
site, besides merely holding the tube in the
vessel, thai an assistant is indispensable.

It is very necessary, before beghmiiig, to
see that the injector has within his reach
sharp-pointed scissors, knives, forceps, lan-
cets, pokers for tubes, jieedles, and waxed
threads, so ari'anged that they can be used
instantly, for it will often happen that it
will bj impossible for eitlier the assistant
or the operator to take his eye for a mo-
ment off the vessel, without losing it.

* Sir Chai-lcs Bell

When injecting the superficial lympha-
tics, we first cut off a portion of skin, so as
to expose the loose cellular texture ; having
found a lymphatic vessel, it must be seized
by the forceps and dissected from tne sm--
roundiug substance. Having hold of it
with the forcep, snip it half across with fine
scissors, and into the incisioa introduce the
tube containing the mercury, A poker or
director is often necessary for the purpose
of creating a vacuum ; a few drops of mer-
cury then introduced by the side of the
director will open the way for more ; the
dkector being withdi-avxii, the mercury flows
into the lymphatics.

K the vessel to be injected be a large
one, it must be secured by ligature around
the iHpe. The quicksilver is to be pressed
onward, elevating or depressing the pipe
so as to regulate the force of the injeciion.

In injec'iing a gland, we inust en-
deavor to find ihe vessel that has the most
influence in filling it. Having found it,
we secure the other vessels -and fill the
gland through the former channel.

The; vessels or glands injected with
mercury should be dried as quickly as pos-
sible, and varnislied, or else preserved in
spirits of turpentine,

METHOD OF INJECTING THE LACTEALS.

Take a small i:)orliou of ihe intestine
and mesentery, and make an incision in
one of ihc most conspicttous lacteals, as
uear a;_; possible to its origin in the intes-
tine ; then iulroduce the point of the injec-
ting tube, and conduct the operation agi-ec-
ably to the preceding rules. "When the
quicksilver flows out of any of tiie divided
vessels, they must be repaired by an assis-
tant; when as many of the lacteals are
filled as will receive the quicksilver from
this orifice, inti-oduce the pipe into another,
and rcjjcat the process as before, and so
on, mitil as many of them are filled as can
be; then inflate the intestine and suspend
it in the air to dry, after which it may be
preserved by varnishing both inside au£
out.

8-i

AXATOriY AND niYSIOLCCY OF

DIRECTIONS FOR INJECTING THE PAROTID
GLAND.

This should be injected before removal,
on account of the numerous vessels by
wliich it is attached to the adjacent parts.
Before commencing the operation, the skin
over the region of the gland and duct must
be raised, in view of searching for the duct;
having found it, an opening must be made
into it v.-ith the point of a lancet, suffi-
ciently large to introduce the point of (he
steel injecting pipe ; wlien introduced, con-
fine the duct upon it by a ligature witli a
single knot, v.diich shall serve when the
pipe is withdrawn to secure the ciuicksilver
in the gland. The gland having been filled,
the pipe withdrawn, and the duct secured,
we proceed with all possible care to dissect
the gland from its situation. Any branches
of vessels going off to surrounding parts
must be secured by means of a small
curved needle, armed with a single ligature,
after whicli they may be divided with
safety. The gland being removed, and all
extraneous tissue dissected off, it should be
placed in water to extract the blood, etc.
This \\t11 require about thirty-six hour.;; the
water, however, must be frequently changed;
the gland can then be spread on a piece of
pasteboard and exposed to di'y. It makes
the most beautiful preparation, when pre-
served in a glass vessel containing pure
spirits of turpentine.

CREAKING DOWN THE VALVES.

Many of the glands, the surface of the liver
included, can be injected contrary to the
circulation of the lymph. When the quick-
silver passes at first freely into the lympha-
tics, and suddenly stops, it will be necessary
to force it forward by gentle pressure with
the edge of a spatula, in the direction in
which it seems most likely to run ; by this
means the valves arc broken dov.'u. The
valves of the superficial lymphatics of the
liver arc easily broken down in this way,
but tiie valves in some of the lymphatics
arc iimcii firmer, consequently not so easily
broken down.

WET PREPARATIONS.

PREPARATIONS BY DISTENTION.

Hollow organs may be distended tor
preservation with antiseptic liquids, air,
wool, hair, cotton, plaster, quicksilver, etc.

Wet preparations bij distention, with
spirits of wine, oil of turpentine, etc.

The intention, in distending preparations
by spirits, is to give them their natural
figure, to exhibit more fully the parts of
which they are composed, their vascularity,
and occasionally some morbid or preter-
natural appearance.

i\IETHOD OF DISTENDING AND PREPARING
TIIE LUNGS.

The lungs taken from a sheep or calf
make a very good substitute for those of
the horse, which are too bulliy for ordinary
use.

The pulmonary arteries and veins should
fii'st be filled with red-colored injection ; then
immerse the lungs in oil of turpentine, con-
tained in a vessel, large enough to admit
them without compression; then inject into
the trachea such a quantity of the above
fluid as shall dilate them without danger of
rupture. Then secure the trachea by liga-
ture. In the same manner we proceed with
other parts. If a portion only of an organ
or a part of some viscera be required, we first
secure the lower orifice' by ligature ; inject
as above, and then apply a ligature to the
upper opening. It can then be suspended
in spirits of wine or turpentine.

ANTISEPTIC MENSTRUA FOR PRESERVING
SPECISIENS.

Alcohol -— Spirits of Wine. — This is one
of the principal fluids now in use for the
preservation of specimens. It may be used
of various strengths, according to the size
and thickness of the specimen to be pre-
served.

All those that are thick and bulky should
be put into pure rectified spirits : smaller
ones may require only one half the quantity
of alcohol with water; and such as are thin

THE HORSE.

and membranous, can be preserved in com-
mon New England rum.

Turpentine. — This also is an excellent
antiseptic, and is highly recommended by
Parsons and others, for cartilages, fibro-car-
tilages, and fibrous membranes.

The acids used are, sulphiu-ic, nirric, mu-
riatic, acetic and pyroligneous. Dr. Parsons
states that Dr. Hayden, surgeon dentist, in
Baltimore, has succeeded in preserving
anatomical preparations in a superior man-
ner,-with pyroligneous acid. It should be
rectified and diluted with water. Acids,
however, cannot be used when the prepara-
tion contains bone.

METHOD OF PRESERVING THE BRAIN'.

The following mixture is a very excellent
menstruum for preserving the brain and
nerves : Take alcohol, eight parts by weight;
oxymuriate of mercury, one jjart. Rub the
oxymuriate in a mortar, and gradually add
the alcohol. The brain should remain in
this mixture for twenty or thirty days, when
it may be withdrawn from the liquid, dried,
and varnished.

MI-TIIOD OF MAKING A DRY PREP.IRATION OF
THE AIR-VESSELS OF THE LUXGS.

Throw the lungs of a horse into a barrel
of v.ater and allow them to macerate for
several months, during the summer season ;
then, by repeated washing, cleanse the bron-
chia, etc., from the parenchyma, dry, and
varnish them.

iHETHOD OF MACERATIXG AND CLEANING
BONES.

Remove as much of the flesh, ligaments,
etc., as can conveniently be done with the
knife ; then lay them in clean water, and
change the same daily for about a week, or
as long as it becomes discolored with blood.
They are now to remain without changing,
till putrefaction has thoroughly destroyed
all the remaining flesh and ligaments, which
will take from three to five months, more or
less, according to the season of the year or
temperature of the atmospiiere. In the ex-
tremities of large cylindrical bones, holes

should be bored, about the size of a quill,
to give the water access to their cavities
and a free exit to medullary substance. As
the water evaporates from the vessel, it
should be so far renewed as to keep the
bones imder its surface, or they wiU acquire
a disagreeable blackness, and dust should
be excluded by keeping the vessel constantly
covered. When the white textures are de-
stroyed, the bones must be scraped and
again laid in water for a few days, and
well washed and scrubbed with a coarse
brush ; then immerse them in lime-water,
or a solution of pearlash, made with two
ounces to the gallon of water, and after a
week they are to be again washed in cleai
water. They are then to be bleached oa
the seashore, where they can be daily washed
with sea-water.*

M. Bogros approves of the above plan of
maceration, but at the conclusion of this he
directs them to be boiled four hours in a
strong solution of carbonate of potass, or
in soap suds, adding hot water as fast as it
evaporates. They ai-e then to be washed
frequently in cold water, and dried each
time quickly, and then moistened (not
steeped) in weak mm-iatic acid. The com-
mon bleaching liquor in a diluted state will
whiten bones, but they shoidd not be im-
mersed in it any length of time.

When bleached, they may be varnished
with the white of an egg.j

TO RENDER SOLID BONES FLEXIBLE AND
TR.\NSPARENT.

One-half of the inferior jaw bone, or the
scapula, are the most suitable bones for the
above purpose. Alacerate either or both
until they are properly cleansed. Then im-
merse in a mixture consisting of water,
twenty-fiveparts ; muriatic acid, one part. If
the bone is kept well covered during a
period of about seven months, it will become
flexible like cartilage ; but as the phosphate
of lime in the bone will neutralize some of
the acid, a minute quantity may from time
to time be added.

* I'ok- on " Clcansinj; Bones."

t Piirsons on " Macerated Preparations."

AXATdMY AXD PHYSIOLOGY OF

TTheii tlie preparation becomes flexible,
immerse in warm water ; then give it sev-
eral washings in cold water to remove the
acid ; dry, and immerse in a glass vessel of
oil of turpentine ; it will assume a beautiful
transparency, exhibiting the blood-vessels.

METHOD OF CLEANING AND SEPARATING THE
BONES OF CEANIUM.

Take the head of a young colt, remove
the skin and muscles, and wash out the
brain, previously breaking it down with a
stick or probe ; macerate and cleanse it as
before directed ; then fill the cranial cavity
with dry corn from the husk, immerse it in
water, and the corn as it swells forces open
the suturuses, so that they can be readily
separated by the hand. "Wash, dry, and
bleach the bones, and then cover them with
colorless varnish.

A BraEF EXPOSITION OF ME. SWAn's NEW
METHOD OF MAKING DRIED ANATOMICAL
PREPARATIONS.*

The new method has been adopted by
Usher Parsons, M. D., Professor of Anat-
omy and Physiology, from whose work the
following selections are made :

DIRECTIONS FOE MAKING DRIED PREPARATIONS.

The part of a limb, chosen for injection,
must be as free from fat as possible. A so-
lution of two ounces of oxymuriate of mer-
cury in half a pint of rectified spirits of wine,
is to be injected into the arteries ; the next
day inject as much white spirit varnish, to
which one-fifth of white spirit varnish has
been added, and some vermilion ; the limb
is then to be put into hot water, where it is
to remain until properly heated, wlien the
coarse injection is to be thrown into the ar-
teries and veins, if required, bearing in mind
l^e course of the circulation ; the valves of
the veins can be broken down by a whale-
bone probe, if necessary. If the veins arc
to be injected, it is better to wash the blood
out of them with water before the solution

* Professor Chaussier claims to be the original discov-
erer of this method.

of oxymuriate of mercury is thrown into the
arteries.

After tlie limb has been injected, it is to
be dissected. Every time it is left, and
sometimes during dissection, it is advisable
to cover those parts which have been ex-
posed, with a damp cloth. There ai'e great
advantages to be derived from previously in-
jecting the limb in oxymuriate of mercury,
for a limb thus injected undergoes very little
change in many days, and, when the dissec-
tion is recommenced, the parts will be found
in the same state in which they were left,
and destitute of any offensive odor.

The oxymuriate of mercury is the best
agent for arresting the putrefactive process.

After the dissection is finished, the limb,
or part, must be immersed in a solution of
oxymuriate of mercury for a fortnight or
more.

The solution of oxymuriate of mercury
must be contained in a wooden vessel, as
metallic vessels do not answer.

The limb, or part, having been in the
solution during the above period, it should
be taken out, dried, varnished, and, if neces-
sary, painted.

SOLUTION OF HARDENING THE BRAIN AND
OTHER TISSUES.

Take of oxj-muriate of mercuiy, one ounce ;
muriate of ammonia, thirty-five grains ; py-
roligneous acid, one pint. Hub the oxymu-
riate of mercury and muriate of ammonia
together in a mortar, then add half a pint of
pyroligneons acid. ^

OXYMURIATE OF JIERCUEY IS A YALU.\DLE
ANTISEPTIC.

•

Dr. Parsons relates, that, when a piece of
fiesh had been immersed in a solution of
oxymuriate of mercury until it was com-
pletely changed, and afterwards put into a
large vessel containing water for some days,
though the greater part of the oxymuriate
of moi'cury was thus washed away, it did
not even then appear in the least degree
putrid. I procured half of the head and
neck of a large horse, which I first injected

THE HORSE.

with the solution of o.\y muriate of mercury,
but as the putrefactive process was not thus
sufficiently stopped, without dissecting off
the skin I immersed it in the solution of
oxymuriate of mercury for several days ;
and, as no marks of puti'efaction remained
(the offensive smell being entirely removed),
I then put it into a vessel containing a
large quantity of water for two or three
days more, by which means nearly all the
solution was removed from it. 1 was thus
able to proceed with the dissection during
the hot weather, without being in the least
incommoded either by the smell or soreness
of the hands, and without finding the instru-
ments acted upon in any degree, that ren-
dered the process at all objectionable. By
putting a wet cloth over it when I left it, I
was further enabled to make a very minute
dissection of the nerves, which I could not
otherwise have done, without the use of a
large quantity of spirits of wine, and then
not with half the convenience and pleasure
I have thus experienced.

ON VARNISHES AND PAINTS.

The following are the recipes for the
manufacture of paints and varnishes:

WHITE VARNISH.

Canada balsam, spirits of turpentine, of
each three ounces ; mastic varnish, two
ounces. Put them into a bottle and shake
them together until they are properly
mixed.

MASTIC VARXISH.

This may be made by putting four
ounces of powdered mastic into one pint
of spkit of turpentine, to be kept in a
stoppered bottle. It should be shaken every
day until the greater part of the mastic
is dissolved.

TURPENTINE VARNISH.

Turpentine varnish is made by melting
Venice tmpentine over a slow fije, and add-
ing to it as much spirits of tm'pentine as
wUl reduce it to the consistence of syrup.

WHITE PAINT.

Three ounces of the best white paint,
and one ounce of spirit of turpentine, are
to be put into a bottle and shaken together.
When it is used with the varnish, a bottle
of each should be mixed together.

PAINT FOR THE MUSCLES.

This is made by grinding on a slab a
small quantity of " lake" with white var-
nish, to which one-fourth part of turpen-
tine varnish has been added.

Dr. Parsons directs that varnish should
be laid on with a fine camels'-hair pencil
brush, as large as occasion may require.
Hollow preparations should have the var-
nish pom-ed into them, and, after turning
them about in all directions, it is to be
drained out as clear as possible.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.

OF THE MOUTH.

It may be observed here (as preparatory
to tlie description of this part), that, in
quadrupeds in general, the facial angle is
one of vei ■ considerable obliquity, in con-
sequence ol the prolongation of that part
of the head which corresponds to the face
in the human subject ; and this develop-
ment of feature is in none more striking
than in the horse and dog. Consequently, in
these animals, the nose and mouth are
cavities of large dimensions. And in the
horse, the mouth appears to have been thus
prolonged, not only to enable him to col-
lect his food with more facility, but also
that he rriight subject greater parcels of it
at a time to the action of the grinding
teeth, whereby the processes of mastication
and deglutition are greatly accelerated.

" Conformation. — The mouth is con-
structed in part of bone, and in part of
soft materials. The superior and anterior
maxillary and the palate bones form the
roof; the inferior maxilla, the lower part;
the incisive teeth, the front ; and the
molar teeth, the sides. The lips, cheeks,
soft palate, gums, and buccal membrane,
constitute its soft parts. The tongue occu-
pies its cavity, and the salivary glands are
appendages to it.

"lips.

" General Conformation. — The lips, two
in number, superior and inferior, are at-
tached to the alveolar projections of the su-
perior and inferior maxills, by the muscles
that move Vn^m ; by the cellular tissue en-
tering into theit composition; and by the
membrane that lint. ^hem. Their borders
surround and bound -H^e orifice of the

mouth, and are united together on either
side; which points of union are denomi-
nated their commissures, or the angles or
corners of the mouth. Exteriorly, the lips
are creased down the middle by perpen-
dicular lines of division ; exhibit little
papillary eminences upon their surface ;
and present a softer and shorter coating of
hair than what is found in ordinary places,
out of which project several long straggling
horse-hairs or luhiskers. The inferior lip
is altogether smaller, and is thinner in sub-
stance, than the superior ; and is distin-
guished by a remarkable prominence about
its centre, from which grows a tuft of long
coarse hairs, vulgarly designated as the
beard.

" Structure. — The lips are both muscu-
lar and glandular in their composition.
Several small muscles,* arising from the
maxillary bones, are inserted into them, and
endow them with great self-mobility : one
alone, consisting of circular fibres, is inter-
woven in their substance without having
any other connection ; this is denominated
the orbicularis oris, or sphincter labiorum,
from its use, which is that of closing the
mouth. This muscle is an antagonist to
all the others ; they raise or depress the
lips, or draw them to one side ; but this
contracts them, and occasionally projects
them in such a manner that the horse can
exert with them a prehensile power, which
is most remarkably evinced at the time that
he is picking up grain from a plain surface ;
indeed, the act of nibbling our hands with
his lips demonstrates this faculty, and also
the force with which he can employ it. The
lips are lined by the same membrane that
lines other parts of the cavity of the mouth.

* Percivall's Hyppopathology.

(88;

THE HORSE.

Beneath it are seated numerous mucous
follicles, that elevate it everywhere into lit-
tle papilla, which are perforated by the
mouths of these follicular inlands, as may
be readily seen with the naked eye by evert-
ing either the su]5erior or the inferior lip.
The skin covering the lipo is extremely
thin, and possesses considerable vascularity
and sensibility. To the tenuity of it, and
to the shortness and scantiness of their
pilous covering, is to be ascribed the su-
perior sensitive faculty of these parts.

" CHEEKS.

" The cheeks are constituted substantially
of the masseter and buccinator muscles,
covered by the skin upon the outside, and
the buccal membrane upon the inside.
Their internal or membranous surface is
studded with scattered mucous follicles,
whose excretory oritices may be seen by
everting the part.

"gums.
" The gums consist of dense, compact,
prominent, polished masses, of the nature
of periosteum, adhering so closely and
tenaciously to the teeth and the sides of
their sockets, that it renders the one insep-
arable from the other, but by extraordinary
mechanical force. Like other parts of the
cavity of the mouth, they receive a cover-
ing from th6 buccal membrane.

" PALATE.

" Two distinct parts are included under
this head ; the hard and the soft palate.
The hard palate is constituted of the pala-
tine processes of the superior and anterior
maxillary bones ; and • of a firm, dense,
periosteum-like substance, the vaulted, in-
ward part of which is elevated into several
semicircular ridges, vulgarly called the bars.
The fibres of this substance, which pos-
sess great tenacity, are inserted into the
pores of the bone in every part, but are
most numerous and dense along the pala-
tine suture : the interstices are filled up by
a dense cellitlar tissue, through the sub-

stance of which are dispersed the ramifica-
tions of the palatine vessels and nerves.

" The soft palate, sometimes called the
velum palati, is attached to the superior or
crescentic border of the hard palate, the
border formed by the palatine bones ; from
v.hich the velum extends backward and
downward as far as the larynx, and there
terminates over the epiglottis, in close ap-
position with that part, in a loose semi-
circular edge. In consequence of the
velum palati being long enough to meet the
epiglottis, the cavity of the mouth has no
communication with that of the nose —
these two parts forming a perfect septum
between them ; hence it is that a horse
cannot respire and vomit by the mouth lilie
a human being, in whom the velum is so
short that there is an open space left be-
tween it and the epiglottis, through which
air or aliment can pass either upward or
downward. The soft palate is composed
of extensions of membrane from the nose
and mouth, between which is interposed a
pale, thin layer of muscular fibres.

" The velum performs the office of a
valve : it prevents the food, in the act of
swallowing, from passing into the nose, and
it conducts the air from the windpipe into
that cavity, without permitting any to
escape into the mouth.

" OF THE TONGUE.

" The tongue, the principal organ con-
cerned in taste and deglutition, is lodged in
the mouth ; filling the interspace between
the branches of the inferior maxilla.

'■^Duplicity. — Lilce the other organs of
sense, it is double ; being composed of tAvo
parts, whose union is marked by a longitit-
dinal crease along its middle, the divisions
having no vascular nor nervoits connection
nor in fact any intercommunication what-
ever; so that an animal has to all intents
and purposes iv:o tongues, and ajjparently
for the same reason that he has two eyes,
(wo ears, and two noslrils. Anatomy, as
far as v.o can carry our researches, demon-
strates (his; perhaps we have no better

AXATOJIY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

proof of it, however, than what happens in
hemiplegia, a disease in Avhich only one
half of the body is paralytic : under these
circumstances, in the human subject, the
patient can only see with one eye, use one
arm, and taste with but one (and that the
coiTespondent) side of the tongue.

^^ Division. — The tongue, in description,
is commonly divided into rooti bmli/, and
apex: by the attachments of the two former
it is held iii its situation ; the latter is loose
and uucoimected.

" Atlaclunenl. — At its root, it is deeply
and firmly inserted by several muscles which
arise chiefly from the os hyoides and the
inferior njaxilla : it is also connected with
the pharynx, and with the soft palate.
From the sides of the lower jaw, separate
layers of the membrane of the mouth are
reflected upon its body, farming by their
junction a sort of bridle, which is thence
extended to the symphysis: to this part,
which serves to restrain the organ in its
ijiotions, the name of frccmini lingua; has
been given.

'■'■rapillcv. — T!\\c dorsum ox anterior sur-
face of this organ has a peculiar covering,
which, though it appears to be continued
from tlie buccal membrane, is a dirt'erent
s^tructure altogether, and serves quite a
different purpose. The surface of it is
roughened, possessing a villous texture,
everywhere studded with numerous little
conical eminences, called papillcB, which are
supposed to be formed out of the extremi-
ties of the nerves, and to be the especial
seat of the sense of taste. These papillfr
vary in size and figure, and are more abun-
dant and larger upon the base and along
the sides of the organ. Interspersed witli
them are a number of mucous follicles,
whose apertores may be seen with the naked
eye, througn which a mucus is discharged
¥il)on the papillary surface, keeping it con-
tinually moist, and rendering its percejition
of taste more acute.

" Structvrc. — The tongue is said to pos-
sess a covering of common integument ;
and certainly its strong, compact tunic has
all the appearances of skin, and presents

the common tests of it: the external layer
is laminated, is bloodless, is insensible ; the
internal or substantial part is tough, fibrous,
vascvilar, and sensitive, in fact, is like cutis;
and the intermediate or connecting material
is delicate, soft, and reticular, and forms a
bed for the lodgment of the papillfe. The
substance of the tongue itself consists of
an inter-union, or rather an incorporation,
of its muscles, the fibres of which intersect
one another, and take a variety of direc-
tions ; but intermixed with them is a fine
adipose tissue, to which is owing the flabby
softness of the organ, and the peculiar
aspect it exhibits when cut into.

'■'■Use. — Though the tongue is empha-
tically denominated, from its essential char-
acter, the organ of taste, it is not the only
])art that possesses this faculty ; for the palate,
the pharynx, and the cesophagus, it is be-
lieved, participate in it. The tongue, in
addition to possessing this faculty, disposes
of the food during manducation, and, when
sufficiently masticated, collects and thrusts
it, portion after portion, into the pharynx;
and furthermore, at the time the animal is
drinking, it is not only employed as an in-
strument of suction, but also as a canal
along whicli the fluid ascends into the
pharynx.

'■'■Organization. — Every part of this or-
gan is plentifully supplied with blood. Its
arteries are the lingual, branches of large
size from the external carotids. The blood-
vessels of either side are generally found
free from anastomosis with one another ; if
either of the arterial trunks is filled with
injection, it rarely happens that the opposite
half of the organ receives any coloring from
it. Its nerves are the ninth pair, which run
to the muscles, and a considerable branch
from the fifth pair, in whose extreme rami-
fications, which are distributed to the papilljp,
the j)erception of taste is supposed to be
inherent.

"OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS.

"Number and Names. — The salivary
glands, properly so called, are six in number,
three upon each side of the head ; the

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE X.

OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

(SEE PRXC£Di:fa PLATE.)

MUSCULAR STRUCaiaE^

LATERAL \TEK.

a". Trapezius.

•. Ligamentum colli.

h". Rhomboideus longua.

c". Scalenus.

f. Antea spinatus.
g". Postea spiiiatus.
h". Teres major.

t". Latissimus dorsi.

I", m". n". Triceps extensor brachii,

S. Splenius.

J5r. Masseter.

a. Orbicularis palpebrarum.

c. Dilator nai-is lateralis.

e. Orbicularis oris.

y. Nasalis longus.

g. Levator labii superiorus.
h. Buccinator.

». Zygomaticus.

J. Depressor labii inferioruto

m. Attolentes.

n. Retrahentes aurem.

0. Abducens vel deprimens aurem •
q. r. Tendon of the splenius and co:
t. Obliquus capitis inferiorus.
u. Levator humeflf
X. Subscapulo hyoideus.

VEINS,

1. Temporal vein.

2. Facial "

3. Branch of the jugular*
10. Parotid glan*

Till': HOKsn.

y.i

parotid, Ihe submaxillary, and the sub-
lingual.

'• Tlio parotid, the largest of these glands,
so called fniin being placed near the ear,
lies within a hollow space at the upper and
back part of the head, bounded by the
branch of the lower jaw before, and the
petrous portion of the temporal bone behind:
it extends as high up as the root of the ear,
and as low down as the angle of the jaw,
by which latter a small portion of it is con-
cealed. This gland, like the others of the
same class, is enveloped in a case of dense
cellular membrane, and is constituted, in
structure, of many little lobes or lobuli, con-
nected together by processes transmitted
into the interior from this cellular covering.
Every lobulus is composed of a distinct set
of secretory vessels, from which numerous
tiibidi arise, conjoin, and at length form one
main branch; these branches, which corre-
spond in number to the lobuli, unite and
re-unite until they end in one common ex-
cretory duct\ The duct emerges from the
inferior part of the gland, runs along the
inner part of the angle of the jaw, and
crosses over ihe posterior edge of the bone
immediately above or behind the submaxil-
lary artery and vein: in I he remainder of
its coiuse it corresponds to the border of
llie masseter, and, about opposite to ihe
second anterior molar tooth, pierces ob-
liquely ihe buccinator, and terminates l^ a
tubercular eminence upon tbe internal sur-
face of the buccal membrane.*

" The submaxillary gland, of amaller
volume than the parotid, lies in the sjjace
between the angles of the jaw, to which, and
to the muscles thereabouts, it is loosely
attached by cellular membrane: a portion
c^ it is also generally found proceeding

*T() cxiiosc tliis iliK't, ;it or near il-i i.^sui; from llii'
jrlaiul, an incision s oiilil lie ciin-ii'il alon;^ the posterior
iiorUcT of llic hrant-h of tile lower jaw : first, dividing: tlie
f-lvin ; seconiUv, the jianniciilns; tliirilly, llie cellular tissue
immediately covering the dnct, wliidi is readily dis-
tinguished liy its glisteniii'; pellucid aspect. By extending
the incision around the angle of the jaw, directing i'.
towards tlio inner edge of the hone, tlie <hiet will he found
making its first turn ; here, liowcver, it is loilged in a
lio'low, dec]ily luiricd m cellular lisr'ue.

backward as far as the trachea. Its struc-
ture is siiuilar to that of the parotid gland.
The submaxillary duct issues near the
centre of the gland, creeps along the under
and imier border of the tongue, close to the
lower edge of the sublingual gland, and
terminates by a little mammiform elongation
of membrane, vulgarly called the barb (bar-
billon) or pap, upon the freermm linguas,
about half an inch above its attachment to
the symphysis. Among the other ridiculous
and mischievous practices of farriers is that
of snipping ofl" these processes. They
were seemingly designed as valves, to pre-
vent the insinuation of alimentary matters
into the ducts. The coats of this vessel are
extremely thin and translucent.

" The sublingual gland is still smaller in
volume than the submaxiMar}-, though, al-
together, one much resembles the other in
figure. It lies along the under part of the
tongue, covered by the buccal membrane,
where, from the lobular uneven ness it gives
to the surface, its situation is well marked.
Its ducts penetrate the membrane by the
side of the frrenum lingua.

" The use -of (lie aalirari/ glands is to
secrete a saline limpid fluid, called sa/h-a-;
which is conveyed and poured by their
duets into the mouth during manducation::
here it is mixed with the food, mollifying it,
and rendering it more easy of digestion, and
at the same time facilitating the jiassage of
the alimentary bolus into the stomach.

" OF THE PlUnVNX.

" The pharynx is a fiumel-i-haped sac,
lodged in the throat ft)r the recep'.ion of the

, food.

' " Sili!(iliii». — The pharynx is contiguous
to the gutt-ural ]X3Uches, superiorly; the
larynx, inferiorly ; and the aiUerior ])ortions
of the parotid glands and branches of the
jaw, laterally. Posteriorly, it is coniinuous
in substance with the esojihagus ; anteriorly,
it presents an opening to the mouth.

" Attechment. — In front, to the os hyoides
and palate bones : below, to the larynx ;
behind, it grow.s narrow and ends in the
esophagus.

AXATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

"Structure. — The pharynx is in part
muscular, and in part membranous. Ol"
the muscles belonging to it the constric-
tors are those that more immediately enter
into its composition. They are so dis-
posed as to give the membrane forming
the sac a complete Meshy covering, which
is rendered the more uniform by their
proximate ilbres being indistinguishably
blended: thus the muscles form the most
substantial part of the pharynx. The
lining membrane, which is of the mu-
cous class, is soft and thicic in substance,
and palely tinged with red in color, and is
papillary and in places rugose upon its sur-
face ; being perforated by the ducts of
numerous fc)llicles which discharge a mucus
that preserves glibness and moisture to its
interior. The membrane itself is (wiiere it
meets them) continuous both with the buc-
cal membrane and that wiiich lines the
oesophagus.

" Although the pharynx is designed for
the reception of the food, it does not open
directly into the mouth ; the two cavities
are separated from each other by the soft
palate and epiglottis. Except in the act of
swallowing and coughing, they have no
communication : in the former case, the
velum is pressed upward by the food
against the posterior openings of the nose ;
in the latter, the larynx is depressed by a
convulsive action of the muscles in the
vicinity. Into the cavity above the velum
there are four openings — two of the cham-
bers of the nose, one of the larynx, and one
of the oesophagus : the eustachian tubes do
not open into tiie pharynx ; they end in
two large membranous pouclies at the
upper part of the fauces. The opening
leading into the oesophagus is constantly
closed, except when alimentary matters are
passing to or from the stomach ; so that air
received into the pharynx through the nose
can pass nowhere else but into lhe wind-
pipe; but if food be returned from the
stomach, it will be regurgitated into the
nose; at least, only that poriion of it i
which enters the ph;irynx at the moment j
that the larynx is depressed in the act of ]

vomiting, can be thrown into the mouth,
in lhe same way that air is in the act of

coughing.

" OF THE fHSOPlIAGUS.

" The cejophagus, or gullet, is the tube
througli which tlie food is conducted from
the pharynx into the stomach.

" Course. — It has its beginning from the
pharynx, and is there ])laced at the upper
ard back part of llie hirynx, taking the
first part of its course above and behind the
trachea, between that tube and tlie cervical
vertebrae. Having proceeded a short way
down, it inclines to the left, and soon after
makes its appearance altogether on the left
side of the tracliea, and continues so placed
during the remainder of its passage down
tiie neck : tliis explains why we look for the
bolus during the act of swallowing on the
/eft, and not on the right side of the ani-
mal. In company with the trachea, the
esophagus enters the thorax between the
first two ribs, at which place, running above
that tube, it quits its companion for the
superior mediastinum, which cavity it
traverses below and a little to the right of
the posterior aorta. Immediately beneath
the decussation of the crura, the esophagus
pierces the substance of the diaphragm,
and enters the stomach, at a right angle,
about (ho centre of its u)ipcr and anterior
part.

" Strurliire. — The oesophagus presents,
externally, a strong, red, muscular coat ; in-
ternally, one remarkable for its whiteness,
which in its nature is cuticular. The mus-
cular coat is conijiosed of two orders of
niires — a longitudinal, forming an out-
ward layer ; and a circular, an inward
layer : the former will shorten the tube, and
perhaps dilate it for the reception of food ;
the latter, by successive contraclions of the
canal, will transmit the food into lhe
stomach. The second, or iiiternal coat, ij
called the cuticular, from its analogy to the
cuticle of the skin. Although it is contin-
uous v/ith the membrane of the ])harnyx,
it is of a totally different composition : it is
thinner, but it is much more compact and

THE HORSE.

stronger in its texture, and, I believe, is
botli insensible and inorganic. It adheres
to the muscular covering by a fine cellular
tissue, the extensibility of which gives full
play to the latter ; and admits, during the
empty or collapsed state of the tube, of the
former being thrown into many longitudinal
plica or folds ; as is demonstrated by mak-
insr a transverse section of the tube : such
appearances result from the contraction of
the one coat, and the want of proportion-
ate elasticity in the other. Between the
two tunics, imbedded amongst the connect-
ing cellular tissue, arc numerous follicular
glands, whose ollicc is to pour forth a mu-
cous secretion upon the internal surface of
the lining membrane, to render the passage
of food along it glib and free from any
friction.

" NASAL FOSS.E.*'

" The nasal fossae are the two chambers
or lateral cavities, whose external openings
are (he iiostrUs. Their loaHs or external
parletcs are almost entirely osseous; and to
the OSSEOUS SYSTEM (page 45) the reader
must turn for a description of the manner
in which the fossae are formed, and of the
bones entering into their formation. But,
in addition to bone, they are cartilaginous
in their constitution.

" The cartilages of the nose are Jice in
number: — of which one (the septum nasi)
is situated inlernallij; liie other four (enter-
ing into the composition of the nostrils) cx-
ternally.

" The septum nasi is the vertical carti-
laginous partition interposed between the
nasal fosste. It exhibits four borders. The
inferior one is received into the groove of
the vomer ; while the superior presents a
lengthened channel between two elevated
edges, into which is admitted the internal
crest formed by the union of tiie nasal
bones. Its posierior border is affixed to the
ethmoidal plate : its anterior serves to sus-
tain the cartilages forming the nosti'ils.
Both its sides arc completely covered by the
Schneiderian membrane.

* Hippopatliolojy.

"Nostrils. — Four in number: two on
each side, distinguished by the epithets true
and false.

" The true nostrils are the large, ovoid,
and ever-open orifices so conspicuous ex-
ternally. They have for the base of their
structure four pieces of fibro-cartilage,
which are involved in doublings of the
common integument. Each nostril is formed
of tAvo Hcxible alee or wings : a superior or
internal one, and an inferior or external.
The former is supported by a broad circular
cartilaginous plate ; the latter is crescentic
in shape, and forms a flexure outward,
within which is perceptible the orifice of
the lachrymal duct. They are attached to,
and supported by, the nasal peak and sep-
tum nasi.

" The false nostrils arc twp little pouches
or cavities (having the semblance of cuts-
ilf'-sacs), situated internally, above the true
nostrils, into which an external opening is
found within the commissure formed by the
union of the two alffi. They are formed
out of dupficatures of the skin, which is
here thinner, and finer, and softer in its
texture ; and, except at their entrance, are
without hair upon their surfaces. Their
use is not known.

"Schneiderian viembranc. — The cavity
of the nose is not only divided into fhe two
nasal fossa, but each fossa is subdivided
into the three meatus (for a description of
which, vide page — ). Every part of these
cavities and passages is covered by the
Schneiderian or pituitanj membrane. This
is a membrane of the mucous class, dis-
tinguished for its thickness of substance,
for its vascularity, and for its olfactory pa-
jiilla:. It has two surfaces: an exposed
or secreting one and an unexposed or ad-
herent one. The secreting surface is
smooth, and is rendered glib and shiny by
the varnish it derives from the mucous
secretion emitted by the numerous small
rounded pores everywhere visible in the
membrane, but more particularly upon the
lower part of the septum, and upon the
inferior turbinated bone. This surface
exhibits a pale pink blush, the ellbct of the

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

bloodvessels spread over it, which are hei-e
so superficial as to owe their principal de-
fence to the mucous exudation: hence it
is that the complexion of the membrane
(varying with the inlluence of the atmos-
phere and other agents) is extremely fugitive
and uncertain. The adherent surface of
the membrane contracts a close and firm
adherence to the parts it covers, through
the insinuation of its fibres into them : in-
deed, to the bone it appears to supply the
place of periosteum ; to the cartilage, of
perichondrium. The substance of the
membrane exhibits a fibrous structure, in-
terwoven with cellular tissue ; and upon
that — as a substratum — is spread a glan-
dular and vascular apparatus, from which
issues the mucous secretion ; together with
numerous papillm, of small size, constituted
of the terminations of those nerves from
which the membrane derives ordinary sen-
sation, as well as those that endow it with
the peculiar sense of smelling. The
Schneiderian membrane, inferiorly, within
the nostrils, is continuous with the duplica-
tures of skin lining those parts; superiorly
with the membrane lining the pharynx; be-
sides which, it is continued into the several
sinuses of the head, through the openings
leading from them into the nose, and like-
wise gives them a complete covering : it is
to be observ«^, however, that in the sinuses
the membrane is thinner, and assumes a
paler and more delicate aspect; its natural
secretion is also found more sparing. The
membrane is abundantly supplied with
blood-vessels, as well as nerves ; and also
possesses its share of absorbent vessels.
Its arteries, which ramify and anastomose
so as to form a spreading network upon the
secreting surface, arc derived superiorly
from the lateral nasal ; inferiorly from the
facial andi palato-maxillary. Its nerves arc
furnished by the first and fifth pairs.

" Sinuses. — These cavities are formed in
the interior of several of (he bones of the
cranium and face: in fact, with the excep-
tion of the membrane lining them, they are
entirely osseons in their composition. This
will account for their description having

been already given (at page 4G), to which
we must again refer.

" Ducts. — There are two ducts belonging
to, or connected with, the nose. One is the
ductus ad nasum — a tube partly osseous
and partly membranous in its composition,
commencing at the inner angle or corner of
the eye, within the substance of the lachry-
mal bone, running within a canal continued
from this bone through the superior maxil-
lary bone, and terminating at the inner and
inferior part of the nasal fossa, underneath
the duplicature of the inferior ala, upon
the surface of the common skin, about one-
fourth of an inch from its junction with
the Schneiderian membrane, by an orifice
large enough to admit a crow-quill. The
other duct is the ductus communis 7iarium,
which pursues its course along underneath
the vomer to the pharynx ; after arising from
two lateral branches springing from oblong
apertures in the floor of the nostrils."

INTERNAL PARTS.

COJIPEEIIENDrN-G Tin: CAVITIES OF THE CR-iXIUJI, OR-
BIT, XOSE, ,VND MOUTH.

I. CAVITY OF THE CRANIUM,

Constructed for the lodgment of the
brain with its appendages, is in form ovoid,
flattened inferiorly, broader anteriorly than
posteriorly ; its antero-posterior or long
diameter measuring about seven inches ; its
transverse or lateral diameter about four
inches; its vertical or perpendicular diameter
about three and a half inches. At the same
time it is to be observed, that, al'.hough the
general form of the cavity is the same, its di-
mensions may and do vary in difl'crcnt heads.
The eight bones composing the cranium all
present internally surfaces more or less con-
cave, which, united, form the cavity under
consideration ; hence it is that the interior
is not regular or uniform, but presents to
view different hollows, which are adapted
to disfinct prominences of the cerebral mass.

Division of the interior surface into roof
and base of (he cranium:

The roof is formed by the frontal, parietal,
and occipital bones: its superficis is larger

THE HOKS.'

than the extent of iho base, and it is with-
out any apparently defective places, observ-
able in the latter. It presents — 1st. On
the inesian line from front to back, //ic sag'it-
( a/ groove, for the longitudinal sinus formed
by t/ic frontal and paric/ii/ crests, crossed
towards the front by l/ie roronut suture, and
bounded posteriorly by the parietal protu-
berance,\o which is attached the tentorium,
and behind wiiich is the occipital capula, for
covering the cerebellum. 2nd. On either
side, along the .same line, the cerebral con-
cavities of the frontal bone ; the coronal
suture, the boundary line between them
and the parietal concavities ; the transverse
grooves, [or the lateral sinuses; and, sunk
within them, the lambdoidal suture.

The base is formed by the temporal,
sphenoid, ethmoid, and occipital bones. It
presents — 1st. On the middle line, from
before backwards, the crista galli, ai^d on its
sides the ethmoidal fossa and cribriform
plates, bounded laterally by the internal
orbital plates of the frontal bones, and there
pierced by the internal orbital foramina ; the
concave surface of the body of the ethmoid
bone ; the optic hiatus leading to the optic
foramina; a transverse suture between the
ethmoid and sphenoid bones. Upon the
sphenoid bone, the pituitary fossa, bounded
laterally by the two optic fossa ; the latter
leading to the foramina lacera orbitalia,
over which are the spinal foramina ; a trans-
verse elevated line denotes the place of
junction of the sphenoid with the occipital
bone. Belonging to the occipital bone, are
the basilar fossce and the occipital hole. 2d.
On either side, in the same dixeciion, the inter-
nal surface of the iving of the ethmoid bone,
rather more convex than concave, for the
support of the anterior lobe of the cere-
brum ; the concavity of the icing of the .sphe-
noid bone, for the reception of the middle
lobe ; the concavity of the squamous part of
the temporal bone, for lodging the posterior
lobe ; and the sutures bounding these three
cerebral surfaces. The foramen lacerum
basis cranii, formed between the wing of
the sphenoid anteriorly, the basilar process
of the occipital bone internally, and the

petrous portion of the temporal bone exter-
nally and posteriorly: it is wide and irregu-
lar before, nan'ow behind, and is distin-
guished into the sphcno-occipital and lempo-
ro-occipilul hiatus. The petrous portion of
the temporal bone, presenting a narrovv^
triangular surface foi->.vards and upwards,
which contributes to the posterior cerebral
concavity ; a broad, smooth, but uneven sur-
face inwards, against which inclines tlie
cerebellum, and upon which we distinguish
— a, the orifice of the meatus auditor ius in-
ternus ; b, a transverse prominence, and sev-
eral cerebral indentations ; c, an irregular
convexity downwards, which forms the
boundary wall of the labyrinth ; d, a fissure
separating it from the former. La.stly, the
sutures, uniting the petrous to the squamous
portion and to the occipital bone. Of the
occipital bone a part of the internal surface
assisting in the formation of a concavity for
the cerebellum, by the convolutions of which
it is indented ; the surface even and smooth,
and slightly excavated below this, for the
support of the medulla oblongata ; still
lower, the condyloid foramina, through wliich
the ninth pair of nerves pass out.

II. THE ORBITS,

Two in number, are formed for the lodg-
ment, attachment, and protection of the
eyes and their appendages.

Figure. — Symmetrical. The cavity,
which is extended horizontally backward
and inward, has, viewed in front, a pyra-
midal aspect : the base, represented by the
front, has four sides, and four angles ; one
only of the sides, however, is sufficient in
extent to reach the apex, the others being
all more or less imperfect. A line drawn
in a horizontal direction through the axis
of this figure, inclines more outwards than
forwards, more forwards than downwards,
intersecting another horizontal line projected
directly forward at an angle of about 70°,
and one extended laterally, directly outward,
(at right angles with the former), at about
20° : the inclination downward, however,
will in course vary with the erect position
of the head.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HOI;SE.

Slnictxrc. — The orbit is composed of
unequal portions coming from four of the
bones of the cranium, and from three of
those of the face : viz., the frontal, ethmoid,
sphenoid, and temporal bones; the malar,
lachrymal, and palate bones.

Division — Into sides, angles, base, and
apex.

Siiles. — The superior side or roof of the
cavity consists only of the frontal arch;
which is concave and smooth internally, to
make room for the lachrymal gland, and
has anterior and posterior borders, sharp and
slightly curvated. The inferior side or floor !
of the orbit is formed by the orbital surfaces
of the lachnjinal and malar bones, is broader
than the roof, though, like it, is ^ficient as
a whole. It comprises the orbital portion
of the lachrymal suture : it is terminated in
front, by a smooth, rounded, curvated border;
behind, nearly midway between the base
and apex, by a shorter and straighter border.
The internal or nasal side, the broadest and
only complete one, is formed principally by
the internal orbital process of the frontal
bone, into the notch of which is received the
OS planum: the ethmoid bone further con-
tributes, and also the sphenoid and palate
bones, the three constituting that irregular
termination of the cavity behind which
represents the apex. The frontal orbital
plate is smooth and slightly concave, and is
united below by a continuation of the trans-
verse suture with the lachrymal bone. Its
border in front, though slightly curvated, is
very irreg-ular, having several notches and
one or two small foramina in it; it also
presents a lillle tubercle, to which the lach-
rymal caruncle is attached. The external
or zygomatic side is formed principally by
■the zygomatic process of the malar bone, that
of the temporal contributing but little : it is
concave, and smooth internally, somewhat
broader below than upwards ; is intersected
obliquely by the zygomatic suture, and has
an interior border, smooth and curvated, a
posterior one, sharp and straight.

Angles. — The supero-intcrnal angles, one
before, the other behind, are formed by the
beginning of the frontal arch, through which,

midway bet^veen them, passes the supra-
orbital foramen. The infero-internal angle
includes the lachrymal fossa. The sujDcro-
external angles, one anterior, the other pos-
terior, are intersected by the suture uniting
the frontal and zygomatic arclics. The
infcro-external angles, particularly the ante-
rior, are rounded and smooth.

Base. — Of the circumfercnt border, the
superior and internal parts, about two-fifths
of the entire circle, are formed by the os
frontis ; the inferior and internal parts, about
one-fifih, by the lachrymal bone; and the
remaining two-fifths by the malar and tem-
poral bones, in the proportion of three parts
of the former to one of the latter.

The apex or back of the orbit, formed by
the ethmoid, sphenoid and palate bones, is
pierced by five foramina: the two round are
the internal orbital and optic, which are
ranged in a row with two oval and larger
in size, the supero-posterior and infero-pos-
tcrior orbital; the one behind is the spinal
foramen.

in.

-CAVITIES OF THE NOSE,

Comprehending the nasal fosste or cham-
bers, and the sinuses. These cavities occupy
about two-thirds of the internal space of
the superior maxilla, the remaining third
belonging to the cranium ; from which they
are partitioned by the cranial septum of the
frontal bone, in union with the cribriform
plates and crest of the ethmoid.

The nasal fossas may be said to include
about two-thirds of the entire space de-
voted to the olfactory cavities. They con-
stitute the interior of 1 he proboscis; have
four boundary walls, one above, one below,
and two laterally ; are separated from each
other by a septum ; but are open both be-
fore and behind.

The superior wall presents an irregular
concave formed by the internal surfaces of
the nasal bones, the cells and grooves of tlie
ethmoid, and small portions of the nasal
surfaces of the palate bones.

The inferior wall is horizontal ; it extends
forward beyond the superior, but is con-
siderably overreached by that wall poste-

THE HORSE.

riorly : it is formed by the palatine por-
tions of the anterior and superior maxillary,
and by llie palate bones. The surface is
transver.-cly coneave, and presents a sligiit
eminence a little behind its middle.

Each lateral wall or side presents an
irregular concavity, and is formed by the
anterior and superior maxillary and the
palaie bones. To it are attached the supe-
rior and inferior turbinated bones, by which
the fossa is divided into tinee separate pas-
sages or meatus. The snpfrior meatus,
comprised between the nasal and superior
turbinated bones, extends from the angle of
the lateral nasal opening, passing over the
ethmoidal cells, to the cribriform plate, fol-
lowing superiorly the declination of the
wall. Tlie middle meatus, included between
the turbinated bones, leads superiorly into
the ethmoidal grooves and cells, and into
the sinuses of the head, and ends below, be-
neath the termination of the superior. This
passage, like the former one, is narrow ; but
its greatest diameter is, obliquely, in the
perpendicular direction ; whereas the other
measures most from side to side. It re-
ceives the apertures' of the ductus ad
nasum, maxillary sinus, ethmoidal grooves,
and turbinated cells. The inferior meatus
is the most capacious as well as the most
direct one : it extends along the inferior
wail, from the anterior to the posterior
opening of the nose.

The septum nasi is the partition separat-
ing one fossa from the other. It is formed,
posteriorly, by the ethmoidal plate; infe-
riorly and posteriorly, by the vomer; supe-
riorly and anteriorly, (and principally) by a
broad perpendicular plate of cartilage.

The openings of the nose are: the ante-
rior, divided by the nasal peak and septum
nasi into two, and formed by the superior
borders of the anterior maxillary bones :
the posterior, divided after the same manner
by the vomer and septum, and formed by
the nasal surfaces and crcscentic borders of
the palate bones.

The sinuses of the head communicate
with, and may be said to constitute part of,
the nasal cavities. They are the frontal,

nasal, maxillary, sphenoidal, ethmoidal, and
palatine.

The frontal sinuses, formed within the
frontal bones, are situated so that a straight
line extended between the supero-internal
angles of the orbits passes opposite to
about the angular or deepest parts of their
cavities. The sinus (on either side) has a
triangular figure. The superior side or roof
is flat, and (barring the septa) even upon
its surface ; whereas the posterior side is
irregular, being convex inwardly, where it
is formed by the cranial septum ; concave
outwardly, where it is opposed to the part
composing the temporal fossa. The infe-
rior side slants from behind forward, and
from below upward, is irregular on its sur-
face, and open or deficient outwardly,
where the cavity communicates yvith the
maxiUary sinus. Of the an<^les, one is
directed upward ; another downward, ter-
minating in the nasal sinus, with v\/hich it
is conjoined, the tv%o forming one continu-
ous cavity; the third points backward, and
is directly opposite to the imaginary trans-
verse line above alluded to. The cavity is
traversed and divided into several unequal
open compartments and recesses by septa ;
the principal of wdiich is one extended be-
tween the superior and inferior sides ; it is
partitioned from the opposite sinus by the
nasal spine. The sinus is but small in the
young compared to its proportionate dimen-
sions in the adult subject : it continues to
increase afterwards with age, and ultimately
extends throughout the whole of the frontal
bone.

The nasal sinuses, formed by the nasal
bones above and the superior turbinated
bones behind, are nothing more than the
culs-de-sacs or blind terminations of the
frontal sinuses.

The maxillary sinuses, the largest of
these cavities, are spacious but very iiTegu-
larly formed. They are situated below and
in front of the frontal. Of this sinus, on
either side, the posterior and external walls
are formed by the malar and lachrymal
bones, v/hose orbital processes constitute a
thin partition between it and the orbit; the

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

inferior parts consist of the excavations in
1 he superior maxillary bone ; superiorly, the
sinus is open, being there continuous with
the frontal : the boundary line between
these cavities is marked by the sutiu-e
uniting the lachrymal to the frontal and
nasal bones on the outer side, and by the
jjrominent crest formed by the junction of
the superior turbinated with the ethmoid
bone on the inner ; underneath which part,
through a curved (and in the recent -subject
sort of valvular) fissure, the sinus opens
into the middle meatus, between the bases
of Uie turbinated bones. The cavity is but
small, and still more irregular, in the young
subject, in consequence of the intrusion of
the yet uncut molar teeth.

The frontal sinus, then, terminates in the
nasal, but both discharge themselves into the
maxillary ; tiie ma.'^iLlary has also a blind
termination, but empties itself into the pos-
terior part of the middle nasal meatus.

The splienoidal sinus is situated wdthin
the palatine portion of the body of the
sphenoid bone. It has no existence in the
young subject, the bone being solid through-
out ; but in process of growth a cavernous
hollov,- is formed, which, from the seces-
sion and attenuation of the laminae of the
bone, continues to enlarge. It communi-
cates, by two ovoid openings, with the eth-
moidal sinuses.

The ethmoidal sinuses are two cavities,
separated by the perpendicular plate, situa-
ted beneath the ethmoidal cells. They
have openings in front, communicating with
the lowermost and largest grooves of the
same bone, and with the palatine sinuses.

The palatine sinuses are formed between
the superior maxillary and palate bones ;
are situated below and in front of the for-
mer ; are separated from each other by the
vomer; and open into the maxillary sinuses:
thev are iri'egular in form and cavernous
interiorly. They are not to be found in the
young subject. Some might be inclined to
treat them as parts of the maxillary sinuses ;
they are, liowever, as |ierfectly distinct from
the latter as the frontal a?e.

IV. THE MOUTH.

The mouth is the cavity included be-
tween the superior and inferior maxillse,
making (in the skeleton) one common va-
cuity with the inter-maxillary space. Its
antero-posterior dimensions can be but
little varied; but its supero-inferior diame-
ter will be increased'in the ratio of the dis-
tance to which the inferior maxilla recedes
from the superior; the cavity during the
distraction of the jaws assuming the figure
of a misplaced > , the angle of which is
turned backward.

The mouth is formed — superiorly, by
the palatine and superior and anterior max-
illary bones ; inferiorly, by the inferior
maxilla; laterally, by the molar teeth; an-
teriorly, by the incisive teeth. Behind,
through the posterior opening of the nose,
it communicates with the nasal fosste.

PERITONEUM.*

The whole of the viscera contained
within the abdomen proper, including the
anterior part of the rectum, bladder, and
vasa deferentia, are either entirely or par-
tially covered by or in contact with perito-
neum. This is a serous membrane reflected
also over the parietes of the abdomen, so
tliat a parietal and visceral or reflected por-
tion require notice. Like other membranes
of the same nature, it forms a closed sac,
which, however, is not the case in the
female, as its cavity communicates with
that of the uterus, owing to the open state
of the Fallopian tubes at their fimbriated
edges.

It is loosely connected with the abdominal
parietes by subserous cellular tissue, and
the same obtains with regard to its connec-
tion with the viscera. But we find some
parts more adherent than others, such as
along the linea alba and cordiform portion
of the diaphragm. Also on the organs it
is but loosely connected with them at their
attached border, where it forms generally a
triangular space, occupied simply by vessels,
nerves, and cellular tissue, and allowing of

* Vrize ICssnv liv Mr. Gaingee.

THE HORSE.

their distention and alteration in figure.
On the other hand, it is more adherent as
it extends over the free surface or margin
of the various parts it is in contact with.

The peritoneum being considered as ex-
tending from the umbilicus over the ab-
dominal parietes towards the median line
of the diaphragm and spine, is found there
to fold on itself, and proceed from the latter
on to the intestine, forming the raesenters ;
and from the former on to the liver and
stomach, constituting ligaments. These
folds of peritoneum are also seen extending
from organs to other parts of the abdominal
parietes, and these also constitute ligaments.
Then they may be traced from one organ
to another, giving rise to the several omenta;
all of which wc shall more especially allude
to as we speak of the peritoneal coat of
each separate viscus.

STOAIACH.

The stomach is the dilated portion of
the alimentary canal, intermediate between
the oesophagus and small intestine: through
the former it receives the ingested aliment,
for which it acts as a reservoir diuing the
process of chymification, the active agent
in which is the gastric secretion.

In the horse, as well as all other soli-
pedes, this viscus is exceptional in not being
the most capacious dilatation of the alimen-
tary canal. M. Colin, in a paper published
in the Recueil dc Medecine Veterinaire
Pratique for June, 1849, states that the
capacity of the horse's stomach is very
variable. He says, that in a very small
horse he found it only nine quarts (accord-
ing to his evaluation by litre, which may
be considered as thirty-four fluid ounces),
while in one of colossal dimensions it was
as much as 33 3-4 quarts, both having died
at the college (Alfort) infirmary. He gives
the average as being from 13 7-20 quarts
to 14 3-5. Then, considering the capacity
of the stomach in relation with that of the
intestmes, he found it in a very small horse
as one to thirteen, while in other two cases
it was as one to ten. He takes the latter

as the standard relative capacity between
the two.

The stomach is situated transversely to
the long axis of the body, in the left hypo-
chondrium, extending into the epigastrium
and diu-ing repletion into the right hypocon-
diiac region. However, its size and situa-
tion vary under different circumstances, as
to whether it be fuU or empty, adapting
itself generally to its contents.

The stomach is fixed on its left side to
the diaphgrara by the ffisophagus, having
the spleen attached to it as well. The
duodenum then, by means of the lesser or
gastro-hepatic omentum, suspends the
pyloric end by getting attached to the con-
cave surface of the liver.

The shape of the stom.ach might be ex-
pressed as being that of a tube bent on
itself, and dilated along its convex border,
so as to form t\vo cul-de-sacs ; i. e., a right
and a left one, whilst it has two borders or
curvatm-es, distinguished as a lesser concave
and a greater convex one. The stomach
has tv.'o smooth surfaces, the anterior one
being in contact v\ith the liver and dia-
phragm, v\^hilst the posterior one corresponds
to the convolutions of the small intestines
and gastric flexture of the colon. It has
two orifices, i. e., a left oesophageal, or com-
monly called cardiac, and a right intestinal
or pyloric one ; the latter taking its name
from the valve by which it is guarded.

A circular depression round the stomach,
midway between the cardiac and pyloric
orifices, most visible when the organ is
replete, marks the external division of the
stomach into a cardiac and pyloric portion,
coiTesponding with the pomt where the
mucuous membrane varies in character in-
ternally. The sacular projection at the
cardiac portion takes the name of fundus,
owing to its greater magnitude as compared
\vith a smaller cul-de-sac at the pyloric end,
the analogue of which in human anatomy
is characterized by the appellation of antrum
pylori.

Having thus briefly described the striking
peculiariries of the stomach, 1 proceed

100

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

with more detail to tlie consideration of
its constituent parts, such as its coats,
nerves and vessels.

The coats of the horse's stomach having
been generally described as four, it appears
needless to altertheir nomenclature, although
the one which I shall allude to as third
might quite as justly be described as second,
or merely spoken of as connecting cellular
tissue, without regarding it as a separate coat.

The external peritoneal tunic is found
proceeding from the diaphragm on to the
cardiac portion of the stomach, surrounding
the oesophageal opening, where it is tough,
and forms the gastro phrenic ligament. Thus
we follow it on to the corresponding surface
of the viscus, and, firstly, more especially
on to the lesser curvature, where it is loosely
connected with the other coats, and, the
middle portion being more adherent, gives
rise to two folds laterally, which seem to
stretch from the cardiac to the pyloric orifices,
to bind the two together, necessarily leaving
a pit or cul-de-sac between them. At the
pyloric end the peritoneum comes off" from
the concave surface of the liver on to the
stomach, constituting the gastro-hepatic or
lesser omentum, the anterior layer of which
comes from the anterior part of the concave
surface of tlie liver, whilst the posterior
layer comes from the posterior part of the
same, so that the two enclose the vessels
going to and from the porta.

Having formed a covering to the corres-
ponding surface of the stomach, the layers
of peritoneum meet at the gi-eater curvature.
In following them from this point the des-
cription will be facilitated by alluding to
the two separately, as they meet to form
the gastro-splenic and gastro-colic omenta,
as Vvell as the omental sac. In forming
the latter, they so blend as merely to con-
stitute a faie reticulated vascular layer, in-
separable into two, except near (lie margins
of the viscera. Distinguisliing Ihc anterior
or external layer as A, and the posterior or
internal one as B, their arrangement admits
of exposition in the following terms: —

A passes from the anterior surface of the
stomach, forms the loose omentum, and gets

on to the transverse colon and spleen.
Reaching the latter, it is reflected over its
superior surface at the posterior margin of
the hiius, so as to contribute to the form-
ation of the gastro-splenic omentum, and
extends round the free posterior margin of
the viscus on to the inferior surface, passing
to the right on to the left kidney, and,
anteriorly reaching the supero-anterior part
of the spleen, is reflected from it so as to
continue as the outer layer of the loose
omentum. Further to the right, A is trace-
able on to the inferior surface of the trans-
verse colon, and, extending round the pos-
terior part of the latter, is found to ascend
up to the spine, and then turn backward
and downward to form the mesentery.

B, or the internal layer of peritoneum,
passes from the posterior surface of the
stomach till it reaches the infero-anterior
border of the transverse colon, as well as the
hilus of the spleen. After covering the an-
terior surface of the colon, it ascends up to
the pillars of the diaphragm clothing the
anterior part of the pancreas, which is thus
held between A and B, or layers of, I he trans-
verse meso-colon. A little to the left of this,
B passes on to the anterior margin of the
hilus of the spleen, forming the inner or pos-
terior layer of the gastro-splenic omentum.

From this arrangement it results that the
peritoneum, in forming the lesser or gastro-
hepatic, the gi-eater or gastro colic, and the
gastro-splenic omenta, closes in a space
termed the omental sac, the interior of
which is inaccessible except by an opening
at the posterior part of the gastro hepatic
omentum, whose free margin at the right
side marks the point where it may be pene-
trated; this passage is termed the foramen
of WinsloVi". It is bounded anteriorly by
the lesser omentum, above by the liver, and
posteriorly by the transverse colon.

Thus, supposing the inner layer of the
omental sac to be separable from the outer,
and drawn out through the foramen of
Winslow, the following parts would be de-
prived of peritonaeum, i. e., the posterior
surface of the stomach, the gastro splenic
omentum of its posterior layer ; so that the

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XL

MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.

o". Trapezius.

b". Rhomboideus longus.

,S. Splcniur,.

c". Scalenus.

p". Pcctoralis transvcv.^alis.

/". Antoa spinatus.

(/". Postca sijinatus.

/;''. Teres major.

»'". Latis.siraus dorsi.

J". A portion of the cerrat'.'" niMjuus.

A". " Iluincro rnOilal."

r. ?;i". li". Triceps extensor brachii : inapfinim. T:icdium, et ]iar\Tjm.

(;". Pcctoralis magnus.

p. Flexors.

(]". Flexor metacarpi externus.

)■". '■ " inlernus.

s". Extensor metacarpi magnus.

x". Extensor pedis.

a'. Levatores costarura.

c'. Obliquus externus alidorainis.

d'. Obliquus internus ah(l-...i_;j.

r/'. Ref;ion of the patella.

Ii'. i. Glutei muscles.

ni'. Tensor vaginiE,

n'. }lcetus.

o'. Vastus externus.

7'. Flexor metatarsi.

»•'. fJastrocnemius exlernus.

/'. Flexor pcdi.s accessorius.

;/. Sierno maxillaris.

V. Internal i)art of the levator l.„i;;3ti

//'. I'eroneu*.

x'. Extensor ped!>.-.

J: Trieep'

d. Regir.

VEINS.

3. Jugular vein.

4. Subcutaneous thoracic vein.
0. Saphena vein.

6. "iiaAU'.l vein.

J). Serratus magnus muscic.

OSSEOUS STKUCTLT.E.

rf.

/•

c. e.

Dorsal spines.

Ulnar.

Fibula.

16.

True ribs.

17.

False ribs.

IS.

Sternum.

ID.

Ileum.

Femur.

23.

Patella.

2i.

Tibia.

Os humeri.

3.3.

Radius.

THE HORSE.

101

vessels going to and from the stomach and
spleen would remain uncovered, the anterior
part of the transverse colon, the anterior
surface of tlie pancreas, and inner or pos-
terior layer of the gastro hepatic omentum.

Next to be described to the serous coat
is the muscular one, whicli is constituted of
involuntary plain fibres, vv"hose thickness is
very variable in different subjects, as well as
in different parts of the same stomach.
The cardiac end is more muscular than the
jiyloric, except at the right margin of the
latter, where it is very powerful and thick,
as it smTOunds the pylorus. The thinnest
part of the stomach is unquestionably the
convex border of the lesser cul-de-sac.

The muscular coat of the stomach is in-
tricately arranged, and authorities differ
vastly from each other in the description of
the several layers constituting it. The
number of layers entering into its compo-
sition is three : the outer and inner ones are
mostly continuations of the inner layers of
the ossophagus, while the middle one is pro-
per to the stomach.

The outer layer is composed of the
longitudinal fibres of the oesophagus : as
these reach the cardiac end of the stomach,
they form a peculiar turn, whereby the dis-
tribution on the surfaces as a flat layer is
facilitated. Some of the fibres of this layer
dip down to join the deeper ones, while
others continue onwards as the longitudinal
fibres of the duodenum. As to the fibres
which .proceed on to the curvatures, they
are not so intricate, as they descend directly
from the portion of the oesophagus opposite
the part they supply, so that the only alter-
ation in direction is that of diverging a lit-
tle from each other, and pursuing the bent
course of the corresponding gastric curva-
ture. On the lesser one they soon become
scanty, and are lost in the circular fibres of
the body of the stomach : very few of them
are traced on to the pylorus. The fibres
proceeding on to the greater curvature are
mingled with other considerable bundles
taking the same direction, but vrhich are not
traceable on to the cesophagus, as they seem
to pass round each side of the cardia, and

blend with the eiretalar fibres on the lesser
curvature.

The middle layer consists of annular
fibres, which, tliough scanty as they encircle
the extreme left end of the stomach, increase
in bulk towards the middle part of the
organ, and are especially developed at the
lesser curvature. They again decrease over
the antrum pylori, but are ultimately greatly
developed for the formation of a powerful
sphincter at the pylorus.

The internal or oblique fibres of tlie
stomach have somewhat the same aiTange-
ment as the deep layer of fibres of the
oesophagus, although not perfectly identical,
as they are arranged like hoops placed one
within the other ; but while in the former
the one set enters the other without inter-
section, in the latter there is a partial decus-
sation by separate bundles. Thus, in real-
ity, the oblique fibres of the stomach are
constituted of two layers, the one proceed-
ing from the left end of the stomach on to
the right, which pass internally to the next
layer : this one proceeds from the right of
the cardia on to the fundus. Owing to the
scantiness of circular fibres at the base of
each cul-de-sac, the fibres are here in con-
tact with the superficial longitudinal ones.
The obliqtte fibres are best studied by dis-
secting from within, and, after removing
these, the circular fibres come into view
with greater ease than by attempting to
expose them from without.

The third coat of the stomach consists
merely of the cellular tissue existing be-
tween the muscular and mucus coals, as
well as connecting the former to the outer
serous tunic, in which case it is more abund-
ant and firm nearest the cm-vatures. There
it is situated between the muscular and mu-
cus coats : it was named by the ancients,
on account of its white aspect, the Tunica
Nervosa. It is loose in some parts and
firm in others ; not only serving to connect
parts together, but also to form a medium
in which vessels ramify for the supply of
the organ.

The internal or mucus coat of the stom-
ach differs in the cardiac from the pyloric

102

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

end, as in the former it is but a mere con-
tinuation of the unmodified mucus lining
of the oesophagus, being characteristic for
its scantiness in gland and but limited sup-
ply of blood. The most marked feature it
possesses is that of being covered by a cuti-
cular layer of extreme thickness, easily
separable from t!ie basement structure be-
neath after slight maceration or boiling.
The cardiac portion of the gastric mucus
lining is, in a healthy stomach, of a dirty
white, bcdcwcd by more or less mucus,
and thrown into folds which have a radiated
arrangement at the cardiac orifice, whilst at
the fundus they are concentrically an'anged.
This portion of the membrane is also fur-
nished with papills3 ; and Sprott Boyd, in
an Inaugural Essay on the structure of the
Mucus Membrane of the Stomach, pub-
lished in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgi-
cal Journal for 1836, describes a very marked
])cculiarity of an interposed layer between
the epithelium and papiilated surface of the
mucus lining. This intermediate layer, he
says, has a smooth equal surface, perforated
by numerous foramina about tiie 600th of
an inch in diameter, or perhaps a little
smaller, the margins of which are slightly
thickened. He afterwards states that he
has not been able to trace in the epiithelium
of any other animal a structure similar to
that existing in the horse. These peculiar-
ities in the left pouch of the stomach cease
abruptly midway the length of the viscus,
where the cuticular lining terminates by a
seiTatcd edge.

The mucous lining of the riglit end of
the stoniach is normally of a reddish color,
and presents a vilious, glistening aspect,
coated thickly with mucus, and also pos-
sessing a high degree of vascularity ; the
epithelium is here scanty, but nevertheress
tabular. The villous appearance above
referred to suggests itself also when the sur-
face is examined by the naked eye and by
the aid of a lens ; but it is deceptive, as
has been already remarked by Sprott Boyd,
who correctly refers it to the raised margins
of the arolsc which stud the surface. This
portion of the gastric mucus membrane is

also thrown into folds, whieli become grad-
ually more marked towards the pylorus;
whereas they are susceptible of obliteration
by distention, there is one circular fold at
the pylorus which is permanent, and so dis-
posed as to fulfil the ofiice of a valve.

The arteries of the stomach are derived
from the coeliac axis, whose three divisions,
i. e. gastric, hepatic, and splenic, all contri-
bute to supply blood to the viscns ; but the
first is specially destined to that office. The
gastric artery, being the smallest of the
three divisions, take.; a course downwards,
forwards, and rather to the right, -across the
pancreas, getting between the layers of the
gastro-hepatic omentum. Being then di-
rected to the left towards the lesser curva-
ture, it divides into an anterior left or smaller
branch, and a posterior right and more
capacious as well as longer one. The an-
terior division is destined to supply the
anterior surface of the stomach, and more
especially the left cul-de-sac, anastomos-
ing with branches (sometimes called vasa
breva), coming on to the stomach from the
splenic. This division of the gastic also
anastomoses with oesophageal tv.igs, which
are occasionally of considerable size. The
posterior or right division of the gastric
artery, destined for the pyloric end of the
stomach, anastomoses v^'ith some splenic
branches, but more especially v/ith the py-
loric branches of the hepatic artery.

The veins returning the blood from the
stomach are the gastric and splenic, which
anastomose with the duodenal veins. These
all have a few valve:;-, but they may be easily
injected from the porta into which they
empty, owing to their very free anastomosis.

The lymphatics of the stomach are nu-
merous, and in some parts very apparent,
entering the lymphatic glands situated along
the greater cm-vature and around the cardia,
v/here they are numerous and large.

The stomach is supplied with nerves
from both the cerebro spinal and sympathetic
or ganlionic system. The pneumogastric
or par vagna nerves, arising from the me-
dulla oblongata, are the main conductors
of nervous influence to and from that vis-

THE HORSE.

10£

cus.. Their arrangement is simple, as, after
they liavc formed various plexuses within
the thorax, in which they mutually inter-
cliange tibrcs, tiiey reach the diaphragm,
and here are arranged as two nervous
branches, i. e., a superior and an inferior
one. The former is principally destined for
the fundus, whilst the latter supplies the
pyloric end, and sends branches oft' to the
duodenum, with one or two to the solar
plexus.

The sympathetic fibres, destined for the
stomach, are derived from the solar plexus,
descending on to the viscus, in company
with the vessels.

INTESTINE.

This term is applied to that portion of
the alimentary canal extending between the
pylorus and anus, destined for the temporary
retention of the chymous mass, so that
its nutrient parts may be absorbed, whilst
its more solid, indigestible constituents, are
collected for excretion.

The intestine in all monogastria, but es-
pecially in solipeda, occupies by far the
greatest part of the abdominal cavity. The
bonds of attachment to the various parts of
the latter are contracted by the intestine,
through its peritoneal investment, more
especially to the spine, constituting mesen-
ters, which I shall especially allude to when
describing with more detail each portion of
tliis capacious tube.

Not only the attachments, but also the
shape of the intestine, vary at different parts
of its com-se, so that it has been deemed
necessary to divide it, either arbitrarily or at
natural demarcations. Thus we speak of
the small and large intestine, the two being
separated naturally by a marked change in
direction, size, and confirmation.

It is also obvious that, as the situation, at-
tachment, and shape of each portion of the
intestinal canal differ, so must the relations
be equally distinct, and further mention of
them will therefore be reserved for fuller
exposition elsewhere.

SMALL INTESTINE.

This, the smallest although longest, is
also the first portion of the intestinal tube,
extending from the pylorus to its sudden
termination into the large intestine. In it
the chymified mass is subjected to the modi-
fying influence of important secretions,
whereby its nutritive parts are fitted for
absorption by the vessels, which, for this pur-
pose, are arranged in this portion of the in-
testinal track.

The small intestine has been divided into
three parts: this classification is, however,
purely conventional. Since it does not
recognize anatomical differences for its basis,
it might justly be presumed that this dis-
tinction of human anatomists exhibited
traces of imperfection, even when applied
to the frame of man. Such being the case,
it is no matter of surprise that, in referring
the distinction to the intestinal canal of
animals, the incongruities of the system
should be still more apparent.

Extending from the pylorus, the first por-
tion is termed the duodenum, from its being
considered as twelve fingers' breadth in
length : it is, however, extended round to
the left side of the spine, posteriorly to the
anterior mesenteric artery. The middle, or
floating portion of gut, takes the name of
jejunum, and the third, or csecal portion, is
distinctively designated ileum.

The duodenum forms a wide curve from
the pylorus round to the right, being situated
under the concave surface of the fiver, pass-
ing above the transverse colon, so as to
attain the posterior part of the mesentery,
and, reaching the left side of the spine,
comes in contact with the colon, where it is
said to end in the jejunum. The duodenum
is fixed by the gastro-hepatic omentum to
the concave surface of the liver, Ihc layers
of which enclose tiie biliary and pancreatic
ducts, whereby this bond of union is still
farther strengthened. The peritoneum com-
insf from the ri2;ht and spigelian lobes of the
liver, as well as from the right kidney, forms
a loose attachment for the duodenum by

104

ANATOMY AND PHi'SIOLOGY OF

extending on to the hepatic flexure of the
colon, after it has surrounded the first-named
gut. The next portion of intestine is at-
tached to the spine transversely to the long
axis of the body ; winding round the mes-
entery to the left of the aorta, it gets at-
tached to the gastric flexure of the colon,
and here it proceeds, under the name of
jejunum, along the free borders of the
mesentery.

As to the shape of the duodenum, from
the pylorus to the right of the porta, we
find its dimensions so very great as to have
suggested to the ancients the similitude be-
tween it and the stomach, of which they
regarded it in some degree as an analogue,
as testified by the appellation " Ventriculus
Succenturiatus," given to it by them. Fur-
ther from the pylorus, we find it constricts
and assumes a certain caliber, which it
maintains till it loses its name for that of
jejunum.

With reference to the relations of the
duodenum, it may be stated that they ad-
mit of detail on account of the fixedness
of that portion of the gut, an attribute with
which it is endowed in contradistinction
to the jejunum and ileum. In the first
portion of its course, i. e., from the py-
lorus to the posterior part of the right
lobe of the liver, the duodenum by its
upper surface is in contact with the con-
cave surface of the latter organ, crossing
the vena portae, near which it is pierced by
the biliary and pancreatic ducts, which
enter it at about five or six inches from the
pylorus, forming an acute angle with each
other. The inferior surface of the duo-
denum rests on the transverse colon, and
its superior margin is in close contact with
the anterior part of the head of the pan-
creas.

Round to the right, the duodenum is in
contact with the hepatic flexure of the
colon, right and Spigalian lobes of the liver,
as well as the right kidney. To reach the
spine it has to cross the direction of the
right flexure of the colon, getting behind
the mesentery and gastric flexure of the

colon, where it is connected with thi. left
kidney.

Alluding next to the general anatomical
facts as applied to the jejunum, so called
on account of its usual vacuity after death,
the limit between it and (he ileum is de-
fined by imagining the small intestine, with
the exception of the duodenum, divided
into five equal portions, of which the first
two take the name of jejunum, whilst the
last three-fifths receive that of ileum.

The jejunum is suspended superiorly
from the spine by an extensive fold of per-
itoneum, termed mesentery, which serves
also as a medium for the passage of the
mesenteric arteries, veins and nerves, as well
as for chyliferous vessels, to take their
course towards the receptaculum chyli, sit-
uated to the left of the aorta.

The width of the jejunum is far from
being uniform, it being more constricted at
some points than at others: its narrowest
part is that which is contiguous to the
ileum.

The ileum is the terminating portion of
the small intestine, so called from the tor-
tuous course it takes, emptying itself into
the large intestine at the junction of the
ccecum and colon, by an orifice provided
with a valve.

The first portion of the ileum is simply
attached by mesentery to the spine ; but,
in addition to this, in the last part of its
course, the gut is connected with the caecum
by a fold of peritoneum, which is not large
enough to prevent them deviating more
than an acute angle from each other.

The ileum is, on the whole, the narrow-
est portion of the small intestine, but the
thickest in its coats.

Having now especially to describe the
structure of the small intestine, it may be
taken as a whole, merely alluding to local
peculiarities.

This portion of the alimentary canal has
four coats, to be described in the same
order by those of the stomach, {. e. peri-
toneal, muscular, cellular, and internal
mucus.

THE HORSE,

105

The first, or the peritonea), has nothing
pecuUar, beyond its enclosing a little trian-
gular space all along the upper attached
border of (he gut. The looseness of the
peritoneal folds attaching the small intes-
tine is very marked ; and Colin (Soc. cit.)
notes, (hat the mesentery is propordonately
larger in young than in adult quadrupeds,
so that the gradual shortening of this ex-
plains the spontaneous reduction of exom-
phalus or umbilical hernia.

The second, or muscular coat, is mostly
developed at the commencement of the
duodenum and terminating portion of the
ileum. It consists of white involuntary
fibres, arranged so as to form an outer
longitudinal layer, and an inner circular one,
bofh of which completely encircle the gat.

The third, or cellular coat, is similar to
that of the stomach, in being disposed in
tAvo layers, so as to connect the three coats
together. It is especially condensed on the
inner surface of the muscular coat, so as to
take the appearance of a fibrous tunic, at-
tached to the mucus lining by loose cel-
lular tissue.

The fourth, or mucus, coat is thin, hav-
ing a velvet appearance, due to villi, pecu-
liarly small in the intestines of the horse,
but remarkably developed in other animals,
especiall)' carnivora and fishes. The villi
may be seen by a pocket lens, on a well-
washed piece of intestinal mucus mem-
brane, and between (hem are seen numer-
ous foramina, which are (he openings of
tubular glands, known as the crypts of Lie-
berkuehn.

In addition to the tubular glands, by dis-
secting, from without, the muscular from
the mucus coat, lining the commencement
of the duodenum, we find clusters of vesi-
cles, similar to the vesicular structure of the
salivary and pancreatic glands. These
form distinct layers, provided with ducts,
which open on the free surface of the mem-
brane ; and Dr. Todd states that Brunner's
glands, or, as he calls them, the duodenal,
are more developed in the horse than in any
other animal he has hitherto examined them
in.

We have next to treat of the solitary
glands — glandulae solitariEe — peculiar and
rather scanty bodies, visible at various parts
of the small intestine. These are vesicu-
lar, and without any opening when in the
perfect state, surrounded by villous pro-
cesses and Lieberkuehnian follicles. Some
of the villi also project from the surface of
the so-called glands, which are most ap-
parent when distended with secretion.

About the second half of the jejunum,
and along the whole of the ileum, we see
longitudinal patches, varying from half an
inch to even three inches in length, scat-
tered all over, but more especially situated
near the superior or attached border of the
small intestine, which is contrary to the
faulty description of some recent authors.
These patches, distinguished as Peyer's
glands or patches, also as Agminated glands
— Gladdulas agminatae seu aggregatee — con-
sist of an accumulation of small bodies, each
resembling a glandula solitaria in miniature,
being also destitute of a natural aperture.
Colin (loc. cit.) states that they are first
seen at a distance of about six feet and a
half from the pylorus, and the least num-
ber of them he has ever counted has been
102, whilst the utmost has been 158.

The mucus membrane of the small in-
testine is thrown into folds, at difi'erent,
parts, which are transverse, and scalloped
near the pylorus, whilst in other parts they
are mostly longitudinal ; these are all tem-
porary folds. There is no such arrange-
ment as the valulcs conniventes in the small
intestines of the horse, though recent wri-
ters of great eminence have described them.
About five inches from the pylorus, at
the superior border of the duodenum, is a
semicircular fold, which, if elevated, ad-
mits of the finger being thrust behind it
into the wide biliary duct. The opening
of the pancreatic duct is also visible beneath
this fold, but it is not so capacious as the
one last mentioned.

LARGE IMTESTINE.

The large intestine constitutes the termi-
nating portion of the alimentary canal,

106

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

being remarkably more developed in soli-
pedes than in any other of our domestic-
quadrupeds. It occupies the greater part
of the abdomen, and most of it is loose,
Vv'hilst its shape and other peculiarities vary
considerably at diiferent points.

It is divided into three parts — cEecum,
colon, and rectum — the precise extent of
each being defined by special anatomical
characters.

The position of the large intestine being
constant, it is necessary, for sake of pre-
cision, to speak of the whole as to the
course it takes in forming the three divis-
ions, extending thus between the small
intestine and anus.

The ctccum, or blind pouch, is the first
gut, which protrudes in the middle on cut-
ting through the abdominal walls at the
linea alba. Its bend or blind extremity is
projecting into the left hypochondriac
region ; its body crosses obliquely the floor
of the abdomen, to reach the right iliac
region, where it suddenly bends at an acute
angle, being rather constricted, and forms
the colon. At this part the latter receives
the ileum, and extends up the right side of
the abdomen to the diaphragm, where it
traverses the direction of the spine, resting on
the ensiform cartilage ; turning round the left
side, it attains the left iliac fossa posteriorly,
where it forms a twist like a letter S, from
wliich similitude it has been termed the Sig-
moid Flexure of the Colon. The gut,
having diminished in size, returns up the
same side of the abdomen to the diaphragm,
where it again crosses the spine. Being
now on the right side, it continues back
to a point beyond the anterior mesenteric
artery, where it turns upward and for-
ward, so as to come in front of the artery
in question ; then, from right to left, so as
to cross tlie spine for the third time, consti-
luting the transverse colon, which is more
capacious than the part preceding it. The
two curves which it forms, one on the right
and the other on the left, are respectively
called the hepatic and gastric flexures of
the colon. The gut so proceeds backward
along the left side of the mesentery, being

diminished again in size, and constituting
the single colon, i ill we get to the posterior
] mesentery artery, where, unaltered in other
respects, it takes a straight course through
the pelvis, out at l!ie anus, and hence the
name of Rectum.

The ca;cum so called from having only
one outlet, being closed at its anterior part,
or caecum caput coli, from its being the
blind head of the colon, is vulgarly termed
the water-bag, owing to the almost invari-
able fluidity of its contents.

It is situated, as I have before said, ob-
liquely along the floor of the abdomen, ex-
tending backwards from left to right.

It is attached to the spine by a meso-
cseum, which is a fold of peritoneum, com-
ing ofl" from the spine on to the superior
part of the pouch. There is then the fold
already alluded to, which stretches from the
ileum on to the cEecum, and, through the
medium of the mesentery, indirectly con-
necting the latter with the spine.

The ccecum is cone-shaped, having an
apex and a broad base. The former gene-
rally protrudes the first, when a medium
longitudinal incision is made into the
abdominal walls, although it is situated
above the left portion of the double colon,
whilst the Liver is directly in contact with
the floor of the abdomen. Like the other
divisions of the large intestine, the CBBcnm
is sacculated. The bands producing this
appearance are three in number at the
apex ; but between two and three inches
from this, one of them bifmxates, so that
four bands result, which are continuous on
to the colon.

The colon arising from the caecum, re-
ceives at first the contents of the ileum,
being situated along and occupying tlie
greater part of the floor of the abdomen.

The colon is generally distinguished as
double and single. By double, is meant
the flexures of the gut from its commence-
ment to its gastric cm've ; whilst by the
single colon, is understood the continuation
of the same intestine to the part where the
rectum commences.

The double colon is attached by the peri-

THE HORSE.

107

toneum coming off on to it from the cse-
nim, ill the right iliac fossa, and continues
from the outer flexure on to the inner, so as
to keep the two in perfect apposition. Thus,
if the abdominal parietes are cut tlirough,
the whole of the double colon may hang
out, with the exception of the transverse
portion. The latter is attached to the right
Iddney, as well as concave rurface of the
liver, by folds of peritoneum ; to the spine
by the transverse meso-colon ; and still
more to the left, it is loosely attached by
the gastrocohc omentum to the stomach
and spleen; besides which it has a peri-
toneal attachment to the left kidney. Then
the single colon commencing, it is loosely
affixed to the spine by an extensive peri-
toneal fold, the meso-colon, similar to the
mesentery, but smaller and to its left : this
fold is continuous posteriorly with the meso-
rectum.

The relations of the (Tansverse colon are
important, no less than interesting, inas-
much as it is in close connection with the
most important abdominal viscera. On the
right, its upper surface is contiguous to the
right kidney, as well as to the right and
Spigelian lobes of the liver. In the middle,
its superior surface is connected priiici-
pally with the pancreas ; and to the left,
but still superiorly, it approaches the left
kidney and spleen. Anteriorly, the stomach
also touches it, especially during repletion.

The shape of the colon is very variable
in different parts of its course. Thus, the
first portion of the double colon, from the
right iliac fossa till it forms the sigmoid
flexure, is capacious and sacculated; the
latter being due to the four bands con-
tinuous on to it from the caecum. At the
sigmoid flexure the bands are completely
lost, so that the gut is smooth ; but, as we
extend up towards the diaphragm, the an-
terior band begins, and then the posterior
one becomes apparent; so that the trans-
verse and single portions of the colon
are puckered by two longitudinal bands.

The Rectum, so called from its compar-
ative straight course through the pelvic
cavity, arises from the single colon, a little

anteriorly to the posterior mesenteric artery,
and ends at the anus, where its mucus
membrane is continuous with the common
tegumentary covering. It is attached in its
anterior two-thirds by a meso-rectum ; the
posterior third is an exception 1o any other
part of the intestinal track, in so far as it
is connected to adjacent parts by special
faschiEB, and at its termination by certain
muscles hereafter to be dwelt upon.

The size of the rectum is much the same
as the single colon. It is puckered in its
anterior part by two longitudinal bands ;
and the sacculi, resulting therefrom, deter-
mine the shape of the fsecal nxatters.

The rectum is superiorly related to the
spine, whilst inferiorly it comes in contact
with the bladder, bulbous portions of the
vasa deferentia, vesiculffi seminales, and
prostate.

The structure of the large intestine does
not vary essentially from that of the small,
! as it possesses the four coats, i. c. peritoneal,
j muscular, cellular, and internal mucus.

The peritoneal tunic forms an enth-e cov-
ering to (he large intestine, with the excep-
tion of the superior surface of the trans-
j verse colon — which is in contact with the
' pancreas — and the terminating portion of
the rectum. The bands by which it unites
the intestine to other parts have been already
described. In addition to the peritoneum
•forniLng an entire covering to the gut, at
the attached margin of the flexures of the
colon it constitutes folds loaded with fat,
varying in width in diflerent parts, and clus-
tered so as to have desened the name of
appendices epiploicae

The

is differently developed in various parts.
Its fibres are of the plain variety, and ar-
ranged in two orders. The outer longitud-
inal set is scanty in some parts, but in others
forms the longitudinal bands above alluded
to. These are shorter than the actual length
of the gut itself, so as effectually to pucker
it. The number of longitudinal bands
varies from one (o four in various parts of
the gut, and the shape and breadth of the
latter is not everywhere the same. The

muscular coat of the large intestine

108

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

longitudinal fibres are abundant in the rec-
tum, but they only form bands in the ante-
rior two-thirds, as posteriorly to this they
uniformly surround the gut. The inner
layer of fibres encircles the whole of the
gut, being thickest towards the apex of the
csEcum, as well as in the single colon and
rectum ; at the end of the latter the inter-
nal sphincter-ani is formed by an accumu-
lation of the circular fibres. The circular
fibres of the colon are engaged in forming
the ileo-colic valve, hereafter to be described.

The cellular coat of the large intestine
resembles that of the small, only not so
abundant, except at the terminating portion
of the rectum, where it is mvich more de-
veloped.

The mucous lining of the large intestine
is continuous anteriorly with that of the
ileum, posteriorly with the common integu-
ment. It is thin, more or less coated with
mucus, scantier in glands than the one of
the small intestine ; but the orifices of the
(jieberkuehnian crypts are more apparent,
owing to the surface here being destitute of
villi. Saccular recesses, more or less capa-
cious, exist in the membrane lining the
large intestine. The diti'erence in degree
of vascularity gives rise to difference in the
color of the mucus coat in various portions
of the gut: thus, that lining the csecum is
generally more deeply colored than that of
the colon, whilst the rectal mucus mem-
brane is more vascular, and hence redder
than the colic or coecal one.

At the termination of the ileum is the
ileo-colic or ileo-c£Ecal valve, which is con-
stituted of two folds of mucus membrane,
almost parallel to each other, and horizontal,
leaving between them an eliptical orifice
when partially drawn asunder. The folds
consist of the circular fibres of the intes-
tine, lined on the iimer or ileac side by the
villous membrane of the small, whilst on
the csecal and colic side they are covered by
the mucus membrane proper to the large
intestine. It is worthy of notice, that
though muscular fibres partly enter into the
construction of the valve, its efficiency is
explicable on purely mechanical grounds, as

proved by the fact, that it is competent in
the dead body.

The anus is the outlet of the intestine,
which is perfectly closed, except during the
evacuation of feculent matters, and is made
perceptible externally by the elevation of the
tail, being situated in a space bounded su-
periorly by the sacrum and coccyx, lateraUy
by the ischial tuberosities, and interiorly by
the urethra in the male and vulva in the
female.

It is lined within by the mucus mem-
brane of llie rectum, which is loose and of
a marked red color. Its external covering
is of comnion integument, destitute of hairs.
Lying between the skin and mucus mem-
brane are two circular muscles, whose office
is to keep the anus closed and prevent con-
stant evacuation of faeces, whilst there are
other muscular appendages situated exter-
nally to these, destined either to elevate or
retract the anus, being evidently antagonis-
tic to the sphincters.

The internal sphincter-ani is in contact
with the attached surface of the intestinal
mucus membrane, and separated from the
integument by the external one. It is con-
stituted of the pale circular fibres of the gut,
but towards its free edge certain colored
fibres are apparent on it.

The external sphincter is situated outside
the internal one, and within the anal integu-
ment: it is circular, and composed of red
fibres, attached superiorly under the first
coccygeal bone, and interiorly its fibres
blend in the male subject in the accelerator
uriuEB and triangularis penis, and in the
female with the constrictor vaginae.

The levatores-ani are two pale muscles,
attached on each side of the first coccygeal
bones, and, spreading downward and for-
ward on to the rectum, form an attachment
for the internal sphincter, and blending with
the longitudinal fibres, so as to increase the
tliickness of the muscular coat of the rec-
tum. The action of these muscles must
be that of elevating the anus, and shorten-
ing the rectum from before backward.

The retractors proper to the anus are one
on each side attached to the inner surface of

THE HORSE.

109

the articular extremity of tlie ischium. Ex-
tending from before backward, and rather
upward, they blend whh the external
sphincter. Their action i:~ obviously that
of retracting the anal opening.

VESSELS, NERVES, AND LY.MPHATICS OF THE
INTESTINE.

The intestinal canal, as a whole, receives
arterial blood from the anterior and poste-
rior mesenteric arteries, hepatic branch of
the coeliac axis, with branches from the in-
ternal pudic. The arteries of the small in-
testine are derived from lhe anterior mesen-
teric, whose divisions, varying from twenty-
four to twenty-eight, proceed to the small
intestine, with the exception of four, which
minister to the nutrition and functions of
the large intestine. The branches extend-
ing from the main trunk, at acute angles,
proceed between the layers of the mesen-
tery, to within one and a half or two inches
from the gut, where they anastomose, form-
ing vascular arches, from which the second-
ary branches arise, and, proceeding on to the
intestine, ramify on the several coats, espe-
cially the mucus one. The anterior division
of the anterior mesenteric artery, proceeding
to the duodenum, anastomoses with the duo-
denal branch of the hepatic artery. The
last iliac division inosculates with the cscal
and colic branches of the same trunk.

The cfEcum and colon receive arterial
blood solely from the branches derived from
the anterior mesenteric, \\'ith a slight contri-
bution from the posterior mesenteric arteries.
The branches of the former originate oppo-
site the flexure made by the caecum and
colon. The ccecal divisions, two in num-
ber, proceed downw^ard and forward till
they reach the gut. The posterior one
passes round the posterior part of the bor-
der of the caecum, to get on the under sur-
face of the latter, extending to the apex, in
somewhat a straight course, and ramifying
collaterally; at its termination it forms a
vascular network, by anastomosis with the
superior cascal artery. The latter one, reach-
ing the gut, extends directly fonvard towards
the ape.x, and comports itself like the former.

Thus we see the flexure, formed by the
caecum and colon, is supplied l)v collateral
branches, from liic superior and inferior
ca?cal mesenteric divisions, both these anas-
tomosing on the corres|)onding surfaces with
the colic arterial trunks.

The two branches going to the colon ex-
tend, about jiarailel to each other, down-
wards and forwards and to the left, the one
gaining the cff'cal end of the colon, whilst
the other proceeds on to the hepatic flexure.
Then these may be traced, the one back-
ward and the other forward, relatively to
the course of the gut, along its superior
border, so as to reach the sigmoid flexure,
where they mutually inosculate. From the
mesenteric division going to the transverse
colon, is a branch proceeding on to the
single portion, which anastomoses poste-
riorly with the posterior mesenteric. This
vessel divides first into two branches, i. c.
an interior colic and a posterior rectal one.
The anterior colic branch is directed for-
ward and downward between the layers
of the meso-colon, and divides into four or
five branches, which bifurcate and form
arches, like the arteries of the small intes-
tine, for the supply of the contiguous gut.
The arteries of the rectum are sometimes
spolien of as haemorrhoidals, and these are
distinguished as anterior, middle, and pos-
terior. The anterior lia:morrhoidals are
formed by the hindermost branch of tiie
posterior mesenteric artery, wiiich, passing
into the folds of the meso-rectum, supplies
consecutive branches to the gut, till, poste-
riorly to the peritoneum, where the arteries
pierce the muscular coat, and, forming a
network of vessels, anastomose with the
middle haemorrhoidals, which are the ramifi-
cations of the internal pudic* These inos-
culate with the posterior haemorrhoidals
derived from the same source. The anus
is then supplied with blood from the last
named branches, as well as from perineal
twigs of the external pudic.

The veins of the intestine accompany the

* This arterv sometime?, erroneously, goes by the name
of its terminating branch — Uie artery of the bulb.

110

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

arteries, and arc equally distributed. The
posterior mesenteric vein is formed by sim-
ilar divisions to those coming off from the
posterior mesenteric artery, and then the
main trunk extends forwards and enters the
porta, near the termination of the splenic.
At this spot the veins from the small intes-
tine, as well as from the caecum and double
flexures of the colon, also contribute to
form the large portal trunk.

The nerves of the intestines are derived
from the solar plexus, and Ihey are found in
association with the arteries. The duo-
denum also receives branches from the par
vagum nerves, and the rectum and anus are
supplied also by divisions of the two last
sacral pairs.

The lacteal and lymphatic vessels of the
intestine are anatomically alike, and even
physiologically they admit of being com-
prehended under the same term, " lym-
phatic," because both absorb the fluid known
as lymph. But since the lymphatics of the
small intestine additionally contribute to
the function of chyliferous absorption, they
have been distinguished as lacteals, in con-
formity with the color of the fluid which
they take up during the digestive pro-
cess.

The lacteals of the small, and lymphatics
of the large intestine, enter a set of lym-
phatic glands, by no means numerous, and
of small size, situated along the attached
border of the gut. From these the lacteals
ascend to about twenty-five or thirty lym-
phatic glands of larger size than the others,
situated at a short distance from the spine,
between the folds of the mesentery, from
which the lyiujih is then conducted into the
receptaculum chyli. From the large intes-
tine the lymphatics enter, in addition to the
intestinal set of glands, others situated in
the lumbar region, partly between the folds
of the meso-colon and meso-rectum, from
which the lymph is carried into the common
reservoir.

The receptaculum chyli receives the fluid
from the lymphatic vessels of all the ab-
dominal viscera, as well as from other parts.
It is a membranous pouch of various

(■alibre, lying in contact with the right crus
of the diaphragm, and right psoas muscle,
corresponding in situation to the second and
third lumbar vertebrae. It gradually con-
stricts anteriorly, and crossing the aorta to
get on its left side, enters the thorax, and
here becomes known as the thoracic duct,
which empties itself into the right axillary
vein.

SPLEEN.

The spleen, although, possibly, not bear-
ing any physiological connection with the
digestive process, still, from its anatomical
relations, conveniently admits of 4escription
here. It is a singularly elastic organ, of a
purplish grey color; smooth on its outer
surface, and composed of a spongy texture,
enclosed in fibrous tissue. The color of
the spleen is generally darker in herbivora
than in carnivorous quadrupeds, as in the
latter it is more of a red color.

It is situated in the left hypochondrium,
and partly in the epigastrium, being at-
tached by its outer tunic to the stomach,
left kidney, and transverse colon.

It is scythe-shaped, being srnall and
pointed anteriorly, but broad posteriorly.
It is smooth, and somewhat convex on its
inferior surface, whilst its superior one is
divided into two unequal halves, by a fissure
termed the hilum. The anterior division
is narrow, but the posterior one is broad
and triangular in shape. The margin of
the spleen is sharp all round. The size of
the organ varies considerably in different
subjects, and, according to circumstances,
in the same animal.

The spleen is related, by its superior
surface, to the left end of the greater curva-
ture of the stomach, and to the diaphragm;
at its broad base it is in close relation with
the left kidney ; its inferior surface is con-
nected with both double and single portions
of the colon.

The spleen has two coats, a parenchyma,
blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics, need-
ing separate description.

The external coat is peritoneum, which
forms not only a covering to the organ itself,

EXPLANATION OF FIGUEE Xll.

MUSCULAli STRUriTRE.

rORWARl) TAUTS.

*. Liganiciitum colli.

a". Tia])czius.

h'. Khomboideus lougus.

c". Scalenus.

g". Postoa .';pinatus.

h'. Teres major.

t". Latis.'jinuis ilnrsl.

I". Scapulo ulnaris.

m''. u". Triceps cxttTiSor braehii.

p". Flexor nietacari)i externus.

5". Flexor metacarpi mcdius.

r. Flexor metacarpi internus.

S". Extensor mctacari)! niagiiub.

IS. Spleiiius.

11. Levator humeri.

x". Extensor pedis.

c". Obliquus externus abdominis.

POSTERIOR PAETS.

/('. v. Gluteal muscles.

f. Triceps.

k. Uiceps abductor tibialis, posterior.

V. Adductor tibialis intenius.

»!. Tensor vagira;'.

n. Region of the vastus internus.

r. Gasti'ocnemius internus.

I. S. Gastrocnemius txternus and internus.

X. Extensor metatarsi.

!/. Peroneus.

i'. Flexor pedis acecssorius.

e'. (f. Coccygeal muscles.

4. Subcutaneous thoracic vein.

5. Saphcua vein,

6. Radial vein.

OSSEOUS STllLCTURE.

10. 20. 21. Tlu' iiilvis.

11. Cc-rvicai vcrteline.

13.

Coccy^'cal boues.

16.

The true ribs.

17.

The false ribs.

18.

Sternum.

»»o

Femur.

23.

I 'ate 11 a.

Wi.

Scapula.

34.

Humerus.

35.

Radius.

(?.

Dorsal spines.

Ulna.

THE HORSE.

ill

but bonds of connection between it and
other parts, such as the gastro-splenic omen-
tum, and the attachment to the kidney and
transverse colon heretofore described. This
coat is smooth externally, rather closely
attached to the fibrous coat internally, but
of considerable elasticity, so as to allow the
spleen sufficient freedom for distention.

The second or fibrous coat, also termed
the albugineous or clastic coat, is that closely
applied to the parenchyma of the organ.
It consists of yellow and white fibres, and
in some parts, such as in the trabeculsp,
Koelliker has found plain muscular fibres,
which he says do not exist in the external
portion of the fibrous tunic in the horse.
The covering not only envelopes the outer
surface of the organ, but sends sheaths and
processes into its substance. The sheaths
are purposed for covering vessels, whilst
the processes, termed also trabeculsB, divide
the substance of the spleen into areolse or
interspaces, which contain a red matter,
easily washed and pressed out, known as
the splenic pulp. The trabeculae also arise
as processes from the vascular sheaths, as
well as from the external tunic. When the
pulp has been thoroughly washed, the outer
coat, with the trabeculEE and sheaths, have
the appearance of a framework or skeleton.

The splenic pulp has a medullary aspect,
being composed of cells and blood vessels ;
and if the organ be cut clean in any direc-
tion, we see, besides the cut ends of vessels
and trabeculse, certain pearlish looking
bodies, named, from their discoverer, Malpig-
hian Corpuscles. If divided, fluid escapes
from the cavity which exists in their in-
terior. They are perfectly visible to the
naked eye, being about one-thirtieth of an
inch in diameter ; and, with a pocket glass,
they may be seen attached to the small ar-
terial trunks, if the pulp has been previously
carefully washed.

The spleen derives its arterial blood
through the splenic artery, which is the main
division of the cceliac axis. "Winding be-
tween the folds of the gastro-splenic omen-
tum, it not only sends numerous branches
through the hilum, and on to the surface of

the spleen, but also supplies the stomach,
largely inosculating with the gastric artery,
so that the two might mutuidly perform
each other's office, if the main trunk of
either were obstructed.

The splenic vein is similarly distributed
to the artery, and it empties its blood into
the vena ports, just anteriorly to the pos-
terior mesenteric vein.

The nerves of the spleen are derived from
the solar plexus, and with the splenic artery
enter the spleen.

The lymphatics of the spleen are said by
Koelliker to be scanty ; but Dr. Sharpey
tends rather to the belief that they are
abundant. They are arranged superficially
and deep, both sets anastomising freely
with each other, and, reaching the hilum,
they enter various scattered lymphatic
glands in the peritoneal folds, and then
empty into the receptaculum chyli.

LIVER.

The liver is the largest gland in the body,
and proportionately largest during certain
periods of fcetal fife. It is of a dark reddish
brown color, and destined for the office of
biliary secretion.

It is situated across the long axis of the
body, in the right hypochondriac, epigastric,
and partly in the left hypochondriac regions.

It is attached to various parts by five
ligaments, fom: of which are peritoneal
folds, and one is the remnant cord resulting
from the obliteration of the unbilical vein
within the abdomen. These attachments
Vv'ill be more fully described with the peri-
toneal tunic.

The external aspect of the liver is smooth,
being convex superiorly and concave interior-
ly, broad posteriorly, and sharp anteriorly.
It has a granular appearance, and a very
superficial inspection clearly shows that it is
composed of lobules, about the size of a
pin's head.

The hepatic substance is irregularly
divided into numerous segments by fissures,
which either extend through the gland from
side to side, or are mere grooves of more
or less depth. The different segments of

115-

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY CT

the gland or lobes are three principal ones
— right, middle, and left — to which smaller
ones are appended.

The right lobe is the largest of the three,
situated in the right hypochondrium, being
thickest posteriorly and sharp anteriorly.
The supero-posterior part of the right lobe
is marked by a depression, for the adapta-
tion of the anterior part of the right kidney.
At the superior part of the right lobe is an
excavation for the vena cava, which extends
from behind forward, and marks off the
division between the right and middle lobe.
The vena cava is here more or less imbed-
ded in the substance of the right lobe, but,
generally speaking, it is superficial in the
horse, and only an imperfect channel is
formed for it.

Projecting from the inferior surface and
posterior part of the right lobe, is the lobulus
spigelii, which is of considerable size, being
broad posteriorly, and attached by its
superior and left border, so that it projects
anteriorly and narrows ; its apex gradually
tapers, and has been capriciously designated,
by the lovers of a quintuple hepatic arrange-
ment, lobulus caudatus.

The middle lobe of the liver is the smal-
lest of the three; it is crossed on its inferior
surface by the transverse fissure or porta of
the liver, at which the vessels and ducts
enter into and issue from the gland. The
middle lobe in the horse is divided at its
anterior part into five or six portions, and
Mr. Percivall, in his Anatomy of the Horse,
at page 259, has termed it the lobulus
scissatus. It is traversed antero-posteriorly
by a channel for the remnant of the um-
bilical vein, which eventually joins the vena
porta.

The left lobe is the thinnest of the three,
but occupies an intermediate position in
length and breadth. It is very thin at its
left margin, and gradually thickens pos-
teriorly. At its posterior and left side is
a depression, in which the oesophagus rests.
Sometimes the left lobe is divided into two
at its anterior part ; at others it is single.

The superior surface of the liver is convex,
and in contact with the pillars and expanded

portion of the diaphragm. The right as
well as the Spigelian lobes, are in relation
posteriorly with the right kidney and right
supra-renal capsule, inferiorly with the head
of the pancreas, duodenum, and transverse
colon. The middle lobe is related inferiorly
to the pancreas, but partially separated from
it by the vena portse. It also suspends the
duodenum, and its left edge is loose and in
close proximity to the flexures of the colon.
The left lobe is related posteriorly to the
CEsophagus, and inferiorly to the left end of
the stomach. The pancreas also stretches
across its posterior part, partially separating
it from the transverse colon.

The liver receives an incomplete covering
of peritoneum. The latter, reflected from
the diaphragm on to the concave surface of
the midcUe lobe of the liver, forms a double
membranous layer, known, in accordance
with its shape, as the falsiform ligament,
and holding in its free and concave margin
the round ligament, the representative of a
foetal structure, the umbilical vein. Fur-
thermore, the liver is provided with a coro-
nary ligament, that surrounds the foramen
dextrum of the diaphragm, through which
the vena cava passes. The lateral ligaments
are distinguished as right and left; they
connect each lateral lobe to the diaphragm.

The only connections of the liver that
remain to be mentioned are the stomach,
duodenum, transverse colon, and pancreas
to its inferior surface, and the right kid-
ney to the posterior part of the right lobe.

Dissecting off the serous tunic, it is found
connected with the biliary surface by cel-
lular tissue, continuous at the porta with the
so-called capsule of Glisson. The latter
extends into the liver as a common sheath
to blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and
biliary ducts.

To proceed with further description of
the liver w'ould be useless, unless first ex-
amining the blood vessels and ducts in that
part of their course which is external to the
organ. The hepatic artery is quite subor-
dinate in size, considering the magnitude
of the organ and amount of its secretion.
It is a branch of the cceliac axis, at first in

Tnii i:oRSE.

contact with the pancreas, and then be-
tween the folds of the gastro-liepatic omen-
tum, and it r.-aciics the porta on the left
side of liie portal vein. After jriving olV
pancreatic and duodenal l)ranches, it di-
vides into two, a ri^ht and a left one. The
ri£;lit, the largest and somewhat the longest,
penetrates into the right lobe, giving ofi'
collateral branches, first to the middle and
then to the right lobe itself. The left is the
smallest division, and is distributed to the
lobe corresponding to it in position, and also
to the middle one.

The liver is exceptional for having, be-
sides an artery, another afferent vessel — a
vein, known as the portal vein, formed by
the splenic, which also receives the gastric
and mesenteries, meeting each other at the
same spot near the posterior part of the
pancreas. From its origin, the portal vein
takes an obli(]ue course from left to right
through the pancreas, and being surrounded
by nerves, it reaches the porta of the liver,
and here divides into three principal
branches, one for each lobe.

At the porta we also see the biliary duct
coming out, formed by the union of several
branches, corresponding in number to the
ramification of the blood-vessels. This
duct passes through the gastro-hepatic
omentum, meeting the pancreatic duct at
almost a right angle, and with it opening
into the duodenum about live or six inches
from the pylorus.

Having thus far considered the main
vessels, we may examine further the inter-
nal structure of the liver. At the porta
the branches of the vessels and ducts are
associated together, and surroitnded by cel-
lular tissue, which sheaths grooves or canals,
cut in various directions in the substance of
the organ. These are the portal canals,
and the cellular tissue in question is Glis-
son's capsule.

The vessels and ducts ramifying on the
sheath acquire the name of vaginal branches,
and, as they are traced between the lobules,
they are termed interlobular. Here the un-
assisted eye ceases to take cognizance of
their further relation ; but, with careful dis-
is

section, and a common pocket lens, they
may be traced to the lobules, which they
enter; and the blood of the hepatic artery
and portal vein is emptied into a common
set of vessels, the hepatic vein. The rela-
tion of these vessels in the lobules may be
seen on the surface in a good injected speci-
men of liver, where the hepatic veins have
been injected one color, and the other ves-
sels difiercntly. By this means the centre
of the lobule is colored with the injection
thrown into the hepatic veins, and the cir-
cumference with that of the portal vein.

The hepatic veins issuing from the lo-
bules cross the structure of the liver in sep-
arate grooves, formed by the coalescence of
the hepatic particles, so that their base is in
contact with the veins, and hence the name
of the latter is that of the sub-lobular he-
patic veins. These empty into the posterior
cava by several orifices, as well as by two
larger ones, guarded by semi-lunar valves,
situated just at the foramen dextrum of the
diaphragm.

In addition to the blood-vessels and ducts
of the liver, it is supplied with nerves from
the solar plexus, which ramify with the ves-
sels.

The lymphatics of the liver are abundant,
and arranged, like in other organs, as a su-
perficial and deep set, which inosculate
freely in the substance of the organ, and,
uniting to form several branches, they issue
from the porta of the liver, passing through
some lymphatic glands situated round the
fissure, and from this they advance to the
receptaculum chyli.

PANCREAS.

The pancreas is a compound vesicular or
racemose gland, being much of the same
nature as the salivary glands.

The pancreas occupies the interval be-
tween the layers of the transverse meso-
colon, along the upper surface of the trans-
verse colon.

Its attachments are merely cellular, with
the exception of the pancreatic duct, which
attaches it pretty closely to the duodenum.

The pancreas is spoken of as having a

114

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

body, a head, and a tail. The body of the
pancreas is that part stretched across the
middle lobe, while the head i^^ lo)i,n;itudinally
extended, being almost parallel to the vena
porta, and situated bek)W and to the right
of that vessel. The head is broad ante-
riorly and rather narrow posteriorly, and
continuous from below upward, and from
right to left, then from behind foi-ward,
to gain attachment to the body, so as to
form a ring for the passage of the vena
porta. The part to the left of this vein is
termed the tail of the pancreas.

The jiancreas is related by its superior
surface to the right, left, and Spigelian
lobes of the liver, also to the vena cava and
aorta, which separate it from the phrenic
crura. The posterior part of the head of
the ]>ancreas is in relation with the right
stapra-renal body. The tail of the pancreas
is stretched transversely to the branches of
the coelic axis, and attached to the left
kidney by loose cellular tissue. The in-
ferior surface is in contact with the trans-
verse colon.

On examining carefully the structure of
the gland, it is found to consist of clusters
of cells, from which duets arise, and these
unite to form a main trunk, that is trace-
able back to the tail of the pancreas, in-
creasing in size till it reaches the anterior
extremity of the head, where it pierces the
duodenum together with the hepatic duct.
Besides these clusters of cells and ducts,
the gland contains connecting cellular
tissue.

The pancreas is supplied with arterial
blood by branches from the three divisions
of the coeUc axis, as well as from the an-
terior mesenteric.

The pancreatic veins empty themselves
into the splenic.

The nerves are derived from the solar
plexus, and the lymphatics of the pancreas,
on issuing from the glandular substance,
may be traced to the common reservoir of
chyle and lymph.

GK.MTO UUINARV APPARATUS.

Having already described the intra-abdo-

minal portion of the alimentary canal, and
its accessories, I proceed to the considera-
tion of that portion of the genito-urinary
apparatus as contained within the abdomen,
in the widest acceptation of the latter
term. By this I ntean the kidneys, and
with them, for anatomical convenience, I
classify the supra-renal capsules, then the
ureters, bladder, membranous portion of
the urethra, vasa deferentia, vesiculEB semi-
nales, prostate and Cowper's glands, with
which I shall conclude.

KIDNEYS.

The kidneys are a pair of glands, whose
function it is to secrete urine. They are
distinguished as right and left, being both
situated in the lumbar region ; but, so far
as concerns their topographical anatomy,
notwithstanding their similarity in position,
they need separate notice.

The right kidney is more anteriorly situ-
ated than the left, coming in contact with
the posterior part of the right lobe of the
liver, to which it is attached. It is also
fixed to the abdominal parietes by peri-
toneum, and to the spine by blood-vessels.

Its shape is that of a bent ovoid, being
more symmetrical than the left. It has two
sttrfaces and two borders.

Though differing in these marked general
characters, the kidneys resemble each other
in several equally obvious points of their
general anatomy. Both kidneys have a
peritoneal and an albugincous coat, both
have an excretory duct, vessels and nerves,
with a structure also equal in the two, con-
stituting the bulk of the organ. Exter-
nally to the peritoneal tunic is a more or
less thick stratum of fat, which is more
abundant in old than in young animals,
when in a state of obesity.

The peritoneal covering of the kidneys
is incomplete, especially that of the right
one, whose inferior surface and convex
border are the only parts coated by it. The
left kidney is also covered on its superior
surface to a considerable extent, sometimes
more and sometimes less. The attachments
which each organ contracts through the

THE HORSE.

IIS

modinm of this serous investment have al-
ready been described.

The albugineous tunic is fibrous, and
partly sub-seroiis. It fonns a distinct cap-
sule, attached to the substance of tlie organ
by fibrous prolongations, which are iu some
parts arranged in pits and depressions, so
as to mark out divisions on the surface of
the kidney. In addition to this, the albu-
gineous coat surrounds the vessels and
ureter at. the hilus, and enters the substance
of the organ.

On cutting the kidney horizontally from
the convex to the concave border, there are
three different parts brought into view, to
be taken into consideration. Firstly, a
dark conteur, of about half an inch or more
in thickness, being generally less at the ex-
treme ends of the kidney than at its middle,
whicli completely encircles the central part
of the gland, and is termed the cortical
structure, from its being most external.
This part of the kidney has somewhat a
granular aspect, and, when the vessels are
full of blood or injection, they appear more
or less arborescent, and clustered at innu-
merable minute but visible spots, to form
the Malpighian tufts. Next to this is a
lighter colored material, rather ash-colored,
but having a reddish hue, termed the me-
dullary substance. This term is not given
to it from the fact that it is medullary in
consistence, but used in the metaphorical
sense of being internally or centrally situ-
ated.

Approaching still nearer to the concave
border of the kidney, is a funnel-shaped
cavity, with its apex towards the hilus, and
the base bounded by the medullary sub-
stance, which is the pelvis. The apex is
tubular, and continuous wath the ureter,
of which the cavity is but an expansion.

The walls of the cavity are lined by a
mucop.s membrane, which is loosely applied
to the medullary substance, and thrown
into folds, taking a radiated direction from
the mouth of the lu-eter. Opposite the
apex of the pelvis, the membrane is adher-
ent to a prominent border of the medullary
substance, concave from before backward,

but convex from above downward, and is
pierced by foramina, into which the fining
membrane of the pelvis extends, so as to
form the uriniferous tubes. On dissecting
carefully away the mucous membranes of
the pelvis, we reach to the fibrous tunic,
which is not continuous on the medullary
ridge, but merely attached to its sides, so
as to increase the length of the boundaries
of the cavity.

The ureter arising from this dilatation is
continuous outward toward the spine, and
then backward, being related superiorly,
as it issues from the hilus, with the renal
vein ; and then crossing the posterior part
of the kidney at its inferior surface, it gets
between the peritoneum and psoas muscles,
and is then traceable back to the bladder,
into which it opens.

The renal arteries, one for each kidney,
arise at almost right angles from the aorta,
after the latter has given off the anterior
mesenteric. The right one is more ante-
riorly situated, and is longer than the left
one. After each renal artery has given off
a branch or more to the supra-renal cap-
sule of the same side, it divides, on reach-
ing the hilus, into a variable number of
branches, usually eight or ten, which pierce
the kidney at different parts of the hilus,
whilst a few branches proceed along the
surface, supplying the capsule, and then
also piercing the organ. The arterial
branches entering the kidney have a de-
finite aiTangement, forming a kind of arch
superiorly to the pelvis, from which second-
ary divisions emanate and pierce the organ
in all directions, so as to reach the cortical
substance, abruptly dividing into numer-
ous branches, which eventually subdivide
to form capiUaries. By this it is evident
that the cortical substance is more vas-
cular than the medullary; indeed the latter
is very scantily suppfied with arterial
blood.

From the arterial terminations the venous
origins occur, and these unite to form
branches, having a similar arrangement as
the arteries ; only as they reach the pelvis
almost opposite the apex, they meet tc

116

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

form a wide, capacious trunlc, the renal
vein. This is supplied with valves, not all
of which are perfect. At the opening of
each renal vein into the cava is a semi-
lunar (la;), overlapping the posterior part.

The nerves of kidneys are numerous,
and derived from the renal plexuses of the
sym|)athetic ; they accompany the vessels
with which they penetrate their respective
organs.

Lym))hatics may be seen issuing from
the hilus of the kidney ; they enter some
lymphatic glands there situate, and then
convey the lymph into the receptaculum
chyll.

SLPRA RENAL CAPSULES.

These bodies, also called capsvilas supra-
renales, seu atrabilarias, are two in num-
ber, and belong to the class vascular
glands, whose office is very indefinitely
known.

They arc situated one on each side of
the spine, across the direction of the renal
vessels. Their attachments are cH'ected by
vessels, as well as by the peritoneum, on
their inferior surface, connecting them to
the corresponding kidney and around to the
spine.

The shape of the supra-renal bodies is
muoli the same on either side, being that
of a slightly bent ellipsis. They vary
from three to four inches in length, antl
from one and a half to two inches in
breadth.

Their concave border corresponds to the
renal vessels, as well as to the anterior
mesenteric arteries. The convex border is
in contact with the inner margin of the
liidney. The anterior extremity of the
right one is in connection with the right
liepatic lobe, whilst its inferior surface is
in connection with the commencement of
the colon. The left supra-renal capsule is
related anteriorly to the |)ancreas, and infe-
riorly to the transverse colon.

The peritoneal coat of the supra-renal
capsules is merely confined to their inlVrior
surface. The proper substance of the
organ is enclosed in a fibrous or albugiae-

ous coat, which forms a distinct covering
externally, and becomes continuous as
sheaths to vessels internally.

On cutting horizontally across a supra-
renal capsule, it is found to consist of an
outer cortical and an internal medullary
substance. The cortical substance is a
brownish yellow, due to fat contained in
vesicles, which, according to Professor Hein-
rich Frey, are smaller toward the surface
than more internally. The medullary sub-
stance has a greyish aspect, and vessels are
apparent in it, as also a yellow tinge, due,
according to the above-named author, to
similar vesicles, as in the cortical substance,
only much scantier in fat.

The arteries of the supra-renal capsules
are offsets of the rcnalsand anterior mesen-
teric, as well as of the aorta, but very
variable in number and origin. They are,
however, always abundant, and enter the
organ princijially at its concave border.

The veins are larger than the arteries, and
pour their contents on the left into the renal
vein, and into the vena cava on the right.

The nerves of the supra-renal capsules
are very abundant, and derived from the
renal plexus. Professor Frey states, that
in the horse, gangloin corpuscles constitute
one of the structural elements of the nervous
tissue in this situation.

URETERS.

The ureters, one to each kidney, are con-
duits between the kidneys and the bladder,
for the passage of urine. Their caliber is
various, being about one-third of an inch
broad, but getting narrower posteriorly.

As the ureters issue from the kidneys,
they converge towards the spine; then pro-
ceed suddenly backward, till they reach the
brim of the pelvis, having thus greatly
diverged ; here they converge again, passing
downward and backward to reach the sides
of the body of the bladder, which they
pierce.

In their course, the ureters are attached to

the kidney and psoas parvus by loose cellu-

i lar tissue, and by the peritoneum, which

I suspends them, by being stretched across

THE HORSE.

117

their inferior surface. After the ureters have
crossed the spermatic and iliac vessels, they
are received within a fold of peritoneum,
constituting the false ligaments of the
bladder.

They pierce the muscular coat of the
bladder at a distance of about three inches
from each other, if the viscus be distended.
They pass betvi'een the muscular and mucous
coats for about an inch, being somewhat
diminished in caliber, when they suddenly
open into the cavity by an elliptical orifice,
.so that if the bladder be distended, the sides
of the orifice are stretched, and thus closed.

The ureters are externally covered by a
celluto-muscular coat, consisting of a cellu-
lar tissue, with muscular fibres arranged,
partly longitudinally and partly circularly,
the latter being most internally situated.
The ureters are internally lined by mucous
membrane, continuous anteriorly with the
renal pelvis, and posteriorly with the vesical
lining.

The membrane is loosely attached to the
outer coat, and thrown into longitudinal
efl'aceable folds.

ni.ADDI'.R.

The bladder is a dilatable musculo-mem-
branous viscus, destined for the temporary
retention of urine. It is situated during
vacuity entirely within the pelvis, but when
distended, even moderately, its fundus en-
croaches on the proper abdominal space.

The bladder is held in situation by the
peritoneum coming ofl' from the rectum and
sides of the j>ehis, so as to form a serous
fold, which also encloses the vasa deferentia
and vesiculcB semijiales. Besides this, the
bladder is supplied with true ligaments, as
well as bounded posteriorly through the in-
tervention of the urethra.

The shape of the bladder is pyriform,
approaching, however, to a sphere when
empty or partially distended-

It presents for consideration a projecting
anterior portion or fundus, a middle part or
body, and a posterior one, or neck. The
fundus is globular and regular, having fixed
at its anterior part the two obliterated um-

bilical arteries, and the remains of the
urachus. The body has no precise limits,
but may be considered as that portion on
which the bulbous portions of the vasa-
deferentia rest. It is circular, but if the
bladder be much distended, it bends some-
what backward and upward. The cervix
vesicEB is the most constricted part of the
organ, and marks the limit between the
bladder and urethra.

The bladder is related by its fundus to
the iliac (le.xures of the colon, inferiorly to
the pudic and ischial bones, superiorly to
the ureters, vasa deferentia, vesiculse semi-
nales, and middle part of the rectum.

The bladder has three coats. The peri-
toneal investment is merely a partial one,
as it is rellected from the body on to the
sides of the pelvis. It covers the superior
surface almo.st completely, but its extent
gradually decfines laterally and inferiorly.
The attachments contracted by the perito-
neum are termed false ones. Thus we
have the two umbilical arteries, one on each
side, enclosed by peritoneum, forming the
two lateral false ligaments. Then the ves-
tige of the urachus is similarly enveloped
by peritoneum, and constitutes the anterior
false ligament. The peritoneum coming
off from the rectum on to the superior sur-
face of the bladder, gives rise to a pouch,
termed the recto-vesical pouch, or cul-de-
sac, and laterally to the triangidar folds
limiting the latter, known as the superior
false ligaments. Behind the peritoneal re-
(lection the bladder is attached to the rec-
tum and pelvic parietes, by a continuation
of the pelvic fascia;, which, leaving the
inferior surface of the pelvis at the symphi-
sis pubis, comes on to the bladder, forming
the inferior true ligaments of the latter ; the
fascia is then continuous on to the rectum,
blending with the cellular coat. The pelvic
fascia is also traced on to the prostate and
sides of the bladder, from the posterior part
of the obturator forameii, constituting the
lateral true ligaments-

Beneath this fibro-serous coat are muscu-
lar fibres, arranged hi a peculiar manner.
There is an outer longitudinal set, traceable

118

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

from the cervix forward toward the body,
where the fibres diverge and become oblique,
and some even circular ; thi.s layer is prin-
cipally developed posteriorly. The inner or
circular layer is not arranged in concentric
rings ; but its fibres, beginning at the fund-
us, appear to arise from various centres on
the surface, and to be taking a direction
more or less cm-ved in diflerent parts, so as
to get transversely to the long axis of the
viscus, and thus from the inner side have a
circular appearance. These fibres are more
decidedly circular at the neclc, and act some-
what like a sphincter. Some of the deeper
fibres at the neck of the bladder extend for-
ward to each orifice of the ureter, marking
the limit of the vesical trigon, whose office
must be that of approaching the lips of the
elliptical apertures.

The mucous coat of the bladder is gener-
ally more or less coated with mucus and
epithelium, which guard the structm-e from
the corroding eil'ects of the secretion it has to
come in contact with. It is thrown into
numerous folds, taking various directions,
but principally concentrical tow'ard the
fundus, and longitudinal at the cervix, all
of which are effaceable by distention of the
bladder, and are most prominent when the
latter is colla])scd. At the upper part of
the urethral orifice of ihe bladder the mucous
lining is smooth and free from folds, mark-
ing out a triangular space, bounded ante-
riorly by a line drawn between the orifices
of the ureters, and laterally by two lines
meeting at a spot at the superior part of
the vesical orifice. This is termed the
vesical trigon. At its apex is a projecting
fold of mucous membrane or uvula vesicae,
which seems to moderate the flow of urine
into the urethra.

The bladder is supplied with blood from
the internal pudic, and its veins empty into
the internal pudic vein.

The nerves of the bladder are derived
from the sympathetic, and partly from the
two last sacral pairs which supply the neck.

The lymphalics go to glands surrounding
the origin of the iliac arteries, termed |)elvic
lymphatic glands, from which vessels arise,

communicating anteriorly with the recepta-
culum chyli.

URETHRA.

This canal in the male subject is not only
purposed for the passage of urine, but also
transmits the products of the generative or-
gans. It extends from the posterior part of
the bladder to the glans penis; but we shall
only occupy ourselves with a description of
the intra-abdominal or pelvic portion, which
terminates at the bulb of the penis or ischial
arch.

It is contiiuious anteriorly with the blad-
der, attached to the rectum and sides of the
pelvis by fascia and loose cellular tissue
and muscles.

The urethra is cylindrical, of considerable
length, and its coats of no mean thickness.
The pelvic portion of the urethra is gener-
ally about three or four inches long, taking
a direction backward and somewhat up-
ward.

It is related superiorly to the vesiculs
seminales, middle lobe of the prostate, and
posteriorly it comes in contact udth the rec-
tum, but separated from it laterally by
Cowper's glands.

The first or prostatic portion of the ure-
thra is purely membranous, strengthened by
cellular tissue and a continuation of the
fibres of the bladder, the circular ones in
particular, which are tibundant anteriorly.
The posterior two-lhuxls of the pelvic por-
tion of the urethra are covered by a thick
red muscular layer, which completely encir-
cles it, with the exception of that part
coming in contact with Cowper's glands.
This muscle is continuous behind with the
muscular fibres of the penis, which consti-
tute the accelerator urincc. These fibres
are externally mixed with longitudinal ones,
a portion of which are merely the inner or
inferior bundles of the retractor ani, whilst
others are derived from the triangularis
penis ; both of these muscles tend to fix the
urethra. Postero-suj)eriorly the fibres en-
circling the urethra are blended with the
external anal s'phincter. The reh-actor penis,
which gets attached to the sacral bone, is a

THE HORSE.

119

white muscle also, affording fixity to the
pelvic portion of the urethra.

Beneath the muscular tunic of the urethra
we llnd a loose cellular tissue, and pos-
teriorly also some erectile structure continu-
ous on to the jjenis.

On slitting open the pelvic portion of the
urethra, to examine its mucous membrane,
we find ihat it is smooth, glistening, and
thrown into longitudinal folds. It isantero-
superiorly raised by the sub-mucous tissue
into a permanent ridge, termed the crest of
the urethra or verumontanum. This has a
depression about its middle, and on each
side are the elliptical orifices of the ejacula-
tory ducts, surrounded by the openings of
the prostatic ducts. Posteriorly and later-
ally are little papillated projections, pierced
by ducts emanating from Cowper's glands.
These tubular processes are arranged in two
parallel lines longitudinally to the course of
the urethra.

The pelvic portion of the urethra is sup-
plied with blood from the internal pudic,
and the veins empty into the vessel of the
same name. Its nerves are derived from
the two last sacral and accompanying sym-
pathetic filaments.

The lymphatics of the pelvic urethra are
similarly disposed to those of the bladder.

GENERATIVE ORGANS OF THE MALE.

The last division of our subject is that
of the abdominal generative organs, only a
part of the generative system, and consist-
ing in the vasa deferentia, vesiculEE semin-
ales, prostate and Cowper's glands.

VASA DEFERENTIA.

There are tw^o vasa deferentia, one from
each testicle, for the passage of semen to
seminal reservoirs.

The vas deferens arises from the posterior
part of the epididymis or globus minor,
passing through the inguinal canals, and
reaching the abdomen ; it is situated in the
sub-serous tissue, taking a course upward,
backward, and inward, to reach the brim
of the pelvis ; then, crossing the course of

the ureters, it gets on to the bladder, where
it is dilated, and forms the bulbous por-
tion.

Its attachments are serous and cellular to
the various parts mentioned, whilst its pos-
terior part is connected with the urethra.

The vas deferens is related, in its course
from the inguinal canal, to the bladder ;
after it leaves the constituents of the cord,
with the ])arietes of the abdomen ; crossing
the under surface of the iliac vessels, and
reaching the bladder on the inner side of
the ureter ; also lying internally to the
.seminal vesicles, and the terminating portion
being covered by the prostate.

The structure of the vas deferens is simi-
lar throughout, with the exception of the
greater thickness of its coats at the bulbous
portion, being thinnest where it contributes
to form the ejaculatory duct.

This tube, of very various length, is con-
stituted of an outer cellular investment, not
requiring peculiar notice; of an intermediate
contractile and elastic tunic ; and, as its
name implies, is composed of muscular
fibres and elastic tissue, arranged in two
layers, i. e., an outer longitudinal and an in-
ner circular one, which are easily perceived.

The internal or mucous lining is thrown
into longitudinal folds, in the narrow part
of the duct ; but in the bulbous part it forms
permanent rugae, taking various directions,
so as to enclose irregular interspaces.

The vas deferens is supplied with blood
principally from the artery of the cord, al-
though the epigastric furnishes a twig to it
as well. The bulbous portion is supplied
also by vessels of no small calibre from the
iliacs.

Its nerves are from the sympathetic, as
well as from the second and third lumbar.

VESICUL.E SEMINALES.

The seminal vesicles are one on each side *
of the bladder, and act as receptacles for
the semen.

Each seminal vesicle extends from behind
forward, upward, and outward, being ex-
ternal to the bulbous portion of the vas

12C

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

deferens. It is alfaclicd by peritoneum
coming off from the sides of (lie pelvis and
rectum on to the bladder. The posterior
part is fi.xed by cellular tissue to the pros-i
tate and neck of the bladder.

The seminal vesicle is pyriform, being
about three inches long and about an inch
broad at its fundus, but more constricted at
its neck. It is connected with the corres-
ponding surface of the bladder and rectum,
but partially separated from the latter by
the prostate.

The seminal vesicle has an incomplete
investment of peritoneum, covering only
the anterior part, whilst the prostatic portion
is covered by an outer cellular coat. Be-
neath this is an intermediate tunic, partly
elastic and ])artly contractile. Lavocat
describes this muscular coat as easily studied
after maceration in dilute nitric acid, when
it may be found to consist of an outer
longitudinal and inner circular layer, most
developed at the fundus, but very thin at
the neck.

The mucous membrane is plicated, the
folds enclosing similar interspaces to those
seen in the bulbous portion of the vas
deferens.

The vessels are supplied by the internal
pudic, whilst the nerves are from the lesser
splanchnic and two last sacral pairs.

EJACULATORY DUCTS.

Two in number, each being the common
outlet to its corresponding vas-deferens
and seminal vesicle, so that their contents
may pass into the urethra by an elliptical
orifice each side of the depression on the
verumontanum.

The relations of these ducts are simply
to the prostate and urethra. When they
reach the latter, they pass between the mus-
cular and mucous coat for some little dis-
' tance, so that at first sight they appear
shorter than what they really arc.

The structure of the ejaculatory ducts
consists in an outer cellular and inner
mucous lining, both of which are very
thin.

PROSTATE GLAND.

The prostate belongs to the class of
secreting glands. It is situated on the
commencement of the urethra and termi-
nation of the vpsiculs-seminales, being su-
periorly related to the rectum. Its attach-
ments to these jmrts are merely cellular,
although it has some connection with the
sides of the pelvis, rectum and bladder,
through the intervention of the pelvic
fascia.

It is symmetrical in figure, and very vari-
able in size, being quite rudimentary in
aged geldings. It is of a gray color,
knotty to the feel, although spongy in tex-
ture.

The prostate consists of a middle por-
tion or body and two lateral lobes. The
former is in contact with the cervix of the
bladder and urethra, the latter with the
ejaculatory ducts and seminal vesicles.

This gland has a posterior convex and
an anterior concave margin, whilst it is
llattened from above downward, although
from its connection with other parts it is
rendered more or less convex from side to
side.

The prostate is composed of an exter-
nal fibrous or cellular coat, which forms a
complete covering to it. On cutting the
gland in any direction, it is observed by
the naked eye to have an areolar appear-
ance, being a net-work of variously disposed
fibres, the larger ones of which are found
to be tubular.

The prostate opens into the urethra
around the orifices of the ejaculatory ducts
by numerous apertures.

It is supplied with blood from the pudic
vessels, and its nerves are derived from the
lesser splanchnic and two last sacral pairs.

COVrPER's GLANDS.

These also belong to the class of secreting
glands, and have sometimes been called the
lesser prostates. They are situated ante-
riorly to the bulb of the penis on each
side of the membranous portion of the
urethra.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIII.

THE SUPERFICLU. LAYER OF MUSCLES TAKEN FROM TlIE BODY OF THE HORSE,
SO AS TO EXPOSE THOSE >USCT.FS "WHICH .VRK MORE DEEPLY SF^Vl'ED.

THIC UEAV ASTI NECK.

II. Ihicciiiator.

b. Caninus. "

c. Retractor labii intbridris.

1, 1. Orbicularis oris.

2, 2, '2. Coiiijjlcxifi major.

3, 3. Tracheli) mastoick'iis.

4, 4. Subscapulo hyoideus.

5. Stemo raa.\illaris.

f), (i. Steruo thyro-hyoideus.

7. Jugular vein.

8. Carotid aitcry, with the eighth paii', and sympathetic nerves.

9. Trachea.
10. Scalenus.

THE FORE LIMBS.

1. Scapido ulnarius.

"2. Caput magnum of the triceps extensor bracliii.

3. Caput medium of the same muscle.

4. .Anconeus.

a. Flexor brachii.

6. Extensor metacarpi.

7. Extensor petlis.

8. Extensor ractacarpi obhquus.

10. Flexor metacarpi extcrnus.

11. Perforans and perforatus.

12. Ulnarius accessorius.

13 Flexor metacarpi internus.

14. Flexor metacarjii mcdiu.';.

15. Perforans aud perforatus.
1().. Extensor metacarpi.

B. B. Radius.

THE TliUKK .^D BACK.

A. Scapula. ■*

F. F. Lougissinuis dorsi.

G. Spinalis dorsi.
a, a. Intercostals.

6, b. Superficiahs costarum.

c, e. Rectus abdominis.

d, d. Transversalis abdominis.

e, c, e. Obhquus internus abdominis.

f, Hollow iu the longissimus dorsi, which part of the gluteus maximus once filled.

EXPLANATION OF riOUnii XIII. CONTINITEP.

lUUNCII AND ULND EXTRElinT.

r. Ilium.

D. Ischium.

E. Tibia.

1. Sacio sciatic ligament.

2. Sphincter aiii.

;>. Deprcs.sor cuccygis.
4. Muscles of the tail.
i>, 5. Triceps abdijctnr tibialis.

6. Vastu.s e.xteriiiis.

7. Rectus.

H. Gastrociicmii muscles.

9. I'lantaris.

10. Extensor pcilis.

11. I'eroneus.

Tl'. Klexor peJis perforans.

l:i. Insertion of the gracilis.

H. Gastrocnemii muscles.

].j. Vlexor pedis accessorius.

10. Course of the perforans tendon, inside the os calcis of the hock join!.

17. Insertion of the gastrocnemius externus into the point of the hock.

IR, IS, Pophteus muscles.

19. E.xtensor pedis.

THE HOP.SE.

121

Cowper's glands are covered by the tri-
angularis penis of eacli side : they are
about the size of a filbert.

Their structure, as apparent to the naked
eye, is similar to that of the prostate in
every respect, only the excretory ducts are
11

ten or twelve in number for each eland
and linearly disposed on each side of the
pelvic urethra.

Cowper's glands are supplied with ves-
sels and nerves from the same source as the
prostate.

ORGANS OF GENERATION.

TK.STlCl.ns A,\D SCROTUM.

The preparation of the seminal fluid is
the office of two oval glandular bodies, called
the testes or testicles ; they are suspended
in a portion of the common integument,
termed the scrotum, by means of the sper-
matic cord and cremaster muscle.

The scrotum is composed of the common
integument, sub-cellular tissue, and elastis
niii-scle, (the fibres of the latter run in a lon-
gitndinal direction, from the cellular sub-
stance of the sheath, to the base of the
penis), and lastly the tunica vaginalis,
which is a prolongation of the peritoneum.

The testicle has a peritoneal covering,
termed tunica vaginalis testes, and also
another distinct tunic termed tunica albu-
ginea. The substance of the testicle is ex-
tremely vascular, and the ultimate branches
of its spermatic arteries are collected into
small bundles of fine convoluted vessels,
separated from one another by septulEB, or
membranous partitions. From these the
vasa seminifera, or beginnings of excretory
ducts, take their origin, and gradually unife
to form a smaller number of canals of
larger diameter, but exceedingly tortuous in
their course. The testicle is also .supplied
with nerves and absorbents, secretory and
excretory vessels.

.SPERMATIC CORD.*

The spermatic cord, the substance by
means of which the testicle is connected with
the abdomen, and by means of which it is
suspended within its scrotal cavity, is com-
posed in the following manner: l.?t. It has
four coverings ; there is immediately under-
neath the skin the faschia superficialis ; next,
the cremaster muscle ; thirdly, the tunica

* rLTiivall.

vaginalis; and lastly, the tunica vaginalis
reflexa. Within the cavity formed by the
vaginal tunic, it is that the intestine protrudes
in inguinal and scrotal hernia ; the hernial
coverings, consequently, exclusive of the sac,
will be the fasciiia and cremaster muscle.

2ndiy. The constituent parts of the cord
itself, are : a. The arteries, which are two
in number; the artery of the cord, a small
branch of the external iliac, which ramifies
and expands itself upon the cord ; and the
spermatic artery, which, as soon as it
reaches the internal ring, enters the inguinal
canal, runs down the posterior part of the
cord, growing tortuous as it descends, ser-
pentines along the superior border of the
testes, between it and the epididymis, winds
round the anterior end of the gland, and
lastly reaches the convex border, where it
becomes extremely convoluted, and whereto
its branches are principally distributed. In
its descent it detaches small unimportant
twigs to the adjacent parts ; and, as it ap-
proaches the testicle, becomes surrounded
by an assemblage of venous vessels, b.
The veins accompany their corresponding
arteries, and they indeed may be said to
make up the principal bulk of the cord,
for they are not only numerous, but large
and flcxuous, and, as they approach the
testicle, form a sort of plexus, which has got
the name of corpus pamjnniforme : they
return their blood into the posterior vena
cava. c. The nkkves, w^hich are derived
from the hypogastric plexus, also accom-
pany the spermatic artery : they are small,
but sufTiciently numerous. Thoitgh the
testicle does not possess any very great sen-
sibility in health, we may vouch for its
being acutely sensitive in a state of disease.
d. Absorbents exist, both large and numer-
ous, in the cord. They are readily found

(122)

ANATOMY ANIl PI1VS:(;I.V(;V OF THK HORSE.

123

alongside of ihc vciuuis fninks; and not'
infrequently may be tilled by introducing
mercury into the spermatic artery, r. The
VAS DEFKRKxs, tlioiigti u Constituent of the
cord, takes at first a solitary course, remote
from (he blood vessels. The duct issues
from the summit of the head of the epidi-
dymis, beginning in a series of eoinolu-
tions gradually unwinding as it proceeds;
it takes an of)li(|ue course nearly as high as
the external ring, "where it joins the blood ■
vessels, and continues to accompany theui
posteriorly througii the inguinal canal: at i

the internal rinsr it leaves them, turn.s i

. 1

inward and ascends into the pelvis, where

we fmd it creeping along the side of (he
bladder infolded in ])eriloneum to get to the ,
cervix, crossiiisr under its course first the I
umbilical artery and then the ureter; at
length it terminates by rather a contracted
orifice within the mouth of the duct of the
vesicula semiiialis, just behind a little emi-
nence in the urethra — the capnt ^a/inag'iiiix,
about an inch posteriorly to the cervix of.
the bladder. Within the inguinal passage [
the duct is accompanied by the artery of
Ihe vas dcfcrciis,n long slender branch of the
epigastric. Its canal, fiexuous until the
<luet has joined the cord, but straight in its
4-ubsequent course, is not uniform through-
out in caliber ; the area of its tortuous part j
is large, but as it becomes straight it grows
contracted: having entered the pelvis, ii
gradually enlarges again, and acquires un-
usual volume in running along the side of tiie '
l)kidder; and the canal of the enlarged por-
tion presents a reticulated structure, v.hich
gives its exterior an irregular, tuberculated
appearance : the most contracted part is
tliat in union with the duct of the vesicula j
semi'.iaiis, which is a comparatively small
cvlindrical conduit. The parietes of the
duct are so remarkably thick and tirm to ;
the feel, that we distinguish it at once by
the fingers from the other parts of the 1
cord: they consist of two tunics; the ex-
ternal one (in which its main thickness con-
sists) is white, fibrous, and ai)proaches in
appearance to cartilage ; the internal one is
tiiin and fine in texture, rnuco-membranous

in its nature, and here and there incloses a
reticulated structure. The different consti-
tuent parts of the cord are connected alto-
gether by cellular substance, destitute of
any fat ; and from the circumstance of the
parts in general being more bulliy below the
ring, the cord increases in breadth and
thickness as it approaches the testicle.

THE EPIDIDYMIS.

Tlie epididymis is extended along the su-
perior border of the testicle, upon which it
rests, and to which it is connected by the
tunica vaginalis refiexa. Its ends are bulky
in comparison to its middle : that receiving
the vasa efierentia, the smaller one, is the
vajnit or g-lobus minor; the other, giving
rise to the vas deferens, is tlie globus major,
the part fan-iers call the nut. The interior
of this appendage to the testicle exhibits a
structure entirely vascular. The vasa ef-
ferentia unite and re-unite until they form
a single duct, of whose numberless and
very remarkable convolutions the globus
major is entirely constituted : thes-e tortu-
osities (v.hich, when squeezed, freely emit
semen) will admit of being unwound for a
considerable extent, so as to li:ive the
length of the duct calculated with very
tolerable exactness from beginning to end,
which has been found to amount to several
yards. It is small at its formation, but grows
imperceptibly larger in making its manifold
windings and turnings, until at length it
assumes the size of the vas deferens, m
which it ends. Its various convolutions are
connected together by cellular membrane,
and are interspersed with a sparing supply
of blood vessels.

The course of the srincii is this: It is
secreted by the capillary coils of the sper-
matic artery, from which it is received by
tiie tubili seminiferi : these tubes carry it
into the rete, and the rete discharges it
through the vasa eflercntia into the epididy-
mis, from which it is conducted by the
vas deferens into the urethra.

Formation and Descent. — It is a singu-
lar fact, that the organs whose structures
wc have heen investigating, are originally

124

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

formed in a situation remote from that in
which they are destined to carry on their
functions ; " the colt has no testicles," is
the common observation of the unim-
formed on these matters ; and we know
ourselves that the purse is without them,
but we know, in addition, that they exist
ready-formed within the abdomen, and that
they will descend at a certain period of age
into the proper receptacle, the scrotum.
During the fcetal state we find the testicles
more or less developed, tinged with a blush
of red, lodged beneath the psoas muscles,
in contact with the inferior borders of the
kidneys, covered and retained in their situ-
ations by peritoneum, and concealed by the
intestines around them. Here they receive
their arteries from the contiguous trunk —
the posterior aorta ; the vasa deferentia
run forward to them, and the cremasters
likewise turn forward instead of backward;
there being at this time no such thing as a
spermatic cord. Thus placed, the testicle
may be regarded as one of the glands of
the abdomen ; indoed it has considerable
similarity to the kidney — receiving its ves-

souree, and
a long duct backward into the
cavity of the pelvis ; nor does there appear
any conclusive reason why it should not
perform the same office in that situation
that it does in the scrotum, and particu-
larly since it is known that in birds the tes-
ticles remain within the abdomen during
life. From the part where the blood ves-
sels enter, we find growing a whitish sub-
stance, extending backward, diminishing
in breadth as it recedes, passing through
the ring where the hilus of the cremaster
may be traced upon it, and whence it is
prolonged into the scrotum, growing nar-
rower and narrower until it vanishes; this
fiubstance, regarded by some simply as a
ligament, was considered by Mr. Hunter
as the gubernaculum or pilot, by means of
which the testicle is directed in its passage
from the abdomen into the scrotum. Quit-
ting the spot where it has been formed and
matured, the testicle gradually retroccdes,
guided Vjy the gubernaculum, until it ar-

sels from the same contiguous

spending

rives on the internal ring, which, at this
time (like every other part of the parietes)
is closed by peritoneum ; this temporary
obstruction it overcomes by drawing the
membrane down along with it through the
ring, and carrying the pouch made thereby
down into the scrotum ; the gubernaculum
at the time undergoing a complete in-
version. This accounts for the production
of the tunica vaginalis, and explains how
that membrane comes to be doubled or re-
flected; the testicle, receiving originally (as
an abdominal viscus) one close adherent
peritoneal tunic, and acquiring another
which forms a loose covering as it passes
through the ring, must necessarily have
two; and since both are derived from one
and the same membrane, it follows that
one must be a continuation of the other.
These elongations of membrane, though
everywhere in contact, are prevented from
adhering together by a continual exhala-
tion of the natural serous secretion. Any
interval that might subsist between them,
in course, communicates with the cavity of
the abdomen, through the ring, a part that
remains open through life : this, however,
is not the case with man — in his body the
communication is cut oif, after the testicles
have descended, by a natural contraction
and obliteration both of the ring and the
inguinal passage. In many instances, one,
in some few, both of the testicles, are
known to have remained within the belly
through life. As we are unacquainted with
the immediate cause of their descent, so
we are unable to give any rational explana-
tion of this phenomenon. I have under-
stood, that in many of these cases the
glands have been found to be but imper-
fectly developed : this, however, is not with-
out exception.

Period of Descent. — Most animals have
their testicles within the scrotum at the
period of birth. In the human fcetus they
begin to move about the seventh month ;
about the eighth they reach the groins ; and
before birth they arrive in the scrotum.
In the horse, they pass through the ring
about the sixth or seventh month before

THE HORSE.

125

birth, and are found within the scrotum at
the period of parturition. In some cases,
one testicle will not make its appearance
for some time after the other ; and as the
operation for castration is seldom long de-
layed, this will account for the rig-s (as
horses having but one testicle are called)
with which we meet every now and then.
Again, instances are not wanling in which
one testicle has descended to tiie ring and
there remained through life.*

PENIS.

The penis is composed of the two corpora
cavernosa : head, or glans penis : corpus
musculosum urethra, and the plexus veno-
sus. The corporo cavernosa make up the
bulk of tlie organ, they extend from the
pelvis to the glans penis ; at the ischial arch
they arc invested with fibres of the erectors
penis, and are strengthened and confined to
Ihc pubes by the suspensory ligaments. It
is supplied with blood from a branch of
the cbtnra+or artery by means of the inter-
nal pudic artery. Its nerves are termed
pudic. so also are the veins.

The g-lans is composed of a soft spongy
tissue, highly elastic and distensible, and
remarkable as the seat of the plexus venosus
penis: the latter structure presents itself in
the form of a venous conglomeration, and
in the erect state of the organ constitutes
its chief bulk.

URETHRA.

The urethra is a muco-membranous canal

* In a communication I have been favored with from
Mr. Brcttargh (whicli I liave inserted in the second vol-
ume of The Veterinarian), is contained the following
information on this subject : " Colts are foaled with their
testicles in the scrotum, wliich remain there (in ordinary
eases) until the fifth or sixth month, when they are taken
up between the internal and external abdominal rinj^s,
and there remain until tlie cleventli, twelfth or thirteenth
montli, all dejicudini; ii\>on tlie dejjree of kee)), as in some
that arc well fed the testicles can at all times l)e found in
the scrotum. Were the testicles drawn up into the abdo-
men, they would be too large to pass tluxjugb the inter-
nal abdominal ring at the time they are wanted to prepare
for secretion ; wliich is occasionally the case, and at once
accotmts for our meeting witli horses that are said to have
but one stone. I have seen one instance where both were
ir-inting in t!i£ scitjtura at four years old."

averaging in length, in the unerected state
forty-eight inches; it extends from the ante-
rior part of the glans penis to the neck of
the bladder ; its use is to afford a passage
for the urine and seminal fluid.

rE:«ALE ORGANS OF GENERATION.

The vulva or pudendum comprises the
prominence and fissure, commencing imme-
diately beneath the anus, and extending
downwards some four or five inches. The
fissm*e is longest and most conspicuous in
breeding mares. The space between the
anus and vulva is termed perineum. The
prominences on each side of Ihe vulva are
called labia pudendia. They owe their
bulk principally to muscular and fatty sub-
stance, and cellular tissue.

The coinmissures are the parts uniting the
labia above and below. The superior or
upper commissure is extended to a sharp
angle, and joins the perineum; the lower
portion is rounded off, and is bounded by a
hollow, at the bottom of whicii is lodged
the

Clitoris. — Tills is brought into view im-
mediately after staling: it bears a close
comparison to the head of the male penis,
and. Like the latter, is susceptible of sensual
enjoyment. To the clitoris belong a pair
of muscles named erectors clitordis. They
lake their origin from the porineum. Their
office is to erect that body, and ])rotrude it
into the vagina in the act of coition.

T/ic inlcnial pniis are the vagina, uterus,
Fallopian tubes, fimbriae, and ovaria. Tiie
vagina is a musculo-membranous canal, of
large dimensions, extending from the vulva
to the uterus or womb.

It is situated within the pelvis, having
the bladder below and the rectum above it,
to both of which it has cellular attach-
ments, in addition to the reciprocal connec-
tion with the peritoneum. To the rectum
it is closely and firmly attached by cellular
membrane.

The figure of the vagina, when it is dis-
tended, is that of an oblong cylinder; but
in the collapsed state, its sides are in con-
tact, and it will vary its form according to

12G

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

the full or empty condition of the. bladder.
The largest part of the canal is the poste-
rior ; there it exceeds the dimensions of the
bladder.

The length of the canal is about eighteen
inches. Its course is horizontal, aixl ratlier
shows an inclination to the curve of the
rectum.

The vagina, at its commencement from
the vulva, is much thicker in its walls than
elsewhere ; in composition it is partly mus-
cular and partly membranous. The orifice
of it is clothed in that strong, red, circular,
fleshy band, which forms the sphincter
vagina; and the adjoining part of the canal
is also encircled by some considerable fleshy
covering, and thickly coated with muscular
fibres. Farther forward than this the vagina
is composed of membrane.

The Blambrane of the Vag-iiia. — The part
of which it is constituted is one of the
mucus class, and one that possesses consid-
erable density, extensibility, and resistance.
Its exterior surface is rough. Its interior
is smooth, and has a pale pinkish cast;
unless the mare be under the venereal oes-
trum, and then its redness is heightened,
and its secretion augmented. In the ordin-
ary state, this membrane is thrown into
folds, larger in breeding mares than in others,
technically called rugrr.

Considerably in advance of the clitoris is
an opening leading from the lower part of
the canal, large enough to admit with ease
any one of the fingers : this is the orifice of
tlie meatus urinarius, or outlet of the blad-
der : it is guarded by a doubling of the
vaginal membrane, which hangs over it, and
serves the purpose of a valve.

The large and consj)icuous protuberance
at the bottom of the vagina, is the mouth
of (he uterus.

The uterus, or womb, is a iiollow mus-
culo-meniliranous organ, united to the ante-
rior part of the vagina, and is destined for
the reception of thefa-tus. We distinguish
the uterus by the body, horns, neck, and
mt)uth. The body is the oblong or cylin-
drical part, gi'ov.-ing out of the anterior ))or-
tioH of the vajjina, in the centre of which

it is terminated internally by the os-uteri,
or mouth of the womb ; it gives origin, in
front, to the horns. This part lies wholly
within the pelvis, between the bladder and
rectum, and is entirely covered by peri-
toneum.

The cornua, or horns, rise from the body
of the uterus, and diverge towards the loins.
Their length and size will be much greater
in breeding mares than in others. In figure
they are cylindrical ; they bend upward in
their course, and terminate in round extrem-
ities, to which are loosely appended the
ovaries, or testicles, through the medium of
the Fallopian tubes.

The cervix, or neck, of the uterus is the
rugose portion, protruded back.vard into the
cavity of the vagina, which has a flower-
like appearance, and can only be seen in a
virgin uterus in the undistended state ; dur-
ing gestation it undergoes a remarkable
change.

Independently of its union ^vith the
vagina, the uterus is confined in its place
by two broad portions of peritoneum,
which attach it to the sides of the pelvis,
named the lateral ligaments of the uterus.
During the period of gestation, the uterus
experiences considerable extension. The
Fallopian tubes are two trumpet-shaped
canals, having a remarkable serpentine
course; running within the folds of the
ligamenta lata, from the extremities of the
horns to the ovaries.

The tube commences by an aperture in
the cornu, having an elevated whitish mar-
gin, which is scarcely large enough to admit
a small silver probe : from this it proceeds
forward, folded in peritoneum, and ex-
tremely convoluted, until it reaches the
ovary, to which it becomes attached ; it
then begins to enlarge in its diameter,
grows less convoluted, and serpentines along
the lower side of the ovary; it afterwards
ends in a fring.-d doubling of membrane.

The internal membrane of the tubes is
simili'.r to that of the uterus.

The ovari, or female testicles, are two
egg-sliaped bodies, situated farther forward
than ihe Fallopian tubes, within the cavity

THE HORSE.

127

of llic abdomen: ihey receive close cov-
erings, and are loosely attached tn ihe
spine.

These bodies are about the size of wal-
nuts. They are not regular oviform ; they
have deep fissures on their sides ; they
bear a resemblance, at first view, to the
testicles and llieir ducts in the male.

Internally, the ovaries are composed of a
whitish spongy substance, in which are, in
some instances, found little vesicles, con-
■ taining a yellowish glairy fluid, in others
one or more dark yellow or brownish sub-
stances, named corpora lutea : the vesicles
are the ova, which, from impregnation, re-
ceive further development ; the corpora
lutea denote the parts from which vesicles
have burst, and consequently only exist in
the ovaries of those mares whose organs
have been engaged in the generative pro-
cess. Prior to the age of sexual intercourse,
these bodies are small and white ; but, as
soon as the season of copulation is at hand,
they grow large, redden externally, and
present many yellow spots or streaks
through their substance.

Munimec, though unconnected wath the
uterus, anomatically speaking, are in func-
tion concurring to the same important end.
The mammae, vulgarly called udder, are
two flattened oval-shaped bodies, depend-
ing, between the thighs, from the posterior
and inferior part of the belly. In quadru-
peds, with but few exceptions, this is the
situation of the mammas.

In virgin mares the udder is so small
that there hardly appears to be any. In
mares who have had foals, the udder re-
mains prominent or pendulous, and has a
flabby feel

Toward the latter part of gestation, this
part swells, and becomes distinctly visible.
Within a few days of foaling, the udder
grows turgid wdth mUli ; it does not, how-
ever, acquire its full distention until the
foal has drawn it for a few days, from
which time it maintains its volume, witii
little variation, during the period of suck-
ling. Soon after the foal begins to forsake
the teat, the secretion of milk diminishes,
and is followed by a contraction of the
bag, "which goes on gradually, until it has
resumed nearly, or quite, its former flat-
ness.

The interior of the mamma; has a light
yellow'ish aspect, and evidently possesses a
lobulated structure, which is held together
by a fine cellular tissue, interspersed wdth
granules of fat. It is constituted of glan-
dular masses, irregular in magnitude and
form, and loosely connected one with
another, each of which masses is composed
of a number of lobules, closely compacted
and united together. These insulated lob-
ulous portions receive small arteries, from
which the milk is secreted. The former,
by repeatedly conjoining one with another,
become at length several demonstrable
canals, radiating from every part, and dilat-
ing to hold the milk.

When the udder becomes charged with
milk, it flows into the teat and distends it.
Suction is apparently an operation purely
mechanical. The teat is seized and closely
compressed by the lips of the foal ; and the
imbibing effort which follows has a ten-
dency to produce a vacuum, or raise the
valve at the upper part of the teat, and the
milk passes from the reservoirs into the
mouth.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

0.\ THE REPRODUCTION OF ORGANIZED
BEINGS.*

" If the changes which living beings un-
dergo during the period of tiieir existence,
and the termination of that existence by
the separation of their elements at a period
more or less remote from their first combina-
tion, be regarded as distinguishing them in
a striking and evident manner from the
masses of inert matter which surround them,
still more is their difference manifested in
the series of processes which constitute the
function of Reproduction. A very unneces-
sary degree of mystery has been spread
around the exercise of this function, not
only by general inquirers, but by scientific
physiologists. It has been regarded as a
process never to be comprehended by man,
of which the nature and the laws are alike
inscrutable. A fair comparison of it, how-
ever, with other functions, will show that it
is not in reality less comprehensible or more
recondite than any one of them; — that our
acquaintance with each depends upon the
facility with which it may be submitted to
investigation ; — and that, if properly in-
quired into by an extensive survey of the
animated world, the real character of the
process, its conditions, and its mode of oper-
ation, may be understood as completely as
those of any other vital phenomenon.

" It may be considered as a fundamental
truth of Physiological Science, that every
living organism lias had its origin in a pre-
existing organism. The doctrine of 'spon-
taneous generation,' or the supposed origina-
tion of organized structures de novo out of
assemblages of inorganic particles, although
at different times sustained with a consider-

* Carpenter's Physiology.

able show of argument, based on a specious
array of facts, cannot now be said to have
any claim whatever to be received as even
a possible hypothesis ; all the facts on which
it claimed to rest having either been them-
selves disproved, or having been found satis-
factory explicable on the general principle
omne vivum ex ovo. Thus, the appearance
of Animalcules in infusions of decaying
organic matter, the springing-up of Fungi
in spots to which it would not have been
supposed that their germs could have been
conveyed, the occurrence of Entozoa in the
bodies of various animals into which it
seemed almost beyond possibility that their
eggs could have been introduced, with
other facts of a like nature, may now be
accounted for, without any violation of
probability, by our increased knowledge of
the mode in which these organisms are pro-
pagated. Thus, it is now well ascertained
that the germs of Fungi and of many kinds
of Animalcules are diffused through the
atmosphere, and are conveyed by its move-
ments in every direction ; and that, if to de-
composing substances of a kind that would
otherwise have been most abundantly peo-
pled by these organisms, such air only be
allowed to have access as has been deprived
of its organic germs by filtration (so to
speak) through a red-hot tube or strong
sulphuric acid, no living organisms will
make their appearance in them ; whilst in
a few hours after the exposure of the very
same substances to ordinary atmospheric
air, it has been found to be crowded with
life.* And when it is borne in mind, in the
case of the Entozoa, that the members of

* See the experiments of Schulze, in the " Edinb. New
Phil. Journal," 1837, p. 165.

(128)

ANATOMY AND PIIYSIOI.OGY OF THE HORSE.

129

(his class are remarkable for the immense
iminber of eggs which most of them pro-
duce, for the metamorphoses which many
of thrtii are known to undergo, and for the
varieties of form under which there is reason
to suspect that the same germs may de-
velop themselves, it becomes obvious that
no adequate proof has yet been afforded
that they have been, in any particular case,
ofherwi.-;e than the products of a pre-existing

living organism.

This, again, is the con-

clusion to which all the most general doc-
trines of Physiology necessarily conduct us.
For it is most certain that we know noth-
ing of Vital Force, save as manifested
through organized structures; whilst, on the
other hand, the combination of inorganic
matter into organized structures is one of
the most characteristic operations of vital
force ; hence it is scarcely conceivable that
any operation of physical forces upon inor-
ganic matter should evolve a living organ-
ism. Nor is such a conception more feasi-
ble, if it be admitted that vital force stands
in such a relation to the physical forces,
that we may regard the former as a mani-
festation of the latter, when acting through
organized structures ; since no vital force
can be manifested (according to this view),
and no organization can take place, except
througli a pre-existing organism.

" It may be further considered as an es-
tablished physiological truth, that, when
placed under circumstances favorable to
its complete evolution, every germ will de-
velop itself into the likeness of its parent;
drawing into itself, and appropriating by
its own assimilative and formative opera-
tions, the nutrient materials supplied to it ;
and repeating the entire series of phases
through which its parent may have passed,
however multiform these may be.* Now
the germs of all tribes of plants and
animals whatever bear an extremely close
relation to each other in their earliest con-
dition ; so that there is no appreciable dis-

* Tliu apparent exceptions to this rule, wliieli liave liccn
lirou;;lit to;;et!icr under the collective tcnn, " Alternation of
Generations," will lie presently considered, and ■will be
shown to be only exceptional when misinterpreted.
17

tinction amongst them, which would enable
it to be determined whether a particular
molecule is the germ of a Conferva or of
an Oak, of a Zoophyte or of a Man. But
let each be placed in the conditions it re-
quires ; and a gradual evolution of the
germ into a complex fabric will take place,
the more general characters of the new or-
ganism preceding the more special, as
already explained. These conditions are
not different in kind from those which are
essential to the process of nutrition in the
adult; for they consist, on the one hand, in
a due supply of aliment in the condition
in which it can be appropriated ; and, on
the other hand, in the operation of certain
external agencies, especially heat, which
seems to supply the force requisite for the
developmental process. Now, although we
may not be able to discern any such osten-
sible differences in the germs of different
orders of living beings as can enable us to
discriminate them from each other, yet, see-
ing so marked a diversity in their operations
under circumstances essentially the same,
we cannot do otherwise than attribute to
them distinct properties ; and it will be con-
venient to adopt the phrase germinal capa-
city as a comprehensive expression of that
peculiar endowment, in virtue of which
each geni. Jevelopes itself into a structure
of its own specific type, when the requisite
forces are brought to bear upon it, and the
requisite materials are supplied to it.*
Thus, then, every act of development
may be considered as due to the force sup-
plied by heat or some other physical agency,
which, operating through the organic germ,
exerts itself as formative power ; whilst the
mode in which it takes eilect is dependent

« This term is preferred to that of "germ-power " sug-
jrested by Mr. Paget, because the latter seems to imply
that the force of development exists in the germ itself.
Now, if this were true, not only must the whole formative
power of the adult have been possessed by its first cell-
germ, but the whole formative power of all the beings
simultaneously belonging to any one race, must have been
concentrated in the first cell-gei in of their iiriginal proge-
nitor. This seems a ralmlh ail <ilisiiriliiin of any such
doctrine ; and we are driven back on the .issumpiioii
(which all observation confirms), that the force of develop-
ment is derived from external agencies.

130

ANATOMY AND ri[VrtIOLOt;V OF

upon the properties or endowments of the
substances througli which it acts, namely,
the germ on the one hand, the alimentary
materials on the other, — just as an electric
current, transmitted through the diHerent
nerves of sense, produces the sensory im-
pressions which are characteristic of each
respectively; or, as the same current trans-
mitted through one form of inorganic
matter produces light and iieat, through
another, chemical change, or tlu'ough an-
other, magnetism.

" In the development of any living being,
therefore, from its primordial germ, we have
three sets of conditions to study — namely,
first, the ))hysical forces which are in opera-
tion; seco)ul, the properties of the germ,
which these forces call into activity; and
tMrd, the properties of the alimentary mate-
rials which are incorporated in the organism
during its development. There is evidence
that each of these may have a considerable
inlluence on the result; but in the higher
organisms it would seem that the second is
more dominant than it is in the lower. For
among many of the lower tribes, both of
plants and animals, there is reason to be-
lieve that the range of departure from the
characters of its parent, which the organism
may present, is considerably greater than
that of the higher ; and that this is chiefly
due to the external conditions under which
it has been developed. The forms of a
number of species of the lower Fungi, for
example, appear to be in a great part de-
pendent on the nature of their aliment ; so
among the Entozoa, there seems strong
reason to believe that those of the Cystic
order are only Cestoidea, that are prevented
by the circumstances under which they exist
from attaining their full development; and
the |)roduc'iion of a fertile 'queen' or of an
imperfect 'worker,' among the hive-bees,
appears to be entirely determined by the
food v.itii which the larva is snppiied. No
such variations have been observed among
the higher classes; in wliicli it would seem
as if the form attained by each germ is
more rigidly determined by its own endow-
ments ; a modilication in the other con-

ditions, which in the lower tribes would
considerably affect the result, being in them
unproductive of any corresponding change.
For, if such modification be considerable,
the organism is unable to adapt itself to it,
and consequently either perishes or is imper-
fectly developed ; whilst, if it be less potent,
it produces no obvious effect. Thus, a de-
ficiency of food in the growing state of the
higher animal will necessarily prevent the
attaiimient of the full size ; but it will not
exert that influence on the relative develop-
ment of different parts that it does among
plants, in which it favors the production of
flowers and fruit in place of leaves, or that
it seems to exercise in several parallel cases
among animals. So, again, a deficiency of
heat may slightly retard the development of
the chick ; but, if the egg be allowed to re-
main long without the requisite warmth,
the embryo dies, instead of passing into a
state of inactivity, like that of reptiles or
insects. The extent, indeed, to which these
external conditions may affect the develop-
ment of the inferior organisms, must not be
in the least judged of by that to which
their operation is restricted in the higher ;
and it is probable that we have yet much to
learn on the subject. At present, it may
be stated as a problem for determination,
whether, from a being of superior organiza-
zation, loiccr forms of living structure,
capable of maintaining an independent
existence, and of propagating their kind,
can ever originate, by an imperfect action
of its formative powers. Various morbid
growths, such as cancer cells, to which the
higher organisms are liable, have been
looked upon in this light ; these have cer-
tainly a powerful vitality of their own,
which enables them to increase and multi-
ply at the expense of the organism which
they infest; and they have also an energetic
reproductive power, by which they can pro-
pagate their kind, so as to transmit the
disease to other organisms, or to remote
parts of the same organism ; but such
growths are not independent ; they cannot
maintain their own existence, when de-
tached from the organism in which they are

TH1-: HORSE.

131

devclopt'd ; and they have not, therefore,
the attribute of a separate indiindualitif.
Various phenomena hereafter to be detailed,
however, respecting the ' gemmiparous'
production of living beings, when taken in
connection with that just cited, seem to ren-
der it by no means impossible that the in-
dividualization may be more complete in
other casefs, so that independent beings of a
lower type maij possibly originate in a per-
verted condition of the formative operations
in the higher. But no satisfactory evidence
has ever been aflbrded by experience, that
such 'equivocal generation' has actually
taken place; and its possibilily is here
alluded to only as a contingency which it is
light to keep in view. That no higher type
has ever originated through an advance in
developmental power, may be safely as-
serted ; for, although various instances have
been brought forward to justify the asser-
tion that such is possible, yet these instances
entirely fail to establish the analogy that is
sought to be drawn from them."

* Tims, the autlioi- of the " Vestiges of the Natural
History of Creation " refers to the various modifications
which have taken place in our cultivated I'hints and
Domesticated Animals, in proof that such elevation is
possible ; quite overlooking the fact that these external iu-
(iucnces merely niodifff the development, without elevating
it, and that these races, if left to themselves, speedily revert
to their common specific type. And he adduces the
phenomena of metamorphosis — the transformation of
tlie worm-like larva into an insect, and of a lish-likc
tadjiole into a frog — as giving some analogical sanction
to the same doctrine; totally overlooking the fact, that
these transfonnatioTis are only part of the ordinary develop-
mental process, by which the complete f.irm of the species
is evolved, insteail of being transitions from the jierfcctcd
typo of one class to the perfected tyjic of one above it.
So, again, he quotes the tninsfomiatiou of the worker-
grub of the hive-bee into the fertile queen, as an example
of a. similar advance; without regarding the circumstance
that t'le woi'ker is physicatlii higher (according to hunutn
ideas, at le.ist) than the queen, whose instincts appear
limited to the peiformance of her sexual functions ; and
that the utmost wliicli the fact is capable of ]iroving, is,
that the same germ may be developed into two different
forms, according to the circumstances of its early growih.
It must always he borne in mind that the character of a
species, to be complete, slioidd include all its fonus, per-
fect and imperfect, moililied and unmodified ; since in this
mode alone can that "capacity for variatiim " he deter-
mined, which is so remarkable a I'eatuie in many cases,
-ami is that which specially distinguishes the races of plants
and animals that have been subjected to human iiilhicnic. |

" The development power which each germ
possesses, under the conditions just now
detailed, is manifested, iiot merely in the
tirst evolution of the germ into its com-
plete specific type, but also in the main-
tenance of its perfect form, and, within
certain limits, by the reproduction of i)art.s
that have been destroyed by injury or dis-
ease. This reproduction, as Mr. Paget has
pointed out,* dift'ers from the ordinary pro-
cess of nutrition in this, — that ' in grave
injuries and diseases, the parts that might
serve as models for the new materials to be
assimilated to, or as tissue-germs to develop
new structures, are lost or spoiled ; and yet
the eftt!cts of injury and disease are re-
covered from, and the right specific form
and composition are retained ; ' — and,
again, ' that the reproduced parts are
formed, not according to any )5resent model,
but according to the appropriate specific
form, and often with a more strikingly evi-
dent design towards that form, as an end
or purpose, than we can discern in the nat-
ural con.struction of the body.' In the re-
production of the leg of a fuLl-growa
Salamander after amputation, which was
observed to take place by Spallanzani, it is
clear that, whilst the process was from the
first of a nature essentially similar to that
by which its original development took
place, it tended to produce, not the leg of
a larva, but that of an adult animal. Hence
it is obvious that, through the whole of life,
the formative processes are so directed as to
maintain the pejfection of the organism,
by keeping it up, so far as possible, to the
model or archetvjje that is proper to the
epoch of its life which it has attained.
The amount of this regenerating power,
however, varies greatly in different classes
of organized beings, and at difl'erent stages
of the existence of the same being ; and, as
Mr. Paget has pointed out,| it seems t©

In no instance has tliis variation tended to confusC the
limits of well-ascertained species ; ii has merely increased
our acquaintance witli the number of diversified forms intc
which the same germ may dcvdope Itself.

* " Lectures on Heproductiun and JJepair."

' Loc cit.

132

AKATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

bear an inverse ratio to tlie degree of devel-
opment which has previously takrji place
in each case. Thus, in the Hijdfa and
other Zoophytes, it would appear (as in
Plants) to be almost unlimited ; I'wr the de-
velopment process in them is checked at
such an early period, that both the form of
the organism and the structure of its tissues
retain the most simple type ; and by the
subdivision of one individual, no fewer
than fifty were produced by Trembly. In
this, as probably in all the cases in which
new individuals have been obtained by
artificial subdivision, there is some natural
tendency to their production by the vege-
tative process of gemmation ; but this does
not always manifest itself. It is a curious
fact, that the first attempt at regeneration,
in some of these cases, is not always com-
plete ; but that successive efforts are made,
each of which approximates more and
more closely to the perfect type. This was
well seen in one of Sir J. G. Dalyell's ex-
periments ; for he observed that, having
cloven the stem of a Tubularia (a Hydroid
Zoophyte), after the natural fall of its head,
an imperfect head Vv^as at first produced,
which soon fell off and was succeeded by
another more fully formed; this in its turn
was succeeded by another ; and so on, until
the fifth head was produced, which was as
complete as the original.

" As a general statement of the amount
of this regenerating power, which exists in
most of the different classes of animals,
has been already given, it is unnecessary
here to do more than allude to some of
those facts which most strongly bear out
the doctrine just laid down. Next to
Zoophytes, there are no animals in which
the regenerative power is known to be so
strong as it is in the lower Articulata (as
the Cestoid Entozoa, and the inferior An-
nelida), and in the Planaria, which may
perhaps be regard;'d as rather approximat-
ing to the Molluscous type; and here, again,
we see that a low gi'ade of gen(>ral devel-
opment is favorable to its exercise, and that
the spontaneous multiplication which occa-
sionally lakes place in these animals by

fission or gemmation, is only another form
of the same process. In the higher forms
of both these sub-kingdoms, as wc; no
longer meet with multiplication by gemma-
tion, so do we find that the re|Darative power
is much more limited ; the only manifesta-
tion of it among the fully-formed Arrack-
nida and Crustacea being the reproduction
of limbs, and the power of cfl'ecting even
this being usually deficient in perfect In-
sects. The inquiries of Mr. Newport,
however, upon the reproductive powers of
Myriapods and Insects, in ditTerent stages
of their development,* confirm the general
principle already stated ; for he has ascer-
tained that in their larval condition, Insects
can usually reproduce limbs orantenn^ ; and
that Myriapods, whose highest development
scarcely carries them beyond the larvte of 0
perfect Insects, can regenerate limbs or an-
tennsE, up to the time of their last moult,
when, their normal development being com-
pleted, their regenerative power seems en-
tirely expended. The Phasmida; and some
other insects of the order Orlhoptera retain a
similar degree of this power in their perfect
state; butthese are remarkable for the similar-
ity of their larval and imago states, the latter
being attained, as in Arachnida, by a direct
course of development, without anything
that can be called a ' metamorphosis.' Lit-
tle is known of the regenerative power in
the higher Mollusca ; but it has been
affirmed that the head of the Snail may
be reproduced after being cut off', provided
the cephalic ganglion be not injured, and
an ndeiiuate amount of heat be supplied.
In Vertebrata, again, it is observable that
the greatest reparative power is found
among Batrachian Reptiles, whose devel-
opment is altogether lower, and whose life
is altogether more vegetative, than that of
probably any other group in this sub-king-
dom. In Fishes, it has been found that
portions of the fins which have been lost
by disease or accident are the only parts
that arc reproduced. But in the Sala-
mander, entire new legs, with perfect bones,
nerves, muscles, etc., are reproduced after

* " riiiloiiOijliifal TmusiitLiuua," 1844.

THE HORSE.

133

loss or severe injury of th
bers ; and in the Triton a perfect eye has
been formed to replace one which had been
removed. In the true Lizards, an imper-
fect reproduction of the tail takes place,
when a part of it has been broken off; but
the newly-developed portion contains no
perfect vertebrfp, its centre being occupied
by a cartilaginous column, like that of the
lowc.'^t Fishes. In the warm-blooded Ver-
tebrata generally, as in Wan, the power of
true reprodviction after loss or injury seems
limited, as Mi'. Paget has pointed out,* to
three classes of parts, namely : (1.) ' Those
which are formed entirely by nutritive rep-
etition, like the blood and epcthelia, tlieir
germs being continually generated de novo
in the ordinary condition of the body ; (2.)
Those which are of lowest organization,
and (which seems of more importance) of
lowest chemical character, as the gelatinous
tissues, the areolar and tendinous, and the
bones ; (3.) Those which are inserted in
other tissues, not as essential to their struc-
tm-e, but as accessories, as connecting or
incorporating them with the other struc-
tures of vegetative or animal life, such as
nerve-fibi-es and blood-vessels. With these
exceptions, injuries or losses are capable of
no more than repaii', in its more limited
sense ; i. c, in the place of what is lost,
some lowly organized tissue is formed,
which fills up the breach, and suffices for
the maintenance of a less perfect life.'
Yet, restricted as this power is, its opera-
tions are frequently most remarkable ; and
are in no instance, perhaps, more strikingly
displayed, than in the re-formation of a
whole bone, when the original one has been
destroyed by disease. The new bony mat-
ter is thrown out, sometimes within, and
sometimes around, the dead shaft ; and
when the latter has been removed, the new
structm-e gradually assumes the regular
form, and all the attachments of museles,
ligaments, etc., become as complete as be-
fore. A much greater variety and com-
plexity of actions are involved in this

* " Lc(.:u;-i.s o:i licpi-oduction niul IJcpaii'."

process, than in the reproduction of whole
organs in Ihe simpler animals ; though
its effects do not appear so striking. It
would seem that in some individuals this
regenerating power is retained to a greater
degree than it is by the class at large ; * and
here again we find, that in the early period
of development the power is more strongly
exerted than in the adult condition. The
most remarkable proof of its persistence even
in Man, has been collected by Prof. Simp-
son ; who has brought together numerous
cases in which, after ' spontaneous amputa-
tion of the limbs of a fcstus in utero,' occur-
ring at an early period of gestation, there
has obviously been an imperfect effort at
the re-formation of the amputated part
from the stump.f By the knowledge of
these facts and principles, we seem justi-
fied in the surmise, that the occurrence
of supernumerary or multiple parts is
not always due (as usually supposed) to
the ' fusion ' of two germs, but that it
may result from the subdivision of one ;

* One of the most curious and well-autlienticateil in-
stances of this kind is related by Mr. AVIiitc, in his work
on the " Regeneration of Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances," 1785, p. 16. "Some years ago, I delivered a
lady of rank of a fine boy, who had two thumbs upon one
hand, or rather, a thumb double from the first joint, the
other one less than the other, each part having a perfect
nail. When he was about three years old, I was desired
to take off the lesser one, which I did ; but to my great
astonishment it grew again, and along with it the nail.
The fiimily afterwards went to reside in London, wliere
his father showed it to th.at excellent operator, William
Bronifield, Esq., surgeon to the Queen's household ; who
said, he supposed Mr. White, being afraid of damaging
the joint, had not taken it wholly out, but he would dis-
sect it out entirely, ami then it would not return. He ac-
cordingly executed tlie plan be had described, with great
dexterity, and turned the ball fairly out of the socket;
notwithstanding this, it grew again, and a fresh nail was
formed, and the thnml) remained in this state." The
Author h.as been himself assured by a most intelligent
Surgeon, that ho was cognizant of a case in wliich
the whole of one ramus of the lower jaw bad been
lost liy disease in a young girl, yet the jaw had been com-
pletely regenerated, and teetli were developed and occu-
jiled their normal situations in it.

t These cases were brought by Prof Simpson before
the Physiological Section of the British As.sociation, at
Its meeting in Kdinburgh, August, 18.")0. The Author,
having had the opportunity of examining Prof. Simpson's
preparations, as well as two living examples, is perfectly
satisfied as to the fact.

134

AN"ATO:.IY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

for, if it be supposed that this subdivi-
sion has taken place when the develop-
mental process has advanced no further
than in a Hydra or a Planaria, it seems by
no means impossible that each part might,
as in those creatures, advance in its devel-
ojiment up to the attainment of its com-
plete form.

" There are many tribes, both of Plants
and Animals, in which multiplication is
effected not only art ifi dally but sponta-
neovsly, by the separation of parts, which,
though developed from the same germ in
perfect contiiuiity with each other, are capa-
ble of maintaining an independent exist-
ence, and which, when thus separated, take
rank as distinct individuals. This process,
which is obviously to be regarded, no less
than the preceding, as a peculiar manifes-
tation of the ordinary operations of Nu-
trition, may take place in either of four
different modes — 1. In the lowest Cellular
Plants, and the simplest Protozoa, every
component cell of the aggregate mass that
springs from a single germ, being capable
of existing independently of the rest, may
be regarded as a distinct individual ; and
thus every act of growth which consists in
the multiplication of cells, makes a corre-
sponding augmentation in the number of
individuals. 2. In many organisms of a
somewhat higher type, in which the fabric
of each complete individual is made up of
several component parts, we find the new
growths to be complete repetitions of that
from which they are put forth ; and thus
Ihe composite organism presents the sem-
blance of a collection of individuals united
together, so that nothing is needed but the
severance of the connection, to resolve it
into a number of separate individuals, each
perfect in itself. The most characteristic
example of this is presented by the Hydra,
which is continually multiplying itself after
this fashion; for the buds or 'gemmae'
which it throws off are not merely struc-
turally but functionally complete (being
capable, of seizing and digesting their own
Jircy), previously to their detachment from
the parent. 3. In by fur the larger propor-

tion of cases, on the other hand, the
'gemma' does not possess the complete
structure of the parent, at the time of its
detachment, but is endowed with the ca-
pacity for developing whatever may be
deficient. Thus, the bud of a Phanero-
gamic Plant possesses no roots, and its
capacity for independent existence depends
upon its power of evolving those, organs.
On the other hand, the 'zoospore' of an
Ulva or a Conferva is nothing else than a
young cell, from which the entire organism
is to be evolved after it has been set free ;
and, even in the ■ bulbels ' of the Mar-
chantia, the advance is very little greater.
The ' bulbels ' of certain Phanerogamic
plants, however, bear more resemblance to
ordinary buds. 4. In the preceding cases,
the organism which is developed by this
process resembles that from which it has
been put forth; but there are many cases
in which the offset differs in a marked de-
gree from the stock, and evolves itself into
such a different form that the two would
not be supposed to have any mutual rela-
tion, if their affinity were not pro^^^ed by a
knowledge of their history. Sometimes
we find that the new individual thus bud-
ded off is in every respect as complete as
that from which it proceeded, though de-
veloped upon a different type ; but in other
instances it is made up of little else than
a generaiive apparatus, provided with loco-
motive instruments to carry it to a distance,
its nutritive apparatus being very imperfect.
Of the first, we have an example in the
development of MedusBE; from the Hydroid
Polypes ; and of the second in the peculiar
subdivision of certain Annelida, hereafier
to be described. Now it is obvious that, in
this process, no agency is brought into
play Hiat differs in any essential mode from
that which is concerned in the ordinary nu-
tritive operation. The multiplication of
individuals is performed exactly after the
same fashion as the extension of the parent
organism ; and the very same parts may
be regarded as organs belonging to it, or as
new individuals, according to their stage of
development, and the relation of depen-

THE HORSE.

1 '^ t
loo

dence which tliey still hold to it. The es-
sence of this operation is (he multiplication
. of cells by continual sulnlicision.

"We have now, on the other hand, to in-
quire into the nature of the true Generative
process, by which the original germ is en-
dowed with its developmental capacity ;
and this we shall find to be of a character
precisely the opposite of the preceding.
For, under whatever circumstances the
generative process is performed, it appears
essentially to consist in the re-union of the
contents of ttco cells* of which the germ,
which is the real commencement of a
' new generation,' is the result. This pro-
cess is performed under the three following
conditions: 1. All the cells of the entire
aggregate, produced by the previous subdi-
vision, may be capable of thus uniting with
each other indiscriminately ; there being no
indication of any sexual distinction. Tliis
is what we see in the simplest Cellular
plants. 2. All the component cells of each
organism may, in like manner, pair with
other cells, to produce fertile germs ; but
there are differences in the shares which
they respectively take in the process, which
indicate that their endowments are not pre-
cisely similar, and that a sexual distinction
exists between them, notwithstanding that
this is not indicated by any obvious struc-
tural character. This condition is seen in
the Zygnema and its allies. 3. The gen-
erative power is restricted to certain cells,
w'hich are set apart from the rest of the
fabric, and destined to this purpose alone ;
and the endowments of the two sets are so
far different, that the one furnishes the
germ, wlulst the other supplies the fertiliz-
ing influence ; whence the one set have
been appropriately designated 'germ-cells '
and the other ' sperm-cells.' Such 'is the
case in aU the higher Plants among which
a true generative apparatus has been dis-
covered ; and also throughout the Animal
Idngdoni.

* 111 veiyrare insf.iiccs, it is the re-union of tlio two
p.iits of the contents of the same cell, which hail pre-
viously tended to scp.nrate from each other, as if in tlie
process of subdivision.

" Thus, then, in the entire process in
which a new being originates, possessing
like structure and endowments with its
parent, two distinct classes of actions par-
ticipate,— namely, the act of Generation,
by which the (ierm is produced ; and the
act of Development, by which that germ is
evolved into the complete organism. 'I'he
former is an operation altogether suig-cncris ;
the latter is only a peculiar modification of
the Nutritive function ; yet it may give
origin, as we have seen, to new individuals,
by the se]>aration (natural or artificial) of
the parts which are capable of existing as
such. Now, between these two operations
there would seem to be a kind of antago-
nism. Whilst every act of Development
tends to diminish the ' germinal capacity,*
the act of Generation renews it; and thu-
the tree, which has continued to exte d
itself by budding until its vital energy
is well-nigh spent, may develop flow era
and mature seeds from which a vigoi ous
progeny shall spring up. But the multipli-
cation of individuals does not directly de-
pend upon the act of generation alone ; it
may be accomplished by the detachment
of gemmcs, whose production is a sim
act of development ; and the individuals
thus produced are sometimes similar, some-
times dissimilar, to the beings from which
they sprang. W^hen they are dissimilar,
however, the original type is always repro-
duced by an intenening act of generation ;
and the immediate products of the true g-en-
erative act always resemble one another.
Hence the phrase, ' alternation of genera-
tions,' can only be legitimately employed
when the term generation is used to desig-
nate a succession of individuals, by what-
ever process they have originated ; an ap-
plication of it which cannot but lead to a
complete obliteration of the essential dis-
tinction which the attemjjt has been here
made to draw between the generative act
and the act of gemmation. For when it is
said that ' generation a produces genera-
tion n, whicii is dissimilar to itself, whil.st
generation b produces generation c, which
is dissimilar to itself, but which returns to

136

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

the form of generation a,' it is entirely left
out of consideration that generation a pro-
duces (the so-called) generation b by a
process of gemmalioii; whilst the process
by which generation b produces generation
c is one of tnie generation. So generation
c developes d by gemmation, which resem-
bles li ; and d, by a true generative act,
produces e, which resembles a and c. This
distinction, although it may at first sight
appear merely verbal, will yet be found of
fundamental importance in the appreciation
of the true relations of these processes, and
of their resulting products. So, in the
Author's opinion, the application of the
term ' generation ' to the e?iHre product of
the development of any germ originating

in a generative act, whether that product
consist of a single individual, or of a suc-
cession, will be found much more appropri-
ate, and more conducive to the end in view,
than the indiscriminate application of it to
each succession, whether produced by gem-
mation or by sexual re-union. It is of
great importance to the due comprehension
of certain phenomena of Reproduction,
which will come under consideration in the
Animal kingdom, that the relations of the
products of these two processes should be
rightly apjireciated ; and this appreciation
of them will, it is believed, be best gained
by a careful inquiry into the phenomena
of Reproduction in the Vegetable king-
dom."

EXAMINATIONS RESUMED.

GLANT3ULAR APPAR-iTUS.

Q. Describe the structure of a glandular body. — A.
It consists of a collection of tubes, more or less convo-
luted, united by cellular substance into masses of a
rounded form, constituting a lobule ; each lobule has
a separate investment of membrane ; and the whole
aggregate of lobules is furnished with a general mem-
branous envelope or capsule. Each gland jjreseiits a
com])lex arrangement of numerous arteries, veins,
ner\ cs, and lymphatics, and most of them are provided
with an excretory duct, which conducts the secretion
prepared in the gland.

Q. \\'hat glands are su])posed to be destitute of a
secretory duct ? — A. The pineal gland, thjToid, thy-
mus, and renal ca])sules.

Q. What function do most of the glands perform ? —
A. Their function is two-fold, namely, the se])aration
of some material from the circulating fluid, which
would otherwise prove injurious to the system, and the
elaboration of a product destmed to renovate the tis-
sues.

OF TIIE ABDOMEN.

Q. IIow is the cavity of the abdomen bounded .' —
A. Anteriorly, by the diaphragm ; posteriorly, by the
pelvis; su])eriorly, by a portion of the vertebra; infe-
riorly and laterally, by abdominal muscles.

Q. Into how many regions is the abdomen divided ?
— .-I. Into nine, as follows: right and left hypochon-
driac; right and left lumbar; right and left iliac ; epi-
gastric, umbilical, and hipogastric.

PERITONEUJI.

Q. M'hy is the peritoneum called " serous mem-

brane?"— A. In consequence of the serous or waterv
fluid with which its surface is constantly moistened.

Q. What is the structure of serous meml)ranes ? —
A. The same as that of the areolar tissue, having a
very smooth and glistening inner sin-face, which is*
covered witli a layer of cells ; constituthig a distinct
tissue, termed epithelium. This is in contact with the
primary mumhrane, thus isolating it from the tissues
beneath. Sub-adjacent to this is a layer of condensed
areolar tissue, which constitutes the chief thickness of
the serous membrane, and confers u])on it its strengtii
and elasticity ; this gradually jjasses into that base
variety, by which the membrane is attached to the part
it lines, and which is commonly known as the sub-
serous tissue. A fibrous tissue enters into the compo-
sition of the membrane itself, and its filaments ititer-
lace in a beautiful network, wliich confers u])on it
equal elasticity in every direction.

Q. What is the purjiose of this membrane? — A.
To facilitate the movements of the contained organs,
by forming smooth surfaces wliich shall fj'cely glide
over each other.

STOMACH.

Q. What effect does the gastric fluid have upon the
food ? — A. It is supposed to have the projierty of dis-
solvinj the albuminous and gelatinous constituents of
the food.

Q. What is the real solvent of the gastric fluid? —
.1. Either hydrochloric, acetic, or lactic acid.

Q. Is not the solvent action of the gastric fluid aided
by some mechanical means ? — A. Yes. By the move-
ments of the walls of the stomach, which are produced
by the successive contractions and relaxations of their

THE HORSE.

137

muscular fibres, the contents of the stomach are thus
kept in a state of constant agitation, wliicli is considered
favorable to their chemical solution.

Q. Does absor]ition of nutritious matter lake place
in the stomach? — A. Yes. A portion of the nutri-
tious matter dissolved by the gastric fluid is at once
absorbed into tlie blood-vessels of the stomach, and
never passes into the intestinal tube, nor into the special
lacteal system of vessels.

Q. What term is apphed to the food after its reduc-
tion, in the stomach, to a pulpy mass .' — A. Cliynie.

Q. Gas is frequently evolved in the stomach and
intestines during digestion: how do you accomit for
this ? — A. It is owing to a disturbed or piorbid condi-
tion of that process, and by no means a necessary at-
tendant upon healthy digestion.

Q. Does violent exercise immediately after a feed
tend to retard the formation of chyme P — A. It does.
The circumstances most favorable to perfect digestion
are, a short period of rest, followed by gentle exercise.

Q. Does any portion of the food ever pass unchanged
through the pylorus along with the chyme .•' — A. Yes.
AVhole oats are frequently found in the horse's excre-
ment.

INTESTINES.

Q. The aliment now being converted into chyme,
and having passed the pylorus, what becomes of it ?
— A. It enters the duodenum.

Q. Having entered the duodenum, with what does
the chyme mingle ? — A. The biliary and pancreatic
secretions.

Q. AVhat effect do they have on the gastric secretion
and the chyme ? — A. The biUary and pancreatic secre-
tions are supposed to contain an excess of alkali ; this
neutrahzes the acid of the gastric juice, so that there is
no further solution of albuminous compounds, but the
conversion of starch into sugar, which was interrupted
in the stomach, now recommences.

Q. What are the uses of the bile ? — A. The chief,
uses of the bile appear to be those of a chemical agent
promoting the decomposition of the chyme, and also
stimulating the secretion of mucus, and the peristaltic
action of the intestines.

Q. What effect has the pancreatic juice on chyme or
the elements of digestion ? — A. It forms an emulsion
with oil and fat.

Q. The ch)Tne, having been acted on by the preced-
ing secretions, what name is then given to it.' — A.
Chyle.

Q. Describe the properties of chyle ? — A. If chyle
be taken from the thoracic duct of an animal a few
hours after it has taken food, it has very much the
appearance of cream, being a thick fluid of an opaque
white color, without smell, and having a slightly acid
taste, accompanied by a perceptible sweetness. It
restores the blue color of Utmus, previously reddened
by acetic acid, and appears, therefore, to contain a ]ire-
])onderance of alkali. When subjected to microscopic
examination, chyle is found to contain a multitude of
IS

globules, of smaller diameter than those of the blood,
and corresponding in size and appearance to those of
milk. In about ten minutes after it is removed from
the thoracic duct, it coagulates into a stiff jelly, which
in the course of twenty-four hours sejiaratcs into two
parts, providing a firm and contracted coagulum, sur-
roimded by a transparent colorless fluid.

Q. What are the principal ingredients of chyle? —
A. A large proportion of albumen, a smaller one of
fibrui ; a fatty .s-ubstance or emulsion, which gives to
chyle the appearance of millv ; and several salts, such
as carbonate of potassa, miuiate of potassa, and pro-
phospate of u-on.

Q. What change does the chyle undergo in its pas-
sage along the various vessels ? — A. Its resemblance
to blood increases in each of the successive stages of its
progress towards the heart and lungs.

<^. How are the chemical changes, and the contents
of the intestines propelled through the tract of the
aUmentary canal? — A. By the peristaltic action of the
muscular coat of the same.

Q. What becomes of the chyle after it has been ])rc-
pared in the duodenum and fii-st intestines? — .4. It
is received by absorption into the lacteals, and by them
conveyed to the thoracic duct, which transmits it to
large veins in the \icinity of the heart. (See distribu-
tion of lymphatics.)

Q. What do you understand by the " absorbent sys-
tem?"— A. The absorbent system of vessels consists
of two principal di\isions, wliich may be compared to
two sets of roots proceeding from a common trunk ;
one of these commences upon the walls of the intes-
tines, and is termed the " lacteal " system ; whilst
the other takes its origin in various parts of the sub-
stance of the organism at large, especially in the skm
and subcutaneous textures, and is known as the " lym-
phatic " system.

Q. AVhere do the lacteals most numerously abound ?

— A. In the small intestines, below the point at which
the liver and pancreas discharge their secretion.s.

Q. Where do the lacteals commence? — A. Near
the free extremities of the villi of the intestines.

Q. In what way do they commence? — A. It was
formerly su])poscd that they commenced by orifices
upon the internal surface of the intestine ; but Carpen-
ter, and other physiologists, contend that the lacteal
vessels form loops by anastomosis with each other, so
that they have no free extremity.

Q. AMiat are the functions of the large intestines ?

— A. Thev are engaged in the conveyance and expul-
sion of feculent matter, and tliere are certain change.^
which take place m their contents, in aid of the object
of nutrition, the exact nature of which has never been
clearly determined. According to the best authority, it
appears that some imjjortant changes are effected in
that enlarged portion of the canal, termed circum, and
which has, Iiy some, been regarded as a kind of sup-
plemcntarv stomach, in which fresli chyme is formed,
and fresh nutriment extracted from the materials that
have passed through the small intestines. The large

138

ANATOJir AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE.

intestines also extract nutriment from their contents,
nhich is proved by the fact that nutritious matter in-
jected into them has been kno-nn to support life for a
sertam time.

.SPLEE.\.

Q. AVhat is the function of the spleen? — A. It
serves as a kind of diverticuhmi, to reheve the vessels
of the digestive viscera when they arc compressed by
undue aecumniulatioii of the contents of their cavities,
or when they are conjjjested by obstruction to the flow
of blood, through the liver or heart. It may also be
considered as a lymphatic gland, for, in some instances
ill wbicfc animals have been allowed to survive longest
after removal of the spleen, the lymphatic glands of
the \icinity have been found greatly enlarged and clus-
tered together, so as nearly to equal the original spleen
in volume ; hence, in such case we infer that its func-
tion must be similar to that of the cnL-u-ged lymphatic
glands.

LIVER.

Q. What comprises the prmcipal bulk of the liver ?
— A. It is made up of a vast number of minute lobules
of irregulai- form, but about the average size of a mil-
let seed ; and each of them contains the elements of
which the entire organ is composed, viz., a jjlexus of
Mhary ducts connected with their main trunks, and a
mass oi biltarj- cells ; each of which are connected in
like niamicr with the three blood-vessels which miite
to the circulation of this organ.

Q. What are the vessels of the liver ? — A. The
Repatic artery, vena portae, and hepatic veins, to which
may be added the excretory ducts and absorbents.

Q. Of what use is the hepatic artery '} — -A. It is the
nutrient artery of the hver.

Q. Of what use is the vena portCD? — A. It acts both
as a vein and artery : as a vein, it receives the blood
from most of abdominal viscera ; as an ai-tery, it rami-
fies tlirough the liver for the secretion of bile.

Q. What is the use of the hepatic veins ? — ^l. They
return blood lo the vena cava.

Q. What is the function of the liver P — A. It is an
organ of excretion, designed to remove from the cireu-
bting Huid tliat portion of the products of disintegra-
tion, of which the principal component of the biliary.
is the largest.

Q. Into what substance is the greater ];art of the
excrementitious matter converted ? — A. Biline.

KIDNEYS.

Q. Wh at is the embrj'otic condition of the kidneys ?
A. The kidneys are preceded in the embn'o by a sub-
stance first noticed by Wolff, and called after him the
Wolffian bodies, or false kidneys, which originally ex-
tend along the spine from the heart to the end of the
intestines ; but they aftenvards become shorter, and
after a time diminish by absorption, and wholly dis-
appear.

Q. What is the function of the kidneys ? — A. Their
princi]!al function is to se])arate from the blood certain
matters which would be injurious to it if retained.

Q. What does the secretory surface of the kidneys
consist of? — A. It is composed of epitliehal cells
which hue the tubuU urinifera, which draw the peculiar
elements of the miliary excretion from the vascular
plexus which sm-rounds the exterior of the tubes, car-
lying off the same to their terminations in the ureter.

Q. What other an-angcmcnt is prorided within the
kidneys for the elimination of the superfluous fluid of
the blood? — A. A j)rocess of transudation takes place
by the function of malpighian bodies, whose thin-walled
capillaries allow the transudation of water to take
place, under a certain pressure, into the tubuli minifera.

SUPIl.\-RENAL CAPSULES.
Q. What is the function of the supra-renal cap-
sides'? — A. Their function has hitherto been involved
in obscurity, and was sujjposed to be identical with
other glands destitute of ducts or outlets ; but, lately,
31. Ih'otcn Sequard has demonstrated that they play
a very important part ui the nervous system of the
horse.

VASA DEFERENTU.

Q. AVhat is the function of the vas deferens? — A.
It is the excretory duct of the testicle, and conveys the
semen to the vesiculte seminales.

The author, instead of introducing examinations on
the reproductive organs, has thought it best to substi-
tute the opinions of that eminent jihjisologist, Dr.
Carpenter ; and therefore the reader's attention is now
directed to " Physiological coiisiderations on the re-
production of organized beings."— \>a.ge 128.

HEMARKS AND EXAMINATIONS ON THE EYE.

The parts which compose tlie eye are
divided into external and internal. The
externa] parts are : First, the eyelashes, or
cilia, which, in the horse, can scarcely be
reckoned more than one, there being very
few hairs in the under eyelid. SecontUy,
the eyelids, or palpebral, upper and under :
where they join outwardly, it is termed the
external canthus, and inwardly toward the
nose, the internal canthus : they cover and
defend the eyes. The cartilaginous margin
or rim of the eyelid, from which the eye-
lashes proceed, is named tarsus. In the
tarsus and internal surface of the eyelid
there are small glands, which secrete a fluid,
to prevent friction of the eye and its lids,
and facilitate motion. Thirdly, the lachry-
mal gland, which is placed on the upper part
of the eyelid toward the external canthus ;
from this gland the tears are secreted, and
conveyed to the inner surface of the upper
eyelid by several minute ducts, or canals,
named lachrymal ducts. There is another
small body, having a glandular appearance,
in the inner corner of the eye ; on each side
of which there are small oriiices which are
called puncta lachrymalia : these are the
mouths or openings of two small canals,
which, joining together, form a membranous
tube ; and this, passing through a small open-
ing in the bone, extends to the lower part
of the nostril, where its termination may be
distinctly seen in the horse. As the lachry-
mal gland is constantly forming tears, it
must be obvious that some contrivance is
necessary to convey them off, and prevent
them flowing over the cheek: this purpose
is answered by the canal just described.

When any irritating matter is applied to
the eye, the tears arc formed too abundantly
to be carried off in this way*, they then
flow over the cheek, hi the human eve,

the puncta lachrymalia terminate inasmaH
sac, from which the lachrynial duct proceeds::
this is not the case in the horse. In the
inner corner of the horse's eye is placed a
body connnonly termed the haw, no resem-
blance to which is to be found in the hu-
man eye. The horse has the power, by
means of the muscles of the eye, to bring
the haw completely over its surface ; it
serves, therefore, as a second eyelid, and
effectually wipes off any dust, hay, or seeds,
or other matter which may have fallen upon
the eye. The conjunctivial membrane or
tunica conjunctiva, lines the inner surface
of the eyelids, and covers the white part of
the globe of the eye. This membrane has
immerous blood-vessels, which are conspicu-
ous when it is inflamed. The bulb or globe
of the eye is composed of several coats and
humors. The transparent cornea, whicli,
in the horse, forms the front jjart of the eye,
comprehends a larger part of the globe
than in the human subject ; on removing
this cornea, a fluid, which is named the
aqueous humor, escapes, and the iris ap-
pears. The iris is a muscular curtain,
having a hole in the centre, whiclj is termed
the pupil. This divides the fore part of the
eye into two parts, named chambers, which
are occupied by the aqueous humor. The
pupil is of a dark bluish cast ; is of an oval,
or rather of an oblong, form. The iris regu-
lates the quantity of light that is required
to pass through the pupil. For this purpose,
it is composed of two sets of muscular
fibres: by means of one the pupil is en-
larged, and by the other it is diminished.
Thus, if the pupil is first examined in the
stable, where tliere is a moderate light, and
immediately after in the sunshine, it will be
found quite altered; being so small, in a
strong light, as to be nearly closed. On re-

140

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

moving (he iris, the second humor, or crys-
talline len.s, appears: this is retained in its
situation by a transparent membrane, named
its capsule, between which and the lens is a
minute quantity of fluid. The third humor
of the eye is the vitreous. This humor is not
contained in one general sac, but in numer-
ous minute and perfectly transparent cells,
and resembles pure water : this humor
serves to produce a small degree of refrac-
tion in the rays of light, and occupies and
distends all the posterior part of the globe
of t he eye. The next coat to the conjunctivial
is the sclerotica, or white of the eye, a
strong, thick membrane, which extends
from the transparent cornea to the optic
nerve. The next coat to the sclerotic is the
choroid. This is a delicate and very vascu-
lar membrane. In the human eye it appears
of a black color, and it is this which causes
the pupil of the human eye to appear black ;
but the choroid coat of the horse's eye is
variegated in color ; in some parts black, in
others blue, and in others gi-een. The next
coat is the retina : this is a delicate expan-
sion of the optic nerve over the choroid
coat, which it accompanies to the margin
of the crystalline lens, and there terminates.
The use of the retina is to receive certain
impressions made by the light reflected from
objects, so as to produce in the mind an
idea of their figure and color; the optic
nerve being the medium of communication
between the retina and brain. From the
above explanation of the mechanism of the
eye, it will readily appear that many cir-

cumstances may occur to render vision im-
perfect, or to destroy it altogether. If the
transparent cornea, for example, became
white, light could not pass through it, and
the animal would be blind, however perfect
the other parts of the eye might be. The
cornea may be either too convex or too flat;
in the former case, causing the animal to be
near-sighted ; in the latter, producing an in-
distinctness of vision with respect to objects
that are near. The iris may, in consequence
of disease, become fixed, or lose its power
of motion ; in which case, the pupil would
be always of the same size, and the animal
would not have the power of adapting it
to the various distances or objects ; or, as
sometimes happens, the pupil may become
quite closed, by which light would be per-
fectly excluded from the retina. Supposing
the cornea and iris to be healthy, the crys-
talline lens, or its capsule, may become
opaque, and thereby cause total blindness.
But in this part, as in the cornea, we meet
with different degrees of opacity : some-
times it is very slight, the pupil appearing
of a lighter color, and unusually large : in
this state, the pupil is said to look dull or
muddy, which causes the horse to start ;
but when the opacity is complete, it consti-
tutes the disease termed cataract. There
is another disease, to which the reader's at-
tention is called ; it is named gutta serena,
or amaurosis. This disease is known by
the pupil being unusually large or open,
and by its continuing so when the eye is
exposed to a strong light.

EXAMINATIONS OF THE OKGANS OF SIGHT AND THEIR APPENDAGES.

Q. AVhere are the eyes located? — A. Within the
orbits.

Q. By what foraminoe is each orbit perforated? — A.
Ly the optic foramen.

Q. From whence is the lining membrane of the orbit
derived? — ^1. From the dura mater ami periosteum.

Q. Enumerate the aj)peiKlaf;es of the eye. — A. The
eyelids, eyelashes, rnuseles of the eyelids, tarsal carti-
lnf,'es, meibomian ;,'lands, tunica conjunctiva, membrana
nictitans, lachrvmal gland, puncta laehiymaha, lachry-
mal sac, ductus ad nasnm, and the muscles of the eve-
ball.

EYELIDS.

Q. AVhat parts do the eyelids occu])y ? — A. The cir-
cumference of the orbits and front of the eyeball.

Q. What are the eyelids conijiosed of? — .-L In com-
position they are cuticular, muscular, cartilaginous, and
membranous ; also glandular, vascular, and nervous.

Q. What muscle enters into the composition of the
eye? — A. The orbicularis palpebrarum.

Q. How are the lids separated ? — A. By a transverse
fissure, bounded by the angles or eanthi of the eye.

Q. What is attached to the sujierior or temjjoral
angle? — A. The taa-sal ligament.

EXPLANATION OF FIGUEE XIV.

HIXD EXTKEMITIES.

to'. Tensor vaglnop.

It'. Rectus.

()'. Vastus extcmus.

5'. Flexor metatarsi.

r'. r. Gastrocnemius internus.

s'. " externus.

i\ Flexor pedis accessorius. '

«'. Insertion of the gastrocnemius.

»'. Flexor metatarsi.

x'. Extensor pedis.

y. y'. Extensors.

u. V. Tendo perforans and perforatus.

K'. K'. Abductors tibialis.

J\ J'. Triceps.

V. r. Adductors.

«,-. Hoof.

5, 5. Saphena vein.

8. Bifurcation of the suspensoiy ligament.
»'. (Off-hind leg.) Plantains.
z. Suspensory ligament.

FORE EXTREMITIES.

J". Pectoralis magnus.
to", n". Triceps extensor brachii.
o". Pectoralis transversahs.
p". p". Flexor metacarpi extemus.
g". " " medius.

t". " " internus.

s". Extensor metacarpi magnus.

w". (At the upper part of the figure.) Levator humeri.

u". u". u". u". V. (Beneath the olccrn.non and carpus.) Flexors perforans and per-
foratus.
x". Extensor pedis.
y". y. Extensor suffraginis.
z". Suspensory ligament.
if. The hoof.
4. Subcutaneous thoracic vein.

6. lladial vein.

8. Bifurcation of the suspenson' UganiPnt.

THE HORSE.

141

Q. What is fixed to the inferior angle ? — A. The
tendon of the orbicularis.

Q. From whence is the loose portion of skin, enter-
ing into the com|)osition of the upper lid, derived ? — ^-i.
It is a prolongation of the slun covering the forehead.

Q. From whence is that of the lower lid derived? —
A. From the integuments of the face.

Q. How are the internal surfaces of the Uds shaped ?
— .4. Into concarities which adapt them to the convex-
ity of the globe of the eye.

Q. By what membrane are the Uds lined ? — A. By
the eonjunctivial.

T.UIS.U. CAKTILACES.

Q. What are the tai'sal cartilages? — .1. They enter
into the substance of the borders of the Uds, imparting
to them both firmness and elasticity.

Q. Describe the tarsal cartilages? — .-1. The superior
cartilage is broader and more convex than the inferior ;
they correspond in shape and size to their respective
lids ; they are convex outwardly and concave inwardly,
and are inserted into the rims of the orbits.

Q. What is the texture of the tarsus? — A. Their
texture is fibro-cartilaginous.

MEIBOMLIN GLA>'DS.

Q. Describe the meibomian glands ? — A. They have
the appearance of white folhcular bodies, vertically
ranged in parallel lines ; they vary both in calibre and
length, and are in the u])per rather than tlie lower lid.

(J. What is the function of the meibomian glands ? —
A. To secrete a fluid wliich guards against friction
betM'een the eye and its appendages.

Tf.MCA COXJl"NCTIV.\.

Q. What is the situation of the tunica conjunctiva ?
• — .-1. It is the lining membrane of the eyelids, mem-
brana nictitans, caruncula lachrymalis, puncta lachry-
maUa, and is reflected to the globe of the eye.

Q. Describe the eonjunctivial surface ? — A. The adhe-
rent one is rough, lax, and flocculent ; the outer surface
is smooth, glossv', and humid with secretion.

(J. What are the peculiarities in the organization of
the conj unctiva ? — A. It is a continuous membrane, yet
■\-aries in texture, as follows : 1st. That portion wWch
gives a covering to the conjunctiva ])clpebrahs is
highly organized with blood-vessels, and is often tinged
a dee]) red color. 2d. The conjunctiva sclerotica is not
60 highly organized, yet has a few straggling vessels of
larger calibre than those of the former, and its textm-e
is more dense. 3d. The conjunctiva cornea? is thin
and transparent, more of a horny textmv;, and has no
appearance of vasculai-ity.

M r.MBUAN A -MCTITAXS.

Q. 'What is the common name for the above mem-
brane ? — A. The haw.

Q. AVhat is its structure ? — A. Cartilaginous.

Q. What is its situation? — A. It is located behind

the mferior canthus, between the e)-eball and side of
the orbit.

Q. AVhat is its figure ? — A. It apjiroaches that of an
extended triangle, of which the short side is turned
forwards, and tlie lengthened angle backwards.

Q. Describe the anterior part? — A. It is thin and
elastic, and bounded by a crescentic edge, terminating
in two salient angles ; it increases in substance, but
grows narrow posteriorly, and there ends in an obtuse
conical point, which appears in the adipose tissue at the
bottom of the orbit.

Q. What is the form of its surfaces ? — -4 . Inwardly
concave ; outwardly convex.

Q. What is the body of the nictitating membrane
clothed with ? — A. ]!y a portion of eonjunctivial mem-
brane.

Q. A\n-iat is the function of the membrana nictitans ?
— P. To ])rotect the eyeball, in the removal of foreign
bodies from its surface.

LACIIKYMAI APPAR.\TUS.

Q. What parts compose the lachm.yral apparatus? —
.4. The lachrymal gland, eai-uncula lachrymalis, lachry-
mal puncta and conduits, lachrymal sac, and ductus ad
nasum.

LACHETM.U. GLAND.

Q. Where is the lachrj-mal gland situated? — A. In
a depression, beneath the process of the orbital arch.

Q. What are its coverings, and with what is it in
contact ? — ^4. It is covered by the common aponeurotic
Uning of the orbit ; it is in contact with the levator pal-
pebra?, and is enveloped in fat and cellular membrane.

Q. AVhat is its form ? — .4. It is irregular, slightly
convex superiorly; incUning to the concave inferiorily.
It is a conglomerate gland, constituted of many lobules.

Q. Have the lobules any further organization ? — A.
Yes, they are composed of minute granules.

Q. AA'hat vessels do the granules receive and what
s])rings from them ? ■ — .4. They receive the terminating
ramifications of the supplying arteries, and from them
spring the radicles of the excretory ducts.

Q. AA'hat do the radicles terminate in, and where is
their outlet? — A. The radicles unite vrith one another
into a set of tubes, which open upon the eonjunctivial
fining of the upper lid in the source of seven risible
orifices near its sujierior angle; this is their outlet.

Q. AVhat is the I'unction of the lachrymal gland ? —
A. To secrete the tears.

Q. AA'hat becomes of the su])erfluous tears? — .4.
They cither fall over the lower Uds, or pass into the
lachrymal sac ; from thence, by the ductus, to their out-
lets within the nostrils, at their inferior j)arts.

CARU.NXfLA LACIir.V.MALIS.

Q. AA'hat is the caruncula lachr\-maUs ? — .4. It is a
small emmence, lodged v.itliin tJie inferior canthus, be-
tween the eyeball and Uds.

Q. AA'hat is its use? — .4. It secretes a light yellow
unctuous matter, with which the fine hairs on its surface

142

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

being coated it detains any small foreign bodies that
may lloat in the lachrymal secretion ; it also directs
tlie latter fluid into the puncta.

LACHRYMAL PCWCTA AND CONDUITS.

Q. What are the jjuncta lachrymaha ? — A. Two small
orifices situated on the inward margins of the two lids —
superior and inferior — near the racUx of the caruncle.

Q. What do the j)uncta terminate in ? — A. The
lachrymal conduits.

Q. What is their situation? — A. Witliin the sub-
stance of the eyelids.

Q. How are conduits formed ? — A. A minute carti-
laginous circle surrounds them, and they are lined by
conjunctinal membrane.

Q. What do the conduits terminate m ? — A. The
lachrymal sac.

LACHRYMAL S.\C.

Q. Where is the lachrymal sac situated ? — A. With-
in tlie deprestion which leads into the channel of the
lachrymal bone, behind and below the small eminence
upon the orbital ridge of that bone.

y. Describe lire sac and its connections ? — A. It is
an oblong membranous bag ; its front is crossed by
fibres of the orbicularis ; it has also a coimection with
the tendon of that muscle. The posterior jjai-t of the
sac adheres firmly to the lachrjinal bone. It is com-
j;osed of a dense, white, fibrous membrane, furnished
with a fining from the conjimctivia.

Q. By what is this sac perforated? — -A. By the
lachrymal conduits.

Q. What does it open into ? — A. Into the ductus ad
nasum.

Q. What is the fimction of tliis sac? — A. It is a
reservoir into which the tears flow from the lachrymal
conduits, and from thence pass into the ductus ad
nasum.

DUCTUS AD NASU.M.

Q. What is the ductus ad nasum? — .4. It is a long
membranous canal, commencing at the contracted ])or-
tion of the lachrymal sac, and running with the groove
through the lachrymal bone ; then along a canal in the
superior maxillary bone, between it and the anterior
turbinated bone ; terminating at the inner and inferior
])art of the nostril.

Q. What is the organization of the ductus? — A. It
appears to be a continuation of the membrane com-
])osing the lachrjiiial sac, which is strengthened by a
fibrous sheath ; its internal surface is ])robal)ly mucous,
which ])rotects it from the action of the tears, or
lachrymi'.l secretion.

(J. Describe the course of the tears, or lachrjinal
secretion? — A. They are secreted by the lachrymal
gland, and are poiu-ed by its excretory ducts over the
surface of the eyeball ; the puncta lachrymalia absorb
fhem ; they are then conveyed by the lachrymal ducts
to the lachrymal sac ; and tlrrough the ductus ad nasum
])ass into the nostril.

THE EYEBALL AND ITS COATS.

Q. What is the form of the globe of the e^'c ? - - .4.
Nearly of a spherical figure.

Q. Of what is the globe of the eye composed? — A.
Of membranes, or coats, filled with humors or fiuids,
wliich preserve its form.

Q. How many coats has the eye? — A. Five: the
sclerotic, choroid, retina, cornea, and iris.

Q. Does not the tunica conjunctivia enter into the
composition of the membranes of the eye? — A. Yes;
it may be considered as common to both.

Q. Where does it adhere most closely ? — A. Over
the cornea.

SCLEROTIC COAT.

Q. What is the use of the sclerotica ? — A. It bounds
the form of the eye, protects and supports the parts
within.

Q. Vriiat are its perceivable boundaries ? — A. It ex-
tends fi-om the optic nerve to the cornea.

■Q. What is inserted into it posteriorly ? — A. The
fleshy part of the retractor muscle.

Q. What is inserted into its anterior margins? — A.
The tendons of the four recti.

COKSEA.

Q. What is the coraea ? — A. The transparent, ante-
rior pai-t of the globe of the eye.

Q. How does its form compai-c with the sclerotica ? —
A. It is more convex.

Q. What covers its convex surface ? — A. The con-
j uncti\ia.

Q. What is its structure? — A. Laminated.

IKIS.

Q. AATiat is the iris ? —A . It is a circular membrane,
with an irregular central cavity, in the anterior chamber
of the eye.

Q. What is its central perforation called? — A. The
pupil.

Q. How is the periphery of the pupil bounded ? — A.
By several dark, colored, glandular bodies, termed cor-
pora nigra.

Q. What is the use of the iris? — .4. By contracting
it excludes all superfluous rays of light, and Ijy expand-
ing admits through the jjupil all that pass through the
cornea.

Q. What is the structure of the iris? — A. It is a
fibrous membrane, di\isable into two layers, provided
with blood-vessels and nerves.

CHOROID COAT.

Q. What is the choroid ccat ? — A. It is a dark-
colored membrane of delicate tcxtm'c, located immedi-
atelv beneath the sclerotica.

Q. AVhat are its boundaries? — A. It extends from
around the termination of the optic nerve as far for-
ward as the edge of the cornea, and ends in the ciHary
circle.

THE HORSE.

143

Q. ITow is the choroitl coal connected with the
sclerotica ? — A. By cellular membrane.

Q. What is remarkable at its outer edge? — A. It is
throWTi into folds, called ciUary circle and processes.

Q. AVhat is the color of the choroides ? — A. Extern-
ally, its whole surface is black ; internally, the anterior
parts are black, and the posterior half is of a brilUant
variegated green.

Q. What is the black part termed ? — A. Pigmentum
nigrum.

Q. AVhat name is given to the variegated part ? — A.
Tajietum lucidum.

Q. What difl'ercnce do we observe in the ])igment of
the choroid surfaces? — A. The inner layer is thicker
and more consistent than that found on the outer
surface.

EETiy.4.

Q. AAHiat is the retina ? — A. It is the third or inner-
most tunic of the eye. It cannot, however, be con-
sidered as a tunic, for it pervades the interior of the
globular exjiansion without contracting any adhesions
until it has reached the corpus ciliare.

Q. How is the retina formed ? — A. The optic nerve,
ha\-ing reached the inner and inferior part of the globe
of the eye, enters the sclerotic and choroid coats, and
in its passage through them its diameter contracts;
having arrived at the imier part of the globe, the nerve
forms an eminence, from the circumference of which
issues radiating fibres which form the retina.

Q. How is the retina sustained in this state of globu-
lar expansion? — ^-1. By the humors of the eye, which
keep it in contact with the choroides.

Q. The retina having radiated on the interior of the
globe, where is it inserted ? — A. Into the corpus ciliare.

nUlIOES OF THE EYE.

Q. Of how many humors does the eye consist, and
what are their names? — -A. Of three; they are called
aqueous, crystalline, and vitreous humors.

Q. AVhat parts of the eye do they occupv ? — A.
They occupy in succession the spaces termed anterior,
middle, and posterior chambers of the eye.

AQUEOUS HUMOR.

Q. AA'hat is the use of the aqueous humor? — ^-1. It
transmits the rays of light, and aids the free motions of
the iiis.

Q. AVhat are its boundaries ? — ^-1. It fills the interval
between the cornea and crystalhne lens.

Q. Describe the aqueous hmnor. — ^-1. It is a bright
Umpid fluid, and in properties bears some resemblance
to the vitreous.

Q. AVhat is the composition of both these humors ?
— A. They are composed of albumen, gelatine, and
muriate of soda, held in solution by an aqueous men-
struum.

Q. How is this fluid secreted ? — A. By secretion from
the transparent walls of its capsule.

CRYSTALLINE LENS.

Q. AVhat is the use of the crystalline lens ? — A. It
concentrates the rays of light, so as to make a distinct
image in the posterior chamber.

Q. AVhere is the crjstalline lens situated? — A. Be-
tween the aqueous and vitreous humors.

Q. By what is the crystalhne lens enclosed? — A.
By a tunic, called tunica crystallina.

VITREOUS HUMOR.

Q. AVhat is the vitreous humor, and where is it situ-
ated?— A. It is the most bulky humor of the eye ; of
a jelly-like consistence, yet quite transparent, and occu-
pies that portion of the eyeball posterior to the crj-stal-
line lens.

Q. AVTiat is the use of the vitreous humor ? — A. It
supports the form of the eye, and maintains the other
humors in their proper positions.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS.

Respiration and Structure of the Lungs. —
The organs of respiration are the larynx,
the upper opening of which is named glottis,
the trachea or windpipe, bronchiEe and the
lungs.

The air is displaced out of the lungs by
the action of the muscles of respiration ;
and, when these relax, the lungs expand to
a certain calibre by their elasticity. This
may be exemplified by means of a sponge,
which may be compressed into a small bulk
by the hand, but, upon opening the same,
the sponge returns to its natural size, and
all its cavities become filled with air. The
purification of the blood in the lungs is of
vital importance, and indispensably neces-
sary to the due performance of all the func-
tions. When the lungs, and muscles con-
nected with them, are in a physiological
state, the horse is said to be in good wind —
a very desirable state for an animal to be
in, whose usefulness depends on his being
capable of a long continuance of quick
motion. The trachea, or windpipe, after
dividing into bronchiee again subdivides into
innumerable other branches, the extremities
of which compose an infinite quantity of
small cells, which, with the ramifications of
the veins, arteries, nerves, lymphatics, and
the connecting cellular membrane, make up
the whole mass or substance of the lungs.
The internal surface of the windpipe, bron-
chia and air-cell, is lined with a membrane,
which secretes a mucous fluid: when, in con-
sequence of an obstructed .surface, this fluid
becomes abundant, it is expelled by the
nostrils. The whole is invested with a
thin, transparent membrane, named pleura :
the same membrane lines the internal sur-
face of the ribs and diaphragm, and, by a

duplicature of its folds, forms a separation
between the lobes of the lungs.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.

The function of respiration is the conver-
sion of venous into arterial blood. This
arterialization of the venous blood is a pro-
cess highly essential to the well-being of
all animals ; more important is it than the
assimulation of aliment ; for a horse may
live several days without food, yet cannot
exist many minutes unless his blood be
arterialized.

In considering the function of respiration,
our attention is first turned to the mechani-
cal means by which the air is alternately
admitted and discharged from the lungs.
The mechanical act of respiration is divisi-
ble into two periods, that of inspiration,
during which air is drawn into the lungs so
as to increase its volume and distend its
parenchyma and expiration, during which
process the aii- which had been so received
is expelled.

Inspiration is accompanied by enlarge-
ment of the capacity of the thorax in its
various dimensions. This is eflected by the
action of different sets of muscles, operated
on by the nervous system. The principal
muscle of inspiration is the diaphragm.

Among the secondary muscles employed
in inspiration are those which articulate the
ribs, viz., the intercostales. Each rib is
capable of a small degree of motion on the
extremity by which it is articulated with
the vertebrag. This motion is chiefly for-
ward and backward ; the intercostal muscles
favor this motion, as they are disposed in
two layers, each passing obliquely, but with
opposite inclinations, from one to the adja-
cent rib. There are two ways in which the

(144)

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE UORSB.

145

chest may be dilated : first, by the dia-
phragm ; and secondly, by the intercostales,
which elevate the ribs. In natural respira-
tion, the horse breathes chiefly through the
aid of the diaphragm. Should the respira-
tion become quickened, the intercostales are
employed, and, when the respiration is labo-
rious, 1 he auxillray muscles of the abdomen,
back, and sides, are brought into use.

The glottis is opened during inspiration
by Ihe muscles of the larynx.

The expulsion of the air from the lungs
constitutes expiration. This takes place
as soon as the air which has been ex-
pired has parted with its oxygen, and re-
ceived in return a certain quantity of car-
bonic acid gas and vapor. In regard to the
elasticity of the lungs, it is now demon-
strated that they possess no inherent power
of elasticity other than that common with
all membranous textures. Hence, if an
opening be made in the sides of the chest,
the lobes on this side collapse inconsequence
of the pressure of air from without.

We have next to inquire what changes
have, in the meanwhile, been effected in the
blood by the action of the air to which it
has been subjected in the lungs. A visible
alteration, in the fu'st place, is produced in
its color, which, from being of a dark pm--
ple, nearly approaching to black, when it
arrives at the air-cells by the pulmonary
arteries, has acquired the bright, intensely
scarlet hue of arterial blood, when brought
back to the heart by the pulmonary veins.
In other respects, however, its sensible
qualities do not appear to have undergone
any material change. Judging from the
changes produced on the air which has
been in contact with if, we are warranted in
the inference that it has parted with a
certain quantify of carbonic acid and of
water, and that it has in return acquired a
certain proportion of oxygen. Since it has
been found that the quantify of oxygen
absorbed is greater than that which enters
into fhc composition of the carbonic acid
evolved, it is obvious that at least the excess
of oxygen is directly absorbed by the blood ;

ana this absorption constitutes, no doubt,
an essential part of its arterializafion.

It has been much disputed whether the
combination which seems to be effected be-
tween the oxygen of the air and the carbon
furnished by the blood, occurs during the
act of respiration, and takes place in the
au--cells of the lungs, or whether it takes
place in f h^ course of circulation. On the
first hypothesis, the chemical process would
be very analogous to the simple combustion
of charcoal, which may be conceived to be
contained in the venous blood in a free
state, exceedingly divided, and ready fo
combine with the oxygen of the air, and
imparting to that venous blood its charac-
teristic dark color ; while arterial blood, from
which the carbon had been eliminated,
would exhibit the red color natural to blood.
On the second hypothesis, we must suppose
that the whole of the oxygen, which disap-
pears from the air respired, is absorbed by
the blood in the pulmonary capillaries, and
passes en with it into the systemic circu-
lation. The blood becoming venous in the
course of the circulation, by the different
processes to which it is subjected for sup-
plying the organs with the materials re-
quired in the exercise of their respective
functions, the proportion of carbon which it
contains is increased, both by the abstrac-
tion of the other elements, and by fhe addi-
tion of nutritive materials prepared by the
organs of digestion. The oxygen, which
had been absorbed by the blood in fhe lungs,
now combines with the redundant carbon,
and forms with it either oxide of carbon,
or carbonic acid, which is exhaled dm'ing a
subsequent exposure fo the air in the lungs.
Many facts tend strongly fo confirm our
belief in the latter of these hypotheses.

The larynx is fhe organ producing the
voice of fhe animal.

Situation. — It is joined fo fhc fop of fho
frachea (or windpipe), and is placed in fhe
throat, between the posterior and broadest

* I'ercivaU's IlippopathoUigy.

r4G

ANATOIIY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

parts of the branches of the lower jaw ;
having the pharynx and uppermost part of
1heo?iophagtis situated above it; the supe-
rior portions of the sterno-hyoidei and thy-
roidei below it; the tongue, with its muscles,
and the os byoidf'.s, in front of it; and the
trachea issuing from below and behind it.

Attachment. — The larynx is retained in
its place by its connection ^v:ith the os
hyoides and pharynx ; by its muscles ; and
by its coalition with the trachea.

Conformation. — The larynx has so com-
])lete a fleshy covering, that it is not until
it is divested of its muscles (which have
been heretofore described) that it is dis-
covered to be composed of five pieces of
cartilage, so joined together as to be move-
able on one another, and open both supe-
riorly and inferiorly, to admit of the passage
cif air into and out of the trachea. These
cartilages have received the names of thyroid,
cricoid (two), nrytenoid, and ejng-lottis.

The thyroid or shield-like cartilage, by
much the largest of the five, forms the
sni)erior, anterior, and lateral parts of the
larynx. It consists of two broad lateral
portions, continuous and prominent at the
upper and anterior part of the neck, the
prominence corresponding to which in
liuman anatomy has received the name of
pom II m Adami. Below this point of union
the divisions recede from each other, leaving
a triangular space between them, which is
occupied by a ligament denominated the
ligamcntiim crico-thyroideum. The four
projecting corners from the posterior parts
of the thyroid cartilage are named its
cornna: the two superior are joined by cap-
illar articulations to the body of the os
iryoides ; the two inferior are connected by
very short capsular ligaments to the cricoid
cartilages ; the union of all which parts re-
ceiv(v^ additional strengtii from expansions
of membrane. At the roots of the superior
cornua are two foramina, that give passage
to nerves, of considerable importance, to
the interior of the larynx. This cartilage
not only constitutes by far the most exten-
sive [jart of the larynx, but, as its name in-

dicates, incloses and shields from external
injury all the others.

The cricoid or ring-like cartilage is placed
below the thyroid. In front it appears like
part of the trachea ; but it broadens so
much behind, that it overlaps the first ring
of the windpipe, somewhat after the form
of a helmet. Upon its broad or posterior
part are four surfaces of articulation : the
two upper receive the binder extremities of
the arytenoid cartilages, the two lower are
adapted to the inferior cornua of the thyroid
cartilage : they are all furnished with cap-
sular ligaments and synovial membranes.
Furthennore, it is attached by ligamentous
expansions to those parts, and likewise to
the first ring of the trachea.

The two arytenoid, or eioer-shaped car-
tilages, triangular in their figure, lie over
the upper and back part of the trachea,
leaving an apertvu-e between them leading
into that canal, denominated, from its prox-
imity to the tongue, the glottis. Their
inward parts are everted, and form a tri-
angular prominent border, over which is
spread the membrane of the glottis : their
outward surfaces are marked by concavities
in which are lodged the arytenoid muscles.
Posteriorly, they repose upon the cricoid
cartilage, and are connected with them by
capsular articulations: in front, they have a
membranous connection with the cartUage
next to be noticed.

The epiglottis, so named from being
raised over the glottis, and occasionally
covering it like the lid of a pot, is well
adapted, from its heart-like shape, to the
rima glottidis ; whose margin is completed
by two narrow slips of cartilage proceeding
from the base of the lid to the arytenoid.
By some, these slips of cartilage have been
separately considered : but in my opinion
improperly so ; for they are, in reality,
nothing more than prolongations or appen-
dices of the epiglottis. The surface of thiri
cartilage presented to the interior of the
larynx is smooth and concave, and covered
by an extension of membrane from the
glottis ; that part opposed to the tongue is

THE UORSE.

unevenly convex, and is tied to that organ, ' opposite to the body and transverse proces-
as well as to the os hyoides, by a doubling' ses of the atlas; takes its course along the
of membrane infolding some muscular ' anterior and inferior part of the neck, inclin-
fibres: to thismusculo-membranous Ligature, I ing to the near side, between the sterno-

whieh assists in retaining the cartilage in
its ole\ated position, the name oi fr<enum
epig-lotlirlis is properly given. The fi-a;ni;m
receives co-operation in this function from
strong elastic ligaments connecting the base
of the epiglottis to the thyroid and arytenoid
cartilages.

If we detach the epiglottis, or raise it
forcibly in order to obtain a more complete

myloidei muscles (which by their approx-
imation conceal the lower portion of it),
and enters the chest between the two first
ribs; wherein, under the curvature of the
posterior aorta, it divides into two parts the
bronchial tubes.

Slructure. — From fifty to sixty annular
pieces of cartilage enter into the com-
position of the windpipe; altogether con-

\-ievv of the rima glottidis, the latter will be | stituting a structure so remarkable, for the
found to be stretched into an oblong quad- j inequality or . asperity of its exterior, that

the ancients, in order to at once distinguish
it from all other vessels, called it the aspcra
arteria. No entire or undivided tubular

substance could have partaken of the various
motions of the head and neck, without
having suffered more or less distortion, and
consequent deformity and diminution of
caliber, of some part of its canal, which

rilateral figure, whose width gradually
diminishes from the middle towards either
extremity, and bears a ratio of about one
to six when compared to its length. The
sides turned forward are formed by the
arytenoid cartilages ; those directed back-
ward by two prominent folds of membrane
(which envelop the th\TO-arytenoid luus-
cles), commonly described as the rocal lig-a- would have been attended with frequent iii-
ments, from their being concerned in the i terruptions to the free passage of the air,
formation and intonation of the voice. \ dangerous, and even fatal, to the respiratory
Immediately over them are slit-like aper- ; functions ; whereas, constructed as it is,
tm-es, opening into membranous sacs, each j with the aid of its muscular power, no at-
large enough to contain a walnut ; these ' titude into which the animal may naturally
are the ventricles of the larynx, whose use j put himself will impede the freedom of pas-
is also connected wdth the production and ' sage through it. The cartilages, or, as they

modulation of the voice.

The membrane lining the cavity of the
larynx is one of great susceptibihty ; on
which account it is kept continually moist
by a mucus, oozing from numerous lacuna
— the excretory orifices of small subjacent
follicles whose situation is denoted by the
little round eminences upon its surface.
This is the common seat of that species
of catarrh which is acxjompanied by cough.

OF THE TRACHEA.

The ti-achea, or windpipe, is a cartilagin-
ous tube extending aloiu^ the neck, from
the iaryjix to the lungs, for the passage of
air. In horses of ordinary size, it is from
twenty-five to tiiirty inches in Icngtli.

Course. — The trachea commences from
the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage.

are commonly described, the rings of the
windpipe, have all a close resemblance to
one another : if there be any disparity be-
tw^een them worthy of notice, it consists in
those that form the superior part of the pipe
being somewhat larger and broader than
those nearest to the bronchial tubes.* A
ring is not uniform in its breadth, in conse-
quence of having waving or scolloped bor-
ders ; the advantage of which is, that a sort
of dove-tailed connection is cfiected whieii
materially contributes to the compactness
and strength of the entire structure. Its
front and sides measure, in the broadest
places, half an inch in breadth, and nearly a

* Now and then we find, at the upper part of the tube,
two or three or more of these rinjis accreted to-jether : it
cives rise to sonic proniinenee there:il)(iuts ■ generally, and
may often be detected by taction iu the living animal.

148

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

quarter of an inch in thickness — evidently
made so substantial to resist external in-
jury; whereas its posterior or unexposed
parts grow suddenly thin and yielding, and
taper to the extremities; which, instead of
meeting and uniting, pass one over the
other, and thus form a shield of defence
behind, while they admit of a certain dila-
tation and contraction of the internal
dimensions of the tube. These attenuated
ends arc joined together by a ligamentous
expansion, mingled with a quantity of cel-
lular membrane. The rings are likewise
attached to one another by narrow ligamen-
tary bands, strong and elastic ; which, after
they have been drawn apart in certain posi-
tions of the head and neck, have the power
to approximate them ; when the pipe is re-
moved from the body, and suspended by
the uppermost ring, these ligaments coun-
teract the tendency its weight has to sepa-
rate the rings, and still maintain them in
apposition. The lowermost ten or twelve
pieces of cartilage appear on examination
but ill to deserve the name of rings ; indeed,
they are little more than semi-annular, the
deficiences in them behind being made
good by intermediate moveable pieces of
cartilage. These pieces, whose breadth in-
creases as we descend, are let into the
vacuities in such manner as to overlap the
terminations of the segments, and they are
confined and concealed by the same sort of
ligamentary and cellular investment as was
before noticed.

Muscle. — Where the outward extremity
of the ring suddenly turns inward, and de-
generates into a thin flexible flap on either
side, a band of muscular fibres is fixed and
stretched across the canal, dividing it into
two unequal semi-elliptical passages. The
anterior one is the proper air channel; the
posterior or smaller one is filled with a fine
reticular membrane, connecting the band to
the posterior part of the ring, and preventing
it in aclion, from encroaching upon the main
conduit. This self-acting band appears to
me to have been added to the tube to enable
it to enlarge its caliber — not to diminish it,
as a superficial view of these parts might

lead one to imagine ; for, in consequence of
the passage being naturally elliptical, and
the muscle being extended across its long
diameter, the contraction of its sides will
give the tube a circular figure, by increasing
the curvature of the ring anteriorly, and
thereby, in effect, will expand and not con-
tract the caliber of the canal. I would say,
then, that the trachea was made muscular
in order that it might have the power of in-
creasing its capacity for the passage of air,
whenever the lungs Avere called into extra-
ordinary action : in addition to which, I
think that this band may, in some degree,
counteract any tendency certain positions of
the head and neck have to alter its shape
and diminish its circumference. This
opinion is con-oborated by the circumstance,
that the muscle grows slender and pale as
wc approach the lower end of the pipe,
where the canal itself is nearly circular, and
where it is placed in the least moveable
part of the neck.*

Membrane. — The ti-achea is lined by a
soft, pale red membrane, which anteriorly
has a close adhesion to the rings them-
selves, and presents a smooth, pohshed in-
ternal surface ; but which, posteriorly, is
loosely attached to the muscular band, and
puckered into fourteen or fifteen longitu-
dinal jilica: or folds, that extend with regu-
larity from one end of the tube to the
other. These folds were evidently made to
allow of the contraction and elongation of
this muscular band ; for I cannot myself
assign any reason why they should exist in
its relaxed state, unless this fulness of
membrane be given to admit of enlarge-
ment of the caliber of the tube during the
contractions of that muscle ; if this be
plausible, I may adduce the corrugation of
the membrane as another proof that the
caliber of the trachea is susceptible of aug-
mentation. This membrane is continuous
with that which clothes the rima glottidis ;

* In tliis opinion, says Mi-. I'ercivall, I find I am at
variance with Girard. Tlie Frcni'i fimf't'ssor as<'i'il)es to
it the power of ronlrartinr/ the mUlier of the trachea. " Cetto
conelie, bien evidemment mii.sculense, pent rctivri r Ir ral-
ibrc do hi trachee, en rnpportant les cxtremites des seg-
mcns."^ — Anat. let., p. 146 et 147, torn. ii.

THE HORSE.

149

but it is paler than it, and not near so sensi-
tive. Its arterial ramifications, also less
abundant than upon the glottis, exhale a
vapor from its surface ; independently of
which, it is kept continually lubricated by
mucus, furnished from its numerous lacuna,
to defend it from anything acriminous that
may be contained in the breath.

Bronchial Tubes. — The trachea having
entered the thorax, bifurcates into the t\vo
brondiial tubes. Of them, the right is the
more capacious canal, on account of having
communication wWh the larger division of
the lungs ; the left the longer one, in conse-
quence of having to cross under the pos-
terior aorta, in its course to the left division
of the lungs. The last cartilage of the
main pipe has a spear-lilce or angular pro-
jection extending down between the bron-
chial tubes, filling up that space which
would otherwise be left open from the di-
vergent manner in which they branch off:
it i.^ quite loosely attached, in order that
the branches may accommodate themselves
to Ihe motions of the neighboring parts.
The bronchial tubes vary in structure from
the trunlc that gives origin to them: instead
of their rings being formed of entire pieces
of cartilage, they are constituted of several
sej)arate pieces, makingup so many segments
of the circle, overlapping one another, and
united together and invested by an elastic
cellular substance: they also differ in hav-
ing no muscular band,another factcoiuiected
with the physiology of that part. The bron-
chial tubes, in penetrating the substance of
the lungs, subdivide — the right into three
principal branches, the left into two ; from
which spring inimmerable others, that grow
smaller and smaller, until the ramifications
become so reduced that they are no longer
traceable by the naked eye. In the larger
branches, we may dissect out five and even
six segments of cartilage, held together by
a thin but dense and elastic cellular sub-
stance ; in the smaller divisions, only two
are found, and they are diminished in size ;
and, in the smallest visible ramifications of
all, cartilage is altogether wanting, though,
in many places, marks of the rings may be

traced upon the continuation of the lining
membrane, which in these intimate parts
compose the entire parietes of the tube.
In the larger branches this membrane
(which is continuous throughout the bron-
chial system) assumes a plicated disposi-
sition — apparently, to admit the more
readily of expansion.

THYROID GLANDS.

Two egg-shaped, apparently glandular
bodies, attached just below the larynx to
the sides of the trachea, and united in front
of that tube by an intervening portion of
the same substance, which, by way of dis-
tinction, is by some called the isthmus.
They are enveloped and attached in their
situation by cellular membrane ; are larger
and more vascular in the young than in
the old subject; and exhibit a spongy tex-
ture, when cut into, which I am at present
ignorant of the precise nature of. They
are well supplied with blood-vessels, and
have many small nerves going to them.
Their physiology still remains obscure.

OF THE LUNfiS AXD PLEURA.

The lungs are the essential organs of res-
piration: the pleura is but the membrane
by which they are invested.

PLEURA.

The pleura is a fine, semi-transparent
membrane, lining the cavity of the chest,
and giving a covering to the lungs. By
that portion of it which is called the medi-
astinum, the cavity is divided into the right
and left sides of the thorax.

General Conformation. — If the lungs be
exposed, by breaking off one or \\\o of the
ribs, we shall perceive that their surface, as
well as that of the cavity itself, is every-
where smooth, polished, and humid. This
is owing to the extensive investment of the
pleura, the- surface of which is now pre-
sented ; so that, in reality, without break-
ing the surface, nothing but pleura can be
touched ; although, from its extreme tenuity
and pcllucidity, the viscera appear, on a
superficial view, to present their own bare

150

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

exterior. Its other side, on the contrary, is
rough, having jiumerous cellular flocculent
appendages, Ijy wliich it is united to the
parts it invests ; and so close and firm are
these adhesions, that to cleanly detach it,
in the recent subject, is a very difficult and
tedious dissection.

The pleura is a rejlecfed membrane ; by
which is meant, one that not only lines the
cavity in which the viscera lie enclosed, but
by duplicature, or what in anatomical lan-
guage is called reflection, gives a partial or
complete covering to the contained organs
themselves. It is evident, therefore, that
such a membrane admits of division into
two portions — a lining or parietal, and a
reflected portion ; and these, with regard to
the pleura, have, for the sake of more de-
finite description, received the names of
pleura costalis and pleura pidmonalis. They
are both, however, continuous at all points,
are precisely similar in structure and func-
tion, and, in fact, are still but one and the
same pleura.

Mediastinum. — There is yet a third por-
tion of th's membrane to which a distinct
appellation has been given, and that is the
mediastinvm, the membranous partition be-
tween the cavities or sides of the thorax ;
it differs from both the others in being com-
posed of two layers, which are derived from
the two pleura; of the opposite sides.
If we conceive Ihe pleurae of the two sides
of the thorax to be perfect sacs or bags,
with flattened sides turned inwardly, and
closely applied and united together, in such
a manner that the double membrane formed
by their union extends through the middle
of the chest, from the dorsal vertebrce to
the sternum, we shall at once have a toler-
ably correct idea of the formation as well
as situation of the mediastinum.

Structure. — The pleura, from the nature
of its secretion, is one of those included
in the list of serous membranes to which it
has been demonstrated also to be similar in
its intimate organization. Like them, it
presents a shining secreting surface, of a
whitish asjicct, and considerable transpa-
rency, and is composed of little else than

condensed cellular substance, whose texture
is penetrated by blood-vessels, absorbents,
and nerves : by long maceration in water,
indeed, it may be entirely resolved into cel-
lular substance. In most parts it is ex-
tremely thin, and by no means tough ; but
it is not so in all, for that portion which
faces the diaphragm is much denser and
stronger than the pulmonary or costal di-
vision of it.

Organization. — The arteries of the
pleura, which come from the adjacent parts,
are in the natural state exceeding small, ad-
mitting only the colorless parts of the blood
— a circumstance that accounts for its pel-
lucidity ; under inflammation, however,
they contain red blood, and such is the ex-
planation of that arborescent vascularity
upon the sides of the thorax in horses that
die of pnuemonia ; than which state noth-
ing can better demonstrate the comparative
number and distribution of these blood-ves-
sels. The majority of them terminate in
exhalent orifices, from which is continually
poured, upon the contiguous surfaces of the
smooth interior of the membrane, a serous
fluid, in the form of steam or vapor, which
may at any time be rendered visible by
opening the chest of an animal recently
dead. The absorbents of this membrane
are very numerous; and, though their ex-
treme exility prevents us from demonstrat-
ing them in a state of health, yet may they
often be seen in considerable numbers in
horses that die of dropsy of the chest ; we
have also abundant proofs of their exist-
ence from various phenomena that occur
in the diseases of the part. We know, for
instance, that these vessels take up the
serous fluid effused in hydrothorax, for they
have been found full of it after death; and it
is a fact that no longer admits of doubt, that
blood, extra vasated into the chest, is absorbed
by the mouths of these minute vessels.

The nerves of the pleura are too small
to be traced by dissection ; but, though it
is not possessed of much sensibility in a
healthy state, we know, at least we presume
from analogy, that it is highly sensitive in
the diseased; for few diseases are more

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XV.

NO. 1. — FORE EXTREMITIES.

LATERAL \TE\V OF TIFE OFF-FORE LIMli.

k. Humero cubital. — Flexor brachii.

71. Triceps externus.

o. PectoraKs transversalis.

P". Flexor metacarin externus.

s". Extensor metacariii magnus.

V. Extensor metacarpi obliquus.

u'. Levator humeri.

X. X. Extensor pedis.

y. y. Extensor suffraginis.

S,: The hoof.

NO. 2.

(VIIW AS ABOVE.)

Ic". Humero cubital, or flexor brachii.

m". n". Two of the triceps extensor brachii.

p". Flexor metacarpi externus.

s. Extensor " magnus.

f. " " obliquus.

u. Levator humeri.

«'. u. Flexor tendons.

x". Extensor pedis.

y". y. Extensor suffraginis.

8. Perforatus et perforans.

4. Subcutaneous thoracic vein.

NO. 3.

(THE SAME VIEW.)

m". n". Triceps extensor brachii.

Flexor metacarpi externus.

Extensor suffraginis.

Extensor metacarpi magnus.

Flexor tendons.

x".

Extensor jicdis.

Suspensoiy ligaments.

Subcutaneous thoracic vein.

NO. 4.

OSSEOUS STRUCTLTIE,

34.

Os humeri.

/•

(Js ulnaris.

35.

Os Radialis.

Trapezium.

36.

Ossa car])i.

EXPLANATION OF riGtTEE XV. CONTINUED.

37. Metacarpi magnum.
X. " parvum .

38. Ossa sesamoidea.

39. Os suf&aginis.

40. Os corona'.

41. Os pedis.

NO. 5.

INSIDE VIEW OF THE OFF-FORE LEG.

o". Pectoralis transversus.

»•". Flexor metacarpi internus.

5". Flexor metacarpi medius.

s". Extensor metacarpi magniis.

t". Extensor metacarpi obliquus.

m". v". Flexor tendons.

X. Extensor pedis.

u". Suspensory ligament.

C. Radial vein.

8. Bifurcation of the suspensory ligament.

2. Splent bone.

&. Inferior border of the hoof.

THE HORSE.

151

acutely painful in the human subject than
pleurisy, and we have every reason to be-
lieve tiiat horses sutler much from the same
malady.

Secretion. — It has been observed that
the exhalents of the pleura secrete a serous
fluid, which is emitted, in the form of an
exhalation or vapor, into the cavity of the
thorax ; and that it may be rendered visible
at any time, if an animal, recently dead,
be opened while yet warm ; or if an o]>en-
ing be made into the chest of a live animal.
In either case, a whitish steam will be per-
ceived to issue from the interior of llie
cavity. This vapor, shortly after death, be-
comes condensed and converted into a
liquid; which accounts for the contiguous
surfaces of the pleura being moist, and for
a collection of more or less fluid, resem-
bling water, existing in the most depending
parts of the cavity. In consequence of
every part of the membrane being bedewed
in this manner, the lung itself may be said
to be in an insulated state ; for the pleura
costalis does not, philosophically speaking,
touch the pleiu-a pulmonalis, nor is the lat-
ter ill actual contact with the mediastinum :
all friction, therefore, in the motions of these
parts, is by this interfluent secretion effec-
tually prevented. In this, then, consists
the chief use of the pleura, viz., to furnish
a secretion for the purposes of lubrication
and facility of motion, which it further
promotes by its extreme glibness of surface.
It is said also to answer the purpose of
lig'aments to the contained organs, thereby
confining and sh'cngthening them. The use
of the mediastinum is to divide the chest
into two compartments.

LU.XGS.

The lungs (by butchers called the lig-lils)
are two spongy bodies formed for the pur-
pose of respiration.

Situation and Relation. — They arc con-
tained in the lateral regions or sides of the
thoracic cavity ; separated from each other
by the mediastinum and heart, which occupy
the middle region. Prior to any opening
being made into the thorax, the lungs con-

tinue to fill up ever}' vacuity : no sooner,
however, is a perforation made into the
thoracic cavity than they shrink in volume,
and become in appearance too small for the
spaces they occupy. This arises from their
being during life — or rather during the
unopened state of the thorax — in a con-
stant state of inflation vriXh atmospheric
air, which preserves them expanded ; and
they suffer collapse of substance the instant
air is admitted, in consequence of the pres-
sure of the atmosphere upon them, from
which they were protected before by the
parietes of the thorax.

Division. — The lungs are two in num-
ber, the right and the left lung; parti-
tioned from each other by the mediasti-
num. A further division of these organs
has been made into lobes. That on the
right side, the larger of the two, consists of
three lobes ; the left, only of two. These
lobes, which are nothing more than partial
divisions of the lung by fissures of variable
extent through its substance, serve to adapt
them more accurately to the thoracic cavi-
ties, and, at the same time, render them
fitter for the purposes of expansion and
contraction.

Volume. — The lungs of the horse, when
inflated, are of great bulk ; * and the right
is the larger of the two : in consequence of
the heart being inclined to the left side, less
space is given for the left lung.

Attachment. — The lungs are attached,
superiorly, to the spine (which attachment
is sometimes called their roots) by blood-
vessels, the divisions of the trachea, and the
mediastinal portions of the pleura: every-
where else, in a healthy subject, they are
free and unconnected.

Figure. — In form, the lungs of the horse
are very like those of the human subject ;
and the latter have been compared to the
foot of an ox, to which the injected lung of
the fostus l)ear3 indeed much resemblance ;
for, though the two lungs are nut symmetri-
cal, yet, both together, they put on this
shape, which is the counterpart of tliat of

* I consider, in comparison wiih the body, tliat tlicy
exceed in magnitude those of tlic human subject.

152

ANATOMY AXD PHYSIOLOGY OF

the cavity they occupy. With regard to
their general figure, however, the lungs may
be said to be conical : being broad and con-
cave posteriorly, where they are opposed to
the convex surface of the diaphragm ; nar-
row and somewhat pointed anteriorly, where
they are received into the blind pouches of
the pleura, in the space between the two
first ribs.

Color. — In color, these organs vary some-
what, depending upon the age of the ani-
mal, and upon the quantity and distribution
of the blood they contain. In the young
subject, they are of a lighter and more uni-
form shade than in the adult. In perfect
health they assume a pink hue ; which, as
age advances, becomes mottled with purple
and grayish patches. Sometimes, in the
dead subject, they are found of the color of
the darkest venous blood, which arises from
an inordinate congestion of that fluid within
the pulmonary veins.

Structure. — The lungs are composed of
the branches of arteries and veins, and of
the ramifications of the trachea ; all which
vessels are connected together by an abun-
dant intervening cellular substance, knov/n
by the name of parenchijma. Beneath the
curve made within the chest by the poste-
rior aorta, the trachea divides into the two
bronchial tubes, of which the right is the
larger, but the shorter; the left the longer,
in consequence of having to pass under the
aorta in order to reach the left lung. Having
entered the substance of the lung, the right
tube divides into four others ; the left only
into three ; which difTerence arises from the
riglit lung possessing an additional lobe.
These branches may be traced for a consid-
erable extent within the parenchyma, giv-
ing off in their passage numerous other
smaller tubes of similar sti'ucture ; but, as
we prosecute our dissection of them, w"e
shall find that, in growing smaller, they par-
take less and less of the nature of cartilage,
and that the extreme ramifications are not
only entirely membranous in their composi-
tion, but of so fine a texture as to be per-
fectly transparent. It will be remembered
here, that, in speaking of the trachea, a

membranous lining to it was described of
the mucous kind, which, it was observed,
thence passed into the bronchial vessels :
now, it is of the continuation of this mem-
brane in an attenuated state that the minute
air-tubes appear entirely to consist; at the
extremity of every one of wliich the mem-
brane is prolonged into a kind of blind bag,
or cul-de-sac, to which the name of air-cell
has been given.

From the arborescent ramification and
peculiar mode of termination of the bron-
chical tubes, some anatomists have com-
pared them, and the cells at their extremities,
to a bunch of grapes — supposing the stalks
to represent the ramifications of the former,
and the grapes connected with them the
air-cells; others have described them as
having resemblance to a honeycomb : and
so far as the knife, with the aid of glasses,
can develope their intimate structure, the
first is an apt comparison, insomuch as it
relates to the disposition of their cells ;
the last, insomuch as it conveys an
idea of their ready inter-communication.
For, though they do not communicate
but through the ramifications of the bron-
chial tubes, this is a medium of inter-
course at once so general and free, that
numbers of them are inflated at the same
time by impelling air into any one of the
larger branches. With the parenchymatous
substance, however, they have no commu-
nication whatever.*

The blood-vessels that enter into the com-
position of the lungs are denominated the
pulmonary. The pulmonary artery, having
taken its origin from the right ventricle of the
lieart, winds upward to the root of the left
lung, and there divides into the riglii and
left pulmonary arteries, which divisions

* If tlie sulistancc of tlio kings be larerated or vent
asunder, tlic surface will be Ibunil to present a luhuhiled
aspeet. Introduec a blo\v-]iipe into one of these lolmli,
and all the other lobules — tlie cnlire lung — maybe in-
flated from this one \ sliowinj; the free communication cx-
istin};- between them. The same may be eilected by in-
jecting iniicksilver. You may do tlie same with the inter-
stitial substance ; but in tliis case you do not KU tlie loliules.
In fine, the lungs with their cells resemble a sponge; only
that the connecting tissue has no communication with the
sponge.

THF HORSE.

153

enter their correspondent lungs. Tlie rami-
fications of these vessels (which differ from
other arteries in having no anastomotic
communications one with another) accom-
pany those of the bronchial tubes, and,
like them, divide and subdivide, grow
smaller and augment in number, as they
approach the air-cells ; upon the internal *
surfaces of which they become capillary,
and assume a texture of correspondent
thinness and pellucidity with the cells them-
selves. Through these minute vessels every
particle of blood is impelled every time it
is circulated over the system, as was stated
when on the blood : a remarkable change
of color is thereby effected in it, and we
have now an opportunity of seeing in what
manner this fluid is exposed to the intluence
of atntospherie air for the purpose. It is
evident that no immediate contact can hap-
pen between the air and the blood, for the
thin, transparent side of the vessel, if not
that of the air-cell likewise, must ever be
interposed ; so that, whatever this influence
be, it must take efiect through one or other
or both of these membranes. We might
conceive, indeed, that such minute vessels
could not transmit through them such a
body of fluid as the blood ; but, when we
look at the volume of the lungs, and con-
sider the incalculable number of air-cells
they must contain, the globular surface of
every one of which is furnished with an ex-
pansion of pulmonary vessels, we shall feel
more surprise and admiration at the extreme
division and diffusion of this fluid in order
to receive the necessary change, than that
.such a prodigious number of capillaries
should be equal, iji their united caliber, to
the pulmonary artery itself.

From the extremities of the arteries, upon
the surface of the air-cells, arise the pul-
monary veins. These, by repeated union
with one another, form themselves, first, into
visible branches, which subsequently become
branches of larger size, until at length they
end in eight pulmonary venous trunks,
whicii proceed to, and by four openings ter-

• Some say, " upuu tlic externul surfaces."
20

minate in, the left auricle of the heart. The
ramiiications of these veins, unlike tlie
generality of others, are not more numerous
than those of their correspondent arteries :
and tlie reason for this is obvious; for, here,
one set of vessels are not more subject to
compression than the other, nor does the
heart (which is so proximate to them) re-
quire any such aid as an additional number
of veins affords to carry on the circulation.
The pulmonary veins have only to convey
the blood back to the heart, after it has
received its due change within the capil-
laries upon the air-cells.

Organization. — Besides the pulmonary
blood-vessels, there are two others, named
bronchial arteries. They come off, by one
trunk, from the posterior aorta, and each
of them enters a division of the lungs, in
the substance of which it branches forth,
an.d takes the course of the bronchial tubes.
These tubes they supply, as well as the coats
of the pulmonary vessels, and the paren-
chyma of the lungs, with blood : in fact,
they may be regarded as the nutrient ves-
sels of these organs. It has been, however,
and still remains, a subject of dispute,
whether these vessels do exclusively nourish
the substance of the lungs or not ; some
say that they do ; while others assert that
they are assisted in this function by the pul-
monary artery, with some of the branches
of which they anastomose. The latter
opinion certainly docs not appear to be sup-
ported by facts of much weight; on the
contrary, the blood which the pulmonary
arteries contain is dark-colored, and unfit
for the nutriment of any organ ; and as for
anastomosis, we have no demonstrative
proof of its existence. The bronchial veins
end in one trunk, which returns the blood
into the vena azygos.

The nerves of the lungs are derived prin-
cipally from a large plexus within the chest,
constituted of the par vagnm and sympa-
thetic. They enter the pulmonary structure
in company with the bronchial tubes and
blood-vessels, and continue their course
with them, to be dispersed upon the bron-
chial membrane and parietes of the air-cells.

151

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE.

The absorbents of the lungs are large and j
numerous, particularly the deep-seated : and
of the superficial, we may often succeed in
injecting considerable numbers, by intro-
ducing a quicksilver-pipe under the pleura
pulmonalis. They all pass through the
absorbent glands situated around the roots
of the bronchial tubes.

Parenchyma. — The connecting medium
of the various constituent parts of these
organs, or, as it is termed, their parenchyma,
appears to consist of little else than cellular
tissue, without any intermixture of adipose
matter : it admits of the free diffusion of
any fluid that may be extravasated into it
■ — of air that may have escaped from the
air-cells, or of serous fluid poured out when
the lungs become anasarcous ; but, as was
observed before, there is no intercommuni-
cation between it and the cells or vessels, as
long as the organs preserve their integrity
of structure.

Specific Gravity. — The lungs, when
heakhy, are exceeding light in comparison
to their volume ; so that, if they be immersed
in water, unlike most other parts, they wiU
float upon the siuface, — a fact familiar to
every one who has seen the liver and lights
of an animal thrown into a pail of water
to be washed : indeed, the name of lights
itself seem to have been given to them from
this very property. If the fcetal lungs, how-
ever, be so treated, they will instantly sink
to the bottom of the vessel : and this ex-
perimental result at once shows why those
of an animal that has once breathed should
swim ; for, in the one instance they contain

air, in the other they are wholly free from
it. They are not to be regarded as respi-
ratory organs in the foetus. It is evident,
therefore, that the lungs owe their property
of lightness to the air they contain ; and, as
a further proof of it, if that air be by any
means absorbed or pressed from them, and
their bulk chminished by collapse of the
air-cells, like other viscera, they will prove
heavier than an equal volume of water :
hence it is that the lungs of a horse that
has died of hydrothorax, even though they
be' sound, are of a greater specific gravity
than those of one in health. It occasionally
happens, however, that these viscera evince,
in this particular, the properties of airless
lung, while their natural volume and general
appearance remain the same : there must be
present interstitial deposition.

BRONCHIAL GLANDS.

Small, oval-shaped, glandular-looking
bodies, situated about the roots of the lungs,
adhering more particularly to the bottom
of the trachea and the bronchial tubes.
They exhibit a dirty French gray hue, inter-
spersed with dark blueish spots, and are
about the volume (though this varies much)
of a tick-bean. For a long time the nature
of these bodies remained obscure : of late,
skilful injections have clearly shown them
to be absorbent glands. They possess then-
capsules, and, when cut open, exhibit a cel-
lular structure. They contain a dark fluid,
which will soil anything it touches ; whose
principal ingi'edient chemists have found to
be carbon.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS (oN THE BLOOD,

ETC.).

The appearance of blood is familiar to
most persons. It contains the elements for
building up and nourishing the whole ani-
mal structure. On examining blood with a
microscope, it is found full of little red glo-
bules, which vary in their size and shape in
different animals, and are more numerous
ill warm than in cold-blooded animals;
probably this arises from the fact that the
latter absorb less oxygen. If the blood of
one animal be ti-ansfused into another, it
will frequently cause death.

When blood stands for a time after being
drawn, it separates into two parts. One is
called serum, and resembles the white of an
egg ; the other is the clot or crassamentum,
and forms the red coagulum, or jelly-like
substance : this is accompanied by whitish,
tough threads, called fibrine. AVhen blood
has been drawn from a horse, and it as-
sumes a cupped or hollow form, if serum,
or buffy coat, remain on its surface, it de-
notes an impoverished state ; bat if the
whole, when coagulated, be of one uniform
mass, it indicates a healthy state of this
lluid. The blood of a young horse gen-
erally coagulates into a firm mass, while
that of an old or debilitated one is gen-
erally less dense, and more easily divided or
broken down. The power that propels the
blood into the different ramifications of the
animal, is a mechanico-vital power, and is
accomplished through the medium of the
heart and lungs; the former is a powerful
muscular organ contained in the chest.
From certain parts of it arteries arise ; in
others the veins terminate ; and it is princi-
pally by its alternate contractions and ex-
pansions, aided as already stated, tiiat the
circulation of the blood is carried on. The

heart is invested with a membranous sac,
called pericardium, which adheres to the
tendinous centre of the diaphragm, and to
the great vessels at the base of the heart.
The heart is lubricated by a serous fluid
within the pericardium, which guards
against friction. In dropsical affections,
the quantity of this fluid is considerably in-
creased, and constitutes a disease called hy-
drops pericardii. The heart is divided into
four cavities, viz., two auricles, named from
their resemblance to an ear, and two ventri-
cles, forming the body. The left ventricle
is smaller than the right; but its sides are
much thicker and stronger : it is from this
part that the grand trunk of the arteries
proceeds, called the great aorta. The right
cavity, or ventricle, is the receptacle for the
blood that is brought back by the veins
after going the rounds of the circulation.;
which, like an inverted tree, become larger
and less numerous as they approach the
heart, where they terminate in the right
auricle. The auricle on the left side of
the heart receives the blood that has been
distributed through the lungs for ])uriiica-
cation. Where the veins terminate in auri-
cles, there are valves placed. The coronary
vein, which enters the right auricle, has its
mouth protected by a valve called semi-
lunar, or half-moon shape, which opens only
toward the heart, and prevents the blood
taking a retrograde course. The different
tubes coming from and entering into the
heart are also provided with valves to pre-
vent the blood' from returning. For exam-
ple, the blood proceeds out of the heart,
along the aorta; the valve opens forward oj
upward, the blood also moves upward, and
pushes the valve asunder, and passes
through ; the pressure from above effec-
tuallv closes the passage. The valves of

156

AXATOMV AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

the heart are composed of elastic cartilage,
which enables them to work with ease. In
some diseases, however, they become ossi-
fied. This, of course, is fatal. The heart
and its appendages are also subject to other
diseases, called dilatation, softening, hard-
ening, etc. Now, the blood, having been
brought from all parts of the system by
the veins, enters into the vena cava ante-
rior and posterior, which empty them-
selves into the right auricle ; and this,
when distended with blood, contracts, and
forces its contents into the right ventricle,
which, contracting in its turn, propels the :
blood into the pulmonary arteries, whose

luimerous ramifications bring it in con-
tact with the air-cells of the lungs. It
then assumes a crimson color, and is then
adapted to build up and supply the waste.
Having passed through the vessels of the
lungs, it continues on, and passes into
the left auricle: this also contracts, and
forces the blood through a valve into the
left ventricle. This ventricle then con-
tracts in its turn, and the blood passes
through another valve into the great aorta,
from which it is distributed into the whole
arterial structure : after going the rounds of
the circulation, it is again retmuied to the
heart by the veins.

EXAMINATIONS ON THE NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF BLOOD.

Q. What are the properties of blood? — A. In
lieahh, it is a smooth homogenous fluid, of unctuous
adhesive consistence, of a slightly sahne taste, and of a
B])ecific gravity somewhat exceeding that of water. It
exhales a vapor wliich has a pecuhar odor ; this, how-
ever, differs in various animals.

Q. Does the blood always preserve the same den-
sity ? * — A. No. Its density is Hable to great variations,
under the states of rest, labor, disease, and health.

Q. What do you understand by the " crassamenium"
of the blood? — A. It is supposed to consist chiefly
of fibrin.

Q. How is it colored ? — ^1. It owes its peculiai- color
to what is termed the red globules, which are entangled
in it during its coagulation.

Q. How can this be demonstrated? — A. By long
continued ablution in water, the red particles are liber-
ated ; and we have remaining a white, solid, and elas-
tic substance, which has all the properties of fibrine,
and is almost exactly similar to the basis of muscle.

Q. By what name was fibrine formerly known ? A.

Coagulable lymjih.

Q. What is the form of the red globules of the
blood? — A. The Abbe de la Torre, who examined
them under microscopes of considerable power, states
that the}' obtained the appearance of flattened amuilar
Ixidies, with a depression, sometimes perforation, in the

* Dr. B. Habington is of opinin.i th:vt tlie blood, whilst circulating
in the vespels. consists of two l)ar:sonIy — a fluid which hi- culls //>/;/«?
5angu/H(A, and red globules; and he is iTiduced to Ik-Ucto, from his
experiments, that fibrin and serum do not exist as such in the circu-
lating fluid, but that the lifjuor sanguinis, when removed from the
Vessels, and no longer subjected to the laws of liie, has then, and not
before, the property of separating into fibrin and serum. Mrd. Chi-
turg. Traii.snrf. vol. XVI. pt. 2. Lond. 1?31, and art. Blood (morbid
eondiliona of the), in Cyclop, of Anat and Physiol. Lond. 1836.

centre, but tliey differ in size and shape in various
animals.

Q. By what means is the blood colored? — A. By
means of iron and oxygen.

Q. Describe the projierties of the serum ? — A. It is
the yellow fluid part that is left after the separation of
the crassamentum ; it is of a saline taste, and homoge-
nous, adhesive consistence.

Q. What effect has a temperature of 160° on it ? —
^4. The whole is converted into a firm white mass, per-
fectly analagous to the white of an egg wliich has been
hardened by boihng.

Q. Can any hquor be extracted from the serum after
having been coagulated by heat? — A. Yes. If the
coagulum be cut into slices, and subjected to gentle
pressure, an opaque liquor drains fi-om it, which is called
the serosity.

PERICARDinu.

Q. By what is the heart surrounded? — A. The
pericardium.

Q. What is the structure of this? — A. It is a fibro-
serous membranous bag, composed of two coats ; one
fibrous, the other serous ; these are united by cellular
tissue.

Q. What are its connections ? — A. It is attached to
the sternum, pleura, diaj)hragm, and to the roots of
the large blood-vessels at the base of the heart.

Q. A\'hat is the function of the serous surface of the
pericardium? — A. To secrete the liquor pericardii.

Q. What is the use of this liquor? — A. It serves to
protect its own siu-face, and that of the heart, from
friction.

Q. AVhat office does the pericardium perform ? — ^4.
It sustains the heart in its proper situation.

THE HORSE.

157

IlKAUT.

Q. What is the form of the heart P — ^-1. Its form is
conoid, yet someAvhat flattened on the anterior surface
and roundi'd on the other.

Q. Where is the heart situated? — A. Witliin the
thorax, in .the region of the fourth, fifth, and sixth
dorsal vcrtebrse ; bounded on the sides by the lungs
and walls of the thorax ; posteriorly, by the dia-
jjhragm; inferiorly and anteriorly, liy the sternum.

Q. How is the body of heart divided? — A. Into a
base and apex.

Q. What are the divisions internally? — A. It is
divided into four cavities, viz : two auricles, or anterior
cavities ; two ventricles, or posterior cavities.

Q. What communications exist between the cavities
of the heart? — .1. ]5etween the two auricles there is
no communication, nor between the two ventricles ;
but the right auricle opens into the right ventricle, and
a similar ojiening exists between the left aiu'icle and
ventricle.

Q. IIow do veterinarians describe the relative i^itua-
tiou of the cavities of the heart ? — ^1. The amides are
described as anterior and posterior, because the right
auricle forms the ujiper and fore part, and the left is
in a posterior direction ; the ventricles being located
under their respective auricles ; thus we have the ante-
rior and |)OsterTor ventricles.

Q. How is the exterior surface of the heart ])ro-
tected ? — By a dujilicature of the pericardium.

Q. What is the function of the auricles? — A. To
receive the blood from the various vessels and transmit
it to the ventricles.

Q. What is the function of the ventricles? — A.
One pro])els the blood to the lungs, for purification;
the other distributes it through the arterial ramifi-
cations.

Q. Name the venous vessels which terminate in the
right auricle. — .1. Three venous vessels terminate in
it, viz : the vena cava, anterior and posterior, and the
coronary vein ; the vena azygos forms a junction with

the anterior cava, just as the latter pierces the walls of
the amides.

Q. How are the auricles divided ? — ^4. By the sep-
tum auricularam.

Q. Describe the internal mechanism of the right
ventricle? — A. It has within it numerous fleshy pil-
lars, longitudinally distributed; also, three fleshy
prominences, termed carnae columnse, from which sev-
eral tendinous cords proceed to the edges of those
membranous and fibrous jjroductions ; these close the
auriculo-ventricular ojicning; the apparatus alto-
gether forms valvula tricupsis. Other cords, similar to
the cord;p tendin.T, jiass between the outer wall and
the septum.

Q. M^here is the origin of the right ])ulmonary ar-
tery?— A. It emerges from the upper and back part
of the ventricle.

Q. How is the mouth of this artery ju'otected ? — A.
By three semilunar valves, which present little pouches
within its cavity ; these valves consist of doubhngs of
the Uning membrane of the parts.

Q. Describe the left ventricle? — A. Its cavity is
smaller than that of the right, and its wall is thicker.
Its musculi jjectinati appear mostly upon the septum,
within the a])ex and imder the valves ; it has two, in-
stead of tlirec, carnal columns' ; they are more buUcy,
and project more into the carity than those of the
right.

Q. From whence does the aorta arise? — A. From
the up])er and fore part of the left ventricle.

Q. What is remarkable about the mouth of the
aorta? — A. It has three semilunar valves, similar to
those at the origin of the judmonary artery.

Q. By what are the ventricles divided ? — A. They
are divided by a fleshy partition called septum ventric-
ulorum.

Q. How is the circulation of the blood efifected ? —
A. By the alternate contraction of the auricles and
ventricles, called the dyastole and systole of the heart.

Q. By what vessels is the heart itself suppUed with
blood ? — A. By the coronary arteries.

ARTERIAL SYSTEM.

DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

The blood is propelled by the heart
through the great aorta, which rises out of
the base of the left ventricle, in the space
between the left auricle and the pulmonary
artery. The branches furnished by the
main trunk are the coronary arteries. The
right coronary artery emerges from between
the pulmonary and right auricle, winds round
the fissure separating that cavity from the
right ventricle, and turns down under the
termination of the vena cava; and distri-
butes ramifications in its course, which
penetrate the substance of the parietes,
and end in spiral branches. The left coro-
nary artery, in passing out between the
pulmonary artery and left aui-icle, sends
oft" a large branch, which encircles the
other auricle ; it then takes its course down-
ward, and ends in spiral ramifications.

ANTERIOR AORTA.

This is a shorter division of the main
trunk. The course of this vessel is under
the windpipe ; it gives origin to those large
arteries which are distributed over the
breast, head, neck, brain, and anterior ex-
tremities. It divides, at a short distance
from the heart, into the right and left ar-
teria innominata ; the right is considerably
longer than the left, and measures nearly as
much again in circumference ; it forms the
trunk from which the two carotid arteries
spring; the left terminates in the following
vessels : *

1. The dorsal artery. 2. Posterior cervi-
cal. 8. Vertebral. 4. Internal pectoral.
5. External pectoral. 6. Inferior cervical.

*■ Tlic vertebral artery, forming tlie basilar, gives oil"
the posterior cerebellal, anterior cercbellal, posterior cere-
bral, and the circular arteriosus

7. Axillary. Each of these arteries ramify
and anastomose with others, and are dis-
tributed to muscular and adipose substance.
From the axillary artery spring all the ar-
teries of the fore extremity. This vessel
can only be seen by detaching, the shoulder
from the body. It arises within the chest,
from the arteria innominata ; gains exit by
making a sudden turn around the first rib,
rather below its middle, crossing the lower
border of the scalenus in the turn; it is
first directed outward in this flexure, and
then backward, and at length reaches the
inner part of the head of the humerus,
where it makes another turn backward, and
afterwards takes the name of the brachial
artery. Its branches are — 1. The external
thoracic. 2. The internal thoracic, which
runs to the point of tlie shoulder, and gives
its branches to the levator humeri and
shoulder joint. 3. The dorsalis scapula?
ascends, in a flexuous manner, to the
shoulder joint, crossing the insertion of the
subscapularis. It runs for a short distance
along the ribs. 4. The subscapularis, a
large artery, which also arises from the
upper part of the trunk, but near to its ter-
mination. It passes along the ribs, screened
from view by the edges of the subscapu-
laris and teres major, to both of which
muscles it detaches several small branches,
and ends near the lower angle of the bone ;
it also gives oft' several branches to the
triceps and panniculus. 5. The humeral.

The humeral artery descends from the
inner and back part of Ihe head of the os
humeri, in an oblique direction on the body
of the bone, where it divides into the ulnar,
spiral, and radial arteries. On its inner
side, it has the .spiral and ulnar nerves ; in
front, the radial nerve ; and behind, the

(158)

4XAT0MY A>,D PIlVS:uLYGY OF THE HORSE.

159

humeral veins ; and it is covered inter-
nally by the large pectoral muscle, to which
it sends some small branches. But its prin-
cipal branches are — 1. One near its origin,
which crosses the bone to get to the flexor
brachii, and sends twigs to the shoulder-
joint. 2. A posterior branch, arising a lit-
tle lower down, which enters the muscle
called triceps. 3. Near its termination,
another branch to the flexor brachii. Where
the artery divides, it is covered by the hu-
meral plexus of veins, and by the absorbent
glands of the arm.

The vlnar artery consists of a common
root, from which spring three or four ves-
sels of considerable size, running in waving
lines upon the inner side of the lower end
of the humerus. The upper one is dii'ected
to the ulnar, splitting before it reaches the
bone, and pending one branch upward upon
the elbow, and another downward to the
heads of the flexors ; to which muscles
the other branches of this vessel are dis-
tributed.

The spiral artery, the outermost division,
turns round the os humeri, passing under
the flexor brachii, and sending a recurrent
branch to it, to arrive at the front of the
radius, where it splits into several branches,
of which — 1. Some run into the elbow
joint. 2. Others, larger and more numer-
ous, penetrate the heads of the extensors.
3. Two long, slender ones descend upon the
radius, and give branches, in their course,
to the extensor muscles as low as the knee,
and there end in ramifications about and
into the joint, joining with others coming
from the radial.

Tlie radial artery, the principal division
humeral, continues its descent along the
radius, about the middle of the arm ; the
nerve accompanies it first on its outer side,
and subsequently behind it. A short way
above the knee, it splits into the metacarpal
arteries.

The small metacarpal artery descends,
within a cellular sheath, along the inner and
back part of tlie knee. It continues its
descent along the mctacarj^al vein (which
runs to its inner side), till it gets below the

knee, and then transmits its divisions down
the front of the suspensary ligament ; be-
tween it and the canon bone, it sends off
branches over the front of the knee, the
canon, and suspensary ligament.

The large metacarpal artery, a continua-
tion of the radial trunk, continues its course
down the leg, by the side of the tendo per-
foratus, passing under the posterior annular
ligament, approaches the fetlock just above
the joint, and then splits into three vessels ;
from the middle division three recurrent ar-
teries are given out ; the side divisions be-
come the plantar arteries. From the arch
below come off" two other branches, which
descend into the joint. The plantar arte-
ries, external and internal, in the fore ex-
tremity, result from the fork of the meta-
carpal ; in the hind, from that of the
metatarsal. (Their general distribution is
the same, both in the hind and fore feet.)
They descend the fetlock upon the sides of
the sessamoids, in company with the veins
which run in front of them, and with
the plantar nerves which proceed behind
them ; the artery then passes down to,
and into, the substance of what is called
the " fatty frog ; " it next passes the inner
and upper exti-emity of the coffin bone, and
afterwards to the foramen of the posterior
concavity of the bone. The branches of
the plantar artery are many and important.
After detaching some smaU ramifications
inwardly to the fetlock, posteriorly to the
flexor tendons, and anteriorly to the ex-
tensor tendon, it then sends ofl' — 1. The
perpendicular artery. 2. The transverse
artery. 3. The artery of the frog. 4. The
lateral laminal artery. 5. The circulus ar-
teriosus. From the latter arise two prin-
cipal sets of vessels — 1. The anterior
laminated arteries. 2. The inferior com-
municating arteries, " thirteen, and some-
times fourteen, in immber." 3. The circum-
flex artery. Then, again, from this vessel
spring the solar arteries, which may be so
named from their radiated arrangement.
These latter are destined for the supply of
the sole, upon which they run in radii at
equal distances, whose common centre is the

160

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

toe of the frog, where they end in commu-
nications with the arteries of that body.

THE CAROTID ARTERY.

The right arteria innominata, having de-
tached seven important branches, which
vary but little in their mode of origin,
general course, and distribution, from the
several arteries into which the left division
resolves itself, become the common carotid
— a large vessel emerging through the up-
per opening of the chest ; it divides, as it
quits the chest, into two branches, called
the right and left carotids. These arteries
ascend, and having reached the top of the
larynx, the carotid of either side branches
into three divisions — the external and inter-
nal carotids, and the ramus anastomoticus :
here, though the trunk itself becomes deeply
lodged in soft parts, its situation is well in-
dicated by the larynx, with which it is in
contact. This vessel detaches — 1. Several
unimportant muscular branches in its pro-
gress up the neck. 2. The thyroideal
artery, which furnishes the laryngeal, a
small artery that perforates the ligament
uniting the cartilages of the throat.

The external carotid artery is the large
division, which may be regarded as the con-
tinuation of the carotid itself. This artery
is imbedded in glandular substance, sur-
rounded by venous and nervous trunks, and
protected by bony prominences and muscles.
The first branch of the external carotid is
the submaxillary artery ; it comes ofl" behind
the horn of the ox hyoides, just as the
carotid makes its second curve, and ranks
next in size to the trunk itself. After reach-
ing the lower jaw (about one-third of its
length downwards), it arrives upon tlie face;
here it becomes subcutaneous, ending m an
equal division, called the facial and inferior
labial arteries. Its branches are, the ascend-
ing laryngeal, pharyngeal : smaller branches
go to parotid gland, and a large branch,
called the lingual. The latter detaches a
few twigs into the submaxillary space ; it
then brandies into two arteries, the ranine
and the sublingual. The ranine, apparently
a continuation of the lingual, passes along

the under part of the tongue, and transmits
branches to the interior, and continues of
large size even to the tip of the organ,
wherever its extreme ramifications are ex-
pended. The sublingual artery winds along
the under and outer border of the tongue,
preserving a more superficial course than
the former. It supplies the subling^ial
gland, and distributes branches over the
membrane of the tongue. The submental
artery leaves the submaxillary, follows the
course of the branch of the jaw, and de-
taches twigs to muscles ; it then transmits
its ramifications into the gums internally.
The anterior masseter branches pass on the
external side of the jaw.

The inferior labial artery courses the side
of the jaw, invested in the cellular and
fleshy substance belonging to the buccinator.
It gives ofT slender ramifications to the in-
vesting cellular substance,, also the buc-
cinator arteries ; the buccal twigs bifurcate,
sending their divisions respectively to the
upper and under lips ; these form the supe-
rior and inferior coronary arteries of the lips.

The facial artery ascends upon the side
of the face, crosses the buccinator, then,
having run as high as the bony ridge from
whence the masseter arises, it detaches a
large branch, and then expands upon the
upper and fore part of the face ; its termi-
nating ramifications are in the cellular sub-
stance and skin covering the fore part of
the face.

The posterior auricular gives branches to
the parotid gland, and to the different mus-
cles of the ears.

The temporal artery, the anterior auricular,
and the internal maxiUary, may be con-
sidered as the terminating branches of the
external carotid. The internal maxillary
gives off deep temporal branches, long
slender twigs, to the soft palate, to the car,
and to the articulation of the jaw; the facial
artery also gives off the inferior maxillary,
the supra-orbitar, the ocular, the infra-
orbitar, and the palate maxillary. The
second and smallest division of the carotid
is the

EXPLANATION OP FIGURE XVI.

XO. 1.

FRONT A>D SIDE VIEW OF THE NEAR-HIND LEG.

g. Ligaments of the patella.

/". Triceps.

m'. Tensor vagina?.

«'. Rectus.

o'. Vastus extenius.

q". y'. Extensor suffraginls.

X. X. Extensor pedis.

7. Sheath and penis.

8. Bifiu-cation of the suspensory ligament.
^■. The hoof.

NO. 2. — OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

22. Femur.

23. Patella.

24. Tibia.
e. Fibula.

25. Os calcis.
2G. Astragahis.

27. Inferior tarsus.

28. Metacai-pi magnum.
*. " parvum.

29. Sessamoids.

30. Os suffraginis.

31. Os coronte.

32. Os pedis.

NO. 3.

OtJTSrDE VIEW OF THE NEAK-HIND LEr7.

K. Abductors.

J". Triceps.

m'. Tensor vagina?.

vt'. Rectus.

o". Vastus externus.

?•'. Gastrocnemius externus.

V. s'. Plantaris.

«'. Gastrocnemius externus.

!)'. 7('. Flexor pedis.

X. Extensor pedis.

y. y. Peroneus.

u. V. Flexor tendons.

i{. The hoof.

8. Bifiircation of suspensory ligament.

No. 4 is nearly the same as No. 3, and therefore needs no further description.
z. Suspensory ligament.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XVI. CONTINUED.
XO. 5.

fc'. Abductor tibialis.

5. Glans penis.

r. Gastrocnemius externus.

t. Flexor pedis accessorius.

tt'. Insertion of the gastrocuemlus.

x'. X. q. Extensor pedis.

8. IJifurcation of the suspensory ligament.
&,: The hoof.

9. Flexor metatarsi.
5. The saphena vein.

z. Suspensory ligament.

THE HOESE.

161

RAMUS ANARTOMOTICUS.

It leaves the trunk of the carotid, joins
the vertebral, and from it arises the occipital
artery, which gives off twigs to be dispersed
upon the dura mater, temporal muscle, and
muscles of the occiput.

INTERNAL CAROTID.

This vessel, whose calibre is not more
than half that of the external carotid,
ascends to the base of the skull : at its en-
trance into the skull, a vessel comes off
named the arteria communicans : after
having given ofl' this vessel, the internal
carotid pierces the dura mater, takes its
course up near the optic nerve, and branches
into four divisions, which supply the cere-
brum with blood.

The remaining vessels of the brain are
derived from the vertebral artery, which
gives off posterior arteries to the dura mater,
and ramifications to the medulla oblongata.

The basilar artery sends off branches to
the cerebellum.

tut; posterior aorta.

Considerably longer and larger than the
anterior is the main trunk, from which are
derived the artery of the abdomen, pelvis,
and posterior extremities, in addition to the
posterior intercostals, and some few of the
thoracic arteries. It commences opposite
the fourth dorsal vertebrse : from its orisjin
it courses first upward, and then backward,
having the pulmonary artery on its left, the
termination of the windpipe on its right,
then takes a course along the spine, inclin-
ing to the left side. From the inferior part
of the curvatttre of the aorta arise the right
and left bronchial arteries: these vessels
penetrate the lungs in company with the
bronchia, to the branches of which they
cling in the course of their ramifications
within the substance of the lungs.

The esophageal also spring from the con-
cavity of the arch near to the former, and
proceed backward to the esophagus, where
it divides into an inferior and superior arterv.
The intercostal, the remaining branches,
come off in pairs from the sides of the ves-

sel, to supply all those intercostal spaces
posteriorly to the last. These arteries run
along the lower borders of the ribs, and end
about the inferior parts of the chest and
abdomen. They furnish, near their origin,
small branches, which enter the vertebral
canal. Having detached these small ves-
sels, the posterior aorta continues its pas-
sage into the abdomen. In making its
exit from the chest, it gives off the phrenic
or diaphragmatic arteries.

Within the abdomen, the aorta continues
to be firmly fixed to the spine, by its several
cellular attachments, as far as the lumbar
vertebra, under the body of which it branches
into four large arterial trunks. Prior to this
division, the abdominal aorta gives off the
ccEliac artery, which is nothing more than
the common root of the splenic, gastric, and
hepatic — arteries that in some instances
have separate origins.

The splenic artery, after passing between
the stomach and spleen, ends in the left
gastric artery. In its course it gives off
several branches to the pancreas, called pan-
creatic arteries.

The gastric artery, the smallest of the
cceliac divisions, runs forward to the small
curvature of the stomach, between the layers
of the omentum, branching, before it reaches
this organ, into two vessels, called inferior
and superior gastric, which finally ramify
upon the upper and under sm-face of the
stomach.

The hepatic artery, the largest of the
cceliac division, proceeds before the pancreas
to the right side of the cavity, and passes
over the pyloric end of the stomach, and
gives off smaU branches to the pancreas.
Near the pylorus, it sends a branch to the
duodenum, which, as soon as it reaches the
intestine, divides : one division — the duo-
denal— retrogrades along the gut, and ends
in anastomosis, with branches coming from
the anterior mesenteric; the other — the
right gastric — crosses the gut, proceeds to
the great curvature of the stomach, where
it inosculates with the left gastric. The
hepatic artery itself is continued forAvard to
the porta of the liver, where it divides

162

AXATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

into the right and left hepatic ; the right, —
the larger and shorter one, — after giving off
a considerable branch to the portio media,
turns back to reach the right lobe ; the left,
after giving off a branch or two to the mid-
dle portion, penetrates the left lobe.

The anterior, or great mesenteric, is the
next vessel to tiie coeliac, and arises from
the under part of the posterior aorta. From
its origin, it passes downward within the
layers of the mesentery, detaching some
small twigs to the pancreas ; it then sepa-
rates into larger vessels (commonly from
eight to twelve in number), from wlrich are
derived a branch that runs to the duode-
num ; several other branches encircle and
ramify on and around the intestines.

The renal or enmlgent arteries leave the
aorta at right angles just below the preced-
ing vessel ; they each pass into the respect-
ive kidneys, and therein divide into branches
that penetrate the glandular substance.

The spermatic arteries, right and left,
originate from the under part of the aorta.;
they pass out of the abdomen, at the ab-
dominal ring, to the testicles. In the female,
they pass to the ovaries, fallopian tubes,
and horns of the uterus.

The posterior aorta also gives off the
small mesenteric, and five or six pairs of
lumbar arteries. Under the last lumbar
vertebrce, the aorta gives off tvvo pau-s of
arterial trunks, called the external and inter-
nal iliacs.

The internal iliacs give off a branch
called the artery of the bulb, and afterwards
branches into three divisions — the obtura-
tor, gluteal, and lateral sacral arteries.

The artery of the bulb passes to the bulb
of the penis, where it terminates. In the
female, this artery sends its terminating
branches to the vagina. It gives off the
foetal umbilical artery. In leaving the pel-
vis, the prostatic artery, which detaches
twigs to the vesiculae seminales, also distri-
butes its ultimate ramifications to the pros-
tate gland. It also gives off divers branches,
anal and perineal, to the posterior portion
of the rectum, anus, and parts comprising
the perineum.

The obturator artery is the lowest of the
divisions of the internal iliac. Its branches
are the arteria innominati, and ramifications
to the obturator muscles and ligaments. Its
divisions are the ischiatic, which distributes
its branches to the triceps ; next, the pubic :
the internal pubic artery gives two sets of
branches, which pass to the penis.

The gluteal artery is destined principally
to supply the gluteal muscles.

The lateral sacral artery, having reached
the coccyx, divides into two branches. It
furnishes the sacro-spinal branches, five
or six in number, and the perineal artery.
It soon divides into several ramifications,
of which many run into the gluteal mus-
cles ; others descend on the back of the
thigh, and others are distributed to the anal
muscles, and to the skin and cellular sub-
stance of the perineum. The lateral sacral
also fiu-nishes the lateral coccygeal, and
the inferior coccygeal.

The external iliac artery, right and left,
results from a branch of the posterior aorta,
which takes place under the body of the
last of the lumbar vertebra?, and jiasses
into muscles, forming the inside of the
thighs. The vessel gives off the circumflex
artery of the ileum, the artery of the cord,
and the arteria profunda: the latter, having
reached the posterior quarters, it sends its
ramifications into the biceps. Before this
vessel dips into the substance of the thigh,
it gives rise to a large branch called the
epigastic •artery.

The epigastric artery, in passing the mar-
gin of the internal ring, forms a branch
which divides into several small arteries; of
these a twig runs to the groin, and ramifies
among the adipose membrane and absorbent
glands ; then, next, a slender branch to the
cremaster, and subcutaneous tAvig to the
thigh, and, lastly, the external pudic artery.

The femoral artery. — Regarding the pro-
funda femoris as a limb of the external
iliac, we descend to the femoral artery, the
subsequent continuation of the same trunk.
This artery proceeds in an oblique direction
down the haunch, preserving nearly the line
of its middle ; opposite to the bead of the

THE HORSE.

163

tibia, it branches into the anterior and pos-
terior tibial arteries ; the anterior tibial gives
off the inguinal artery, also three or four
branches to the sartorius, and one to the
side and front of the stifle. Its posterior
branches arc a large artery to the gracilis
(which detaches twigs to the long and short
heads of the triceps), also one to the biceps.
At the back of the stifle come off the pop-
liteal branches, four or five in number,
taking opposite directions, which are des-
tined for the supply of the joint ; one runs
down upon the posterior tibial muscles ;
another — the recurrent branches — climbs
the back of the os femoris, and anastomoses
^\^th the descending ramifications of the
profunda femoris.

The tibial arteries are a continuation of
the femoral trunk, which branch off into
tibial arteries at the head of tibia.

The posterior tibial arlenj^ the smaller of
the two, passes along the posterior deep
region of the thigh, to the hock, where it

ends in bifurcation. Its branches are, one
that runs into the flexor pedis ; another to the
upper and back part of the tibia ; and small
twigs to both the flexors. There are several
terminating branches, some ramifying sub-
cutaneously, others continuing down the leg
internally over the tendon of the flexor
pedis, and ending at the lower i)art of the
canon in divers smaU ramifications.

The anterior tibial artery, after leaving
the trunlv, passes down the fore ]oart of the
thigh to the hock and metatarsal bone,
where it becomes the metatarsal artery.

The metatarsal artery pursues its course
downwards to about two-thirds the length
of the leg ; it then gains the posterior part
of the latter ; a little above the fetlock, it
divides into three vessels : one forms an arc,
(as in the fore extremity), from which come,
off the recurrents, and they anastomose
with the posterior tibial artery ; the lateral
divisions become the plantar arteries.

164

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

Aorta

Anterior Aorta

Left Arteria
Innominata

{Posterior Cerebellal.
Anterior Cerebellal.
Posterior Cerebral.
Circular Arteriosus.

REMARKS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ARTERIES.

The preceding is a brief sketch of the arterial structure, and the professional man
will perceive that we have not named the whole of the arteries ; therefore, in order to
supjily this deficiency, the author here introduces a table of the arteries, constructed by
Mr. Percivall.

TABLE OF THE ARTERIES.

Anterior Aorta.

Posterior Aorta.

Right Ai'teria Innominata.

( Left Arteria Innominata.

fDorsal.

Posterior Cervical.

Vertebral, forming the Basilar.

Internal Pectoral.

External Pectoral.

Inferior Cervical.

Axillary.

^External Thoracic.
Internal Thoracic.
Axillary < Dorsalis Scapulae.
Subscapular.
Humeral.
r Ulnar.

Humeral ^ ^^^^^ _ _ c q^^y[ Metacarpal,
l^ \ Large ditto.

T IV T i. 1 i External Plantar.

Large Metacarpal j j^^^^^.^^^^ ^.^^^_

f Perpendicular.
Transverse.
Plantar < Artery of the Frog.
Lateral Laminal.
Circulus Arteriosus.

<( Solar.

The Right Arteria Innominata sends off branches correspondent to those on the left

side; and, in addition, the

Right Carotid \ External Carotid.
Left ditto. > Ramus Anastomoticus.
) Internal Carotid.
' Ascending Pharyngeal.

Ant. Laminal.

Inf

Circumflex.

Communicating.

Common Carotid

Submaxillary.

External Carotid <( Parotideal.

Int. Pterygoid.
Post. Masseter.
Post. Auricular.
Temporal.
Ant. Auricular.
Int. Maxillary.

Pterygoid.
Lingual. . . .

Inferior Labial.

Facial.

Ranine.

Sublingual.

Buccinator.

Angular Oral.
r Masseter.
J Buccal.
] Slip. Labial,
l^ False NasaL

Deep Temporal.

Palatine.

Inf. Maxillary.

Supra-Orbitar.

Ocular.

Infra- Orbitar.

Palato Maxillary.

THE HORSE.

165

!( Dura Matral.
Occipital. < Temporal.
( Nuchal.
['Arteria Conimunicans.
Anterior Dura Matral.
Internal Carotid < Anterior Cerebral. . . -^ Ophthalmic
Middle Cerebral.
(^Lateral Cerebral.

Posterior Aorta

Thoracic Division.
Abdominal ditto.

Right Bronchial.

Thoracic Division <

Abdominal
Division

Cselic <^

Splenic
Gastric

Hepatic

Bronchial . ^eft ditto.

_r^ , , , Superior CEsophaa;eaL

CEsophageal. [ i^knox ditto.

Intercostals.
Phrenic.

Pancreatic Branches.

Splenic Branches,

Left Gastric.

Superior Gastric.

Inferior ditto.

Pancreatic Branches.

Duodenal.

Right Gastric.

Right and Left Hepatic
Duodenal Branches.
Small Mesenteric.
Coecal Branches.
Anterior Colic Branches.
Right Renal. ) External BrancheB.
Left ditto. \ Capsular Renal.
Spermatic ■{ Right and Left.

Posterior Mesenteric j -p , .

^ Lumbars — five or sLx pairs.

Anterior Mesentric

Renal

Artery of the Bulb

Bifurcation of ihe Posterior Aorta into External and Internal Iliac ArterieB.

Umbilical.

Vesical Branches.

Prostatic.

Anal and Perineal Branches.
Arteria Innominata.
Foraminal Branches.
Ischiatic.

Internal
Iliac

Obdurator

Pubic
Int. Pubic

Branches to the Crus Penis.
Ditto Corpus Cavernosum.
Ditto Dorsum Penis.
Ditto Glans Penis.
Cutaneous Branches.

The Middle Sacral issues at the Bifurcation of tlie Trunk.
f Circumflex of the Ileum.
E t 1 Hi -! -'^^'■y °^ ^'^^ Cord. ( Branch to the Groin.

j Arteria Profunda. -{ Epigastric. < Branch to the Ring.
1 Femoral. < External Pudic.

IGG

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

Femoral

Inguinal.

Muscular Branches.
Stifle Branches.
Muscular Branches.
Popliteal, -j Recurrent,

Anterior Tibial . . . .

Posterior Tibia .

Recurrent Articular.
Muscular Branches.
Cutaneous Branches
Metatarsal Branches,
Metatarsal Artery. .
' Muscular Branches.
Medullary.
Tarsal.
Internal Metatarsal. -{ Recurrent.

Recurrent.
External Plantar.
Internal Plantar.

DISTRIBUTION OF VEINS IN
THE HORSE.

The two main venous trunks, the vena
cava, anterior and posterior, correspond to
the anterior and posterior aortse.

THE ANTERIOR VENA CAVA

Forms the main trunk of the veins, re-
turning the blood from the head, neck, chest,
and fore extremities. It is principally formed
by the concurrent union of the jugular and
axillary veins, and is situated at its forma-
tion in the space between the two first ribs,
about midway between the sternum and
vertebra; ; it also receives the pectoral, ver-
tebral, dorso-cervieal, and inferior cervical
veins, and the vena azygos.

THE JUGULAR VEIN.

It passes behind the condyle of the lower
jaw, under the parotid gland, and joins the
external carotid artery, and continues its
course down the neck with the latter. It
now receives the auricular veins, anterior
and posterior, and also internal. The next
is the temporal, the third is the internal
maxillary ; the latter in its course receives
the blood of many small veins, — the palato-
maxillary, infra and supra orbitar, ocular,
inferior maxillary, and deep temporal ; the
fourth branch, received by the jugular vein,
is the parotideal, and the last branches from
the masseter muscles.

THE OCCIPITAL VEIN

Descends from tlie head, along with the

occipital artery. It brings blood from the
occipital sinuses, receives veins from the
posterior lobes of the cerebrum and cere-
bellum ; also from the dura mater.

The suhmaxillarjj vein is a large branch of .
the jugular. It is formed upon the side of
the face by the concurrence of the facial,
labial, and varicose veins. It joins the
trunk by the side of the trachea, just below
the parotid gland. In its course it receives
a number of veins; tiie principal are — the
submental, sublingual, lingual, pharyngeal,
and superior laryngeal veins. The facial
vein results from an expansion of small
veins upon the side of the face, one of
which is the varicose from the masseter.
The labial vein is formed by tiie union of
a plexus of venous branches, coming prin-
K'ipally from the angle of the mouth, joined
by others both from the upper and lower
lips. The varicose vein is buried in the
masseter.

The jugular trunk having received the
submaxillary, proceeds down the neck, and
terminates in the anterior vena cava, within
the space between the two first ribs. Near
the junction of the submaxillary the jugu-
lar receives the small thyroideal, cutaneous,
muscular, and tracheal veins. Near its
termination it receives a branch of the
superficial brachial, and plait or plat vein.

The vertebral vein runs the same course
as the artery, through the foramina, in the
transverse processes of the cervical verte-
bra?, with the exception of the last. This

THE HORSE.

167

vein has communications witii the occipital
sinus and posterior cerebral veins, medulla
oblongata, and spinal marrow ; it also re-
ceives vessels from the deep-seated mus-
cles in the vicinity, and ends in the an-
terior vena cava, just behind the first rib.

The axiUari/ vein returns the blood dis-
tributed by the axillary artery to the va-
rious parts of the fore extremity ; there is a
superficial and deep-seated set; the former
run under the skin, the latter among the
muscles. The plantar veins are an intri-
cate network of small veins, and cover the
foot with a venous netting. The veins
of the sole pour their blood into the veins
of the laminse; the latter increase in size
towards the coronet, and gradually unravel
themselves, so as to collect in a great many
branches; these run upward, through the
substance of the coronary ligament, and
form the superficial coronary vein ; from
them other branches proceed and join the
deep coronarv, and afterwards unite in
a single vein opposite the pastern joint.

The veins of the frog, after ramifying in
the form of network over that body, ascend
into the heel, growing larger as they leave
the foot ; they make a single branch at the
pastern joint, then unite with the vein com-
ing from the lamina;, thereby forming the
plantar vein. The plantar vein ascends,
unites wiih other vessels, and becomes
metacarpal.

The metacarpal veins, two in number,
result from the union of the plantar ; these
veins pui'sue their course up the leg, one on
either side, to the back of the knee, where
they end in anastomosis. The internal
metacarpal vein preserves the line of the
splint bone. These vessels receive in their
course cutaneous veins from the front of
the canon, and one or two descending
veins from the back of the leg; it after-
wards forms the deep-seated veins of the
arm.

The superficial brachial vein ascends
along the inner side of the radius to the
clbow-joint ; here it crosses over to the front
of the biceps and pursues its "ascent upon
that muscle toward the point of the shoul-

der, and then passes inward to the jugular
vein. In its course to the latter, it receives
numerous cutaneous and muscular branches,
communicates with the humeral vein, and
anastomoses with other veins of the arm.

The radial veins, two in number, arise
from the junction of the metacarpal veins '
above the knee ; they take the course of
the radial artery, and receive anastomosing
vessels as they ascend from the ulnar and
superficial veins.

The ulnar veins (with one exception)
end in the common trunk of the humeral
vein.

The humeral vein accompanies the ar-
tery ; it receives small veins from the mus-
cles.

T7ie axillarij vein is the continuation of
the humeral, augmented by the accession
of the triceps vein. Its branches are, the
subscapular vein, and dorsalis scapular;
the latter terminates about midway be-
tween the chest and shoulder. The re-
maining branches of this vein are the
humeral thoracic, and the external thoracic ;
it also receives other small veins, which
contribute more or less to its volume.

The pectoral vein runs the coiuse of the
pectoral artery. It originates in branches
from the abdominal parietes, continues to
receive accessory vessels in its course, and
ascends along the inner and lower border
of the first rib.

The dorso-cervical vein consists of two
divisions, ramifying with the dorsal and
posterior cervical arteries; it receives the
anterior intercostal vein.

The inferior cervical vein runs down the
lower part of the neck in company with the
artery; the principal branches are mttscular,
though some come from the skin and ab-
sorbent glands in the vicinity.

The vena azygos ends just as the trunk
opens into the auricle ; it returns the
blood from the lower intercostal veins.

THE POSTERIOU VENA CAVA.

This is the corresponding venous trunk
to the posterior aorta, returning the blood
from the parietes of the abdomen and pel-

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

vis, the urinary and genital organs, and the
posterior extremities. It takes its course
under the bodies of the lumbar vertebras,
runs along the great fissure of the liver,
perforates the cordiform tendon, and pur-
sues its way directly across the cavity of
the chest to the lower part of the right auri-
cle : in its passage it is joined by tlie lum-
bar spermatic, renal, hepatic, and diaphragm-
atic veins.

The common iliac veins are formed under
the sacro-iliac, symphysis, by the union of
the external and internal Uiacs ; they re-
ceive a vein from the psose and iliacus, cir-
cumfTex vein of the ileiim, middle sacral,
and azygos.

The ischiatic vein, situated upon the side
of the pelvic cavity, midway between the
external iliac and lateral sacral veins ; ex-
ternal and internal branches unite to form
it. The internal comprise veins coming
from the bladder, anus, pei-ineum, and, in
the male, from the bulb and prostate ; in
the female, from the vulva and body of the
vagina. The external come principally
from th* gluteal and obtiuator muscles.

The lateral sacral vein comes from the
tail, formed by coccygeal veins ; it runs
forweird to the sacrum, and receives in
its course the perineal and sacro-spinal
branches.

The external iliac vein takes the same
course as the artery ; as it departs from the
belly, this vessel receives

The inguinal vein (coming from the
groin), also a superficial or sub-cutaneous
abdominal vein,, luiown as the milk vein in
cattle.

The femoral vein is the continuation of
the iliac trunk below the brim of the pelvis ;
and is the main channel into which the
deep-seated veins of the hind extremity

pour their blood. We commence the de-
scription, as in the fore extremities, at the
leg.

The large vietatarsal vein ascends the
canon by the side of the flexor tendons,
and passes over the front and inner part of
the hock ; it sends out branches, from which
result the

Anterior tibial veins, which run between
the tibia and fibula to the back and lower
part of the os femoris, and then are joined
by the posterior tibial vein, and all three
unite to form the femoral.

The posterior tibial vein is a continua-
tion of the small metatarsal vein, and cor-
responds in size to the small luetacarpal
It runs in company with the posterior tib-
ial artery, receiving various muscular
branches in its course, also the medullary
vein of the tibia.

The femoral vein results from the two
last-named vessels ; runs behind the femoral
artery, and ends in the external iliac vein.
It receives muscular veins, as well as veins
from the stifle joint, and the medullary vein
of the OS femoris ; also, about two-thirds of
its length upwards, it is joined by the sapb-
ena vein.

77(6 vena saphena major results from the
large metatarsal vein ; at the hock it anas-
tomoses with the anterior tibial vein ; it
also receives cutaneous and muscular
branches in its course.

The vena saphena minor springs from the
small metatarsal vein ; it runs up the back
of the hock, over the root of the os calcis,
and ultimately reaches the femoral vein.

The vena poHa circulates the blood
through the liver, and is principally formed
by the union of the splenic and mesenteric
veins.

'IBE HOKbE.

169

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EXPLANATION OP FIGURE XVII.

OSSEOUS STRl

Frontal bones.

Occipital.

Temporal.

Superior maxillaris.

10.

Inferior "

11.

Cer\ical vertebrae.

14.

The sacrum.

16.

The false ribs.

18.

The sternum.

10.

The ileum.

20.

The ischium.

21.

Pubis.

22.

Femur.

23.

Patella.

24.

Tibia.

Fibula.

25.

Os caleis.

26.

Tarsal bones.

27.

The inferior tarsal bones.

28.

Metatarsi magnum

29.

Sessanioiilcs.

30.

Os suffraginis.

31.

Os corona;

32.

Os ])eclis.

33.

Scapula.

34.

Os humeri

35.

Radius.

/•

Os ulnaris.

36.

The carpal bones.

37.

Mctacarpi niagnmn.

38.

Sessamoids.

39.

Os corona^.

40.

Os suffraguiis.

41.

Os pedis.

Dorsal spines.

MUSCULAR STRUCTURE.

THE HEAD.

a. Orbicularis palpebrarum.

c. Dilator naris lateralis.

e. Orbicularis oris.

_/". Xasalis longus.

Ii. IJuccinator.

j. Depressor labiL

I: Masseter.

10. Region of the parotid gland.

o. Adducens vel depriment amem.

EXPLANATION OF 1-IGURE XVII. CONTINUED.
THE NECK.

h". C'L>i-\ical ligament. Ligamentum colK.

c". Trachelo subscapularis [scalenus].

s. Splenius.

r. i. Tendon of the splenius and complcxus major.

11. Levator humeri.

SUPEKIOR TART OF TIIE SHOULDER AND BACK.

i"'. Latissinius dorsi.
u". Trapezius.

SIIOULDEll AND FORE E.\TEEMITIES.

g. h". Sjiinatus muscles.

I". 7h'. n'. Triceps extensor brachii.

s". x". Extensors nietacarpi.

p". q". Flexors externus ct intenius.

II. 11. II. It. Flexors perforans et perforatus.

8. The ])astern.

«,-. «,-. Hoofs.

ABDOMIN.VL REGION.

c'. Abdominis transvcrsalis.
■1. Subcutaneous tlioracic vein.

POSTERIOR EXTREMITIES,

e'.

Erector coccygis.

.</'•

Comjn-cssor coccygis.

t'.

Glutei.

J',

. Triceps.

7c'.

Biceps abductor.

Abductor tibialis internus.

r'.

r. s'. Gastrocnemii.

Peroneus.

a'-

Extensor metatarsi intenius.

Insertion of the gastrocnemius.

Flexor perforans et perforatus.

y. Fleshy belly of tlie extensors.

The pastern.

«,••

Sf. Hoofs.

THE HORSE.

171

THE BRAIN AND ITS APPEN-
DAGES.

The cerebrum, cerebellum, and medulla
oblongata, and medulla spinalis are invested
with three membranes : the dura mater, pia
mater, and tunica arachnoides. Of these
the exterior is the dura mater ; which^
though called a membrane, is of a dense,
tough, and inelastic texture. It is so firmly
adherent, by means of numerous little
prominences, to the sutures of the cranium,
that it is difficult to separate them ; this
membrane is to the internal cranium what
the pericraninm is externally. The inner
surface of the dura mater is lubricated by
a fluid furnished by its own blood-ves-
sels.

The pia mater is that membrane which
closely envelopes the substance of the
brain, and dips down between its convolu-
tions, and adheres to its surface by num-
berless minute blood-vessels. It differs in
its appearance and texture from the dura
mater; presenting a smooth surface exte-
riorly, but a rough and villous one next to
the brain, and being composed of a beauti-
ful network of blood-vessels united together
by a delicate cellular tissue.

The third membrane has been compared
to a spider's web, in allusion to which the
name of vwmbrana aravlinoides has been
given to it.

The arteries which supply the brain with
blood are the two vertebrals, besides two
other branches called the internal carotids.
Its bk)od is returned from the sinuses of
the dura mater by the vertebral and jugular
veins.

It is on the supply of the vertebral ar-
teries, however, that the brain mainly de-
pends for its supply, for, if ligatures are
placed on these arteries, the animal dies;
whereas, both the carotids may be tied
without occasioning any apparent ill effects.
If our memory servos us, Dr. J. C. Warren,
of this city, has performed the latter
operation on the human subject with suc-
cess.

In raising the bony covering of the brain,

we meet with two processes, called the
falx, or longitudinal process, and the ten-
torium, or transverse process. The former
resembles the blade of a scythe, hence its
name. These processes are formed from
duplicatures of the dura mater; the first
descends for a short distance between the
lobes of the cerebrum. It takes its rise
from the crista galii, and terminates on the
OS occipitis.

The tentorium is extended from the inner
plate of the os occipitis along the sides
of the cranium to its base, whence it may
be traced to the sphenoid bone, and is
lost in the common covering of the dura
mater. It is composed of two laminee : one
is continuous with the faLx : the other forms
that portion of the membrane which covers
the cerebellum. The tentorium is equally
divided by the falx into two lateral por-
tions.

The sinuses. — The superior, or longitu-
dinal sinus, runs within the duplication of
the falx, along its superior border.

The tioo lateral sinuses are formed within
the duplicature of that part of the tento-
rium which is attached to the temporal and
occipital bones ; one extending to the right,
and the other to the left. They receive
veins both from the cerebrum and cerebel-
lum.

The cavernous sinuses, so named from the
cavernous appearance of their interior ;
they receive some important nervous trunks
in their passage from the brain, and for
lodging the terminations of the internal
carotid arteries. They commonly commu-
nicate \vith the sub-occipital sinus ; these
arc also of membranous formation, and are
found upon the cuneiform process of the os
occipitis, running longitudinally to ihe fora-
men magnum,
the cerebellum
cerebrum.

Cerebrum. — The largest portion of the
cerebral mass, and that whicii presents it-
self to our view in raising the skull, is the
cerebrum. It is equally divided by a longi-
tudinal tissure along its middle, into which
the falx cerebri descends : and its divisions.

Thoy receive veins from
and posterior parts of the

172

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OP

which are symmetrical, both internally and
externally, are denominated hemispheres.

Cerebellum. — The cerebellum is at once
distinguished from the cerebrum by its
being only one-sixth the size of the latter.
Its figure is irregular : it has two oval ends,
and its lateral dimensions exceed its longi-
tudinal. It is divided into three oblong
lobes — a middle and two lateral.

BIcdnlla oblongata, the smallest division
of the cerebral mass. It rests on the cunei-
form process of the occipital bone, and is
continued upward and backward to the
foramen magnum.

The upper surface of the medulla oblong-
ata forms, with the tuber annulare, the
floor of the fourth ventricle.

PUuatary gland, a red body, of an egg
form, seated upon the sella tursica, within
a fold of the dura mater. It has a mem-
branous capsule, surrounded by cellular ad-
hesions, by which it is firmly retained in its
place.

Medulla spinali.'^. — The spinal marrow
is that extended portion of braiu-like sub-
stance whicii is continued from the poste-
rior part of the medulla oblongata through
the entire length of the spinal canal. It is
inclosed in the same membranes that en-
velop the brain ; but, in addition to them,
the superior ligament of the spine serves as
a covering and defence to it below. To
this, and to the periosteum lining the
canal, its proper theca is loosely attached
by cellular, adipose, and gelatinous matter.
Its dura mater is derived from that which
covers the brain: in being continued through
the foramen magnum, the membrane is
contracted into a cylindrical sheath which
loosely encases the marrow, and is generally
described under the denomination of theca
vertebralis. The arachnoid membrane and
pia mater have the same relation to the
marrow that the same membranes have to
the brain, of which they may be considered
prolongations.

ORIOIX AND DISTHIBUTION OI" THK NKRVES.

The nerves, being symmetrical in number
and distribution on either side of the bodv,

take their origin in pairs, and these pairs
are numbered, and so distinguished from
one another, according to the order in
which they arise. There are forty-six pairs
of nerves ; ten, coming from the brain, are
distinguished as the cerebral nerves; thirty-
six, from the spinal marrow, denominated
tlie spinal nerves.

CEREBRAL NERVES.

First pair, or olfactory nerves, arise from
the corpora striata along the posterior bor-
ders of which bodies the medullary band.s
or roots of them may be traced as high up
as the middle lobes of the cerebrum. These
are the largest of the cerebral nerves, are
bulbous at their origin, pulpy in texture, and
exhibit, when cut into, comparatively to
their size, large cavities, which are walled
in by a layer of medullary matter, enclosed
within a thinner one of cortical substance.

Second pair, or optic nerves, arise from
the thalamia nervorum. They leave the
cranium through the optic foramen, and
pass to enter the globe of the eye, within
the interior of which it expands, and forms
the retina. In its whole course, it is en-
closed within a sheath prolonged from the
dura mater.

Third pair, or molorcs oculorum, take
their origin by several filaments, from the
inward parts of the crura cerebri. The
trunk of the nerve first runs obliquely out-
ward, across the back of the crus, then
turns downward and enters the cavernous
siiuis, on through the foramen lacerum-or-
bitale. In entering the cavity, the nerve
divides into two branches. The smaller
is generally received by the levater oculi.
The larger branch subdivides into several
others ; the longest of these runs round the
eyeball, and penetrates the oblique muscle.
Two or three others run to the abductor
and depressor muscles.

Fourth ])air of pathetic. — These take a
filamentous origin, and pass the border of
the tentorium, entering the cavernous sinus,
from thence to the orbit. Its destination
is the superior oblique muscle of the eye.

FiftJi pair, or par trigemini. — These av3

THE HORSE.

173

the largest nerves of the brain. They take
their origin by filaments from the crura cere-
belli, and pierce the dm-a mater. Each
nerve appears to form a ganglion ; from
this ganglion we say that three nerves de-
part. One is called the ophthalmic; the
second, the anterior maxillary ; the third is
the posterior maxillary nerve. The oph-
thalmic nerve is the smallest of the three
divisions ; as it emerges from the orbit, it
divides into three branches, called the
lachrymal, the super-orbitar, and the lateral
nasal branch.

Tlic second division, or anterior maxiUarii
nerve, leaves the cranium tlirough the hole
called foramen rotundum, of the sphenoid
bone, and takes its passage through the
mferior orbital canal, whence it emerges,
covered by the levator labii superioris,
upon the face : \\ere it splits into several
large branches, denominated the facial
nerves. But prior to its entering this canal
it detaches several important branches to
the ej-elid, lachrymal duct ; also several
long filaments, which descend on the tube-
rosity of the anterior maxilla, peneti-ate the
bone, and furnish twigs to the antrum, and
the two superior molar tcetli. The largest
branch is the spheno-palatine, or lateral
nasal nerve, to which the foramen spheno-
palatine gives passage into the nose,
wherein it divides into two sets of fila-
ments. One of these is spread over the
lateral parietes of the nasal cavity; the
other ramifies over the sinuses, and sends
a filament to the lower border of the sei>
tum. A branch also goes to the velum
palati, and another branch accompanies the
palatine blood-vessels, and ramifies over the
soft palate.

The facial branches of this division ter-
minate on tlie front and sides of the face,
and receive communicatjing filaments from
the anterior facial branch of (he portio
dur.i, and with them form a plexus.

The third division, the posterior maxillary
nerve, gives off a branch which runs up in
front of the parotid gland, and joins the
portio dura; also branches called the buc-
cal nerve, pterygoideus, and gustatory. The

latter descends by the side of the tongue,
penetrates that organ about its middle, and
vanishes in its tip. It also sends ramifica-
tions to the roots of the incisive teeth, and
to the under lip.

Sixth pair, or abducenles^ ailse by means
of filaments from the medulla oblongata.;
this nerve gives off two or three filaments
to the retractor ocuU ; but its principal des-
tination is to the abductor, along the fasci-
cula of which, its ramifications are equally
distributed.

Seventh pair, or auditory nerves. — This
pair includes two separate ner\'es on either
side ; one, from its remarkable softness, is
denominated the portio mollis; the other,
in contradistinction, the portio dura. The
portio mollis enters the organs of hearing,
and is distributed to the labyrinth.

The portio dura arises from the medulla
oblongata, and passes to the internal part
of the ear, the tympanum, and eustachian
tube. It is also distributed to the temples,
eyelids, nose, lips, cheek, and neck.

Eig-hlh pair, or par vag-iim. — At its
commencement it consists of two separate
portions ; the first called the glosso-pharyn-
geal nerve, and the second the true par va-
gum. They arise from the corpora olivaria,
and make their exit through the base of the
cranium. The glosso-pharyngeus gives off
branches, which join the portio dura, to the
constrictors of the pharynx, and form
branches which ramify in the base of the
tongue.

The proper par vagum, having disnnited
Ijom the glosso-pharyngeal nerve, proceeds
downwards to join the carotid artery, and
takes its coiu'se along the neck to the chest.
Its filaments are — 1. To the cervical gan-
glion. 2. The pharyjigeal branch, whose
filaments ])ass to the esophagus and larynx.
3. Two slender branches to the carotid ar-
tery, which form a jilexus. 4. The laryngeal
branch.

At the back part of the neck the par
vagum inclines upwards, and ;s found
above the carotid artery ; it then passes
between the two first ribs into the chest
Having entered the thoracic cavity-, it rxms

174

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

within the superior mediastinum ; the right
nerve adheres to the trachea, crosses above
the root of the right lung, alongside of the
oesophagus and gains the under side of
that tube before it leaves the chest. On the
left side the nerve accompanies the anterior
aorta, and crosses the root of the posterior
aorta, and also reaches the oesophagus. Its
branches within the chest are filaments to
the tracheal and cardiac plexuses ; also, a
branch called the recuiTcnt nerve ; branches
to tiie pulmonary plexus, and also two
cords that branch out and penetrate the
walls of the auricles. The recun-ent nerve
of tlic left side originates from the par
vagum, by the side of the anterior aorta,
and coils round the root of the posterior
aorta.

The recurrent nerve, so denominated from
its retrograde course, passes upwardly and
outwardly, and is found between the caro-
tid artery and the trachea ; having reached
the top of the latter, it spreads into fine ter-
minating branches, several of which run to
the muscles of the larynx and thyroid carti-
lage, and end in ramifications upon the
membrane of the glottis. Its branches are
filaments to the pulmonary plexus, cardiac
plexus, posterior cervical ganglion, and
branches to the oesojjliagus and trachea.

TJie par vagum runs to the stomach.
The left nerve sends filaments to the heart,
and others along the small curvature, which
communicates with the ramifications of the
right nerve ; the other crosses to the left
side, and joins the great semilunar ganglion.
The right nerve, as soon as it reaches the
heart, dividas into numerous branches,
which join the left, and spread their ramifi-
cations upon the under part of the heart;
some run to the pylorus, and others join the
hepatic ])lcxus.

Accessor// nerves to the eighth. — These
nerves are considered as accessory to the
eighth, in consequence of their being found
in close connection in issuing from tiie
cranium; it originates in the vertebral canal,
by the union of several filaments. In its
course into the cranium it receives many
other line threads, and in that cavity joins

the par vagum. Beneath the atlas, the
accessory nerve divides ; the front division
runs downward, and penetrates the belly,
h-ansmitting side twigs in its course. The
posterior division turns round the transverse
process of the atlas to the scapula, near
which it is lost in muscular substance.
The branches of the accessory pass to the
par vagum, anterior cervical ganglion, and
communicate with the sub-occipital nerve.

Ninth pair, or liiig-iialcs, arise behind the
eighth pair, from the corpora olivaria; it is
found in company with the par vagum, near
the coronoid process. The nerve passes
down the lower jaw, between the muscles
forming the root of the tongue, and ends in
the tip of the latter. It sends branches to
the lingual muscles and to the hyo-glossus
longus.

Tenth pair, or sub-occipital nerves. — They
arise from the medulla oblongata, and be-
ginning of the spinal marrow; they pass
out through a hole in the fore part of the
body of the atlas. It then branches into a
superior and inferior division. The superior
is distributed to the extensor muscles of the
head and neck. The inferior branch goes
to the trachea, lymphatic glands, and mus-
cles of the neck.

CERVICAL NERVES.

These consist of seven pairs, originating
from the cervical portion of the spinal mar-
row. Each nerve, as soon as it issues from
the spinal canal, forms two nervous fila-
ments, one superior, the other inferior.

The first cervical nerve makes its exit be-
tween the first and second cervical vertebrse.
It sends branches to difierent muscles, and
communicates with the

Second cervical nerve, which makes its
appearance between the second and third
vertebras. Its superior filament sends
branches to the muscles of the neck, and
levator humeri, communicates with the ac-
cessory nerve, and

Third cervical. — This also sends branches
and twigs to the difierent muscles of the
neck, and communicates with the fourth.

The fourth, Jifth, siath, and seventh pairs

THE HORSE.

175

pass from the spine, between their respec-
tive vertebrae, and send branches to the
phrenic nerve, and ramifications to the mus-
cles, sympathetic nerve, and unite with the
dorsal.

THE DIAPHRAGMATIC OR PHRENIC NERVE.

This is formed by branches from several
of the cervical nerves. It takes its course
down along the inferior border of the scale-
nus muscle. It terminates by numerous
ramifications on the tendinous parts of the
diaphragm.

DORSAL NERVES.

These consist of eighteen pairs. They
pass from the vertebral canal in the same
manner as the cervical, having superior and
inferior branches. The inferior branches
follow the course of the intercostal blood-
vessels, and are called intercostal nerves.
The superior branches are distributed to
the back and loins.

LUMBAR NERVES,

Consist of five pairs (corresponding to
the number of the lumbar vertebrse).

The first nerve ends in ramifications near
the stifle, and gives off branches to the last
dorsal nerve, to the sympathetic, and to the
second lumbar nerve.

Tlie second nerve has communication
with the first nerve, and sympathetic ; also
the crural. It sends one division to the fore
part of the haunch, where it becomes sub-
cutaneous, and ramifies over the stifle. The
other division crosses the ilio-lumbar artery,
just below its origin, and takes nearly a
similar course to the inward part of the
haunch, and then ramifies upon the skin; in
its way it detaches a considerable branch,
called the spermaticus externus, which passes
through the abdominal ring, and sends
twigs, in the male, to the scrotum and tes-
ticle ; in the female, filaments go from it to
the uterus, udder, and external labia.

The third nerve contributes to form the
crural and obturator. It sends small
branches to the sympathetic, psoas, and
obturator nerves.

The fourth nerve sends a branch to the
sympathetic, contributes to the production
of the crural ; and also sends a branch to
the obturator.

The fifth nerve communicates with the
sympathetic, crural, and sciatic plexus.

SACRAL NERVES,

Consist of five pairs ; a superior and in-
ferior fascicula. The superior make their
exit through holes upon the upper part of
the sacrum, and are there buried under a
thick mass of muscle, and become cutane-
ous upon the outer part of the hauncli.

The inferior fascicula. — The first nerve
largely contributes to the origin of the
sciatic plexus, and sends a branch to the
gluteal nerve ; also to the sympathetic and
second lumbar nerves. The second nerve
communicates Avitli tlie third and sympa-
thetic, and sends branches to the surround-
ing muscles and sciatic plexus. The third
and fourth have similar connections. The
fifth passes into the coccygeal muscles.

COCCYGEAL NERVES.

These issue from the spine, in the same
manner as the last described. They com-
municate with one another, ai'e distributed
to muscles in the vicinity, and end in fila-
mentous ramifications at the end of the tail.

NERVES OF THE FORE EXTREMITY.

The fore extremity receives its nerves
from the axillary, or humeral plexus, and
this plexus is formed by the union of por-
tions of the sixth and seventh cervical
nerves, and a division of the first dorsal
nerve.

The external thoracic nerves, sLx or seven
in number, arise from the humeral plexus,
and are distributed to the pectoral, triceps,
and other muscles ; they finally ramify into
the skin.

Tlie scapjilar nerves are called anterior,
posterior, and sub-scapular. The former
sends its ultimate filaments to the triceps.

The posterior scapular nerve sends
branches to the sub-scapularis, triceps, teres

ITff

ANATOSIY AND PHi'SIOLOGY OF

minor, and shoulder joint, and ends in the
insertion of the levator humeri.

The subscapular nerves run upward be-
tween the shoulder and chest, and enter the
subscapularis.

The spiral or exiernal cutaneous nerve is
furnished by the axillai-y plexus ; arises be-
hind the humeral artery, and passes between
the OS humeri and the head of the triceps,
through the extensors, to the external flexors
of the canon. It gives off several branches
to the triceps, ramifies on the fore and' out-
ward part of the knee, and sends branches
to the heads of the extensor muscles.

The radial nerve descends with the
humeral artery to the inward side of the
elbow joint, and runs along the back part
of the radius to the knee; passing under
the annular ligament, it descends to the leg,
and takes the name of the internal metacar-
pal nerve. It gives off numerous twigs to
the muscles, and finally becomes subcutane-
ous.

The ulnar nerve originates from the
humeral plexus. It passes down the radius,
under the annular ligament, to the tendo
perforans, and there becomes the external
metacarpal nerve. It gives off internal
eutaneous and subcutaneous branches, rami-
fies into cellular substance, penetrates the
heads of the flexors, and finally disperses
its ramifications in front of the leg.

TIte metacarpal nerves continue down
the leg, over the fetlock joint, where they
become the plantar nerves \ these pursue
their course behind their corresponding
blood-vessels to the back part of the foot,
which they penetrate to the inner side of
ihxi lateral cartilages,

Tlie plantar nerve detaches a branch from
the fetlock to the lateral cartilage ; another
passes to the fatty frog. The final branch
enters a hole in the back and lower part of
the coffin bone, in company with the plan-
tar artery, and there divides and distributes
its ultimate branches around the edges of
the sole.

NERVES OF THE UIND EXTREMITY.

The crural nerve is derived partly from

the second, third, fourth, and fifth lumbar
nerves. It makes its appearance under the
transverse process of the loins, and proceeds
in a line \\ath the external iliac artery. It
gives off filaments to the psoas magnus,
iliacus, rectus, and vastus internus muscles.
It also gives off cutaneous filaments ; one
runs to the stifle, and ends in ramifications
upon the fore part of the thigh. The other
continues down the leg, and can be traced
as low as the fetlock.

The obturator nerve, contributed to by
third and fourth lumbar nerves, sweeps
round the brim of the pelvis, and detaches
twigs to the obturator muscles. Its ultimate
filaments are expended on the triceps and
gracilis.

The gluteal nerve, after leaving the cavity
of the pelvis, accompanies the gluteal artery,
and passes into the substance of the gluteal
muscles.

The sciatic nerve derives its origin from
the sacral and last of the lumbar nerves j
after leaving the cavity of the pelvis, passes
between the hip joint and the tuberosity of
the ischium, and plunges into the substance
of the haunch. Here it divides into branches
called the popliteal nerves. At the hock its
principal branch separates into the external
and internal metatarsal nerves ; the former
runs over the flexor pedis to the os calcis.
Their subsequent coui-se and ultimate dis-
tribution are the same as those of the plan-
tar nerves of the fore extremity. The second
popliteal nerve passes between the beUies
of the gastrocnemii, above the first, detach-
ing twigs to them in its passage, and then
spreads into many branches, which pene-
trate the heads of the flexor muscles of the
foot, and send filaments into the stifle joint.

SYMPATHETIC NERVE.

This nerve derives its name from the uni-
versal influence which it has on the nervous
system. It communicates with the head,
neck, chest, pelvis, and abdomen, by its fre-
quent intercourse and connection with their
respective nerves. It is supposed by some
writers to be a ner\'ous system of itself.
It has, at different distances, a great number

THE HORSE.

177

of gangliform tubercles, from which ramifi- '
cations proceed forward, as well as filaments
backward, to the ganglia of the nerves of
the medulla spinalis. It is considered gen-
erally as beginning from a branch of the
fifth and sixth pair, given off at the base of
the cranium. The ganglionic sti-uctures
and the different plexuses are named from
their form, location, and distribution ; hence
we have the cervical ganglion, semilunar,
sacral, etc. From the semilunar ganglion
nervous filaments shoot in various direc-
tions, which, from their being compared to
the rays of the sun, are denominated the
solar plexus. From the divergent filaments
of the latter, the several smaller plexuses
of the abdomen may be said to derive
their formation, taking names according to
the viscera they are particularly designed to
furnish with nerves ; hence we have the
splenic plexus, that sends filaments to the

spleen, the hepatic plexus, mesenteric, aortic,
hypogastric, and renal plexuses. The sym-
pathetic nerve in the abdomen travels over
the sides of the bodies of the lumbar verte-
brcB, below the articulations of tlie ribs, and
pursues its course into the pelvis. Here,
also, it forms ganglia, which con-espond in
number to those of the lumbar nerves : and
from every ganglion come off two filaments:
one which runs to the corresponding lumbar
nerve ; the other crosses the aorta, and, by
joining the aortic plexus, communicates
with nerves coming from the sympathetic
of the other side.

From the loins, the sympathetic descends
into the pelvis, and takes its course along
the side of the sacrum, and forms five gan-
glia, corresponding to the sacral nerves ; it
finally terminates by forming a union with
its fellow.

EXAMIXATIOXS OX XEUROLOGY.

Examinations on Xeurolog)-, which will include the
names of parts not alluded to in the preceding
summary of the nen'ous system.

NERVES.

Q. What are nei-ves? — A. Long, firm, and white
chords, wliicli ramify after the manner of blood-vessels,
and are distributed to all parts of the horse's body.

Q. Where do they arise? — A. From the brain,
metluUa oblongata, and medulla spinalis.

Q. What communications have the different nerves
with each other? — A. They anastomose : forming
sometimes a plexus ; at others, a knot or gangUon,
from which other branches arise.

Q. What is the structure of nerv^es? — A. They
consist of fasciculi, or bundles, of distinct longitudinal
fibres, closely connected together by cellular substance.

Q. What are the coverings of ner\-es? — A. Contin-
uations of those which envelop the brain and spinal
marrow, termed nemilema.

Q. What is the structure of ganglions ? — ^1. They
are formed by a close intermixtm'e of filaments.

niUIS AXD ITS ME1IBR.1N-ES.

Q. "Where is the brain situated? — A. It occupies
the cranial cavity.

Q. How is the brain dinded ? — • A. Into cerebrum,
cerebellum, and medulla oblongata.

Q. I!y what membranes is the bram enveloped? —
A. By three membranes, or meninges : 1st, The dura
mater ; 2d, Pia mater ; 3d, tunica arachnoides.
^"' 23

VVTIA M.iTEK.

Q. "What is the situation of the dura mater'7 — A.
It is the external covering of the brain.

Q. How does it diticr from the other coverings of the
brain ? — A. It is more dense, tough, and inelastic.

Q. IIow is it retained within the cranium ? — ^-1. It
is firmly adherent to the interior of the cranium, more
l)articulai-ly to the depressions between the teeth of the
cranial sutures.

Q. How does the internal differ fi-om the external
surface ? — A. It has a smooth, pohshed, and lubricated
surface.

Q. Is the dura mater supplied with neiTes? — A.
Being composed of tendinous fibre, it is sujjposed to be
destitute of nerves.

Q. How are the processes of the dura mater
formed ? — A. By duplicatures.

Q. What are the use of the processes? — A. They
steady and protect the various dirisions of the brain.

Q. By what names are the processes known ? — A.
The longitudinal process is called fals cerebri, and the
transverse ditto is called tentorium.

Q. What is the situation of the falx cerebri? — A.
It forms a partition imder the anterior and superior
parts of the cranial cavity extending from the crista
gain to the occiput, and ends in continuity with the
tentorium.

Q. What is the situation of the tentorium cerebelh ?
— A. It is extended, after the manner of an arch, from
the cerebral plate of the occipitis along the sides of

178

ANATOMY AM) PHYSIOLOGY OF

tlie cranium to its base; whence, greatly diminished in
breadth it continues onward to the os sjAenoides.

SDfUSES OF THE DURA MATEK.
Q. What are the names of the principal sinuses of
the dura mater? — A. The superior or longituduial
sinus; two lateral, cavernous, and sub-occipital sinuses.

riA JIATER.

Q. What is the situation of the pia mater ? — A. It
surrounds and closely invests the convolutions of the
brain, and passes into the ventricles, furnishing them
with an internal membrane.

Q. What is the structure of the pia mater? — A. It
presents a smooth exterior surface ; next the brain it
is rough and villous, and is composed of a network of
blood-vessels, which are united together by a dehcate
cellular tissue. Being highly vascular, it is supposed
that the Ijlood-vcssels of the brain ramify in it before
entering the latter.

ARACHNOID MEMBRANE.

Q. Where is the tunica arachnoidea situated ? — A.
It is a delicate and transparent membrane, spread
uniformly over the surface of the brain.

CEREBRUM.

Q. Where is the cerebrum situated? — A. It occu-
pies the superior part of the cranium.

Q. What is its form, and how is it divided ? — A. It
is oval, convex above and concave below, and is divided
bv a longitudinal fissure along its middle, into which
the falx cerebri descends. Its divisions are derom-
inated hemispheres.

Q. What is the appearance of the surface of the
cerebrum ? — A. It is covered with eminences called
convolutions.

Q. Of what is the substance of the brain supposed to
consist ? — .-1. Of two kinds of matter ; the external is
called cortical or cineritious, and the internal is termed
medullai-y.

Q. What is the color of the cortical? — A. Red-
dish-ash.

Q. What is the color of the medullary portion ? —
A. Of a milk-white hue.

CORPUS CALLOSUM.

Q. What is the situation of the corpus caUosum ? —
A. It is an oblong white body, located at the bottom of
the fissure which divides the two hemispheres of the
brain.

Q. What does the corpus callosum join on each
side? — A. Its edges blend with the medullary sub-
stance of the two hemispheres of the cerebrum.

Q. What name is given to the medullary substance
of both hemisiiheres, together with the corpus callosum,
when the usual anatomical section is made? — A. By
cutting off the hemispheres of the cerebrum nearly
evsn with the corpus callosum, there is seen a large

oval mass of medullary oubstance, called the centrum
ovale.

LATERAL VENTRICLES.

Q. What are the lateral ventricles ? — A. Two cavi-
ties situated beneath the corpus callosum and medullary
arches of the cerebrum.

Q. What di\ides the lateral ventricles from each
other ? — A. The septum lucidum.

Q. Name the parts which are generally considered as
the contents of the lateral ventricles. — A. They are
the corpora striata, the hippocampi, jjlexus choroides,
fornix, and the thalami nervorum ojiticorum.

Q. What is the situation and form of the corpora
striata? — A. They are found on the lower and back
parts of the ventricles, projecting into the centre of
the cavities, where they expand as they approach the
septum ; grow narrower and recede from each other
above; below, they extend to the anterior cornua.

raPPOCAMPI.

Q. What is the situation of the hippocampi ? — A.
They occupy the superior spaces of the ventricles in
contact with the septum.

Q. From whence do they originate ? — A. From the
centres of the hemispheres.

Q. What is their structure? — A. They consist of
alternate lamina; of medullary and cortical matter.

PLEXUS CHOROIDES.

Q. What is the situation of the plexus choroides ? —
A. They are situated in the channel between the
corpus striatum and hippocampus.

Q. Describe the appearance of the same ? — A. It is
a soft vascular substance, consisting of a plexus of
minute blood-vessels ; it makes its appearance from
behind the fornix, and ends abruptly in a round bulbous
mass.

FORNIX.

Q. Describe the fornix and its situation ? — A. The
fornix is that part wliich receives the posterior border
of the septum lucidum. It is extended after the
manner of an arch, between the corpora stratia below
and the heads of the hippocampi above, where it forms
a junction with the corpus callosum.

Q. Describe the processes or crura of the fornix ? —
A. The two inferior crura spring from the corpus
albicantium, at the base of the brain, and finally unite ;
thus united, they appear within the ventricles and con-
stitute the body of the fornix. The superior crura
proceed from the upper end of the fornix, and descend
into the superior cornua of the lateral ventricles, and
end in sharp, pointed extremities.

THALAMLA.

Q. What is the situation of the thalamia nervorum
opticorum? — A. They form the upper and back parts
of the lateral ventricles.

Q. Describe the thalamia. — ..-l. They have a wliite

THE HORSE.

179

apjiearance, ponoiil in form, narrow and approximated
infcriorly; broad sii|)eriorly ; they finally contract into
medullary bands, the tractus o])tici, which turn round
the crura cerebri to the base of the brain.

Q. How are the thalami distinguished from the
corpora striata? — .'1. They are more dense and firmer
in composition.

T.EXIA.

Q. What is the situation of the t;enia? — A. They
are located in the groove between the thalamus and
corpus striatum, partly covered by the plexus choroides.

COMMISUEES.

Q. Xame the commisures of the brain. — ^4. 1st,
commissm'a mollis; 2d, commisura inferior cerebri;
3d, commisura superior cerebri.

Q. How is the commisura mollis formed? — A. By
contiguous parts of the thalami, which are united by
cortical matter.

Q. How is the commisura inferior cerebri formed ?
— By a connection between the hemispheres of the
brain.

Q. "Where is the superior commissure located ? — A.
Above the commissura mollis ; it has the a))i)earance of
a short medullary chord.

Q. What is the foramen? — -rl. It is a triangular
depression under the arch of the fornix, into which the
lateral ventricles open.

VENTRICLES.
ll!emar];s. — Ha\ing put the usual questions regarding
the lateral ventricles, which may be numbered 1 and
2, we now come to the third ventricle, which is not so
well marked as in the human subject.]

XniRD VENTRICLE.

Q. How is the third ventricle formed? — A. By a
mere fissure existing between the thalami.

[Remarks. — The fourth ventricle, being located in
the cerebellum, will be considered under this head.]

IXFU.NDIBn.UM.

Q. Where is the inftindibulum located ? — A. At the
inferior part of the third ventricle.

PINEAL GL.VXD.

Q. VTbere is the pineal gland located ? — A. Be-
tween the summits of the thalami, over the third
ventricle, and above and before the superior com-
missure.

Q. Describe the pineal gland. — A. It is a small
conoid bod)-, of grayish color, marked by a sUght
de])rcssion along its centre.

Q. AVhat are its attachments? — A. It is attached
by means of the pia mater to the thalamia and tuber-
cula quadragemina.

Q. What is the internal structure of the pineal
gland ? — .4. It consists of cortical and granular
matter.

NATES AND TESTES.

Q. Where are the nates and testes situated? — A.
Above the third ventricle, beliind the pineal gland, and
immediately over and within the third and fourth ven-
tricles.

Q. How do the nates differ from the testes? — A.
The former are larger than the latter, and are separated
by a groove from the testes, and by a deep perpendicular
fissui'e from each other.

Q. AVhat is their form? — A. Semi-oval.

Q. What is their composition ? — A. They are com-
posed of cineritous and medullary matter.

CEREBELLUM.

Q. AVhat is the situation of the cerebellum ? — A. In
the inferior and posterior parts of the cranium.

Q. How does the cerebellum compare in size with
the cerebrum? — A. The former is only about one-
sixth the volume of the latter.

Q. Describe the appearance of the cerebellum ? — A.
Its surface is lobular and convoluted ; its form is
irregular, haring two oval ends placed transversely,
united in the centre by a broad vermiform belt ; its
lateral dimensions exceed its longitudinal.

Q. How is the cerebellum divided? — A. Into three
lobes, a central and two lateral.

Q. How does the composition of the cerebellum
diflfer from that of the cerebrum ? — A. In the former
the cortical substance exceeds the medullary, and,
instead of forming the bulk of the outer parts, as is
the case in the cerebrum, it pervades the inner.

FOLTtTH VENTRICLE.

Q. What is the situation of the fourth ventricle ? —
A. It is situated between the cerebellum, tuber aimu-
lare, and medulla oblongata.

Q. Where is the choroid plexus of the cerebellum
situated? — A. Within and across the posterior part
of the fourth ventricle, between the cerebellum and
medulla oblongata.

Q. How is the choroid plexus of the cerebellum dis-
tributed?— A. It is distributed into three divisions:
one hes in the middle of the calamus ; the two latter
are found within fissures in the cerebellum, occupying
the spaces between it and the tuber annulare.

BASE OF TIIE BRAIN.

Q. How is the base or posterior part of the cerebrum
divided? — A. It is di\ided into six lobes.

Q. Describe their dirisions. — A. There are two
anterior or inferior, resting upon the wings of the
ethmoid bone; two middle, upon those of the sphenoid;
and two sujjerior or posterior, lodged in the fossa of the
squamous portions of the temporal bones.

Q. What name is given to two broad, smooth promi-
nences which appear over the middle lobes at the base
of the brain ? — A. These are the corpora striata.

Q. What nerves originate from this vicinity? — A.
The olfactory nerves.

180 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSfc.

Q. What lobes rest on the wings of the sphenoid \ Q. AVhat is the situation of the crura cerebelli ? — A-
bone ? — A. The crura cerebri. I They are located higher up and in a more outward

Q. From whence do they arise ? — A. From the in- 1 direction tluin the crura cerebri,
ferior and middle lobes of the cerebrum, and are con- ' Q. Describe the crura cerebelli. — A. They are two
tinued into an ovoid ])rntuberance above them, named cylindroid, medidlary chords, which join the lateral
tuber annulare. lobes of the cerebellum to the tuber annulare.

Q. A\''hat is observable between the crura cerebri ? Q. '\\''hat does the tuber annulare rest upon ? — A.
— A. A small hemis])herical medullary eminence. On the cuneiform process of the posterior occipital
called cor])us albicantium. bone.

Q. AVherc are the tractuso]itici situated ? — A. They Q. Where are the foruminae ca?ca situated? — A.
wind obliipiely downwai-d around the crui-a. : Above and below the tuber.

y. Where do they proceed from.' — A. From the Q. 'What is their appearance? — A. They are
terminations of the ihalamia. , described as little, round depressions, or blind holes.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XVIII.

[PROM BlAI^E■s " OUTUNES."]

THE HEAD.

A. The skull, face, and upper jaw, in one jiiece.
7?. Lower jaw.

0. Incisor teeth.
h. Tushes. '*'

c. Molares, or grindcr.s.

d. I'eak formed by the extremities of the nasal bones.

c. Zvftomalic spine, to the bottom of which the masseter takes its origin.

/. Orbit.

(/. Cavity above the orbital arch.

■/(. Pole.'

('. Zygomatic arch.

j,j. iStyloid jirocesses for the attaelunent of the muscles.

k. Joint formed by the upper and loi\er jaws.

1. Meatus auditorius, or opening to the uiternal ear.

THE NECK.

C, C. Mai'ks the extent of the cervical vcrtebne.

D. Dentata.
1)1. .\tlas.

II. Wingf uf the atlas.

0, Lar^e superior spine of the dentata.
p. Body of the dentata.

(/. Inferior spine of the dentata.

s, s, s, ,1, .1. Su])erior spines of the fi\e remaining cervical vertebrae.

)•, r, i; r, r. Oblique ju'ocesses of the five last cervical vertebra!.

II, n, It, II, II. Transverse jirocesses of the same bones.

i, t, I, t, I. Inferior spines of the five last cervical veteljrcp.

THE 'nioR.\x.

V, V. Caviniform jiro. -ss of the sternum.

w, IV, «', ic, ic, w, w. C'ostae or true ribs.

V< V' y< V^ l/i .'/• .'/> .'/i 2/i .'/• Kibs as distinguished from the costir.

X, re, .r, a-, a; x, x, x, x. Cartilages by means of whidi the ribs are attaclied to the sieriuim.

z, z, z, z, z, z, z. Heads of the ribs.

1, 1, 1, 1, 1. Superior sjiines of the first five dorsal vertebne, tlie fifth being generally the longest sniue in the

body.

2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2. Superior spines from the sixth to the thirteenth, towards which the)- slope downward;

the thirteenth is generally the most u]night spine in the dorsal region.

3, 3, 3, 3, 3. Last five of the superior of the back spines, which have an inclination forward.

THE LOINS, OR LUMBAR KEGION.

4, 4, 4, 4. 4, 4. Superior spines of the lumbar region, thicker than the dorsal spines, and having a decided in-

cliniuion forward.
o, o, o, 5. Projecting transverse processes of the loins.

THi; SACRUM.

6, G, G, G, 6. Superior spuies of the sacrimi leaning decidedly backward, thus leavmg a large sjiace between the
points of the last lumbar and the first sacral spine, at which place occms tlie great hinge of the back.
8, 8, 8, 8. Bodies of the sacral vertebne.

', '< ', ', ', ', ', ', I

. Coccygeal bones.

^.'o

Tin; TAIL.

THE PliLVLS.

E. Ossa innominata, consisting of three bones ujion each side.

(/. Ilium.

6. Pubis.

c. Ischium : the three bones unite at the cavity which receives the head of the thigh lione.

9, 9. 'J'he inferior spines of the ilium.

10. Su])erior spine, wliich partly covers the first sacral spine.
c, (.'. Ischiatic spines.

EXPLANATION OK FIGURE XVIII. CONTINUKD.
THE TIIICII AXD STIFLE JOINT.

/', F. Femurs.

d. Hound head of the bone.

e. Short neck of t)io femur.
/'. Great trochanter.

</. Small external trochanter.

h. Small internal trochanter.

»', I. Sulcus whence the gastrocnemii muscles originate.

J, J. Posterior condyles of the femur.

k, /,-. Anterior trochlea o\er which the ])atella glides.

(J, G. Patellas : the inferarticidar cartilages of the stifle joint, as well as the cartilages tipping the dorsal

lumbar sacral spines, and the su])erior margin of the blade bone or scapula, are necessarily omitted in

this delmeation, wliich is admirably drawn from a macerated skeleton.

THE TIBI.A .\XD FinUL.\, OU LEG BOXES, .VXD THE HOCK JOINT.

// //. 'I'ibias.

/, /. Heads of the bones.

m, VI. Fibulas.

»i, n. Inferior head of the tibia.

/, /. llock joirif.

0, 0. Astragalus.

J), p. Calfis forming the point of the hock.

THE rOSTERIOR SHAXK BOXES.

A', K. Canons, metatarsals, or shank bones.
},, L. Sjilint bones.

THE BOXES OF THE PASTERXS, AXD FEET, OF THE POSTERIOB LIMBS.

M, M. Sessamoids.
h, N. Large pastern bone.
O, 0. Smaller jiastern bone.
p, ]>■ I'edal bones.

BOXES OF THE AXTERIOR EXTREMITY.

Q. Scapula or blade bone.

(/. Su]>erior margin whence the cartilage has been removed.

b. Spine of the sca])ula.

c. Anterior fo.ssa of the scapula.

d. Posterior fossa.

e. Shallow cuji which receives the head of tlie humerus : the cartilage, which is situated aromid the margin

of this cu]), and wliich serves to deepen it, has been destrojed by maceration.
/. Tuberosity terminating the spine of the scapula, whence the flc.\or brachii originates.
Jl. Humerus or arm bone.
</. Head of the bone.

//. Smooth cartilaginous and synovial pulley over which the tendon of the flexor brachii plays.
1. l'"xternal trochanter of the humerus.
,/. Inferior liead of the liumerus.
k. Pit into which the ulna is received.
S, 8. Ulna, the top of which is termed the olecranon.
T, T. ]{adius.
I. Head of the bone.
VI. Inferior liead of the !)one.

U, U. Carpus or knee joint, consisting of two rows of bones.
n. Trapezium, which gives security to the great liexors, and attachment to several of the lessor flexors of the

fore leg.
.V, v. Canon or shank bone.

o, 0. Head of the bone receiving the lower row of the bones of the knee.
W, W. S])lint bones.
]). Inferior head of the canon bone.
X, X. Sessamoid bones.
Y, y. Large pastern bone.
/, Z. Small jjastern bones.
J'. Pedal or cofhn bone.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE LYMPHATICS.

' Mr. Percivall remarks, in his lectures, ]
that " no English veterinarian has, up to
the present day (1820), been at the pains
to demonstrate, practically, the particular
distribution of the absorbing vessels of the
horse. Professor Girard, whose ' Traite
d' Anatomic Veterinaire ' does no less credit
to the talent and industry of its author than
honor to the veterinary school over which
he presides, has presented us with an arti-
cle on the ramification of the lymphatics,
which I shall translate.

" THE THORACIC DDCT.

" The largest, longest, and most remark-
able of the lymphatic vessels, in which
terminate the majority of the lymphatics
of the body, is situated \\'ithin the thorax,
on the right side of the dorsal vertebrae, be-
tween the aorta and vena azygos: it re-
ceives the lymphatics from the posterior
extremity', pelvis, parietes, and viscera of
the abdomen, head, neck, v/ithers, and left
anterior extremity.

" It takes its origin under the loins, in a
dilation or sinus situated at the root of the
great mesenteric artery, and is named the
receptaculum cliyli : it directs its course
foru'ard, enters the thoracic cavity by the
aortic perforation tlu'ough the diaphragm,
extends along the bodies of the dorsal ver-
tebra, until it arrives opposite the base of
the heart, where it curves downward to
cross over to the left side in its way to the
anterior opeuuig of the thorax ; as it leaves
the spine for this purpose, it runs over the
trachea and esophagus ; having reached
(he left side, it stretches forward to the
beginning of the anterior vena cava, and
terminates in the base of the left axillary
vein. Not unijequently, it ends in the right
axiUarj; in some instances, even in the be-

ginning of the anterior cava. At its terrrii-
nation, it dilates and forms a sinus, whose
mouth opens into the vein, is guarded by a
broad valve, so disposed as to prevent any
reflux of blood into the duct.* It has also
a ligamentous band around it, at this part,
which confines it to the vein receiving its
contents.

"the RECEPTACnLUM CHYLI..^

"This reservoir forms the point of general
confluence of all the lymphatics of the pos-
terior limbs and abdomen, and from which
originates the thoracic duct. It is main-
tained by the aorta on one side, the vena
cava posterior on the other, and is formed
by the union of five or six large lymphatics,
of which two or tliree .come from the en-
trance of the pelvis, two or three others
from the mesentery, a single one from the
environs of the stomach and liver."

The Professor here makes a classification
of the lymphatics jof the bodjr.

LYMPHATICS DISCHARGING THEIR CONTENTS
iNTO THE ABDOMINAL PORTION OF THE
THORACIC DUCT.

" 1. Lymphadcs of the Posterior Extremi'
ties. — These are distinguishable into the
superficial and deep-seated. The first origi-
nate from the skin and subcutaneous cel-
lular tissue. They form divers ramifica-
tions, which accompany the snjierficial
veins ; of which the most remarkable at-
tend the vena saphena major, frequently
anastomosing with one another, and form-
ing an anastomotic network. All these
lymphatics run to the subcutancou.s ingui-

* NetTTithstanding this valve, blood often gains admis-
sion into the canal ; this is obsen'able in all cases of vio-
lent death, or in which struggles and convulsions attend
expiration.

t Percivall's Lectures.

(ISli

182

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF

nal glands, which are lodged npon the
superior and anterior part of the thigli.

" The deep-seated lymphatics take their
rise from the foot, ascend along with the
plantar veins, continue upward among the
muscles, in company with the deep-seated
veins, corresponding in their principal di-
visions to those vessels, and proceed to the
inguinal glands.

"All the lymphatics of the posterior
limbs assemble at these glands, and here
form a plexus, from which several large
branches depart and traverse the iliac
glands, clinging to the sides of the iliac
vessels, and discharge their contents into
the pelvic branch, contributing to the recop-
taculum cliyli.

" 2. Lymphatics of the Pelvis. — The
vessels coming from (his cavity run in
part 1o the inguinal glands, and in part
to the internal pelvic glands. The su-
perficial lymi)hatics about the pubes and
Iho outlet of the pelvis run and join those
of the extremities; those of the perineum
and anus enter the cavity, and are accom-
panied by those coming from the croup and
tail, both proceeding to the glands within
the interior of the pelvis. All the deep-
seated lymphatics accomjiany the veins,
make for the pelvic glands, form union with
the others, and run and empty themselves
into the main pelvic branch, wherein their
lymph mixes with that coming from the in-
guinal glands.

" The lymphatics of the urinary and
genital organs, included in the pelvic cavity,
also traverse the glands lodged therein, and
unite with those of the parietes of the pel-
vis. Those of the scrotum enter Ihe in-
guinal glands, as also do those belonging
to the sheath and penis. The ramifications
derived from the testicle and spermatic
cord take the course of the veins, and pene-
trate one or two of the lumbar glands
lodged at the entrance of the pelvis. The
lymphatics of the mammae, which are also
divisible into superficial and deep-seated,
run to the inguinal glands, and anastomose
with the superficial set belonging to the in-
ferior parietes of (he abdomen ; but, before

they reach these last glands, they pervade
those of the mammae.

" 3. Lympliatics of the Parietes of the Ab-
domen. — These vessels, in general but little
developed, for the most part run to the in-
guinal glands. The superficial set of the
lower parietes accompany the cutaneous
inguinal vein, anastomose with the lympha-
tics of the scrotum and mammae, and tra-
verse the glands in the groin : some of them
direct their course forward, along with the
cutaneous external thoracic veins of the
thorax, unite with the superficial lymphatics
of that part, and proceed to the axillary
glands. The deep-seated vessels of the
belly run in company with the epigastric
vein, and go to the inguinal glands, or else
they accompany the pectoral vein, and per-
vade the glands in front of the thorax.

" The superficial or subcutaneous lym-
])hafics of tiic loins join either those of the
croup or those of the flanks : the deep-
seated, which spring from the peritoneum,
muscles, or spinal canal, perforate one of
the lumbar glands, and pass onward to ter-
minate in the main pelvic branch.

"4. Absorbents of the Mesentery. — The
mesenteric branches, ordinarily two or
three in number, the most considerable
of which is constantly united to the great
mesenteric artery, receive all the vessels
continued from the mesenteric glands, as
well as those coming from the mesentery
and intestines.

" The mesenteric absorbents, extremely
numerous, are sustained between the layers
of the mesentery, where they form a vascu-
lar network ; many of them issue from the
exhalent surface of the mesentery and in-
testinal tube ; others take their rise from
the interior of the intestines, from which
they imbibe chyle. All these vessels con-
verge towards the lymphatic reservoir,
clinging in their passage around the mesen-
teric veins ; some, however, taking a solitary
course at a greater or less distance from any
blood-vessel. Having arrived at the root of
the mesentery, they pass through one or
two, sometimes three, of the mesenteric
glands, and afterwards join the principal

TOE HORSE.

183

lumbar lymphatics. The absorbents of the
colon and caecum caput coll run to the
glands set at intervals along the intestinal
tube, whence they proceed to the rccepta-
culum chyli.

" 0. Lymphatics of the Liver, Stomach,
Spleen, and Omentum. — The hepatic trunk
comprises the lymphatics issuing from the
above viscera. This branch of the recepta-
culum chyli not uncommonly consists of
two divisions, and receives in addition to the
above-mentioned vessels many ramifications
from the crura of the diaphragm.

" The lymphatics of the pancreas, like
the above, also run with the divisions of
its veins, and join either those of the liver
or those of the spleen : some proceed di-
rectly to the common hepatic trunk.

" II. KAiMIFICATIONS TERMINATING IN THE
THORACIC PORTION OF THE MAIN COMMON
DUCT.

"1. Lymphatics of the Parietes of the
Thorax. — The superficial absorbents of
the chest take their rise either from the sur-
face of the skin or else from the subcuta-
neous muscles ; they form several large
branches which accompany the thoracic
cutaneous vein, unite with the superficial
lymphatics coming from the anterior parie-
tes of the abdomen, and proceed to the
axillary glands.

" The deep-seated set take divers direc-
tions, and pass through the different sets of
glands. The pectoral, which anastomose
""ita ramifications from the abdomen, fol-
low the pectoral vein, and reach one or two
glands at the entrance of the chest. The
intercostal spring from the pleura and in-
tercostal muscles, accompany the intercos-
tal veins, pervade the internal dorsal glands,
and terminate by several branches in the
thoracic duct.

" The lymphatics of the fleshy part of
the diaphragm unite, some with the poste-
rior intercostal, others with pectoral ; those
coming from the crura run to the dorsal
glands, where they anastomose with the
intercostal : those from the cordiform ten-
don anastomose with the deep hepatic, run

forward between the layers of mediasti-
num, nearly to the heart, and enter the car-
diac glands.

" 2. Lymphatics of the Thoracic Viscera.
— The absorbents of the different organs
contained within the thorax traverse one or
several of the bronchial or cardiac glands,
and afterwards form divers branches, which
end in the thoracic duct. The pulmonary
lymphatics, very numerous, are distin-
guished into superficial and deep-seated.
The first take their rise from the surface of
the lungs, creep along under their envelop-
ing membrane, and make for one or more
of the bronchial glands. The deep set,
which originate from the air-cells and from
the parenchymatous tissue, follow the di-
visions of the pulmonary veins, run to the
roots of the bronchise ; there unite with
the superficial, and perforate one or two of
the bronchial glands.

" The cardiac lymphatics derive their
origin either from the surfaces (both exte-
rior and interior) of the heart, or from the
muscular substance of the organ ; they
mount upon the curvature of the posterior
aorta, and disappear in the cardiac glands.

" The lymphatics of the superior part of
the mediastinum, ai.d oi the cesophagus,
join, some the intercostal, and others the
bronchial ; those coming from the anterior
part of this membranous partition, from
the thymus, trachea, and oesophagus, unite,
either with the pectoral, or close with the
cardiac and anterior intercostal.

" 3. Lymphatics of the Head. — The
lymphatics of the head form two planes,
a superficial and a deep one. The super-
ficial pursue the course of tiie cutaneous
veins, and run in part to the sublingual
and gutteral glands. The deep vessels,
which come from the nostrils, fauces, palate,
etc., also run to the gutteral and sublingual,
in which they unite with the superficial.
From these two groups of glands, through
which pass the lymphatics of the head, de-
part several large branches, two or three of
which descend upon the anterior face of the
trachea; others follow the course of the
deep-seated and cutaneous veins, unite with

ISi

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HORSE.

those of the neck, and descend to the front
of the chest. Almost all these vessels ter-
minate in the thoracic duct ; some few
alone, on the right side, ending in the right
axillary trunk.

" 4. Lijmphatics of the Left Fore Extrem-
iljj. — The lymphatics of this member present
the same disposition as those of the poste-
rior limbs, and are divided into superficial
and deep-seated. The former, consisting
of diverse rainifications, accompany the
superficial veins ; the more considerable of
them forming a plexus, which accompanies
the cutaneous (superficial brachial) vein
of the limb. The deep vessels originate
from the foot, muscles, and bones, pursue
the divisions of the deep veins, and plunge

into the axillary glands, wherein they unite
with the superficial, and whence they ex-
tend to the thoracic duct.

" The Right terminating- Trunk of the
Lymphatics. — This very short lymphatic
canal is obliquely situated at the entrance
of the thorax, upon the transverse process of
the last vertebra; of the neck, extending in
a direction from above downward, and from
without inward, and tenninating most; com-
monly in the right axillary vein ; though, in
some instances, it joins the thoracic duct.
This trunk is formed by the lymphatics
coming from the right axillary glands, and
some from the right lung, and right side of
the neck and trachea."

(See Appendix.)

EXAMINATIONS ON THE. PHYSIOLOGY OF THE LY5IPHATICS.

Q. WTiat is the character of the fluid found in the
^Ttiphatics? — A. It resembles dilute, liquor sanguinis,
or the liquid portion of the blood in -srhlch the cor-
puscles float.

Q. AVhat finally becomes of the lymphatic fluid ? —
A. It was formerly supposed that the lymphatic fluid
was elimmated from the system; but Carpenter and
other physiologists now contend that this is not the
case ; that the same is poured into the common recep-
ticle with the nutrient materials newly imbibed fi'om
the food, whence both are propelled together into the
general current of the circulation ; and thus, instead of
being eliminated, the Ijinphatic fluid is employed in the
formation of new tissues.

Q. From whence is the IjTnphatic fluid derived ? —
-4. 1st, from the residual fluid, which, having escaped
from the blood-vessels into the tissues, has furnished the

latter with the materials of their nutrition, and is now
to be returned to the current of the circulation. 2d,
from the particles of the solid fralneMS'Oik which have
lost their \'ital powers, and are therefore unfit to be
retained as components of the H^^^g system; they
therefore reenter the circulation, to be agam sabmftted
to the assimulatlng process, so that nothing shall be
lost.

Q. By what process do fluids enter the cutaneous
IjTnphatics ? — A. By a process of imbibation.

Q. What fluid is more readily absorbed than some
others? — ^. Milli.

Q. What authority have you for this ? — A. Schoeger,
in the course of liis experiments, found that the lympha-
tics of a hmb, long immersed in milk, became tinged
with it, M'hile none of it could be detected in blood
draira &om the veins.

§lmnx^ d '^tmluxd €tt\\mMts.

(185)

A GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.

Abdomen. — The posterior part of the body of the horse.

AhJomiiuiIis. — Pertaining to the abdomen.

Abdoiiiiintl Regions. — The divisions of the exterior of
the abdomen.

Abductor. — Muscles arc named oWucfoc.s- wliitli draw-
parts from tlie a.xis of the body, or given centres.

Abnormal. — Unnatural, irregular.

Accelerator. — A nniscic of the penis.

Acetabulum. — A name given to the cavity in which the
head of the thigh bone articulates.

Achillis Tendo. — The tendon of the nuiscle inserted
into the heel of man.

Acuniinated. — I'oiuted, like a needle.

Adductor. — Muscles which draw (larts tow ard the axis
of the body.

AdijHise. — Fatty matter.

Adventitious. — Accidental.

Afferent. — A term used to designate tlie structures
which convey fluids to difterent parts.

.U(F. — Wings.

Albumen. — An element which constitutes the chief part
of the white of an egg.

Allmentari/ Canal. — Tlie passage which commences in
the a'sopluigus and ends in the anus.

Alveolus. — The bony sockets of the teeth.

Anal. — Kelating to the anus.

Anatomi/. — To cut, with a view of displaying the struc-
ture, relations, and uses of parts.

Animus. — The principle of vitality.

Annular. — A ring-like ligament, found at the posterior
part of the knee of the horse.

Antniioulst. — A term applied to counteracting muscles
or tendons.

Anterior. — A term applied to what may be situated
before another part of the same kind.

Anii. — A prefix, signifying against.

Antilabium. — Against the lips.

Antrum. — Cavity in bones.

Anus. — The posterior extremity of the rectum.

Aorta. — The largest artery of the body.

Aortic. — Pertaining to the aorta.

Apex. — The pointed end of an organ.

Aponeurosis. — A tendinous expansion of fibre.

Arachnoid. — A membrane of the brain.

Arch of the Colon. — Transverse portion of that intestine.

Areola. — The spaces between fibres com|)Osing an
organ.

Arterial. — A property belonging to arteries.

Arlenalization. — The change which occurs in venous
blood when brought in contact with air in tli« lungs.

Arleri/. — The name of blood-vcs?ols whirli distriliutc
arterial blood.

Articular. — Belonging, or relating, to joints.

Articulation. — {From articulus.) A joint.

A.i/terili/. — A roughness.

Astraijalus. — The bone beneath the os caleis.

Alias. — The anterior bone of the neck.

Attollens. — A name given to muscles which lift, or raise,
the parts.

Amlitonj. — Muscles and parts connected with the ear.

Auricular. — Kelating to the ear.

Auricles. — The anterior cavities of the heart.

Axilla. — The part between the superior region of the
arm and the chest.

Biceps. — (From, bis — twice, and ca]mt — ahead; two
heads.) The term is ajiplicd to muscles, having two
distinct heads, or origins.

Bifurcate. — (Bifurcas ; from bis, twice, and furca, a
fork). A blood-vessel or muscle is said to bifurcate when
it divides into two branches.

Biliary. -litihithig to the bile.

Brachial. — Of, or 'belonging, to the .inn.

Bronclike. — Bifurcations of the windpipe.

Bronchial. — Kelatiiig to the bronchia".

Buccal. — (From bucca, the cheek.) Belonging to the
cheek.

Buccinator. — A muscle of the cheek.

Bulb. — A dilated portion of the tube at the base of the
jienis.

Bursa'. — Sacs, or bags.

Bur.i(e Mucosce. — Sacs found in the region of joints.

Bur^l. — Kelating to bursa;.

I Cacum — The blind gut.

Circ<il. — Pertaining to the caecum.

Caleis Os. — The prominent bone of the hock.

Cancilli. — Cellular structure of bones.

Canine Teeth. — The eyetccth, ciispidati.

Caullius. — The angle of the eve.

Capillary. — Hair-like vessels which are found between
the arterial and venous vessels.

Capsule. — A membranous sac.

Capsular. — A term applied to ligaments whii-li surround
articulations.

Caput. — The head.

Cardia. — The heart.

Cardiac. — Pertaining to the heart.

Carotid. — The name of the jirincipal arteries of the
neck.

Carfins. — The bones of the knee.

Caruncle. — A small lleshy excrescence.

Caruncuhr fxn-ri/malis. — Small flcsjiy bodies fonnd in
the angle of the eye.

(197)

188

GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.

Cauila. — The tail.

Cava. — The largest vein in the body of the horse.

Cavity. — A hollow part; the abdominal cavity, for
example.

Cellular. — Composed of cells.

Centrum Ovale. — The appearance of tlie brain, when a
horizontal section is made on a level witli the corpus cal-
losum.

Centrum Tendinosum. — Tendinous centre of the dia-
phragm.

Cej>hul!c. — Pertaining to the head.

Cenhellum. — Inferior lube of the brain.

Cerebrum. — Superior lobe of the brain.

Cerebral. — Relating to the brain.

Cerebro-siiinal. — Pertaining to both tlie brain and spinal
cord.

Cervical. — Pertaining to the neck.

Cervix. — The neck or contracted portion of an organ.

Choree Teiullna. — Part of the internal structure of the
heart.

Choroid. — The inner tunic of the eye.

Cht/le. — A fluid found in the thoracic duct and lacteals.

Chijme. — A name given to the food after it has passed
the pylorus.

Cilia. — The eyelids, hair of the same, etc.

Cineritious. — A term applied to that part of the brain
wliich is of an ash color.

Clrculus. — A ring.

Clitoris. — A part of the pudendum of tlie mare corres-
ponding to the glans penis of the horse.

Cocci/T. — The bones of tlic tail.

Cochlea. — Tlie spiral cavity of the car.

Cacum. — (Sometimes spelt caicum.) The blind gut.

Cccliac. — Prolongation of tlie solar plexus, an artery
and vein of the abdomen.

Colon. — The largest and most dilated portion of the
intestines.

Culumnce Carme. — A muscular arrangement within the
cavity of the heart. ,

Commisure. — A suture, junction, or joint.

Comjilcxus. — To embrace or surround.

Concha. — External cavity of the car.

Conduit. — A canal.

Condi/le. — An irregular process or enlargement.

Coiuli/lold. — A tubercle, wart-like.

Coni/lobate. — Pall-sliape.

Coni/lomcratc. — An assemblage of glands.

Conjunetivia. — L.xternal coat of tlic eyeball, and inter-
nal lining of the eyelids.

Conoid. — Cone-like.

Constrictor. — Muscles tliat arc-bound together arc tlius
named. The ofTice is to close an outlet.

Contlnuiti/. — Identity of parts, having direct connection.

Convolute. — Rolled up.

Coracoid. — Like a crow's beak; a process of tlie
scapula.

Cornea. — Anterior coat of tlie eve.

Cornu. — A horn.

Corona. — A crown, tlie superior paitcrn is tlius named:
OS coron;c.

Coronal Suture. — The uniting medium between tlie
frontal and parietal bones.

Coronary. — Arteries and veins, jirojjer to the lieart, arc
thus named

Coronotd. — Processes of bones are thus named when
they form an eminence.

Corpora. — A term applied to numerous prominences in
the brain and elsewhere.

Corpus. — A body.

Corpora Striata. — Striped eminences in the brain.

Corpuscle. — A minute body.

Corrurjator. — A muscle wiiich wrinkles the surrounding
parts.

Cortical. — Resembling bark.

Costa. — A rib.

Costal. — Pertaining to the region of the ribs.

Costalis Pleura. — That portion of tlie plem'a which
lines tlio interior of the cliest.

Cotyloid. — Cuji-sliaped.

Cranium. — The skull.

Crassanientum. — The clot, or red globules, of the blood.

Crcmaster. — A muscle of the testicle.

Crest of the Ilmm. — The anterior, superior parts of the
pelvis.

Cricoid. — Ring-like.

Crista. — A ci'cst.

Ciurial. — In the form of a cross.
V Crural. — Belonging to the thigli.

Crystalloid. — Resembling a crystal.

Cuboides. — One of tlie bones of the knee, which resem-
liles a cube, or die.

Cuncifornie. — A bone of the knee, in form resembling a
wedge.

Cuspidata. — The tushes of the horse arc thus named.

Cutaneous. — Belonging to the skin.

Cuticle. — The scarf skin.

Cyst. — A bladder or sac.
D.

Dartos. — A name given to the muscle which cormgatcs
the scrotum.

Deferens. — The excretory canal of the testes.

Dentatus. — A tootb-like process on the second cervical
vertebra.

Lkntes Incisors. — The twelve front teeth of the Iiorse.

Dentes Molurcs. — The twenty-four grinders.

Depressor. — A muscle is so named when it depresses
the part on which it acts.

Diaphragm. — The muscle which separates the thora.>c
from the abdomen.

Diastole. — Periodic dilation of the heart.

Dilator. — A name given to muscles whicli dilate certaia
parts.

Dlploe. — The cellular structure, which separates bony
tablets.

Diverticulum. — A blind tube, diverging from the course
of a larger one.

Dorsal. — Pertaining to the back.

Ducts. — Orifices of various canals.

Ductus. — A canal for conveying fluids.

Duplicate. — Doubled.

Dupllcature. — Reflection of a membrane upon itself.

Dura Mater. — The outermost tunie of the brain.

Effivent. — Vessels are thns nnincil whicli con^■ey fluids
from gland-'.

Ehrator. — A muscle is so called when it lifis or elevates
tiic parts to which it is attached.

GLOSSARY OP VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.

189

Enc'phalon. — The brain.

Ensiform. — Sword-like.

Ephlidijmis. — An .ippendage to the testicle.

Epigastrium. — Ec^'ion of the stomach.

Epii/lolti.i. — Canilajje at the root of the tongue.

Epi;)h;/sis. — A union of bones by means of cartilage.

Ejiithelium. — A transparent membrane covering various
internal parts.

Erector. — A name given to certain muscles, which raise
or erect the parts.

Eroded. — Rough and jagged.

Esopliayus. — The gullet.

EtJimoid. — Sieve-like.

Bxilo-Motarij. — The trae spinal neiTes.

Excretorif. — Vessels and ducts are thus named ivhicli
discharge fluids.

Erpiration. — The act of expelling air from the Umgs.

Extensor. — To stretch out; a name given to several
muscles and tendons.

Extremity. — The end.

Facial. — Belonging to the face.

Falciform. — Scythe-shaped.

Fall. — The scythe process of the dura mater.

Fascia. — The tendinous expansion of muscles.

Fascicular. — Fibres arranged in bnndles.

Fauces. — Posterior part of the mouth.

Femoral. — Of, or belonging to, the thigh.

Fenestra. — Part of the internal car.

Fibre. — A thread or filament.

Fib7'ous. — Composed of fibres.

Fibula. — A small bone attached to the lateral part of
the tibia of the horse.

Filament. — A minute fibre.

Filijerm. — Thread-like.

Fimbria. — A fringe.

Fissui-c. — A crack or groove.

Flarus. — Yellow.

Flexor. — A name given to numerous muscles and ten-
dons which bend the limbs.

Foliatus. — Leaf-form.

Follicle. — A minute sac or bag.

Foramen. — An opeuing.

Fornix. — Arch or vault; one of the structures of the
brain.

Fossa. — A sliallow cavity or depression.

Frainum. — A ligament which restrains motion.

Frontal. — Belonging to the anterior part of tlie cranium.

Function. — Any action by which vital phenomena are
produced.

Fundus. — The base or bottom.

Funis. — The umbilical cord.

Ganglion. — A knot or enlarp^ment in the course of a
nerve.

Gastric. — Pertaining to the stomach.

Gastric Juice. — A secretion, peculiar to the walls of the
stomach.

Gastrocnemii. — The tendinous portion of muscles in-
serted into the os calcis, or point of the hock, arc tlius
named.

Gemini. — Twins: two organs precisely alike are thus
earned.

Gestation. — Pregnancy.

Gland. — An organ of seeretion.

Glandula. — A small gland.

Glandular. — Kesembling a gland.

Glenoid. — The name of articulating cavities.

Glissons Capsule. — The fibrous envelope of the liver.

Globate. — Globe-like.

Globulis. — Ucd particles of the blood.

Globuline. — Albuminous constituent of the blood.

Glomerate. — Congregated.

Glossa. — The tongue.

Glottis. — Upper opening into the windpipe.

Gluteal. — Belonging to the haunch.

Gracilis. — A muscle on the inner part of the thigh.

Granule. — A small grain.

Gutteral. — Belonging to the throat.

Hepatic. — Belonging to the llvei:.

Hiatus. — An aperture or foramen.

Hippo. — A horse ; a prefix.

Hipjwcampus. — Two eminences in the lateral ventricles
of the brain.

Homo. — A prefix designating similarity.

Humerus. — The bone beneath the shoulder blade.

Hi/o. — Names compounded with this prefix relate to
muscles situated near the root of the tongue.

Hi/oidcs. — Bone at the root of the tongue.

Ili/pocliondrium. — A region of the abdomen.

Hiipoqastric. — Eclating to the h\-pogastric region of tlus
abdomen.

I, J.

Peo. — A prefijc, the ilerim or bone of the pelvis.

Ileum. — A portion of the intestinal tube.

Iliac. — Eegionof the flanks.

Incisors. — The twelve front teeth, or nippers, of ths
horse arc thus named.

Incus. — A bone of the ear.

Infra. — Under ; a prefix to t-iic name of several muscles.

Infra. — Without.

Infundibulum. — A fimnel or dnct.

Inguinal. — Pertaining to the groin.

Inguinal Ligament. — Pouparts ligament.

Innominatum. — Without a name.

Innominatum Os. — Union of the ileum, ischium, and
pubie bones.

Inosculation. — Union of the extremities of vessels.

Insertion. — Attachment of a muscle or tendon to t;«
part which it moves.

Integuments. — The skin and sub-ti.ssuts.

Interai-ticular. — Between the joints.

Interosseous. — JIusclcs and ligaments situated betweea
bones arc thus named.

Interseptum. — The nvuki.

Interstitial. — A term applied to substances ticer.pyinj
the spaces between contiguous pans.

Interspinales. — Between the spines of bones.

Intertransrersales. — Muscles located bet%veen the trans-
verse processes of bones.

Intervertebral.— Thu articular cartilages between the
vertebra; are thus named.

Intestinal Canal. — 'The interior of the duodenum, jeju-
num, ileum, coecum, colon, and rectum, comj)diOi the ia-
iestinal cauaL

190

GLOSSARY OF VETEniNARY TECHNICALITIES.

Intra. — AVitliin.
Intestines. — The bowels.

Ini'ertehrata. — Animals without internal bony structure.
Ischium. — A part of the bones of the pelvis.
Isthmus. — A naiTow passage.

Jejunum. — A terra applied to that portion of the intes-
tine which is generally found empty.
Jiirjular. — Belonging to the neck.

Lahorium. — Kclating to the lips.

Lahia. — ThcWfi^.

Lachrymn. — A tear.

Laclirijinal. — Structures concerned in the secretion and
transmission of tears.

iMiiculs. — Absorbent vessels of the lymphatics.

Lactiferous. — Vessels conveying milk.

Lacuna:. — Ducts issuing from small glands.

Lamella. — Thin plates.

Lamina. — A scries of plates.

Laminntfd. — Leaf-like.

iMrn/nr/cat. — Relating to the larv-nx.

Larynx.. — The superior part of the -winilpipe.

Lata. — Broad.

Lateral. — Pertaining to tlie side.

Latissimu.'i. — A term applied to a muscle in consequence
of its great breadth.

Lens. — A crystalline body; a lentil.

Lenticular. — Shaped like the lens.

Levator. — A tcriu apjilied to muscles whicli raise the
parts to which they are attached.

Ligament. — A tendinous cord.

Linea. — A white line ; thread-like.

Linea Aspera. — A rough projection.

Linea Sanilnnares, or scmi-circularis. — Lines on each
Bide of the linea allia, formed by the termination of the
fibres of the abdominal muscles.

Linea Transrersali.'!. — Lines crossing the recti muscles
of the abdomen.

Linijnul. — Pertaining to the tongue.

Lintjualis. — A muscle of the tongue.

Liquor Sanguinis. — The fluid element of the blood.

L(Aie. — A division of an organ.

Lobus. — A lobe.

Local. — Confined to a part.

Loins. — The postei'ior jiart of the back.

Longissimus. — The longest.

Longus. — Long, lengthy.

Lumbar. — Belonging to the loins.

Lujnbrici. — Worms.

Luna. — The moon.

Lunare. — A bone of the knee.

Lymph. — A fluid found in tlie lynijihatics.

Ljmphiitic. — Of ilic nature of lymph.

M.
Major. — The greater.
Malar. — Belonging to the cheek.
itiillens. — A liammer or mallet.
Malphigian Ilmlics. — Dark points of the kidneys.
Mamma. — The udiler.
Mammary. — Belonging to the udder.
Massetcr. — A muscle of the jaw.
Mastoid. — Processes of bones presenting the form of a
nipple arc thus named.

Hater. — A mother.

Maxilla. — Bone of the jaw.

Maxillary. — Pertaining to the jaw.

Meatus. — A passage.

Meatus Auditorius. — The internal auditory passage of
the ear.

Meatus Urinarius. — The orifice of the urethra.

Median. — Central, the central line.

Mediastinum. — The partition which divides the thorax.

Medulla. — The medullary substance of the brain is thus
named. It signifies marrow or jiith.

Medulla Spinalis. — The spinal marrow.

Membranes. — Tissues.

Membranous. — Having the texture of membranes.

Meninges. — Membranes of the brain.

Meningial. — Relating to the membranes of the brain.

Mesenteric. — Pertaining to tlie mesentery.

Mesentery. — Membranes uniting the intestine*.

Mesian Line. — The middle line.

Meso. — Words compounded of meso signify the middle.

Metacaiyal. — Relating to the knee of the horse.

Metacarpus. — The bones of the knee.

Molar. — The grinders.

Motor. ^- To move ; the nerves of voluntary motion are
thus named.

3Iucus. — Animal mucilage.

Mucous. — A term applied to the mucous tissues.

Muscular. — Belonging to a muscle.

Muscle. — Flesh; a bundle of muscular filjres.

Mylo. — Names compounded of this word relate to
muscles located in the region of the root of the tongue.

Myology. — A description of the muscles.

N.
JSares. — The anterior cavity of the nostrils.
Nasal. — Belonging to the nose.
Navicular. — Boat-shaped.
Aeuri/ema. — The sheath investing the nerves.
Nidus. — Naked.

Nucha. — A part of the superior region of the neck.
Nucha Ligamentum, — A lig.amcnt of the spine.
Nyinplue. — Intern.al l.abi.T of the vulva.

Obliijue. — A term applied to muscles that have an
obUi)uo direction.

Obturator. — Name of muscles, foramin.'e, etc.

Occipital. — Connected with the occiput or posterior
part of the cranium.

Occipito Atloid. — That which has reference to the occi-
put and atlas.

Occipito Frontalis. — A muscle which reaches from the
occiput to tlic forehead.

Ocular. — Belonging to the eye.

Odontoid. — Tooth-like.

(E.-:ophagus. — The gullet.

Olecranon. — Point of the arm, formed l>y the ulna.

Olfactory. — Relating to tlie sense of smell.

Olivaris. — Resembling the olive.

Omentum. — The caul.

Omo. — Names compounded of this word signify raus-
clcs which are attached to the scapula.

Opaque. — Not transparent.

Optic. — Relating to vision.

GLOSSARY OF VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.

191

OrhinJar. — Sphorical-cirfuhir.

Orhknlaris Oris. — Muscle of the lips.

Orliiriilaris PtiZ/itiraram. — JIusclc of tlie cvuliils.

Odiiaifare. — The smallest bono of the internal ear.

Orliit. — The hony socket of the eye.

Oiiiitar. — Pertaining to the orbit.

Orijan. — A part having a distinct ofBcc to purfurm.

Orijanism. — Vital organization.

Orijani:eil. — Possessed of organs; endowed with life.

Orifice. — An aperture.

Oriyin. — The fixed point or commencement of a niu.scle.

Os. — A bone.

Osseous. — Bony.

Oiaria. — The female testes.

Ovum. — An egg.

Palatine. — Relating to the palate.

Palate. — The roof of the mouth.

Palate Os. — Bone of tlie palate.

Palpebrcv. — The eyelids.

Paries. — A wall.

Parietes. — The walls of the abdomen and thora.x, etc.

Parotid. — Name of the gland beneath the car.

Parotid Duct. — Opening into the cheek from the parotid
gland.

Patella. — The stifle bone.

Pectinated. — Shaped like the teeth of a comb.

Peduncle. — A stalk.

Pellicle. — A thin membrane.

Pelvis. — The cavity formed by the innominata and
sacrum.

Penis. — The principal organ of generation in the male.

Per/orans. — Perforating ; the name of part of the flexor
tendons.

Perforatus. — Perforated for the transmission of tlie
preceding tendon.

Peri. — Around; an envelope.

Pericardium. — The sac containing the lieart.

Pericranium. — The membrane investing the skull.

Perineum. — The part between the anus and organs
of generation.

Periosteum. — Membrane investing bones."

Peripheri/. — Tlie circumference.

Peritoneum. — The serous membrane which lines the in-
terior of the abdomen and is reflected on its contents.

Peroneal. — Relating to the fibula.

Petaloid. — Shaped like a petal.

Pelrosum Os. — Rough portion of the temporal bone.

Peter's Glands. — Clustered mucous glands of the in-
testines.

Pharijngial. — Relating to the pharynx.

Pharynx. — Superior part of the gullet.

Phrenic. — Belonging to the diaphragm.

Pia Mater. — A thin membrane investing the brain.

Pigmentum Nigrum, — Black pigment upon the choroid
coat of the eye.

Pilus. — Hair.

Pineal. — Shaped like the fruit of the pine.

Pisiform. — Shaped like a pea.

Piluitari/ Membrane. — The schneiderian membrane of
the nostrils.

Placenta. — The afterbirth.

Plantar. — Relating to the feet.

Pleura. — The serous membrane which lines the cavity
of the chest, and is reflected on the contents of the same.

Plcrus. — A network of nerves or vessels.

Piica. — A fold.

Puns. — A bridge.

Pons \'arolii. — A part of tlie brain.

Popliteal. — JIuscles, nerves, and vessels in the region
of the hock.

Pores. — Extremities of the exhalcnts of the skin.

Porta. — A door or gate.

Portio. — A portion or branch.

Posterior. — Behind.

Posticus. — Situated behind.

Pratcordin. — The anterior part of the chest.

Prima: IVie. — First passages of the alimentary can.il.

Process. — The projecting eminence on a bone.

Profundus. — Deep-seated.

Pronatus. — Muscles of the fore limbs.

Prostate. — A gland near the neck of the male bladder.

Pseudo. — False ; a term ajiplicd to spurious membranes.

Psoa-. — The loins.

Psoas. — Belonging to tlie loins.

Pteri/goid. — Shapeil like a wing.

Pubcs. — The junction of the pelvic hones at their in-
ferior parts.

Pubic. — Pertaining to the pubes.

Pudendum. — The external parts of the female organs
of generation.

Pudic. — Belonging to the pudenda.

Pulmonanj. — Belonging to the lungs.

Puncta. — Lachrymalia. The tear-ducts within the eye-
lids.

Punctum. — A point.

Pi/lorus. — The outlet of a horse's stomach.

Pi/riforni. — Shaped like a pear.

Quadratus. — Square in form or figure.

Radial. — Belonging to the radius.
I'adiatcd. — Diverging from the centre like the sun's rayj.
Radicle.''. — Germs of tlie root,s.
Radius. — Bone of the fore extremity.
Rami/'//. — To branch out, or from.
Ramose. — Branched.
Ramus. — A branch.
Ranine. — Vessels under the tongue.
Rapic. — The central line of the scrotum.
Rectum. — The posterior termination of the intestines.
Rectus. — Straight.

Recurrent. — Running in a backward direction.
Reflection. — A duplicature.
Regions. — Divisions of the body.
Renal. — Belonging to the kidneys.
Rele. — Net-work.
Retiform . — Net like.
Retina. — Expansion of the optic nerve.
Retractor. — Muscles thus named draw backwards.
Rctrahens. — Drawing back.
Rima. — An opening or fissure.

Rotator. — A name given to muscles that rotate or r>
volvc a part.
Rotundus. — Circular, round.

192

GLOSSARY OP VETERINARY TECHNICALITIES.

Ruga. — A T\Tinkle.
Rvrjose. — Wrinkled.

Sac. — A bag or cyst.

Saculateil. — Encysted.

Sacral. — Belonging to tlie sacrara.

Sagittal. — Arrow-shaped.

Salivary. — Relating to tlie saliva

Sanguis. — Blood.

Saphena. — A vein of tlie hind extremities.

Scaphoid. — Shaped like a boat.

Scapula. — Shoulder blade.

Scrotal. — Relating to the scrotum.

Scrotum. — The sac in which the testicles are con-
tained.

Sebaceous. — Resembling suet.

Secernent. — Secretory.

Semen. — Secretion peculiar to the testes.

Semi. — One-half.

Septum. — A partition or division.

Serrated. — Resembling the teeth of a saw.

Serum. — The fluid portion of the blood.

Sessamoid. — Like seeds.

Sigmoid. — Flexure.

Sineiu. — A tendon.

Sinus. — A long cavity.

Sperinatic. — Belonging to the testicles.

Sphenoid. — Wcdge-Iike.

Sphenoidal. — Belonging to sphenoid bone.

Sphincter. — Circular muscles, wliich close an opening,
are thus named.

Spinal. — Belonging to the spine.

Spinal Marrow. — Medulla spinalis.

Spine. — The vertebral column.

Spinus. — Thorn-like.

Splanchic. — Belonging to the intestines.

Squamous. — Resembling scales.

Stapes. — A stiiTup ; bono of the ear.

Sternal. — Belonging to the breast bone.

Sternum. — Breast bone.

Striated. — Markcil with long lines.

Stijioid. — Shaped like a ix)inted pencil.

Sub. — Under; beneath.

Sulilimus. — This tenn is applied to a muscle when
seated more superficially than another of the same kind.

Sulilingual. — Beneath tlie tongue.

Submaxilltin/. — Under the inferior ja^v.

Subscapular. — Inner side of the shoulder blade.

Super. — Above.

Superjicial. — Upon or near the surface.

Superior. — Tlie tipper part.

Suture. — Junction or union.

Sympathetic. — Associated in function.

Symphysis. — A connection of bones by an inter>-ening
substance.

Synovia. — The lubricating fluid of joints, sometimes
called joint-oil.

Systole. — Contraction of the heart.

T.
Tabula. — An extended surface.
Tarsus. — The hock.
Tegumrntary. — Relating to the skin.
Temporal. — Relating to the temporal regions of the

Tendon. — The extremity of a muscle.

Tendo Achillis. — The tendon of the gastrocncmii, in-
serted into the hock or heel of man.

Tensor. — A name given to muscles which stretch or ex-
tend parts.

Tentorium. — A membranous partition of the brain.

Teres. — Round ; cylindrical.

Testes. — The testicles.

Thalami Nervorum Opticorum. — Supposed origin of
the optic nen'cs.

Tl>ala7nus. — A bed or origin of certain parts.

T/ieca. — A sheath.

Thoracic. — Belonging to the thorax or chest.

Thoracic Duct. — The trunk of the absorbents.

Tliorax. — The chest.

Thyro. — Names compounded with this word belong
to muscles which are attached to the thjToid cartilage.

Thyroid. — Resembling a shield.

Tibia. — The bone beneath the femur.

Tibial. — Belonging to the tibia.

Tinea. — The name of a fish ; the tench.

Tissue. — An organized sti-ucture.

Trachea. — The windpipe.

Tracheal. — Pertaining to the windpipe.

Trachelo. — Names compounded with this word belong
to muscles located in the region of the neck.

Transversalis. — Having a transverse direction.

Transi-ersus. — Placed aci-oss.

Trapezium. — A four-sided-fignre, bone of the horse's
knee.

Trapezoides. — A bone which in figure somewhat re-
sembles the preceding ; it also enters into the composition
of the horse's knee.

Trapezius. — Four square ; a muscle placed over tbo
region of the withers.

Triangularis. — Triangular.

Triceps. — Three-headed.

Tricuspid. — Having three points ; a name applied to
a valve in the right ventricle.

Trijid. — Three-cleft.

Trigastric. — Having three bellies.

Trisplanchic Nerve. — The great sympathetic or gan-
glionic ncn-e.

Trochanter. — Eminences or tuberosities on the bones.

Tuba. — A tube.

Tuber. — A solid roundish substance.

Tuberosity. — Protuberance or projection.

Tubular. — Tube-like.

Tunic. — A membranous covering.

Turbinated. — Shaped like a sugar-loaf.

Turgid. — Swollen.

Clna. — Bone of the fore extrSmity, termed point of
the elbow.

Ulnar. — Pertaining to the ulna.

Umbilicus. — Tlie n.avel.

Unciform. — Shaped like a hook.

Ureter. — A tubular connection between the kidneys
.and bladder.

Urinal. — Pertaining to the urine.

Uterine. — Relating to the womb.

Uterus. — The womb.

Uvula. — A pendulous body, posterior to the soft palate.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XIX.

OSSEOUS STRUCTURE.

Frontalis.

rarietalis.

Oceii)ital.

Nasal.

Lachmyral.

Superior maxillaiy.

Anterior "

U).

Inferior or lower jaw.

11.

Cervical vertebra>.

16.

True ribs.

17.

False ribs.

18.

Stenium.

19.

Ileum.

22.

Femur.

23.

Patella.

24.

Tibia.

25.

Os calcis.

26.

Astragalus.

27.

Tarsal bones.

28.

Metatarsi magnum.

29.

SessamoiJs.

30.

Os suffi'agiiiis.

31.

Os corona'.

32.

Os pedis.

33.

Scapula.

34.

Os humeri.

35.

Radius.

36.

Carpus.

37.

Metacarpi magnimi.

39.

Os suffraginis.

40.

Os corona?.

41.

Os pedis.

Dorsal spines.

MUSCULAR STRUCTURE,

FOEWAKD PARTS. — THE HEAD.

a. Orbicularis palpebrarum.

b. Levator palpebra?.

c. Dilator naris lateralis.

d. " " anterior.

e. Orbicularis oris.

f. Nasalis longus.

g. Levator labii superioris.
i. Buccinator.

J. Retractor labii inferioris.

h. Massetcr.

m. Attolentes ct abducens aurem.

1. Temporal vein.

2. Facial vein.

THE -NECK,
c". Traclielo subscapularis. — Scalenus.
6. Rhomboidcus longus.

EXPLANATION or FICLUE XIX. CONTINUED.

f. Splenius.

0. Abdiicens vel (leprinicns aurcm.

r. i. Tencloii of the splenius and complexus major.

!'. Stcrno maxillaris.

X. Subscapulo hyoideus.

TnK SIIOULDEE, .INTERIOR MUSCLES, AKD FOKL EXTREMITir?.

a. Trapezius.

6'. Teres.

e". Pectoralis transvcrsus.

f. Antea spinatus.

</". Postea spinatus.

I", r. Triceps extensor brachii.

o". Pectoralis mafjnus.

r". Flexor metacarpi internus.

s". s". Extensor metacarpi niagnus.

t. t. Extensor metacarpi obliquus.

u. Tendons perforatus and perforans.

u. (At the humeral region.) Levator humeri.

x". x". Extensor tendons.

8. The hoof.

THE ABDOMEN AND POSTERIOR PARTS. — ABDOMINAL REGION, AND OF TlIE COSTA.

a". Levatores co.itarum.

o". ObUquus externus abdominis — (beneath the dotted line).

D. Scrratus magnus.

POSTERIOR PARTS.

g". Ligaments of the patella.

Ji. d. e. Glutei.

k. Extensor metatarsi internus.

m. Tensor vaginte.

m". Rectus.

u". Vastus externus.

n. Gastrocnemius internus.

V. Flexor pedis.

u. Flexors perforatus and perforans.

x". x". Fleshy belly of the extensor.

X. X. Extensor tendons,

y. Peroneiis.

8. The hoof.

GLOSSARY OP TETERINART TECHNICALITIES.

193

Vagina. — A sheath; the cavity between the pudenda
and womb.

Var/i/ial. — Pertaining to the vagina.

Valvular. — Valve-like.

Vas. — A vessel.

Vas Deferens. — Excretory duct of the testicle.

Vasa. — The plural of vas ; vessels.

Vascular. — Highly organized with blood-vessels.

Vascular Si/stem. — The heart and its vessels.

Vastus. — Kelates to size; large, thick and fleshy mus-
cles of the thigh.

Vena. — A vein.

Vena Cava. — The great vein.

Vena Porta. — The largest vein of the liver.

Venter. — The belly.

Ventricles. — A term applied to the cavities of the brain
and heart.

VermifoiTn. — Shaped like a worm.

Vertebr(E. — Bones of the spinal column.

Ve.tical. — Formed like a bladder; pertaining to the
bladder.

Vesicles Graaffian. — Small bladders or cysts found in
the ovaria (female testes).

V^ia. — Way or passage.

I'illous. — Velvet-like, applied to the villous coat of a
horse's stomach.

Viscera. — Internal organs.

Visceral. — Relating to a viscus.

Viscus. — An organ within the body.

Vital. — Life-like.

Vitreous. — Glassy ; transparent.

Vivisection. — Surgical operations on living subjects.

Vivus. — Living ; life-like.

Vulva. — The pudendum.

Zoolorji/. — The science of animals.
Zootherapeutics. — Relates to the cnratiTe action of med-
icines.

Zootomy. — Comparative anatomy.
Zi/ijoma. — An arch or yoke.
Zygomatic. — Belonging to the zygoma.

i
J

%i\€mxi fekfll»skal C^arl

(196)

A VETERINARY TOXICOLOGICAL CHART,

CONTAINING THOSE AGENTS WHICH ARE KNOWN TO CAUSE DEATH IN THE HORSEJ
WITH THE SYMPTOMS, ANTIDOTES, ACTION ON THE TISSUES, AND TESTS.

BT W. J. T. MORTON,

Lecturer on Veterinary^ Materia Medica, etc. '

"Poisons are substances which are capable of altering or destroying, in a majority of
cases, some or all of the functions necessary to the support of the vital principle." —
Fcedere. They are d rived both from the organic and inorganic kingdoms ; and their
action is either local or remote. Local action is referrable to, 1st, Chemical Decomposi-
tion; 2d, Lnitation and Inflammation; 3d, Nervous Impression. Remote action is
effected by, 1st. Absorption ; 2d, Sympathy. Animal Poisons rank first iii potency; next
to these, the Mineral ; and lastly, the Vegetable. Aerial poisons are, perhaps, the most
insidious.

The manner in which poisons are introduced into the System varies. The Alimen-
tary Tube, the Skin, the Cu-cula*ion, and the Lungs, are the media. 1st, They may be
taken into the Stomach inadvertently with the food, or they may be maliciously or acci-
dentally administered. They may also be thrown up as Enemata. 2d, They may be
placed underneath the Skin ; or injected into the Circulation ; or they may be absorbed
from Wounds. 8d, If gaseous, they may be inhaled, and enter the blood during it:;
transit through the Lungs. They are generally arranged according to the effects which
they produce upon the Ariimal Economy. The great end of Toxicological Science is
to counteract their influence, which may be accomplished by chemically decomposing
them, by their expulsion from the System, and by restoring the Function of the Organ
of wliich they have caused derangement. As comparatively large quantities of the
Poisons are required to destroy Life in the Horse, the niceties of chemical manipulation
in the application of Tests are uncalled for. It will generally be sufficient to collect
some of the contents of the Stomach and Intestii:es, add distilled Water to them, filter and
to the Solution apply the Test or Re-agent. Sometimes they require the influence of
heat; and, when the contents are not attainable, portions of the Alimentary Tube which
have been most acted upon by the Agent are to be boiled in iistilled Wat-er,and similarly
treated.

I. — IRRITANT POISONS.

Tliese produce their action upon some part of the Alimentary Canal, particularly the Stom-
ach and Intestines ; and by absorption they are often carried to othvr Org-ans. The
principal Symptoms are those of Irritation and Inflammation.

A GENTS. { are the most powerful of all local irritants.

Indications of their action are uneasiness,
'"sulphuric Acid. I frequent pawing and shifting of the posi-
tion, increased secretion of saliva, which is
sometimes viscid and fetid, the mouth in-
flamed, difficulty in swallowing from corro-

,, , ,, . ... isionof the fining of the esophagus, acute
Hydrochloric Acid. ° , r .

gastric irritation extending to the intestines,

Symptoms. — The liquid mineral acids i and giving rise to symptoms resembling a

(197 >

ACIDUM SULPHURICUM.

ACIDU.M NITRICUM,

Nitric Acid.
ACIDUM HYDROCHLORICUM.

ins

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART.

most violent attack of colic ; pain on pres-
sure being applied over the abdomen ; fre-
quent attempts to dung and stale ; and, after
the faeces have been voided, a discharge of
mucus streaked with blood takes place :
tenesmus, pulse quick and feeble, prostra-
tion of strength, profuse persjjiration, cold-
ness of the body, and death, after the ani-
mal has endured excruciating agonies.

In one case related to me, nitric acid was
poured into the ear, and death took place
from inflammation extending to the mem-
branes of the brain.

Treatment. — As the general symptoms
of poisoning by the liquid mineral acids do
not materially differ, neither will the general
treatment. This will consist, 1st, In dilut-
ing the agent by throwing into the stom-
ach large quantities of water by means of
Read's pump. 2d, In neutralizing it, by
suspending in the water chalk, magnesia, or
soap; or, in the absence of these, the plaster
from the walls. 3d, In allaying the su-
pervening inflammation by means of blood-
letting, should the urgency of the symp-
toms demand it ; and also by the adminis-
tration of opium, and a free use of demul-
cents. The subsequent nervous debility
and prostration of strength are to be com-
batted by the milder vegetable tonics, and
a gradual return to liberal diet.

Morbid Appearances. — The mouth, pha-
rynx, and esophagus, present traces of the
action of the peculiar acid. The stomach
is distended with gas, and occasionally
lined with its disorganized tissue, which is
eroded in patches, and so deeply ulcerated
as to form perforations. Intense inflam-
mation often exists in this viscus, which
extends throughout the whole of the intes-
tinal tube, involving its peritoneal tunic ;
this last circumstance has been thought to
be distinctive between poisoning by acids
and metallic compounds; this cannot, how-
ever, be relied upon. The blood in the
larger vessels sometimes forms a firm clot.
These appearances will not be so marked
when an acid has been given in small doses
for some time, or if much diluted we may

then expect to find the coats of the stom-
ach and intestines thickened and contracted,
the result of chronic inflammation, with
here and there eroded spots, but not of any
depth.

Tests. — General. — Sour taste — neu-
tralization by the alkalies — effervescing
with the carbonates — reddening of litmus
paper.

Particular. — Sulphuric Acid. — The parts
with which it comes in contact are first
whitened, and then changed to a brownish
color. By macerating them or the con-
tents of the stomach in distilled water, fil-
tering, and adding a solution of the nitrate
of bari/tes, an insoluble precipitate, the sul-
phate of bari/tes, is obtained.

Nitric Acid. — The tissues changed of a
yellow color, which is heightened by am-
monia. The filtered solution boiled on
copper filings in a test tube emits orange-
colored fumes of nitrous acid. Potassa be-
ing added to it, by evaporation a salt is ob-
tained, which deflagrates ; or a piece of
bibulous paper may be sattuated with the
solution, dried, and inflamed.

Hydrochloric Acid. — Tissues blanched.
Its fumes are rendered more manifest by a
rod dipped in ammonia being held in them.
This test, however, we are rarely able to
avail ourselves of. On the addition of
nitrate of silver to the solution, it gives a
white precipitate, the chtoride of silver.

AGENT.

AOIDUM OXALICUM.

Oxalic Acid.

Syinploms, — Instances are recorded of
horses having been poisoned by this acid,
but whether maliciously given, or adminis-
tered by mistake for the sulphate of mag-
nesia, I cannot say. The symptoms atten-
dant on its action, when a concentrated
solution is given, will not be dissimilar to
those produced by the mineral acids. When
diluted, however, it is said to cause death
by palsying the heart and nervous system,
or by inducing tetanus or narcotism ; but I

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART.

199

am not aware that such action has been ob-
served in the horse.

Treatment. — Avoid large quantities of
water, as it favors the absorption of the
acid. Throw into the stomach a mL^ture
of chalk, or of magnesia and water, partic-
ularly the former ; or lime from the walls
may be used ; either of which will form an
insoluble salt. The alkalies are inadmissi-
ble, because they form soluble salts. De-
mulcents to be freely employed, and the
remaining irritation to be allayed by opium-

Morbid Appearances. — None recorded
in the horse. In other animals the stom-
ach has been found to contain black extra-
vasated blood, its inner coat being of a
cherry -red color; in some places the sur-
face is brittle, and the subjacent stratum
gelatinized. The intestines are usually in-
flamed throughout. When its influence
has been through the medium of the blood
on remote parts, the heart has been found
to have lost its contractility, and to contain
arterial blood.

Tests. — Acid reaction on litmus paper.
A concentrated solution with ammonia
forms a salt whose crystals radiate, the ox-
alate of ammonia.

Hydrochlorate of Lime throws down a
white precipitate which is soluble in nitric
acid, the oxalate of lime.

Sulphate of Copper yields a blue or green-
ish-white precipitate, the oxalate of copper.

Nitrate of Silver causes a dense white
precipitate ; also an oxalate which, when
dried and heated, fulminates.

AGENT.

ACIDUM ARSENIOSUM.

Arsenioiis Acid,
White Arsenic.

resembling

Symptoms. — Intense pain
acute enteritis; belly tympanitic, with a
rumbling noise in the intestines ; the dejec-
tions offensive, and mixed with mucus ;
pulse quick and feeble, becoming scarcely
perceptible at the jaw ; respiration labori-
ous; surface of the body covered with an
extremely cold, clammy sweat ; extremities

cold; efforts to vomit; countenance anx-
ious, and indicative of great torture ; mu-
cous tissues injected ; mouth hot ; increased
secretion of saliva, which is singularly fetid ;
delirium from pain which has become con-
tinuous; exhaustion; death. The action
of this poison is not merely as a local irri-
tant, it being often conveyed to remote
parts through the medium of the circula-
tion, thus causing death. Even as an
external applicant it has been known to pro-
duce much general derangement of the sys-
tem, independent of its influence as an
escharotic, which is powerful. On this
account, when the methods usually resorted
to have failed to demonstrate its existence
in the contents of the stomach and intes-
tines, Orfila has succeeded in detecting it
in the organic tissues, particularly the liver.

Treatment. — A free use of diluents, or
of lime water; avoid blood-letting, as this
promotes the absorption of the poison ;
give large doses of the hydrated peroxide
of iron precipitated by ammonia from a
solution of the sulphate of iron, so as to
form an insoluble arsenic of iron, which
may be expelled by the action of active
purgatives. The subsequent inflammation
is to be combatted by the ordinary antiphlo-
gistic remedies; while the debility which
supervenes, and which is often great, is best
counteracted by the vegetable tonics and
judicious dieting.

Morbid Appearances. — The stomach and
intestines, especially the latter, highly in-
flamed and ulcerated in patches. The
csDcum and colon present the most marked
action, the villous coat being black from an
eftusion of altered blood, and the peritoneal
tunic involved. Congestion of blood in the
lungs, liver, and kidneys; redness of ihe
lining membrane of the windpipe, extend-
ing to the air-passages generally; conjunc-
tival membrane highly injected, and the
blood in a fluid state throughout the body.
Ecchymosis in the heart.

Tests. — 1st, by Reduction. — The sus-
pected powder, being dried, is to be mixed
with twice its weight of newly-burnt and
pulverized charcoal, and introduced into a

200

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART.

test-tube : tlie heat of a spirit lamp is now
to be ajiplied; first to the upper part of the
mixture, and afterwards steadily to the bot-
tom of the tube, when, if arsenious acid is
present, the metal arsenicum will be sub-
limed, and, encoating the tube, form a ring
of a polished-steel lustre, the inner surface
of which is crystalline. The little watery
vapor, which will be condensed within the
tube before the metallic crust begins to ap-
pear, is to be removed by a roll of bibulous
paper.

2c?, by Liquid Rc-agenls. — The contents
of the stomach, or such parts of thatviscus
as have been acted upon, being boiled in
distilled water, the solution is to be filtered.
The ammoniacal sulphate of copper added to
this gives an apple-green precipitate, the ar-
senite of copper. TIte ammoniacal nitrate of
silrer, a lemon-yellow precipitate, ciianging
io a dark brown on exposure to light, the
arscnilc of silver. Sulphuretted Hydrogen,
— generated by the action of dittrte suphu-
ric acid on suphuret of iron, in a flask, hav-
ing an emerging tube bent at a double right
angle, — passed up through the solution for
ten or fifteen minutes, gives a sulphur yel-
low precipitate, the sniphuret of arsenicum.
Water impregnated with this gas affords
the like compound. The solution for this
test must be perfectly neuti-al. This pre-
cipitate may be afterwards subjected to re-
fluction.

3(/, by Nascent Hydrogen. — This is ef-
fected in Marsh's tube. The fluid con-
tents of the stomach, or the filtered solution
before spoken of, being introduced into it,
zinc and sulphuric acid are added, and the
arseniuretted hydrogen as it escapes from
the jet inflamed, when water and metallic
arsenic will be condensed upon the glass
disc held above it. The former will be dis-
sipated by the heat, and around the latter
a ring of arsenious acid may be seen. In
the absence of a Marsh's tube, a common
two-ounce wide-mouthed vial, with a cork
jw'rforated by a piece of glass tube or oven
1obacco-|}ipe, may with care be made lo an-
swer all the purpose.

AGENT.

HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDUM.

Bicidoride of Mercury,
Corrosive Suhlimate.

Symptoms. — The effects which follow
the administration of large doses of this
salt, resemble those which supervene when
the mineral acids have been given, except
that, generally, super-purgation is present,
and the fcccal matter is profuse and highly
offensive. Its solubility renders it more
energetic than arsenioiis acid, although it is
not so frequently had recourse to for poi-
soning.

The protochloride of mercury, calomel,
when incautiously given, has also caused
death, by inducing inflammation of the mu-
cous lining of the intestines, accompanied
with violent purging and tenesmus.

Treatment. — The white of eggs suspend-
ed in water, the albumen of which renders
the bichloride of mercury insoluble ; or large
quantities of wheat-flour, or milk. Lon
filings have also been advocated, which,
reviving the metallic mercury, may be ex-
pelled by purgatives ; a free use of dUutents.
The treatment of the salivation, which
sometimes supervenes, consists in exposure
to cool air, tlie exhibition of saline purga-
livcs, and nourishing diet.

Morbid Appearances. — These would
closely resemble the effects produced by the
above agent, the mucous lining of the ali-
mentary canal being intensely inflamed
throughout, its texture destroyed, and in
parts corroded. The disorganized tissue
often contains the poison, which it yields
by analysis.

Tests. — Lime-icater, ^^•hich throws down
an orange yellow precipitate, the hydrated
binoxide of mercury.

Iodide of Potassium, which gives a beau-
tiful scarlet compound, the Mniodide of
mercury.

Protochloride of Tin, which first affords
a whitish precipitate, the protochloride of
mercury ; and, on adding more of the test
a grayish-black powder is formed, which

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART.

201

consists of minutely divided metallic mer-
cury.

Sulphur elted Hydrogen, which gives a
blackisli compound, a sulpJiurcl of mercury.

To these may be added the test by re-
duction, the reducing agent being the pro-
tochloridc of tin, assisted by beat.

Albumen is not now relied on as a re-

agent.

A GENT.

ANTIMCNU POTASSIO-TARTRAS.

Potassio-Taiirate of Antimony,

Emetic Tartar.

this precipitate by hydrogen at once dissi-
pates all doubt.

AGENT.

SALTS OF COPPER.

salts of copper are
poisons to the horse.

Symptoms. — Violent gastric irritation;
nausea ; efforts to vomit ; profuse perspira-
tion; catharsis, accompanied with colicky
pains and much flatus ; increased secretion
of urine ; the heart's action at first much
quickened, and afterwards scarcely percep-
tible ; labored respiration ; injection of the
mucous tissues ; extreme distress ; death.

Treatment. — The yellow bark, or any
other astringent vegetable that contains
tannin, to be administered both in powder
and decoction ; a free use of dilutents, olea-
ginous purges, and opium, should then be
had recourse to for the purpose of allaying
the irritation.

Morbid Appearances. — The stomach
highly inflamed, and eroded patches on the
mucous coat, which are of a deeper color
than the surrounding parts ; intestines red-
dened, encoated with slimy mucus, and
thickened; lungs gorged with blood; and
general inflammation of the whole system
consequent on its absorption.

Tests. — Caustic Potass and Lime-tvater,
which precipitates the oxide of antimony-
The carbonate of potass acts \\'ith still
greater delicacy.

Hydrochloric and Sulphuric Acids also
aflbrd the like precipitate. A strong infu-
sion of the gall-nut gives a dirty, yellowish
white precipitate, the gallate of antimony.

Sulphuretted Hydrogen throws down an
orange-red precipitate, the red sulphuret of
antimony, which is so peculiar as to be al-
ways distinguished ; and the reduction of

Symptoms. — The
rarely employed as
Large doses of the sulphate improperly
given have sometimes caused much intes-
tinal irritation, followed by colicky pains
and diarrhoea ; and, in one instance, death
from gastro-enteritis. Doubtless inordinate
quantities would always destroy life, when
symptoms similar to those caused by any
other erodent would be manifested, it being
a local imtant. The same, perhaps, may
be said of the impure acetate of copper.

In the neighborhood of works for smelt-
ing of copper, horses are frequently attacked
with diseases of the joints, indicated by
swelling, bursal distension, exostosis, and,
ultimately, anchylosis, arising cither from
the state of the herbage or the impregnation
of the air by the vapors disengaged.

Treatment. — Give a solution of the fer-
rocyanide of potassium, or of soap. Albu-
men is also an antidote, and metallic iron,
which latter precipitates the copper. This
is to be expelled by oleaginous purgatives.
Tepid water rendered slightly alkaline may
also be freely given; and opium, to aUay
irritation. A free use of demulcents, as
grael, infusion of linseed, etc., is indicated.

For the local affection, punctm-e the bur-
sal distention, and, after the evacuation of
the cyst, apply an elastic bandage, giving
gentle compression. Remove the animal
to another locality.

Morbid Appearances. — Stomach ulcer-
ated where the agent has adhered, and gen-
eral inflammation of its mucous lining
and that of the intestines, with here and
there spots of erosion. In the instance ad-
verted to of the sulphate of copper causing
death, there was an engorgement of the
blood-vessels of the lungs.

Copper is with extreme difficulty detected
in any of the secretions. It, however, has
been found in the organic tissues, particu-

202

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART.

larly the liver after incineration, und also in
the blood.

Tests. — Water of Ammonia affords an
azure-colored precipitate, or a violet -colored
solution, the ammoniuret of copper.

Ferrocyanide of Potassium causes a
brown precipitate, the ferrocyanide of cop-
per.

Sulphuretted Hydrogen throws down a
blaclvish compound, the sulphuret of copper.

A piece of polished iron introduced into
the solution is soon covered with metallic
sapper.

AGENT.

SALTS OF LEAD.

Symptoms. — Of these, like the above,
comparatively large quantities are required
to cause death. Violent spasms, tremors,
obstinate constiiTation of the bowels, fol-
lowed by paralysis, partial or complete, are
the usual indications.

In the neighborhood of lead works ani-
mals are often thus affected, when, in addi-
tion to these symptoms, there is a depraved
appetite present : the stomach after death
being found filled to repletion with strange
and incongruous substances.

Treatment. — Solutions of the svilphate
of magnesia or soda, combined with croton
or linseed oil ; afterwards allaying the irri-
tation by means of opium.

Tlie phospliate of soda has also been ex-
tolled as an antidote.

The treatment for tlie paralysis which
remains consists in judicious dieting and
exercise.

Morbid Appearances. — The lining mem-
brane of the stomach and intestines is
sometimes inflamed, sometimes blanched;
the caliber of the latter is diminished, and
its coats corrugated; the muscular tissue
throughout the body has lost its power of
contractility ; the buccal membrane is pale,
and the blood of a brighter color than nat-
ural.

Tests. — Chromate of Potass throws down
a yellow precipitate, the chromate of lead.

Iodide of Potassium likewise gives a yel-
low pi'ccipitate, the iodide of lead.

Sulphuretted Hydrogen causes a black
precipitate, the sulphuret of lead.

A rod of Zinc introduced into it causes
a deposition of metallic lead in a crystalline
form.

The alkaline carbonates and sulphates,
although they give white precipitates with
lead, have been objected to as tests.

AGENT.

POTASSiE NITRAS.

Nitrate of Potash,

Nitre.

Symptoms. — Much uneasiness ; cholicky
pains ; pulse feeble, quick, and irregular ;
respiration accelerated; mouth hot; mu-
cous lining of the eyelids and nostrils
highly injected ; increased secretion of
urine; frequent voiding of fteces. If the
quantity given is very great, the abdominal
pains are more intense ; the breathing more
labored; the pulse quicker; ineffectual ef-
forts to stale are made ; the extremities are
cold ; and the prostration of strength is
extreme. If not, after manifesting much
uneasiness, the fseces are frequently voided ;
diuresis supei-venes ; and relief is obtained.

Treatment. — A free use of demulcents;
oleaginous purgatives ; hot rugs to the ab-
domen, and over the loins ; opiate enemata ;
if necessary, the abstraction of blood ; with
hand-rabbing, and bandages to the extremi-
ties. Possibly a mustard cataplasm or a
sheepskin over the loins will be of service.
Such counter irritants as are likely to be
caiTied to the kidneys are to be avoided.

Morbid Appearances. — The villous coat
of the stomach highly inflamed and studded
with dark spots resembling ccchymosis,
varying in size and running into patches ;
they are easily scraped off, and contain a
deposit of serum. The cuticular coat is
also inflamed, but not so highly, and its
texture is much weakened ; the small intes-
tines are pervaded with an inflammatory

TOXICOLOOICAL CHART.

203

blusli ; llie lungs and heart are congested,
and the venous blood is of a brighter color
than usual. Constriction and inflamma-
tion of the neck of the bladder have also
been observed.

Tests. — From the fluid contents of the
alimentary tube, or from the urine, the salt
may be obtained by evaporation and crystal-
lization. It is known by deflagrating when
thrown on a piece of ignited charcoal) of
which it animates the combustion ; and by
yielding nitric acid when distilled with sul-
phm-ic acid. Heat also disengages oxygen
from it.

Chloride of Platinum added to its solu-
tion gives a yellow precipitate.

AGENT.

CAXTHARIS.

llie Blistering Fbj.

Symptoms. — Much uneasiness ; intesti-
nal irritation; frequent attempts to stale;
strangury ; bloody urine ; accelerated pulse
and respiration ; continual pain, with much
constitutional disturbance. These symp-
toms increase in urgency, until death closes
the scene.

Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent
from out of the alimentary tube by brisk
purgatives ; oil is objectionable, on account
of the solubity of the active principle of
the cantharides in it. A free use of dilu-
ents ; opium may be given, and oleaginous
and demiilcent injections thrown into the
bladder. Sheepskins over the loins ; hot
rags over the abdomen.

3Iorbid Appearances. — The mucous lin-
ing of the alimentary canal throughout in
a high state of diffused inflammation ; but
the urinary organs are principally affected:
the blood-vessels of the kidneys, bladder,
and urethra, are much engorged, and the

lining membrane of the latter has in some
places a sphaceletic appearance.

Tests. — Washing of the contents of the
stomach and alimentary tube will develop
portions of the beautiful green case-wings
of the fly, which appear not quickly to un-
dergo decomposition ; Orfila having detected
them in a body some months after death.

AGENTS.

BITE OF THE VIPER,

STING OF THE HORNET, WASP, ETC

Symptoms. — Subcutaneous inflamma-
tion, indicated by swelling and increased
heat, with eff'usion into the cellular tissue,
which sometimes goes on to gangrene;
pain ; constitutional excitement ; quickened
and irregular pulse ; rigors.

The bite of a viper has been knov/n to
cause cerebral derangement and death, by
its influence on the nervous system.

Treatment. — Kemoval of the stings ;
counter-irritants, as liniment of ammonia
or turpentine, which, if sufficient, are to be
followed by scarification, the use of emol-
lients, and the general antiphlogistic reme-
dies, such as bleeding, fomentations, and
laxatives, with opium to allay the general
irritation. The virus of the tooth of the
viper may be extracted by cupping, or,
which is preferable, let the part be excised,
and the nitrate of silver freely applied
afterwards.

Moi'bid Appearances. — But few instances
of death are recorded. If it takes place, it
is probably the result of sympathetic and
general excitement of the whole system;
the usual indications, therefore, of increased
nervous and vascular action may be ex-
pected to be met with.

Tests. — None.

204

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART

II. — NARCOTIC POISONS.

These produce Stupor, Delirium, and other affections of the Brain and Nervous System,

followed by Death.

AGENT.

OPIUM.

Opium.

Symptoms. — The horse will bear large
doses of this drug ; the quantity necessary
to destroy life is consequently great. Sup-
posed instances are recorded of its causing
death when given in doses of a few drachms
in order to check supcrpurgation ; also when
the animal has been debilitated by disease,
when symptoms of enteritis have shown
themselves, accompanied with a torpitude
of the bowels, and much suffering previous
to death. Much larger quantities liave,
however, often been given with impunity,
and frequently with advantage.

■Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent
from out the alimentary tube by means of
oleaginous pui'gatives, enemata, venesec-
tion, and a free use of demulcents, with
fomentations to the abdomen, and counter-
irritants to the extremities.

Should a state of stupor prevail, exercise
may be given, and cold water dashed over
the head.

3Iorbid Appearances. — The mucous lin-
ing of the stomach and intestines inflamed,
and easily torn asunder, the inflammation
being diffused. This has been thought to
be a distinctive between the eflfects induced
by mineral and vegetable poisons; but it
cannot be relied upon, as repeated small
doses of an erodent will induce the like
appearances, only (here will be more thick-
ening of the tunics.

Tests. — Odor, which is cliaracteristic.
To the suspected matter add distilled water
acidulated with acetic acid; agitate for a
few minutes, filter and evaporate to the con-
i-istence of syi'up ; boil this in alcohol, and
agaiu filter and evaporate ; dissolve the re-
siduum in distilled water, and add to the
solution acetate of lead, which leaves mor-

phia in solution : this being heated with
sulphuretted hydrogen, any remaining lead
will be precipitated. On nitric acid being
added to the morphia obtained by evapora-
tion, it dissolves with efTervescence, and
becomes of an orange-red color. Suspended
in water and treated with a drop or two of
the pcrmuriate of iron, it is also dissolved,
and forms a greenish-blue solvition.

AGENT.

TAXUS BACCATA.

The Teio.

Symptoms. — Effects variable ; large quan-
tities have sometimes failed to cause any
injury, while at others comparatively small
quantities have destroyed life. It would
appear to be very insidious in its influence,
as the animal generally drops down dead
without indicating any previous suffering.
In some instances slight convulsions have
preceded death. The partially dried leaves
appear to be more energetic than the green
leaves, probably from greater quantities be-
ing partaken of.

Treatment. — Usually no opportunity is
afforded for the employment of remedies.
Should it, however, be the case that the
leaves of yew are suspected to have been
eaten, I am not aware of any method which
could be adopted but that of endeavoring
to expel them from the system as quickly
as possible, which may be effected by active
purgatives. The after-treatment wiU de-
pend upon the symptoms which may pre-
sent themselves.

Morbid Appearances. — The alimentary
tube distended with faecal matter in a semi-
fluid state, and highly fetid gases.

The mucous lining inflamed throughout,
particularly of the larger intestines, with
here and there patches of extravasated
blood.

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART.

205

In some few cases scarcely a trace of
diseased action in the tissues could be
found.

Tests. — Portions of the vegetable in the
stomach and intestines mixed with the in-
gesta.

Tlie active principle of the poison is
unknown, hence the diiiiculty in the treat-
ment.

AGENT.

ACIDUM UYDnOCYANICUM.

I/)/d)-oci/(»iic Acid,
Prussic Acid.

Si/mptoms. — Its influence is sudden, and
that of a powerful sedative to the system,
and, when the quantity is not large, evanes-
cent : otherwise it is followed by marked
cerebral derangement, manifested by giddi-
ness and coma ; the breathing becomes
laborious; the nostrils expanded; the pulse
quickened and lluttering; much debility is
present, with loss of power : to these suc-
ceed tetanic spasms ; the muscles become
rigid ; the jaws locked, and the membrana
nictitans is forced over the eye, which is
prominent, and has a glassy appearance ;
profuse perspiration covers the body, accom-
panied by violent convulsions and intense
suffering. These effects are succeeded by
a remission for a time, during which the
animal appears to bo in a state of partial
insensibility ; but the exacerbations return
again and again, and then the paroxysms
become less and less powerful, until at
length, all action disappearing, the animal
is left in a state of exhaustion, the vital
powers being much depressed. In what-
e^jser way the agent is introduced into the
system, the effects are similar. The most
active form of the poison is that of vapor.

When the dose is sufficiently large to
cause death, it is unaccompanied with suf-
fering.

Treatmenl. — Cold affusions over the
body ; the inhalation of dilute ammoniacal
and chlorine gases, particularly the latter.

The coma may be removed by blood-
letting; and diffusible stimulants, such as

ammonia, may be administered, combined
with tonics to rouse the depressed vital
powers.

Of course this treatment will only be of
service when the drug has been too fre-
quently given, or administered in too large
quantities.

Morbid Appearances. — The inner tunic
of the stomach and intestines slightly in-
flamed ; the vessels of the lungs gorged
with blood ; the parenchyma natural ; the
lymphatics containing red blood ; the heart
inflamed, and spots of ecchymosis on its
lining membrane ; the vessels of the brain
highly injected, particularly those of the
medullary portion, in which organ the odor
of the acid is easily recognized, as well as
throughout the body, and particularly in the
halitus from the blood. The eyes are glis-
tening and prominent.

Tests. — Render fluid the contents of the
stomach, and distil an eighth part over, when
the following tests will be available : Tlie
odor, which resembles that of bitter al-
monds, and imjjresses the throat and nos-
trils with a peculiar acridity.

Sulphate of Copper, the solution being
rendered alkaline by potass, throws down a
green precipitate, which becomes nearly
white on adding a little liydrochloric acid,
the cyanide of copper.

Sulphate of the Protoxide of Iron, simi-
larly employed, gives a greenish precipitate,
which becomes of a deep blue color on the
addition of sulphuric acid, the ferrocijanate
of tlie protoxide of iron.

Nitrate of Silver throws down a white
precipitate, the cyanide of siher, which is
soluble in nitric acid only at its boiling
temperature, and which, wiien dried and
heated in a tube, emits cyanogen gas, which
burns with a rose-colored flame.

A GENT.

CARBONIC ACID.

Symptoms. — Instances are known of
horses having been suffocated diuing fires,
arising from the disengagement of this gas,
with, perhaps, some of the compounds of

206

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART.

hydrogen. Its sources otherwise are abund- '
ant. In a state of dilution it causes coma ;
"when ]mre, spasm of the glottis, and death ;
by asphyxia. I

Treatment. — Removal to the air; cold
aflfusions over the body ; bloodletting ; dif-
fusible siiniulants.

Morbid Appearances. — Engorgement of
the vessels of the lungs with black blood.
The v-cssels of the brain and of the heart
are in a similar state. The bronchi and
trachea filled with frothy mucus.

Tests. — The tests for carbonic acid gas
are simple enough, but here they are inap-
plicable.

AGENT.

SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN.

Symptoms. — This gas, given off from
cesspools and other places, has been at
times the cause of death. It is rapidly ab-

sorbed by the blood, and produces coma
and tetanic convulsions. Sometimes death
takes place from asphyxia.

Treatment. — The same as the above;
to which, perhaps, may be added the inha-
lation of dilute chlorine.

Morbid Appearances. — The muscles Imve
lost their power of contractility. The
blood-vessels are gorged with fluid black
blood; the bronchial tubes inflamed, with
increased secretion of mucus both in them
and the trachea ; the odor from the body is
highly offensive.

Tests. — Carbonate of Lead on a piece
of card paper, exposed to an atmosphere
impregnated wdth this gas, is tm-ned black
by the formation of the snlplmret of lead;
but as the body when undergoing decom-
position emits the same kind of gas, this
test can only be accepted as a corrobora-
tive proof.

Ill — NARCOTICO-ACRID POISONS.

Tliese cause Death, either by irritation or narcotism, and sometimes by both combined.
Their influence is first local and then remote, impressing the Nervous System. They
are principally derived from the Vegetable Kingdom.

AGENT.

NUX VOMICA ET STRYCHNIA.

Vomic Nut and Strychnia.

Symptoms. ■ — The vomic nut induces a
quickened and irritable pulse, highly la-
bored respiration, snortings, tetanic spasms,
loss of muscular power, injection of the
mucous tissues, extreme thirst, and death
from asphyxia; previous to which there is
intense suffering. The action of its alka-
loid, strychnia, is more energetic. It is
shown by tremors, followed by a quickness
of the pulse and labored respiration, ex-
treme irritability, loss of po\ver in the ex-
Iremities, tetanic convulsions increasing in
violence, the legs being thrust from the
body, the muscles rigid, opisthotonus, pro-
fuse perspiration, insensibility, and the

pulse and resph-ation being scarcely percep-
tible ; the paroxysm exists for a few min-
utes only, and is followed by a remission
of the symptoms, leaving the animal much
exhausted and extremely irritable. The
exacerbations, however, continue until death
takes place from suffocation.

Treatment. — From the tenacity with
which the powder of the nut adheres to the

' stomach and intestines, it is ^^^th difficulty
dislodged. Its removal may be attempted
by means of active purgatives, or antidotes
may be tin-own in ; these consist of chlo-
rine and of iodine, which form inert eom-

: pounds with the active principle, sti-ychnia ;

I bat, as the action of the alkaloid is on the
spinal maiTowand the brain, little good can

', be Ivopcd to be obtained when a dose suf-

i ficiently large to destroy life has been given,

TOXICOI.OGICAL CHART.

207

unless active measures bo iniincdiately
adopted, ll" ihe dose be not sufiieiently
liirfje for this purpose, there will be a suc-
cession of paroxysms, leaving behind them
mueli debility, which is to be counteracted
by tonics and diffusible stimulants, with,
perhaps, counter-iiTitants along the course
of the spine, lest effusion should take
place.

Morbid Appearances. — Mucous lining of
the alimentary tube inilamed, lungs gorged
with blood, and the vascular system through-
out the body in a state of congestion. The
spinal canal much inflamed. Eft'usion of
bloody serum into the theca vertebralis;
motor division of the spinal cord more in-
jected than the other, and the nerves taking
their origin from it inflamed. The mem-
branes of the brain have been found in-
flamed, with effusion on the surface of the
cerebellum, and a softening of the whole
cortical portion of the bfain. Rigidity of
the muscles of the body. Rapid decompo-
sition, accomjianied with much foetor.

Tests. — The powder of the nut has a
greenish-gray color, an intensely bitter taste,
and the odor of liquorice. Being collected,
it is to be boiled in water acidulated with
sulphuric acid, filtered, and the solution
neutralized by carbonate of lime and evap-
orated to dryness. The dry mass being
acted upon by successive portions of alco-
hol, these are to be evaporated to the con-
sistence of sjTup, when the product will be
fovmd to have an intensely bitter taste, and
it becomes of a deep orange-red color with
nitric acid, which color is desti-oyed by the
protochloride of tin. Sometimes it de-
posits crystals of strychnia on standing.
These tests will also be available for the
alkaloid ; to which may be added its spar-
ing solubility in water, the alkaline reaction
of its alcoholic solution, and its forming
neutral and crystallizable salts with acids.

AGENT.

SEMEN CROTONI.

Croton Seed.
Symptoms. — This purgative, when in-
cautiously administered, has produced death

by inducing violent inllannnation of tiie
intestinal canal, followed by superpurga-
tion ; the alvine dejections being profuse,
watery, and offensive.

Treatment. — A free use of demulcents,
with astringents, as catechu, opium, and
chalk. Bloodletting ; opiate enemas. Hot
rugs to the abdomen, counter irritants, etc.

Morbid Appearances. — Violent inflam-
mation of the intestines, particularly the
caecum and colon, involving all the tunics,
the mucous lining being easily torn. Fte-
ces abundant and semi-fluid. Lungs in a

state of congestion.

Tests. — None definite.

A GENT.

DIGITALIS PURPUREA.

J^u.C Glove.

Symptoms. — Languor, gastric irritation,
coldness of the body and extremities, pale-
ness of the mucous tissues, cold and clam-
my perspiration, quickened and feeble pulse,
death.

When it accumulates in the system, af-
ter having been repeatedly given in compar-
atively small doses, it produces loss of
appetite, nausea, languor, a quick and irreg-
ular pulse, followed by purgation, and the
effects then gradually disappear.

Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent by
means of a solution of aloes, combined
\\'ith linseed oil. The free use of demul-
cents; diflusible stimulants; counter-irri-
tants.

Morbid Appearances. — Depending upon
the condition and previous state of the
animal. If much debUitated, inflammation
of the mucous lining of the stomach and
alimentary tube may be seen to exist. At
other times no trace of its influence on any
of the tissues can be detected, and it is then
supposed to cause death by exhaustion of
the nervous energy.

Tests. — None definite.

AGENT.

VERATRUM ALBUM.

White Hellebore.
Symptoms. — Efforts to vomit, accclcr-

208

TOXICOLOGICAL CIIAllT.

atcd pulse, uiitraiiquil respiration, intestinal
irritation, which, if followed by purging,
affords relief; if not, these symptoms be-
come more urgent, the body is covered with
perspiration, saliva is secreted in increased
quantities, the legs become deathly cold,
inflammation of the bowels supervenes, and
death.

Treatment. — A free use of demulcents.
Milk has been strongly advocated ; on what
grounds beyond that of its being a bland
fluid, I am at a loss to conjecture. Olea-
ginous purgatives ; counter-irritants.

Morbid Appearances. — The villous coat
of the stomach will be found inflamed; the
intestines also in a high state of inflamma-
tion, particularly the cascum and colon ; the
heart pale and flabby ; and the lungs con-
gested.

Tests. — None definite.

A GENT.

NICOTIANA TABACUM.

Tobacco.

Symptoms. — Nausea, giddiness, coma,
feeble and irritable pulse. Sometimes gen-
eral excitement of the system, profuse per-
spiration, labored respiration, pulse much
quickened, partial insensibility.

Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent by
purgatives ; diffusible stimulants when coma
exists ; demulcents.

Morbid Appearances. — I am not ac-
quainted with an instance of death having
taken place, although this agent is fre-
quently given as a vermifuge in very large
quantities.

Tests. — None definite.

AGENT.

JUNIPERUS SABINA.

Savin.

Symptoms. — This, like the preceding
agent, is given as a vermifuge, and some-
times incautiously. Gastric irritation is
then evinced, the animal refuses food, and
is languid ; this is followed by diuresis, and
sometimes by purging ; the pulse becomes
irregular and full, and the respiration hur-
ried.

Treatment. — Expulsion of the agent
from out the alimentary canal by oleagi-
nous purgatives ; demulcents.

Morbid Appearances. — Esophagus and
stomach inflamed, particularly the villous
portion of the latter viscus, on which patches
of extravasated blood are seen to exist ; the
smaO intestines contain much mucus, and
are slightly inflamed ; lungs congested ;
larynx and trachea of a rusty yellow color ;
glands at the root of the tongue much
enlarged.

Tests. — The partially digested vegeta-
ble matter found in the alimentary tube,
which may be distinguished by its odor.

Under the head of Narcotico- Acrid Poisons, perhaps, should be placed the Atrota
Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade, which, in large doses, induces singultus, a dilatation
of the pupils, feeble and irritable pulse, and a relaxed state of the bowels. Also many
of the umbelliferous order of plants, as Conium Maculatum, Common Hemlock, the
influence of which is probably that of a Narcotic; Cicuta Virosa, Water Hemlock,
which, to some animals proves an energetic Poison ; with a few of the natural family
of the RanunculacsB, as the Aconitum Napellus, Monkshood, and Helleboris Niger,
Black Hellebore, which cause death by irritation, producing gastro-enteritis, followed by
delirium; likewise Delphinium Stapiivsagria, S«cesacrf ; Bryonia Alba, Wild-vine
or Bryony, and Felis Foemina, Female Fern; of which latter very large quantities are
rofiuired to cfl'ect any marked change in the animal system; and, indeed, it may be said
of the Vegetable Poisons generally, that the Horse is enabled to resist the influence

TOXICOLOGICAL CHART. 209

of comparatively immense doses of them, which in all probability arises from the
peculiar structure of his stomach.

Wheat and Barley have been designated as poisons to this animal ; and occasionally
they have proved to be so, by setting up acute gastritis. A very common sequela of
poisoning by Wheat is inflammation of the laminae, the result of metastasis ; and of
Barley, a depilation of the sldn. We are, however, in want of more correct information
than at present we possess, before anything definite can be laid down under this head,
as both wheat and barley, given in moderate quantities and with judgment, often prove
beneficial.

I am induced to pass the agents above enumerated thus cursorily over, my object
having been to give a condensed and tabular view of such substances as are known to
destroy life in the horse when incautiously or maliciously administered, and to elucidate
a Thesis on Poisons which I had the honor to read before the Members of the Veteri-
nary Medical Association in 1836 : at the same time, I hope that this attempt may
prove of some use to the Student of Veterinary Medicine. — Morton.

v^^^

EXPLANATION OF FIGURE XX.

TirK HEAD. ■

a. Orbicularis ])al])C'brarum.

6. lA'vator palptlirtr.

c. Dilator nan's lateralis.

d. Dilator naris anterior.

e. e. Orbicularis oris, the circular muscle of the mouth : the tetters are rather loo

low to indicate the muscle.

f. Nasalis longus.

(j. Levator labii sii])erioris.

k. Masscter.

m. Attoleutes et abducens aurem.

THE NECK.
c". Trachelo subscajnilaris. — Scalenus.
s. Splciiius.

r. t. Tendon of the splenius and curaplexus major.
H. Levator humeri.

V. Sterno ma.\illaris. The jugular vein is here shown between the two preceding
muscles.

THE SnOlLDER .tND FORE EXTEEMIITES.

e". Sterno Bcapularis. — Pectoralis transversus.

y". Antea spinatus.

g". Postca spinatus.

}i. Teres major.

mP. n'\ Triceps extensor brachii.

I. Sca])ulo ulnaris.

o". Pectoralis magnus.

P". ?(". Flexor metacarpi extemus.

r. " " intemus.

r". Kueejoiut.

s". 5. Extensor metacarpi magnus.

t. Extensor metacarpi obliquus.

?<'. w". V. Tendons perforans and perforatus.

y". y". Extensor sufixaginis.

z". z". Pastern joint.

8. 8. Extensor tendons.

6. Radial vein.

g. Flexor pedis.

k. Humero cubital.

ABDOMIN.VL REGION.

6. Litercostales.

c. Transversalis abdominis extemus.

d. " " intemus.
JD. Serratus magnus.

J- Pectoralis magnus.

7. The sheath.

4. Superficial thoracic vein.

EXPLANATION OF FIGUKE XX. CONTINUED.

POSTERIOR EXTREMETTES.

s'. Erector coccygis.

9. Compressor coccygis.

h". i. The three glutei.

J'. Triceps.

K, k. Biceps abductor tibialis.

5. Tibia.

6. a;. X. g. Fleshy belly of the extensors.
I. Plantaris.

m. Tensor vaginse.

n'. Rectus.

0\ Vastus externus.

r. Gastrocnemius internus.

It. u. u. V. Gastrocnemii.

y. Peroneus.

y. X. X. 8. Extensor tendons.

X. (Off leg.) Flexors perforans and perforatus.

DICTIONARY OF VETERINARY SCIENCE :

CONTAINI'- J

MANY PRACTICAL OBSERVATIONS,

OF uvea IMTOBTAKCB TO

HUSBANDMEN AND HORSE OWNERS.

eSUNPD EEOU VAEIOTJS SOURCES, WITH APDn"":^.

(Sll)

A DICTIONARY OP VETERINARY SCIENCE.

Abdomen.^- That part of the animal
usually denominated the belly- This cavity
contains the intestines, or bowels, liver,
spleen, pancreas, kidneys, etc, and is sepa-
rated from the thorax, or chest, by the
diaphragm.

Abortion. — Our attention was called, a
short time ago, to a mare, about eight years
old, said to be laboring under colic. She
had been driven very fast during the early
part of the day ; and about noon, w^hen-Avc
saw her in the stable, she seemed to mani-
fest considerable uneasiness. The surface
of the body was cold, pulse small and in-
termittent. The genitals were considerably
swollen, and a slight discharge from the
vagina was observed. She had occasional
uterine pains, whicli, however, were very
feeble.

We immediately gave the following dif-
fusible stimulant:

Powdered grains of paradise, 1 drachm.

" bethroot (trillium purpureum) 4 drachm.
Hot water, 1 quart.

This was administered from a bottle. In
a few minutes, the parturient process com-
menced, and she shortly gave birth to a
dead foetus. The mare Avas in her fifth
parturient month. She was put on a gen-
erous diet, and rapidly convalesced without
any after treatment.

Remarks. — Great care and gentleness
should be exercised toward mares during
pregnancy. Hard work in harness, over
bad roads, is likely to produce abortion ;
and mares that have once aborted are liable
to a recurrence of the same, Light work
and moderate exercise, however, are essen-
tial to their general health.

When the period of foaling draws nigh,
the mare should be separated from her com-
panions. Having foaled, she should be

turned into a pasture, where there is a barn.
Tlie foal may be weaned at sLx months ; if
it should die, or be taken from tiie dam,
humanity would suggest the propriety of a
few -weeks' rest, to enable the mother to re-
cover from the effects of parturition.

JMlscarriage, slipping, or slinking foal or
calf, icarjnng. — In mares, miscarriage is
very generally caused by over-exertion dur-
ing the latter period of gestation. It is not
unfrequently brought about by accidents at
grass, such as falling in a ditch or hole, and,
struggling violently to extricate themselves.
Kicks on the belly are by no means an un-
common cause of miscarriage ; for which
reason, a mare, when near her time, should
be kept by herself: after foaling she will
require a few weeks' rest, in order to re-
cover from the effects of parturition ; and,
when first brought into work again, the
services required of her should be very
slight. Exposure to wet and cold will oc-
casion miscarriage ; also, high feeding and
want of proper exercise. Abortion is of
more frequent occurrence in sheep than m
mares, and is caused by fright, overdriving,
and being worried by dogs, and by being
kept in cold, damp situations, and on im-
proper food.

Cows are particularly liable to the ac-
cident of warping, or slinking the calf.
The common cause of abortion is improper
feeding. The filthy, stagnant water they
are often compelled to drink is likewise a
serious cause, not only of abortion, but
also of general derangement of the animal
functions. Dr. White states that " a farm
in Gloucestershire had been given \\\> three
successive times in consequence of the loss
the owners sustained by abortion in their
cattle : at length the fourth proprietor, after
suffering considerably in his live stock for

(213)

214

A DICTIONARY.

the first five years, suspected that the water
of his ponds, which was extremely filthy,
might be the cause of the mischief; he
therefore dug three wells upon his farm, and,
having fenced round the ponds to prevent
his cattle from drinking there, caused them
to be supplied with the well-water in stone
troughs erected for the purpose ; and from
this moment his live stock began to thrive,
and the quality of the butter and cheese
made on his farm was greatly improved.
In order to show," says the same author,
" that the accident of warping may arise
from a vitiated state of the digestive organs,
I vAU. here notice a few circumstances tend-
ing to corroborate this opinion. In 1782, all
the cows in possession of farmer D'Euruse,
in Picardy, miscarried. The period at
which they warped was about the fourth or
fifth month. The accident was attributed
to the excessive heat of the preceding sum-
mer ; but, as the water they were in the
habit of drinking was extremely bad, and
they had been kept upon oat, wheat, and
and rye straw, it appears to me more prob-
able that the great quantity of straw they
were obliged to eat, in order to obtain suf-
ficient nourishment, and the injury sustained
by the third stomach, in expressing the fluid
parts of the masticated or ruminated mass,
together with the large quantity of water
they drank, while kept on this dry food, was
the real cause of their miscarrying.

" A farmer at Chareton, out of a dairy
of twenty-eight cows, had sixteen slip their
calves at different periods of gestation.
The summer had been very dry, and, during
the whole of this season, they had been
pastured in a muddy place, which was
flooded by the Seine. Here the cows were
generally up to their knees in mud and
water. In 1789, all the cows in a village
near Mantes miscaiTied. All the land in
tliis ]3lace was so stiff as to hold water for
some time ; and, as a vast quantity of
rain fell that year, the pastures were for a
long time completely inundated, on which
account the grass became bad : this shows
that keeping cows on food that is deficient
in nutrition, and difficult of digestion, is

one of the principal causes of miscarriage."
It is supposed that the sight of a slipped
calf, the smell of putrid animal substance,
is apt to produce warping. Some curious
cases of abortion which are worthy of notice
happened in the dairy of a French farmer.
For thirty years his cows had been subject
to abortion. His cow-house was large and
well ventilated ; his cows were in apparent
health ; they were fed like others in the vil-
lage ; they drank the same water ; there
was nothing different in the pasture; he
had changed his servants many times in the
course of thirty years ; he pulled down the
barn or cow-house, and built another, on a
different plan ; he even, agreeably to super-
stition, took away the aborted calf through
the window, that the curse of future abor-
tion might not be entailed on the cow that
passed over the same threshold. To make
all sure, he had broken through the wall at
the end of the cow-house, and opened a new
door. But still the trouble continued.
Several of his cows had died in the act of
abortion, and he had replaced them by others :
many had been sold, and their vacancies
filled up. He was advised to make a thor-
ough change. This had never occurred to
him ; but at once he saw the propriety of
the counsel. He sold every beast, and the
pest was stayed, and never appeared in his
new stock. This was owing, probably, to
sympathetic influence ; and the result of
such influence is as fatal as the direct con-
tagion." (See Youatt.)

The usual symptoms preceding abortion
are a sudden filling of the udder, and a
loose, flabby, and sometimes swollen ap-
pearance of the genitals, which discharge a
Utile red-colored fluid. The lancet and
medicine have been resorted to with very
little success. Both of them are decidedly in-
jurious ; the animal should be put into some
dry, sheltered place, by herself, and kept on
boiled mashes and gruel for a few days.

Absorbents. — Medicines which are giv-
en in view of absorbing gas or neutralizing
acidity in the digestive cavity.

Absorbent Vessels. — (See Lacteals,
part first.)

A DICTIONARY.

215

Absinthium. — Common wormwood, used
for the purpose of reducing swellings that
have resulted from violence. Two ounces
of wormwood are steeped in one quart of
New England rum ; if a limb of the ani-
mal is involved, the wormwood is then
bound on with bandages, and the parts
occasionally wetted with the fluid.

Acacia. — Gum arabic, used as a demul-
cent and lubricant. In poisoning, it is use-
ful to sheathe the membranes of the stomach
and alimentary canal, and wiU defend them
from the action of drastic purges.

Acacia Catechu. — Gum catechu. This
is a powerful astringent : it is obtained from
a tree that grows in Japan.

Acetabulum. — The socket in which the
head of the thigh bone is lodged.

AcETATED Liquor of Ammonia. — This
has been long known by the popular term
of Mindererus' spirit, and is made by pour-
ing any quantity of acetic acid, diluted with
seven times its amount of water, upon car-
bonate of ammonia, until all fermentation
ceases, or until a neutral solution has been
formed. It is useful in horse practice ; it
gently invigorates, is diaphoretic, and some-
times it proves mildly diuretic. It princi-
pally shows its salutary effects in the com-
mencement of the febrile stage, or at the
close of lingering febrile diseases, particular-
ly of influenza. In the more early stages of
epidemic catarrh, it may also be exhibited :
the dose is from four ounces to an almost
unlimited quantity. The author used this
preparation with remarkable success in the
treatment of influenza, which prevailed, in
Massachusetts, in the fall and winter of
1855. The dose for horses and cattle is
from three to four fluid omices. It is gen-
erally given diluted with an equal quan-
tity of water.

Acids. — Are distinguished by their spur
taste ; they readily combine with alkalies,
producing effervescence. Those commonly
used in veterinary practice are : sulphuric,
nitric, hydrochloric, and acetic. They are all
more or less corrosive, and decompose the
vital tissues, by uniting with their serous,
albuminous, and saline constituents. There-

fore, when administered to the horse, they
should be diluted with water.

AcoNiTA. — Wolfsbane. — A powerful
sedative ; it moderates the action of the
heart, and produces depression of the vital
energies. It is generally used in the form
of tincture. Dose, from ten to fifteen drops.

Action'. — The gait of a horse ; which de-
pends on his powers and the mode of
training.

Action of Medicines.* — Every medi-
cine is endowed with certain inherent char-
acteristic actions, which distinguish it as
decidedly as its physical and chemical pro-
perties. Thus, some medicines act on the
bowels, causing purgation ; others on the
kidneys, stimulating the secretion of urine ;
and others on the brain and nervous sys-
tem, causing insensibility ; in fact, there
is no part or organ of the body, except the
spleen and pancreas, which is not influ-
enced, and that often in several different
ways, by some medicinal agent. It is im-
possible, however, to explain why a medi-
cine should act in one way rather than in
another ; why, for example, aloes is purga-
tive, and not diuretic, narcotic, or anaesthetic;
or why chloroform is anaesthetic, and not
vesicant, diuretic, or purgative. The stu-
dent must therefore endeavor to conceive of
these actions, or dynamical effects of medi-
cines, in the same manner as he does of
their more familiar properties of color, odor,
taste, or density.

Some medicines, as demulcents, caustics,
and astringents, have merely a local or topi-
cal action — soothing, irritating, corroding,
or altering the animal tissues, but not ex-
tending their influence beyond the part to
which they are first applied. Others, either
with or without such a local effect, have a
remote or indirect action on organs at a
distance from the part with which they are
first brought in contact. Medicines which
act thus remotely or indirectly are thought
to produce their effects in either or both of
the two following ways : (a) They are
absorbed into the circulation, and carried
by the blood to remote organs ; or (b), The

♦ Finby Dun.

21G

A DICTIONARY.

impression, which they produce on the parts
with which they are first brought in contact,
is transmitted along the nerves to other
parts. The latter mode of operation is
sometimes called action by sympathy.

(a.) The great majority of medicines ap-
pear to act in the former of these two ways,
being taken up by the blood-vessels from
the surface of the mucous membranes, skin,
or other part to which they have been ap-
plied. Thus, most medicines given by the
mouth, after having, if solid, undergone
solution in the acid gastric juice or alkaline
bile, pass, by a process of endosmose, into
the capillary veins which ramify on the sur-
face of the stomach and intestines, enter
the general circulation by the mesenteric
and portal vessels, and are thus carried to
all parts of the body, altering, it may be,
the nutritive processes of various organs
and tissues, and at length expelled through
some of the excretory channels, as the skin,
kidneys, or bowels. The rapidity with
which most substances are thus absorbed,
and make the round of the circulation, is
almost incredible. Professor Hering, of the
Veterinary College, Stuttgardt, found that
yellow prussiate of potash injected into one
of the jugular veins of a horse appeared in
the other in twenty-five seconds, and was
exhaled from the mucous and serous mem-
branes in a few minutes ; and also that
chloride of barium injected into the jugular
vein of a dog reached the carotid artery in
seven seconds. Dr. Blake observed that
chloride of barii;m and niti-ate of barytes
traversed the whole circulation of a dog in
nine seconds, and that of a horse in twenty
seconds ; and a similar rapidity of distri-
bution doubtless obtains with substances
which cannot easily be detected in the blood.

(b.) The other hypothesis, regarding the
action of medicines, is that they owe the
development of their effects to the produc-
tion of some nervous impression on the
part to which they are first applied, and its
subsequent transmission to remote organs
by means of the nervous system. A recent
modification of this theory, advanced by
Messrs. Morgan and Addison, assumes that

the nervous impression is produced, not
upon the part with which the medicine is
first brought in contact, but on the interior
of the blood-vessels after partial absorption.
Part of the evidence in support of these
hypotheses is derived from the fact that
some poisons operate with such extreme
rapidity as to render it doubtful whether
there could be time for their being absorbed
and making the round of the circulation.
Thus : anhydrous prussic acid, conia the
alkaloid of hemlock, and aconita the alka-
loid of aconite, when injected into the
veins, applied to the cellular tissue, or given
by the mouth, produce almost instantaneous
eflfects, and death in a few seconds. It ap-
pears, however, that the strongest evidence
in favor of the theories under consideration
consists in the effects of local injuries in
producing constitutional disturbance. For
example, a blow on the region of the
stomach sometimes causes fatal swooning ;
distention of the stomach often produces
hiccough ; the presence of worms in the
intestines sometimes induces epilepsy ; and
a local injury frequently causes fever and
constitutional chstnrbance of all the more
important organs of the body. In such
cases the connection between cause and
effect obviously depends on the transmis-
sion of nervous impressions only. And if
topical causes are thus productive of remote
efiects, it' is surely fair to infer that medi-
cines and poisons may operate in a similar
manner.

In fine, although it would appear that
most medicines are absorbed and actually
conveyed to the parts on which they act,
and that such absorption and actual con-
tact are essential to their action, yet it is
highly probable (though not yet positively
ascertained) that some substances, espe-
cially the more active poisons, astringents,
and emetics, owe their effects to the pro-
duction of a nervous impression, and its
projjagation to remote organs. Nor is it at
all improbable that, under different modify-
ing influences, certain substances will oper-
ate sometimes in one and sometimes in
the other of these two ways.

A DICTION'AUY.

217

Actual Cautery. — Red-hot iron. (See

FlKING.)

Acute. — A term applied to those diseases
which are sudden in their attack and vio-
lence, accompanied with great pain.

Acute Lndigestiox in Cattle, called
Hove, or Blown. — When cattle have be-
come fatigued by driving or by long fasting,
and suddenly find themselves with plenty
of food before them, particularly such as
requires little mastication, as chaff, bran,
grains, etc., etc. ; and also at all times
when they meet with food they have long
been deprived of, as various artificial grasses,
particularly red clover, they are apt to eat
greedily, and omit to stop for the purposes
of rumination ; by which means the rumen
or paunch becomes so distended as to be
incapable of expelling its contents. From
this, fermentation begins to take place, and
a large quantity of gas generates which in-
creases the distention, until the stomach,
by its pressure on the diaphragm, suflbcates
the animal.

The si/mptoms are uneasiness and distress,
with quickened respiration ; sometimes there
is a degree of phrensy present. When it is
occasioned by green food, the evolution of
gas is enormous, and the tympanitis gives
a drum-like distention to the belly ; but
when dry food, as chaff, bran, etc., etc., has
been taken, the impacted matter does not
distend so quickly, and the symptoms arc
less acute; they resemble those of constipa-
tion ; and sounding the side gives back a
response as though a solid matter were hit
against. It is thought to be more likely to
occur in warm and wet weather than in any
other ; and, if such be the case, it must arise
from the state of the vegetable matter and
the surrounding warmth both being favor-
able to fermentation.

The treatment will consist in attempting
to lessen the distention by ef0C2/fl^f«^thc dis-
tending gas, or otherwise trying to neutralize
it. Purgatives have little or no effect. The
evacuation of the gases is effected by the
introduction of a probang, which is passed
down the esophagus ; or it is brought

about by puncturing the side, when the dis-
ss

tention is urgent, or the want of assistance
renders it imperative to evacuate the gas
immediately, to prevent suffocation ; a
puncture is therefore at once made into it,
which, among gi'aziers, is called pminching.
When nothing better is at hand, this may
be performed with a lancet, or even a pen-
knife ; the wound made being kept open by
the introduction of a piece of hollow elder
or common wood; the place of puncture
being midway between the ileum or haunch-
bone and the last rib, a span below the
transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrse
on the left side, to which the first stomach
or paunch inclines. A cattle trocar will,
however, permit the gas to escape with cer-
tainty and speed, and should always be
used to make the puncture, in preference to
any other instrument. As soon as the air
is perfectly evacuated, and the paunch is
observed to resume its office, the trocar
may be removed ; the wound being care-
fully closed by a pitch plaster, or other ad-
hesive matter. It is necessary to observe,
that this operation is so simple and safe,
that, whenever a medical assistant cannot
be obtained, no person should hesitate a
moment about doing it himself. The do-
mestic remedies for lessening the distention,
by condensing the gas, have been various ;
as oil of turpentine, and particularly am-
monia, a strong solution of which in water
has been found serviceable. The alkalies
generally have long been used with variable
success. Vinegar, in the Qitarterh/ Journal
of AffricMlture, is strongly recommended ;
but, as it is observed that the elastic fluids
developed are not always alike, so the effects
resulting from the most reputed agents have
too often failed. Mx. Youatt recommends
the introduction of chlorinated lime, given
in doses of from "ij to 3iv suspended in
water.

But it is to a foreign veterinarian we are
indebted for the best agent for neutralizing
the gases given off when the rumen is dis-
tended. M. Charlet has recommended the
chloride of potash, which substance has a
great affinity for the compounds of hydro-
gen that usually form the major portion of

218

A DICTIONAKY.

those which exist in the stomach. This I
substance is to be given in doses of an
ounce to a horse, half an ounce to a cow,
and three drachms to a sheep. Occasion-
ally, however, from the contents of the
stomach being in a state of fermentation,
no gas will escape, upon the probang or
trochar being introduced. The chloride of
potash is thea to be poured down the pro-
bang or trochar, which ever may be used ;
and this substance must not be mixed with
either mucilage or aromatic bitters, but sul-
phuric ether and cold water may be joined
to it without injuring its effects.

^THER NiTROsus. — Swect Spirit of
nitre. Sweet spirit of nitre is stimulant,
anti-spasmodic, diuretic, and diaphoretic.
The dose is from one to two ounces, diluted
with water.

Age. — The age of a horse may be known
by marks in the front teeth and tusks of
the under jaw, until he is about eight years
old, after which period it is a matter of
guess-work ; yet those who are expert can
tell very near the exact age. There are
many circumstances which tend to show
whether a horse be old or not. The num-
ber of a horse's teeth is forty, — twenty-four
grinders, and sixteen others, — by some of
which his age may be known up to a certain
period. Mares have only thirty-six teeth,
as in them the tushes are usually wanting.
A few days after birth, the colt puts forth
two small front teeth in the upper and un-
der jaws, and soon after two more : these
are called nippers. The next four shortly
afterwards make their appearance. The
four corner teeth — as they are termed —
come a few months after the last named.
These twelve teeth, in the front of the
mouth, are small and white, and continue
without much alteration until the colt is
about two years and a half old, when he
begins to shed them. The two teeth that
first make their appearance are the first that
are lost, and are replaced by two others,
called horse's teeth, considerably stronger
and larger than those that have made way
for them. Between the third and foiuih
year the two teeth next the first fall out,

and are in like manner replaced by horse's
teeth. Between the foiu-th and fifth year,
the corner teeth are changed ; the tushes
make their appearance. About the fifth
year, the horse is said to have a full mouth.
After this period, up to the eighth year, the
age of a horse can, with some degree of
certainty, be Icnown by the cavities in the
teeth, which at first are deep, but are gradu-
ally, by the process of mastication, worn
down, and about the eighth year disappear.
After the fifth year, the above criterion of
age may be corroborated by the grooves in
the tushes of the male, which are inside ;
they are two in number. At six, one of
these cavities, viz., the one next the^ grinder,
disappears ; at seven, the other is consider-
ably diminished ; and at eight is almost,
but not always, entirely gone. After this
period, the tushes become more blunt and
round. The marks in the upper teeth are
by some considered indicative of the horse's
age ; those in the two front teeth disappear-
ing at eight, in the two next at ten, and in
the corner teeth at twelve. The marks in
the lower teeth will disappear about the
eighth year.

As a horse grows old, he generally turns
more or less gray ; the cavities above the
eyes become deeper ; the under lip falls ;
the gums shrink away from the teeth, giving
them the appearance of a greater length ;
the back becomes hollow, or curved.

Age of Neat Cattle is known by their
horns. At the age of about two years,
they shed their first fore teeth, which are re-
placed by others, larger and more prominent;
about five, the early teeth are all replaced
by the permanent ones. As the animal ad-
vances iir years, these teeth wear down, the
enamel disappears, and they assume a black
or brown appearance. When three years
old, a change takes place in the structure
of the horns ; after which period these ap-
pendages, lilce the permanent teeth, preserve
the same character. After the third year,
the horns continue to grow as long as the
animal lives, and the age is indicated by
the rings, or prominences, which are easily
distinguished on the horn, and by which the

A DlCTIONAP.y.

219

age of the creature may be nearly ascer-
lainod, by adding three years to the num-
ber of rings.

Airing, in the management of horses,
implies exercising tliem in open air.

Albumen. — That part of the white of an
egg which coagulates into a solid mass
when boiled ; it abounds in the bones,
muscles, cartilage, hoof, hair, etc.

Alcohol. — Rectified spirit. This is ex-
tensively used in medicine for making tinc-
tures. With an equal quantity of water it
is termed A^ew England rum. Alcohol is a
powerful irritant and caustic poison, to
whatever part of the horse it is applied. If
applied externally, it causes sweUing, pain,
and irritation ; if given internally, it absorbs
from the living parts the serous or watery
portion, and condenses the fibrous struc-
ture. Alcohol, diluted in any form, acts on
the horse as a diuretic, causing tiie kidneys
to secrete a large amount of urine, in con-
sequence of which they become overworked,
and finally diseased. It is used as a dift'u-
sible stimulant. The best substitute is
warm ginger tea.

Aliment. — That which nourishes the
system.

Alimentary Canal. — The interior of
the stomacii and intestines.

Alkalies. — There are different sorts :
soda, potash, and ammonia, are alkalies.

Aloes. — Obtained from the aloe plant.
The aloes now in use as a cathartic for
horses, cattle, and sheep, are the Barbadoes.
Pure Barbadoes aloes are of a dark brown
color, present a rough appearance when
broken, and have a rather pleasant aroma.

Alteratives. — A class of medicines
that act gradually and permanently upon
the liorse, by increasing the tone and vigor
of the secreting, excreting, and absorbing
system, without diminishing or destroying
their power.

Althea. — Marsh mallows. Tliis plant
is generally used in the formation of emol-
lient drinks, as it contains a largo amount
of mucilage.

Alum. — A mineral astringent, used to
destroy proud flesh. " Alum is a powerful
astringent, whether administered internally
or applied externally. It may be given to
the horse in does of from 3ij to 3iv, and
its employment has been attended with
some benefit in obstinate cases of diabetes,
also in diarrhoea, the primas viae having
been previously emptied by means of lax-
atives. It has likewise been found useful
in dysentery and lead colic. For either of
these diseases it may be advantageously
conjoined wdth opium and aromatics."
{Morton's Pharmacy.)

Amaurosis, or Gutta Serena.* — This
disease, known by the term glass eyes,
from the peculiar glassy appearance the
organs assume, is generally considered
as dependent on a paralytic state of the
optic nerves, or of their expansions, the
retiuEB. By others, it is, liowever, thought
to arise from the effects of inflammation,
hy, which coagulable lymph is placed over
the optic nerve, rendering the retina inac-
cessible to the stimulus of light ; this can
hardly be an occasional, and is certainly not
riie usual, cause. The disease, however, is
likely to arise from any irritation of the
brain ; thus, it is found to follow staggers
and the loss of large quantities of blood ;
which last-mentioned cause especially af-
fects the nervous system. The veterinarian
should make himself familiar with the ap-
pearances of this complaint, otherwise he
may lie open to serious imposition. In
amaurosis, a horse presents indications of
blindness in his manner, though but little in
his eyes; he seems cautious in stepping-;
lifts his legs high, tmd moves his ears
quickly, as though endeavoring to make up
by sound the intelligence lost by the depri-
vation of siglit: but, above all, a hand
moved close to the eye occasions no wink-
ing, unless held near enough for the motion
to influence the air around, which an artful
person might manage with ease. When
this kind of eye is examined closely, the
pupil will be found of one invariable .•<«

* Blaine.

220

A DICTIONART.

and unvarying hue ; it will not enlarge and
diminish as in a healthy horse, when re-
moved farther from, or nearer to, the light ;
for the retina, ceasing to be influenced by
the luminous ray, no longer controls the
movements of the iris. It is, therefore, from
the peculiarities in the manner of the horse,
the invariable size of the pupil, and a green-
ish glassy cast in such eyes, that these cases
may be distinguished. As it has hitherto
proved incm'able, we shall waste no time on
its treatment.

Ammonia. — This is a volatile alkali ; is
rapidly absorbed by water ; and, by union
with acids, forms several salts. The com-
pounds of ammonia employed medicinally
are: hydrochlorate of ammonia, sesqui-car-
bonate, and solution of the acetate of
ammonia. The aromatic spirit of ammonia
is a valuable stimulant and anti-spasmodic
in colic or hoven. For the preparation of
the latter, Mr. Morton gives the following
formula : •

Take of spirit of ammonia, 8 fluid ounces ; volatile
oil of lemons, 1 fluid drachm ; volatile oil of rosemary,
14 fluid drachm. Dissolve the oil in the spirit hy
agitation.

Anasarca. — That form of dropsy that
affects the Vvhole, or nearly the whole sys-
tem, or, in other words, an effusion of serum
into the meshes of the cellular tissue.

Anasarca, CEdema, and Water Farcy.*
— We need malie no distinction between
these terms, particularly the two first. As
generally accepted, oedema carries probably
rather a more local definition with it ; thus,
we say an oedematous swelling: but ana-
sarca is more frequently used to designate
an extensive dropsy of the cellular mem-
brane. Both, however, have the same
origin, and are accompanied by the same
symptoms. It differs from ascites princi-
pally in its external seat, which is some-
times partial and sometimes general. It
also appears under different fornij;, as it has
different origins ; and its terminations are
also under the influence of these circum-
stances. A debility of the absorbent system

* Blaine.

is usually observed in the spring and au-
tumn. There is, however, some general
atony of the whole system, and the ffdema
disappears as the constitution establishes
itself. At other times anasarca and cedema
appear as accompaniments or sequelEe to
acute diseases that have disturbed the func-
tions generally, in the which case the
absorbents become irritated ; or to the
cedema is added tumefied lymphatics.

Anesthetics. — Agents which produce
insensibility to external impressions and to
pain. The author uses, for inhalation, three
parts of sulphuric ether to one of chloroform.
In allusion to the use of anesthetics,
Mr. Morton writes : " AnsEslhetics are less
used in surgical and other painful operations
inthe lower animals than in man, on account
of the larger quantities required, the diffi-
culty of administration, and the undue pro-
longation of the preliminary stage of
excitement. They have been used in par-
turition, and afford, as in the human subject,
immunity from pain, but without apparent
interference with the force or frequency of
the involuntary contTactions of the uterus.
They have further been used for relieving
the irritability and pain of such diseases as
peritonitis, pleurisy, and pneumonia ; for
removing the spasms of tetanus, colic, and
asthma ; and for alleviating, by local appli-
cation, the irritability of severe wounds.
For all such purposes their use might, with
advantage, be much extended."

Anastomosis. — The communication of
blood-vessels with each other, or their open-
ing one into the other, by which means,
when the passage of blood through an
artery or vein is prevented by ligature, com-
pression, or any other cause, the circulation
is still kept up by means of the anastom-
osing vessels.

Anatomy. — The science that teaches
the structure of the animal economy.

Analysis. — The resolution of compound
bodies into their original or constituent prin-
ciples.

Anchylosis. — The loss of motion in a
joint. There are two lands, called com-

A DICTIONARY.

221

plete and incomplete. In the former, the
joint has grown together so as to be immov-
able ; in the latter, some motion remains,
and the rigidity is owing to the contraction
and thickening of the ligaments. Anchy-
losis in the horse is not unfrequently a con-
sequence of wounds or bruises ; the latter,
causing an absorption of the fluids that
nourish the joint, anchylosis is the result.
In bad spavins and ringbones, there is fre-
quently anchylosis of the hock and pastern
joints. The author's attention has lately
been called to a case of ringbone that had
been operated upon by some person totally
unacquainted with the nature of the disease.
The operation was performed in the most
cruel and barbarous manner. The operator
having never studied the anatomy of the
parts, it could not be otherv\dse expected.
On an examination of the animal, ossific
or bony deposits were found inside the hind
legs, in the form of a spavin ; deposits also
existed on the canon bones, and on the
pasterns, thus proving that the disease was
incurable ; the general health was impaired,
the knees sprung, and the animal was pro-
nounced by the owner to be worthless ; yet
this specimen of inhumanity, the self-styled
" doctor," had the audacity to state that he
could perform a cure for the trifling sum of
five dollars. The fact of his attempting to
cure a constitutional disease by local means,
under such unfavorable circumstances,
shows that he was an ignoramus ; and the
barbarous manner in whicli he performed
the operation, shows that he was destitute
of every particle of humanity. The author
has digressed merely for the purpose of
warning owners of domestic animals
against trusting them, when diseased, in
the hands of those who are unacquainted
with their mechanism.

Aneurism. — A tumor filled with blood,
communicating with an artery. It usually
occurs from rupture of one of the coats of
the artery, and dilitation of the cellular coat:
it is then denominated true aneurism.
When an artery is wounded, and the blood
escapes into the surrounding tissues, it is
called false aneurism.

The general mode of curing aneurism is
by tying a ligature around the artery ; the
coats of the artery become united, and part
of the artery obliterated ; the circulation is
carried on by anastomosing vessels. (See
Anastomosis.) Some aneurisms have been
known to undergo certain natural changes,
by which they have been spontaneously
cured, thus proving that the vital power is
more efficient " than an evil system of med-
ication."

Anise Seed. — A mild carminative. It
is much used in veterinary practice, and is
one of the ingredients in cordial balls.

Anodynes. — Medicines that relieve pain,
procure sleep, and lessen the irritabiUty of
the nervous system.

ANTACIDS.

•ALKALIES.

Anthelmintics. — Medicines that are said
to desti'oy worms, and are supposed to cause
their expulsion from the animal. Many of
the remedies recommended by some \\Titers
would be more likely to lull the horse, in-
stead of the former. The proper method
of preventing the generation of worms in
the alimentary canal, is to pay attention to
feeding, watering, etc., and give cathartics.

Antimony. — A mineral poison. It has
been extensively used in veterinary practice.
There are numerous preparations of anti-
mony, but they are all more or less objec-
tionable. Large quantities of this mineral
have been used on horses ; yet, in some
cases, where there is vital power enough in
the animal to dispossess it from the system,
no immediately unfavorable results were
observed. Yet it is an agent of such diver-
sified therapeutical powers, that the wisest
of the faculty have never ventured to pre-
scribe and fix limits to its action. (See
Toxicological Chart.)

Mr. Finlay Dun, of the Edinburgh college,
has lately made a series of experiments
with tartar emetic, on horses, and he speaks
very highly of it as antiphlogistic. The
dose for a horse is from one to four drachms,
either in bolus or solution, repeated as oc-
casion may require.

Antidotes. — See Toxicological Chart.

9,99.

A DICTIONARY.

Antiseptics. — Medicines that coiTect
and prevent putridity. The best and most
efRcient are charcoal, Peruvian bark, acetic
acid, and bayberry bark.

Anti-spasmodics. — Medicines that are
employed in spasmodic and convulsive dis-
orders. The most efficient are assafoetida,
pennyroyal, or any of the mints. The most
powerful in spasm, or lockjaw, are lobelia,
warmth and moisture, castor, musk, gin-
seng, and Indian hemp, or milk weed.

Apoplexy. — A lesion of some of the
vessels of the brain.

Arm. — A term applied to the upper part
of the fore leg.

Aromatics. — Medicines that have a
warm, pungent taste, and fragrant smell ;
of this kind are cardamom seeds, cloves,
and nutmegs, sweet flag, etc.

Arsenic. — A destructive mineral poison.
It has been used, in many diseases of the
horse, without the slightest benefit. Dr.
White states, " So various are its effects,
that he has known a very small quantity to
terminate fatally."

Arteriotomy. — When blood is taken
from an artery, the process is called arteri-
otomy. The proper place for puncturing
the temporal artery, is at the precise spot
where this vessel leaves the parotid gland
to curve upwards and forwards around the
jaw, which is just below its condyle. The
operation should be performed with a lan-
cet.

Arterio - Phlebotoaiy is sometimes re-
sorted to for the abstracting blood from
the roof of the mouth and the toe of the
foot ; in such cases, however, a want of
knowledge, as regards the anatomy of the
parts, may occasion a serious ha'morrhage.

Ascites. — Dropsy of the abdomen.

AsTiiM.\. — Supposed to originate in the
muscles of respiration. (See Cough, Roar-
ing, etc.)

Astringents. — Medicines that contract
and condense muscular fibre. The princi-
pal are kino, catechu, oak bark, nutgalls,
and bayberry bark.

Atmosphere. — The name given to an
elastic invisible fluid which surrounds the

globe ; it is composed of oxygen, nitrogen,
and a small portion of carbonic acid gas.
In stables that are not ventilated, the vapor
arising from the dung and urine combine
with it, and render it unfit for respiration.

Atlas. — The first vertebra, or bone of
the neck.

Atrophy. — A v>-asting of the body.

Auricles. — The two small cavities of
the heart,

Backgalled. — When accidents of this
kind occur, the saddle or harness should be
padded, or chambered, so as to remove
pressure from the part ; sometimes they are
diffi.cult to heal, owing to the presence of
morbific matter in the system.

Backraking. — This is a name given by
farriers to the operation of introducing the
hand into the fundament, and emptying the
rectum of its contents. The use of injec-
tions will, ere long, supersede this beastly
practice. The most suitable injection to
soften the faeces is warm soapsuds.

Back Sinews. — The flexor tendons of
the fore and hind legs are so named. They
are frequently strained, or otherwise injured,
by over exertion or accidents.

Ball. — Bolus, or large pill. The mode
of giving a ball is by drawing out the
tongue to the right side, and liolding it in
the left hand, while an assistant stands on
the left side and holds the mouth open.
The ball is to be held by the finger and
thumb of the right hand, drawn into as
small a compass as possible, and passed as
far as the horse's throat. This must be
done by a quick motion of the hand, which
should be kept toward the roof of the
mouth, as there is more room for it in that
direction.

Balsam. — A name applied to several
resinous substances, such as balsam of tolu,
Peruvian balsam, balsam copaiba, etc.,
Canada or fir balsam ; the medicinal prop-
erties are stimulant and diuretic.

Balsam Copaiba, or Capivi, is used for
chronic cough ; the dose is about one ounce.

Balsam of Sulphur. — A preparation
made by boiling sulphur and olive oil to-
gether, until united in the form of a dark-

A DICTIONARY.

colored tenacious mass. I'his has been
mnch esteemed by old farriers in obstinate
coughs. When mixed with a small propor-
tion of oil of anise-seed, it has been thought
more efRcacions, and is then named anis-
ated balsam of sulphur.

Bandage. — Strips of linen, cotton, or
flannel, about three or four inches wide.
They are serviceable in habitual swellings
of the legs, or weakness of the fetlock joint.
They are likewise used for the purpose of
keeping on dressings, or assisting in uniting
parts that are cut or lacerated ; they assist
by pressure in expelling matter, or pre-
venting the descent of ruptures, and as
compresses for restraining bleeding or hem-
on-hage. The mode of applying the bandage
to the leg is as follows : the material, after
being cut the proper width, must be rolled
up, and the bandage fixed by taking two or
three turns in the same place ; after which,
the roller may be carried round spirally,
taking care tliat every turn of the bandage
overlaps about two-thirds of the preceding
one. When the inequality of the parts
cause the margin to slack, it must be re-
versed, or folded over; that is, its upper
margin must become the lower, etc. A
bandage should be moderately tight, so as
to support the parts without intercepting
the circulation, and should be so applied as
to press equally on every part. In band-
aging a horse's leg, the roUer should be
applied from the upper part of the hoof to
the knee ; in every case it is advisable to
bandage from joint to joint, thus leaving
the joint at liberty. When it is found
necessary to bandage a joint, the bandage
should be put on in the form of a figure 8.

Barb. — A general name for horses im-
ported from Barbary. The barb, one of
the most celebrated of the African races, is
to be met with in Barbary, Tripoli, and
Morocco ; he seldom exceeds more than four-
teen hands and a half in height. The barb
requires more excitement to call out his
powers than the Arabian ; but, when suf-
ficiently excited, his qualities of speed and
endurance render him a powerful antagonist
to the /Vrabian.

Bark. — This name is generally applied
to several different species of Peruvian
bark, the yellow and the red. The active
I principle of the yellow bark is an alkaloid
principle, called quin^, combined with a
peculiar acid, called kinic, or cinchonic, in
the state of an acid salt ; besides these, it
contains an oily and a yellow coloring mat-
ter, tannin, Idnate of lime, and woody fibre.
Their value in treating diseases of the horse
consists in their tonic and astringent prop-
erties. It should be given to the horse in
the form of infusion ; one ounce of pow-
dered bark to a quart of boiling water. It
is also useful to restore indolent ulcers to a
healthy state. The best tonic for a horse is
hydrastis Canadensis (golden seal).

Bar Shoe. — A particular kind of shoe,
which is sometimes used to protect the frog
from injury; also in corns.

Bars of the Foot. — (See Foot, part
fii-st.)

Bars of the Mouth. — Transverse ridges
on the roof of the mouth ; they are most

conspicuous, or

full.

in a young

hors

When swollen, or fuller than usual, the
horse is said to have the lampas.

Basilicon. — A digestive ointment, com-
posed of equal parts of olive oil, yellow
beeswax, and common resin (or rosin).
These are to be melted over a slow fire,
and stirred until the mixture is quite cool.

Bay. — A bay color, in horses, is so
named from its resemblance to dried bay
leaves.

Biceps. — The biceps is a double-headed
muscle, which senses to bend a limb.

Bile, or Gall. — A bitter, greenish fluid,
secreted by the liver for the purpose of as-
sisting digestion. In the horse there is no
gall bladder, or receptacle for the bile ; it
passes directly into the duodenum, or first
part of the small intestines, a few inches
from the stomach.

Bilious. — Diseases are called bilious
when they depend on a morbid state of the
liver.

Bits. — There are various kinds of bits
in use ; among them are the snaffle and
curb. A snaffle may be either plain, or

2-2i

A DICTIONAKY.

twisted, but the latter is apt to make the
mouth callous ; it consists of two pieces,
having a sort of hinge joint in the centre.
When used for the purpose of breaking
young colts, it should be made large, so as
not to hurt the mouth. The form of the
curb bit resembles somewhat the letter 11.
The bridle is fastened to the side pieces,
which act as levers of different powers, ac-
cording to the distance from the cross-bar,
to which the bridle is attached. The hu-
mane man will never inflict unnecessary
severity on the horse, and will avoid contin-
ual strain on the reins or bridle, which,
aside from the torture they inflict, tend to
render the horse's mouth callous. The best
form of bit, and the most simple, is the stiff,
arched bit. The author has seen a very fme
specimen of this article, manufactured by
Messrs. Hannaford & Dsley, of this city.
The centre piece is large and curved ; the
checks are movable, and their upper ends
curved outwards, which prevents their injur-
ing the cheek bones. It is very important
that a horse should be properly bitted;
many docile horses are rendered stubborn
and unmanageable, by having a bit that is
too narrow. Many young horses are injured
while they are teething, and the mouth is
tender, by bearing too hard on the rein.
The author would suggest a trial of an
India rubber centre piece, in such cases.

Bite of any Rabid Animal. — In most
works on veterinary science, the writers re-
commend excision, or cutting out the bitten
part, and afterwards cauterizing with the
firing iron ; but this method is very unsatis-
factory, and only puts the animal to unne-
cessary torment. The morbid matter from
a rabid animal is generally taken up by the
absorbents, sometimes in a few seconds,
and the operation of cauterizing would then
be of no avail. The treatment we recom-
mend is, to dose the animal with a tea of
lobelia ; half a pound of the herb and seed
may be steeped in two quarts of scalding
water, and given in doses of half a pint, at
intervals of an hour. A large poultice of
the same should be bound on the bitten
part, and kept in contact with the parts by

bandages, and the poultice renewed every
six hours, until all signs of poisoning disap-
pear. The animal should be kept on scalded
shorts, in moderate quantities.

Bladder. — The bladder is a musculo-
membranous bag, situated, when empty, in
the cavity of the pelvis. Its use is to con-
tain the urine, which flows into it through
the ureters, from the kidneys. It is divided
into three parts, viz., the fundus or bottom,
the body, and the neck. When full, the
fundus of the bladder protrudes out of the
pelvis, into the abdominal cavity ; it then
receives a covering from the peritoneum.
Its other coats are an internal mucous mem-
brane, and an external muscular coat, formed
of two distinct sets of fibres ; the one lon-
gitudinal, and the other circular. The
former are thickest about the fundus, the
latter about the neck or cervix, — which, by
this arrangement, is always kept closed,
except during the time of voiding the urine.
On opening horses that have died from
accident, we sometimes find the bladder
empty, and its muscular fibres so condensed
that it appears like a solid mass of small
dimensions ; such is the contractile power
of its muscular coat, by which, with some
assistance from the abdominal muscles and
diaphragm, the urine is expelled. The
author has opened several horses that have
died from lockjaw, and found the bladder
distended to its utmost capacity, containing
about a gallon and a half of dark-colored
fluid, resembling coffee-gi-ounds. In one
case, the mvTscular fibres about the neck
of the bladder were lacerated by the over-
distention and spasm of the neck of that
orEran. When horses are accustomed to
drink too much water, without being al-
lowed to stale often enough at work, the
bladder becomes over-distended, and often
paralysis, weakness, or local debility sets
in, and the neck of the bladder becomes at
length so relaxed as to be unable to offer
sufficient resistance to the muscles that pro-
pel the urine into the lurethra, so that it is
constantly dribbling off as fast as it is
secreted. This is termed incontinence of
urine.

A DICTIONARY.

225

Sometimes the irritability of ihc bladder,!
in the latter case, depends on the acrimony
of the urine; and, whenever ihis is the case,
attention to feeding, watering, etc., will
remove it. Diseases of the kidneys and
bladder are accompanied with tenderness
over the loins, and a remarkable stiffness of
the hind legs. Whenever the bladder is
distended with urine, recourse should be
had to the catheter.

Palsy, or paralysis, of the bladder, is
sometimes dependent on functional de-
rangements, as stomach staggers, or injuries
to the brain and spinal marrow.

Blasting. — When cattle or sheep are
first turned into luxuriant pasture, after be-
ing poorly fed, they fiequently gorge them-
selves with food, which, fermenting in the
rumen, or paunch, so distends it with gas
that the animal is often in danger of suffo-
cation. The symptoms are most distressing;
and, unless relief be speedily afforded, death
very commonly ensues. If the symptoms
are very alarming, a flexible tube may be
passed down the gullet : this will generally
allow the gas to escape, and afford tempo-
rary relief, until more efficient means are
resorted to ; these will consist in arousing
the stomach and digestive organs to action,
by stimulants and carminatives, and coun-
teracting the tendency to putrescence by
doses of charcoal or soda. Some prac-
titioners recommend puncturing the rumen,
or paunch ; but there is always some dan-
ger attending it, and, at best, it is only
palliative, and the process of fermentation
will proceed ; the gas may -escape, but the
materials that furnished it still remain.
Youatt states : " A cow had eaten a large
quantity of food, and was hoven. A neigh-
bor, who was supposed to know a great
deal about cattle, made an incision into the
paunch ; the gas escaped, a gi'eat portion
of the food was removed with the hand,
and the animal appeared to be considerably
relieved, but rumination did not return : on
the following day the animal was dull ; she
refused her food, but was eager to drink.
She became worse and worse, and on the

sixth day she died ;" thus proving i hat the
remedy was worse than ihe disease.

When animals are blasted in a moderate
degree, the carminative drink, and decoction
of lobelia, will prove effectual. In all cases
of hove, it will be advisable to give injec-
tions of warm water, to w^hich add a hand-
ful of salt, and the same quantity of
charcoal. As a means of preventing the
blast, it may be remarked, that animals
should never be turned into any nutritive
pasture while the dew is on the ground, or
after rain.

Bleedixg. — The practice of abstracting
blood has received the seal of antiquity, yet
that is no argument in favor of its useful-
ness ; and, in view of improving in the
future, the author here introduces an article
on the subject, by Professor Buchanan :

" We affirm that bleeding is a barbarous
and unscientific remedy, and deny that it is
ever necessary. In this matter we take our
stand upon the facts recognized by the high-
est authorities in medical literature. We
refer to the most recent and accurate re-
searches in chemistry and pathology ; to the
experimental investigations of Andral, Ma-
gendie, Louis, Simon, and many others,
which have settled, beyond all doubt, and
placed among the permanent facts of medi-
cal science, to be received by all medical
schools of whatever therapeutic faith, the
phenomena of the blood, when its composi-
tion has been affected by hemorrhage, by
bleeding, and by various other agencies.

" It is indisputably established that bleed-
ing produces a special change in the com-
position of the blood. The change which
it produces is not a removal of any cjfelc or
morbid materials, — not a removal of any
element which tends to create or aggravate
disease, — but a removal of the most neces-
sary and healthy portion, upon the presence
of which we depend for the maintenance of
health and vigor. Bleeding inevitably re-
duces the red or globulous portion of the
blood, because it removes or destroys a
certain amount of the red globules, and the
loss which it produces is readily supplied by

226

A DICnOXAKY.

absorption of water and of comparatively
crude materials, while the highly-organized
globules are regenerated with great slow-
ness and difficulty.

" It is a well-established fact, that the red
globules of the blood are essential to life,
and that their abundance or scarcity is a
criterion of the vital force and activity of
the constitution. As the proportion of the
red globules increases, the general vital
power rises, and the activity or energy of all
the organs increases ; while a diminution of
their ratio enfeebles or disorders the various
organs, and predisposes to nervous and
tuberculous disorders, and to the whole
range of adynamic and cachectic diseases.
If Ihe ratio is diminished as much as one-
seventh, general debility is the consequence,
predisposing to disease and diminishing the
])ower of recovery ; if as much as one-fourth
or more, this reduction of vital power is
incompatible with health, and inevitably
results in some form of disorder.

" Is it not, then, exquisitely absurd to
adopt, as a remedy in disease, a measure
which, even in the most vigorous health,
tends directly, with rigorous precision, to
destroy the vital powers and bring- on
disease ? Yet this measure has been, and
still is, sustained by many medical men,
although clinical experience, as well as
chemical science, has shown its injurious
eflects, and thousands in America and
Europe have been, and are now, demon-
strating that all forms of disease may be
better treated without bloodletting than
with it.

" We affirm that, in disease, the patho-
genetic elements of the blood should be
removed, instead of its healthful and neces-
sary constituents. Nature has provided for
the removal of all noxious materials, by
numerous appropriate outlets, which dis-
charge every thingthat is injurious to human
health. It is the duty of the physician to
aid nature by such medicines and means as
will rouse the secretions and excretions, and
thus insure the restoration of the blood to a
perfectly healthy condition. When, for
want of knowledge how to accomplish this.

he destroys with unnatural violence a large
portion of the vital blood itself, which is as
necessary to the body as its solid tissues, he
acts with as much scientific precision as the
savage, who would treat a case of convul-
sions, not by removing its causes, but by
cutting out a portion of the convulsed
muscles.''

It will be very difficult, however, to con-
vince some of the " older heads," and the
world in general, that bleeding can be dis-
pensed with ; therefore the veterinarian must
be prepared to please his employer, and do
just as his superiors have done, — or else
" loose caste " and practice.

Blemishes. — They consist of broken
knees, loss of hair, cracked heels, false quar-
ters, splents, windgalls, spavins, etc.

Blind, Moon. — A disease of the horse's
eyes, which is supposed to be the forerunner
of cataract, and often ends in total blindness.
Blister Fly. — Cantharides, or Spanish
fly. The object in applying a blister is to
promote absortions and to combat deep-
seated inflammations.

Bloodroot. — Sangitinaria Canadensis,
used to prevent the growth of fungus, or
proud flesh ; a substitute for caustic.
Blood Spavin. — Enlarged bitrsse.
BoTS. — Short reddish worms, which are
often found attached to the horse's stomach.
Ml-. Clark says " that bots are not, properly
speaking, worms, but the larvce of the gad-
fly, which deposits its eggs on the horse's
coat in such a manner as that they shall be
received into his stomach, and then become
bots. When the female fly has become im-
pregnated, and the eggs are sufficiently ma-
tured, she seeks among the horses a subject
for her purpose, and, approaching it on the
wing, she holds her body nearly upright in
the air, and her tail, which is lengthened for
the purpose, earned inwards and upwards.
In this way she approaches the part where
she designs to deposit the eggs ; and, sus-
pending herself for a few seconds before it,
suddenly darts upon it, and leaves the egg
adhering to the hair by means of a gluti-
nous liquor secreted with it. She then
leaves the horse at a small distance, and pre-

A DICTIONARY.

pares the second egg ; and, poising herself
before the part, deposits it in ihe same way ;
the liquor di'ies, and the egg becomes firmly
glued to the hair. This is repeated by va-
rious flies, till four or five hundred eggs are
sometimes deposited on one horse. They
are usually deposited on the legs, side, and
back of the shoulder, — those parts most ex-
posed to be liclvcd by the animal : in lick-
ing, the eggs adhere to the tongue, and are
carried into the horse's stomach in the act
of swallowing. The bots attach them-
selves to the horse's stomach, and are some-
times, though less frequently, found in the
first intestine. The number varies consid-
erably ; sometimes they are not half a dozen,
at others they exceed a hundred. They
are fixed by the small end to the inner coat
of the stomach, to which they attach them-
selves by means of two hooks. The slow-
ness of their growth, and the purity of their
food, which is supposed to be the chyle,
must occasion what they receive in a given
time to be proportionably small ; from
which, perhaps, arises the extreme difficulty
of destroving them by any medicine or poi-
son thrown into the stomach." A large
amount of opium, tobacco, and corrosive
sublimate, sufTicient to destroy the horse,
have from time to time been given ; and, on
opening the stomach, these animals have
been found uninjured. " The presence of
bots in the horse's stomach is not easily
ascertained, as it is certain that great num-
bers have been found after death in the
stomach, without appearing to have pro-
duced any kind of inconvenience to the ani-
mal while alive. It does not appear that
any eflectual remedy has yet been discov-
ered for bots." Mr. Blaine says, " that he
has kept them alive for some days in olive
oil, and in oil of turpentine, and that even
the nitrous and sulphuric acids do not im-
mediately destroy them. At a certain sea-
son of the year, they detach themselves from
the stomach, and pass off with the excre-
ment." A run at grass is the most effec-
tual remedy.

Compound for Bots. — Persons desirous

of treating a horse for bots, can use the fol-
lowing :

Powdered poplar bark, ... 4 ounces.

" mandrake, . . . . 2 ounces.

" balmony (snakehead), . . 4 ounces.

" wormseed, . . . .2 ounces.

" goklen seal, .... 1 ounce.

" slippery elm, .... 4 ounces.

Mix. Uinde into sixteen powders, and give one, night
and morning, in the food.

Regimen. — The animal should be kept
on a geiierous diet ; green food or succulent
and agreeable vegetables will effect a change
and assist to detach the bots. If, however,
such articles cannot be procured, let the
horse have a mess of scalded shorts every
night.

Bow-legged. — Defective conformation
of the legs.

Box, Loose. — A loose box, as it is gen-
erally called, is a place wherein a horse is
turned without being fastened to the man-
ger or rack : such a place is useful to turn a
horse into when he is sick, or when the mare
is about foaling.

Brain. — The connection that exists be-
tween the brain and stomach, by means of
the eighth pair of nerves, or par vagum, is
the cause of this important organ being
often disturbed in its function. Thus it is
that, when the stomach is loaded with food,
its function becomes deranged, and the brain
is affected sympathetically. A diseased
action is then set up, and all the functions
become more or less deranged. A horse in
this case will become duU and languid, and
sometimes labor under symptoms of apo-
plexy. In consequence of this nervous
communication between the stomach and
brain, the latter organ is sometimes aflijcted
by the imtation of bots in the st^macli.
The best way to prevent apoplexy, staggers,
etc., is, by attention to diet, exercise, etc.

Dropsy of the brain does not often occm:
to horses or cows ; but sheep appear to be
more liable to the disease than other quad-
rupeds. The symptoms of the disorder in
horses are vai-Lable. " In one case there
was a considerable degree of dulness and
heaviness about the head : the pulse was

228

A DICTIONARY.

not much affi-ctcd, but there was loss of ap-
petite. The animal appeared as if suffering
much pain in the head, generally keeping it
lower tiian the manger. These symptoms
were followed by delirium, convulsions, and
death. In another case, when probably the
water had accumulated very gradually in
the ventricles of the brain, the horse ap-
peared to be free from pain, except when
the circulation was hurried by brisk motion,
when he would fall down in violent spasms,
the fit seldom lasting but a few minutes.
This horse, being of scarcely any value, was
destroyed, and, upon opening the brain,
about six ounces of water escaped." Sir
George Mackenzie has described two Jcinds
of this disease which sometimes happen to
sheep : " The first consists of an accumula-
tion of water in the ventricles of the brain ;
the other — which is most common — arises
from animalculae, called hydatids. In this
case, the water is contained in cysts, or bags,
unconnected with the substance of the brain,
on wliicli it acts fatally by pressure. Very
soon after water has begun to collect, cither
in the ventricles or cysts, the animal shows
evident and decisive symptoms of the dis-
ease. He starts, looks giddy and confused,
as if at a loss what to do ; retires from the
flock, and sometimes exhibits a very affect-
ing spectacle of misery."

Breaking. — The breaking of young
horses is a matter of great importance, and
should never be intrusted to any one of a
cruel or harsh disposition, as, under such a
master, the very best-tempered horse may
be rendered vicious. They are often broken
when much too young ; they are often found
racing at tln-ee, and in constant work before
they are four years old. This is one of the
causes of contracted feet and lameness, that
are continually presenting themselves to our
notice. Farmers in general put their colts
to worlv too young; and, although exercise
may improve their growth and constitution,
yet this advantage is more than counter-
balanced by their being shod at a period
when then- feet are tender.

Bridle Hand. — The left is called the

bridle hand, in contradistinction to the riglit,
which is termed the loliip hand.

Broken Wind. — The origin of broKen
wind is supposed to be a morbid secretion
from the membrane lining the windpijie,
bronchial tubes, and ramifications; the air-
cells are somewhat ruptured, and the air is
entangled in the cellular substance, or com-
mon connecting membrane. The bulk of
the lungs is greatly increased, while their
capacity for containing air is diminished.
It is stated in Rees' Cyc/opcedia, under the
head of broken v.dnd, " that, after opening
more than ten broken-winded horses, their
lungs were uniformly found emphysemat-
ous. (See Emphysema.) This complaint
is generally considered incurable ; but it
may often be alleviated by constant atten-
tion to diet." The animal should be fed on
shorts, and green food if it can be procured,
and boiled carrots. When used, his exer-
cise should at first be moderate, and he
should never be exercised immediately after
feeding. If the horse shows any disposition
to eat the litter, a muzzle must be provided.

According to ]\Ii-. Richard Lawrence,
"the most common appearance of the lungs
in broken-winded horses is a general thick-
ening of their substance, by which their
elasticity is in a great measure destroyed,
apd their weight specifically increased. At
the same time, their cajmcity for receiving
air is diminished." Dr. White writes, "that
he has examined the lungs of broken-winded
horses without observing this general tiiick-
ening of their substance ; on the contrary,
they have appeared superficially lighter and
larger than in their natural state. Two
horses were purchased for the purpose of
making experiments, and so badly broken-
winded as to be useless. In tlie first, the
lungs were unusually large, and there was
a considerable quantity of air in the cellular
membrane ; but it was not ascertained
whether the air had escaped from the air-
cells, or had been generated within the
common cellular membrane. The other
I horse was kept about a month in a field
where tliorc was no water and very little

A DICTIONARY.

22ft

grass. When taken up, he appeared per-
fectly free from the disorder. He was shot ;
and, upon examining the lungs, they had
not the slightest appearance of disease."
This proved the superiority of nature's
remedies over those of man. The same
author relates that he purchased a broken-
winded horse that was incapable of work-
ing. By allowing him only a small quan-
tity of hay, sprinkled -with water, giving
mashes, mixed with a small quantity of
oats, and only a small qviantity of water,
taking care at the same time that he had
regular and moderate exercise, his wind be-
came gradually better, and he afterwards
was perfectly free from the complaint.

The author has examined the lungs of
two horses which were said to be afflicted,
for some time previous to death, with bro-
ken wind, without detecting a loss of con-
tinuity in their structure ; neither was their
specific gi-avity diminished.

BRoxcniA. — (See Windpipe.)

BiioNCHOTOMY. — The operation of open-
ing the windpipe for the purpose of produc-
ing artificial respiration, or to remove any
substances that may have lodged in the
upper part of the larynx.

Bl-rns are best treated by a mixture of
equal portions of lime-water and linseed
oil, the parts being frequently anointed with
the mixture.

BuRsj3 MucosjE. Mucous Bags, or Sacs.
— These arc described as membranous sacs,
contaiiiing a fluid similar to synovia, or
joint oil, and interposed between tendons
and the parts on which they move. In
violent exertions these vascular membranes,
which secrete and confine the synovia, are
injured ; hence we have wdndgalls, bog-
spavin, etc.

BuTTERis. — An instrument used by
horse-shoers for paring the horse's hoofs.

CiEcuM. — The blind gut. So named
because it is open at one end only. In the
horse this part of the intestines is remark-
ably large.

Calf, Diseases of. — Many of tlie dis-
eases of calves originate in a disordered
state of the stomach, either from taking too

much milk at a time, or from the milk not
being sufficiently fresh, or being taken from
a cow whose health is imj^aircd. When-
ever the stomach is disordered, either by the
quantity or quality of the milk, it causes a
variety of disorders, such as scouring, want
of appetite, costiveness, colic, yellows, con-
vulsions, etc.

Calkins. — A name given to the promi-
nences on horses' shoes, which are turned
downward fcr the purpose of preventing
their slipping.

Calving. — At the end of nine lunar
months the period of the cow's gestation is
complete ; but the parturition does not ex-
actly take place at that time, — it is some-
times earlier, at others later. " One hun-
dred and sixteen cows had their time of
calving registered : fourteen of them calved
from the two hundred and forty-first day to
the two hundred and sixty-sixth day, —
that is, eight months and one day to eight
months and twenty-six days ; three on the
two hundred and seventieth day ; fifty-six
from the two hundred and seventieth to the
two hundred and eightieth day ; eighteen
from the two hundred and eightieth (o the
two hundred and ninetieth day ; twenty on
the three hundredth day ; five on the three
hundred and eighth day ; consequently there
were sLxty-seven days between the two ex-
tremes. Immediately before calving, the
animal appears uneasy; the tail is elevated;
she shifts about from place to place, and is
frequently lying down and getting up again.
The labor pains then come on, and, by the
expulsive power of the w'omb, the feel us,
with the membranes enveloping it, is pished
forward. At first the membranes appear
beyond the vagina or shape, in the form of
a bladder of water : this soon bursts, the
water is discharged, the head and fore feet
of the calf are protruded (in natural labor)
beyond the shape. The body next appears,
and the delivery is com])lete. In a little
time afterwards, some trifling pains take
place, Yi'hich separates the afterbirth, or
cleansings; and these being expelled, the
process is finished.

When the membrane breaks, and the

230

A DICTIONARY.

fluid escapes early in calving, and before
the mouth of the uterus is sufficiently ex-
panded, the process is often slow, and it is
a considerable time before any part of the
calf makes its appearance. The practice
of hurrying the process by introducing the
hand, or di'iving the animal about when
symptoms of calving appear, is very impro-
per. It has been known in many instances
to cause the animal's death. It sometimes
appears that a wrong presentation takes
place, and renders the calving impracticable
without assistance. In such cases it is
necessary to introduce the hand in order to
ascertain the position of the calf, and change
it when it is found unfavorable. When,
for example, the head presents without the
fore legs, which are bent under the breast,
it cannot, in this position, be well drawn
away without danger. In this case the calf
should be gently pushed back in the uterus,
placing the cow in the most favorable
position, and taking the opportunity for so
doing while there are no pains nor straining.
When the calf is pushed back, the fore legs
are to be carefully drawn downward, in a
line with the head, and brought out into the
vagina. The author has known several
cases, where parturition was seemingly dif-
ficult, of a resort to force in extracting the
calf; but it should be recollected that nature
is never to be interfered with in the process
of delivery, or in any of her operations,
tinless it is clearly ascertained that assist-
ance is necessary. When much force is
used in drawing the calf, and especially if
the animal be rather fat, a disease of the
\\omb is apt to follow, puerperal fever sets
in, which often proves fatal. Great mis-
chief is also done by endeavoring to extract
the calf without regard to its position in the
uterus : it is sometimes so placed that de-
livery is not practicable until the position
of the calf is shifted. When much force
is used in drawing the calf, it sometimes
happens that the womb falls out or is in-
verted, and great care is required in putting
it back, so that it may remain in its situa-
tion. In doing so, there is an advantage
derived from placing the cow in such a

position that the hind parts may be higher
than the fore. If any dust or straw remain
about the womb, they should be carefully
removed before the womb is put back. A '
linen cloth is then to be put under the
womb, which is to be held by two assistants.
The cow should be made to rise, that being
the most favorable position, and the opera-
tor is then to gi-asp the body of the womb
with both hands, and gently return it.
When so returned, one hand is to be im-
mediately withdrawn, while the other re-
mains to prevent that part from falling
down again. The hand at liberty is then
to grasp another portion of the womb, which
is to be pushed into the body like the former,
and retained with one hand. This is to be
repeated until the whole of the womb is
put back ; if the womb does not contract,
friction with a brush around the belly and
back may excite the muscles to contraction:
should this fail, the animal may have an
astringent and aromatic di'ink, made by in-
fusing three ounces of ground poplar bark
in about three pints of hot water; when
cool, administer with a horn or bottle, taking
care, while pouring down the oesophagus,
to let it fall gently and gradually ; by that
means it will pass over the pillars of the
cesopiiagean canal, and on to the third
stomach ; otherwise it would fall into the
rumen, and defeat the object in view.

CAiiPHon. — A narcotic vegetable concre-
tion. This medicine, says Dr. White, " is
employed both internally and externally. It
is given inwardly as an anti-spasmodic, as
in lockjaw, when it is commonly joined with
opium ; and as a febrifuge, or fever medi-
cine, joined with nitre and antimonial
powder." Mr. Morton writes : Camphor
has been occasionally given in tympanitis,
and it has been supposed to act by rousing
the vital energies. In a state of fine powder
it is sometimes sprinkled over a linseed-
mcal poultice, when it has been found to
allay irritation ; although, as a sedative, thus
applied, it is not equal to the extract of the
deadly nightshade.

On account of its sedative influence, it
may be advantageously combined with

A DICTIONARY.

231

opium or digitalis for chronic coughs.
Given for any length of time, it pervades
the system, and is excreted by the lungs and
kidneys.

Cantharides. — Spanish Fly* — Several
preparations of cantharides are now in use
for example,

Viner/ar of Cantharides.
Take of Catharides in powder, . 1 part,
" Diluted acetic acid, . . 8 parts.
Macerate for fourteen days, and filter.

Oil of Cantharides.
Cantharides in powder, . . 1 part.

Olive oil, . . . . .8 parts.
Digest in a water bath for two hom-s, and filter for use.

Ointment of Cantharides.
Take Cantharides in powder, . 1 part.

" " Hogs lard, . . 6 parts.

Digest in a water bath and filter thi'ough paper.

Capped Hock. — A swelling on the point
of the hock, generally occasioned by blows ;
they seldom cause lameness ; but, as they
are a considerable blemish, an attempt
should be made to reduce them by counter-
irritants ; friction is also useful.

Capsicum. — In its pure state it contains
tonic and stimulant properties. It increases
the physiological or healthy action of the
system.

Capsular Ligament. — The ligament by
which two bones are joined together. It
forms a complete sac round them, and serves
to confine the synovia, or joint oil.

Caraway Seeds. — These are cordial
and carminative. The dose is from one to
two ounces.

Carbon. — Pure charcoal, unmixed with
any foreign body. It is antiseptic and
absorbent ; useful as a poultice for putrid
sores.

Carditis. — Inflammation of the heart.

Caries. — Ulceration or rottenness of a
bone.

Carminatives. — Medicines that connect
flatulency, or expel wind ; the principal of
these are the caraway and fennel seeds.

Carotid Artery. — A large artery, that
runs on each side of the neck, near the
windpipe. The jugular vein runs immedi-

* Morton's M.inual.

ately over the artery. Yet at the upper p^'.rt
of the neck they are at such a distance that
there is no danger of wounding the latter in
bleeding.

Cartilage. — Gristle. A smooth, clastic
substance attached to bones. Cartilages
are situated in parts where elasticity is
required ; they render the parts connected
with them capable of slight changes of form,
and instant recovery, to accommodate them-
selves to accidents and circumstances, with-
out serious injury to themselves. There are
also inter-articular cartilages ; that is, flat,
smootly cartilages, between the ends of two
bones. These, being covered with synovia,
or joint oU, serve to facilitate the motion of
the joint.

Castor. — A peculiar matter found in
sacs, near the rectum of the beaver. It is
used as an anti-spasmodic, in doses of two
drachms (for a horse), mixed In thin gruel.

Castration. — An operation often per-
formed on horses, and other domestic ani-
mals. The best method of performing it is
by means of the clams, and ligature.

Cataplasm, or Poultice. — This appli-
cation, when designed to promote suppura-
tion, or formation of matter, is best made
by mixing together equal pcfrts of slippery
elm and flax-seed, pouring a sufficient
quantity of boiling water on the mixtiure, to
make it of the consistence of mush, and
binding it on the part ; the bandage should
not be so tight as to interfere with the
return of blood by the veins. A poultice
should always be renewed every twelve
hours.

Cataract. — A disease of the horse's
eye. A cataract may be partial or total.
The partial cataract is known by s]iccks in
the pupil, which interrupt vision in propor-
tion to their size, and according to their
situation. In the total or complete cata-
ract, the whole of the pupil becomes of a
white or pearl color. A horse's sight is least
injured by partial cataract, when the speck
is most remote from the centre of the pupil,
and near to the upper margin. "When a
complete cataract takes place in one eye,
the streiiffTh of the other becomes estab-

2?, -2

A DICTIONARY.

lished, so that the horse soon accommo-
dates himself to the loss.

Catarrh, or Cold. — This is, perhaps, a
disorder more common in horses than any
ot her. The author attributes some colds (in
this cify) to the bountiful use of Cochituate
water. When the liorse has just arrived
from a journey, or is in a state of perspira-
tion, Ihc showering process, so much in
fashion just now, is decidedly injm-ious. If
the legs of the animal are sluiced with water,
and he is afterwards suffered to stand where
a current of air blows on liira, he is likely to
take cold. Horses accustomed ta warm
clothing and warm stables are, of course,
most liable to cold. The symptoms arc
cough, dulness, want of appetite, discharge
from the nostrils, frequently accompanied
by sore throat and difficulty of swallowing.

Catarrh, Epidemic. — The epidemic ca-
tarrh is so named from its spreading over a
country as a general disorder, often for a
considerable time. When the disease is so
prevalent, it is supposed to depend on a cer-
tain state of the atmosphere.

Catheter. — A gum elastic tube, for tlie
purpose of di'awing off the urine. The one
used for the horse is about four feet in
length.

Caustics. — Preparations that destroy
the part to which they are applied.

Cellular Membrane. — The substance
by which various parts of the body are
united to each other. The cells of which
this structure is composed communicate
with each other; which is proved by mak-
ing a small opening in the skin of an ani-
mal, introducing a blow-pipe,, and blowing
through it, by which the adjacent skin will
puff up ; if sufficient power were employed,
the air may be thus forced all over the body.

Cerebellum. — The small brain. It is
situated immediately behind the cerebrum,
or large brain, and upon the origin of the
spinal marrow.

Chest Founder. — (See Founder.)

Chronic. — A term used to denote a dis-
ease of long standing, unaccompanied by
fever or inflammation.

Chyle. — A milky fluid, formed by the

action of the gastric, pancreatic, and bilious .
fluids. Chyle is absorbed and carried by
the lacteals to the thoracic duct; but, pre-
vious to its arrival there, it passes through
the mesenteric glands, where, probably, it
undergoes some change.

Cicatrix. — The mark that remains after
a sore, wound, or ulcer has been healed.

Circulation of the Blood. — (See
Heart.)

Clipping. — Cutting the long, rough hair
of a horse. It is chiefly done to improve
the appearance of the horse. The author
doubts its utility. (See article Hair, part
first.)

Clothing. — A pernicious custom is
often adopted of keeping horses clothed in
the stable ; maldng no difl'erence in the
warmth of the clothes, whatever the season
of the year or the state of the weather may
be. (This custom is not so prevalent here
as in England.) In a good stable, it is
probable that even in vrinter it miglit be dis-
pensed witli ; and a horse will then be much
less liable to take cold, when he happens to
stand in a cold wind or rain. When a horse
is moulting, or shedding his coat, light cloth-
ing might be useful ; and, at such periods,
showering, or standing out in the rain,
would be very injurious. In summer, the
horse should have a net thrown over him to
protect him from the flies.

Clysters, or Glysters. — A liquid
preparation, forced into the rectum by means
of a syringe.

Coffin Bone, or Os Pedis. — The bono
which is inclosed by the hoof

Coffin Joint. — (Sec Hoof.)

Colic — A very common disease in
horses. It begins with an appearance of
uneasiness; he paws his litter; sometimes
makes ineffectual attempts to stale ; stamps
with his feet; gathers up his legs, and lies
down heavily ; groans, and looks round to
his flank ; lies down heavily again, as before,
and rolls on his back. The body sometimes
swells. If relief is not promptly afforded,
all the above symptoms gradually increase;
the pulse becomes quick, the breathing dis-
turbed, and the pain is so great that a vio-

A DICTIOXARY.

233

lent perspiration breaks out, and the liorse
becomes almost delirious, throwing himself
about the stall, so that it is dangerous to
come near him.

Condition. — This term is used to imply
a horse being in perfect health.

Conjunctiva. — The external coat or
membrane of the eye. (See Eye, part first.)

Consumption. — In consumption there is
a gradual loss of flesh and strength, while
the appetite is seldom impaired in the early
stages. It is sometimes accompanied by a
discharge from one or both nostrils, and a
swelling of the glands under the jaw ; such
cases are often mistaken for glanders. Con-
sumption does not often take place sud-
denly, but is very insidious in its attack ;
and it often happens, that the complaint is
not much noticed till tubercles are formed
in the lungs, and the mesenteric glands are
diseased. When a horse is observed to lose
flesh, his coat staring, his skin feeling as if
fast to the ribs, he should be warmly
clothed, and fed on scalded shorts, oats, and
boiled carrots ; by proper attention to stable
management, he may gain flesh and strength,
his coat will become smoother, and his skin
looser. Should it now be the season of the
year when good grass can be procured, this
will perfect the recovery. The best medi-
cines are cod liver oil and phosphate of lime.

Contagion. — The mode in which a dis-
ease is communicated from one animal to
another. It is derived from the word contact,
or touch, and is used in conti-adistinction
to infection, which implies the commu-
nication of disease by unwholesome mias-
mata, sometimes spreading to a very con-
siderable distance.

Convalescence. — A state of recovery
from illness, or an approach to a state of
health.

Convulsions.- — Under this name, Gib-
son has classed lockjaw and staggers.
Modern writers treat of these diseases under
their respective heads. Calves are subject
to convulsive diseases, from indigestion, and
the consequent formation of acid in the
stomach. It is often occasioned by some

bad quality in the millc they drinlc, when
fed by hand. Taking too much milk will
often bring on the disorder. Carminatives
and tonics generally alTord relief; after
which, it is necessary to be more attentive
to the futm'e mode of feeding, giving a little
gruel occasionally.

Cordials. — Medicines are thus termed
that possess warm and stimulating proper-
ties, such as ginger, caraway seeds, anise
seeds, etc.

Cornea. — The outer transparent part of
the eye.

Corner Teeth. — The outermost of the
front teeth are thus named.

Corns. — Corns generally appear at the in-
ner angles of the fore feet, from injuries, etc.

Coronet Bone. — Os corona. The sec-
ond of the consolidated phalanges of the
horse's foot.

Coronet. — The u]iper part of the hoof,
where the horn terminates.

Corrosive Sublimate. — Among the
poisons that are given, with a view of
curing disease, corrosive sublimate seems to
stand foremost in the destruction of vitality,
and the production of incm-able diseases.
Dr. White remarks : " It is necessary to
observe carefully its effects ; for, whenever
it takes off the appetite, or causes uneasi-
ness of the stomach or bowels, it should be
immediately discontinued. A solution of
corrosive sublimate in water has been em-
ployed as a lotion in mange, but is gener-
ally considered dangerous ; a fatal disorder
of the bowels having in several instances
followed its use. Five cows, that were
bathed with a solution of corrosive subli-
mate in tobacco water, died soon after.

Cough. — A cough is sometimes the first
symptom of a cold, or catarrh ; but there
is another kind of cough, which accompa-
nies indigestion. Horses that eat too much
hay, and drink a large quantity of water,
often have chronic cough. This can be
removed by proper attention to feeding.

Cows, Disease of. — The disorders of
cows are not so numerous as those of the
horse ; they are often brought on by feeding

234

A DICTIOXAnY.

on improper food, or by being kept on low,
marshy grounds. Cattle that are brought
from a warm to a colder climate, and such
as are naturally of weak constitution, are
most liable to disease.

Cramp. — A spasmodic affection of the
muscles, either of a particular part, or of the
whole body. In lockjaw, for example, the
muscles of the jaw are at first chiefly affect-
ed ; but, gradually, unless relief is afforded,
the spasm, or cramp, generally extends to
the neck, limbs, and at length to all parts
of the body.

Crassamentum. — Red globules, or color-
ing matter, of the blood, mixed with coagu-
lable lymph.

Cremaster. — A muscle which surrounds
the spermatic cord, as it passes out of the
belly into the scrotum. Its use is to sus-
pend and draw up the testicle.

Crib Biting. — A disagreeable and in-
jurious habit, which some horses acquire ;
it consists of laying hold of the manger
with their teeth. It generally proceeds from
indigestion.

Cropping the Ears. — The ear may be
inclosed between the two parts of a car-
penter's rule, which can be adjusted and
held so as to give the ear any shape that
may be required. All that part outside the
rule is then cut off" with one stroke of a
sharp knife, and then bathed with tincture
of myn-h.

Crupper. — A strap affixed to the saddle,
with a loop at the end, for the purpose of
admitting the horse's tail.

Cud. — The food contained in the first
stomach, or rumen, of a ruminating animal,
which is rettuned to the mouth to be chewed
at the animal's leisure.

Cumin Seeds. — A carminative, or cordial.

Curb. — A swelling of the horse's hock,
generally caused by blows or strain.

Cutaneous Diseases. — Diseases whose
seat is in the sldn, as the mange, for ex-
ample. They are generally dependent on
a vitiated state of the secretions, and a dis-
ordered state of the bowels.

Cuticle, or Scarf Skin. — A thin, in-
sensible membrane, which covers and de-

fends the true skin. It is this which forms
the bladder raised by blistering.

Cutis. — The skin, or hide, which lies
under the cuticle. Besides the cuticle and
skin, horses and other large animals have a
muscular expansion, which lies immediately
under the latter, called the fleshy pannicle,
by which the skin is moved, so as to shake
off" dust or flies, or anything that hangs
loose upon the hair.

Cutting. — A horse is said to cut, when
he sti'ikes the inner and lower part of the
fetlock joint, in travelling. The usual mode
of correcting this, is to make the outer side
of the shoe higher than the inside.

Debility. — Debility may be permanent
or temporary. In the first, the constitution
is naturally weak, or has been rendered so
by improper treatment, or sickness ; the
second generally arises from over-exertion,
and, if the exciting cause be frequently re-
peated, terminates very commonly in a total
decay of the constitution. Rest and kind
treatment are the best cure for weakness in-
duced by fatigue. The greatest attention
should be paid to the degree of work that
a horse is capable of enduring, as what
may be salutary for him at one period may
greatly exceed his strength at another; and
this generally depends on the mode of sta-
ble management. The common practice
of working horses too early frequently
results in debility.

Decoction. — The process of extracting
the virtues of a substance by boiling it in
water. The liquid so prepared is termed
decoction. Almost all the medicinal prop-
erties of plants may be extracted by pour-
ing boiling water over them. In boiling
they lose their volatile properties.

Deglutition. — The act of swallowing.
The power of swallowing is often impeded
in the horse by sore throat, distemper, etc.
This impediment is only of a temporary
nature ; but there is another, which is of a
more serious kind, and interferes with mas-
tication as well as with swallowing. The
gi-inding teeth of horses often wear down
in such a manner, that the outside edge of
the upper grinders irritates or wounds the

A DICTIONARY.

235

cheek, and the inside of the lower grinders
acts siiniliiriy upon the tongue, or the skin
connected with it. Whenever a horse is
observed to void unbroken oats with his
dung, the teeth and cliceks shoukl be ex-
amhied. It will often be found necessary
to rasp the outside edges of the upper
grinders, and sometimes the inner edges of
the lower ones.

Dejiulcf.nts. — Medicines of a mucila-
ginous kind, which sheath the mucous
membranes when they are tender and irri-
table, and defend them from the action of
what would otherwise injure them. Of
this kind are marsh mallows, linseed tea,
solution of gum arable.

Dextitiox. — The act of changing the
teeth, wliich is going on from the second to
the fifth year. During this period, the horse's
mouth is apt to become tender, which ren-
ders it necessary to keep him for a short
time on scalded shorts, or boiled carrots.

Diabetes. — An excessive discharge of
urine, accompanied by thirst and debility.
There are three outlets for the fluids of the
body, — the surface, the lungs, and the
urinary passage. When either is deficient
in action, one or both of the others must
make up that deficiency ; so, excess in one
produces deficiency in the others ; hence, in
diabetes we often find a dry sldn and stare-
ing coat; and in excessive perspiration, the
urine is scanty, whatever be the organs
all'ected or whether the one or the other be
excessive or diminished. The indications
are, to equalize the action of these opposing
or sympathizing surfaces, by restoring the
diminished secretions, and cleansing and
toning the organ whose action is excessive.
All direct efforts to produce specihc effects,
without regard to a balance of action
through tiie whole animal, do more harm
than good.

Diaphoretics. — Medicines that promote
insensible perspiration, or excite moderate
sweating. Of this class are lobelia and
emetics, given in infusion.

Diaphragm, Midriff, or Skirt. — A mus-
cular and tendinous expansion, which divides

the cavity of the chest from the abdomen,
or belly.

Diarrhcea, or Purging. — In Professor
Percivall's lectures on diarrhcea, he states
that, " for the majority of cases brought to
us, we are indebted to the gi-oom, the far-
rier, and stable-keeper, who used to kill
many horses by literally purghig them to
death. Thirty years ago, an ounce and a
half or two ounces of aloes, occasionally
combined with one or two drachms of
calomel, composed the common purge ; and
even now, among these people, nine, ten,
and eleven drachms are by no means un-
usual doses. Young horses, on their first
arrival in the metropolis, are all physicked ;
they have given to them, indiscriminately,
doses of aloes, every one of which would
be sufficient to purge two of them ; the re-
sult is, that the light-carcassed, irritable
subject is carried off at once by superpurga-
tion, while another, or two, may linger in
misery and pain from a dysentery that will
end in gangrene and death, or be rendered
more speedily fatal by the doses of opium,
or some other powerful astringent, which
are so perniciously resorted to on these
occasions. There is another not uncommon
cause of this disease, and that is, continuous
and excessive exertion. After having been
ridden for many hours, a horse will often
express irritation in the bowels, by fre-
quently voiding his excrement, which will
be found to be enveloped in a slimy or
mucous matter, that is called by some
molten grease."

Dilutents. — Those substances that in-
crease the fluidity of the animal economy.
Water may be justly considered as the only
dilutent.

Director. — A grooved instrument, made
for the purpose of conducting the knife in
opeuiug sinuses and in several other opera-
tions of surgery.

Dislocation. — A displacement of a
bone from its socket. A dislocation of the
fetlock joint may be replaced, and kept in
its position by bandages ; the horse should
not take any exercise until it is completely

£36

A DICTIONARY.

healed. A dislocation of the stiBc, or
patella, must be reduced by bringing the
horse's leg under the belly, and then depress-
ing the outer angle of the patella, or stifie
bone, with the hand, which gives the
muscles the power to draw the bone into its
place. Generally speaking, dislocations are
rare.

Distemper. — This name is applied to
diseases that prevail at particular periods,
and spread to a considerable distance.
(See Epidemic.)

Docking. — Cutting ofF part of the tail.
If this is ever necessary (and the author
doubts it), then the operation should be
performed before the animal is two years
old.

Drastic. — A term applied to purgatives
that operate powerfully.

Drenches, or Drinks. — When it is
necessary that any medicine should operate
speedily, this is the best form in which it
can be given. A bottle with a short neck is
the best drenching instrument. In giving a
drench, the tongue should be at liberty, the
head moderately elevated ; the ckench is
then poured down moderately. The head
is to be kept in an elevated position until
the drench is swallowed. If the animal
happens to cough while the drench is in his
throat, the head should be immediately let
down.

Dressing. — A term employed to desig-
nate medical applications to a wound, or
ulcer, and the operation of cleaning a horse.

Dropsy. — This disease consists in a col-
lection of serous or watery fluid, either in
cavities, as the chest, belly, or ventricles of
the brain, or in the cellular membrane under
the skin. Dropsy is more a symptom of
disease than a disease itself; but some-
times, on account of the violence and danger
of the symptom, it is often treated as a
disease. The proximate cause is a check to
perspiration ; the remote cause is bleeding,
or any thing that can debilitate the general
system.

DnopsY OF the Chest. — This is some-
times a consequence of disease of the lungs ;
and, when it happens, those important

organs generally are so far disorganized, or
injured, that there is very little chance of the
animal's recovery.

Dropsy of the Belly, or Ascites. — -
The causes are the same as above ; the only
difference is, that, from circumstances pre-
disposing, the fluid is determined on the
peritoneum (see Peritoneum) instead of
the pleura.

Duct. — A membranous tube, or canal,
through which certain fluids are conveyed.
Thus the lachrymal duct conveys tears friim
the eyes to the nose.

Dung. — By examining a horse's dung,
we are enabled to judge of the state of his
health. When the dung is hard, and in
small knobs, and covered with slime, laxa-
tive medicines are beneficial ; and when it
is passed in too great (luantities, it com-
monly arises from too liberal allowance of
food. If oats are voided whole, it will
generally be found to be caused cither
by a defect of the teeth, or by a too
voracious appetite, occasioning the food
to be swallowed without mastication ; in
Vvdiich case the animal should be fed on
shorts, or scalded food.

Duodenum. — The first intestine that
comes from the stomach. (See Intes-
tines.)

Dura Mater. — A strong membrane that
invests the brain and divides it into two
lobes. It likewise separates the large brain
(cerebrum) from the small, or cerebellum.

Ear. — The horse's ear is merely an organ
for collecting sound; consequently he has
complete power over the muscles attached
to them, and can turn them in dilTcrent
directions.

Effluvia. — Invisible vapors that arise
from bodies.

Effusion. — The oozing out of serum, or
coagulahic lymph, from the blood-vessels.

Embrocation. — A liquid preparation for
rubbing upon the skin, and generally used
for strains, bruises, and enlarged glands.

Embryotomy.* — "When, from weakness,
a very narrow pelvic opening on the fore part
of the mother, or monstrosity on the part of
* Blaine.

A DICTIONARY.

the foal, no efforts can bring the foetal mass
away entire, it must be dismembered. A
Icnife made for the pm-pose, having the blade
concealed, with the haft lying within the
hollow of the hand, is to be taken up into
the vagina. We are told that, occasion-
ally, hydrocephalus in the colt prevents
the head from passing. Such a case
will detect itself by the volume that will
be felt on examination, and which will
be easily lessened by plunging the point of
the knife in the forehead, and evacuating the
contents by pressing the skull in ; when,
laying hold of the muzzle, the head may be
brought through the pelvic opening. But it
is usually the natural size of the head which
forms the obstruction; in which case the
head itself must be removed. When the
head has been dissected oil' and brought
av\"ay, it will be necessary probably to con-
tract the volume of the chest; which will
not be difficult, by cutting the cartilaginous
portions of the ribs, detaching the thoracic
viscera, and then crushing, or rather mould-
ing, the empty thorax together ; after which
the rest of the body will offer little obstruc-
tion. When the head cannot be got at, the
limbs must, one by one, be detached : after
which the body, and at last the head, may
be drawn out either entire, or lessened con-
siderably.
' Emetic, Tartar. — Tartarized antimony. |
A corrosive metalhc poison. Dr. White
relates: " From examining the stomachs of
horses that have taken this mineral, I am
satisfied that irreparable mischief may be
done with it, and certain it is that a vast
deal of unnecessary pain has been thus
inflicted."'

Emphysejia. — Swellings which contain
air. Such swellings are known by a kind of
crackUng noise, or sensation, when they are
pressed with the finger.

Emulgext Arteries. — The arteries
which convey blood to the kidneys.

Encaxtiiis. — A disease of the inner
corner of the eye.

Encysted. — A term applied to tumors
which consist of a solid or liquid substance,
contained in a sac, or cyst.

Enteritis. — Inflammation of the bowels.
This is a very serious form of disease, and is
the result of plethora, or the sudden applica-
tion of cold to the surface. It is sometimes
owing to an overloaded state of the stom-
ach and bowels. Obstinate spasm will also
produce it.

Epidemic. — Diseases which spread over a
whole country, at certain seasons, are thus
named. If many suffer in the same manner,
it is called epizootic. There are very few
diseases which assume, in its latter or earlier
stages, such a variety of forms ; perhaps
depending on the location, and the pecuhar
state of the constitution. Youatt v.'rites :
" In 1711, an epidemic commenced, which,
although it sometimes suspended its ravages,
would visit new districts ; it also appeared
in a certain distiict, and confined itself to
that location. In 1747, it appeared, and
would seem as if there was a strange caprice
about it. It would select its victims, the
best of the herd, around a certain district,
and confine itself to that location for a short
time ; then disappear for several months,
return, and pounce itpon this privileged spot.
In some districts, it would attack the mouth
and throat ; commencing with a loss of
appetite and difficult respiration, terminat-
ing with a discharge of blood from the
anus. Sometimes the animals will cat and
work until they suddenly expire ; others will
linger in dreadful agony." It appears that
this malady is not infectious ; for the same
author ^\Tites: " Cattle were in the same
barn as those infected ; they ate of the same
fodder that the distempered beasts had
slavered upon, di-ank after them, and con-
stantly received their breath and odor,
without being the least affected. In 1756,
it assumed a different form ; some cattle
were taken all at once with violent trem-
bling of every limb, and blood ran from the
nose, and bloody slime from the mouth, and
the animals died in a few hours."

Epiglottis.- — The cartilage which covers
the larynx, or top of the v.'indpipe, at the
time food or water is passing into the gullet.

Epilepsy. — The falling sickness; fits.
Horses, cats, and dogs are subject to fits,

236

A DICTIONARY.

which often depend upon an accumulation
of water in the ventricles of the brain, or
upon the irritation of worms in the stomach
or bowels. During the present year, the
author's attention was called to a horse,
(the property of Mr. Downs, of this city ;)
the horse was lying down, and at times
appeared insensible ; convulsive struggling
would take place occasionally. The mus-
cles of the eye were afl'ected by spasm, and
distorted ; the duration of the fit varied.
As the disease progressed, the hind extremi-
ties were paralyzed, and the horse would
struggle violently at intervals of fifteen
minutes. On an examination, after death,
nearly a peck-measure-full of the long round
worm was found in the small intestines.
The author examined the brain of a horse
that was said to die in a fit, and found about
five ounces of water in the ventricles of the
brain. These fits in horses do not exactly
resemble those occurring in man.

Epistaxis. — Bleeding at the nose. This
sometimes occurs in glanders, and denotes
a considerable ulceration within the nostrils.
When it happens to a horse in health, it
shows an unequal circulation of the blood.

Epsom Salts. — Sulphate of magnesia.
A neutral salt, often employed as an aperi-
ent for cattle ; but it is very uncertain in
horses, and is apt to gripe them.

Eschar. — A slough formed by the appli-
cation of caustic.

Excrescence. — Any preternatural for-
mation on any part of the body, as warts,
wens, etc.

Exostosis. — An osseous tumor originat-
ing from a bone ; such as splent, spavin,
ringbone, etc. Perhaps no animal is more
subject to this disease than the horse ; and
in no department of the veterinary science
is there a greater need of reform than in the
treatment of the disease now under con-
sideration. Almost every man who knows
anything about a horse can detect a
spavin, etc. ; but not one in a hundred can
tell anything about the true nature of the
malady, or the indications to be fulfilled in
the treatment ; and in consequence of a lack
of knowledge on this subject many a poor

animal has suffered immensely, who, if he
was not deprived of the power of speech,
would make the ears of his oppressors tingle
with a tale of man's barbarity and inconsis-
tency.

The bony structure, being composed of
vital solids, although studded with crystal-
lizations of saline carbonates and phos-
phates, is liable, like other parts of the struc-
ture, to take on preternatural or morbid
action, and may result from or accompany
constitutional idiosyncrasies, resulting from
hereditary taints on the side of the dam or
stallion. The most frequent causes of
splent, spavin, etc., are undue acts of exer-
tion on hard pavements, and the imposition
of weight disproportioned to the strength of
the animal: young horses are particularly
liable to exostosis when severely worked or
over-burdened. Any sudden or extraordi-
nary efforts in backing or suddenly pulling
up at full speed, racing before the horse shall
have arrived at maturity, while the joints
are yet in a state of imperfection, very fre-
quently lay the foundation of exostosis.
The parts being sprained and taxed beyond
endurance, disease is excited in the liga-
mentous substance, and extendsitself to the
periosteum and bones ; the ligaments often
become ossified, and are rendered fixtures ;
the periosteum, being raised by bony ac-
cumulations, presents itself in the situation
of splents, spavin, or ringbone.

Sir A. Cooper divides exostosis, in refer-
ence to its seat, into two kinds, periosteal
and medullary ; and again, as to its nature,
into cartilaginous and fungous. " But,"
says Mr. Percivall, " it is to that kind only
which is situated between the shell of the
bone and the periosteum covering it, tliat
we have to attend in veterinary practice.
On dissection we find the periosteum thicker
than usual, with cartilage beneath it, and
ossific matter within the cartilage, extend-
ing from the shell of the bone nearly to the
internal surface of the periosteum, still
leaving on the surface of the swelling a thin
portion of cartilage unossified."

When the accretion of these sweUings
ceases, and the disease has been of long

A DICTIONARY.

239

standing, ihey are found to consist on theiv
exterior sm-face, of a hell of osseous matter
similar to that of the original bone ; conse-
quently, when an exostosis has been formed
in the manner here described, the shell of
the original bone becomes absorbed, and
cancelii are desposited in its place.

" In the mean time, the outer surface of
the exostosis acquires a shell resembling
that of the bone itself. When the exostosis
has been steeped in an acid, and by this
means deprived of its phosphate of lime,
the cartilaginous structure remains of the
same form and magnitude as the diseased
deposits ; and, as far as I have been able to
discover, it is effused precisely in the same
manner as healthy bone.

" An exostosis, abstractedly considered,
does not appear to occasion much incon-
venience to the animal, except in the early
stages. A ringbone, confined to the pastern
bones, is of little consideration ; but, should
it show itself at or near the joint, it seldom
fails to produce lameness, which is often of
a permanent nature. Lameness, therefore,
is not an invariable symptom of exostosis ;
for most splents, and many ringbones, and
even spavins, exist without lameness.
"When this disease invades ligamentous
structure, however, lameness generally ac-
companies it, — an effect we would refer to
the excessive tenderness of the part. Should
the tumor interfere, either from its bulli or
situation, with the motions of joints, mus-
cles, or tendons, lameness is a concomitant,
and often irremediable, symptom."

It appears that various constitutional and
local remedies have been tried for the pre-
vention and dispersion of exostosis, viz.,
" the acttial cautery, ammonia, cantharides,
caustic, and setons." The constitutional
remedies are of the same destmctivc nature,
and have but too often aggravated that
which they were intended to relieve : we do
not believe that any specific ti'eatment has
ever had the honor of cming these forms of
disease ; that course of treatment we have
ever found the most satisfactory that is cal-
culated to promote the general health by
sanative means; we cleanse the system,

equalize the circulation, and excite healthy
action to the parts by stimulants and coun-
ter-irritation (if the parts are inactive) ;
poultices, fomentations, etc., if there is pain,
or increased action. If this is done early,
exostosis is easily arrested, unless an hered-
itary taint is manifest.

The removal of exostosis by an operation,
we are told, has been performed with suc-
cess, and no doubt there are cases in which
it may safely be performed ; yet it cannot
be successful on spavined horses, the nat-
ural termination of spavin being anchylosis
of the bones of the hock and inter-articular
cartilage. A knowledge of this fact has led
men to suppose that Nature has turned a
summerset ; and they endeavor to set her
right with the firing iron and the imple-
ments of death ; whereas, if her intentions
were aided, the result would prove more
satisfactory.

Extravasation. — The escape of blood
or other fluids from their proper vessels.

Eve. — (See part first.)

Falling of the Yard or Penis. — This
disease sometimes happens to horses and
bulls, in consequence of swellmg, excres-
cence, and ulceration of the ' parts, some-
times of an obstinate or malignant nature.
It may also be occasioned by too frequent
sexual intercourse. It may also depend on
weakness of the part ; and, when this is the
case, there is no ulceration nor excrescence
about it. If it depend on debUity, then
tone up the whole animal, and wash the
parts, first with castile soap, then with cold
water. K it result from ulceration, wash
with weak vinegar and water, afterwards
with a mixture of powdered charcoal and
water. The latter may be thrown up the
sheath with a common syringe or injection
pipe. AVhen the ulcers show a disposition
to heal, a little powdered bayberry bark
will generally complete the cure. When
excrescences form on the sheath or inside
of it, they should be taken off by applying
a ligature tight around their base.

False Quarter. — This can hardly be
considered as a distinct complaint, but,
more properly, as a consequence resulting

240

A DICTIOyART.

from some one of the former diseases ; in
which, from, the injury done to the coronary
vascular ligament, it can never afterwards
secrete horn ; but the break or interruption,
produced by the interposition of a portion
of non-secreting substance, causes a part of
the outer crust of the wall to be absent.
Such a blemish is called z. false quarter;
and it is evident that it must greatly tend
to weaken the hoof. It likewise sometimes
produces the same unpleasant effects as a
sand-crack, by the separation of the under
layer of the wall admitting the vascular
laminffi between the opening. The treat-
ment can be only palliative. Keep the neigh-
boring horn always thin : use a bar shoe,
and " lay off" (as a smith calls it) the de-
ficient quarter. This may be done either
by paring the crust, or by an indentation in
the shoe ; the choice of which is left to the
prudence of the operator, with this excep-
tion, that, in a weak^thin foot, the alteration
should always be made in the shoe, and in
a strong one, in the crust.

Farcy. — A disease of the lymphatics or
absorbent vessels. Its most usual form is
that of small tumors, or huds^ as they arc
termed, which make their appearance in
different parts of the surface, gradually be-
come soft, or suppvuratc, and burst, and be-
come a foul ulcer. Its cause may be found
in anything that will derange the general
system, or produce debility ; its proximate
cause is immoderate work, inattention to
diet, hot unhealthy stables, sudden changes
of temperature, standing on filthy litter, etc.
• Fauces. — That part of the throat which
lies behind the tongue.

Femoral Artery. — The principal ar-
tery of the thigh.

Femur, or Os Femoris. — The thigh bone.

Fetlock. — A lock of hair at the lower
part of the fore and hind legs.

I'^EVER is a powerful effort of the vital
principle to remove all obsti-uctions to or-
dinary and proper action. The reason why
veterinary practitioners have not ascertained
this fact heretofore, is, because they have
been guided by the false principle that/ei>er
15 disease. Let them but receive the truth

of the definition we have given, then the
light will begin to shine, and medical dark-
ner<s will be rendered more visible.

Fever, as we have said, is an effort of the
vital power to regain its equilibrium of
action through the system, and should never
be subdued by the use of agents that de-
prive the organs of the power to produce it.
Fever will be generally manifested in one
or more of that combination of signs com-
monly given as a description of fever, viz :
increased velocity of the pulse, heat, red-
ness, pain and swelling, thirst, obstructed
sm'face, etc., some of which will be present,
local or general, in greater or less degree, in
all forms of disease. In what is called
acute attacks these signs are very manifest :
in chronic cases, they are often faint ; but
still they exist. When an animal has taken
cold, and there is power enough in the sys-
tem to keep up a continual warfare against
obstructions, the disturbance of vital action
being unbroken, the fever is called pure, or
unbroken. The powers of the system may
become exhausted by efforts at relief, and
the fever will be periodically reduced : this
form of fever is called remittent. It would
be as absurd to expect that the most accu-
rate definition of fever would correspond, in
all its details, with another case, as to ex-
pect all animals to be alike.

There are many agents that obstruct
vital action, and many an organ to be
obstructed, which some have classed as dis-
tinct fevers ; for example, milk fever, puer-
peral fever, symptomatic, typhus, inflamma-
tory, etc. Our system teaches us that there
is but one cause of fever, viz., the natural
motive power of the system, and but one
fever itself, viz., accumulated vital action ;
hence the treatment must be physiological.

Veterinary Surgeon Percivall,in an article
on fever, says : " We have no more reason,
nor not near so much, to give fever a habita-
tion in the abdomen, as we have to enthrone
it in the head ; but it would appear, from
the full range of observation, that no part
of the body can be said to be insusceptible
of inflammation [local fever] in hmnan
fever, though, at the same time, no organ is

A DICXIOKAKV.

241

invariably or exclusively affected. All I
wish to contend for is, that both idiopathic
and svniptomatic fevers exhibit the same
form, character, and species, and the same
general means of cure ; and that, were it
not for the local affection, it would be
difficult or impossible to distinguish them.
When we come to examine the accounts
of different authors on fever, and compare
them one with another, we can hardly re-
frain from coming to the conclusion that
their descriptions were originally derived
from human medicine, and have been but
variously modified to suit the prevailing
doctrines of the day; they have gone through
a system of imaginary fevers, and regularly
transferred the observations and language
of ancient authors upon diseases of the
human species to the constitution of quad-
rupeds."

In the treatment of disease, and when
fever is present, manifested by a determina-
tion of blood to the head, the object is to
invite the blood downward and outward;
or, in other words, equalize the circulation
by warmth and moisture externally, as in
lockjaw.

In neat cattle, should fever be present,
the eyes appear dull and watery, the muzzle
dry, and rumination has ceased; then the
blood, for want of room in the nutritive tis-
sues, is forced upon the lungs, liver, spleen,
brain, or other glandular tissues, and men
have named the disease congestive fever.
The author advises the reader not to feel
alarmed about the fever, but set to worU
and relieve the congestion. Disease of the
bowels, garget of the teats and udder, will
requhre fomentation and stimulants to the
parts.

FiLLV. — A name given to a marc until
she is two or three years old.

Film. — Opacity of the cornea.

Filtration. — Straining liquids through
unsized paper ; also through sand or porous
stone.

Firing. — A severe operation, often per-
formed on horses, for spavins, cu^bs, ring-
bones, etc. Such barbarity should never be
practised : it is a disgrace to this age of im-

provemcnt. When discoveries are leaping
on discoveries, and medical reform has ger-
minated, shall we not |)ermit tiie poor dumb
brute to share the benefits of our investiga-
tion ? Every man who loves a horse, or
wishes well to the cause of horse-manity,v>ill
say that a more safe and effectual system of
veteruiary practice is necessary to rescue
from the torture of the firing iron one of the
noblest and most valuable quadrupeds in
the world.

" The rage of firing is very genen.lly, and
much too frequently, adopted, and no doubt
upon most occasions, humed on by the
pecuniary propensity and dictation of the
interested operator, anxious to display his
dexterity, or, as Scrub says, 'his newest
ffourish ' in the operation ; and when per-
formed, and the horse is turned out to grass,
if taken up sound, I shall ever attribute
much more of the cure to that grand speci-
fic, rest, than to the effects of his fire."
(See Taplin's Farriery, p. S3.) Hence the
firing iron, like all other destructive agents,
excites the system to rally her powers and
resist the encroachments of disease ; yet the
process is like taking a citadel by storm ;
the breaches that are made by the weapons
of warfare (such as the firing iron, scalpel,
lancet, and poison) can be traced, and leave
unmistakable evidences of their encroach-
ments. Instead of provoking the vital
powers to action by such destructive en-
ginery, we should afford Natiire all the aid
we can, but never interfere with her opera-
tions.

FisTui-A OF THE Withers. — "An ob-
stinate disease of the horse's withers, or
points of the shoulder, commonly produced
by a bruise of the saddle." No wonder
Dr. White calls it "obstinate," when the
following treatment is recommended by
hhn: "The scalding mixture — it consists
of any fixed oil (as lamp or train oil), spirit
of turpentine, verdigris, and corrosive sub-
limate. These are |)ut into an iron ladle,
and made nearly boifing hot ; and in this
state the mixture is to be applied to the
diseased parts, by means of a little tow
fastened to the end of a .stick I It is ncces-

242

A PICTIOXARY.

sary to prevent the raLxture from flowing
over the sound parts, as it would not only
take off the hau-, but cause ulceration of the
skin." If this mixture will produce diseased
action in the sound parts, we need not ask
what will be tlic result when applied to
parts already diseased. The author has
cured many cases of fistula, by treating
them aa common abscesses, with the appli-
cation of stimulating antiseptic and tonic
poultices (see Poultices), and by a puri-
fying course of treatment, with proper
attention to diet, etc.

Fleam. — An instrument with which
horses and cattle are bled.

Flesh. — A common name for tlie mus-
cles of the body.

Flexor. — The flexors are those that
bend one bone upon another. The tendons
that serve to bend the log, for example, are
named flexors.

FoALixc. — The bringing forth young in
mares is not so often attended with difTiculty
as in cows, and they have seldom occasion
for assistance. They should be placed in a
situation where they may have shelter, and
where they are free from danger.

Fomentations. — Fomentations are gen-
erally made by pouring boiling water on
camomiles, burdock, poplar bark, etc. For
an emollient fomentation, ground slippery
elm is preferred. In inflammation of the
bowels, for example, the parts may be
fomented w"ith flannels wrung out in a thin
mixture of slippery elm.

Foot. — (See part first.)

Foot Rot. — This name is applied to a
disease in the feet of sheep. This disease
often happens to such as are fed in low
meadows, or where the grass holds the frost
or cold dews for a considerable time. Prob-
ably a foul habit of body may be a predis-
jjosing cause. In the treatment of foot rot,
we should endeavor to find out the cause,
or causes, of the disorder, and change the
food or location of the sheep. If the disease
has spread under the horny covering, aU the
superfluous horn should be carefully pared
away, so that the dressing may be applied
to the whole of the atl'ected parts. The

dressing is composed of powdered lobelia,
formed to the consistence of paste, with
honey.

Foul Feedehs. — Horses are so named
that have depraved or vitiated appetites,
eating foul litter and earth from the ground.

Founder. — A term expressive of the dif-
ferent forms of rheumatism and ruin in the
horse. • Veterinary writers describe three dif-
ferent forms of this diseas-c, viz., founder of
the body, chest, and feet. This is one andthc
same disease, only located in different parts,
and may arise from the same general causes;
which consist in chilling the animal when
exhausted, by which means the persphation
is obstructed, by much fatigue, and by vio-
lent and long-continued exertion : exposing
the animal to cold wind or rain, or washing
his legs and thighs, and sometimes his body,
is often the cause of founder. Dr. White
calls " founder, a term expressive of the
ruined state of the horse." And well he
might call it "rained." Hov»^ many thou-
sand animals have been ruined, not by the
disease, but by the treatment 1 Here is a
specimen of it. Dr. White says : " The
horse ^vas bled before I saw him : five quarts
of blood were taken off. I desired he might
be bled again, when half a pailful more was
abstracted. In less than an houu" I saw him
again, and, finding that he was not relieved,
took another half-pailful, amounting in all
to four gallons ! The horse was sent home,
and seemed to be doing well in a straw yard,
though very weak and thin. [ No wonder,
after such a loss sustained by the vital
powers. ] At the end of three or four months
he began to lose his fore hoofs, and, after de-
clining some time longer, he died" — a
victim to science. It is evident, from expe-
rience and facts, that the above treatment
renders the disease incurable, and is the true
cause of death ; therefore, not suitable to
the true ends to be accomplished. Whav.
then, are the true ends to be accomplished'.'
To relax muscular structure, determine
action to the surface, impi„- . e the secretions,
and remove obstruct ;ns which disturb or
repel vital action. Ti 's wil' --qualize the
civ'Milatior> of the blocd, xvhen it iri/l he

A DICTIONARY.

243

found tlinl there icill he no necessiti/ for
dimini.'i/iiii^- ils (juanfiti/. The inilaiuma-
tion, as it is termed, is always sufficiently
controlled when the circulation of the blood
is free and universal. Therefore, instead of
■vithdrawing vital action, promote its equal
.lud universal difiusion.

Frog. — The posterior part of the horse's
foot.

Galbaxum. — A gum resin, sometimes
employed as an expectorant and anti-spas-
modic ; the dose, three or four drachms. It
is used, also, in the composition of \varra
adhesive ]ilasters, such as gum and diachy-
lon plaster.

Gai.i.. — A common name for bile.

Gai.i,. — A sore produced by pressure, or
chafing, of the saddle or harness.

Gall Bladdcr. — The horse has no gall
bladder, or reservoir for bile. A consider-
able quantity of bile, however, is formed by
tlie horse's liver, and is conveyed by the
hepatic duct into the first intestine, or duo-
denum. In the cow and sheep, the gall
bladder is of considerable size.

Ga.xglio.v. — This term is applied to a
natural enlargement, or knot, in the course
of some of the nerves.

(taxgrene. — An incipiejit moiiiiication.
In this stage of the disease, there is gener-
ally absence of pain; the part is deprived
of vital force, by causes inducing a loss of
tone.

Garlic. — It operates upon the horse as
a diffusible stimulant and expectorant ;
possessing, also, diuretic properties. The
author considers garlic a valuable remedial
agent in the treatment of any disease where
the constitution has suffered through hard
work, or ill usage. It is a general custom,
on the eastern coast of China, to allow cattle
to eat as much as they choose. They are
never known to suffer any inconvenience
from it ; on the contrary, they appear to
thrive, and are scarcely if ever sick. The
only objection to its long-continued use in
cattle is, that it imparts an unpleasant flavor
to tlie meat It is considered by Gibson to
be a valuable remedy in coughs. He advises
two OS three of the cloves or kernels, cut

small, to be given in each leod, and observes
that, by continuing this practice, with riglit
and well-timed exercise and careful feedino',
he has known many horses to recover, even
when there has been a suspicion of their
wind.

Gastric Juice. — A juice formed in the
stomach for the purpose of digestion.

Gastritis. — Inflammation of the stom-
ach.

Gau.nt-Bellied. — A term applied to a
horse when he is drawn up in the flank.

Gelatine. — A component part of ani-
mal matter.

Gelding. — A castrated horse. Such
horses are not so vigorous as stallions ; the
latter are freer from disease than geldings,
and will do more work, and keep a better
appearance, as to coat and flesh, upon the
same quantity of food.

Gentian Root. — A good tonic for a
horse : the dose is two or three drachms.

Gestation. — Being with young. The
time of gestation in the mare is eleven
months; in the cow, nine months.

Ginger. — An aromatic root, possessing
stimulant and carminative properties.

Glanders. — A contagious disease pecu-
liar to the horse, the ass, and the mule.
Many persons suppose that glanders and
farcy are the effect of a specific poison in
the blood ; but tliis theory is exploded.
The following will throw some light on the
subject, for which we are indebted to R.
Vines, V. S. : " All the symptoms of disease
which constitute glanders and farcy invari-
ably depend on the unhealthy state of the
system into which it is reduced or brought,
and not, as is supposed, from a specific
poison contained in the blood; and these
symptoms of disease are found to depend
on, and arise from, a variety of causes;
whether they occur at the latter states or
stages of common inflammatory diseases,
such as strangles, common cold, distemper,
disease of the lungs, dropsy, etc., or whether
they arise independently of such causes ;
for, when the system is brought into an un-
healthy state, and is more or less debilitatet^
from neglect, or by the impropei 'i-.i

214

A DICTIONARY.

of any of these diseases, [many of them are
improperly treated], farcy, or glanders, is
the result. The disease of every animal
will, therefore, assume a character accord-
ing to the state of the system." Mr. Perci-
vall, V. S., says : " The state of the body, or
constitution, will always have considerable
inliuence on the character and tendency of
disease. In horses whose bodies are, and
have long been, in an unthriving and un-
healthy condition, a common swollen leg
will occasionally run into farcy ; and a com-
mon cold or strangles, or an attack of influ-
enza, be followed by glanders. In other
cases, such unfortunate sequels will super-
vene without any ostensible or discoverable
cause." The great fault of those who have
employed their talents in the investigation
of the subject (glanders) is, that they take
hold of the wrong end of it : they are
engaged in attempting to discover the
" specific poison," where none exists, when
their time would be more profitably engaged
in studying the principles of a system of
medication that would rid the system of
these early exciting causes, viz., common
colds, etc., and thus prevent this great bug-
bear, glanders. The author can at any
time, within a period of a few months, and
without the assistance of " specific poison,"
manufacture a case of genuine glanders out
of the following materials : A horsewould
be selected — and many such could be found
in the city of Boston — whose general health
shall be impaired ; let the surface be ob-
structed by standing in a shower of rain,
v>-ithout anything to protect the animal
from the pelting storm ; then put him into
a stall n«ar the door, where a cuiTont of
cold air will pass the hind extremities : he
remains in this situation during the night.
On the following morning, the animal ap-
pears dull, and is off his feed. It is soon
ascertained that he has taken cold ; now
treat him according to the kill-or-cure prac-
tice : " If there is difficulty of breathing, and
the throat is sore, — or, in other words, the
usual symptoms, — the first thing to be
done is, to ble<'d largely, until the horse
faints. He sliould then be put into a cool

place. It is often necessary to rejieat the
bleeding two or three times. If the throat is
very sore, blister the part." (See CantiiaU-
iDES.) The secretions now become im-
paired, there is loss of appetite, the coat
stares ; there is a dull, sleepy appearance
about the animal ; the discharge from the
nostrils now assumes an acrimonious and
putrid character, which, acting chemically
on the membrane of the nose, constitutes
ulceration : the latter corrode the cartilage
and bones, and glanders is the result. Now
we will view it in another form. The ani-
mal has taken cold (see Catarrh) ; the
lungs — from previous disease, and the sub-
sequent inhalation of impure air in a hot
and crowded stable — are incapacitated,
and their power to purify and vitalize the
blood is destroyed; hence we have deposits
of morbific matter on the mucous mem-
brane, which corrode, ulcerate, and finally
attack the substance of the lungs, and
tubercle is the result, which may terminate
in glanders. The expectoration, or passage
of acrimoniovis humors tlirough the nostril
of the horse fi'om the lungs, does, in its pas-
sage, irritate the schnciderian membrane at
a point where it is in immediate contact
with ossific or cartilaginous structure, and
sufficiently accounts for the ulcers found in
the nostrils in the above case. We do not
hesilate to saij that glanders can be pro-
(liircd wilhoni infection, or contagion, and
that a common cold or catarrh, neglected or
improperly treated, loill often terminate in
glanders. Mr. Vines, V. S., states "that
the practice of p,hysicing horses, and expos-
ing them to vfet and cold, v.hen they have
common catarrh, will produce confirmed
glanders."

According to the testimony of Mr. G.
Fenwick, V. S., of London, " Glanders is
a symptom of tubercles in the lungs in nine
times out of ten;" hence, when a horse
has taken cold, and the surface is obstructed,
the prudent owner will endeavor to force a
crisis ; that is, to open the pores of the skin,
and promote perspiration. This can be
done by the use of warmth and moistmc
externally, and the administration of^varm,

A DICTIOXARY.

245

anti-spasmo.lic drinks. Tliu will relieve
the stricture of tlic surfnce, nnd permit the
egress of morbific matter, wiiich would
otherwise Ije thrown on tin- lungs, or kid-
neys. If there is not sufficient power in
the system to determine action to the sur-
face, then administer diffusible stimulants.
i\Ir. Youatt remarks : " Improper stable
management is a more frequent cause of
glanders tlian contagion. The air which is
necessary to respiration is changed and cm-
poisoned in its passage through the lungs;
and a fresh supply is necessary for the sup-
port of life. That supply maybe suthcient
barely to support life, but not to prevent
tlie vitiated air from again and again pass-
ing to Die lungs, and producing irritation
and disease. The membrane of the nose,
possessed of extreme sensibility, is easily
irritated by this poison. Professor Cole-
man relates a case which proves to demon-
stration the rapid and fatal agency of tliis
cause. ' In the expedition to Quiberon, the
horses had not been long on board the
transports, before it became necessary to
shut down the hatchways : the consequence
of this was, that some of them were suffo-
cated, and that all the rest were disem-
barked eitlier glandered or farcied. In a
close stable, the air is not only vitiated by
breathing, but there are other and more
powerful sources of mischief. The dung
and the urine are suffered to remain, fer-
menting and giving out injurious gases.'"

Glands. — Soft, spongy substances in
various parts of the body, which serve to
secrete particular humors from the blood.
They are vulgarly called kernels.

Gleet. — A discharge of a mucous fluid
from the urethra, vagina, or nostrils.

Glottis. — The upper part of the larynx,
or top of the windpipe. The sensibility of
ihis part is so great, that, if any substance
hajjpen to fall into the larynx, the most
j)ainful and distressing symptoms are pro-
duced ; and, unless the extraneous matter be
expelled by coughing, or removed by an
operation (bronchotomy), a fatal termina-
tion will b'j the consequence.

(iorfhi:D. — A term applied lo cattle with

an overloaded stomach. When they are in
this state, they are said to be blasted, blown,
or hoven ; probably from the quaniity of
carbonic acid gas that is generated, and by
which the stomach is so distended that cat-
tle often die in consequence of it. When
cattle are put into a pasture, which abounds
in imtritious food, to which they have been
unaccustomed, or have an improper quan-
tity given them, they frequenily fill the
paunch to sucii an extent Ihat they are in-
capable of ruminating: hence, the food re-
maining in a warm situation, the combined
action of heat and moisture generates the gas.

Granulations. — A term applied to the
little, red, grain-like, fleshy bodies, which
arise on the surface of ulcers and suppm-at-
ing sores. Their use is to fill up cavities,
and approximate the sides.

Grease. — A swelling of the horse's
heels, and discharge of stinking matter.

Gripes.* — (See Colic.)

Gristle. — A name commonly given to
cartilage. (See Cartilage.)

Grogginess. — A horse is said to be
groggy, when he has a tenderness, or stifl-
ness, about the feet, which causes him to
go in an uneasy, hobbling manner.

♦Scientific Treatment of Colic, or Gru'Es. —
" 0;i tlic ritl) Sept., 1824, a voiiiij; bay marc was ailmittcd
into the iiilirmary, with symj^toms of colic, for which slio
lost oiglit [lonnds of Ijlooil before she cnme in. Tlio fol-
luwi!ig drench was prescriljeil to be given iinmctliatcly :
laudanum and oil of turpentine, of each, tlu'co ounces,
with the .addition of six ounces of decoction of aloes. In
the course of half an hour tliis was repeated ! But, shortly
after, she vomited the greater part by the moutli and nos-
trils. No relief having been oljtaincd, twelve pounds of
lilood were taken from her, and the same drink was given.
In another hour this drench was repeated ; and lor the
fourtli lime, during the succeeding hour; bjfli of which,
before death, she rejected, as she had done the second
drink. Notwithstanding these active measures were
promptly taken, she died about three liours after her ad-
mission." (Sec Clarke's Essay on Gri])es.) It appears
that tlie doctors made siiort work of it. Twelve oftnces
of laudiinum, and tlie same of turpentine, in three hours!'
But tliis is sccumlum artem. Tliis is called skilful treat-
ment, and justitiabic in every case where the symptoms arc
urgent.

Had the relaxing and stimulating plan, practised Ijv ns,
been resorted to, and in a proper time and mansicr, it
would probably liave saved the poor brute. We lia\e at-
tended a large nuujber of the same sort of cases, and ha\e
not vet lost the first.

24G

A DICTIOXAHY.

Gullet, ok ffi^oniAGUs. — A muscular
and membranous tube, by which the food,
etc., is conveyed from the mouth to the
stomach. The upper part, or funnel-like
cavity, is named pharynx. The gullet
passes down the neck behind the windpipe,
along tlie nt'ck, through the diaphragm, and
terminating in the stomach.

Gums. — The fleshy parts of the sockets
of the teeth.

Habit. — By tliis term is meant the dis-
position, or temperament, of tlie body or
constitution, whether natural or acquired.
The term habit is also applied to any vice,
as starting, kicking, rearing, etc. Ail bad
habits, whether of the body, constitution,
temper, or disposition of animals, may be
in some measure corrected, if not entirely
put a stop to, by proper attention to break-
ing, breeding, and stable management.

Haltkr Cast. — Owing to tlie improper
length of the lialter, the horse is apt to get
his fore leg across it, falls down, and some-
times injures himself considerably.

Ham. — This is the name given to the
muscular part of the hind leg, terminating
in the great tendo Achillis, or hamstring.

Hand. — The division in the standard for
measuring horses is thus named. A hand
is four inches.

Haw. — (See Eye, part first.)

Heart. — (See part first.)

Heel. — A term applied to the back part
of the termination of the hoof.

Hemlock. — A narcotic vegetable poison,
deriving its deleterious properties from an
alkaline principle, called conia. It has been
known to kill many horses who have par-
taken of ft.

Hemorrhage. — A flow of blood from
any part of the body, in consequence of
the rupture of an artery or vein. Hemor-
rhage, from external injury, is most readily
stopped by taking up the bleeding vessel,
and tying it witli saddler's silk; but, when
this cannot be done, the bleeding may gen-
erally be sto])ped by pressure, or styi)tics.

Hepatitis. — Intlamination of the liver.

Hide-Bound. — When horses are out of
condition, and have harsh dry coats, the

sliin will be contracted, and found tiglit
about the ribs. It is a symptom of disease,
and shows tliat the general health is im-
paired.

Hii'-SHOT. — This is known ! one of tlie
hip bones being lower than '(her. It

generally depends on a fracii.i. cif the os
innominatum, or part of the peh i.^ ; the part
having formed an irregular icind of union,
so that the bone on that side is shorter tlian
the other.

HocK. — The horse's hock is composed
of six bones. These bones are all con-
nected together by very strong ligaments,
which prevent dislocation, but allow a
slight degree of motion among them. The
surfaces that are opposed to each other
are tliickly covered by elastic cartilage, and
by a membrane secreting the synovia, or
oily fluid, which guards against friction.
These bones are so strongly bound together
as almost to defy dislocation.

HooF-BOUND. — A dry, brittle, and mor-
bid state of the foot. A want of vital
action, occasioned, says Dr. White, "by in-
flammation," which he calls disease. Now
it is evident that no vital action, as that of
fever and inflammation, can be properly
termed disease. The only action tliat can
be properly termed disease, is the chemical
action manifested in suppuration and gan-
grene. This is the great popular error that
we are laboring to overcome. It is that of
attributing disease and death to the action
of the powers of life. When a part has be-
come diseased, especially the foot (for from
it tiic blood has a kind of up-hill work to
perform, in returning to the lieart by th3
veins), there is a low state of vitality ; very
little can be ;■ ;eomplished by the vital pow-
ers, amounting only to a Iovn' form of in-
flammation. And, of course, the chemical
power of decomposition, always present
and never tired, gets the advantage and
decomposes tlie part ; we then have thrush,
wliicli, if im])roperly treated, the hoof falls
oil' by the process of decomposition, or, in
other words, mortification. It becomes sep-
arated from the living parts, for want of
inflammalion, or vital supremacy,' over

A DICTIONARY.

247

chemical agLnicy ; and then the loss of the
hoof iri strangely attributed to inflamma-
tion, or the vital power, wliicli did all it
could to prevent such a termination.

IIoof-Casting. — A partial or complete
separation of the horse's hoof from the sen-
sitive foot.

HoosE. — A term used by cow doctors.
It signifies a cough, either clironic or acute,
with whieli cattle are affected, from expos-
ure to cold winds or rain.

HoREnoiNo. — A bitter vegetable, used
in horse practice as a tonic and expectorant.

HovEN. — (See Blasted.)
Tydatid. — A thin bladder, containing a
fluid resembling water, and nearly trans-
parent. It is found in different animals.
In sheep, it occasions a disease named gid,
or giddiness ; the hydatid being found in
one of the ventricles of tlie brain, or in its
convolutions. On account of the pressure
it malvcs on tlie brain, it disturbs the func-
tions of that important organ, especially
Avhen the slieep are hurried or driven.

Hydrocele. — Dropsy of the testicle and
its appendages.

Hydrophobia. — Canine madness.

Hydrotuorax, or Dropsy of the Chest.
— Mr. Percivail informs us, " that the ob-
jects to be pm'sued in the treatment of
hydrothorax are twofold : first, we are to
diminish any excess of action that may
show itself in the sanguineous system,* and

* In i)Uiin Enfclisli, alistract Ijlood. Tliis not only di-
minislies the sanjjnineous system, but every other funrtion
or system. The regulars have tried blood-letting to their
hearts' content; their patients have been rowelled, blis-
tered, calomclized, turpentinized, and hellebored, yet they
have never been able to preserve lite, "exeejit tivo solitary
cases in Mr. Sewcll's practice; " for Mr. Percival tells us,
in his lectures, that " ho never saw a case terminate favor-
ably." Is not this a proof that our brethren are on the
Tvrong track 1 AVe arc told that the proximate causes
of ilropsy are "debility and an obstructed perspiration ; "
and that it may result from " lo.ss of blood, diarrhoea, dia-
betes, and other circumstances that rapidly exhaust the
system." Hence the processes of cure are just the means
calculated to produce the disease. The true indications
in the treatment are, to warm and rcl.ax the siirfai-c, and
promote i)crs]iiration ; for whatever ehecUs it stops the
egress of morbilic matter from the system, and, ofeonr.se,
determines It upon the internal surfaces. DiiVn :able stim-
ulants r.-.uy be given, to keep up the action on the suii'ace.
The gciieral hcilth must b(f improved.

thereby lessen the eOusion of fluid into the
chest ; and secondly, by increasing the ac-
tion of the absorbent system, effect the
removal of what is already accumulated."*
Most surgeons reconunend early tapping in
drop.sy. The operation may be perforrned
with tlie common trocar and canula. The
best place for the introduction of the instru-
ment is the space between the eighth and
ninth ribs, close to their cartilages; not be-
tween the latter, lest the pericardium be
punctured. Here, making the skin tense
with the fingers of the left hand, the instru-
ment, with its point dkected upwards and
inwards, may, with a little rotary move-
ment, gradually be thrust in, until the re-
sistance to its entry suddenly ceases ; when
the trocar should be withdrawn, and the
canula at the same time pushed onwards,
lest it slip out. If the flow of water sud-
denly ceases, a small whalebone probe
should be introduced througii the pipe.

Ichor. — A thin, acrimonious discharge
from ulcers, or diseased parts.

Icterus. — Jaundice, or yellows.

Idiosyncrasy. — A peculiar constitution,
or temperament.

Ileum. — The last portion of the small
intestine. It terminates in the large intes-
tine, or blind gut, named csecum.

Lmposthu.me. — A collection of matter, or
pus, in any part.

I.xcoNTiNENCE OF Urin'e. — A coutinual
dripping of the urine from a horse's sheath.

I.NFLA.MMATioN. — Inflammation and fever
are one and the same tiling. When fever
is confined to a small part, it is called in-
flammation. (See 1nflam:matio.\, part
first.) Dr. White, altliough an advocate of
the popular error, viz., blood-letting, makes
some very sensible remarks on tlie subject.
If men generaUy would carry oitt these

'-■ The action of the absorbent system never was, nor
never can be, excited when the lancet is cooperative. Ab-
sorption is a physiological result, and cannot be excited by
agents that act pathologically. The balance between ex-
halation and absorption is lost, in consequence of ^vhich,
more fluid is ])onred out than is taken uj) : hence, if we
excite the exhalcnts to throw off the morbid fluids from
the surface, there will be less for the absorbents to take up,
and the chances of success will I)C greater.

248

A DICTIONARY.

principles, they would prevent a great loss
of property. " It must be obvious, that
when an animal is laboring under general
inflammation, or fever, in consequence of
a suppression of the natural discharges,
whether it be perspiration, urine, or dung, he
cannot be cured merely by the abstraction
of blood; for, however large the quantity
abstracted, that which remains will be im-
pure, or acrimonious, and unfit for carrying
on a healthy action. It is absolutely neces-
sary to restore the natural discharges by
means of suitable medicines, unless that be
effected by an effort of natm-e, which is not
an uncommon occurrence, especially when
the animal is supplied with some bland
fluid, such as bran water, or thin bran
mashes. The morbid matter sometimes
runs oflf by the nostrils, sometimes bj' the
kidneys or bowels, and sometimes by a gen-
eral relaxation of the skin, and the body is
thus restored to health." From the above
we are led to the conclusion that, after all,
Nature is the most elTicient doctor, and that
man should be her servant, to procure what
she wants, merely to be used in her own
way.

Influenza. — Epidemic catarrh. Ca-
tarrhs, or violent colds, attended with sore
throat, and a thin, watery discharge from
the eyes and nose. It appears to be infec-
tious, seldom making its appearance with-
out attacking several horses in the same
stable. The horse should subsist on warm
gruel, and have a blanket thrown over him,
and a drink of hyssop tea. As soon as the
surface of the body is relaxed, and becomes
moist, the catarrh will disappear.

Injection. — A term sometimes applied
to clysters.

Inosculation. — The running of arteries
and veins into one another, or the inter-
union of the extremities of arteries and
veins.

Inspiration. — The act of drawing air
into the lungs.

Integument. — Any common covering of
the body : it generally includes skin, nuiscle,
and membrane.

Intercostal. — A term given to parts

situated between the ribs : thus, we have
intercostal muscles, etc.

Intermittent. — A name given to dis-
orders that appear to go oft' at certain peri-
ods, and return after some interval.

Intestines. — The horse's intestines are
about ninety feet in length.

Intls-susception. — This is occasioned
by one portion of the bowels being drawn
within the other.

Iris. — That part of the eye by which
the light admitted to the retina is regu-
lated.

Irritability. — All muscular parts pos-
sess the property of contracting, or shrink-
ing, when irritated, and are therefore en-
dowed with irritability.

Issues. — (See Rowels.)

Itching. — Itching in horses is generally
a consequence of foul feeding, and may be
occasioned by mange.

Jaundice. — In jaundice, the natural
course of the bile is perverted, and re-ab-
sorbed into the circulation.

Jaw-Locked.— (See Lockjaw.)

Jejunum. — Part of the small intestine is
thus named, from its being generally found
empty.

Joints. — A joint is formed, generally
speaking, by the heads of two or more
bones. These ends are covered by a layer
of cartilage or gristle, which is of a yielding
nature. There is formed within the joint a
slippery fluid, called synovia, or joint oil.
The ends of the bones, thus covered with a
smooth, yielding surface, so slippery that
they move freely on each other without suf-
fering from friction, are then firmly tied to-
gether by a strong substance, named liga-
ment, which completely smTOunds the head
of the bones : this is termed capsular liga-
ment. In some joints we find an additional
ligament within the capsular ligament, or
cavity : thus, in the hip joint, a strong lig-
ament connects the head of the thigh bone
with the socket that receives it.

Joints arc subject to disease, either from
external injury, or from long-continued ex-
ertion of them. In (he former, the capsular
ligament is penetrated, and a discharge of

A DICTIONARY.

249

synovia ensues. Mr. Percival remarks
"Uiat, in many cases of open joint (com-
monly caUed so), there is no division nor
injury wliatever of tlie capsular ligament;
but merely the exposure of some bursa mu-
cosa placed between the joint and the ex-
lernal wound: the discharge is of the same
kind as in the former case, and we can only
determine which it is by carefully probing
the wound. Most of all, we are likely to
make this mistake in the shoulder joint and
hock, when heat and swelling are present.
From the acute sensibility of ligamentous
parts when inflamed, the system quickly,
and almost invariably, sympathizes ; so that,
in all severe cases of this nature, symptom-
atic fever supervenes, the pulse becomes
accelerated, the horse heaves at the flanks,
refuses his food, and shov>"s symptoms of
(he most affecting suffi?ring. It must be
borne in mind that, although a joint be not
open in the first instance, subsequent slough-
ing may expo.se its cavity. Now, the ordi-
nary effects of disease in the synovial
membrane are, first, a preternatural secre-
tion of synovia, — hence the profuse dis-
charge observed in these cases ; second, an
effusion of adhesive matter into the cavitv
of the joint; third, a thickening of the
synovial membrane, a conversion of it into
a substance resembling gristle, and an efi"u-
sion of adhesive matter, and probably
serum, into the cellular substance around,
by which the external parts and those of
the joints are finnly cemented together.
In the latter stage the disease commonly
extends itself to the cartilaginous surfaces ;
they exfoliate, leaving the extremities of the
bones denuded, to grate on each other as
often as the joint is moved. The bonco, in
their turn, throw out deposits from their
ends around the joint, — a process that ulti-
mately ensues, and anchylosis is the result."
The indication to be fulfilled is to pro-
mote adhesion by bringing the edges to-
gether and confining them in contact, cither
by taking a few stitches, or shaving the hair
ofl' around the parts and applying strips of
adhesive plaster. The parts may have a
pledget of lint bound on, moistened with

healing balsam ; and, if the limb will admit
of it, a splint may be bound to the back part
of it, so as to prevent all possibility of ilex-
ion. If union cannot be produced by this
means, llic parts may be poulticed with
astringent.-. The object is to close the
joint, and promote granulation. If the
parts are inactive, sprinkle the surface of
the poultice with charcoal and capsicum.
In a case that came under the author's
care in this city, and one in which there
was no hope of its healing by the first in-
tention, the tincture of caj^sicum was daily
injected : this, together with tonic, stimulat-
ing, astringent poultices and fomentations,
completed the cure. In cases where the ex-
ternal wound is large, and there is much
heat, pain, and loss of motion, poultices of
a relaxing and lubricating natm-e should be
used ; such are lobelia and slippery elm. A
severe injury of this kind may be converted
into a simple wound by the combined influ-
ence of these remedies. The horse should
be kept at rest, on a light diet of scalded food,
and an occasional dose of alterative medi-
cine.

When lameness is manifest wdthout heat
or swelling, and there is reason to suppose
that the animal has been ovenvorked, rest
and proper attention to diet will be all that
is necessary. When the case is one of long
standing, a run at grass may effect a cure,
unless there is reason to suppose that the
articulatory surfaces of the bones are dis-
eased; w^e are not supposed to do more
for these subjects than alleviate their suf-
ferings, or, what amounts to the same thing,
diminish their lameness,

JcGui.AR Veins. — The large veins of the
neck, where a horse is bled.

Kernels. — A common name for glands :
thus, the parotid glands, situated beneath
the car, are termed the kernels under the
ear.

Kino. — An astringent gum resin.

Lacteals. — Absorbent vessels, which
convey the chyle from the bowels into the
tiioracic duct.

Lameness. — The cause of lameness in
horses is often very obscure, and can only

250

A r)ICTIO:."AKY.

be discovered by a patient and careful ex-
aminaticn. A slisrht doGfrce of lameness
of I en passes unnoticed ; or, if it be observed,
Ihe owner too often persuades liimself that
it will pass off. It is al\va3's the most pru-
dent plan to lay up a horse the moment he
is observed to be lame, and submit to the
inconvenience of doing without his services
until he is cured. When lameness is caused
by v."ounds or bruises, the injured part is
generally discovered v/ithout difticulty,
though pricking, in shoeing, is not always
so easily seen. All lameness from injuries
within the hoof is often detected with diffi-
culty. Slight lameness is most readily seen
by making the horse trot gently, without
giving any support to the head by the bridle
or halter, and without m-ging him with the
whip : the lameness is then seen by his
dropping harder and dvvelling longer on the
sound leg than on the lame one, in order to
favor the latter ; and this, when the lame-
ness is at all considerable, is attended v.'ith
a corresponding motion of the head, v.diich
drops a little whenever he steps on the sound
limb. An experienced observer can at any
time distinguish lameness merely by seeing
a horse walk out of the stable. It often hap-
pens, in very severe lameness of one or both
fore feet, that the horse, when led out, will
appear to be lame in tlie hind feet also : this
is occasioned by the animal endeavoring to
f ivor the fore foot or feet by throwing the
balk of his weight on the hind legs. In all
cases of lameness, unless the cause is so evi-
dent as to render it unnecessary, it is proper
to examine the foot carefully in the first
place ; and it should never be forgotten that
swelling, heat, and tenderness of the fetlock
joint, or even the leg, may arise from an in-
jury to the foot. In lameness of the foot,
the affected foot v.'iil be warmer than the
other. Considerable relief rnay almost
always be afforded in foot lameness by keep-
ing the feet moist, or pasturing the animal
in soft meadov/ land, or by stopping the
bottoms of the feet with a wet sponge, by
paring tlic-.n when necessary. We some-
times Had, on examining a lame foot, that
there is an enlargement immediately above

the coronet, at the heels and quarters, and that
tills enlargement feels hard and bony. This
is termed ossification of the lateral carti-
lages ; it is more distinctly seen by compar-
ing it with a sound foot. In lameness of
the foot, there is sometimes a crack in the
horn towards the heels, extending from the
coronet a little way down the hoof: thia
happens sometimes after a horse has been
travelling. This is named a sand-crack.
When th.e seat of lameness is in the fetlock
joint, some degree of heat or swelling v.nll
be perceived. As the horse stands, he will
be observed to favor the joint. Lamenesj
of the back, sinews, or flexor tendons of the
leg, is easily perceived by the heat and ten-
derness of the part.

Lampas. — A swelling and sometim.es ten-
derness of the roof of the mouth, adjoining
the front teeth. When the part is tender,
and prevents the horse from feeding, ho
should be fed on scalded shorts for a few
days ; during that time, the mouth may be
washed twice a day with an infusion of
powdered bayberry bark. Two ounces of
bark may be infused in one quart of boiling
water: after macerating for one hour, it v/ill
be fit for use.

Larynx. — The upper part of the trachea
or windpipe.

Lax. — (See Scouri.^g.)

Laxativi^,. — Medicines that purge gen-
tly ; the most simple and safe is aloes.

Ligaments are strong, elastic membranes,
connecting the exti'emities of the movable
bones.

Licatuke. — Twine, thread, or silk,
waxed, for the purpose of tying arteries,
veins, or other parts.

Lights. — A common name for lungs.

Lily. — The root of the white lily is fre-
quently iised for poulticing.

Linseed, or Flaxseed. — An excellent
emollient drink is made by ponring two
quarts of boiling water on four ounces of
linseed, and su^ffering it to stand in a warm
place for a short time. It is useful in cold,
catarrh, and in diseases of the kidneys or
bladder.

LiQuoiucE. — The root, di'ied and pow-

A DICTIONARY.

251

tiered, is used for the same purpose as llie
last arlic.le.

LoDi:. — A portion of tlic lungs and liver
is thus named.

Lockjaw. — Tliis disease is too well
Known to require a particular description.
It is evidently a disease of the s])inal sys-
tem,—other parts becoming sympatlicti-
cally ail'ected, — and often arises from a
vround of a tendon, or nerve : it occasion-
ally follows nicking, or docking. I\Ir. You-
att tells us, " This is one of the most fatal
di.seases to which the horse is subject."
Fin the information of our readers, we will
detail the treatment reconiiuended by the
above author. Wc presume that every man
of common sense xAli come to the conclu-
sion that the disease could not be otherwise
than fatal under such unwarrantable bar-
barity. We have no personal disrespect for
iMr. Youatt. It is the system of treatment
recommended by him that wc war against ;
a cystcm that has killed more than it ever
cured. Mr. Youatt observes : " The rational
method of ciire would seem to be, first to
remove the local cause ; but this vrill seldom
avail much. The irritation has become
general, and the spasmodic action constitu-
tional. Tlie habit is formed and will con-
tinue. It will, however, be prudent to en-
deavor to discover tlie local cause. If it be
a wound in the foot, let it be touched v.'ith
the hot iron, or caustic, and kept open v%-ith
digestive ointment. If it follows nicking,
let the incision be made deeper, and stimu-
lated by digestive ointment ; and, if it arise
from docking, let the operation be repeated
higher.-' In treating the couiiitutional

* " Fii-st, to remove l!ic loeal oausc ; but iliis -n-iil sel-
dom avail mm!i." Then why torture the poor brute'
Wc need not trouble ourselves about tlie particular nerve
afleeted to cnal]le us to relievo a sympatlietic disease,
when wo have a medieine — lobelia and milkweed, orlndian
hemp — lli.it wi!l relax every nerve in llie ani:nal. " If it
lie a wound In the foot, let it be touched with tlw hot iron."
This is a moans bettor calculated to injure t!;an relievo.
Wo should apply, at once, the mean;; that are knov.-n to
art on tlio whole nervous structure. " If it follows nick-
in;,', let the incUion be made deeper ; and if it arise from
do-kin.^', lot tlie operation bo repcatod higher." What
beauillal pliilosophy this ii! — make one disease to cure
ajiothcr. L it ctrango that " this is one of the most fatal

disease, efforts must be made to tranquillize
the system ; and the most powerful agent is
bleeding. [Yes, most powerful to kill.]
Twenty pounds of blood may be taken away
with manifest advantage. There is not a
more powerful means of allaying general
irritation ; the next thing is to resort to phy-
sic. Here again that physic is best which
is speediest in its operation ; the Croton nut
has no rival in this respect; the first dose
should be lialf a drachm, and the medicine
re])oatcd every six hours, in doses of ten
grains, until it operates.* The bowels, in
all these nervous aflections, are very torpid.'

" Then, as it is a di-seased action of the
nerves, proceeding from the spinal marrow,
the whole of the spine should be blistered
three or four inches wide. (See Ca.vtuar-
iDES.) Having bled largely, and physiccd,
and blistered, we seel! for other means to
lull the irritation ; and wc have one at hand,
small in bulk and j^otent in energy, —
opium ! f Give at once a quarter of an
ounce, and an additional clrachm every six
hours."'

The best method we know of, in the
treatment of lockjaw, is, first, to apply a
poultice to the foot (if it has been wounded),
consisting of about six ounces of lobelia,
four ounces of slijipery elm, two ounces

disc.iFcs?" Is it not a wonder that .iny live ? Must not
thoh- escape bo .attributed to the conservative power of the
system, in spite of the violence done ? When Jlr. Youatt
recommends cutting the tail a little higher, to cure a dis-
ease lh.1t was produced by the same operation, — vii.,
docking, — he puts the author in mind of the n:an wIm
filed tlie edge of his razor to sharpen it.

* In the first part of this paragraph, Mr. Youatt ob-
scn-cs, "the most powerful agent to tranquillize the sys-
tem is bleeding." Go say tlio butchers when they bleed
the ox, and conduct the process till no blood remains.

f This is a narcotic, vegetable poison, and, although large
f|uantities have been occasionally given to the l-.orsc with-
out apparent injun-, experience teaches us that ]>oisons
in general — notwithstanding the various modes of their
action, and the dificrcnco in their .symptoms — all agree in
the abstraction of vitality fix)m the system. Dr. Kberlo
says, " Opiates never fail to ojicrate pcmiciou.-Iy on the
whole organisation." Dr. Gallup says: "The ])racticcof
using oiiiatcs to mitigate pain is greatly to bo deprecated.
It is probable that ojiiuni and its )>rcparations have done
seven times the injury that they have rendered benefit oa
the great scale of the civilized world. Opium is the most
destructive of all naxcotics." •

9«;9

A DICTIOXARY.

of capsicum, powdered ; mix them with a
suitable quantity of moal sufficient for two
poultices, which should be renewed every
twelve hours. After the second application
examine the foot, and, if sujipuration has
taken place, and the luatter can be felt, or
seen, a small puncture may be made, taking
care not to let the instrument penetrate
beyond the bony part of the hoof. Next
stimulate the sm-face to action, by warmth
and moisture, as follows : take about two
quarts of vinegar, into Vviiich stir a handful
of lobelia; have a hot brick ready {the
animal having- a larg-e cloth, or blanket,
thrown around him), pour the mixture gradu-
ally on the brick, which is held over a
bucket to prevent waste ; the steam arising
will relax the surface. After repeating the
operation, apply the following mixture
around the jaws, back, and extremities :
chloroform, and olive oil, equal parts ; rub
the mixture well in with a coarse sponge ;
this will relax the jaws a trifle, so that the
animal can manage to suck up thin gruel,
which may be given v.'arm, in any quantity.
This process must be persevered in ; al-
though it may not succeed in every case,
yet it will be more satisfactory than the
blood-letting and poisoning system. No
medicine is necessary; the gruel will soften
the fffices sufficiently; if the* rectum is
loaded with fasces, give injections of an in-
fusion of lobelia.

Lumbar Muscles. — Muscles of the loins
within the body, and in the region of the
kidneys. These muscles are sometimes in-
jured by violent exertions, and the kidneys
often ]nirticipate in the injury.

LuxGs, or L:g!ITS. — The organ of res-
piration. (See RnspiRATroN, part first.)

LuxATiox. — A partial displacement of
the bones forming a joint.

Ly.mpii. — (See Bi-ood.)

LvMrnATics. — (Sec part first.)

Macrkatiox implies soaking or steeping
any substance in water, or other fluids, so
as to soften, dissolve, or separate it from
some other parts with which it is combined.

Mallexders. — A scurvy kind of eruption
ou the bad; part or bend of the knee joint.

Mange. — A disease v/hich manifests it-
self in the skin, and causes a horse to be
joerpetually rubbing himself. Cattle, sheep,
and dogs are also subject to mange. It is
a well known fact, that horses are very apt
to become mangy, if kept long in the stable
without grooming ; yet the disease may
arise from causes independent of a neg-
lected skin, though it seldom attacks a well-
cleansed animal. Mr. PefciVall observes :
'' It seems that mange may be generated
either from immediate excitement to the
skin itself, or through the medium of that
sympathetic influence winch is known to
exist between the skin and tiic organs of
digestion. Yv'c have, it appears to me, an
excellent illustration of this in the case of
mange supervening upon poverty, — a fact
too notorious to be disputed, though there
may be diflerent ways of theorizing upon
it."

Mr. Blaine says, " Mange has three
origins — filth, debility, and contagion."

Owners of horses must bear in mind, Ihat
mange can be communicated by the brush
or comb itsed about a mangy subject; the
pustules on the sm-face contain acari or
nites. The author has . been very success-
ful in the treatment of this disease, by the
daily iisc of sulpb.ur and soda.

Marasmus.— A decay or wasting of the
whole body.

Marsu Mallows. — A plant used for
making emollient drinks and fomentations.

Mash. — A mash is made by pouring
boiling Vv'ater on bran, or shorts, then cov-
ering the bucket until sufficiently cool for
use. Mashes are excellent for sick and
convalescent horses, and such as have not
sufficient exercise to keep them in health.

Masseter. — The name of a muscle of
the cheek, by which mastication is per-
formed.

Mastication". — (Sec part first.)

Materia Medica. — A catalogue and
description of the various articles used in
medicine.

Maxilla.— The jav.'.

?Jaxillarv. — Belonging to the ja'.v

the maxillarv

arteries and glands.

The

A DICTIOXARY.

253

glands niider the jaw are named sub-max-
illary glands.

iMivDiA.sTiNL'M. — A du])llcatiire of the
monibraiio, named pleura, by which the
cavity of the chest is divided into two
parts.

Mi;dicin'e. — I\Ir. Clark, veterinary sur-
geon of Edinburgh, says : " Medicine is often
given to the i>oor brutes unnecessarily, and,
of course, mischievously. If a man, or
horse, be in a state of health, what more is
required, or how can they be rendered bet-
ter ? Health is the more proper state of
the animal body, and it is not in the power
of medicine to make it better, or to preserve
it in 1,'ic same stale."

Dr. White says : " The custom of giving
medicines too frequently, is a bad one ; the
constitution adapts itself to it, which cir-
cumstance renders medicine incflicacious
when necessary, or, at least, it greatly re-
duces the oflects."

If a horse is in health, the proper way to
promote it is to proportion the food to the
labor.

Dr. White continues : " Medicines are
given to the horse under the title of alter-
atives. These alteratives are composed of
antimony, viercury, su/p/uir, nitre, aloes,
sa/ls" [<re lie rally altering bad for ivorse).

Ml-. Clark says, " That sulphur not only
opens the body, but the skin also, and there-
fore should be used with caution, as horses
are very apt to catch cold on too liberal a
use of it."

Salts bring on gi-eat sickness, and some-
times violent purging, and, instead of pro-
moting the secretions, occasion great dryness
of the skin.

"Aloes given in small quantities, by way
of alteratives, and too frequently repeated,
weaken the stomach, so as to bring on a
lax, or what is called a washy, habit of
body.

" Antimony should always be rejected, if
coarse and black, lilic gunpowder." (See
White's Farriery, p. 559.)

The above author says : " It is amazing
what different kinds of trash arc forced down

horses' throats. The following is a striking
instance: A gentleman, in London, was
greatly prejudiced in favor of vinegar, as a
cure in many diseases. His favorite horse
was taken ill in very warm weather, and,
as lie thought vinegar was a cooling ariicle,
he ordered a pint to be given to his horse at
once. It was no sooner given, than the
horse lay down, stretched himself out, and
died."

IVIedllla Oblo.ngata. — The commence-
ment of the spinal marrow, within the cra-
nium.

Membrane, Mucous. — This membrane
is folded into all the oriiices of the anim.al,
as the mouth, eyes, nose, cars, lungs, intes-
tines, bladder, etc. ; in fact, into every cavity
that has a direct communication with tlie
external surface. Its structure of arterial
capillaries, venous radicles, nervous projec-
tions, etc., is similar to the skin, and is
considered a duplicate of the external sur-
face. Its most extensive surfaces are those
of the lungs and intestines. This mem-
brane furnishes from the blood a fluid called
mucus, to lubricate its own surface, and
protect it from the action of materials taken
into the system. The skin and mucous
membrane are a counterpart of each other.
If the action of the skin is suppressed, the
mucous membrane performs a part of its
office ; thus, a cold, which closes the ])orcs
of the skin, stops' perspiration, vrhich is now
forced througii the membrane, ))roducing
discharges at the nose, eyes, etc.

SEnoi-s MEMBRANE.-Of this kind are.
the pleura and jjeritoncnm : they are dis-
tributed in all parts of the system, lining
muscles, tendons, and tendinous sheaths,
the ends of movable bones, etc. ; in short,
wiierevcr there is need of the protection of
parts against friction. They secrete from
the blood a fluid called scrum, for the pur-
pose of affording this protection. The,
excessive discharge of fluids into cavities
lined by serous membrane, constitutes the
dificrcnt forms of dropsy. There are other
membranes, viz., adipose, which secrete the
fat of the body; synovial, which secrete

254

A DICTIOXAR/.

synovia, or joint oil ; and cellular mem-
branp, or tissue, is the common connecting
substance of most parts of the body.

Mesexteryj — A thin membrane by
which the bowels are held together, and
over which the lacteals, or chyle vessels,
pass. Besides the chyle vessels, there are
considerable veins and arteries passing over
the mesentery. The arteries are distributed
to the bowels, and the veins terminate in
the vena porta, or groat vein of the liver.

Metacarpus. — The metacarpus of the
horse consists of one great bone, commonly
named the canon, shank bone, or fore leg,
and two small bones, or splent bones, at-
taclied by ligaments to the back part of the
canon bone, rather towards the sides. The
suspensory ligament passes down on the
back part oi the canon bone, and between
the two splents. The llexor tendons, or back
sinews, pass down over the suspensory lig-
ament. When the bones only of the fore
leg are spoken of, they are termed meta-
carpus. They begin at the knee, and end
at the fetlock joint.

Metatarsus. — The hind leg, between
the hock and fetlock joints.

Metatarsal Boxes. — The hind canon,
or shank bone, with the two small splent
bones attached to it. The large blood-
vessels and nerves, in this situation, arc also
named metatarsal.

Miasmata. — Poisonous effluvia.

MmniFF. — (See Diaphragm.)

MoLAPvES. — The name of the grinding
teeth.

Molten Grease. — A name which I\L-.
Blaine has given to dysentery.

Morbid Displacements of the Intes-
tines, etc — Rupture, or Iiilesliiial Hernia.'^'
Hernia, in its strict sense, is a protrusion of
any viscus out of its natural cavity ; hence
we have hernia of the brain, of the lungs,
and of the various viscera of the abdomi-
nal regions. Hernia, as w-e propose to
consider it, is a displacement of the intes-
tines from the abdominal cavity, either
through some of the natm-al openings, or

• " Blaioo'a Outlines," by MaUow.

through artificial ones, the ciTects of acci-
dent. When such protrusion takes place
through a moderate opening, and the por-
tion of gut can be readily returned, it is
called a reducible hernia; but when it oc-
curs through a small opening, and Ihc in-
testine cannot be replaced, it is termed an
irreducible hernia. If the mouth of llic
opening, round the intestine, constringc,
and prevent the return of the bowel, it then
forms a strangulated hernia, and usually
|)roves fatal, unless relief be promptly ob-
tained.

The hernia, by far the most common in
the horse, is the inguinal, of vrhich the
scrotal, or when the bowel descends into
the scrotum, is most frequently observed in
the stallion. Bubonocele, cr that of the
groin, is a very rare form of disease, but it
is occasionally witnessed in geldings. In
the former, the intestine accompanies the
spermatic cord by the inguinal canal
through the abdominal rings into the scro-
tum : in the latter, the bowel alone lodges
in the groin. The ruptures we have named
may be considered as the only ones com-
mon to the horse. Some of them are very
rarely seen : hernia is more frequently on
the right than on the left side ; and scarcely
ever appears in mares. However, ventral
hernia, or rupture of the muscles of the
abdominal sides, and |)rotrusion beneath
the skin of a portion of intestine, is some-
times beheld in either sex, and perhaps, of
the two, is more frequently witnessed in
the female.

The causes which produce hernia are
various, but all arise from violence of exer-
tion, or the effects consequent upon external
injuries. With us the efibrts used in racing,
and the leaps taken in hunting, are causes,
as we may readily suppose ; when we con-
sider that the dilatation of the abdomen,
restrained as it is by weight and tight girth-
ings, must press backwards the intestinal
mass. Rearing and kicking also, and being
cast for operations, particularly the rising
up after castration, have all brought it on,
Blows with a thick stick, or from the horn
of a cow, may likewise induce it.

A DICTIONARY.

255

The arjip.pfoms of sfranfrulatcd hernia are
very similar lo tho.-?c of acute enicriti.s:
thcve id llic same uneasiness, shifting of
position, getting up and lying down again.
The horse rolls in the same manner, and in
turning on his l)ack sometimes seems to
get a momentary respite from pain ; yet it
is but momentary, for the suffering is not
one of remission ; it is constant ; this will
serve as one distinguishing mark between
it and spasmodic colic, with which it has
been confounded. In stallions, a pathog-
nomonic symptom is, that the testicle on
the hernial side is di'awn up to the abdo-
men, and is retained there, with only mo-
mentary fits of relaxation; toward the last,
the pulse is quick and wiry ; the horse
paws, looks at his flanks, but seldom kicks
at his belly. We assure ourselves of her-
nia by an oblong tumor in the groin, of
larger or smaller bulk ; hard or soft, as it
may contain cither faeces or gas, in which
latter case it will also be clastic. "When
the tumor i.s raised by the hand, or pressed,
a gurgling sound is emitted ; or, if the horse
be coughed, it will be sensibly increased in
dimensions.

Tlie treatment of strangulated hernia. —
The horse suflering under the afTection we
will suppose to be a stallion, and then de-
scribe the various manipulations for his
relief: firstly, the examination into the state
of the hernia ; secondly, the application of
means preparatory to the application of
pressure ; thirdly, the application of pres-
sure itself; also, the operation of removing
the stricture; and, likewise, the application
of the various processes to hernia in the
horse.

The treatment of hernia in a stallion. —
First, tlie examination of the hernial sac.
In this manipulation both hands are em-
ployed ; one is inti-oduced into the rectum,
the other into the sheath. The one within
the rectum must seek the internal ring;
while the other, pursuing the course of the
cord on the side affected, is to be pushed up
to the external ring; and thus, in the nat-
ural state, the opposed fingers may be made
nearly to meet, and so estimate the size of

the opening. However small the protruded
portion of gut, the praclitioner will be able
to detect, and even to reduce it. Tins ex-
ploration may be made in the standing pos-
ture; but it tvill be conducted ivith more
facility and certainty if the animal be cast,
ivhich is the preferable mode of proceeding.

Secondly, the application of means pre-
paratory to the taxis : these are said to be
bleeding, and partially paralyzing the parts
by administration of chloroform ; or lessen-
ing the volume of distention by dashing
the part with cold water ; or, if the horse
be already cast, by spreading ice over the
belly.

Thirdly, tlte manual efforts to return the
displaced gut. To fulfil this indication, we
arc, with the same hope, at once to proceed
thus; The horse is to be thrown upon the
opposite side to that disordered ; and, after
one hind leg has been drawn and fixed for-
ward, as for castration, he is to be turned
upon his back, and in that position main-
tained by trusses of straw, while other
trusses are placed under him to raise the
croup. With both arms well oiled, or cov-
ered with some mucilaginous decoction,
the operator will now commence his explo-
ration, taking the precaution of emptying
the rectum as he proceeds. As soon as he
shall have ascertained that it is a case of
hernia, — have assured himself the gut pro-
truded through the ring is undergoing
neither stricture nor strangulation, — he may
endeavor to disengage the hernial part, by
sofily drawing it inward within the cavity,
at the same time pushing it in the like
direction with the hand within the sheath.
Should he experience much difficulty in
these attempts, he is to desist; violence
being too often the forerunner of strangu-
lation and gangi'ene. He must bear in
mind, also, that, although the reduction is
effected, unless it be followed by immediate
castration, it does not always prove to be a
cure : the protrusion recurs after a time,
and occasionally even the moment the ani-
mal has risen. If the taxis should be fortu-
nate enough to reduce the hernia, and it be
not intended to castrate the horse, apply a

256

A DICTIONARY.

well-wadded pledget, or folded cloth, to the
part ; this may be retained with a bandage
crossed between the legs from side to side,
and fastened by one part under the belly to
a girth ; and also passing between the legs,
it may be again made fast to the back por-
tion of the same girth ; the intention of
this is, to prevent the protrusion of the
gut by the exertion of rising, and conse-
cjuenlly it should be removed as soon as
that danger is over. If a radical cure were
attempted, of course the clams would su-
persede this, either in the stallion or gelding.

And concerning the treatment of strangu-
lated hernia in geldings. Inguinal- hernia,
talcing the same course, is susceptible of
the same terminations, and requii-es the
same treatment as in staOions. The taxis
is to be employed, and will be used with
most effect, the operator (the horse lying
upon his back) extending the hernial sheath
v\'ith one hand, while he manipulates with
the other ; or, should this fail, by instructing
his assistant to hold up the hernial mass
from the belly, so as to take its pressure off
tlie ring, and thus give him an opportunity
to renew his efforts with more effect. In
some cases, the introduction of one hand
into the rectum becomes necessary. The
reduction of the hernia should be followed
up immediately by the application of the
clams, if we unite with the reduction an
attempt at permanent cure of the hernia ;
taking care, at the time, to draw out the
part of tiie scrotum to which the vaginal
sheath is adherent, and to push up the
clams as close as possible to the belly ; they
are tiien to be closed, as for castration.

Of congenital hernia, our limits allow of
little more than the mention ; nor need
more be detailed, as its consequences are
seldom injurious. It appears that inguinal
hernia commonly exists in the fcrtus in
utero. M. Lincguard, V . S., of Normandy,
where breeding is very extensively pursued,
has ascertained that enterocele is invariably
present at birth ; even in abortions, and in
subjects still-born. The congenital enter-
ocele is an attendant on birth, increasing up
to the third or sixth month, but afterwards

diminishing, and ultimately vanisliing.
Should it continue beyond a year or cieht-
een months, it is to be regarded as a chronic
or permanent hernia. Chronic or perma-
nent hernia, it may be remarked, our obser-
vations being so much limited to geldings,
we see little of. Castration, however, with
the armed clams, is the evident cure.

Sirangidation of the Intestines, or Morbid
Displacement of the Intestines. The intes-
tines, in consequence of their peristaltic
motion, become sometimes entangled to-
gether, and a fatal strangulation takes place;
this happens, occasionally, from some of
the mesenteric folds entwining them ; some-
times by their rupturing the mesentery, and
becoming strangulated by passing through
the opening they have made : but it is much
oftener the consequence of spasmodic ac-
tion, and during colic these inversions, invo-
lutions, invaginations, and inlrosusceptions
occur. "When thus affected, it is not un-
usual for the ileum to become reversed in
its usual course ; in which case, a portion,
then contracted by spasm, becomes forced
into a part less constringed, and an impen-
etrable obstruction thence is formed. We
may draw a practical inference from these
cases, — that in spasm we should attempt
an early relief; and likewise that we should
endeavor, in all cases of failure in bowel
affections, invariably to make ^post-mortem
examination: and this we may do on the
ground that repeated cases may enable us
accurately to interpret symptoms ; then, al-
though we cannot relieve, we may offer
such an opinion as will convince our em-
ployers it is not our ignorance of the signs,
but our circumscribed means, which is the
cause of our inability to afford assistance.*

Mortification. — A part deprived of
vital force, by causes inducing a loss of tone.

Moulting.— Casting the coat. In spring
the old coat is shed, or thrown off, and the
horse gradually improves in spirit and in
appearance ; but, during the change, he is
more liable to take cold. In the latter part
of the year, the coat becomes longer and

*Blaincs' "Outlines."

A DICTIONARY.

257

coarser, and loses its healthy gloss ; at the
same time, the horse often becomes weak,
sweats readily upon moderate exercise, and
is often incapable of performing his usual
labor. This is more especially the case
with horses that have been hard worked
and badly fed. At both these periods it is
necessary to take particular care of horses,
and work them moderately. A horse, when
moulting, .should not be exposed in the
stable to a current of air, but kept in a ven-
tilated stable. Warm clothing is improper.

Mucilage. — A solution of gum, or any-
thing that partakes of the natm-e of gum.
Gummy or mucilaginous drinks are useful
in internal disease ; the cheapest is an in-
fusion of linseed or marsh-mallows ; but the
best, perhaps, is a solution of gum arable.

Mucous Membranes. — (See Membrane.)

Mucous. — Many of the secretions of the
body are of a mucous nature.

Mucus. — A fluid secreted by raucous
surfaces.

Muscle. — The parts that are usually in-
cluded under this name consist of distinct
portions of flesh, susceptible of contraction
and relaxation.

Musk. — A powerful odorous substance,
whose medical virtues are chiefly anti-spas-
modic.

Myrrh. — A gum resin of a fragrant
smell and bitter taste. It is given internaUy,
as a tonic, in doses of one or two drachms.
Tincture of myrrh is sometimes applied to
wounds, ulcers, and sinuses.

Nag. — A name sometimes applied to
road horses, and such as have been docked,
in contradistinction to those that have long
tails, or are used in harness.

Narcotics. — Medicines which stupefy,
relieve pain, and promote sleep. There
are, however, two difl'erent ways to efleet
these objects, and, of course, two diflerent
characters of remedies to be used for the
purpose. The popular method is to ad-
minister opium, whose natural tendency is
to depress the vital powers, and deprive
them of sensibility. AH mixtures, in any
form, that contain opium, though soothing
for the present, are ultimately and suurely

pernicious. The true plan is to give anti-
spasmodics. (See Anti-spasmodics.)

Nares. — The nostrils.

Necrosis. — The mortification and sepa-
ration of a portion of dead bone from the
other parts of the bone.

Nepiiritics. — Medicines that act dn the
kidneys.

Nerving, Nekve Operation. — It con-
sists of cutting out a portion of the nerve
which supplies the foot, either just above
the fetlock joint, which is named the high
operation, or in the pastern, which is called
the low operation. In the former the sen-
sibility of the foot is supposed to be entirely
destroyed, and in the latter only partly so.
Dr. White observes, serious mischief, such
as the loss of the hoof, has sometimes fol-
lowed the higher nerve operation.

" After the division of a ner\'e, the ex-
tremities of the divided portion retract,
become enlarged and more vascular; but
especially the upper portion ; and coagu-
lable lymph is efl'used, which soon becomes
vascular. In a few days the coagulable
lymph from each portion becomes united,
and anastomosis forms- between the blood-
vessels; the lymph gradually assumes a
firmer texture, and the number of the blood-
vessels diminishes, and the newly-formed
substance appears to contract, like all other
cicatrices, so as to bring the exti-emities of
the divided portions nearer and nearer to
each other. It is difficult to determine,
from an experiment on the limb of an
animal, the exact time at which the nerve
again performs its functions after being
divided. In eight weeks after the division
of the sciatic nerve, I have observed a rab-
bit to be in some degree improved in the
use of its leg; but at the end of eighteen
weeks it was not perfect. When the nerves
of the leg of a horse are divided just above
the foot, they are sufficiently restored to
perform their functions, in some degi-ee, in
six or eight weeks ; but it must be observed
that these nerves are only formed for sensa-
tion, and it is very diflerent with the nerves
of nutrition, voluntary motion, etc.; the re-
union is sometimes accomplished by gran-

258

A DICTIONARY.

ulations. Secondly, I would observe, that
punctures and partial divisions of nerves
heal in the same way as wiicn there has
been a total division; and that, even on
the first infliction of the wounds, the func-
tion of the nerves is very little impaired."'
(See Swan's work on morbid local affec-
tions.)

Mr. Sewell finds " that, in cases of entire
section of a nerve, sensation returns in
about two months ; but in others, in which
a portion of nerve has been exercised, that
the period of restoring feeling can by no
means be foretold : in one of his own
horses, he ascertained that there was no
sensibility in the foot, even at the expiration
of three years ; and in some others, after a
longer interval, the organ appeared to be
wholly destitute of feeling."

Nicking. — An operation often performed
on horses, to raise the tail, and make them
carry it more gracefully, or rather to suit
the taste of man.

Nippers. — The front teeth, above and
below, have been thus named.

Nitre. — Mr. Morton writes : " Nitre
given internally is a febrifuge and diuretic.
The dose is from two to four drachms. In
order to obtain its full etlect as a febrifuge,
it should be exhibited in the form of ball, so
that it may undergo solution in the stom-
ach ; but as a diuretic, it is best given in
solution. It passes to the kidneys un-
changed, and its presence may be readily
detected in the urine by means of bibulous
paper immersed in it, which, on being
dried, deflagrates ; or, if the quantity given
be great, it may be procured in crystals
from the urine. Very large doses of this
salt act as an irritating poison. Two
pounds being given in six pints of water to
a horse, apparently in health, within lialf an
hour irritation of tlie mucous lining of the
alimentary canal began, evidenced by the
ftpces being voided frequently and in small
tpiantities. The kidneys were soon after
excited into increased action, the urine being
forcibly expelled, and the act acconi])anied
with uneasiness. In about four hours after,
the pulse had risen to nearly double the

number of beats, and the visible mucous
membranes were highly injected. Blood
being withdrawn from the jugular vein, it
presented all the appearances of arterial
blood. In the serum the existence of the
salt could be detected, but it wa.s obtained
in abundance from the urine. From this
period the symptoms became less in-gent,
and the pulse gradually regained its healthy
standard ; but the dung and mine continued
to be passed more frequently than natural
throughout the day.

Externally a|)plied, nitrate of potassa is a
valuable stimulant to wounds, and it may
be employed with much benefit when gan-
grene has taken place. For this purpose,
a saturated solution is ordered to be kept in
the pharmacy.

Oats. — According to Sir H. Davy's
analysis, oats contain 742 parts of nutritive
matter out of 1000, which is composed of
641 mucilage, or starch, 15 saccharine
matter, and 87 gluten, or albumen. New
oats are difficult of digestion.

Oblique Muscles. — The muscles of
the abdomen, or belly, are thus named.
There are four of them ; two external and
two internal. Some of the muscles of the
eye are also named oblique muscles.

Occiput. — The back part of the head.

CEdejia. — A watery or dropsical swell-
ing.

(Esophagus, or Esophagus. — The tube
passing from the mouth to the stomach.

Ointments. — Unctuous substances of
the consistence of butter ; when made con-
siderably thinner by the addition of oil,
they are termed liniments ; but when their
solidity is increased by wax, rosin, etc.,
they are termed plasters.

Olecranon. — The head of the bone
named ulnar (see cut), in the horse ; it
aflbrds a powerful lever for the triceps ex-
tensor cubiti muscle to act upon, in straight-
ening the fore arm upon the humerus.
(See Skeleton.)

Olfactory Nerves are spread over all
the interior of the nostril, and constitute
the sense of smell.

Omentum. — The omentum, or caul, is a

A DICTIONARY.

259

double membrane, containing within its
folds a considerable quantity of fat, in the
human body and many animals. But in
the horse this is never seen ; nor does the
omentum contain much fat ; what there is
lies in the region of the stomach.

Opacity. — A want of transparency in
those parts of the eye named pupil, or
cornea.

OPERATIONS.

Of surgical operations,* and the vari-
ous RESTRAINTS IT IS SOMETIMES NECESSARY
TO PLACE THE HORSE UNDER FOR THEIR PER-
FORMANCE.— " When it is necessary to per-
form any painful operation on so powerful
an animal as the horse, it is of consequence
to subject him to a restraint equal to the
occasion. Horses are very dissimilar in their
tempers, and bear pain very differently ; but
it is always prudent to prepare for the worst,
and few important operations should be at-
tempted without casting. Humanity should
be the fundamental principle of every pro-
ceeding, and we ought always to subject
this noble animal to pain with reluctance ;
but when circumstances absolutely call for
it, we should joyfully close our hearts to all
necessary suffering. The resistance of the
horse is terrible, and it is but common pru-
dence to guard against the effects of it. The
lesser restraints are various : among them
may be first noticed the twitch. The twitch
is a very necessary instrument in a stable,
though, when frequently and officiously
used, it may have the ill effect of rendering
some horses violent to resist its application.
In many instances blindfolding will do more
than the twitch ; and some horses may be
quieted, when the pain is not excessive, by
holding the ear in one hand, and rubbing
the point of the nose with the other. A
soothing manner will often engage the atten-
tion and prevent violence ; but it is seldom
that either threats or punishment render an
unruly horse more calm. Inexperienced
persons guard themselves only against the
hind legs; but they should be aware that
gome horses strike terribly with their fore

* Blaincs' " Outlines."

feet: it is prudent, therefore, in all opera-
tions, t'l blindfold the animal, as by this he
becomes particularly intimidated, and if he
strikes he cannot aim. When one of the
fore extremities requires a very minute ex-
amination, it is prudent to have the oppo-
site leg held up ; it may, in some cases, be
tied : and when one of the hinder feet is the
object of attention, the fore one of the same
side should be held up, as by this means the
animal is commonly prevented from strLlc-
ing. K this precaution be not taken, still
observe to keep one hand on the hock, while
the other is employed in Avhat is necessary ;
by which means, if the foot become elevated
to lack, sufficient warning is given, and the
very action of the horse tlirows the operator
away from the stroke. Without the use of
these art^the practitioner will expose him-
self to much risk. * The trcvis is the very
utmost limit of restraint, and is seldom used
save by smiths, to shoe very violent and
powerful horses : whenever recovirse is had
to it, the greatest caution is necessary fo
bed and bolster all the parts that are likely
to come in contact with the body. On the
Continent we have seen horses shod in this
machine, and apparently put into it from no
necessity greater than to prevent the clothes
of the smith from being dirtied. Horses
have been destroyed by the trevis, as well
as by casting ; or their aversion to the re-
straint has been such, they have died from
the consequences of their own resistance.
The stdc-line is now very generally used, not
only in minor operations, but also in those
more important. Many veterinarians do not
use any other restraint than this, in which
they consider there is safety both to the
horse and to the operator. It is applicable
to sucfi horses as are disposed to strike be-
hind; and consists in placing a hobble strap
around the pastern of one hind leg, and then
carrying from a web collar passed over the
head the end of a rope through the D of the
hobble, and back again under the webbing
round the neck. A man is then set to pull
at the free end of the rope, by which the
hinder leg is drawn forward without elevat-
ing it from the ground. By this displace-

2G0

A DICTIONARY.

merit of one leg the horse is effectually
secured from kicking with either. Occasion-
ally it is thus applied : hobbles are put
on both hind legs, and the rope is passed
through each of the rings. According to
this last method, the horse is actually cast,
as he must fall when the ropes are pulled.
Take a long rope, and tie a loop in the mid-
dle, which is to be of such a size as it may
serve for a collar ; pass the loop over the
head, letting tlie knot rest upon the withers ;
then take the free ends, pass them through
the hobbles, and bring it iinder the loop.
Let two men pull at the ropes, and the hind
legs will be drawn forward.

" Casting: — The objections to this prac-
tice arise from the dangers incurred by forc-
ing the horse to the ground. Mr. Bracy
Clark simplified casting, by iuvenftng some
patent hobbles, having tf running chain in-
stead of rope, and which, by a shifting D,
made the loosening of all the hobbles, for
the purpose of getting at a particular leg,
unnecessary. These were still further im-
proved by Mr. Budd, so as to render a
release from all the hobbles at once practi-
cable. Hobble leathers and ropes should be
kept supple and pliant with oil, and ought
to be always examined previous to using ;
nor should the I) or ring of the strap be of
any other metal than iron. Brass, however
thick, is brittle, and not to be depended on.
To the D or ring of one pastern hobble, a
chain of about four feet long is attached; to
this a strong royic is well fastened, antl, ac-
cording to the way the horse is to be thrown,
this hobble is to be fixed on the fore foot of
the contrary side : the rope is then passed
from the hobble on the fore foot to the D of
tiie hind foot of that side, then to the other
hind foot, and, lastly, through the D of the
other fore foot. After this, much of the ease
and safety of the throw depend on bringing
the legs as near togetlier as possible. This
should be done by gradually moving them
nearer to each other, without alarming the
horse; which will very much faciUtate the
business, and is really of more moment than
is generally imagined. A space sufficiently
large should be chosen for the purpose of

casting, as some horses struggle much, and
throw themselves with great violence a con-
siderable way to one side or the other ; and
they are able to do this if the feet have not
been brought near together previous to at'
tempting the cast. The place should be also
very well littered down. The legs having
been brought together, the assistants must
act in concert; one particularly should be
at the head, which must be carefully held
throughoiit by means of a strong snaffle
bridle ; another should be at the hind part
to direct the fall, and to force the body of
the horse to the side which is requisite.
Pursuing these instructions, the animal may
be at once rather let down than thrown, by
a dexterous and quick drawing of the rope ;
the whole assistants acting in concert. The
moment the horse is down, the person at the
head must throw himself upon that mem-
ber, and keep it secure ; for all the efforts of
the animal to disengage himself are begun
by elevating the head and fore parts. The
rope is tightened. The chain is fixed by
inserting a hook through one of the links,
of sufficient size not to pass the hobbles.
When the operation is over, the screw which
fastens the chain to the hobble, first put upon
one fore leg, is withdrawn. The chain then
flies through the D's of the otJier hobbles,
and all Ihe logs are free, save the fore leg
first alluded to ; the strap of this has to be
afterwards unbuckled. There are also other
apparatus used in casting, as a strong
leathern case to pass over the head, serving
as a blind when the animal is being thrown ;
and as a protection against his rubbing the
skin off his eyes when down. Then a sur-
cingle is also used. This is fastened round
the horse's Jjody, and from the back hangs a
broad strap and a rope : the strap is fastened
to the fore leg of that side which it is de-
sired should be uppermost; the line is given
to a man who stands on the opposite side
to the generahty of tlie pullers. On the
signal being given, the men havyig hold of
the hobble rope pull the legs one way, while
he who has hold of the rope attached to the
surcingle pulls the back in a contrary direc-
tion, and the horse is immediately cast

A DICTIONAUY.

261

" Sling-ing' is a restraint which horses
submit to with great impatience, and not
without much inconvenience, from the vio-
lent excoriations occasioned by the friction
and pressure of the bandaging around liis
body. Graver evils are also brought about
by the abdominal pressure : some horses
stale and dung with difTiculty when sus-
pended; and inflammation of the bowels
has not unfreqtiently come on during sling-
ing. The slings are, however, forced on us
in some cases, as in fractured bones, the
treatment of open joints, and some other
wounds where motion would be most un-
favorable to the ciuative treatment. Sus-
pension may be partial or complete. Sus-
pension of any kind will require the appli-
cation of pulleys and ropes affixed to the
beams, that the whole body of the horse
may be supported. A sling may be formed
of a piece of strong sacking, which is to pass
under the beUy, the two ends being fastened
firmly to pieces of wood ; each of about
three feet long, and which are to reach a
little higher than the horse's back : to the
pieces of wood, cords and pulleys are to be
firmly attached, by which means the sacking
can be lowered or raised at pleasure. To the
sacking, also, are to be sewn strong straps,
both before and behind, to prevent the horse
sliding in either direction, without carrying
the sacking with him. Upon this so-formed
cradle he is to recline. If horses when they
are fresh should be placed in this machine,
most of them would either injiu:e themselves,
or break through all restraint. However, by
tying up their heads for three or four nights,
their spirit is destroyed. The slings may
then be applied without the fear of resist-
ance : it is tiie best method not to pull the
canvas firm up, but to leave about an inch
between the horse's belly and the cloth, so
that the animal may stand free, or throw his
weight into the slings when he pleases. In
this fashion a horse may remain for months
in the slings, and at the end of the time dis-
play none of the wear and tear so feelingly
described by old authors.

" Castration. — This practice is of very
ancient origin ; and is as extensive as ancient, i

It is founded on the superior placidity of
temper it gives. The castrated horse no
longer evinces the superiorities of his mas-
culine character, but approaches the softer
form and, milder character of the mare.
Losing his ungovernable desires, he submits
to discipline and confinement without resist-
ance ; and, if he be less worthy of the paint-
er's delineation and the poet's song, he is
valuable to his possessor in a tenfold degree.
In England, where length in the arms and
of the v.'ide spread angles of the limbs is ab-
solutely necessary in the horse to accomplish
the rapid travelling so much in vogue among
us, the exchange of the lofty carriage and
high action of the stallion is absolutely
necessary ; and, when we have added the
lessened tendency of the gelding to some
diseases, as hernia, founder, cutaneous
affections, etc., we may be content to leave
the sexual type with the racer for his breed ;
also with the drayhorse for his weight, and
the fancy of his owner. Supposing it,
therefore, eligible to castrate our horses,
what is the proper age for the operation ?
What are the relative advantages and dis-
advantages of the different methods of per-
forming it ? The proper age to castrate
the young horse must depend on circum-
stances ; as on his present appearance, his
growth, and the future purposes we intend
him for ; observing, generally, that the more
early it is done, the safer is the operation :
for, until these organs begin to secrete, they
are purely structural parts, and as such are
not so intimately connected with the sym-
pathies of the constitution. Some breeders
of horses castrate at twelve months ; others
object to this period, because they think the
animal has not sufficiently recovered the
check experienced from weaning, before this
new shock to the system occurs. In the more
common sort of horses used for agricultural
purposes, it is probably indifferent at what
time the operation is performed; this con-
sideration behig kept in view, that the
earlier it is done the lighter will tlie horse
be in his fore-hand; and the longer it is
protracted the heavier will be his crest, and
the greater his weight before, which in

262

A DICTIONARY.

heavy draught work is desirable. For car-
riage horses it would be less so, and the
period of two years is not a bad one for
their castration. The better sort of saddle-
horses should be well examined every three
or four months ; particularly at the ages of
twelve, eighteen, and twenty-four months ;
at either of which times, according to cir-
cumstances or to fancy, provided the fore-
hand be sufficiently developed, it may be
proceeded with. Waiting longer may
make the horse heavy ; but, if his neck ap-
pear too long and thin, and his shoulders
spare, he will assuredly be improved by be-
ing allowed to remain entire for six or eight
months later. Many of the Yorkshire
breeders never cut till two years, and think
their horses stronger and handsomer for it :
some wait even longer, but the fear in this
case is, that the staUion form will be too
predominant, and a heavy crest and weighty
fore-hand be the consequence ; perhaps also
the temper may suffer. Young colts require
little preparation, provided they are healthy
and not too full from high living ; if so,
they must be kept somewhat short for a few
days ; and in all, the choice of a mild season
and moderate temperature is proper. When
a full grown horse is operated on, some fur-
ther preparation is necessary. He should
not be in a state of debility, and certainly
not in one of plethora : in the latter case,
lower his diet, and it would be prudent to
give him a purgative. It is also advisable
that it be done v>hen no influenza or stran-
gles rage, as we have found the ellects of
castration render a horse very obnoxious to
any prevalent disease. The advanced spring
season, previous however (o tlie flies becom-
ing troublesome, is the proper time for the
performance of the operation upon all valu-
able horses ; and be careful that it be not
done until after the winter coat has been
shed, which will have a favorable effect on
the future coating of the horse, independent
of the circumstance, that at a period of
change the constitution is not favorable to
any unusual excitement.

" Castration is performed in various ways,
but in all it expresses the removal of the

testicles; there are methods of rendering
the animal impotent without the actual de-
struction of these organs ; for if by any
other method the secretion of the spermatic
glands is prevented, our end is answered.

" Castration by cauterization is the method
which has been principally practised among
us. But this by no means proves it the best;
on the contrary, many of our most expert
veterinarians do not castrate by this method.
Air. Goodwin, and many other practitioners
of eminence, never castrate by cautery.

" A preliminary observation should be
made previously to casting, to see that the
horse is not suffering from a rupture : such
cases have happened ; and as in our method
we open a direct communication with the
abdomen, when the horse rises it is not im-
probable that his bowels protrude until they
trail on the ground. Hernia as a conse-
quence of castration may easily occur by
the uncovered operation ; for, as already
observed, it makes the scrotal sac and ab-
dominal cavity one continuous opening.
It is not to be wondered at, therefore, if the
violent struggles of the animal should force
a quantity of intestine through the rings
into the scrotal bag. Should we be called
on to operate on a horse which already had
hernia, it is evident we ought not to proceed
with it, unless the owner be appriied of the
risk, and willing to abide by it. In such
case we would recommend that the method
of Girard be practised, /. e. to inclose the
tunica vaginalis within the clams (suffi-
ciently tight to retain them, but not to pro-
duce death in the part) pushed high up
against the abdominal ring, and then to re-
move the testicle, being very careful to
avoid injuring any portion of intestine in
the operation. When a discovery is made
of the existence of hernia after an opening
has been already made for the common pur-
pose of castration, should the operator con-
tinue his process, and castrate ? We should
say, by no means ; but, on the contrary, we
would greatly prefer the method recom-
mended by Mr. Pcrvicall, — firmly to unite
the lips of the external wound by suture,
allowins; the testicle itself to as.sist in block-

A DlCTIO>;AnY.

263

ing up the passage ; with a hope also that
ihe iiiflammation caused by the e^ccision
might altogether stop up the scrotal com-
munication with the abdomen. But, in the
appalling case of immense jKotrusion of
intestine, what is to be done ? Mr. Cole-
man, in such a case, proposes to make an
opening near the umbilicus, large enough
to introduce the hand, and thus draw in the
bowels. Mr. Percivall would prefer dilating
the external ring : but the testicle must be
very firmly, retained, and even permanently
fixed against the dilated ring, or the bowels
would again descend. The intestines
probably would become inflated in any
such case.

" As unbroken young horses are the most
usual subjects of this operation, and as such
often have not yet been bridled, if a colt
cannot be enticed with oats, etc., he must
be driven into a corner between two steady
horses ; where, if a halter cannot be put on,
at least a running hempen noose can be got
round his neck ; but, which ever is used, it
should be flat, or the struggles, which are
often long and violent, may bruise the neck,
and produce abscess or injury. When his
exertions have tired him, he may be then
led to the operating spot ; here his attention
should be engaged while the hobbles are
put on, if possible ; if not, a long and strong
cart-rope, having its middle portion formed
into a noose sufficiently large to take in the
head and neck, is to be slipped on, with the
knotted part applied to the counter or breast;
the long pendant ends are passed back-
ward between the fore legs, then carried
round the hind fetlocks ; brought forward
again on the outside, run under the collar-
rope ; a second time carried backward on
the outer side of all, and extended to the
full length in a direct line behind the animal.
Thus fettered, Mr. Percivall says his hind
feet may be drawn under him toward the
elbows ; it has been, however, often found
that, at the moment the rope touches the
legs, the colt cither kicks and displaces the
rope, or altogether displaces himself; but
his attention can generally be engaged by
one fore leg being held up, or by having his

ear or muzzle rubbed, or even by the twitch ;
if not, the rope may be carried actually
round each fetlock, which then acts like a
hobble ; and this rope may be gradually
tightened: this last, however, is a very ques-
tionable method, and the others therefore
ought to be long tried before it is resorted
to ; in this way people have succeeded with
very refractory colts ; but it requires very
able assistants, and, if possible, the man
who has been used to the individual colt
should be present. In either way, as soon
as the rope is fixed, with a man to each end
of it behind the colt, let them, by a sudden
and forcible effort in concert, approximate
his hind legs to his fore, and thus throw
him. Before the colt is cast, however, it
should be endeavored to ascertain that he
is free from strangles and hernia.

" Being satisfied that no hernia exists on
either side, proceed to cast the colt, tiirning
him, not directly on the left side, but prin-
cipally inclining that way ; and, if possible,
let the croup be very slightly elevated ; it is
usual to place him directly flat on the left
side, but the above is more convenient.
Next secure the near hind leg with a piece
of hempen tackle, having a running noose ;
or, in default of this not being at hand,
make use of the flat part of a hempen hal-
ter, which should for safety be put on be-
fore the hobble of that leg is removed ; as
may be readily done, if the hobbles having
shifting or screw D's, as described in cast-
ing, are made use of. Every requisite being
at hand, the operator, having his scalpel
ready, should place himself behind the
horse, as the most convenient way to per-
form his manipulations ; and, firmly grasp-
ing the left testicle with his left hand, and
drawing it out so as to render the scrotum
tense, he should make an incision length-
ways, from the anterior to the posterior
part of the bag. The resistance of the
cremaster muscle has to be overcome be-
fore the testicle can be forced to the bottom
of the scrotum ; and this is the more readily
accomplished if the annimal's attention be
engaged. The incision may be carried at
once tlu-ough the integuments, the thin dar-

26-t

A DICTIONARY.

tos expansion, and the vaginal coat of the
testicles, with a sweep of the scalpel : but
with one less dexterous at the operation, it
will be more prudent to make the fu-st in-
cision through the scrotum and dartus only,
to the required extent ; and then to do the
same by the vaginal coat, thus avoiding to
wound the testicle, which would produce
violent resistance, and give unnecessary
pain. We, however, take this opportunity
of noting, that cases have occiu-red, when
the tunica vaginalis was divided, no testicle
followed ; firm adhesions between this tunic
and the tunica albuginea having retained it
fast. In such cases the scalpel must be
employed to free the testicle, by dissecting
it away from the vaginal sac. When no
such obstruction occurs, the testicle, if the
opening be sufficiently large, will slip out ;
but the operator must be prepared at the
moment of so doing to expect some violent
struggles, more particularly if he attempt
to restrain the contractions of the cremas-
ter, and by main force to draw out the tes-
ticle. Preparatory to this, therefore, the
twitch should be tightened ; the attendants,
especially the man at the head, must be on
the alert ; and the testicle itself, at the time
of this violent retraction of the cremaster,
should be merely held, but not dragged in
opposition to the contraction. If the clams
have been put on over the whole, according
to Mr. Percivall's method, they will assist
in retaining the retracting parts ; but they
must not be used with too much pressure.
The resistance having subsided, the clams
must now be removed ; or, if they have
not been previously in use, they must now
be taken in hand, and, having been prepared
by some tow being wound round them,
should be placed easily on the cord, while
time is found to free from the gi'ip of the
pincers the vas deferens, or spermatic tube,
which is seen continued from the epididy-
mis. The Russians, Mr. Goodwin informs
us, cut it through when they operate. Hu-
manity is much concerned in its removal
from pressure, because of the excess of
pain felt when it is included. It is neces-
sary, before the final fixing of the clams, to

determine on the part where the division of
the cord is to take place. To use Mr. Per-
civall's words, ' If it be left too long, it is
apt to hang out of the wound afterward,
and retard the process of union;' on the
other hand, if it be cut very short, and the
arteries happen to bleed afresh after it has
been released from the clams, the operator
will find it no easy task to recover it. The
natural length of the cord, which will mainly
depend on the degree of the descent of the
gland, will be our best guide in this partic-
ular. The place of section determined on and
marked, close the clams sufficiently tight to
retain firm hold of the cord, and to effectu-
ally stop the circulation within it. There
are now two modes of making the division :
the one is to sever it with a scalpel, and
then to sufficiently sear the end of it as to
prevent a flow of blood. The other, and
in some respects the preferable method, is
to employ a blunt-edged iron, which is to
divide by little crucial sawings, so that,
when the cord is separated, it shall not pre-
sent a uniform surface, but ragged edges,
which will perfectly close the mouths of the
vessels. This done, loosen the clams suf-
ficiently to observe whether there be any
flow of blood ; gently wipe (he end of the
cord also- with the finger, as sometimes an
accidental small plug gets within the vessel;
this had better be removed at the time.
Retain a hold on the clams a few minutes
longer ; and, while loosening them gradu-
ally, observe to have an iron in readiness
again to touch the end of the cord, if any
blood makes its appearance. Satisfied on
this point, sponge the parts with cold water ;
no sort of external application is necessary,
still less any resin seared on the end of the
cord, which can only irritate, and wiU never
adhere. On the after-treatment much dif-
ference of opinion has existed, and even yet
exists. The powerful evidence of accumu-
lated facts has now convinced us of the
necessity and propriety of some motion for
the newly castrated horse, as a preventive
of local congestion ; such practice is com-
mon in most countries, and seems salutary
in aU. Hm-trel d'Arboval, thus impressed,

A DICTIONARY.

265

recommends the horse, immediately after
the operation, to be led out to walk for an
hour ; and it is a general plan in France to
wailc such horses in hand an hour night and
morning. JVIi'. Goodwin, in proof of its
not being hurtful, informs us that whole
studs of horses, brought to St. Petersburgh
to be operated on, are immediately travelled
back a certain portion of the distance, night
and morning, until they arrive at home.
We have, therefore, no hesitation in recom-
mending a moderate degree of motion in
preference to absolute rest.

" The French method of castration is advo-
cated by Mr. Goodwin ; and it is sufficient
that it receives his recommendation to en-
title it to attention ; it is rendered the more
so, as he obser^'es on the method in general
use among us, ' that the operation per-
formed by the actual cautery always in-
duces, more or less, symptoms that often
become alarming; and that it cannot be
performed on the adult without incurring
more swelling and severer consequences
than attend other methods of operation. If
I ever use the actual cautery, it is for the
sake of expedition, and then only on a
yearling, or a two-year old ; but I am re-
solved never to employ it again on an
adult.' These observations, as emanating
from such a source, must be deemed im-
portant. Mr. Goodwin then offers the de-
scription of the French method of operating,
from Hurtrel d'Arboval. ' Castration, by
means of the clams, is the method in gen-
eral use, if not the only one now employed ;
it is the most ancient, since it was recom-
mended by Hieroclius among the Greeks.
It is performed in two ways, the testicle
being covered or vncovered. In the former,
the exterior of the scrotum, formed by the
skin and dartos muscle, is cut through, and
the testicle is brought out by dissecting
away the laminated tissue, the gland being
covered by the tunica vaginalis ; the clam
is then placed above the epididymis, oi'Iside
the external peritoneal covering, of the cord.
In the uncovered operation, the incision is
made through the servus capsule of the tes-
ticle ; the tunica vaginalis being divided,
a

the testicle presents itself, and the clam is
placed well above the epididymis, on the
cord. The operation, performed in either
way, requires us to provide ourselves with a
scalpel, a pair of clams, a pair of long pin-
cers, made purposely to bring the ends of
the clams together, and some waxed string.
The clams may be formed of different kinds
of wood ; but the elder is considered the
best, and generally made use of» To make
a clam, we procure a branch of old and dry
elder, whose diameter should be about an
inch, and whose length should be from five
to six inches : of com'se, the dimensions
must at all times be proportioned to the
size of the cord we have to operate on. At
the distance of half an inch from each end,
a small niche, suthcicntly deep to hold the
string, must be made, and then the wood
should be sawed through the middle length-
ways. Each divided surface should be
planed, so as to facilitate the opening of
the clams, either when about to place them
on or take them off. The pith of the wood
is then to be taken out, and the hollow
should be filled with corrosive sublimate and
flour, mixed with sufficient water to form it
into a paste. Some persons are not in the
habit of using any caustic whatever; then,
of course, scooping out of the inside of the
clam is not necessary : notwithstanding, the
caustic, inasmuch as it produces a speedier
dissolution of the parts, must be useful, and
ought not to be neglected.' The addition
of the caustic, however, Mr. Goodwin ob-
jects to with gi-eat reason, remarking, that
unless it be a very strong one, and therefore
dangerous to employ, it cannot be of any
use to parts compressed and deprived of
circulation and life. He furtlier informs us
that he has operated in six cases in succes-
sion with the same effect, without any es-
charotic matter whatever. An experimental
case of Mr. Percivall's terminated fatally:
by the use of caustic the cord was greatly
inflamed, as high as the ring, and which
unquestionably produced the unfortunate
result. ' The covered operation,' continues
Mr. Goodwin, ' is the one that I am about
to advocate, and wliich difiers only inso-

2G6

A DICTIUNARY.

much, that the scrotum and dartos muscle
must be cautiously cut through, without
dividing the tunica vaginalis. It was Mon-
sieur Berger, who was accidentally at my
house when I was about to castrate a horse,
and who, on my saying that I should prob-
ably do it with the cautery, expressed his
surprise that I should perform the operation
in any other way than on the plan generally
approved of in France. Being a stranger
to it, he kindly consented to preside at the
operation, and, after seeing him perform on
the near testicle, I did the same on the
right, but, of course, not with the same fa-
cility. After opening the scrotum, and
dissecting tlirough the dartos, which is very
readily done by passing the knife lightly
over its fibres ; the testicle, and its covering,
the tunica vaginalis, must be taken in the
right hand, while the left should be em-
ployed in pushing back the scrotum from
its attachments ; and, having your assistant
ready, as before, with the clam, it must be
placed well above the epididymis, and great-
er pressure is, of course, necessary, as the
vaginal covering is included in the clam.'

" Mr. Goodwin fm-ther observes, that in
Russia he has seen hundreds of horses op-
erated on, even after the human fashion,
with safety ; and, he remarks, it certainly
produces less pain, the animal loses less
flesh and condition, and is sooner recovered
than when operated on by the actual cautery.

" Castration by ligature is a painful, bar-
barous, and very dangerous practice : and
consists in inclosing the testicles and scro-
tum within ligatures, until mortification oc-
curs, and they drop off". It is practised by
some breeders on their young colts, but it
is always hazardous, and disgracefully cruel.
The substance of the testicle in some coun-
tries is also broken down either by rubbing,
or otherwise by pressure between two hard
bodies : this is practised in Algiers, instead
of excision, and tetanus is a frequent con-
sequence of it. In Portugal they twist
round the testicle, and thus stop the circu-
lation of the gland. Division of the vas
deferens has been performed, it is said, with
success, on many animals ; and is proposed

as a safe and less painful process than the
emasculation of the horse. It consists in a
longitudinal section tlirough the scrotum,
dartos, and vaginal sheath, so as to expose
the cord, from which the vas deferens is to
be separated and severed from the artery and
vein. There is a certain consent of parts,
by which the sympathy of an organ remains
after its functional offices are apparently
destroyed. There can be little doubt but
the nervous excitement would continue, the
vein and artery remaining entire. There
are certain nice conditions of the organ
necessary for propagation ; thus, the horse
who retains his testicles within his abdo-
men, possesses all the roguish qualities of
him with one perfectly evolved : he is lust-
ful, and can cover, but is seldom fruitful.
Of the morbid consequences of castration
we have little to say : by early evacuations,
green food, a loose box, a cool air, moderate
clothing, but particularly by walking exer-
cise, swellings of the parts may be prevent-
ed : if not, bleed and foment ; shoiJd sup-
puration follow, and sinuses form, treat as
directed under those heads ; and if tetanic
symptoms start up, refer to that article.
There has been lately practised in India a
novel mode of castration, which is said to be
the invention of a Boer settled at the Cape
of Good Hope. The cord is exposed in the
usual manner ; from the cord the artery is
singled out ; this vessel is scraped through
with a coarse-edged blunt knife, when the
other constitutents of the cord arc cut away,
and the operation is finished. This method
is much praised by those who have adopted
it, and is said to be always attended with
success.

^'■Lithotomy. — Hurtrel d'Arboval's ac-
count of the progress of lithotomy in veteri-
nary practice commences in 1774. The
second case was successfully operated on in
1794 ; and at later periods other veterinary
surgeons have also performed it. ' In mo-
nodactyles there are two methods of oper-
ating for the stone ; one through the rectum,
the other tlirough the bladder. The first,
which consists in lying open the bladder by
a longtitudinal incision made through the

A DICTIONARY.

267

parietes of the part of the rectum adherent
to it, by means of a straiglit bistoury, is
easily practised ; but in its consequences is
dangerous in the extreme: in fact, it is an
operation never to be adopted but in a case
where the magnitude of the stone precludes
its extraction through the neck of the blad-
der. In all other cases, lithotomy by the
urethra is to be ])ursued. For its perfor-
mance, are required a straight probe-pointed
bistoury, a whalebone fluted staff, and a
pair of forceps curved at the extremities.
The animal should, if practicable, be main-
tained in the erect posture. The tail plaited
and carried round on the right quarter, the
operator feels for the end of the staff intro-
duced up the urethra, and makes an incision
directly upon it, from above downwards, an
inch and a half or two inches in length.
Next, he introduces the sound, and passes
it onward into the bladder. Now, placing
the back of the bistoury within the groove
of the sound, by gliding the knife forwards,
the pelvic portion of the urethra, and also
the neck of the bladder, become slit open ;
the latter in two places, in consequence of
a second cut being made in withdrawing
the bistoury. The opening made being
considered of sufficient dimensions, the oper-
ator introduces the forceps into the bladder,
and seizes the calculus, one hand being up
the rectum, to aid him in so doing. The
forceps clasping the stone are now to be
withdrawn, but with gentleness ; and with a
vacillating sort of movement of the hand
from side to side, in order more easily to
surmount any difficulties in the passage, and
the more effectuaUy to avoid contusion or
laceration. M. Girard tells us, ' That the cut
through the pelvic portion of the urethra
ought always to be made obliquely to one
side ; the operator should hold his bistoury
in such a direction that its cutting edge be
turned toward the angle of the thigh. By
tills procedure we shall gain easier access to
the bladder; and not only avoid wounding
the rectum, but also the artery of Ihe bulb,
as well as the bulb itself, and suspensory
ligaments of the penis.' The parts cut
through in the operation are, 1st, the fine

thin skin of the perineum, smooth externally
and marked with a ra]5he ; densely cellular
internally : 2ndly, adhering to the tissue,
the faschial covering; derived from the fas-
chia superficialis abdominis, which has here
become fibrous : it forms the common en-
velope to the parts underneath, and is closely
connected with the corpus musculosum ure-
thra : 3rdly, the corpus miisculosiim nrethrce,
that penniform band of fleshy fibres which
springs by two branches from the ischiatic
tuberosities embracing the sphincter ani, and
concealing the arteries of the bulb ; whence
they unite, and proceed to envelop the
lu-ethra: 4thly, the corpus spongiosum ure-
thrcB, the part immediately covered by the
muscular envelope, and which here is bulb-
ous. It is more particularly worthy our
remark, from tAvo arteries penetrating the
bulb, which come from v.nthout the pelvis,
ascending obliquely outward to reach the
part : 5thly, the suspensory ligaments of the
penis, pursuing the course of, and adhering
to, the tendinous union of the erectores.
An attention to the relative position of these
parts will demonstrate the advantages of
the lateral oblique incision over one made
directly along the raphe : by pursuing the
latter, we necessarily cut through the sus-
pensory ligaments and into the bulb, wound-
ing thereby the arteries; whereas, by the
former, all this danger is avoided, besides
that it renders the operation more simple
and facile.

" Tracheotomy. — Cases occur when this
operation is required ; as in sti'angles, when
the tumors threaten suffocation, or when
any substance has remained utiswallowed
in the oesophagus, the pressure of which ob-
structs respiration. In a distressing case of
gunpowder bursting immediately under a
horse's nose, the effects of which tumefied
his mouth and nostrils, so as to prevent free
inspiration, the animal mved his life en-
tirely to our excising a portion from the
tracheal rings, about ten inches below the
angle of the tiiroat. The operation is a very
simple one, and may consist either in a
longtitudinal section made through two or
three of the rings, or a portion, occupying

2G8

A DICTIONARY.

about an inch round, may be excised from
the anterior cartilaginous substance. The
proper mode, when it can be done, however,
is to malce a circular opening with a very
narrow knife, removing a portion of two
cartilages, or taking a semicircular piece from
each ; and this last, although it is seldom
performed, is by far the best method : the
integuments should be first divided in the
exact centre of the neck, three or four inches
bdow the obstruction; then the skin and
tissues should be sufHciently separated to
allow a tube adapted to the size of the tra-
chea to be introduced ; the tube having an
acute turn and a rim, which must be fur-
nished with holes for the adaptation of tapes
to secure it around the neck. There are
several instruments of this sort in use, of
wliich that adopted by the French, or the
one invented by Mr. CTOwing of Camden-
Town, is to be preferred. The operation
has lieen also performed in cases of roaring,
under an idea of dividing the stricture which
impeded respiration ; but, unless the exact
situation of this were discovered, it would
be but an experimental attempt.

" CEsophag-oloDii/. — It was long thought
that a wound in the oesophagus must be
necessarily fatal, but we have now sufficient
proofs to the contrary on record; so that
v^-e are not deterred from cutting into the
esophageal tube when it is necessary; but
it is an operation requiring skill and anato-
mical Icnowledge ; and its future results are
sometimes very serious. The cases that
call for esophagotomy are the lodgment of
accidental substances within the tube. An
apple once so lodged was removed by inci-
sion by a veterinary surgeon at Windsor.
CaiTots, parsneps, beets, etc., are liable to
produce such obstruction when not sliced.
Too large a medicinal mass also has lodged
there ; and a voracious eater has, by at-
tempting to swallow too large a quantity of
not salivated bran or chaff, produced an ob-
struction which pressed on the trachea and
threatened suffocation. In all cases of ob-
struction of ihis Icind we will suppose that a
probang well oiled has been previously at-
tempted to hu passed, and has completely

failed. The probang for the horse, however,
differs materially from that used for the cow.
It is formed after the fashion of the one
adopted by the human practitioner, consist-
ing of a )Dliable piece of whalebone, having
a sponge tied to one end. The operation
being determined on may be practised stand-
ing ; if the swelling be large, no fear need be
entertained about cutting important organs,
as the enlargement will push them on one
side. Cut down, therefore, directly upon
the centre of the impacted substance. If
the horse be cast, which is quite unnecessary,
have him of course thrown with his left side
uppermost. It will also be necessary to
command a good light. The part of the
neck chosen for the opening must of course
be governed by the obstructing mass. A
section should be made through the integu-
ments and cellular tissue beneath them,
right into the oesophagus, if possible with
one cut, and into the centre of the pipe. If
this be not done at once, and it requires some
dexterity so as to effect it, mind to make all
future incisions in a line with the first open-
ing ; as it is important that the cellular tis-
sue should be little interfered with. The
oesophagus, fairly cut into the impactment,
should jump forth; should it not do so, do
not manipulate, or attempt to force it out,
but enlarge the opening, and the substance
will come through when that is long enough ;
but no fingering could compel its exit while
the opening is too small. The end gained
for which the incision was made in the
CBSophagus, the wound may be then closed
by the interrupted sutures, each holding a
small piece of tow above the orifice, and
having their ends hanging out of the exter-
nal opening, which should also be brought
together by sutures. The after-treatment
should be, to interdict all dry food ; the ani-
nial ought to subsist on very thick gruel for
three, four, or five days. If the condition
appears to suffer much, allow malt mashes,
and when so doing watch the wound ; and
if the matters taken in are seen to ooze out,
wash them away frequently with warm
water, to prevent lodgment, which might
encourage sinuses to form ; and after each

A DICTIONARY.

269

washing, syringe with some very mild stimu-
lant, as a very weak solution of sulphate of
zinc {white vitriol), etc. etc.

" Neurotomy. — Division of the sentient
nerves of the fool. — Neurotomy has now
stood the test of very extensive application :
our WTiters offer innumerable proofs of its
restoring almost useless animals to a state
of much utility. And, if there are chances
that it may occasion such injury as to
hasten the end of some horses, it is usually
in such as the disease would have done the
same for at no distant period. Having
stated thus much in its favor, it must not
be supposed that we recommend it as an
unqualified benefit, even where it succeeds
best. No neurotomized horse ever after
goes with the same freedom, nor with equal
safety, as he did before the operation was
performed : indifference to the nature of the
ground gone over, is said to have fractured
legs ; it is quite common to batter the feet
to pieces ; and, although horses have hunted
afterwards, and hackneys have carried their
riders long distances, yet it is more calcu-
lated to prove beneficial to carrriage than
to saddle horses. This we believe to be a
just statement of its merits ; but there are
benefits which it offers to the animal of a
more extensive and constitutional kind.
Those gained by the bodily system gener-
ally have been in some cases very marked:
thus, an aged and crippled stallion, from the
irritation constantly kept up, became so
emaciated as to be unable to fecundate ;
but, being relieved from a constant state of
suffering by neurotomy, improved in health
and condition, and was again used to cover.
It happened, also, that a mare similarly cir-
cumstanced ceased to feel oestrum ; but
after neurotomy it again returned, and she
resumed her character of a brood mare. It
appears to act with most certainty when a
portion of the irritated nerve is excised.
One case has actually occurred where the
tetanus, occasioned by a wound in the
foot, was arrested and removed by neuroto-
my. It also promises much in the painful
state of some cankers, where the irritation
has rendered the application of dressings

almost impossible : here, by depriving tlie
foot of sensibility, we deprive the horse of
that which is injurious to him: the sore it-
self is often amended by it ; but in every
instance the dressings can be effectively
applied, and the healthy processes cannot
be at all suspended.

"With respect to whether the lower or
upper incision ougiit to have the preference,
the decision should be guided by the cir-
cumstances, as regards the intensity and
the seat of the disease. The operation
commonly leaves, for a considerable time,
some enlargement around the spot, the
effects of the adhesive matter interposed
between the severed portions of nerve ; and
which can be remedied by no application
of bandages. This bulging remains so
long as life continues ; and, however cun-
ningly the incision be concealed, this can
be felt with ease, and tells the truth ever
after the operation has been performed.
Such a circumstance has, however, led
some practitioners, when it has been wished
to make the upper section, and yet to avoid
the chance of detection, to operate on the
metacarpal nerve on the outside, and on the
pastern or plantar nerve on the inside.

^•Modc of performing the operation. — The
situation of the section through the skin
being determined on, a guide to which may
be gained from the perforatus tendon, and
having firmly secured the leg to be first
operated on, cut the hair from the part.
This being done, and the exact course of
the artery being ascertained by its pulsa-
tion, make a section close to the edge of
the flexor tendon. Let the cut be near, but
rather behind, the artery, if below the fet-
lock joint. The cellular substance being
cleared away will bring the vessels into
view, and the nerve will be readily dis-
tinguished from them by its whiteness.
Elevating it from the vessels, and its mem-
branous attachments, by means of a crooked
needle armed with thread, pass a bistoury
under it, as near to the u)jper angle of the
section as possible. The violent spasm the
division of the nerve produces may be
somewhat lessened by pressing the nerve

270

A DICTIONARY.

between the finger and the thumb ; when
an opportunity may be taken, either with
the scalpel or scissors, of dividing it ; then,
taking hold of the lowermost portion be-
tween a pair of forceps, excise about three-
fourths of an inch of its trunk. Having
finished, if both feet are affected, proceed
to operate upon the contrary side of the
other leg ; after which turn the horse, and
repeat the operations on the like parts of
each leg as they come in succession. The
integuments may be now drawn neatly
together, and secured by a twisted suture,
the whole being properly covered by a
light compress. Tie up the head for a day
or two, after which put on a cradle ; keep
the horse very quiet and low ; give mashes
to open the bowels ; but we should avoid
physicking, from the fear that griping might
occur, which would make him restless, or
probably require exercise.

" Periosteotomy. — This operation consists
in having the horse thrown upon his side,
and the leg to be operated upon released
from the hobble, and extended upon a sack
filled with refuse hay or straw : this is done
by means of a piece of webbing passed
yound the hoof, and the end given to a man
to hold, who pulls rather violently at the
member. The operator then kneels down
and feels for the exostosis he intends to per-
form periosteotomy upon. This may be a
splint or a node, and commonly exists upon
the metacarpal portion of the fore limb.
The operator having found the excrescence,
snips just below it with a pair of rowelling
scissors. He then takes a blunt seton nee-
dle and drives it through the cellular tissue,
and immediately over the enlargement.
Next, another slit in tlie skin, above the
exostosis, is made with the rowelling scis-
sors, and through this last opening the
point of the seton needle is forced and then
withdrawn. Into the free space thus made
a curved knife is introduced: the point of
this knife is blunt, and the blade curves up-
ward, the cutting part being below. Some
persons use a very diminutive blade, but the
editor prefers a rather large instrument, as
being more under the command of the hand.

Having introduced this knife, he turns the
cutting edge downward, and with it incises
the enlargement, sending the blade right
through the periosteum, and also through
the substance of the exosto:?is, if it be not
too solid for the knife to penetrate. This
latter fact is only to be ascertained by ac-
tual experience, and no opinion formed
after an external examination can be of any
value ; such being much more the guess of
a pretender than the judgment of a surgeon.
The age of the animal may be some guide,
but even this it is better not to depend upon
too entirely. It is true that young horses
freely cast forth exostoses, which aged ani-
mals mostly absorb ; but this rule, though
very general, has exceptions, and by no
means is to be absolutely depended upon.

" The enlargement being cut through, next
take a seton needle armed with a tape, and
draw it through the channel already made :
tie a knot at either end of the tape, large
enough to prevent its being pulled through
the opening at either end, and the business
is over. The affair is very simple, and the
horse may be at once let up. It is, how-
ever, in some cases, and only in some, of so
much benefit that the horse, being thrown
' dead lame,' gets up and trots off quite
sound. However, ere you adopt the opera-
tion, apprise the owner of the risk incurred,
and that it is by no means a certain cure.
Leave the choice with him, but be sure and
tell liini the openings made for the entrance
and exit of the seton commonly leave a
blemish behind them ; and where the seton
travelled, often there remains a thickening,
which it may require months to obliterate.

" The after part of the treatment consists
in merely having the seton daily moved to
and fro : though some persons apply an
active blister all over I lie parts immediately
in the neighborhood of the seton ; under
the idea that the vesicatory renders the
operation of greater eflicacy, which how-
ever is very questionable. When perioste-
otomy acts at all, it mostly does so at once ;
and when its benefits are not immediate, it
is better to withdraw the seton to prevent
after blemish, rather than hazard further and

A DICTIOXARY.

271

useless treatment by the application of a
stimulant to skin akeady deprived of any
connection with the deeper seated structures.

'^Division of the flexor tendon. — Tliere
are so many accidents and diseases that
may produce contraction of the flexor ten-
dons, that we only wonder we do not more
often meet with them ; which we should
certainly do, but that the attendants, de-
spairing of being able to afford relief, ad-
vise their destruction. The operation con-
sists in making a longitudinal incision of
about three inches in length along the inner
lateral edge of the tendon ; dissecting each
portion from its cellular attachments, so as
to expose the nerve, artery, and tendons.
This opening will allow the perforans to be
freed from the perforatus, when a division
should be made by a scalpel applied to its
surface. It is evident that this should take
place below any thickening, or adhesions
which may have permanently connected the
tendon with the neighboring parts; any
lesser attachments will be broken through,
by forcing back the foot to the just position.
By Mr. Dick this was done 'by placing his
knee against the front or projecting part of
the pastern, at the same time laying hold
of the foot with one hand and the upper
part of the leg with the other, and using
considerable force : and this appears to be
necessary, in order to break any adhesions
that may have formed.' The limb should
now be jjlaccd in a poultice ; and, if any
fear of future contraction should arise dur-
ing the cure, lengthen the toe of the shoe
proper to the foot operated on. Some slow
exercise after the first week may be allowed,
but previously to that the horse should be
confined to a stall, during which the bowels
must be kept open with mashes.

'•Amputations. — These have been hitherto
confined principally to the tail, the ears, and
other parts of minor importance in the
animal frame ; but veterinary surgery now
takes a wider field, and the extremities are
amputated witii a certainty of making
horned cattle still serviceable for the pur-
l)ose of yielding milk ; and, without doubt,
the same might be done with the brood

mare, or stallion, particularly in fractures
of the fore extremities. Professor Dick, of
the Edinburgh Veterinary College, furnishes
a case sent to him by one of his pupils, to
the following effect : ' I performed amputa-
tion upon the cow on the 7th of July ; after
having properly secured the animal, and
applied a tourniquet above the carpus, I
made a circular incision through the integ-
uments round the leg, a little below the
carpus ; and, having separated the skin so as
to allow of its being pushed up a little, I
cut through the sinews, and lastly sawed
oft the stump : the parts are now com-
pletely whole, although she has been going
at grass all the time ; and, now that she has
got the advantage of a cork stump, makes
a wonderful shift for herself, and yields a
good sup]5ly of milJi to her owner.' Mr.
Dick also notices another case of amputation
of the fore leg of a two-year-old heifer ; and
of a third, where the hind leg was removed
above the tarsus. Such operations have
occasionally occurred from time immemo-
rial, with a few enterprising characters.
We have heard of them, but they were
mostly regarded as mere? matters of curiosity
or wonder ; and therefore were not imitated.
We shall, however, probably ere long have
them more common, in cows at least; for,
occurring below the carpus and tarsus, they
are as easily performed as nicking or dock-
ing : and there is no doubt bu.t, were a hol-
low padded stump applied, such low opera-
tions might be prudent in many cases.
Fractures, with great comminution of bone,
considerable ravages of disease within the
foot, or extensive gangrene, are the cases
whicii might call for amputation. Of the
method of amputation little need be added
to the above. The princi|>al practical points
are, the fixing of a tourniquet of sufficient
force, which should be padded to make its
principal pressure on the leading arterial
trunks, while its general circumference will
act on the smaller vessels : a ring should be
cut lightly below the intended place of opera-
tion, only through the integuments ; which,
when separated from their cellular ad-
hesions for about six inches, sliould be

A DICTIONARY.

turned back ; and a circular incision may
then be made through the muscles, etc.,
taking up by ligature such vessels, both
venous and arterial, as display a disposition
for much hcemorrhage. The section thus
made, free the bone from the soft parts by
the scalpel, where the adherences are very
intimate ; and having by means of a crucial
bandage retracted the soft parts altogether
above the bone, saw it through. Finally,
effectually secure the principal vessels,
when, bringing the soft parts and skin over
Ihc bone, retain them there by proper band-
aging, which suffer to remain without dis-
turbance until the third or fourth day.

^'■Amputation of the Penis. — Amputation
of Ihe penis is not unknown among us: it
lias been performed several times, and it is
found that no canula is necessary to keep
open the urethra : the force of the urinary
flow breaking down any incipent cicatriza-
tion of its orifice. The sheath is first forced
back, and the penis brought forward to its
greatest possible extent : whatever portion
it is intended to remove is now cut through
by means of an amputating knife ; when
the remainder is retracted within the sheath,
and little haemorrhage has afterwards oc-
curred, except at the time of passing the
urine ; but there appears to have been no
alarming quantity of blood lost.

"Amputation of the Tail, or Docking. —
We are most liappy to state this filthy and
unnecessary operation is now discarded. It
never consisted of more than the cutting ofl'
a portion of the stump with brute force, and
the fiacl application afterwards of a hot
iron to the small artery of the tail.

" Nicking.

-We should be grateful that

this barbarous and dangerous process is no
longer numbered among the necessary oper-
ations. It is so beset with accidents which
no skill or prudence can prevent, that no
one who has a free will ought to mutilate a
horse by nicking.

"Firing: — The practice of firing was not
always confined to quadrupeds ; on the con-
trary, it probably was first used on man ;
and to this day in many countries it is a
very popular remedy among human sur-

geons. In India it is applied over the abdo-
men for the cure of scirrhosity of the liver.
Firing in veterinary practice has, by Mr.
Coleman's pupils, been justified as only men
will justify a favorite operation, the virtues
of which have been impressed upon their
minds by an eloquent teacher. When Cole-
man was the chief of the veterinary profes-
sion, firing under his rule was used foF any
and every occasion. It was ridiculously
supposed to act as a permanent bandage ; as
if a few strokes with a heated iron could
destroy the elastic property inherent in the
skin. It was the favorite styptic of these
practitioners, and was applied to arteries (as
of the tail), as though it possessed within
itself some medicinal virtue. It was used
to promote absorption, as in callus ; and was
likewise resorted to to check absorption, as
in ulceration. It was called into action to
promote granulation, in broken knees ; and
was also a favorite agent to check granula-
tions, when they were too luxuriant. In
short, there was no folly which a hot iron did
not cover. It has nov/ happily fallen into
disuse. Most modern practitioners will
now confess that their chief reason for exer-
cising the iron is to satisfy the proprietor,
not to benefit the animal. After such an
acknowledgment, who would submit to have
his patient servant's skin scored and burnt
with red hot metal?

" The mode of cauterization differs accord-
ing to circumstances. As a general rule it
ought, of course, to be applied in the direc-
tion of the hair, by which the blemish is
lessened : but this rule cannot be arbitrarily
followed, although it ought to do away with
all the false pride of displaying the taste in
the figures scored upon a prostrate beast.
The Veterinary College recommends that
the limbs be always fired in perpendicular
lines ; others advocate all manner of fanci-
ful marks. Some cast the horse ; many
surgeons perform standing. The irons used
arc of various shapes and dimensions.
Some recommend the firing of all things f o
be very light ; others persist there is no vir-
tue in hot iron unless it burns very deep.
The operation consists in having irons of

A DICTIOXARY.

273

some substance made red hot, and tlien
drawing them mechanically along, or twist-
ing them about upon the skin. The figures
are various, so is the depth of the incision.
Both must be decided by the taste, judg-
ment, or heartlessness of the operator.

'■•Blistering. — This is an operation of very
gi-eat utility, and is, perhaps, compared with
its benefits and importance, the safest that
is performed. When a vesicatory becomes
absorbed through the pores of the skin, it
inflames the sensible cutis underneath ; the
consequence of which is, an effusion of serum
through the part, which, in the human sub-
ject, elevates the cuticle into a bladder equal
to the surface inflamed, but in the horse, from
the greater tenacity of the cuticular connec-
tions, it becomes separated in the form of
small distinct vesicles only. If the irritating
cause be quickly removed, the serum may be
re-absorbed, and the surface restored by a
slight eflbrt of adhesive inflammation. If
the irritant act in a still minor degree, it sim-
ply irritates the vessels of the cutis to an in-
filtration of fluid through the sensible pores,
but produces no desquamation of citticle :
such has been called, a sweating blister.
But when, by continued irritation, the cutis
is exposed, suppuration succeeds, and the
part is fully blistered. The salutary action
of blisters is exerted in several ways ; in pro-
moting absorption ; in combating deep-
seated inflammations, and in aiding others.
As a stimulus to the absorbents, they act
beneficially in the removal of injurious
deposits, as the coagula remaining after
inflammatory lessons. But it is to be re-
marked, that when any existing deposit is of
long continuance, or is osseous, it requires
that the action of the vesicatory be kept up.
Mercurial blisters have been thought to have
a superior influence in accelerating absorp-
tion. Merciurials, rubbed in some weeks or
days previously to blistering, are certainly
great assistants, and should always be em-
ployed in the treatment of obstinate osseous
or ligamentry enlargements. Blisters are
very important aids, in inflammatory affec-
tions, as counter-irritants, derived from a law
in the animal economy, that two inflamma-

tions seldom exist in the vicinity of each
other ; therefore, when stich an affection has
taken place in any part, and we wish to re-
move it, we attempt to raise an artificial in-
flammation in the neighborhood by means
of blisters ; which, if persevered in, destroy,
or at least lessen, the original one. Occa-
sionally also we blister the immediate in-
flamed part, with an intention to hasten the
suppurative process by increasing the ac-
tivity of the vessels; as in deep-seated ab-
scesses and also in those which attack glan-
dular parts. We therefore employ blisters,
to hasten the maturation of the tumors in
strangles. When the flagging powers
vacillate betVs'Cen resolution and suppura-
tion, as they often do in the phlegmonous
inflammations of glandular or of deep-
seated parts, blisters may either hasten the
resolution, or they may add their influence
to the attempted suppuration, and thus
bring it to matmity. But we carefully
avoid, in other cases, applying a vesicant to
a part immediately in a state of active in-
flammation : particularly we should avoid
what is too often done, that of blistering
over the tendons, ligaments, and articula-
tory surfaces of a tumid limb, laboring
under a congested state of the parts from
excess of vascular action. Here we should
do great injiuy were we to blister, by caus-
ing a greater deposit of lymph, and by has-
tening its organization into an injm'ious
bond of union between the inflamed parts.
The vesicatory or blister, for general use in
veterinary medicine, as a simple stimulant,
should be principally composed of Spanish
flies. Cheaper substitutes are used, but
they initate violently : in extensive inflam-
matory affections, they are on this account
perfectly inadmissible ; and wherever a case
requires anything more it will be noted.
The mode of blister ivg with the Spanish
fly is sufficiently known. The hair should
be cut or shorn as close as possible from
around the part ; the blistering matter
should then be well rubbed in for ten or
fifteen minutes. K the pasterns and fet-
locks are the parts to be blistered, previous
to rubbing in the ointment, smear some lard,

274

A DICTIONARY.

tallow, or melted suet, over the heels, and
within the hollow at the back of the small
pastern. This will often prevent some
ti'oublesome sores forming, from the blister-
ing ointment falling on these sensitive parts.
While a blister is acting, the litter should
be removed from under the feet, or it will
tickle the legs, and imtate ; but, above all,
the head ought to be most carefully secured,
for two days and nights, to oppose lying
down, more especially to prevent the horse
biting ihe blistered part. On the third
evening he may be permitted to repose ;
but a prevention siioukl even then be con-
tinued, by means of what is called a cradle.
This apparatus may be boi;ght at every
turning sho]5 ; or may be made of eight or
ten pieces of round wood, an inch and a
half in diameter, and two feet long : these
are strung at each end on a rope, and fas-
tened around the neck. When it is in-
tended to blister repeatedly, the effects of
the first should have subsided before the
second is appliad : the scurf and scabs also
be cleared away, and the part well washed
with soap and water. In all cases, the third
or fourth day after the application the part
should be thoroughly painted over by
means of a long haired brush (such as are
in use with pastry-cooks to glaze their
crusts) with lead liniment, which should be
repeated every day ; and when it is proposed
to turn a horse out, it should never be done
until the whole blistered surface be quite
healed ; otherwise dirt, flies, etc., may prove
hurtful. It remains to observe, that, instead
of repeated active blistering, it is in some
cases preferable to keep up a continual
slight irritation on the original blister by
means of stimulants, as iodine ointment,
mild blistering applications, etc. ; caution is
however necessary to avoid forming an
eschar, and thereby a permanent blemish ;
but when a blemish is not of consequence
this plan will be found often more effica-
cious than firing, as in splints, spavins, etc.
Some practitioners blister mildly one day,
and on the next wash off the blistering
matter, thereby saving loss of hair. But
there is more of apparent than real good in

this plan. If a blister be necessary, it re-
quires all its activity.

"Ammoniacal blister. — Spanish flies are
only efficacious when the animal can afford
to wait their action, which is rather slow.
In most of the acute diseases, the horse
would perish before the blister began to
rise, wherefore resort has been had to boil-
ing water and red-hot iron. The action of
these last coarse and brutal measures was
alone controlled by the violence of the in-
ternal inflammation ; and, if the practitioner
was mistaken in his estimate of the imme-
diate danger, extensive and lasting blemish
was the consequence. We have in the
liquor ammonia an agent quite as formida-
ble as boiling water or heated iron, but it is
rather longer in displaying its force ; where-
fore, it allows time for w^atching its action,
and of cheeking it the instant it has suffi-
ciently blistered the skin. It is true the
liquor ammonia upon the skin cannot be
removed, neither need it be counteracted.
Ammonia is like steam, only powerful
when confined. The ordinary soap lini-
ment, if covered over, would, because of the
ammonia it contains, produce a lasting
blemish; but every veterinary surgeon knows
how very harmless a preparation that is
when simply rubbed upon the surface. So,
when we desire the active effects of liquor
ammonia, we double a blanket or rug four
or five tirnf s and hold it over the liquid.
It takes from ten to twenty minutes to raise
a blister, and it consequently can from time
to time be observed ; and, when its action
has reached the wished-for point, all wc
have to do, effectually to stop it, is to take
away the rug or blanket. That removed,
the free surface and the heat of the body
occasions the ammoniacal vapor to be dis-
persed, and the animal is safe.

" RoweUing. — Rowels act as foreign sub-
stances within the body ; they cause irrita-
tion and suppuration, whereby more deep-
seated inflammations are supposed to be
removed; they are, however, often very
convenient, because they stand as sign-
boards to show the proprietor that some-
thing has been done. The common mode

A DICTIONARY.

275

of making a rowel is after the following
mannei-: a slit is first made by means of
the rowel scissors, on any part of the integ-
uments held between the finger and thumb;
with the handle of the scissors separate
from its cellular connections a circle of two
or three inches in diameter, into which in-
troduce something to prevent the reunion
of the skin. A piece of circular leather,
tolerably stifi", with a central hole, is a very
common substance used, but is objected to
by some on account of the difficulty of
changing it without injuring the skin : tow,
as more pliant, is frequently introduced into
this cavity. If the rowel runs freely, it
should be dressed every day, by changing
the plug, if of tow, and by cleaq^fing it, if
of leather. No rowel should go undressed
beyond the second day, for the comfort of
the horse. They are very favorite applica-
tions with farriers, and therefore are fre-
quently abused, by being employed in all
cases indiscriminately ; they are now, how-
ever, falling into disuse, setons having almost
superseded them.

" Setons, in their action, resemble a very
mild form of rowel, but are more conven-
ient in their application. There is hardly
a part of the body where a seton may not
be conveniently placed : they have been put
around the eye ; they have also been entered
at the withers, and brought out between
the humerus and the sternum, — so exten-
sive or so diminutive can they be made.
In sinuous ulcers of the withers and of the
neck, they may be placed ; through the
heels, in foot diseases, they have been in-
serted. In cavernous sores, they are en-
tered at the superior part, and are brought
out at an inferior, so as to form a depending
orifice. The formation of a seton is very
simple : a skein of thread, or a piece of tape
of a convenient size, may be used : at the
one end place a large knot ; arm the eye
of a corresponding-sized seton needle with
the free end of the tape ; introduce this into
any proposed part, and, bringing it out at
some other, either make a second knot, or
tie the two ends of the tape together ; which

last method of fastening is^ however, often
objected to, from the danger of its catching
in something, and being torn out, to the
disfigurement of the horse. ^Yhcn a seton
is placed in a sinuous track, for the purpose
of inflaming, it is moved twice a day fre-
quently, and moistened each time with some
stimulant, as oil of turpentine, tincture of -
aloes and of benjamin. All setons require
daily cleaning and moving. When they
are required to act more quickly, the tape

j is infused in terebinthinate of cantharides,

I or small pieces of black hellebore are sewn
within it. An old material, composed of

. woollen, flax, or cotton, and hair, is also
used instead of tape. Setons, however, are

: of small service in acute cases. They are
chielly in use for disturbances of a chronic
description.

"Abstraction of Blood, or Bleeding. —
Ar tenotomy. — -Blood is abstracted by open-
ing the conducting vessels, arterial and ve-
nous. When taken from arteries, the
process is called urteriotomy ; when by the
latter, phlebotomi/. Some bleedings include
both these operations, as general scarifica-
tions of the soft parts ; bleeding at the toe
point ; divisions of the vessels of the cornea,

' etc., etc. Blood-letting is called local when
it is practised on or very near the affected

' part ; and it is supposed to act more im-
mediately than general bleeding, because it
produces more effect with the loss of less
blood. Local bleeding is therefore usually
practised on the minor branches of the
arteries and veins, as on the temporal artery,
the plate vein, the vena saphena, etc.
Leeches are a means of local bleeding not
often used by us in veterinary practice; but
there is no reason whatever why they should
not be employed ; when appfied to the eye,
and occasionally to other parts also, they
adhere readily, abstracting blood rapidly,
and therefore might be valuable aids in
violent local inflammation. Cupping is
also practised in France and other parts of
the Continent with very large glasses, and it
is there "supposed to act reniedially in many
local inflammations. By general bleeding

27G

A DICTIONARY.

we understand the depletion of the system
nt large ; and this we practice in extensive
inflammations.

" Division of the temporal artery. — The
])roper spot for either its puncture or divi-
sion is directly where the vessel leaves the
parotid gland, to curve upward and forward
around the jaw, a little below its condyle.
"When it is jmnctured, it usually aftbrds
much blood ; and in such case, enough hav-
ing been obtained, divide the trunk; when,
the receding portions becoming pressed by
the integuments, and lessening by their
own contractility, the hemorrhage is stopped.
It should be punctured by a lancet ; a fleam
may fij itself in the bone. Its division can
be readily made also cither by a lancet or
scalpel.

^"^ Bleeding by the palate is also a species
of arterio-phlebotomy, and is a very favorite
spot for abstracting blood with most igno-
rant personsjwho vehemently recommend it
in spasmodic colic or gi'ipes, and in megrims.
In such cases, however, a want of knowl-
edge of the anatomy of the -parts has occa-
sioned a serious hemorrhage to occur ; it
may prove a fatal one, if the artery proper
to the part be divided incompletely. The
palatine artery and nerve run near each
other, on each side of the roof of the mouth,
so as to divide the inner surface of the hard
palate into three nearly equal portions. No
other than a direct division of the vein
should ever be made : therefore, when bleed-
ing is determined on at this place, do it by
plunging a lancet or even a penknife in a
direct line across Ihe rugae, one inch icithin
the moitth, exactly between the middle and
second nippers; there these vessels form a
curve, which curve will then be divided, and
will then yield three or four pints of blood.
If the instrument enter too much on one
side, as about the middle of the second
nipper, then a partial and longitiulinal divi-
sion of the art<M'y may be made, and an
alarming hemorrhage may follow. In this
case, the section must be enlarged and deep-
ened inwardly, that is, away from the teeth,
which completely severs the vessel, and its
retraction will stop the hemorrhage. A

moderate or shglit flow of blood from the
palate may be obtained by light scarifica-
tions of the rugae : but aU bleedings here,
except under circumstances of the most
urgent necessity, had better be avoided.

" Bleeding by the toe is also arterior-phle-
botomy. By no means cut out a portion
of the sole at the point of the frog, which
frequently occasions abscess ; but with a
very fine drawing-knife cut down exactly in
the line of union between the crust and the
sole ; then, by puncturing the part with a
lancet, a vast flow of blood may be ob-
tained, the benefits of which in some cases
are very marked, particularly in acute
founder. If the blood should not flow with
sufficient freedom, place the foot in warm
water: the bleeding finished, cover the punc-
ture with some tow and a little tar, and
lightly tack on the shoe. There are, how-
ever, other methods of bleeding from the
toe. Ml'. Maver uses a drawing-laiife
with a long curve, so that one sweep of
the blade may cut a piece out of the
foot. This appears to us bad practice
as it leaves nature a space to fill up,
instead of a simple incised wound to heal.
Others take away none of the horn, but
merely make a slit through the outer cover-
ing on to the vascular portion of the foot.
The flap of horn they hold up so long as
they desire blood, by tiie insertion of apiece
of wood ; and when th(\y have obtained
blood enough, they take out the wood so as
to let the horny flap down. This last
method, of all others, appears to us the
easiest and the best.

" Sometimes the plantar vein is opened as
a substitute. Scariftcations are also occa-
sionally practised, which, of course, divide
both' venous and arterial branches. In
France extensive scarifications used to be
made into indurations before the suppura-
tive process had commenced, which in some
cases prevented that from going on ; and
the remedial ivonnds made were healed by
adhesive inflammation, or by healthy gran-
ulation ; the same method has also been
occasionally practised here, but it is not
now often attempted.

A DICTIONARY.

277

" Phlebotomy, or the puncture of a venous
branch, is the most usual mode of drawing
blood in veterinary practice, and may be
employed on any point of the body ; but
some vessels are much more frequently
opened than others, and most of all the
jugular. — Bleeding by the thigh vein. The
saplwna is a prominent vein, continued from
the jiuier part of the hock, and may be
opened by the fleam ; but with much greater
safety and propriety by a lancet. The
opposite leg being held up, the operator
placing himself in front of the thigh, and
steadying himself and the horse by placing
one hand on the hock, may fix the vein
with the little finger of the other; while the
lancet held between the thumb and fore
finger punctivres it. This vein should never
be opened, save upon absolute necessity, as
it is often troublesome to pin up. A horse
has been cast for the trivial matter of stop-
ping the ha;morrhage. — Bleeding from the
plate vein. This vein is frequently opened
to abstract blood after injuries of the fore
extremities. — The superficial brachial vein
is a continuation of the superficial division
of the metacarpal veins, and in the passage
upwards receives more than one branch ; its
principal trunk ascends along the inner side
of the radius. It may also be well to re-
mark, that, when taking blood fi-ora the
superficial veins of the arm or fore-arm, if
any difficulty is experienced in obtaining a
sufficient fiow, the lifting up of the other
leg, by throwing the muscles of the punc-
tured one into action, will force the blood
from the inner to the outer set; and an in-
creased quantity may be obtained. The
plate vein, or external thoracic, is often
opened, as it emerges from behind the arm,
and is pinned up without any difficulty.

" Bleeding hij the jugular vein. — The situ-
ation of this important vessel is well known,
but its internal connections are not so
familiar, though such knowledge is essen-
tial to the uniform safetij of the operation.
The horse has only external jugular veins, a
right and a left one : as each emerges from
the chest, it is found deep-seated, and ap-
proaching the trachea ; it then passes for-

wards in company with the external carotid
artery: toward the middle of the neck it
becomes more superficial, and is now dis-
tinctly seen progressing rather above and
luilhout the carotid artery and trachea, pr
windpipe. The carotid, therefore, in the
future course of the jugular, is situated a
little beloio and more deep-seated than the
vein. The jugular is also separated from
the carotid by a slight muscular band, de-
rived from the levator humeri. Its further
track is marked in the hollow formed by
the inferior e^ge of the levator humeri,
where it is covered by the panniculus car-
nosus and integuments only ; when, having
nearly reached the jaw, it makes its well-
known division into two portions. Bleeding
by the jugular is usually ])ractised with a
lancet or with a fleam. The proper spot
for the puncture may be found anywhere
between two inches and six from the division
of the vein : this latitude is here mentioned,
because it is prudent to avoid puncturing
directly over a former bleeding-place, known
by the scar and enlargement : it should also
be avoided where a little knot in the course
of the vein will sometimes denote the exis-
tence of one of the venous valves. But in
all ordinary cases, where these hindrances
do not appear, operate at two or three
inches from the division of the vein ; v.hich
will be sufficiently evident when it is pressed
on below the place punctured. Avoid
operating low down in the neck, as there
the vessel is deeper seated, and near to im-
portant parts.

" First moisten the hair and smooth it
down ; then, steadying and enlarging the
vessel with one hand, with the other plunge
the point of the lancet into the integuments,
so as just to puncture them and the vein ;
then, by a slight turn of the wrist, carry the
instrument obliquely fonvard to finish the
citt. For opening the smaller veins, the
lancet should always be used. In all but
the practised hand, the fleam is the safest
for bleeding from the jugular; it is always
prudent to have the eye of the horse cov-
ered : unless the eye be covered, the horse
will be likely to ffinch at the moment of

278

A DICTIONARY.

the stroke, and the puncture may be made
in any place but where we wish. The hair
being first wetted and smoothed, and the
fleam being retained in the left hand, the
unemployed fingers pressing on the vein so
as to fix and swell the vessel ; let the point
rest exactly in the middle of the swelling;
strike the lleam sufficiently hard to penetrate
the skin and vein. A blood-stick is prefer-
able for the purpose of striking the fieam :
there is a vibration between two hard bodies
when they meet, which, in this instance, is
favorable to a quick and moderate puncture
of the vein. After the vein has been
opened, moderate pressure with the edge of
the can which catches the blood is sufficient
to keep up the How : it may also be en-
couraged by putting a finger within the
horse's mouth. The requisite quantity of
blood being drawn, remove the can. The
remaining process of securing the vessel is
of equal importance. The sides of the
orifice are first to be brought in apposition,
without pinching them, and without draw-
ing them from the vein : the same cautions
should also be observed when the pin is in-
troduced : let it be small, with an irregular
point, and when inserted wrap round it a
few hairs or a little tow.

" Common, however, as this operation is,
and qualified as every one thinks himself
to perform it, yet there are very serioits acci-
dents which do arise occasionally. It has
occurred that the carotid artery has become
penetrated. When the puncture has been
made through the vein, the accident is
known immediately by the forcible and
pulsatory gush of llorid arterial and dark
venous blood together. In one Instance of
this kind, which occurred to a French i)rac-
titioner, he immediately thrust his finger
into the opening through the vein, and
thus plugged up the artery, intending to
wait for assistance. In this state he re-
mained, we believe, an hour or more ; when,
removing his finger, to his surprise, he found
the haemorrhage had ceased, and did not
again return. In another case, where an
English practitioner accidentally opened
the carotid, he placed a compress on the

orifice, and had relays of men to hold it
there for eight-and-forty hours ; when it was
found the bleeding had stopped. The
admission of air is also another serious ac-
cident that now and then attends bleeding:
it sometimes happens from the sudden re-
moval of the fi.ngers or blood-can, or what-
ever was used to distend the vessel by ob-
structing the return of the blood : this being
suddenly taken away, allows the escape of
the blood toward the heart, and occasions
a momentary vacuum, the air being heard
to rush with a gurgling noise into the vein
through the orifice ; it then mixes with the
blood, and occasions, in some instances, al-
most immediate death. The animal begins
to tremble ; he next staggers, and finally
falls in a state of convulsion : if the quan-
tity of air taken in has been considerable,
death ensues. The remedy must, llierefore,
be instantaneous, and consists in again
opening the orifice, or making a new one,
to gain an immediate renewed ilow of
blood, which will, in most cases, renovate
the horse, who has been found afterwards
to be tormented with an intolerable itching.

Opiates. — (See Narcotic.)

Opium. — A narcotic vegetable poison.
Mr. Coleman " thought, from some experi-
ments made at the veterinary college, that
opium has no apparent influence over the
nervovts system of the horse, and that it
does not alleviate pain." Dr. White says,
" I think that opium, as to its eflect on the
horse, does not possess that soothing ano-
dyne and soporific quality for which it is
justly distinguished in human medicine."
Opium always tends to depress the vital
organs in proportion to its quantity.

Opodeldoc, or Soap Liniment. — A so-
lution of soap and camphor in spirits of
rosemary.

Optic Nervc. — The nerve on v.'liich
sight depends.

Orbit. — The socket of' the eye is thus
named.

Okgaxic. — A disease is said to be or-
ganic when any particular organ of the body
is aflectcd.

Ossification-. — Ligaments and cartila-

A DICTIONAHY.

279

ges sometimes become bony, especially
Ihose ligaments which unite the splent to
tl'c canon bone?, and the lateral cartilages
of the foot.

Ovaries. — Two appendages to the womb,
or uterus, which are cut out in the operation
of spaying.

Overreach. — A horse is said to over-
reach, or overlash, when he wounds the fore
heel \v\n\ the hind foot.

Overwork. — Many of the diseases of
horses originate in overwork.

Pace. — The peculiar manner of motion,
or progression. The natural paces of the
horse are, the walk, trot, and gaUop, to
which some add the amble.

Palate. — The upper part or roof of the
mouth.

Palliative. — ^Medicines and operations
by which diseases appear to be relieved, but
not cured. However desirable palliatives
may be in the diseases of the human body,
they are seldom satisfactory in the diseases
and lameness of horses.

Palpitation'. — Beating of the heart
against the breast-bone or ribs.

Palsy, or Paralysis. — A loss of muscu-
lar power, or an inability to move any part
of the body.

Pancreas, or Sweetbread. — A gland-
ular substance situated in the abdomen, near
the stomach. It secretes the pancreatic
juice.

Panniculus, or Fleshy Paxxicle. — A
thin muscular covering attached to the sldn
of brute animals, by means of which they
are enabled to shake it, and get rid of flies,
etc.

Pantox Shoe. — A contrivance for ex-
panding contracted feet ; but, like all other
mechanical contrivances, they are useless or
pernicious.

Paps. — When young horses are cutting
their teeth, and sometimes after that period,
the excretory ducts of some of the salivary
glands under the tongue become enlarged.
These are named paps. They should be
touched with a solution of alum, and the
animal fed on mashes. (See IMasii.) [

Papillary. — Pap-like; or rather like I

' small or minute paps. A term applied to
small elevations on different parts of the
body, whether morbid or natural. Those
little eminences on the internal surface of
the leaves, or lamintE, of the cow's third
stomach, or manyplus, are termed papil-
lary.

Par Vaglm. — The eighth pau' of nerves
are thus named.

Paracentesis. — The operation of tap-
ping, for the purpose of giving vent to water
collected in the chest, abdomen, etc. It has
frequently been performed on animals with-
out any benefit.

Parietal. — The bones that form the
sides of the skull are thus named.

Paring. — Cutting the hoof in order to
prepare it for the shoe.

Parotid Glands. — Two large glands
situated under the ears ; they secrete saliva,
which is conveyed by a duct into the
mouth.

Paroxys:m. — The periodical accession,
or the periodical increase, of a disorder.

Parturition. — The act of bringing forth
young.

Pastern. — The part between the fetlock
joint and the hoof. (See cut of the foot,
part first.)

PasteRiN Nerve. — The nerve from wliich
a portion is cut out in the operation of
nerving.

Pasture. — Pastures in elevated situa-
tions are the best for horses.

Patella. — The knee-pan of the human
body, and the stifle of the horse. (See
Skeleton.)

Pathology. — The doctrine of diseases.

Pauxch. — ^ The common name for the
first stomach of the cow.

Pectorals. — Medicines that relieve
cough, and other diseases of the lungs.

Pectoral Muscles. — The muscles of
the breast.

Pelvis. — The basin, or that cavity
wherein is lodged the bladder, utenis, and
the rectum.

Penis. — The yard or male genital or-
gan.

Perforans Tendon. — The innermost

280

A DICTIONARY.

of the back sinews, or that which goes to
the OS pedis.

Pericardium. — The heart bag. (See
Heart, part first.)

Pericranium. — The membrane that is
closely connected with the bones of the
head.

Periosteum. — The investing membrane
of the bones.

Peristaltic Motion. — That motion of
the muscular coat of the bowels which
causes the food and excrement to pass
through them.

Peritoneum. — The membrane which
forms the external coat of the bowels, and
some other of the viscera of the abdomen ;
it is, therefore, named the peritoneal coat
of the bowels. It lines, also, the internal
surface of the belly.

Peritonitis. - - Inflammation of the peri-
toneum. Diseases of the peritoneum are
very rare in horses, and, when treated on
the depleting, antiphlogistic principles of
allopathy, generally terminate fatally. When
the physiological equilibrium is interrupted,
and inflammation of the peritoneum ensues,
the available vital force is concentrated
upon a small region of the body. The true
indication is, to invite this force away "from
that region, and to distribute it over the
general system, that it shall not be excessive
anywhere. This mode of relief we call
equalizing the circulation ; the allopaths
term it counter-irritation ; they concentrate
it in one spot, in the form of rowel and
blister, their own works will show with what
success.* Our principles teach us to accom-

* Mr. Perciv.all details a case of peritonitis, after the
usual symptoms in the early stage Imd subsided. " The
horse's bowels became much relaxed : suspecting that
there was some disorder in the alimentaiy canal, and that
this was an effort of nature to get rid of it, I promoted
the diarrhoea by giving mild doses of cathartic medicine,
in combination with calomel !

" On the third day from this, prolapsus ani (falling of
the fundament) made its appearance. After the return
of the gut, the animal grew daily duller and more de-
jected, manifesting evident signs of considerable inward
disorder, though lie showed none of acute pain. The
diarrhffa continued ; swelling of the belly and tumefac-
tion of tlie legs speedily followed. Eiglit pounds of blood
were drawn, and two ounces of oil of turpentine were

plisli the object by the stimulating influence
of medicated vapor, enemas, nervines, and
a mucilaginous diet. Whenever the disease
is treated by the abstraction of blood, it
generally terminates in dropsy.

Perspiration. — The fluid which is se-
creted by the vessels of the sldn. Persph-a-
tion is a highly important discharge in
horses and other animals. The best medi-
cine to promote sweating in the horse is a
tea composed of lobelia, capsicum, and pen-
nyroyal.

Pharynx. — The upper part of the oesoph-
agus, or gullet.

Phlegm. — A mucous liquid thrown up
from the lungs.

Phrenic Nerve. — A nerve that passes
through tlie thorax, over the heart, to the
diaphragm.

Phrenitis. — Inflammation of the brain.
Physic — In stable language, the term
is applied to purgative medicines.

Physiology. — That branch of medical
science which describes the functions of
every part of the body.

PiA Mater. — A delicate membrane,
that closely invests the brain.

Pitch, Burgundy. — A resin obtained
from fir ; it is used in the composition of
plasters and charges.

Placenta. — The afterbirth.
Plate Vein. — A large vein that runs
from the inside of the fore leg to the chest.
Plethora. — A fulness of vessels. Horses
are often brought into this state from over-
feeding, and want of sufficient exercise. It
is known by heaviness, dulness, unwilling-
ness to work. The urine is high-colored,
and the dung generally hard and slimy.
The cure consists in the reduction of the
quantity of food, warm mashes, and regular
exercise.

given internally, and in spite of another bleeding, and
some subordinate measures, carried him otf [the treat-
ment, we presume] in the course of a few hours.

" Dissection : a slight blush pervaded the peritoneum,
at least the parietal portion of it, for the coats of tlie stom-
iich and intestines preserved their natural whiteness.
About eiglit gallons of water were measured out of the
belly. The abdominal viscera, as well as the thoracic,
showed no marks of disease."

A DICTIONARY.

281

Pleura. — The membrane which covers
the lungs so closely as to appear a part of
their substance.

Pleurisy, Pleuritis. — Inflammation of
the pleura.

Plexus. — A netw^ork of blood-vessels or

nerves.

Pmeumoma.

A general term for inflam-

mation of the lungs.

Poisons. — Articles which impede or de-
stroy the vital operations. Some people
proclaim that all food is poison ; that the
difference in the effect produced lies in the
quantity given. We deny this : good corn,
oats, and hay, whose nature is to nourish
and support the animal, can never be a legit-
imate cause of disease. Its excess in quan-
tity, and its chemical decomposition for
want of digestive power, are all of true food
that can prove injurious. Oa the other
hand, experience teaches us that opium,
arsenic, corrosive sublimate, tobacco, and
calomel are inimical to the animal organ-
ization, and will never change their chemi-
cal equivalents. A grain of arsenic will
always be a grain of that poison, and can
be detected after death : the same applies
to opium. A very few grains of opium in-
jected into the carotid artery of a dog
killed him in fom- minutes ; when the same
quantity was injected into a vein, the ani-
mal lived twenty-five minutes. When
injected into the bladder, it required a
larger quantity to destroy life.

Again: one drop of the oil of tobacco
applied on the tongue of a rabbit killed him
instantly; one drop applied to the same
organ of a cat, threw her into convulsions ;
two drops placed on the tongue of a squirrel
killed it instantly. Hence, it does not re-
quire much penetration in order to decide
what is and what is not poison. Animals
often get, apparently, well, although large
quantities of the above poisons have been
given. This is no proof that the poisons
cured them. • In the early stage of the dis-
ease, the constitution can bear more vio-
lence— -blood-letting and poisoning — tiian
when it becomes debilitated. This explains
the reason why large quantities of opium

may be given to a horse at a certain time,
without any perceptible effect; at another
time, one-half the quantity will destroy
him.

PoLL-EviL. — An obstinate disease, which
often happens to horses. It generally pro-
ceeds from a blow received iipon the poll
or back part of the head.

Porta. — The name of the great vein of
the liver.

Poultice, or Cataplasm. — The emol-
lient poultice may be composed of eipial
parts of slippery elm and flaxseed. The
intentions to be au-swered by poultices are
relaxation and stimulation. To relax a part,
add to the above emollient, lobelia ; when it
is necessary to stimulate, use cayeime.
Poultices that are designed for foul ulcers,
in addition to the above articles, should
contain at least one-tliird powdered char-
coal.

Prevention of Disease. — It is an old,
but true saying, that prevention is better
than cme, and, we may safely add, less ex-
pensive.

Pricks, or Pricking. — In shoeing a
horse, the nail is sometimes driven in a
wrong direction, and the sensible parts are
wounded; he is then said to be pricked.
When a horse has been slightly pricked,
and the nail immediately withdrawn, it may
not be followed by lameness ; but, when
the wound is considerable, matter will form;
if the matter is not let out by paring away
the horn, it quickly spreads under the horny
sole, and upwards through the laminated
substance of the foot, and breaks out at
the coronet. (See Coronet.) To prevent
this, the parts, as soon as the accident has
happened, should be bathed with healing
balsam. If the horse goes lame for several
days, a poultice must be applied to promote
suppuration.

Prim.e Vi.k. — The first passages, or
stomach, and first intestines.

Probang. — An instrument for removing
any obstruction in the oesophagus or gullet.
It consists of a rather flexible rod, covered
with leather, with a round, smooth knob at
one end-

282

A DICTIOXARY.

Probe. — An instrument for examining
wounds.

Prolapsu.s. — The falling down of a part,
as of the uterus or fundament.

Psoas Muscles. — The muscles that lie
under the loins. These muscles are some-
times injured in strains of the loins.

Pulmonary Diseases. — Diseases of tlie
lungs.

Pulmonary Vessels. — The blood-ves-
sels and air-vessels of the lungs, which con-
sist of the pulmonary artery and vein, and
the bronchia, or branches of the windpipe.

Pulse. — The beating of the arteries.
The horse's pulse is most conveniently felt
in that part of the carotid artery which
passes under the angle of the lower jaw.

Puncta Lachrymalia. — Two orifices
near the inner corner of the eye, through
which the tears pass.

Pupil. — A part of the eye.

Pus. — The white matter formed by the
process of suppuration.

Pylorus. — The inferior portion of the
stomach.

Quarter III, or Quarter Evil. —
There is a variety of names given to this
disorder, such as joint murrain, or gar-
get, black quarter, quarter evil, black leg,
etc. The true causes of this disease are
generally too liberal an allowance of food,
or a sudden transition from poor keep to
luxurious and nutritious diet. In some
cases the energy of the body is lessened by
exposure to cold and wet ; hence the quar-
ters and feet swell, and it is this circum-
stance which has given rise to the name
by which the disorder is commonly known.
The approach of this complaint is generally
indicated by the animal separating himself
from his companions ; by his appearing
dull, listless, and heavy, and by his refusing
food. The more immediate symptoms are
lameness and swelling of the hind quarters,
and occasionally of the shoulders or back.
These swellings, when pressed, make a
crackling noise. (See Emphysema.) The
mouth and tongue are frequently found
blistered in this disease. A spare diet, and
keeping the animal in a dry barn, are strictly

to be attended to, with an occasional dose
of nitrate of potassa, and clysters of thin
gruel and common salt. By this means
the disease may be subdued. If the dis-
ease first appears in the foot, a charcoal
poultice must be applied.

Raciv Bones. — The vertebrae of the
back.

Radius. — The bone of the fore-arm.

Raking. — (See Back Raking.)

I^Lectu.m. — (See Intestines.)

Red- Water. — This disease often attacks
cows, and is named from the red appear-
ance of the urine.

Respiration. ^ — The act of breathing;
which includes inspiration, or the taking in
of air by the lungs, and expiration, or the
act of discharging it.

Ringbone. — A bony excrescence on the
lower part of the pastern, generally, but not
always, causing lameness.

Roaring. — A disease which takes its
name from the wheezing noise the horse
makes in breathing, when put into quick
motion. It is supposed by most veterinary
writers to be caused by an effusion of lymph
in the windpipe. Our own view of the
subject is, that it is owing to a contraction
of the respiratory tubes.

R.OSEMARY. — The essential oil of this
shrub is a useful ingredient in stimulating
liniments.

Rot. — A disease of sheep, resembling
pulmonary consumption, complicated with
dropsy. Its causes are flooded lands and
unsubstantial food.

Rowels. — These are considered as arti-
ficial abscesses, or drains. They act on the
principle of making one disease to cure
another.

Rumination. — Chewing the cud.

Rupture. — A swelling caused by the
protrusion of some parts of the bowels out
of the cavity of the abdomen into a kind
of sac, formed by that portion of the peri-
toneum (which see) which is pushed be-
fore it.

Sacrum. — That part of the back bone
from which the tail proceeds.

Saliva. — Spittle.

A DICTIONARY.

283

Salivation. — A profuse and continued
flow of saliva.

Sand Crack. — A perpendic-.ular crack on
the side or quarter of the hoof.

Sanies. — A bloody or greenish matter,
which is sometimes discharged from foul
ulcers.

Sarsaparilla. — An infusion of equal
parts of sarsaparilla and sassafras is useful
for animals when the blood is loaded with
morbific agents.

Scapula. — The shoulder blade.

Scarf Skin. — (See Cuticle.)

Scarification. — An incision of the skin
with a lancet.

SciRRHUs. — An indolent, hard tumor.

Sclerotic Coat. — (See Eye.)

Scouring. — A scouring, or pui-ging, is
common among all our domestic animals.
It is not a disease, but only a symptom of
a loss of equilibrium, which may proceed
from improper food, exposure to the cold and
rain, which, of course, includes a loss of
caloric, or heat. There is no general rem-
edy, or one more speedy and effectual in
the onset than mucilaginous drinks com-
posed of slippery elm, combined with injec-
tions of the same. Warmth and moisture
to the sm-facc, and antispasmodics (wliich
see), combined with astringents (baybeiTy
bark is the best, in doses of half a table-
spoonful every sLx hours), will seldom fail
to effect a cm-e.

Scratches. — Troublesome sores about
the heels, depending on morbific agents in
the system ; for the cure of which, see
" Modern Horse Doctor."

Scrotum. — The bag or covering of the
testicles.

Secretion. — The word secretion is used
to express that function.

Serum. — The watery part of the blood.

Sessamoid Bones. — Two small bones on
the back part of the fetlock joint.

Sinew-Sprung. — A term sometimes ap-
plied to strains in the back sinews.

Sitfast. — A horny kind of scab, which
forms on the skin in consequence of a
saddle-gall.

Skin. — (See Cutis.)

Slipping. — (See Abortion.)

Sole. — (See Foot, part first.)

Spasm. — An involuntary and continued
contraction of muscles ; thus, lockjaw de-
pends on a spasmodic contraction of mus-
cles.

Spavin. — A disease of the horse's bocl;,
which generally causes lameness. Spavins
are of two kinds : the bone, and the bog or
blood, spavin. The former consists of a
bony enlargement of the inside of the hock
joint, towards the lower part; the latter, of
a soft but elastic tumor, towards the bend
of the joint. IVIr. Percivall remarks: " Not-
withstanding our confessed inability to cure
this disease, we are often called on to treat
it, as to the removal of it by means of a
chisel, file, or saw. Although Ihc practice
is exceedingly commendable in cases of
common exostosis, it is not so well adapted
to spavin ; those who employ such means
seldom fail to leave the parts ultimately in
a worse state than they found them. Our
most successful remedies are such as come
under the denomination of counter-irri-
tants."

Spermatic Cord. — The vessels, etc., by
which the testicles are suspended, consist-
ing of the spermatic artery and vein, the
vas deferens, or seed duct, cremaster mus-
cle, and cellular membrane.

Sphincter. — A name given to muscles
whose fibres are arranged in a circular di-
rection, and whose office is to shut up the
parts to which they are attached ; such are
the sphiiM^ter of the' neck of the bladder,
and the muscles which close the funda-
ment.

Spine. — The spine of tlie neck and back
is composed of many small bones named
vertebra?. Seven belong to the neck, eight-
een to the back, six to the loins, five to the
sacrum, and in the tail there are about thir-
teen.

Spleen, or Milt. — A soft substance, of
a long, oval form, and jmrplc color. It
seems to be a reservoir for the blood that
may be designed for the secretion of bile in
the liver.

Splents. — These are bony excrescences,

284

A DICTIONARY.

which grow on the inside of the shank
bone.

Staggers. — This is named from the
staggering gait of the animal. It may be
brought on by the horse eating too greedily,
swallowing his food when imperfectly
chewed, or eating freely of food that is dif-
ficult of digestion. Horses of rather an ad-
vanced age, and weak digestive organs,
when improperly fed, or when a large quan-
tity of meal is allowed, are very liable to
apoplexy, or staggers. The disease is gen-
erally symptomatic of derangement of the
stomach, indigestion, and over-distention of
the digestive organs.

Sternum. — The breast bone.

Stifi.f, Joint. — This joint is composed
of the bones called os femoris, tibia, and
patella. (See Skeleton.)

Stopping. — A mixture of clay and cow-
dung is em})loyed for the purpose of stop-
ping horses' feet, and keeping them moist.

Strains. — For all kinds of strains, rest
is the best remedy ; sometimes they require
poultices, fomentations, etc. The latter
will be indicated by pain and swelling.

Stubs. — When a horse is wounded by
a splinter of wood, about the foot or leg, he
is said to be stubbed.

Styptics. — Medicines which stop bleed-
ing. The most effectual method of stopping
bleeding is to tie the wounded vessel.

SuDORiFics. — Medicines which excite
sweating. It is very difficult to sweat a
horse, except the process be assisted by
warmth and vapor externally. Lobelia,
pennyroyal, and capsicum, promote the in-
sensible perspiration ; they must be given
in infusion to the amount of half a gallon
or more.

Sulphur. — Used in cutaneous diseases,
as an alterative.

Sweetbread. — (See Pancreas.)

Synovia, .Joint On,. — A mucilaginous
fluid formed within joints, to render motion
easy, or diminisii friction.

Tansy. — A medicine used to expel
worms.

Tar. — Common tar is used as an astrin-
gent for horses' feet.

Tartar, Cream of. — Used on horses to
promote the secretion of urine.

Tenaculum. — A kind of hook, for taking
uj) an artery.

Tendo Aciiillis. — The great tendon,
which is fixed or inserted into the calca-
neum, or projecting bone of the hock.

Tendon. — The white shining extremity
of a muscle.

Tenesmus. — Continual efforts to void
dung, without any discharge.

Tent. — A piece of lint, or tow, smeared
with ointment, and thrust into a sore, in
order to prevent a too hasty and superficial
healing.

Thoracic Duct. — The trunk of the ab-
sorbents. (See Absorbents, part first.)

Thrush. — A disease has lately prevailed
to a great extent in the New England States,
which deserves some consideration. It is
called thrush, and is supposed to be a dis-
ease of the horse's frog, consisting in a dis-
charge of matter from its cleft, or division ;
sometimes the other parts of the frog are '
also affected, — become soft, ragged, and
incapable of affording protection to the
sensitive frog, which it covers. We cannot
agree with many writers, that thrush is a
strictly local disease ; for, after it has passed
through the different stages, viz., inflamma-
tion, suppuration, etc., the whole system
takes up the diseased action, either by sym-
pathy or irritation. Hence the reader will
see the folly of depending on local agents,
in the form of ointments, for the cure of the
disease, in wliich all the organs are more or
less concerned.

The internal remedies wc recommend,
are alteratives ; remove the cause, if any
exist, in the form of bad ventilation, poor
diet, hard work, partial grooming, or the
sluicing of cold water on the legs. Let
the animal have bran mashes, with a few
boiled caiTots, every night.

The local remedies consist in paring
away the ragged or uneven parts of the frog ;
then wash the surface with castile soap and
lukewarm water ; afterwards with a solution
of common salt, in the following propor-
, tions : one tablespoonful Liverpool salt to

A DICTIONARY.

285

a pint of rain water ; then apply linseed
oil, spirits of turpentine, pyroligneous acid,
— equal parts, — in the cleft of the frog;
let the whole surface be covered with tow,
then upon the tow place a flat piece of
wood, about the width of the frog, — one
of the ends passing under the toe of the
shoe, the other extending to the back part
of the frog, and bound down by transverse
slips of wood, the ends of which are to be
placed under the shoe. The moderate pres-
sure thus applied will contribute materially
to the cure and to the production of solid
horn. This dressing must be repeated daily.
If, after this treatment, matter should dis-
charge, the heel contract, and the horn
soften, then apply a poultice of Indian meal,
witii half a tablespoonfid of cayenne pep-
per on the surface, washing the foot, as
above, every night.

Tibia. — The bone of the horse's thigh ;
that is, the bone between the hock and the
stifle.

Ticks. — Insects that infest sheep and
other animals. A strong infusion of lobe-
lia will destroy them.

Tongue. — The tongue is a muscular
substance, composed of fibres variously ar-
ranged, by which it is rendered capable of
tiiat diversity of action which we observe ;
it has also several muscles attached to it.
The small bone, to which it has a muscular
attachment, is named os hyoides.

Tonics. — Medicines that augment the
strength of the body, such as gentian, wild
cherry, poplar bark, etc.

Training. — By the word training is
meant, putting a horse in that state in
which all the functions of the body are in
equilibrium. In order to bring a horse into
this desirable state, we refer the reader to
the " Modern Horse Doctor."

Tubercles. — Small tumors that some-
times suppurate and discharge pus ; they
are often found in the lungs.

Tumor. — A swelling on any part of the
body. Tumors are of various kinds : some-
times caused by bruises, or other accidents ;
at others, arising without any visible cause.

Tunic. — A coat, or membrane, investing

a part ; such as the tunica vaginalis of the
testicles.

TuRGESCENCE. — An over-fulness of the
vessels in any part.

Tumeric. — - Tumeric root, an aromatic
stimulant, sometimes used in jaundice or
yellows.

Twitch. — An instrument made by fix-
ing a noose, or cord, to the end of a stick ;
this is put on the horse's upper lip and
twisted rather tight, which makes him stand
quiet during an operation.

Tympany. — A distention of the abdo-
men by air.

Typhus. — Putrid fever.

Udder. — The udder is a glandular body,
whose office is to secrete milk. It is di-
vided, in the cow, into four quarters ; each
of which has an excretory duct, or teat,
whose office is to facilitate the extraction
of milk. At the extremity of each teat is
a contrivance for the purpose of retaining
the fluid contained in the udder, until it be-
comes much distended ; when, if not drawn
off", it flows spontaneously, and the animal
is thereby partly relieved of her burden.
Sometimes the udder swells and becomes
sore, as is often caused by improper feed-
ing. As there is great sympathy existing
between the stomach and udder, whatever
deranges the former will also afiect the lat-
ter, through the medium of sympathetic
action. In this case, the cow should be
drenched with a tea of pennyroyal and thor-
oughwort, and fed on gruel. The udder
should be fomented with an infusion of
mullen leaves. Should the swelling con-
tinue, and appear painful, the following
embrocation may be used : linseed oil and
lime-water, equal parts, mix. If an abscess
forms, and matter can be felt, it should be
opened at its most depending part, so that
the matter may run freely ofl".

Ulcers. — There are quite a variety of
ulcers to be found in animals ; the most of
them will heal by the application of a mild
astringent, or tonic, such as an infusion of
bayberry bark, or the tincture of capsicum.
If it be foul or callous in any part, then
powdered bloodroot will be proper.

286

A DICTIOK.^RY.

TJnKTF.RS. — Two small tubes by which
the urine is conveyed Ijom the kidneys to
the bladder.

Urethra. — A membranous and muscu-
lar tube by which tlie urine is conveyed from
the bladder ; it is of considerable length in
the horse.

Urinf, Excessive Discharge of. — (See
Diabetes.)

Urine, Incontinence of. — (See Incon-
tinence.)

Uterus. — The womb. The uterus of
the mare is very unlike that of the human
subject, in whom it consists of one bag,
rather of an oval shape, somewhat resem-
bling a pear; but in the mare and other quad-
rupeds it has a body and two branches,
called its horns. The uterus terminates in
the vagina by a narrow portion, called the
neck or month of the womb. The extrem-
ities of these horns have tubes attached to
them, which, from the name of the discov-
erer, are called Fallopian tubes ; one end
of each is expanded, and has a fringed land
of edge : this is named the fimbria of the
Fallopian tube. The Fallopian tube is
very tortuous in its form ; and that end
which proceeds from the horn of the uterus
is extremely small ; but the other, which is
slightly attached to the ovarium, is consid-
erably larger. The ovarium is an oblong
body, about the size of a small hen's egg.
The ovaria — for there are two of them —
are composed of a number of transparent
vesiculsB, called ova (eggs) ; each ovum is
surrounded with cellular membrane ; and
when the ovum is impregnated and passes
into the uterus, it leaves a mark which is
named corpus Inteum.

Uvula. — In the human subject, the
small flesh-like substance hanging in the
middle and back part of the throat, is thus
named. In the horse, this is of a very dif-
ferent form. The uvula completely closes
the opening to the jiharynx, though it read-
ily yields to the passage of food, or any
liquid, toward the gullet; it prevents, also,
the return of anything to the mouth, even
the air which is expired from the lungs, un-
less it be thrown aside by a violent effort,

as in coughing. It is on this account that,
when the horse is affected with nausea, or
has the action of the stomach inverted, —
which sometimes happens, though very
rarely, — tlie contents of the stomach will be
discharged through the nostrils ; but if the
horse happens to cough during the process,
some part will be discharged by the mouth.

Vagina. — The passage from the external
pudendum, or shape, to the mouth of the
womb.

Valerian. — The root of valerian is used
as an antispasmodic ; its virtues have been
underrated by writers on veterinary medi-
cine.

Veins. — The motion of the heart is
known to communicate momentum to the
blood througii the veins. Mr. Percivall
says : " We are not to reject 1 lie power of
the heart altogether, merely because the
blood flows with a uniform stream in the
veins ; for the absence of pulsation in them
is no proof that the motion of the blood is
not influenced by the contractions of the
heart ; the extreme division which this fluid
undergoes in its circulation through the
capUlailes, and the tortuosity and complica-
tion of the numberless small veins, account
for the regular and uninterrupted stream
which we meet with in the larger branches.
To prove that this is the explanation of the
fact, if you open a vein that has free and
direct communication with the extremity
of an artery (its capiUary structure), the
blood will flow from it with the same pul-
satory motion as if the artery itself had
been penetrated : but if the vein be one of
large size, remotely situated from any arte-
rial communication, or if it be one that
springs from the union of numerous capil-
laries, that smooth and even stream, v.ith
which the blood circulates in the trunks,
will be observable here. These facts, then,
lead us to conclude that the force of the
heart is not sulficient of itself to propel
blood through the venous system."

From the collected accounts of writers
on this subject, it seems highly probable,
that the blood flowing in the veins receives
additional momentum from the reaction of

A DICTIONAltV.

287

the capillaries, and that it is further urged
on by some contractile force resident in
these vessels themselves. That the blood
is advanced in its course by the action of
those muscles contiguous to veins furnished
with valves, is, without doubt, well founded,
as far as an occasional auxiliary is con-
cerned, as the common operation of bleed-
ing demonstrates ; for it is in consequence
of muscular pressiue upon the veins about
the head, that the motion of a horse's jaw
accelerates the flow of blood through the
jugular vein : as such, however, it cannot
be ranked among the essential causes of
the blood's motion in them.

Ventricle. — One of the cavities of the
heart. (See Heart.)

Vermifuge. — Medicines that destroy or
expel worms.

Vi-.RTEBRji. — The bones of the neck
and spine.

Vertigo. — A slight degree of apoplexy.

Viscera. — The plural of viscus, a term
applied to the internal organs, as the lungs,
bowels, etc.

VivES. — A swelling of the parotid gland,
which is situated between the ear and the
angle of the jaw.

Vulva. — A name given to the external
parts of generation in females.

Wall Eyes. — A horse is said to have
a wall eye, when the iris is of a light or
white color.

Warbles. — Small, hard swellings on the
horse's back, caused by the pressure, or
heat, of the saddle.

Warts. — Spongy excrescences which
arise in various parts of the body.

Wens. — Hard tumors, of various sizes,
in different parts of the body. The most
effectual method of removing them is to dis-
sect them out, together with the cyst, or
bag, in which they are formed. The skin
is then to be sutured, and treated as a com-
mon wound.

Whirl Bone, or Round Bone. — The
hip joint is thus named.

Wind. — The most effectual method of
bringing a horse to his wind, is to give him
regular exercise.

WiNDGALLS. — Elastic tumors on each
side of the back sinews, immediately above
the fetlock joint ; they are often caused by
hard work, or trotting on hard roads, at too
early an age. There are various operations
recommended, such as firing, blistering, etc.;
but the remedy is generally worse than the
disease. Rest, bandaging, and the occa-
sional use of liniment, is all that can be
done with safety.

Withers. — The part where the mane
ends is thus namedin the horse.

Worms. — The stomach and bowels of
horses are liable to be infested with different
kinds of worms ; but as the same treatment
is proper, of whatever kind they may be, it
is needless to enter into a particular descrip-
tion of them. Many articles are recom-
mended by veterinary writers, for the pur-
pose of ridding the animal of these pests,
viz., antimony, calomel, turpentine, either of
which woidd be just as likely to kill the
horse as the Av^orms. The true indications
to be fulfilled are to tone up the stomach
and digestive organs.*

Yard, Fallen. — (See Falling or the
Yard.)

Yard, Foul. — The horse's penis some-
times requires to be washed with soap and
water, in order to free it from mucous
matter and dirt.

Yellows. — This disease is indicated by
a yellowness of the membranes that line
the eyelid, and the inner parts of the lips
and mouth. In this disease, the natural
course of the bile is perverted ; it becomes
absorbed into the circulation, and thus
tinges the membranes and fluids of a yel-
low color. The excrement is generally of a
lighter color than usual. The disease may
be produced by a want of tone in the liver,
caused by obstructing the surface.

* Dr. J. Hinds says, " Since the wonns are not always
to be killed, even by strong poisons (calomel), nor brought
away by brisk purgatives, reason dictates and nature
Ijeckons us to follow her course in aflfording to the horse a
run at grass ; if that is impossible, adopt the means nearest
thereto that lie within our reach." If calomel is a poison,
— and tliousands declare it is, — then it must entail a
disease more formidable than the one it is intended to cure.

APPENDIX TO PART FIRST.

LIGAMENTARY MECHANISM OF
ARTICULATIONS.

ARTICULATIONS OF THE TRUNK.

Lig-amenls of the spine. — Those between
the head and first and second vertebrae are:

Lateral lig-amcnts, one on each side, that
run from the coronoid processes of the occi-
pital bone to the fore jiart of the atlas, and
are fixed in tlie roots of the transverse pro-
cesses.

Suspensory ligament of the head is a broad
ligament enclosed witjiin the capsular. It
proceeds from the body of the atlas to the
occipital bone.

Capsular ligament is attached to the occi-
pital bone, around the roots of the condy-
loid process, and to the anterior articular
processes of the atlas.

Superior ligament runs from the long ring
of the atlas to tlic spine of the vertebra
dentata.

Odontoid ligaments are three in number :
the two long pass from the sides of the
process dentata to the occipital condyles ;
the last runs from the point of that process
to the anterior and inferior parts of the
atlas.

Inferior ligament runs from the inferior
spinous process of the first to the second
vertebra.

The ligaments common to the spine are :

Intervertebral ligaments. — They are the
chief bond of union by which one vertebra
is bound to another.

The common inferior and superior liga-
ments.— The former passes obliquely along
the inferior parts of the vertebrEe, and the
latter runs within the spinal canal.

Capsular ligaments suiTound the smooth
37

cartilaginous surfaces of the articulatory
processes.

Intertransverse ligaments fix the trans-
verse processes of the dorsal vertebras to-
getlier.

Interspinons ligaments are found between
the spinous processes of the back and loins.

Ligamrnlum suliflavuhi (or nuchas) ex-
tends fmiii tiie occipital lioiieto the tail. It
covers and connects the spinous processes
of the back, loins, sacrum, and coccyx.
This ligament forms a strong connecting
medium between the spines of the ver-
tebrae.

Ligaments of the pelvis. — Two superior
transverse ligaments are fixed to the trans-
verse processes of these bones above ; t\vo
inferior, below, run from the fourth and fifth
transverse processes of the loins to the crest
of the ileum. Sacro-iliac symphysis con-
sists of a cartilago-ligamentous substance
interposed between, and firmly adherent to,
tlie transverse processes of the sacrum and
the inward part of tlie ileum. This union
is strengthened by ligamentary bands, which
run from the posterior spine, and border of
the ileum, (o the transverse process of the
sacrum.

Sacro-sciatic ligaments are broad expan-
sions stretched across the sacro-sciatic
notch. They arise from the transverse pro-
cesses of the sacrum, and those of two or
three uppermost bones of the coccyx, and
are extended to the posterior parts of the
ileum and ischium, and to tiie tuberosity
of the latter.

Obturator ligament is an expansion, thin-
ner than the last, which passe.s across the
foramen magnum ischii.

Ligament of the symphysis is the carti-

(289)

290

APPENDIX TO PAKT FIRST.

lago-liganientous substance which unites the
pubic bones.

Ligament !> of l/ie ribs. — Every rib is con-
nected to two vertebrBc by four ligaments,
viz., two capsular, internal and external lig-
annents.

Capsular li>^amcnt. of l/ie head invests and
holds it within the vertebral socket. Two
articular cavities are found within it, one
with each vertebrae, which have separate
synovial linings.

Capsular ligament of the tubercle sur-
rounds it at its articulation with tiie trans-
verse process of the vertebra.

External and internal ligaments consist
of strong fibres, which connect the neck of
the rib, above and below, to the spine.

Intercostal ligaments are broad fibrous
bands v. Iiich run obliquely across the inter-
costal space.;, and hold the ribs and their
cartilage firmly together.

Sternal ligaments. — These several pieces
of the breast bone are united to each other
by inierv:'ning cartilaginous substance; in
addition to wliich they are connected by
ligamentary bands, both inwardly and out-
wardly. The fore part of it i.s surmounted
by a broad portion of cartilage, which runs
along its under pai t.

ARTICULATIONS OF THE FOUi: EXTRI'.MITV.

Shoulder joint. — The cajisuiar ligament
around this joint is strengthened in many
places by additional fibres dispersed upon
its exterior. It is fixed to the rough margin
of the glenoid cavity, and to the neck of
the OS humeri. A synovial membrane lines
it, which may be followed upon the carti-
laginous surfaces of the bones. Externally,
this ligamentous ca])sule is citjthed on every
side by muscles, and to them is attributed
the main strength of the joint.

Elbotv joint— The ligaments of it are
two lateral and a capsular.

Knee joint. — In the knee there are five
distinct articulations ; one between the ra-
dius and the three small bones of the upper
row; a second between the small bones,
above and below ; a third between those
of tiie lower row and the metacarpal bones;
a foiu'th between the os trapezium and the

OS cunciforme; and a fifth between the 03
pisiforme and »is trapezoides; they have all
separate capsular ligaments and synovial
linings.

The ligaments of the knee, and the ten-
dons passing over it, are girt by broad,
alisteiiins:, lifiramentous bands, which retain
the latter in their places, and render the
joint stronger and more comjiact. Between
these ligaments, fascia, and the extensor
tendons, are some small bursae.

External lateral ligament rijns from a
tubercle upon the radius to the head of the
external metacarpal bone.

Internal lateral ligament consists of two
parts, which proceed from a similar tubercle
upon the inside, and from the body of the
radius. The longer is fixed to tlie inner
head of the metacarpal bone, and the
shorter to the fore part of the metacarpal.

Ligamentiim annulare passes from the os
trapezium to the ossa scaphoides and cunci-
forme : it confines the flexor tendons.

Fetlock joint. — Capsular ligament is at-
tached to the articulatory surfaces of these
bones; and the synovial membrane, after hav-
ing lined it, is reflected upon their cartilages :
it is guarded in front by the extensor tendon.

Long lateral ligament is fixed to a i)rojec-
tion upon the side of the metacarpal bone,
and to the os suflVaginis.

Short lateral ligament runs underneath
the latter. These ligaments ]Drevent motion
sideways.

The ligaments of the sessamoid bones
are seven, viz.: superior suspensory, the
long inferior, the short inferior, the two lat-
eral, and the two crucial.

Pastern joint is formed by the adaptation
of the ossa suflraginis and corona. It has a
capsular, and two pairs of lateral ligaments.

The capsular ligament is inserted into the
smooth cartilaginous ends of these bones :
it is blended with the extensor tendon in
front, and behind with the long inferior lig-
aments of the sessamoids.

The lateral ligaments are inserted on the
sides of the os corona? and suflraginis.

Coffin joint is made up of three bor.es:
the OS corona, pedis, and naviculare.

LIGAMEXTARY SYSTEJI.

291

Capsular ligament eiivelopos the articula-
tory surfaces, and is inserted beyond their
limits; in front it is united with tiie exten-
sor tendon ; behind, it is strengthened by
the tendo perforans. In addition to tlie
capsular, there arc three pairs of ligaments.

Tlic first pair passes from the superior
edges of tlie os pedis to the lateral parts of
the OS corona, and are inserted about its
middle.

T/ic second pair is stretched from the ex-
tremities of the OS pedis to the os corona,
and are fixed below and behind the first.

Third jiair arise from the sides of the
coronal process, and terminate in the car-
tilages.

The ligaments of the os naviculare are
four, viz.: two single, and one pair.

Superior ligament runs from its upper
and posterior i)art to the tendo-perforaiis.

Inferior is a very broad ligament, arising
from the whole of the lower edge of the
bone, and thence extending to the os pedis,
above the long extensor tendon.

Lateral lig-amenls fix the os naviculare,
by its two ends, to the sides of the os
corona.

ARTIlll.ATIONS OF THK HIND I^XTRE.MIT V.

The thigh joint is formed by the reception
of the liead of the os femoris into its socket.

Capsular ligament is attached around the
cervix of tlie os femoris and the margin of
the acetabulum ; it is thickly clothed on
every sitle by muscle, which assists to main-
tain its position.

The ueetabuhun is surrounded by the
circular ligament, whose border tutns in-
ward to eiubrace the cartilaginous head o'i
the OS femoris.

The nateli in this cavity, to its inward
side, is crossed by the transverse ligament,
which here makes up for the deficiency in
the bone.

Ligainentum teres consists of a bundle of
ligamentous fibres inc-losed in a sheath,
which i)rocecd from a \>\X in the inner and
upper i)art of the ball to a similar one in
tlie roof of the socket. Another portion of
it leaves ilie caviiv under the transverse
ligament, and is implanted in the pubes.

The synovial membrane lines the socket,
and is reflected over these parts.

Stijlc Joint is composed of the os femoris,
the tibia, and patella.

Ligamenta patella are composed of four
strong cords, which descend over the con-
dyles of the os femoris, and are inserted
into the tubercle of the tibia. The external
one pa-^ses upon the outer and anterior
part of the external condyle ; the internal,
upon the inward part of the internal con-
dyle ; and the middle one, between them.
They approach each other in their desceiit.
Concealed by the external one is the fourth
ligament of the patella; it runs to the out-
ward part of the tibia.

The patella, with its articulatory surface
of the condyles in front, forms a joint of its
own, perfectly distinct from that between
the tibia and ds femoris.

Its capsular ligament is fixed to its sur-
rounding border.

Internal lateral ligament descends from
the internal condyle to the inner and upper
part of the tibia.

External lateral ligament — stronger than
the internal — n;ns from the external con-
ilyle to the uj)per end of the fibula.

Crucial ligaments, short ami strong, and
deeply buried within the joint, run from the
space within the condyles to the tibia.

The si/novial membrane, after having
lined the capsule, is reflected upon the car-
tilages and ligaments included within it.

Hock joint has four lateral ligaments,
two on each side, called internal and exter-
nal.

Capsular ligament includes the lower end
of the tibia, and the puUy-like part of the
astragulus; to both of which, and the lat-
eral ligaments, and to the os calcis, it is
firiuly attached.

The OS calcis forms a joint with the os
cuboides, and the ossa cuneiforme are also
a joint, and tlie middle and small bones
make joints with the cuboid above, and the
metatarsi below; hence, there are six artic-
ulations in afldition to what we commonly
understand by the hock joint, that between
the tibia and astragulus.

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