Ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central America

FUNERARY URN FROM A ZAPOTECAN TOMB

The cylindrical urn is concealed behind the human figure. The dress
of the human figure consists of a cape, apron and a widespreading
headdress. Over the face is worn a mask.

AMERICAN MU5LUM OF NATURAL HI5TORY

r ANCILNT CIVILIZATIONS

OF

MLXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

By HLRBLRT J. 5PINDLN
1 1

ASSISTANT CURATOR OF ANTHROPOLOGY

HANDBOOK 5LRILS No. 3

NLW YORK
1917

F

RESERVE DUPU.

PREFACE

THIS little book is intended as a general commentary
and explanation of the more important phases of
the ancient life and arts of the Indians of Mexico and
Central America, and especially of their history. The
substance of it is drawn from many sources, for the
anthropologist must mould together and harmonize
the gross results of several sciences. Archaeology,
ethnology, somatology, and linguistics all make their
special contributions and we are only on the threshold
of our subject. In the Mexican and Central American
field we find the accumulated writings that result from
four hundred years of European contact with the
Indians and in addition a mass of native documents and
monumental inscriptions expressed in several hiero-
glyphic systems.

The general method of this book will be to take up in
order the recognized "horizons" of pre-Columbian
history, beginning with the earliest of which we have
knowledge. In relation to each horizon we will examine
the records and discuss the principal developments in
arts, beliefs, and social structures. The introductory
chapter is designed to put before the reader such facts
as may be necessary for a ready understanding of the
discussions and explanations that will follow.

The Mexican Hall of the American Museum of
Natural History furnishes illustrations of most of the
facts given herewith. This Hall contains both originals
and casts brought together by various expeditions of
the Museum and of other scientific institutions. The
principal patrons of science whose names should be
mentioned in connection with the upbuilding of these

6 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

collections are: Willard Brown, Austin Corbin, R. P.
Doremus, Anson W. Hard, Archer M. Huntington,
Morris K. Jesup, James H. Jones, Minor C. Keith,
the Duke de Loubat, William Mack, Henry Mar-
quand, Dr. William Pepper, A. D. Straus, I. Mel.
Strong, Cornelius Vanderbilt, Henry Villard, William
C. Whitney. But thanks are also due to innumerable
persons who have contributed single specimens and
small collections as well as those who have placed in-
formation at the disposal of the scientific staff. The
principal collectors have been: George Byron Gordon,
Ales Hrdlicka, Carl Lumholtz, Francis C. Nicholas,
Marshall H. Saville, and Eduard Seler.

CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE 5

INTRODUCTION 13

Geography and Natural Environment. History of European Contact.
Languages. Ethnology. Physical Types.

CHAPTER I
THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 43

Stratification of Remains. Invention of Agriculture. Archaic Figur-
ines. Ancient Customs. Archaic Pottery. Stone Sculptures of the
Archaic Period. Extensions of the Archaic Horizon. Local Develop-
ments of Archaic Art. Summary.

CHAPTER II
THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 65

Architecture. Massive Sculptural Art. Minor Arts. The Serpent in
Mayan Art. The Human Figure. Design Composition and Per-
spective. The Mayan Pantheon. The Mayan Time Counts. Ele-
ments of the Day Count. The Conventional Year. The Calendar
Round. Mayan Numbers. The True Year. The Lunar Calendar.
The Venus Calendar. Hieroglyphs. Codices. Bases of Mayan Chro-
nology. Historical Development of Art. Dated Monuments. Books
of Chilan Balam. Correlation with Christian Chronology. Summary
of Mayan History.

CHAPTER III
THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 137

Zapotecan Culture. Totonacan Culture. The Toltecs. Xochicalco.
San Juan Teotihuacan. Tula. Cholula. The Frontier Cities of the
Northwest. Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa. The Chorotegan Culture.
Isthmian Gold Work.

CHAPTER IV
THE AZTECS 177

Mayas and Aztecs compared to Greeks and Romans. The Chichimecas. '
Aztecan History. Social Organization. The Tecpan or Temple Enclo-
sure. The Calendar Stone. Stone of Tizoc. Coatlicue. Mexican
Writing. Aztecan Religion. Conceptions of the Universe. Cere-
monies. Poetry and Music. Minor Aztecan Arts. The Tarascans.
'* Southern Mexico. Mitla. .Aztecan Influence in Central America.

CONCLUSION 223

BIBLIOGRAPHY 225

INDEX. . 229

8 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Funerary Urn from a Zapotecan Tomb Frontispiece

Map of Mexico and Central America showing the Principal
Archaeological Sites with a Detail Insert of the Valley of
Mexico Facing 42

PLATES

I. a, Village Scene in Arid Mexico; b, In the Humid Low-
lands 15

II. a, Site of Pueblo Viejo, the First Capital of Guate-
mala; 6, A Spanish Church at the Village of Camo-
tan on the Road to Copan 23

III. a, View of the Island Town of Flo res in Lake Peten; 6,

The Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza 28

IV. a, A Guatemala huipili; 6, Pouches of the Valiente

Indians 38

V. a, Zapotecan Girl from the State of Oaxaca; b, Lacan-

done Woman from Southern Mexico .... 40
VI. a, Large Archaic Figures found in Graves and offering
Evidence of Ancient Customs and Arts; 6, Archaic
Figures which show a Quality of Caricature or

possibly Portraiture 48

VII. a, Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period; b, Typical

Site of the Archaic Period 55

VIIT. Widely Distributed Female Figurines 57

IX. Distribution of the Archaic Culture ..... 58
X. Distribution of Agriculture in the New World . . 60
XI. A General View of the Ceremonial Center of Copan . 66
XII. a, View of the Plaza at Copan from the Northwestern
Corner; 6, View Across the Artificial Acropolis at
Copan 68

XIII. A Temple at Hochob showing Elaborate Facade

Decorations in Stucco 70

XIV. A Sealed Portal Vault in the House of the Governor at

Uxmal 71

XV. a, Realistic Designs on Vases from Chama, Guatemala;
6, The Quetzal as represented on a Painted Cylin-
drical Vase from Copan 78

XVI. Stela 13, Piedras Negras 90

XVII. a, The Upper Portion of Stela 1 at Yaxchilan, dealing
with the Heavens; b, Analogous Detail of Stela 4,

Yaxchilan . 95

XVIII. Scheme of the Mayan Calendar as presented in the

Codex Tro-Cortesianus 102

XIX. Typical Mayan Inscription 106

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

XX. Page 24 Dresden Codex 116

XXI. a, Detail of the Dresden Codex showing Tonalamatl
used in Divination: 6. Analysis of the above Tona-
lamatl, according to Forstemann 120

XXII. Development in Style of Carving at Copan . . . 123

XXIII. General View of Monte Alban from the North . . 138

XXIV. Detail of Monte Alban showing the Foundation Walls

of Small Cell-like Rooms .140

XXV. Zapotecan Potterv, Incense Burners, and Funerary

Urns . '.142

XXVI. a, Sculpture of Stone of the Early Zapotecan Period;

b, Jade Tablets pierced for Suspension . . . 144
XXVII. Laughing Head of the Totonacs 147

XXVIII. a, An Elaborately Carved Stone Collar; 6, A Palmate

Stone from the State of Vera Cruz .... 148
XXIX. The Temple at Xochicalco before Restoration . . 154
XXX. a, The Temple at Xochicalco after Restoration; b,

Partial View of the Great Pyramid at Cholula . . 156
XXXI. a, Pottery Plates from Cholula with Decorations in

Several Colors; b. A View at La Quemada . . . 159
XXXII. Stone Slab from an Ancient Sepulcher in the State of

Guerrero 165

XXXIII. a, Finely Carved Ceremonial Slab found at Mercedes,
Costa Rica; b, Stone Figure from Costa Rica;

c, Ceremonial Slab decorated with Monkeys.
Mercedes, Costa Rica 169

XXXIV. a, The GoldWork of the Ancient Mexicans; b, Orna-

ment of Gold from Costa Rica 173

XXXV. A Page from the Tribute Roll of Moctezuma ... 178
XXXVI. Page from the Codex Telleriano Remensis ... 180

XXXVII. Sahagun's Plan of the Tecpan in Mexico City . . 188

XXXVIII. The Calendar Stone of the Aztecs 190

XXXIX. The Shield Stone at Cuernavaca 193

XL. Sculpture representing Coatlicue, the Serpent-
Skirted Goddess 195

XLI. Page from the Tonalamatl Section of the Codex Bor-

bonicus 202

XLII. a, Pictures of Tlaloc, the God of Rain, and of Ehecatl,
the God of Winds, in the Codex Magliabecchiano;
6. Mexican Genealogical Table on Maguey Paper . 204
XLIII. a, A Page from the Codex Xuttall; b, Zapotecan

Cruciform Tomb near Mitla 219

XLIV. a. Detail of Wall Construction at Mitla; b-c, The God,

Macuilxochitl, Five Flower 221

10 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

TEXT FIGURES

PAGE

1. The Great Snowstorm of 1447 shown in the Pictographic

Record of the Aztecs 13

2. A Mexican Picture of a Volcanic Eruption 16

3. Yucatan Deer caught in a Snare 20

4. The Moan Bird, or Yucatan Owl, personified as a Demi-god . 20

5. Spanish Ship in the Aubin Oodex 22

6. Cortez arrives with Sword and Cross and Moctezuma brings

him Gold 25

7. Ancient Aztecan Canoe 26

8. Design on Modern Huichol Ribbon 35

9. Woven Pouch of the Huichol Indians 35

10. Atzcapotzalco Destroyed 44

11. Diagram of Culture Strata at Atzcapotzalco 45

12. Teocentli or Mexican Fodder Grass 46

13. Figurines from the Earliest Culture Horizon in Mexico ... 49

14. Archaic Figurine from Salvador 50

15. Types of Eyes of Archaic Figurines 51

16. Textile Designs painted on Archaic Effigies 52

17. Typical Tripod Vessels of the Archaic Period, from Morelos,

Mexico . 53

18. Series showing the Modification of a Celt into a Stone Amulet 54

19. Stone Sculpture with protruding Eyes and other Archaic

Characters. Costa Rica 62

20. Groundplans of Yaxchilan Temples 72

21. Cross-section of Typical Mayan Temple in Northern Yucatan . 73

22. Section through Middle of Temple of the Cross 75

23. Mask Panel over Doorway at Xkichmook. Yucatan ... 77

24. Design on Engraved Pot representing Tiger seated in

Wreathe of Water Lilies. Northern Yucatan ... 80

25. Painted Design on Cylindrical Bowl showing Serpent issuing

from a Shell. Salvador 80

26. Mayan Basket represented in Stone Sculpture 81

27. Typical Elaborated Serpents of the Mayas 82

28. Conventional Serpent of the Mayas used for Decorative Pur-

poses 83

29. Upper Part of Serpent Head made into a Fret Ornament . . 85

30. Sculpture on Front of Lintel at Yaxchilan 87

31. Types of Human Heads on the Lintels of Yaxchilan ... 87

32. Sculpture on Upper Part of Stela ll,Seibal 88

33. The Ceremonial Bar 91

34. The Manikin Scepter 91

35. The Two-Headed Dragon 92

36. Gods in the Dresden Codex 94

37. The Twenty Day Signs of the Mayan Month 98

38. The Nineteen Month Signs ot thelVIayan Year 100

39. Bar and Dot Numerals of the Mayas 103

40. Face Numerals found in Mayan Inscriptions 105

41. The Normal Forms ot the Period Glyphs 105

42. Face Forms of Period Glyphs 105

43. Representations of the Moon 108

TEXT FIGURES 11

PAGE

44. The Last Glyph of the Supplementary Series 109

45. Hieroglyphs of the Four Directions 114

46. Hieroglyphs containing the Phonetic Element kin . . . 114

47. Mayan Ceremony as represented in the Dresden Codex . . 119

48. The Front Head of the Two-Headed Dragon on Stelae at

Piedras Negras, showing the increase in Flamboyant Treat-
ment 125

49. Grotesque Face on the Back of Stela B, Copan 126

50. Jaguar in Dresden Codex with a Water Lily attached to Fore-

head 126

51. Late Sculpture from Chichen Itza , . 127

52. Comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan Serpent Heads . . . 139

53. Bar and Dot Numerals combined with Hieroglyphs on Zapote-

can Monuments 141

54. The Eyes of Totonacan Figurines 146

55. Jointed Doll of Clay from San Juan Teotihuacan .... 157

56. Vessel with "Cloisonne" Decoration in Heavy Pigments . . 162

57. The Turtle Motive as developed in Negative Painting with

Wax at Totoate, Jalisco 163

58. Jaguar Head on Disk-Shaped Stone. Salvador .... 164

59. Front View and Profile View Serpent Heads in Chorotegan

Art 167

60. Jaguar Design associated with Figurines that still retain

Archaic Characters. Costa Rica 168

61. Crocodiles from painted Nicoyan Vases 168

62. Highly Conventionalized Crocodile Motive 170

63. Simple Crocodile Figures in Red Lines on Dishes from

Mercedes, Costa Rica 171

64. Panels containing Crocodiles painted in White Lines on Large

Tripod Bowls from Mercedes, Costa Rica 171

65. Simplified Crocodile Heads in the Yellow Line Ware of

Mercedes, Costa Rica 171

66. Conventional Crocodiles from Costa Rica and Panama . . 172

67. Pictographic Record of the Conquest of the Springs of

Chapultepec 183

68. Details from the Stone of Tizoc .... .... 194

69. Detail showing the Construction of the Face of Coatlicue . . 196

70. Hieroglyphs of Precious Materials 197

71. Aztecan Place Names 198

72. Aztecan Day Signs 199

73. Variant Forms of Aztecan Day Signs ........ 200

74. Aztecan Numbers and Objects of Commerce 200

75. Analysis of Mexican Record 201

76. Chalchuihtlicue, Aztecan Goddess of Water 205

77. A Mexican Orchestra 213

78. Mexican Blanket with the Design representing Sand and

Water 216

79. A Year Symbol from Southern Mexico 218

80. Year Bearers in the Codex Porfirio Diaz ascribed to the

Cuicatecan Tribe 218

81. Wall Paintings of Mitla 222

INTRODUCTION

Geography and Natviral Environment. Un-
fortunately the terms "Mexico and Central America' ' are
not mutually exclusive. Central America is a natural
division comprised between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec
and the Isthmus of Panama. Mexico is a political
division that includes several
states in Central America,
namely, Chiapas, Tabasco,
Campeche, Yucatan, and the
territory of Quintana Roo.
The ancient high cultures of
Mexico hardly extended as far
north as the Tropic of Cancer
and the region beyond this is
of slight interest to us. Posi-
tions south of Mexico will
often be referred to the areas
of the modern political units
although these have no im-
mediate relation to pre-Span-
ish conditions. These political units are: Guatemala,
British Honduras, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua,
and Costa Rica.

Although lying within the tropics, the territory ex-
tending from the Isthmus of Panama to Central Mexico
exhibits great extremes of climate and topography and
hence of plant and animal life. The year is everywhere
divided into a wet and a dry season but the relative
duration of each depends upon land form and altitude.
The coast of the Pacific is considerably drier than that
of the Atlantic. Three climatic zones are generally
recognized, namely, the Tierra Caliente (Hot Land),

13

Fig. 1. The Great Snow-
storm of 1447 shown in the
Pictographic Record of the
Aztecs called Codex Telleri-
ano Remensis.

14 MEXlt'6 AND1 CENTRAL AMERICA

Tierra Templada (Temperate Land), and Tierra Fria
(Cold Land), and in some regions each of these has an
arid and a humid strip. The change from luxuriant
forests to open thorny deserts is often very sudden.
On the high plateau or Tierra Fria the natural warmth
of the latitude is largely overcome by the altitude. In
the Valley of Mexico snow falls only at rare intervals
yet chilling winds are common in the winter. Much
of the plateau from Mexico south into Guatemala is
open farming land well suited to the raising of maize
and wheat where water is sufficient. The shoulders of
the mountains bear forests of pine and oak while the
highest peaks are crowned with perpetual snow.

A description of the mountains, rivers, and lakes will
help towards an understanding of the problems that
are before us. The broad plateau, crossed by irregular
ranges of mountains, that occupies the states of New
Mexico and Arizona continues far south into Mexico.
On the western rim the Sierra Madre lifts a great pine-
covered barrier, beyond which the land drops off
quickly into the hot fringe of coastal plain bordering
the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. The
highest mountains of the western Sierra Madre are El
Nevado and Colima, the first a snowy peak 14,370 feet
high and the second an active volcano 12,278 feet high.
On the western rim of the central plateau the second
Sierra Madre is less continuous but it culminates in the
loftiest peak of all Mexico — the wonderful cone of
Orizaba. This mountain rises from the tropical jungles
well into the region of perpetual snow and attains an
elevation of 18,314 feet above the sea. Its name in
Aztecan is Citlaltepetl, which means Star Mountain.
Two other famous peaks of Mexico are Popocatepetl
and Iztacchihuitl, both names being pure Aztecan.
The first means Smoking Mountain and the second

Plate I. (a) Village Scene in Arid Mexico. Cactus and other
thorny shrubs are ever present. The houses of the natives are of
adobe with thatched roofs. (6) In the Humid Lowlands. The
view shows part of the plaza at Quirigua with one of the monuments
almost concealed in vegetation of a few months' growth.

15

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

White Woman. These volcanic crests rise into the
snowy zone from the table-land which is itself about
8,000 feet above the sea.

In southern Mexico the plateau area enclosed between
the principal sierras narrows perceptibly, because the
shore line of tlje Pacific and the
mountain range that parallels it
swing more and more towards the
east. At the Isthmus of Tehuan-
tepec a low valley separates the
highland area of Mexico from that
of Central America. This second
table-land is not so wide as the
one we have just considered and
is more deeply dissected by rivers.
The mountains of Guatemala rise
to a considerable altitude, the
highest being Tacana with 13,976
feet elevation. Active volcanoes
are numerous and earthquakes
frequent and often disastrous.
The Volcan de Agua and the
Volcan de Fuego (Volcano of

Water and Volcano of Fire) look down upon Cuidad
Vieja and Antigua Guatemala, the old Spanish capi-
tals which each in turn destroyed. The cordillera
still presents its most abrupt front to the Pacific and on
the eastern side, in Guatemala and Honduras, there
are high forest-bearing ridges between the river sys-
tems. The Cockscomb Mountains in British Honduras
are a low outlying group. In southern Nicaragua the
main chain is broken by a low broad valley that extends
from ocean to ocean. In Costa Rica and Panama a
single range stretches midway along the narrow strip
of land, with peaks that rise above 11,000 feet.

Fig. 2. The Smoke
reaches the Stars, a
Mexican Picture of a
Volcanic Eruption in
the Codex Telleriano
Remensis.

INTRODUCTION 17

The lowlands on the Pacific side of our area form a
narrow fringe which becomes more valuable for agri-
cultural purposes as we proceed towards the south.
The lowlands of the Atlantic side are of varying widths.
The greatest land mass of uniformly low elevation is
the Peninsula of Yucatan. In eastern Honduras and
Nicaragua there are extensive river valleys of low ele-
vation.

The river system^ of Mexico and Central America
flow into the two bounding oceans or into lakes which
have no outlets. Several closed basins occur on the
Mexican table-land. The Rio Nazas and the Rio
Nieves flow into salt marshes in the northern state of
Coahuila. But the most important interior basin is
the Valley of Mexico. In this mountain enclosed val-
ley, whose general level is 7,500 feet above the sea, there
are five lakes which in order from north to south are
named Tzompanco, Xaltocan, Tezcoco, Xochimilco, and
Chalco. The last two contain fresh water, since they
drain into Lake Tezcoco, but the rest are more or less
brackish. Lake Tezcoco is by far the largest although
its area has been greatly reduced by natural and artifi-
cial causes since the coming of the Spaniards.

The largest river of Mexico is the Rio Lerma which
takes the name Rio de* Santiago during its deep and
tortuous passage from Lake Chapala to the Pacific.
Farther to the south is the Rio de las Balsas which like-
wise flows into the western ocean. The name means
"River of the Rafts" and is given because of a peculiar
floating apparatus made of gourds tied to a wooden
framework that is used on this stream. Flowing into
the Gulf of Mexico are several large streams, among
which may be mentioned the Panuco, Alvarado,
Grijalva, and Usumacinta. The last is by far the great-
est in volume of water, and with its maze of tributaries

18 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

drains a large area of swamp and jungle in which are
buried some of the most wonderful ruined cities of the
New World.

In the northern part of Yucatan there are no rivers
on the surface on account of the porous Hmestone.
Instead there are great natural wells called cenotes
where the roofs of subterranean rivers have fallen in.
Many of the ancient cities were built near such natural
wells.

Passing to the south the most important river of
Guatemala is the Motagua, which has cut a fine valley
through a region of lofty mountains. In Honduras there
are several large rivers, including the Uloa, Patuca,
and Segovia. The lake region of Nicaragua is drained
by the San Juan River that flows into the Caribbean
Sea. Nearly all the streams of Central America that
flow into the Pacific are short and steep torrents. An
important exception is the Lempa River that forms
part of the interior boundary of Salvador.

Concerning lakes, mention has already been made of
Chapala and Tezcoco, the most important in Mexico.
The former is about fifty miles in length. In the state
of Michoacan there are a number of beautiful lakes
intimately connected with the history and mythology of
the Tarascan Indians. The most famous is called
Patzcuaro. In southern Yucatan the shallow body of
wrater known as Lake Peten also has a distinct historical
interest. Several lakes in Guatemala are well known
on account of the rare beauty of their situation. Lake
Atitlan is surrounded by lofty mountains, and Lake
Izabal, or Golfo Dulce, is famous for the luxuriance of
the vegetation that screens its banks. Lakes Nica-
ragua and Managua are well known on account of their
connection with the much-discussed canal projects.

INTRODUCTION 19

The Island of Ometepec in Lake Nicaragua bears an
active volcano.

In regard to the geology it is only necessary to point
out a few of the more important characters. The high-
lands which bear so many active and quiescent volcanoes
naturally show great masses of eruptive rocks, some due
to recent action and others much more ancient. Porous
tufa is a common material for sculptures in many parts
of Mexico and Central America. In other places there
are great beds of softer and finer grained material also
of volcanic origin. In these places, such as Copan in
western Honduras and Mitla in southern Mexico, build-
ing in stone received its greatest development. The
soft greenish stone of Copan seems to be a solidified mud
flowr permeated with volcanic ash rather than a true
lava flow of melted rock. Limestones are also common
and important in the economic development. In some
regions there are beds of a hard, blue limestone going
back to the Carboniferous epoch. This stone makes an
excellent cement after burning. The Peninsula of
Yucatan is a great plain of limestone of much more
recent formation. Like our own Florida it was once a
coral reef which was lifted above the sea by some
natural agency. This limestone gets older and more
solid as we approach the base of the peninsula but at
best is rather porous and coarse-grained.

The fauna and flora present great variation. In the
moist lowlands the monkeys play in the tree tops and
the jaguar lies in wait for its prey. Alligators and
crocodiles infest the rivers and swamps. Two small
species of deer and the ocellated turkey are important
items in the meat supply of Yucatan, that includes also
the iguana, the peccary, and various large rodents. The
tapir and manatee are the largest animals of the low-
lands but neither seems to have been of great signifi-

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Fig. 3. Yucatan Deer
caught in -a Snare. From
the Mayan Codex, Tro-
Cortesianus.

cance to the natives. Bats are frequently represented

in the ancient art and a bat demon appears in several

myths.

Upon the highlands of Mexico the Toltecan deer is

still hunted, together with the wild turkey, that is the

parent of our domestic birds.
The turkey was, in fact, domes-
ticated by the Mexican tribes.
It probably occurred southward
over the Guatemalan highlands
but is now extinct in this latter
region. In the southern part of
Central America the place of the
turkey as an item of diet is taken
by the curassow, a yellow-crested

bird with black plumage. The coppery-tailed trogon,

the famous quetzal, was sacred in ancient times and

is now the emblem of Guate-
mala. This beautiful bird occurs

only in the cloud cap forest zone

on the high mountains of south-
ern Mexico and Guatemala.

Blue macaws, parrots, paroquets,

and humming birds contributed

their gay plumage to adorn head-

dresses and feather-covered

cloaks. These and many other

birds doubtless flitted about in

the aviary of Moctezuma. The

black vulture, the king vulture

and the harpy eagle are other

conspicuous birds often figured

in the ancient art. The coyote, ocelot, and puma are

the principal beasts of prey on the highlands.

Among the characteristic trees of the lowlands may

Fig. 4. The Moan
Bird, or Yucatan Owl,
personified as a Demi-
god. Dresden Codex.

INTRODUCTION 21

be mentioned the palm, which occurs in great variety,
the amate and ceiba, both of which attain to large size,
as well as mahogany, Spanish cedar (which is not a
cedar at all but a close relative of the mahogany) , cam-
peche, or logwood, rosewood, sapodilla, and other trees
of commerce. Upon the higher mountain slopes are
forests of long-leaf pine and of oak. In the desert
stretches the cactus is often tree-like and there are
many shrubs that in the brief spring become masses of
highly colored blossoms.

Some of the principal crops of Mexico and Central
America have been introduced from the Old World,
including coffee, sugar cane, and bananas. Other crops
such as maize, beans, chili peppers, cocoa, etc., are
indigenous. Among the native fruits may be men-
tioned the aguacate, or alligator pear, the mamey, the
anona, or custard apple, the guanabina, jocote, and
nanse.

History of European Contact. The great area
with which we are concerned has been in touch with
Europe since the beginning of the sixteenth century.
Columbus on his last voyage in 1502 cast anchor at the
mouth of the San Juan River, the outlet of Lake Nica-
ragua. Later he skirted the shore of Costa Rica and
Panama and entered the body of water which was
named in his honor Bahia del Almirante — Bay of the
Admiral. He brought back sensational news of the
gold in possession of the natives, which they had told
him came from a district called Veragua. After a few
years of stormy warfare the Spaniards established them-
selves firmly in this golden land. Vasco Nunez de Bal-
boa, who emerged from the bickering mob as the strong-
est leader, was the first white man to cross the Isthmus.
This he did in 1513, grandiloquently laying claim to the
Pacific Ocean and all the shores that it touched in the

22

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

name of Spain. The crown appointed the greedy and
black-hearted Pedrarias Davila governor of Darien and
in 1517 he succeeded in having Balboa beheaded on a
flimsy charge. Colonization and exploration went for-
ward rapidly. In 1519 the old city of Panama, now in
ruins, was founded. The rich region around the Nica-
raguan lakes was discovered by Gil Gonzales Davila and
the city of Granada was founded in 1524. The explora-
tion from the southern base came in contact with
that from the north in Salvador shortly after this
event.

Let us now direct our attention to the conquest of
Mexico. Perhaps the Portuguese were the first to sight
the mainland of Yucatan in 1493. There is little to
prove this except one or two charts or maps made in the
first decade of the sixteenth century
that show the peninsula in its prop-
er location. In 1511 or 1512^ ship
from Darien was wreckeoTand some
of the sailors were cast upon the
coast of Yucatan . Most were killed
and sacrificed but two survived.
One of these survivors was Geron-
imo de Aguilar, who later was
rescued by Cortez and became his
guide and interpreter.

The first accredited voyage of discovery to Mexico
was one under the command of Francisco Hernandez de
Cordoba, which sailed from Cuba in February, 1517. He
coasted the northern and eastern shores of Yucatan.
When he attempted to obtain water he was worsted in a
serious battle with the Maya Indians. His expedition
finally returned to Cuba in a sad plight. The next year
Juan de Grijalva set out to continue the exploration of
the new land with the stone built cities. He landed at

Fig. 5. Spanish
Ship in the Aubin
Codex.

Plate II. (a) Site of Pueblo VieJ9, the First Capital of Guate-
mala; (6) A Spanish Church at the village of Camotan on the Road
to Copan.

23

24 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Cozumel Island and took possession. He explored the
eastern coast of Yucatan as well as the northern and
western ones, discovered the mouth of the large river
that bears his name, and proceeded as far as the Island
of Sacrifices in the harbor of Vera Cruz.

The next year Hernando Cortez was sent out by
Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, to conquer the new
land. He landed at Cozumel Island and rescued Ge-
ronimo de Aguilar. Then he followed the coast to the
mouth of the Grijalva River where he disembarked and
fought the important battle of Cintla, the first engage-
ment in the New World in which cavalry was used.
After a signal victory Cortez continued his way to Vera
Cruz. Here delay and dissension seemed about to
break the luck of the invaders.

Although the Mexicans were somewhat inclined to
regard the Spaniards as supernatural visitants and to
associate their coming with the fabled return of Quet-
zalcoatl, the Plumed Serpent, still Moctezuma refused
to grant an interview to Cortez. The Totonacan city of
Cempoalan opened its gates and became allies of the
invaders. Finally, at the instigation of their stout-
hearted captain, the Spaniards destroyed their ships on
the shore in order to steel their resolution through the
impossibility of retreat. Then the little band of 450
white men with their retinue of natives marched towards
the highlands. The route led past Jalapa and over the
mountains to the fortified city of Tlascala. This city
after a skirmish likewise enlisted in the Spanish cause,
a course that came easy because Tlascala was a tra-
ditional enemy of Tenochtitlan, the ancient Mexico
City, and had withstood the attacks of the Aztecs for
many years. From here Cortez passed to the sacred
city of Cholula where, suspecting treachery, he caused
many of the inhabitants to be massacred.

INTRODUCTION

Fig. 6. Cortez arrives with
Sword and Cross and Mocte-
zuma brings him Gold. Codex
Vaticanus 3738.

In the Spanish histories one hears much concerning
the omens, the prophecies, and the vain appeals to the
gods that became more and more frequent and frantic

as the invaders approached
the capital. Arriving at
Ixtapalapan they entered
upon the great causeway
leading out to the Venice-
like city in thexlake. Ac-
cepting the inevitable,
Moctezuma and his nobles
met the Spaniards and con-
ducted them to the Palace
of Axayacatl, which was
prepared for their habita-
tion. This took place in
November, 1519. The fears of Moctezuma were soon
fulfilled, for he was taken prisoner and held as a hostage
of safety in his own capital.

Meanwhile Velasquez, convinced of the unfaithful-
ness of Cortez, dispatched Narvaez to capture the
rebellious agent. But Narvaez was himself captured
and his soldiers went to augment the army of the victor.
Alvarado had been left in command of the garrison at
Tenochtitlan during the absence of Cortez. The time
approached for the great feast of Tezcatlipoca and the
Spaniards, fearing the results of this appeal to the
principal Aztecan god, resolved to be the first to strike.
The multitude assembled in the temple enclosure was
massacred and after this deed the soldiers fought their
way back to the stronghold in which they were quar-
tered. The Aztecs were thoroughly aroused by this
unwarranted cruelty as well as by the cupidity of the
Spaniards. Cortez hastened back to take personal
charge but in spite of victories in the storming of the

20 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

pyramids and in other hand-to-hand contests, the in-
vaders were so weakened that their condition was truly
alarming. Moctezuma died in captivity and the last
restraint of the natives was removed.

The night of June 30, 1520, is famous as La Noche
Triste — The Sad Night — for on this night the Spaniards
attempted to steal out of the city that had become
untenable. The natives were warned by a woman's
shriek and a desperate encounter took place on the nar-

Fig. 7. Ancient Aztecan Canoe. Lienzo de Tezcoco.

row causeway leading to Tlacopan. The bridges were
torn down and the Spanish soldiers in armor were
hemmed in between the deep canals. At last, however,
the firm land was reached. Here, instead of following
up the victory, the natives permitted the Spaniards to
re-form their ranks. A few days later Cortez was able
to restore something of his lost prestige by the decisive
victory at Otumba, after which he continued his retreat
to the friendly Tlascala.

INTRODUCTION 27

A year was spent in recuperation, 'n building boats
for an attack from the lake, and in putting down the
Aztecan outposts. Finally Tenochtitlan was besieged
again. The buildings were leveled with the ground as
the Spaniards advanced. The brave defense of
Cuauhtemoc availed for naught against cannon and
steel armor. On the 13th of August, 1521, the con-
quest of Tenochtitlan was achieved and the spirit of a
warlike people forever broken.

The Valley of Mexico having been taken, numerous
expeditions were sent out to subdue the more distant
provinces and to establish colonies. Alvarado invaded
the south and by 1524 he had captured Utatlan and
other native strongholds on the highlands of Guate-
mala and had invaded Salvador. Cortez himself under-
took a wonderful march from Vera Cruz to the Gulf
of Honduras to punish an unruly subordinate. His
course lay through the swamps and jungles of the
Usumacinta basin, thence across the savannahs of
southern Yucatan to Lake Peten, and, finally, over the
mountains to Lake Izabal and the Motagua River.
Even today much of his route would be called impass-
able for an army. Puerto Cortez, on the northern
coast of Honduras, was founded at the conclusion of this
expedition. The exploitation of Yucatan and Tabasco
was granted to Francisco Monte jo, who began the con-
quest of this lowlying territory in 1527. Soon after
entering the country he won a costly victory at Ake and
later made his quarters at Chichen Itza. But the odds
were too great and by 1535 all the Spaniards had been
killed or expelled. The son of Monte jo renewed the
struggle. In 1540 Campeche was founded and early
in 1542 the city of Merida was established upon the site
of an earlier Mayan town.

Progress was also rapid in the north. Nuno de Guz-

'

[a]

Plate III. (a) View of the Island Town of Flores in Lake Peten
where the Last Capital of the Itzas was located; (6) The Sacred
Cenote at Chichen Itza into which Human Beings were thrown as
Sacrifices.

28

INTRODUCTION 29

man departed in 1529 on a mission to conquer Michoa-
can and the great northern province known as New
Galicia. His rule was marred by many acts of cruelty.
In 1538 Coronado, the successor of Guzman, led his
army northward to the land of the Pueblo Indians and
then out into the Great Plains. Before the first Eng-
lish settlement was made in North America the power
of Spain was firmly established, not only throughout
Central America and Mexico, but also in the south-
western part of the United States.

/The spiritual conquest was no less remarkable than
the territorial. The priests accompanied and even
preceded the armies with the doctrine of the cross. The
rough and ready characters that enliven the wonderful
drama of this period had the vices of greed and cruelty,
but nearly all were imbued with a pride of religion, if not
with the true flame. The firmness and bigotry on the
one hand and the open sympathy on the other with
which the Catholic fathers met the practical problems
before them resulted in vast achievements. Either by
accident or design certain patron saints and efficacious
shrines of special interest to the natives were not long in
becoming known. The Virgin of Guadeloupe and the
Black Christ of Esquipulas brought many converts to
the foreign faith. Church building was carried on
apace. The various religious orders became rich and
powerful and exerted a strong influence upon civil
administration?/

The later history of this great region can be passed
over briefly. Cortez was the first governor general of
Mexico but he was soon shorn of his power as dictator
at large. The First Audiencia was appointed in 1528
and is noteworthy simply by reason of its misrule. The
Second Audiencia, beginning two years later, put
through some excellent reform laws. The first Viceroy,

30 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

the great and good Mendoza, arrived in 1535 and for
fifteen years the land prospered under his rule, which was
benign without being weak. He was succeeded by Luis
de Velasco, who emancipated many of the enslaved
Indians. The long line of viceroys continued until 1821
when Spain was forced to relinquish her provinces in
America. Among the greatest of the viceroys was
Bucareli, the forty-sixth in line, who ruled Mexico from
1771-1779 while the United States of America were just
beginning to feel the pulse of life.

During the viceregal period in Mexico the region to
the south was ruled by the captain general of Guate-
mala. The dominion was subdivided into five depart-
ments corresponding to the modern republics of Guate-
mala (which then included the Mexican state of Chi-
apas), Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.
Panama was ruled from the South American province
of New Granada.

Weakened by Napoleonic wars and rent by internal
dissensions, Spain found herself in the first two decades
of the nineteenth century unable to maintain her wan-
ing power in America. Bolivar and his brother patriots
raised the standard of revolt in South America in 1810
and in the same year war for independence broke out in
the north. Hidalgo, the parish priest of Dolores, rang
the liberty bell of Mexican freedom on the 16th of
September, 1810. This beloved patriot was captured
the year following, and shot, but the revolution once
begun was continued under Morelos and other leaders.
After 1815 the cause seemed hopeless, but in 1820 there
was a new uprising and General Iturbide, who was sent
to put it down, turned his army against the government
and established himself as emperor. Central America
was also included in this Mexican empire. The rule of
Iturbide soon became unpopular and in 1823 he abdi-

INTRODUCTION 31

cated his throne. The Mexican republic that was then
instituted continued until the French intervention in
1861. During this time the most noteworthy events
were the war with the United States in 1846-47 and the
passing of the reform laws under Benito Jaurez that
freed Mexico from the oppressions of the church.

As a result of the French intervention Maximilian of
Austria was made emperor. This unfortunate ruler,
who did much to beautify Mexico City, was dethroned
and shot in 1867. The republic was then re-established.

The other republics of Central America formed a
federal union at the time the first Mexican empire came
to an end in 1823. This union was preserved till 1839
and several later attempts were made to restore it. The
five republics have had such tempestuous careers as a
result of warfare, usurpation, and political brigandage
that their material and social development has been
stunted. Costa Rica is, however, on the high road to
stability.

Panama was until 1903 a part of Colombia. British
Honduras had its origin in the concessions given to
English logwood gatherers and to the fact that pirates
found refuge behind the coral reefs that line the shores.
The English claim to the Mosquito Coast rested upon a
similar flimsy basis, and was finally abandoned.

Languages. About thirty distinct groups of re-
lated languages, technically known as linguistic stocks,
were found in Mexico and Central America. Some of
these stocks occupied small areas and showed little in
the way of word variation. A few stocks were stretched
over wide territories and were divided into many mutu-
ally unintelligible tongues, which in turn were sub-
divided into well-defined dialects. Several entire stocks
are now extinct and others are rapidly approaching
extinction through the substitution of Spanish. A

32 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

number of languages, however, are still spoken by
hundreds of thousands of natives.

The linguistic stock having the greatest geographical
extension within the area under consideration is the
Nahuan, with which has recently been consolidated the
great Shoshonean group of languages. This stock may
be compared to the Indo-Iranian stock of the Old World,
which comprises most of the modern and ancient lan-
guages of Europe as well as those of a large part of Asia.
Within the United States are the numerous Shoshonean
tribes extending as far north as Idaho. In southern
Arizona and northwestern Mexico is the Piman group
of languages that also belongs to the Nahuan stock.
East of the Sierra Madre are the Tarahumare and
the Tepehuane. These languages are mutually unin-
telligible and all are subdivided into dialects. The
general relationship is proved only through laborious
comparison and analysis of the words and grammar,
in the same way as the philologist proves that Persian,
Greek, Russian, English, and Welsh are all related
tongues. Farther to the south are still other divisions
of the Nahuan stock, including the Huichol and Cora
of the mountainous region north of Guadalajara and
the Mexican or Aztecan of the valley of Mexico and
adjacent country. The Mexican language is still
spoken by a million or more natives and is divided into
a number of dialects. Properly the Aztecs are a single
tribe whose chief city was Tenochtitlan, the ancient
Mexico City. Mexican colonies were widespread be-
fore the coming of the Spaniards and during the Con-
quest the distribution of this nation was made still
greater. The Mexicans, and especially the natives of
Tlascala, accompanied the Spaniards on military expe-
ditions against other tribes and as a consequence many
place names in southern Mexico and Guatemala were

INTRODUCTION 33

translated into the Mexican language. There were,
however, large groups of Indians of the Nahuan stock
already located in this territory. The Pipiles were
given their name, which means "boys," because their
speech was somewhat different from classical Mexican.
They were situated in southern Guatemala and in
Salvador. Still farther south were the Niquirao of
Nicaragua and a little-known group called the Sigua in
Costa Rica.

The wide geographical distribution of Nahuan lan-
guages has an undeniable historical significance. The
numerous tribes represent a very wide range in culture
albeit nearly all are dwellers of arid or semi-arid regions.
Some like the Paiute are miserable "diggers" willing to
eat anything that will support life; others like the
Comanche are warlike raiders; more progressive tribes
like the Hopi have adopted agriculture and developed
interesting arts and customs; while the highest members
of the group are among the most civilized nations of the
New World. It seems clear that language as a basis of
classification extends over a much greater stretch of
time than does culture. Particular phases of art,
religion, and government develop and disappear, but
the grouping of sounds used to express ideas remains as
proof that peoples now far apart geographically as well
as in their habits and achievements were once close
together. The peculiar grouping, in this instance, may
indicate a general southward movement.

The second most important group of languages is the
Mayan, now spoken by over half a million people.
This stock has only one outlying member, namely, the
Huasteca of northern Vera Cruz. The other twenty-
one languages cover a continuous area in the Mexican
states of Yucatan, Tabasco, and Chiapas and in the
republic of Guatemala. The most important language

34 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

of the group is the Maya proper, which is spoken by the
natives of Yucatan and by the Lacandone Indians of the
Usumacinta Valley. The Quiche, Cakchiquel, Choi,
and Chorti are other prominent languages.

In the region of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec are the
Zapotecan and Zoquean stocks, which differ widely in
sound and structure from the Mayan and Nahuan
tongues that hem them in. West, north, and east of
the Valley of Mexico are, respectively, the Tarascan,
Otomian, and Totonacan stocks, which show no great
amount of subdivision. In Honduras, Nicaragua, and
Costa Rica are several language groups that have never
been carefully studied. It seems likely that some of
these will be consolidated when words and grammatical
structures are better known. The Chiapanecan lan-
guages, now practically extinct, were spoken in three
localities on the Pacific side of Nicaragua and Costa
Rica, while a fourth division occupied a small area far
to the northwest on the banks of the Chiapas River.
Parts of the Isthmian region were held by tribes having
linguistic affiliation with South America. It is not
unlikely that a considerable back flow from South
America made itself felt along the Atlantic coast of
Central America, if we may judge by ethnological
features and by suggested language connections.

Ethnology. To a less extent than the native lan-
guages the old-time customs still hold out against the
tide of European influence. In regions not easily
accessible on account of deserts, mountains, or tropical
jungles, there are a number of groups of Indians that
preserve in a large measure their ancient arts and ideas.
Unfortunately the study of these remnants has not been
very thorough.

The Pima, Seri, Tarahumare, Tepehuane, and other

INTRODUCTION

35

tribes of the extreme north and northwest of Mexico
have until recent times been comparatively unmodified
by Spanish influences. Basketry, textiles, and pottery

Fig. 8. Design on Modern Huichol Ribbon.

Fig. 9. Woven Pouch of the Huichol Indians showing
Two-Headed Austrian Eagle.

have been maintained by them as well as many religious
ceremonies. Farther south among the Cora and
Huichol there is also considerable purity in this regard.
The woven fabrics of these Indians are very beautiful

36 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

but introduced ideas are frequently seen. For instance,
a very common motive in Huichol textile art is the two-
headed Austrian eagle evidently taken from the coins
of Charles V. Crowns similar to those worn by the two-
headed eagle are often shown on the heads of rampant
animals. But the greater number of the motives are
doubtless of native origin.

Among the Huichol and Tarahumare the curious
peyote, or hikule worship may be studied. A small
variety of cactus is eaten, which induces ecstasy or
stupor accompanied by color visions and peculiar
dreams. Associated with the eating and gathering of
this plant there are elaborate ceremonies. The religious
cult of the peyote has swept over a large portion of the
Great Plains Area of the United States and is known
even to Indians in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes.
There can be no doubt that the narcotic action of the
peyote was known to the Aztecs, who made a ceremo-
nial use of it under the name teonanacatl. An intoxi-
cating drink called teswin is commonly made in .north-
ern Mexico from the heart of the mescal plant. It takes
the place of the famous pulque, the ancient beverage
of the Mexican highlands. Hunting dances in which are
employed regalia and ceremonial objects of great inter-
est occur among the Huichol and neighboring tribes.
The so-called "god's eyes" made of yarn strung spider-
web fashion over crossed sticks are practically identical
with the "squash blossoms" of the Pueblo Indians.
There are also real temple structures, or "god houses,"
which are very significant when we consider the former
importance; of the temple among the more highly civi-
lized peoples to the south. In these and other respects
the Huichol culture is about midway between the cul-
ture of the Southwestern Pueblo tribes and that which
formerly existed in central Mexico.

INTRODUCTION 37

Elsewhere in northern and central Mexico it is
possible to find many suggestions of ancient Indian
ways of living. In nearly all the outlying villages the
old-time thatched huts are still used, while baskets,
gourd vessels, wooden bowls, earthen pots, and other
household objects hark back to native origins although
often modified by European contact. For instance,
glazing is commonly seen on the modern pottery.
Many travelers in Mexico bring away as souvenirs
pieces of pottery from Guadalajara and Cuernavaca.
These wares are made by Indians, but in decoration
they have only slight traces of the ancient art of the
Mexicans.

In dress there are noteworthy survivals. The pon-
cho and serape made either on the narrow hand loom
or on a crude form of the Spanish tread loom are pic-
turesque elements in the national dress that are rapidly
disappearing from view. Time was when the rich
plantation owner wore a gayly colored blanket on
fiesta days. The most famous centers for the manu-
facture and sale of blankets were the cities of Saltillo
and San Miguel. The Saltillo pattern shows a medal-
lion consisting of concentric diamonds in various colors
upon an all-over design in stripes. The motives are
minute geometric figures skilfully interlocked. The
colors are rich and permanent and are combined in a
very pleasing manner. Saltillo blankets must be classed
among the finest textile products of the world. The
best period was before 1850. San Miguel blankets
show characteristically a rosette instead of a diamond
in the center. Many beautiful blankets come from
other localities in Mexico. The Chimayo blankets have
the same part Indian, part Spanish origin and are made
by the Spanish-speaking natives in the mountain val-
leys of New Mexico.

& , •£$!*

-W

V,..

H

Plate IV. (a) A Guatemala huipili decorated with Highly Con-
ventionalized Animals in Embroidery; (6) Pouches of the Valiente
Indians of the Chiriqui Lagoon, Panama.

38

INTRODUCTION 39

In southern Mexico there are many towns of Indians
where the women still wear the finely embroidered
huipili. This old-time garment varies considerably in
different towns but as a rule it is a simple sack-like gown
cut square at the neck and with short sleeves. Some-
times it is shortened to a blouse, and is worn with a
skirt ; at other times a short huipili is worn over a longer
one. An easily visited town where the natives still
wear the old-time dress is Amatlan, within an hour's
walk of Cordova. The women of the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec have a gorgeous costume of which the
most remarkable feature is a wide ruff worn around the
neck or on the back of the head. The Mayan women
of Yucatan wear white huipili with needlework in color
around the bottom. On the highlands of Guatemala
the huipili is usually a blouse. The skirt sometimes
consists of a strip of cloth wrapped several times around
the body.

The Lacandone Indians live in the marshy jungles
that border the winding Usumacinta. They speak the
same tongue as the Maya Indians of Yucatan but in the
matter of culture they have acquired little from the
Spaniards. They still weave simple garments and make
pottery vessels. In hunting they use the bow and
arrow, the latter usually tipped with a point of stone.
In their religious practices they use incense burners
which are comparable to those of the sixteenth century.

The Caribs occupy the greater part of the north coast
of Guatemala and Honduras, running east from the port
of Livingston on the Gulf of Amatique. These people,
originally of South America and later of the West Indies
as well, were deported by the English from the Island
of St. Vincent in 1796. They have now established
themselves in the new land where they raise the manioc
or cassava root and press out the poisonous juice in a

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40

INTRODUCTION 41

basketry tube as do their kindred in the Orinoco Val-
ley. Long before the forcible immigration it is likely
that the Caribs, who were cannibalistic in habit, had
raided the shores of Central America in their seagoing
canoes. A significant passage in the chronicles of the
Mayas states that naked man-eating savages visited
Yucatan long before the coining of the Spaniards.

The Mosquito Indians of the east coast of Nicaragua
have a very considerable negro admixture. They are
fishermen of low culture. It has recently been possible
to connect the original Indian stock of this unhealthy
coast with other tribes who live farther inland. The
interior tribes of eastern Honduras and Nicaragua re-
tain a great deal of their old-time culture but they have
been seldom visited or described. Large communal
houses are constructed in some parts of this region. The
bow and arrow is still skilfully used in killing game.
The authority of the government does not make itself
felt among these wild and primitive Indians although
many acknowledge outwardly the Catholic faith.

In the narrow Isthmian region there are tribes of
Indians that resist manfully the inroads of civilization.
Perhaps the best known of these are the San Bias
Indians who inhabit the mountain fastnesses east of
the Canal Zone. In northern Costa Rica the Guatuso
and Talamanca tribes still maintain to a considerable
degree their old native character.

Physical Types. Minor physical differences in
stature, head form, and facial expression mark off pretty
clearly the tribes of this area from each other. The
stature is lowest among the Mayas and Mazatecas,
the average being about 5 feet 1 inch while among the
Tarascans, Tlascalas, and Zapotecs, it averages about
5 feet 3 inches. The other tribes of Central America

42 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

and of central Mexico fall between these extremes. In
northern Mexico the stature increases considerably,
average measurements for the Yaqui being in excess of
5 feet 6 inches. To make up for their lack of height
the southern Indians are sturdy and heavy muscled,
with deep chests. Their hair is usually black and
straight, but occasionally wavy. Light beards and
mustaches are sometimes worn, especially by the Mayas.
The eyes are so dark brown as to appear black to the
casual observer. They are set rather Vide apart and
while usually horizontal they seem, in some instances, to
have a slight Mongoloid tilt. Noses vary greatly but
are often finely aquiline. The cephalic index (obtained
by dividing the breadth of the head by its length and
multiplying the result by 100) is rather high. The
Mayas are strongly round-headed with an index of 85.0
while their linguistic relatives, the Tzendals, have a
medium index of 76.8. The other tribes of southern
Mexico fall between these extremes. No long-headed*
peoples are found in this area although in northern
Mexico some tribes approach the long-headed type.

CHAPTER I
THE ARCHAIC HORIZON

IN 1910 an actual stratification of human products
was found in the environs of Mexico City in which
three principal culture horizons could readily be dis-
cerned. A collection made at this time is on exhibition
in the American Museum of Natural History. In part
this stratification verified theories of culture succession
already held by students working in this field. Since
that time careful research in several localities has been
carried on under the International School of Archge-
ology and many authenticated specimens from the three
layers have been brought together. The lowest layer,
characterized by crude figurines of a peculiar style, was
soon found to correspond to an art long known as
Tarascan. This art had been referred to the Tarascan
Indians of the state of Michoacan, notwithstanding the
fact that the most noteworthy specimens came from
outside the Tarascan area.

It now seems likely that the archaic art was the com-
mon product of all the tribes then living on the Mexican
highlands but that the Nahuan tribes led in its develop-
ment and dissemination. It is most common in regions
inhabited by the Nahuan tribes and seems to have been
carried southward by certain of these tribes who mi-
grated to Guatemala, Salvador, and Nicaragua. In
these southern Nahuan areas the archaic art, at least so
far as the human figurines are concerned, is often in-
distinguishable from that of the north. Beyond Nica-
ragua it is possible to follow the stream of this ancient
art well into South America, but these southernmost
occurrences are accompanied by changes in form and
technique.

43

44

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Stratification of Remains. Atzcapotzalco was
once an important center of the Tepanecan tribe situ-
ated on the shores of Lake Tezcoco. It was an early
rival of Tenochtitlan, the Aztecan
capital, and was conquered and partly
destroyed in 1439. The principal
modern industry of Atzcapotzalco is
the making of bricks, and several
mounds and much of the surface of
the plain have been removed for this
purpose. In the mounds are found
many pottery objects of the Toltecan
period, while on the surface of the
ground are encountered fragments of
the typical Aztecan pottery in use
when the Spaniards arrived.

The stratification of the plain
varies in different places so far as
the thickness of the different strata is
concerned, but the order is always the same. At one
locality it is as shown in Fig. 11. First comes a layer of
fine soil of volcanic ash origin, probably deposited by
the wind. This is five or six feet in thickness, yellowish
at the top, and much darker towards the bottom, with
streaks and discolorations. The Aztecan pottery is
found close to the surface, while Toltecan pottery occurs
in the middle and lower sections. Underneath the soil
layer lies a thick stratum of water-bearing gravel mixed
with sand. This gravel stratum is possibly the old bed
of a stream that formerly entered Lake Tezcoco near
this point. In some places it is fifteen or eighteen
feet in thickness. Scattered throughout the gravel are
heavy, water worn fragments of pots as well as more or
less complete figurines of the archaic type.

At other sites, such as Colhuacan, the Toltecan layer

Fig. 10. Atz-
capotzalco Des-
troyed. The tem-
ple burns at the
Place of the Ant.

THE ARCHAIC HORIZON

45

is of greater thickness and the archaic layer of lesser
thickness. The remains extend below the present level
of the water and may indicate that considerable changes
have taken place in the level of the lake. But we must
remember that many of the ancient settlements were

I"fi*>sferJSr« *£ - '

Temple mounds of Tol-
tecan period.

Surf ace' finds of Aztec an
period.

Remains of Toltecan
period.

Deep stratum of water-
bearing gravels contain-
ing remains of archaic
period.

Bed rock of hard clay.

Fig. 11. Diagram of Culture Strata at Atzcapotzalco.

built over the water and that land was made in ancient
times, as it is today in the gardens of Xochimilco, by
deepening canals. Archaic remains are also common on
the denuded tops of hills which may once have been
covered by soil.

46

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Invention of Agriculture. Before examining in
greater detail the art of the Archaic Horizon let us stop
and consider its real significance. It is generally
admitted that America was originally populated from
Asia, but on a culture level no higher than the Neolithic.

The simple arts of stone
chipping, basketry, fire-
making, etc., were prob-
ably brought over by the
earliest immigrants but
there is abundant evidence
that pottery-making,
weaving, and agriculture
were independently in-
vented long after the ori-
ginal settlement. The cul-
tivated plants in the New
World are different from
those of the Old World
and there is a vast area in
northwestern America
and northeastern Asia, up-
on the only open line of
communication, where agriculture and the higher arts
have never been practised.

Now the invention of agriculture is an antecedent
necessity for all the high cultures of the New World. It
is equally clear that this invention must have taken
place in a locality where some important food plant
grew in a wild state. By far the most important food
plant of the New World is maize. While this plant has
changed greatly under domestication, botanists are in-
clined to find its nearest relative and possible progenitor
in a wild grass growing on the highlands of Mexico and
known by the Aztecan name teocentli, which means

Fig. 12. TeocentU or Mexi-
can Fodder Grass.

THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 47

sacred maize. It is known that maize is at its best in a
semi-arid tropical environment. It cannot be brought
to withstand frost although the growing season can be
cut down to meet the requirements of a short summer.
Geographically its use extended from the St. Lawrence
to the Rio de la Plata and from sea level to an elevation
of f fteen thousand feet in tropical regions. The Mexi-
can highlands occupy the central position in the area
of its distribution and archaeological evidence strongly
points to this region as being the cradle of agriculture
and the attendant arts. Besides maize, the most
widely distributed food plants of the New World are
beans and squashes. Certain other plants were culti-
vated in more restricted areas and may have had dif-
ferent places of origin. For instance, manioc was
doubtless brought under cultivation in a humid lowland
region, probably the Amazon Valley, and the same may
be said of sweet potatoes. The common potato was
found under domestication in Peru and there is no very
good evidence that its use extended into Central America.
Irrigation would have been necessary before agricul-
ture could have been developed to any great extent on
the highlands of Mexico. Although irrigation is often
looked upon as a remarkable sequel of the introduction
of agriculture into an arid country, yet from the best
historical evidence at our command we should rather
regard it as a conception which accounts for the very
origin of agriculture itself. The earliest records of
cultivated plants are from Mesopotamia, Egypt,
Mexico, and Peru where irrigation was practised and
where in these regions are also seen the earliest develop-
ments of the characteristic arts of sedentary peoples,
namely, pottery and weaving and the elaborate social
and religious structures that result from a sure food
supply and a reasonable amount of leisure.

[a]

[b]

Plate VI. (a) Large Archaic Figures found in Graves and offer-
ing Evidence of Ancient Customs and Arts. From Tepic and Jalisco ;
(6) Archaic Figures which show a Quality of Caricature or possibly
Portraiture.

48

THE ARCHAIC HORIZON

49

If this theory is true we must admit that below the
Archaic Horizon we should find traces of a horizon of
non-agricultural peoples. Unfortunately, such peoples
make fewer objects and scatter them more widely than
do sedentary agriculturists.

No one on the basis of present knowledge can offer
more than an opinion concerning the date of the inven-
tion of agriculture in the New World and the subse-
quent beginning of the pottery art that will now claim
our attention. The thick deposits argue great age and
a thousand years or even more might have elapsed be-
fore this archaic art ran its natural course and was suc-
ceeded by higher arts at about the time of Christ.

Archaic Figurines. Archaic art is characterized
by figures of men and women modeled in clay and some-
times painted. The forms are peculiar and the tech-

9

Fig. 13. Figurines from the Earliest Culture Horizon in Mex-
ico: a-c, Atzcapotzalco; d, San Juan Teotihuacan; e, Tuxpan;
/, Zapotlan; g, Cuernavaca.

50

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

nique well standardized. Most are modeled in a flat
gingerbread fashion into a gross shape. Upon this
gross shape special features are indicated by stuck-on
ribbons and buttons of clay and by gougings and incis-
ings with some pointed instrument. Modeling was
done entirely by hand, moulds being as yet unknown.
The figurines are usually from two to five inches in
height and often represent nude women in sitting or
standing positions with the hands upon the knees, hips,
or breasts. The heads are characteristically of slight

Fig. 14. Archaic Figurine from Salvador.

depth compared with their height, the limbs taper
rapidly from a rather plump torso and hands and feet
are mere knobs with incised details. When the figures
are intended to stand erect, as is often the case, the feet
show signs of having been pinched between the thumb
and finger of the potter so that they have a forward and
backward cusp and a broad base of support. Groov-
ings are seen in connection with the hair, eyes, mouth,
fingers, toes, and details of dress and ornament. Paint
is often added to this surface to indicate tattooing, tex-
tile patterns, etc.

THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 51

The eyes of the archaic images — and the mouths as
well — are made according to several methods. First,
there is the simple groove; second, a groove across an
applied ball or button of clay; third, a round gouging
made by the end of a blunt implement held vertically;
fourth, a round gouging in an applied ball or button of
clay; fifth, two gougings made with a round or chisel-
edged implement held at an angle. The second form
of eye, which resembles a grain of coffee, and the fifth
form with the double gouging made from the center out-

Fig. 15. Types of Eyes of Archaic Figurines.

ward, are found from the northern limits of archaic art
in Mexico as far south as Colombia and Venezuela.

The technique of manufacture naturally changes
somewhat with the increase in size. There is also
reason to believe that the largest hollow figures come
from the end of the Archaic Period in Mexico, and
especially those that have been found in the state of
Jalisco and the territory of Tepic. The eyelids are often
rather carefully modeled and sometimes an eyeball is
put in between the lids. These and perforated eyes
seem to be the latest characters to be developed in the
archaic art and it is significant that they are not found
over such a wide area as the forms of eyes given above.

Ancient Customs. We may gather much of an
ethnological nature from the study of these quaint
figures. Articles of dress and adornment are shown as
well as musical instruments, weapons, etc. Head-
dresses may consist of fillets, turbans, and objects
perched on one side of the head. Noserings and ear-

52 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

rings are abundantly represented and in considerable
variety. We may be sure that weaving was rather
highly developed because many garments such as
shirts, skirts, and aprons are painted or incised with
geometric designs. Body painting, or tattooing, appears
to have been a common usage. Among weapons the
allatl, or spear-thrower, was already known and knobby
clubs seem to have been popular. Men are shown
beating on drums and turtle shells, while women nurse
children and carry water. Since the large figures of
clay are often found in tombs it is not impossible that

Fig. 16. Textile Designs painted on Archaic Effigies.

they were intended to be portraits of the dead. Many
have a startling quality of caricature.

Archaic art is a pretty certain index of the religion
then in vogue. There is a notable absence of purposely
grotesque or compounded figures representing divinities
such as will be found in the later horizons. Dogs are
rather frequently modeled in clay and were apparently

THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 53

developed into a rather special domestic breed. Snakes
are sometimes shown. We miss entirely the characteris-
tic Mexican gods such as Tlaloc and Ehecatl. We can
find no evidence that human sacrifice was practised.
The presence of human figurines in graves has already
been mentioned. The nude female figurine in a sitting
or standing position has an unbroken distribution from
Mexico into South America and it is not unlikely the
primitive agriculturists associated it with fertility and
used it as an amulet to secure good crops.

Archaic Pottery.. The ordinary pottery of the
Archaic Period from Mexico and Central America is

Fig. 17. Typical Tripod Vessels of the Archaic Period, from
Morelos, Mexico.

heavy and simple in shape. The globular bowl with a
constricted neck is a common form as well as wide-
mouthed bowls with or without tripod supports. Lugs
and handles are very common. When plain, the tripods
are large, hollow and rounded, with a perforation on the
under side, but they are often modified into faces and
feet. Many vessels are decorated by the addition of
faces enabling us to make a direct connection with the
figures in clay already described.

In fact the decoration of pottery of this early period
is predominantly in relief. Paint is sparingly used and
then only in the simplest geometric fashion. There is
a general lack of conventionalized motives presenting
animals and other natural forms in highly modified
ways. In later ages the painted decoration is much

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

concerned with the serpent, but except for a few wind-
ing serpents in relief, this motive is not seen on the
pottery of the Archaic Period.

Stone Smlptures of the Archaic Period. The

earliest ston^^dptures are recognized first by resem-
blance to the ceSfc^rt just described and second by a
quality which the^^^gfcrf being archaic in an abso-
lute sense. The greatS^^^^ulty of working stone as
compared with clay and tn^^fcger time required in the
process makes stone art less subject to caprice than
ceramic art. Perhaps the most primitive examples of
stone sculpture are boulders rudely carved in a sem-
blance of the human form with features either sunken
or in relief. The arms and legs are ordinarily flexed so
that the elbows meet over the knees. The eyes and
mouths in the most carefully finished pieces protrude,
but the face has little or no modeling. Many celts are

Fig. 18. Series showing the Modification of a Celt into a Stone
Amulet.

modified into figures by grooves, and faces are frequently
represented on roughly conical or disk-shaped stones.
We know very little from actual excavations concern-
ing houses of the Archaic Period. It is likely that they
were small and impermanent, possibly resembling the
modern huts. The pyramidal mound as a foundation

(b]

Plate VII. (a) Stone Sculptures of the Archaic Period. This
resembles the pottery as regards style: the eyes protrude and the
limbs are carved in low relief against the body; (6) Typical bite
of the Archaic Period. The use of pyramids may have begun
towards the end of this period.

55

56 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

for the temple was possibly developed towards the end
of the Archaic Period. It would be interesting to
determine whether adobe moulded into bricks was
known at this time, as it was at a later time in the same
region, or whether walls were built up out of fresh mud
possibly reinforced by slabs of stone.

Extensions of the Archaic Horizon. The

curious objects of ceramic art that we have found deeply
buried under the debris of higher civilizations in the
Valley of Mexico can be traced practically without
change in form to Nicaragua. They are encountered
for the most part in arid and open country, and since
we have every reason to believe that the earliest agri-
culture was developed under irrigation, it is but natural
to find the use of agriculture spreading first into other
arid regions.

In the Isthmian region (Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and
Panama) many figurines of archaic type are found, and
besides there are fine series of figurines that are obvi-
ously developed from the archaic. Still further south
and east in Colombia and Venezuela the typical art of
the archaic horizon again appears in almost pure form,
although local developments are also to be noted ^
Everywhere the remains are most plentiful in arid-
regions. It now seems that the trail of this ancient
pottery art, marking the first dissemination of agricul-
ture, can be traced across the northern part of South
America to the mouth of the Amazon and southward
along the Andes to the coastal regions of Peru. It is
surely significant that figurines from the Island of
Marajo near Para, Brazil, have fundamental similarities
to those from Venezuela and Central America and. that a
stratification of human remains at Ancon, Peru, as
explained by Dr. Max Uhle, shows plastic art in clay

wi

Plate VIII. Widely Distributed Female Figurines: (a)
Nicaragua; (6) Panama; (c) Venezuela; (d) Island of Marajo,
Brazil.

57

Plate IX. Distribution of the Archaic Culture. The areas in
solid black show the distribution of figurines of the archaic type; the
areas in dots show the probable extension of pottery on the Archaic
Horizon; the dotted lines give the ultimate extension of pottery.

58

THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 59

similar if not identical with that of Central America in
the lowermost level. The problem of local develop-
ments deserves careful study because if the theory that
this pottery art spread hand in hand with agriculture
be true then the greatest similarities should be seen
in the_oldest objects. Once the primary dissemination of
agriculture and ceramics had taken place there would
be few inventions capable of breaking down the ordinary
boundaries of language and environment as these had
done. In our own times the horse, introduced by the
Spaniards, spread rapidly through native tribes, modi-
fying their lives greatly. It is capable of demonstration
that with the horse went the two types of saddle — the
pack saddle and the riding saddle. Similarly, in the
rapid first spreading of agriculture, pottery and possibly
weaving appear as parts of a complex. Of course, we
must grant a sufficient time in the original home of agri-
culture for these things to be developed.

Two maps of the New World are given herewith : the
first showing the extension of the archaic horizon and
the second the final distribution of pottery among the
American Indians and the final distribution of agricul-
ture. The agricultural area is subdivided according to,
first, the arid land type where irrigation is generally
practised; second, the humid land type; and third, the
temperate land type. The first type of agriculture
appears to be the earliest and the range coincides for the
most part with the range of the archaic pottery art.

Local Developments of Archaic Art. We

have now examined the status of this earliest pottery in
Mexico and Central America and discussed the problem
of its distribution into South America. Let us next turn
our attention to some of the developments that took
place when this art was locally permitted to work out

Plate X. Distribution of Agriculture in the New World. The
dotted line gives the limits of pottery; solid black, agriculture in arid
regions of considerable altitude, mostly with irrigation; dotted areas,
agriculture under humid lowland conditions; lined area, agriculture
under temperate conditions.

(50

THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 61

its higher destinies. The sudden rise of the superior
culture of the Mayas snuffed it out untimely in southern
Mexico, but in other and more distant regions the in-
fluence of the ascendant Mayan civilization was less
strongly felt and was not sufficient to more than modify
the original character of the archaic art. In other
words, where the archaic art was given a few extra cen-
turies to run it arrived at superior results.

It is probable that the unusually elaborate effigies,i
from western Mexico are somewhat later in date than
the comparatively simple figurines of central Mexico]
But still better examples of local development out o'f
the archaic are to be found in the Isthmian area. Here
the most ancient remains (according to types, since
actual stratigraphy has not yet been determined) appear
to be common in the arid regions and rare in the humid (
regions. But in certain humid regions, such as the
Peninsula of Nicoya on the Pacific side of Costa Rica
and the Mercedes district on the Atlantic side, are found
modified types of clay figurines and stone carvings that
still retain many archaic features. Now, there is little
doubt that in general these figurines and sculptures be-
long to an horizon above that of the truly archaic. The
associated decorative art in painting is of a higher type
than that of the Archaic Period in the north and shows
in fact many points of contact with the painted designs
on the vessels of the Mayan civilization.

Perhaps the most interesting type of figurine (found
in both the localities named above, but more common in
the west) represents a nude female in a sitting pose.
The actual body treatment is very like that of the
archaic seated females from Salvador and Mexico, but
the surface is painted over with designs in glossy black
upon dark and brilliant red. The paints as well as the

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

designs are peculiar and it is possible to group the
figurines with vases in which the same pigments and
decorations are used. Now, these associated vases are
characteristically of the cylindrical shape that was in

great vogue among the
Mayas in post -archaic
times and the designs paint-
ed upon these vases also
have many features in com-
mon with Mayan work.

Likewise when we pass
to the Chiriqui region in
western Panama we find
the seated female to be
common. Again, the asso-
ciated designs are compli-
cated and developed far
beyond the point reached
in the truly archaic of the
northern stratigraphic se-
ries. The figurines belong
to what has been called
"alligator ware," because
the alligator or crocodile is
the subject of many of the
designs. A safer classifi-
cation is made on the basis
of the clay and pigments.

Fig. 19. Stone Sculpture with
protruding Eyes and other
Archaic Characters. Costa
Rica.

The archaic technique is
also presented in much of
the relief decoration of still
other kinds of pottery from the Isthmian area. In the
beautiful yellow ware of Chiriqui small human figures
in the ancient style serve to decorate handles, knobs,
and legs.

\

THE ARCHAIC HORIZON 63

In stone art as well as in pottery there are local devel-
opments out of the archaic mode in Costa Rica and
Panama. Crude figures with the parts carved in low
relief around oval boulders seem to give away to more
conventionalized sculptures made on slabs of sandstone.
For this second type the limbs are partly freed from
the torso, while in still later sculptures they are
freed entirely.

The ancient gold work of Costa Rica and Panama also
reflects the technique of archaic art although most of it,
to judge by the religious significance of many of the sub-
jects and designs, was made long after the Archaic
Period. Just as the pottery figurines were built up by
the addition of ribbons and buttons of clay to a general-
ized form so the patterns for gold castings were made by
adding details in rolled wax or resin to a simple under-
lying form of the same material. This art will be dis-
cussed more fully in another place, the mention here
being made simply to emphasize the general connection
between the art of the Archaic Period and that of later
periods.

Summary. In concluding this section let us sum
up the general facts of ancient American history as
these appear in relation to the archaeological evidences
of the ar<5haic horizon.

I. Pre- Archaic Horizon.

The peopling of the New World from Asia
by tribes on the nomadic plane of culture.
II. The Archaic Horizon.

Invention and primary dissemination of agri-
culture, together with pottery making and loom
weaving. Homogeneous culture with unde-
veloped religion and unsymbolic art. Practi-
cally limited to arid tropics.

64 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

III. Post Archaic Horizon.

Specialized cultures in North, Central, and
South America dependent upon agriculture.
Strong local developments in esthetic arts, re-
ligious ideas, and social institutions. Agricul-
ture extended to humid tropical and temperate
regions.

We will now make an effort to analyze still further the
historical levels in the Post Archaic Horizon.

CHAPTER II
THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

wonderful culture of the Mayan Indians to
A which we will now turn our attention was developed
in the humid lowlands of Central America and especially
in the Yucatan peninsula. Artists are everywhere of
the opinion that the sculptures and other products of
the Mayas deserve to rank among the highest art pro-
ducts of the world, and astronomers are amazed at the
progress made by this people in the measuring of time
by the observed movements of the heavenly bodies.
Moreover, they invented a remarkable system of
hieroglyphic writing by which they were able to record
facts and events and they built great cities of stone
that attest a degree of wealth and splendor beyond any-
thing seen elsewhere in the New World.

(The Mayan culture was made possible by the agri-
cultural conquest of the rich lowlands where the exuber-
ance of nature can only be held in check by organized
effort., On the highlands the preparation of the land
is comparatively easy, owing to scanty natural vegeta-
tion and a control vested in irrigation. On the lowlands,
however, great trees have to be felled and fast-growing
bushes kept down by untiring energy. But when
nature is truly tamed she returns recompense many
fold to the daring farmer. Moreover, there is reason
to believe that the removal of the forest cover over large
areas affects favorably the conditions of life which under
a canopy of leaves are hard indeed.

The principal crops of the Mayas were probably much
the same as on the highlands, with maize as the great
staple. Varieties favorable to a humid environment

65

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 67

had doubtless been developed from the highland stock
by selective breeding as agriculture worked its \\-.\\
down into the lowlands. Archaic art appears along
the edges of the Mayan area in the state of Vera Cruz,
Mexico, and in the Uloa Valley, Honduras. In both
these regions are also found clay figurines that mark the
transition in style between the archaic and the Mayan
as well as finished examples of the latter. There can be
no doubt, then, that the archaic art of Mexico marks an
earlier horizon than the Mayan. Whether or not it was
once laid entirely across the Mayan area cannot be
decided on present data but it seems unlikely. We have
already seen that this first art was distributed primarily
across arid and open territory.

With their calendrical system already in working
order the Mayas appear on the threshold of history
about the beginning of the Christian Era according to a
correlation with European chronology that will be ex-
plained later. The first great cities were Tikal in
northern Guatemala and Cppan in western Honduras,
both of which had a long and glorious existence. Many
others sprang into prominence at a somewhat later date;
for example, Palenque, Yaxchilan or Menche, Piedras
Negras, Seibal, Naranjo, and Quirigua. The most
brilliant period was from 300 to 600 A. D., after which
all these cities appear to have been abandoned to the
forest that soon closed over them. The population
moved to northern Yucatan, where it no longer reacted
strongly upon the other nations of Central America
and where it enjoyed a second period of brilliancy
several hundred years later.

Architecture. Thejdea_of_a civic center- is ad-
mirably illustrated jn_Mayan cities, particularly those
of the first bnlTiant period. The principal structures

Plate XII. (a) View of the Plaza at Copan from the North-
western Corner. This view shows the monuments in position and
the steps which may have served as seats; (6) View Across the Arti-
ficial Acropolis at Copan showing a Sunken Court and the Bases of
Two Temple Structures. Photographs by Peabody Museum Expedi-
tion.

68

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 69

are built around courts or plazas and .there is usually
an artificial acropolis which is a great terraced mound
serving as a common base or platform from which the
individual pyramidal bases of several temples rise. At
some sites this acropolis is a natural hill which has been
trimmed down or added to, but at other sites it is
entirely artificial. At Copan there is an especially fine
example of artificial platform mound rising from one
end of the Great Plaza and affording space for several
temples as well as for sunken courts with stepped sides
that may have been theatres. The river washing
against one side of this great mound has removed per-
haps a third of it and made a vertical section that shows
the method of construction. It is apparent that the
mound was enlarged and old walls and floors buried.

Mayan buildings are of too principal kinds. One is
a temple pure and simple and the other has been called
a palace. The temple is a rectangular structure crown-
ing a rather high pyramid that rises in several steps or
terraces. As a rule the temple has a single front with
one or more doorways and is approached by a broad
stairway. The pyramid is ordinarily a solid mass of
rubble and earth faced with cement or cut stone and
rarely contains compartments. Some temples have
but a single chamber while others have two or more
chambers, the central or innermost one being specially
developed into a sanctuary. The so-called palaces are
clusters of rooms on low and often irregular platforms.
These palaces may have been habitations of the priests
and nobility. The common people doubtless lived in
palm-thatched huts similar to those used today in the
some region.

The typical Mayan construction is a faced concrete.
The limestone, which abounds in nearly all parts of the

70

Plate XIV. A Sealed Portal Vault in the House of the Governor
at Uxmal. The veneer character of the cut stone comes out clearly.
Peabody Museum photograph.

71

72 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Mayan area, was burned into lime. This was then
slaked to make mortar and applied to a mass of broken
limestone. The facing stones were smoothed on the
outside and left rough hewn and pointed on the inside.
It is likely that these facing stones were held in place
between forms and the lime, mortar and rubble filled in
between. The resulting wall was essentially mono-
lithic. The rooms of Mayan buildings are characteris-
tically vaulted but the roof is not a true arch with a
keystone. The vault, like the walls, is a solid mass of
concrete that grips the cut stone veneer and that must

CL

Fig. 20. Groundplans of Yaxchilan Temples:
42; (6) Structure 23.

(a) Structure

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

73

have been held in place by a false work form while it was
hardening. The so-called corbelled arch of overstepping
stones was doubtless known to the Mayan builders but

Fig. 21. Cross- section of Typical Mayan Temple in Northern
Yucatan: a, upper cornice; b, medial cornice; c, upper zone; d, lower
zone; e, wooden lintels; /, exterior doorway; g, interior doorway;
h, offset at spring of vault; i, cap stone.

was little used. Taking the single rectangular room as
the unit of construction the width was limited to the
span of the vault, which seldom exceeded twelve feet,
while the length was indeterminate.

The first variation from the temple with one rectan-
gular room was the two-roomed structure with one cham-
ber directly behind the other. In this case there were
two vaulted compartments separated from each other
by a common supporting wall pierced by one or more
doorways. The inner room was naturally more dimly
lighted than the outer one and as a result was modified
into a sanctuary, or holy of holies, enhanced by sculp-

74 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

tures and paintings, while the outer room developed

gradually into a portico. The outer wall was cut by

doorways till only pier-like sections remained, and

finally these piers were replaced by square or round

, columns. The development of the Mayan temple may

/ be traced through a thousand years of change and

adjustment.

Much attention was paid by Mayan builders to the
question of stability which was accomplished directly
by keeping the center of gravity of the principal masses
within the supporting walls rather than by the use of
binding stones. The cross-section of a two-roomed
temple of late date will illustrate how this was done.
There are three principal masses, one over the front
wall, one over the medial partition, and one over the
back wall. The roof where these sections join is of no
great thickness. The central mass is symmetrical and,
if the mortar has the proper cohesiveness, very stable.
For the front and back masses the projection of the
upper or frieze zone tends to counterbalance the over-
hang of half the vault. In the earlier temples the upper
zone of the fagade often slopes backward so that the
balance is not so perfect.

So far we have given brief space to the question of
elevations. Taken vertically there are three parts to
/the Mayan building: first, the substructure or pyra-
'y midal base; second, the structure proper; third, the
superstructure. In the case of temples the structure
proper is one story in height. Two and three stories
are rather common in palaces, but the upper stories are
in most cases built directly over a solid core and not
over the rooms of the lower story. The upper stories,
therefore, recede, so that the building presents a ter-
raced or pyramidal profile. One building at Tikal is
five stories in height, in three receding planes, the three

Fig. 22. Section through Middle of Temple of the Cross, showing
Perspective of East Half of Building. After Holmes, a, stairway;
6, a pier between doorways; c, end of portico or front room;
d, small doorway; e, great doorway; /, doorway to sanctuary; </, end
wall of sanctuary; h, sculptured tablet; i, arch brace of masonry;
j, cap stones of doorway arch; k, partition wall; I, steps for as-
cending interior of roof comb; m, binding stones and capping of
roof comb.

75

76 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

uppermost stories being one above the other. In a
tower at Palenque we have an example of four stories
but this is unusual.

On top of the building proper, especially if it is a
temple, we frequently find a superstructure. This is a
sort of crest, or roof wall, usually pierced by windows.
When this wall rises from the center line of the roof it is
called a roof comb or roof crest, and when it rises from
the front wall it is called a flying fagade. The highest
temples in the Mayan area are those of Tikal that
attain a total height of about 175 feet, counting pyra-
mid and superstructure.

Massive Sculptural Art. The decoration of
Mayan buildings may be considered under three heads :
first, interior decoration; second, fagade decoration;
third, supplementary monuments. In many temples at
Yaxchilan, Tikal, etc., are found splendidly sculptured
lintels of stone or wood. At Copan we see wall sculp-
tures that adorn the entrance to the sanctuary and at
Palenque finely sculptured tablets let into the rear wall
of the sanctuary. Elsewhere are occasional examples
tof mural paintings, sculptured door jambs, decorated
interior steps, etc.

The fagade decorations of the earlier Mayan struc-
tures are freer and more realistic than those of the later
buildings. In many cases they consist of figures of men,
serpents, etc., modeled in stucco or built up out of
several nicely fitted blocks of stone. Grotesque faces
also occur. In the later styles, decoration consists
largely of "mask panels," which are grotesque front
view faces arranged to fill rectangular panels, but there
is an increasing amount of purely geometric ornament.
The masked panels represent in most instances a highly
elaborated serpent's face which sometimes carries the

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

77

special markings of one of the greater gods. These
panels, considered historically, pass through some inter-
esting developments. Angular representations of ser-
pent heads in profile are sometimes used at the sides of
doorways.

The supplementary monuments are stelse and altars.
These are monolithic sculptures that are often set up
in definite relation to a building either on the terraces

Fig. 23. Mask Panel over Doorway at Xkichmook. Yucatan.

or at the foot of the stairway. The stelae are great
plinths or slabs of stone carved on one or more sides
with the figures of priests and warriors loaded down
with religious symbols. The altars are smaller stones
usually placed in front of the stelse. Many stelae and
altars are set up in plazas and have no definite archi-
tectural quality.

Minor Arts. While the richly ornamented temples
and the great monoliths attract first attention as works
of art, the humbler products of the potter, the weaver,
and the lapidary also attained to grace and dignity.

The Mayas were expert potters and employed a
variety of technical processes in the decoration of their

Plate XV. (a) Realistic Designs on Vases from Chama, Guate-
mala, representing the Best Mayan Period in Pottery; (6) The
Quetzal as represented on a Painted Cylindrical Vase from Copan.
Bands of Hieroglyphs are commonly found on Mayan Pottery.

78

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 79

wares, such as painting, modeling, engraving, and
stamping. We can only take time to examine a few
examples of the best works, leaving the commoner
products practically undescribed. Suffice it to say,
that tripod dishes were much used, as well as bowls,
bottle-necked vessels, and cylindrical vases, and that
the common decorative use of hieroglyphs serves to
mark off Mayan pottery from that of other Central
American peoples. The realistic designs are drawn in
accordance with the highest principles of decorative
art. Serpents, monkeys, jaguars, various birds, as well
as priests and supernatural beings, are used as subjects
for pottery embellishment. Geometric decoration is
also much used.

The polychrome pottery is rare and exceptionally
beautiful, with designs relating to religious subjects.
The background color of these cylindrical vases is
usually orange or yellow, the designs are outlined in
black, and the details filled in with delicate washes of
red, brown, white, etc. The surface bears a high
polish made by rubbing. Plate XV reproduces the design
units on two vases from Chama, Guatemala. The first
example pictures a seated man with a widespreading
headdress made of two conventional serpent heads
from the ends of which issue the plumes of the quetzal.
The hieroglyphs are Mayan day signs — Ben and Imix
on the left and Kan and Caban on the right. The
second example presents a god before an altar. The
god has the face of an old man and his body is attached
to a spiral shell. This divinity has been called the Old
Man God. He was probably associated with the end
of the year.

In the next illustration an engraved design on a bowl
from northern Yucatan is given. A jaguar attired in

Fig. 24. Design on Engraved Pot representing Tiger seated in
Wreathe of Water Lilies. Northern Yucatan.

Fig. 25. Painted Design on Cylindrical Bowl showing Serpent
issuing from a Shell. Salvador.

80

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 81

the dress of man is seated in a wreathe of water lilies.
After the vessel had been formed, but before it had been
fired, this design was made by cutting away the back-
ground and incising finer details on the original surfaces.
Other designs in relief were obtained by direct modeling
or by stamping. The stamps were moulds or negatives
made from bas-relief patterns.

Fig. 26. Mayan Basket represented in Stone
Sculpture.

The textile arts of the ancient Mayas can be recovered
in part from a study of the monuments since the designs
on many garments are reproduced in delicate relief.
The designs are mostly all-over geometric patterns,
but borders reproducing the typical "celestial band,"
a line of astronomical symbols, are also seen. The
techniques of brocade and lace were understood by the
ancient weavers. In the minor textile art of basketry
the products must also have ranked high; a typical
basket pictured on a lintel is given in Fig. 26.

Jade and other semi-precious stones were carved by
the Mayas into beautiful and fantastic shapes. There
was a considerable use of mosaic veneer on masks and
other ceremonial objects. Metal was rare and could
not be used for tools, but the working of gold and copper
in the manufacture of ornaments was on a high plane.

82 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Having now passed in brief review the objective side
of Mayan remains, let us turn our attention to the sub-
jective.

The Serpent in Mayan Art. Mayan art is
strange and unintelligible at first sight, but after care-
ful study many wonderful qualities appear in it. In
the knowledge of foreshortening and composition, the

Fig. 27. Typical Elaborated Serpents of the Mayas. The
plumed serpent is from Chichen Itza and the one with a human head
in its mouth from Yaxchilan.

Mayas were equal if not superior to the Egyptians
and Assyrians. They could draw the human body in
pure profile and in free and graceful attitudes and
they could compose several figures in a rectangular
panel so that the result satisfies the eye of a modern
artist.

But, unfortunately for our fuller understanding, the
human form had only a minor interest because the gods

Fig. 28. Conventional Serpent of the Mayas used for Decora-
tive Purposes: a, body; 6, ventral scale; c, dorsal scale; d,
nose; e, noseplug; /, incisor tooth; g, molar tooth; h, jaw;
*» eve; J> supraorbital plate; k, earplug; I, ear pendant; ra,
curled fang; n, tongue; o, lower jaw; p, beard; q, incisor tooth.

84 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

were not in the image of man and the art was essentially
gious. The gods were at best half human and half
animal with grotesque elaborations. The high esthetic
qualities were therefore wasted on subjects that appear
trivial to many of us. But, as we break away more and
more from the shackles of our own artistic conventions,
we shall be able to appreciate more and more the many
beauties of ancient American sculpture.

The serpent motive controlled the character of
Mayan art and was of first importance in all subse-
quent arts in Central America and Mexico. The ser-
pent was seldom represented realistically and yet we
may safely infer that the rattlesnake was the prevailing
model. Parts of other creatures were added to the
serpent's body, such as the plumes of the trogon or
quetzal, the teeth of the jaguar, and the ornaments of
man. The serpent was idealized and the lines character-
istic of it entered into the delineation of many subjects
distinct from the serpent itself. Scrolls and other
sinuous details were attached to the serpent's body and
human ornaments such as earplugs, noseplugs, and even
headdresses were added to its head. Finally, a human
head was placed in the distended jaws. The Mayas
may have intended to express the essential human in-
telligence of the serpent in this fashion. The serpent
with a human head in its mouth doubtless belongs in the
same category as the partly humanized gods of Egypt,
Assyria, and India. It illustrates the partial assump-
tion of human form by a beast divinity. The features
combined are so peculiar and unnatural that the in-
fluence of Mayan art can be traced far and wide through
Central America and Mexico by comparative study of
the serpent motive.

A typical serpent head in profile (with the human
head omitted) as developed by the Mayas for decora-

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 85

tive purposes is reproduced in Fig. 28 with the parts
lettered and named. It will be noted that the lines of
interest in this design are either vertical or horizontal,
although the parts themselves have sinuous outlines.
Two features of the typical serpent's body enter widely

Fig. 29. Upper Part of Serpent Head rhade into a Fret Orna-
ment: a, Ixkun; 6, Quirigua; c, d, g, Copan; e, Naranjo; /,
Seibal.

into the enrichment of all kinds of subjects. One of
these is the double outline which is derived from the
line paralleling the base of the serpent's body and serv-
ing to mark off the belly region. The second feature
is the small circle applied in bead-like rows to represent
scales. The profile serpent head is also seen in scrolls
and frets that elaborate many details of dress worn by
the human beings carved on the monuments. The
front view of the serpent's head is usually extended to
fill an oblong panel and is often used to decorate the base
of a monument or the fagade of a building. There are
several monsters closely connected with the serpent
that will be discussed as the description proceeds.

The Human Figure. The human beings pictured
on Mayan monuments are captives, rulers, and priests
or worshippers. The captives are poor groveling crea-
tures, bound by rope, held by the hair or crushed under

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

foot to fill a rectangular space over which the conqueror
stands. The rulers and priests are hard to distinguish
from each other, perhaps because the government was
largely theocratic and the ruler was looked upon as the
spokesman of divinity. The spear and shield of war
served to mark off certain human beings from others
who carry religious objects such as the Ceremonial Bar
and the Manikin Scepter.

Elaborate thrones are shown on several monuments —
thrones canopied by the arched body of the Two-headed
Dragon that bears symbols of the planets. Over all is
seen the great Serpent Bird with outstretched wings.
Upon the throne is seated a human being who may
safely be called a king and a line of footprints on the
front of the throne may symbolize ascent. On other
monuments the commanding personage wears the mask
of a god and wields a club to subdue or scatters grain to
placate. On the great majority of monuments the
human beings, richly attired in ceremonial regalia and
carrying a variety of objects, possibly present the great
warriors and priests of the day. Many of the early
sculptures are stiff and formal, but in a number of in-
stances the quality of actual portraiture is convincing.

Design Composition and Perspective. It is

difficult to compare directly the graphic and plastic
arts of different nations where the subject matter is
diverse unless we compare them in accordance with
absolute principles of design, composition, and perspec-
tive drawing. The Mayas produced one of the few
really great and coherent expressions of beauty so far
given to the world and their influence in America was
historically as important as was that of the Greeks
in Europe. Set as we are in the matrix of our own
religious and artistic conventions, we find it difficult to

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

87

approach sympathetically beauty that is overcast with
an incomprehensible religion. When we can bring our-
selves to feel the serpent symbolism of the Mayan
artists as we feel, for instance, the conventional halo

Fig. 30. Sculpture on Front of Lintel at Yaxchilan showing
Man holding Two-Headed Serpent with a Grotesque God's Head
in each of its Mouths.

Fig. 31. Types of Human Heads on the Lintels of Yaxchilan.

that crowns the ideal head of Christ, then we shall be
able to recognize the truly emotional qualities of Mayan
sculptures.

It is generally recognized that design to be successful
must contain order of various sorts (in measurements,
shapes, directions, tones, colors, etc.). In the simpler
forms of decorative art the restrictions of technical
process, as in basketry, may impose order, but in free-
hand sculpture it must come from an educated sense of
beauty involving selection and the reproduction of the

Fig. 32. Sculpture on Upper Part of Stela 11,
Seibal. The man wears a mask of turquoise
inlay and an elaborate headdress.

88

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 89

finest qualities. Design at its highest is embodied in
the Mayan hieroglyphs. Given spaces had to be filled
with given symbols and the results attained were uni-
formly excellent. Although the influence of the ser-
pent led to the great use of tapering flame-like masses
in nearly all Mayan designs, still dominant vertical
and horizontal lines of interest were maintained.

The panel and lintel sculptures show composition
achieved by simple and subtle methods. The sweeping
plumes of headdresses were skilfully used to fill in
corners, while blocks of glyphs were placed in open
spaces that might otherwise distract the attention.
Many compositions appear overcrowded to us, but this
fault decreases with knowledge of the subject matter.
Also, the Mayas appear to have painted their sculp-
tures so that the details were emphasized by color
contrast.

In perspective as applied to the human figure the A
Mayas were far ahead of the Egyptians and Assyrians,
since they could draw the body in front view and pure
profile without the distortions seen in the Old World.
They were even able to make graceful approximations of
a three-quarters view, as may be seen in Plate XVI,
where the raising of the nearer shoulder has a distinct^/
perspective value.

The Mayan Pantheon. We have seen that during
the earliest culture of Mexico and Central America
there were no figurines of individualized gods, simply
straightforward representations of human beings and
animals. ^Wfth the Mayan culture, however, we enter
upon an epoch of rich religious symbolism. The ser-
pent, highly conventionalized as we have just seen,
and variously combined with elements taken from
the quetzal, the jaguar, and even from man himself,

Plate XVI. Stela 13, Piedras Negras. This shattered monument
is one of the finest examples of Mayan Sculpture, showing a fine
sense of composition and a considerable knowledge of perspective.

90

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 91

appears as a general indication of divinity J The
Ceremonial Bar, essentially a two-headed ""serpent
carrying in its mouths the heads of an important god,

Fig. 33. The Ceremonial Bar. A Two-Headed Serpent held in
the Arms of Human Beings on Stelae: a, Stela P, Copan; b, Stela
N, Copan.

is one of the earliest religious objects.
The heads that appear in the mouths
are usually those of a Roman-nosed
or of a Long-nosed god. Other re-
presentations of divinities are com-
bined with the Two-headed Dragon
that also has reptilian characters;
still others appear as headdresses and
masks on human figures. Strange to
say, the gods are supplementary to the
human figures on all the early sculp-
tures. In the codices, however, they
are represented apart from man, as
engaged in various activities and con-
Manikin Scepter, a tests. [Mayan religion was clearly

Grotesque Figure organized on a dualistic basis. The

with one Leg modi- » ,

fied into a Serpent, powers tor good are in a constant

92 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

struggle with the powers for evil and most of the benev-
olent divinities have malevolent duplicates. In actual
form the gods are partly human, but ordinarily the

, Fig. 35. The Two-Headed Dragon, a Monster that passes
through many Forms in Mayan Sculpture. Copan.

determining features are grotesque variations from
the human face and figure. While beast associations
are sometimes discernible, they are rarely controlling.
Sometimes, however, beast gods are represented in
unmistakable fashion, good examples being the jaguar,
the bat, and the moan bird. All of these have human
bodies and animal headsfj

The head position in the Mayan pantheon may with
some assurance be given to a god who has been called
the Roman-nosed god and who is probably to be identi-
fied with Itzamna. According to Spanish writers
Itzamna was regarded by the Mayas as the creator and
father of all, the inventor of writing, the founder of the
Mayan civilization, and the god of light and life. The
Zeus of the Mayas is represented in the form of an old
man with a high forehead, a strongly aquiline nose, and
a distended mouth that is usually devoid of teeth. On
the ancient monuments he is frequently seen in the
mouths of the Ceremonial Bar and also in association
with the sun, moon, and the planet Venus. In the
codices he is shown as a protector of the Maize God and
in other acts beneficial to man. There is, however, a

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 93

malevolent aspect of this god or possibly another being
who imitates his features but not his qualities. This
being may be an old woman goddess who wears a ser-
pent headdress and who is associated with destructive
floods, the very opposite of life-giving sunshine.

Of almost equal importance to the Roman-nosed god
is a god whose face is a more or less humanized serpent.
/This god has been identified with Kukulcan, the Plumed |
Serpent, and_ the Mayan equivalent of the Aztecan \
QuetzalcoatLj On the early monuments this god is
shown in connection with the Ceremonial Bar. He also
appears at a somewhat later date as the Manikin \
Scepter, an object in the form of a manikin that is held
out by a leg modified into a serpent's body. Since a
celt is usually worn in the forehead of the manikin it has
been suggested that this curious object represents a
ceremonial battle-ax. The face of the Long-nosed god
is frequently worn by high priests and rulers either as a
headdress or, more rarely, as a mask. It is possible that
this divinity was regarded as primarily a war god. In
the codices he is evidently a universal deity of varied
powers. Especially he is shown in connection— ^with
water and maize and it seems likely that his principal
function was to cause life-giving rain. A malevolent
variant of the Long-nosed god has a bare bone for the
lower jaw, a sun symbol on his forehead, and a head-
dress consisting of three symbols of uncertain signifi-
cance. This head is associated with the Two-headed
Dragon possibly as a god of death-dealing drought.

Ahpuch, the Lord of Death, was the principal malevo-
lent god. His body as figuredln the codices is a strange
compound of skeletal and full-fleshed parts. His head
is a skull except for the normal ears. His spinal column
is usually bare and sometimes the ribs as well, but the
arms and legs are often covered with flesh. As added

94

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

symbols black spots and dotted lines are sometimes
drawn upon his body and a curious device like a per-
centage sign upon his cheek. The Death God in com-
plete form is rarely shown in the earlier sculptures,
although grinning skulls and interlacing bones occur as
temple decorations. As has already been pointed out,
Mayan religion was strongly dualistic and the evil

x

Fig. 36. Gods in the Dresden Codex: God B, the Long-Nosed
God of Rain; God A, the Death God; God G, the Sun God.

powers are usually to be identified by death symbols
such as a bare bone for the lower jaw, or the percentage
symbol noted above on the cheek. Death heads of
several kinds are frequent in the hieroglyphic inscrip-
tions.

The Maize God, figured so frequently on the ancient
^tnonuments and in the Mayan codices may be the same
that in the time of the Conquest was called jfumjCaax,
Lord of the Harvest. He is represented as aTyouth with
a leafy headdress that is possibly meant to represent an
opening ear of maize. The kan sign, a grain of maize,
is constantly associated with him. He appears to be at

Plate XVII. (a) The Upper Portion of Stela 1 at Yaxchilan,
dealing with the Heavens. The Sky God is seen in the center with
the moon at the left and the sun god -at the right. Below these is
the Two-Headed Monster bearing planet signs and additional heads
of the Sky God; (6) Analogous Detail of Stela 4, Yaxchilan. The
moon is at the right and the sun at the left. The figure in the sun
is male and that in the moon, female. The faces of the Sky God
hang from the lower part of the Two-Headed Dragon, being attached
to it by symbols of the planet Venus.

95

90 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

the mercy of the evil deities when not protected by the
good ones. J

Space considerations forbid a further study of Mayan
gods. Suffice it to say that several other divinities are
shown in the sculptures and codices including a some-
what youthful appearing war god, as well as a more
mature and grotesque war god called Ek Ahau, the
Black Captain. There is an old god with a shell
attached to his body, a god with the face of a monkey
who is associated with the north star, a god in the form
of a frog and another in the form of a bat. In the
Spanish accounts we can also glean scanty information
concerning Ixchel, Goddess of the Rainbow and mate of
Itzamna, Ixtubtun patroness of jade carvers, Ixchebel-
yax, patroness of the art of weaving and decorating
cloth, etc.

The Mayan Time Counts. The passage of time,
seen in finer and finer degree in the course of human
life, the succession of summer and winter, the waxing
and waning moons, the alternation of day and night,
the upward and downward sloping of the sun and the
swinging dial of the stars, is a phenomenon that no
human group has failed to notice. Longer periods than
those included within the memory of the oldest men
(presenting an imperfect reflection of the memory of
men still older) are found only in those favored centers
where a serviceable system of counting had been de-
veloped. Mythology has a content of history but
hardly of chronology. Tradition, when organized by
the priesthood, may be reasonably dependable for per-
haps two hundred years.

The year and the month are the basis of all primitive
time systems, the former depending on the recurring
seasons, the latter on recurring moons. Both of these
are expressed in days. Unfortunately, the day is not

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION J/ 97

contained evenly in either the month or the year, nor
do these larger time measures show any simple relation
to each other as regards length. The history of the
calendar is one of compromise and correction.

The Mayan calendars were made possible by: first,
the knowledge of astronomical time periods ; second, the
possession of a suitable notation system; third, the dis-
covery of a permutation system of names and numbers.

Elements of the Day Count. There is reason to
believe that the Mayas had first a lunar calendar of
twelve months of thirty days each, making a year of
360 days, and that they modified this so that the num-
ber of days in the "month" became twenty instead of
thirty to agree with the value of the second digit in
their notation system and that the number of months
was increased from twelve to eighteen, still making up a
total of 360 days which agreed with the value of the
third digit. With a truer knowledge of the length of
the year an extra five day month was added to make
a year of 365 days. Beyond this the "leap year" error
was calculated but not interpolated. As proof that the
lunar month of thirty days preceded the notation
month of twenty days, it need only be pointed out that
the name for this period, uinal, seems to be connected
with the name for moon, u, and that the hieroglyph
for moon has the value, twenty, in the inscriptions
and ancient books.

/ Before entering into a fuller discussion of the astro-
nomical and notational facts let us turn for a moment
to the third fact, the permutation system. The origin
of the cycle1 known by the Nahuan name tonalamatl,

1 The word cycle is applied in this book to re-entering series, or
wheels, of days. These all contain the ionalamatl without a remainder.
The word period is applied to fixed numbers that do not contain the
tonalamatl. Unfortunately, the word cycle is also applied to the fifth digit
or position in the notation system and the word period is used as a general
designation for any digit or position as well as for other fixed values.

98

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

book of the days, has never been satisfactorily
explained. It is a permutation system with two

Fig. 37. The Twenty Day Signs of the Mayan Month. The
first example in each case is taken from the inscriptions and the second
from the codices.

factors, 13 and 20. The former is a series of numbers
(1-13) and the latter a series of twenty names as follows : —

1. Imix
2. Ik
3. Akbal
4. Kan
5. Chicchan

6. Cimi
7. Manik
8. Lamat
9. Muluc
10. Oc

11. Chuen
12. Eb
13. Ben
14. Ix
15. Men

16. Gib
17. Caban
18. Eznab
19. Cauac
20. Ahau

These two series revolve upon each other like two wheels,
one with thirteen and the other with twenty cogs. The
smaller wheel of numbers makes twenty revolutions
while the larger wheel of days is making thirteen revolu-
tions, and after this the number cog and name cog with
which the experiment began are again in combination.
Thus, a day with the same number and the same name
recurs every 13x20 or 260 days.

This 260 day cycle corresponds to no natural time
period and is an invention pure and simple. It is the
most fundamental feature of the Mayan time count and
of the time counts of other nations in Mexico and
Central America. We may perhaps assume that the

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

99

twenty names were originally those of the twenty days
in the modified lunar months. But the thirteen num-
bers have no recognized prototype. The formal ton-
alamatl is generally considered to begin with 1 Imix for
the Mayas and with a corresponding day for the other
Mexican and Central American nations. But it can
be made to begin anywhere and proceed to an equiva-
lent station that is always 260 days removed.
TONALAMATL TABLE

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

1

1 Imix

1

8

9

q

3

10

4

11

5

19

<>

13

7

1

2 Ik

?,

9

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

13

7

1

8

?,

3 Akbal

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

13

7

1

8

9

q

3

4 Kan

4

11

5

19

6

13

7

1

8

9

q

3

10

4

5 Chicchan

5

19-

6

13

7

1

8

9

q

3

10

4

11

5

6 Cimi

6

13

7

1

8

9

q

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

7 Manik

7

1

8

2

q

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

13

7

8 Lamat

8

9

q

3

10

4

11

5

1?

6

13

7

1

8

9 Muluc

9

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

13

7

1

8

2

9

10 Oc

10

4

11

5

19

6

13

7

1

8

9

q

3

10

11 Chuen

11

5

19

(>

13

7

1

8

?,

q

3

10

4

11

12 Eb

13

6

13

7

1

8

?,

q

3

10

4

11

5

1?,

13 Ben

13

7

1

8

9

q

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

13

14 Ix

1

8

9

q

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

13

7

1

15 Men

2

q

3

10

4

11

5

1?

6

13

7

1

8

9

16 Gib

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

13

7

1

8

9

q

3

17 Caban

4

11

5

1?

6

13

7

1

8

2

q

3

10

4

18 Eznab

5

1?

6

13

7

1

8

9

q

3

10

4

11

5

19 Cauac

6

13

7

1

8

?,

q

3

10

4

11

5

19

6

20 Ahau

7

1

8

2

9

3

10

4

11

5

12

6

13

7

The Conventional Year. It has been stated that
the May as arrived at a conventional 365 day year made up
of eighteen months of twenty days each plus a short peri-
od of five days that fell after the eighteen regular months
had been counted. The Mayan month names are as
follows :-

1. Pop

2. Uo

3. Zip

4. Zotz

5. Tzec

6. Xul

19.

7. Yaxkin 13. Mac

8. Mol 14. Kankin

9. Chen 15. Muan

10. Yax 16. Pax

11. Zac 17. Kayab

12. Ceh 18. Cumhu
Uayeb (five additional days)

100

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Since there are twenty days or positions in the month
and likewise twenty distinct day names in the tonalamatl
that fall in regular order it follows that each day would
always occupy the same month position were it not for

Kayab

TTayeb

Fig. 38. The Nineteen Month Signs of the Mayan Year. The
first example in each case is taken from the inscriptions and the
second from the codices. The last details are signs for zero.

the offset at the end of each year caused by the short
Uayeb period. As it is, any day name occupies the same
position during the course of an entire year and a position
five days in advance during the course of the following
year. Since five is contained four times in twenty there
can be only four shifts : the fifth year showing the same
arrangement as the first. The following table gives the
month positions of each day name during the changes of
four consecutive years as these are recorded in the
ancient inscriptions.

Ik, Manik, Eb, Caban 0, 5, 10, 15

Akbal, Lamat, Ben, Eznab 1, 6, 11, 16

Kan, Muluc, Ix, Cauac 2, 7, 12, 17

Chicchan, Oc, Men, Ahau 3, 8, 13, 18

Imix, Cimi, Chuen, Gib 4, 9, 14, 19

Thus Ik occupies 0 position the first year, 5, the second

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 101

year, 10 the third, 15 the fourth, and 0 the fifth. While
Manik that belongs to the same set has position 5 the
first year, 10 the second, etc. It will be noted that Imix,
the first day of the formal tonalamatl is never the first
day of a month.

The Calendar Round. But this assignment of
particular day names to particular places in the month does
not close the problem. Each day name is associated in
the tonalamatl with a day number. While it is true that
each day can occupy only four month places of as many
years, it must be remembered that the day numbers as-
sociated with these names can run^ the whole gamut of 13
changes. The result of this permutation is that a par-
ticular day with a particular number can occupy a par-
ticular month position once every 13x4 or 52 years. In
other words, the cycle of variations runs through the least
common multiple of 260 (the tonalamatl) and 365 (the
conventional year) or 18,980 days. This cycle is com-
monly known as the Calendar Round.

A Mayan day fixed in a month has four parts to its
name, thus, 11 Ahau 18 Mac. But after all this condi-
tion of affairs is not very different from our own. We
say Tuesday, July 4, and we mean, " Tuesday, the
second day of the week, falls on the fourth day of
the month of July." Similarly the Mayan date 11
Ahau 18 Mac may be read, "The day Ahau, bearing
the index number 11 (or, being the eleventh day in the
thirteen day week) is found in the 18th position in the
month Mac. ' ' Were it not for leap year the European
date given above would recur after seven years: as it is,
the cycle is somewhat irregular and no actual use is
made of it. So far we have considered two sorts of
Mayan dates, first the tonalamatl date, recurring
every 260 days, second the calendar round date recur-
ring every 18,980 days.

P~f''/P
t-siSS^ •*•• '

Plate XVIII. Scheme of the Mayan Calendar as presented in
the Codex Tro-Cortesianus. In the center is Itzamna, the God of
the Sky, and his spouse, under what has been called the celestial tree.
The band of hieroglyphs that frames in this picture contains the
twenty day signs of the Mayan month. The figures on the outside
are arranged in four groups, according to the four directions of the
compass. At the top or east we again see Itzamna and his mate. In
the north, or right hand quarter, human sacrifice is shown and the
Death God sits opposite the God of War. In the east and in the
south are also shown pairs of divinities. A series of dots running
from one day sign to another covers the tonalamatl or 260 day cycle
of names and numbers.

102

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 103

Mayan Numbers. We will now see how the record
of the days is written down in actual symbols. Mayan
numbers are most commonly represented by bars and
dots, the bars counting five and the dots one. The no-

125 & d 10 18

Fig. 39. Bar and Dot Numerals of the Mayas.

tation is based for the most part upon twenties rather
than upon tens and each digit, if this term can be applied
to figures that run from 0 to 19, may consist of several
bars and dots arranged in a group. Ascending values
may be expressed by position, one above the other, or by
so-called period glyphs which stand beside each group of
bars and dots and represent the multiplier.

In our decimal system the number 347,981, for in-
stance, is really: —

3 x 100000
4x 10000
7 x 1000
9x 100
8x 10
Ix 1

When written out in a horizontal line each "position"
has a value ten times that of the "position" to the right
of it. It is understood that a digit which stands in a
"position "is to be multiplied by 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc., as
the case may be.

Now in a system of notation based entirely upon twen-
ties the ascending values are 1, 20, 400, 8000, 160,000, etc.
Such a system was probably used by the Mayas for ordi-
nary commercial purposes. But in the counting of days
a slight change was made, in that the third "position"

104 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

was only eighteen times the preceding one instead of
twenty times, or 360 instead of 400. The 360 was prob-
ably adopted because it comes within five days of the
length of the year. After this change the ascending val-
ues are 1, 20, 360, 7,200, and 144,000. A Mayan number
can be written conveniently in imitation of our own
system by marking dashes between the ' ' positions ' ' or
periods. The long number that is set down as follows
9-12-16-7-8, equals:—

9 x 144000 1,296,000

12 x 7200 86,400

16 X 360 5,760

7 x 20 140

8x 1 8

1,388,308

days in the decimal system. In speaking of such a num-
ber, however, names would be applied to the periods,

thus:—

Cycle 144000 days

Katun 7200 days

Tun 360 days

Uinal 20 days

Kin 1 day

The number given above would be read 9 cycles, 12
katuns, 16 tuns, 7 uinals, and 8 kins. It is convenient
to remember that a tun is a little less than a year, a
katun, a little less than twenty years, and a cycle a little
less than four hundred years. r

./The True Year. So far we have been concerned
primarily with the counting of days — the rs^onomical
time unit determined by the revolution of Lrie earth up-
on its axis. Now, although the day is not contained
evenly in the other astronomical time periods (the
month, the year, and the apparent revolutions of the
planets) the Mayan scholars made some remarkable
correlations of the heterogeneous data.

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

105

The year is determined by the revolution of the earth
around the sun and by the recurring seasons. No agri-
cultural people could neglect this time period with its

Fig. 40. Face Numerals found in Mayan Inscriptions. In
most cases these are the faces of gods. Reading from left to
right: the values are 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10.

Fig. 41. The Normal Forms of the Period Glyphs. Reading
from left to right: cycle, katun, tun, uinal, kin.

Fig. 42. Face Forms of Period Glyphs. From left to right:
introducing glyph, cycle, katun, tun, uinal, kin.

obvious relation to planting and harvest. Reference
has already been made to the notational 360 day year
(tun) an 1 to. the conventional 365 day year (haab). The
statement- TS then made that the Mayas made a cor-
rection for tL'e excess of the true year over the con-
ventional 365 day year. The excess amounts to about
.24 of a day and their correction seems to have been one
day in four years for ordinary purposes and 25 days in
104 years over longer stretches of time. This latter
correction is more accurate than was that of the Julian

Introducing Glyph-

ISJ

Initial Series

1. 9 cycles <£ ;//. k*. # 11.

2. 14 katuns

3. 13 tuns (written 12 by error)

4. 4 uinals

5. 17 kins

6. 12 Caban (day)

Supplementary Series

7. glyph F

8. (a) glyph D, (b) glyph C

9. (a) glyph X, (b) glyph B

10. (a) glyph A (30 day lunar month)

10. (b) 5 Kayab (month)

Explanatory Series

11, 12, 13 and 14a, possibly explain the dates

Secondary Series
14b, 3 kins, 13 uinals
15a, 6 tuns (to be added)

Period Ending Date
16. 4 Ahau 13 Yax (9-15-0-0-0)

Plate XIX. Typical Mayan Inscription.

TEH

106

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 107

calendar and nearly as accurate as that of the present
Gregorian calendar put into service as late as 1582.

The true length of the year was probably obtained by
observations of sunrise or sunset on summer or winter
solstices. From some fixed point of observation, such
as the doorway of a temple, the extreme point on the
horizon reached by the sun in its northward or south-
ward march could be accurately determined. Over a
period of years the average solstitial period (tropical
year) could be readily obtained if only the days were
recorded and the intervals compared.

Although we ourselves depend mostly upon the year
count rather than the day count we must remember
that the annual calendar was only one of several that
the Mayas brought into relation to the inviolable count
of days. The lunar and Venus calendars will be con-
sidered presently. But if the "leap year" days were
not interpolated, of course, the named months had
no fixed positions in the year but swung slowly round the
circle. According to the table of Landa, compiled
about 1566, the month Pop, which seems to have been
regarded as the first of the year in ancient as well as
modern times, began on July 16 O.S. Outside of the
Mayan area the retrogression of the months is attested
by actual statements of early Spanish writers. But the
conventional 365 day year was, after all, sufficiently
accurate to serve the needs of agriculturists and since
retrogression was only about one day in four years,
associations between the months and the seasons would
hold true for the average lifetime.

The Lunar Calendar. The revolution of the moon
around the earth was used by the Mayas in what may be
called the lunar calendar. It has already been ex-
plained that an early lunar period of thirty days seems

108

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

to have been arbitrarily changed to a notational one of
twenty days. Now the exact duration of a lunar revo-
lution is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2.87 seconds. If
the customary period of 29.5 days is taken for con-
venience there is an error of about two full days in five
years. Such an error was too great to pass the Mayan
calendar makers. On pages 51 to 58 of the Dresden

Fig. 43. Representations of the Moon: a, sun and moon
hieroglyphs; b, moon from a "celestial band"; c, moon hiero-
glyph used for 20 in codices.

Codex their solution is recorded unmistakably. A suc-
cession of 405 lunar revolutions, or nearly 33 years is
calculated by the addition of groups of five and six revo-
lutions, the former given as 148 days and the latter as
either 177 or 178 days. This method of calculation
may have been a device to carry fractions or it may have
been based upon ecliptic data. The steps of the calcu-
lations are put down in a sort of double entry, first by
numbers, second by named days. The numbers add up
to 11,958 while the total difference between the named
days is 11,959. The purpose appears to have been to
approximate 11,960. This last number of days con-
tains the tonalamatl an even number of times and
would thus form a re-entering series since it would al-
ways begin with the same day. Now it is a remarkable
fact that the total obtained by modern astronomers for
405 lunar revolutions is 11,959.888 days or only 0.112 of
a day less than 11,960. Therefore, this re-entering series
of the Mayan astronomers can be used nine times be-

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

109

fore an error amounting to one whole day has accumu-
lated. In other words, the lunar calendar was brought
into a fixed relation with the day count with an error of
one day in 300 years.

On the monuments a more or less orderly group of
hieroglyphs following the Initial Series has been called
the Supplementary Series. Several of these hiero-
glyphs contain the symbol for the moon and the last
one contains this symbol with the numerals 9 or 10 to
the right or below. It has been suggested that this

Fig. 44. The Last Glyph of the Supplementary Series: a, moon
glyph; combined with the numeral 9 or 10 to indicate a 29 or a 30
day lunar month.

last glyph stands for a 29 or 30 day month, as the case
may be, and that the Supplementary Series records
the position of the Initial Series date in a lunar count.

The Venus Calendar. The Mayan astronomers
possessed a remarkable knowledge of the movements of
the planets. In particular the apparent revolution of
the planet Venus was used as the basis of what we may
call the Venus Calendar. The mean synodical year of
Venus (nearly 584 days) is divided in the Mayan books
into four parts of 236 days (morning star), 90 days
(superior conjunction), 250 days (evening star), and
8 days (inferior conjunction). It is true that these
divisions do not agree very closely with the actual divi-
sions of the Venus year but we must remember that the
observations were made without instruments, that the
planet cannot be seen by the naked eye when close to

110 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

the sun, and that it appears much smaller, because
farther from the earth, when near the superior con-
junction. Moreover, we must expect beliefs as to the
nature of this planet, personified as a god, to supple-
ment the knowledge gained from actual observations.

The agreement in length between 8 solar years of
365 days each and 5 Venus years of 584 days each was
recognized and used in ceremonies and calculations. On
the five pages of the Dresden Codex, numbered 46-50,
is presented a series of 5 Venus years amounting in all to
2920 days. On page 24 (see PL XX) of the same codex
we find this sum taken 13 times to make 37,960 days and
then this last number taken 4 times to make 151,840
days. The number 2920 (5 x 584 and 8 x 365) has a
definite relation to the tonalamatl which results from
the following coincidence: 260 and 584 have a com-
mon factor of 4. It therefore follows that when groups
of 584 days are counted consecutively along with the
twenty named days in the standard tonalamatl, these
groups of 584 days can begin on only five different days.
The sixth period is introduced by the same named day
as the first but this named day is associated with a
different number. The same named day combined
with the same number recurs in 13x2920 or 37,960 days.
This round of the Venus calendar (65 Venus years of
584 days and 104 solar years of 365 days) equals exactly
two rounds of the solar calendar.

But there is an important correction that has to
be made to keep the actual solar calendar in accord
with the actual Venus calendar. The solar year is really
365.24 days in length and we have seen that this error
was corrected 'by a marginal addition of 25 days in 104
years. The mean Venus year is really 583.92 or .08 of a
day less than 584. The actual position of Venus will
therefore run ahead of its calendrical position and there

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 111

is reason to believe that a marginal subtraction amount-
ing to two days in 25 revolutions was made.

On Stela K at Quirigua (a cast of this monument is
exhibited in the American Museum) we find what ap-
pears to be an effort to calculate the errors of the differ-
ent calendars. The introducing glyph contains the sym-
bol of Venus and it is not unlikely that the calculations
deal in part with the movements of this planet. The
initial series records the end of an even 5 tun period
(9-18-15-0-0) in the notation system but the number
(1,431,000 days) equals 3920 years of 365 days each plus
200 days. On the basis of * ' five to eight ' ' the 3920 solar
calendar years equal 2950 revolutions of Venus and allow-
ing an error of .08 of a day per revolution the total error
amounts to 196 days. This very nearly equals the 200
days counted in advance of the 3920 solar calendar
years. The Mayan scholars seem to have observed the
fact that counting from the original 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu up
to their own times, the actual position of Venus practi-
cally coincided with the end of a 5 tun period when it
should have coincided with the end of 3920 solar calendar
years. This supposition is made more credible by evi-
dence that the error in the solar calendar from the same
beginning day was also calculated here. From the
Initial Series date, which leads to 3 Ahau 3 Yax, 10 uinals
and 10 kins (210 days) are subtracted and the day 1 Oc
18 Kayab is reached. Then follows the Supplementary
Series which doubtless refers to the lunar count and im-
mediately after this comes the unusual number 0 uinals
0 kins — that is, nothing. Next the day 3 Ahau 3 Yax is
repeated, thus:—

9-18-15- 0-0 3 Ahau 3 Yax

10-10 backward

9-18-14- 7-10 1 Oc 18 Kayab

0- 0 forward

9-18-15- 0-0 3 Ahau 3 Yax

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Now it appears that some sort of an equation is intend-
ed by this subtraction of 210 days and the subsequent
addition of zero days to arrive again at the point of de-
parture. The error due to the omission of the extra
"leap year" day would amount to two full years plus
210 days in the time covered by the Initial Series. The
two full years could be dropped from the calculation and
the 210 days would show the apparent displacement of
the sun from its assumed calendrical position. Of
course, it is not to be supposed for an instant that the
Mayas had kept an actual record of the movements of
the heavenly bodies for 4000 years. They probably
based their original point of departure — the day 4 Ahau
8 Cumhu — upon some calculated correlation which after-
wards proved to be slightly erroneous. With a clearer
understanding of the length of the year and of the revo-
lution of Venus they may have attempted on this monu-
ment to record the accumulated error on theoretical
rather than actual grounds^x^

Hieroglyphs. Mayan hieroglyphs resemble the
Egyptian and Chinese hieroglyphs only in being ' ' sacred
writing" that is not based upon an alphabet. The
styles and symbols are entirely different. No Rosetta
Stone has yet been discovered to give us inscriptions in
more than one system of writing in Central America.
The great use of hieroglyphic inscriptions on monuments
was characteristic of the earlier period of Mayan history
and at a later time the writing was reduced to books.
Landa obtained what he supposed was a Mayan alphabet,
btit what he really obtained was a list of word signs con-
taining among other sounds the particular sounds he
desired.

/ The phonetic use of syllables rather than of simple
sounds or letters is probably an important feature of
Mayan writing. Many hieroglyphs are pictographic

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 113

arid consist of abbreviated pictures of the thing intended
or of some object connected with it. Often a head
stands for the entire body. The following list practi-
cally exhausts our knowledge of Mayan hieroglyphs:—

1 . The 20 day signs which occur in variant forms in the
inscriptions and codices.

2. The 19 month signs.

3. The face signs for numbers from zero to 19.

4. The "period glyphs" which represent 1, 20, 360,
7,200, and 144,000 days.

5. The symbols for the four directions and possibly for
the four colors associated with them.

6. The hieroglyphs of several gods mostly from the
codices.

7. The symbols of the sun, moon, Venus, North Star,
and perhaps other heavenly bodies.

8. A few more or less realistic hieroglyphs representing
natural objects.

Of this brief list many signs connected with the cal-
endar are given by Landa and other signs have been
worked out by means of the mathematical calculations
in the codices and inscriptions which are capable of groof .

We may expect to find in the Mayan inscriptions some
hieroglyphs that give the names of individuals, cities,
and political divisions and others that represent feasts,
sacrifices, tribute, and common objects of trade as well
as signs referring to birth, death, establishment, conquest,
destruction, and other fundamentals of individual and
social existence. These signs taken with directive signs
and dates would make possible records of considerable
accuracy. There seems to be no possibility of purely
literary inscriptions. While progress will necessarily be
slow there is no reason for despair and without doubt the
greater portion of Mayan inscriptions will finally be de-
ciphered.

114

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

As an example of the phonetic use of signs in the build-
ing up of hieroglyphs let us take the common sign kin,
meaning "sun." This sign appears regularly in the
glyphs for the world directions east and west, the Mayan
names being likin and chikin and also in the month sign

Sout

Fig. 45. Hieroglyphs of the Four Directions: East, North, West,

Fig. 46. Hieroglyphs containing the Phonetic Element kin:
a-b, kin; c, li-kin; d, chi-kin; e-f, y ax-kin; g, kan-kin.

yaxkin, and sometimes in that for kankin. It also
appears as the sign for the lowest period in the time count
having the value of a single day and called kin. The sun
sign pure and simple is a circle with four notches on the
inner side. The beard which is often attached to the
kin sign may belong to the face of the sun god. This
face is sometimes used as a substitute for the simple kin
sign in certain positions. All the words so far considered
contain the syllable kin. Now this kin sign also appears
in many undeciphered hieroglyphs and in some of these
it seems likely that it has a phonetic value. Other signs
with definite values in several glyphs are yax, tun, zac,
etc. This general method of writing is seen in more de-
cipherable form among the Aztecs. The glosses of the
early priests that have proved so great a help in the case

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 115

of the Aztecan writing are absent from the few Mayan
documents.

Codices. Only three ancient Mayan books or cod-
ices are known to exist and thes^arelnore or less" incom-
plete. They have all been reproduced in facsimile and
are known by the following names : Dresden Codex, Pe-
resianus Codex, Tro-Cortesianus Codex.

These illuminated manuscripts are written on both
sides of long strips of maguey paper, folded like Japanese
screens. The paper was given a smooth surface by a
coating of fine lime and the drawings were made in black
and in various colors. From the early accounts we know
that books were also written on prepared deerskin and
upon bark. Concerning their subject matter we are told
that the Mayas had many books upon civil and religious
history, and upon rites, magic, and medicine. The three
books named above have been carefully studied. They
treat principally of the calendar and of associated relig-
ious ceremonies.

A page of the Dresden Codex containing some inter-
esting calculations is reproduced herewith . The numbers
with the digits one above the other are transcribed in two
diagrams. In the upper diagram the bar and dot numer-
als are simply put over into Arabic numerals and the
Mayan system of periods or positions is retained. In
the lower diagram these numbers are reduced entirely to
the Arabic system. The columns are lettered at the top,
the hieroglyphs are counted off in sixteen rows at the left
and the separate groupings of numbers are shown in five
sections at the right.

Among the hieroglyphs the Venus sign is especially
prominent. At the base of B is given a number in five
periods that, counted from the normal beginning day 4
Ahau 8 Cumhu, leads to 1 Ahau 18 Kayab. This day is
actually recorded immediately under the number and

A 6 C D E F , G

Plate XX. Page 24 Dresden Codex.

116

1

2
3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

1
1
14
0
1 Ahau

15
16
6
0
1 Ahau

10
10
16
0
1 Ahau

5
5
8
0
1 Ahau

Hieroglyphs

1

5
14
4
0
1 Ahau

9
11
7
0
1 Ahau

4
12
8
0
1 Ahau

1

5
5
0
1 Ahau

4
17
6
0
6 Ahau

4
9

4
0
11 Ahau

4
1
2
0
3 Ahau

3
13
0
0
8 Ahau

3

4
16
0
t3 Ahau

2
16
14
0
5 Ahau

2
8
12
0
10 Ahau

2
0
10

0
2 Ahau

9
9
16
0
0

1 Ahau
18 Kayab

9
9
9
16
0

1 Ahau
18 Uo

6

2
0
4 Ahau
8 Cumhu

1
12
5 [8]
0

7 Ahau

1
4
6
0

12 Ahau

16
4
0

4 Ahau

8
2
0

9 Ahau

Diagram showing partial reduction of Mayan numbers into Arabic
Numbers in the calculation shown on page 24 of the Dresden
Codex (Plate XX.)

B

151,840
1 Ahau

113,880
1 Ahau

75,920
1 Ahau

37,960
1 Ahau

Hieroglyphs

185,120
1 Ahau

68,900
1 Ahau

33,280
1 Ahau

9,100
1 Ahau

35,040
6 Ahau

32,120
11 Ahau

29,200
3 Ahau

26,280
8 Ahau

1,366,560

1 Ahau
18 Kayab

1,364,360

1 Ahau
18 Uo

23,360
13 Ahau

20,440
5 Ahau

17,520
10 Ahau

14,600
2 Ahau

2,200

4 Ahau
8 Cumhu

11,680
7 Ahau

8,760
12 Ahau

5,840
4 Ahau

2,920
9 Ahau

Diagram showing complete reduction into Arabic numbers of the
calculation shown on page 24 of the Dresden Codex (Plate XX).

117

118 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

possibly refers to some astronomical event or discovery.
In column C the long number does not lead to the 1 Ahau
18 Uo that is given under it. This date is reached by
other calculations, however. At the base of A is a num-
ber, in three periods which amounts to 2200. Not only
is this the difference between the long numbers in B and
C (1,366,560-1,364,360-2200) but, if we proceed for-
ward 2200 days from the date given in B we arrive at a
day 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu recorded under the number in A.
In other words this number of days carries us forward to
the end of the seventy-second calendar round after the
original 4 Ahau 8 Cumhu (72x18,980-1,366,560).

Let us now make a new beginning in the lower left
hand corner of this page. In G5 we find the number
2920 which as we have already seen is exactly the number
of days consumed in eight years of 365 days or five syno-
dic revolutions of Venus of 584 days. We will now see
how the Mayan scholars arrived at 13 x 2920 or 37,960,
the calendar round of Venus. If we proceed towards the
left in section 5 we find the second number, F5, is 5840
which equals 2x2920, the third is 8760 or 3x2920,
and the fourth is 11,680 or 4x2920. The addition is
continued in sections 4 and 3 till we reach 35,040 or 12
x 2920. To be sure the scribe made a slight error in one
place, writing a 5 for an 8 but this is caught up by the
day signs 9 Ahau, 4 Ahau, 7 Ahau, 12 Ahau, etc., that fall
at regular intervals of 2920 days.

From section 3, the calculation jumps to section 1
where the numbers in the original are partly destroyed.
They have, however, been restored with perfect assur-
ance since the days in all instances are 1 Ahau and there-
fore must be separated by multiples of 260 days. The
number in Gl has been restored as 5-5-8-0 or 37,960 or
13x2920. It contains 260 an even number of times
and therefore every successive period of 37,960 days be-

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 119

gins with the same day, 1 Ahau. It also equals 13x8
x365 or 104 years and 13x5x584 or sixty-five revo-
lutions of Venus.

The three numbers to the left in Fl, El, and Dl are
respectively 2, 3, and 4 times 37,960. The last number,
151,840 days is therefore equal to 416 years or exactly 8
calendar rounds of 18,980 days.

Fig. 47. Mayan Ceremony as represented in the Dres-
den Codex. The figure at the left beats a drum while the
one on the right plays a flageolet. The sound is indicated
by scrolls. The head on the pyramid is that of the Maize
God and it rests upon the sign caban, meaning earth.

The numbers in section 2 are more difficult to explain
but they possibly have to do with corrections and correla-
tions of astronomical periods. If we add to 1 Ahau 18
Kayab which is recorded at the bottom of B we arrive at
a day 1 Ahau 13 Mac. This day is prominent in more
detailed calculations elsewhere in the Dresden Codex.
If we add to the same 1 Ahau 18 Kayab the number in E
2 we arrive at 1 Ahau 18 Uo recorded at the bottom of C.
Space permits no further explanation but the reader will
see from the foregoing the* method of experiment and
cross checking that must be applied to the decipherment
of the Mayan manuscripts. Fortunately, the relation-

1

2

5

6

9

10

13

East

*

North

*

West

*

South

Ill

3

4

7

8

11

12

14

God B

f

Woman

Good Days

God G

\

*

13

III 13

III 13

in

15

1

God E

Akbal

16

2

Week of
13 days

Men

17

3

God B— rain and sky

Goddess with serpent

God K — benevolent

Ahau

Manik

god of good powers.

'headdress possibly con-

sun god. If

space had

Ann/J,.

been larger '

inrl f aho

4

sign in his hand.

Holds Kan sign in hand.

maize god) would prob-

Cauac

ably have been drawn

next.

5

Chuen

13

LOJ

Plate XXI. (a) Detail of the Dresden Codex showing Tonal-
amatl used in Divination; (6) Analysis of the above Tonalamatl,
according to Forstemann.

120

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

ships of numbers are absolute and the coincidences
between the recorded numbers and astronomical periods
are too close and frequent to be dismissed as
accidental.

In addition to rational calculations dealing with astron-
omy one sees in the Mayan manuscripts many arrange-
ments of the tonalamatl supposed to bring to light good
and bad days and to forecast events. A section of the
Dresden Codex showing a condensed tonalamatl is pre-
sented along with a diagram of its parts. At the top and
right are seventeen hieroglyphs containing the symbols
of the four directions, and of at least three of the principal
gods. At the right is a column of five day signs with the
number 3 at the head of the column. The tonalamatl is
divided into five parts of fifty-two days each and each
part is subdivided into four groups of three days each.
It begins with 3 Akbal the day sign at the top of the col-
umn and after the four subdivisions of thirteen days each
have been counted we arrive at the day 3 Men, the second
day sign in the column. The count is repeated till the
260 days have been exhausted and we come back again
to 3 Akbal. In the diagram the red numbers of the codex
are represented by Roman numerals and the black num-
bers by Arabic numerals. Since the count in this ex-
ample begins with 3 and the addition is always 13, or
exactly one round of numbers the resultant days always
have the number 3.

The three pictures of gods give us an inkling into the
significance of this particular tonalamatl. All of the
gods carry the kan or maize sign in their hands. The
first god is the benevolent rain god and the third is
the benevolent sun god. Between them is seated
the malevolent goddess of floods with a serpent on her
head. The maize god is not showrn but his hieroglyph is
given. The tonalamatl probably deals with agriculture

122 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

and may be an attempt to determine lucky days for
planting.

Bases of Mayan Chronology. Several attempts
have been made to bring about a concordance of Mayan
and European chronology with widely varying results.
Most of these attempts were made by developing a single
line of evidence and some were based on assumptions
that can now be disproved. But no single line of evi-
dence should be deemed sufficient to decide this all im-
portant question. The general course of Mayan history
is indicated unmistakably by three principal lines of
evidence capable of being correlated with each other.
These are: —

1st, Natural developments of sculpture, architecture,
etc.

2nd, Inscribed dates on monuments.

3rd, Traditional history in the Bookgjof-OiilaiiJBalam.

A fourth important line of evidence remains to be de-
veloped in the future. This relates to astronomical
time. There is more than a suspicion that the Mayas
were able to predict eclipses and there is a strong possi-
bility that planetary conjunctions and other calculable
phenomena were also recorded. Astronomical checks
on chronology may possibly appear after a careful study
of the calculations relating to Venus.

Natural developments in sculpture, etc., validate the
contemporaneous and therefore historical character of
many inscribed dates. In fact, the relative chronology
of the cities of the first great Mayan period, coming over
600 years, is now upon a very certain basis. After the
close of this period the dates were no longer inscribed.
We are still able to indicate the course of change in the
arts but we cannot express this in terms of years. Fin-
ally, in the books of Chilan Balam we have a dependable
series of traditions affecting a considerable part of the

Plate XXII. Development in Style of Carving at Copan. Left
to right; Stela 9; Stela 5; Stela N; Stela H; bottom, Details of archi-
tecture showing analogous development.

123

124 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

\ Mayan nation over a stretch of 1400 years previous to
| the Spanish Conquest. Now it seems certain that the
traditional record overlaps the inscribed record so far as
definite dating is concerned while the natural develop-
ments give aid and comfort to the simplest and most di-
rect correlation.

Historical Development of Art. The sequence
of Mayan monuments can be determined from a study of
the style of sculpture. Beginning with the human form
we find at Copan a remarkably homogeneous series of
stelae on which a royal or priestly personage stands erect
and in front view. A Ceremonial Bar is held symmetri-
cally in the two arms and the body is partly covered with
rich and elaborate ornament. The amount of relief, the
proportions of the body, the forms of the Ceremonial
Bar, etc., all pass through a harmonious development.
The earliest monuments show a crude block-like carving
of the face, with protruding eyes, while the latest monu-
ments have fully rounded contours. At Tikal the stelae
show, for the most part, human figures in profile, but
unmistakable development can be seen in general quality
of carving as well as in specific details.

In making comparisons in art it is always necessary to
consider similar things. At many other Mayan cities
than the two named above it is possible to obtain satis-
factory evidence of sequence in art forms by cutting
out similar details from different masses. Thus at Nar-
anjo when we examine all the Ceremonial Bars we find a
remarkable development of flamboyant detail on the
later monuments. At Quirigua the faces on the tops of
the altars may be compared with the same result. At
Piedras Negras the heads of the Two-headed Dragon
that occur in exactly similar positions on four monuments
likewise show a steady modification towards flamboyancy

\\

Fig. 48. The Front Head of the Two-Headed Dragon on
Stela? at Piedras Negras showing the Increase in Flamboyant
Treatment. The interval between (a) and (6) is 125 years, that
between (6) and (c) is 45 years.

125

126

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

as may be seen from Fig. 48, where the front heads are

put side by side.

Still other lines of evidence on
historical sequence are to be gained
from a study of architecture. Not
only is it possible to determine the
general developments that hold
true of the entire Mayan area but
also in a given city it is sometimes
possible to arrange the buildings in
their order of erection according to
dependable criteria, both decorative
and structural.

The earliest temples have
narrow vaulted rooms, heavy walls,
and a single doorway. The rooms
increase in width, the walls de-
crease in thickness, the doorways
multiply till the
spaces between
them become
piers and finally
columns. The
support for the
heavy roof comb

Fig. 49. Grotesque
Face on the Back of
Stela B, Copan.

taxed the structural ingenuity of the
Mayan architects. The solving of this
problem is marked by successive ad-
vances and since mechanical science
goes forward rather than backward
the relative order of structures is
fairly certain. Moreover, many buildings are closely
associated with dated monuments, tablets, lintels, or
stelse. Still another evidence of architectural sequence
is seen in structures that have been enlarged by the ad-

Fig. 50. Jaguar in
Dresden Codex with
a Water Lily at-
tached to Forehead.

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION

127

dition of wings or by the enclosing of the old parts under

new masonry.
.^

Dated Monuments. We have seen that many
monuments carry hieroglyphic inscriptions containing
dates in the Mayan system of counting time. It is im-
possible to read the texts that accompany these dates.
But it is a remarkable fact
that when we arrange the
monuments in their artistic
order we find that the in-
scribed dates in the great
majority of cases fall in the
same order. This leads us
to conclude that the dates
are practically contempor-
aneous with the carving and
setting up of the monuments.
Now the above is especially
true when the inscription
gives a simple Initial Series
date. When more than one
date is given the historic
one appears in most instan-
ces to be the latest, but in
a few instances it appears to
be a specially emphasized
intermediate date. In addition, then, to contempor-
aneous dates there are some that refer to the past and
others that refer to the future.

Some writers have assumed that the stelse and other
inscribed monuments were primarily time markers set
up at the end of hotun (or five year) periods. This seems
an unnecessarily narrow view. We can demonstrate
that some inscriptions deal with astronomical facts cover-

Fig. 51. Late Sculpture
from Chichen Itza. The
headdress resembles that
worn by the rulers on the
highlands of Mexico.

128 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

ing long stretches of time. It is also apparent that many
of the sculptures represent conquests and it is extremely
likely that portraits of actual rulers are to be seen in cer-
tain carvings. It would be too much to expect events to
happen regularly at the end of time periods and as a
matter of fact we find at different cities repeated dates
that do not occupy such positions. These repeated
dates would seem to recall events of special importance
to the city in question.

The running co-ordination between the apparent order
of the artistic styles and inscribed dates permits us to
measure very accurately the rate of change which was
rapid, indeed, at certain times. The style of carving, on
the other hand, enables us to put into definite 52 year
periods many of the calendar round dates — if these are
to be regarded as contemporaneous. The result is that
for the First Empire, as it has been called, there is an ex-
ceedingly accurate chronology. After the fall and aban-
donment of the great southern cities dates are rare
and we have to fall back upon remnants of history pre-
served after the coming of the Spaniards.

i Books of Chilan Balam. The Books of Chilan
! Balam are digests of ancient chronicles preserved in the
, Mayan language but in Spanish script. The events are
/ recorded as occurring in such and such a katun. Now
the katun of these chronicles is exactly the same length
as the katun or fourth position in the ancient Initial Se-
ries dates (20x360 or 7200 days). All katuns are com-
pleted on a day Ahau which may have any number from
1 to 13. In the Kahlay katun ob or " record of the ka-
tuns, ' ' which gives the actual sequence of the terminal
Ahaus, the numbers fall as follows: 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1, 12,
10, 8, 6, 4, 2, after which there is a repeat. The time
covered by this wheel is 13 x 7200 or 93,600 days (almost

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 129

260 years). In the ancient long count the katuns also
ended with these days in the same order, but a month
name and position were also given while the katun was
designated by its coefficient. Thus 9-15-0-0-0 is ordin-
arily called Cycle 9, Katun 15. It ended with the day
4 Ahau 13 Yax. In the newer and less far-reaching sys-
tem of the Books of Chilan Balam, this katun would be
called simply Katun 4 Ahau.

Correlation with Christian Chronology. The

record of the Books of Chilan Balam extends back to
about 160 A. D. and while the early entries are not nu-
merous and the historical character is somewhat clouded
with mythology, we are given, nevertheless, material
upon which to base a correlation with European chrono-
logy. A single monument bearing an Initial Series date
exists at Chichen Itza, and if historical it must have
been carved during the early occupation of this city.
According to the chronicles, Chichen Itza was abandoned
soon after 600 A. D. and was not re-established till about
960 A. D. There is only place in the later katun se-
quence of the chronicles where the recorded katun of the
earlier system of the inscriptions can fall. For the In-
itial Series gives Cycle 10, Katun 2 and we know this
ended with a day 3 Ahau and must therefore be placed in
a Katun 3 Ahau. Now only one Katun 3 Ahau passed
during the first occupation of Chichen Itza. When this
correlation is made the count of the chronicles is shown
to begin with 9-0-0-0-0, a very significant "round num
ber " date that marks the beginning of Mayan greatness.

The correlation of the Mayan katun count of the Books,
of Chilan Balam with the European calendar is not as
definite as might be wished but the possibility^of-error
seems to be not greater than four or five years. Future
research will probably make it exact.

130 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Summary of Mayan History. A brief summary
of Mayan history is given below:—

PROTOHISTORIC PERIOD
Before 160 A.D.— 9-0-0-0-0.

During this period the calendar and hieroglyphic
systems were being developed. The earliest date
is the somewhat doubtful one on the Tuxtla Stat-
uette (113 B. C.). The next earliest date is the
assured one on the Leiden Plate (47 A. D.). A very
early monument at a site in northern Guatemala called
Uaxactun has recently been discovered by Mr. S. G.
Morley. The date, 8-14-10-13-15 falls within the
limits set for this period.

i^-V'-jj.*- >

EARLY PERIOD
160 A.D. to 358 A.D.— 9-0-0-0-0 to 9-10-0-0-0.

During this period the great cities of the south
had their start. Enormous mounds were erected and
temples were built upon them. Public squares were
laid out and in these were set up stelae and altars. The
earliest dated monument (except for the one referred to
above) is Stela 3 at Tikal, 214 A. D. Several monuments
at this city are carved in a still earlier style. Copan fol-
lows with Stela 15 which has a date thirty-seven years
later. The carving throughout this period is crude and
angular. The profile presentation of the human figure
is better handled by the early artists than is front view
presentation. The principal conventions of Mayan art
seem to have been fixed during the protohistoric period
and the serpent was much used as a motive of decoration
during the archaic period. It seems likely that the archaic

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 131

pottery art of the arid highlands, discussed in the
previous chapter, was still being made when Mayan art
began its remarkable rise. The transitional types are
doubtless to be assigned to the first three centuries of
the Christian Era.

MIDDLE PERIOD
358 A.D. to 455 A.D.— 9-10-0-0-0 to 9-15-0-0-0.

Some of the most beautiful works of art belong to the
middle period. While archaism did not actually dis-
appear till the end of this period there is a certain
purity of style and straightforwardness of presentation
about many of these early sculptures. Flamboyancy
is not apparent. At Copan the Great Mound was begun
during this period and this enormous undertaking doubt-
less absorbed so much energy that few stela? were set
up. The best series of monuments from the middle
period are seen at Naranjo and Piedras Negras.

GREAT PERIOD
455 A.D to 600 A.D.

A short brilliant period followed in which many cities
flourished. In addition to the cities already mentioned
there were Quirigua, Ixkun, Seibal, Holmul, Nakum,
Cancuen, Yaxchilan, Palenque, etc. The art passes
through some interesting changes, becoming more com-
plex in certain features and less complex in others. The
architecture makes great advances. Rooms become
wider, walls thinner, and forms more refined and pleasing.
The calculations in the inscriptions deal more and more
with complicated astronomical subjects and historical
Initial Series dates become less and less common and

132 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

finally cease. Many dates of the calendar round and
period ending types are given. This brilliant epoch
seems to have come to an end through civil war and
social decadence. The references in the chronicles to
this early period are very brief. The settlement of
Bacalar is stated as well as the discovery of Chichen Itza.
An Initial Series inscription at the later site gives us one
of our latest historical dates and permits the correla-
tion of the ancient dates with European chronology.

TRANSITION PERIOD
600 A. D. to 960 A. D.

The early Mayan cities seem to have been abandoned
about 600 A.D. and a general shift towards the north
seems to have taken place. Architecture was still kept
up but pictorial sculpture practically disappeared.
Certain cities south of Uxmal probably date from this
decadent period, examples being Hochob and Dsibilno-
cac. At Xcalumkin there is an Initial Series date
which may refer to about 910 A.D. The architectural
styles form the only evidence of artistic sequence availa-
ble, although if excavations were conducted it is possible
that pottery would also help. In the chronicles this
period falls, for the most part, after the first abandon-
ment of Chichen Itza and while the Mayas were hold-
ing the land of Chakanputun. This land may be the
central portion of the Yucatan peninsula.

PERIOD OF THE LEAGUE OF MAYAPAN
960 A. D. to 1195 A. D.

This period is characterized by a noteworthy re-
vival of architecture occurring in northern Yucatan.

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 133

According to the chronicles the land of Chakanputun
was abandoned by the tribe of Mayas known as the
Itzas and Chichen Itza was re-established. About
the same time Uxmal and Mayapan were also
founded and a league between these three principal
cities was instituted. Many other cities, such as
Kabah, Labna, Sayil, and Izamal also seem to have
flourished at this time but we have no traditions of any
except Izamal. The architectural styles of decoration
during this period are more formal than those of earlier
times. The mask panel, a face reduced to a rectangular
area and built up mosaic-like out of separately carved
blocks, is the most important motive but there is also
a great use of geometric figures such as fret meanders,
banded columns, and imitation diagonal lattice work.
At Uxmal and Chichen Itza are found highly modified
and scarcely recognizable examples of profile mask
panels such as occur in realistic forms in earlier cities.
Several of the large communal buildings show different
stages of growth.

PERIOD OF MEXICAN INFLUENCE
1195 A. D. to 1442 A. D.

This period lies between the first serious outbreak
of civil war under the league of the three cities and
the final destruction of Mayapan about a hundred
years before the Spaniards settled at Merida. The civil
war was begun by a warrior called Hunac Ceel and
Chichen Itza was loser. This chief seems to have called
for aid upon seven foreigners with Mexican names . These
foreigners may have later acquired Chichen Itza as the
spoils of war. There is no definite statement to this
effect, but the architecture and art of Chichen Itza

134 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

show a great and sudden influx of new ideas that are
characteristic of the Valley of Mexico. No other city
of this region has so many of these intrusive features.
An instance is the Great Ball Court with its connected
temples. The ball court is found in many Mexican
cities where it had a strong religious significance but it
is absent from any of the great Mayan cities with the
exception of Chichen Itza and Uxmal. Sculptures and
hieroglyphs in the style of the Mexican highlands also
occur in quantity at Chichen Itza. No one can state
definitely the length of this Toltecan supremacy on
Mayan soil, but it probably was not for long and pos-
sibly came to an end before the middle of the fourteenth
century. The cities in the Valley of Mexico to which
this intrusive culture is to be ascribed are those of the
Toltecan period, such as Tula, Teotihuacan, and
Cholula.

MODERN PERIOD
1442 to the present day

After the fall of Mayapan, the Mayas seem to have
been divided into many w^arring factions. All the great
cities were abandoned although the temples were still
regarded as sacred. Of course, stone construction was
still prevalent as we know from some of the Spanish
descriptions of towns on the coast. Learning was still
maintained by the nobles and the priests. But there
was not the centralized authority necessary for the
keeping of such luxurious capitals as existed in the old
days. The Itzas, in part at least, returned to one of
their ancient seats in the south, founding the island
town of Tayasal in Lake Peten. Here Mayan culture
was preserved until 1696. At the present time certain
ancient ideas still persist as has already been stated in
connection with the ethnology of the Lacandone Indi-

THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION 135

ans. Upon the western highlands there are preserved
traditions which concern the Quiches, Cakchiquels, and
other Mayan tribes, but the history does not go back for
more than two hundred years before the Spanish con-
quest. All in all, there is little to be said in favor of the
frequent plaint that the coming of the white man
snuffed out a culture that promised great things. The
golden days of the Mayan civilization had already
passed, and, if we may judge by the history of other
nations, would never have returned.

CHAPTER III
THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS

THE influence of the Mayan civilization when at its
height (400 to 600 A. D.) may be traced far beyond
the limits of the Mayan area. Ideas in art, religion,
and government that were then spread broadcast
served to quicken nations of diverse speech and a series
of divergent cultures resulted. Most of these lesser
civilizations were at their best long after the great
Mayan civilization had declined, but one or two were
possibly contemporary. It will be the aim in the
present chapter to emphasize the indebtedness of these
lesser civilizations to the Mayas as well as to com-
ment upon their individual characters.

We will first proceed northwest into Mexico and then
southeast into the Isthmus of Panama. The environ-
ment under which the Mayas developed their arts of
life continues in narrowing bands westward along the
Gulf of Mexico and southward across the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec. The most westerly Mayan city of im-
portance seems to have been Comalcalco. But there
is also a large ruin near San Andres Tuxtla and it may
be significant that the earliest dated object of the Mayas
(the Tuxtla Statuette) came from this region. In other
words, the cradle of Mayan culture may have been in
this coastal belt where arid and humid conditions exist
side by side and where the figurines of the archaic type
are found together with those of the Mayas. Unfortun-
ately, the archseology of this part of Mexico has been
little studied and we are compelled to go farther up the
coast, to the Totonacs or farther inland to the Zapotecs
before we can find material for study.

137

£

I

if

138

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 139

Zapotecan Culture. In the state of Oaxaca the
Zapotecan Indians attained to a high degree of civiliza-
tion but a study of their art shows that they were
greatly indebted to the Mayas for decorative motives.
Monte Alban, the principal archaeological site in point
of size seems also to be the most ancient. Stelse are

Fig. 52. Comparison of Mayan and Zapotecan Serpent
Heads. The first two examples are from Palenque and the second
two from Monte Alban.

found at this city, as well as narrow vaulted chambers.
The crest of a mountain overlooking the beautiful
valley of Oaxaca is l^v-eled and terraced and laid out
in courts surrounded by pyramids. The sides of all
structures are aligned with the four directions of the
compass. The temples which once crowned the pyra-
mids have fallen into ruin and only here and there is it
possible to discern the outline of simple cell-like rooms
that probably had flat roofs.

Unfortunately, no traditions have come down to us
to help in the restoration of Zapotecan history. Al-
though the art was pretty clearly derived from the
Mayas it nevertheless developed some interesting
characters of its own. Sculptured slabs are found in a
number of localities besides Monte Alban, but only at
this ruin are they in situ and of great size. The typical
Zapotecan pottery is found at Monte Alban but the
most elaborate forms are found at other and apparently
later ruins. Zapotecan art in stone flourished in a
restricted area and only one ruin outside the Valley

140

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 141

of Oaxaca offers striking similarities to it. This is the
famous ruin of Xochicalco_jsituated about five hours
ride from Cuernavaca. 'Whether any historical con-
nection ever existed between Monte Alban and Xochi-
calco must be decided by future exploration.

The hieroglyphs that are found on the stelse of Monte
Alban often strongly resemble those of the Mayas.
The same use of bars and dots for numerals is to be

ooo

Fig. 53. Bar and Dot Numerals combined with Hieroglyphs
on Zapotecan Monuments.

noted and it even seems possible to transcribe some of
the signs into the Mayan system. Lintels with lines
of hieroglyphs on the outer edge have been found at
Cuilapa and Xoxo. Those of the latter site seem to
have degenerated into meaningless decorative forms.

In Zapotecan funerary urns a close connection with
Mayan art can easily be demonstrated. The urns are
cylindrical vessels concealed behind elaborate figures
built up from moulded and modeled pieces. Many of
these built-up figures clearly represent human beings
while others represent grotesque divinities or human
beings wearing the masks of divinities. The purely
human types have a formal modeling in high relief, the
head usually being out of proportion to the rest of the
body. The pose is ordinarily a seated one with the
hands resting on the knees or folded over the breast.
Details of dress are very clearly shown including capes,
girdles, aprons, or skirts and headdresses. Necklaces
are often worn with a crossbar pendant to which shells

Pottery, Plate XXV. Zapotecan Incense Burners, and Funerary
Urns.

142

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 143

are attached. Headdresses are made of feathers and
grotesque faces and are often very elaborate. As for
the divine types the jaguar and a long-nosed reptile are
the most common. The latter has a human body and
may possibly be an adaptation of the Mayan Long-
nosed God.

The funerary urns are found in burial mounds called
mogotes which contain cell-like burial chambers. The
urns are not found within these cells but on the floor in
front of them, in a niche over the door or even on the
roof. They are frequently encountered in groups of
five and seem never to contain offerings.

Other Zapotecan pottery is mostly made of the same
bluish clay used in the urns. This clay is finely
adapted to plastic treatment but never carries painted
designs. The pottery products include pitchers of
beautiful and unusual shapes, dishes with tripod legs
modeled into serpent heads, incense burners, bowls,
plates, etc. Of the same clay are also made whistles in
realistic forms, and moulded figurines. Painted pot-
tery also occurs in forms and designs of rare beauty,
but it is much less characteristic of the Zapotecan
province than the unpainted ware.

Carved jades of splendid workmanship have been
recovered in the Zapotecan region and there is reason
to believe that this semi-precious stone was obtained
here in the natural state. Many of the pieces are
smoothed only on the front, while the back retains its
old weathered and stream-worn surface. Beautiful
examples of gold work have also been found in this
region.

The ruins of Mitla are described in a later section
since they came within the sphere of influence of the
Aztecs. Codices ascribed to southern Mexico will also

Plate XXVI. (a) Sculpture of Stone of the
Period showing Rulers seated upon Thrones before
Tablets pierced for Suspension, found in Zapotec

Jade

144

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 145

be considered at that time. It may not be out of place,
however, to discuss briefly here the religion and time
counts of the Zapotecans.

The high priests of the Zapotecans were called
"Seers" and the ordinary priests were "Guardians of
the Gods" and "Sacrificers." There was a sort of
priestly college where the sonsof^chiefs were trained
in the service of the gods. [The religious practices
included incense burning, sacrificing of birds, and ani-
mals, and letting of one's own blood by piercing the
tongue and the ear. Human sacrifice was made on
stated occasions and was attended by rites of great
solemnity. The Zapotecs never went to the blood
excesses that stain the annals of the AztecsTJ

The 260 day cycle of the time count, was subdivided
into four periods of 65 days and each period was under
control of a single god and was associated with one of
the cardinal points. Each period of sixty -five days was
further divided into five groups of thirteen days for
a ceremonial reason. Some authorities have con-
sidered that the general form of the Central American
calendar originated in the region of the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec and spread to the north and to the south.
But dependable history in the Mayan area goes back
much farther than in the Zapotecan region and renders
such a guess extremely hazardous.

Totonacan Culture. In the central part of the
state of Vera Cruz are found the remains commonly
referred to the Totonacan Indians. These Indians are
southern neighbors of the Huastecas who are an outly-
ing Mayan tribe. The Totonacan language is accord-
ing to some authorities thrown into the Mayan stock.
If not truly Mayan it contains many loan words. This
apparent connection in language is all the more inter-

146 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

\

esting in view of the character of Totonacan art which
also shows a strong strain of Mayan feeling and tech-
nique in certain products but an unmistakable likeness
to the archaic art of the Mexican highlands in certain
other products. The pottery faces in the archaic style
are advanced beyond the average of such work and
probably represent a late phase. It is possible to bring
forward examples of every degree of transition from the

Fig. 54. The Eyes of Totonacan Figurines.

archaic style to the classical Mayan of Tabasco and
Chiapas. Curiously enough, it does not seem possible
to extend these linking likenesses to the Huastecas.

A series of eyes showing Totonacan modifications of
the styles prevalent on the archaic pottery heads of the
Highlands is given in Fig. 54. In some cases we find the
simple single or double groove eyes and in other cases
these eyes are made more conspicuous by the use of
black bituminous paint. The eyeball is developed at
the end of the series.

The smiling or laughing faces have a much higher
technique and are perhaps the finest examples of clay
modeling from the New World. These heads have
tubular extensions at the back and were possibly set into
temple walls. The faces and foreheads are broadened
in accordance with the esthetic type of a forehead flat-
tening people. While the faces vary so much in minor
details as to create the impression that they are por-
traits of actual persons they are alike in method of
modeling. Nearly all are laughing or smiling in a very
contagious fashion. Sometimes the tip of the tongue is

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS

147

caught between the teeth, sometimes the corners of the
mouth are pulled down as if the smile were reluctant,
and there are other individual variations in the expres-
sions of lovelv and unrestrained mirth.

Plate XXVII. Laughing Head of the Totonacs, remarkable
example of Freehand Modeling in Clay. Heads of this type
probably served as decorative details on temple fronts.

Perhaps the most famous objects found in Totonacan
territory are the so-called "stone collars" or "sacri-
ficial yokes." In size and shape these resemble horse
collars, but in contrast to somewhat similar objects from

148

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 149

Porto Rico they are usually open while the latter are
closed. Nothing is really known concerning their use
but there has been no lack of fanciful surmises. The
most popular explanation is that the yok£s were placed
over the necks of victims about to be sacrificed. It is
evident that the yokes were intended to be placed in a
horizontal position because there is a plain lower surface
and the ends are frequently carved with faces that are
right side up only when the plain side is down. These
yokes represent the richest and most elaborate works of
art in the entire region since they are carved in the most
finished manner from single blocks of exceedingly hard
stone.

Other peculiarly shaped stones are found in the
Totonacan area and are carved according to the same
splendid technique. The "paddle-shaped" stones have
been found in considerable numbers and their use, like
that of the stone yokes is absolutely unknown. It is
evident from the carving that they were intended to be
stood on end.

The designs on the sacrificial yokes and paddle stones
are largely reptilian, but there are examples where the
turkey, the coyote, as well as the human motive are
treated somewhat after the manner of the Mayas. In
fact there can be little doubt that the best period of
Totonacan art corresponded pretty closely to the best
period of Mayan art. The most important site is
Papantla where a remarkably ornate pyramid rising in
six terraces may be seen, as well as massive sculptures in
the same style as the works of art described above. The
front wall of each terrace on all four sides of the pyra-
mid, except for the space occupied by the stairway is
divided into a series of niches neatly made of cut stone.
Formerly each of these niches may have served to

150 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

shelter the statue of some god. Many fine remains of
Totonacan art have been recovered from the Island of
Sacrifices in the harbor of Vera Cruz. This island
retained its ancient sacrificial character in the time of
the Spanish conquerors. It is apparent, however, that
the culture had already changed greatly if we may
judge by the ruins of Cempoalan, the Totonacan capital
in the sixteenth century. The art of this city is largely
Aztecan.

The ToltCCS. The first peoples to appear in Mexi-
can history are the Olmecs and Toltecs. Tales o^
ancient splendor cluster about them, but there is a woe-
ful lack of definite information concerning their origin
and the extent of their dominion xLSome authorities see^.
in the Olmecs a Mayan tribe that once inhabited the]
region east and southeast of the Valley of Mexico and
who were afterwards driven out. But it seems more
likely that both the Olmecs and the Toltecs were tribes
of Nahuan rather than Mayan stock and that they were
merelv the first of the Highlanders to feel the quickening

t C-* A O

effect of Mayan contact-J Both terms were probably
generalized by the later nations far beyond their original
significance. The Toltecs derived their name from Tula
or Tollan, which was only one of several cities that
flourished during the Toltecan period. Whether all
these cities were ever bonded into a political whole is a
question that cannot now be answered.

Owing to the lack of a "long count" the dates in
Toltecan history are few and uncertain. The Mexican
document with the longest range of history is the Annals
of Quauhtitlan in which the count of years goes back in
a practically unbroken series to 635 A.D. Still earlier
dates are indicated. For instance, the legendary
departure from Chiconoztoc, the Seven Caves, is

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 151

placed for the Chichimecas as 364 years (7 x 52) before
their settlement in 687 at Quauhtitlan. An annotation
on the manuscript reading: "6 times 4 centuries, plus
1 century plus 13 years, today the 22nd of May, 1558"
has been taken to summarize the scope of the original.
The "centuries" are of course the native "cycles" of
52 years and the total on this basis amounts to 1313
years which subtracted from 1558 would carry us back
to 245 A.D\

While this chronicle concerns itself mostly with the
lowly Chichimecas who did not become important until \
after the downfall of Toltecan power, still what pur-
ports to be a genealogy of the rulers of Tula is also given.
From other sources, such as the writings of Fernando de
Alva Ixtlilxochitl, we are able to gain a little additional
light on some of the Toltecan chiefs. /The person of
Quetzalcoatl in this history is endowed with super-
natural qualities and it is not unlikely that he was a
great religious teacher. Of course, the name is also
applied to one of the important deities and this fact has •
doubtless led to much of the confusion that existsj
(Under Huemac, the last of the Toltecan chiefs, witcl>
craft and human sacrifice appear to have laid the ground
for oppression and war._^

SUMMARY OF TOLTECAN HISTORY

726 Toltecs establish their government in Cuxhuacan.

752 Mixcoamacatzin is elected chief.

817 Mixcoamacatzin dies and is succeeded by Huetzin.

835 Huetzin dies and is succeeded by Ihuitimal.

843 The miraculous birth of Quetzalcoatl takes place.

870 Quetzalcoatl arrive's at Tullanzinco and performs rites.

873 Ihuitimal dies and Quetzalcoatl is made ruler.

883 Quetzalcoatl, the lesser, dies. Temple building.

895 Quetzalcoatl dies and is succeeded by Matlaxochitl who moves

the government to Tula.

930 Matlaxochitl dies and is followed by Nauhyotzin.

945 Nauhyotzin is succeeded by Matlacoatzin.

973 Matlacoatzin is succeeded by Tlilcoahuatzin.

152 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

994 Tlilcoahuatzin dies and the famous Huemac takes the power. The

wicked magic of his queen.
1018 The great starvation takes place.

1058 Many strange things happen in Tula. The demons arrive.

1059 Two armies attack the population. Despotism begins. First

sacrifice of nobles.

1063 War wages. The Otomies attack — the skins of slain warriors are

first worn.

1064 Tula under Huemac is destroyed because of the wicked magic.

The people disperse.

1070 The power of Tula broken completely, Huemac commits suicide in
Chapultepec.

Some authorities shift the entire series of dates in this
summary backward one 52 year period, making the
first dale 674 A. D. and the last one 1018 A. D. This
seems unjustifiable in view of the continuous counting
of every year in this chronicle down to the coming of the
Spaniards in 1519.

Of course this summary does not actually cover the
range of Toltecan history. Such cities as Teotihuacan
and Xochicalco may well have seen their prime before
Tula became important while certain other popula-
tions such as Colhuacan, Atzcapotzalco and Cholula
doubtless carried the civilization of the Toltecs down
into times much later than the suicide of Huemac.
Checking up Mexican dates with the more accurate,
chronology of the Mayas it may be pointed out that
the period of Mexican influence in Northern Yucatan
seems to have begun about 1200 A. D. The Mexican
mercenaries who enlisted in the aid of Mayapan
defeated the ruling house at Chichen Itza in the tenth
year of Katun 8 Ahau, or about 1196 A. D. This date
is 126 years after the recorded downfall of Tula, yet cer-
tain structural and decorative details of the buildings
erected at Chichen Itza by these foreign overlords find
their closest analogues at Tula. Other details point to
the somewhat later epoch of Tezcoco. Curiously
enough, no record of this far-reaching conquest seems
to have been preserved on the highlands of Mexico. .

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 153

Archaeology tells a more convincing tale as regards
the Toltecs than does history herself. In the stratified
remains at Atzcapotzalco the objects made by the
Toltecs overlie those of the first potters of the Archaic
Period and are in striking contrast to them. The prin-
cipal motives seen in Toltecan decorative art owe an
obvious debt to the earlier and more brilliant work of
the Mayas.

The pyramids of the Toltecs exceed in size those of
the Mayas, but are of inferior construction, adobe bricks
with concrete facings taking the place of rubble and
cut stone. The temples that crowned these pyramids
were also of less solid character and no single example
is now intact. Vaulted ceilings do not appear to have
been used, but instead flat, timbered ceilings or high
pitched roofs of thatch. Sometimes two or more
columns were placed within the room to support the roof
beams. The groundplans of buildings other than
temples, show small rooms arranged in an irregular
fashion around courts.

A ceremonial game that resembled basket ball was
an important feature of Toltecan religion. Two rings
were set vertically in the walls that flanked a level
space and the object of the game was to make the rub-
ber ball pass through one of the rings. This sacred
game spread far and wide. It was introduced into
northern Yucatan and the most elaborate ball court of
all was built at Chichen Itza. / Another special feature
of Toltecan religion was the worship of the sun disk
which was passed on to the later civilizations of Mexico,
and which likewise was carried to Yucatan.] Prayers
are commonly represented in Toltecan sculptures by the
device of the "speech scroll" which issues from the
mouth of the speaker and pictures forth what his
desires are.

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 155

Xochicalco. Let us now pass over in brief review
several ruins which belong to the Toltecan period.
Xochicalco, the House of the Flowers, is a large ruin
near Cuernavaca. The position seems to have been
chosen primarily for defense. The rounded ridge that
drops off into deep valleys on either side is laid out in
courts, terraces, and pyramids. Only one building
offers evidence of the sculptural skill of the ancient
habitants. It is a temple, standing upon a rather low
platform mound. The sides of the platform mound
are decorated with great plumed serpents, seated human
figures, hieroglyphs, etc. Parts of the sculptures also
remain on the low walls of the temples itself which is
now roofless. The stone carving at Xochicalco re-
sembles that of Monte Alban especially as regards the
hieroglyphs.

San Juan Teotihuacan. The great ruin of
Teotihuacan is located on the eastern margin of the
Valley of Mexico. The principal features of Teotihuacan
are two great pyramids and a straight roadway lined
with small pyramids. There are also several groups
of buildings of which the lower walls and the bases of the
piers are still to be seen as well as some interesting
fragments of fresco painting. The smaller of the two
great pyramids is called the Pyramid of the Moon.
It is located at the end of the roadway which is com-
monly called the Pathway of the Dead. The Pyramid
of the Sun is situated on the east side of the roadway.
This pyramid is about 180 feet in height and rises in
four sloping terraces. The temple which formerly
crowned its summit has entirely disappeared. Explo-
rations conducted by the Mexican government showed
that this pyramid was enlarged from time to time and
old stairways buried under new masonry. On the

Plate XXX. (a) The Temple at Xochicalco after Restoration by
the Mexican Government; (6) Partial View of the Great Pyramid at
Cholula which Rises from the Level Plain in Three Broad Terraces.
A Spanish church has been built upon the top of this pyramid and a
roadway leads up the badly eroded mound.

156

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS

157

south side of the small stream that flows through the
ruins is a group of buildings called the Citadel.

A few large sculptures have been found at Teoti-
huacan. But the site is chiefly remarkable for pottery
figurines and heads that are picked up by thousands.
The heads present such a marked variety of facial
contour and expression that it would seem as if every
race under the sun had served as models. It is very
likely that these heads formed part
of votive offerings, beings attached
to bodies made of some perishable
material. The heads were seldom
used to adorn pottery vessels, al-
though many modern and fraudu-
lent vases are so adorned. Dolls
with head and torso in one piece
and with movable arms and legs
made of separate pieces were
known. The face of Tlaloc, the
Rain God, is fairly common in
Teotihuacan pottery but other
deities have not surely been identi-
fied. It is not improbable that the
God of Fire is personified as an old
Fig. 55. Jointed man with wrinkled face, and that

Doll of Clay from San xipe, Lord of the Flayed, is repre-
Juan Teotihuacan. _ . , „ ,11

sented in the faces that look out

through the three holes of a mask. The jaguar, the
monkey, the owl, and other animals are also modeled
with excellent fidelity. The Mayan convention of the
human face in the open jaws of the serpent is not un-
known.

A number of beautiful vases painted in soft greens,
pinks, and yellows have been recovered at Teotihuacan.

158 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

These colors would not stand the kiln and they were
applied after the vessel had been burned. According
to one method, the outside of the vessel was covered
with a fine coating of plaster upon which the design
was painted exactly as in fresco. According to a second
method the effect of cloisonne was cleverly achieved.
This technique is most characteristic of the region
northwest of the Valley of Mexico and will be described
later. Incised or engraved designs are commonly met
with on pottery vessels at Teotihuacan.

Tula. The ancient city of Tula or Tollan, the
Place of the Reeds, is situated about fifty miles north of
Mexico City. Building stone of good quality was avail-
able at this site and in consequence sculptures are more
plentiful than at Teotihuacan. Particularly famous are
the great sculptured columns which represent feathered
serpents and gigantic human figures. The drums are
mostly mortised and the columns are crowned by true
capitals. These architectural features at Tula find their
closest counterpart at the Mayan city of Chichen Itza
in northern Yucatan. The tlachtli or ball court occurs
at Tula and the groundplans of complicated "palaces"
can also be made out.

Gholula. The sacred city of Cholula, in the en-
virons of Puebla, is chiefly famous for its great pyramid.
This structure is more or less irregular in shape but the
base averages more than a thousand feet on the side and
the total height, now somewhat reduced, was probably
close to two hundred feet above the plain. Compared
with the Pyramid of Cheops, it covers nearly twice as
much ground and has a much greater volume, but lacks
of course, in height. As already noted, the pyramids of
the New World are simply foundations for temples and
thus always have flat tops. The great mound of Cholu-.

W

Plate XXXI. (a) Pottery Plates from Cholula with Decorations
in Several Colors. The pottery of Cholula ranks high in design and
color; (6) A View at La Quemada. Cylindrical columns built up of
slabs of stone supported the roofs of some of the structures. The
use of columns was characteristic of late Toltecan times.

159

160 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

la is a solid mass of adobe bricks of uniform size laid in
adobe mortar. The pyramid was evidently faced with
a thick layer of cement of which a few patches still
remain. Two other large mounds exist at Cholula. One
of these has been partially destroyed and now stands as
a vertical mass of adobe bricks while the other is over-
grown with brush and cactus.

Unlike the other Toltecan cities Cholula was still in-
habited and a place of religious importance when Cortez,
arrived in Mexico. But the figurines and pottery ves-
sels that are found at this site belong for the most part
to an epoch earlier than that of the Aztecs. Quetzal-
coatl was the patron deity of Cholula and in the decor-
ative art the serpent is finely conventionalized. A pot-
tery shape frequently met with at Cholula is the flat
plate bearing polychrome designs.

The Frontier Cities of the Northwest. An im-
portant culture area is located upon the northwestern,
limits of the area of high culture in ancient Mexico.
The best known and most accessible ruin is La Quema-
da, "The Burned" which is situated a day's ride from
the city of Zacatecas. This site was found in a de-
serted and ruinous condition by the Spaniards in 1535
and there is little doubt that it had been abandoned
several centuries previous. La Quemada has been
popularly associated with Chiconoztoc, "The Seven
Caves," a place famous in Aztecan mythology, but this
association rests upon no scientific basis. It is simply
an unauthoritative attempt to invest a forgotten city
with a legendary interest. Chiconoztoc, where the
Aztecs came out of the underworld might be compared
with our own Garden of Eden and its exact location is
just as much an eternal riddle. La Quemada is a ter-
raced hill resembling Monte Alban and Xochicalco.

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 161

The retaining walls of terraces and pyramids as well
as the walls of buildings are still well preserved. These
walls consist of slabs of stone set in a mortar of red
earth. Perhaps the most noteworthy structure is a
wide hall containing seven columns built of slabs of
stone in the same manner as the walls. All in all the
architectural types as well as the observed contacts in
art point to a late epoch of the Toltecan period. Other
ruins of the same character as La Quemada occur at
Chalchihuites on the frontier of Durango and at
Totoate, etc., in northern Jalisco.

The most important artistic product from this north-
western region is a peculiar kind of pottery which might
be described as cloisonne or encaustic ware. Exam-
ination shows that this pottery was first burned in the
usual way so that it acquired a red or orange color.
Then the surface was covered with a layer of greenish or
blackish pigment to the depth of perhaps a sixteenth of
an inch. A large part of this surface layer was then
carefully cut away with a sharp blade in such a way that
the remaining portions outlined certain geometric and
realistic figures. The sunken spaces, from which the
material had just been removed, were then filled in
flush with red, yellow, white, and green pigments. The
designs on this class of pottery are thus mosaics in which
the different colors are separated by narrow lines of a
neutral tint. The geometric motives show a marked use
of the terrace, the fret, and the scroll. The realistic sub-
jects are presented in a highly conventionalized manner
and have few stylistic similarities to the figures from the
Valley of Mexico. Representative collections of this
ware from Totoate, already referred to, and from Estan-
suela, a hacienda near Guadalajara are on exhibition.

Cloisonne pottery of a somewhat different style
sometimes occurs at Toltecan sites in the Valley of

162 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Mexico, such as Tula, Teotihuacan, and Atzcapotzalco,
but fresco pottery which resembles it at first glance is
more characteristic. It appears that the cloisonne
process was taken over from the embellishment of
gourd dishes in connection with which it still exists
over a large part of Mexico and Central America
(Michoacan to Guatemala).

Fig. 56. Vessel with "Cloisonne" Decoration in Heavy
Pigments. This example comes from a mound at Atzca-
potzalco and apparently dates from late Toltecan times.

Another process taken over from gourd decoration
is that of negative painting. This likewise still exists
as regards gourd dishes although discontinued as re-
gards pottery. Negative painting appears to be an
ancient process of exceedingly wide distribution. It
is especially common in Jalisco and Michoacan, the
Valley of Toluca, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama, and
Colombia, and sometimes occurs in Yucatan and Peru.
The process was to paint the design in wax or some

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 163

other soluble or combustible paint, then to cover the
entire surface with a permanent paint. When the pot
was burned the design came out in the natural color
of the clay against a black, or sometimes a red field.

Fig. 57. The Turtle Motive as developed in Negative Painting
with Wax at Totoate, Jalisco.

The design was often made two layers deep by applying
simple masses of red over the sizing before the imper-
manent paint of the design proper was put on. In
the northwestern region of central Mexico now under
consideration the negative painting technique is asso-
ciated with conventionalized designs representing tur-

164

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

ties (Fig. 57). Another ware with designs in white is
concerned with derivatives of the turtle motive. Then
there are the remarkable copper bells in the form of
turtles made by coiling, that have been found in

nearby Michoacan.

It is difficult to
place time limits for
the artistic styles that
once existed in this
northwestern region.
The archaic culture
seems to have lasted
longer here than far-
ther south, next fol-
lowed the northern
flow of Toltecan cul-
ture which later re-
ceded and finally came
a rather thin layer of
Chichimecan or Az-
tecan culture. We
may tentatively con-
clude that the forgotten cities of the Zacatecan sub-
culture flourished after 1000 A. D. The question
should be settled because of its connection with the
dating of Pueblo ruins farther north.

Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa. The peculiar
stone sculptures of Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa and a
number of adjacent sites in southern Guatemala and
western Salvador have been accredited to the Pipiles, a
southern Nahuan tribe. This local culture probably
flourished long after the Mayan cities of the south had
been abandoned and while the Toltecs in the north were
at the height of their power. The art shows many f ea-

Fig. 58. Jaguar Head on Disk-
Shaped Stone. Salvador.

i

Plate XXXII. Stone Slab from an Ancient Sepulcher in the
State of Guerrero. The face at the top apparently represents a
monkey, but serpents have been introduced between the eyes and

the eyebrows. The other highly conventionalized faces are

probably those of serpents.

165

166 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

tures similar to that of the Mexican highlands. Human
sacrifice is prominently figured in the sculptures.
There are also scrolls which issue from the mouths and
stand for speech. Divinities are sometimes shown at
the tops of the sculptured slabs in the mouths of rep-
tiles and to these divinities the priests standing below
make offerings.

A peculiar type of pottery centered in southern Guate-
mala and western Salvador from which region it was
distributed far and wide by trade. Although a few
examples of this ware are found at Copan it is clear from
the designs that most of the pieces belong to a time
subsequent to the abandonment of this Mayan city.
The ware has a semi-glaze which is the result of lead
in the clay. Because paint could not be applied to this
ware, esthetic idea of shape was allowed to develop
itself without hindrance.

The Chorotegan Culture. Passing south from
the Mayan area we find in Salvador and Central Honduras
archaeological objects that can hardly be distinguished
from the classical products of Copan. Still farther
south remains are found of a rich and in many ways
peculiar art — consisting almost entirely of pottery and
minor stone carvings — that centers about the southern
end of Lake Nicaragua and the Gulf of Nicoya. It
may be ascribed principally to tribes speaking the
Chiapanecan language and it may be fittingly called
Chorotegan after one of the principal tribes.

Close analysis shows that many of the decorative
motives in Chorotegan art were developed from those
of the Mayas. The serpent and the monkey furnish
the majority of the designs that are surely Mayan but
each of these is carried so far away from the original
that only an expert can see the connections. The arms

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS

167

and legs of the monkeys are lengthened and given an
extra number of joints while the heads degenerate into
circles. The tongues of the serpents are elongated and

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Will.

: HI

Fig. 59. Front View and Profile View Serpent Heads in Chorote-
gan Art. Although derived from Mayan models they have under-
gone great changes and have become highly conventionalized.

bent downward at the end. All the open spaces are
treated with scallops or fringes of short lines.

There is also in Chorotegan art a crocodilian motive
that may be peculiar to the Isthmian region although
it has Mayan affinities. The jaguar is also important
in this ancient art. Among the most interesting vases
are those that have a modeled head projecting from one
side (jaguar, monkey, or bird) and two of the three
legs of the vessel modified into animal legs. On these
elaborate vessels there are bands of painted decoration
most concerned with the crocodile.

168

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

The extremely elaborate metates (stones upon which
maize was ground) from southern Nicaragua and north-
ern Costa Rica probably were made by the producers of
the peculiar pottery art already described. These were

Fig. 60. Jkguar design associated with Figurines that still retain
Archaic Characters. Costa Rica.

Fig. 61. Crocodiles from painted Nicoyan Vases.

carved out of solid blocks of lava with stone tools.
It is not unlikely that these elaborate metates were used
as ceremonial seats since few of them show signs of use.
The jaguar is perhaps the most common motive used
in the decoration of these metates. The back is broad

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170

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

and slightly dished, the head projects from the center
of one end and the tail swings in a curve from the other
end to one of the feet.

At Mercedes remarkable stone slabs were found dur-
ing the excavations conducted by Mr. Minor C. Keith.
These are now on exhibition in the American Museum
of Natural History. The sculptures in relief on these
slabs are by all odds the finest from the Isthmian area.
Human beings, crocodiles, monkeys and birds are all

Fig. 62. Highly Conventionalized Crocodile Motive. The prin-
cipal features of the head as well as the outline of the leg survive in
highly modified form. From the southern end of Lake Nicaragua.

used to decorate these carefully and laboriously made
pieces whose use is entirely unknown. Statues in the
full round have also been unearthed in quantity at Mer-
cedes which gives every evidence of having been a large
city with a long career.

We may be reasonably sure that the stone slabs date
from a fairly late epoch because an undoubted "Chac-
mool" exhibiting the same style of carving has been dis-
covered here. The "Chacmool," a half reclining figure
with the knees drawn up, the body supported in part
upon the elbows and a bowl for incense or other offer-

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS

171

ings in the pit of the stomach, gets its fanciful name
from Le Plongeon who discovered the original at Chi-
chen Itza. But the unmistakable sculptures of this

Fig. 63. Simple Crocodile Figures in Red Lines on Dishes from
Mercedes, Costa Rica.

Fig. 64. Panels containing Crocodiles painted in White Lines on
Large Tripod Bowls from Mercedes, Costa Rica.

Fig. 65. Simplified Crocodile Heads in the Yellow Line Ware of
Mercedes, Costa Rica.

type were apparently developed by the highland tribes
and the cult was introduced into northern Yucatan dur-
ing the period of Mexican influence. In addition to
Chichen Itza examples have been found at Cempoalan,

172

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

the historic Totonacan capital near Vera Cruz, at
Tezcoco, in the Valley of Mexico, at Jhuatzio in the
Tarascan region, as well as at Ahuachapan far to the
southeast in Salvador. All of these occurrences indicate
a late Toltecan horizon for its distribution.

Fig. 66. Conventional Crocodiles from Costa Rica and Panama.

Isthmian Gold Work. The " wire technique " of
the gold art of the Isthmian region, reflects, as we have
seen, the pottery technique of the Archaic Horizon. In
addition to plain and hollow casting, two kinds of gold
plating were carried to perfection by the ancient metal
workers : one a heavy plating over copper and the other
a thin gilding. The manner in which this plating was
done is still uncertain. It has been suggested that the
molds were lined with leaf gold or sprinkled with gold
dust before the baser copper was poured in. Many

Plate XXXIV. (a) The Gold Work of the Ancient Mexicans
excited the Wonder of the Spanish Conquerors. Comparatively
few examples, however, have come down to us; (6) Many Ornaments
of Gold are found in the Graves of Costa Rica and Panama. The
Keith Collection contains a very fine series of these pieces illustrating
all the forms as well as the technical processes.

173

174 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

ornaments are of pure beaten gold and have designs in
repousse.

' The gold objects are found in stone box graves along
with pottery and stone carvings. Gold is taken from
only a small percentage of the graves, probably those of
chiefs. A systematic rifling of the ancient cemeteries
has been going on since the arrival of the Spaniards, but
the finds have mostly been thrown into the melting pot.
The burial places are sometimes marked by low plat-
forms built over a group of graves. An iron rod giving
forth a hollow sound when the stone cysts are struck is
used by the searchers. Human bones are found in these
graves, but seldom in a state of good preservation.

Mr. Minor C. Keith's collection of gold work from
Costa Rica and Panama is unexcelled and illustrates
the range of technical processes as well as of ornamental
forms. Human forms are represented with peculiar
headdresses and with various objects carried in the
hands and often they are joined in pairs. Many of the
most beautiful amulets are frogs arranged either singly
or in groups of two or three. These figures are all pro-
vided with a ring on the under side for suspension.
Lizards, turtles, and crocodiles are frequently modeled
as well as clam shells, crabs, and monkeys. But per-
haps the most frequent amulets are those that picture
birds with outspread wings among which may be
recognized vultures, harpy eagles, gulls, man-of-war
birds, and parrots. The larger and more elaborate
pieces of gold work cast considerable light on the ancient
religion of the natives since beast gods are figured in
half human form. Bells of copper and gold were much
used in gala dress and were doubtless an object of trade
with the tribes farther north.

In this consideration of the lesser civilizations that

THE LESSER CIVILIZATIONS 175

are mostly to be attributed to the stimulus furnished by
the Mayas we have been carried forward in time until
arrived at a point where tradition and ethnology begin
to relieve the burden of proof that has hitherto been
placed on archaeology. We will now devote most of
our attention to belief and ceremony as given first hand
rather than to assumptions from art.

CHAPTER iy
THE AZTECS

THE Aztecs were the dominant nation on the high-
lands of Mexico when Cortez marched with his
small army to conquer New Spain. The horrible sacri-
fices that they made to their gods and the wealth and
barbaric splendor of their rulers have often been de-
scribed. But their history in point of .time covered
short space and their art and religion was based in a
large measure on achievements of the nations that had
preceded them.

Mayas and Aztecs compared to Greeks and
Romans. A remarkably close analogy may be
drawn between the Mayas and Aztecs in the New
World and the Greeks and Romans in the Old, as
regards character, achievements, and relations one to
the other. / The Mayas, like the Greeks, were an
artistic and Intellectual people who developed sculp-
ture, painting, architecture, astronomy, and other
arts and sciences to a high plane. Politically, both
were divided into communities or states that
bickered and quarreled. There were temporary leagues
between certain cities, but real unity only against a
common enemy. Culturally, both were one people, in
spite of dialectic differences, for the warring factions
were bound together by a common religion and a
common thought// To be sure the religion of the
Mayas was muchmore barbaric than that of the Greeks
but in each case the subject matter was idealized and
beautified in art.

The Aztecs, like the Romans, were a brusque and war-
like people who built upon the ruins of an earlier civili-

177

Plate XXXV. A Page from the Tribute Roll of Moctezuma, show-
ing the Annual Tribute of the Eleven Towns pictured at the Bottom and
Left. The tribute consisted of: (a) Two strings of jade beads; (6)
Twenty gourd dishes of gold dust; (c) A royal headdress; (d) Eight
hundred bunches of feathers; (e) Forty bags of cochineal dye; (f-g)
Warriors' costumes; (h) Four hundred and two blankets of this pattern;
(i) Four hundred blankets; (j) Four hundred and four blankets; (k)
Four hundred blankets. The towns are: (1) Coaxalahuacan; (2)
Texopan; (3) Tamozolapan; (4) Yancuitlan; (5) Tezuzcululan; (6)
Nochistlan; (7) Xaltepec; (8) Tamazolan; (9) Mictlan (Mitla); (10)
Coaxomulcu; (11) Cuicatlan, in the State of Oaxaca.

178

THE AZTECS 179

zation that fell before the force of their arms and who
made their most notable contributions to organization
and government. The Toltecs stand just beyond the
foreline of Aztecan history and may fitly be compared
to the Etruscans. They were the possessors of a culture
derived in part from their brilliant contemporaries that
was magnified to true greatness by their ruder suc-
cessors. •

The Chichimecas. The term Chichimecas was ap-
plied by the more civilized tribes of the Mexican high-
lands to those nomads outside the pale who dressed in
skins and hunted with the bow and arrow. Some of
these wandering groups spoke Nahuan dialects, but the
term was also applied to the Otomis who spoke a dis-
tinct language. Possibly through having been reduced
in war certain of these wandering groups were drawn
into civilization and when the Toltecan cities began to
decline, they advanced to considerable power and pres-
tige. In fact, the Aztecs may be considered as originally
Chichimecan, although several other tribes got an
earlier start. In later times, these city -broken nomads
looked back with considerable pride on their lowly
origin.

The Chichimecan histories contain numerous genea-
logical lists of the ruling houses in different towns and
settlements. The most valuable document is the
Annals of Quauhtitlan that has already received some
attention for its references to Toltecan rulers. Quauh-
titlan itself was confessedly one of the seats of the
Chichimecas and its recorded history goes back to
Chicontonatiuh who began his rule in 687 A.D. and died
in 751. After the death of this chief there was an inter-
regnum till Tactli formed a government in 804. He
also had a long reign and the chronicle naively states : —

Plate XXXVI. Page from the Codex Telleriano Remensis show-
ing a Native Manuscript with Explication by the Spaniards. The
death of Chamalpopoca and the election of his successor, Itzcoatl,
is recorded, as well as the capture of Atzcapotzalco.

180

THE AZTECS 181

"In this same year (10 House, 865) died Tactli who
was the king of Quauhtitlan where he reigned 62 years :
he was a king unacquainted with the sowing of grain for
food neither did he know how to make shelters for his
subjects. He wore only a simple garb. The people ate
only birds, serpents, rabbits and deer: as yet they had
no houses and came and went in all directions." The
early life in the open is pictured interestingly in several
other documents including the Map of Tlotzin and the
Map of Quinatzin.

We have already seen how the splendid culture of the
Toltecan cities broke down under the weight of decad-
ence and civil war during the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries A.D. To be sure, Cholula appears to have
kept alive the flame of Toltecan religion and art up to
the advent of the Spaniards. Perhaps Atzcapotzalco
and other towns near the lakes that had been established
during the Toltecan period were able to hold their own
for a time against the newer order. But the sturdy
Chichimecas made rapid progress. Tezcoco became
their most prominent city only to be eclipsed by Tenoch-
titlan, the island capital of the Aztecs.

Aztecan History. The history of the Aztecs has a
mythological preamble in common with other nations of
Mexico. The Chiconoztoc or Seven Caves must not be
considered historical but simply man's place of emer-
gence from the underworld. The general conception of
an existence within the earth that preceded the exist-!
ence upon the earth is found very widely among North (1
American Indians. It is likewise impossible to locate
the Island of Aztlan, that served, according to several
codices, as the starting place of the Mexican migration.
The northern origin for the Aztecan tribe to which so
much attention has been paid need not have been far

182 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

from the Valley of Mexico, since in their entire recorded
peregrination they hardly traveled eighty miles.

Owing to the ineffectiveness of the Mexican time
count; Aztecan chronology is far from fixed. The year
was known by the day with which it began and as this
day ran the permutation of four names and thirteen
numbers the cycle was fifty-two years in length. No
method of keeping the cycles in their proper order seems
to have been devised except the laborious one of put-
ting down every year in sequence whether or not an
event occurred in it. Unfortunately, not even the
latter method was used in any far-reaching chronicle
except the Annals of Quauhtitlan. According to
different authorities the year 1 Stone which marks the
historical account in the Aubin Codex was 648, 1064,
or 1168 in the European calendar, each date differing
from the others by multiples of fifty-two years.

The wandering tribes, among which may be men-
tioned the Chalca, Xochimilca, Tlahnica, Huexotzinca,
Tepaneca, and Azteca, pushed their way into the region
of the lakes and made settlements in less desirable loca-
tions. Meanwhile, they served as vassals to the estab-
lished tribes. The "peregrinations" relate the suc-
cession of stops and the length of each stop. The
Aztecs themselves made twenty or more stops lasting
from two to twenty years. Finally they took refuge on
two islands in Lake Tezcoco and lived a miserable exist-
ence among the reeds. They joined with the Tepane-
cas and by yeoman service gained their aid and friend-
ship.

The date for the foundation of Tenochtitlan (Mexico
City) is usually given as 1325. About 1350 water
rights were gained at the spring of Chapultepec. This
was an important gain because the brackish waters of the

THE AZTECS

183

lake were not fit to drink. A double water main of terra
cotta was laid from the springs to the town. New land
was made, probably after the manner still to be seen in
the famous floating gardens of Xochi-
milco by throwing the soil from the
bed of the shallow lake into enclosed
areas of wattle work. Gradually a
Venice-like city, traversed by canals
and admirably protected from attack,
rose from the lake. At the coming
of the Spaniards there were three
causeways leading to the shores of
the lake and each of these was pro-
tected by drawbridges. There was a
city wall upon which were lighthouses
for the guidance of homecoming fish-
ermen. There were palaces and mar-
ket places and a great central plaza
called the Tecpan, where were situ-

the Grasshopper." ated the principal temples. ^^ —
Aubin Codex.

The Aztecs count their history as
a great people from their first war chief Acamapichtli
who commenced his rule in 1376 (Codex Aubin). The
names and the order of the succeeding war chiefs is
the same in several records, but the dates are found
to vary slightly.

Fig. 67. Picto-
graphic Record of
the Conquest of the
Springs o f Cha-
pultepec, "Hill of
Grasshopper."

Acamapichtli

Huitzilihuitl

Chimalpopoca

Itzcouatl

Moctezuma I

Axayacatl

Tizoc

Ahuitzotl

Moctezuma II

Cuitlahtia

Cuauhtemoc

1376-1396

1396-1417

1417-1427

1427-1440

1440-1469

1469-1482

1482-1486

1486-1502

1502-1520

1520

1520-1521

184 MEXICO AND- CENTRAL AMERICA

After throwing off the yoke of their early overlords,
theTepanecas,by the subjection of Atzcapotzalco at the
beginning of the brilliant reign of Itzcouatl, the Aztecs
of Tenochtitlan entered into a three-cornered league
with Tezcoco and Tlacopan (Tacuba). This was an
offensive and defensive alliance with an equal division
of the spoils of war. Soon the united power of these
three cities dominated the Valley of Mexico and began
to be felt across the mountains on every side. Tenoc-
titlan gradually assumed the commanding position in
the league, and although Tezcoco continued to be an im-
portant center the third member was apparently much
reduced. The great votive stone of Tizoc records some
of the earlier conquests of the Aztecs. At the arrival of
Cortez only a few important cities such as Tlascala
retained their independence. But the crest of power
had then been passed and it seems pretty certain that
the remarkable city in the lake would in time have
suffered the fate of other self-constituted capitals both
in the Old World and the New.

Social Organization. Spanish historians often
liken Tenochtitlan to the seat of an empire and speak of
the ruler as one who had the power of an absolute mon-
arch while other and more recent writers have declared
that the tribal organization oLthe Azteca was essenti-
ally democratic. The truth doubtless lies between
these extremes. The people were warlike by nature and
all men, except a few of the priesthood, were soldiers.
Honors depended largely upon success in war and war-
riors were arranged in ranks according to their deeds.
The common warriors formed one rank and next came
those who had distinguished themselves by definite
achievements which gave the right to wear certain arti-
cles of dress or to bear certain titles. The chiefs were

THE AZTECS 185

elected for an indefinite term of office from the most
distinguished fighters and could be removed for cause.

But while the offices of state were elective there was,
nevertheless, a tendency to choose from certain power-
ful families and at least the foundation of an aristo-J
cratic policy. A chief was succeeded by his son or
brother except when these candidates were manifestly
unfit. In the actual succession of the great war chiefs
of Tenochtitlan, a peculiar system seems to have been
followed in that the candidates from the older genera-
tion were ordinarily exhausted before the next lower
generation became eligible. Thus Huizilihuitl, Chimal-
popoca, and Jtzcoatl were all sons of Acamapichtli, and
the last and greatest was born of a slave mother. Then
followed Moctezuma Ilhuicamina I the son of Huitzili-
huitl. This chief had no male heirs but the children of
his daughter ruled in order: Axayacatl, Tizoc, and
Ahuitzotl. Moctezuma II was the son of the first of
these as was Cuitlahua, while Cuauhtemoc, the last
Aztec ruler, was the son of Ahuitzotl. This peculiar
succession was not in vogue in Tezcoco, where son suc-
ceeded father and the lawful wife was chosen from the
royalty of Tenochtitlan. In the various annals, the
genealogies are often indicated and the evidence that
aristocracies existed is too strong to be overthrown.
There are even cases of queens who succeeded to the
chief power after the death of the royal husband.

It is extremely doubtful whether the Aztecs ever had
what might be called clans. We have seen that there
were originally eight closely related tribes constituting
the Mexicani or Mexican nation. The Aztecs them-
selves are said to have been divided into seven groups
that were first reduced to four or five and then increased
to about twenty. It is not clear that these were

186 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

exogamic kinship groups. They were probably mili-
tary societies taking into their membership all the men
of the tribe. The name Calpolli, or "great house",
which was applied to them seems to have referred to a
sort of barracks or general meeting place in each ward
or division of the city where arms and trophies were kept
and the youth educated in the art of war. The title in
land was held by the calpolli and the right of use distrib-
uted among the heads of families who held possession
only so long as the land was worked. Each calpolli
seems to have had a certain autonomy in governmental
matters as well as a local religious organization. It is
curious to find in Salvador, far to the south, the word
calpolli applied to the platform mounds that surround
courts in the ancient ruins. This use of the word may
indicate that the "great houses" of the different soci-
eties were ordinarily the principal buildings of the city
and that they were used for civil, military, and religious
purposes.

In forming judgment on the fundamentals of social
organization among the Aztecs we must remember that
no clear case of kinship clans has been reported south of
the area of the United States. Among the Cakchiquels,
a Mayan tribe of the Guatemalan highlands, two royal
houses are reported from which the ruling chief was al-
ternately drawn. The Zotzils have been explained as a
bat clan because their name is associated with the word
for bat and because a bat god appears to have been their
patron deity. The Mazatecas and Mixtecas, Deer
people and Cloud people, also have clanlike names but
in all cases these are designations of entire tribes, not of
subdivisions of tribes.

Tenochtitlan was divided into four quarters and each
quarter subdivided into a number of wards. An under

//~ "/./• /
THE AZTECS 187

chief was elected from each of the subdivisions which are
doubtless to be identified with the calpolli, and an over
chief from each of the four quarters. Above these stood
the war chief of the entire tribe who was likewise
elected, but within the limits of a fixed aristocracy. _A
second great chief, who seems to have been a peace officer
with some important relation to the priesthood, was
nominally equal to the war chief, but practically much
less powerful. The real center of the home government
was a council made up of all the chiefs. In time of war
the war chief was in supreme command and could either
delegate his rights or act in person. Just how much the
priesthood intervened in governmental affairs cannot be
definitely put in words, but their power was doubtless
great. Certain lands were cultivated in common for the
officers of church and state and much of the tribute
from conquered provinces was devoted to their needs.

The Tecpan or Temple Enclosure. The cere-
monial center of Tenochtitlan has been transformed
into the civic center of Mexico City. The Cathedral, the
National Palace, and the Zocolo, or Plaza Major, mark
the site where once stood the famous Tecpan or temple
enclosure. Within the serpent walls, according to
Sahagun, there were twenty-five temple pyramids, five
oratories, sundry fasting houses, four bowl-shaped
stones, one disk-shaped stone, a great stepped altar, a
"star column," seven skull racks, two ball courts, two
enclosed areas, a well, three bathing places, two cellar-
like rooms, a dancing place, nine priest houses, a prison
for the gods of conquered nations, arsenals, work
places, etc. A native plan of the Tecpan, much sim-
plified, occurs in the Sahagun manuscript. The great
pyramid rose in several terraces and was surmounted
by two temples each three stories in height, one dedi-

Plate XXXVII. Sahagun's Plan of the Tecpan in Mexico
City. After Seler. Among the details shown are: (a) The two
great temples; (6) the Quauhxicalli or eagle bowl; (c) One of the
Callimecatl, or priest houses; (e) An eagle house or warriors'
shrine; (/) The Teotlachtli or ball court of the gods; (g) Tzom-
pantli or skull rack; (h) The temple of Xipi; (i) The Temalacatl
or Gladiator Stone; (/c) The Colhuacan Teocalli or temple of
Colhuacan; (l-m) The gods 5 Lizard and 5 House respectively;
(ri) Dance courts; (o) Coatenanuitl or Serpent Wall, so called
because it was decorated with heads of serpents.

188

THE AZTECS 189

cated to Huitzilopochtli and the other to Tlaloc.
Each temple contained an image of the god to which
it was dedicated and a sacrificial altar. The walls were
encrusted with blood of human victims whose hearts
still beating had been torn out for divine food and whose
bodies had been rolled down the steep flight of temple
stairs. The foundations for the great pyramids were
laid in 1447 by Moctezuma I, the pyramids were com-
pleted in 1485 while Tizoc was war chief and the final
dedication ceremonies were held in 1487.

Several very interesting large sculptures and many
minor objects have been unearthed on the site of
Tecpan. In 1790 and 1791 were found three famous
monoliths, the Calendar Stone, the Stone of Tizoc
(Sacrificial Stone), and the Statue of Coatlicue.
Since 1897 many fine pieces of pottery and several
sculptures have been excavated near the Cathedral
and placed in the Museo Nacional.

The Calendar Stone. The great sculptured monu-
ment known as the Calendar Stone or Stone of the Sun,
is the most valuable object that has come down intact
from the time of the Aztecs. It is a single piece of
porphyry, irregular except for the sculptured face. It
now weighs over twenty tons and it is estimated that
the original weight was over twice as much. The
sculptured disk is about twelve feet in diameter. This
great stone was transported by men over many miles
of marshy lake bottom before it could be placed in
position in front of the Temple of the Sun in the temple
enclosure that has just been described. It is believed
to have been set up horizontally and to have served as
a sort of altar upon which human victims were sacri-
ficed. The stone was doubtless thrown down from its

Plate XXXVIII. The Calendar Stone of the Aztecs. This
great stone represents the disk of the sun and the history of the
world. It may be analyzed as follows, reading outward from the
center.

A Central or cosmogftnic portion: The day sign 4 Olin with
details in the arms representing four epochs of the world; with the
face of the sun god in the center and minor hieroglyphs that may
represent the four directions just outside the Olin symbol.

B Band of day signs beginning at the top and reading towards the
left.

C Bands of conventional rays of the sun and other details such as
the embellishment of the sun with turquoise and eagle feathers.

D The outer circle of two great reptiles that may indicate the
universe.

E invisible edge of the disk bears representations of Itzpapalotl,
the obsidian butterfly which is symbolical of the heavens.

190

THE AZTECS 191

original position by the soldiers of Cortez and may
have been lost to sight. We know, however, that it
was exposed to view about 1560 and was then buried
by order of the archbishop of Mexico City lest its
presence should cause the Indians to revert to their
original pagan beliefs. It was rediscovered in 1790
and was afterwards built into the fagade of the
Cathedral where it remained until 1885, when it was
removed to the nearby museum.

The Calendar Stone is not only a symbol of the sun's
face marked with the divisions of the year but it is a
record of the cosmogonic myth of the Aztecs and the
creations and destructions of the world. In the center
is the face of the sun god, Tonatiuh, enclosed in the
middle of the symbol called Olin. Tonatiuh is often
represented by a much simpler sign of a circle with
four or more subdivisions resembling those of a compass
which are intended to represent the rays of the sun.
Olin is one of the day signs and means movement, or
perhaps earthquake. It has also been explained as a
graphic representation of the apparent course of the
sun during the year. The history of the world, accord-
ing to the Aztecan myth, is divided into five suns or
ages, four of which refer to the past and one to the
present. The present sun is called Olin Tonatiuh
because it is destined to be destroyed by an earthquake.
The day signs of the four previous suns are represented
in the rectangular projections of the central Olin symbol
beginning at the upper right hand corner and proceeding
to the left. They are 4 Ocelotl (jaguar); 4 Ehecatl
(wind); 4 Quauhtli (rain); 4 Atl (water), and they
refer to destruction, first, by jaguars, second, by a hurri-
cane, third, by a volcanic rain of fire, fourth, by a
flood. It is claimed by some that the year 13 Acatl
(reed) recorded at the top of the monument between

192. MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

the reptile tails refers to the first year of the present sun,
but according to others this is the year 1479 in which
the sculpture was set up. Unfortunately, we have no
record of this event. The fifth sun will end with the
day 4 Olin, that is expressed in the central symbol
already described. For this reason a fast was held
on each recurrence of this day. Outside of the Olin
symbol but between its arms are four hieroglyphs of
uncertain meaning. Next to this area dealing with
the great ages of the world comes a band of the twenty
day signs of the Aztecan month. Outside of this band
are several others which probably represent in a con-
ventionalized manner the rays of the sun and the
turquoise and eagle feathers with which the sun disk
was believed to be decorated. Finally, outside of all,
are two plumed monsters meeting face to face at the
bottom of the disk. In each reptile face is seen a
human face in profile. These reptiles are probably to
be identified as the Xuihcoatl or Fire Serpents.

$tone of Tizoc. The Sacrificial Stone or Stone of
Tizoc is believed to have been carved by order of Tizoc,
the war chief who ruled from 1482-1486, as a memorial
offering to Mexican arms on the completion of the great
temple to the Mexican God of War. The stone was a
quauhxicalli, or "eagle bowl." This name was given
to large bowls which were used to hold the blood and
the heart of human victims sacrificed to the gods. The
same name was extended to the large . drum-shaped
stone, under consideration, which has a pit in the center
and a sort of canal running from the center to one side
which may have been intended to drain off the blood.
Human sacrifice actually took place on this stone but
it is pretty certain that it was not one of the temalacatl
or "gladiator stones" on which were staged mortal

03 03

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193

194

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

combats between captives. According to description the
gladiator stones were pierced by a hole in the center so
that one or more captives could be bound fast by a rope.

On the top of the
Stone of Tizoc is a
representation of the
Tonatiuh, or sun's disk,
much less complex than
that which we have
seen on the Calendar
Stone but with many
similar parts. On the
sides of the stone are
fifteen groups of fig-
ures, each group rep-
resenting a conqueror
and his captive. The
victorious soldier ap-
pears each time in the
guise of the war god,
Huitzilopochtli, or his
wizard brother Tezcatlipoca. The left foot of the
figure ends in two scroll-like objects that may represent
the humming bird feathers that formed the left foot of
Huitzilopochtli. But Tezcatlipoca also had a de-
formed foot. Moreover, on the side of the head-
dress is a disk with a flame-shaped object coming
out of it. This may represent the smoking mirror
of Tezcatlipoca. The captive wears costumes that
change slightly from one figure to the next. Over the
head of the captive in each instance is the hieroglyph
of a captured town or district.

Nearly all the place name hieroglyphs have been
deciphered. The list is interesting historically because
it gives the principal conquests up to the reign of Tizoc.

Fig. 68. Details from the
Stone of Tizoc: a, Huitzilo-
pochtli, Aztec War God; 6,
figures representing a captured
town; c, name of the captured
town (Tuxpan, place of the rab-
bits).

Plate XL. This Monstrous Sculpture represents Coatlicue, the
Serpent-Skirted Goddess, who was regarded as the Mother of the
•Gods.

195

196

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Starting at the side directly across the stone from the
groove or drain we see that the figure of the victor has
behind his head a hieroglyph that represents a leg.
This is the hieroglyph of Tizoc and the victim in this
case represents the district of Matlatzinco in the Val-
ley of Toluca. This district was brought under sub-
jection by Tizoc himself. Among the other conquered
cities are such well-known ones as Chalco, Xochimilco,
and Colhuacan in the vicinity of Lake Tezcoco and
Ahuilizapan (Orizaba) and Tuxpan that are more dis-
tant.

Fig. 69. Detail showing the Construction of the Face of Cbat-
licue from Two Serpent Heads meeting End to End.

Coatlicue. The famous statue of the Earth God-
dess, Coatlicue, "the goddess with the serpent skirt"
is one of the most striking examples of barbaric imagi-
nation. The name Teoyamiqui is often given to this
uncouth figure, but the identification is faulty. Like
the other great sculptures we have just examined, it
doubtless occupied an important place in the great
ceremonial center of Tenochtitlan, but no ancient
reference to it is extant. This goddess is reported to
have been the mother of the gods.

The statue may be described as follows: The feet
are furnished with claws. The skirt is a writhing mass

THE AZTECS 197

of braided rattlesnakes. The arms are doubled up and
the hands are snake heads on a level with the shoulders.
Around the neck and hanging down over the breast
is a necklace of alternating hands and hearts with a
death's head pendant. The head of this monstrous
woman is the same on front and back and is formed of
two serpent heads that meet face to face. The forked
tongue and the four downward pointing fangs belong
half and half to each of the two profile faces.

Mexican Writing. The means of record employed
in Mexican codices are in part pictographic and in
part hieroglyphic. The sequence of the historical

C

Fig. 70. Hieroglyphs of Precious Materials: left to right, gold;
turquoise; mosaic of precious stones; chalchihuitl, or jade; mirror of
obsidian.

events in these native manuscripts is often indicated
by a line of footprints leading from one place or scene
of action to another. Historical records of this type
resemble old-fashioned maps and some are in fact
known by this name. The places of towns in these
documents are represented by true hieroglyphs and
often the character of the country is indicated by pic-
tures of typical vegetation, such as maguey plants for
the highlands and palms for the lowlands. The day
or the year in which took place the foundation of the
town or whatever event is intended to be recorded is
usually placed in conjunction with the hieroglyph or
picture. Conquest is often indicated by a place name
hieroglyph with a spear thrust into it.

198

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

A few examples of Nahuan hieroglyphs will now be
given to illustrate this interesting method of writing.
It must be remembered that there is nothing in the
nature of a connected narrative. The hieroglyphs or
word pictures are limited to geographical and personal

from tlantli, teeth

cat from calli, house

mizfrom miztli, cloud

Caltepec

Itztepec

Atepec

Pan tepee

Miztlan

Itztlan Petlatlan

Fig. 71. Aztecan Place Names.

Tecalco

names, including the names of gods, to months, days,
numbers, units of measure, and objects of commerce.
Some of the signs are in no degree realistic and have a
definite meaning by common consent alone, such as the
symbol for gold (Fig. 70). Others are abbreviated and
conventionalized pictures of objects. Thus the head of
a god or of an animal frequently appears as the sign of
the whole. But the most important and interesting

THE AZTECS

199

word signs are rebuses in which separate syllables or
groups of syllables are represented by more or less
conventionalized pictures. The whole word picture
is made up of a combination of syllable pictures which

Fig. 72. Aztecan Day Signs.

Cipactli
Crocodile

Ehecatl
Wind

Calli
House

Cuezpallin
Lizard

Coatl
Snake

Miquiztli
Death

Mazatl
Deer

Tochtli
Rabbit

All
Water

Itzcuintli
Dog

Ozomatli
Monkey

Malinalli
Herb

Acatl
Reed

Ocelotl
Jaguar

Quauhtli
Eagle

Cozcaquauhtli
Vulture

Olin
Movement

Tecvatl
Stone

Quiahiutl
Rain

Xochitl
Flower

indicate phonetically the word as a whole. Very often
advantage is taken of puns on whole or partial words,
while color and position are also employed to indicate
sounds and syllables.

In Fig. 71 are given a few of the more common
syllable pictures. The name of the object represented

200

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

is cut down by the elimination of tl, te, etc., that form
the nominal endings. Thus, the picture of water, all,
becomes the sign for the sound a, that of stone tetl is

a

w

d

f

73. Variant Forms of Aztecan Day Signs: a, acatl, arrow; 6,
mazatl, deer foot; c, malinalli, jaw bone; d, itzcuintli, dog's ear; e,
ozomatli, monkey's ear; /, ocelotl, jaguar's ear.

Fig. 74. Aztecan Numbers and Objects of Commerce: a, 1;
6, 20; c, 400; d, 8,000; e, ten faces carved from precious stone;.
/, twenty bags of cochineal dye; g, one hundred bales of cocoa;
h, four hundred bales of cotton; ?:, four hundred jars of honey of
' tuna; ;', eight thousand leaf bundles of copal gum; k, twenty
baskets each containing sixteen hundred ground cacao nibs; (I)
four hundred and two blankets.

cut down to the syllable te. Several of these syllable
pictures are combined to represent a whole word.

THE AZTECS

201

The hieroglyphs of the twenty days of the month are
frequently represented, but those of the eighteen months
are not nearly so well known. As for the gods, the faces
are usually pictured, especially when these are gro-
tesque, but sometimes
detail of dress or an ob-
ject connected with a
special ceremony is suffi-
cient to recall the divin-
ity. The Mexican system
of numbers was based on
twenties. The units were
figured by dots, the twen-
ties by flags, the four
hundreds by a device like
a tree that represented
hair, and the eight thou-
sands by the ceremonial
pouches in which copal
incense was carried.
k 'Aztecan Religion.
The religion of the Aztecs,]
like that of the Mayas,
was a polytheism in which
special divinities control-
led the powers of nature
and the activities of men.

Fig. 75. Analysis of Mexican
Record. 1, the year Two Reed,
1507; 2, eclipse of the sun; 3,
earthquake at place pictured at
4; 5, the town of Huixachtitlan.
In the temple (6) was held (7)
the new-fire ceremony at the

beginning of a 52-year period.
In this year were also drowned

in the River Tuzac (8) two
thousand warriors (10) which
the vultures devoured (9).

The gods were perhaps
further advanced to wards
human form and attri-
butes than were those of the earlier culture to the south,
but definite characterization was still accomplished by
grotesque features and certain animal connections were
still evident. The situation is confused beyond the point
of analysis. The mythologies often ascribe different

ii

ffi*

Plate XLI. Page from the Tonalamatl Section of the Codex
Borbonicus. The thirteen days run along the bottom of the page
and up the left side of the large division. The period covered is
one-twentieth of the Tonalamatl of 260 days. At the left of each
day is seen one of the nine Lords of the Night, so-called, in orderly
succession. In the divisions above or to the left of the days are
the thirteen gods of the Hours of the Day in connection with the
Thirteen Birds. The patron goddess of this division of the Tonala-
matl is Itzpapalotl, the obsidian butterfly. • The other pictures
relate mostly to mythological instances and the details of ceremonies.
For instance, the broken tree represents Tamoanchan, a legendary
site, and the sacrifice ot twenty birds is indicated by the flag at-
tached to the bleeding head of a decapitated bird.

202

THE AZTECS 203

origins to the same deity. One god is addressed by
many names, descriptive or figurative, that are intended
to bring out the various aspects of his power. Over-
lapping functions make it impossible to assign each
god to his special province. There are universal gods,
there are special gods, and there are patron gods of
trade guilds. Moreover, there are foreign gods, some
recent, some ancient.

_ of .. central Mexico had its objective,

ritualistic side, which appealed directly to the under-
standing of the masses, and its more subtle theological
or philosophical side seen, for instance, in the poems
written by priests and rulers. It was a mixture of
spiritualism and the grossest idolatry. The ceremonial
calendar, with a description of the feasts and sacrifices
that occurred at different times of the year, has been
preserved in a number of documents. Pageants, in-
cense-burning, and human sacrifice gave a strong
dramatic quality to the religious rites.

* The conception of a supreme deity is seen in Om&-
teuctli, the Lord of Duality, a vague god head and
creator who is sometimes addressed in some of the
religious poems as the "Cause of All." In the back-
ground of the popular religion was the belief in the
Earth Mother and the Sky Father and in the divinity
of the Sun, the Moon, the Jaguar, the Serpent, and
whatever else was beautiful, powerful, and inexplicable.
Tezcatlipoca, by reason of his magic and his omnis-
cience, was placed at the head of the pantheon of active
gods, Huitzilopochtli was, however, the favorite god of
the Aztecs through his relation to war. Tlaloc, the
god of rain, was naturally of great importance to
agriculturists living in a rather arid region. Tonatiuh,
the Sun God, was a more or less abstract deity who

[a]

[b]

Plate XLII. (a) Pictures of Tlaloc, the God oi Rain, and of
Ehecatl, the God of Winds, in the Codex Magliabecchiano; (6)
Mexican Genealogical Table on Maguey Paper. The names of
most of the individuals are given by hieroglyphs attached to the head
or the seat.

204

THE AZTECS

205

acted in part through other gods. But the list is too
long to be repeated here.

The special gods of the four principal Mexican cities
were as follows: —

I/

Tenochtitlan
Tezcoco
Tlascala
Cholula

Huitzilopochtli
Tezcatlipoca
Camaztli
Quetzalcoatl

Of gods with a foreign origin perhaps the most
important were Quetzalcoatl and Xipe. The former

was introduced long before /
the Aztecs raised their /
banner of war and may/
have been an adaptation
of the Long-nosed God of
the Mayas. The worship
of Xipe is said to have
originated in a Zapotecan
town but it had certainly
taken a strong hold on
the Aztecs of Mexico City
and was likewise known to
Nahuan tribes as far south
as Salvador.

Conceptions of the^
Universe. Cosmogonic
myths, the world over, are
unscientific attempts to
explain the creation of the universe, to outline the
powers of the gods and to trace the development of
nature. The cosmogonic myths of Mexico and Central
America are characterized by multiple creations. The
Aztecan belief in five suns each standing for a world
epoch is paralleled in fragments of Mayan mythology.
is^naLeniphasizejd so much as destruction.. The

Fig. 76. Chalchuihtlicue,
Aztecan Goddess of Water.

206 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

sequence of the suns is figured on the Calendar Stone,
and in one of the codices, besides being explained in
some of the early writings of Spanish priests and edu-
cated natives. The first sun was devoured by a jaguar
and in the resulting darkness the inhabitants of the
earth were devoured by jaguars. The second sun
was destroyed by a hurricane, the third by a rain of fire,
and the fourth by a flood. One human pair escaped
each cataclysm and lived to repopulate the world.
The fifth or present sun will be destroyed by an earth-
quake.

ions of the shape and character of the universe
are pretty well defined in Aztecan lore. The wide-
spread belief that the universe consists of three super-
imposed worlds, the upper or sky world, the middle
world of living men and the under world of the dead, is
found in a developed form. The upper world is divided
into thirteen levels. The uppermost four levels are
called Teteocan, the abode of the gods, and are con-
sidered to be invisible. The creator of all, Ometeuctli,
Lord of Duality, dwells with his spouse in the highest
heaven and under him in order are the Place of the
Red God of Fire, the Place of the Yellow Sun God and
the Place of the White Evening Star God. The inferior
heavens, called Ihuicatl, are given over to the visible
celestial activities. There is one heaven for the storms,
another for the blue sky of the day, the dark sky of the
night, the comets, the evening star, the sun, the stars,
etc.

The under world is Mictlan, the Place of the Dead.
More divisions are commonly given and in the lower-
most of these lives Mictlanteuctli, the Lord of Death,
and his mate. The idea of future blessing or punish-
ment is not entirely absent from the minds of the

THE AZTECS 207

Aztecs. Warriors killed in battle go to the House of the
Sun, in one of the upper worlds, as do women who die
in childbirth. Tlalocan, the lowermost heaven, is a
sort of terrestrial paradise for others. Mictlan is,
however, the common abode of the dead, and the
wretched soul can reach it only after a journey set with
horrors.

The cult of the quarters is intimately associated with
the concept of the universe. With the four cardinal
points a number of others are sometimes taken includ-
ing the zenith, the nadir, and the middle. The sacred
numbers 4, 5, 6, and 7 may thus conceivably be derived x
from the points of space, but it would be very unsafe \
to assume that they are necessarily so derived, ^hp I
general concept of a universe divided into quarters, /
fifths, or sixths is a powerful conventionalizing factor
in mythology, religion, and artT[ Prayers, songs, and
important acts are repeated in identical or in system-
atically varied form for each point of space, fin
Mayan and Aztecan codices the symbolism of the
four directions is often manifest./

^ Ceremonies. Ceremonialism was intensely devel-
oped in Mexico and the dramatic quality of many
Aztecan rites of human sacrifice has probably never
been equaled. We are apt to think only of the grue-
some features oLJjuman sacrifice and to overlook the
spiritual ones. A^he victim was often regarded as a
personification oF"a god and as such he was feted,
clothed in fine garments, and given every honor.
Efforts were made to cause the victim to go willingly to
his death uplifted by a truly religious ecstasy. It was
considered unlucky that he should grieve or falteip
^ihe religious calendar was given over to fixed and
movable feasts. The fixed feasts were eighteen in

208 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

number and each came on the last day of a twenty- day
period and gave its name to that period. These eight-
een periods correspond roughly with the Mayan uinals
or months, but since dates were rarely given in relation
to them, they do not have the same calendrical im-
portance. The five days that rounded out the 365-day
year were considered unlucky.

^ Each of the eighteen feasts of the year was under the
patronage of a special divinity and each had a set of
ceremonies all its own. In some cases the ceremonies
were really culminations of long periods of preparation.
Thus, on the last day of the month, Toxcatl, there was
sacrificed a young man, chosen from captured chief-
tains for his beauty and accomplishments, who for an
entire year had been fitting himself for his one turn
on the stage of blood and death. This intended vic-
im, gayly attired and accompanied by a retinue of
pages, was granted the freedom of the city. When the
month of Toxcatl entered he was given brides, whose
names were those of goddesses, and in his honor were
held a succession of brilliant festivals. On the last day
there was a parade of canoes across Lake Tezcoco and
when a certain piece of desert land was reached, the
brides and courtiers bade farewell to the victim. His
pages accompanied him by a little-used trail to the base
of an apparently ruined temple. Here he was stripped
of his splendid garments and of the jewels that were
symbols of divinity. With only a necklace of flutes
he mounted the steps of the pyramid. At each step he
broke one of the flutes and he arrived at the summit,
where the priests waited, knife in hand, a naked man
whose heart was to be offered to the very god he had
impersonated. This ceremony is given only as an ex-
ample, but it illustrates two characteristics that are

I

'

THE AZTECS 209

seen in several other sacrifices, namely, the paying of
homage and honor to the intended sacrificial victim,
and, secondly, the necessity of keeping the victim in
a happy frame of mind.

The eleventh feast of the year was called Ochpaniztli,
"the feast of the broom" and was celebrated in honor
of the goddess known as Toci, or Teteoinnan. The
first of these names means "our female ancestor" and
the second one means "the mother of the gods." She
was a goddess of the earth and her symbol was the grass
broom with which- the earth was swept. She also
exerted an influence over the arts of the hearth, such as
weaving. Her pictures in the codices show her with a
broom in one hand and a shield in the other while about
her head is a band of unspun cotton into which are
stuck spindles wrapped with thread.

During this month the roads were repaired, the houses
and plazas swept, and the temples and idols refurbished.
According to the text in the Codex Magliabecchiano
there were human sacrifices in the temples which
fronted on the roads and there were great dances and
carousals. Those sacrificed were afterwards flayed
as in the feast of Xipe and their skins worn by dancers.
The picture that accompanies this revolting admission
is itself devoid of any morbid symbols. It shows a
kneeling woman holding out the broom and shield.
She wears a white dress and a necklace of jade beads
with golden bells for pendants. Below her are two
standing men who bear in their hands offerings of ripe
fruit.

Sahagun gives details of a terrible drama that was
enacted during this twenty-day month. For the first
eight days there was dancing without song and without
the drum. After this prologue a woman was chosen to

210 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

impersonate the patron goddess and to wear her charac-
teristic dress and ornaments. With her was a retinue of
women skilled in medicine and midwifery. For four
days these persons divided in opposing ranks and
pelted each other with leaves and flowers. While this
harmless ceremony and others like it were being acted
out, the greatest care was taken that the woman who
played the role of the goddess and who was marked for
death should not suspect her fate. It was considered
unlucky, indeed, if this victim wept or was sad. When
her time to die had come she was clothed in rich gar-
ments and given to understand that she should be that
night the bride of a rich lord. And under such a be-
guiling belief she was led silently to the temple of
sacrifice. There without warning an attendant lifted
her upon himself, back to back, and her head was
instantly struck off. Without delay the skin was
stripped from her warm body and a youth, wearing it
as a garment, was conducted in the midst of captives
to the temple of the War God, Huitzilopochtli. Here
in the presence of this mighty god the youth himself
tore out the hearts of four victims and then abandoned
the rest to the knife of the head priest. Thus closed
the terrible drama which began with an innocent battle
of flowers and ended in an orgy of blood.

The twelfth month passed under two names. It was
called Pachtli after a plant with which the temples were
decorated and Teotleco which signifies "the arrival of
the gods." The principal feast was held, as usual, on
the twentieth day when the great company of gods was
supposed to return from a far land. One god, very
youthful and robust, arrived on the eighteenth day,
being able to outwalk the others, while a few very old
and infirm divinities were late in getting to the feast.

THE AZTECS

The one who arrived first was called Telpochtli or
Titlacauan but in reality he was the great Tezcatlipoca
in disguise.

In anticipation of this return, the temples, shrines,
and household idols were decorated with branches.
The youths who did this work were repaid in corn, the
amount varying from a full basket to a few ears. A
novel manner of attesting the earliest presence of divin-
ity is related. Some cornmeal was spread in a circular
mass upon the ground. During the night the high
priests kept vigil and visited from time to time this
circle of cornmeal. When he saw a footprint in the
center he cried out, "Our master has come." Then
there was a burst of music and everyone ran to the great
feast in the temple. Much native wine was drunk, for
this was considered equivalent to washing the tired feet
of the travel- worn gods. As a final act of the celebra-
tion there was a dance in costume around a great fire
and several unfortunates were tossed alive into the
flames.

Space will not permit a further examination of the
eighteen fixed feasts. The movable feasts were mostly
in definite relation to the tonalamatl and were thus
subject to repetition every 260 days. The tonalamatl
as represented in Mexican codices is in much more detail
than in Mayan codices since every day is covered.
The entire cycle is divided into twenty groups of thir-
teen days each and each group is presided over by a
special divinity. There are other repeating series of

fods, sacred birds, etc., that preside over the individual
ays in these groups. It seems likely that many of the^j
ceremonies connected with the tonalamatl were of I
special rather than general significance like the celebra- 4
iion of Catholic saints days.

212 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Other feasts were held in relation to longer time
periods. There were important festivals held in con-
nection with the planet Venus with especially elaborate
ones falling at intervals of eight years. Still another
ceremony was held at the completion of a fifty-two
year period, when the set of years were figuratively
bundled up and laid away and a new sacred fire lighted.

Poetry and Music. The languages of Central
America were capable of considerable literary develop-
ment. This is seen especially in the songs that were
used in different religious ceremonies of the Aztecs, as
well as in the reflective poems written by educated
natives. Several very fine pieces have been preserved,
and while there is no rhyme, there is much rhythm.
When recited by a person speaking fluently the native
tongue these poems are very impressive. Of course,
translation is always hazardous, and fundamental
differences in language, such as exist between English
and Aztecan, make it almost impossible. The most
famous poet whose name has come down to us was
Nezahualcoyotl, or Famishing Coyote, who was a ruler
of Tezcoco and died at the advanced age of eighty
years in 1472. A few verses from one of his poems on
the mutability of life and the certainty of death have
been translated as follows: —

All the earth is a grave, and naught escapes it; nothing is so perfect
that it does not fall and disappear. The rivers, brooks, fountains and
waters flow on, and never return to their joyous beginnings; they hasten
on to the vast realms of Tlaloc, and the wider they spread between their
marges the more rapidly do they mould then* own sepulchral urns. That
which was yesterday is not today; and let not that which is today trust
to live tomorrow.

The caverns of earth are filled with pestilential dust which once was
the bones, the flesh, the bodies of great ones who sate upon thrones,
deciding causes, ruling assemblies, governing armies, conquering prov-
inces, possessing treasures, tearing down temples, flattering themselves
with pride, majesty, fortune, praise and dominion. These glories have
passed like the dark smoke thrown out by the fires of Popocatepetl,
leaving no monuments but the rude skins on which they are written.

THE AZTECS

213

Another example will serve to emphasize the strain of
sadness and the vision of death that characterize so
many Aztecan poems.

Sad and strange it is to see and reflect on the prosperity and power of
the old and dying king Tezozomoc; watered with ambition and avarice,
he grew like a willow tree rising above the grass and flowers of spring,
rejoicing for a long time, until at length withered and decayed, the
storm wind of death tore him from his roots and dashed him in fragments
to the ground. The same fate befell the ancient King Colzatzli, so that
no memory was left of him, nor of his lineage.

Fig. 77. A Mexican Orchestra: 1, log drum; 2, kettle drum;
3-4, flageolets; 5, gourd rattle; 6, turtle shell. Manuscrit du Cacique.

The Aztecs held concerts in the open air where poems
were sung to the accompaniment of the drum and other
simple instruments. Songs were also sung at banquets
and in the stress of love and war. The common musi-
cal instruments of the Aztecs vary but little from those

214 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

in use elsewhere in Mexico and Central America. There
were two kinds of drums. One was a horizontal hol-
lowed-out log with an H-shaped cutting made longi-
tudinally on its upper surface so as to form two vibrat-
ing strips which were struck with wooden drumsticks
having tips of rubber. The second sort of drum was
an upright log also hollowed out and covered with a
drumhead of deerskin. Conches were used for trum-
pets. Resonator whistles with or without finger holes
were made of clay in fanciful shapes. Flageolets were
constructed of clay, bone, or wood and flutes were made
of reed. Resounding metal disks and tortoise shells
were beaten in time. Many sorts of gourd and earth-
enware rattles were employed as well as notched bones
which were rasped with a scraping stick. Copper bells
of the sleigh bell type were exceedingly common. The
marimba, however, that is such a favorite musical in-
strument today in Central America is doubtless of
African origin and fairly recent introduction. No
stringed instruments were known to the ancient Mexi-
cans nor does the pan-pipe appear to have been used in
this area although common in South America.

Minor Aztecan Arts. Some of the great sculptures
of Tenochtitlan have already been described and refer-
ences have been made to the native books painted in
brilliant colors on paper and deerskin. Objects of minor
art comprise pottery vessels, ornaments of gold, silver,
copper, jade, and other precious materials, textiles,
pieces of feather work, etc.

The best known ceramic products are made of orange
colored clay and carry designs in black that sometimes
are realistic, but more often not. The tripod dishes
with the bottoms roughed by cross scoring were used
to grind chili. Heavy bowls with loop handles on the

THE AZTECS 215

sides and a channel across the bottom were seemingly
made to be strung on ropes. They may have held pitch
and been used for street lights. The pottery figurines
of the Aztecan period are nearly all moulded and lack
the sharp detail of the earlier examples. They often
represent deities wearing characteristic dress and carry-
ing ceremonial objects.

Comparatively few specimens of ancient gold work
in Mexico escaped the cupidity of the Spanish con-
querors, but these attest a remarkable proficiency in'
casting. The moulds were made of clay mixed with
ground charcoal and the melting of gold was accom-
plished by means of a blow pipe. The technique seen in
Costa Rican gold work according to which details
falsely appear to be added by soldered wire, was fol-
lowed in Mexico. Modern Mexican filigree bears little
relation to the ancient Indian work, but is probably of
Moorish origin. The examples of Aztecan gold work in-
clude finger rings, earrings, noserings, labrets, and
pendants.

Among the precious and semi-precious stones known
to the Aztecs, the most valuable in their eyes was tur-
quoise. This was probably obtained by trade from the
Pueblo Indians. It was mostly cut into thin plates and
used in the manufacture of mosaic objects. Red jasper,
green jade, jet, gold, and shell of various colors was also
used in these mosaics. Jade was highly prized and was
known as chalchihuitl. Ornaments of obsidian, a
black volcanic glass, and of crystal quartz, are fairly
common and others of opal and amethyst have been
found.

The textile decorations in vogue at the coming of the
Spaniards can be restored from the pictures in codices.
Mantles were often demanded as tribute and the de-

216

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

signs are given on the conventional bundles in the
tribute lists. Garments with certain designs served as
insignia of office for several of the priesthoods. Feather
mosaic was highly prized and was made according to

several methods. Capes
as well as shields and
other objects were cov-
ered with brilliant feath-
ers so arranged as to
bring out designs in the
natural colors.

Fig. 78. Mexican Blanket
with the Design representing
Sand and Water.

The Tarascans^The

Aztecs while by far the
most important tribe in
the fifteenth century did
hot dominate all the sur-
rounding peoples. For instance, most of the State
of Michoacan was controlled by the Tarascans who
defeated every expedition sent against them. The
list of Tarascan towns is a long one but Tzintzunt-
zan which means the "Place of the Humming Birds"
was the capital and principal stronghold. The ancient
history of the Tarascans is little known. Although the
archaic art was once credited to these people they do not
appear to have been ever especially proficient in it.
Mounds of peculiar T shape called yatacas are found in
the Tarascan area. They rise in terraces and are faced
with slabs of stone laid without mortar. Sculptures of
fine quality are rare in connection with these remains
and indicate a period of florescence during late Toltecan
times, but the reclining god of the type made famous by
the "Chacmool" of Chichen Itza has been noted.
Many fine copper celts have been unearthed in this
highly mineralized mountain region.

THE AZTECS 217

In the old days the Tarascans were skilled in weaving
and were particularly famous for feather mosaics and
feather pictures made largely of the brilliant plumage of
humming birds. The use of the atlatl or spear- thrower
survives among the present-day Tarascan Indians.
These natives also make gourd vessels covered with
colored clays in pleasing geometric and floral designs.

Southern Mexico. Somewhere about the middle of
the fifteenth century Moctezuma I planted an Aztecan
colony at Uaxyacac on the edge of the Zapotecan terri-
tory to protect the trade route to Tabasco. This name
gave rise to the modern Oaxaca. From this point
expeditions were sent out which harrassed the Zapote-
can towns to the south. In the Tribute Roll of Mocte-
zuma II more than twenty Zapotecan towns are listed
as paying tribute that consisted of gold disks and gold
dust, jadeite beads, quetzal feathers, cochineal dye, fine
textiles, etc. Very little is preserved concerning the
traditional history of Southern Mexico, but it is pre-
sumed that the Zapotecan culture before the Aztecan
influence took place was a development of that im-
planted under the Mayan horizon and which we have
already examined.

Some of the finest pre-Cortesian codices that have
come down to us are probably of Zapotecan and Mix-
tecan origin although reflecting to some extent the
religion of the Aztecs. Several of these have been inter-
preted by Doctor Seler in terms of Aztecan religion and
art. Among the documents from southern Mexico that
seemingly belong to the Aztecan period are : —

Codex Borgia Codex Fejervary-Mayer

Codex Vaticanus 3773 Codex Vindobonensis

Codex Bologna Codex Nuttall

Several lienzos or documents written on cloth are also
from this region. The Lienzo of Amoltepec which is a

218

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

fine example of this class is conserved in the American
Museum of Natural History. The documents from
southern Mexico are distinguished by details of geomet-
ric ornament that resemble the panels of geometric
design on the temples of Mitla. They record historical

8

Fig. 79. A Year Symbol from Southern Mexico. It is combined
with the four year bearers, House, Rabbit, Reed, and Stone. In
the second detail the day 6 Serpent in the year 12 Rabbit is recorded.

oooooo

Fig. 80. Year Bearers in the Codex Porfirio Diaz ascribed to the
Cuicatecan tribe: Wind, Deer, Herb, and Movement.

events, give astronomical information and present much
pictographic evidence on various ceremonies and
religious usages^ In giving a date a somewhat different
method is used than we have seen in the historical
records from the Valley of Mexico. There is a definite
year sign (Fig. 79) and with it is the year bearer, or
initial day of the year, and often the particular day of
the event. Unfortunately, this is not entirely satis-

(a)

(b)

Plate XLIII. (a) A Page from the Codex Nuttall, recording the
Conquest of a Town situated on an Island of the Sea. The con-
querors come in boats and the conquest is indicated by a spear
thrust into the place name hieroglyph. The crocodile, flying fish,
and the sea serpent are represented in the water; (b) Zapotecan
Cruciform Tomb near Mitla.

219

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

factory because no month signs are recorded and a day
with a certain name and number frequently occurs
twice in one year. The year bearers are the same as
among the Aztecs for most of the documents, namely,
Knife, House, Rabbit, and Reed, but in a manuscript
ascribed to a tribe in southern Mexico called the
Cuicatecs, the year bearers are Wind, Deer, Herb, and
Movement (Fig. 80). Conquest of a town is shown by
a spear thrust into the place name. Individuals are
often named after the day on which they were born.
Thus 8 Deer is a warrior hero in the Codex Nuttall and
3 Knife is a woman who also plays a prominent part.
In some of the manuscripts from southern Mexico we
see details that are very close to those in the codices of
the Mayas.

- Mitla. The famous temples of Mitla are the best-
preserved examples of architecture on the highlands of
Mexico. They are peculiar in form and decoration.
"he word Mitla is a corruption of the Aztecan word
Mictlan, place of the dead. This site was the burial
ground of Zapotecan kings and may have been a place
of pilgrimage. It seems to have been conquered by the
Aztecs in the last decade of the fifteenth century.
While the architecture belongs in a class by itself the
frescoes have the distinct character of the Aztecan
period.

At this site we miss the lofty pyramids of Monte
Alban. There is one fairly large mound at Mitla but it
has no surviving superstructure. The temples are
placed on low platforms which usually contain cruciform
tombs. The buildings are carefully oriented and are
assembled in groups of four which almost enclose square
paved courts. The heavy walls have surfaces of cut
stone and a filling of concrete or rubble and are orna-

(6)

a

Plate XLIV. (a) Detail of Wall Construction at Mitla, showing the
separately Carved Stones; (6, c) The God Macuilxochitl, Five Flower,
as shown in a Mexican Codex and in pottery from Southern Mexico.

221

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

mented with longitudinal panels of geometric designs
arranged according to a carefully worked out plan. The
geometric patterns are entirely formal and are mosaics
of separately carved stones which fit neatly together.
The chambers are long and narrow and formerly had
flat roofs which have completely vanished. The door-
ways are wide and low, usually with two piers. The
lintels are blocks of carefully trimmed stone of great
length and weight. All the outer surfaces of the Mitla
temples seem to have been sized with plaster and
painted red. The frescoes, traces of which can still be
seen in several buildings, are in red and black upon a
white base. Various gods and ceremonies are repre-

Fig. 81. Wall Paintings of Mitla, resembling in Style the Picto-
graphic Art of the Codices.

sented, but only the upper portion of the bands, which
show the heavens can be made out completely.

Cruciform tombs are found under several of the
temples at Mitla as well as at a number of neighboring
sites such as Xaaga and Guiaroo. In these tombs the
designs in panels appear on the inside and are carved
directly on large blocks of stone. Pottery remains are
rare in the cruciform tombs of the Mitla type but a few
examples of gold work have been discovered in them.

Within a short distance of Mitla is a fortified hill with
several heavy walls that still stand to the height of per-
haps twenty feet. In the flat valley between this hill

THE AZTECS 223

and the ruins a considerable number of potsherds are
plowed up in the field.

Aztecan Influence in Central America. The

influence from the late Mexican cultures can be traced
far to the south. In Salvador the cults of Tlaloc, Xipe
Totec, and other Aztecan gods were fully developed.
The occurrence of the "Chacmool" in Salvador has al-
ready been pointed out and it may be added that the
Mexican ball game, tlachtli, seems also to have been
known here.

Decorative motives that show affiliations to those of
the Aztecs and their immediate predecessors are found
as far south as Costa Rica but the strain is thin and not
to be compared with the evidences of culture connec-
tion over wide territories that are found on earlier
horizons.

CONCLUSION

This survey of ancient history in Mexico and Central
America makes clear a fact that doubtless will be found
to hold true of archaeology in other parts of the world.
The earliest culture was by far the most homogeneous
and widespread which probably means that it lasted for
a long time and modified slowly. At the same time it
must be remembered that owing to the connection of
this archaic art with agriculture, the initial spread may
have been rapid. The Mayan culture that followed was
specialized to a humid lowland environment and while
the influence that it exerted over the life of other nat-
tions was very great the exact characters of the Mayan
civilization were not reproduced elsewhere. The cycle
of -this civilization was comparatively short and that of
the civilizations that followed were even shorter.

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

The debt which the world owes to these ancient
civilizations of Mexico and Central America becomes
apparent when we list even the more important of the
agricultural plants and technical processes, fibers, gums,
dyes, etc., which were taken over by Europeans from
the American Indians. Special notice should be 'given
to the following: —

Food Plants Cultivated by American Indians

Maize Pineapples Cashew nut

Potatoes Nispero Pacay

Sweet potatoes Barbados cherry Jocote

Tomatoes Strawberries Star apples

Pumpkins Persimmons Paraguay tea

Squashes Papaws Alligator pear

Lima beans Guava Sour sop

Kidney beans Arracacha Sweet sop

Peppers > Peanuts Custard apple

Cacao Oca Cassava

Important Economic Contributions of American
Indians

MEDICINES FIBERS

Tobacco Cotton

Cinchona (Quinine) Henequen

Cascara Sagrada
Cocaine

DOMESTICATED ANIMALS GUMS

Alpaca Rubber

Llama Copal

Guinea pig Peruvian Balsam

Dog

Muscovy duck
Turkey

DYES

Anil

Cochineal

Logwood

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A brief list of books on Mexico and Central America is appended.
These books may be consulted in the Museum Library as well as others
referred to in the more complete bibliographies that will be found in the
works cited.

BANCROFT, H. H. The Native Races of the Pacific States. 5 vols. New
York and London, 1875-1876.

BANDELIER, ADOLPH F. On the Distribution and Tenure of Lands and
the Customs with Respect to Inheritance, among the Ancient Mexicans
(Eleventh Annual Report, Peabody Museum of American Archaeo-
logy and Ethnology, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 384-448, Cambridge, 1878.)

Social Organization and Mode of Government

of the Ancient Mexicans (Twelfth Annual Report, Peabody Museum
of American Archeology and Ethnology, vol. 2, no. 3, Cambridge,

1879.) ^

BOWDITCH, C. P. The Numeration, Calendar Systems and Astronomical
Knowledge of the May as. Cambridge, 1910.

BRANSFORD, J. F. Archaeological Researches in Nicaragua (Smithsonian
Contributions to Knowledge, XXV, Art 2, pp. 1-96, 1881.)

BRINTON, D. G. The Maya Chronicles. Philadelphia, 1882. (No. i of
Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature.)

The Annals of the Cakchiquds. The original text with
a translation, notes and introduction. Philadelphia, 1885. (No. 6
of Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature.)

Essays of an Americanist. Philadelphia, 1890.

BULLETIN 28. Mexican and Central American Antiquities, Calendar
Systems and History. Twenty-four papers by Eduard Seler, E. Fors-
temann, Paul Schellhas, Carl Sapper and E. P. Dieseldorff. Trans-
lated from the German under the supervision of Charles P. Bowditch
(Bulletin 28, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1904.)

CHARNAY, D. The Ancient Cities of the New World. Trans, by J.
Gonino and H. S. Conant. London, 1887.

DIAS DEL CASTILLO, BERNAL. The True History of the Conquest of
Mexico, 1568. 3 vols. (Translated by A. P. Maudslay. Hakluyt
Society, London, 1908.)

FORSTEMANN, E. Commentary of the Maya Manuscript in the Royal
Public Library of Dresden (Papers, Peabody Museum, IV, No. 2,
pp. 48-266, 1906.)

225

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

GANN, T. Mounds in Northern Honduras (Nineteenth Annual Report,
Bureau of American Ethnology, part 2, pp. 661-692, Washington,
1897-1898.)

HARTMANN, C. V. Archceological Researches in Costa Rica (The Royal
Ethnographical Museum in Stockholm, Stockholm, 1901.)

Archaeological Researches on the Pacific Coast of Costa
Rica (Memoirs, Carnegie Institute, vol. 3, pp. 1-95, 1907.)

HOLMES, W. H. Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui (Sixth Annual
Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, pp. 3-187, Washington,
1888.)

Archceological Studies among the Ancient Cities in
Mexico (Publications, Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 1895-1897.)

JOYCE, T. A. Mexican Archaeology. An Introduction to the Archae-
ology of the Mexican and Maya Civilizations of pre-Spanish America.
New York and London, 1914.

KINGSBOROUGH, LORD. Antiquities of Mexico. 9 vols., folio. London,
1831-1848.

LEHMANN, W. Methods and Results in Mexican Research. Trans, by
Seymour de Ricci. Paris, 1909.

LUMHOLTZ, C. Unknown Mexico. 2 vols. New York, 1902.

Symbolism of the Huichol Indians (Memoirs, American
Museum of Natural History, vol. 3, part 1, 1900.)

Decorative Art of the Huichol Indians (Memoirs, Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History, vol. 3, part 4, 1904.)

MAcCyRDY, G. G. A Study of Chiriquian Antiquities (Memoirs, Con-
necticut Academy of Sciences, vol. 3, 1911.)

MAUDSLAY, A. P. Biologia Centrali- Americana, or Contributions to the
Knowledge of the Flora and Fauna of Mexico and Central America.
Archaeology, 4 vols. of text and plates. London, 1889-1902.

MEMOIRS OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM, vols. 1-5. Reports on excava-
tions and exploration by Gordon, Maler, Thompson, and Tozzer.

MORLEY, S. G. An Introduction to the Study of the Maya Hieroglyphs
(Bulletin 57, Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1915.)

PENAFIEL, A. Monumentos del arte Mexicano antiguo. 3 vols. Berlin,
1890.

Nomenclatura geografica de Mexico. Mexico, 1897.

SAHAGUN, BERNARDINO DE. Histoire generate des C hoses de la Nouvelle-
Espagne (Edited and translated by D. Jourdanet and Remi Simeon),
1880.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 227

SCHELLAS, P. Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts. 2nd
edition revised. (Translated by Miss Selma Wesselhoeft and Miss
A. M. Parker, Papers, Peabody Museum, vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 7-47, 1904. )

SELER E. Die alien Ansiedelungen von Chaculd im Districkte Nenton des
Departments Huehuetenango der Republic Guatemala. Berlin, 1901.

Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur amerikanischen Sprach- und
Alterthumskunde. 3 vols. Berlin, 1902-1908.

SELER, EDUARD. Codex Vaticanus No. 3773 (Codex Vaticanus B).
An Old Mexican Pictorial Manuscript in the Vatican^ Library (Trans-
lated by A. H. Keane) . Berlin and London, 1902-1903.

SPINDEN, H. J. A Study of Maya Art (Memoirs, Peabody Museum,
vol. 6, 1913.)

SQUIER, E. G. The States of Central America: their Geography, Topo-
graphy, Climate, Population, etc. New York, 1858.

STEPHENS, J. L. Central America, Chiapas and Yucatan. 2 vols. New
York, 1841.

Incidents of Travel in Yucatan. 2 vols. New York 1843.

THOMAS, C. A Study of the Manuscript Troano (U. S. Geographical and
Geological Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region, Contributions to
American Ethnology, V, p. 1-224, 1882.)

THOMAS, C. AND Sw ANTON, JOHN R. Indian Languages of Mexico and
Central America (Bulletin 44, Bureau of American Ethnology, Wash-
ington, 1911.)

TOZZER A. M. A Comparative Study of the Mayas and Lacandones. New
York, 1907.

INDEX

Acropolis, artificial, 68, 69.

Adobe, 56; houses. Mexican, 15.

Agriculture, connection with archaic
art, 223; distribution of, 59, 60;
influence on Mayan culture, 65;
invention of, 46-49; spread and
development of, 56, 59.

Ahpuch, Lord of Death, 93^-94.

Alligator ware, 62.

Alphabet, of Landa, 112.

Altars, Mayan, 77; Quirigua, 124.

Amulets, gold, 174.

Animals, domestication of, 52-53,
224.

Annals of Quauhtitlan, 150, 179, 182.

Arch, in Mayan architecture, 72, 73.

Archaic, art, 52-53, 216; art, on
borders of Mayan area, 67; art,
local developments of, 59-63; art,
wide distribution of, 223; culture,
164; culture, distribution of, 58;
culture, frontier cities of the
Northwest, 164; figurines, 48-51;
horizon, 43-64; horizon, exten-
sions of, 56-59; pottery, 53-54;
stone sculptures, 54-56.

Architecture, brilliant period of the
Mayas, 131; historical sequence
determined byr 126; Mayan, 67-
76; Mitla, 220; period of League
of Mayapan, 132-133; Transition
Period, Mayan, 132; types, La
Quemada, 161.

Aristocracies, among the Aztecs, 185.

Art, archaic, 43, 52-53, 67, 216; ar-
chaic, characterization of, 49;
archaic, distribution of, 223; ar-
chaic, local developments of, 59-

63; Chorotegan, 166-167; deco-
rative Isthmian region, 61; high
development of Mayan, 65; mas-
sive sculptural, 76-77; Mayan,
130, 131, 132, 133, 134; Mayan,
historical development of, 124-
127; Mayan, serpent in, 82-85;
Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 164;
sequence in, 124; Tarascan, 43;
Toltecan, influenced by Mayan,
153; Totonacan, close corres-
pondence to Mayan, 146, 149;
Zapotecan, influenced by Mayan,
139.

Arts, minor, Aztecan, 214-216.

Astronomy, Mayan knowledge of,
65, 97, 122.

Atlatl, 52, 217.

Atzcapotzalco, 181, 184; stratifica-
tion at, 44-45, 153.

Aztecan history, 181-184.

Aztecs, 177-224; and Mayas, com-
pared to Greeks and Romans,
177-179.

Bar and dot numerals, 103, 115, 141.
Basketry, Mayan, 81.
Bats, represented in ancient art, 20.
Bells, Aztecan, 214; copper, 164;

copper and gold, 174.
Ben, Mayan day sign, 79.
Blankets, Mexican, 37.
Brilliant Period, Mayan civilization,

67, 131
Buildings, Mayan, 69.

Caban, Mayan day sign, 79.
Cakchiquels, 135, 186.

229

230

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Calendar, annual, Mayan, 107; Cen-
tral American, 145; ceremonial,
Aztecan, 203; lunar, Mayan, 97,
107-109; Mayan, scheme as pre-
sented in Codex Tro-Cortesianus,
102; religious, Aztecan, 207-208;
Venus, Mayan, 109-112.

Calendar round, Mayan, 101-103.

Calendar Stone, 189-192, 194, 206.

Calpolli, Aztecan, 186, 187.

Cannibalism, 41.

Captives, as represented in Mayan
art, 85-86.

Caribs, 39, 41.

Caricature, in archaic figurines, 48,
52.

Carving, development in style at
Copan, 123; on Mayan monu-
ments, 124; stone, at Xochimilco,
155.

Celts, copper, Tarascan, 216; stone,
54.

Cempoalan, 24, 150, 171.

Cenote, 18; sacred, at Chichen Itza,
28.

Cephalic index, Mexico and Central
America, 42.

Ceremonial Bar, Mayan, 86, 91, 92,
93, 124.

Ceremonies, Aztecan, 207-212;
Mexican, 36.

Chacmool, 170-172, 216, 223.

Chalchuihtlicue, 205.

Chichen Itza, 127, 129, 133-134,
152, 153, 158, 171.

Chichimecas, 151, 179-181.

Chiconoztoc, 150, 160, 181.

Chiefs, Aztecan, 185, 187; Toltecan,
151; war, Aztecan, 183.

Chilan Balam, Books of, 122, 128-
129.

Chimayo blankets, 37.

Cholula, 158-160, 181.
Chorotegan culture, 166-172.
Chronology, Aztecan, 182; bases of
Mayan, 122-124; Mayan, 122,
127,128; Mayan, correlation with
Christian, 67, 129; Mayan, cor-
relation with Mexican dates, 152;
Mayan, established by dated
monuments and style of sculpture,
128.

Civilization, Mayan, 65-135, 223.

Civilizations, lesser, in Mexico and
Central America, 137-175.

Clans, kinship, 186.

Climate, Mexico and Central Am-
erica, 13-14.

Cloisonne pottery, 158, 161-162; San
Juan Teotihuacan, 158.

Coatlicue, 189, 195, 196-197.

Codex Aubin, 183.
Magliabecchiano, 209.
Nuttall, 219, 220.
Telleriano Remensis, 180.

Codices, Mayan, 115-122, 220;
Mayan gods in, 91, 93; Mexican,
197; southern Mexico, 143, 217-
218.

Colhuacan, stratification at, 44-45.

Collectors, specimens in Mexican
Hall, 6.

Colonization, Central America, by
Spaniards, 22.

Columns, sculptured at Tula, 158.

Comalcalco, 137.

Commerce, Aztecan objects of, 200.

Composition in design, Mayan, 86-
89.

Conquest, history of Spanish, 21-31 ;
of Mexico, 22-29.

Conquest, symbol for, 220.

Construction of walls, 69, 72-76,
161.

INDEX

231

Copan, 19, 66, 67, 68, 69, 76, 124,
126.

Cora, 35.

Correlations, dates with style of
carving in Mayan monuments,
127-128.

Crocodile motive, in Chorotegan
art, 167, 168, 170, 171, 172.

Crops, indigenous and introduced,
Mexico and Central America, 21 ;
principal, Mayan region, 65, 67.

Cross-section, typical, Mayan tem-
ple, 73, 74.

Cult, of the quarters, Aztecan, 207.

Cults, Aztecan gods, 223.

Culture, Carib, 39, 41; Chorotegan,
166-172; Huichol, 36; Lacandone
Indians, 39; Mayan, 65-135;
Mosquito Indians, 41; southern
Mexico, 217-220; Tarascans, 216-
217; Toltecs, 150-154, 179; Tot-
onacan, 145-150; Zapotecan,
139-145.

Cycle, defined, 97.

Dances, hunting, Huichol, 36.

Dated monuments, 127-128.

Dates, 101, 127, 132; early Mayan,
130, 137; Toltecan, 150.

Day count, Mayan, elements of the,
97-99.

Day signs, Aztecan, 191, 199, 200;
hieroglyphs used on Mayan pot-
tery, 79; Mayan, 98.

Death God, 93, 94, 102.

Decoration, Mayan buildings, 76;
Mayan pottery, 79; pottery, ar-
chaic period, 53-54.

Decorative motives, Chorotegan
art, 166; distribution of, 223.

Design, composition and perspect-
ive, Mayan, 86-89; on Mexican

blanket, 216; motives, Costa Rica,
168, 170, 171, 172.

Designs, on blankets, 37; developed
in negative painting, 163-164;
geometric, at Mitla, 222; on
Mayan pottery, 78, 80, 81; poly-
chrome pottery, 79; realistic,
Mayan pottery, 78, 79; textile,
Mayan, 81; Totonacan sacrificial
yokes and paddle stones, 149;
woven, Huichol, 35, 36.

Donors, collections in Mexican Hall,
5-6.

Dresden Codex, 94, 108, 110, 115,
116, 121, 126. ,

Dress, shown in archaic figurines,
51; Mexico and Central America,
39; modern Mexican, 37.

Drums, Aztecan, 214.

Dyes, 224.

Early Period, in Mayan history, 130.

Earrings, archaic figurines, 51-52.

Economic contributions, of Ameri-
can Indians, 224.

Ehecatl, God of Winds, 53, 204.

Ek Ahau, war god, Mayan, 96.

Elevations, Mayan buildings, 74r-76.

Environment, Mayan, 137; Mexico
and Central America, 13-21.

Ethnology, 34-41, 51-52.

European contact, history of, 21-31.

Exploration, of Central America, by
Spaniards, 21-22.

Eyes, color and Mongoloid tilt, 42;
types of, on archaic figurines, 51 ;
on Totonacan figurines, 146.

Face numerals, Mayan inscriptions,
105.

Fauna, Mexico and Central Am-
erica, 19-20.

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Feast, in connection with planet
Venus, 212; of the twelfth month,
210-211.

Feasts, Aztecan, 208, 211.

Feather mosaics, Aztecan, 216; Tar-
ascan, 217.

Fibers, 224.

Figurines, archaic, 48, 49-51; ar-
chaic, Isthmian region, 56, 60;
archaic, from Salvador, 50; clay,
transition period, 67; female, dis-
tribution of, 53, 57, 61-62; pot-
tery, Aztecan, 215; pottery, San
Juan Teotihuacan, 157.

Filigree, modern Mexican work, 215.

Flageolets,. Aztecan, 214.

Flora, Mexico and Central America,
20-21.

Flores, 28.

Flying fagade, on Mayan buildings,
76.

Food plants, most widely dis-
tributed in the New World, 47;
cultivated by American Indians,
224.

Frescoes, Mitla, 222.

Frontier cities, of the northwest,
160-164.

Funerary urns, Zapotecan, 141-143;
also frontispiece.

Games, ceremonial, Toltecan, 153.

Genealogical table, Mexican, 204.

Genealogies, Aztecan, 185.

Geography, Mexico and Central
America, 13-21.

Geology, Mexico and Central Am-
erica, 19.

Gladiator stones, 194.

Glaze, on modern Mexican pottery,
37.

Glyphs, period, Mayan, 105.

God houses, Huichol, 36.

God of War, Mayan, 102.

God's eyes, Huichol, 36.

Gods, Aztecan, 201, 203, 205, 209;
beast, Mayan representation of,
92; in Dresden Codex, 94; Mayan,
79, 82, 84, 91, 92-96, 121; Mexi-
can, 53, 205; represented in pot-
tery from San Juan Teotihuacan,
157.

Gold work, ancient, Isthmian re-
gion, 63; Aztecan, 215; in cruci-
form tombs, 222; Isthmian, 172-
175; Mayan, 81; Zapotecan, 143.

Gourd vessels, Tarascan, 217.

Government, Aztecan, 187; theo-
cratic, of the Mayas, 86.

Graves, Isthmian, gold objects
found in, 174.

Great Ball Court, Chichen Itza,
134, 153.

Great Mound, Copan, 131.

Great Period, Mayan history, 131.

Grooving, in archaic figurines, 50.

Groundplans, Toltecan buildings,
153; Yaxchilan temples, 72.

Guatuso, 41.

Gums, 224.

Haab, 105.

Hair, Indians of Mexico and Central
America, 42.

Headdresses, shown in archaic figu-
rines, 51.

Hieroglyphs, Aztecan, of precious
stones, 197; containing phonetic
element kin, 114; decorative use
on pottery, Mayan, 79; of the
Four Directions, 114; Mayan, 89,
112-115; Nahuan, 198; on stelae
at Monte Alban, 141; on the
Stone of Tizoc, 194, 195; at
Xochicalco, 155.

INDEX

233

Hikule worship, Huichol and Tara-
humare, 36.

History, Aztecan, 181-184; Chichi-
mecan, 179, 181; of European
contact, Mexico and Central Am-
erica, 21-31; Mayan, summary
of, 130-135; summary in relation
to archaeological evidences, on
the archaic horizon, 63-64; Tol-
tecan, 150-152; traditional, south-
ern Mexico, 217.

Hochob, 70.

Horse, introduction of, 59.

Hotun periods, 127.

Houses, adobe, Mexican, 15; ar-
chaic period, 54-56; Mayan, 69.

Huastecas, 145, 146.

Huichol, 35, 36.

Huijnli, decorated, 38, 39.

Huitzilopochtli, 189, 194, 203, 210.

Human, form, carved in stone, ar-
chaic period, 54; form, in Mayan
art, 82, 85-86, 124; heads, types
of, at Yaxchilan, 87.

Hunting implements, 39, 41.

Ihuicatl, 206.

Imix, day sign, Mayan, 79; first day
of the formal tonalamatl, 101.

Incised designs on pottery, 81.

Influence, Aztecan, in Central Am-
erica, 223; Mayas, on other civi-
lizations, 137; Mexican in north-
ern Yucatan, 152.

Initial Series date, Chichen Itza,
129; Great Period, 132; impor-
tance in determination of cor-
relations, 127; Transition Period,
132.

Initial Series dates, 109, 111, 127,
128.

Inscriptions, hieroglyphic, 94; hiero-
glyphic, on Mayan monuments,
112, 127; Mayan, 113; Mayan,
face numerals on, 105; Mayan,
Great Period, 131; on Mayan
monuments, 127-128; typical
Mayan, 106.

Invention^ of agriculture, in the
New World, 46, 49.

Irrigation, in the New World. 47, 56.

Itzamna, 92, 96, 102.

Ixchel, Goddess of the Rainbow, 96.

Ixchelbelyax, Mayan god, 96.

Ixtubtun, Mayan god, 96.

Jade, carving of, Mayan, 81; Zapo-
tecan, 143, 144; work in, Aztec,
215.

Jaguar design, 167, 168.

Kan, day sign; Mayan, 79; maize

sign, 121.
Katun, 128, 129.
Kukulcan, 93.

Lacandone Indians, 39, 135.

Lakes, Mexico and Central America,
17, 18-19.

Land laws, Aztecan, 186.

Language, Totonacan, 45.

Languages, Central America, 212;
Mexico and Central America, 31-
34.

La Quemada, 159, 160-161.

League, Aztecan, 184; of Mayapan,
132-133.

Leiden Plate, 130.

Lienzo of Amoltepec, 217-218.

Linguistic stocks, Mexico and Cen-
tral America, 31-34.

Long-nosed God, Mayan, 91, 93,
143, 205.

234

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Lunar, calendar, Mayan, 97, 107-
109; period, in Mayan calendar,
107, 108.

Macuilxochitl, God Five Flower,

221.

Manikin Scepter, 86, 91, 93.
Maize God, Mayan, 92, 94-96, 119,

121.
Maize, distribution of use, 47; most

important food of the New World,

46-47; staple, in Mayan region,

65, 67.
Manioc, cultivation of, 47; use and

preparation by Carib, 37, 39, 41.
Marimba, 214.
Mask panels, on Mayan structures,

76-77, 133.

Mayan, civilization, 65-135; lin-
guistic stock, distribution of, 33-

34.
Mayas, and Aztecs, compared to

Greeks and Romans, 177-179.
Mazatecas, 186.
Medicines, 224.
Metal, ornaments made of, Mayas,

81; Zapotecan, 143.
Metates, elaborately sculptured,

168-170.
Mexican Hall, American Museum,

5-6.
Mexican influence, period of, in

Mayan history, 133-134.
Mictlan, 206r 207, 220.
Mictlanteuctli, 206.
Middle Period, in Mayan history,

131.

Migrations, Aztecan, 181-182.
Mitla, 19, 143, 220-223.
Mixtecas, 186.

Modeling, archaic figurines, 50; clay,
San Juan Teotihuacan, 157.

Modern Period, Mayan history,

134-135.

Moyotes, Zapotecan burial mounds,
143.

•Monkey, in Chorotegan art, 166-
167.

Monte Alban, 138, 139, 141.

Month, Mayan, twenty day signs
of, 98; signs, of Mayan Year, 100.

Months, Aztecan, 201; Mayan,
length of, 97; Mayan, names of,
99.

Monument, earliest dated, 130.

Monuments, Mayan, dated, 127-
128; sequence of Mayan deter-
mined by style of sculpture, 124.

Moon, representations of the, 108.

Mosaic, feather, Aztecan, 216; fea-
ther, Tarascan, 217; masks and
ceremonial objects, 81.

Mosquito Indians, 41.

Mound, artificial, at Gopan, 69;
pyramidal developed at end of
archaic period, 54, 56.

Mounds, at Atzcapotzalco, 44;
foundation for temples, 69; Tar-
ascan, 216.

Mountains, Mexico and Central
America, 14-16.

Music, Aztecan, 212-214.

Musical instruments, Aztecan, 213-
214.

Mythology, Aztecan, 181, 191, 201,
203; Mayan and Aztecan, 205.

Myths, cosmogonic, 205.

Nahuan, linguistic stock, distribu-
tion of, 32-33; tribes, led in de-
velopment of archaic art, 43.

INDEX

235

Naranjo, 67, 124, 131.

Negative painting, 162-164.

Nezahualcoyotl, 212.

Nose, Indians of Mexico and Cen-
tral America, 52.

Noserings, on archaic figurines, 51-
52.

Notation system, Mayan, 97, 103-
104.

Numbers, Aztecan, 200; Mayan,
103-104; Mexican system of, 201.

Numerals, Zapotecan system of,
141.

Ochpaniztli, eleventh feast of the

year, 209.

Old Man God, Mayan, 79.
Olin, Aztecan day sign, 191, 192.
Olmecs, 150.
Ometeuctli, 203, 206.
Organization, political, Mayan, 177;

social, Aztecan, 184.
Ornaments, of semi-precious stones,

Aztecan, 215; shown on archaic

figurines, 51-52.
Otomis, 179.

Pachtli, twelfth month, Aztecan,
210.

Paddle-shaped stones, Totonacan,
149.

Painting, archaic figurines, 50, 61-
62; body, shown in archaic figu-
rines, 52; on Mayan pottery, 61;
on pottery, 167; Zapotecan pot-
tery, 143.

Palaces, structure of Mayan, 69.

Palenque, 67, 76.

Palmate stone, 148.

Pantheon, Mayan, 89-96.

Papantla, 149.

Peregrinations, Aztecan, 182.

Peresianus Codex, 115.

Period, denned, in Mayan time
count, 97; glyphs, Mayan, 103,
105.

Permutation system, Mayan, 97-
99.

Perspective, in Mayan design, 86-
89.

Peyote worship, Huichol and Tara-
humare, 36.

Phonetic use of signs, Mayan hiero-
glyphs, 112, 114.

Physical types, 40, 41-42.

Pictographic hieroglyphs, Mayan,
112-113.

Piedras Negras, 67, 90, 124, 125, 131.

Pima, 34.

Pipiles, 164.

Place Names, Aztecan, 198.

Plants, food, cultivation of, in the
New World, 47, 224.

Poetry, Aztecan, 212-214.

Polychrome pottery, Cholula, 160;
Mayan, 79.

Portraiture, in archaic art, 48; in
Mayan art, 86, 128.

Post Archaic Horizon, 64.

Potato, cultivated in Peru, 47.

Pottery, archaic, 53-54, 131, 146.

Pottery, archaic, 53, 54, 131, 146;
Aztecan, 214-215; at Atzcapotz-
alco, 44; from Cholula, 159, 160;
Chorotegan, 167; cloisonne, San
Juan Teotihuacan, 158; distribu-
tion of, 56, 59; Isthmian, 61, 62;
Mayan, 77-81; Mitla, 222; mod-
ern Mexican, 37; northwestern
region of Mexico, 161-162; poly-
chrome, Mayan, 79; San Juan
Teotihuacan, 157; with semi-
glaze, 166; Zapotecan, 139, 143.

Pouches, Valiente Indians, 38.

236

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Prayers, representation of in Tol-
tecan sculptures, 153.

Priests, Zapotecan, 145.

Pre- Archaic Horizon, 63.

Protohistoric Period, Mayan his-
tory, 130.

Pueblo Vie jo, 23.

Pulque, 36.

Pyramid, Cholula, 156, 158-160;
Mayan, 69; Monte Alban, 220;
San Juan Teotihuacan, 155; Tol-
tecan, 153.

Quetzalcoatl, 93, 151, 205.
Quiches, 135.
Quinatzin, map, 181.
Quirigua, 15, 67, 124.

Rank, among the Aztecs, 184.

Rattles, Aztecan, 214.

Religion, Aztecan, 201-205; as evi-
denced by archaic art, 52; Isth-
mian region, 174; Lacandone
Indians, 39; Mayan, 91-96, 177;
Toltecan, 153; Zapotecan, 145.

River systems, Mexico and Central
America, 17-18.

Roman-nosed God, Mayan, 91, 92,
93.

Roof comb, on Mayan buildings, 76,
126.

Roofs, on Mayan buildings, 72.

Rooms, Mayan buildings, 72, 73.

Ruins, Usumacinta Valley, 17-18.

Sacrifices, Aztecan, to the gods, 177,
human, 189, 192, 208; human,
Aztecan, 207, 210, 211; human,
shown on sculptures, 166; human,
Toltecan, 151; Zapotecan, 145.

Sacrificial yokes, Totonacan, 147-
149.

Saltillo blankets, 37.

San Andres Tuxtla, 137.

San Bias Indians, 41.

San Juan Teotihuacan, 155-158.

San Miguel blankets, 37.

Santa Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 164-
166.

Sculptural art, massive, 76-77.

Sculptures, archaic, 54-56; common
material for, 19; developments in,
as a check to chronology, 122;
Isthmian region, 61, 63, 169, 170;
Mayan, Middle Period, 131; San
Juan Teotihuacan, 157; Santa
Lucia Cozumalhualpa, 164-166;
sequence in style, 124; style, cor-
related with dates, 127; Teno-
chtitlan, 214; at Tula, 158; wall,
at Copan, 76; Zapotecan, 144.

Seibal, 67, 88.

Seri, 34

Serpent, archaic pottery, 53-54; in
Chorotegan art, 166-167; con-
ventional, of the Mayas, 83, 84-
85; heads, comparison of Mayan
and Zapotecan, 139; heads, on
Mayan buildings, 76, 77; influence
on Mayan art, 89; motive, im-
portance in Mayan art, 82-85; in
religion of the Mayas, 89, 91.

Shield stone, Cuernavaca, 193.

Slabs, sculptured stone, from Costa
Rica, 160, 169; Zapotecan, 139.

Smiling faces, Totonacan, 146-147.

Social organization, Aztecan, 184-
187.

Songs, Aztecan, 212, 213.

Southern Mexico, culture of, 217-
220.

Spear-thrower, Tarascan, 217.

Speech scroll, 153, 166.

Stability, Mayan buildings, 74.

Stamps, for pottery designs, 81.

INDEX

237

Stature, Indians of Mexico and Cen-
tral America, 41, 42.

Stelae, Mayan, 77; Zapotecan, 139.

Stocks, language, distribution of,
31-34.

Stone, collars, Totonacan, 147-149;
great development of building in,
Copan and Mitla, 19; sculpture,
in, 54; yokes, 149; Zapotecan art
in, 139-141.

Stratification, archaeological, at Atz-
capotzalco, 42^3, 153; of re-
mains, Mexican sites, 44-45; of
remains, in Peru, 56, 59.

Structure, two-roomed, Mayan, 73-
74.

Sun God, Aztecan, 191.

Suns, sequence of, in Aztecan myth-
ology, 206.

Superstructures, on Mayan build-
ings, 76.

Supplementary series, 109, 111.

Syllables, phonetic use of, Mayan,
112.

Symbolism, religious, Mayan, 89,
91.

Tarahumare, 34, 36.

Tarascan culture, 216-217.

Tecpan, 183, 187-189.'

Temple, of the Cross, section of, 75;

enclosure, Tenochtitlan, 187-189;

structure of Mayan, 69, 74; of the

Sun, Aztecan, 189.
Temples, Mayan, 73-74, 126; Mitla,

220-221; Tenochtitlan, 187-189;

Toltecan, 153; Zapotecan, 139.
Tenochtitlan, 11, 44, 181, 182, 184,

186, 214.
Teocentli, 46-47.
Teonanacatl, 36.
Teotihuacan, 152.

Teotleco, twelfth month, Aztecan

210.

Tepanecas, 182, 184.
Tepehuane, 34.
Teswin, 36.
Teteocan, 206.
Teteoinnan, 209.
Textile, art, Cora and Huichol, 35-

36; art, Mayan, 81; decoration,

Aztec, 215-216.
Tezcatlipoca, 194, 203, 211.
Tezcoco, 152, 172, 181, 184, 212.
Tikal, 67, 74, 76, 124, 130.
Time, count, Aztecan, 182; Mayan,

96-97, 99; Toltecan, 150-151;

Zapotecan, 145.

Tizoc, stone of, 184, 189, 192-196.
Tlachtli, 158, 223.
Tlacopan, 184.
Tlaloc, God of Rain, 53, 157, 189,

203, 204.
Tlalocan, 207.
Tlotzin, map of, 181.
Toltecs, 150-154, 179.
Tomb, cruciform near Mitla, 219.
Tombs, cruciform, 222.
Tonalamatl, Aztecan, 211; in Dres-
den Codex, 120, 121-122; origin

of, 97-99; table, 99.
Tonatiuh, the Sun god, 191, 194,

203, 204.
Topography, Mexico and Central

America, 14-19.
Totonacan culture, 145-150.
Totonacs, 137.

Toxcatl, Aztecan month, 208.
Traditions, Mayan, 122.
Transition Period, Mayan history,

132.
Tribes, Indian, Mexico and Central

America, 34, 35.

238

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA

Tribute, lists, Aztecan, 216; roll, War God, Aztecan, 194, 210; Mayan,

178, 217.

96.

Tripod vessels, archaic period, 53. War, importance in Aztecan organi-

Tro-Cortesianus Codex, 115. zation, 184.

Tula, 150, 151, 152, 158.

Tun, 105.

Turquoise, Aztec work in, 215.

Tuxtla Statuette, 130, 137.

Two-Headed Dragon, 86, 91, 92, 93,

124, 125.
Tzintzuntzan, 216.

Weapons, shown in archaic figur-
ines, 52.

Weaving, shown in archaic figur-
ines, 52; Tarascan, 217.

Writing, hieroglyphic, Mayan, 65;
Mayan and Aztecan, 114-115;

Mexican, 187-201.
Uaxactun, 130.

Uinal, lunar month, 97. xipe> 157> 2Q5, 209.

Universe, Aztecan conceptions of xkichmook 77.

the 205-207. Xochicalco, 141, 152, 154, 156.

Urns, Zapotecan funerary, 141-143.
Uxmal, House of the Governor at, Xochimilco> 45> 183-

Yatacas, Tarascan mounds, 216. .

Vault, Mayan buildings, 72-73. Yaxchilan, 67, 76, 95, 87.

Venus, Aztecan festivals in con- Year, bearers, Cuicatecan, 218, 220;
nection with, 212; calendar, conventional, 99-101; symbol,
Mayan, 109-112. southern Mexico, 218; length o,

Volcanoes, Mexico and Central Am- Mayan, 97; Mayan, the truef
erica, 16, 19. 104-107.

Yum Kaax, 94.

Wall construction, La Quemada,

161; Mayan, 70-72; Mitla, 220- Zapotecs, culture of, 137, 139-149.
222. Zotzils, 186.

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