Full text of "Ancient handwriting; an introductory manual for intending students of palaeography and diplomatic"

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Handwritings

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Ancient

Handwritings

An Introductory Manual for Intending Students
of Palaeography and Diplomatic,

WILLIAM SAUNDERS,

To J. A. M. S.

1909.
CHAS. A. BERNAU, WAI/TON-ON-THAMES.

DUNN, COLLIN & CO.,

PRINTERS,
ST. MARY AXE, LONDON, E.G.

ANCIENT HANDWRITINGS.

AN INTRODUCTORY MANUAL FOR INTENDING STUDENTS OK
PALEOGRAPHY AND DIPLOMATIC.

The rules for deciphering the old handwritings
P ^ that one encounters in documents of an earlier date

than the seventeenth century, are embodied in two
Diplomatic ...

distinct though related and interacting sciences. The

first of these is the science of Palaeography, which has for its province
the mere deciphering of the writings, as well as questions concerning
the nature of the material upon which it is imposed, of the implements
by which it was produced, and of the medium through which the
thought and intention of the writer are recorded. Diplomatic, on the
other hand, the second of the sciences, is chiefly concerned with the
style of the document, with the peculiar formulas which kept changing
from age to age, and with the special methods of assigning dates, the
contents of the documents, and even the individuals who produced
them. In the words of M. Leon Gautier, the learned Professor of
Palaeography in the University of Chartres, " Palaeography studies the
body, while Diplomatic studies the soul of the Document." *

For genealogical purposes the latter is not so necessary as a thorough
grounding in the former, and though in the following essay Diplomatic
will not be neglected, our chief and first attention must be devoted to the
systematic study of Palaeography. To do so in an adequate manner then,
we must begin with the very first appearance of an attempt on the part of
man to keep a permanent record of his deeds, intentions, and desires, and
thence we must follow the development of the writing step by step, until

Le falatografhc eluJie le corfs dcs chartrts, le diplomatiste en i-ttufie V&mc.

4 Ancient

we arrive at the point where the invention of printing stereotyped and
fixed a standard by which future generations were to be guided. By
tracing the evolutionary system in this way, we shall be all the better able
to understand the various modifications which letters undergo from time
to time, and forms which must appear meaningless and arbitrary to the
uninstructed, will at once take their natural place in the developmental
process, and surprise us no longer. Thus also from certain knowledge of
a known system we shall be able to draw inferences with something
nearly approaching to conviction as to their correctness, with regard to
writings which were hitherto unfamiliar or unknown.

The term Palaeography is derived from two Greek words
(iraXatde, a, o>',=old or ancient, and ypa^ia, ypd>//w=to write), and the science
to which the time applies takes cognisance of all kinds of ancient
writing, as inscriptions on stone, on coins and on seals, as well as those
upon paper or parchment ; and in all languages, both ancient and modern.
That which concerns us, however, is known as Latin Palseography,
which only deals with the writings derived from the Roman or Latin
alphabet, not necessarily in the Latin language, although the great
bulk of the writings which we have to consider are in the low Latin

of the Middle Ages. Our starting point then is the Roman

The Roman alphabet as it was in the time of Cicero, which was little

Alphabet different from the printed capital letters at present in use.

The earliest documents were entirely written in capitals,
and are as easy to read as is anything in such characters written at the
present day. The only difference lies in the fact that in these old MSS. no
breaks occur between words, and the writing finishes at the end of one
line and commences at the beginning of the next, without the slightest
regard being paid to the structure or etymology of the words.

Pre- We shall now briefly consider the pre-Caroline or pre-

Carolingian Carolingian hands, viz. : those produced earlier than the

Handwritings reign of Charlemagne, when the great reformation in

Handwritings

writing took place. There were five distinct species of these hands,
which may be taken in chronological order. Those writings, which
were entirely composed of capitals, were known as Majuscule, while
the mixed hands and those in small letters are called Minuscule.
The Majuscule hands comprise the first four of the following, but we
have in the fifth the earliest tendency towards the Mimiscule and Cursive
styles :

1. THE PUNITIVE or ANGULAR type which is found principally

in inscriptions on stone or coins. Instead of curves the letters
take an angular form, as & = D j P* = D of which the Greek
A is a survival ; O = O ; and ** P

2. SQUARE CAPITALS : This is the style still in use, to which

reference has already been made. There are very few MSS.
extant which are entirely written in this form, but it was
frequently used during the Middle ages for ornamental pur-
poses in Biblical and Liturgical MSS., and even in Charters
and other documents square capitals are occasionally met
with, often a part or the whole of the first line being in these
characters.

3. RUSTIC CAPITALS. These are modifications of the Square

Capitals, and mark the first step in the degeneracy which, in
the late Middle Ages, had such far-reaching effects, and which
makes such a work as this so necessary an adjunct to the
paraphernalia of the working genealogist. The cause of the
decadence was, of course, the increasing necessity for writing
more swiftly, and the concomitant carelessness on the part of
the scribe. The most characteristic examples of letters in this

style are A = A ; I = E ; I = L ; an( j / - T A charac-
teristic of this style also was the fact that all the letters were
not of equal length and did not adhere strictly to the lines,
but frequently extended both above and below them.

6 Ancient

4. UNCIAL writing is, like the Rustic, a modification of the regular

capital, but instead of being square like the former it is round,
and probably originated in the same manner as the Angular
form, which was easier to make on stone or metal, while
curves were easier to form on the softer materials, such as
parchment or vellum, which were now in use. The derivation
of the term Uncial is not certain, but it may have come
from the Latin Uncia an inch. It. first appears in St.
Jerome's Preface to the Book of Job, zmcialibtis, utvulgoaiunt,
litteris. The chief characteristic of Uncial writing lies in
the fact that the main vertical strokes generally rise above
or fall below the line. There was still no separation of the
words,* and punctuation was comparatively rare. There
were also few abbreviations and contractions, a phase of the
subject which will be dealt with at greater length later,
though it would almost require a special treatise to itself,
forming as it does one of the greatest obstacles the palaeo-
grapher has to overcome. Uncial writing was in use from
the second to the ninth century, and is important as it formed
one of the principal bases upon which the Caroline Reform
was effected.

The characteristic letters are d, A i X) = D ; = E;
7? =H ; OO - M. The age of an Uncial MS. can generally
be estimated by reference to the letters E and M. The earlier
the MS. happens to be, the higher in the will the tongue
appear, and the more perpendicular is the first limb of the
, <Y), thus fY).

5. DEMI-UNCIAL ; HALF UNCIAL ; or MIXED UNCIAL. This is

an exceedingly important form as it marks the transition

* The reason why words were not separated was the fact that, materials being so costly, scribes
were compelled to economise space as much as possible. -The only wonder is that they were so long
in introducing the Minuscule and Cursive forms.

Handwritings

between the Majuscule and Minuscule or Cursive forms. It
must not be forgotten that all these hands constitute the
literary forms of writing, but there was also a correlative and
more widely used form known as Cursive writing, and the
distinction between the two might be compared with that
which to-day exists between ordinary type printing and
individual handwriting. In time, however, the two forms
became to a large extent merged into one, and there was
practically no distinction between them during the later
Middle Ages.* The following are the principal marks by
which demi-uncial writing may be recognised :

(a) A is sometimes in the form of an /' and a c juxtaposed,
viz. : LC; sometimes like two cs in the same position OC.
(fy G is invariably made up of three distinct strokes,

5 ' 3 > 3

(d) N is always a square capital AJ .

(e) R is always cursive 7"* > ^

We now pass to the true Cursive and Minuscule

Cursive forms of handwriting. The former of these as used by

the Romans is, as has been remarked,! now known only

from graffiti or wall inscriptions, waxen tablets, -or Imperial Rescripts,

and is only of antiquarian interest, so it need not concern us here.

About the seventh or eighth century, however, a tendency to combine

the literary and cursive styles can be discerned, and on this combination

the five National hands, which now became the vogue in Europe, were

to a considerable extent moulded.

* As the pre-Carolingian Cursive forms are of liltle or no value from the evolutionary point of
view, they are only dealt with here in passing. Examples are to be found chiefly in Pompeian Wall
Inscriptions, on Waxen Tablets, and in Imperial Rescripts. Alphabets of these early forms are given
in Sir E. Maunde Thompson's Handbook.

t See above note.

8 Ancient

Concerning the five National hands little need be
The Five
, . said here, for notwithstanding their historical import-

H d 't' ance , from our point of view, they, with a single excep-

tion, contribute little to the development of Palaeo-
graphy. The epithet National is somewhat misleading, as they were
not really so in the sense of having been invented by the various nations
by whom they were utilised. They were all derived from the Roman
forms, and were national only in so far as they were worked out on lines
peculiar to the nations whence they derived their names. Two of these
National hands were derived from the Roman Half-Uncial writings, and
are of special interest to us, both on account of their great beauty, and
because they were peculiar to our own land :

i. SCRIPTURUS SCOTIA. The first is known as the Irish National
Hand or Scripturus Scotia, and is the most important of them
all, as it alone had a durable influence on all the hands of
Europe. The Roman missionaries first introduced the Uncial
writing into Ireland, and this was modified and improved by
the Irish scribes until it acquired the well-nigh perfect forms
which continue to the present day, and of which the famous
Book of Kelts, in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin, is
the most characteristic example. Though alien to the
purpose of this book, it may be remarked in passing that the
intensely beautiful illumination in this wonderful MS.,
derived from the earlier Byzantine art, and consisting of
interlaced ribbon ornaments of the most delicate description,
often terminating in the heads of griffins, is one of the most
typical features of this hand and period. In one instance,
158 interlacements, all perfectly distinct, were counted with
the aid of a magnifying glass in a single square inch.

There are two species of writing in the Irish hand,
termed Round and Pointed respectively, the difference being

Handwritings

that in the latter the letters are laterally compressed and
pointed instead of being round, as in the Book of Kells.

2. ANGLO-SAXON HANDWRITING. We now come to the Anglo-

Saxon Hand which at first was similar to the Irish form,
having been directly derived from it. It was introduced into
Scotland and England by Irish missionaries, and some of the
earlier MSS. in this hand, such as the Half-Uncial copy of
the Lindisfarne Gospels, are quite as remarkable as the best
of the Irish MSS., if not more so. Before long, however,
the writings of the Continental schools gradually began to
filter into the country, and to exercise a modifying influence
upon the handwriting of the period. This reached its culmina-
tion at the Norman Conquest, when the native English
Minuscule, as the official hand, disappeared ; the invaders
retaining their own forms for all legal purposes. The
development and evolution of these forms it will presently be
our duty to follow. We shall first, however, because of their
bearing (which, though comparatively small, was not un-
important, and cannot be despised) upon the evolution of the
writings, from which the working genealogist may hope to
obtain the greater part of his material, devote a brief con-
sideration to the Continental National Hands derived from
the Roman Minuscule and Cursive writings.

3. LOMBARDIC HAND. From the ninth to the thirteenth century

the National Handwriting of Italy was known as the
Lombardic Hand. The descent from the Roman Cursive
can generally be traced in its earliest examples, and some of
these are very beautiful. The characteristic letters are the
I, which is usually very tall ; the T, which is like the
demi-Uncial T, resembling two cs stuck together ; and
the R, which is like the demi-Uncial R, but is a little
longer

io Ancient

4. VISIGOTHIC. Visigothic was the name given to the National

Hand of Spain. It never acquired the beauty which was so
strong a characteristic of the L,ombardic Hand, and by the end
of the eleventh century it had become so illegible that a church
council made a recommendation that it should be abolished
altogether. Toledo was the great school in which it flourished.
It had some peculiarites which were foreign to other hands,
and are worthy of remark, as quum invariably used instead
of cum ; and the contraction f-P, which in all the other hands
signifies pro, in Visigothic stands for per. The usual contrac-
tion for per, it may be mentioned, was then and throughout
the Middle Ages ^ .

5. MEROVINGIAN HAND. The Merovingian Hand, the last of

the National styles, was used over the whole extent of the
Prankish Empire. It was very rude and varied widely in
character, some of the better examples closely resembling the
Lombardic hand. The chief importance of the Merovingian
style of writing lies in the fact that it was upon it that the
Caroline reform was based, and as the Caroline Minuscule
was the actual progenitor of the Roman hand and the
writings with which the genealogist is principally concerned,
it is from the period at which it was consummated that our
detailed and analytic survey must now commence. In
dealing with the National Hands I have not deemed it
necessary to give any minute examples or facsimiles, as their
value to the genealogist is chiefly historical, but anyone who
wishes to follow up the study of these most interesting
writings, whether for practical or historical purposes, should
take as a basis Chapters XVI. and XVII. of Sir Edward
Maunde Thompson's excellent Handbook of Greek and Latin
Paleography, published in the International Science Series.*

* There are also several good foreign collections of facsimiles, and treatises on these systems,
lists of which I shall be pleased to send to inquirers on receipt of a stamped and addressed envelope.

Handwritings

It is an undoubted fact that the most momentous
Caroline event, for good or evil, in the history of Palaeography
Reform was the reform of penmanship, to use a modern term, in
the reign of Charlemagne, hence commonly called the
Caroline Reform. Its importance can scarcely be exaggerated, as it set
a standard of writing and gave the forms of caligraphy a certain per-
manence and fixity throughout Europe. The reform was inaugurated
by the famous Emperor, who, immediately after he had ascended the
throne, established a school of writing at Aix-la-Chapelle. In 789 A.D.,
also, he issued a decree ordering the entire revision of all Liturgical
books which had formerly been full of errors and inaccuracies. The
result was a great renaissance of interest in writing in schools and
monasteries, and new teaching centres were established throughout the
Empire. The most famous of these was that of Tours,
Caroline where, under the rule of Alcuin of York, the beautiful
Minuscule hand known as the Caroline Minuscule received its
inception and later development. The chief results of
this great event, which took about fifty years to reach completion,
were :

i. The establishment of a form of writing which, though later
modified to a slight degree by national influences and
idiosyncracies, was yet, in a general sense, common to the
whole of Christendom. As time went on, the character and
forms of the writing slowly altered, but the unification
achieved by Charlemagne was never really broken, such altera-
tion being practically uniform and, to a certain extent, simulta-
neous throughout Europe. The importance of this is greater
than appears on the surface, as, in attempting to estimate the
age of a document when dates and other evidences are absent,
the style of writing employed may generally be taken as a
safe guide. A certain allowance should always be made, how-
ever, for the time that a new style would take to reach such

Ancient

countries as were at some distance from that in which it first
appeared. A type appearing in France, for example, generally
took from eight to ten years to reach and to come into general
use in England and Scotland.

2. The national hands gradually declined and disappeared, or

were absorbed in the new form.

3. A beginning was made, tentative at first, but, as time went on,

more regularly, with the separation of words.

4. There was a general roundness and boldness in the formation

of the letters, and altogether the writing was of much greater
legibility and beauty than any of the national hands of the
period.

There seems, however, to be in man an innate tendency to degenerate
rather than to progress, or even to maintain for any length of time a fair
standard of excellence, unless there be some stimulating influence driving
or drawing him on; and as in morals and conduct, so is it in art. The
high standard set by Charlemagne then did not long continue had
it done so, this book would scarcely have been necessary. Till the
middle of the thirteenth century the standard was maintained and fre-
quently bettered. The twelfth century charter, given at the end of
this volume (facsimile No. i), is typical of the style in vogue through-
out England and Scotland at this period. Its clear, legible and handsome
appearance could hardly be surpassed, and it is second to none of the
other handwritings of Northern Europe at the same period. Only in
Italy do we find anything at all to compare with it for the qualities
named.

In the middle of the preceding century, however, the
Gothic type had already commenced to make its appear-
ance, and it constitutes the prevailing form during the
Gothic Type . *

thirteenth and later centuries, though we frequently nnd

the Caroline Minuscule and the Gothic Minuscule at the former period,
existing side by side.

Handwritings J3

Up to this time there are few MSS. written in the post-Caroline
hand which cannot be deciphered after a little practice by even the

, uninitiated, and beyond a word or two upon the charac-

Cnaracteristics . .
of the X XI tenstlcs of tne writings of the three preceding centuries,

and XII ' notllin g need be said about them. Almost from the

Centuries beginning, as has already been remarked, there were,

of course, two concurrent styles, viz. : the Book Hand,

and the Cursive writing which was more commonly employed for

Charters, Household Accounts, and foi the multifarious conglomeration

of documents which are of special interest to Genealogists, and to this

latter our chief attention will be presently directed.

The characteristics of the three centuries in question may then be
briefly summarised as follows :

X. CENTURY. The writing is rounder, better proportioned, and
generally more elegant than that of previous centuries,
though a great many old letters are still retained. The letters
are generally elongated, and ligatures are fewer as the hand
becomes more legible.

XL CENTURY. There is a steady improvement both in books
and in diplomas. Ligatures almost disappear, the open a 1C \
becomes less frequent, and long letters such as b, d,f, h, k
and / are made much longer, and their long shafts are fre-
quently ornamented, v sometimes takes the place of u at the
beginning of words. When two is come together, strokes are
frequently placed above them, as //, and continuations of
words are generally indicated by hyphens. Contractions a
phase of the subject which will be specially dealt with further
on are gradually increasing.

XII. CENTURY. The Caroline Minuscule reached its highest
perfection. The letters become taller; the open a is no longer
found; the dipthong <z is replaced by <?; u and v as consonants

i 4 Ancient

are interchangeable at the beginning of words ; n frequently
takes the uncial form ; the small s is frequently found both at
the beginning and at the end of words ; and long letters begin
to have hooks both below and above the line. (See the second
Charter, Facsimile No. II., for a good example of the writing
of this century.)

The signs of decadence, which commenced in the thirteenth century,
and for which it is specially remarkable, are evidenced by the angularity
of the writings of the period, a sure sign also that the Gothic influence is
now supreme. In the Book Hand this, as time goes on, undergoes a

proces of slow development until it culminates in the
Black Letter , .. ,. , . . *!. <-

genuine Black Letter, which, at the time of the invention
and Italics * \

of printing had reached its worst condition, and became

stereotyped in Ihe earliest printed books. The Italians, with their
customary artistic insight and good sense, abandoned the Gothic type
and introduced the Roman Minuscule, which was borrowed from them
by France and England, and has since remained the literary type of
these nations. The German and other Teutonic peoples retained the
Gothic alphabet however, and they are only now beginning to discon-
tinue it. The Aldine type, to which we now give the name Italics, it
may further be interesting to note, was first used by Aldus Minutius in
1501, in a Virgil which he printed at Venice. This was the Cursive
form of the period, and the particular style adopted was said to have
been the actual hand-writing of the poet Petrarch.
Difficulties The d]ief difficulties in interpreting the Book hands

from the thirteenth century till the invention of printing
Letter and , . ., . , , . , . . ,.

then, are those incidental to the deciphering of ordinary
Cursive Hands

Black Letter type and are easily overcome. They

principally consist in distinguishing such combinations as mi 'from tin;
m from in ; i from r, and so on. Such a word as THXCtfao. = mirifica, may
be cited in illustration of the confusion such methods involve.

Handwritings 15

The genealogist then will find that his greatest difficulty in decipher-
ing the handwritings will centre around the Cursive forms, and as in the
case of the Book Hand, a certain feature of its decadence
eca ence o ^ t j ig t ] 1 j rteent i 1 ce ntury is its angularity. This is again
the Cursive . ,, , . , , . ., ,. ,, _.,,

especially noticeable in the tops oi the m and n. Other
Hand in the . r . '
YTIT _ signs of corruption are the number of superfluous strokes ;

the increasing illegibility of the writing; the difficulty of
distinguishing c from / (see for example the word Scottorum in Facsimile
No. Ill) ; the constant habit of the scribes of running a, e, t, o, and #,
into c, n, m, r, and t; the absurd and frequently ridiculous complexity of
initials ; and the steady increase of contractions and abbreviations. On
the other hand, the dipthong rr now regularly appears as e ; and i even
when standing alone is regularly accented. In this century, too, the
shafts of tall letters are generally split and clubbed. This custom
extended from about 1250 to 1350, and constitutes a seldom failing
evidence of the approximate date of the particular document in which it
is found. The following three words copied from a charter of Edward I.,

dated 1303, will illustrate the principle employed patur OnrmDiVS &y*
(This is a characteristic example of the official hand in the reign of
Edward I.) At this period again appeared a iurther development in the
custom of closing the top loop of the Si, thus & ., and the bottom one
of the s, thus 8, Examples of both these peculiarities are illustrated in
the extract given above, from the Edwardian Charter. The closing of
the 5 loop is further developed in the next century, when we find ^

written -p and (T, both forms in time becoming common.

_, During the fourteenth century the development of

YTV r t ^ ie Cursive hand was rapid, and its degradation was

equally so. The best scribes naturally found their way

to the courts of the various kings and rulers, and documents

* Aquitanie Omnibus ad.

16 Ancient

emanating from the Royal and Imperial Chancellaries were still
tolerably legible. But in the various offices to which a genealogist
will instinctively turn, the increase of business and consequent pressure
of time caused the writing to be done hurriedly and carelessly, and some
of these hands are exceedingly puzzling even to the expert palaeographer.
Exemplification of this will be found in Nos. IV., V. and VI. of
the Facsimiles, which have been chosen from among the worst examples
of such hands to be found in H.M. Register House in Edinburgh, and
from these the learner should familiarise himself with the formations of
the various letters and characteristics of the periods which they serve to

illustrate. He should obtain as much practice in

XVI * xv'ir deciphering the writings of MSS. dating from the

Centuries beginning of the XV. to the end of the XVII. Century

as possible. This can be easily obtained if he resides
within a near radius of a good library, and the reproductions best suited
for his purpose may be found in the following volumes, all of which are
of easy access :

1. Sandars (W. B.). Facsimiles of National Manuscripts of England.

(Ordnance Survey), 4 parts. Southampton, 1865-1868. fol.

2. Innes (C.). Facsimiles of National Manuscripts of Scotland.

(Ordnance Survey), 3 parts. Southampton, 1867-1871. fol.

3. Gilbert (J.T.). Facsimiles of National Manuscripts of Ireland.

(Ordnance Survey), 4 parts (in 5 vols.). Dublin and London,
1874-1884. fol.

4. The publications of the Palseographical Society, and the New

Palseographical Society.

These are the commonest and most accessible collections of repro-
ductions, but there are many more besides, both British and Foreign,*
and it must depend upon the situation of the student's place of abode to
what extent he will be able to gain experience from such facsimiles.

I will be glad to supply lists of such reproductions on application. See Note on page 10.
Correspondents should state whether their researches or studies are restricted to any particular period.

Handwritings 17

Of course it must never be forgotten that there is no
Acquisition , , .... . . ?.. . . , . , .

71 ... royal road to the acquisition of facility in the deciphering

of these cramped and crabbed ancient writings, and just as
hours of practice must be devoted to golf, piano-playing, or to speaking
a foreign language before any measure of skill is attained, so in palaeo-
graphy every opportunity for obtaining experience should be seized and
used to the best advantage. But on the other hand, though the initial
difficulties are great, no one need despair; a systematic study of the
writings of this period, of which the last six reproductions here given
constitute a representative series of examples, will soon make the student
familiar with their characteristics, and he will find that there is seldom
any fundamental deviation from these types. A little patience and
logical inference will soon do the rest, and enable him in time to spell out
the writing upon any document of the period in question. Of course
some knowledge of Latin is essential, as most of the documents at that
time were written in this language, but as it is chiefly with proper names
that the genealogist has to deal, this knowledge need not be profound,
unless he is desirous of learning all that was connected with the indi-
vidual for whom he is in search.

From the middle of the fourteenth century, the process of degradation
was rapid and very marked. The angularity which had appeared with
the adoption of the Gothic forms increases as time goes on, and ultimately
becomes universal. The closed s becomes greatly exaggerated ff~, and
care must be exercised to prevent its being taken for o. The e also takes
a form not unlike o, and persists in that form O , of in a modification or
exaggeration of it, down to the end of the seventeenth century. In an
Indenture dated aoth October, 1682, in my possession, it is consistently

written thus, (Or(o^<- ; /?$- ,n{'&trfhS~i etc.). The scribes

also became more and more careless as the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries progressed, as is evidenced by the increasing heaviness and
coarseness of the writings. In the reign of Elizabeth, however, our

is Ancient

intercourse with Italy began to have a beneficial effect upon caligraphy,
as upon the other arts of the time, and it quickly toned down into a
lighter and more elegant form, of which the writing in the Letter of
Queen Mary and Darnley, our seventh Facsimile, is a representative and
characteristic example. It is a clear fluent style, such as no previous
Cursive hand had ever before approached in England, and it contains
intrinsic evidence that the appearance of the current modern hand is not
far distant.

About the beginning of the sixteenth century, for official purposes,
a new kind of writing was evolved, and it took the form of a modification
and intermingling of the Book and Cursive Hands of the period, and this
became the style that was generally employed for legal documents. It
was, not unnaturally, characterised at first by a certain heaviness, which,
however, gradually became less, and it likewise grew more elegant
till the first decade of the seventeenth century, when it also acquired a

form not lacking in symmetry and beaxity. Out of this
C ancery sin came t h e Chancery Hand, which was used for records

under the Great Seal, and the Court Hand employed in
the Courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas, for fines and
recoveries, placita, etc. The latter was in use till the reign of
George II., and the former still survives in the modern engrossing
hands employed in enrolments and patents. These hands, with the
assistance of the knowledge gained from a study of our facsimiles, are
not difficult to decipher, and after a little practice, facility will soon be
acquired. Wright's Court Hand Restored (1879) will be found valuable
by the student, if in difficulty, for these forms. In my notes on the
facsimiles, reference is again made to them, but they are not really hard
to read, and after a few of their typical peculiarities are mastered, no
difficulty whatever should be experienced. I have in my possession
indentures and other legal documents dating from the middle of the
seventeenth to the end of the nineteenth century, any one of which an
individual of average intelligence who had never seen such a document
in his life before, could read after five minutes study of the writing.

Handwritings J9

The chief difficulty which the palaeographer has to
Signs and ... / , . . , . . -

. ,. encounter in his task of deciphering the writings of
Abbreviations

ancient tunes lies, however, not so much m the cramped,

crabbed and corrupt nature of the writing itself, which, bad as it
not infrequently is, yet exhibits even in its badness something of a
system that can be studied and overcome, and has generally a certain
degree of consistency and universality rendering it capable of more com-
plete scientific treatment than otherwise were possible ; as in the
confusing methods adopted by the scribes of abbreviating, contracting,
and expressing words and phrases, by means of signs wherever and
whenever it could be done. The prevailing cause of so troublesome a
custom was the expensiveness and scarcity of parchment and other
materials upon which the writings were made. As the business of the
world increased also, the necessity of economising time as well as
material, likewise became a factor of no small importance. We thus find
that from the Caroline Reform there is a continuous increase of such
abbreviations and contractions to be found in documents. Some of
these were universally adopted and were common to all European
countries. Others were restricted to certain nations and localities, while
not a few were produced at the mere whim or necessity of individual
scribes. It is a subject which would, for anything approaching an
exhaustive treatment, require a treatise to itself, and only the commonest
forms can be dealt with here. There are several good dictionaries which
may be found useful, however, as

1. Dizionario di Abrem'ature Latine ed Italiane, by A. Cappelli.

Milan, 1899. i2mo.

2. Dictionaire des Abre-viations La fines ct Francaises, by
A. Chassant. Paris, 1884. 8vo.

3. The Record Interpreter; Abbreviations, &c., in English

Historical Manuscripts and Records, by C. T. Martin. London,
1892. 8vo.

Ancient

But these must always be used with caution, and those having a
good knowledge of the language in which the document is written, will
be wiser to exercise their own common-sense than to trust too closely to
such lexicons.

The earliest form of abbreviation was the use of a

1 . . single letter, generally an initial to denote a complete
Abbreviations s , . ' , , . \

word. Those who have ever attempted to decipher

Roman inscriptions must have been puzzled frequently by an apparently
inexplicable string of capital letters. It is important to note that such
letters frequently indicated the names of persons and their titles.f This
survived to some extent during the Middle Ages, and is not even yet
wholly extinct. (Witness the Inscriptions on Coins). When a single
letter is written to indicate a word in common use, there is generally
placed either above or beside it some conventional sign from which the
missing letters may be gathered. For example, N usually stood for
non in early MSS., and later on we find it signifying noster and nostri.

We then come to words represented by two or more
wo or ore ^.^ j etters _ It m be ^ t ^ e ^ rst tetters of the word, as
Letter

IT* item ; GUI -cujus; or more frequently by its salient
Abbreviations _ V f=. T %

letters.asin OMB- Omnibus; 5CS= Sanctus; or Jvr 1-

Christi. These last three are very common and occur all through the
Middle Ages. From this method was developed the custom of writing the
initial or leading letters of the various syllables of a word, as E G^ergo;
QD= quidem ; QB = qnibus ; TM- tamen, and so on.

t A curious custom prevailed for distinguishing the names of females. The letter which stood
for a masculine name was reversed to signify its feminine correlative, as Q. = Cams : ^J Caia.

This curious combination is of course Greek, and was adopted by the Medireval scribes
through ignorance, imagining that the Greek characters were equivalent to the Roman letters similarly
formed,

Handwritings 21

The need of indicating inflections and terminations
_ , . was still felt however, and this was solved by the adoption

of certain of the Tironian symbols a species of short-
hand, said to have been invented by Cicero's freedman Tiro, but which
need not here concern us to indicate that certain words had been omitted.
Small overwritten letters as Q - quo ; V- vcro ; \*-vernin; and H e -
hunc, were also employed. These latter modes prevailed throughout
the Middle Ages, and must not be ignored. A few shorthand signs,
some of them Tironian ; as X.- est, of frequent occurrence in Irish MSS. ;

~? - et or and ; "7 - ctiam ; \{-aufem; 3 - ejus ; = - esse or est; V or
u - ut; and _p or $ . con, cum, or cun, at the beginning of words,
very common throughout the Middle Ages (see the tenth and thirteenth
words in Facsimile No. II., and the repeated word command in No. V.) ;
are also very frequently to be met with.

We have now to consider (i) those words in which
Suppression .,.,.. , , , , .,

, _ , , the ending is suspended or suppressed, and (2) those in

which letters are omitted from the middle, or from the
middle and the end.

i. In both of these modes there were many examples which prevailed
throughout the whole of the Middle Ages, and continued till the adoption
of the present system of caligraphy. These examples became exceed-
ingly common, and a mastery of them is absolutely essential. Thus we
have in early times B> bus; and Q:-que. The : jn course of tinie was
modified by rapid and careless writing into a 5 shaped character, and
the B: and Q: were replaced by bs and cj5- In words ending in que,
the q as well as the ue was also frequently suppressed, and we have
such examples as at5 atqm\ ne5 - neque; and q5 - quoque. We also
find the 5 signifying et as in deb5 -<&&./; $3 - placet; p^-patei;
and 55 - set, the mediaeval form of scd. The 5 later came also to be
used for m and est, as in ides - idem ; and inters - interest. A knowledge

Ancient

of the language in which the writing happens to be executed, will of
course enable the Palaeographer to judge which ending is required. The
facsimiles should also be carefully studied in this connection.

A drooping stroke at the end of a letter generally marks the omission
of is, as H>faf -prcstitt's.* Another very common mark of abbreviation

is a horizontal stroke placed above the final letter, and it almost
invariably represents a suppressed -;// or n ; thus aute-autem ; em-emm;
no-non; and so on. Analagous to this sign is a stroke written through
the tall shaft of the letters / and 6. It is not so easy to give even
approximate rules for supplying the omitted letters in this case, and again
one's knowledge of the language must be brought into requisition. Such
examples as sb-su&; \\-vel; mlto-mu/fo; ^\r&-plura ; singla-stnguta ;
\rz-littere; \\bz-libere; and the like are generally self-evident, and
prevail throughout the Middle Ages.

2. This brings us to words contracted by the omission of letters
from the middle or from the middle and the end of a word. These, of
course, are greatly the most numerous, and are sometimes extremely
puzzling, especially when they signify unknown or proper names. But
here again we have certain conventional signs by means of which the
missing letters may be approximately guessed. Thus a waved vertical
stroke rising from the preceding letter usually signified the omision of
er or re, as in b s \ntet-breuiter ; c s tvi$-certus ; and wVptatis-interprefafts ;
yet it must here be kept carefully in mind that the form of these signs
was by no means fixed, and that frequently it was highly ornamental
and arbitrary, especially in the Cursive Hands. For example, we find
such combinations as To)- tarn; 8O&~ antem ; faMMk annuit; Jfrfay -

* This is a very common type of Cursive writing. The VP signifies/ 5 - prae or pre, a form

that will be explained immediately, and the final loop - it as explained above. The convenience of
these forms for rapidity of execution will be at once apparent.

Handwritings 23

felicem; wmzu. mercurij ; wauWUD - inter pretatio ; and ^ttt - inter -

pretatur. Still another method which was exceedingly common was the
use of overwritten letters. These are generally vowels written above
a consonant in a small hand, and in such cases another consonant imme-
diately preceding or following the overwritten vowel is to be understood,
such omitted consonant usually being r, as cta-carta ; uba-uer&a ;
gtia-gratia ; Other letters than r may be tmderstood as in <\-qua;
\)o-bona; q :-quibus; although sxich examples are not found so frequently
as the former. The consonants above which overwritten letters are
usually found are b, c, d, f, g, A, p and /.

The use of the single letter as a means of abbreviation in early times
has been referred to, and it can easily be conceived that so economical
and simple a device for the saving of space and time would not be
allowed easily to go out of use. We thus find many survivals of the
practice, but in nearly every instance they became stereotyped or were
used in conjunction with certain signs which never varied. A mastery
of these can be acquired with very little labour and patience, and as they
are in constant use, will not easily be forgotten. The following should
at once be committed to memory :

^ </" - pro, as in jb 6ts - probis.

- per, par, or par, as in *'** - par (em and # '*. - oportet.

P with a stroke above, or an undulating line rising from it, p or p s ,
stands for pre or prae. Thus we have it in interpretatio, the example

already cited,t and in jA*it-praeiert't ; in 7>l*H' prelati; and in 2 f?Ut> .

prestito.% The last example depicts a characteristic of the Cursive
writings which is apt to cause great confusion and difficulty in

* Those desiring to carry their studies in Palaeography beyond the point necessary for the
genealogical student, must bear in mind that in the Visigothic National Hand, J) signifies per, not
pro, as in all other hands. See page 10.

t See above. J See Page 22.

24 Ancient

deciphering words, namely, the habit of joining the sign to a letter.
This custom, in conjunction with the use of ligatures, constitutes one of
the greatest obstacles in the way of deciphering a Cursive Hand. It is
often a question whether or not the continuation of the letter is really
intended to represent such a sign, or is merely an ornamental flourish.
Another method that was very common was that of continuing the top

curve of the long s, and crossing the stem in the form of a bow, thus /.
This mode underwent many different phases, and represented the com-
bination ser. The following are examples fait- serutl; jfino-sermo;
Q/Flt- asserit ; and Awa-C*** - sernatnis ; whilst "rowx/fTpM- commissarij.
This last is a rare occurrence of its signifying sar, instead of ser.
Examples of all or nearly all of these and the other illustrations given
above, are represented in the facsimiles, and a careful study of them
will tend to bring out many aspects which are dealt with all too inade-
quately in the text.

I shall now give a few examples from Cursive MSS., of some of the
forms taken by these abbreviations. For these and much other matter
in this connection, I here take the opportunity of acknowledging my
indebtedness to the late Canon REUSENS, of the Roman Catholic Univer-
sity of Louvain, whose Elements de Palcographie, as a text-book, has seldom
been equalled and never excelled. From that work most of my remain-
ing illustrations are taken, and students who can read French will be
amply rewarded by devoting an occasional hour to a perusal of the
Reverend Canon's illuminating pages.

Per, par and pro ~ f

Prae and pre " T ) (-f ff
Prt - '^

Handwritings 25

There were a great number of special signs employed for et or and. The
following were the most common in xise after the XIV. Century :

A curious example of the use of one of the signs for et will be found
towards the end of the second line of the facsimile No. II., where we
have yfy -Scilicet. Such a combination was by no means infrequent.

For esse we find ^^ ' Q*>T' so that when such a combina-
tion as ^^ W- is encountered, it must be read as essemus. The sign
9 here met with for the first time at the end of words usually signifies us.
Bqually curious, and much more numerous, are the hieroglyphics
for est, a few of which may be met with by genealogical researchers ;

"^'^>3'^3' ^ >"$"' J> ?' -f ^^ e tetter q also takes some peculiar
forms, the principal of which are Q-quia; *ft , fy , e

M. * _ G

<JP 3, = quam ; O - quae ; y - que (pron.) ; ^_ ^ = 1 uem >
^ quid; <?'- quibus ; <3 * qualibet ; ^"= quantum ; ^

quoqw, Op -quod sic; q tc - quatenus.

A very common form of abbreviation was to write the first letter of
the word with the last letter, either overwritten in a small character, or
written alongside, in which latter event both letters were of an equal

size. Thus we have such very frequent examples as a-anno ; &.-datum ;
n-nunc ; <\-quod; u-uero ; ee-esse. In the last case a mark is generally
written above the two letters to indicate a contraction. These, in
common with all the other methods of contracting words, are so
numerous that it is an absolutely hopeless task to attempt to give even
a representative selection, but as I have already indicated, a knowledge
of the language in which the record is drawn, and a little patience will
work wonders, and what at first sight may appear an almost insuperable

26 Ancient

difficulty, will, with practice and experience, become less and less, until
it practically disappears altogether.

Still another difficulty that must be overcome by the
Punctuation _ , .. . , r . , , ,. /

Palaeographer, lies in the fact that punctuation marks are

of so uncertain a character. They are different in many
cases from the modern signs; and similar marks to those we now employ
used in different applications are sources of great confusion and
uncertainty. But the worst obstacle of all is the frequent absence of
such marks altogether. Latin scholars will realise how great an obstacle
to the correct interpretation of a document this can be, and even this is
increased by the bad Mediaeval Latin that was consistently made use of.
Yet the difficulty is by no means insuperable, and when it is remembered
that certain formulas in the style and phraseology of these ancient
documents recur with constant regularity, even the badness of the Latin
sometimes tends to assist rather than retard the interpretation of the
document, and it soon becomes almost second nature to the Palseo-
grapher to know where the proper punctuation marks should occur.
The most ancient MSS. were not pointed at all, and even the words
were not separated, but these need not detain us. In the pre-Carolingian
period, pauses were marked by three dots, one above the other \ , and
these again need only be mentioned in passing. These were replaced in
the early Middle Ages by J the comma , and ; the semi-colon. Then
from the eleventh century onward, punctuation became exceedingly
irregular. At that time the dot served both for a period and comma,
but such signs as ; , and ~J are also found. In the succeeding
century the usual signs for a comma were 3 and ^ Then for a time
punctuation was almost entirely neglected, although the oblique
accent ' was frequently used for all kinds of pauses. This continued to
be used to mark pauses in discourses, but during the periods which most
concern us, in addition to the signs already mentioned, the following
were the most common :

Handwritings 27

Points of Interrogation ; p*

Points of Exclamation : o 6 o

I was frequently marked with a faint accent i.

_ ,. The following methods of marking corrections will

Corrections

also frequently be encountered, and a knowledge of them

should prove useful :

1. To indicate the deletion of a word, dots were placed beneath it.

2. This was also the manner employed for the deletion of letters,

though frequently the modern arbitrary method of drawing a
line through the word or letters was resorted to. (An illustra-
tion will be found in Facsimile No. VI.)

3. To substitute one word for another, dots were placed beneath

the wrong word, and the correct one placed above it.

4. When two words required to be transposed oblique accents

was placed above, and at the beginning of each, as "nomine
epc papias-eptscopus nomine papias.

5. When words were intended to be omitted, it was customary to

mark them with two oblique strokes, similar to those above
nomine in 4.

As the genealogical researcher may frequently have
Authenticity \

. ^ to estimate the probability of a document being genuine

of Documents

or otherwise, he ought to be in a position to arrive at some

definite conclusion on the subject. Upon that alone may hang the credibi-
lity of the whole question, whether a single individual or all the individuals
mentioned in a particular document can be fitted into his pedigree or not.
I propose, therefore, before concluding this essay, to suggest a few simple
rules by which such a conclusion may be reached. This forms the
subject matter of Diplomatic, and is a special, most important, and most
intricate branch of the art of deciphering ancient documents. It has a
literature of its own, and there are erudite practitioners who confine their

2 8 Ancient

attention exclusively to the mere interpretation of these ancient writings.
When I state that the standard modern work on the subject, Manuel de
Diplomatique, by A. GIRY, a large 8vo. volume published in Paris in
1894, extends to nearly a thousand closely printed pages, an idea of its
vastness may be obtained. Yet here, again, a few simple rules should
prove extremely useful to the Genealogist, and may at least assist him in
detecting forgeries, which, though not obvious to the uninitiated, are yet
easy of detection when one has been put upon one's guard.

The most important Diplomatic document was the
The Charter

Charter, a document which is obviously of primary

interest from the Genealogist's point of view. It is generally in two
parts, viz. : (i) the text of the Act, usually preceded by a narration of the
circumstances, etc., which called it forth ; and (2) the Protocol, the
initial and closing formulas which varied with the circumstances to
which it owed its production. These formulas are of great importance
in estimating the probabilities of the deed's being authentic or otherwise.
Forged Charters were very common during the later Middle Ages,* but
scribes were exceedingly ignorant and unscientific, so it is no uncommon
occurrence to find the formulas of the XVI. Century embodied in a
Charter dated two or three hundred years earlier. The writing is also,
as a rule, conclusive evidence of a Charter's authenticity, as forgers even
when they ante-dated a deed by some centuries, seldom made any serious
attempt to copy the earlier caligraphy. The facsimiles, which are fairly
representative of the writings of the centuries in which they were pro-
duced, are valuable also in this respect. The literature on this subject
is mostly foreign, but I shall always be glad to send bond-Jide inquirers a
list of available books on the subject, or to inform them privately of the
particular formulas in use at any specified time. It is, of course,
obviously impossible to give such a list here, as it would extend far
beyond my available space, and be of small interest to the general reader.

* Before the Reformation there was scarcely an Abbey in England or France which had not
at least one Charter forged in its own favour.

Handwritings 29

The Diplomatist must also be careful to distinguish
between the originals and copies of documents. In the
latter, the material characteristics were omitted, and frequently the word
Copia, Transcripta, Transvata or Transumpta was inserted. The copy
also frequently varied from the original, sometimes intentionally, but
usually xmintentionally. Several copies. of a document were often made,
and each was regarded as authentic, though only one had been
amplified. Duplicate!, Tripltcafa, etc., was xisually written on such
documents. With the intention of preserving originals, copies were
often written for everyday use and reference. These are extremely
misleading, as in such cases the scribe usually sets himself to produce
an exact facsimile of the original. Finally, when a document had
been lost or destroyed, new Acts were usually produced from what
remained or was remembered of the original, but these may generally
be regarded rather as forgeries than as copies.

Dates and signs of validation are also of very great
importance to the Genealogist, and these likewise form
special sttulies in themselves. There were many systems of dating in
vogue throughout the Middle Ages, and even at one time, and in the
same country, different systems frequently prevailed, causing a consider-
able amount of confusion, and not seldom of error in the minds of
students. From the time of the Norman Conquest, the year began on
the 25th March in England and Ireland till 1752, and in Scotland till
1600, when the first day of the year was changed to the ist January. In
regard to the former method, great care must be exercised in drawing
conclusions, as two methods of reckoning were in vogue. Some began a
particular year on the 25th March preceding Christmas, and others on
the same date following Christmas, thus making a difference of one year.
Where uncertainty remains, it is customary to write both probable dates,
thus " 1 4th July, 1734/5." Before the Norman Conquest, the year began
in England on 25th December. It will be seen, however, from the
Charters reproduced in this volume that the method mostly employed

3 o Ancient

in these documents was to record the number of the year of the reigning
monarch's rule.*

The chief signs of validation were signatures and
Witnesses , ... . ,. ,

seals which require little comment, the former being

generally self-explanatory to a greater or less degree, t and the latter
belonging to the kindred sciences of sigillography and heraldry. Signa-
tures and enumerations of witnesses are of very great importance to the
student and practitioners of Genealogy, and should always be carefully
noted. Where witnesses are only mentioned in the preamble or oratio %

* Other methods of dating do not concern us here, but again let me state that I hold myself
entirely at the service of readers who are interested.

t I do not, of course, suggest that all signatures are so, or that the subject is to be lightly
dismissed. Like all branches of Paleography and Diplomatic, its extent is co-extensive with the
number of practitioners, and a volume of Mr. Bernau's G.P.L. series might well be devoted to the
subject of signatures alone. What I wish to imply through the statement in the text is that, conse-
quently upon the reader deciphering the signature, it, as a rule, explains itself.

J Though not strictly relevant, a brief explanation of these terms may prove interesting. It
has been remarked that there were two main divisions of the Charter, and these might be again
analysed into fourteen sub-divisions. These were :

I. THE INITIAL PROTOCOL, consisting of :

1. The Invocatio or Chrism. The latter consisted of such a sign as ^P, a monogram of

X P I, which was regarded with a kind of superstitious awe.

2. Title or Subscriptio name of the person in whose name the Act was drafted.

3. Address or Inscriptio name or names of those to whom it is addressed.

4. Greeting or Salutatem.
II. THE TEXT, viz. :

5. Proem, Arenga or Harenga, or Preamble a general statement of the events which

called forth the Act.

6. Promulgatio or Notification that the Act is made known to all.

7. Oratio, or Expositio statement of the case. It differs from the preamble, insofar as

the Oratio gives a detailed relation of what in the former is stated merely in general
terms.

8. Dispositio enacting or Operating Clause.

9. Sanctio penal clause or clauses.

IO. Corroloratio notice of authentication.

Handwritings 3 i

of the deed, the absence of the signatures or seals of such persons must
not too hastily be taken as conclusive evidence that they were not actually
present at the time ; on the other hand, it has sometimes been found that
persons mentioned in the oratio, which is generally expressed in the past
tense, were absent at the time, and occasionally, even dead. The
explanation of this is that a considerable time frequently elapsed between
the draughting and the expediting of the document, a period during
which many events, having a distinct bearing upon the transaction,
might reasonably take place.

If any doubt is felt as to the authenticity of any document, some
regard should also be paid to the material upon which it is written, to
the materials with which it has been written, and to the manner in which
it is written. If it is on paper, water-marks* should be studied as well as
the texture of the material and colour of the ink. Even the style of the
document may frequently assist one in approximately fixing its date, but
these are matters for the expert to decide rather than the general
researcher. It is not the intention of the writer of this volume to
endeavour to make those who do him the honour of perusing his book
diplomatic scholars, all that he proposes is to put them on their guard
against too rashly accepting every document as genuine and authoritative
merely because it happens to be old, and written in a hand crabbed and
unintelligible to the uninitiated.

III. THE CLOSING PROTOCOL OR ESCHATACOL:

11. Subscriptiones signatures and names.

12. Date of Place.

13. Date of Time.

14. Appreciata, Amen prayer for the effectuation of the deed.

This comprised a complete Charter, but it is very seldom that such documents are encountered
in which all of these sub-divisions are present.

* A useful work on this and other kindred subjects, entitled A Guide to the Collection of
Historical Documents, Literary Manuscripts and Autograph Letters, etc., was published by the
Rev. Dr. SCOTT and SAMUEL DAVEY, F.R.S., in 1891.

32 Ancient

By the Genealogist no document should be ignored, valuable material
may often be discovered in the most unlikely places, and volumes of
registers, rolls, accounts, and other miscellanea often prove the veriest
gold mine to the pedigree hunter and modern ancestor worshipper.
Such documents written in the XV., XVI., XVII. and XVIII. Centuries
are, of course, the most likely to yield a golden harvest, and if the
writings in the four facsimiles, Nos. V., VI., VII. and VIII. are
thoroughly mastered, little difficulty will be experienced with any hand
produced during or after the XV. Century. Of course, there were wide
divergences of mannerisms and character, especially from the XVI.

Century onwards, when Individualism began to assert
Individualism . ,- , . .. ,

itself, and to illustrate all of these would necessitate the

transcription of at least one document from the pen of almost every
scribe who ever wrote during that period, but the general principles in
vogue at any particular time remained practically fixed, and underwent
only the usual slow evolutionary process such as we can trace even in
the penmanship of our own time, so that when the underlying basal
type is thoroughly grasped, the eccentricities, idiosyncracies and manner-
isms of individual writers can be mastered in a very short time, with the
exercise of a little patience, study, and logical consideration of the
example which happens to be under the reader's view. There are good
and bad writers at the present moment, and to such a Palfeographer as I
refer to, it is as easy to read the worst example he can find of the period
in qxiestion, as it is for a person of average intelligence to decipher the
letter whicli he may occasionally have the misfortune to receive from an
uneducated and illiterate correspondent in the twentieth century. I/et
no one be discouraged, therefore, by difficulties which a little application
will soon show to lie only upon the surface, and though I do not pretend
that actual difficulties do not exist, I must still maintain that they have
been greatly exaggerated in the past, and have only to be grappled with
in real earnest to disappear

"dissolve,

And like the baseless fabric of a vision,
Leave not a wrack behind."

Handwritings 33

Acknowledg- For kind assistance in the preparation of this volume,

ments I beg to record my thanks to the following :

Professor P. HUME BROWN, M.A., LL.D., of the University of
Kdinburgh, for valuable advice and guidance, and for per-
mission to use my notes of his lectures as the basis of the
work.

Sir ANDREW AGNEW, The Rev. JOHN ANDERSON, and Messrs.
ANGUS and PATON, of H.M. Register House, Edinburgh, for
permission to take photographs of the Charters and other
documents here reproduced, and for assistance in deciphering
and transcribing them.

The Librarian of the University of Edinburgh * and his assistants
for allowing me to have access at all times to volumes that
are scarce and difficult to procure.

And above all, to

JAMES CURRIE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.E., of L,eith, for such facilities
for study as have alone made the writing of this volume
possible.

WILLIAM SAUNDERS.

I, SUMMERBANK,

EDINBURGH.

* Since writing the above, it is with extreme regret that I have to record the death of my
dear and learned friend, Mr. Alexander Anderson, the Librarian of the University, who was univer-
sally known, under his pseudonym of Surfaceman, as a poet of taste and distinction. I shall never
forget his kindness in placing the treasures of the Library at my entire disposal, the interest he
took in my work, and the sense of anticipation with which he awaited its publication, which, ala^s, lie
was fated never to sec.

Facsimiles

FACSIMILES, AND NOTES THEREON."

PRECEPT FOR RECOVERING FUGITIVE . SERFS OF THE ABBOT OF
SCONE. (William, the L,ion, King of Scotland, 1165 1214.)

oi^ ton'Sconc.faf.'OO Wo 7 m
f ci\Mo.iriticutcuq> tie-ftvwn rm^l 3tir yorrftao,
j-auc eiuf feruienjitiucwrt pont

tuik otfc? Jtlaiione^a^c^r. "Htrtf -itacp c^n

ci nimfte betmcat ftrf -firtna

is Rex Scottww///, oniwibwj prabis howiVzibwx totizw, Scocie :
sa\.ufcm. Mando <?/ firmiter p/7'cipio, ttt^in cui//scu//q?^ uestnim terra
ant potestate Abbas de Scon aut eins seruiens innenire potmt Cu/wlawes
et Cuwherbes ad tenras Abb<?rfe de Scon p^rtinentes, eos iuste absq?/

* These facsimiles, all of which are photographed directly from the oriyinals, are, of course,
necessarily greatly reduced in comparison with these originals, and the constant use of a magnifying
or reading glass will facilitate students in deciphering and reading them.

3 6 Facsimiles

dilatione habeat. Nullzw itaque qttemquam ex illis ei iniuste detineat
super firmawz defensionewz mea#z et forisfactura/w meaw. Testibus :
Andraz TZfo'scopo de Catena, Nicol<? Canceller/0, Waltero fiit'o Alani
Dapz/cro, Matheo Archidiacono. Apwd Dejnfermelin.

The aesthetic qualities of this beautiful little Charter of William the
Lion of Scotland, have already been elucidated in the text, and further
comment thereon is scarcely necessary.

It will be noticed that the Charter is undated, but it appears to bear
intrinsic evidence of having been produced not later than the beginning
of the second decade of William's reign. (See Hailes' Annats, 1776
Ed. Vol. I., p. 132 note). As an historical document, the instrument is of
great importance. It has been reproduced before, i.e., in the National
MSS. of Scotland, but never in any text-book on Palaeography, and it is
no small matter that we have been privileged to include so good a
facsimile of this important deed, in such a volume as this, published at
so low a price.

We have here an example of a single letter standing for a proper
name in the first word of the deed. It will be seen also from the word
omnibus, that at this early date, the sign for the contraction us or bus : ,
was already in process of evolution. An earlier stage appears in
cmuscunque, where the : is written J,. The contraction for pro in probis is

likewise very carelessly written j instead of >, and in a more imperfect

production might have been overlooked altogether. For us, then, the
chief value of this Charter lies in the fact that it shows so clearly the
method employed in symbolising contractions, and because it also gives
some indication of the origins of the evolutionary process by which the
symbols later became so troublesome.

Facsimiles 37

The following details should be carefully observed and familiarised
by the student :

1. The sign for et 7, in the first, third and fifth lines.

2. The contraction for re or er } as in precipio and poterit.

3. The modification of the horizontal stroke indicating an omitted

m or 11, as infirmam.

4. The punctuation marks J for a comma, after pertinentes, .and ;

for a period at the end of the Charter.

5. The uncial N in Nullus and in the proper name Nicolao. Also

the uncial M in Mando and Matheo.

6. The overwritten letters in quemquam.

7. Most curious of all is the symbol for Testibus at the beginning

of the last complete line. This sign, or a modification of it,
may occasionally be encountered all through the Middle Ages.

8. It will also be observed that there is not a single example of

the small minuscule s, the long s being used throughout.

3 s Facsimiles

ii.

CONFIRMATION OF A GRANT OF LANDS TO WILLIAM DE HERCESHEVED.
(WILLIAM DE MORVILLE, Constable of Scotland, died 1196.)

" f*9 *) Y Ti

;>u V )?>4ie r Sfv$v

*
'-' )<\"llfnnt%' rir VvuX. .

. (,

" /j.-. j y ^^-~

i ijfiilo /\>:t<i)it. ^^ s . \.

', AM- /(.rti JuriftJ,

* 'f /'")

l .,**- .iU.,,, .,tiLi.

Sciant presentes ^ fnturi quod ego Wilk/ww^ de Morvill^

Regni Scottorzim concessi et hac carta mea cowfirmaui
Wilk//o de Hercesheued totam terrain quam Heden et Hemmirag
tenueruwt in Hercesheued scilicet i orientali p^te uie qui tendit de
Wedale i Derestre. Tenenduw sibi ct lieredibus suis de hospital! sancfe
tnnitatis de Solecre et frutribus ibide/w deo seruientib?/^ in feudo et
hereditate ita lib^re q/ete plene integrc et honorifice sicut carta
pwcuratoris de Solecre et fratrum eidein loci eidem Willelmo de
H^-cesheued testate;- et confumsAur saluo seruicio meo. Hijs Testibws

Facsimiles 39

Christiana sponsa mea, Ketello de Lethal, Wittetmo Mansello,
de Sample, Alano de Thirlestaw, Petro de la Hago, Albino Capellano,
Ricardo de Neti (?), Dimcano filio Comttis Duncani, L,ugera; Haru^g,
Ricardo Mansello, Alano de Clapham.

This is another beautiful little Charter which, so far as I can learn,
has never before been reproduced, and which must have been written
about the same time as No. I., William de Morville, Constable of Scot-
land, having died in 1196. While No. I. is executed in the Book Hand
of the period however, as becomes a document emanating from the
Royal Chancery, this deed, of a more private character, is written in
the Cursive Hand then in vogue. Much that has been said regarding
No. I. applies also to this hand ; but it will be noticed that there is a
decided tendency to run letters together, which is apt to cause confusion.
The most flagrant examples of this habit occur in the or of orientali, and
in the nt of the same word. Wherever these combinations appear also,
throughout the Charter, the same tendency will be observed. Again,
we have the 7 sign for et; and in Constabularim and concessions. $ sign
for con is applied. In quod we have an example of the first and last
letters only being used as the contraction for a word. The curious com-
bination for scilicet in the second line has been referred to in the text,
(page 25). A still more corrupt form of the sign for bus or us, will be
seen in seruientibus ; at the beginning of the fourth line. A few examples
of the small minuscule s used at the beginning and end of words may be
observed also in this deed. The conventional sign for ur which prevailed
all through the Middle Ages will be seen in futuri and testatur. The
names of the witnesses of such a deed as this are of primary importance
to the Genealogist, and this very Charter exemplies a few of the diffi-
culties which have to be overcome. The name which I have transcribed
as Henricus de Sample, for instance, is blotted, and must be guessed to

4 o Facsimiles

some extent. The Genealogist, however, can generally do this with a
fair approach to accuracy, as he usually has an idea beforehand of the
name of the person or persons for whom he is in search. It will also be
observed that one contracted name has puzzled me, viz., Ricardus de
Nen. It is given by one authority as Neth, but the correctness of this
interpretation is by no means certain, and none of the officials in the
Register House, Edinburgh, would undertake to confirm that reading.
In such a case a-priori information is absolutely essential to enable one
to be confident of one's reading. The sign used here to indicate a con-
traction might really mean anything under the sun.

Facsimiles

in.

REGISTRUM MAGNI SIGILLI RKGUM SCOTTORUM.

. Xv s , t\ A^T "T** "**>-' *

., fa* a w* fcv .. . fgr**'" p.< L' , J.,, bfc e.,,.

*(p IP 1 fcGi .re ,lte>' A- J.htnrM Wurtl , r if.v, ( ffc..!,. -_ I- .

^., t... V R.Atr * ;u*sjw2, ^^^ ^c^ ;l i . "^'ji^

Vi^jw<i/*ft 'ginanf not ^i(p w' 9ifi). (i ton*

klff ntt Sc^rnutipUf * w" mfiu'V'oif 9c *8 sfw^fr "jj fl

ictii VMO^IMT <n*rj ) jfii < i 1 ft-Win f\sw*nM ^>Bintmc l fc w t nofl, W

PWOMB. a^tf- , tn*i; i, , ,

f.xfiw m ,

4 2 Facsimiles

Carta Alexandn de Cokburn.

31. Dauid del gracia rex Scottorum, omnibus probis riommibus
tocius tenre sue clericis et laicis salutem. Sciatis nos dedisse &c. dilecfo
nostro A\exandro de Cokburne viginiti libras sterlingorum percipients
antmatim de magna custuma burgo nostn Hadyngtona ad ierminos
vsuales. Tenendas et ha&endas eidem A\zx.andro et Margarete de
Munfod sponse sue necnon liere&ibm inter ipsos procreandzi quibus forte
dencientibw^ heredibus dicti Alexandri qnousque nos vel heredes nostri
eosd<?m h\zx.andrum sponsam suam et heredes suos pralz'rtos de viginti
libratis terre. in loco competent! in feodeaummz hgreditarie faciendo
inde seruictum &c.

Carta J. de Redalk.

32. Dauid dei gracia rex Scottorum, omnibus &c. Sciatis nos
dedisse, &c., dikc^ et fideli nostro ]dhanni de Rydalk terras de Cranistona
cum pertinents infra mczcomitatum de Edynburghe quas idem Johannes
non vi aut metu ductw^ nee errore lapsus set mera et spontanea voluntate
sua nobis per fustum et bacz'/lum sursum reddidit pureqwg et simplicity
resignauit &c. Tenendzi et habendts eidem Johanni et Twredibus suis de
corpore suo legiti^e procreatis seu pwcreandis quib#.y forte deficientibz
dikcto et fideli nos fro Dauid de Ana/zdia militi et heredibus suis in feodo
et h^reditate per omwes rectas mettas suas cum omnibus libertatibus &c.
faciendo inde semicium debituw et consuetum. In cuius rei &c.
Testibwj &c. Apud Edynburgche XXV'-- die Januarii Anno Regni
nostri tricesimo iercio &c.

Carta Roberti Senescatti de Schenbothi.

33. Dauid dei gracia rex Scottorum omnibus probis hominibw^
tocius terre sue clericis et laicis salute;. Sciatis nos dedisse &c. dilecfo
et fideli nostro Roberto Senesca/// de Standbothchy terras de Daleel et de
Modyrwallc cum pertinenttts infra vvxcomitotum de Lanark nos
cowtingentes pro eo quo h^redes quondam Roberti Delwalk militis contra

Facsimiles 43

pacem etndem nostram in Anglia commorantur. Tenenddtf et haiendas
eidem Roberto et heredibus suis de corpore suo procreatis seu procreandis
in liberam baroniam in moris mariciis &c. Adeo libere &c. Sicut
quondam Malcolmw.? Flemyngz^s et pre&tctus Robertus Delvalte milites
ipjas terras cum pertinents aliquo tempore lib<?rius &c. Tenueruwt seu
possideruwt faciendo inde smiicium debituw et cosuetu/. In emus
rei &c. Testibz &c. Apud Edynburgh^ vicesimo tercio die Marcii
Anno Regni nostii tra:esimo tercio.

Carta Margareta de Monfode.

34. Dauid &c. Sciatis nos appwbasse ratificasse donac/bwem illam
et concessionem quas Margareta de Monfoode in sua viduitate fecit et
concessit vni capelltfwo divtna p^rpetuo celebraturo in eccl^siatn de
Dunmanyne de annuo redditu novem Marcarum steHingorum sibi debito
de terns de Hopkelloche per Jacobum de Tvedi et hgredes suos necnon
de duabus marcis sterlingorum anuatim percipiendts de terris suis de
Scraline praporcionalit^ ad tcrminos vsuales. Tenedzi et habendts eidem
capellano divma. in perpetnnm ut premittitur celebraturo in puram et
perpetuam elemosinam adeo lib^re &c. Sicut carta sine Izifera predicts
Margarete inde confecte in se pleniw^ continet et proportat saluo s^ruicio
nosfto. In cnius rei &c. Apud Edynburgchtf nono die Marcii Anno
Regni noslri XX x i i j,

This page from the first volume of the Register of the Great Seal
of Scotland exemplifies the characteristic official hand of the fourteenth
century, when, it will be seen, the Gothic style was predominant. The
four Charters recorded upon the page in question are all dated in the
thirty-second year of the reign of David II., viz., 1362 3, but the record
may have been made some years later.

44 Facsimiles

The following points should be noted :

1. The capital letters are highly ornamental and corrupt, as will

be seen from the D of David, and the C of Cranstona in the
second Charter.

2. Cia and do are employed instead of tia and tio.

3. Here we have a form that is new to us <*-rf for etc.

4. The very common termination of orum will also be seen in

sterlingorum

5. In these Charters, some ancient and obsolete customs are

recorded, as, for example, the form of investiture referred to
in the second deed, per fustem et bactllum, which has reference
to the feudal custom of giving a straw and a stick to symbolise
the conveyance of the land, of which the Charter forms only
the documentary evidence. These symbols which were not
necessarily restricted to straw or staves, but which might
consist of rings, stones, handfuls of earth, gloves, coins,
books, and very often in the Middle Ages, a Bible, were
carefully preserved, and usually affixed to the Act. The
custom was a survival of a very ancient principle in Roman
Law. It had its origin, of course, in the inability of primitive
people to comprehend the abstract. They could not under-
stand a conveyance in which something did not actually pass
from hand to hand. The device of passing a part of the
whole, or a visible symbol of the subject from the hand of the
seller to that of the buyer, was therefore hit upon, thus
making of the conveyance a concrete and formal action,
which, if performed before witnesses, could not be disputed.
Everything depended upon the formula, and a curious
development of the custom was seen in the early Roman Law,
when the action could be undone by repeating the forms,

Facsimiles 45

but instead of the responses being in the affirmative, they
were then given in the negative.

6. The lateral compression of words and letters makes them diffi-

cult to read with fluency.

7. A careful study of these deeds will elicit many forms of con-

traction to which frequent reference has been made both in
the text and in these notes.

8. Particular notice should be paid to the form of the R in Rex,

Redallc, etc. This was the capital R form which persisted
throughout the Middle Ages, and may be encountered in
writings of a comparatively recent date. The S in Sciatis is
also very common, and likewise persists down to compara-
tively modern times.

9. The numerals will be referred to in the notes to Facsimile

No. V.

Facsimiles

IV.

ACTA DOMINORUM CONCIUI. Vol. I., 1478.

The lord/i assignis to Willia;/^ Bliudsele ye X day of May w- con-
tiw/^aconne of days to pwfe y- Thomas Sibbald is awing to him ye soume
of V &. V S. or how mekle is awing him & ordanis him to hafe letters
to suwmond his witnes & ye prtye to here yaiwz sworn.

Facsimiles

The lordw decretzi & delivers y. Johne of Swywtone zongar sail
content & pay to Dauid Quhitehede ye some of j i ij /&c V i 5 aucht be
him to ye said Dauid for silk & merchandis as was prufit befor ye lordzi be
his awne hand writ and ordanis y- letters be wrz'tin to distrewze \\\m his
landzir & gudzs herefor.

Befor ye lordzl? comperit ]6hne of Muwcreif of y- ilk & protestit y-
becaus John of Murtay of Balloch gert suwmond him & comperyt not to
folow hiw* y'_ yatrfor he sail not be herd in jugemewt quhil he pay his
costzi & expewszi & quhil new su7#mondz5-.

Vis decrcte was gevi
ye xxiiij day of 'Merche
& befor ye lord/s y'_ sat
y 1 . day folowig thereftr
on ye toy?- side & was
reklesly v/riliti on yis
side.

XX iiij Jiily.

The lord?!? of Counsale decretw & delivers yat
Duwgall McDowale of McKarstoune sail content &
pay to Robert Abbot of Kelson & his successoum
X ij chaldtT & a half of vittale for ye teind/i of
McCarstouwe of ye last zer bigane for ye quhilk he
is bundin be his obligaton schewin & pwducit befor
ye lord/i. And ordanis y- letters be wr/tzh to
destrewze him his landzi & gndw herfor. And ye
said Dungall was su/mond to y/'s action & rawperit
not.

We now come to the time when the handwritings were approaching
their utmost depths of degradation. A glance at the above example, or at
any one of the four which follow, will exemplify this in no unmistakeable
manner. It is with such handwritings that the Genealogist will chiefly
have to contend, and they must be patiently and carefully mastered. It
will, however, be seen that the contractions are such as his study of the

4 8 Facsimiles

earlier hands has already made him familiar with, and herein lies the
principal value of the historical method which I have adopted in dealing
with the subject. The student is now practically at liberty to concen-
trate his whole attention upon the formation of the letters and the
idiosyncracies of individual scribes. All the examples which follow are
written in the Scots dialect, which varies only to a slight degree from
Old English, and the writings are selected from the official hands of the
respective periods which were in a general sense common to the whole
of Europe.

In transcribing, I have retained the ancient forms of th and y. The
former is generally like our modern >j, and is a survival and modifi-
cation of the Anglo-Saxon fi~ th. Examples will be found in almost

every line of the facsimile ^'^-the ; yaf-i\\&\. ; yairfor -therefore ; toyer-
tother, etc. I have also retained the abbreviated forms of y*_ -that, and
ixf. -with, as they are usually written in that way even by the present day
transcribers of ancient documents.

The y was written in the form of our z, as in distrenze, to distinguish
it from the y-ih. We have a survival of this custom in modern ortho-
graphy in the proper name Dalziel, pronounced Dalycll.

The numerals in this example are badly written, as will be seen on
comparing the 6 in the second line with the 'Nj in the following
facsimile. At the first glance the former may be taken for the Arabic 6.
On comparison with the same figure on the fifth line, however, they are
found to be badly written examples of the Roman V. The Arabian
numerals did not come into use until the close of the Middle Ages, and
even then they were sparingly employed.

Great care must be taken in mastering such forms as those
exemplified in the third word on the fourth line decretis. In this word

we have two shorthand devices, S =cc, and % = et, which were very
common in cursive writings about this time, but unless they are

Facsimiles 49

familiarised by the transcriber, they may cause him no end of trouble and
worry.

Here also it is frequently difficult to tell whether such a continuation
of the final stroke of a letter, as in judgement (Line 10), is meant to mark
a contraction or is merely an ornamental nourish. In this case it
marks the omission of the n, and stands for the conventional horizontal
stroke usually employed lo indicate such an omission. No rules can be
given in this connection. Kach transcriber must trust to his own
common sense and reasoning powers.

The words which I have transcribed as AlcKarstoune and .\fcCafsloutie,
are of course the ancient forms of the name of the village of Makerston,
near Kelso.

Note also the contraction for letters in the third, seventh and
fourteenth lines. This form was almost invariably employed, and
further examples will be found in the facsimiles which follow.

50 Facsimiles

COMPOTA THESAURARIORUM REG. SCOT. 1501.

I r^,

- "N

^ "**' (-**. <iB^l t ^^1^

Facsimiles 5I

McBREK. Item the xiiij day of Aprile to Sir Andro Makbrek to dispone
be the king/.? command xl s.

Item ye samyn day be the kingzi ^wwmand to ye frem of the
fery. xiiij

Item ye xvj day of Apn'le in Lestalryg giffin to ye king/i
offhand xiiij S.

Item ye xxij day of Apn'le in Kyfkcudbricht giffin to ye
preist/^ yair be the kingzi command x x 3f.

Item to ye frem of Kyrkcudbricht be the king*!? command to
by ya;we ane Eucharist vi ij T?ranch Cronwis Smna v&xij ?.

MAKBREK. Item ye samyn day in Qnhithirn to Sir Andro Makbrek be
the kingzi cowmand to dispone ainang preist/s v%%

Item yai nyc/it quhew the king .com , to Qnhithirn to his
offerand at the towne and at the Reliqnes x v i i j 8.

Item ye xxiij day of Aprz'le in Quhithirn giffin to ye king/5
onrrand/i at ye towne, Reliqiies, the hie altar, the Rude
altar and the chapel on the hill v Branch Crowm's Smna

i'jJ&x s.

MAKBREK. Item ye xxliij day of Apn'le in Aire giffin to Sir Andro

Makbrek to dispone yare to preistzi iij j

Item ye samyn day to ye frem of. Air be the^ king/iy

command. x i i ij S.

Item ye samyn nyr/H in Glasgo giffin to preist/l? in Glasgo be
the kingzi command j j | j

Suma laiens x X V ij /uT X ij T.

5 2 Facsimiles

This page from the Treasurer's Accounts of the Kingdom of Scotland
is chiefly interesting on account of the numerals, the contractions and
handwriting being practically identical with those in the previous
facsimile. The only contractions to which special attention need be
drawn are the conventional abbreviations for Franch Crownis and Suma.
These occur from this time onward with little variation.

What I said in my notes to Facsimile No. IV. regarding the
numerals, is entirely borne out by the present illustration as well.
Roman numerals are at this period employed throughout. In the seventh
facsimile, written sixty years later, the Arabian figures will be seen,
however, gradually coming into use, being employed there, to indicate
the date of the year, while the day of the month is still given in the
Roman characters. Other and still more frequent examples will also be
found in the eighth reproduction, of date 120 years later, where we have

such mixtures as viij C X.X v^&T U 8".

In connection with the Roman numeration, the following notes may
prove useful :

(a) Instead of IF, IE or i i j j was always written, and TT ,
was invariably Vliij. We also occasionally find or over-
written above the ''III, being the terminal letters of quatuor.

Analogously we have X for decem.

(6) 80 was often written inland 90, imx. Thus, 92 would be
mixii.

(d) i ,000 was generally the uncial .M, CD, but 500 was frequently

3. the explanation being that it was half of CD .

Facsimiles S3

(e) The M, signifying 1,000, was also frequently indicated by the
horizontal stroke written above the preceding figure or figures,
that being, as we know, the sign for an omitted M. Thus
XXX would stand for 30,000.

(/) S (semi) was frequently placed after the numeral to express
a half, as L S - 50i

When the Arabian numerals came into use, they underwent a wide
variety of shapes from age to age. A fairly complete list of these, as
well as of the curious combinations which the Roman figures frequently
took, may be found in Cappelli's Dizionario, to which reference has been
made in the text, and to which those interested should refer.

Great care must be exercised in respect of the Cursive form of X.
As will be seen from the present facsimile, it is frequently very similar
to the small Cursive /, and appearing, as it sometimes does, in the text
of a document, it is frequently mistaken for that latter, with the usual
resulting confusion and error.

Facsimiles

VI.

. , v ......

,,. v ^-.- -f 1

^*a.p, ..-

|j.v,i La''M<

'-! -;- Wy ,,,\.^

....

,,.,fc .,V

. . ^

:X^

,. ......

%*Aix. *> f**v- :** :-

,-- \ . ..

a I \ ,1 , < k.

Facsimiles 55

Vigesimo quiwto Augusti Anno
quiquagesimo sexto.

In prince of ye lordis of Counsale comperit Maister Dauid
Borthwik procuratol specalie constitat for ane venerabill lady Elezabeth
przbres of Hadingtoun, Patrik Congiltoun of yat ilk, Patrik Cokburn of
Newbiggin his tutor, Elezabeth Hepburn and Williame Chirnsyid hir
spous. And siclik comperit personalie Henry Congiltoun, Andro
Congiltoun, James Congiltoun and Patrik Congiltoun and gaif in yis
declaratioun of will efter following, subscry vit wL yair handis as is efter
specifyt, and desyrit ye samm to be insert and regz'-tf rat in ye buikis of
Counsale, and to haif ye strenth of ane act and decreit of ye lordis yairoi
in tyme to cum, and yai to interpone yair auctorz'/y yairto, and execu-
toriallis to pas yatrupouu, and yai to be chargit to obtempir and fulfill
ye samiw in all poyutzs efter ye forme & tennoL yazrof, the quhilk
desyre ye saidis lordis tho^t ressonable and ordanit ye said declaratioun
of will to be insert and regzlrtrat in ye saidis bukis and to haif ye strenth
of ane act and decreit of ye lordis yairof in tyme to cum and iuterponis
yair auctonty yairto and executoriallis to pas yaz'mpoun, and yai to be
chairgit to obtempir and fulfill ye samm in all poyntis efter ye forme &
tennoL yatrof of ye quhilk ye tenno r _ followis We Elezabet, Priores of
Hadingtoun having ye haill causis, actionis, and debaittis depending
betuix Patrik Congiltoun of yat ilk, Patrik Cokburn of Newbiggin his
tutoL for his entnes, Elezabet Hepburne and Williame Chirnsyid hir
spous, and ye said Patrik Cokburn as cautions & sou^rtie for ye said
Elezaba^ and hir said spous, that yai sail stand and abyid at ye delmer-
ance of ws in ye mater efter specifyt, and Henry Congiltoun, James,
Andre, Johnne and Patrik Congiltouns breyer to vmq?^/le Robert
Congiltoun of yat ilk submitted to ws our will and deliu^rauce be ye said
Patrik Congiltoun of yat ilk and ye said tutoL for his en/nes, and ye
said Elezab^ for hir self in name & behalf of hir said spous, and ye
said Patrik Cokburne as cautioner yat yai suld hald firme and stabill our
said deliue/-ace and will, and be ye saidis Henry and Jaines be yaine

5 6 Facsimiles

selfis and ye said Henry takand ye burding vpoun him for ye remanewt
of his saidis brey^ promittand & oblissand yanie to fulfill.

Such Records as those from which this page has been photographed
furnish, as may be gathered from the most superficial perusal of it, a
perfect gold mine for the Genealogical searcher, and to such Registers too
much attention can scarcely be given. The present facsimile is a charac-
teristic example of the form and manner of document that must be very
frequently consulted by the working Genealogist, and it really presents few
difficulties to the patient transcriber. Contractions are practically non-
existent, while the few that do occasionally slip in, are of a conventional
and familiar character. The writing also is plain, and after a few
typical peculiarities have been mastered, can usually be read as easily as
a letter written in the twentieth century. Since this page was photo-
graphed, a Memorandum of a Grant bearing upon the history of my own
family, executed in L,atin in the County of Middlesex, in the year 1554,
has come into my possession. I have subjected it to a careful comparison
with the present facsimile, and after allowing for the differences
incidental to a photographic reproduction; and to documents executed in
different languages, the two hands and styles are so closely similar that
they both might well have been produced by the same scribe, thus
bearing out in quite a remarkable manner what I have already stated
regarding the universality of writings produced throughout Europe,
about the same period.

The only points in the document itself which call for particular
mention, are (i). the curious contraction brey for brether in the last line,
and elsewhere throughout the facsimile ; and (2), the contraction vmqle
for tuiiqithile, meaning the late or deceased, in the eighth line from the
foot, which is one Very common in Scottish documents and generally
appearing in this particular form.

Facsimiles

VII.

Letter (Autograph) from Mary, Queen of Scots, and her consort, Lord
Darnley, inserted in Registrum Secreti Sigilli Regum Scottorum,
Vol. 33.

Cuf

REX ET REGINA.

Keipar of oure priue seile and youre deputis. Ze sail pas \etterts
vnder otire said priue seile vpoun the signatoL of ye gift and dispocitioun
of ye abbacie of Cowpar notwithstanding yat ye pireonis named to
quhome it is disponit be no! expremit in ye said signature, and this ze
failze no* to do and deliuer ye samiw gratis, keipand this oure precept

5 s Facsimiles

for zoure warrand. Subscriuit wl cure handw at Halyrudhous. The
xxv day of August, 1565.

MARIE R. HENRY R.

This most interesting letter of Mary Stuart and her husband Darnley,
is pasted into a volume of Registrum Secreti Sigilli Regum Scottorum,
part of the ordinary text of which executed in the same handwriting as
that of the letter, has come into the plate. I have not transcribed this
surrounding matter, and the learner will find it excellent practice to do
so on his own account. I will be glad to clear up any difficulties that
may arise, though there appear to be none on the face of the document.

This is quite a different hand from that employed in the last
example, and the tendency is fast setting towards the ridiculous and
corrupt forms which became fixed and known as the Court and Chancery
Hands. Still, it is plain and easy to read, and presents no difficulties
whatever in the matter of contractions. It will have been observed in
this and the three preceding reproductions, that u and v are now con-
stantly interchangeable, and, as a general rule, where we should write a
v a u appears in these writings, and -vice-versa. Here we have also several
notable examples of the employment of z for y. In the first line the
word ze is clearly our ye. In the third line, also, we have the same word
with failze immediately following, and in the second last line zorire is
written for youre. The word and in the third line, and at in the fifth,
might have given trouble to a beginner, but these are merely pecu-
liarities of the writer.

The signatures have quite a modern aspect compared with the docu-
ment itself. It was just about this period that the Italian or modern
style of writing was coming into use, and it was in no small degree due
to Queen Mary, who learned it, with so many other arts and accomplish-
ments during her sojourn in France, that it latterly became the customary
and standard handwriting in this country. Some of the Queen's private
letters are written in this style throughout, and might be taken, so far as
the caligraphy is concerned, for the efforts of a boy in the fourth or fifth
standard of an average board school at the present day.

Facsimiles

VIII.

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,jj v |--i..--'"V"" 'Jl 1 ' I"' """""" S^"

Tin, .--;' !.. Sfv tl'>-i.- S .'in....' .t,. t 'X. a *
/.1,.Mi.S-| . . 1 ..il ' W 'X'.'-' - ' ''>! - ' Vim- %.

. fc ' v^ ' TT^fr i\tii^ ^TB * li * **' * 'uiou 1 ^' 1
^ , i_.,TT. .,_.'. ."i)rj#^..*>.^..>.>. .-^.^j ..-

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-*\ 7? '!,,;*? v ' Itlt'M^- **

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Facsimiles

Agnes Nemo
xxx Nor 1621.

Apud VAinbutgh primo
July 1624.

Eike vnderwritten maid
to yis testame!< as fol-
lowis, To witt, yah was
awin to ye said vmqaAile
Agnes Nemo be ArthoJ.
Stratonne, writtr four
scoir pund(V money con-
forme to his

Chalmeris, Witnes. Jon Fochart, Witnes. We
Masteris Jon Arthour &c. and gives and comittis the
intromissioune w! ye samyn to ye said Elizabeth
Haddine onlie execw/rix, testamentar nominat be ye
said vmqw^zle Matho Leslie reservand compt &c.
Wl power &c. and fand.

The Testament Testamentar & Inventar of ye
guidis, geir, sowmes of money & debtis pertening to
vmquAtle Agnes Nemo sumetyme spous to Jon. Ros,
Tailzor, burges of TZ&mburgh ye tyme of hir deceis
quha dececst in ye moneth of Januar ye Zeir of God
1621 Zeiris faithfullie maid and gevin vp be ye said
Jon Ros hir spous quhome scho nominatis hir onlie
execute* in hir \attre will vnderwrittin as ye samyne
of ye dait at *B,d.mburgh ye x i day of Januar ye Zeir
of God forsaid. Sub! w! hir awne hand in presens
of ye witness^ vnderwritten at length praportzi.

In ye ffirst ye said vmqz^z'le Agnes Nemo had
ye guidzi, geir, sowmes of money and debtzi of ye
awaillzi & pryces efter following, pertening to yame
ye tyme of hir dececs foirsaid, viz. : Item, in
vtenceillis & domiceillz's wi ye abulzementis of hir
bodie by the airschipe estimat.

To xl &

Suma of ye Inventar XJ %3T

Followis ye debtzi awin to ye dead.
Item, yair was awin to ye said vm^w^zle Agnes
Nemo and hir said spous, Be James Aikman and his

caurzi conforme to yair obligatioune J M Merkis.
Item, be Alexr. Moubray of Duwzmany and his caum

Facsimiles

be devydit n tua
pairttV deidtV pair/ is

X J, jfa and geiwes
and co#imiu/s &c.

cj-C U Merkis. Item be Patrik Nemo

Item be Dauid Vaus xx >.
Snma of ye debtis awin to ye deid,

viij Clxv

Suma of ye Inventar wt ye debtw j XC V/fe
Followis ye debtzi awin be ye deid.

Item, yair was awin be ye said vmqwA/le Agues
Nemo and hir said spous to Alexr. Mauchane,
Merchand for half ane Zeiris maile of his house and
buithe occupyit be ye defunc and hir said spous
x7v/;j jfc. Item to James Rea, Merchand in

^&inbu*gh for silk xx vj ~ti. Item to Rofert Keithe,
Merchand yair for Merchandrice x.Z$. Item, to
James Cunywghame of borrouit money xx /// j
Item, to Johne.

Here we have a particularly flagrant example of the corrupt Chancery
Hand of the period, and this facsimile must be carefully studied and the
forms thoroughly mastered. The capitals are especially troublesome,
and almost every scribe exercised his ingenuity in an appareht effort to
make them as illegible as possible. The W in the second line, and the /
scattered throughout the document are cases in point. The word
proportis, at the end of line 17, should be noted. The curious hiero-
glyphic ( stands, of course, for <*, the contraction for pro, and the
downward stroke at the end of the word, with which we are now per-
fectly familiar, is the conventional contraction for is. Here also we have

6 2 Facsimiles

further examples of y standing for th, and 2 for y. Observe also the A
of Agnes in the margin. The cross stroke being absent makes it some-
times liable to be taken for an N or other letter.

It will be noticed in this photograph that faint marks of writing
appear upon the blank spaces. This has apparently been caused by the
volume having been closed while the opposite page was still wet, but it
may be well here to point out that such marks, especially on vellum, do
not always indicate this as a probable cause. Frequently, when vellum
was scarce and expensive, scribes took older MSS., and after partially
or wholly obliterating the former text, executed the new deed upon the
parchment thus cleaned. These were called palimpsests, and however
well the obliterating process had been accomplished, traces of the former
writing, more or less faint, were generally left ; or, through the action of
the atmosphere or from other causes, again made their appearance. Some
of the most remarkable discoveries of portions of works which were supposed
to have been irretrievably lost, have been made by means of palimpsests,
and it is in fact to such discoveries that we owe our possession of the
De Repullica of Cicero, the Institutes of Gaius, and many other invalu-
able fragments of Classical and Juristic writings. Genealogists shoxild
always be on the look out for such documents, and if it should be sus-
pected that any particular writing has been made on a palimpsest, steps
should at once be taken to have the suspicion definitely confirmed or
refuted. It is always well to have such documents photographed in the
first instance, and the application of hydro-sulphuret of Ammonia as a
re-agent to the doctiment might safely be made.

In conclusion, a word or two here regarding the Court and Chancery
Hands, which are peculiar to Britain, may not be out of place. The
former persisted from the time of the early Tudors till the reign of
George II. At first it was rather elegant though corrupt, but, as
time went on, the strokes became thicker and coarser, and by
the end of the seventeenth century it was by no means a beautiful
hand. Its chief characteristics are its angularity, its lateral com-

Facsimiles 63

pression, and the ornamentation of its capitals which was carried
to extremes utterly ridiculous and absurd. The G, O and S were
very similar, and must be carefully distinguished A _ . A _ Q ^
,{9 = < $. The T also was rendered unlike the ordinary Old English form
of such a letter by the mere addition of a perpendicular stroke < The
capital F consisted of two small fs; and small 6, capital K and capital R
were also all very similar $= A p- K ; ($ = R ; c was ff, and /, fc ;
g,x and y also must not be confused, $ m g ; %-*x ; -jp. But the most
troublesome letter of all is e, which originally was written <9. the
inner stroke, however, gradually degenerated to a mere dot & t O; and the
letter is continually being taken for an O.

The Chancery Hands originated about the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, and are perpetuated in the legal engrossing hands of the
present day. Anyone accustomed to them will have no difficulty what-
ever with this style of writing. The remarks I have made above
regarding the Court Hands apply also, though to a much less degree,
to the Chancery Hands, and perhaps we see it at its very worst in the
facsimile here given. A mastery of that document will indeed leave few
difficulties to be overcome, and with practice and perseverance the
student should before long be in the happy position of being able to read
with fluency any document that may fall into his hands, provided the
writing be in any one of the Latin styles, and at least tolerably legible.
One point is worth keeping carefully in mind in reading old documents,
viz., certain formulas are common to them all, and they vary very little
from the earliest times. The most common of these is, of course, the
introductory name, designation and titles of the king or person con-
ferring the grant. These are not infrequently known to the searcher
already, and they thus serve as a key to all that succeeds. In an
Exemplification of Recovery of 15 James I, which I have before me as I

6 4 Facsimiles

write, for example, the opening formula is as follows "Jacobus Dei
Gratia Anglise, Scotie, Francie et Hibernie Rex, Fidei Defensor, &c."
The first four words are written in an ornamental book hand, and are
easily read, and are valuable, as they suggest what is likely to follow.
That is in the Court Hand of the period, and by studying the letters of
those words already known, one is enabled to acquire a knowledge of the
letters at once and to spell out the rest of the document with comparative
ease.

There may be some who, living at a distance from a library where
further practice in the reading of ancient documents may be obtained,
yet are desirous of continuing the study, should it be possible to procure
a suitable collection of facsimiles at a reasonable price. To such, it is
not an easy matter to give profitable advice. Nearly all the best repro-
ductions are foreign, and such as we in England do possess, are either
excessively expensive, or serve to illustrate only short particular periods.
I regret, therefore, my inability to recommend to these students a
British publication, but there was published by Messieurs. Alphonse
Picard et Fils, 82, Rue Bonaparte, Paris, about five years ago, such a
general collection as will suit the purpose of all earnest students of the
science. It bears the title Recueil de Fac-Similes & Ecritures du if. au
XVII e . Siecle; consists of 50 admirable reproductions of carefully-
selected MSS. ; is accompanied by transcriptions made by the learned
Professor of Pecole Nationale des Chartes; and costs only 20 Francs
(i6/- nett.) I do not believe it possible to get anywhere a more repre-
sentative series at so low a price, and I know from personal experience
that any student who uses this collection as a basis for his further study
will be amply repaid by the possession of these beautiful reproductions,
and by the added knowledge of the subject which he cannot fail to
acquire from a careful study of them.

tffi^^^.

PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY

Saunders, William
palaeographer

Ancient handwriting

.!.'.