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RAINERZIETZ LIMITED
LONDON
%' w i;y i,v i^- w try w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. i-tv. bv. w. 1-iV. w. w. i\ic
* * * . . .
A benefactor of the FitzTTJlliam
Museum at Ccimbridge has announcefl
his intention of presenting to the
museum throe banners taken in 1857
from the Palace of Delhi, -where thej'
hung b'-'side Bchadur Shah's throne in
the Hall of Audience. — Midland Mail.
■ * • * *
A beautiful series of f!int implements,
such as were used by pre-historic man in
Great Britain, have just, bicen plac-ed on
view in th/^ Cen-tr-al Hall of the Natural
History Mu!5.?um at South Kensington.
» These roprosent 'the rude i-onls of these
\^ prim.itivc men, and w.?-re fp.shio-ned into
scra.pers, borers. hamnMr-hcaiis, arrow-
heads, axe-heads, knives, aJid so on. The
earlier, m.ore crudely fvi-shioncd of these
tools have long been known as " Palaeo-
lithic " implements, while beautifully
wroug'ht tools of later generations of
theso savage and ancient people are
known as " Neolithic." But Sir Ray
V y Lankester, to whom this s-eLection is due,
V ^^s pointed out that the stone imple-
m.onts from ihe high plateau gravels of
the South of England arc far older than
, "V th-e gravel terr-a-oes of existing river
• ^ grave>1.3 whprein the PaJaiolithic imple-
ments are found, and. accordingly, he
suggests that the-y r,hould henceforth be
> =^cnown las Protero'liths, sinoe they m.ust
^5 have been fa-shioned by peonies more
'^ n.n<'ient than th-e users of thio Palreoliths.
•vjj^his fine a-nd most insftructive series re-
\**^ pre^,nts Sir Ray Lankester's last legacy
^V to the museum, his last T>\'^ce of ndminis-
■-^ trative work before relinquishing the
div.xrtorship of the institution which he
has guided so successfully during the
past d-eoade. — Daily Graphic.
" London Opinion " Curio V/orld
section every week. Immense and in-
creasing circulation*
IVicnL Joii
^t e
ANCIENT STONE IMPLEMENTS,
ETC.,
OF
GEEAT BEITAIN.
THE ANCIENT
STONE IMPLEMENTS,
WEAPONS AND ORNAMENTS,
GREAT BRITAIN.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED.
SIR JOHN EYAJN^S, K.C.B.,
D.C.L., Sc.D., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., etc., etc.
COEEESPONDAUT DE l'iNSTITXTT DE FEANCE.
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39, PATERNOSTEH EOW, LONDON
AND BOMBAY
1897
fAll ri(jhts reserved.)
LONDON :
PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED.
CITV ROAD.
THE GETT/ RESEARCH
INSTITUTE LIBRARY
PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.
In presenting this work to the public I need say but little by way
of preface. It is the result of the occupation of what leisure
hours I could spare, during the last few years, from various
and important; business, and my object in undertaking it is
explained in the Introduction.
What now remains for me to do is to express my thanks to
those numerous friends who have so kindly aided me during the
progress of my work, both by placing specimens in their col-
lections at my disposal, and by examination of my proofs. Fore-
most among these must be ranked the Rev. William Greenwell,
F.S.A., from whose unrivalled collection of British antiquities I
have largely drawn, and from whose experience and knowledge I
have received much assistance in other ways.
To Mr. A. W. Franks, F.S.A. ; Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S. ; Mr.
W. Pengelly, F.R.S. ; Colonel A. Lane Fox, F.S.A. ; Mr. E. T.
Stevens, of Salisbury ; Messrs. Mortimer, of Fimber ; Mr. Joseph
Anderson, the Curator of the Antiquarian Museum at Edinburgh ;
and to numerous others whose names are mentioned in the
following pages, my thanks must also be expressed.
The work itself will, I believe, be found to contain most of the
information at present available with regard to the class of
antiquities of which it treats. The subject is one which does
not readily lend itself to lively description, and an accumulation
of facts, such as is here presented, is of necessity dull. I have,
however, relegated to smaller type the bulk of the descriptive
Tl PREFACE.
details of little interest to tlie ordinan^ reader, who will probably
find more than enough of dry matter to content him if he confines
himself to the larger type and an examination of the illustrations.
Whatever may be the merits or defects of the book, there are
two points on which I feel that some credit may be claimed. The
one is that the woodcuts — the great majority of which have been
specially engraved for this work by Mr. Swain, of Bouyerie Street
— give accurate representations of the objects ; the other is, that
all the references have been carefully checked.
The Index is divided into two parts ; the first showing the
subjects discussed in the work, the second the locaKties where
the various antiquities have been found.
Now that 80 much more attention than formerly is being
bestowed on this class of antiquities, there will, no doubt, be
numerous discoveries made, not only of forms with which we
are at present unacquainted, but also of circumstances calculated
to throw light on the uses to which stone implements and weapons
were applied, and the degree of antiquity to be assigned to the
various forms.
I will only add that I shall gladly receive any communications
relative to such discoveries.
JOHN EVANS.
Nash Mills, Heinel IIem})stead, May, 1872.
PREFACE
TO THE SECOND EDITION.
The undiminished interest taken by many archaeologists in tho
subject to which this book relates seems to justify me in again
placing it before the public, though in an extended and revised
form. I am further warranted in so doing by the fact that the former
edition, which appeared in 1872, has now been long out of print.
In revising the work it appeared desirable to retain as mucb of
the original text and arrangement as possible, but having regard
to the large amount of new matter that had to be incorporated in
it and to the necessity of keeping the bulk of the volume within
moderate bounds, some condensation seemed absolutely compulsory.
This I have eifected, partly by omitting some of the detailed
measurements of the specimens, and partly by printing a larger
proportion of the text in small type. I have also omitted several
passages relating to discoveries in the caverns of the South of
France.
I have throughout preserved the original numbering of the
Figures, so that references that have already been made to them
in other works will still bold good. The new cuts, upwards of
sixty in number, that have been added in this edition are dis-
tinguished by letters affixed to the No. of the Figure immediately
preceding them.
The additions to the text, especially in the portion relating to
the Pakcolithic Period, are very extensive, and I hope that all the
more important discoveries of stone antiquities made in this country
during the last quarter of a century are here duly recorded, and
references given to the works in which fuller details concerning
them may be found. In some cases, owing to the character of the
■nil PREFACE.
objects discovered being insufficiently described, I have not thought
it necessary to cite them.
I am indebted to numerous collectors throughout the country
for having called my attention to specimens that they acquired,
and for having, in many cases, sent them to me for examination.
I may take this opportunity of mentioning that while the whole of
the objects found by Canon Greenwell during his examination of
British Barrows has been most liberally presented to the nation,
the remainder of his fine collection of stone antiquities, so
frequently referred to in these pages, has passed into the hands
of Dr. TV. Allen Sturge, of Nice.
The two Indices have been carefuUj^ compiled by my sister, Mrs.
Hubbard, and are fuller than those in the former edition. They
will afford valuable assistance to any one who desires to consult
the book.
For the new woodcuts that I have had engraved I have been so
fortunate as to secure the services of Messrs. Swain, who so skil-
{lUy cut the blocks for the original work. I am indebted for the
loan of numerous other blocks to several learned Societies, and
especially to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and to the
Geological Society of London. Mr. Worthington Smith has also
most liberally placed a number of blocks at my disposal.
It remains for me to express my thanks to those who have
greatly aided me in the preparation of this edition, the whole of
the proofs of which have been kindly read by Mr. C. H. Eead,
F.S. A., of the British Museum, as well as by some members of my
own family. Dr. Joseph Anderson, of the National Museum at
Edinburgh, has been good enough to read the parts relating to
Scotland, while Professor Boyd Dawkins has gone over the
chapter on Cave Implements, and Mr. AYilliam Whitaker has
corrected the account of the discoveries in the River-drift. To
each and all I am grateful, and as the result of their assistance I
trust that, though not immaculate, the book may prove to be fairly
free from glaring errors and inconsistencies.
JOHN EVANS.
li'aah Mills, Uemel Hempstead, May, 1897.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I. .
INTRODUCTORY.
PACK
The Iron, Bronze, and Stone Ages — Bronze in use before Iron — Persistence oi
Religious Rites — Use of Stone in Religious Ceremonies — Stone Autiquities
not all of the same Age — Order of Treatment 1
CHAPTER II.
ON THE MANTJFACTTJRE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC TIMES.
Pyrites and Flint used for striking Fire— Strike -a-light Flints — The Gun-
flint Manufacture — Gun-flint Production — Modes of producing Flakes —
Pressigny Nuclei — Rough-hewing Stone-hatchets— Ancient Mining for
Flint — Flint-mines at Grime's Graves and Spiennes— Production of Arrow-
heads— Flaking Arrow-heads — Arrow-flakers — Grinding Stone Implements
— Methods of 8awing Stone — Methods of Boring Stone — Boring by means
of a Tube— Progress in Modes of Manufacture .14
IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD.
CHAPTER III.
CELTS,
Belief in their Meteoric Origin — Regarded as Thunderbolts — Celt with Gnostic
Inscriptions — Their Origin and Virtues — How regarded by the Greeks and
Romans o5
CHAPTER IV.
CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HET\T^ CELTS.
The Kjiikken-MiJdding Type — Some possib'y Agricultural Implements— Some
carefully Chipped — The Common Forms — Their abundance— Discoveries
at Cissbury — Found in company with Polished Celts — Their probable Age 67
CHAPTER V.
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY.
Pointed at the Butt-end— Of Elongated Form— Expanding at the Ends— Of
Peculiar Forms — Their Occurrence in Foreign Countries . . . .87
CHAPTER VI.
POLISHED CELTS.
A Type common in the Eastern Counties— With the Siirface ground all over —
Expanding at the Edge— Of other Materials than Flint — The Thin and
Highly-polished Type— With Flat Sides— With Flat Sides and Narrow
Butt- With Flat Sides and Pointed Butt -Of Rectangular Section—
Chisel-like and of Rectangular Section — Of Oval Section — Of Oval Section
with Conical Butt — Of a Form common in France — Of Oval Section
pointed at the Butt — With a Cutting Edge at each End— Sharp at both
Ends — Polished Celts narrowing in the iNIiddle — Used in the Hand without
Rafting— Polished Celts of Abnormal types— Polished Celts with Depres-
sions and Flutings — Circumstances under which they have been Found —
X CONTENTS.
PAGE
Their Discovery with Objects of Later Date— Their Range in Time —
Accompanying Interments— Manner in which Hat'ted — In their original
Handles— Inserted in Sockets in the Hafts— Ilafted with Intermediate
Sockets — Compared with Axes of modern Savages — Mounted in Forked
Hafts— Mounted on Wooden Hafts— Compared with Adzes of modem
Savages— ^lounted in Withes and Cleft Sticks — Modem methods of Hafting
Axes .98
CHAPTER VII.
PICKS, CHISELS, GOrCES, ETC.
Small Hand Chisels — Gouges rare in Britain — Bastard Gouges . . .173
CHAPTER YIII.
PERFORATED AXES.
Sharp at both Ends— Expanding at one End— Pointed at one End— Adze-like
in Character— Cutting at one End only — Used as Battle-axes— Ornamented
on the Faces— Large and Heavy— A Large Form common in the North
— Fluted on the Faces — Boring, the last Process— Axe-hammers hollowed
on the Sides — Axe-hammers ornamented on the Faces — Frequently found
in Barrows — But little used by modern Savages . . . . .183
CHAPTER IX.
PERFORATED AND GEOOVED HAMMERS.
Of Peculiar Forms— Some of them Weapons, not Tools— Conical, Rounded at
each End— Made from Pebbles with Natural Holes— Of an Ornamented
Character— Made from Quartzite Pebbles — Purposes to which Applied
—Mauls for Mining Purposes— Of Wide Range — Net-sinkers . . .217
CHAPTER X.
HAMMER-STONES, ETC.
With Depressions on the Faces— With Cup-shaped Depressions— Ridged at
the End— Made of Flint and Quartzite— Saddle-querns— Pestles and
Mortars— From Shetland and Orkney — Various forms of Mortars — Hand-
mills or Querns •••........ 238
CHAPTER XI.
GRINDING-STONES AKD WHETSTONES.
Uses for Sharpening Celts— Found in Barrows— Found with Interments
Pebbles with Grooves in them . . . . . . . . .261
CHAPTER XII.
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC.
The Cone and Bulb of Percussion- Classification of Flakes— Polygonal Cores-
Numerous in Ancient Settlements— Localities where Abundant— Not
Confined to the Stone Period— The Roman Tribulum— In other parts of
the World— The Uses of Flakes— Flakes ground at the Edg-e- Hafted
Flakes— Flakes made into Saws— Serrated, as the Armature of Sickles . 272
CHAPTER XIII.
SCRAPERS.
Used in Dressing Hides— Horseshoe-shaped— Kite-shaped and Duok-bill-
shaped- Some like Oyster Shells in Form- Double-ended and Spoon-
shaped— Found with Interments— Evidences of Wear upon them- Found
with Pyrites— The Modern form of Strike-a-light— Used with Pyrites for
producing Fire— The Flat and Hollowed Forms 298
CONTENTS. XI
CHAPTER XIV.
BOEERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS.
I'AGi;
Fouuil ill (litferetit Countries —Of Minute Dimensions ..... 321
CHAPTER XV.
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
From different Countries — Some Trimmed Flakes, probably Knives — Knives
from Barrows— Some pos.sibly Lauoe-heads — Knives with one Edii:e blunt
— Of Oval Form — Sharpened by Grindingr— Of Circular Form— Of Semi-
circular and Trianprular Form— The so-called "Plots' Knives"— Like those
of the Eskimos— Daggers or Lance-heads— With Notches at the Sides —
Kound in other Countries — Curved and Crescent-shaped Blades — Curved
Knives, probably Sickles— Ripple-marked Egyptian Blades . . . 326
CHAPTER XVI.
.TAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
Their earliest occurrence — Thought to fall from the Heavens— Superstitions
attaching to them — Worn as Amulets — An Egyptian Aitow- Jaxelin-
heads— Leaf -shaped Arrow-heads — Leaf-shaped Arrow-heads pointed at
both Ends — Lozenge-shaped Arrow-heads — Stemmed- Arrow-heads-
Stemmed and Barbed Arrow-heads— Unusual Forms— Found in Scotland
— Localities where found — The Triansi:ular Form— Single-barbed Arrow-
heads—The Chisel-ended Type — Found in Barrows — Irish and French
Types — From various Countries— African and Asiatic Types— South
American Types— How attached to their Shafts— Bows in Early Times . 3G0
CHAPTER XVII.
FABRICATORS, FLAKIXG TOOLS, ETC.
Their probable Uses— Used for working in Flint 412
CHAPTER XVIII.
SLING-STOXES A^TD BALLS.
Sling-stones Roughly Chipped from Flint— Ornamented Balls principally from
Scotland — The use of •' Bolas " . . . . . .117
CHAPTER XIX,
BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE.
Wrist-guards or Bracers of Stone— The use of Arm-guards — Bone Lance-
heads and Pin.s — Needles of Bone — Hoes of Stag's Horn .... 425
CHAPTER XX.
SPINDLE-WnORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS.
Superstitions attaching to Whorls— Uses of Perforated Discs— Use of Slick-
stones- Stones as Burnishers and M' eights — Stone Cups — Cups turned in
a Lathe— Amber Cup — Vessels made of Stone 436
CHAPTER XXL
PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC.
Buttons of Jet, Shale, and Stone — Buttons found in Barrows — Necklaces of
Jet — Necklaces — Beads, Pendants, and Bracelets— Rings of Stone —
Pebbles found in Burrows— Lucky Stones and Amulets — Conclusions as to
the Neolithic Period ........... 4,52
XU CONTENTS.
IMPLEMEXTS OF THE PALAEOLITHIC PERIOD.
CHAPTER XXII.
CAVE IJMPLEMENTS.
PACK
Compared with those from the River-drift — Formation of Caverns — Deposition
of Stalagmite — Different Ages of Caverns— Chronological Sequence of
Caverns — Fauna of the Caves — Dean Buckland's Researches— Kent's
Cavern, Torquay— Alteration in Structure of Flint- Trimmed Flakes from
Kent's Cavern — Scrapers from Kent's Cavern — Cores and Ilamnu-rs from
Kent's Cavern — Bone Harpoon-heads from Kent's Cavern — Fauna of
Kent's Cavern — Animal Remains associnted with Works of Art — Corre-
lation of Kent's Cavern with Foreign Caves — Brixham Cave — Trimmed
Flakes from the Brixham Cave — -The Wookey Hysena Den — The Gower
and other Welsh Caves — The Caves of Creswell Crags— General Con-
siderations ............ 473
CHAPTER XXIII.
IMPLEMENTS OF THE KIVEE-DRIFT PERIOD.
The Discoveries at Abbeville and Amiens — Discoveries on the Continent and
in India — In the Valley of the Ouse— Biddenham, Bedford — Hitchin, Herts
—Valleys of the Cam and the Lark — Bury St. Edmunds — Icklingham —
High Lodge, Mildenhall— Eedhill, Thetford — Saiiton Downham— Brome-
hiU, Weeting— Gravel Rill, Brandon— Lakenheath— Shrub Hill, Feltwell
— Hoxne, Suffolk — Saltley, Warwickshire — Possibility of their occurrence
in the North of England — Gray's Inn Lane, London — Highbury, London
— Lower Clapton, Stoke Newington, &c. — Ealing and Acton — West
Drayton, Burnham, Reading — Oxford and its Neighbourhood — Pease-
marsh, Godalming — Valleys of the Gade and Colne — Caddington — No
Man's Land, "Wheathampstead — Valley of the Lea— Valley of the Cray —
Swanscomb and Milton Street — Ightham, Sevenoaks— Limpsfield, Surrey —
Valley of the Medway — Reculver — Thanington, Kent — Canterbury and
Folkestone — Southampton — Hill Head, Southampton Water- The Fore-
land, Isle of Wight — Bemerton, Salisbury — Finherton and Milford Hill,
Salisbury — Bournemouth and Barton Cliff— Valley of the Axe . . . 526
CHAPTER XXIV.
FORMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPLEMENTS FROM THE RITER-DRIFT.
Flint Flakes — Trimmed Flakes — Pointed Implements— Sharp-rimmed Imple-
ments— Differ from those of Neolithic Age — Their occurrence in other
parts of the World — Found in Africa and Asia— Their probable Uses —
The Civilization they betoken — Characteristics of their Authenticity . 640
CHAPTER XXV.
ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT.
Hypothetical case of River-action— Origin of River Systems — Amount of
Solid Matter in Turbid Water — Nature of Flood-deposits- Effects of
Ground-ice — Deposits left on the Slopes of Valleys during Excavation —
Solvent power of Carbonic Acid — The results of the Deepening of Valleys
— Actual Phenomena compared with the Hypothetical — The Denudation
of the Fen Country — The Valley of the Waveney — The Vallej^ of the
Thames — Deiiosits in the South of England — Deposits near Salisbury —
The Origin of the Solent — Deposits at Bournemouth — Breach through the
Chalk-range South of Bournemouth — The Question of Climate — Evidence
as to Climate — Association of Implements with a Quaternary Fauna —
Scarcity of Human Bones in the River-drift — Attempts to formulate
Chronological Data — Data from Erosion — Conclusion .... 662
WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
1. Egypt
CHAPTER II.
ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE
IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC
TIMES.
2. Flint Core with Flakes replaced
upon it 20
2a. Gun Flint, a vlona, Albania . 21
3. Nucleus — Pressigny .... 29
4.
G.
Flake
7.
8.
Eskimo
Arrow -flaker
9.
*
)> »>
10.
>> >>
30
30
31
31
38
38
38
CHAPTER III.
CELTS.
11.* Celt with Gnostic Inscription . 61
CHAPTER IV.
CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS.
12. Near Mildenhall 68
13. „ „ 68
14. NearThetford 69
15. Oving, near Chichester ... 70
16. Near Newhaven 71
17. Near Dunstable 72
18. Burwell Fen 72
19. MildenhaU 73
20. Bottisham Fen '■'>
21. Near Bournemouth . .
FIG. I'AGK
22. Thetford 74
23. Reach Fen, Cambridge ... 75
24. Scamridge, Yorkshire ... 76
25.* Forest of Bere, near Horndean 76
25a.* Isle of Wight 77
26. Cissbury 81
27. „ 81
28. „ 82
29. „ 82
CHAPTER V.
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY.
30. Downs near Eastbourne ... 88-
31. Culford, Suffolk 88
32. Near Mildenhall. Suffolk . . 88
33. Saw don, North Yorkshire . . 89
34. Weston, Norfolk 90
35. Mildenhall 91
35a. Reach Fen 92
36. Burwell Fen 93
37. Thetford 93
38. Undley Common, Lakenheath . 94
38a. East Dean 95-
39. Ganton 95-
40. Swaffham Fen 95
41. Grindale, BridUngton ... 96
42. North Bui-ton 9&
CHAPTER VI.
POLISHED CELTS.
43. Santon Downham, Suffolk
99
44. Coton, Cambridge 101
45. Reach Fen, Cambridge . . . 102
46. Great Bedwin, Wilts . . . .102
47. Burradon, Northumberland . 103
48. Coton, Cambridge . . . .104
49. Ponteland, Northumberland . 105
50. Fridaythorpe, Yorkshire . .105
51. Oulston 106
... 74 I 52. Burwell Fen 107
' The cuts marked with an asterisk have been borrowed from various sources, ■which are duly-
acknowledged in the body of the book.
JSIV
WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIO. TAGE
52a.* Ber'wickshire 108
53. Botesdalc, Suffolk . . . .111
64. Lackford. Suflblk . . . .112
55. Dalmeny, Linlithprow . . .113
56. Sproustou, near Kelso . . .114
57. Nunningtxm. Yorkshire . .115
58. Burradon, Northuiuberlaud . 116
59. Livermere. Sufifolk . . . .116
60. Ildertcn, Northumberland . .117
61. Near Pendle, Lancashire . .118
62. Ness 119
63. Gilling 120
64. Swinton, near Malton . . . 121
65. Scamridpre Dykes, Yorkshire . 121
66. WTiitwell, Yorkshire . . .122
67. Thames, London 123
68. Near Bridlington . . . .124
69. Lakenheath, Suffolk . . .125
70. Seamer, Yorkshire . . . .126
71. Guernsey 127
72. Wareham 127
73. Forfarshire 128
74. Bridlington 129
75. Caithness 129
76. Gilmerton, East Lothian . . 131
77. Stirlingshire 132
78. Harome 133
79. Daviot, near Inverness . . .134
80. Near Cottenham 135
81. Near Malton 135
82. Mennithorpe, Yorkshire . .136
83. Middleton Moor 137
83a. Keystone 137
84. Near Truro 138
84a.* Slains 138
85. Near Lerwick 139
86. Weston, Norfolk 139
87. AcklamWold 140
88. Fimber 140
89. Duggleby 141
90. Guernsey 141
90a. Wereham 142
91.* Solway Moss 151
92. Cumberland 153
93.* Monaghan 154
94. Axe from the Rio Frio . . .155
95.* War-axe — Gaveoii Indians,
Brazil '. 156
96. Axe of Montezuma II. . . . 157
97. Axe — Nootka Soimd . . . 158
98. Axe in Stag's-hom Socket —
Concise 159
99. Axe — Robenhausen . . . .159
99a. Penhouet 161
99b.* New Guinea 161
99c.* „ „ Adze. . . . 162
100. Axe — Robenhausen .... 163
101. Schraplau 163
102.* Adze— New Caledonia . . 164
103.* Adze— Clalam Indians . . 165
104.* South-Sea Island Axes . 16G
105.* Axe— Northern Australia . 168
106.* Hatchets Western Australia 170
CHAPTER VII.
PICKS, CHISELS, GODGES, ETC.
FIG. PACK
107. Great Easton 173
108. Bury St. Edmunds .... 174
109. Burwell 175
110. Near Bridlington 175
111. Dalton, Yorkshire .... 176
112. Helperthorpe 177
113. New Zealand Chisel . . .178
114. Burwell 179
114a. Westleton Walks .... 179
115. Eastbourne 180
116. Willerby Wold 181
117. Bridlington 181
CHAPTER VIII.
PERFORATED AXES.
lis. Hunmanby 185
119.* Hove 186
120. Llanmadock 188
121. Guernsey 189
122. Firebum Mill, Coldstream . . 190
123. Burwell Fen 191
124. Stourton 192
125. Bardwell 193
126. Potter Brompton Wold . . .194
137. Rudstone 195
128. Borrowash .196
129.* Crichie, Aberdeenshire . .197
130. Walsgrave-upon-Sowe . . . 199
131. Wigton 201
132. WollatonPark 203
133. Buckthorpe 204
134. Aldro' . 205
135. Cowlam 206
136. Seghill . 207
136a.* Wick, Caithness .... 208
137. Kirklington 209
138.* Winterboum Steepleton . . 210
139. Skelton Moors 211
140. Selwood Barrow 211
140a.* Longniddry 212
141. Upton Lovel 213
142. Thames, London 213
143. Pelynt, Cornwall . . . .214
CHAPTER IX.
PERFORATED AKD GROOVED
HAMMERS.
144. Balmaclellan 219
145. Thames, London 219
145a.* Kirkinner 220
146. Scarborough 221
147. Shetland 221
148.* Caithness 222
149. Leeds 222
150. Rockland 223
151. Heslerton Wold 224
WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS.
XV^
FIG. PAGE
152. Birdoswald 22.5
153. Maesmore, Corvven .... 226
154. Normanton, Wilts .... 227
155. Redgrave Park 228
156. Redmore Fen 228
157.* Stifford 229
158. Sutton 231
169.* Ambleside 236
CHAPTER X.
HAMMER-STONES, ETC.
160. Helmslev 239
161. Winterboum Bassett . . .240
161 A.* Goldcuoch 241
162. St. Botolph's Priory .... 242
Bridlington 242
243
243
Scamridge 246
167 & 168. Yorkshire Wolds . .248
168a.* Culbin Sands 249
169. Bridlington 249
170.* Holyhead .251
Ty Mawr 253
Holyhead 254
Pulborough 254
Shetland 256
256
256
256
256
257
163.
164.
165.
166.
171.'
172.^
173.*
174.*
175.*
176.*
177.*
178.*
179.*
180.*
Balmaclellan 260
CHAPTER XI.
GRINDING-STOXES AND WHETSTONES.
180a.** Lamberton Moor .... 264
181. Dorchester 265
182. Rudstone 265
183. Fimber 266
184. Cowlam 267
185. Amesbury 2G7
186.* Hove 268
187.* TyMawr 270
CHAPTER XII.
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC.
188. Artificial Cone of Flint . . .274
189. Weaverthorpe 276
190. Newhaven 278
191. Redhill, Reigate 278
192. Icklingham 278
193. Seaford 278
194.* Tribulum from Aleppo . . 285
195.* Admiralty Islands '. . . . 288
196. Charleston 291
FIG. PAOR
197. Nussdorf 292
198. Australia 293
199. WillerbyWold 295
200. Yorkshire Wolds 295
201. Scamridge 296
202. West Cranmore 296
CHAPTER XIII.
SCRAPERS.
203.* Eskimo Scraper 298
204. Weaverthorpe 300
205. Sussex Downs 301
206. Yorkshire 302
207. Helpcrthorpe 302
208. Weaverthorpe 302
209. Sussex Downs 303
210. Yorkshire 303
211. ,, Wolds 303
212. „ „ 304
213. Sussex Downs 304
214. Yorkshire Wolds 304
215. Sussex Downs 305
216. „ ,, 306
217. ,, ,, 306
218. Bridlington 307
219. ,, 307
220. Yorkshire Wolds 307
221 ,. ,, 308
222. French " Strike-a-light " . . 314
223. Rudstone 316
224. Method of using Pyrites and
" Scraper*' for striking a
light 317
225. Yorkshire Wolds 319
226. ,, ,, 319
226a. North of Ireland .... 320
CHAPTER IV.
BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS.
227. Yorkshire Wolds 322
228. BridUngton 322
229. Yorkshire Wolds 323
230. Bridlington 323
231. Yorkshire Wolds .... 324
232. „ „ 324
232a. Hastings 325
232b. ,, 325
2320. ,, 325
232D.* Vindhya Hills 325
232e.* „ ,, 325
232F.* „ „ 326
CHAPTER XY.
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
233. Cambridge (?) 326
234. Yorkshire Wolds 328
XVi
WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS.
iFlG. PAUK
235. Yorkfiliire 328
236. Bridlington 329
237. Yorkshire 329
238. Bridlington 329
239. Ca-stle Girrock 329
240. Ford, Northumberland . . 330
210a.* Etton 330
2-tl. Weaverthorpe 331
242. AVvkebam Moor 331
243. Potter Bromptou Wold . . 332
244. Snainton Moor 333
245. Ford 333
24G. Bridlington 334
247. Cambridge Fens 334
248. Scamridge 335
249. BurwellFen 336
250. Saffron Walden 33G
251. Fimber 337
252. Argyllshire 338
253. Glen Urquhart 338
254. Bridlington 339
255. Overton 339
256. Kempston 340
256a. Eastbourne 341
257. Kintore 342
258. Newhaven, Derbyshire . . 342
259. Harome, Yorkshire .... 343
260. „ „ .... 344
261. Crambe 345
262. Walls, Shetland 346
263. „ „ 347
264. Lambourn Down 349
265. Thames 350
266. Burnt Fen 350
267. Arbor Low 352
267a. Sewerby 355
268. Fimber 356
269. Yarmouth 356
270. Eastbourne 357
CHAPTER XVI.
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
271.* Elf Shot 365
272. Egypt 369
273. Winterboum Stoke . . . .371
274. „ „ , . . . 371
275. „ ,,.... 371
276.* Calais Wold Barrow . . .372
-II. ,, ,, ,, . . . <J( -.
278.* „ „ „ ... 372
279.* , , ... 372
280. Icklingham . " 373
281.* Gunthorpe 373
282. Yorkshire Wolds 373
283. „ „ 374
284. Little Solsbury Hill . . .374
2S5. Yorkshire Wolds 374
286. Bridlington 374
287 & 288. Yorkshire Wolds . . 375
2S9. Lakenheath 375
2^0 & 291. Yorkshire Wolds . .376
FIG. PAGE
292 & 293. Yorkshire Wolds . . 376
294. „ ,, . . 376
295.* Fyfield 377
296. Bridlington 378
297. Newton Ketton 378
298 & 299. Yorkshire Wolds . .378
300. Yorkshire Wolds 379
301. Amotherby 379
302. Iwerne Minster 379
303. Yorkshire Wolds 380
304. ,, ., 380
305. Pick Rudge Farm . . . .380
305a. Ashwell 381
306. Sherburn Wold 381
307. Yorkshire Wolds 381
308. ,, ,, 381
309. „ „ 381
310. „ ,, 381
311. „ 381
31'' 381
313 & 314. Yorkshire Wolds .' .' 382
314a. Icklingham 382
315. Eddlesborough 383
316. Reach Fen 383
317. Isleham 383
318. Rudstone 384
318a. Dorchester Dykes . . . .384
319. Lambourn Down .... 384
320. Fovant 384
321. Yorkshire Moors 385
322 & 323. Yorkshire Wolds . . 385
323a.* Brompton 386
324.* Isle of Skye 387
325. Urquhart 387
326. Aberdeenshire 387
327. Glenlivet 387
327a.* riiiliphaugh 388
328. Icklingham 390
329. Langdale End 390
330. Amotherby 390
331. AVeaverthorpe 391
332. Lakenheath 391
333. Yorkshire Wolds 391
334. „ 392
335. „ , 392
336. Bridlington 392
337. ,, 392
338. Fimber 393
339. Hungry Bentlev 394
340.* Caithness . ." 394
341. Lakenheath 395
342. Urquhart 395
342a.* Fyvie, Aberdeeusliire . . 408
343. Switzerland 408
344. Fiinen, Denmark 409
345.* Modern Stone Arrow-head . 409
CHAPTER XVII.
FABRICATORS, FLAKING TOOLS, ETC.
346. Yorkshire Wolda 412
346a.* Corennie 413
WOODCLT ILLUSTRATIONS.
XVU
PIG. PACK
347. Bridlington 413
348. Sawdon 415
349. Acklam Wold 415
CHAPTER XVIII.
SLING-STONES AND BALLS.
350. Yorkshire Wolds 419
351.* Dumfriesshire 420
352.* Towie 421
CHAPTER XIX.
BRACERS, AND ATITICLES OF BONE.
353. IsleofSkye 425
354. Evantown 426
355. Devizes 42t>
356.* Isle of Skye 428
CHAPTER XX.
SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICK-
STONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS.
357. Scampston 438
358.* Holyhead 438
359.* ,, 438
360.* „ 438
361.* „ 442
362.* Scotland 444
363.* Sutherlandshire 444
364.* Faroe Islands 445
365.* Broad Down or Honiton . . 446
366.* Rillaton 448
367.* Hove 449
368.* Ty Mawr 450
CHAPTER XXI.
PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS,
ETC.
369. Buttervrick 453
370. „ 453
371. Rudstone 454
372. ,, 454
373. Crawfurd :\loor 454
374.* Calais Wold Barrow . . . 455
375.* Assynt, Ross-shire .... 457
376.* Pen-y-Bonc 458
377.* Probable Arrangement of the
Jet Necklace found at Pen-
y-Bonc, Holyhead. . . . 459
378.* Fimber 461
379.* Yorkshire 462
380.* „ 462
381. Hungry Bentley 464
381a.* Heathery Bum Cave . . .464
382.* Jet — Guernsey 464
383.* Bronze — Guernsey .... 464
FIG. PAOB
384. Kent's Cavern 465
385.* Ty Mawr 466
CHAPTER XXII.
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
386. Kent's Cavern
387.
388. ,, „
388a.* ,,
389.
390.
391.
392.
393.
394.
395. ,, ,,
396. „
397. „ „
398.
;399. „ „
400.
401. ,,
402. „ ,,
403.
404. „ „
405. ,, ,,
406. ,,
407.
408.
409. Brixham Cave
410.
411.
412.
413.*
413a,
413b.
413c.
413d
413e,
413f,
413g.* Church Hole Cave
413h.* „
CHAPTER XXIII.
Wookey Hyaena Den
* Robin Hood. Cave.
493
493
494
495
496
496
498
499
499
500
500
501
501
502
502
602
503
503
505
505
505
506
506
506
514
515
515
516
518
522
523
523
523
523
524
524
524
IMPLEMENTS OF THE RIVER-DRIFT
PERIOD.
414. Biddenham, Bedford . . .532
415. ,, ,, ... 533
416. „ „ ... 534
417. ,, „ ... 534
418. „ ,, ... 535
418a. Hitchin 537
419. Maynewater Lane, Bury St.
Edmunds 540
419a. Grindle Pit, Bury St. Ed-
munds 541
419b. Bury St. Edmunds . . . 642
419c. Nowton, near Bury St. Ed-
munds 543
WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS.
FIG.
419d
420.
421.
422.
423.
424.
425.
426.
426.\.
427.
42S.
429.
430.
431.
432,
433.
434.
43.5.
436.
437.
438.
439.
440.
441.
442.
443.
444.
445.
446.
447.
448.
449.
4a0.
4.50a.
4.51.
452.
453.
Westley, near Bury St. Ed-
mund!*
Rampart Hill, Icklingham
Ickliuarham
High Lodge
Redhill, Thetford
^VTiitehill, Thetford
Santon Downham
Bromehill, Brandon
Gravel Hill,
Valley of the Lark, or
Little Ouse .
Shrub HiU, Feltwell
Hoxne
Saltley . . . .
Gray's Inn Lane .
Hackney Down .
Highbury New Paik
of
544
545
.546
.546
547
548
548
549
549
552
5.53
554
555
555
556
557
558
559
560
561
562
563
564
564
565
.566
the
.567
570
570
571
571
575
576
579
.582
583
585
KIO.
453a
453b.
453c.
4o3d
454.
455.
4o5a.
455b.
455c.
455d
455e
455f.
455g.
455h
456.
456a.
457.
458.
459.
460.
461.
462.
463.
464.
464a.
464b.
465.
466.
467.
468.
469.
470.
471.
472.
473.
474.
475.
476.
477.
PAOK
,* Lower Clapton 587
* Stamford HiU 588
* Stoke Newiugton Common . 688
* M „ ,. . 689
Ealing Dean 590
Peasemarsh, Godalming . . 595
* Caddington 599^
599
600
GOO
601
601
601
.* Wheathampstead .... 601
Dartford Heath 606
Bewley, Ightham . . . .009
Reculver 612
Near Reculver 614
fil-^
Eeculver 616
61&
StudhiU 618
Thanington 619
Canterbury 620
* ,, 621
Folkestone 622
Southampton 623
Hill Head 625
The Foreland, Isle of Wight . 627
Lake 628
Bemerton 629
Highfield 629
Fishertou 630
Milford Hill, SaUsbury . . .633
Fordingbridge 634
Boscombe, Bournemouth . . 635
„ . . 636
Bournemouth 637
Broom Pit, Axminster . . . 638
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.
TN the following pages I purpose to give an account of the
-■- various forms of stone implements, weapons, and ornaments of
remote antiquity discovered in Great Britain, their probable uses
and method of manufacture, and also, in some instances, the cir-
cumstances of their discovery. "While reducing the whole series
into some sort of classification, as has been done for the stone
antiquities of Scandinavia by TVorsaae, Montelius, and Sophus
Miiller, for those of France by Messrs. Gabriel and Adrien de
Mortillet, and for those of Ireland by Sir William Wilde, I hope
to add something to our knowledge of this branch of Archaeology
by instituting comparisons, where possible, between the antiqui-
ties of England and Scotland and those of other parts of the
world. Nor in considering the purposes to which the various
forms were applied, and the method of their manufacture, must I
neglect to avail myself of the illustrations afforded by the practice
of modern savages, of which Sir John Lubbock and others have
already made such profitable use.
But before commencing any examination of special forms, there
are some few general considerations on which it seems advisable
to enter, if only in a cursory manner ; and this is the more neces-
sary, since notwithstanding the attention which has now for
many years been devoted to Prehistoric Antiquities, there is
seemingly still some misapprehension remaining as to the nature
and value of the conclusions based upon recent archaeological and
geological investigations.
At the risk therefore of being tedious, I shall have to notice
once more many things already well known to archaeologists, but
which, it would appear from the misconceptions so often evinced,
even by those who speak and write on such matters, can hardly
be too often repeated.
Not the least misunderstood of these subjects has been the
2 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. 1.
classification of the antiquities of "Western Europe, first practically
adopted by the Danish antiquaries, under periods known as the
Iron, Bronze, and Stone Ages ; the Iron Age, so far as Denmark
is concerned, being supposed to go back to about the Christian era,
the Bronze Age to embrace a period of one or two thousand years
previous to that date, and the Stone Age all previous time of man's
occupation of that part of the world. These difierent periods have
been, and in some cases may be safely, subdivided ; but into this
question I need not now enter, as it does not affect the general
sequence. The idea of the succession is this : —
1. That there was a period in each given part of ^Vestern
Europe, say, for example, Denmark, when the use of metals for
cutting-instruments of any kind was unknown, and man had to
depend for his implements and weapons on stone, bone, wood, and
other readily accessible natural products.
2. That this period was succeeded b}' one in which the use of
copper, or of copper alloyed with tin — bronze — became known, and
gradually superseded the use of stone for certain purposes, though
it continued to be employed for others ; and
3. That a time arrived when bronze, in its turn, gave way to
iron or steel, as being a superior metal for all cutting purposes ;
which, as such, has remained in use up to the present day.
Such a classification into different ages in no way implies any
exact chronology, far less one that would be applicable to all the
countries of Europe alike, but is rather to be regarded as significant
only of a succession of different stages of civilization ; for it is
evident that at the time when, for instance, in a country such as
Italy, the Iron Age may have commenced, some of the more
northern countries of Europe may possibly have been in their
Bronze Age, and others again still in their Stone Age.
Neither does this classification imply that in the Bronze Age
of any country stone implements had entirely ceased to be in use,
nor even that in the Iron Age both bronze and stone had been
completely superseded for all cutting purposes. Like the three
principal colours of the rainbow, these three stages of civilization
overlap, intermingle, and shade off the one into the other ; and yet
their succession, so far as Western Europe is concerned, appears
to be equally well defined with that of the prismatic colours,
though the proportions of the spectrum may vary in different
countries.*
1 Some interesting remarks on the succession of the three periods and the
THE IRON, 15R0NZE, AND STONE AGES. O
The late Mr. James Fergusson, in his Rude Stone Monuments/
has analyzed the discoveries made by Bateman in his exploration
of Derbyshire barrows, and on the analysis has founded an argu-
ment against the division of time into the Stone, Bronze, and
Iron Ages. He has, however, omitted to take into account the
fact that in many of the barrows there were secondary interments
of a date long subsequent to the primary.
I have spoken of this division into Periods as having been first
practically adopted by the Danish school of antiquaries, but in fact
this classification is by no means so recent as has been commonly
supposed. Take, for instance, the communication of Mahudel to
the Academie des Inscriptions of Paris^ in 1734, in which he points
out that man existed a long time in different countries using im-
plements of stone and without any knowledge of metals ; or again,
the following passage from Bishop Lyttelton's^ " Observations on
Stone Hatchets," written in 1766 : — " There is not the least doubt
of these stone instruments having been fabricated in the earliest
times, and by barbarous people, before the use of iron or other metals
was known, and from the same cause spears and arrows were
headed with flint and other hard stones." A century earlier. Sir
William Dugdale, in his " History of Warwickshire," ^ also speaks
of stone celts as " weapons used by the Britons before the art of
making arms of brass or iron was known." We find, in fact, that
the same views were entertained, not only by various writers^ within
the last two centuries, but also by many of the early poets and
historians. There are even biblical grounds for argument in favour
of such a view of a gradual development of material civilization.
For all, including those who invest Adam with high moral attri-
butes, must confess that whatever may have been his mental con-
dition, his personal equipment in the way of tools or weapons
could have been but inefficient if no artificer was instructed in brass
and iron until the days of Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent
from Adam's outcast son, and that too at a time when a gen-
eration was reckoned at a hundred years, instead of at thirty,
as now.
possibility of abnormal variations from it will be found in a lecture to tbe
Archaeological Institute delivered by the late Mr. E. T. Stevens in 1872. [Arch.
Journ., vol. xxix., p. 393.)
' 1872, p. 11, et seq/j. • Mem., vol. xii., 163.
■' Arclueologia, vol. ii. p. 118. * p. 778.
^ I would especially refer to an excellent article by the Rev. Jolm Ilodfrson in
Vol. I. of the Arc/tceohffia ^lUliana (a.d. 1816), entitled "An inquiry into the iera
when brass was used in purposes to which iron is now applied."
B 2
4 INTRODUCTORY. [cHAP. I.
Turning, however, to Greek and Roman authors, we find
Hesiod,^ about it.c. 850, mentioning a time when bronze had not
been superseded by iron : —
ToTc 5' Tjv xaXxta fiiv rtvxta, \a\Kioi Ss ri oiKOi
XuXkui S' lipyd^ovTo, fi'sXag 5' ouk iax^ (jiStjpof;.
Lucretius ^ is even more distinct in his views as to the successive
Periods : —
" Anna antiquii laanus, iing'ues, dentesque fuerunt
Et lapides, et item sylvarum fragniiua rami —
Posterius ferri vis est serisque reperta ;
Sed prior tens erat quain f eni cognitus usus —
JEre solum ten-ie tractabant, tereque belli
jMiscebant fluctus et vulnera vasta ferebant."
So early as the days of Augustus it would appear that bronze
arms were regarded as antiquities, and that emperor seems to have
commenced the first archccological and geological collection on
record, having adorned one of his country residences " rebus
vetustate ac raritate notabilibus, qualia sunt Capreis immanium
belluarum ferarumque membra prsegrandia quae dicuntur gigan-
tum ossa et arraa heroum." ^
We learn from Pausanias* what these arms of the heroes were,
for he explains how in the heroic times all weapons were of
bronze, and quotes Homer's description of the axe of Pisander
and the arrow of Meriones. He also cites the spear of Achilles in
the temple of Pallas, at Phaselis, the point and ferrule of which
only were of bronze ; and the sword of Memnon in the temple of
jEsculapius, at Nicomedia, which was wholly of bronze. In the
same manner Plutarch^ relates that when Cimon disinterred the
remains of Theseus in Scjtos he found with them a bronze spear-
head and sword.
There is, indeed, in Homer constant mention of arms, axes, and
adzes of bronze, and though iron is also named, it is of far less
frequent occurrence. According to the Arundelian marbles,^ it
was discovered only 188 years before the Trojan war, though
of course such a date must be purely conjectural. Even Virgil
preserves the unities, and often gives bronze arms to the heroes of
the -^neid, as well as to some of the people of Italy —
" iEratteque micant peltje, mieat iereus ensis." '
> " Op. et Di.," I., 1.50. 2 <i De Rerum Nat.," v. 1282.
' Suetoniufl, Vit. Aug., cap. Ixxii. M. Salomon Reinach has disputed my views
as to the meaning of this passage, but I see no reason for changing my opinion as
to the "anna heroum" refening to "res vetustate notabiles." (See Mtim. de
VAcad. dcs Itmr., 14th Dec, 1888.)
* "Laconica," cap. 3. ^ Qp., ed. 1624, vol. i., p. 17.
« Wilkinson, " Anc. Egypt.," vol. iii, p. 241. ' ^n., 1. vii. 743.
BRONZK IN USK BEFORE IRON.
The fact that m the Greek ^ language the words ')^aXKev^ and
■)(ci\Keven^ remained in use as significant of working in iron affords
a very strong, if not an irrefragable argument as to bronze having
been the earlier metal known to that people. In the same way
the continuance in use of bronze cutting implements in certain
religious rites — as Avas also the case with some stone implements
which I shall subsequently mention — affords evidence of their
comparative antiquity. The Tuscans'" at the foundation of a city
ploughed the pomocrium with a bronze plough-share, the priests
of the Sabines cut their hair with bronze knives, and the Chief
Priest of Jupiter at Rome used shears of the same metal for
that purpose. In the same manner Medea has attributed to her
both by Sophocles and Ovid^ a bronze sickle when gathering her
magic herbs, and Elissa is represented by Virgil as using a similar
instrument for the same purj)ose. Altogether, if history is to
count for anything, there can be no doubt that in Greece and
Italy, the earliest civilized countries of Europe, the use of bronze
preceded that of iron, and therefore that there was in each case a
Bronze Age of greater or less duration preceding the Iron Age.
It seems probable that the first iron used was meteoric, and
such may have been that " self-fused " mass which formed one of
the prizes at the funeral games of Patroclus,* and was so large
that it would suffice its possessor for all purposes during five years.
Even the Greek word for iron {aicijpo^) may not improbably'- be
connected with the meteoric origin of the first known form of the
metal. Its affinity with daT/jp, often used for a shooting star or
meteor, with the Latin " sidera " and our own "star" is evident.
Professor Lauth,^ moreover, interprets the Coptic word for
iron, BENiriG, as "the stone of heaven" (Stein des Himmels)
which implies that in Egypt also its meteoric origin was
acknowledged.
Among the Eskimos^ of modern times meteoric iron has been
employed for making knives. Where an excess of nickel is
present, the meteoric iron cannot well be forged,^ but Dana seems
to be right in saying, as a general rule it is perfectly malleable.
Some, however, are of opinion that during the time that bronze
was employed for cutting instruments, iron was also in use for
^ XaXKivtiv Si Kal TO (Ji5i]pivnv iXtyov, Kai x^^i^^^Q roi'C rbv aioijpov tpya^o-
^tvox'g, Jul. Pollux, " Onomasticon," lib. vii. cap. 24.
- Macrobius, " Saturnal.," v. 19. Ehodiginus, " Antiq. Lect.," xix. c. 10.
=> Met., lib. vii. 2-28. •» Homer, 11., xxiii. 826.
* Zeitsch.f. ^l-Ajijpt. Spmche, &e. 1870, p. 114. o Qong. Preh. BrnxeUes, 1872, p. 242.
' See a valuable paper by Dr. L. Beck, Arch.f. Anth., vol. xii. (1880) p. 293.
6 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I.
other purposes.* At the first introduction of iron the two metals
were, no doubt, in use together, but we can hardly suppose them
to have been introduced simultaneously ; and if they had been, the
questions arise, whence did they come ? and how are we to account
for the one not having sooner superseded the other for cutting
pui poses?
Another argument that has been employed in favour of iron
having been the first metal used, is that bronze is a mixed metal
requiring a knowledge of the art of smelting both copper and tin,
the latter being only produced in few districts, and generally
having to be brought from far, while certain of the ores of iron
are of easy access and readily reducible,^ and meteoric iron is also
found in the metallic state and often adapted for immediate use.
The answer to this is, first, that all historical evidence is ag-ainst
the use of iron previously to copper or bronze ; and, secondly, that
even in Eastern Africa, where, above all other places, the con-
ditions for the development of the manufacture of iron seem most
favourable, we have no evidence of the knowledge of that metal
having preceded that of bronze ; but, on the contrary, we find in
Egypt, a country often brought in contact with these iron-pro-
ducing districts, little if any trace of iron before the twelfth
dynasty,^ and of its use even then the evidence is only pictorial,
whereas the copper mines at iMaghara are said to date back to the
second dynasty, some eight hundred years earlier. Agatharchides,^
moreover, relates that in his time, circa b.c. 100, there were found
buried in the ancient gold mines of Egypt the bronze chisels
(XaroiJLue^ y^ciXkcii) of the old miners, and he accounts for their
being of that metal by the fact that at the period when the mines
were originally worked the use of iron was entirely unknown.
Much of the early working in granite may have been eflfected by
flint tools. Admiral Tremlett has foimd that flakes of jasper
readily cut the granite of Brittany.^
To return, however, to Greece and Italy, there can, as I have
already said, be little question that even on historical grounds
we must accept the fact that in those countries, at all events, the
use of bronze preceded that of iron. We may therefore infer
theoretically that the same sequence held good with the neighbour-
^ See De Rougemont, "L'Age du Bronze," p. 159.
- See Percy's " Metallurgy," vol. i. p. 873.
* De Rougemont, op. cit., p. 168. See " Ancient Bronze Imps.," p. 6, .seqq.
* Photii " Bibliotheca," ed. 16o3, col. 1343.
■'' Jour. Anth. Inst., vol. xx. p. 330.
PERSISTEN'CE OF REIJGIOUS RITES. 7
ing and more barbarous nations of Western Europe. Even in the
time of Pausani.is^ (after a.d. 174) the Sarmatians are mentioned as
being unacquainted with the use of iron ; and practically we have
good corroborative archiDological evidence of such a sequence in the
extensive discoveries that have been made of antiquities belonging
to the transitional period, when the use of iron or steel was grad-
ually^ superseding that of bronze for tools or weapons, and when
the forms given to the new metal were copied from those of the
old. The most notable relics of this transitional period are those
of the ancient cemetery at Hallstatt, in the Salzkammergut,
Austria, where upwards of a thousand graves were opened by
Kamsauer, of the contents of which a detailed account has been
given by the liaron von Sacken.^ The evidence afforded by the
discoveries in the Swiss lakes is almost equally satisfactory ; but I
need not now enter further into the question of the existence and
succession of the Bronze and Iron Ages, on which I have dwelt
more fully in my book on Ancient Bronze Implements.^
I am at present concerned with the Stone Age, and if, as all
agree, there was a time when the use of iron or of bronze, or of both
together, first became known to the barbarous nations of the West
of Europe, then it is evident that before that time they were un-
acquainted with the use of those metals, and were therefore in that
stage of civilization which has been characterized as the Stone
Age.
It is not, of course, to be expected that we should discover
direct contemporary historical testimony amongst any people of
their being in this condition, for in no case do we find a knowledge
of writing developed in this stage of culture ; and yet, apart from
the material relics of this phase of progress which are found from
time to time in the soil, there is to be obtained in most civilized
countries indirect circumstantial evidence of the former use of stone
implements, even where those of metal had been employed for cen-
turies before authentic history commences. It is in religious cus-
toms and ceremonies — in rites which have been handed down from
generation to generation, and in which the minute and careful
repetition of ancient observances is indeed often the essential
religious element — that such evidence is to be sought. As has
already been observed by others, the transition from ancient to
venerable, from venerable to holy, is as natural as it is universal ;
1 Lib. i. c. 21.
^ " Das Grabfcld von Hallstatt iind dessen Alterthiimer." Vienna, 1868,
3 London, 1881.
8 INTRODUCTORY. [cHAP. I.
and in the same manner as some of tlie festivals and customs of
Christian countries are directly traceable to heathen times, so no
doubt many of the religious observances of ancient times were
relics of what was even then a dim past.
Whatever we may think of the etymology of the word as given
by Cicero/ Lactantius,^ or Lucretius,^ there is much to be said in
favour of Dr. E. B. Tylor's'* view of superstition being " the
standing: over of old habits into the midst of a new and changed
state of things — of the retention of ancient practices for ceremonial
purposes, long after they had been superseded for the common-
place uses of ordinary life."
Such a standing over of old customs we seem to discover among
most of the civilized peoples of antiquity. Turning to Egypt and
"vVestern Asia, the early home of European civilization, we hnd
from Herodotus^ and from Diodorus Siculus,^ that in the rite of
embalming, though the brain was removed by a crooked iron, yet
the body was cut open by a sharp Ethiopian stone.
In several European museums are preserved thin, flat, leaf-shaped
knives of cherty flint found in Egypt, some of which will be men-
tioned in subsequent pages. In character of work-
manship their correspondence with the flint knives or
daggers of Scandinavia is most striking. Many,
however, are provided with a tang at one end at the
back of the blade, and in this respect resemble
metallic blades intended to be mounted by means
of a tang driven into the haft.
In the British Museum is an Egyptian dagger-like
instrument of flint, from the Ilaj' collection, still
mounted in its original wooden handle, apparently
l)y a central tang, and with remains of its skin sheath.
It is shown on the scale of one-fourth in Fig. 1.
There is also a polished stone knife broken at the
handle, which bears upon it in hieroglyphical cha-
"^ racters the name of Ptahmes, an officer.
Eu....-i.t,'. 1. Curiously enough the bodies of the chiefs or
Menceys of the Guanches in Teneriffe^ were also
cut open by particular persons set apart for the office with knives
made of sharp pieces of obsidian.
1 De Nat. Deor., Lib. ii. c. 28. - Lib. iv. c. 28. 3 ^jb. i. v. 66.
' " Early History of Mankind," p. 218 ; 2nd edit. p. 221, q. r.
'■ Lib. ii. 86. « Lib. i. 91.
■J Trans. Etlm. Soe., N. S., vol. vii. 112.
USE OF STONE IN KELIGIOUS CEREMONIES. 9
The rite of civcumcision was among those practised by the
Egyptians, but whether it was performed with a stone knife, as
was the case with the Jews when they came out of Egypt, is not
certain. Among the latter people, not to lay stress on the case of
Zipporah,^ it is recorded of Joshua,'"' that in circumcising the
children of Israel he made use of knives of stone. It is true that,
in our version, the words U^yrJ: niinnn are translated sharp knives,
which by analogy with a passage in Psaltn Ixxxix. 44 (43 e.v.), is
not otherwise than correct ; but the Syriac, Arabic, Vulgate, and
Septuagint translations all give knives of stone ;^ and the latter
version, in the account of the burial of Joshua, adds that they laid
with him the stone knives (Tct? fxayalpa'; ra? Trerpiva^) with which
he circumcised the children of Israel — " and there they are imto
this day." Gesenius (v. r. i^'i) observes upon the passage, " This
is a circumstance worthy of remark ; and goes to show at least,
that knives of stone were found in the sepulchres of Palestine, as
well as in those of north-western Europe."* In recent times the
Abbe Richard, in examining what is known as the tomb of
Joshua at some distance to the east of Jericho, found a number of
sharp flakes of flint as well as flint instruments of other forms.^
Under certain circumstances modern Jews make use of a frag-
ment of flint or glass for this rite. The occurrence of flint
knives in ancient Jewish sepulchres may, however, be connected
with a far earlier occupation of Palestine than that of the Jews.
It was a constant custom with them to bury in caves, and recent
discoveries have shown that, like the caves of "Western Europe,
many of these were at a remote period occupied by those unac-
quainted with the use of metals, whose stone implements are
found mixed up with the bones of the animals which had served
them for food.^
Of analogous uses of stone we find some few traces among
classical writers. Ovid, speaking of Atys, makes the instrument
with which he maimed himself to be a sharp stone,
" Ille etiam saxo corpus laniavit acuto."
The solemn treaties among the Romans were ratified by the
1 Exod. iv. '25. - Josh. v. '2. ^ lb. xxiv. 30.
* See also Trior's "Early History of Mankind," 2Qd ed., p. 217. The entire
chapter on the Stone Aj^e, Past and Present, is well worthy of careful perusal, and
enters more fully into the whole question of the Stone Age throughout the world
than conies within my province.
5 C. li. dn Co/Iff. I„t. dcs Sc. A)iih. 1878. Paris 1880, p. 280. Comptes liendus de
VAcad. des Srienres, vol. Ixiii. August 28, 1871.
® Comptes llcndns, 1871, vol. Ixxiii. p. .540.
10 INTRODUCTORY. [cH.
AP. I,
Fetialis ' sacrificing a pig with a flint stone, which, however, does
not appear to have been sharpened. " Ubi dixit, porcuni saxo
silice percussit." The " religiosa silex"^ of Claudian seems
rather to have been a block of stone like that under the form of
which Jupiter, Cybele, Diana, and even Yenus were worshipped.
Pausanias informs us that it was the custom among the Greeks
to bestow divine honours on certain unahaped stones, and ZEY2
KA5I02 is thus represented on coins of Seleucia in Syria, while
the Paphian Yenus appears in the form of a conical stone on coins
struck in Cvprus. The Syrian god from whom Elagabalus, the
Roman emperor, took his name seems also to have been an un-
hewn stone, possibly a meteorite.
The traces, however, of the Stone Age in the religious rites of
Greece and Rome are extremely slight, and this is by no means
remarkable when we consider how long the use of bronze, and
even of iron, had been known in those parts of Europe at the time
when authentic history commences. We shall subsequently see
at how early a period different implements of stone had a mys-
terious if not a superstitious virtue assigned to them. I need
only mention as an instance that, in several beautiful gold neck-
laces ^ of Greek or Etruscan workmanship, the central pendant
consists of a delicate flint arrow-head, elegantly set in gold, and
probably worn as a charm. Nor is the religious use of stone con-
^ fined to Europe.* In Western Africa, when the god Gimawong
maizes his annual visit to his temple at Labode, his worshippers
kill the ox which they offer, with a stone.
To come nearer home, it is not to be expected that in this
country, the earliest written history of which (if we except the
slight account derived from merchants trading hither), comes
from the pen of foreign conquerors, we should have any records
of the Stone Age. In Caesar's time, the tribes with which he came
in contact were already acquainted with the use of iron, and were,
indeed, for the most part immigrants from Gaul, a country whose
inhabitants had, by war and commerce, been long brought into
close relation with the more civilized inhabitants of Italy and
Greece. I have elsewhere shown ^ that the degree of civilization
which must be conceded to those maritime tribes far exceeds what
is accorded by popular belief. The older occupants of Britain, who
1 Livy, lib. i. c. 24. - Rapt. Proserp. I. 201.
^ "Horaj FeraleH," p. 136. Arch. Juurn., vol. xi. p. 169.
* Arch, fib- Anthropol., vol. iii. 16.
* •' Coins of the Ancient Britons," pp. 42, 263, et alibi.
STONE ANTIQUITIES NOT AI-L OF THE SAME AGE. It
had retreated before the Belgic invaders, and occupied the western
and northern parts of the island, were no doubt in a more
barbarous condition ; but in no case in which they came in contact
with their Roman invaders do they seem to have been unac-
quainted with the use of iron. Even the Caledonians,^ in the
time of Severus, who tattooed themselves with the figures of
animals, and went nearly naked, carried a shield, a spear, and a
sword, and wore iron collars and girdles ; they however deemed
these latter ornamental and an evidence of wealth, in the same
way as other barbarians esteemed gold.
But though immediately before and after the Christian era the
knowledge of the use of iron may have been general throughout
Britain, and though probably an acquaintance with bronze, at all
events in the southern part of the island, may probably date many
centuries farther back, it by no means follows, as I cannot too
often repeat, that the use of stone for various purposes to which
it had previously been applied should suddenly have ceased on a
superior material, in the shape of metal, becoming known. On the
contrary, we know that the use of certain stone weapons was con-
temporary with the use of bronze daggers, and the probability is
that in the poorer and more inaccessible parts of the country, stone
continued in use for many ordinary purposes long after bronze,
and possibly even iron, was known in the richer and more civilized
districts.
Sir William Wilde informs us that in Ireland ^ *' stone hammers,
and not unfrequently stone anvils, have been employed by country
smiths and tinkers in some of the remote country districts until a
comparatively recent period." The same use of stone hammers and
anvils for forging iron prevails among the Kaffirs ^ of the present
day. In Iceland * also, perforated stone hammers are still in use
for pounding dried fish, driving in stakes, for forging and other
purposes ; " knockin'-stones " ^ for making pot-barley, have till
recently been in use in Scotland, if not still emploj^cd ; and I
have seen fruit-hawkers in the streets of London cracking Brazil
nuts between two stones.
With some exceptions it is, therefore, nearly impossible to say
whether an ancient object made of stone can be assigned with
^ Herodian, lib. iii. c. 14. - "Cat. of Stone Ant. in R. I. A. Mus.," p. 81.
3 Wood's "Nat. Hist, of Man," i. p. 97.
* Klemm, " Allgemeine Culturwissenschaft," part i. p. 86. Froc. Soc. Ant.
Scot., vol. X. 360.
5 Mitchell' .s " Past in the Present," p. 10, 44. Prtc. Soc. Ant. Sc$t., vol. xii. p.
385, XX. p. 146, xxiii. p. 16.
12 INTRODrCTORY. [CHAP. I.
absolute certainty to the Stone Period or no. Much will depend
upon the circumstances of the discovery, and in some instances
the form may be a guide.
The remarks I have just made apply most particularly to the
weapons, tools, and implements belonging to the period more
immediately antecedent to the Bronze Age, and extending back-
wards in time through an unknown number of centuries. For
besides the objects belonging to what was originally known by
the Danish antiquaries as the Stone Period, which are usually
foimd upon or near the surface of the soil, in encampments, on
the site of ancient habitations, and in tumuli, there are others
which occur in caverns beneath thick layers of stalagmite, and in
ancient alluvia, in both cases usually associated with the remains
of animals either locally or entirely extinct. In no case do we
iind any trace of metallic tools or weapons in true association with
the stone implements of the old ossiferous caverns, or with those
of the beds of gravel, sand, and clay deposited by the ancient
rivers ; and, unlike the implements found upon the surface and in
graves, which in many instances are ground or polished, those
from the caves, and from what are termed by geologists the Qua-
ternary gravels, are, so far as at present known, invariably' chipped
only, and not ground, besides as a rule differing in form.
This difference ^ in the character of the implements of the two
periods, and the vast interval of time between the two, I pointed
out in 1859, at the time when the discoveries of M. Boucher de
Perthes, in the Valley of the Somme, first attracted the attention of
Fnglish geologists and antiquaries. Since then, the necessity of
subdividing what had until then been regarded as the Stone
Age into two distinct stages, an earlier and a later, has been
universally recognized ; and Sir John Lubbock ^ has proposed
to call them the Palaeolithic and the IN^eolithic Periods respec-
tively, terms which have met with almost general acceptance, and
of which I shall avail myself in the course of this work. In
speaking of the polished and other implements belonging to the
time when the general surface of the country had already received
its present configuration, I may , however, also occasionally make use
of the synonymous terra Surface Period for the Neolithic, and
shall also find it convenient to treat of the Palaeolithic Period
under two subdivisions — those of the River-gravels and of the
' Phil. Tram., ISGO, p. 311. ^irchaohgia, vol. xxxviii. p. 293.
* " Prehistoric Times," (186.')), p. 60.
ORDER OF TREATMENT. 13^
Caves, the fauna and implements of which are not in all cases
identical.
In passing the different kinds of implements, weapons, and
ornaments formed of stone under review, I propose to commence
with an examination of the antiquities of the Neolithic Period,
then to proceed to the stone implements of human manufacture
discovered imbedded with ancient mammalian remains in Caverns,
and to conclude with an account of the discoveries of flint
implements in the Drift or River-gravels in various parts of
England. But before describing their forms and characters, it
will be well to consider the method of manufacture by which th&
various forms were produced.
14
CHAPTER 11.
ON THE MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS IN PREHISTORIC
TIMES.
In seeking to ascertain the method by which the stone imple-
ments and weapons of antiquity were fabricated, we cannot, in all
probability, follow a better guide than that which is afforded us
by the manner in which instruments of similar character are
produced at the present day. As in accounting for the vast
geological changes which we find to have taken place in the crust
of the earth, the safest method of argument is by referring to
ascertained physical laws, and to the existing operations of nature,
so, in order to elucidate the manufacture of stone implements by
the ancient inhabitants of this and other countries, we may refer
to the methods employed by existing savages in what we must
judge to be a somewhat similar state of culture, and to the recog-
nized characteristics of the materials employed. We may even
go further, and call in aid the experience of some of our own
countrymen, who still work upon similar materials, although for
the purpose of producing different objects from those which were
in use in ancient times.
So far as relates to the method of production of implements
formed of silicious materials, there can be no doubt that the
manufacture of gun-flints, which, notwithstanding the introduction
of percussion-caps, is still carried on to some extent both in this
and in neighbouring countries, is that best calculated to afford
instruction. The principal place in England where the gun-flint
manufacture is now carried on, is Brandon, on the borders of
Norfolk and Suff'ulk, where I have witnessed the j)rocess. I have
also seen the manufacture at Icklingham, in Suffolk, where thirty
years ago, gun-flint factories existed, which have now I believe
^ This chapter was for the most part written in 1868, and communicated to the
International Conj,'-res.s of Prehistoric /\arh;eolosry held at Norwich in that year.
See Trans. Preh. Co)tf/., 1868, p. 191, where a short abstract is given.
PYRITES AND FLINT USED FOR STRIKING FIRE. 15
been closed. They were also formerly manufactured in small
numbers at Catton, near Norwich. At Brandon, in 1868, I was
informed that upwards of twenty workmen were employed, who
were capable of producinj^ among them from 200,000 to 250,000
gun-flints per week. These were destined almost entirely for
exportation, principally to Africa. On July 18th, 1890, the
Daily Neics^ gave the number of workmen at Brandon as thirty-
five.
Some other sites of the gun-flint manufacture in former times
are mentioned by Mr. Skertchly, as for instance. Clarendon near
Salisbury ; Gray's Thurrock, Essex ; Beer Head, Devon ; and
Glasgow ; besides several places in Norfolk and Suffolk.
In France the manufacture of gun-flints is still carried on in
the Department of Loir et Cher,^ and various other localities are
recorded by Mr. Skertchly.^
In proof of the antiquity of the use of flint as a means of pro-
ducing fire, I need hardly quote the ingenious derivation of the
word Silex as given by Vincent of Beauvais : — " Silex est lapis
durus, sic dictus eo quod ex eo ignis exiliat."^ But before iron
was known as a metal, it would appear that flint was in use as a
fire-producing agent in combination with blocks of iron pyrites
(sulphide of iron) instead of steel. Nodules of this substance
have beea found in both French and Belg-ian bone-caves belong-
ing to an extremely remote period ; while, as belonging to Neolithic
times, to say nothing of discoveries in this country, which will
subsequently be mentioned, part of a nodule of pyrites may be
cited which was found in the Lake settlement of Robenhausen, and
had apparently been thus used.^ In our own days, this method
of obtaining fire has been observed among savages in Tierra
del Fuego, and among the Eskimos of Smith's Sound.*^ The
1 N. and Q. 7th S., vol. x. p. 172. 2 jYat. 3me S., vol. ii. (I880) p. 61.
3 Op. cit., p. ;iS. * Spec. Naturae, lib. ix. sect. 13.
* Morlot in liev. Arch., vol. v. (18G2), p. 216. Geologist, vol. v. p. 192.
Engelhardt found several similar pieces of pyrites at Thorsbjerg, with iron and
other antiquities of about the fourth century of our era. He says that steels for
striking fire are not at present known as belonging to the Early Iron Age of Den-
mark. This late use of pyrites affords strong e^ddence of iron and steel having
been unknown to the makers of flint implements, for had they made use of iron
hammers, the superior fire-giving properties of flint and iron would at once have
been evident, and pyrites would probably soon have been superseded, at all events
in countries where flint abounded. — Engelhardt, "Thorsbjerg Mosefund," p. 60 ;
p. 65 in the English edit. The quartz pebbles with grooves in them which
belong to the Iron Age seem, however, to have been used for producing fire by
means of a pointed steel.
^ Weddell, " Voyage towards the South Pole," p. 167; Tvlor, "Early History
of Mankind," 2nd edit., p. 249. Wood's " Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 522.
16 MANUFACl'URE OF STONE IMPLEMENIS. [CHAP. 11.
Fueo-ian tinder, like the modern German and ancient Roman,
consists of dried fungus, which when lighted is wrapped in a
ball of dried grass and whirled round, the head till it bursts into
flames. Achates, as will shortly be seen, is described by Virgil
as following the same method.
The name of pyrites (from Trvp) is itself suflacient evidence of
the purpose to which this mineral was applied in early times, and
the same stone was used as the fire-giving agent in the guns with
the form of lock known as the wheel-lock. Pliny ^ speaks of a
certain sort of pyrites, "pluriniuni habens ignis, quos vivos appel-
lamus, et ponderosissimi sunt." These, as his translator, Holland,
says, " bee most necessary for the espialls belonging unto a campe,
for if they strike them either with an yron spike or another stone
they will cast forth sparks of fire, which lighting upon matches
dipt in brimstone (su/phiiratis) drie puff's (fungis) or leaves, will
cause them to catch fire sooner than u man can say the word."
Pliny also'"^ informs us that it was Pyrodes, the son of Cilix,
who first devised the way to strike fire out of flint — a myth which
seems to point to the use of silex and pyrites rather than of steel.
The Jews on their return to Jerusalem, under Judas Maccaboeus,
"made another altar and striking stones they took fire out of
them and offered a sacrifice."^ How soon pyrites was, to a great
extent, superseded by steel or iron, there seems to be no good
evidence to prove ; it is probable, however, that the use of flint
and steel was well known to the Romans of the Augustan age,
and that Virgil'* pictured the Trojan voyager as using steel,
when —
" silici scintillam excudit Achates,
Suscepitque ignem foliis atque arida circuin
Nutrimenta dedit, rapuitqtie in fomite flaoiniam."
And again, where —
" quperit pars semina Hammas
Abstrusa in venis silicis." "'
In Claudian'' we find the distinct mention of flint and steel —
" Flagrat anhela silex et amicam saucia sentit
Materiem, placidosque clialybs agnoscit amores."
AtTJnter Uhldingen' a Swiss lake station where Roman pottery
was present, was found what appears to be a steel for striking a
' Hist. Nat., lib. xxxvi. cap. 19. - Lib. vii. cap. 5G.
3 II. Mace. X. 3. * ^neid, i. v. 174.
* yEneid, vi. v. 6. See also (Georg. I. 135) — "Ut silicis venis abstrusum
excuderet ignem." Ou this passage Fosbroke remarks (Enc. Ant. i. 307), " A stone
with a vein was chosen as now."
« Eidyllia, v. 42. ' Keller, "Lake-dwellings," p. 119.
STRIKE-A-LIGHT FLINTS. 17
Hg-ht. However the case may have been as to the means of pro-
curing fire, it vi^as not until some centuries after the invention of
gunpowder that flints were applied to the purpose of discharging
fire-arms. Beckmann/ in his "History of Inventions," mentions
that it w;is not until the year 1687 that the soldiers of Brunswick
obtained guns with flint-locks, instead of match-locks, though, no
doubt, the use of the wheel-lock vrith pyrites bad in some other
places been superseded before that time.
I am not aware of there beiug any record of flints, such as were
in use for tinder-boxes,^ having been in ancient times an article of
commerce : this, however, must have been the case, as there are
so many districts in which flint does not naturally occui', and into
which, therefore, it would have by some means to be introduced.
Even at the present day, when so many chemical matches are in
use, flints are still to be purchased at the shops in country places
in the United Kingdom ; and artificially prepared flints continue
to be common articles of sale both in France and Germany, and
are in constant use, in conjunction with German tinder, or pre-
pared cotton, by tobacco-smokers. At Brandon^ a certain number
of " strike-a-light " flints are still manufactured for exportation,
principally to the East and to Brazil — they are usually circular
discs, about two inches in diameter. These flints are wrought
into shape in precisely the same manner as gun-flints, and it
seems possible that the trade of chipping flint into forms adapted
to be used with steel for striking a light may be of considerable
antiquity, and that the manufacture of gun-flints ought con-
sequently to be regarded as only a modification and extension
of a pre-existing art, closely allied with the facing and squaring of
flints for architectural purposes, which reached great perfection at
an early period. However this may be, it would seem that when
gun-flints were an indispensable munition of war, a great mystery
was made as to the manner in which they were prepared. Beck-
mann'* says that, considering the great use made of them, it will
hardly be believed how much trouble he had to obtain information
on the subject. It would be ludicrous to repeat the various
answers he obtained to his inquiries. Many thought that the
stones were cut down by grinding them ; some conceived that
» Vol. ii. p. 536. Bohn's edit., 1846.
* An interesting paper on tinder-boxes will be found in The Reliquary, vii. p. 65.
See also Mitchell's " Past in the Present," p. 100, and Arch. Camb., 5th 8., vol. vii.
p. 294.
» Stevens'. " Flint Chips," p. 5<S8. * Op. cit., vol. ii., p. 537.
C
18 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. 11.
they were formed by means of red-hot pincers, and many asserted
that they were made in mills. The best account of the manufac-
ture with which he was acquainted, was that collected by his
brother, and published in the Ilauoreridu Magazine for the year
1772. At a later date the well-known mineralogist Dolomieu ^
gave an account of the process in the Mimoircs de I'lnstitut
National dets Sciences, and M. Hacquet," of Leopol, in Galicia,
published a pamphlet on the same subject. The accounts given
by both these authors correspond most closely with each other, and
also with the practice of the present day, though the French pro-
cess differs in some respects from the English.^ This has been
well described by Dr. Lottin.'* The flints best adapted for the
purpose of the manufacture are those from the chalk. They must,
however, be of fair size, free from flaws and included organisms,
and very homogeneous in structure. They are usually procured
by sinking small shafts into the ground until a band of flints of
the right quality is reached, along which low horizontal galleries,
or " burrows," as they are called, are worked. For success in the
manufacture a great deal is said to depend upon the condition of
the flint as regards the moisture it contains, those which have
been too long exposed upon the surface becoming intractable, and
there being also a diflSculty in working those that are too moist.
A few blows with the hammer enable a practised flint-knapper to
judge whether the material on which he is at work is in the
proper condition or no. Some of the Brandon workmen, however,
maintain that though a flint which has been some time exposed to
the air is harder than one recently dug, yet that it works equally
well, and they say further, that the object in keeping the flints
moist is to preserve the black colour from fading, black gun-flints
being most saleable.
A detailed account, by Mr. Skertchly, of the manufacture of
gun-flints, with an essay on the connection between Neolithic
art and the gun-flint trade, forms an expensive memoir of the
geological survey, published in 1879 ; but it seems well to retain
the following short account of the process.
The tools required are few and simple : —
1. A flat-faced blocking, or quartering hammer, from one to
' " Classe Mathematique et Physique," t. 3, an. ix. An abstract of this account
is given in Kees' Encyclop., s. v. Gun-flint.
2 ' Physische und technische Boschreibung der Flintensteine," &c., von Hacquet.
Wien, 1792, 8vo. A nearly similar account is given in Winckell's " Handbuch fiir
.liiger," &c., 1822, Theil iii. p. 54G.
3 Skertchly, op. cit., p. 78. * Mat., 3me, s. ii., 1885, p. 61.
THE GUN-FLINT MANUFACTURE. 19
two pounds in weight, made either of iron or of iron faced with
steel.
2. A well-hardened steel flaking hammer, bluntly pointed at
each end, and weighing about a pound, or more ; or in its place
a light oval hammer, known as an " English " hammer, the
pointed flaking hammer having been introduced from France.
3. A square-edged trimming or knapping hammer, which may
either be in the form of a disc, or oblong and flat at the end,
made of steel not hardened. In England, this hammer is usually
made from a portion of an old flat file perforated to receive the
helve, and drawn out at each end into a thin blade, about J^ of
an inch in thickness ; the total length being about 7 or 8 inches.
4. A chisel-shaped *' stake " or small anvil set vertically in a
block of wood, which at the same time forms a bench for the
workman. In England, the upper surface of this stake is about
5 inch thick, and inclined at a slight angle to the bench.
The method of manufacture ^ is as follows : — A block of flint
is broken by means of the quartering hammer in such a manner
as to detach masses, the newly-fractured surfaces of which are as
nearly as possible plane and even. One of these blocks is then
held in the left hand, so that the edge rests on a leathern pad tied
on the thigh of the seated workman, the surface to be struck
inclining at an angle of about 45°. A splinter is then detached
from the margin by means of the flaking hammer. If the flint
is of good quality, this splinter may be three or four inches in
length, the line of fracture being approximately parallel to the
exterior of the flint. There is, of course, the usual bulb of
percussion, or rounded protuberance at the end,^ where the blow
is given, and a corresponding depression is left in the mass of
flint. Another splinter is next detached, by a blow given at a
distance of about an inch on one side of the spot where the first
blow fell, and then others at similar distances, until some portion
of the block assumes a more or less regular polygonal outline-
As the splinters which are first detached usually show a portion
of the natural crust of the flint upon them, they are commonly
^ An account of the process of making gun-flints, written by the late Mr. James
Wyatt, F.G-.S., has been published in Stevens' " Flint Chips," p. 578. A set of
gTin-flint makers' tools is in the ftlusee de St. Germnin, and the process of manu-
facture has been described by IM. G. de I\Iortillet (" Promenades," p. 69). An
account of a visit to Brandon is given by Mr. E. Lovelt in Pi or. Soc. Ant. Scot.,
xxi p. 206, and an article on " Flint-Knapping," by Mr. H. F. Wilson, is in the
Mat/dzine of Art, 1887, p. 404.
"^ See pas tea p. 273.
c2
20
MANUFACTURli OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. 11.
thrown away as useless. The second and succeeding rows of flakes
are those adapted for gun-flints. To obtain these, the blows of
the flaking hammer are administered midway between two of the
projecting angles of the polygon, and almost immediately behind
the spots where the blows dislodging the previous row of flakes or
splinters were administered, though a little to one side. They
fall at such a distance from the outer surface as is necessary for
the thickness of a gun- flint. By this means a succession of flakes
is produced, the section of which is that of an obtuse triangle with
the apex removed, inasmuch as for gun- flints, flakes are required
with the face and back parallel, and not with a projecting ridge
running along the back.
Fig. 2, representing a block from which a number of flakes
adapted for gun-flints have been detached and subsequently
Fig. 2. — Flint-coie with flakes repla
returned to their original positions around the central core or
nucleus, will give a good idea of the manner in which flake after
flake is struck ofi". Mr. Spurrell and Mr. Worth ington Smith
have succeeded in building up flakes of Palaeolithic date into the
original blocks from which they were struck. The former has
also replaced ancient Egyptian flakes,^ the one upon the other.
Mr. F. Archer has likewise restored a block of flint from Neolithic
flakes'^ found near Dundrum Bay, county Down.
To complete the manufacture of gun- flints, each flake is taken
in the left hand, and cut off into lengths of the width required, by
means of the knapping hammer and the stake fixed in the bench.
The flake is placed over the stake at the spot where it is to be cut,
> Petrie, "Medum," 1892, PL xxix., p. 18, 34. « Nature, vol. xxv. p. 8.
GUN-FLINT PRODUCTION.
21
and a skilful ^vorkman cuts the flake in two at a single stroke.
The sections of flakes thus produced have a cutting edge at each
end ; but the finished gun-flint is formed by chipping off the
edge at the butt-end and slightly rounding it by means of the
fixed chisel and knapping hammer, the blows from which are
made to fall just within the chisel, so that the two together cut
much in the same manner as a pair of shears. Considerable skill
is required in the manufacture, more especially in the production
of the flakes ; but Hacquet^ says that a fortnight's practice is
sufficient to enable an ordinary workman to fashion from five
hundred to eight hundred gun-flints in a day. According to
him, an experienced workman will produce from a thousand to
fifteen hundred per diem. Dolomieu estimates three days as the
time required by a " caiUoidenr^^ to produce a thousand gun-flints;
but as the highest price quoted for French gun-flints by Hacquet
is only six francs the thousand, it seems probable that his calcula-
tion as to the time required for their manufacture is not far wrong.
Some of the Brandon flint-knappers are, however, said to be
capable of producing sixteen thousand to eighteen thousand gun-
flints in a week. Taking the lowest estimate, it appears that a
practised hand is capable of making at least three hundred flint
implements of a given definite form, and
of some degree of finish, in the course of
a single day. If our primitive forefathers
could produce their worked flints with
equal ease, the wonder is, not that so
many of them are found, but that they
do not occur in far greater numbers.
An elegant form of gun-flint, showing
great skill in surface flaking, is still pro-
duced in Albania. A specimen, purchased
at Avlona^ by my son, is shown in
Fig. 2a. Some gun-flints and strike-a-
lights are formed of chalcedony or agate,
and cut and polished.
The ancient flint-workers had not,
however, the advantages of steel and
iron tools and other modern appliances at
their command ; and, at first sight, it would appear that the pro-
Fig. 2a.— Oiin-flint, Avlona,
Albania. i
1 P. 52.
* "Bosnia and Herzegovina," 2nd ed. (1877), p. 153, B.A. Rep. 1885, p. 1216.
22 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
duction of flakes of flint, without havinf^ a pointed metallic hammer
for the purpose, was a matter of great difliculty, I have, however^
made some experiments upon the subject, and have also employed a
Suffolk flint- knapper to do so, and I find that blows from a rounded
pebble, judiciously administered, are capable of producing well-
formed flakes, such as, in shape, cannot be distinguished from
those made with a metallic hammer. The main difficulties consist
— first, in making the blow fall exactly in the proper place ; and,
secondly, in so proportioning its intensity that it shall simply
dislodge a flake, and not shatter it. The pebble employed as a
hammer need not be attached to a shaft, but can be used, without
any preparation, in the hand. Professor Nilsson tried the same
method long ago, and has left on record an interesting account of
his experience.^
In the neighbourhood of the Pfahl-bauten of Moosseedorf, in
Switzerland, have been found numerous spots where flint has been
worked up into implements, and vast numbers of flakes and
splinters left as refuse. Dr. Keller^ says, that "the tools used
for making these flint implements do not seem to have been of
the same material, but of gabbro, a bluish-green and very hard
and tough kind of stone. Several of these implements have been
met with ; their form is very simple, and varies between a cube
and an oval. The oval specimens were ground down in one or
two places, and the most pointed part was used for hammering."
There were nearly similar workshops at Wauwyl ^ and Bodmann,
not to mention places where flint was dug for the purposes of
manufacture.
Closely analogous sites of ancient flint-workshops have been
discovered both in France "* and Germany ^ as well as in Great
Britain; such, for instance, as that at the confluence^ of the
Leochel and the Don, in Aberdeenshire, where, moreover, flint is
not native in the neighbourhood ; but proper attention has not, in
all cases, been paid to the hammer- stones, which, in all probability,
occur with the chippings of flint.
The blow from the hammer could not, of course, be always
administered at the right spot ; and I have noticed on some
ancient flakes, a groove at the butt- end, the bottom of which is
crushed, as if by blows from a round pebble, which, from having
1 "Stone Age," p. 6. 2 " Lake-dwellinge," p. 36.
3 /. c. pp. 86 and 97. •* Comptes liendus, 1867, vol. Ixv. p. 640.
^ Troyon, "Mod. de I'Antiquite," p. 52.
* Pruc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 385.
MODES OF PRODUCING FLAKES. 23
fallen too near the edge of tbe block, had at first merely bruised
the flint, instead of detaching the flake.
There are, moreover, a certain number of small cores, or nuclei,
both English and foreign, from which such minute and regular
flakes have been detached, that it is difficult to believe th^it a
mere stone hammer could have been directed with sufl&cient skill
and precision to produce such extreme regularity of form. I may
cite as instances some of the small nuclei which are found on the
Yorkshire wolds, and some of those from the banks of the
Mahanuddy,^ in India, which, but for the slight dissimilarity in
the material (the latter being usually chalcedony and the former
flint), could hardly be distinguished from each other. Possibly
in striking off the flakes some form of punch was used which
was struck with the hammer as subsequently described. There are
also some large nuclei, such as those from the neighbourhood of
the Indus,^ in Upper Scinde, and one which I possess from
Ghlin, in l^elgium, which are suggestive of the same difl&culty.
In form they much resemble the obsidian cores of Mexico, and it
seems not improbable that they are the result of some similar
process of making flakes or knives to that which was in use
among the Aztecs.
Torquemada^ thus describes the process he found in use : —
" One of these Indian workmen sits down upon the ground, and
takes a piece of this black stone " (obsidian) " about eight inches
long or rather more, and as thick as one's leg or rather less, and
cylindrical ; they have a stick as large as the shaft of a lance^
and three cubits or rather more in length ; and at the end of it
they fasten firmly another piece of wood, eight inches long, to give
more weight to this part ; then, pressing their naked feet together,
they hold the stone as with a pair of pincers or the vice of a
carpenter's bench. They take the stick (which is cut off smooth
at the end) with both bauds, and set it well home against the edge
of the front of the stone [y ponenio avesar con el canto de la frente
de la piedra), which also is cut smooth in that part ; and then they
press it against their breast, and with the force of the pressure
there flies off a knife, with its point, and edge on each side, as
neatly as if one were to make them of a turnip with a sharp knife,
^ Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 38.
2 Geol. May., vol. iii. (1866) p. 433.
3 " Monarquia Indiana," lib. xvii. cap. 1, Seville, 1615, translated by E. B.
Tylor, "Auahuac,"' p. 331. See a correction of Mr." Ty lor' s translation in the
Cumptes Ittnclxs, vol. Ixvii. p. 1296. |
24
MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
or of iron in the fire." Hernandez^ gives a similar account of the
process, but compares the wooden instrument used to a cross-bow,
80 that it would appear to have had a crutch-shaped end to rest
against the breast. So skilful were the ^ilexicans in the manu-
facture of obsidian knives, that, according- to Clavigero, a single
workman could produce a hundred per liour.
The short piece of heavy wood was probably cut from some of
the very hard trees of tropical growth. I much doubt whether
any of our indigenous trees produce wood sufficiyntly hard to be
used for splintering obsidian ; and flint is. I believe,' tougher and
still more difficult of fvacLure. We have, however, in this
Mexican case, an instance of the manufacture of flakes by sudden
pressure, and of the employment of a flaking tool, which could be
carefully adjusted into position before the pressure or blow was
given to produce the flake.
Mr. G. E. Sellers, in the Smithsonian Report for 1 885,^ has
published some interesting " observations on stone chipping," and
from the reporb of Mr. Catlin, who sojourned long among the
Indians of North America, gives sketches of crutch-like flaking
tools tipped with walrus tooth or bone which he had seen in use.
He also describes a method of making flint flakes by the pressure
of a lever. The whole memoir is worthy of study.
The subject of the manufacture of stone implements is also
discussed by^ Sir Daniel Wilson in an essay on the Trade and
Commerce of the Stone Age.
There appears to have been another process in use in Central
America, for Mr. Tylor^ heard on good authority that somewhere
in Peru the Indians still have a way of working obsidian by
laying a bone wedge on the surface of a piece and tapping it till
the stone cracks. Catlin^ also describes the method of making
flint arrow-heads among the Apaches in Mexico as being of the
same character. After breaking a boulder of flint by me'ans of a
hammer formed of a rounded pebble of horn-stone set in a handle
made of a twisted withe, flakes are struck off, and these are
wrought into shape while held on the palm of the left hand, by
means of a punch made of the tooth of the sperm whale, held in
the right hand, and struck with a hard wooden mallet by an
assistant. Both holder and striker sing, and the strokes of the
' Tylor's " Anahuac," p. 332. * P. 871
I ^7"'- ^"^- '^'''^- ^''««'^«' 1889, p. 59. i Tylor'8 "Anahuac," p. 99
• , Last Kambles amongst the Indians," 1868, p. 188. The whole passage is re-
printed in "Flint Chips," p. 82.
MODES OF PRODUCING FLAKES. 25
mallet arc given in time with the music, the blow being sharp and
rebounding, in which the Indians say is the great medicine or
principal knack of the operation.
The Cloud Eiver^ Indians at the present day use a punch made
of deer's- horn for striking off obsidian flakes from which to make
arrow-heads.
Such a process as this may well have been adopted in this
country in the manufacture of flint flakes ; either bone or stag's-
horn sets or punches, or else small and hard pebbles, may have
been applied at the proper spots upon the surface of the flints, and
then been struck by a stone or wooden mallet I have tried some
experiments with such stone sets, and have succeeded in producing
flakes in this manner, having been first led to suppose that some
such system was in use by discovering, in the year 1864, some
small quartz pebbles battered at the ends, and associated with
flint flakes and cores in an ancient encampment at Little Solsbury
Hill, near Bath, of which I have already given an account else-
where." I am, however, inclined to think that the use of such
a punch or set was in any case the exception rather than the rule ;
for with practice, and by making the blows only from the elbow
kept fixed against the body, and not with the whole arm, it is
extraordinary what precision of blow may be attained with merely
a pebble hold in the hand as a hammer.
The flakes of chert from which the Eskimos manufacture their
arrow-heads are produced, according to Sir Edward Belcher,^ who
saw the process, by slight taps with a hammer formed of a very
stubborn kind of jade or nephrite. He has kindly shown me one
of these hammers, which is oval in section, about 3 inches long
and 2 inches broad, and secured by a cord of sinew to a bone
handle, against which it abuts. The ends are nearly flat. This
hammer is now in the Christy Collection at the British Museum
and is figured by Ilatzel.'' Another from Alaska,^ and several
siich hammers made of basalt from the Queen Charlotte Islands,^
have also been figured. It seems doubtful whether the proper use
of these hammers was not for crushing bones.^
Among the natives of North Australia a totally different method
' B. B. Redding in Am. Xataralist, Nov., 1880. Nature, vol. xxi. p. 613.
"* ^Transactions of the Ethnological Society, N. S., vol. iv. p. 242.
3 Op. cit., N. S., vol. i. p. 138.
* " Volkerkundo," vol. ii. .1888), p. 748. •' Zeitsch. f. EthnoL, vol. ivi. p. 222.
« Rep. of U.>S. Nat. Mus., 1888, Niblack, PI. xxii.
' Hep. of Bureau of Ethn., 1887-8, p. 95.
26 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. lU
appears to have been adopted, the flakes being struck off the stone
which is used as a hammer, and not off the block which is struck.
In the exploring expedition, under Mr. A. G. Gregory, in 1855-6,
the party came on an open space between the cliffs along one of
the tributary streams of the Victoria Eiver, where the ground was
thickly strewn with fragments of various stones and imperfectly-
formed weapons. The method of formation of the weapons, accord-
ing to Mr. Baines,^ was this," The native having chosen a pebble of
agate, flint, or other suitable stone, perhaps as large as an ostrich
egg, sits down before a larger block, on which he strik( s it so as to
detach from the end a piece, leaving a flattened base for his subse-
quent operations. Then, holding the pebble with its base down-
wards, he again strikes so as to split off a piece as thin and broad as
possible, tapering upward in an oval or leaf-like form, and sharp
and thin at the edges. His next object is to strike off another
piece nearly similar, so close as to leave a projecting angle on the
stone, as sharp, straight, and perpendicular as possible. Then,
again taking the pebble carefully in his hand, he aims the decisive
blow, which, if he is successful, splits off another piece with the
angle running straight up its centre as a midrib, and the two
edges sharp, clear, and equal, spreading slightly from the base, and
again narrowing till they meet the midrib in a keen and taper
point. If he has done this well, he possesses a perfect weapon,
but at least three chips must have been formed in making it, and it
seemed highly probable, from the number of imperfect heads that
lay about, that the failures far outnumbered the successful results.
In the making of tomahawks or axes, in which a darker green
stone is generally used, great numbers of failures must ensue ; and
in these another operation seemed necesisaiy, for we saw upon the
rocks several places were they had been ground, with a great ex-
penditure of labour, to a smooth round edge."
In the manufacture of flint flakes, whether they were to serve as
knives or lance-heads without any more preparation, or whether
they were to be subjected to further manipulation, so as eventually
to become arrow-heads, scrapers, or any other of the more flnished
implements, the form of the nucleus from which they were struck
was usually a matter of no great importance, the chips or flakes
being the object of the operator and not the resulting core, which
was in most cases thrown away as worthless. But where very long
' Anihrop. Rev., vol. iv. p. civ. Mr. Baine»? has hIso conimunicated an iuterest-
ing letter od this subject, with illustrations, to Mackie's "Geol. Reperloiy," vol. i.
p. 258.
PRESSIGNY NUCLEI. 27
flakes were desired, it became a matter of importance to produce
nuclei of a particular form, specially adapted for the purpose. I
have never met with any such nuclei in England, but the well-
known livres-de-beurre chiefly found in the neighbourhood of Pres-
signy-le-grand (Indre et Loire), France, are typical instances of
the kind. I have precisely similar specimens, though on a rather
smaller scale, and of a somewhat different kind of flint, from
Spiennes, near Mons, in Belgium ; and a few nuclei of the same
form have also been found in Denmark. The occurrence of flints
wrought into the same shape, at places so far apart, might at first
appear to countenance the view of this peculiar form being that
of an implement intended for some special purpose, and not merely
a refuse block. This, however, is not the case. I have treated
of this question elsewhere,^ but it will be well here to repeat a
portion, at least, of what I have before Avritten on this point.
These large nuclei or Uvres-de-heurre are blocks of flint, usuallv
10 or 12 inches long and 3 to 4 inches wide in the broadest part,
the thickness being in most cases less than the width. In general
outline they may be described as boat-shaped, being square at one
end and brought to a point — more or less finished — at the other.
The outline has been given by striking a succession of flakes from
the sides of a mass of flint, until the boat-like contour has been
obtained, with the sides slightly converging towards the keel, and
then the upper surface corresponding to the deck of the boat has
been chipped into form by a succession of blows administered at
right angles to the first, and in such a manner that the deck, as
originally formed, was convex instead of flat. After this convex
surface was formed, one, two, or even more long flakes were dis-
lodged along its whole length, or nearly so, by blows administered
at the part represented by the stern of the boat, thus leaving one
or more channels along what corresponds to the deck. In rare
instances, these long flakes have not been removed, in others of
more frequent occurrence, one of the flakes has broken off short
before attaining its full length.
Strange as this boat-shaped form may at the outset appear, yet
on a little consideration it will be seen that the chipping into such
a form is in fact one of the necessities of the case for the production
of long blades of flint. Where flakes only 8 or 4 inches long are
required, the operator may readily, with his hammer, strike off
from the outside of his block of flint a succession of chips, so as to
' Archcpologia, vol. xl. p. 381. See also Prof. Steeii!=trup and Sir John Lubbock
im tli3 Trans. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. v. p. 221.
^8 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. fcHAP. II.
give it a polygonal outline, tlie projections of which will serve for
the central ridges or back-bones of the first series of regular flakes
that he strikes off. The removal of this first series of flakes
leaves a number of projecting ridges, which serve as guides for
the formation of a second series of flakes, and so on until the block
is used up.
But where a flake 10 or 12 inches in length is required, a
different process becomes necessary. For it is nearly impossible
with a rough mass of flint, to produce by single blows plane sur-
faces 10 or I'i inches in length, and arranged at such an angle as
to produce a straight ridge, such as would serve to form the back-
bone, as it were, of a long flake ; and without such a back-bone,
the production of a long flake is impossible. It is indeed this
ridge (which need not, of course, be angular, but may be more or
less rounded or polygonal) that regulates the course of the fissure
by which the flake is dislodged from the matrix or parent flint ;
there being a slight degree of elasticity in the stone, which enables
a fissure once properly commenced in a homogeneous flint to pro-
ceed at right angles to the line of least resistance in the dislodged
flake, while at the same time exerting a nearly uniform strain, so
that the inner surface of the flake becomes nearly parallel to the
outer ridge. It was to obtain this outer ridge that the Pressigny
cores were chipped into the form in which we find them ; and it
appears as if the workmen who fashioned them adopted the readiest
means of obtaining the desired result of producing along the block
of flint a central ridge whenever it became necessary, until the
block was so much reduced in size as to be no longer serviceable.
For, the process of chipping the block into the boat-like form
could be repeated from time to time, until it became too small
for further use. The same process of cross-chipping was practised
in Scandinavia in early times, and the obsidian cores from the
Greek island of Melos, Crete, and other ancient Greek sites prove
that it was also known there. The blocks are found in various
stages, rarely with the central ridge still left on, as Fig. 3, and
more commonly with one or more long flakes removed from them,
like Figs. 4 and 5. The sections of each block are shown beneath
them. Two of the flakes are represented in Figs. 6 and 7. All
the figures are on the scale of one-half linear measure.
The causes why the nuclei were rejected as useless are still sus-
ceptible of being traced. In some cases they had become so thin
that they would not bear re-shaping ; in others a want of unifor-
PRESSIGNY NUCLEI.
2^
mity in the texture of tlie flint,
probably caused by some in-
cluded organism, had made its
appearance, and caused the
flakes to break off short of their
proper length, or had even
made it useless to attempt to
strike them off. In some rare
instances, when the striking off
long flakes had proved unsuc-
cessful on the one face, the
attempt has been made to pro-
cure them from the other. The
abundance of large masses of
flint near Pressigny — some as
much as two or three feet across
— has, however, rendered the
workmen rather prodigal of
their materials. The skill
which has been brought to bear
in the manufacture of these
long flakes is marvellous, as the
utmost precision is required in
giving the blow by which they
are produced. Generally speak-
ing, the projecting ridge left
at the butt-end of the nucleus
between the depressions, whence
two of the short flakes have
been struck off in chipping it
square, has been selected as the
point of impact. Thej'^ appear
to me to have been struck off
by a free blow, and not by the
intervention of a set or punch.
No doubt the face of the flint
at the time of the blow being
struck was supported on some
elastic body. A few flints which
bear marks of having been used
as hammer-stones are found at
Pressigny.
Section. *"
Fig. 3.— Nucleus— Pressigny.
30
MANUFACTLRE (iF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. II,
An interesting lecture on the Flint Industry of Touraine Avas
given on the occasion of the annual meeting of the Societe
bectiOn.
i i'ig.4.
N uclei— Presagny .
Section.
Fig. 5. i
Archeologique de Touraiae, in 1891, by M. J, de Saint- Venant.
ROUGH-HEWING STONE-HATCHETS.
31
I have hitherto been treating of the production of flint flakes
for various purposes. In such cases the flakes are everything, and
the resulting core, or nucleus, mere refuse. In the manufacture of
celts, or hatchets, the reverse is the case, the flakes are the refuse
(though, of course, they might occasionally be utilized) and the
resulting block is the main object sought. To produce this, how-
ever, much the same process appears to have been adopted, at all
events where flint was the material emplo^'^ed. The hatchets seem
to have been rough-hewn by detaching a succession of flakes, chips,
Fig. 6.— Flake— Pressigny.
■Flake— Prcssigny.
or splinters, from a block of flint, by means of a hammer-stone,
and these rough-hewn implements were subsequently worked into
a more finished form by detaching smaller splinters, also probably
by means of a hammer, previously to their being ground or
polished, if they were destined to be finished in such a manner. In
most cases, one face of the hatchet was first roughed out, and then
by a series of blows, given at proper intervals, along the margin
of that face the general shape was given and the other face chipped
out. This is proved by the fact that in most of the roughly-
32 MAJs'UFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
chipped hatchets found in Britain, the depressions of the bulbs of
percussion of the flakes struck oft' occur in a perfect state only on
one face, having been partly removed on the other face by the
subsequent chipping. There are, however, exceptions to this rule,
and more especially among the implements found in our ancient
river gravels. In some cases (see postea, Fig. 12) the cutting
edge has been formed by the intersection of two convex lines of
fracture giving a curved and sharp outline, and the body of the
hatchet has been subsequently made to suit the edge. The same
is the case with the hatchets from the Danish kjokken-moddings
and coast-finds, though the intersecting facets are at a higher angle,
and the resulting edge straighter, than in the specimens which I
have mentioned. The edge is also, like that of a mortising chisel,
at the extremity of a flat face, and not in the centre of the blade.
The cutting edge has, however, in most of the so-called celts of the
ordinary form, been fashioned by chipping subsequent to the
roughing out of the hatchet ; and even in the case of polished
hatchets, the edge when damaged was frequently re-chipped into
form before being ground afresh.
There hardly appears to be sufiicient cause for believing that
any of the stone hatchets found in this coimtry were chipped out
by any other means than by direct blows of a hammer; but in the
case of the Danish axes with square sides, and with their corners
as neatly crimped or puckered as if they had been made of pieces
of leather sewn together, it is probable that this neat finish was
produced by the use of some kind of punch or set. The hammer-
stones used in the manufacture of flint hatchets appear to have
been usually quartzite pebbles, where such are readily to be
obtained, but also frequently to have been themselves mere blocks
of flint. Many such hammer-stones of flint occurred in the Ciss-
bury pits^ — of which more hereafter — and I have found similar
hammer- stones ou the Sussex Downs, near Eastbourne, where also
flint implements of various kinds appear to have been manufac-
tured in quantities. Not improbably, these hammers were made of
flints which had been for some time exposed on the surface, and
which were in consequence harder than the flints recently dug
from the pits. We have already seen that the gun-flint knappers
of the present day are said to work most successfully on blocks of
flint recently extracted, and those, too, from a particular layer in
1 Arch., vol. xlii. p. 68. Arch. Jour., vol. xxv. p. 88. Sms. Arch. Coll., vol.
xxiv. p. 145. Joiir. Anth. Inst., vol. v. p. SS? ; vi. p. 263, 430 ; vii. p. 413.
ANCIENT MINING FOR FLINT. 33
the chalk ; and it seems probable that the ancient flint-workers
were also acquainted with the advantages of using the flints fresh
from the quarry, and worked them into shape at the pits from which
they were dug, not only on account of the saving in transport of
the partly-manufactured articles, but on account of the greater
facility of working the freshly-extracted flints. This working the
flints upon the spot is conclusively shown by the examination of
the old flint-quarry at Cissbury, Sussex, by General Pitt Rivers
(then Colonel A. Lane-Fox) and others. A very large number of
hatchets, more or less perfectly chipped out, were there found, as
will subsequently be mentioned. That they were in some cases at
great pains to procure flint of the proper quality for being chipped
into form, and were not content with blocks and nodules, such as
might be found on the surface, is proved by the interesting explo-
rations at Grime's Graves, near Brandon, carried on by Canon
GreenweU, F.R.S.^
In a wood at this spot, the whole surface of the ground is studded
with shallow bowl-shaped depressions from 20 to 60 feet in dia-
meter, sometimes running into each other so as to form irregularly
shaped hollows. They are over 250 in number, and one selected
for exj^loration was about 28 feet in diameter at the mouth,
gradually narrowing to 12 feet at the bottom, which proved to be
39 feet below the surface. Through the first 13 feet it had been
cut through sand, below which the chalk was reached, and after
passing through one layer of flint of inferior quality, which was
not quarried beyond the limits of the shaft, the layer known as
the " floor-stone," from which gun-flints are manufactured at the
present day, was met with at the bottom of the shaft. To procure
this, various horizontal galleries about 3 feet 6 inches in height were
driven into the chalk. The excavations had been made by means
of picks formed from the antlers of the red-deer, of which about
80 were found. The points are worn by use, and the thick bases
of the horns battered by having been used as hammers, for break-
ing ofi portions of the chalk and also of the nodules of flint.
Where they had been grasped by the hand the surface is polished
by use, and on some there wasacoatingof chalky matter adhering,
on which was still distinctly visible the impression of the cuticle
of the old flint-workers. The marks of the picks and hammers
were as fresh on the walls of the galleries as if made but yesterday.
' Journ. Etliuol. Soc, N. S., vol. ii. p. 419. See also Proc. Soc. A»i. Scot.,
vol. viii. p. 419.
34 MANUFACnjRE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
It is to be observed that such picks as these formed of stag's horn
have been found in various other places, but have not had proper
attention called to their character. I have seen one from the
neighbourhood of Ipswich/ Suffolk. Canon Greenwell mentions
somewhat similar discoveries having been made at Eaton and
Buckenham, Norfolk. One was also found by him in a grave
under a barrow he examined at Rudstone, near Bridlington,^ and
others occurred near Weaverthorpe and Sherburn. A polished
hatchet of basalt had also been used at Grime's Graves as one of
the tools for excavation, and the marks of its cutting edge were
plentiful in the gallery in which it was discovered. There were
also found some rudely -made cups of chalk apparently intended
for lamps ; a bone pin or awl ; and, what is very remarkable, a
rounded piece of bone 4| inches long and 1 inch in circumfer-
ence, rubbed smooth, and showing signs of use at the ends, which,
as Canon Greenwell suggests, may have been a^ punch or instru-
ment for taking off the lesser flakes of flint in making arrow-heads
and other small articles. It somewhat resembles the pin of rein-
deer horn in the Eskimo arrow-flaker, shortly to be mentioned.
The shaft had been filled in with rubble, apparently from neigh-
bouring pits, and in it were numerous chippings and cores of
flint, and several quartzite and other pebbles battered at the ends
by having been used as hammers for chipping the flints. Some
large rounded cores of flint exhibited similar signs of use. On the
surface of the fields around, numerous chippings of flint, and more
or less perfect implements, such as celts, scrapers, and borers
were found.
At Spiennes (near Mons, in Belgium), where a very similar
manufacture but on a larger scale than that of Cissbury or even
of Grime's Graves, appears to have been carried on, flints seem to
have been dug in the same manner. Since I visited the spot, now
many years ago, a railway cutting has traversed a portion of the
district where the manufacture existed, and exposed a series of ex-
cavations evidently intended for the extraction of flint. Mons. A.
Houzeau de Lehaie, of Hyon, near Mons, has most obligingly fur-
nished me with some particulars of these subterranean works, a
detailed account of which has also been published.^ From this
' Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. i. p. 73.
^ Pennant describes a flint axe as having been found stuck in a vein of coal
exposed to the day in Craig y Pare, Monmouthshire.
' " Rapport BUT les Decouvertes Geologiques et Archeologiques faites a Spiennes
en 1867." Par A. Briart, F. Comet, et A. Houzeau de Lehaie. Mons, 1868.
FLINT-MINES AT SPIENNES. 35
account it appears that shafts from 3 feet to 3 feet 6 inches in
diameter were sunk throjgh the loam and sand above the chalk to
a depth of 30 or even 40 feet ; and from the bottom of the shafts
lateral galleries were worked, from 5 to 6 feet in height and
about the same in width. Stag's horns which had been used as
hammers, were found in the galleries, but it is doubtful whether
they had been used as pick-axes like those in Grime's Graves.
Among the rubble in the galleries, as well as on the surface of
the ground above, were found roughly- chipped flints and splinters,
and more or less rudely-shaped hatchets by thousands. There is
one peculiar fe;iture among these hatchets which I have not noticed
to the same extent elsewhere, viz., that many of them are made from
the nuclei or cores which, in the first instance, had subserved to
the manufacture of long flint flakes, the furrows left by which
appear on one of the faces of the hatchets. Sometimes, though
rarely, the Pressigny nuclei have been utilized in a similar manner.
In France, pits for the extraction of flint have been discovered
at Champignolles, Serifontaine (Oise) ^ and at Mur de Barrez
(Aveyron).^
Professor J. Buckman ^ has recorded a manufactory of celts and
other flint instrimients near Lyme Kegis.
In these instances, especially at Cissbury and Grime's Graves
in England, and at Pressigny and Spiennes on the Continent,
and, indeed, at other places also,^ there appears to have been an
organized manufactory of flint instruments by settled occupants
of the different spots ; and it seems probable that the products
were bartered away to those who were less favoured in their supply
of the raw material, flint. At Old Deer,^ Aberdeenshire, thirtj'-
four leaf-shaped flints, roughl}^ blocked out, were found together.
The chipping out of celts and some other tools formed, not of
flint, but of other hard rocks, must have been eflected in the same
manner. The stone employed is almost alwaj^s of a more or less
silicious nature, and such as breaks with a conchoidal fracture.
Mnlaise, Bull. deV Ac. Roy. deBelg., 2" S. vols. xxi. and xxv., and Geol. Mag., vol. iii.
p. 310. See also Cong. Preh. Bruxelles, 1872, p. 279 ; V Anthropologic, vol. ii. p. 326.
Mat. 3me s. vol. i. (1884), p. G5, likewise ^«W. de la Soc. d'Anthrop. deBruxelles, torn,
viii. 1889-90, PI. I. C. Engelhardt has described Spiennes and Grime's C4raves in
the Aarb. for Oldhjnd., 1871, p. 327. What appears to have been a neolithic
flint mine at Crayford, Kent, has been described by Mr. Spurrell, ^in-A Joum..
vol. xxxvii. p. 332. The Deneholes were probably dug for the extraction of chalk
and not of flint.
1 V Anthropologie, vol. ii. (1891) 445. " j^^t., 3me s. vol. iv. (1887) p. 1.
^ Arch. Assoc. Joum., vol. xxviii. 220.
* Cochet, "Seine Inf.," pp. 1(3, 528. Archivio per VAntropol., ^c, vol. i.
p. 489. s Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xxx. (1896) p. 346.
d2
36 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
Dr. F. A. ForeP ckipped out a hatchet of euphotide or gabbro
with a hammer formed of a fragment of saussurite. The process
occupied an hour and ten minutes, and the subsequent grinding
three hours more. He made and ground to an edge a rude
hatchet of serpentine in thirty-five minutes.
To return, however, to the manufacture of the flint implements
of this country, and more especially to those which are merely
flakes submitted to a secondary process of chipping. We have
seen that in the gun-flint manufacture the flakes are finally shaped
by means of a knapping or trimming hammer and a fixed chisel,
whicli act one against the other, somewhat like the two blades of a
pair of shears, and the process adopted by the ancient flint- workers
for many purposes must have been to some extent analogous,
though it can hardly have been precisely similar. One of the
most common forms of flint implements is that to which the name
of "scraper" or "thumb-flint" has been given, and which is found
in abundance on the Yorkshire Wolds, on the Downs of Sussex,
and in many other parts of England and Scotland. The normal
form is that of a broad flake chipped to a semicircular edge,
usually at the end farthest from the bulb of percussion, the edge
being bevelled away from the flat face of the flake, like that of a
round-nosed turning-chisel. The name of "scraper" or '^grattoir"
has been given to these worked flints from their similarity to an
instrument in use among the Eskimos ^ for scraping the insides
of hides in the course of their preparation ; but I need not here
enter upon the question of the purpose for which these ancient
instruments were used, as we are at present concerned only with
the method of their manufacture. I am not aware of any evidence
existing as to the method pursued by the Eskimos in the chipping
out of their scraping tools : but I think that if, at the present time,
we are able to produce flint tools precisely similar to the ancient
" scrapers " by the most simple means possible, and without the
aid of any metallic appliances, there is every probability that
identically the same means were employed of old. Now, I have
found by experiment that, taking a flake of flint (made, I may
remark, with a stone hammer, consisting of a flint or quartzite
pebble held in the hand), and placing it, with the flat face up-
wards, on a smooth block of stone, I can, by successive blows of
the pebble, chip the end of the flake without any difficulty into
the desired form. The face of the stone hammer is brought to
1 Mat., vol. X. (1875) p. 521. • Lartet and Christy's Eel, Aquit., p. 13.
PRODUCTION OF ARROAV-HEADS. 37
bear a slight distance only within the margin of the flake, and,
however sharp the blow administered, the smooth block of stone
on which the flake is placed, and which of course projects beyond
it, acts as a stop to prevent the hammer being carried forward so
as to injure the form, and brings it up sharply, directly it has done
its work of striking off a splinter from the end of the flake. The
upper face of the flake remains quite uninjured, and, strange as
it may appear, there is no difficulty in producing the evenly
circular edge of the scraper by successive blows of the convex
pebble.
Some of the other ancient tools and weapons, having one flat
face, seem to have been fashioned in much the same manner. In
the case of arrow-heads and lance-heads, however, another process
would appear to have been adopted. It is true that we know not
exactly how
" the ancient arrow-maker
Made his arrow-heads of sandstone,
Arrow-heads of chalcedony,
Arrow-heads of flint and jasper,
Smooth and sharpened at the edges,
Hard and polished, keen and costly."
And yet the process of making such arrow-heads is carried on
at the present day by various half-civilized peoples, and has been
witnessed by many Europeans, though but few have accurately
recorded their observations. Sir Edward Belcher ^ who had seen
obsidian arrow-heads made by the Indians of California, and
those of chert or flint by the Eskimos of Cape Lisburne, states
that the mode pursued in each case was exactly similar. The
instrument employed among the Eskimos, which may be termed
an " arrow-flaker," usually consists of a handle formed of fossil
ivory, curved at one end for the purpose of being firmly held,
and having at the other end a slit, like that for the lead in our
pencils, in which is placed a slip of the point of the horn of a
reindeer, which is found to be harder and more stubborn than
ivory. This is secured in its place by a strong thong of leather or
plaited sinew, put on wet, which on drying becomes very rigid.
A representation of one of these instruments, in the Blackmore
Museum at Salisbury, is given in Fig. 8. Another in the
Christy Collection ^ is shown in Fig. 9. Another form of instru-
' Trans. Ethnol. Soc, N.S., vol. i. p. 139. See also Sev. Arch., vol. iii. (1861)
p. 341.
^ ** Rel. Aquit.," p. 18. For the loan of this cut I am indebted to the executors of
the late Henry Christy. The same specimen has been engraved by the Rev. J. G.
Wood. " Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 717. Another example from Greenland
is figured in Mat., vol. vi. p. 140.
38
MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
ment of this kind, but in which the piece of horn is mounted in a
wooden handle, is shown in Fig. 10, from an original in the same
collection from Kot/ebue Gulf. The bench on which the arrow-
Fig. 8. — Eskimo Arrow-flaker.
heads are made is said to consist of a log of wood, in which a
spoon-shaped cavity is cut ; over this the flake of chert is placed.
Fig. 9.— Eskimo Arrow-flaker
and then, by pressing the " arrow-flaker " gently along the mar-
gin vertically, first on one side and then on the other, as one would
Fig. 10. — Eskimo Arrow-llakfr.
set a saw, alternate fragments are splintered off until the object
thus properly outlined presents the spear or arrow-head form,
with two cutting serrated sides.
FLAKING ARROW-HEADS. 39
Sir Edward Belcher some years ago kindly explained the process
to me, and showed me both, the implements used, and the objects
manufactured. It appears that the flake from which the arrow-
head is to be made is sometimes fixed by means of a cord in a
split piece of wood so as to hold it firmly, and that all the
large surface flaking is produced either by blows direct from
the hammer, or through an intermediate punch or set formed
of reindeer horn. The arrow- or harpoon-head thus roughly
chipped out is afterwards finished by means of the "arrow-
flaker."
The process in use at the present day among the Indians of
Mexico in making their arrows is described in a somewhat
different manner by Signor Craveri, who lived sixteen years in
Mexico, and who gave the account to Mr. C. H. Chambers.^ He
relates that when the Indians wish to make an arrow-head or other
instrument of a piece of obsidian, they take the piece in the left
hand, and hold grasped in the other a small goat's horn ; they set
the piece of stone upon the horn, and dexterously pressing it
against the point of it, while they give the horn a gentle move-
ment from right to left, and up and down, they disengage from
it frequent chips, and in this way obtain the desired form. M.
F. de Pourtales^ speaks of a small notch in the end of the bone
into which the edge of the flake is inserted, and a chip broken off
from it by a sideways blow. Mr. T. R. Peale^ describes the
manufacture of arrow-heads among the Shasta and North Cali-
fornia Indians, as being effected by means of a notched horn, as a
glazier chips glass. This has also been fully described and
illustrated by Mr. Paul Schumacher^ of San Francisco. Major
Powell confirms this account.
The Cloud River Indians^ and the Fuegians,^ also fashion their
arrow-heads by pressure. Mr. Cushing^ has described the process
and claims to be the first civilized man who flaked an arrow-head
with horn tools. This was in 1875. I had already done so and
had described the method at the Norwich Congress in 1868.
The late Mr. Christy,^ in a paper on the Cave -dwellers of
' Gastaldi's " Lake Habitations of Northern and Central Italy," translated and
edited by C. H. Chambers, M.A. (Anth. Soc., 1865), p. 106.
- Mortillet, Mat. pour I' Hist, de I'Homme, vol. ii. p. 517.
'■' "Flint Chips," p. 78.
* Arch.f. Anth., vol. vii.;p. 263. Bull. U.S. Geol. and Geog. Siirvetj, vol. iii. p. 547.
•'■ Nat., vol. xxi. p. 615. "^ Nat., vol. xxii. p. 97.
^ Amer. Anthrop., 1895, p. 307. Nat., vol. xx. p. 483.
" Tram. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. iii. p. 365. "Eel. Aquit.," p. 1".
40 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
Southern France, gave an account, furnished to him by Sir
Charles Lyell, of the process of making stone arrow-heads by the
Shasta Indians of California who still commonly use them, which
slightly differs from that of Mr. Peale. This account by Mr.
Caleb Lyon runs as follows: — "The Indian seated himself upon
the floor, and, laying the stone anvil upon his knee, with one
blow of his agate chisel he separated the obsidian pebble into two
parts, then giving a blow to the fractured side he split off a slab
a quarter of an inch in thickness. Holding the piece against his
anvil with the thumb and finger of his left hand, he commenced
a series of continuous blows, every one of which chipped off frag-
ments of the brittle substance. It gradually seemed to acquire
shape. After finishing the base of the arrow-head (the whole
being little over an inch in length), he began striking gentle
blows, every one of which I expected would break it in pieces.
Yet such was his adroit application, his skill and dexterity, that
in little over an hour he produced a perfect obsidian arrow-head.
.... No sculptor ever handled a chisel with greater precision,
or more carefully measured the weight and effect of every blow
than did this ingenious Indian ; for even among them, arrow-
making is a distinct profession, in which few attain excellence."
Dr. Rau^ has, however, pointed out that this account of the
manufacture requires confirmation ; but Mr. "Wyeth^ states that
the Indians on the Snake River form their arrow-heads of
obsidian by laying one edge of the flake on a hard stone, and
striking the other edge with another hard stone ; and that many
are broken when nearly finished and are thrown away.
Captain John Smith,^ writing in 1606 of the Indians of
Virginia, says, " His arrow-head he maketh quickly with a little
bone, which he ever weareth at his bracert,^ of any splint of stone
or glasse in the form of a heart, and these they glew to the end
of their arrowes. With the sinewes of deer and the tops of deers'
horns boiled to a jelly, they make a glue which will not dissolve
in cold water."
Beyond the pin of bone already mentioned, as having been
found in one of the pits at Grime's Graves, I am not aware of
any bone or horn implements of precisely this character, having
' " Articles on Anth. Sub.," 1882, p. 9.
- Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. p. 212.
" Sixth voyage, "Pinkerton'e Travels," vol. xiii. p. 36, quoted also in "Flint
Chips," p. 79.
* Jiracer. a girdle or bandage.
ARROW-FLAKERS. 41
been as yet discovered in Europe ; but hammers of stag's horn
and detached tines have frequently been found in connection with
worked flints, and may have served in their manufacture. I
have, moreover, remarked among the worked flints discovered in
this country, and especially in Yorkshire, a number of small tools,
the ends of which present a blunted, worn, and rounded appear-
ance, as if from attrition against a hard substance. These tools
are usually from 2 to 4 inches long, and made from large thick
flakes, with the cutting edges removed by chipping ; but occa-
sionally, they are carefully finished implements of a pointed oval
or a subtriangular section, and sometimes slightly curved longi-
tudinally. Of these, illustrations will be given at a subsequent
page. They are usually well adapted for being held in the hand,
and I cannot but think that we have in them some of the tools
which were used in the preparation of flint arrow-heads and
other small instruments. I have tried the experiment with a
large flake of flint used as the arrow- flaker, both unmounted
and mounted in a wooden handle, and have succeeded in pro-
ducing with it very passable imitations of ancient arrow-heads,
both leaf-shaped and barbed. The flake of flint on which I have
operated has been placed against a stop on a flat piece of wood,
and when necessary to raise the edge of the flake I have placed a
small blocking piece, also of wood, underneath it, and then by
pressure of the arrow-flaker upon the edge of the flake, have
detached successive splinters until I have reduced it into form.
If the tool consists of a rather square- ended flake, one corner may
rest upon the table of wood, and the pressure be given by a
rocking action, bringing the other corner down upon the flake.
In cutting the notches in barbed arrow-heads, this was probably
the plan adopted, as I was surprised to find how easily this
seemingly diflScult part of the process was effected. Serration of
the edges may be produced by the same means.
The edges of the arrow-heads made entirely with these flint
arrow-flakers are, however, more obtuse and rounded than those
of ancient specimens, so that probably these flint tools were used
rather for removing slight irregularities in the form than for the
main chipping out. This latter process, I find experimentally, can
be best performed by means of a piece of stag's horn, used much in
the same way as practised by the Eskimos, By supporting the
flake of flint which is to be converted into an arrow-head against
a wooden stop, and pressing the horn against the edge of the
42 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [f'HAP. II.
flake, the flint enters slightly into the body of the horn ; then
bringing the pressure to bear sideways, minute splinters can be
detached, and the arrow-head formed by degrees in this manner
without much risk of breaking. Not only can the leaf-shaped
forms be produced, but the barbed arrow-heads, both with and
without the central stem. The leaf-shaped arrow-heads are, how-
ever, the most easy to manufacture, and this simple form was
probably that earliest in use. The counterfeit arrow-heads made
by the notorious Flint Jack are of rude work, and were probably
made with a light hammer of iron. Of late years (1895) a far
more skilful workman at Mildenhall has produced imitations
which can hardly be distinguished from genuine arrow-heads.
He keeps his process of manufacture secret.
Among many tribes* of America, arrow-making is said to have
been a trade confined to a certain class, who possessed the traditional
knowledge of the process of manufacture ; and it can hardly be
expected that a mere novice like myself should be able at once to
attain the art. I may, therefore, freely confess that, though by
the use of stag's horn the ordinary surface-chipping characteristic
of ancient implements may be obtained, yet the method of pro-
ducing the even fluting, like ripple-marks, by detaching parallel
splinters uniform in size, and extending almost across the surface
of a lance- or arrow-head is at present a mystery to me ; as is also
the method by which the delicate ornamentation on the handles
ef Danish flint daggers was produced. It seems, however,
possible that by pressing the flint to be operated upon on some
close-fitting elastic body at the time of removing the minute
flakes, the line of fracture may be carried along a considerable
distance over the surface of the flint, before coming to an end by
reason of the dislodged flake breaking off or terminating. It is
also possible that the minute and elegant ornaments may have
been produced by the use of a pointed tooth of some animal as a
punch. Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell,^ in an interesting article, has sug-
gested that the final flaking was efiected after the blades had been
ground to a smooth surface, in the same manner as the flaking on
some of the most symmetrical Egyptian blades. His view appears to
be correct, at all events so far as certain parts of some Danish blades
are concerned. It seems, however, very doubtful whether any
such general practice prevailed, I have seen a delicate lance-head
1 Schoolcraft, "Indian Tribes," vol. iii. p. 81 ; see also 467.
^ Arch. Journ., vol. liii. 1896, p. .51.
GRINDING STONE IMPLEMENTS. 43
6 inclies long, of triangular section, with the broad face polished
and the two other faces exquisitely fluted. In this case also the
faces may have been ground before fluting. This blade was
found in a cavern at Sourdes, in the Landes, and was in the
collection of M. Chaplain-Duparc.
With regard to the process of grinding or polishing flint and
other stone implements not much need be said. I may, however,
refer the reader to Wilde's Catalogue^ of the Museum of the
Royal Irish Academy, for an account of the different processes.
In all cases the grindstone on which they were polished was fixed
and not rotatory, and in nearly all cases the striae running along
the stone hatchets are longitudinal, thus proving that they were
rubbed lengthways and not crossways on the grinding-bed. This
is a criterion of some service in detecting modern forgeries. The
grinding- stones met with in Denmark and Scandinavia are gene-
rally of compact sandstone or quartzite, and are usually of two
forms — flat slabs, often worn hollow by use, and polygonal prisms
smallest in the middle, these latter having frequently hollow facets
in which gouges or the more convex-faced hatchets might be
ground, and sometimes rounded ridges such as would grind the
hollow part of gouges. From the coarse striation on the body of
most flint hatchets, especially the large ones, it would appear that
they were not ground immediately on such fine-grained stones,
but that some coarse and hard grit must have been used to assist
the action of the grindstone. M. Morlot^ thought that some
mechanical pressure was also used to aid in the operation, and
that the hatchet to be ground was weighted in some manner,
possibly by means of a lever. In grinding and polishing the
hollowed faces of different forms of stone axes, it would appear
that certain rubbers formed of stone were used, probably in
conjunction with sand. These will be more particularly described
in a subsequent page. The surface of hard rocks or of large
boulders fixed in the ground was often used for the purpose
of grinding stone implements. Instances will be given hereafter.
Closely allied to the process of grinding is that of sawing stone.
It is however rarely, if ever, that in this country any of the stone
implements show signs of having been reduced into shape by this
process. Among the small hatchets in fibrolite, so common in
the Auvergne and in the south of France, and among the green-
stone, and especially the nephrite celts found in the Swiss Pfahl-
1 P. 46. - Mortillet, Materiaux, vol. iL p. 353.
44 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. II.
bauten,* many show evident traces of having been partially fashioned
by means of sawing. I have also remarked it on a specimen from
Portugal, and on many librolite hatchets from Spain.^ Dr. Keller
has noticed the process, and suggests that the incisions on the flat
surface of the stone chosen for the purpose of being converted into
a celt were made sometimes on one side, and sometimes on both, by
means of a sharp saw-like tool. He has since ^ gone more deeply
into the question, and has suggested that the stone to be sawn
was placed on the ground near a tree, and then sawn by means of
a splinter of flint fixed in the end of a staff, which at its other end
was forked, and as it were hinged under one of the boughs of the
tree sufficiently flexible to give pressure to the flint when a weight
was suspended from it. The staff was, he supposed, to have been
grasped in the hand, and moved backwards and forwards while
water was applied to the flint to facilitate the sawing. The
objection to this suggestion is, that in case of the flint being
brought to the edge of the stone it M'ould be liable to be driven
into the ground by the weight on the bough, and thus constantly
hinder the operation ; nevertheless some such mechanical aids in
sawing may have been in use.
M. Troyon* considered that the blade of flint was used in
connection with sand as well as water. This latter view appears,
at first sight, far more probable, as the sawing instrmnent has in
some instances cut nearly f of an inch into the stone, which, it
would seem, could hardly have been accomplished with a simple
flint saw ; and the sides of the saw-kerf or notch show, moreover,
parallel striaj, as if resulting from the use of sand. The objection
that at first occurred to my mind against regarding the sawing
instrument as having been of flint was of a negative character
only, and arose from my not having seen in any of the Swiss
collections any flint flakes that had indisputably been used for
sawing by means of sand. At one time I fancied, from the
character of the bottom and sides of the notches, that a string
stretched like that of a bow might have been used with sand in
the manner in which, according to Oviedo,^ the American Indians
sawed in two their iron fetters, and I succeeded in cutting off the
1 " Pfahlbauten, Iter Bericht," p. 71. " Lake-d-wellings," pp. 18, 125. See also
Linden schmit, " Hohenz. Samml.," taf. xxvii.
2 Froc. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. vii. p. 47.
3 Anzeigerfiir Schweiz. jilterth., 1870, p. 123.
* "Habit. Lacust.," p. 19.
* See Comptes Itendus, vol. Ixvii. p. 1292, where a suggestion is made of some
stone implements from Java haiing been sawn in this manner.
METHODS OF SAWING STONE. 45
end of an ancient Swiss hatchet of hard steatite by this means.
I found, however, that the bottom of the kerf thus formed was
convex longitudinally, whereas in the ancient examples it was
slightly concave. It is therefore evident that whatever was used
as the saw must have been of a comparatively unyielding nature,
and probably shorter than the pebble or block of stone it was used
to saw, for even the iron blades used in conjunction with sand and
water by modern masons become concave by wear, and, therefore,
the bottom of the kerf they produce is convex longitudinally. I
accordingly made some further experiments, and this time upon a
fragment of a greenstone celt of such hardness that it would
readily scratch window-glass. I found, however, that with a flint
flake I was able to work a groove along it, and that whether I
used sand or no, my progress was equally certain, though it must
be confessed, very slow. I am indeed doubtful whether the flint
did not produce most effect without the sand, as the latter to
become effective requires a softer body in which it may become
embedded ; while by working with the points and projections in
the slightly notched edge of the flake, its scratching action soon
discoloured the water in the notch. What was most remarkable,
and served in a great measure to discredit the negative evidence
to which I before referred, was that the edges of the flake when
not used with sand showed but slight traces of wear or polish.
On the whole, I am inclined to think that both the Swiss anti-
quaries are in the right, and that the blocks of stone were sawn
both with and without sand, by means of flint flakes, but princi-
pally of strips of wood and bone used in conjunction with sand.^
The reader may consult Munro's Lake-Dwellings, 181)0, p. 505.
Professor Flinders Petrie, in addition to the flint implements
of the " New Pace," which he discovered near Abydos, found a
number of stone implements at Kahun, and Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell
has contributed to his^ book an interesting chapter on their
character and the method of their manufacture.
Most of the jade implements from New Zealand and N.W.
America have been partially shaped by sawing, and in the British
Museum is a large block of jade from the former country deeply
grooved by sawing, and almost ready to be split, so as to be of the
1 An article by Dr. Rudolf Much on the preparation of Stone Implements is in
the Mitth. d. Anth. Ges. in Wieii, 2d. S., vol. ii. (18S;5;, p. S2 ; and one by Mr. J. D.
McGuire, in the Amcr. Anthrnp., vol. v., 1892, p. 165. He has also Avi-itten on
the Evolution of the Art of Working in Stone, in a manner that has called forth a
reply from Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., Amcr. Anthrop., 1893, p. 307 ; 1894. p. 997.
* " lUahun, Kahun, and Gurob," 1891, p. 51.
46 MANTTFACTTRE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP, II.
ri^ht thickness for a mere. The natives ^ use stone hammers for
chipping, flakes of trap or of some other hard rock for sawing, and
blocks of sandstone and a micaceous rock for grinding and polishing.
Obsidian is said to be used for boring jade. I have a flat piece of
jade, apparently part of a thin hatchet, on one face of which two
notches have been sawn converging at an angle of 135° and
marking out what when detached and ground would have formed
a curved ear-ring. It was given me by the late Mr. H. N.
[Moseley, who brought it from New Zealand.
There is another peculiarity to be seen in some of the green-
stone hatchets and perforated axes, of which perhaps the most
characteristic examples occur in Switzerland, though the same
may occasionally be observed in British specimens. It is that the
blocks of stone have been reduced into form, not only by chipping
with a hammer, as is the case with flint hatchets, but by working
upon the surface with some sort of pick or chisel, which was not
improbably formed of flint. In some instances, where the hatchets
were intended for insertion into sockets of stag's horn or other
materials, their butt-end was purposely roughened by means of a
pick after the whole surface had been polished. Instances of this
rouD-hening are common in Switzerland, rare in France, and rarer
still in England. The greenstone hatchet found in a gravel-pit
near Malton^ (Fig. 81) has its butt-end roughened in this
manner. The shaft-holes in some few perforated axes appear to
have been worked out by means of such picks or chisels, the hole
having been bored from opposite sides of the axe, and generally
with a gradually decreasing diameter. In some rare instances
the perforation is oval. The cup, or funnel-shaped depressions,
in some hammer-stones seem to have been made in a similar
manner. The inner surface of the shaft holes in perforated axes
is also frequently ground, and occasionally polished. This has in
most cases been effected by turning a cylindrical grinder within
the hole ; though in some few instances the grinding instrument
has been rubbed backwards and forwards in the hole after the
manner of a file. M. Franck dc Truguet,^ of Treytel, in
Switzerland, thinks he has found in a lake-dwelling an instru-
ment used for finishing and enlarging the holes. It is a frag-
ment of sandstone about 2| inches long, and rounded on one face,
which is worn by friction.
But, besides the mode of chipping out the shaft-hole in per-
' Fiecher in Arch.f. Anth., vol. xv., 1884, p. 4G3.
2 The Reliquary, vol. viii. p. 184. ^ Mattriaux, vol. iv. p. 293.
METHODS OF BORING STONE. 47
forated implements, several other methods were employed,
especially in the days when the use of bronze was known, to
which period most of the highly- finished perforated axes found
in this country are to be referred. In some cases it would
appear that, after chipping out a recess so as to form a guide for
the boring tool, the perforation was effected by giving a rotatory
motion, either constant or intermittent, to the tool. I have,
indeed, seen some specimens in which, from the marks visible in
the hole, I am inclined to think a metallic drill was used. But
whether, where metal was not employed, and no central core, as
subsequently mentioned, was left in the hole, the boring tool was
of flint, and acted like a drill, or whether it was a round stone
used in conjunction with sand, as suggested by the late Sir Daniel
"Wilson ^ and Sir W. "Wilde,^ so that the hole was actually ground
away, it is impossible to say. I have never seen any flint tools
that could unhesitatingly be referred to this use ; but Herr
Grewingk, in his "Steinalter der Ostseeprovinzen," ^ mentions
several implements in the form of truncated cones, which he
regards as boring- tools [Bohrstcmpel) , used for perforating stone
axes and hammers. He suggests the employment of a drill-bow
to make them revolve, and thinks that, in some cases, the boring
tools were fixed, and the axe itself caused to revolve. Not having
seen the specimens, I cannot pronounce upon them ; but the fact
that several of these conical pieces show signs of fracture at the
base, and that they are all of the same kinds of stone (diorite,
augite, porphyry, and syenite) as those of which the stone axes of
the district are made, is suggestive of their being merely the
cores, resulting from boring Avith a tube, in the manner about to
be described, in some cases from each face of the axe, and in
others where the base of the cone is smooth, from one face only.
One of these central cores found in Lithuania is figured by
Mortillet,^ and is regarded by him as being probably the result of
boring by means of a metal tube ; others, from Switzerland, pre-
sumably of the Stone Age, are cited by Keller.^ Bellucci ^ thinks
that he has found them in Northern Italy.
Worsaae^ has suggested that in early times the boring may
have been effected with a pointed stick and sand and water ; and,
' "Prehist. Ann. of Scotland," 2nd edit., vol. i. p. 193.
2 "Cat. Stone Ant. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 78. ^ p_ 26.
* Materiaux, vol. i. p. 463 ; vol. iii. p. 307.
5 Am.f. Schweiz. Alt., 1870, pi. xii. 18—20.
® Archivio per I'Ant. e la Etn., vol. xx. 1890, p. 378.
' "Primeval Ants, of Denmark," p. 16.
48 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
indeed, if any grinding process was used, it is a question whether
some softer substance, such as wood, in which the sand or abra-
sive material could become imbedded, would not be more effective
than flint. By way of experiment I bored a hole through the
Swiss hatchet of steatite before mentioned, and I found that in
that case a flint flake could be used as a sort of drill ; but that for
grinding, a stick of elder was superior to both flint and bone,
inasmuch as it formed a better bed for the sand.
Professor Rau, of New York, has made some interesting experi-
ments in boring stone by means of a driRing-stock and sand,
which are described in the " Annual Report of the Smithsonian
Institute for 1868."^ He operated on a piece of hard diorite an
inch and three-eighths in thickness, and employed as a drilling
agent a wooden wand of ash, or at times, of pine, in conjunction
with sharp quartz sand. Attached to the wand was a heavy
disc, to act as a fly-wheel, and an alternating rotatory motion
was obtained by means of a bow and cord attached at its centre
to the apex of the drilling-stock, and giving motion to it after the
manner of a "pump-drill," such as is used by the Dacotahs' and
Iroq^iois ^ for producing fire by friction, or what is sometimes
called the Chinese drill. So slow was the process, that two hours
of constant drilling added, on an average, not more than the
thickness of an ordinary lead-pencil line to the depth of the hole.
The use of a drill of some form or other, to which rotatory
motion in alternate directions was communicated by means of a
cord, is of great antiquity. We find it practised with the ordi-
nary bow by the ancient Egyptians ; ^ and Ulysses is described by
Homer ^ as drilling out the eye of the Cyclops by means of a stake
with a thong of leather wound round it, and pulled alternately at
each end, "like a shipwright boring timber." The " fire-drill,"
for producing fire by friction, which is precisely analogous to the
ordinary drill, is, or was, in use in most parts of the world.
Among the Aleutian Islanders the thong-drill, and among the
New Zealanders a modification of it, is used for boring holes in
stone. Those who wish to see more on the subject must consult
Tylor's "Early History of Mankind"^ and a "Study of the
Primitive Methods of Drilling,"' by Mr. J. D. McGuire.
1 P. 392. Archirfiir A)tthrop., vol. iii. p. 187.
- Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. iii. pp. 228, 466.
3 Tylor, "Early Hist, of Mankind," p. 248.
* Wilkinson, " Anc. Egyptians," vol. ii. pp. 180, 181 ; vol. iii. pp. 144, 172.
^ Odyss., ix. 384. * 2nd ed., pp. 341 et aeqq. ; see also " Flint Chips," p. 96.
' Rep. U. S. Nat. Mm. fcr 1894, p. G23.
BORING BY MEANS OF A TUBE. 49
Professor Carl Vogt ^ has suggested that the small roundels of
stone (like Worsaae, " Af b." No. 86) too large to have been used as
spindle-whorls, which are occasionally found in Denmark, may
have been the fly-wheels of vertical pump-drills, used for boring
stone tools. They may, however, be heads of war-maces.
In the case of some of the unfinished and broken axes found in
the Swiss lakes, and even in some of the objects made of stag's
horn,^ there is a projecting core ^ at the bottom of the unfinished
hole. This is also often seen in^ Scandinavian and German
specimens. Dr. Keller has shown that this core indicates the
employment of some kind of tube as a boring tool ; as indeed had
been pointed out so long ago as 1832 by Gutsmuths,^ who, in his
paper " Wie durchbohrte der alte Germane seine Streitaxt? "
suggested that a copper or bronze tube was used in conjunction
with powdered quartz, or sand and water. In the Klemm collec-
tion, formerly at Dresden, is a bronze tube, five inches long and
three quarters of an inch in diameter, found near Camenz, in
Saxony, which its late owner regarded® as one of the boring tools
used in the manufacture of stone axes. This is now in the
British Museum, but does not appear to me to have been employed
for such a purpose. The Danish antiquaries ^ have arrived at the
same conclusion as to tubes being used for boring. Von Estorfi'*
goes so far as to say that the shaft-holes are in some cases so regular
and straight, and their inner surface so smooth, that they can only
have been bored by means of a metallic cylinder and emery. Linden-
schmit^ considers the boring to have been effected either by means
of a hard stone, or a plug of hard wood with sand and water, or
else, in some cases, by means of a metallic tube, as described by
Gutsmuths. He engraves some specimens, in which the com-
mencement of the hole, instead of being a mere depression, is a
sunk ring. Similar specimens are mentioned by Lisch.^*^ Dr.
Keller's translator, Mr, Lee, cites a friend as suggesting the
' " Guide ill. du Mas. des Ant. du Nord," 2nd edit. p. 8.
* Ameigerf. Schweiz. Alt., 1870,pl. xii. 24. Monro's "Lake D\v.," fig. 24, No. I'i.
' Keller's " Lake-dwelling.s," p. 22. Iter Bericht, p. 74. See also Anzeiger fiir
Schweiz. Alterth., 1870, p. 139.
* Aarsb. Soc. Nor. Ant., 1877, pi. i. 5. Montelius, "Ant. Sued.," 1874, fig. 34.
5 Morgenblatt, No. 253.
* "Allgemeine Culturwissenscliaft," vol. i. p. 80. See also Preusker, "Blicke iu
die Vaterltindische Vorzeit," vol. i. p. 173.
'' Mem. de la Soc. des Ant. du Nord, 1863, p. 149.
" " Heidnisclie Alterthiimer," p. 66.
3 " Alterthiimer, u. h. V.," vol. i. Heft \'iii. Taf. i.
*" " Frederico-Fraiu'iscpum," p. 111.
50 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
employment of a hollow stick, such as a piece of elder, for the
boring tool. My experience confirms this ; but I found that the
coarse sand was liable to clog and accumulate in the hollow part
of the stick, and thus grind away the top of the core. If I had
used finer sand this probably would not have been the case.
Mr. Rose^ has suggested the use of a hollow bone ; but, as
already observed, I found bone less effective than wood, in conse-
quence of its not being so good a medium for carrying the sand.
Mr. Sehested,^ however, who carried out a series of interesting
experiments in grinding, sawing, and boring stone implements,
found dry sand better than wet, and a bone of lamb better than
either elder or cow's-horn for boring.
Most of the holes drilled in the stone instruments and pipes of
North America appear to have been produced by hollow drills,
which Professor Rau^ suggests may have been formed of a hard
and tough cane, the Arundinaria macro&perma, which grows abun-
dantly in the southern parts of the United States. He finds
reason for supposing that the Indian workmen were acquainted
with the ordinary form of drill driven by a pulley and bow. The
tubes of steatite, one foot in length, found in some of the minor
mounds of the Ohio Valley,* must probably have been bored with
metal.
Dr. Keller, after making some experiments with a hollow bone
and quartz-sand, tried a portion of ox-horn, which he found
surprisingly more effective, the sand becoming embedded in the
horn and acting like a file. He comments on the absence of any
bronze tubes that could have been used for boring in this manner,
and on the impossibility of making flint tools for the purpose.
The perishable nature of ox -horn accounts for its absence in the
Lake settlements.^ On the whole this suggestion appears to me
the most reasonable. Experiments have also been made in boring
v.'ith stag's-horn.^
M. Troyon^ considered that these holes were not bored by
means of a hollow cylinder, inasmuch as this would not produce so
conical an opening, and he thought that the axe was made to
revolve in some sort of lathe, while the boring was effected by
1 Journal of the Anthrop. Snc, vol. vi. p. xlii.
- " Arcliaiol. Undersot^el.ser," 1884.
3 " Smithson. Report,'' 18G8, p. 399. "Drilling in Stone without Metal."
^ Schoolcraft, " Indian Tribes," vol. i. p. 93.
•'' Anzeiyer f. iSchiveiz. Alt., 1870, p. 143.
" Milth. d. Anth. Ges. in Wien, vol. vii. (1878), p. 96.
' " Habitations Lacustres," p. C6. Rev. Arch., 1860, vol. i. p. 39.
METHODS OF BORING STONE. 51
means of a bronze tool used in conjunction with sand and water.
He mentions some stone axes found in Bohemia, and in the col-
lection of the Baron de Neuberg, at Prague, which have so little
space left between the body of the axe and the central cores, that
in his opinion they must have been bored by means of a metal
point and not of a hollow cylinder. Mortillet^ thinks that some of
the Swiss axes were bored in a similar manner. The small holes
for suspension, drilled through some of the Danish celts, he thinks
were drilled with a pointed stone.^ Not having seen the specimens
cited by M. Troy on, I am unable to offer any opinion upon them ;
but it appears to me very doubtful whether anything in character
like a lathe was known at the early period to which the perforated
axes belong, for were such an appliance in use we should probably
_find it extended to the manufacture of pottery in the shape of the
potter's wheel, whereas the contemporary pottery is all hand-made.
M. Desor,^ though admitting that a hollow metallic tube would have
afforded the best means of drilling these holes, is inclined to refer
the axes to a period when the use of metals was unknown. He
suggests that thin flakes of flint may have been fastened round a
stick and thus used to bore the hole, leaving a solid core in the
middle. I do not however think that such a method is practicable.
In some of the Swiss ■* specimens in which the boring is incom-
plete there is a small hole in advance of the larger, so that the
section is like that of a trif oliated Gothic arch. In this case the
borer would appear to have somewhat resembled a centre-bit or pin-
drill. In others ^ the holes are oval, and must have been much
modified after they were first bored. The process of boring holes
of large diameter in hard rocks such as diorite and basalt by means
of tubes was in common use among the Egyptians. These tubes are
supposed to have been made of bronze, and corundum to have been
employed with them. Professor Flinders Petrie ^ has suggested
that they had jewelled edges like the modern diamond crown
.drill, and that they could penetrate diorite at the rate of one
inch in depth for 27 feet of forward motion. I think, how-
ever, that this is an over-estimate. Saws of the same kind were
. also used.
Kirchner,'^ the ingenious but perverse author of " Thor's Don-
nerkeil," considers that steel boring tools must have been used
' Materiaux, vol. iii. p. 264. - Ibid., vol. iii. p. 294.
^ "Les Palafittes," p. 19. * Keller, " Lake Dwellings," xxv. 1, 7, p. 91.
* Op. cit., xxvii. 11, 21, p. 110. 6 Brit. Assoc. Hep., 1881, p. 698.
^ "Thor'sDonnerkeil,"p. 13.
E 2
52 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. II.
for the shaft-holes in stone axes ; and even Nilsson/ who com-
ments on the rarity of the axes with the central core in the holes,
is inclined to refer them to the Iron Age. He '"^ considers it an
impossibility to bore " such holes " with a wooden pin and wet
sand, and is no doubt right, if he means that a wooden pin would
not leave a core standing in the centre of the hole.
The drilling the holes through the handles of the New Zealand^
meres is stated to be a very slow process, but effected by means of
a wetted stick dipped in emery powder. I have seen one in which
the hole was unfinished, and was only represented by a conical
depression on each face.
In some stones, however, such holes can be readily bored with
wood and sand ; and in all cases where the stone to be worked
upon can be scratched by sand, the boring by means of wood is
possible, given sufficient time, and the patience of a savage.
To what a degree this extends may be estimated by what
Lafitau ^ says of the North American Indians sometimes spending
their whole life in making a stone tomahawk without entirely
finishing it ; and by the years spent by members of tribes on the
Rio Negro * in perforating cylinders of rock crystal, by twirling a
flexible leaf-shoot of wild plantain between the hands, and thus
grinding the hole with the aid of sand and water. The North
American^ tobacco-pipes of stone were more easily bored, but for
them also a reed in conjunction with sand and water seems to
have been employed.
On the whole, we may conclude that the holes were bored in
various manners, of which the principal were —
1. By chiselling, or picking with a sharp stone.
2. By grinding wdth a solid grinder, probably of wood.
3. By grinding with a tubular grinder, probably of ox-horn.
4. By drilling with a stone drill.
5. By drilling with a metallic drill.
Holes produced by any of these means could, of covirse, receive
their final polish by grinding.
With regard to the external shaping of the perforated stone
axes not much need be said. They appear to have been in some
' "Stone Age," p. 79. The boring-tool ia, in the English edition, niistakenljr
called a centre-bit.
•^ " Stone Age," p. 80. » Wood, "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 167.
* " Mceurs des Sauv. Amer.," 1724, vol. ii. p. 110. " Flint Chips." p. 525.
^ Tylor, "Early Hist, of Mankind," 2nd edit., p. 191. Wallace! "Travels on
the Amazon and Eio Negro," p. 278.
' C. C. Abbott in Nature, vol. xiv. p. 154.
PROGRESS IN MODES OF MANUFACTURE. 53
cases wrouglit into shape by means of a pick or chisel, and sub-
sequently ground ; in other cases to have been fashioned almost
exclusively by grinding. In some of the axe- hammers made
of compact quartzite, the form of the pebble from which they
have been made has evidently given the general contour,
in the same manner as has been observed on some fibrolite
hatchets, which have been made by sawing a flat pebble in two
longitudinally, and then sharpening the end, or ends, the rest
of the surface being left unaltered in form. This is also the case
with some stone hatchets, to form which a suitable pebble has
been selected, and one end ground to an edge.
Such is a general review of the more usual processes adopted in
the manufacture of stone implements in prehistoric times, which I
have thought it best should precede the account of the implements
themselves. I can hardly quit the subject without just mention-
ing that here, as elsewhere, we find traces of improvement and
progress, both in adapting forms to the ends they had to subserve,
and in the manner of treating the stubborn materials of which
these implements were made. Such progress may not have been,
and probably was not, uniform, even in any one country ; and,
indeed, there are breaks in the chronology of stone implements
which it is hard to fill up ; but any one comparing, for instance,
the exquisitely made axe-hammers and delicately chipped flint
arrow-heads of the Bronze Age, with the rude implements of the
PalaBolithic Period — neatly chipped as some of these latter are —
cannot but perceive the advances that had been made in skill, and
in adaptation of means to ends. If, for the sake of illustration,
we divide the lapse of time embraced between these two extremes
into four Periods, it appears —
1. That in the Palaeolithic, River-gravel, or Drift Period, im-
plements were fashioned by chipping only, and not ground or
polished. The material used in Europe was, moreover, as far as
at present known, mainly flint, chert, or quartzite.
2. That in the Reindeer or CavernPeriod of Central France, though
grinding was almost if not quite unused, except in finishing bone
instruments, yet greater skill in flaking flint and in working up
flakes into serviceable tools was exhibited. In some places, as at
Laugerie - haute, surface-chipping is found on the flint arrow-
heads, and cup-shaped recesses have been worked in other hard
stones than flint, though no other stones have been used for cutting
purposes.
54 MANUFACTURE OF STONE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. II.
3. That in the Neolithic or Surface Stone Period of "Western
Europe, other materials besides flint were largely used for the
manufacture of hatchets ; grinding at the edge and on the surface
was generally practised, and the art of flaking flint by pressure
from the edge was probably known. The stone axes, at least in
Britain, were rarely perforated.
4. That in the Bronze Period such stone implements, with the
exception of mere flakes and scrapers, as remained in use, were,
as a rule, highly finished, many of the axes being perforated and
of graceful form, and some of the flint arrow-heads evincing the
highest degree of manual skill. The subsequent manufacture of
stone implements in Roman and later times needs no further
mention.
Having said thus much on the methods by which the stone
implements of antiquity were manufactured, I pass on to the
consideration of their different forms, commencing with those
of the Neolithic Age, and with the form which is perhaps the
best known in all countries — the celt.
55
IMPLEMENTS OF THE NEOLITHIC PEEIOD.
CHAPTER III.
CELTS.
The name of Celt, which has long been given to hatchets, adzes,
or chisels of stone, is so well known and has been so universally
employed, that though its use has at times led to considerable
misapprehension, I have thought it best to retain it. It has been
fancied by some that the name bore reference to the Celtic people,
by whom the implements were supposed to have been made ; and
among those who have thought fit to adopt the modern fashion
of calling the Celts " Kelts '* there have been not a few who have
given the instruments the novel name of " kelts " also. In the
same manner, many French antiquaries have given the plural
form of the word as Celtce. Notwithstanding this misappre-
hension, there can be no doubt as to the derivation of the word, it
being no other than the English form of the doubtful Latin word
Ccltis or Celtes, a chisel. This word, however, is curiously enough
almost an uTra^Xeyofxevov in this sense, being best known through
the Vulgate translation of Job,^ though it is repeated in a forged
inscription recorded by Gruter and Aldus.^ The usual derivation
given is d ccelando, and it is regarded as the equivalent of cwlum. The
first use of the term that I have met with, as applied to antiqui-
ties, is in Beger's " Thesaurus Brandenburgicus," ^ 1696, where
a bronze celt, adapted for insertion in its haft, is described under
the name of Celtes.
I have said that the word celte, which occurs in the Vulgate, is
^ Oap. xix. V. 24. It also occurs in a quotation of tlie passage by St. Jerome, ia
his "Epist. ad Pammachium." See Athenteum, June 11, 1870.
- P. 329, 1. 2:5. -0 Vol. iii. p. 418.
56 CELTS. [chap. III.
of doubtful authenticity. Mr. Knight Watson/ in a paper com-
municated to the Society of Antiquaries, has shown that the
reading in many MSS. is certe, and the question has been fully
discussed by Mr. J. A. Picton,^ Mr. E. Marshall,^ Dr. M. Much,"
and others. X. v. Becker^ suggests that the error in writing celtc
for certe originated between a.d. 800 and 1400, and he points out
that Conrad Pickel, the poet laureate, who died in 1508, latinized
his surname by Celtes. Treating the subject as one of probability,
it appears much more unlikely that a scribe should place a new-
fangled word cdte in the place of such a well-known word as certe,
than that certe should have been substituted for a word that had
become obsolete. I am, therefore, unwilling absolutely to con-
demn the word, especially having regard to there being a recog-
nized equivalent in Latin, Ccvhim.
It has been suggested that there may originally have been
some connection between the Latin celtis and the British or Welsh
cellt, a flint ; but this seems rather an instance of fortuitous
resemblance than of aflinity.^ A "Welsh triad says there are three
hard things in the world — Maen Cellt (a flint stone), steel, and a
raiser's heart.
The general form of stone celts is well known, being usually
that of blades, approaching an oval in section, with the sides more
or less straight, and one end broader and also sharper than the
other. In length they vary from about two inches to as much as
sixteen inches. I do not, however, propose to enter at once into
any description of the varieties in their form and character, but
to pass in review some of the opinions that have been held con-
cerning their nature and origin.
One of the most universal of these is a belief, which may almost
be described as having been held " semper, tdiqiie et ah omnibus,"
in their having been thunderbolts.
" The country folks ^ of the West of England still hold that the
'thunder-axes ' they find, once fell from the sky." In Cornwall®
they still have medical virtues assigned to them ; the water in
which " a thunderbolt," or celt, has been boiled being a specific
1 Proe. Soc. Ant., 2nd S. vol. vii. p. 395. - N. and Q., oth S. vol. ix. p. 463.
* Op. eit., X. p. 73. * Mitth. d. Antfi. Ges. in Wlen, vol. xxiv. (1894) p. 84.
5 Arch. J. Anth., vol. x. (1876) p. 140.
* Barnes, "Notes on Ancient Britain," 1858, p. 15.
' Tylor, " Early Hist, of Man.," 2nd ed. p. 226, whicli also gee for many of the
facts here quoted. See al-so Tvlor's "Prim. Culture," vol. ii. p. 237, &e.
» Halliwell, " Rambles in West Cornwall," 1861, p. 205. Mev. Celt., 1870, p. 6.
Polwhele's "Traditions, &c.," 1826, vol. ii. p. 607. Folk-lore Juiirn., vol. i. p. 191.
BELIEF IN THEIR METEORIC ORIGIN. 57
for rheumatism. In the North of England, and in parts of
Scotland, they are known as thunderbolts,^ and, like flint arrow-
heads, are supposed to have preservative virtues, especially against
diseases of cattle. In Ireland the same superstition prevails, and
I have myself known an instance where, on account of its healing
powers, a stone celt was lent among neighbours to place in the
troughs from which cattle drank.
In the British Museum is a thin highly polished celt of jadeite,
reputed to be from Scotland, in form like Fig. 52, mounted in a
silver frame, and with a hole bored through it at either end.
It is said to have been attached to a belt and worn round the
waist as a cure for renal affections, against which the material
nephrite was a sovereign remedy.
In most parts of France," and in the Channel Islands, the stone
celt is known by no other name tlian " Coin de/oudre," or "Pierre
de tonnerre "; and Mr. F. C. Lukis ^ gives an instance of a flint
celt having been found near the spot where a signal-staff had
been struck by lightning, which was proved to have been the bolt
by its peculiar smell when broken. M. Ed. Jacquard has written
an interesting paper on " Ceraunies ou pierres de tonnerre."^
In Brittany ^ a stone celt is frequently thrown into the well
for purifying the water or securing a continued supply ; and in
Savoy it is not rare to find one of these instruments rolled up
in the wool of the sheep, or the hair of the goat, for good luck, or
for the prevention of the rot or putrid decay.
In Sweden ^ they are preserved as a protection against light-
ning, being regarded as the stone-bolts that have fallen during
thunderstorms.
In Norway they are known as Tonderkiler, and in Denmark
the old name for a celt was Torden-steen.^ The test of their being
really thimderbolts was to tie a thread round them, and place
them on hot coals, when, if genuine, the thread was not burnt,
but rather rendered moist. Such celts promote sleep.
In Germany ^ both celts and perforated stone axes are regarded
' Sibbald mentions two perforated cerauiiicc found in Scotland. " Pro<l. Nat.
Hist. Scot.," ii. lib. iv. p. 49. See also Froc. Soc. A)it. Scot., vol. xxiv. p. 370.
2 Comptes Rejidus, 1864, vol. li.x. p. 713. Cochet, "Seine Inf.," v. 15. B. de
Perthes, "Ant. Celt, et Anted.," vol. i. p. 522, &c.
3 F. C. Lukis, F.S.A., in Rcliqunry, viii. p. 208.
* Bull., Soc. deBorda, Dn.r, 1894, p. 159. See also De Nadaillac, " Les Premiers
Hommes," vol. i. p. 12; Cartailhac, "La France preh.," p. 4. ' Ibid.
« Nilsson, " Stone Age," pp. 199-201.
' "MuB. Wormianum," p. 74.
* Preu.sker, " Elicke in die Vatcrliindische Vorzeit," vol. i. p. 170.
58 CELTS. [chap. III.
as thunderbolts (Dontierkeile or Thorskeile) ; and, on account of
their valuable properties, are sometimes preserved iu families for
hundreds of years. I possess a specimen from North Germany,
on which is inscribed the date 1571, being probably the year in
which it was discovered. The curious perforated axe or hammer
found early in the last century, now preserved in the Museum of
Antiquities at Upsala,^ seems to have been a family treasure of
the same kind. It bears upon it, in early Runes, an inscription
thus interpreted by Professor Stephens — " Owns Oltha this Axe."
Another, with four ^ Runic characters upon it, was found in Den-
mark, and it has been suggested that the letters on it represent
the names of Loki, Thor, Odin, and Belgthor.^ The appearance
of the American inscribed axe from Pemberton,^ New Jersey,
described by my namesake. Dr. J. C. Evans, and published by
Sir Daniel Wilson, is not calculated to inspire confidence in its
authenticity.
The German belief is much the same as the Irish. Stone celts
are held to preserve from lightning the house in which they are
kept. They perspire when a storm is approaching ; they are good
for diseases of man and beast ; they increase the milk of cows ;
they assist the birth of children ; and powder scraped from them
may be taken with advantage for various childish disorders. It
is usually nine days after their fall before they are found on the
surface.
In the ruins of a Cistercian nunnery, Martha's Hof, at Bonn,*
a large polished celt of jadeite, like Fig. 52, was found, which
had been presumably brought there as a protection against light-
ning. It had been placed in the roof of a granary.
In Bavaria ^ and Moravia ^ stone axes, whether perforated or
not, are regarded as thunderbolts.
In Holland,^ in like manner, they are known as donder-beitels,
or thunder- chisels.
In Spain they are known as raijos or centellos, and are
regarded as thunder- stones, while among the Portuguese'
1 " Old Northern Runic Monuments," p. 205. Ant. Tidsskr., 1852-54, p. 258.
Sjoborg, " Samlingar for Nordens Fomalskara," vol. iii. p. 163.
2 Ant. Tidsskr., 1852-54, p. 8. Mem. de la Soc. des Ant. du Nord, 1850-GO, p. 28.
* Arch. Journ., vol. xxv. p. 116. * " Preh. Man," vol. ii. p. 185.
5 Jahrb. d. V. v. Alth. am Rheinl., Heft Ixxvii. 1884, p. 216, Ixxix. 1885, p. 280.
" Arch.f. Anth., vol. xxii. 1894, Corr. Bl. p. 102.
' Mitth. d. Anth. Ges. in JVien, 1882, p. 159. Zeitsck.f. Eth., vol. xii. 1880, p. 252.
* Notes and Queries, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 92.
9 Tylor, " Early Hist, of Man.," p. 227.
REGARDED AS THUNDERBOLTS. 59^
and in Brazil ^ the name for a stone axe-blade is corisco, or
lightning.
In Italy ^ a similar belief that these stone implements are
thunderbolts prevails, and Moscardo^ has figured two polished
celts as Saette o Fulmini ; and in Greece'* the stone celts are
known as Astropeiekia, and have long been held in veneration.
About the year 1081 we find the Byzantine emperor, Alexius
Comnenus,^ sending, among other presents, to the Emperor
Henry III. of Germany, aoTpoireXeKW ceceimevov fxera y^pvcracpiov,
an expression which appears to have puzzled Ducange and Gibbon,
but which probably means a celt of meteoric origin mounted in
gold. About 1670 " a stone hatchet was brought from Turkey
by the French Ambassador, and presented to Prince Francois de
Lorraine, bishop of Verdun. It stiU exists in the Musee Lorrain
at Nancy.
Nor is the belief in the meteoric and supernatural origin of
celts confined to Europe. Throughout a great part of Asia the
same name of thunderbolts or lightning-stones is applied to
them. Dr. Tylor^ cites an interesting passage from a Chinese
encyclopaedia of the seventeenth century respecting lightning-
stones, some of which have the shape of a hatchet.
In Japan ^ they are known as thunderbolts, or as the battle-axe
of Tengu,^ the Guardian of Heaven. They are there of great use ^°
medicinally ; in Java ^^ they are known as lightning-teeth. The
old naturalist Rumph,^^ towards the end of the seventeenth century,
met with many such in Java and Amboyna, which he says were
known as " Dondersteenen."
In Burma ^^ and Assam ^"^ stone adzes are called lightning-
stones, and are said to be always to be found on the spot where a
thunderbolt has fallen, provided it is dug for, three years after-
wards. When reduced to powder they are an infallible specific
1 Ann. for Nord. OJdk., 1838, p. 159. Klemm., "C. G.," vol. i. p. 2G8. Prinz
Neuwied, ii. p. 35.
* Nicolucci, "di Aloune Anni, kc, in Pietra," 1863, p. 2.
3 "Mus. Mosc," 1672, p. 144.
* Rev. Arch., vol. xv. p. 358 ; xvi. p. 145. Finlay, *' TTpotirr. 'Ap^aioX.," p. 5.
* Alexius, Lib. iii. p. 93, etscqq., quoted by Gibbon, " Dec. and Fall," c. 56.
^ Cartailhac, p. 4.
■^ "Early Hist, of Mankind," p. 211. Klemm, " CultTU--Ge8chichte," vol. vi. p. 467.
3 Tylor, op. cit. 214. » Franks, Trans. Freh. Cong., 1868, p. 260.
'" Mev. Arch., vol. xxvii. 1895, p. 326.
" Notes and Queries, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 92. Arch. Journ., vol. xi. p. 121.
^"^ Arch, fur Anthrop., vol. iv. Corr. Blait, p. 48. Rumphius, " Curios. Amboin.,"^
p. 215.
^^ Proc. Soe. Ant., 2d S., vol. iii. p. 97.
" Proc. Ethnol. Soc, 1870, p. Ixii. Joxr. Anth. Inst., vol. i. p. Ixi.
60 CELTS. [chap. III.
for ophthalmia. They ^ also render those who carry them invul-
nerahle, and possess other valuable properties. The same is the
case in - Cambodia.
Among the Malays ^ the idea of the celestial origin of these stones
generally prevails, though they are also supposed to have been
used in aerial combats between angels and demons * ; while in
China they are revered as relics of long-deceased ancestors.
I am not aware whether they are regarded as thunderbolts in
India, ^ though a fragment of jade is held to be a preserva-
tive against lightning.^ Throughout the whole of Hindostan,
however, they appear to be venerated as sacred, and placed
against the Mahadeos, or adorned with red paint as Mahadeo.
It is the same in Western Africa.'^ Sir Hichard Burton® has
described stone hatchets from the Gold Coast, which are there
regarded as " Thunder-stones." Mr. Bowen, a missionary, states
that there also the stones, or thunderbolts, which Saugo, the
Thunder god, casts down from heaven, are preserved as sacred
relics. Among the Niam-Niam,^ in central Africa, they are
regarded as thunderbolts. An instructive article by Richard
Andree on the place of prehistoric stone weapons in vulgar
beliefs will be found in the Mittheihmgen of the Anthro-
pological Society of Yienna,^^ and an article ^^ by Dr. A. Bastian on
" Stone Worship in Ethnography " in the Archie fur Anthro-
pologie.
The very remarkable celt of nephrite (now in the Christy collec-
tion), procured in Egypt many years ago by Colonel Milner, and
exhibited to the Archaeological Institute in 1868 ^^ by the late Sir
Henry Lefroy, F.R.S., affords another instance of the superstitions
attaching to these instruments, and has been the subject of a very
interesting memoir by the late Mr. C. W. King,^^ the well-known
authority on ancient gems. In this case both faces of the celt have
been engraved with gnostic inscriptions in Greek, arranged on one
' Proc. As. Soc. Bcng., July, 18G9. I^'aturc, vol. ii. p. 104.
- Nonlet, " L'age de la pierre en Cambodge," Toulouse, 1877.
^ Morlot, Actes de la Soc. jurass. d'Emul., 1863. Earl, "Native Races of the
Indian Archip.," vol. v. p. 84.— Von Siebold, Nature, vol. xxxiv. 1886, p. 52.
■• Nature, vol. xxxii. 1885, p. 626.
* Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, 1861, p. 81. Do., 1862, p. 325.
« "Ausland," 1874, p. 82.
' Rev. T. J. Bowen, " Gram, and Diet, of Yoruba Language." "Smithsonian
Contr.," vol. i. p. xvi., quoted by Dr. E. B. Tylor, Trans. Preh. Cong., 1868, p. 14.
" Jour. Anth. Inst., vol. xii. p. 450.
' Arch, per V Ant. e la Etn., vol. xiv. (1884\ p. 371.
1" 1882, p. 111. 'ii Vol. iii. 1868, p. 1.
'* Arch. Journ., vol. xxv. p. 151. '^ Ibid. p. 103.
CELT WITH GNOSTIC INSCRIPTIONS. 61
face in the form of a wreath ; and it was doubtless regarded
as in itself possessed of mystic power, by some Greek of
Fig. 11.— Celt with Gnostic Inscription. (The upper figure actual size, the lower enlarged.)
Alexandria, where it seems to have been engraved. It is
shown in Fig. 11, here reproduced from the Arcliavloyicnl
Journal. Another celt not from Egypt, but from Greece proper,
l62 CELTS. [chap. hi.
with three personages and a Greek inscription engraved upon it,
is mentioned by Mortillet.^ It seems to reproduce a Mithraic'^
scene. A perforated axe, with a Chaldoean ^ inscription upon it,
is in the Borgia collection, and has been figured and described by
Lenormant.
Curiously enough, the hatchet appears in ancient times to have
had some sacred importance among the Greeks. It was from a
hatchet that, according to Plutarch,* Jupiter Labrandeus received
that title ; and M. de Longperier ^ has pointed out a passage,
from which it appears that Bacchus was in one instance, at all
events, worshipped under the form of a hatchet, or TreXeKU^. He
has also published a Chaldaean cylinder on which a priest is repre-
sented as making an offering to a hatchet placed upright on a
throne, and has shown that the Egyptian hieroglyph for Nouter,
God, is simply the figure of an axe.
In India the hammer was the attribute of the god Indra ^ as
Vagrakarti. A similar worship) appears to have prevailed in the
North. Saxo Grammaticus mentions that the Danish prince
Magnus Nilsson, after a successful expedition against the Goths,
brought back among his trophies some Thor's hammers, " malleos
joviales," of unusual weight, which had been objects of veneration
in an island in which he had destroyed a temple. In Brittany the
fig-ures of stone celts are in several instances engraved on the
large stones of chambered tumuli and dolmens.
There are two ^ deductions which may readily be drawn from
the facts just stated ; first, that in nearly, if not, indeed, all
parts of the globe which are now civilized, there was a period
when the use of stone implements prevailed ; and, secondly, that
this period is so remote, that what were then the common
implements of every-day life have now for centuries been
regarded with superstitious reverence, or as being in some sense
of celestial origin, and not the work of man's hands.
Nor was such a belief even in Europe, and in comparatively
modern times, confined to the uneducated. On the contrary,
Mercati,^ physician to Clement VIII., at the end of the sixteenth
' Materii/uz, vol. iv. p. 9. - Mat., vol. xi. p. 538.
^ Mat., vol. xiv. p. 274. Bull, della Comni. Arch. Comunal. di Jloma, 1870.
* "Quffist. Grific," ed. 1624, p. 301.
* Congres Intern. d^Anth. et d' Arch. Prch., 1867, pp. 39, 40.
^ Kruse, " Necroliv.," Nachtrag, p. 21. Journ. As. Soc. Beng., vol. v. p. 34.
' See also Tylor, ;. c, p. 228.
" " Metallotheoa Vaticana," p. 242. De Rossi, " Scoperte Paleoetnol.," 1867, p.
11. Mat., vol. X. p. 49.
THEIR ORIGIN AND VIRTUES. 63
century, appears to have been the first to maintain that what were
regarded as thunderbolts were the arms of a primitive people
unacquainted with the use of bronze or iron. Helwing^ at
Konigsberg in 1717 showed the artificial character of the so-
called thunderbolts, and in France, De Jussieu in 1723, and
Mahudel,^ about 1734, reproduced Mercati's view to the Academic
des Inscriptions. In our own country, Dr. Plot, in his " History
of Staffordshire " ^ (1686), also recognized the true character of
these relics ; and, citing an axe of stone made of speckled flint
ground to an edge, says that either the Britons or Romans, or
both, made use of such axes ; and adds that " how they might be
fastened to a helve may be seen in the Museum Ashmoleanum,
where there are several Indian ones of the like kind fitted up in
the same order as when formerly used." Dr. Plot's views were
not, bowever, accepted by all his countrymen, for in the Philo-
sopliical Transactions of the Royal Society,'^ we find Dr. Lister
regarding unmistakeable stone weapons as having been fashioned
naturally and without any artifice. Some of the old German ^
authors have written long dissertations about these stone hatchets
and axes under the name of Cerauniae, and given representations of
various forms, which wereknown a.s Malkits fulmineus, Cuneusful-
?nims, Donnerstein, Strahlhammer, &c. Aldrovandus says that
these stones are usually about five inches long and three wide, of
a substance like flint, some so hard that a file will not touch them.
About the centre of gravity of the stone is usually a hole an inch
in diameter, quite round. They all imitate in form a hammer, a
wedge, or an axe, or some such instrument, with a hole to receive
a haft, so that some think them not to be thunderbolts, but iron
implements petrified by time. But many explode such an opinion,
and relate how such stones have been found under trees and
houses struck by lightning ; and assert that trustworthy persons
were present, and saw them dug out, after the lightning had
struck.^ Kentmann informs us how, in the month of May,
1561, there was dug out at Torgau such a bolt projected by
' " Lithographia Angerburgica," cited in Mat., vol. x. 297.
- "Hist. etMcm.," vol. xii. p. 163. Mat., toI. x. U6.
' P. 397. * No. '201.
* Aldrovandus, " Mus. Met.," 1648, p. 607—611. Gesner, " de Fig. Lapid.,"
p. 62—64. Boethius, "Hist. Gem.," lib. ii. c. 261. Besler, " Gazophyl. Rer.
Nat.," tab. 34. Wormius, "Musseum," lib. i. sec. 2, c. 12, p. 75. Moscardi,
"Musaeo," 1672, p. 14S. Lachmund, "de foss. Hildeshem.," p. 23. Tolliiis
" Gomm. et lapid. Historia," Li-iden, 1647, p. 480. De Laet, " deGomm. ct lapid.,"
Leiden, 1047, p. I.J.').
* Gesner, " de Fossilibus," p. 62 vemo.
64 CELTS. [chap, in.
thunder. It was five inches long, and of a stone harder than
basalt, which in some parts of Germany was used instead of
anvils. He also relates how near Jiilich another stone was driven
by thunder through an enormous oak, and was then dug up.
Aldrovandus gives a highly philosophical view as to the forma-
tion of these stones. He regards them as due to an admixture of
a certain exhalation of thunder and lightning with metallic
matter, chiefly in dark clouds, which is coagulated by the circum-
fused moisture and conglutinated into a mass (like flour with
water), and subsequently indurated by heat, like a brick.
Georgius ^ Agricola draws a distinction between the Brontia
and the Ceraania. The former, he says, is like the head of a
tortoise, but has stripes upon it, the latter is smooth and without
stripes. The Brontia seems to be a fossil echinus, and the
Ceraunia a stone celt, but both are thunderbolts. Going a little
further back, we find Marbodaeus,^ Bishop of Hennes, who died
in the year 1123, and who wrote a metrical work concerning
gems, ascribing the following origin and virtues to the
Ceraunms : —
" Ventomm rabie cum turbidus aestuat aer,
Cum tonat horrendum^, cum fulgurat igneus aether,
Nubibus elisus coelo cadit ille lapillus.
Cujus apud Grsecos extat de fulmine nomen :
niis quippe locis, quos constat fuhnine tactos,
Iste lapis tantum reperiri posse putatur,
XJnde KtpavvioQ est Graeco sermone vocatus :
Nam quod nos fulmen, Grseci dixere Kipavvbv.
Qui caste gerit hunc a folmine non ferietur,
Nee domus aut villae, quibus afEuerit lapis ille :
Sed neque navigio per flumina vel mare vectus,
Turbine mergetur, nee fulmine percutietur :
Ad causas etiam, vincendaque praeUa prodest,
Et dulces somnos, et dulcia somnia praestat."
It was not, however, purely from the belief of his own day that
Marbodaeus derived this catalogue of the virtues of the Cerauniae,
but from the pages of writers of a much earlier date. Pliny,^
giving an account of the precious stones known as Cerauniae,
quotes an earlier author still, Sotacus, who, to use the words of
Philemon Holland's translation, " hath set downe two kinds more
of Ceraunia, to wit, the blacke and the red, saying that they do
resemble halberds or axeheads. And by his saying, the blacke,
' " De re metallica," Basel, 1657, pp. 609, 610.
- "Marbodaei GaUi Csenomanensis de gemmarum lapidumque pretiosorum
formis, &c. " (Cologne, 1539), p. 48.
* ' ' Hist. Nat., ' ' Ub. xxxvii. c, 9. For a series of interesting Papers on "La Foudre,^
&c., dans I'Antiquite," see M. Henri Martin in the Rev. Arch., vol. xii. et $eqq.
HOW REGARDED BY THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 65
such especially as bee round withall, arc endued with this vertue,
that by the rneanes of them, cities may be forced, and whole
navies at sea discomfited ; and these (forsooth) be called ' Betuli,
whereas the long ones be named properly Ceraunioe." Pliny
goes on to say, " that, there is one more Ceraunia yet, but very
geason " it is, and hard to be found, which the Parthian magi-
cians set much store b}^, and they only can find it, for that it
is no where to bee had than in a place which hath been shot with
a thunderbolt." There is a very remarkable passage in Suetonius^
illustrative of this belief among the Pomans. After relating one
prodigy, which was interpreted as significant of the accession of
Galba to the purple, he records that, "shortly afterwards light-
ning fell in a lake in Cantabria and twelve axes were found, a by
no means ambiguous omen of Empire." The twelve axes were re-
garded as referring to those of the twelve lictors, and were therefore
portentous ; but their being found where the lightning fell would
seem to have been considered a natural occurrence, except so
far as related to the number. It appears by no means improbable
that if the lake could be now identified, some ancient pile settle-
ment might be found to have existed on its shores.
The exact period when Sotacus, the most ancient of these autho-
rities, wrote is not known, but he was among the earliest of Greek
authors who treated of stones, and is cited by Apollonius
Dyscolus, and SoHnus, as well as by Pliny. We cannot be far
wrong in assigning him to an age at least two thousand years
before our time, and yet at that remote period the use of these
stone " halberds or axeheads " had so long ceased in Greece, that
when found they were regarded as of superhuman origin and
invested with magical virtues. We have already seen that flint
arrow-heads were mounted, probably as charms, in Etruscan neck-
laces, and we shall subsequently see that superstitions, almost
similar to those relating to celts, have been attached to stone
arrow-heads in various countries.
To return from the superstitious veneration attaching to them,
to the objects themselves. The materials'* of which celts in Great
Britain are usuall}' formed are flint, chert, clay-slate, porphyry,
' An interesting paper on " Baetuli " by Mr. G. F. Hill, is in the Reliquary and
Illustrated Archreoloyisty vol. ii. 1896, p. 23.
2 Geason, Scarce. "Scant and geason," Harrison's "England,"— Halliwell,
Diet, of Archaic Words, s. v.
^ "Nee multo post in CaiitalTia^ lacumfulmen decidit, ropertsequo sunt duodeciin
secures, baud ambiguum sumn i imperii signum," Galba, viii. c. 4.
* See Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. iii. p. 127, and "Wilde's " Cat. R. I. A.," p. 72.
F
66 CELTS. [chap. III.
quartzite, felstone, sei"pentine, and various kinds of greenstone,
and of metamorphic rocks. M. A. ])amour,^ in liis "Essays on
the Composition of Stone Hatchets, Ancient and Modern," gives
the following list of materials : quartz, agate, flint, jasper,
obsidian, fibrolite, jade, jadeite, chloromelanite, nniphibolite,
aphanite, diorite, saussurite, and staurotidv ; but even to these
many other varieties of rock might be added.
The material most commonly in use in the southern and eastern
parts of Britain was flint derived from the chalk ; in the north and
west, on the contrary, owing to the scarcity of flint, different hard
metamorphic and eruptive rocks were more frequently employed,
not on account of any superior qualities, but simply from being
more accessible. So far as general character is concerned, stone
celts or hatchets may be divided into three classes, which I pro-
pose to treat separately, as follows : —
1. Those merely chipped out in a more or less careful manner,
and not ground or polished ;
2. Those which, after being fashioned by chipping, have been
ground or polished at the edge only ; and
3. Those which are more or less ground or polished, not only
at the edge, but over the whole surface.
In describing them I propose to term the end opposite to the
cutting edge, the butt-end ; the two principal surfaces, which are
usualh' convex, I shall speak of as the faces. These are either
bounded by, or merge in, what I shall call the sides, according as
these sides are sharp, rounded, or flat. In the figures the celts are
all engraved on the scale of half an inch to the inch, or half linear
measure, and are presented in front and side-view, with a section
■beneath.
' Comptes RcnclKf^ de V Ac. des Sci., 1865, vol. Ixi. pp. 313, 357; 18(3G, Ixiii. p. 1038.
67
CHAPTER IV.
CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS.
Oei.ts which have been merely chipped into form, and left un-
<^round, even at the edge, are of frequent occurrence in England,
especially in those counties where flint is abundant. They are
not, however, nearly so common in collections of antiquities as
those which have been ground either wholly or in part ; and this,
no doubt, arises from the fact that many of them are so rudely
chipped out, that it requires a practised eye to recognize them,
when associated, as they usually are, with numerous other flints
of natural and accidental forms. No doubt many of these
chipped celts, especially where, from the numbers discovered,
there appears to have been a manufactory on the spot, were
intended to be eventually ground ; but there are some which are
roughly chipped, and which may possibly have been used as
agricultural implements without further preparation ; and others,
the edges of which are so minutely and symmetrically chipped,
that they appear to be adapted for use as hatchets or cutting-tools
without requiring to be farther sharpened by grinding. There
are others again, as already mentioned at page 32, the edges of
which have been produced by the intersection of two facets only,
and are yet so symmetrical and sharp, that whetting their edge
on a grindstone would be superfluous.
Of this character I possess several specimens from Suffolk, of which
one from Mildenhall is engraved in Fig. 12. As will be observed,
the edge is nearly semicircular, but it is nevertheless formed merely by
the intersection of two facets, eacli resulting from a single chip or
tiake of flint having been removed. I have in my collection another
hatchet from the same place, which is so curiously similar to this in
all respects, that it was probably made by the same hand. I am not,
however, aware whether the two were found together.
There is in these implements a peculiar curvature on one face, as
shown in the side view, which, I think, must be connected with the
method by which they were attached to their handles. From the form,
I- 2
68
CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HE'W'N CELTS.
[chap. IV
it seems probable that they vrere mounted as adzes, -with the edge
transversely to the line of the handle, and not as axes. I have a more
roughly-chijiped specimen of the same type, found near Wanlud's
Bank. Luton, Beds, by Mr. W. "Whitaker. F.E.S., in which the same
curvature of one of the faces is observable. It is not so conspicuous
in a larger implement of the same class, also from Mildenhall (Fig. 13),
but this likewise is slightly curved longitudinally. In the Christy Col-
lection is another, found at Burwell, Cambridgeshire, of the same type.
It is rounded at the butt, but nearly square at the cutting edge, which
is formed by the junction of two facets, from which flakes have been
struck off. I have seen others of the same character from near the
Fig. 12.— Near Mildenhall. J
Fig. 13.— X^ar Mildenhall. J
Bartlow Hills, Cambs, and from Sussex. Others, from 4| to 6 inches
in length, from Burwell, Wicken, and Bottisham Fens, are preserved
in the museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, and in my own
collection. In the Greenwell collection is a specimen 7J inches long,
from Burnt Fen. I have also a French implement of this kind from
the neighbourhood of Abbeville.
Implements with this peculiar edge, are found in Denmark. Indeed,
the edges of the common form of Kjokken-modding axes' are usually
produced in the same manner, by the intersection of two facets, each
formed by a single blow, though the resulting edge is generally almost
straight.
Closely approaching this Danish form, is that of a celt of brown
' Madsen, " Afbild.
1861, Fig. 1.
pi. iii. 1 to 3. Kgl. Danske Videnth, Seltkabs Forhand.,
THE KJOKKEN-MODDING TYPE.
m
Fig. 14.— NearThetford.
flint, shown in Fig. 14, and found near Tliotford by the late Mr. J. "W.
Flower, F.G.S., with one face nearly flat, and the edge formed by a
single transverse facet. The implements,
however, of this type, with the chisel edge,
are rarely met with in this country ; and,
generally speaking, axes similar to those
which occur in such numbers in the
Danish Kjokken-moddings and Coast-
finds are of very rare occurrence else-
where. I have, however, a small nearly-
triangular hatchet of the Danish type,
and with the sides bruised in the same
manner (probably with a view of prevent-
ing their cutting the ligaments by which
the instruments were attached to their
handles, or, possibly, to prevent their
cutting the hand when held), which I
found in the circular encampment known
as Maiden Bower, near Dunstable.
Hatchets of this type have also been
found in some numbers in the valley of
the Somme, at Montiers, near Amiens,
as well as in the neighbourhood of
Pontlevoy (Loir et Cher), in the Camp de Catenoy (Oise), and in
Champagne.^ I have also specimens from the neighbourhood of
Pressigny-le-Grand and of Chatellerault. It would therefore
appear that this form of implement is not confined to maritime
tlistricts, and that it can hardly be regarded as merely a weight for a
fishing-line,' as has been suggested by Professor Steenstrup.^
A few of the large Polynesian adzes of basalt have their edges pro-
duced by a similar method of chipping and are left unground.
Capt. G. V. Smith* has experimented in Jutland with the Kjiikken-
miiddingaxes, and has cut down fir-trees of seven inches diameter with
them. The trees for Mr. Sehested's^ wooden hut were cut down and
trimmed with stone hatchets ground at the edge.
In the British Museum are several roughly-chipped flints that seem
to present a peculiar type. They are from about 4 to 6 inches long,
nearl}^ Hat on one face, coarsely worked to an almost semicircular
bevel edge at one end, and with a broad rounded notch on each side,
as if to enable them to be secured to a handle, possibly as agricultural
implements. They formed part of the Durden collection, and were
found in the neighbourhood of Blandford.
Another and more common form of roughly-chipped celt is that of
which an example is given in Fig. 15, from my own collection. It was
found at Oving, near Chichester, and was given me by Professor W.
Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. The edge, in this instance, is formed in the
same manner, by the intersection of two facets, but the section is nearly
1 De Bayc, "TArch. prc'hiwt.," p. 55. - Lubbock, Preb. Times, 4tb ed., p. 100.
3 Effl. Danske Vtdensk. Seh/cabs Fork., 1861, p. 342.
* Aarb. for. Nord. Oldlc, 1891, p. 383. See also S. Miiller, Mem. des Ant. du
Xtrd, 1884-89, p. 371 ; Aarb., 1888, p. 238.
* " Arobaeol. Undersogelser, " 1884, p. 3.
70
CHIPPED OK ROIGH-HEWX CELTS.
[chap. IV.
triangular. If attaclied to a handle it was probably after the manner
of an ad/e rather tlian of an axe. I have a smaller specimen of the
same type, and another, flatter
and more neatly chipped,
7f inches long, from the
Cambridge Fens.
I have seen implements of
much the same form which
have been found at Bemerton,
near Salisbury (Blackmore
^[useum) ; at St. Mary Bourne,
Andover ; at Santon Down-
ham, near Thetford ; at Litrle
Dunham. Norfolk ; near
Ware ; and near Canterbury ;
but the edge is sometimes
t'jrmed by several chips, in
the same manner as the sides,
and not merely by the junc-
tion of two planes of fracture.
There are also smaller rough
celts with the subtriangidar
section, of which I have a
good example, 4^ inches long,
found by Mr. W. Whitaker,
F.E.S., near Maiden Castle,
Dorsetshire. It is curiously
similar to one that I found
near Store Lyngby, in Den-
mark.
The same form occurs in
France.
Other roughly-chipped im-
plements are to be found
in various parts of Britain,
lying scattered over the fields,
some of them so rude that
they may be regarded as merely flints chipped into form, to serve some
temporary purpose ; as wasters thrown away as useless by those who
were trying to manufacture stone implements which were eventually
destined to be ground ; or as the rude implements of the merest savage.
Certainly some of the stone hatchets of the Australian natives are
quite as rude or ruder, and yet we find them carefidly provided with
handles. In Hertfordshire, I have myself picked up several such
implements ; and they have been found in considerable numbers in
the neighbourhood of Ickhngham in Suffolk, near Andover, and in
other places. An adze-like celt of this kind (4^, inches) is recorded
from Wishmoor,' Surrey. "Were proper search made for them, there
are probably not many districts where it would be fruitless. In
Ireland they appear to be rare ; but nimierous roughly-shaped imple-
Umi--. i.L-.ir L„i'_ui;ster.
* Jour. Anih. Intt., vol. ii., p. oG8, pi. x.-ti.
SOME POSSIBLY AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.
71
ments of this class have been found in Poitoii and in other parts of
France. They are also met with in Belgium and Denmark.
As has already been suggested, it is by no means improbable
that some of these ruder un])olished implements were employed in
agriculture, like the so-called shovels and hoes of flint of North
.America, described by Profess( r Rau. I have a flat celt-like imple-
ment about 6\ inches long and 3 inches broad, found in Cayuga
County, New York, which, though unground, has its broad end
beautifully polislied on both faces, apparently by friction of the silt}'
soil in which it has been used as a hoe. It is, as Professor Rau has
pointed out in other cases, slightly striated in the direction in which
the implement penetrated the ground.' I have also an Egyptian
chipped flint hoe from Qui-nah, polished in a precisely similar manner.
It is doubtful whether many of the rough implements from the neigh-
bourhood of Thebes are Neolithic or Palteolithic.-
The implement represented in Fig. 16, rude as it is, is more sym-
metrical and more carefully chipped than many of this class. I found
it, with several other worked
flints, on the surface of the soil in
a field between Newhaven and
Telseombe, Sussex, where had
formerh' stood a barrow, one of
a group of four, the positions of
which are shown on the Ordnance
Map, though they are now all
levelled to the ground. It is, of
course, possible that such an im-
plement may have been merely
blocked out, with the intention of
finishing it b}^ subsequent cliip-
ping and grinding, and that it
was not intended for use in its
present condition ; or it may pos-
sibly have been deposited in the
tumulus as a votive offering, or
in compliance with some ancient
custom, as suggested hereafter.
(See p. 282.) It will be observed
that the original crust of the
block of flint from which it was
fashioned is left at the butt end.
A somewhat similar specimen,
from the neighbourhood of Hast-
ings, and another from a tumulus
at Seaford are figured in the
Sussex ArchcBological Collection!^ ^ ; and I have one from the Thames
at Battersea, and others from Suffolk and from the Cambridge Fens.
The late Sir Joseph Prestwich, F.P.S., found one of the same character
at Shoreham, near Sevenoaks, and the late Mr. J. F. Lucas had
' Stnithsoninn Report, 1863, p. 379 ; 1868, p. 401. " Flint Chips," 445.
- Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v., p. 331.
2 Vol. xix., 53 ; xxxii., 173.
^.'fM^..
Fig. 10. — Xear Nowhavtn. J
72
CHII'1'ED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS.
[chap. IV
another, 4 inches long, from Arbor Low, Derbysliire. A small
chipped celt was found in a barrow at Pelynt,' Cornwall.
Fig. 1 7 shows an implement found by my eldest son, at the foot of
the Downs, near Dunstable. It has been chipped from a piece of
tabular flint, and can hardly have been intended to be ground or
Fig. 17.— Near Dunstable
polished. It is more than usually oval in form, and in general
character approaches very closely to the ovate implements from the
Eiyer gravels ; from the manner in w hieh it is fashioned, and from its
being found in company with worked flints unquestionably belonging
to the Surface Period, I regard it, however, as of Neolithic and not of
Palfeolithic age.= Another implement of much the same form, found
near Grime's Graves, in Norfolk,^ has been tigured by Canon Green-
well, F.Pt.S. Others were found at Cissbury," Sussex, and at Dunmer,*
and near Ellisfield Camp, Hants. Mr. C. Monkman had another, 5f
inches long, and rather narrower in its proportions, found at Bempton,
Yorkshire. I have implements of much the same shape, though
larger, from some of the ancient flint-implement manufactories of
Belgium.
The next specimen (Fig. 18) is from Burwell Fen, Cambridge, and
I "Naenia Comubiae," p. 194. 3 /o„^_ ^^/j gg^^ j^- g _ y^]^ jj^ pj j-j-y^y 7
^ The di-scoveries of Mr. Worthington Smith at Caddington, a few miles from
Dunstable, suggest the possibility of this specimen being, after all, paleolithic.
* Arch., vol. xlii., pi. viii. 10, 11. * Arch. Assoc. Jour., vol. xlv., p. 114.
SOME CAREFULLY CHIPPED.
73
Fig. 19— MildenhaU. J
is in my own collection. It is of beautiful workmanship, most skil-
fully and symmetrically chipped, and thinner than is usual with im])le-
ments of this class. The edge is perfectly regular, and has Leen
formed by delicate secondary chipping. So
sharp is it, that I should almost doubt its ever
having been intended to be ground or polished.
That a sufficient edge for cutting purposes
could be obtained by careful chip]jing with-
out grinding, seems to bo evinced by the fact
that some stone celts, the whole body of which
has been polished, are found with the edge
merely chipped and not ground. No doubt
when these blades were new, they were
polished all over; but as the edge became
broken away by wear, it would appear as if
the owners had contented themselves by
chipping out a fresh edge, without taking
the trouble of grinding it. Still it must be
borne in mind, that a vast amount of labour
in grinding was saved by the implement being
brought as nearly to the required shape as possible by chipping only,
80 that the circumstance of polished celts having unground edges may
be due to merely accidental causes.
These neatly-chipped flint celts are
found also in Ireland. I liave one of
the same section as Fig. 18, but longer
and narrower. It was found in Ulster.
I have also specimens from Poitou.
They are of occasional but rare occur-
rence with this section in Denmark.
A neatly-chipped flint hatchet of small
size and remarkably square at the edge
is shown in Fig. 19. It was found at
Mildenhall, Suffolk, and is in the Green-
well collection, now Dr. Sturge's. There
are traces of grinding on some portions
of the faces. In the same collection is
another hatchet of the same character
from Ganton Wold, Yorkshire, the edge
of which is ground. I have an unground
example of this type from Lakenheath.
The original of Fig. 20 is in the
Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian
Society, and was found in Bottisham
Fen. In neatness of workmanship it
much resembles the last ; but it is
slightly curved longitudinally, and has
the inner face more ridged than the
outer. It was probably intended to be moimted as an adze.
I have a beautiful implement of the same general form, but nearly
flat on one face, found in Burwell Fen. It has been manufactured
from a large flake.
Fig. 20.— Bottisham Fen
74
CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS.
[chap. IV.
The hatchet engraved as Fig. 21. was found in ploughing near
Bournemouth, and ^vas kiudl}- brought under my notice by the late
Ml-. Albert Way, F.S.A. Its priucipal peculiarity is the inward
cm-vature of the sides, rendering it somewhat narrower in the middle
than at either end. Its greatest expansion is, however, at what
appears to have been intended for the cutting edge, so that at this end
its outline much resembles that of one of the Scandinavian forms.
The sides, however, instead of being square are sharp. The specimen
from Burwell Fen, Fi<r. 36, exhibits nearly the same form, but has the
edge ground. A thinner specimen, also from Burwell Fen, and in the
Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, is unground. It is
Fig. 21. — Near Uoumemouth.
Fig. 22.— Thetford.
5f inches long, 2^ inches broad at one end and 1^ inches at the other,
but only l^ inches broad towards the middle of the blade. Mr. T,
Layton, F.S.A., possesses a celt foxind in the Thames, that presents
this peculiarity in a still more exaggerated manner. It is 6;! inches
long, 2f inches broad at one end and 2^ inches at the other, but only
1^ inches in width at the middle of the blade.
A remarkably elegant specimen of similar character is shown in
Fig. 22. It was found on the surface at Thetford Warren, Suffolk,
and was formerly in the collection of Mr. J. VV. Flower, F.G.S., but
THE COMMON FORMS.
<{>
now in mine. It in of grey flint, and has been formed from a large
flake, a con.siderable portion of the flat face of which has been left
untouciied by the subsequent working. All along the sides, however,
as well as at the ends, it has been chipped on both faces to a sym-
metrical form. The outer surface of the original flake has almost
entirely disappeared during the process of manufacturing the adze,
for such it appears to have been rather than an axe. The form is
suggestive of the tool having been copied from one in metal, and is
very like that of the flat bronze celts. It may belong to the transi-
tional period, when bronze was coming into use, but was still too scarce
to have superseded flint.
TJie commonest form of tiie symmetrically-chipped but uuground
celts is that shown in Fig. 2.3. The particular 'specimen engraved is
in my own collection ; and. like
so many other antiquities of
this class, came from the Fen
district, having been found in
Eeach Fen in 1852.
It is eqimlly convex on both
faces, and, from its close re-
semblance in form to so many
of the polished celts, it was
I^robably destined for grinding.
I have another of the same
form. 6i inches long, from the
neighbourhood of Thetford.
A magnificent specimen of
this class, but wider in propor-
tion to its length, found near
Mildenhall, is preserved in the
Christy Collection.
I have a very fine specimen
9 inches long, from the Thames,
and others 6^ and 5^^ inches
long, of a wider form, and
delicately chipped all round,
from Burwell Fen. The late
Mr. James Carter, of Cam-
bridge, had one of the narrower
kind, 9 inches long, found at
Blunt's II ill, near Witham,
Essex. The same form, with
numerous modifications, -was
found in the pits at Cissbury,^ which will shortly be described. One
about 81 inches long, in outline like Fig. 20, was found in Angle-
sea.^ Another 9^ inches long, was found near Farnham,'' Dorset.
One of the most remarkable discoveries of celts of this character, is
that of which I have seen a MS. memorandum in the hands of the late
Mrs. Dickinson,* of Hurstpierpoint, Sussex, who herself had four of the
Fig. 23. — Reach Fen, Cambridge.
' Arch., vol. xlii., pi. viii. 17. * Arch. Jour., vol. xxxi., p.
•* " Eic. on Cranborne Chase," vol. ii., pi. xc.
* See alflo Chichester vol. of Arch. Inst., p. 61.
301.
76
CHIPPED OR KOUGH-HKWN CELTS.
[CIIAV. IV
Fig. 24. — Scaniridge,
Yorkshire.
implements. According to this account, a man digging- flints on,
Clayton Hill, on the South Downs, Sussex, in
^jj^ ^ 1803, found near the windmill, just beneath the
/-. -5k % sod, and lying side by side, eight celts of grey
flint, chipped into form and not ground. One
.^ a^ of these was as much as 13 inches long. Those
r.-T^ in Mrs. Dicldnson's collection were — (1) llf long
f -, ^ £ ■ by 3i broad and 2^ thick, (2) 9^ by SJ by IJ,
mUH r • (■^) H "by 3i by 2^. and (4) 6^ by 3 by If. Four
^^^^^1 C iB ^uch. 7^ to 9 inches long, chipped only, were
^^^^^B \m found buried in a row at Teddington.'
^^^^^V |V These deposits seem to have been intentional.
^^^^ V <<in the Hervey Islands- it was customary on
the eve of battle to burj- the stone adzes of the
family in some out-of-the-way place. Beds of
these (in heathen times) priceless treasures are
still occasionally discovered. About a dozen
adzes, large and small, were arranged in a circle,
the points being towards the centre. Tlie knowledge of tlie localities
where to find them was care-
fully handed down from one
generation to another." At
Northmavine,^ Orkney, seven
celts were found, arranged
in a circle with the points
towards the centre. From
two to eight flint axes are
sometimes found together in
Denmark, and by Dr. Sophus
Miiller* are regarded as
funeral oft'erings or ex-votos.
Such roughly-chipped celts
have been found in immense
numbers in the neighbour-
hood of Eastbourne. A large
collection of them is in the
- M^HKJ Museum at Lewes. I have
U ^i^HBT/f seen a large celt of this sec-
tion, but with flatter edge*
and straighter sides, which
was found in peat at Thatch-
am, near Newbury, Berks.
Of the same class is a celt
1 Prnc. Soc. Ant. ,2nd S.,to1. x.,
- iiev. W. W. GUI, LL.D., Hep.
Austral. Assoc, for tht Adv. of
^ Science, vol. ir., 1892, p. 613.
\^Rf ^ Low's Tour., quoted in Folk-
lore Jour., vol. i., p. 191.
*■ Aarb.f. Xord. OMk., 1886, p.
Fie. 25.— Forest of Bere, near Homdeau. h 200 : Mem. Soc. Ji. des Ant. du Xord,
1886-91, p. 227; Mat., 3rd. S.,
Froe. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iv., p. 521. vol. v., 1888, p. 105.
if;
m.'''f
THEIll ABUNDANCE.
77
found near Norwich, engraved in the Geologist} I have seen several
other specimens from Norfolk, as well as from Wilts, Cambridgeshire,
Dorsetshire, and other counties. Some si^ecimens from the neighbour-
hood of Grime's Graves, Norfolk, have been figured.- Flint celts of
this class are occasionally found in Yorkshire, but the edge is usually
less round in outline than Fig. 23. In some cases it is straight, like
Fig. 19. Some of those from Yorkshire are extremely small, as will be
seen by Fig. 24, from Scamridge, in the North Riding. I have other
specimens, 2 and 2^ inches long and about 1^ inches broad, from the
Yorkshire Wolds. I have also one of the ordinary form from Lough
Neagh, Ireland ; but it has been slightly ground near the edge.
Though rare in Ireland, flint celts of this form and character are of
common occurrence in France ^ and Belgium. Many such have been
■h
^^W
25a.— Isle of Wight.
found at Spiennes, near Mons, where there appears to have been a
manufactory, as already mentioned ; and I have specimens from
Amiens (including one from Montiers, 10 inches), from various parts
of Poitou, and from the Seine, at Paris. A broad, thin instrument of
this class, made of Silurian schist, and found in the dolmen of Bernac,
Charente,* is engraved by I)e Rochebruno.
They occur also in Denmark and Sweden in considerable numbers.
A slightly different and narrower form of implement is shown in
Fig. 25, which first appeared in the Archceological Journal, vol. x.k., p.
371. The original is of yellow flint, and was found in the Forest of
Bere, Hampshire. I may add that I have picked up several in the
' Vol. vi., p. iii. - Jour. Etli. Soc, vol. ii., pi. xxviii. 4, .5.
^ Watelet, '' Asje tic PieiTe du Dep. de I'Aisne," &c.
* '"Restes de I'lnd., &c.," pi. xiii. 1. ^
78 CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS. [CHAP. IV.
parish of Abbot's Langley, Herts. One like Fig. 2o, but smaller, found
at Bedmond,' has been figured. A narrow specimen (6 inches, like Fig.
25) from Aldboume, Hungerford, is in the collection of Mr. J. W.
Brooke, of Marlborough.
Many of the other forms of polished celts occur in the unground
condition, of the same shape, for instance, as Fig. 35. It is needless to
multiply illustrations, though I must mention a remarkable instru-
ment of this character preserved in the Greenwell collection. It
is of flint 6^ inches long, and in outline closely resembling Fig. 35.
It is, however, much curved longitudinally, the curve being more rapid
towards the butt-end, which is also somewhat thickened. The chord
of the rather irregular arc thus produced is ^ an inch. Such a tool
can only have been mounted as an adze or hoe with the concave face
towards the helve. It was found at Kenny Hill, Mildenhall.
A singular instrument cliipped out of flint, like three celts conjoined
into one, so as to form a sort of tribrach, is said to have been found
in the Isle of Wiglit. It is shown in Fig. 25a, kindly lent by the Society
of Antiquaries.- In form it is of much the same character as some
of the implements from Yucatan,' and from Vladimir,* Russia. It may
be compared with some examples of strange forms from Honduras.*
I have already spoken of the method in which these and other
allied forms of stone implements were manufactured ; but, before
quitting the subject of chipped or rough-hewn celts, I must
devote a little space to the interesting discovery made by General
Pitt Rivers, F.Il.S., on the site of an ancient manufactory of flint
implements, among which celts predominated, within the entrench-
ment known as Cissbury, near Worthing, where Colonel Ayre,
R.A.,^ found, some years ago, a A'ery perfect flint celt. The en-
trenchment has now been proved to be of more recent date than
the pits shortly to be mentioned.
Accounts of the investigations of General Pitt Rivers and of
some subsequently carried on by Mr. Ernest Willett are given in
the Archceologia,'' from which most of the following particulars
are abstracted. Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., also assisted at a part
of the exploration, and some of my illustrations are taken from
specimens in his collection. The earthwork, of irregularly oval
form, surrounds the summit of a chalk hill, near Worthing, in
Sussex, on the western slope of which, within the rampart, are
some fifty funnel or cup-shaped depressions, some of small size,
but others about seventy feet in diameter and twelve feet in depth.
At the base of these there seem to have been originally shafts
1 Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. viii., 1896, pi. xi. 1.
'^ See I'roe. &nc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v., p. 113; Arch. Jour., vol. xxx., p. 28.
3 Zeitsch.f. Eth., vol. xii., p. 237. •• Cong. Prch. Moscou, 1893, p. 249.
* I'roc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v., p. 94 ; Arch. Jour., vol. xxx., p. 35.
« Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. ii., p. 268. ' Vol. xlii., p. 53 ; xlv., p. 337.
DISCOVERIES AT CISSBURY. 79
sunk into the chalk, and similar shafts have now been found
beneath the rampart. Many of these were opened, and were
found to contain, amongst the rubble with which they were par-
tially filled, well-chipped celts and ruder implements, quantities
of splinters and minute chippings of flint ; flakes, 8ome worked on
one or both faces ; some few boring-tools and scrapers ; and many
stones that had been used as hammers. Most of the flints had
become quite white on the surface, as is often the case when
they rest in a porous soil. Parts of antlers of red deer, remains
of horse, goat, boar, and ox [Bos lonyifrons), oyster and a few
other marine shells and snail-shells, as well as fragments of
charcoal and rude pottery, were also found. At the base of one
of the pits explored by Mr. Willett, galleries were found of pre-
cisely the same character as those at Grime's Graves, near Brandon,
and at Spiennes, near Mons, in Belgium, which I have already
described, and it is evident that they were excavated for the purpose
of procuring flint, to be chipped into the form of implements
upon the spot. It does not appear certain that the portions of
antler which were found had been used, as in the other cases, as
picks for digging in the chalk ; but, possibly, some of the roughly-
chipped flints, adapted for being held in the hand,^ and not unlike
in form to the chopper-like flints from the far older deposit in
the cave of Le Moustier, Dordogne,^ may have been thus used, or
as wedges to split the chalk. This is by no means inconsistent
with their having been originally flints partially trimmed into
shape, in order to be made into celts, and used for a secondary
purpose when it was found that they were not adapted for what
they were at first intended to be. In chipping them out, the
part of the nodule best suited for being held in the hand would be
thus grasped, and the opposite edge be trimmed by the hammer,
and in this manner the semblance of a chopper would be produced
in what was merely an inchoate celt. I have found flints on the
♦Sussex Downs, with one side trimmed in much the same manner
as the Cissbury specimens, but which, from their form, can hardly
have been intended for "choppers."
Looking at a series of the worked flints from Cissbury, exclu-
sive of flakes and mere rough blocks, the general fades is such as
to show that the ordinary forms of celts, or hatchets, were those
at which, in the main, the workmen aimed. A small proportion
of them are highly finished specimens, not improbably hidden
' Arch., vol xlii., pi. viii. 1. - " Reliq. Aquit.," A., pi. t.
80 CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEW.V CELTS. [cHAP. IV.
away in the loose chalk when chipped out and accidentally left
there. Others are broken ; not, I think, in use, but in the process
of manufacture. A great proportion are very rude, and ill-
adapted for being groimd. They are, in fact, such as may be
regarded, if not as wasters, yet, at all events, as unmarketable ;
for it seems probable that at Cissbury, as well as at other manu-
factories of flint implements, they were produced, not for imme-
diate use by those who made them, but to be bartered away for
some other commodities. In Central America,^ at the present
day, the natives use cutting instruments of flint, which must,
apparently, have been brought from a distance of four hundred
miles ; while, among the aborigines of Australia,' flints were
articles of barter between distant tribes ; and some of the chalce-
dony implements in the early Belgian caves are made of material
presumed to have come from the south of France. Mr. W. H.
Holmes,^ has described an ancient quarry in the Indian territory,
Missouri, from which chert was obtained and roughed out on the
spot. Some of the rude forms exactly resemble the " turtle
backs" of Trenton, by many regarded as paliTeolithic. The antiquity
of the quarry does not, however, exceed two hundred years. Only
a single fragment of a polished celt was found by General Pitt
Rivers within the inclosure ; though another was found by Lord
Northesk in a pit that he subsequently opened. They are equally
rare in proportion at Spiennes. This fact, and the absence of
grinding-stones, also seem to show that the process of grinding
was carried on elsewhere, in cases where a ground edge was
required.
General Pitt Rivers suggests a question, whether the imple-
ments found at Cissbury belong to the Neolithic or Palseolithic
age, and seems almost to regard the distinction between the imple-
ments of those two ages as founded merely on the minor point of
whether they are chipped simply, or also polished. The associated
fauna in this case is however purely Neolithic or, as Professor
Boyd Dawkins would call it, Pre-historic ; and whatever may bt
the case with a few of the specimens which resemble in form
implements from the River Drift, the greater number are unmis-
takeably of forms such as are constantly found polished, and are
undoubtedly Neolithic. Indeed, as already stated, a portion of at
all events one polished specimen has been found in one of the
' Jour. Anth. Soc, 1869, p. cxii. - Trans. Ethnol. Soc., Is. S., vol. iii., p. 269.
3 Smiths. Ir.st. Rep., 1894.
DISCOVERIES AT CISSBURY.
81
pits. I need not, however, dwell longer on the circumstances of
thia discovery, nor on the speculations to which it ma}' give rise,
but will proceed to give illustrations of a few of the forms of
implements found at Cissbury, referring for others to the memoirs
already citorl. A fine series of the implements has been presented
to the Christy Collection, now in the British Museum.
One of the most hig'lily-liuislied forms, of which, in all, a con-
sidei-ablo number were found, is a long, narrow instrument, as shown
in Fiji^. 26. So narrow and pointed are tlioy, that General Pitt Rivers
thought tliat they may have been intended to be used with the pointed
end as spear-heads. Such instruments, however, are occasionally found
witli the broad end ground to an edge. It is also to be observed that
Fig. 26— Cissbury.
FiP. 27.— Cissbury.
this circular edge is generally more carefully chipped into form than
the pointed butt, and was therefore considered of more importance.
Another specimen is figured in the Archceolngia ;'^ and a narrow flint
celt of this character, b\ inches long, found with a larger celt in a
barrow in Hampshire/ is in the British Museum.
Another rough-hewn celt is shown in Fig. 27. Like several others,
both from Cissbury and Spiennes, the two ends are almost similar in
form, so that it is difficult to say at which extremity the cutting edge was
intended to be. Possibly it was found convenient to fashion some of the
' Vol. xlii., pi. viii. 18.
Horse Ferales," pi. ii. 3G
82
CHIPPED OR ROUGH -HEWN CELTS.
[chap
IV.
implements, in the first instance, into this comparatively regular oval
contOTir, and subsequently to chip an edge at -whichever end seemed best
adapted for the purpose. This instrument is not imlike that from the
Forest of Bere, Fig. 25. Another from Cissbury, with more parallel
sides, has been figured.' Others from the same place are like Figs.
16. iV, and 23, and like Fig. 35, though not ground at the edge.
Others, again, but much f evrer in number, are of a wedge-shaped form,
with the thin end rounded. The specimen of this kind shown in Fig. 28
V
lie. ZS.— CliiCiUTT.
F -
is in the Greenwell Collection, and is very symmetrical. The butt-end
is considerably battered at one part, but not at its extremity; so that this
bniising may'possibly have been on the block of flint before the imple-
ment was chipped out. A less symmetrical specimen is figured by
General Pitt Pavers, having the butt formed of the natural crust of the
flint. That here engraved appears well adapted for holding in the hand,
80 as to be used as a kind of chopper ; but the rounded edge is uninjured.
Can it have been vised as a wedge for sj)litting open the chalk ? or is
it to be regarded as a" special loi-m of implement ? If so, it seems
singular that, if such a form was in use in Britain, no specimens have
hitherto been met with having the edge groimd. I should be more
satisfied as to the form being intentional and for a certain purpose, had it
occurred elsewhere than among what is evidently the refuse of a manu-
f actorv : and yet a somewhat similar hand-tool is in use among the natives
of AuWralia. A polished implement of analogous form is moreover
shown in Fig. 83a. Two or three pointed implements, in form Kke
Fig. 417, were found at Cissbury. Judging from shape alone, they
might be regarded as being of Palaeolithic age. but their surroundings
prove them to be NeoHthic.
I Arch., vol. xlii. pi. viii. 21.
. . p-OUND IN COMPANY WITH POLISHED CELTS. 83
Fig. 29 also forms part of the Greenwell Collection, and presents a
very remarkable form, which, at first sight, has the appearance of
being a chisel or hatchet, with a large tang, intended for insertion in a
socket. The lower part is symmetrically chipped, like the cutting end
of a narrow celt, with sharp sides, such as Fig. 26 ; but at a point a
little more than half way along the blade, it rapidly expands, so as to
have an almost circular section. Much as I am tempted to regard this
as presenting a special type, I am almost convinced that the form is
due rather to accident than design. It appears to me, that a piece
of flint, partially chipped into shape for a larger and thicker celt, had
been broken in the process of manufacture, and a second attempt
had been made to convert it into a celt, this time of smaller size. The
lower part of this was successfully chipped out, but on arriving at that
portion of the blade where the section was nearly circular, the flint
was either so refractory, or the projections on which blows could be
administered to detach splinters were so small, that the manufacture
was abandoned, not, however, before many blows had been fruitlessly
struck, as the sides and projections of the face of the celt at this part
are considerably battered.
Dr. C. B. Plowright has described a number of rough-hewn
instruments of flint from what seems to have been the site
of an ancient flint manufactory on Massingham Heath, in West
Norfolk. He has figured several, including a wedge-formed
implement like Fig. 28, and one of shoe-shape, not unlike a
paloDolithic forra.^
An interesting instance of the discovery of a flint celt, merely
chipped out, but associated with polished celts, and other objects,
is that recorded in the Archceologia,'^ and Hoare's " Wiltshire."^
In a barrow opened by Mr. W. Cunnington, in 1802, was a grave
of oval form, containing a large skeleton lying on its back, and
slightly on one side, and above it a smaller skeleton in a con-
tracted posture. At the feet of the larger skeleton were more than
three dozen perforated pins and other instruments of bone, and
three celts of white flint, two of which were neatly polished, with
a fine circular edge ; and the third was " only chipped to the in-
tended form and size," With these lay what was apparently a
grinding stone to polish the celts or similar implements ; and some
grooved sandstones, like Fig. 185. About the legs were several boars'
teeth perforated, and some cups made of hollow flints ; near the
breast was a flat circular stone, and a perforated stone axe, shown
in Fig. 141, and two dozen more of the bone instruments. Some
jet or cannel-coal beads and a ring of the same substance were also
^ Trans. Norf. andNorw. Naturalists Soc, vol. v., 1891, p. '2.)0.
^ Vol. XV., p. 122, pi. ii., iii., iv., v.
3 « South Wilts," p. 75, pi. v., vi., vii.
g2
84 CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HKWN CELTS. [CHAP. IV.
found, as well as a small bronze awl ; but it is doubtful to which of
the bodies this belonged.
It will subsequently be seen that perforated axes similar to that
in this barrow are frequently associated with bronze daggers, so
that we seem to have, in this instance, evidence of the contempo-
raneous use of unground, polished, and perforated stone axes at a
period when bronze was at all events not unknown in this country.
If the chipped celt is to be regarded as unfinished, it may be
that the survivors, in burying it, together with the grinding and
polishing stones, in company with the original occupant of the
barrow, entertained a belief that in some future state of existence
he might be at leisure to complete the process of polishing.
Very roughly-chipped pieces of flint, apparently blocked-out
celts, are occasionally found in barrows. Two such, S inches by 3^,
and 7 by 3^, from a barrow near Alfriston, Sussex, examined by
Dr. Mantell, are in the British Museum. They may have been
deposited imder a similar belief, or as votive offerings. Possibly
this custom of placing roughly-chipped implements, like, for
instance. Fig. 16, in graves, may be a " survival" from the times
when warriors or hunters were buried with the arms or weapons
they had worn when living, and the burials which they accompany
may belong to a late part of the stone period. It is worthy of
notice that in the cemetery of Hallstatt, which belongs to a date
when iron was just coming into use, many of the ornaments appear
to have been manufactured expressly for funereal purposes, being
like the gold wreaths in Etruscan tombs, almost too light and
fragile to be worn by the living. In Denmark, however, the
weapons of flint which accompanied interments seem usually to
have been highly finished and perfect.
Celts, merely chipped into form and unground, occur also in
other kinds of stone. They are, however, much rarer than those
of flint. One of iron-stone, from Sussex, 8 inches long and 3j
wide at the broad end, is in the Blackmore Museum. A very
fine specimen from Anglesey, formed of felstone, is preserved
in the Museum of Economic Geology, in Jermyn Street. I have
a fragment of one in greenstone, found by Mr. R. D. Darbishire,
F.G.S., at Dwygyfylchi, Carnarvonshire, and another of felstone,
extremely rude, found by him on Pen-maen-mawr. Some rough
celts of greenstone, found in barrows near St. Just, Cornwall, are
in the Truro Museum.
In Ireland, where flint celts are comparatively rare, those in
THEIR PROBABLE AGE. 86
the unpolished condition appear to be relatively more abundant
in that material than in other rocks. In the large collection of
the Royal Irish Academy there are but few of either class, and
I certainly have seen some hundreds of Irish stone celts with
the edges ground, for one in which it had been left as originally
chipped out.
In France the chipped celts of flint are not uncommon, but
those of other materials are extremely rare.
In Denmark, and Sweden also, the unpolished celts of flint are
abundant, but principally of a class not found in Britain, with
square sides and neatly worked wavy angles. Some of the other
forms, however, also occur, as has been already mentioned. In
other materials than flint they are almost unknown.
In North America the roughly- chipped hatchets are scarce, but
are more common in flint or hornstone than in other materials.
In Western Australia, where the hatchets are made of rough
splinters of basalt and of silicious rocks, grinding seems but little
practised. Hatchets ground at the edge seem more common
in Northern Australia. It is, however, by no means improbable
that in many countries the ruder forms of stone implements have
to a great extent escaped observation. I much doubt whether the
stone blades of the Australian hatchets, one of which is engraved
in Fig. 106, would, if detached from their handles, be thought
worthy of notice by the large majority of travellers, or even be
regarded as of human workmanship.
However this may be, it appears that in Western Europe the
practice of grinding the edges of hatchets and adzes was more
universal in the case of those formed of other stones than flint,
than with those of purely silicious material. This circumstance
rather strengthens the probability of some of the flint implements
which are found in the unground condition, having been destined
for use in that state, as was the case with the North American
hoe-like implements already mentioned.
It seems almost demonstrable that some at least of these un-
polished celts must be among the earliest of the Neolithic imple-
ments of this country ; for though, in Neolithic times, some
naturally-shaped stones have been sharpened for use by grinding
only, yet the art of chipping stone into shape must in all pro-
bability have preceded that of grinding or polishing its edges. So
far as at present ascertained, the practice of sharpening stone tools
on the grindstone was unknown in Palaeolithic times ; and, assum-
86 CHIPPED OR ROUGH-HEWN CELTS. [cHAP. IV.
ing the occupation of this country to have been continuous, into
Neolithic times the transition from one stage of civilization to
the other has still to be traced. Under any circumstances, we
have as yet, in Britain, no means at command for assigning with
certainty any of these roughly-chipped forms to an antiquity
more remote than that of the carefully finished celts with their
edges sharpened by grinding, though in all probability some of
them must date back to a far remoter period.
We have, on the contrary, good evidence that whatever may
have been the date when the roughly-chipped implements of this
form were first manufactured, they continued to be chipped out in
much the same manner at a time when the practice of sharpening
by grinding was well known. Though some may have been used
without being ground, they bear, for the most part, the same rela-
tion to the finished forms, as the blade of steel rough from the
forge bears to the polished knife.
87
CHAPTER V.
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY.
The implements belonging to this class testify to a greater amount
of pains having been bestowed upon them than on those which
have been chipped only ; yet the labour in grinding them has been
far less than with those which are polished over their entire sur -
face. There are some which occupy an intermediate position be-
tween those ground at tlie edge only, and those which are polished
all over ; inasmuch as not only has their edge been sharpened
by grinding, but the principal asperities both of the sides and
faces have been removed in a similar manner, yet without polish-
ing anything like the entire surface. These may be classed among
polished celts ; and, indeed, any distinction that can be drawn
between celts partly and wholly polished is imaginary rather than
real, as it is only a difference in degree. The specimens of this
class which I have selected for engraving present, as a rule, some
slight peculiarity either in form or in other respects.
The first of these, Fig. 30, is remarkable for the extremely rude
manner in which it is chipped out, and for the small portion of its
surface wliich is polished. So rude, indeed, is it, that an inexperienced
eye would hardly accept it as being of human workmanship. The
edge, however, has unmistakeably been ground. Possibly the imple-
ment may have been chipped out from a fragment of a larger polished
celt, of which the edge had been preserved. It is of flint, quite
whitened by exposure, and was found by myself upon the Downs, near
Eastbourne, on September 12th, 1852, being the first stone implement
I over discovered. I have since found a similar but larger celt in a
field of my own at Abbot's Langley, Herts. It is 4? inches long, and
the edge has been intentionally blunted by grinding, so that it was
possibly a battle-axe. I have some other specimens which appear to
have been made from fragments of larger polished celts. One of
these, found near Icldingham, 2| inches wide and 2 J inches long, is
almost pear-shaped in outline, but truncated at the butt, where it is
about an inch wide. I have several similar implements from France
and Belgium, the butt-ends of which are battered, as if they had been
used as wedges.
88
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY.
[chap.
The original of Fig. 31 is curious iu another aspect, it having been
shaped, vrith the exception of the edge, entirely by nature, and not by
■art. The tendency of certain kinds of flint to split up into more or less
regular prisms by assuming a sort of columnar structure, much like
Fig. 30. — liowns iiciiT l,aitboume.
Fig. 31.— Culiord, Suffolk.
that which is exhibited by starch in drying, is well knxDwn. The
maker of this implement has judiciously selected one of these prisms,
which required no more than a moderate amount of grinding at one end
to convert it into a neat and useful tool. It was found at CuKord, in
Suffolk, and formerly belonged to Mr.
Warren, of Ix worth, but is now in my
own collection.
The celt represented in Fig. 32 is also
mine, and was found in the same neigh-
bourhood, near Mildenhall. It is pointed
and entirely unpolished at the butt-end,
which, had that part onlybeen preserved,
woidd have had all the appearance
of being the point of an implement of
the Palaeolithic period. It is, however,
ground to a thin cLrctilar edge at the
broad end. Another, nearly similar,
from Burwell Fen, is in the Museum of
the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. I
liave another, rather straighter at the
edge, but even more sharply pointed at
the butt, from Eeach Fen, and several
others from the Eastern Counties. One '
of the three celts found in the Upton
Lovel Barrow was of much the same
shape, only larger and more rudely
<;hipped. It had also apparently more of its surface polished. General
Pitt Eivers has a large Indian celt of this character, but broader in its
^ Arch., vol. XV., pi. iv. 1. Hoare's " South Wiltshire," pi. v. 1. " Cat. Devizes
Mus.," No. 94.
Fig. 32.— Near MildcnhaU, Suffolk.
roiNTED AT THE BUTT-EMl.
89
proportions, fonnrl in TiundGlcund. It is not of flint. I have smallnr
sp(>C'inions from Madras, but more like Fig'. 33.
Approaching to the form of Fig. 32, but rather broader at the edge
and more truncated at tlie butt, where a cavity in the flint has inter-
fered with the symmetry, is another celt in my own collection, found
at Suwdon, in the Nortli I^iding of Yorkshii-o, and engraved as Fig. 33.
It has been skilfully rubbed to a sharp segmental edge, but no labour
has been wasted in grinding any portion oip the face beyond what was
necessary to produce the edge. Towards the butt-end some few of the
facets and projections are, ho\\ ever, highly polished, but by friction
only, as the surface is still
uneven and not ground
down. These polished
patches, as has been pointed
out by ] 'rof essor Steenstrup,
are probably significant of
the blade having been
mounted in a horn or wooden
socket, though not so firmly
but that there was some little
motion in it, so that the re-
sidting friction produced the
polish. A celt of this class,
formed of ochreous flint,
with a semicircular edge,
the sides straight, and jiartly
ground away, is in the Fitch
Collection at Norwich. It
is 6^ inches long, and was
found at Martlesham Hill,
Suffolk. A good example
found in 1880 at Hinch-
combe,' Gloucestershire has
beenfigiired. Another, about
9 inches long, rounded at
the sides, and partly ground
on the faces, was found in a barrow at Hartland, Devon, and is
preserved in the museum at Truro. One of black flint, 4^ inches long,
was found at Pen-y-bonc,'' Holyhead Island, in 1873. It is curved,
and may have been used as an adze. Small specimens of this form
are occasionally found in Suffolk. In Yorkshire, they occur of still
smaller size. In the Greenwell Collection is one from Willerby AVold,
2 inches long and nearly triangular in outline ; and another with an
oblicjue edge from Helperthorpe, 2| inches long. One from Ganton
Wold, 2;] inches long, has a straight edge. I have a very rude speci-
men from the Yorkshire Wolds about 1 f inches long, 1 f inches wide
at the edge, and 1 inch at the butt. They occur also in Scotland.
The late Dr. John Stuart showed me a sketch of a flint celt of this
type, 4f inches long, from Bogingarry, Old Deer, Aberdeenshire.
Another, If inches by 1 inch, was found near Dundee.^ One very like
' Arch. Assoc. Jour., vol. xxxvii., 1881, p. 214.
^ Arch. Jour., vol. xxxi., pp. 296, 301.
^ Proc. Sr,c. Ant. Scot., vol. xiv., p. 265 ; xxiv., p. 6.
Fig. 33.— Sawdon, North Yorkshire.
90
CELTS GROrXD AT THE EDGE ONLY.
[chap. V.
the figure was found at Trquhart,^ Elgin. I have a celt of this char-
acter (4 inches), from the neighbourhood of Mons, in Belgium.
Another much more elongated form, but still belonging to the same
class of implements, is that represented by Fig. 34. The original is of
grey flint, and was found at Weston, Norfolk. The grinding is con-
tinued farther along the body of the implement than in the former
examples, especially on one 'of the faces, and the asperities of the
^',f^'
34.— "Weston, Norfolk.
sides have in places been removed by the same process. About half-
way along the blade, some of the facets have been polished by
friction.
In the Greenwell Collection is a beautiful specimen, 8^ inches long,
2 inches broad at edge, and f inch at butt, and nowhere more than |
inch thick. It is most skilfully chipped, and the grinding extends only
\ inch back from the edge. The sides have been made straight by
1 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ix., p. 258.
OF F.LONGATKD FORM.
n
grinding, and are slightly rounded. It was found at Kinlochew, Ross-
shire. Another in tlio same collection, 9] inches long, was found at
Kilham, in the East liiding of Yorkshire. I have seen one 8 inclios
long frona Leighton Buzzard. One of the same length from F<jrdoun,'
Kincardineshire, has been figured.
I have two shorter specimens, about the same breadth as Fig. 34 at
the cutting edge, from the neighbourhood of Bury St. Edmunds and
Mildenhall. They do not. however, present any of the polisliod marks.
Tlie sides of both have to a certain extent been made straight by
grinding. One of these with the natural crust of the flint still left at
the butt-end is shown in Fig. o5. I have several otliers from the-
Eaatern Counties, and two of much the
same form from Carnaby Moor and King's
Field, near Bridlington. The Greenweli
Collection has specimens fomul at Wood-
hall, near Harbottle, Northumberland, and
at (Stanford, Norfolk. The latter is sharp
at the butt. Others have been found in
the Thames, and are now in the British
Museum. 1 have a note of one (5 inches
long from the Priory Valley, Dover.
(Jthers from I)el)onham, Sufi'olk, from
l)uuhaiu, Norfolk, and from Thorpe, are
in the Norwich Museum.
One of white flint 4.}j inches long, with
square butt, made straight by grinding.
and with the faces chipped in such a
manner r-s to form a central ridge, so that
the grinding at the edge shows an almost
triangular facet, was found at Kirbv
Underdale, and is in the Greenweli Collec-
tion. The sides in this specimen curve
slightly inward.
The two celts found by the late Mr.
Bateman, in Liflf's Low,^ near Biggin, in
company with a curious cup, a stag's horn
hammer, and numerous worked flints,
including two flakes ground at the edge,
wore of this form and character. The
larger of the two is about 7 inches long.
Mr. Cunnington, E.G. 8., has a small celt of this kind from Morton,
near Dorchester. Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, have specimens of the
same class. One of these (4| inches) is from Garton, Yorkshire ;
another similar, but less taper (4^ inches), is from Lady Graves, near
Fimber, where also a ruder celt of the same character was found. I
have a small celt 3 inches long of the same class, from Seamer, York-
shire. One of dark flint, slightly curved (5] inches), found at South
Slipperfield, West Linton, Peeblesshire, is })reserved in the National
Museum at Edinburgh.''
It was the cutting end of a celt of this class, sharp at the sides, and
Fig. 35.— Mildenhall.
' Proc. Soc. Atit. Scot., vol. xi., p. 24.
' Froc. Sue. Aut. Scot.,yo\.\\., p. M^i.
- " Vest. Ant. Derb.." p. 13. Cat., p. 31.
«2
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY.
[chap. V.
ground at the edge only, which is said to have been found embedded
in the skull of a Bot primigenhis,^ in a fen near Cambridge. The skull
and implement are in the Woodwardian Museum. In the Fitch Col-
lection is a small flint adze of this character, but rather narrower, and
very much thinner in proportion. It is 4 J inches long, about 1| inches
broad, and only j inch thick. It is considerably curved in the direc-
tion of its length, and bears only slight traces of grinding at the edge,
which is segmental. It was found at 8anton Downham, Suffolk. I
have two such thin adzes nearly flat (4J and 4J inches) from West
Stow, Suffolk, and Thetford. They are both ground to a sharp edge.
A celt, in form like Fig. 35, found with flint knives and other im-
plements in some beds of sand near York, has been figured by Mr. C.
Monkman.- Similar implements are found in Ireland. I have two
such, almost identical in form with those from Suffolk. They are
both from Ulster. The same form occurs in Belgium.
One of these more adze-like implements with a considerable part
of the convex face polished, was found in Eeach Fen, and is shown in
Fig. 35a. Fig. 84a, which is polished
all over, belongs to the same class.
I have a fine bowed narrow adze
(7 inches) ground at the edge only,
from Hampshire.
The celt represented in Fig. 36 is of
remarkable form, inasmuch as, like the
unground specimen, Fig. 21, the sides
expand at the butt-end. It was found
in Burwell Fen. and is in the collection
of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society.
It is formed of chalcedonic flint, and
the sharp sides are partially smoothed
by grinding. It is slightly curved in
the direction of its length, and may
have been used as an adze. I have
one of the same character (5f inches)
from Swaffham, Cambs, and another
(4f inches) from Oldbury, Ightham,
given me by ^Ir. B. Harrison, in which
the narrowing in the middle of the
blade is even more conspicuous. One
much like the figure, but with shorter
sides (5| inches) was found near Dun-
dee.^ Another smaller, and somewhat
similar implement, but expanding more
towards the edge and less at the butt, was found at Bridge Farm, near
North Tawton, Devon, and was in the possession of Mr. AY. Yicarv.
F.G.S., of Exeter.
A few celts expanding at the edge, and polished aU over, will be
subsequently described.
' See Cambridge Antiq. Comms., vol. ii., 285, where there is a woodcut of the skull,
.and Geol. Mag., Dec. II., vol. i. p. 494.
* Journ. Ethn«l. Soc, 1869, vol. ii., pi. xv., fig. 11.
■* Froe. Soe. Ant., Scot., vol. xiv., p. 265.
Fig. 35a.— Roach Fen.
EXPANDING AT THE ENDS.
93
In Fig. 37 is sliown a flint celt, found near Thetford, and formerly
in the collection of Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.8. It is partial!}' ground
at the edge and ou the projecting portion of one face, which is curved.
Fig. 36.— Burwell Fen.
Fis. 37.— Thetford.
lengthwise. The other face is rather ogival, and much resembles
that of the chipped celt from Mildenhall, Fig. 12. I have a shorter
specimen of the same character from Icklingham.
Flint celts of the form of Fig. 23, but having the edge ground, fre-
quently occur. I have specimens from Burwell Fen, Icklingham, and
other places in the Eastern Counties. One was found at Stifford, near
Gray's Thurrock, Essex, 6^ inches long.' The late Mrs. Dickinson, of
Hurstpierpoint, had another, 6 inches long, found at Pycombe Hill,
Sussex. The late Mr. Durden, of Blandford, had one, now in the Bri-
tish Museum, from the encampment on Hod Hill, Dorsetshire. I have
one or two such from the site of the ancient maniifactory at Spiennes,
near Mons, and others from the North of France.
The next specimen. Fig. 38, 1 have engraved on account of the peculi-
arity in its form. The butt-end, for nearly 2i inches along it, has the
sides nearly parallel, the blade then suddenly expands with a rounded
shoulder, and terminates in a semicircular edge, which is neatly
' I'roc. Soe. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 406.
94
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY.
[chap. Y.
ground, the rest of the celt being left in the statf in which it was
chipped out. From the form, it would appear as if this implement
had been intended to be mounted by the insertion of the butt-end in.
a socket, like that shown in Fig. 98, so that it coidd be used as an axe.
The axis of the butt is not quite in the same line as that of the rest of
the blade. It was found at Undley Common, near Lakenheath. and is
in the Green well Collection.
A remarkable specimen of an allied kind is shown in Fig. 38a.
The edge only is ground and a flat surface has been left at the butt-
Fig. c8. — Undley Common, Lakenheath. J
end, which is almost circular. It was found on Eingwood Gore Farm,
East Dean, Sussex, and was given to me by Mr. E. Hilton.
Another form, apparently intended for use as an adze, is also of rare
occurrence. The specimen shown in Fig, 39 was found at Ganton,
Yorkshire, and is in my own collection. It is very much more convex
on one face than the other, which, indeed, is nearly tiat. The grinding
is confined to the edge, but some parts of the flat face are polished as
if by friction.
The late Dr. John Stuart, F.S.A.Scot., showed me a sketch of a
large implement of this type, and considerably bowed longitudinally,
found at Bogingarry, Old Deer, Aberdeenshire. It is of flint, 4i inches
long, and 2 inches wide.
OF PECULIAH FORMS.
95
Another form of adze, if sucL. it be, remarkably flat on one face and
narrow at the butt, is shown in Fig. 40. This specimen was found in
Fig. 38a.— East Dean. ^
Swaffham Fen, Cambridge, and is in my own collection. The flat face
Fig. 39.— Gunton. J
Fig. 40.— Swutfham Fen. J
haabeen produced at a single blow, and has been left almost untouched,
except where trimmed by chipping to form the edge^ which, however,
96
CELTS GROUND AT THE EDGE ONLY,
[chap. V.
has been rendered blunt by grinding. The sides are very minutely
chipped along the angles, and there seems some possibility of the
instrument having been used as a rimer or boring tool.
The celts of other materials than flint, and ground only at the edge,
are of rarer occurrence than those in flint. That eng^-aved as Fig. 41
was found at Grindale, near Bridlington. It is of felstone, and is re-
markable as being so much curved in the direction of its length. I
have another smaller specimen from the same place, but the blade is
straight. The edge, however, is slightly gouge-like.
Mr. J. "\V. Brooke has a small adze of flint {2\ inches) in outline
almost identical with Fig. 41. It came from near Aldboume, AVilts.
Another of these instruments expanding towards the edge, and
apparently adapted for insertion in a socket, is shown in Fig. 42. It
is made of hone-stone, and the flat butt is the result of a natural joint
in the stone. It was found at North Burton, in the East Riding of
Fig. 41. — Grindale, Biidlingion.
Fi?. 42. -North Burton.
Yorkshire, and is in the GreenweU Collection, where is also a celt of
gi'eenstone much like Fig. 4 1 . found in a barrow with a burnt inter-
ment on Seamer Moor, Yorkshire ; and another of the same class,
3^ inches long and 2J inches wide, also from Seamer Moor. A
third specimen, rather smaller, was found in a barrow at Uncleby,
Yorkshire. One of greenstone, 2| inches long, and nearl}" triangular
in outline, was found near Keswick, and is in the Blackmore Museum.
A longer adze of greenstone, considerably curved in the blade,
lay in company with various implements of flint in some sand-beds
near York.^ In the Mayer Collection at Liverpool is a celt of clay-
slate, 4 inches long and ground at the edge, found at Toxteth. In the
collection of the late Mr. J. F. Lucas, of Fenny Bentley Hall, near Ash-
bourne, were two celts (5^- and 7 inches) of the same type as Fig. 35,
but more adze-like in character, and formed of felstone. They were
found on Middleton Moor, and at Wormhill, near Buxton, Derbyshire.
In my own collection, is a greenstone celt with the sides sharp and
nearly parallel, 7J inches long and nearly 3 inches broad, with a semi-
circular edge partly ground, found at Shrub Hill, Feltwell, Norfolk.
1 Jout-M. Eihnoh Soe., 1869, Tol. ii., fig. 7.
THEIR OCCURRENCE IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES, 97
I have also a large specimen in form more resembling- Fig. 23, six
inches long. It is ground at tlie edge, which is nearly semicircular, and
along the sides. It was found at Thurston, Suffolk, and is formed of
a piece of tough mica-scliist, with garnets' in it, a material, no doubt,
derived from tlie Glacial beds of that district. Anotlier from Troston,
in the same neighbourhood, is formed from a rough fragment of mica-
ceous grit ground to an edge at one end. In Scotland some wedge-
shaped blades of granite, exlii biting traces of a very small amount
of artificial adaptation, have been found. Two such, from Aberdeen-
shire, described as axes, have been figured.- The small stone celts
found in Orkney,' though tolerably sharp at the edge, are described as
rough on the sides.
Turiiiug to foreign countries, the discovery of flint instruments
of this class, ground at the edge only, or on some small portions
of their surface, is, as has already been observed, not uncommon
in France and Belgium. In Denmark they are also very abun-
dant, but the most common Danish form with a thick rectangular
section does not appear to occur in Britain. Among the North
American stone hatchets, many present this feature of being
ground at the edge only, and the same is the case with some of
the tools of the native Australians, such as that engraved in
Fig. 105. A rough celt from Borneo, ground at the edge only,
has been engraved by General Pitt Rivers.* The type also occurs
in India and Japan.
In all European countries instruments of this form and charac-
ter, but made of other materials than flint, are, like those entirely
unground, of very rare occurrence. This rarity may arise from
two causes, the one, that the tools or weapons made of these
materials have not so sharp a cutting edge produced by chipping
only as those formed of flint ; and the second, that being usually
somewhat softer than flint it required less time and trouble to
grind them all over.
None of the rough celts, uor those ground at the edge only,
seem so well adapted for use as hand- tools without a haft, as do
some of those which are polished all over. Looking, however, at
some of the rough Australian tools which are hafted with gum in
a piece of skin, and thus used in the hand, it is hardly safe to
express a decided opinion. The majority were, notwithstanding,
in all probability, mounted with shafts after the manner of axes
or adzes.
^ A large celt formed of " indurated clay-stone with garnets," is mentioned ly
Mr. F. C. Liikis, F.S.A., as having been found in the Channel Islands [Arch. Assoc,
Jo'irn., vol. iii. 128).
- Proc. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 101. 3 /•, ^, ^, g^ vol. vii. 213.
■* I'roc. Etiniol. Soc, 1870, p. xxxix.
H
98
CHAPTER Vr.
POLISHED CELTS
The last of the three classes into which, for the sake of con-
venience of arrangement, I have divided these instruments, viz.,
that comprising the celts ground or polished, not only at the
edge, but over a great portion, or the whole, of their surface, is
also that which is usually most numerously represented in collec-
tions of antiquities. Whether this excess in number over the
other classes arises from the greater original abundance of these
polished implements, or from their being better calculated to
attract observation, and, therefore, more likely to be collected and
preserved than those of a less finished character, is a difficult
<^uestion. From my own experience it appears that, so far as
relates to the implements of this character formed of flint, and
still lying unnoticed on the surface of the soil, the proportions
which usually obtain in collections are as nearly as may be re-
versed, and the chipped, or but partially polished, celts are in a
large majority.
Among the polished celts there is a great range in size, and
much variation in form, though the general character is in the
main, uniform. The readiest method of classification is, I think,
in accordance with the section presented by the middle of the
blade, and I, therefore, propose to arrange them as follows : —
1. Those sharp or but slightly rounded at the sides, and pre-
senting a pointed oval or vesica piscis in section.
2. Those with flat sides.
3. Those with an oval section.
4. Those presenting abnormal peculiarities.
In each subdivision there will, of course, be several varieties,
according as the sides are more or less parallel, the blade thicker
or thinner, the butt-end more or less pointed, and the edge flat,
segmental, or oblique. There are also intermediate forms between
these merely arbitrary classes.
A TYPE COMMON IN THE EASTERN COUNTIES,
99
I commence with those of the first sub-division, in flint. The first
specimen I have engraved, Fig. 43, is a representative of a common
type, and was found at Santon Downham, between Brandon and Thet-
iord, on the borders of Norfolk and Suffolk, where, also, implements
Fig. 43.— Santon Downham, Suffolk.
belonging to the Palfoolithic Period have been discovered The sides
were originally sharp, but have been sHghtly rounded by grind-
ing. Ihe faces still show, in many places, the surface originaUy pro-
duced by chipping, but aU projections have been ground away
H 2
100 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAP. VI.
I have also a larger specimen. 9^ inches long, from the same spot,
and found, I believe, at the same time.
This form is of common occurrence in tlie Eastern Counties. I have
specimens from Hilgay Fen, Norfolk {S^ inches), and Botesdale
(7 inches), Hepworth (6J inches), Undley Hall, near Lakenheath
(Sf inches), in Suffolk. Some of these are ground over almost the
entire face. A fine specimen (10 inches) is in the Woodwardian
Museum, at Cambridge. In the Fitch Collection is a fine series of
them. One of these, 9J inches long, 3X inches broad, and 2k inches
thick, -weighing 3 lbs. 6^ ozs.. was found at Narborough, near Swaff-
ham. Another (9^ inches), weighing 3^ lbs., was found near Ipswich.
A third {S^ inches) was discovered at Bolton, near Great Yarmouth.
Others from 5J inches to 7:^ inches long, are from BeachamweU,
Elsing, Grundisburgh, Aylsham, and Breccles, in the counties of
Suffolk and Norfolk. That from the last-named locality has one face
flatter than the other.
There are others in the Norwich Museum, including one from
Blofield, 8i inches long.
There are numerous specimens of this type in the British Museum.
One from Barton Bendish, Norfolk, is 7| inches long ; another from
Oxburgh, in the same county, 6f inches. Others, 6A- inches and 5^
inches long, are from Market Weston and Kesgrave, Suft'olk. The
former is semicircular at both ends.
Mr. A. C. Savin has a well-finished example (6^ inches) from
Trimingham, five miles south of Cromer.
The Eev. S. Banks, of Cottenham, had a fine specimen, of white
flint, 8^ inches long, found at Stow Heath, Suffolk.
Several celts of this form found in the Fen district are in the Museum
of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. I have some from the same
neighbourhood, of which two are unusually wide in proportion to their
length, and in outline much resemble Fig. 48, though the edge is
more semicircular. One of these is 7 inches long, 3| inches wide, and
1|- inches thick ; the other 5| inches long, 2f inches wide, and If inches
thick.
I have seen a celt presenting a narrow variety of this form, which
was found at Albury, near Bishop's Stortford. It is 6f inches long,
and 1| inches wide, and polished all over.
The ordinary form, though apparently of most frequent occurrence
in the East Anglian counties, is not by any means confined to that
district. One, 8^ inches long, the sides very slightly flattened ; and
three others, 6 inches and 5 inches long, with the sides more rounded,
all found in the Thames, at London, are in the British Museum. I
have one from the Thames, at Teddington (G inches), and thi'ee, 5;^ to
6 inches long, found together in' Temple Mills Lane, Stratford, Essex,
in 1882. In the GreenweU Collection is one 7i inches long, found at
Holme, on Spalding ^loor, Yorkshire.
A flint celt of this form (61 inches), from Eeigate,- is in the British
Museum, as well as another (6^ inches), rather obHque at the edge,
found in a barrow in Hampshire, engraved in the Archaologia.^
1 " Man the Primeval Savage," p. 310.
* See " Hora; Ferale.s," pi. ii. 8.
^ Vol. xvii., pi. xiv. " Horae Ferales," pi. ii. 10.
WITH THE SURFACE GROUND ALL OVER,
101
Another, 7 inches long, was found near Egham,' Surrey. Two from
Ash - near Farnhara, andWisley in the same county have been figured.
I have a short, thick specimen (4i- inches) found at Eynsliam, Oxford-
shire. It sometimes happens that celts of this general character have
one side much curved while the other is nearly straight, so that in out-
line they resemble Fig. 86. One such, 5 inches long and 2 inches
broad in the middle, foimd at Bishopstow, is in the Blackmore
Museum. Another (6i inches) with the sides less curved, from
Stanton Fitzwarren, Wilts, has been engraved by the Archaeological
Institute.'' Two, 7^ and 5J inches long, were found at Jarrow.*
The same type as Fig. 43 occasionally occurs in other materials than
flint. The late Mr. James AVj^att, F.G.S., had a celt of greenstone 9^
inches long, 3i inches wide at the
edge, which is slightly oblique, found
many years ago in Miller's Bog, Paven-
ham, Beds. There is an engraving of
it, on which it is described as of flint,
but such is not the fact. The form is
also sometimes found in France and
Belgium. I have specimens from both
countries ; and one from Ferigord,
8 inches long, is in the Museum at Le
Puy.
Allied to this f onu, but usually more
rounded at the sides, and flatter on the
faces, are the implements of which an
example is given in Fig. 44. The
original was found at Coton, Cam-
bridgeshire, in 1863. The type is the
same as that of Fig. 35 ; but in this
case the celt is polished all over. The
butt-end is ground to a semicircular
outline, but is, hke the sides, rounded.
The same is the case with some of the
thicker celts of the form last described.
A celt of much the same character,
but with the sides apparently rather
flatter (7^ inches), was found at Pans-
hanger, Herts. ^ One (5 inches), from the Isle of Wight, is in the
British Museum. The edge is oblique, as is that of another of the
same length found on the South Downs, and now in the Museum at
Lewes. Another of grey flint, 7 inches long, tapering from 2 inches
at edge to 1 inch at butt, ^ inch thick, semicircular at the butt and
edge, the faces polished nearly all over, but the sides sharp and left
unground, was found during the Main Drainage "Works for London, and
is also in the British Museum. Others have been described from Plaj'-
ford,^ Suffolk (6| inches) and Chalvey Grove,' Eton Wick, Bucks
(7| inches), and part of one from Croydon.**
' Arch. Jotirn., vol. xxviii., p. 242. "^ Surr. Arch. Coll., vol. xi. pp. 247, 248.
■* Arch. Journ., vol. ix. p. 194. " Salisbiiry vol.," p. 112.
* Arch. AB/ia)ia, vol. v. p. 102. * Arch. Journ., vol. xx. p. 192.
'' Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd !S. vol. ix. p. 71. ' Arch. Journ., vol. xxx. p. 284.
* Anderson's " Croydon : Preli. and Present," pi. ii.
Fig. 44. — C'otoii, Cambridge.
102
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap
VI.
I have seen sjiecimens of the same kind, vnth. the sides straight and
sharp though slightly rounded, tapering towards the butt which is
semicircular, and varying in length from 5^ inches to 7;^ inches, found
at Aldertou, Suffolk ; Thorn IMarsh, Yorkshire; Norton, near ^Malton;
Westacre Hall, Norfolk ; and elsewhere. The late Mr. J. Brent, F.S.A.,
showed me a drawing of one about 7 inches long, found at Bigborough
Wood, Tunford. Canterbury.
The celt shown in Fig. 45 belongs to the same class, though it is
rather flatter at the sides. It is polished over the greater part of its
surface, but is on one face quite unpolished at the edge. I have en-
graved it as an example of the manner in which, after the edge of a
Fig. 45. — Keach Fen, Cambridge.
Fig. 46.— Great Bedwin, Wilts
i
hatchet of tliis kind had become damaged by use, a fresh edge was-
obtained by chipping, which, in some instances, the owner of the
implement was not at the pains to sharpen by grinding.
Fig. 46 gives another variety of the flint celts with sharp or slightly
rounded sides. It is slightly ridged along each face, and the faces
instead of being uniformly convex to the edge have at the lower part
a nearly flat facet of triangular form, the base of which forms the edge.
This specimen was found at Great Bedwin, Wilts, and is in the
Grreenwell Collection.
I have a nearly similar specimen (6^ inches) from Northwood, Hare-
field, Middlesex, and another of the same length, found at Hepworth,.
EXPAXniNG AT 1HK EDGE.
105
Suffolk, but the facet at the edge is not quite so distinct. A third from
Abingdon is only 4^ inches long.
A long narrow chisel-like celt of this pointed oval section (8 inches)
from Aberdeenshire ' has been figured. A flint celt from Chiriqui,*
found with a sort of flint punch and some burnishing pebbles in a
grave, presumed to be that of one
of the native workers in gold, is
remarkably like Fig. 46 in form.
In the Fitch Collection is a
large thick specimen (9f inches)
found at Heckingham Common,
Norfolk, and a shorter, broader
one with a faceted edge, from
Pentney. Another of flint (6i
inches) with the sides much
rounded, but with a similar facet
at the edge, was found at Histon,
Cambs, and belonged to the late
Eev. S. Banks.
It seems probable that these
instruments when first made did
not exhibit the facet at the edge,
but that it has resulted from
repeated grinding as the edge
became injured by wear.
A celt, apparently of this sec-
tion, but more truncated at the
butt, and with a narrow facet
running along the centre of the
face, was found in Llangwyllog,"
Anglesey. It is not of flint but
of " white magnesian stone."
Fig. 47 exhibits a beautiful
implement of a different cha-
racter, and of a very rare form,
inasmuch as it e.xpands towards
the edge. It is of ochreous-
coloured flint polished all over,
and is in the Greenwell Collec-
tion. It was found at Bur-
radon, Northumberland, and in
outline much resembles that
from Gilmerton, Fig. 76, but this
latter has the sides flat and a
cutting edge at each end.
A celt of similar form, but only 61- inches long, found at Cliff Hill^
is in the IMuseum at Leicester. Four flint hatchets, found at Bexley,
Kent, seem from the description given of them to be nearly of this
type.^
' Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xvi. 437.
2 L. Simonin, " La Vie Souterraine," &c.. 1867. Mortillet, Mat., vol. iii. p. 101.
2 Arch. Journ., vol. xxvii., pi. x. 1, p. 164. •• Arch. Journ., vol. xhnii. p. 436.
•Burradon, Xorthumberliind.
104
POLISHED CELT.--
[chap. VI.
A few spocimens of this form, both unground and ground merely at
the edge, have already been mentioned, and .specimens engraved, as
Figs. 21 and 36. Hatchets expanding towards the edge are of more
common occurrence in Denmark than in this countr}', though even
there they are rather rare when the expansion is well-defined.
In the British iluseum is a magnificent celt of this section, but in
outline like Fig. 77. It is ground over nearly the whole of its surface,
but the edge at each end has only been chipped out. It is made of
some felspathic rock, and is no less than 14 1 inches in length. It
was found near Conishead Priory, Lancashire.
The next specimens that I shall describe are also principally made of
other materials than flint.
Fig. 48, in my own collection, is of porphyritic greenstone, and was
found atCoton, Cambridgeshire. It is polished all over, equally convex
on both faces, and has the sides
rather more rounded than most of
those of nearly similar section in
flint. The butt is rather sharper
than the sides. I have an analogous
implement, found at Xunnington,
York.shire, but with the sides
straighter and rather more conver-
ging towards the butt. Othershave
been found in the same district.
Other specimens made of green-
stone have been found in the Fens,
some of which are in the Museum
of the Cambridge Antiquarian
Society.
Some '• stone " celts from Kate's
Bridge ■ and Digby Fen have been
figured in Miller and Skertchly's
" Fenland." One (7 inches) of
greenstone, and apparently of this
type, was found at Hartford, -
Hunts, and is now in the Ashmo-
lean Museum at Oxford.
In the Newcastle Museum is a
compact greenstone celt of this
character ^5J inches) with the
edge slightly oblique, found at Penrith Beacon, Cumberland. Some
celts of the same general character have been found in Anglesea.
Implements of this class are frequently more tapering at the butt
than the one shown in the figure. I have several such from the Cam-
bridge Fens, and have seen an example from Towcester. One of flint
(4 inches), so much rounded at the edge as to be almost oval in out-
line, found near Mildenhall, is in the Christy Collection. One of
greenstone (4J inches) was found at AVormhill, Buxton. Derbyshire.
Fig. 49, of dark-grey whin- stone, is of much the same character, but
has an oblique cutting edge. The butt-end is ground to a blunted
Fig. 48.— Coton, Cambridge.
1 Pp. 577, 578. ^ 2 Proc. So
* Arch. Journ., vol. xxxi. p. 301.
An(., IniS., vol. v., p. 34.
OF OTHER MATERIALS THAN FLINT.
105
curve. The original is in the Greenwell Collection, and was dug up
in draining at I'onteland, Northumberland. Another, in the same
collection, similar, but much rougher (6 inches) was found at Halton
Chest ers, in the same county. I have one of the same kind (6| inches)
found near liaby Castle, Durham.
A flint hatchet of nearly the same form, 4h inches long, was found
at Kempston, near liediord. The Earl of Uucie, F.E-.S., has another
of flint (5 inches) from Bembridge, Isle of Wight. A celt, from
Andalusia, of tliis character, but with the edge straighter, has been
figured.'
The celt engraved in Fig. 50 is likewise in the Greenwell Collection,
Fig. 49. — Pontcland, Northiunberland.
Fig. SO.^Fridaythorpe, Yorkshire. .J
and was found at Fridaythorpe, in the East Eiding of Yorkshire.
It is formed of green hone-stone. Another, similar but thicker, and
having the sides more convergent and the edge less oblique, was found
at the same place and is in the same collection, in which also is the
fragment of a larger imi^lement of the same class from Amotherby,
near Malton, Yorkshire. With these is another (4f inches) which
was found in a barrow with a burnt interment on Seamer Moor,
Yorkshire. It is apparently of clay-slate which has become red by
biu'ning with the body.
Messrs. Mortimer have one of this form in greenstone (5| inches)
found near Malton, and also one in flint (4 J inches) found near Fimber.
* Arch, Journ. vol. xxvii. p. 238.
106
POLISHED CtLTS.
[chap. VI.
I hare a well-finislied celt of hone-stone, rather thicker proportion-
ally than that figured, (of inches^ probably found in Cumberland, it
having formed part of the Crosthwaite Collection at Keswick. In
the Greenwell Collecticn is another of basalt, with straight sides,
tapering from 2 J inches at edge to If at butt, 9^ in length, and If
thick, from a peat moss at Cowshill-in-Weardale, Durham.
A thin, flat fonn of celt, still presenting the same character of section,
is represented in Fig. 51. The original is formed of a hard, nearly
black cla^'-slate, and was found at Oulston, in the North Eiding of York-
I
jmJ
Fig. 51. — Oulston.
shire. Like many others which I have described, it is in the Green-
well Collection.
One of flint like Fig. .51 (5 inches) was found at Shelley,^ SuflPolk.
A celt of greenstone (4f inches), of the same character but thicker
and with straighter sides, from Newton, Aberdeenshire, is in the
National Museum at Edinburgh, where is also another, in outline
more like the figure, but broader at the butt-end. and with one side some-
what flattened. It is 4 1 long, and was found at Eedhall. near Edinburgh.
Some Irish celts, formed of different metamorphic rocks, present the
same forms as those of Figs. 48 to 51. As a rule, however, the sides
of Irish specimens are more rounded.
Fig. 52 represents qn exquisitely polished celt, of a mottled, pale-
1 Froc. Soe. Ant., 2nd S., Tol. ix. p. 71.
THE THIX AND HIGHLY POLISHED TYPE.
107
illil
green colour, found in Bur-s-ell Fen, Cambridge, and, through, the
kindness of !Mr. Marlborough Pry or, now in my own collection. The
material appears to be a very
hard diorite ; and as both faces
are highly polished all over,
the labour bestowed in the
manufacture of such an instru-
ment musthavebeen immense.
It is somewhat curved length-
ways, and on the inner face is
a slight depression, as if, in
chipping it out, one of the
lines of fracture had run in
too far ; but even this depres-
sion is polished, and no trace
of the original chipped surface
remains. The point is quite
sharp, and the sides are
only in tlie slightest degree
rounded.
A beautiful example of the
kind is said to have been found
in a barrow near Stonehenge.'
Another of a green-grey colour
(6i inches) was foimd at Lop-
ham Ford, near the source of
the AVaveney, and was sub-
mitted to me in 1884, by the
late Mr, T. E. Amj^ot, of Diss.
The late Mr. J. AV. Flower,
F.Gr.S., bequeathed to me a
somewhat larger specimen of
the same character, found at
Daviot, Inverness. It is
slightly broken at the pointed
butt, but must have been
about 8 inches long and 3|
broad. The material may be a diorite, but perhaps more nearly
approaches -what the French term jadeite. In the Truro Museum is
another highly polished celt of the same form, and similar material,
found near Falmouth.
Mr. J. W. Brooke has a beautifiilly polished specimen, made of a
green transparent stone, from Breamore, Salisbury. It has lost a small
piece at the butt-end, but is stiU 8 inches long. It is only 2| inches
broad at the cutting end.
Another celt, 7|- inches long, "the edges thin, rising gradually to
about the thickness of half an inch in the middle," was found in 1791
near Ilopton, Derbyshire.'- The material is described as appearing
" to be marble, of a light colour tinged with yellow, and a mixture of
pale red and green veins."
In the collection of the late Mr. J. F. Lucas was a celt of this type
%:,
Fig. 52. — liurwell Fen.
' Arch., voL xliii. p. 406.
- Arch., voL xii. pi. ii. 1.
108
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap.
VI.
oi inches long, slightly un symmetrical in outline, owing to the cleav-
age of the stone. It is said to have been found near Brierlow, Buxton.
The material is a green jade-like stone, but so fibrous in appearance
as to resemble fibrolite.
Another, of "a fine granite stone, highly polished, 9 inches long,
4 J broad at one end, tapering to the other, its thickness in the middle
^ of an inch, and quite sharp at the edges all round," was found at
\l
»
crwickshire.
Mains,' near Dumfries, in 1779. It was discovered in blowing up some
large stones, possibly those of a dolmen, and is now in the possession
of Sir E. S. Riddell, Bart., of Strontian.
Several other specimens have been found in Scotland. A beautiful
celt from Berwickshire ^ is, through the kindness of the Society of
^^Arch., vol. \u. p. 414 ; Proe. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. vi. 37.
^^Troe. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. xxvi. p. 175 ; xxviii. p. 322.
THK THIN AND HIGHLY POLISHED TYPE. 109
Antiquaries of Scotland, shown in Fig. 52a. It is made of green
quartz and has the edge intentionally blunted. A smaller celt (T^-
inches) was found at Cunzierton near Jedburgh ' ; another (8 inches)
at Eattray,' Perthshire ; another (8{ inches), only J inch thick at
most, near Glenluee,'' Wigtownshire ; and others (8 inches) at Aber-
feldy,^ Perthshire, and Dunfermline.'
Severiil of these highly polished jadeite celts have been found in
dolmens in Brittan3% and tliere are some fine specimens in the museum
at Vannes. Some of them " have small holes bored through them.
The various types of Brittany celts have been classified by the Societe
Polymathique du Morbihan.^ In the Musee de St. Germain is a specimen
(unbored) 9 inches long, found near Paris,* as also a hoard of fifteen,
originally seventeen, mostly of jadeite and fibrolite, some perforated,
found at Bernon,'' near Arzon, Morbihan, in 1893. I have one 7A-
inches long from St. Jean, Chjiteaudun, and others 5| to 7 inches in
length, of beautiful varieties of jade-like stone, found at Eu (Seine
Inferieure), i\Iiannay, near Abbeville (Somme), and Breteuil (Oise).
The two latter are rounded and not sharp at the sides. One about 6^
inches long, fi-om the environs of Soissons, is in the museum at Lyons.
One of jade, of analogous form to these, and found near Brussels,
is engraved by Le Hon.'" Another was found at Maffles."
Five specimens of the same character, of different sizes, the longest
about 9J inches in length, and the shortest about 4 inches, are said to
have been foimd with Koman remains at Kiistrich, near Gonsenheim, '-
and are preserved in the museum at IVfainz. The smallest is of
greenstone, and the others of chloritic albite. They are said to have
been buried in a sort of leather case, arranged alternately with the
pointed and broad ends downwards, and in accordance with their size.
Eight specimens from museums at AVeimar, Rudolstadt, and Leipzig
were exhibited at Berlin" in 1880. One from Wesseling,'^ on the Rhine
(8 inches), is thought to have been associated with Roman remains.
Both with the English and Continental specimens, there appears to
be considerable doubt as to the exact localities whence the materials
were derived from which these celts are formed.
Instruments for which such beautiful and intractable materials were
selected, can hardly have been in common use ; but we have not sufficient
ground for arriving at any trustworthy conclusion as to the purpose for
which they were intended. I have, however, a short celt, 3^ inches
long, from Burwell Fen, and made of this jade-like material, which has
evidently been much in use, and was once considerably longer. It
appears, indeed, to be the butt-end of an instrument like Fig. 52.
A detailed account of the jade and jadeite celts in the British
Museum is given in the Zeitsehrift fur Ethnologie}'"
1 P.S. A. iS.,vol. xvii. p. 382; xxviii.p. 329. - Op. ri/". , vol. x. p. 600; x\ai. p. 383.
' Op. cit., vol. ix. p. 346 ; xvii. p. 384. ^ Op. cit., vol. xxiii. p. 272.
* Ibid. " Bon.stetten, " Supp. au Rec. d'Aut. Suissse.s," pi. ii. 1.
'' Fioc. Ethnol. Soc, 1870, p. cxxxxni.
** Mortillet, " Promenades," p. 145 : "Mus. Preli.," No. 459.
' See the account of the discovery, Itev. Arch., 3rd S., vol. xxiv. (1894), p. 260.
^" " L'homme Fossile," 2nd Ed., p. 147. ^^ Van Overloop. PI. ix. and x.
12 Lindenschmit. " Alt. u. H. V.," vol. i., Heft. vol. ii.. Taf. i. 19, &c.
" Voss. " Phot. Album," vol. y\., sec. \\. " Johrh. d. V. v. Alt. imJi/i., L. p. 290.
i'' xix. p. 119. See also, for the origin of Jade, FLscher's " Jadeit und Nephrit,"
Westropp in Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. x. p. 359, and liudler in Brit. Assoc. Hep.,
1890, p. 971.
110 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAP. VI.
It was formerly supposed that the jade of which many hatchets found
in Switzerland and other European countries are made, came of
necessity from the East, and theories as to the early miji:ratiou8 of
mankind have been based upon this supposition. As a fact, jade has
now been found in Europe, and notably in Styria' and Silesia."
lielow^ are given some references to comments on the sources of jade.
An account of the method of working jade in Western Yun-nan is
given in Anderson's Report* on the Expedition to that country ; and a
complete and well-illustrated catalogue of objects in jade and nephrite,
by Dr. A. B. Meyer, forms part of the publications of the Royal
Ethnographical Museum, at Dresden, for 1883.
I now come to the second of the subdivisions under which I
have arranged this class of implements, viz., those having the
sides flattened. The flat sides, of course, taper away to a point
at the cutting edge of the celts, and usuallj^ diminish much in
width toward the butt-end, which is commonly ground to a semi-
circular blunted edge. The iaiplements of this kind are generally
A'ery symmetrical in form.
I have selected a large specimen for engraving in Eig. 53. It is of
grey mottled flint, ground all over to such an extent, that hardly any
traces of the original chipping remain. It was found at Botesdale,
Suffolk, and was formerly in the collection of Mr. Warren, of Ixworth,
1)ut is now in my own. I have another (4f inches) from Redgrave,
Suffolk, and a third (5^ inches) from Bottisham Lode, Cambs.
One of the same form, found near Stowmarket, is engraved in the
Ardmologia.^ If the account there given be correct, it was lif inches
long. A specimen from Cardiff, now in the British Museum (4^
inches), has lost a considerable portion of its original length by use,
and is ground so that the edge bounds a facet on the face. The sides
at the butt-end are somewhat rounded, but near the edge they are
flat and J inch wide.
A fine specimen of this cliuracter, formed of ochreous flint (9 inches),
found in Swaffham Fen, Cambridgeshire, is in the Christy Collection,
as well as one from Mildenhall (Si inches), the butt-end of which is
sharper than is usual.
In the Fitch Collection is a flint celt of this tj-pe, 7i inches long and
2^ broad at the edge, which however, has been broken otf. It is said
to have been found in a tumulus at Swannington, Norfolk, in 1855.
In the Northampton Museum is a specimen (G inches) of oehi-eous flint,
foimd at Gilsborough, Northamptonshire. The late !Mr. James Wyatt,
F.G.S., had a beautiful implement of this type, but narrower in
proportion to its length, being 7 inches long and onlv If wide at the
edge, found in the Thames at Coway Stakes, near Egham. I have
one (C inches) from the Thames at Hampton Coiu-t. A fine specimen,
9^ inches long, and 3 wide at the edge, with the sides quite flat, but
J Mitth. d.Ant. Ges. in Wien, N. S., vol. iii. 1883, p. 213-216.
2 Op. cit., N. S., vol. v. 1885, p. 1.
^ Jonrii. Anth. Inst., vol. x., p. 359 ; xx, p. 332 ; xxi., pp. 319, 493; Aarh'vg.
f. Oldkynd., 1889, p. 149.
* Calcutta, 1871. ^ Vol. xvi., pi. Iii. p. 361.
WITH FLAT SIDES.
HI
less than ^ iach wide, of oclireous fliut, polished all over, was found at
Crudwell, Wilts.
Others, in flint, have been found at Sutton, Sufi'cjlk (8 inches) ;
Wishford, Great Bedwin, Wilts' (7 inches); Portsmouth;- Cherbury
Fig. 53.— Botesdale, Sufioli. J
Camp, Pusey, Faringdon^ (5^ inc hes long, edge faceted), and Eampton,
Cambridge.* I have seen one (5^ inches) that was found near Lough-
borough. Mr. Gr. F. Lawrence has a fine specimen (7| inches) from
the Lea Marshes.
1 Canon Greenwell, F.R.S.
s Mr. Frank Buckland, F.Z.S.
* Mr James Brown.
« Rev. S. Banks.
112
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VI.
In the Xational Museum at Ediaburgh is one of vrhite flint
(10 inches'' from Fochabers/ Elginshire, and another from the same
place (7^ inches}. They are in shape much like Fig. 61. There is
another of grey flint, from Skye {7^ inches). One ok inches long, in the
same museum, from Eoxburghshire, has the middle part of the faces
Fig. 54.— Laekford, Sullolk. i
ground flat, so that the section is a sort of compressed octagon ; the
edge is nearly straight.
Much the same form occurs in other materials than flint. I have
a specimen, formed of flinty clay-slate, with one side less flat than
the other, lOj inches long, 3 vdde, and If thick, said to have been
found with four others in a cairn on Druim-a-shi, Culloden, Inverness.
I have another of whin-stone (9 J inches) from Kirkcaldy, Fife.
The fijie celt from GiLmerton, Fig. 76, is of the same class, but has
a cutting edge at each end. Some Cumberland and Westmorland
specimens partake much of this character.
1 Froe. Soc. Ant. Scot., voU x\-i. p. 40S.
WITH FLAT SIDES.
113
Implements of nearly similar form to that last described, but having
the edge oblique, are also met with. That engraved in Fig. 54 was
found at Lackford, Suffolk, and was formerly in the collection of Mr.
Warren, of Ixwoi-th, but is now in mine. It is of grey flint. I have
another, of white flint, of the same length but a trifle narrower, and
with the grinding for the edge forming more of a facet with the body
of the celt. It was found in the Isle of Portland. The obHquity of the
edge was no doubt intentional, and may have originated in the manner
in which these hatchets were mounted with hafts. Professor Nilsson^
has suggested that the obliquity is due to the front part of the blade
being worn away in use more quickly than the back.
To this class, though very different in appearance, belongs a beauti-
fully made celt of grey flint, in the British Museum. It is probably
of English origin, though the place of finding is unknown. The sides
are straight and flat, but only about -A- of an inch wide, the faces
equally convex and polished all over. It is 9 inches long, and tapers
from Ij^ inches wide at the
edge, which is broken, to f
at the butt. Its greatest
thickness is h an inch. It is
engraved in the Archaological
Journal."^
Flint celts of the type of
both Fig. 53 and 54 are
not uncommon in France
and Belgium. They are also
found, though rarely, in Ire-
land.
The cutting end of one
formed of nearly transparent
quartz, and found in Egypt,
is in the Museum at Geneva.
Celts with the sides flat-
tened are of not unfrequent
occurrence in other materials
than flint. That figured as
No. 55 is of ochreous-
coloured quartzite, and was
found at Dalmenj^, Linlith-
gow. It is preserved in
the National Museum at
Edinburgh. The form is
remarkable, as being so
broad in proportion to the
length. The sides are flat,
but the angles they make
with the faces are slightly rounded. The butt-end is rounded in both
directions, and appears to have been worked with a pointed tool or
pick.
Another celt, of greenstone, of much the same form but with the
Fig-. 55.— Diilmeny, LLiilithgow. j
^ "Stone Age," p. 63.
Vol. iv. p. 2.
114
POLISHED CELTS.
[CKAP. VI.
sides more tapering, 6 inches long and 3^ wide, "which \ras found in
Lochleven^ in I860, is in the same museum. This latter more nearly
resembles Fig. 51 in outline. A small highlv-polished celt of flinty
slate (2f inches), found near Dundee,- has been figured. Another,
more triangular in outline, 6| inches long, was found at Barugh,
Yorkshire, and is in the Greenwell Collection. I have a celt of rather
narrower proportions that was found between Hitchin and Pirton,
Herts. It is made of a kind of lapi>i lydius.
Many of the Danish greenstone celts, which are perforated at the
butt, present much the same outline and section.
Stone hatchets of this character occur, though rarely, in France. I
have seen one in the collec-
tion of the late M. Aymard,
at Le Puy. Dr. Finlay, of
Athens, had a thin, flat
hatchet of this form made
of heliotrope. 2>h inches long,
■with flat sides, found in
Greece. The form occurs
also in Sicily.'
Several celts of this type
have been brought from dif-
ferent parts of Asia. One,
of basalt, 2 inches long,
wedge - shaped, found at
Muquier,^ in SouthernBaby-
lonia, is in the British
Museum ; and several of
jade. 3 to 4 inches long,
procured by Major Sladen
from the province of Yun-
nan in Southern China, are
in the Christy Collection.
By Major Sladen' s kindness,
I have also a specimen. Mr.
Joseph Edkin 5 has published
some notes on " Stone
Hatchets in China. ' ' ^ Others
from Perak'" have also been
described.
The same form, also in
jade, has been found in Assam.^ Some from Java, in the museum at
Leyden, formed of flint, present the same section, but the sides
expand towards the edge. A nearly similar form occtirs in Japan.*
Fig. 56 is of the same character as Fig. 55, but narrower at the butt-
' Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., toL iii. p. 486. - Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., voL xiii. p. 306.
3 Z.f. Eth., 1878, Supp. pi. iii. « " Horse Ferales," pi. ii. 14.
* Xature, vol. xxx. p. .515. See also Archiv.f. Anth., vol. xvi. p. 241, and Proc.
Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ix. p. 211.
* Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xvii. p. 66.
' Proc. As. Soc. Beng., Sept., 1870. Proc. Ethnol. Soc, 1870, p. Ixii.
* Kanda's " Stone Implements of Japan," Nature, vol. xxxi. p. 538 ; Cong. Preh.
Pruzellet, 1872, p. 337.
Kg. 56.^SproL.:toii, near Kelso.
WITH FLAT SIDES AND NARROW BUTT.
115
end. The original is in the Greenwell Collection, and is formed of
Lydian stone. It was found at Sprouston, near Kelso, Eoxburghshire.
Though flat at the sides along most of the blade, the section becomes
oval near the buit-end.
I have a smaller example of this type in clay-slate, 3 J inches long
and If wide at the edge, found at Camaby, near Bridlington. The
butt-end is in this case rectangular in section. It closely resembles the
flat-sided hatchets so commonly found in France. I have an Irish celt
of the same form found near Armagh, and made of clay-slate. Flat-
sided celts are, however, rare in Ireland.
A celt of grey flint, 4^ inches long, of much the same outline, but
rig. 57. — iXunnington, Yorkshire. A
having the sides 'rounded and not flat, and the butt brought to a
straight sharp edge, was found in Burwell Fen, and is now in the
Chi'isty Collection.
A celt of the same section, but of peculiar form, with the sides
curved slightly inwards, and tapering considerably to the butt, is
shown in Fig. 57. The sides are flat, but have the angles slightly
rounded ; a narrow flattened face is carried round the butt-end. It
would appear to have been made from a calcareous nodule found in
some argillaceous bed, like the septaria in the London clay. Both of
I 2
116
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VI.
its faces present a series of diverging cracks, of slight depth, apparently
resulting from the dissolution of calcareous veins in the stone. It was
found at Nunnington, Yorkshire, and now forms part of the Green-
well Collection.
The original of Fig. 58 was discovered at Burradon, Northumber-
land, where also the fine flint celt, Fig. 47, was found. This likewise is
in the Greenwell Collection. It is of porphyritic stone, and has the angles
of the flat sides slightly rounded. Another, in the same collection,
4 inches long, from Doddington, in the same county, is of similar
character. Celts of much the same shape and size have been found in
the Shetland Isles ; one of these, 5^ inches long, from West Burratirth,
is in the British Museum. A similar form is found in Japan. ^
Fig. 58. — Burradon, Northumberland.
Fi:'. 59.— Livormcre, Suffolk.
Fig. 59 shows a celt of much the same kind, found at Livermere,
near Bury St. Edmunds. It is formed of a close-grained greenstone,
and is in my own collection. The angles at the sides are slightly
rounded. I have others of nearly the same size and of similar material,
found near Cirencester, and at Soham and Bottisham, Cambs. Green-
stone celts of about this size, and with the sides more or less fiat, so as
to range between Figs. 48 and 58, are of not uncommon occurrence in
the Fen country. Mr. Fisher, of Ely, has one, found near Manea, and
several from Bottisham. I have one, of felstone, 3i inches long, found
at Coton, Cambs., one side of which presents a flat surface f inch wide,
while the other is but slightly flattened. One {-ii^o inches) was found
near Torquay, Devon. ^
A still more triangular form, more convex on the faces, and having
^ Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot. ,yo\. xxvi., p. 404.
Tr. Dt^. Assoc, vol. xix. p. 56.
WITH FLAT SIDES AND POINTED I5U1T.
il7
Fi^' no— Ildiituii, .Ni UliuiiilKi'land.
the flat sides much narrower, is shown in Fig. 60, from a specimen
in the Greenwell Collection, found at Ildorton, Northumberland. It
is formed of a hard, slaty rock or hone-
stone. The angles of the sides are
rounded.
In the National Museum at
Edinburgh are two implements of
greenstone (2 J and 3 inches) of nearly
similar form to Fig. HO, but having
the sides sharp. They were found in
the Isle of Skye."
A smaller celt of the same character,
2^ inches long, found in a cairn at
Brindy Hill, Aberdeenshire,'- is in the
British Museum.
One 2| inches long, from Sardis,^ in
Lydia, and in the same collection, is
of much the same form, but rounder
at the sides and less pointed at the
butt.
Implements of the form represented
in Fig. 61 occur most frequently in
the northern part of Britain, especially in Cumberland and West-
morland, in consequence, it may be supposed, of the felspathic rocks,
of which they are usually formed, being there found in the greatest
abundance. That here figured is in the British Museum. It is of
mottled close-grained stone, beautifully finished, and was found in a
turf pit on Windy Harbour Farm, near Pendle, Lancashire.* It is
more slender than the generality of the implements of this class, which
in outline usually more closely resemble Fig. 77, which, however,
has a cutting edge at each end. They sometimes slightly expand
towards the butt-eud.
I have a more roughly-finished implement of this class, with the two
faces faceted longitudinally, found near Wigton, Cumberland, and
formerly in the Crosthwaite Museum, at Keswick. It is of felspathic
ash, much decomposed on the surface, and 9 inches long. I have also
a small example of the type {7h inches) made of whin-stone, and
found by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., near Sudbury, Suffolk, in 187.3.
Some larger specimens of similar character are in the Christy Collec-
tion. One of them is 13| inches in length.
In the Greenwell Collection is an implement of this type, but with the
sides straighter, and the angles rounded, found at Holme, on Spalding
Moor, Yorkshire. It is of hone-stone, 7 inches long, 2i inches broad
at the edge, but tapering to IJ inches at the butt. There is also
another of folstone, 12:^ long, found at Great Salkeld, Cumberland.
There is a celt of this type in the Blackmore Museum (13^ inches),
the butt-end round and sharpened, though the edge has been removed
by grinding. It is said to have been found, 5 or 6 feet deep in gravel,
1 See " Acct. of Soc. Ant. of Scot.," p. 55.
■^ " Horte Ferales," pi. ii. 11.
•* " HoriB Ferales," pi. ii. I'S. Arch. Journ., vol. xv. p. 178.
* " Horuj Terales," pi. ii. ?.
118
rOI.lSHED CELTS.
CHAP. VI.
at Shaw Hall,' near Flixton, Lancashire. Another, in the same collec-
tion (8 inches), was found near Keswick.
AVhat from the engraving would appear to be a large implement of
this kind, lias been described by
Mr. Cuming- as a club. "It is
wrought of fawn-coloured hone-
slate, much like that obtained in
the neighbourhood of Snowdon.
It weighs 6^ pounds, and mea-
sui'es 17| inches in length, nearly
3 J inches across its greatest
breadth, and nearly 2^ inches in
its greatest thickness. The faces
are convex, the edges blunt and
thinning oif at both of the rounded
extremities." It was found near
Newton, Lancashire. Another
so-called club is mentioned as
having been found near Kes-
wick.^
Clumsy and unwieldy as im-
plements of such a length appear
to be if mounted as axes, there
can be no doubt of their having
been intended for use as cutting
tools ; and though, from their
size, they m.ight be considered to
be clubs, yet their form is but
ill-adapted for such a weajion,
even if we assume that, as is
said to be the case with the Xew
Zealand r/tere, they were some-
times employed for thrusting as
well as for striking, and, therefore,
had the broad end sharpened.
The Stirlingshire specimen, Fig.
77, which is 13i inches long, is,
however, sharp at both ends.
There have been, moreover, dis-
covered in Denmark what are
indubitably celts, longer than the
Newton so-called club. They are
sometimes more than 18 inches
long, and I have myself such
an implement from Jutland, of
ochreous flint, 16 inches long and
3 inches broad at the edge, which
is carefully sharpened. I have
another roughly-chipped Danish celt of flint, 14^ inches long, which
weighs 6 lbs. 14 oz., or more than that from Newton.
Fig. 61.— Near Pendle, Lancashire. J
' Arch. Journ., vol. vii. p. 389.
3 Proe. Soe. Ant., vol. iii. p. 225.
* Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. iv., p.
232.
OF RECTANGULAR SECTION.
119
The celt found in Solway Moss, with its handle still preserved, as
will subsequently be mentioned, is of the form of Fig. 61. It is of
folspathic rock, 9i inches
long and 2^ inches broad,
the edge slightly oblique.
One of felstone (15^-
inches), was found at Dru-
mour,' in Glenshee, For-
farshire, with another 13
inches long. This latter
widens out suddenly at the
butt. The larger of these
two presents on its surface
a transverse mark, not
unlike that on the Solway
Moss specimen, such as
may have resulted from
that portion of the surface
having been protected for
a time by a wooden handle,
which eventually decayed
and perished.
Another from Lempit-
law, in the Kelso Museum,
is 1 3 inches long.
The flattening of the
sides and faces of celts is
sometimes, though rarely,
carried to such an extent
that they become almost
rectangular in section.
That shown in Fig. 62
was found near the Rye
bank, at Ness,^ in the
North Riding of York-
shire, and is formed of a
dark, much altered slaty
rock, containing a good
deal of iron. The butt-
end, though brought to
an edge, is not so sharp as
the broader or cutting end.
The surface is somewhat
decomposed. It is in the
Greenwell Collection, in
which also is the some-
what analogous implement
shown in Fig. 63.
This also is from the same part of Yorkshire, having been found, in
1868, at Gilling,'' in the Vale of Mowbray, 4 ft. deep in peaty clay. It
^ Proc. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. ix. p. 174. ^ Journ. Ethn. Soc, vol. ii. p. 165.
3 Journ. Ethn. Soc, vol. ii. p. 165.
//A
7
/ y
Fig. 62.— Ness.
J
120
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VK
is formed of clay iron-stone, and has the angles somewhat rounded. The
edge is oblique and slightly chipped away. Another celt of close-
grained schist (oj inches), found in the same j^arish, and preserved in
the same collection, more resembles in outline that from Noss, though
not sharp at the butt, and having an oblique edge. In the Greenwell
Collection is a thinner celt of the same type, found at Heslerton Carr.
i .:t
Fib'. 63.— GiUiiig
i
I have a specimen (5J inches) of hone-stone, rather flatter on one
face than the other, from Kirkcaldy, Fife.
An Italian celt, of much the same cliaracter as Fig. 62, but of green-
stone, has been figured by Gastaldi.'
The next celt which I have to describe is even more chisel-like in
' Mem. Accad. R. di Torino, Ser. 2, vol. xx%a., Tav. iv. 4.
CHISEL-I.IKE AND OF RECTANGULAR SECTION.
121
appearance, both jtlie faces and sides being almost flat and nearly
parallel. This peculiarity of form is no doubt mainly due to the
schistose character of the rock from which the implement is made ;
which, in the case of the original of Fig. 64, is a close-grained slate
or hone-stone. It -was found at Swinton, near Malton, Yorkshire, and
was given to me by the late Mr. C. Monkman. The angles are slightly
rounded, and the butt-end is tapered off as if to an edge, which, how-
ever, is now broken away.
Long, narrow celts of this rectangular section are of very rare occur-
rence both in Britain and Ireland, and, so far as I am aware, have
-...W^s...S-$i»j
Fifr. 64.— Swinton, near Malton, ^
Fig. 65.— Scamridge Dykes, YorksLiie. i
never been found of flint. In Denmark, on the contrary, they are
common in flint, but generally of a larger size than the specimen here
engraved. The faces also are usually rather more convex.
They are to be found among the North American' forms, sometimes
with a hole towards the butt-end, as if for suspension.
Somewhat the same form occurs in Siam and in the Malay Peninsula.
The next specimen, shown in Fig. Go, is of the same material as the
last, and was found in the same neighbourhood, at the Dj'kes, Scam-
ridge, in the North Riding of Yorkshire. Owing to the irregular fissure
of the stone, it is considerably thicker at one side than the other. The
broader side is flat with the angles chamfered, and the narrower side
is rounded. The faces taper at the butt-end, which is ground to a
1 Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i., pi. xi. 3 : xiv. 2.
122
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. YI.
;
regular curve and blunted. This also was given to me by the late
Mr. C. Monkman, of Malton.
A curious variety of celt is shown in Fig. 66, the original of
which was found at Whitwell, in the
North Eiding of Yorkshire, and forms part
of the Greenwell Collection. It is made
of a hard, shelly limestone, apparently
of Oolitic age, the surface of which has
been partially eroded. It is nearly flat on
one face, and seems to have been intended
for mounting as an adze. Other celts of
similar material have been found in the same
district, and Canon Greenwell has kindly
presented me with one of much the same
character as this, though far broader in pro-
portion to its thickness. This specimen,
which was found at Osgodby, closely re-
sembles in section that from Truro, Fig. 84.
A specimen of the type of Fig. 66 (7^
inches) is in the British Museum. It was
found at Creekmoor, near Poole, Dorset.
Some of the large celts from the Shetland
Isles present the same peculiarit}'- of being
flat on one face, but, as the sides are much
rounded, I shall include them among those
Fig. 6fi.-V.TiitweU, Yorkshire h ^^ ^^^^ SectiOH.
These, of oval section, form the third subdivision of polished
celts, which I now proceed to describe.
It will be observed that implements of this character, formed of flint,
are extremely rare. The reason for this appears to be, that from the
method in which, in this country, flint celts were chipped out, the sides
were in aU cases originally sharp, and they had a pointed oval, or
vesica piscis, section. In polishing, this form was to a great extent
preserved, though the edges were, as has been seen, sometimes ground
flat and sometimes rounded. It rarely happens, however, that the
rounding is carried to so great an extent as to produce such a contour
that it is impossible to say within a little where the faces end and the
sides begin ; though this is often the case with celts of greenstone and
other materials, which were shaped out in a somewhat difi'erent
manner, and in the formation of which grinding played a more im-
portant part. It is almost needless to say that I use the word oval in
its popiilar sense, and not as significant of a mathematically true
ellipse. At the part where the edge of the celts commences, the section
is of course a vesica piscis.
The first specimen engraved. Fig. 67, is in my own collection, and
was found in the Thames at London. It is of dark greenstone, and,
owing to a defect in the piece of stone of which it was made, there is
a hollow place in one of the faces. General Pitt Rivers has a similar
but more symmetrical celt, of the same material, also found in the
Thames. Another, smaller, from the same source, is in the British
OF OVAL SECTION.
123
Museum ; and another (8 inclies) from the collection of the late Rev.
T. Hugo, F.S.A.,' is now mine. Its edge is rather oblique. I have
another from the Thames (7^ inches) with a symmetrical edge.
Large implements of this form are of not uncommon occurrence in
Fig. 67. — TIkuius, London. J
Scotland and in the Shetland Isles. There are several in the
National ^f useum at Edinburgh, and also in the British Museum, and
in that of Newcastle. The butt-end is occasionally pointed, and the
faces in broad specimens, flatter than in Fig. 67. Several of these celts
^ Arch. Assoc. Joiirn., vol. x. p. 105.
124
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VI.
in the Britisli Musemn •svere found in the middle of the last century, in
Shetland. The largest is 1 1 inches long, 3 inches vride at the edge,
and \^ inches thick. It was found in Selter,' parish of Walls. Others
are from 8 inches to 9 inches long. In the case of one, 1 2 inches long,
from Shetland, and in the Edinburgh Museum, the edge is oblique.
Mr. J. "W. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, has a beautiful, long, narrow celt of
oval section, from Lunnasting, Shetland. It is formed of spherulitic
f elstone, and is 9^ inches long, but only 2^ inches wide at the broadest
part. Another, 12 inches long, from Trondra, is of f elstone, and slightly
curved longitudinally, so
that it was probably an adze.
Others- (14, 11, 10^, and
9 inches) have been figured.
In the Green well Collec-
tion is a celt of this kind
formed of porphyritic green-
stone, 13 inches long, from
Sandsting, Shetland.
A celt of greenstone (8
inches), in outline much re-
sembling Fig. 72. was found,
Lq 1758, at Tresta, in the
parish of Aithsting, Shet-
land, and is now in the
British Musevmi. It is flat
on one face, the other being
convex, so that the section
is an oval with a segment
removed. Such an instru-
ment must, in all proba-
bility, have been mounted
as an adze, though the flat
face may have originally
been due to the cleavage of
the material, which is a
porphyritic greenstone.
Another celt (6 J inches),
flat on one face, so that the
section presents little more
than half an oval, was found
in the island of Yell, and
is now in the Newcastle
Museum.
I have a large heavy celt less tapering at the butt than Fig. 67,
8^ inches long, 3 A inches wide, and 2^ inches thick, said to have been
found at Spalding, Lincolnshire. One of flint (7 inches) nearly oval in
section, and found at Northampton, is in the museum at that town.
Celts of the same form and character as Fig. 67 are found both in
Ireland and in France.
Fig. 68 shows another variet}' of this type, which becomes almost
conical at the butt. The original was found near Bridlington, and is
1 " Horse Ferales," pi. ii. 5. a Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xvu. pp. 14, 15, 18, 19.
Fig. 68.— >"tai Bridlington.
OF OVAL SECTION WITH CONICAL lilJTT.
125
now in my own collection. The material is greenstone. Implements
of this foi-m, but rarely expanding- at the edge, are of common occur-
rence in that part of Yorkshire. Some of them have been made of a
variety of greenstone liable to decomposition from atmospheric or
other causes, and the celts when found present a surface so excessively
eroded that their form can with difficulty be recognized. In the Green-
well Collection are celts of the type of Fig. 68, from Willerby, in the
East Riding (6^ inches and 5|^ inches), and Grambe, in the North Kiding
of Yorkshire (6^ inches), as well as another (5| inches) from Sher-
burn, Durham. I have one nearly 8 inches long, from Speeton, near
l^ridlington, and several (5^- to G inches) from the Cambridge Fens.
The surface of one of them is for the most part decomposed, but along
a vein of harder material the original polish is preserved.
Mr. F. Spalding has found one
(8 inches), with a sideways curve,
on the shore at Walton- on-the-
Naze.
A greenstone celt of this form
(8^ inches) was found at Minley
Manor,' Blackwater, Hants.
In the Fitch Collection is one
of serpentine (6^ inches), from
DuU's Lane, near Loddon, Nor-
folk, and the late Mr. J. W.
Flower had one of greenstone (4 J
inches), found at Melyn Works,
Neath. The greenstone celt
found in Grime's Graves,^ Nor-
folk, was of this form, but rather
longer in its proportions, being
7i inches long and 2.^ inches
broad at the edge, which is
oblique. The late Mr. H.
Burden, of Blandford, had a
greenstone celt of this type
(5 inches), found at Langton,
near Blandford, the butt-end of
which is roughened by picking,
probably for insertion in a socket ; and the late Rev. E. Duke, of Lake,
near Salisbury, had a celt of this character, found in a tumulus in that
parish. I have both French and Danish specimens of the same form
at the butt, though narrower at the edge.
Another variety, in which the butt-end is less pointed and more
oval, is given in Fig. 69. The original is of dark green hornblende
schist, and was found at Lakenheath, Suffolk. I have a large imple-
ment of similar form and material (5^ inches), with the edge slightly
oblique, from Swaffham, Cambridgeshire ; another of serpentine
(3^ inches), from Coldham's Common, Cambridge ; others of green-
stone (4 and 3^ inches), from Kempston, Bedford, and Burwell Fen,
Cambs. ; as well as one of greenstone (4| inches), from Standlake,
Oxon. A celt of this type, of porphyritic stone (5:} inches), found
Ifroe. Soe. Ant., 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 235. * Journ. Eihnol. Soc, vol. ii. pi. xxx. 3.
Fi?. 69.— Lakenheath, Suffolk.
126
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VL
at Branton, Northumberland, is in the Greenwell Collection. It
is slightly oblique at the edge. Another of tlie same character, of
greenstone (6|^ inches), found at Sproughton, Suffolk, is in the Fitch
Collection. Another, 5 inches long, found at Kingston-on-Thames, is
in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries.
Another of green serpentine, faceted to form the edge, and rounded
at butt, 4 inches long, was found in a cairn in Fifeshire, and is pre-
served in the National Museum at Edinburgh.
In the Blackmore Museum is a celt of granite tapering to the
rounded point at the butt, 6^ inches long, which has been roughened
at the upper end, and is polished towards the edge. It was found in
the Eiver Lambourn, Berks.
I have seen another of this form, but of flint (4J inches), with the
sides much rounded, so as to be almost oval, found near Eastbourne,
where also this form has occurred in greenstone. The late Mr. H.
Darden, of Blandford, had a celt of greenstone of this form 4f inches
long, found at Tarrant Launceston, Dorset. Many of the celts found
in India are of this type.
A shorter form, which also seems to be most prevalent in Yorkshire,
is represented in Fig. 70. The specimen figured is from Seamer,
formed of greenstone, and belongs
to the Greenwell Collection. In
the same collection is another
(4 inches), rather larger and
thicker, from Scampston. Another
of quartzite (5 inches), polished
all over, but showing traces of
having been worked with a pick,
was found at Birdsall, near Mal-
ton, and is in the collection of
Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield. I
have one of greenstone (4A^ inches),
also from Seamer.
A celt of greenstone, of the same
section, but broader and more trun-
cated at the butt, 3 inches long,
and found near Bellingham, Xorth
Tyne, is in the Newcastle Museum.
Another (4 inches), in outline more
like Fig. 60, was found in a se-
pulchral cave atEhos Digre,' Den-
bighshire.
Some of the stone celts from Italy, Greece, Asia Minor- and India,
are of much the same form, but usually rather longer in their pro-
portions. I have some Greek specimens more like Fig. 71 — kindly
given to me by Captain H. Thurburn, F.G.S. Celts of this character are
said to have been in use among the North American Indians^ as fleshing
1 Dawkins' " Cave-hunting," p. 157. Arch. Camb., 4th S., vol. iii., 1872, p. 30.
- See Schliemaim's "Mycen8e,"p. 76; "Troy," p. 71; Bev. ^rcA., vol. xxxiv.
p. 163, &c., &c.
3 Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. p. 91. Other Xorth American celts are
engraved in the " Anc. Mon. of the Miss. Valley," pp. 217, 218 ; Squier, " Abor.
Mon. of New York," p. 77.
Fig. "0.— Seamer, Yorkshire.
OF A FORM COMMON IN FRANCE.
127
FiK. 71.— (iuernsey. ^
instruments, employed by the women in the preparation of skins.
They were not hat'ted, but held in the hand like chisels. I have a
celt almost identical in form and material with
rig'. 70, but from Central India.
The form shown in Fig. 71 is inserted among
those of Britain, though geographically it may
be regarded as French rather than British, having
been found in Guernsey. I have engraved it
from a cast presented to the Society of Antiquaries
by the late Mr. F. C. Lukis, F.S.A. The form
occurs in various materials — rarely flint — and is
common through the whole of Franco. A specimen
from Surrey is in the Ih-itish Museum. I have
seen one which was said to have been found in the neighbourhood of
London, but it was not improbably an imported specimen.
Should authenticated instances of the finding of celts of this class
in our southern counties be
adduced, they will be of interest
as aSovdimg primd facie evidence
of intercourse with the Con-
tinent at an early period.
Small hatchets, both oval and
circidar in section, have been
found at Accra,' West Africa,
and others, larger, on the Gold
Coast.- The same form is not
imcommon in Greece and Asia
Minor.
Major Sladen brought several
small jade celts of this form,
but flatter at the sides, from
Yun-nan, in Southern China.
Through his liberality several
are in the Christy Collection,
and one in my own. Some
haematite celts found in North
America' are of much the same
size and form.
The specimen engraved as
Fig. 72 was found in the neigh-
bourhood of AYareham, Dorset-
shire, and is in my own collec-
tion. It is formed of syenite,
and, unlike the instruments pre-
viously described, is narrower at
the edge than in the middle of
the blade ; the section shows
that the faces are nearly flat.
I have another celt, in which these peculiarities are exaggerated, the
1 Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. i. p. xcvi., pi. ii. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1870, p. 154.
2 Journ. Afitfi. Inst., vol. xii. p. 449, pi. xiii.
3 "Anc. Mon. of Miss. Val.," p. 215, fig. 106.
Fig. 72. — Waicliuiu
128
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VL
faces being flatter, the blade thinner, and also wider in the middle
in proportion to the edge, it being 5J inches long, 2J inches wide in
the middle, and lA inches at the edge, and rather less than an inch in
thickness. The material is a Scrpida limestone, and the celt was no
doubt formed from a travelled block, as it was found in a Boulder-clay
district at Troston, near Bur}' St. Edmunds. I have a much heavier
implement from the same locality, and formed of the same kind of
stone. It is 10 inches long, and rather wider in proportion than
Fig. 72. It does not narrow towards the edge, but in section and
general form may be classed with the specimen there figured.
A large celt, 10 inches long, of the same section, but thinner pro-
portionally, and with straighter and more parallel sides, in outline
more like Fig. 79, was found at Pilmoor, in the North Eiding of
Yorkshire, and forms part of the Greenwell Collection. It is of clay-
slate. Another in the same collection, and from North Holme, in the
same Eiding (10 inches), is broader and flatter, with the sides
somewhat more square, and the edge more curved. One face is
somewhat hollowed towards one side, possibly to grind out the trace
of a too deep chip. A third is from Barmston, in the East Eiding
(10^ inches), and a beautiful celt of hornblendic serpentine (lOf
inches), oval in section and pointed at the butt, was found at
Cunningsburgh,* Shetland, and another of diorite (10^ inches), rather
broader in its proportions than Fig. 72, on
Ambrisbeg Hill,- Island of Bute. An analo-
gous form from Japan is in the museum at
Leyden.
A long narrow chisel-like celt, with an oval
section, is given in Fig. 73. The original is of
dark greenstone, and was found in Forfar-
shire. It is in the National Museum at
Edinburgh. I have a larger celt of the same
form (5^ inches), formed of a close-grained
grit, and found at Sherburn, Yorkshire.
Messrs. Mortimer have another of schist
(4J inches), from Thixendale, Yorkshire. This
form occurs, though rarely, in Ireland.
A much larger celt, of metamorphic rock,
8^ inches long, 3 inches broad at the edge,
and IJ inches at the butt, If inches thick,
was found on Throckley Fell, Northumber-
land, and is in the Museum at Newcastle.
Fig. 74 gives a shorter form of implement
truncated at the butt. The original, which
is in my own collection, is formed of green-
stone, and was found at Easton, near Brid-
lington. It is carefully polished towards the
edge, but at the butt it is roughened, apparently with the intention of
rendering it more capable of adhesion to its socket. The celt from
Malton, Fig. 81, is roughened in a similar manner, and the same is the
case with many of the hatchets from the Swiss lake-dwellings, which
have been frequently foiind stdl fixed in their sockets of stag's horn.
' Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xv. p. 245. - F. S. A. S., vol. xxvii. p. 370.
Fig. 73.— Forfarshire.
OF OVAL SECTION, POINTED AT THE DUTT.
129
I liave another speiiinen from South Back Lane, Bridlington, which,
however, is not roughened at the butt, and the sides of which have
had a narrow fiat facet ground along them. It is 6 inches long, and
3i inches wide at the edge. Mr. W. Tucker has shown me a broken
specimen like Fig. 74, found near Loughborough.
Another form presents a rather pointed, and unusually elongated oval
in section, and is pointed at the butt. Fig. 75 represents a highly-
finished celt of this kind made of light green, almost jade-like stone,
preserved in the National Museum at Edinburgh, and said to have
been found in Caithness. It is so thoroughly Carib in character, and
Fig. 74. — Bridlington.
Fig. 75. — Caithness. A
80 closely resembles specimens I possess from the West Indian Islands,
that for some time 1 hesitated to engrave it. There are, however,
sufficiently numerous instances of other implements of the same form
having been found in this country for the type to be accepted as
British. The celt found at Glasgow,' in a canoe at a depth of twenty-
five feet below the surface, was of this kind. In the Greenwell
Collection is one of porphyritic greenstone (7 inches), and of nearly this
form, found at Grantchester, Cambridge. Two celts of this character,
the one from Jamaica and the other from the North of Italy, are
engraved in the Archceologiar Both are in the British Museum.
A celt like Fig. 75 (4^ inches), of a material like jadeite, is said to
1 Wilson' .s " Preh. Man," vol. i. p. 154.
'■* Vol. xvii. p. 2'2'2.
K
See postea, p. 150
130 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAP. VI.
have been found about 60 years ago at King's Sutton,^ Northampton-
shire. It has much the appearance of being Carib.
Four greenstone celts of this tj-pe, one of them rather crooked
laterally, were found in 1869 at Bochym,- Curj, Cornwall.
Another of aphanite (IH inches) from Cornwall's in the Edin-
burgh Museum, where is also one of the same material and form
(lOi^ inches; from Berwickshire,* two others of grev porphyritic stone
(9 inches) from Aberdeenshire,^ and another of porphyrite (10
inches) found near Lerwick,* Shetland.
I have specimens of the same type from various parts of France,
lu the Greenwell Collection is a Spanish celt of the same form found
near Cadiz.
The bulk of the celts found in Ireland, and formed of other materials
than flint, approximate in form to Figs. 69 to 75, though usually
rather thinner in their proportion. They range, however, widely in
shape, and vary m ich in their degree of tinish.
I now come to the fourth of the subdivisions under which,
mainly for the sake of having some basis for classification, I have
arranged the polished celts. In it, I have placed those which
present any abnormal peculiarities ; and the first of these which I
shall notice are such as do not materially affect the outline of
the celts ; as, for instance, the existence of a second cutting edge
at the butt-end, at a part where, though the blade is usually
tapered away and ground, yet it very rarely happens that it has
been left sharp. Indeed, in almost all cases, if in shaping and
polishing the celt the butt-end has at one time been sharpened,
the edge has been afterwards carefully removed by grinding it
away.
The beautifully-formed implement of ochreously-stained flint repre-
sented in Fig. 76, was found at Gilmerton, in East Lothian, and is
jireserved in the National Museum at Edinburgh. The sides are
flat with the angles rounded off, and the blade expands shghtly at the
ends, both of which are sharpened. It is carefully polished all over,
so as to show no traces of its having been cliipped out, except a slight
-depression on one face, and this is polished like tlie rest of the blade.
It is upwards of a century since this instrument was turned up by the
plough, as described in the Minutes of the Sociity of Antiqiuiries of
Scotland' for April 2, 1782, where it is mentioned as the " head of a
hatchet of polished yellow marble, sharpened at both ends."
Another from Shetland'' (IH inches) is made of serpentine and has
both ends 'formed to a rounded cutting edge."
1 Proc. Soe. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v. pp. 300, 442.
^ Arch. Asso:. Journ., vol. xxix. p. 343. Cumming's " Churches and Ants, of
■Cury and Gunwalloe," 1875, p. 66.
3 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 62 : xi. p. 514.
♦ P. S. A. S., vol. xL p. 514. 5 P. S. A. S., vol. xii. p. 207.
« P. S. A. S., vol. xvii. p. 16. • " Acct. of Soc. Ant. of Scot.," 17S2, p. 91.
8 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xvii. p. 15.
AVllH A CUTTING EDGE AT EACH END.
131
A celt from Kirklaucliline, Wigtownshire, mentioned at page 135,
is much like Fig. 76 in outline.
A somewhat similar instrument, but narrower at the butt, formed
lig. 76. — Gilmerton, East Lothian
of jade (?) and 1 1 inches long, found at Nougaroulet, is engraved in
the Revue de Gascogne}
Fig. 77 represents another celt, in the Edinbiu-gh Museum, of
similar section, but expanding only at the butt-end, which is sharpened,
1 Vol. vi., 1865.
K 2
Fig. 77. — Stirliugshire. J
SHARP AT BOTH ENDS.
133
and contracting from the middle towards the broader end, which, as
usual, seems to have been the principal cutting end. It is formed of
compact greenstone, and was found in Stii'lingshire. In general outline,
it closely resembles a common Cumberland form, of which, however,
the butt is not sharp. Several such were found in Ehenside Tarn,^
Cumberland, varying in length from G to 14^^ inches. One of them
was in its original haft. The whole are now in the British Museimi.
Another celt (lOf inches), made of a fine volcanic ash, was found
in 1873 near Loughrigg Tarn,'- Westmorland. Two celts of much
the same form from Drumour,'' Glenshee, Forfarshire, in 1870, are
mentioned on page 119.
Celts with an edge at each end are rare on the Continent, though
they are of more frequent occurrence in Ireland. One of this char-
Fig. 78. — Haromu .
acter, found in Dauphino, France,* has been engraved by M.
Chantre.
Another from Portugal^ has been described by myself elsewhere.
A celt of shorter proportions, but also provided with a cutting edge
at each end, is shown in Fig. 78. It is in the Greenwell Collection,
and was found at Ilarome, in the North Riding of Yorkshire,
where several stone implements of rare form have been discovered.
Tlie material is a hard clay-slate. The tool seems quite as well adapted
for being used in the hand without any moimting, as for attachment
to a haft.
1 Arch., vol. xliv. p. 281.
3 Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ix. p. 174.
* Trans. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. vii. p.
2 rroc. Son. Ant., 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 438.
* " Etudes Paleoethuol.," pi. viii. 6.
46.
Fi :. 79. — Da\-iot> near Imcrness
POLISHED CELTS NARROWING IN THE MIDDLE.
135
— XcMF Cottfnliam.
>
Another of these implements, with a cutting edge at either end, is
shown in Fig. 79.
As will be observed, it is curved longitudinally, so that if attached
to a handle, it must have been after
the manner of an adze and not of an
axe. The sides curve slightly inwards,
which would render any attachment
to a handle more secure.
The material of which it is formed
is a dark green porphyr3^ It was
found in a cairn at Daviot,^ near In-
verness, in company with a celt of oval
section, and pointed at the butt (9A
inches) ; and also with a gi'eenstone
pestle (?) {\^\ inches), rounded at
each end. This latter was probably
formed from a long pebble. They are
all preserved in the National Mu-
seum at Edinburgh. A curved celt of
this character but pointed at the butt-
end (14 inches), formed of indurated
clay-stone, was found in Shetland.- A
straighter celt of felstone(13 inches),
blunt at the butt-end, was found at
Kirlilauchline,' "Wigtownshire.
The next peculiarity which I have
to notice, is that of the tapering sides of the celt being curved inwards,
as if for the purpose of being more securelj' fixed either to a handle or in
a socket. In the last implement described, the reduction in width
towards the middle of the blade would
appear to have been intended to assist in
fastening it at the end of a handle, as an
adze cutting at each end. In Fig. 80 the
reduction in width is more abrupt, and the
blade would appear to have been mounted
as an axe. It is formed of a compact light
grey metamorphic rock, and was formerly
in the collection of the Rev. S. Banks, of
Cottenham, Cambridgeshire. I have a
greenstone celt found at Carnac, Brittany,
with shoulders of the same character
about the middle of the blade. A form of
celt expanding into a kind of knob at the
butt-end is peculiar to the Lower Loire.*
It is known as the " hdche a botito?i," or
" hiiche a. tete."
The original of Fig. 81 was found in a gi-avel-pit near Malton,.
Yorkshire. It was at first supposed to have been found in undisturbed
^ Proe. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. p. 179.
^ Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. x^-ii. p. 14.
' Proc. Soc. A»f. Scot., vol. xii. p. 119 ; xxiii. p. 201.
* Mat. vol. xiii. p. 135 ; xv. p. 462. " Mus. preh.," IS'o. 4G3.
rig. 81.— Near Multon. i
13G
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VI.
drift, and some correspondence upon the subject appeared in the Times
newspaper.' The gravel, however, in which it was found seems to belong
to the series of Glacial deposits, and if so, is of considerably greater
antiquity than any of the old Eiver-gravels, in which the unpolished
flint implements have been discovered. This celt is of greenstone,
carefully polished at the edge, and towards the butt slightly roughened
by being picked with a sharp pointed tool. This roughewing is in
character similar to that which has been observed on many of the celts
from the Swiss Lake-dwellings and from France,- and was no doubt
intended in their case to make the stone adhere more firmly in the socket
of stag's horn in which it was inserted. The object in this case would
appear to be the same ; and, like other
polished celts, it belongs to the I^eo-
lithic Period. The expansion of the
blade towards the edge is very re-
markable.
A celt of the same tyjje as that from
Malton, but somewhat oblique at the
edge, and formed of quartz containing
pyrites, found at Soden, is in the Mu-
seum at Bonn.
A flat form of stone hatchet, ex-
panding rapidly fi'om a slightly taper-
ing butt about half the entire length
of the blade, so as to form a semicir-
cular cutting-edge, has been found in
South Carolina.^ There is a small per-
foration in the centre, as if for a pin,
to assist in securing it in its handle.
Another form, with the blade re-
duced for about half its length, so as
to form a sort of tang, is engraved \>y
Squier and Davis. ^
The celt engraved in Fig. 82 presents an abrupt shoulder on one
side only, which, however, is in this case probably due to the form of
the pebble from which it was made, a portion of which had split otf
along a line of natviral cleavage. It is formed of a reddish, close-
grained porphyritic rock, and is subquadrate in section at the butt.
It was found at Mennithorpe, Yorkshire, and is in the Greenwell
Collection. In the same collection is a thin celt of clay-slate, A\
inches long, of much the same form, but rounded at the shoulder.
It was found at Eyedale, in the North Eiding of Yorkshire.
Some of the shouldered implements may have been intended for use
in the hand, without hafting. This appears to be the case with the
greenstone celt shown in Fig. 83. It was found on Middleton Moor,
Derbyshire, and was in the collection of the late Mr. J. F. Lucas.
The shallow grooves at the sides seem intended to receive the fingers
much in the same manner as the grooves in the handles of some of
Fig. 82.— Mennithorpe, Yorkshire.
' Jan. 7, 1868. See also Reliquary, vol. viii. p.
* " Mus. proh.." No. 430.
^ Schoolcraft, '• Ind. Tribes," vol. ii., pi. xU\'
< " Anc. Men. of Miss. Valley," p. 218.
184.
USED IN THE HANI) WITHOUT HAFTING.
137
the tools of the Eskimos or the
handles of the bronze sickles of
the Swiss Lake-dwellers.' An
Irish celt, 8 inches long, and
now in the Blackmore ISIuseum,
has two notches on one side only,
and more distinctly formed,
"seemingly to receive the fin-
gers and give a firmer hold
when used in the hand without
a haft."
Another peculiar instrument
adapted for being held in the
hand is shown in Fig. 83a. It
was found at Kej^stone, Hunt-
ingdonshire,- and is now in the
British ^rusoum. It is made
of greenstone, and in form re-
sembles the sharp end of a celt
with flat sides let into a spheri-
cal handle. Some hand-hatchets
from Australia are of much the
same character, but in their
case the knob is distinct from
the blade, and formed of hard
xanthorrhaa <j^\vm..
Y\'-. 83a.— K'-vskine.
Lubbock "Preh. Times," 4th ed. p. 613, figs. 215, 216.
Arch. Journ., vol. viii. p. 422.
138
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap.
VI.
The original of Fig. 84 is in the Gi'eenwell Collection, and was
found near Truro. It is of serpentine, with an obliijue edge, and
seems to have been formed from a pebble witli little labour beyond
that of sharpening one end. Thougli miicli flatter on one face than
the other, it would appear, from the slanting edge, to have been used
as an axe and not as an adze, unless indeed it were a hand-tool.
A beautiful adze formed of clialcedonic flint is shown in Fig. 84a.
kindly lent by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. The original
was found at Fernie Brae,^ Slains, Aberdeenshire. It is 7 inches long,
and of nearly triangular section. A somewhat similar adze of green-
stone was found at Little Barras,- Drumlithie, Kincardineshire. I
have a flint adze (5 inches) of much the same character, but not so flat
and blunt at the butt- end, and ground at the edge only, which was
found in Reach Fen, Cambs. It is shown in Fig. 35a at page 92.
Another peculiarity of form is where the edge, instead of being as
^U
Fig. SI.— X< u Truro.
84a.— Slains (7 inches long).
usual nearly in the centre of the blade, is almost in the same plane as
one of the faces, like that of a joiner's chisel. An implement of this
character, from a "Pict's castle," Clickemin, near Lerwick, Shetland,
is shown in Fig. 85.
It was presented to me by the late Eev. Dr. Ivnowles, F.S.A. The
material appears to be a hard clay-slate. The form is well adapted for
being mounted as an adze, much in the same manner as the nearly
similar implements in use by the South Sea Islanders. A New
Zealand' adze of precisely the same character has been figured.
Sometimes the edge of a celt, instead of being sharp, has been care-
fully removed by grinding, so as to present a flat or rounded surface.
1 Troc. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. x.p. 509. Dalgamo, " Notes on Slains, &c.," 1876, p. 6.
" r. S. A. S., vol. xviii. p. 77. ^ Lubbock, op. cit., p. 102, fig. 111-113.
POLISHED CELTS OF ABNORMAL TYPES.
139
In Fig. 86 is represented a singular implement of this kind in flint. It
is polished all over ; one side is straight, and the other curved ; both
ends are curved, but one is rounded at the edge and the other flat. It
is difficult to understand for ^liat purpose such an instrument can have
been intended. There is no reason for supposing that the grinding at
the ends was later in date than the formation of the other parts. I have
others like Fig. 30 with the edge also flattened, one of these I found,
as already mentioned, at Abbot's Langley ; and I have seen another
flint celt of much the same form, found at Chesterford, Cambs., with a
somewhat flat edge, but rounded and worn away, as if by scraping some
soft substance. Small transYcrso stria, such as might have been caused
by particles of sand, are visible on the worn edge. In the Greenwell
Fig. 8a
iwick.
Fig. 86.— Weston, Norfolk.
Collection is a portion of a celt of greenstone, the fractured face ground
flat and a portion of the edge also ground away.
A small flint celt, with a round jjolished edge instead of a cutting one
as usual, was found, with other objects, in a barrow on Elton Moor,
Derbyshire.^ I have seen a small flint celt like Fig. 33, with the edge
perfectly rounded by grinding. It was found between Deal and Dover,
near Kingsdown, by ]\Ir. Ilazzeldine Warren, of Waltham Cross.
It is hard to say for what purpose the edge was thus made blunt.
In some cases, however, the instruments may have been used as battle-
axes, the edges of which when of the perforated forms are usually
flattened or rounded, probably with the view of preventing accidental
injury to those who carried them. In some celts, however, the broad
end is so much rounded that they can hardly l)e said to have an edge,
and they have more the appearance of having been burnisliing or calen-
"' " Vestiges of the Auts. of Deri'.," p. oS.
140
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VI.
dering tools. I have observed this rounding of the end in some Irish
and French specinens, not made of flint, as well as in one from India.
Occasionally, but very seldom, a circular concave recess is worked on
each face of the celt, apparently for the purpose of preventing it from
slipping when held in the hand and used either as a chopping or cutting
instrument. That engraved as Fig. 87 was kindly lent me by Air. J. R.
Mortimer, who found it on Acklam "Wold, Yorkshire. It is of green-
stone, and has been polished over almost the entire surface. The butt-
end is nearly flat transversely, and ground in the other direction to a
sweep, so as to fit beneath the forefinger, when held by the thumb and
middle-finger placed in the recesses on the faces. Such recesses are
by no means uncommon on the stones intended for use as hammers,
and farther on (p. 24:;') I have engraved a hammer-stone of this class
which would seem to have been originally a celt such as this, but which
]ias entirely lost any approach to an edge by continual battering. In
Mr. Mortimer's specimen the edge is fairly sharp, though it has lost
some splinters from it in ancient times.
In the same collection is another specimen, found near Fimber,
formed of a green metamorphic rock. The butt-end is ground flat,
FiL'. b". — Acklam WoiJ.
Fig. 8S.— Fimber.
and the sides nearly so. There is a slight depression worked on each
face. The edge is slightl}' rounded, and shows longitudinal strice. By
the owner's kindness I am able to engrave it as Fig. 88.
In General Pitt Eivers's Collection is a celt from Hindostan, with a
cup-shaped depression on one of its faces. A celt of basalt from Por-
tugal' has such a depression on each face.
In the fine and extensive Greenwell Collection, so often referred to, is
another remarkable celt, Fig. 89. which, though entirely different in
character from those last described, may also have been intended for
holding in the hand. It is of greenstone, the svu'face of which is con-
siderably decomposed, and was found at Duggleby. in the East Eiding of
Yorkshire. On each side is an elongated concavity, well adapted for
receiving the end of the forefinger when the instrument is held in the
liand with the thumb on one face and the middle finger on the other.
At first sight it might appear that the depressions had been made
' Mat. vol. xvi. p. 464.
POLISHED CELTS "WITH DEPRESSIONS AND FLUTINGS.
141
with the view of perforating the blade, so as to make it like Fig. 133.
It is, however, too thin for such a purpose, and as the depressions can
liardly be connected with any method of hafting, it appears probable
that they are merely for the purpose of giving the hand a secure grip,
when using the instrument as a cutting tool. This form is not uncom-
mon in India.
Some of the stone hatchets from British Guiana' have a notch on
either side, apparently to assist in fastening them to their haft. A
form with projecting lugs half-way down the blade has been found
in Armenia.'^
The last peculiarity I have to notice is when the blade of the celt
assumes an ornamental character, by being fluted or otherwise orna-
mented. That represented in Fig. 90 is deeply fluted on either face.
I have engraved the figxire from a cast in the Museum of the Society of
Duggkby.
Antiquaries, the original of which was in the possession of F. C. Lukis,
Esq., M.D. It was found at St. Sampson, Guernsey. Assuming the
figure given by jM. Brouillet to be correct, a somewhat similar celt of
red flint was found with skeletons in the Tombelle de Brioux, Poitou.'
Another with three hollow facets on the lower parts of one face was
found in Finistere.* I have a small celt of nearly similar form, biit
not so hollow on the faces, from Costa Eica. Such specimens are
extremely rare, and I cannot at present point to any other examples.
Indeed, it may be questioned how far the implements found in the
Channel Islands come within the scope of the present work. The
• Im Thum, " Among the Indians of Gviiana,'' 1883, pi. x. 4.
^ Chantre, " Le Caucase," 188.5, pi. ii. 9.
^ " Indicaterr Arch, de Civrai," 1865, p. 271.
* Mat. 3rd S., vol. i., 1884, p. 243.
142
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap.
VI.
grooves in the faces of the celt found at Trinity, near Edinburgh/ can
hardly have been intended for ornament.
A kind of celt, not uncommon in Denmark, like Fig. 55. but "vrith a
small hole drilled through it at the butt-end, as if for suspension, like
a sailor's knife, has very rarely been found in England, but I have a
broken specimen from Cavenham, Suffolk, formed of greenstone.
When perfect the celt must have been in outline like Fig. 69. but thinner.
A perfect examjile is shown in Fig. 90a. It is formed uf -whin-stone
and was found in 1896 at Wereham, near Stoke Ferry, Norfolk. It is
in the collection of Mr. E. M. Beloe, F.S.A., who has kindly permitted
me to figure it. It is curioush' striated towards the butt-end, possibly
from friction in a socket. One from Thetford, perforated through the
centre of the face, is in the National Museum at Edinburgh. Another
of felstone (Hi inches}, oval in section, found at Melness, Sutherland-
rig. 90a. — Wereham. ^
shire, was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland in March,
1897. Bored celts, though rare in Britain, occur in Brittany- and other
parts of France, as well as in Italy. ^ A few have also been found in
Ireland.* A stone hatchet from Quito in the Christy Collection, though
of somewhat different form, is perforated at the end iu this manner.
A vastly greater number of instances of the discovery in Britain of
stone hatchets or celts might have been cited ; but inasmuch as in
most cases where mention is made of celts, no particulars are given of
their form, and as they occur in all parts of the country, it seems
needless to encumber my pages with references. As an instance of
^ Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i., p. 281.
2 Bonstetten, " Supp. an Rec. d'Ant. Snisses," pi. ii., 1.
^ Arch. Camb., 3rdS., vol. \\., p. 303. Watelet, "Age de Pierre dans le Dept. de
I'Aifine," pi. v. 9. " Ep. Anted, et Celt, de Poitou." pL x. 7. £ev. Areh., vol xii.,
pi. XV., i. ; op. cit., vol. xv., pi. \iii. and x. Lindenschinit. " Hohenz. Samml.,"
Taf. xUii.. No. 12. I have an example that I boag-ht in Florence.
^-* Wilde, "Cat. Mus. E. I. Ac." p. 44.
CIRCUMSTANCES UNDER WHICH THEY HAVE REKN FOUND. 143
their abundance, I may mention that the late Mr. Butnman^ records
the discovery of upwards of thirty, at fourteen different localities
within a small district of Derbyshire. Numerous discoveries in Y(jrk-
shire are cited l>y Mr. C. Monkman.-
Dr. Joseph Stevens has recorded several from the Thames near Read-
ing',^ and a very large number of those in my own and various public
collections I have had to leave unnoticed for want of space.
The circumstances under which stone celts of various forms
have been discovered must now be considered, with a view of
throwing some light on their antiquity, and the length of time
they have remained in use. And it must at the outset be con-
fessed that we have but little to guide us on these points. We
have already seen that they have been found with objects of
bronze ; for in the barrow on Upton Lovel Down,"* examined by
Sir E,. Colt Iloare, flint celts, both rough and polished, were
discovered in company with a perforated stone axe, and a bronze
pin, though in this instance there were two interments. The
Ravenhill tumulus, near Scarborough,^ is more conclusive ; for in
it was an urn containing burnt bones, a broken flint celt, flint
arrow-heads, and a beautiful bronze pin one and a-half inches
long. The evidence of other recorded cases is but weak. Near
Tynewydd, in the parish of Llansilin, Denbighshire,*" a green-
stone celt and a bronze socketed celt were found together in
moving an accumulation of stones, which did not, however, appear
to have been a cairn. In another instance,^ three stone celts,
one roughly chipped, the others polished, are stated to have
been found with a bronze socketed celt in the parish of Southend,
Kintyre, Argyllshire. At Campbelton, in the same district,^ were
found two polished stone celts, and with them, on the same spot,
two stone moulds for casting looped spear-heads of bronze.
Though there may be doubts as to the true association of stone
celts with instruments of bronze in some of these cases, the presumj)-
tive evidence is strong of their having remained in use, as might in-
deed have been reasonably expected, after the introduction of bronze
for cutting-tools. By the time bronze knife-daggers had become
common, perforated battle-axes had also come to form part of a
warrior's ordinary equipment. Tliese are often found with the daggers
in graves, and there can be no dcjubt of the ordinary form of stone
hatchet having preceded that with a shaft-hole. There are, however,
a number of facts in connection with tlie occurrence of the ordinary
' "Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 6.
^ Joiirn. Elhn. Soc, vol. ii. p. 157. "^ Arch. Assoc. Jour)/., vol. xxxix. p. ■JH.
* "South Wilts," p. 75. Arch., vol. xv. p. 122.
^ Arch. Assoc. Joiin/., vol. vi. p. 3. ® Arch. Jourii., vol. x. p. 161.
' Proc. Soc. A/It. Scot., vol. iv. p. 396. * Froc. Sue. At/t. Scot., vol. vi. 48.
114 POLISHED CELTS. [cHaP. VI.
Stone celt that must not be passed over, inasmuch as at first sight tliey
tend to raise a presumption of celts havmg remained in use even during
the period of the Roman occupation of this country. I will shortly
recapitulate the principal facts to which 1 allude.
In excavating a Eoman building at Ickleton,' Cambs., the late Lord
Braybrooke found a greenstone celt ; and another is said to have
bet-u found with Eoman remains at Alchester, Oxfordshire.- A flint
celt is also described as having been fuund with Eoman antiquities at
Eastbourne.^
Among the reHcs discovered by Samuel Lysons, F.E.S., in the
Eoman villa at Great Witcombe,^ Gloucestershire, is described " a
British hatchet of liint." Another flint celt was found close by a
Eoman villa at Titsey.^ Flint celts and scrapers were found in
the Eomano-British village in Woodcuts Common,'' Dorset, by General
Pitt Pavers.
A stone celt, like Fig. 70, has been engraved by Artis' as a polishing
stone used in the manufactory of Eoman earthen vessels, but no evi-
dence is given as to the cause of its being thus regarded.
At Leicester, a fragment of a flint celt was foimd at a depth of
twelve feet from the surface on an old "ground line," and accom-
panied by bone objects which Sir AVollaston Franks assigned to a late
Eoman or even possibly to an early Saxon period."*
In the Saxon biu'ial-place at Ash, in Kent, were found a poUshed
flint celt, " a circular flint stone," and a Eoman fibula.^
In 1868, a fibrolite hatchet was found within, a building at Mont
Beuvray, the ancient Bibracte,^" with three Gaulish coins of the time of
Augustus.
(Jthers of flint were fotmd in a ITerovingian cemetery at Labruyere,
in the Cote d'Or."
The oecuiTcnce at Gonsenheim, near Mainz, of a series of thin
polished celts with remains presumably Eoman, has akeady been men-
tioned. In two, if not more, instances in Denmark,'- fragments
of iron have been found in tumuli, and apparently in association
with polished hatchets and other instruments of flint and stone. It
seems doubtful, however, whether in these cases the iron was not
subsequently introduced.
The association of these stone implements with Eoman, and
even Post-Roman, remains in so many different places, would at
first sight appear to argue their contemporaneity ; but in the case
of the celts being found on the sites of Roman villas, two things
are to be remarked — First, that sites once occupied may, and
constantly do, continue in occupation for an indefinite length of
time, so that the imperishable relics of one age, such as those in
1 Arch. Jourti., vol. vi. p. 17 ; xvii. 170. - Arch. Assoc. Juurn., vol. xii p. 177.
3 Snusex Arch. Coll., vol. ii. p. 258. * Arch., vol. xix. p. 1S3.
5 SurreijArch. Coll., 1868, pi. iii. 6.
s " Exc. on Cranbome Chase," vol. i. pi. ivii. ' " Durobriva?," pi. xxix. 4.
" Proc. Soc. A)it., 2u<i S., vol. i. p. 249. ^ Douglas, " Naenia," p. 92.
'" Rtv. Arch., vol. xx. p. 322. i» liev. Arch., vol. iv. p. 48-1.
'•- Ami. for Xordisk Oldkynd., 1838-9, p. 17G.
THEIR DISCOVERY WITH OBJECTS OF LATER DATE. 145
stone, may become mixefl in the soil with those of a long subse-
quent date ; and second, that had these stone implements been in
common use in Roman times, their presence among Roman re-
mains would have l)een the rule and not the exception, and we
should have found them mentioned l)y Latin authors. Moreover,
if their use had survived in this manner into Roman times, we
should expect to find them still more abundantly associated with
tools of the Bronze Age. We have, however, seen how rarely
this class of stone instruments is found with bronze.
As to the stone celt discovered at Ash, Mr. Douglas remarks it
may not " be improbable that this stone instrument was deposited
with the dead, as an amulet ; and which the owner had found and
preserved with a superstitious reverence." In a tumulus in
Flanders,^ six celts were found placed upright in a circle round
the interment, but from the difference in the condition of their
surface they appeared to be of different ages, so that it has been
suggested that they also were gathered from the surface of the
soil and placed in the tomb as amulets. We shall subsequently
see that flint arrow-heads were frequently thus preserved in
Merovingian cemeteries.
In many cases in Germany,^ stone axes, for the most part per-
forated, are said to have been found in association with objects of
iron ; but the proofs of the contemporaneity of the two classes of
objects are not satisfactory. The religious veneration attaching
to the Thor's hammers may, however, have had to do with their
interment in graves, at a time when they had ceased to be in
ordinary use. Moreover, the axes may have been preserved to
ward ott'lifjhtning-.
Another argument in favour of these instruments having re-
mained in use in Britain until a comparatively late period, has
been derived from the circumstance of the words dan-(pjs and
staii-hill, occurring in ^Elfric's Saxon glossary. These words are
translated by Lye ^ as a stone axe, a stone bill — terms which
have naturally been regarded as referring to axes and bills made
of stone, which, therefore, it might be reasonably inferred were in
use at the time when the glossary was written, or about a.d.
1000. On examination, however, it appears that no such infer-
ence is warranted. The glossary is Latin with the Saxon equiva-
lents annexed to each word, and the two words referred to aie
' Coti(j. Litem. (VAuth. etfVArch. Prch., 1S67, p. 119.
- Kirchuer ha.s collected a number of cases. — " J'hor's Donner-Keil," ji. 27.
•* " Dictionariiun Saxonico-et Gothico-Litinum," s. v.
L
146 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAP. VI.
Bipeiinis, rendered iwihilk and sfan-(vx ; and 2Iarra, rendered dan-
bill. Now Bipennk is an axe cutting at either end, and the word
is accurately rendered by " twibille ; " * — the axe having " bill " or
steel at its two edges. But a double-cutting axe in stone is a
form of very rare occurrence, and this alone raises a presumption
of the stan in sfan-cpx referring to stone in some other maimer
than as the material of which the axe was made. The second
word, Marra, seems to clear up the question, for this was a mat-
tock or pick-axe, or some such tool, and this is rendered stan-bill,
— the steel for use on or among stones. The stone axe may be
one for cutting stones, like the mill-bill of the present day, which
is used for dressing mill-stones, and this being usually sharp at
each end, might not inaptly be regarded as the equivalent of the
ancient lipennis. An axe is stiU a bricklayer's tool, and is also
occasionally used by stone-cutters. It seems, then, that the
" 67a« " in these two Saxon words refers, not to the material of
which the axes or bills were made, but to the stones on or among
which they were used. In Halliwell's " Dictionary of Archaic
and Provincial Words," " the interpretation of Stone-axe is given
as "'A stone-worker's axe," but it is not stated where the terra
occurs.
In the " Jluteriaux " ^ M. Soreil has called attention to a very
early German poem, possibly of the fifth century, in which the
heroes are described as contending with stone axes. The subject
has been discussed by Dr. Much,^ who suggests that the name
survived long after the actual use of tLe weapons, and points out
that the modern word Hellebarde (halberd) has the same mean-
ing, hella in Old German signifying " stone," and harte being still
used to signify an "axe" or "chopper." He also hints at a
connection between the sorojia-seax or large knife, with saxum.
The whole paper is worth reading.
In the Song of Hildebrand and Hadubrand, probably of the
•eighth century, stone hammers, sfaim-horts, are also mentioned.
*' Do stoptan tosamane staimbort chludun
Hewtin harmlicco huitte scilri." '
The passage in " William uf Poitiers," ^ — " Jactant cuspides ac
' •' Twybyl, a wryhtys instrument," is in the " Promptoritun Parvulomm " trans-
lated bisacitta or biceps, and " T^vybvl or mattoke," Mana, or liyo.
• 1855, vol. ii. p. 811.
3 VoL xi., 1876, p. 385.
* Mitth. d. Anth. GisdUch. in TTien, vol. vii., 1878, p. 7.
' O'Curry, " Mann, and Cust. of the Anc. Irish," vol. i. p. cecch-iii.
'' Wright's " The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon,' p. 72.
THEIR RANGE IN TIME. l47
diversorum generum tela, socvissimas quasque secures ac lignis
imposita saxa," — which has been cited as proving that some of
the Anglo-Saxons fought with weapons of stone at the battle of
Hastings, seems only to refer to stone missiles probably discharged
from some engines of war, and serving the same purpose as the
stone cannon-balls of more recent times. Professor Nilsson ^
has pointed out that jadare often signifies to brandish, and
argues that the large stone axes were too heavy either for bran-
dishing or throwing as weapons. It seems to me, however, that
jactarc in this passage is used in the sense of throwing, the same
as in Virgil,'^ —
" Deucalion vacuum lapidcs jactavit in orbem,
Unde homines nati, durum genus."
If it be uncertain to how late a period these Neolithic imple-
ments remained in use in this country, it is still more uncertain
to how early a period their introduction may be referred. If we
take the possible limits in either direction, the date at which they
fell into disuse becomes approximately fixed as compared with
that at which tliey may first have come into use in Britain. For
we may safely say that the use of bronze must have been known
in this country 500 or 600 years B.C., and, therefore, that at that
time cutting tools of stone began to be superseded ; while by a.d.
1100, it will be agreed on all hands that they were no longer in
use. "We can, therefore, absolutely fix the date of their desue-
tude within at the outside two thousand years ; but who can tell
within any such limits the time when a people acquainted with
the use of polished stone implements first settled in this island, or
when the process of grinding them may have been first developed
among native tribes ? The long duration of the period which inter-
vened between the deposit of the lliver-gravels (containing, so far
as at present known, implements chipped only and not polished),
and the first ajipearance of polished hatchets, is not in this
country so well illustrated as in France ; but even there, all that
can be said as to the introduction of polished stone hatchets, is
that it took place subsequently to the accumulation in the caves
of the south of France, of the deposits belonging to an age when
reindeer constituted one of the principal articles of food of the
cave-dwellers. As to the date at which those cave-deposits were
formed, history and tradition are silent, and at present even
Geology affords but little aid in determining the question.
1 " Stone Age," p. 73. 2 " Georg.," Ub. i. 62.
l2
148 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAP. VI.
But thougti we cannot fix the range in time of these imple-
ments, it will be well to notice some of the circumstances under
which they have been found, if only as illustrative of the habits
and customs of the ancient people who used them. Of course
the most instructive cases are those in which they have occurred
with interments, and some of these I have already incidentally
mentioned ; as, for instance, the discovery in a barrow on Upton
Lovel Down of a roughly chipped celt, with others polished at
the edge, and other objects ; and that of two very roughly
chipped flint celts found by Dr. Mantell, in a barrow at Alfriston,
Sussex.
A celt of greenstone, ground at the edge only, was found in a
barrow with a burnt body on Seamer Moor, Yorkshire, by the Rev.
r. Porter ; and in another^ barrow on tlie same moor, Canon Grreenwell
found a celt of clay-slate, like Fig. 50, burnt red, in association with a
deposit of burnt bones. In a third tumulus on the same moor, opened
by the late Lord Londesborougb, there were numerous interments, but
one of these consisted of a small portion of human bones,- four flint
celts, five beautifully formed arrow-heads of flint, two rude spear-
heads of flint, two well-formed knives and spear-heads of flint, two
very large tusks of the wild boar, and a piece of deer-horn, perforated
at the end and drilled through, which was thought to be the handle
for one of the celts.
In these three instances the polished celts accompany interments by
cremation, and probably belong to a late period of the Stone Age
in Britain. They have, however, been frequently found with the
remains of imburnt bodies. In one of the banks of an ancient settle-
ment near Knock Castle, Upton Lovel, Sir E. Colt Hoare ^ discovered
a skeleton with its head towards the north and at its feet a fine black
celt. In a barrow about seven miles east of Pickering,* besides other
interments is said to have been one of a skeleton with the head towards
the south, and a ' ' beautiful stone adze or celt, 3i inches long, wrought
in green basalt, and a very elaborately chipped spear of flint, near four
inches long, near its right hand."
In another barrow in the same district ^ the skeleton was accom-
panied by " a very small celt or chisel of grey flint, smoothly rubbed,
and a j)lain spear-head of the same material."
In another barrow on Elton Moor, Derbyshire,^ there lay behind
the skeleton a neatly ornamented "drinking cup," containing three
pebbles of quartz, a flat piece of polished iron ore, a small celt of
flint, with a rounded instead of a cutting edge, a beautifully chipped
cutting tool, twenty-one circular-ended instruments, and seventeen
rude pieces of flint.
In Liifs Low, near Biggin," Mr. Bateman found a skeleton in the
^ See p. 105 supra.
* A woodcut of these is given iu the Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. iv. p. 105. The
objects are now in the British Museum. 3 << South Wilts," p. 85.
♦ "Ten Years' Diggings," p. 221. ^ //,;^;_^ p_ 222.
8 " Vestiges of the Ant. of Derbyshire," p. 53. '' Ibid., p. 42.
ACCOMPANYING INTERMENTS. 149
contracted position, and with it two flint celts beautifully chipped and
polished at the cutting edges ; two flint arrow-heads delicately chipped,
two flint knives polished on the edge, and one of them serrated on the
back to serve as a saw ; numerous other objects of flint, some red
oclire, a small earthenware cuji, and a hammer-head of stag's horn.
In Cross Low, near Parwich,^ a fragment of a celt and a small
piece of chipped flint were with a human skeleton in a cist ; and a kind
of flint axe or tomahawk is reported to have been similarly found in a
barrow near Pickering.^
In the Gospel Hillock barrow, near Buxton, Captain Lukis, F.S.A.,
found near the shoulder of a contracted skeleton, a polished flint celt,
of which an engraving is given in the Reliquary.^
In what appears to have been a tumulus at Seaford,* Sussex, celts
both whole and broken, and other forms of worked flint, were found,
but the account given of the exploration is rather confused.
It will be observed that in these cases stone celts accompany the
earliest form of interment with which we are acquainted, that in which
the body is deposited in the contracted position. The reason why
bodies were interred in that posture appears to be that it was in all
probability the usual attitude of sleep, at a period when the small
cloak of the day must generally have served as the only covering at
night.
In Scotland stone celts seem to be of frequent occurrence in cairns.
I have one, already mentioned,* which is said to have been found
with four others in a cairn on Druim-a-shi, near Culloden.
Three others, of which two have been already described,^ were dis-
covered in a caii'n in Daviot parish, Inverness, together with a cylin-
drical implement, possibly a pestle, and are now in the National
Museum at Edinburgh. Not improbably my specimen came from the
same cairn.
Another' was found in the Cat's Cairn, Cromartyshire. A second,®
pointed at the butt, is said to have been found in a " Druidical circle,"
Aberdeenshire. A third, ^ of black flint, from the parish of Cruden,
Aberdeenshire, would seem to have accompanied an interment, as with
it was found a necklace of large oblong beads of jet, and rudely
shaped pieces of amber.
None, however, of these instances afford any absolute testimony as
to their exact or even approximate age, unless, indeed, the jet and
amber, if they really accompanied the flint celt, point in that case to a
date at all events not far removed from that of the bronze objects with
which such necklaces have frequently been found.
In the other cases of interments in barrows, however ancient they
may be, it seems probable that they are not those of the earliest occu-
pants of this country, by whom polished stone celts, or those of the
same character rough hewn only, were in use. The labour bestowed
in the formation of the gi'aves and the erection of the barrows must
' "Vestiges of the Ant. of Derbyshire," p. 49.
2 "Ten Years' Diggings," p. 216. » Vol. viii. p. 86.
* Suss. Arch. Coll. vol. xxxii. p. 175. " P. 112 supra.
« P. 135. See Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. p. 179.
' " Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. at Edinburgh," p. 8.
' Areh. Jouni., vol. viii. p. 422.
» "Cat. A.I. Mus. atEdin.," p. 10.
150 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAP. VI.
have been immense, and could hardly have been undertaken until a
stage of civilization had been reached higher than that of some of the
ruder savage races of the present day.
It may be mentioned that stone celts are not unfrequently found
in the soil of -^hich barrows are composed, but in no way connected
with the intennents in the barrow.
There are a few instances of the finding of these instruments, not
in association with interments, where the circumstances under which
they have been discovered testify to a great, though still indeter-
minate antiquity. One, for instance, of greenstone, in the Museum of
the Society of Antiquaries, is stated to have been " found deep in the
clay whilst digging the Chelsea Waterworks at Kingston.'" Others
in a sand-bed near York- were 6 or 7 feet below the surface, and
nearly a quarter of a mile fi'om the river which is thought to have
deposited the sand.
In Wilson's "Prehistoric Annals of Scotland"' is recorded the
finding of a greenstone celt in a primitive canoe, formed of a hollowed
trunk of oak, at a depth of 25 feet from the surface, at Glasgow ; and
in the Norwich Museum is one of brown flint, ground all over, 4|-
inches long, similar to Fig. 54, but with facets towards the edge, as if
from repeated grinding, which is stated to have been found fixed in
a tree in the submarine forest at Hunstanton, by the Eev. George
Mumford, of East Winch, in the year 1829.
On the whole evidence it would appear, from the number of
implements of this class which has been discovered, from the
various characters of the interments with which they are asso-
ciated, and from the circumstances under which they have been
found, that these stone celts must have been in use in this country
during a long period of years ; though we still revert to our first
confession, that it is impossible to determine at how early a date
this period commenced, or to how late a date it may have ex-
tended. If, however, the occupation of this part of the globe by
man was continuous from the period of the deposit of the old
Hiver- gravels unto the present day, it seems probable that some
of these implements may claim an almost fabulous antiquity,
while in certain remote districts of Britain into which civilization
made but a tardy approach, it is possible that their use may
have lingered on to a time when in other parts of the country,
owing to the superiority and abundance of metallic tools, these
stone hatchets had long fallen into disuse.
Instances of thi.? comparatively late use of stone celts appear to
be afforded by some of the discoveries made in the Orkney and
Shetland Isles ; and it is doubtful whether in Ireland the use of
^ Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 82.
• Journ. Eth»ol. Soc.,\o\. ii. p. 159.
' Vol. i. p. .53. See p. 129, supra. Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. i. p. 44.
MANNER IN WHICH HAFTEU. 151
stone implements did not survive in some parts of the country to
a far more recent date than would at first sight appear probable.
I have, however, remarked on this subject elsewhere/ Sir Arthur
Mitchell's book, " The Past in the Present," may also be consulted.
The methods in which these instruments were used and
mounted must to some extent have varied in accordance with the
purposes to which they were applied. In describing the forms,
I have pointed out that in some cases they were used as axes or
hatchets, and in other cases as adzes, and that there are some
celts which not improbably were used in the hand without any
handle at all, or else were mounted in short handles, and used
after the manner of chisels or knives.
The instances of their being found in this country still attached
to their handles are rare. In the case of the celt found near
Tranmere,^ Cheshire, and now in the Mayer Museum at Liver-
pool, " the greater part of the wood had perished, but enough
remained to show that the handle had passed in a slightly dia-
gonal direction towards the upper end of the stone." In the
Christy Collection is a large felstone celt 12f inches long and
3^ inches broad, of the same section as Fig. 43, slightly flattened
at the sides, on the face of which the mark of the handle is still
visible, crossing it obliquely near the middle. This specimen was
found at Pentnej^ Norfolk. Similar marks may not improbably
be observed on other specimens, like that from Drumour already
mentioned at page 119.
In the Solway Moss, near Longtown, a hafted hatchet was
found by a labourer digging peat, at the depth of rather more
Fig. 91.— Solway Moss.
than six feet, but the handle appears to have been broken, even
at the time when the sketch was made from which the woodcut
' Arch., vol. xli. p. 405.
- " Horse Fer.," p. 134. Tratis. Hist. Soc. Lane, and Chesh., vol. xiv. pi. ii. 3.
152 POLISHED CELTS. | CHAP. VI.
jjiven in the Proceedings of the Socief'/ of Antiquaries'^ was en-
graved, which is, by permission, here reproduced. The instru-
ment is now in the British Museum, but the haft, in drying, has,
unfortunately, quite lost its form, and is still further broken.
The process of preserving wood when in the tender condition in
which it is found after long burial in peat was probably not
known at the time. It has been adopted with great success by
Mr. Engelhardt in preserving the wooden antiquities from the
Danish peat bogs, and consists in keeping the objects moist until
they have been well steeped, or even boiled, in a strong solution
of alum, after which they are allowed to dry gradually, and are
found to retain their form in a remarkable manner.
It is probably owing to the broken and distorted condition of
the wood that the sketch was inaccurate as to the position of the
blade with regard to the handle, for the mark of the wood where
it was in contact with the stone is still visible, and proves that
the central line of the blade was inclined outwards at an angle of
about 100° to the haft, instead of being nearly vertical, as shown.
The edge of the hatchet is oblique to nearly the same extent as
the inclination of the blade to the haft. It would seem from this,
that the obliquity of the edge was in some cases connected with
the method of hafting, and not always, as suggested by Nilsson,^
the result of the blade being most worn away in the part farthest
from the hand holding the shaft.
The preservation of the wooden handle has been more success-
fully effected in the case of the celt shown in Fig. 92, engraved
from a photograph kindly supplied me by Mr. R. D. Darbishire,
F.G.S. It is figured on a larger scale in the Arclufolocjia.^ where
all the circumstances of the discovery are set forth in detail. The
axe was found, in the year 1871, in peat which had once formed
the bed of a small lake, known as Ehenside Tarn, near Egremont,
in Cumberland, which has now been drained. With it were found
another haft of the same character, and several stone celts, one
of them 14^ inches in length, with the sides but slightly
curved, and almost equally broad at each end. Some wooden
paddles and clubs formed of beech and oak, pottery and other
objects, were also found. The farmer who cultivates the former
bed of the lake had previously discovered some stone antiquities
which were brought under the notice of Sir Wollaston Franks,
' Vol. iv. 112. 2 "Stone Age," Eng. ed., p. 65.
^ Vol. xliv., pi. viii. fig. 3.
IN THEIR ORIGINAL HANDLES.
lo3
who induced Mr. Darbishire to make the search which was so
amply rewarded. The haft is formed of a hard root of beech-
wood, and has been most carefully carved, the surface exhibit-
ino- alternate cuts and ridges forming small concave facets about
|-inch apart, and arranged spirally. The other haft for a celt is
of oak-wood, and is not so well preserved. It will be noticed
that the end of the beech-wood handle has originally been re-
Fig . 92.— Cumbtrliind
<'urved, possibly with a view of steadying the butt-end of
the celt.
Curiously enough, in the outline of a celt in its handle, carved
on the under side of the roof-stone of a dolmen, known as La
Table des Marchands, near Locraariaker, Brittany,^ the end of the
handle seems also to be curved back beyond the socket for the
blade, which however it does not touch. At the other end of the
handle there is a loop like a sword guard, for the insertion of the
hand. There is some little difficulty in determining the exact
form of this incised carving, as the lines are shallow, and the
light does not fall upon them. I speak from a sketch I made on
the spot in 1863. Other such representations occur in Brittany.^
In a paper^ on a neolithic flint weapon in a wooden haft, Mr.
C. Dawson has given an account of a discovery made by Mr.
Stephen Blackmore, a shepherd of East Dean, near Eastbourne, of
a flint hatchet at Mitchdean. It was lying in its wooden haft
which was perfectly carbonized, but Mr. Blackmore made a draw-
' Rev. Arch., vol. x%-iii. p. 2G8. Mus. Preh. No. 442.
- Cartailhac, "La France preh.," p. 237. ' Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. xxxix. p. 97.
154 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAF. VI.
ing of it, apparently from memory. He describes the blade, wliicli
seems to have been un ground, as lying in a horizontal groove cut
in one side of the shaft, which was 2 feet G inches long. At one
end of the shaft were two projections supposed to serve for holding
the ligatures by which the blade was attached, and nearer the hand
were a number of grooves running round the haft. Neither the
description nor the drawings of this and other objects found with
it are such as to inspire complete confidence.
About 1822, in sinking a well at Ferry Harty, Isle of Sheppey,^
there were found, according to newsjDaper reports, the remains of
a hut, two skeletons, and *' flints and hard stones, apparently
intended for axes and cutting implements, with handles of wood
quite complete and in good preservation." Nothing farther seems
to be known of this discovery.
At Ervie,' near Glenluce, Wigtownshire, a celt of indurated
clay-stone in form like Fig. 77 (8 inches) was found, which shows
a band of dark colour about 1^ inch wide and about 2 inches from
the butt-end, crossing it at an angle of about 20°. This band
probably shows the position of the haft in which the blade was
fixed. Another celt from Glenshee, Forfarshire, likewise in the
Edinburgh Museum, shows a fainter mark of the kind. On a
third from Dolphinton,^ Lanarkshire, the mark is very distinct
and at a right angle to the axis of the blade. Montelius^ men-
tions a Swedish specimen, and A. de Mortillet^ a French one of
flint similarly marked.
In the Museum of the Eoj-al Irish Academy^ is a drawing of a
celt in its handle (which is apparently of pine) found in the county
Fig. 93.— Monaghan.
of Monaghan. This handle was 13| inches long, and more clumsy
at the socketed end than that from 8olway Moss. The woodcut
given by Sir W. Wilde is here, by permi.ssion, reproduced as
Fig. 93.
Another nearly similar specimen was discovered near Cook.*-
1 Lit. Gaz., 1822, p. G05, quoted in N. and Q., 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 32
"^ I'roc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ix. p. 460. •* Op. cit., vol. xxx. p. 6.
* " LaSuede prehist.," 1874, p. 21. » " Musee prchist.," 1881, No. 428.
« Wilde, " Cat. Mus. E. I. A.," p. 46.
COMPARED WITH AXES OF MODERN SAV.VGFS. 155
town/ in the county of Tyrone. What maj^ be the haft of a stone
hatchet was found in another Irish crannog.*^ Another is in the
collection of General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S. Some of the hatchets
from the Swiss Lake-dwellings were hafted in a similar manner.
In one such haft, formed of ash, from Robenhausen,^ the blade is
inclined towards the hand ; in another, also of ash, the blade is at
rio-ht ansrles to the shaft.^ Some of these club-like hafts resemble
in character those in use for iron blades in Southern and Central
Africa.^ The copper or bronze axes of the Mexicans^ were hafted
in the same manner.
A method of hafting, which implies fixitj' of residence, is said
to have been in use among the Caribs'^ of Guadaloupe. The
blade of the axe had a groove round it at the butt-end, and a deep
hole having been cut in the branch of a growing tree, this end of
the blade was placed in it, and as the branch grew became firmly
embedded in it, the wood which grasped it having formed a collar
that filled the groove. The Ilurons^ are said to have adopted the
same plan.
I have engraved in Fig. 94, an extremely rude example of haft-
ing bv fitting the blade into a socket, from an original kindly lent
Fi?. 94.— Axe from the Kio Frio. i
me by the late Mr. Thomas Belt, F.G.S., who procured it among
the Indians of the Rio Frio, a tributary of the San Juan del
Norte in Nicaragua. The blade is of trachyte entirely unground
and most rudely chipped. The club-like haft is formed of some
endogenous wood, and has evidently been chopped into shape by
means of stone tools.
In these instances Clavigero's^ remark with regard to the copper
^ Arch. Jourii., vol. iv. p. 3.
' Wood Martin'-s " Lake-dw. of Trol.," 1886, p. o9, pi. vi. 7.
3 Keller's " Lake-Dwellings," Eii^r. cd., pi. x. 14. * Ibid., pi. xi. 1.
* "Wood. "Nat. Hi.*t. of Man," vol. i. pp. 321, 404.
* Squier, " Abor. Mon. of New York," p. 180.
■» MittJi. (1. Atit. Ges. in Wien, vol. ix.. 1880, p. 135, pi. i.
* " Aventuret* du Sieur C. le Beau," Amsterdam, 1738, p. 235. Quoted in Arch,
per r A)it. e la Et.. vol. xiv. p. 372.
^ Quoted in " Anc. Mon. of Mis.<<. Valley," p. 19S.
156
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VI.
or bronze axes of tlie Mexicans holds good ; they are like " those
of modern times, except that we put the handle in an eye of the
axe while they put the axe in an eye of the handle." A similarly
haf ted hatchet with the blade ground is in use amon » the Botocudo
Fig. 95.— "War-axe— Gaveoe Indians, Brazil.
Indians. In the Island of New Hanover^ the axe blade is inserted
about the middle of the club-like haft. Some hatchets from the
Admiralty Islands^ are curiously like those from the Swiss Lake-
J Zeiisch. f. Eth., vol. xxiv., 1892, p. (229), pL y. 2.
^ Eatzel, " Volkerk," vol. ii. p. 246.
INSERTED IN SOCKETS IN THE HAFTS.
157
dwellings. Excessively long hafts in which the blades are let
into a socket are occasionally in use among the Chamacocos^ of
south-east Bolivia.
Many stone and metallic axes in use among other modern
savages are hafted in much the same manner by insertion in a
socket. In some instances it would appear as if the hole for
receiving the stone did not extend through the haft, but was
merely a shallow depression — even a notch. Such seems to be the
case with a war-axe of the Gaveoe Indians of Brazil in the British
Museum, figured in the Proceedings of the Society of Aniiqimries,'^
and here, by permission, reproduced, as Fig. 95. Some of their
axes have longer hafts. In the Over Yssel Museum is a Brazilian
stone axe with a blade of this kind, which is said to have been
used in an insurrection at Deventer^ in 1787.
The " securis lapidea in sacrificiis Indorum usitata," engraved
by Aldrovandus,^ seems to haA'e the blade inserted in a socket
without being tied, but in most axes of tlie same kind the blade is
secured in its place by a plaited binding artistically interlaced.
^^^^^rtR^"^'^^^;^^'''^
Fig. 96,— Axe of Montezuma II.
The stone axe said to be that of Montezvmia II., preserved in the
Ambras Museum at Vienna, is a good example of the kind.^ I
have engraved it as Fig. 96, from a sketch I made in 1866,
In some cases the whole handle is covered with the binding.
Two such in the Dresden Historical Museum are engraved by
Klemm.^ Others have been figured by Prof. Giglioli.'^
Some of the war-axes (called taawisch or tsuskiah) in use
among the natives of Nootka Sound^ are mounted in this manner,
but the socket end of the shaft is carved into the form of a gro-
tesque human head, in the mouth of which the stone blade is
1 Intern. Arch. f. Eth., vol. ii. p. 272. Arch, per V Ant. e la Etn., vol. xx. p. 65.
- 2nd S., vol. i. p. 102. See also Ratzel, " Viilkerk.," vol. ii. p. 582.
3 Int. Arch.f. Ethn., vol. iii. p. 195. * "Mupseum MetaUicum," p. 158.
' It has also been figui'ed by Klemm, " Cult.-Wiss.," vol. i. fig. 136.
^ " Cult.-Gesch.," vol. ii. Taf. vi. a.b. " See Int. Arch.f. Eth., Bd. ix., 8upp. pi. iii.
" Kleram's " Allgemeine Cultur-Wiss.," vol. i. p. 71, whence I have copied the
figure. See also "Cult.-Gesch.," vol. u., p. 352.
158
POLISHED CELTS.
[_CHAP.
VI.
secured with cement, as in Fig. 97. In another instance the
handle is carved into the fomi of a bird^ and inlaid with mother-
of-pearl, or, more properly speaking, shell of ha Hot is. The blade of
basalt projects from the breast of the bird, the tail of which forms
the handle. In some the blade goes right through the handle, so as
to project equally on both sides of it, and is sharpened at both ends.
The socket in all these handles is usually at some little distance
from their end, but even with this precaution, the wedge-like form
of the celt must have rendered them very liable to split. It was
Fig. 97. — Axe — Nootka Sound.
probably with a view of avoiding this, that the intermediate socket
of stag's horn, so common in the Lake-dwellings of Switzerland,
was adopted. The stone was firmly bedded in the horn, the end of
which was usually worked into a square form, but slightly taper-
ing, and with a shoulder all round to prevent its being driven into
the wood. In the annexed woodcut (Fig. 98) is shown one of these
sockets with the hatchet inserted. 1 1 was found at Concise, in the
Lake of Xeuchatel. An analogous system for preventing the stone
blade from splitting the haft was adopted in Burma, Cambodia,
1 Skelton'i " Meyrick's Armour," pi., cl. 1.
HAFIEI) WITH INTERMEDIATE SOCKETS.
159
and Eastern India, but the shoulders were there cut in the stone-
blades themselves. One of the Swiss instruments in its complete
form is shown in Fig. 99, which I have
copied from Keller.^ It was found at
Robenhausen, and the club-like handle is
of ash. Several other specimens are en-
graved by the same author and Professor
Desor,^ and by other more recent writers.
In some instances the stone was inserted
lengthways^ into the end of a tine of a
stag's horn at the part where it had been
severed from the antler, so as to form a
sort of chisel.'* In other cases the socket
was worked through the tine, and the
stone blade fixed in it after the manner of
an axe, though the handle was too short
for the tool to be used for chopping.
Some wooden handles^ are also but a
few inches long, so that the celts mounted in them must have
been used for cutting by drawing them along the object to be cut.
Fig. 98,
Axe in stag's
socket — Concise.
-horn;
Such stag's-horn sockets have occurred, though rarely, in France,
if. I*errault found some in his researches in the Camp de Chassey,
' "Lake-Dwellings," pi. x. 7; 5ter "Bericht," pi. x. 17. ^Vnother from St.
Aubin is engraved by Chantre, " Etudes Paleoetliu.," pi. xi. Keller has published
several others. See also " Ant. Lac. du Mus. de Lausanne," 1896, pi. iii.
- '' Palafittes," fig. 17. See also Troyon, "Habit. Lacust." ; but some of his
engra\T[ngs, like those of Meillet in the " Kpoc^ues Antedil. et Celtique de Poitou,"
appear to have been made from modern fabrications.
^ Keller, "Lake-Dwellings," pi. xxii. 7. " Mus. de Lausanne," 1896, pi. iii.
* Wilde's " Cat. Mus. R.I. A.," p. 251 ; Lindenschmit,*' Sigraaringen," pi. xxix. 7 ;
Keller, " Lake-DweUings," pi. ii.
* Ibid., pi. xxii. 12.
160 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAP. VI.
(Saoneet Loire).* Some seem to have been found at Tauvray,- in
making the railway from Paris to Eouen. Others were discovered
in company with arrow-heads, celts, and trimmed flakes of flint,
in the Dolmen,^ or AUee courerfe, of Argenteuil (Seine et Oise).
These are now in the Musee de St. Germain. Others were found
in a cavern on Mont Sargel (Aveyron).* They occasionally occur
in Germany. One from Dienkeim is in the Central Museum at
Mayence.
Discoveries of tkese stag's-kom sockets for stone tools in Eng-
land seem to be extremely rare. Mr. Albert Way describes one,
of wkich a woodcut is given in the Archiologkal Jovrnal? It is
formed of the horn of the red deer (which is erroneously described
as being extinct), and is said to have been found with human
remains and pottery of an early character at Cockshott Hill, in
AVychwood Forest, Oxfordshire. It seems better adapted for
mounting a small celt as a chisel, like that of bronze found in a
barrow at E verley,^ than for forming part of a hatchet. M r. Way '
cites several cases of the discovery of these stag's-hom sockets in
France and elsewhere on the continent of Europe. I may add, by
way of caution, that nujuerous forgeries of them have been pro-
duced at Amiens. In some of the genuine specimens from the
peat of the valley of the Somme,^ the stone was fixed in a socket
bored in one end of the piece of stag's horn, and the shaft was
inserted in another hole bored through the horn. M. Boucher de
I'tTthes describes the handle of one as made of a branch of oak,
burnt at each end.
An example of this method of mounting is given in Fig. 99a.
The original was found at Penhouet, Saint Xazaire sur Loire,^ in
1877. The length of the haft is 19^ inches. A fine socket with
the blade still in it, but without the shaft, has been figured by the
Baron Joseph de Baye.'® It was found in La Marue, in which
department funereal grottoes have been discovered, at the entrances
of whick similar hafted axes were sculptured.
The socket discovered by the late Lord Londesborough in a
barrow, near Scarborough,^^ appears to have been a hammer,
' " Note sur nn Foyer. «S:c ," Chalon, 1870. pi. iv.
- Cochet, " Seine Inf.," 2nd ed., p. 16
•' Rev. Arch., vol. xv. p. 364, pi. viii. : ilortillet, "Promenades," p. 123.
* Matiriaux, vol. v. p. 96. ^ Vol. txi. p. 54. See also vol. xiv. p. 82.
* Hoare's " South Wilts." pi. xxi. " Arch. Jottrn., vol. xxL p. 54.
8 B. de Perthes' " Antiquites Celtiqnes, &c.," vol. i. p. 282, pi. i., ii.
9 Rev. Arch., vol. xxxv. p. 307, whence the cut is copied on a reduced scale.
'0 Arch. Preh., 1880, p. 99, pi. i. and v. Mac, vol. xvi. p. 29S.
'1 Arch. Asioc. Journ., vol. iv. p. 105. Supra, p. 148.
COMPARED AVITH AXES OF MODERN SAVAGES.
161
although he describes it as a piece of deer horn, perforated at the
end, and drilled through, and imagined it to have been the handle
for one of the celts found with it, " much in the manner of that in
the museum of M. de Courvale, at his Castle of Pinon, in France,"
of which he sent a drawing to the Archnoological Association. A
stag's-horn socket, with a transverse hole for the haft, and a
Fig. 99.V.— Penhouet. ^
circular socket bored in the end, from which the main body of the
horn was cut off, was found in the Thames, near Kew, and is in the
possession of Mr. Thomas Layton, F.S.A. In the circular socket
was a portion of a tine of stag's horn, so that it seems rather to
have been intended for mounting such tines for use as picks, than
lor hafting celts.
99b. — New Guinea.
A celt, mounted in a socket of stag's horn, bored through to
receive the wooden shaft, found in the Lake-dwellings at Concise,
and in the collection of Dr. Ch'ment, has been engraved by Desor;^
and another, found near Aerschot,"'^ in Belgium, by Le Hon. A
hatchet, mounted in a socket of this kind, is figured by Dupont*
"Palafittes," fig-. 18. -' "L'Homn;e Fossile," -lud ec., p. H9.
'• L'Homme pend. les Ageade la PioiTC."' p. 214.
M
162
POLISHED CELTS.
FfHAP. VI.
and Van Overloop.' Some of the stag's-horu sockets are orna-
mented by having patterns engraved upon thera.-
In New Guinea and Celebes a plan has been adopted of in-
serting the stone blade into the end of a tapering piece of wood,
which is securely bound round to prevent its splitting. The small
end of this fits in a hole in the club-like haft. An example is
shown in Fig. 99i5,^ obligingly lent by the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland. By turning round the pivot an axe is converted
into an adze. In some New Guinea and New Caledonia adzes and
axes the blade is let into a socket at a nearly right angle to the
haft, and either forming part of it or attached to it. Such an adze
Fig. 99c. — New Guinen Aclze.
is shown in Fig. 99c, kindly lent by the same Society. A similar
method of hafting is in use in the Entrecasteaux Islands.'^
Some ingenious suggestions as to the probable method of mount-
ing stone implements in ancient times have been made by the
Vicomte Lepic.^ With a polished Danish flint hatchet 8 inches
long, hafted in part of the root of an oak, an oak-tree 8 inches in
diameter was cut down without inj ury to the blade.
Another method of hafting, adopted by the Swiss Lake-dwellers
for their stone hatchets, is described by Dr. Keller,^ from whose
work I have copied the annexed woodcut. Fig. 100.
^ '* Les Ages de la Pierre en Belgique," pi. ix.
" L* Anthropologxe, vol. i. p. 385.
■^ Froc. Hoc. Ant. Scot., vol. xviii. p. 365.
^ Ratzel, "Volkerk," vol. ii. 245, 247, &c.
•' "Les armes et les outils preh. rcconst.," Paris, 1872.
^ "Lake-Dwellings," Eng. ed., p. 110. See also pi. x. 16, xi. 2, and xxviii. 24 ;
and Lindenschmit, "Hohenz. Samml,," pi. xxix. 4.
MOUNTED IN FORKED HAFTS.
163
The haft was usually formed of a stem of ha/el, " with a root
running from it at right angles. A cleft was then made in this
Fig. 100.— Axe — Robcnhauson.
Fig. lot.— Schraplau.
shorter part, forming a kind of beak in which the celt was fixed
with cord and asphalte." A woodcut of a handle of the same
character, found near Schraplau, in company with its stone blade,
is given by Klemm,^ and is here reproduced as Fig. 101. A
handle of much the same kind, consisting of
a shaft with a branch at right angles to it,
in which was fixed a flint axe, was found
with a skeleton and a wooden shield in a
tumulus near Lang Eichstatt, in Saxony,^
and has been engraved by Lindenschmit.
Another is said to have been found at Win-
terswyk.
The discovery in the district between the
Weser and the Elbe of several stone hatchets
mounted in hafts of wood, stag's-horn, and bone, has been recorded
by Mr. A. Poppe,^ but the authenticity of the hafting seems to me
open to question. The compound haft of a stone axe, said to have
been found at Berlin,* is also not above all suspicion. The handles
of bronze palstaves, found in the salt mines near Salzburg, Austria,
are forked in the same manner as Figs. 100 and 101. One of them,
formerly in the Klemm Collection, is now in the British Museum.
The same system of hafting has been in use among the savages in
recent times, as will be seen from the annexed figure of a stone adze
from New Caledonia,'^' Fig. 102, lent to me by the late Mr. Henry
Christy. Another is engraved in the Proceedings of the Society of
J " Cultur-Wiss.," fig. 127, p. 70.
- ".tVlt. u. H. v.," vol. ii. Heft viii. Taf. i. 7 ; Arc/iiv. fiir AnthropoL, vol. iii.
p. lOo. Jahrb. d. Ver.f. Alt. im Rhein., Ixi. (1877) p. 156."
^ Berk'ht Xat. Hist. Vereiu, ^vemcn, 1879. * Zeitsch. f. Ethii., vol. xi. p. (162).
^ "Reliq. Aquit," fig. 12.
m2
164
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VI
Antiquaries of Scotland} Several other varieties of ^Xew Caledonian
and Fiji handles have been engraved by M. Chantre.^ In some
countries, probably in consequence of the difficulty of procuring
forked boughs of trees of the proper kind, the wood which forms
Fig. 102. — Adze — ^Xew Caledonia.
the socket for the blade is bound on at the desired angle to the
end of the wooden handle. An adze of stone from the Caroline
Islands, thus mounted, is engraved in the Comptcs Eendus ;^ and a
1 Vol. iv. p. 297.
2 "Etudes Paleoeth.," pi. xii. See also "Worsaae, "Primev. Ants, of Denmark,"
p. 12; "Danemark's Yorz.," p. 10; and " Danmark's TidligsteBebyggelse," 1861,
p. 17.
' 1863, vol. IxTii. p. 1285.
MOUNTED ON WOODEN HAFTS.
165
handle of this kind from North America, but with a small iron
blade, is figured by Klemm.^
We are left in a great degree to conjecture as to the other
methods of mounting stone hatchets and adzes on handles in pre-
historic times ; but doubtless some besides those already mentioned
were practised. A very common method among existing savages
Fig. 103.— Adze — Clalam Indian.s.
is to bind the blade of stone on to the face of a branch at the end
of the handle, which in some cases projects upwards, and in others
downwards, and is inclined at an angle more or less perpendicular
to the handle.
Figs. 103 and 104 are kindly lent me by the Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland.^ The short-handled adze, Fig. 103, is one
1 "Cultur-Wise.," p. 70.
^ Proc. S. A. i>., vol. ii. pp. 423, 424 ; Wilson's " Preh. Man," yoI. i. p.
156.
166
POLISHED CELTS.
[chap. VI.
used by the Schlalum or Clalam Indians, of the Pacific Coast, to
the south of the Straits of De Fuca and on Puget's Sound, to
hollow out their canoes. The group. Fig. 104, exhibits various
methods of attachment of stone adzes to their handles employed
by the South-Sea Islanders.
The Australians occasionally mounted their tomahawks in much
the same manner as that shown in the central figure. An example
Fig. IM.— South-Sea Island Axes.
has been engraved by the Eev. J. G. "VTood.^ The right-hand
figure probably represents an adze from the Savage Islands.
Some Brazilian and Aleutian Island adzes are mounted in much
the same fashion.
The jade adzes of the Xew Zealanders are hafted in a somewhat
similar manner ; but the hafts are often beautifully carved and
inlaid. A fine example is in the Blackmore Museum, and a handle
in the Christy Collection. I have also a haft with the original
» "Nat. Hist, of Man," toI. ii. p. 32.
COMPARE]) AMTH ADZES OF MODERN SAVAGES. 167
jade blade, but the binding has been taken off. One of them is
engraved by the Rev. J. G. AVood.^ The axe to the left, in Fig.
104, as well as that in the centre, is from Tahiti. The axes from
Mangaia, so common in collections, exhibit great skill in the
mounting and in the carving of the handles. Some have been
engraved by the Rev. J. G. "Wood.^ A ceremonial stone adze
with a very remarkable carved haft from New Ireland^ has been
figured by Professor Giglioli.
In some instances the ligaments for attaching the stone blade
against the end of the handle pass through a hole towards its end.
A North American adze in the Ethnological Museum, at Copen-
hagen, is thus mounted, the cord being apparently of gut.
A similar method of mounting their adzes, by binding them
against the haft, was in use among the Egyptians.^ Although
it is extremely probable that some of the ancient stone adzes of
other countries may have been mounted in this manner, there have
not, so far as I am aware, been any of the handles of this class
discovered. I have, however, two Swiss celts of Lydian stone,
and of rectangular section, found at Nussdorf and Sipplingen, in
the Ueberlinger See, and on the flatter of the two faces of each,
there is a slight hollow worn away apparently by friction, which
was, I think, due to their having been attached against a handle
in this manner. The blade in which the depression is most evi-
dent has lost its edge, seemingly from its having been broken in
use. I have not up to the present time found any similarly worn
surfaces upon British celts.
Another method of hafting adopted by various savage tribes
is that of winding a flexible branch of wood round the stone, and
securing the two ends of the branch by binding them together in
such a manner as tightl}' to embrace the blade. A stone axe from
Northern Australia thus hafted, is figured in the Archcvologia,^
whence I have borrowed the cut. Fig. 105. Another used by na-
tives on the Murray river '^ has been figured by the Society of An-
tiquaries of Scotland. This method of hafting has been mentioned
by White,^ who describes the binding as being effected by strips
I Op. cit., vol. ii. p. 201. - Op. cit., vol. ii. pp. 369, 373.
3 Int. Arch./. FAhn., vol. iii. p. 181, pi. xv. 1, 2.
* Rev. Arch., vol. xviii. p. 266. * Vol. xxxiv. p. 172.
' P. S. A. 6'., vol. X. p. 263. See also "Notes on some Australian and other Stone
Implements," by Prof. Liversidge, F.R.S. [Journ. R. S. of New South JFales, vol.
xxviii., 1894), and Mr. E. J. Hardmau's account of some West Australian imple-
ments (Wood Martin's " Rude St. Mons. of Ireland," 1888, p. 115).
' "Joum. of Voy. to N. S. Wales," p. 293; Klemm, " Cult.-Gesch.," vol. i.
p. 308.
lt)8 POLISHED CELTS. [CHAP. VI.
of bark, and in his figure shows the two ends of the stick more
firmly bound together.
Another example has been engraved b}' the Rev. J. G. "Wood.^
This mode is very similar to that in common use amono: black-
Fig. 105.— Axe— Xorthern Australia.
smiths for their chisels and swages, which are held by means of a
withy twisted round them, and secured in its place bj^ a ring.
It seems extremely probable that so simple a method may have
been in use in early times in this country, though we have no
direct evidence as to the fact. A " fancy sketch" of a celt in a
withy handle will be found in the ArchwoJocjla? It resembles in
a singular manner the actual implements employed by the 0 jib-
way Indians,^ of which there is a specimen in the Christy Col-
lection, engraved by the Rev. J. G. "Wood.^ Some of the other
North American tribes ^ mounted their hatchets in much the
same manner. A hatchet thus hafted is engraved by School-
craft.^
In some instances a groove of greater or less depth has been
worked round the axes mounted in this manner, though undoubt-
edly British examples are scarce. An axe-hammer of diorite
(13 inches), found near Newburgh,^ Aberdeenshire, has a groove
round it instead of the usual haft-hole. The blade engraved in
the Archcvological Journal^ and found near Coldstream, Northum-
berland, is probably of Carib origin, like others which have also
been supposed to have been British. Another from the Liverpool
' " Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 32. Co/^/". Worsaae, " Danemark's Vorz.,"
p. 10.
^ Vol. xxxi. p. 452. 3 ggg Jones's " Hist, of Ojibway Indians."
* "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 652. Conf. Catlin, " N. A. Ind.," vol. i. pi.
zciz. /.
* Col. A. Lane-Fox, " Prim. Warf.," part ii. p. 17.
* " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. pi. xv. 1, p. 285. ' Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xxvii. p. 49.
* Vol. xxiv. p. 80.
MOUIS'TEi) ON WITHES AND CLEFT STICKS. 169
Docks is mentioned by Mr. H. Ecroyd Smith. ^ In the British
Museum are two such axes, and some other stone implements,
found near Alexandria, but which probably are Carib, as would
also seem to bo those in the Museum of Dou:ii,^ on which are
sculptured representations of the human face.
Stone axe-heads with a groove round their middle, for receiv-
ing a handle, have been found in Denmark,^ but are of rare occur-
rence. The form has been found in the salt-mines of Koulpe,^
Caucasus, and in Russian Armenia. The large stone mauls found
so commonly in the neighbourhood of ancient copper-mines, in
this and many other countries in both hemispheres, were hafted
much in the same manner as the Australian axe.
In other cases axe-heads are mounted by being fixed in a cleft
stick for a handle, the stick being then lashed round so as to secure
the stone and retain it in its place. This method was employed by
some of the North American Indians,^ and the aborigines in the
colony of Victoria.^ In the Blackmore Museum is a stone axe
thus mounted, from British Guiana. There is a small hole
through the butt which is carved into a series of small spikes.
Others from Guiana ^ have notches at the sides to receive a cord
which bound the haft in a groove running along the butt-end.
The same form has been found in Surinam.^ An Egyptian^ stone
hammer is mounted in much the same way. The notches prac-
tically produce lugs at the butt-end of the blade. I have an iron
hatchet, edged with steel, brought home by the late Mr. David
Forbes, F.B.S., from among the Aymara Indians of Bolivia,
which is mounted in a stick cleft at the end. The blade is
T-shaped at the butt, and is tied in such a manner, by means
of a strip of leather, that the arms of the T rest on two of the
coils, so as to prevent its falling out, while other two coils pass
over the butt and prevent its being driven back, and the whole
binds the two sides of the cleft stick together so as tightly to
grasp the blade and prevent lateral or endways motion. The
ancient Egyptian bronze hatchets were merely placed in a groove
and bound to the handle by the lugs, and sometimes by the cord
being passed through holes in the blade. The same shape is
' <' Arch, of Mersey District," 1867, p. 15.
^ Arch., vol. xxxii. p. 400 ; Proc. Soc. Aitt., 1st s. vol. i. p. 131.
^ Worsaae's " Nordiske Oldsager," fig. 14.
* Cliantre, " Le Caucase," 18.")o, vol. i. p. 50, pi. ii.
* Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. ii. pi. 73 ; Klomm, " Cult.-Gesch.," vol. ii. p. 62.
* Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 287. ' Journ. Anth. List., vol. xi. p. 448.
8 Int. Arch./, nth., vol. v., Supp. pi. i. '-' "lUahun" (1891), p. 55.
170 POLISHED CELTS. [CHAP. VI.
found in flint hatchets ascribed by Professor Flinders Petrie *
to the twelfth dynasty. "What may be a stone hatchet mounted
occurs in a painting at Medum.^
Another Australian method of mounting implies the possession
of some resinous material susceptible of being softened by heat,
and ajjain becomings hard and tough when cold. This mode is
o o o
exhibited in Fig. lUO, which represents a rude instrument from
Western Australia, now in my collection, engraved in the Arc/i(eo-
logia} It is hammer-like at one end, axe-like at the other, and
is formed of either one or two roughly chipped pieces of basalt-
like stone entirely un ground, and secured in a mass of resinous
Fig. 106.— Hatchet— Western Australia.
gum, in which the handle is inserted. In most implements of
this kind there appear to be two separate stones used to form
the double blade, and these are sometimes of different kinds of
rock. It would seem that the shaft, either cleft or uncleft,
passed between them, and that the stones, when bound with
string to hold them in their places, were further secured with a
mass of the gum of the Xanthorrho'd or grass-tree.*
Such a method of hafting cannot, I think, have been in general
use in this country-, for want of the necessary cementing material,
though, from discoveries made in Scandinavia, it would appear
that a resinous pitch was in common use for fixing bronze imple-
ments to their handles ; so that the practice may also have applied
to those of stone. In the Swiss Lake-dwellings, bitumen was
used as a cement for attaching stone to wood. In the case of the
axes of the Indians on the Piiver Napo,^ Ecuador, the binding of
1 " Kahun," pi. xvi. " Illahun," pi. vii.
2 "Medum " (1892), Frontisp. 14, p. 31.
* Vol. xxxiv. p. 172. See also Wood, " Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 32.
' Bonwick's "Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 44 ; Trans. Etlniol. Soc, N. S..
vol. iu. p. 267. Several specimerus are figured in Ratzel, " Viilkerk," vol. ii. p. 46
* See Arc/i. per VAnth. e laEtn., vol. xxv., 189;5, p. 283.
MODKRN METHODS OF HAKTING AXES. 171
tlie blades, which are formed with lup^s like those of Guiana, is
covered with a thick coating formed of bees- wax and mastic.
Besides those that were hafted as axes or adzes, it seems
probable that not a few of the implements known as celts may
have been for use in the hand as cutting tools, either mounted
in short handles or unmounted. There can be but little doubt that
the tools. Fig. 83 and 83a, were thus used in the hand, as also the
implement with a depression on each face (Fig. 87), and that with
the notches at the side (Fig. 89) ; and they can hardly have been
unique of their kind.
Dr. Lukis,^ indeed, at one time expressed an opinion that the
stone celt was not intended to be secured " in a handle, but was
held in the hand and applied to particular uses which are not now
evident, but to which neither the hammer nor the hatchet were
applicable." But in the face of the fact that numerous handles
have since been found, such an opinion is no longer tenable
except in a very limited sense.
Among modern savages we have instances of similar tools being
used in the hand without the intervention of any haft, giving a
form much like that of Fig. 83a, though among the Australians
the butt-end is sometimes enveloped in a mass of resinous matter,
so as to form a knob which fits the hand. According to Prinz
Neuwied,^ the Botocudos used their stone blades both unmounted
in the hand and hafted as hatchets. The South Australians ^ and
Tasmanians^ likewise use celts in a similar manner.
There are cases in which the hatchet and haft have been formed
from one piece of stone. Such a one, of chloritic stone, found in
a mound in Tennessee,^ is in outline like Fig. 92, and has a small
loop for suspension at the end of the handle. Mr. Cursiter, of
Kirkwall, has an instrument of the same kind from Orkney,
formed of hard slate. In extreme length it measures 9j inches.
It cannot, however, be assigned to a very early date. For a
comparison of celts from different countries Westropp's " Prehis-
toric Phases " ^ may be consulted.
With regard to the uses to which these instruments were
applied, they must have been still more varied than the methods
of mounting, which, as we have seen, adapted them for the pur-
poses of hatchets and adzes ; while, mounted in other ways, or
' Vroc. Soc. A)it., Ist s. vol. ii. p. 305.
- Quoted by Klemm, " C. G.," vol. i. p. 268.
» Journ. Eth. Soc, vol. ii. p. 109, fig. 7. * Nat. vol. x. p. 173.
* " Smithsonian Contributions," 1876, p. 46. " (London, 1872) pi. ii. p. 66.
172 POLISHED CELTS. [cHAP. VI.
uumoiinted, they may have served as wedges, chisels, and knives.
The purposes which similar instruments serve among modern
savages must be much the same as those for which the stone celts
found in this country were employed by our barbarian prede-
cessors. An admirable summary of the uses to which stone
hatchets — the " Toki " of the Maori — are, or were applied in
Xew Zealand, has been given by Dr. W^. Lauder Lindsay.^ They
were used chietiy for cutting down timber, and for scooping
canoes * out of the trunks of forest trees ; for dressing posts for
huts ; for grubbing up roots, and killing animals for food ; for
preparing firewood ; for scraping the flesh from the bones when
eating, and for various other purposes in the domestic arts. But
they were also employed in times of war, as weapons of offence
and defence, as a supplementary kind of tomahawk.
For all these purposes stone celts must also have been em-
ployed in Britain, and some may even have been used in agricul-
ture. "We can add to the list at least one other service to which
they were appKed, that of mining in the chalk in pursuit of
flint, as the raw material from which similar instruments might
be fashioned.
1 Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 327. See also E,. Brough Smyth, " Aborig. of
Victoria," vol. i. p. 357.
^ It is, however, to be observed that among the North American Indians fire was
the great agent employed in felling trees and in excavating canoes, the stone hatchet
being called in aid principally to remove the charred wood. — Schoolcraft, " Ind.
Tribes," vol. i. p. 75.
173
CHAPTER VII.
PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC.
I NOW come to several forms of implements which, though ap-
proximating closely to those to which the name of celts has been
applied, may perhaps be regarded with some degree of certainty
as forming a separate class of tools.
Among these, the long narrow form to
which, for want of a better name, that of
"Picks" has been given, may be first
described. It is, however, hard to draw
a line between them and chisels.
An idea of the prevailing form will be
gathered from Fig. 107, which represents
a specimen in my own collection fonnd at
Great Easton, near Dunmow, Essex, and
given me by Colonel A. J. Copeland, F.S.A.
Its siu'faces are partially ground, especially
towards the upper end, which appears to have
been pointed, though now somewhat broken.
The lower end is chipped to a rounded outline,
but this end is not ground, and the outer or
more convex face of the implement, in one
part shows the original crust of the flint.
In the Fitch Collection is a finer and
more symmetrical sj)ecimen of the same kind
from North Walsham. It is 7^- inches long,
rather more than 1 inch wide, and f inch
thick. It is polished nearly all over, both
faces are ridged, so that it is almost rhom-
boidal in section, though the angles are
rounded ; one face is curved lengthways
much more than the other, which is nearly
straight. At one end it is ground to a semi-
circular edge, but at the other it is merely
chipped, and stiU shows part of the original crust of the flint. Another
implement of this character, but lli inches long, and 2/; inches wide
in the broadest ])art, was found at Melbourn, ' Cambridgeshire, and
was in the collection of the late Lord Braybrooke.
* Arch. Journ., vol. xvii. p. 170.
107.— Great Easton.
174
PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC.
[chap. VII.
:'!:,
I have seen another nearly 6 inches long, but little polished, and
almost oval in section, which was found at Melton, near AVoodbridge,
Suffolk. This also is blunt at one end, and ground to a semicircular
edge at the other. A fragment of a tool of this class, found near
Maidenhead, is in the Geological ^luseum in Jerinyn Street. Another,
more roughly chipped out and but partially polislied, was found on
Mount Harry, near Lewes, and is preserved in the Miiseum in that
town. It is narrow at one end, where it is ground to a sharp edge.
The late Mr. H. Durden, of Blandford, had another, found on
Iwerne Minster Down, Dorset, 5 J inches long and 1]- inches broad,
more celt-like in type. One face is more convex than the other ; the
sides are sharp, and one end is squarer than the other, which comes to
a rounded point.
In my own collection is one of oval section (o inches), polished nearly
all over, from Burwell Fen, Cambridge ; another (4f inches), much,
polished on the surface, is from the Thames at Twickenham. A third,
from Quy Fen, Cambridge (4f inches), is
rather broader in its proportions, and of
pointed oval section. A fourth, from
Bottisham Fen (4^ inches), has a narrow
segmental edge, and is rounded at the
butt, where it is slightly battered. These
may perhaps be regarded as chisels.
In the Greenwell Collection is what
appears to be a fragment of a chisel, still
about 4 inches long, found at Northdale,
Bridlington. The same form of implement
is found in France. I have a fragment of
one which was found by M. Dimpre, of
Abbeville, in the old encampment known
as the Camp de Cesar, near Pontremy.
In the case of some very similar imple-
ments of flint from Scandinavia it is the
broad end that is usually sharp, though
some are entirely unground.
Occasionally these implements occur in
this country in the same unpolished con-
dition, like Fig. 108, from the neighbour-
hood of Bury St. Edmunds. This also
presents on the more highly ridged face
the same curvature in the direction of its
length as is to be observed on the polished
specimens, and the pointed end seems the
sharper and the better adapted for use.
I have a fine unground specimen (6
inches) from Feltwell, Norfolk, and anotlier (4 A- inclies) from Chart
Farm, Ightham, Kent, given to me by Mr. B. Harrison.
Unfortunately there are no indications by which to judge of the
method of hafting such instruments. It appears probable, however,
that the broader end may have been attached at the end of a handle,
like those in Fig. 104, and that the tool was a sort of narrow adze or
pick, adapted for working out cavities in wood, or it may be for
'.1^-
J
Fig. 108.— Bill \ .'-t. l..lmunds. J
SMALL HAND CHISEL!*.
175
grubbing in the ground. Some rough instruments of this character
are found in Ireland,' but are usually more clumsy in their proportions
than the English specimens that I have figured. They are often of a
sub-triangular section, and pointed at one or both ends, though rarely
ground. I have, however, a tapering pointed tool of black chert, and
belonging to the same class of implements, found in Lough Neagh.^
It appears adapted for boring holes in leather or other soft substances.
A ver}' remarkable implement belonging to the same group is shown
in Fig. 109. It was found in the Fen country near Bui'well, Cam-
bridge, and was given me by the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.Gr.S. At
the broad end it is much like the instruments just described. A portion
of both faces has been polished, the sides have been rounded by
grinding, and though it has been chipped to an edge at the broad end,
this also has been rendered blunt in the same manner, possibly with
Fig. 109.— Burwell.
Fig. nn.— Xear Bridlincrton.
the view of preventing it from cutting the ligaments by which it was
attached to a handle. The narrow end is ground to a chisel edge,
which is at right angles to that of the broad end. In form and
character this chisel end is exactly like that of a narrow " cold chisel "
of steel, in use by engineers. Whether it was used as a narrow adze
or axe, or after the manner of a chisel, it is difficult to sa}'.
Fig. 1 10 is .still more chisel-like in character. It is of flint weathered
white, but stained in places by iron-mould, from having been brought
' WUde, " Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 27.
* Archaologia, vol. xli. p. 402, pi. xviii. 7.
17(3
PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC.
[chap.
Vll.
in contact with modem agricultural implements, while lying on the
surface of the ground. It was found at Charleston, near Bridlington.
It is imground except at the edge, where it is very sharp, and at
one or two places along the sides, where slight projections have
been removed or rounded off by grinding. The butt-end is truncated,
but is not at all battered, so that if a hammer or mallet was used with
it, without the intervention of a socket or handle, it was probably of
wood. I have another specimen of rather smaller size from the same
locality. It is, however, of porphyritic greenstone, and the butt-end,
instead of being truncated, has been chipped to a comparatively sharp
edge, which has subsequently been partially rounded by grinding. If
used as a chisel at all. this implement must have been inserted in a
socket.
Mr. H. Durden had a chisel of the same character found at Hod
Hill, Dorset, 5^ inches long, and If inches broad, with the sides ground
straight.
The Greenwell Collection contains a flint chisel of this form 5 inches
long and ^ inch broad, found near Icklingham, Suffolk. It is ground
at the sides as well as at the edge. Another, 4 J inches long, in the
same collection, was found at North Stow, Suffblk. There is also a
small chisel of hone-stone, 2f inches long, found at Eudstone, near
Bridlington, and another 3f inches long, of subquadi'ate section,
found in a barrow at Cowlam,^ Yorkshire.
The form occurs in France. A beautiful chisel (7 inches), polished
all over, and brought to a narrow edge at either end, was fotmd in the
Camp de Catenoy (Oise).'- It is nearly round in
section. Another, of dark jade-like material
(4 inches), polished all over, was obtained from
a dolmen at Pornic^ (Loire Inferieure).
There are occasionally found some small chisels
apparently intended for holding in the hand, as if
for carving wood. One of these, from Dalton,
on the Yorkshire Wolds, and in the collection
of Messrs. Mortimer, is shown in Fig. 111. It
is of grey flint, sHghtly curved longitudinally,
nearly semicirciilar in section, with the side angles
rounded, the butt trimcated, but all its sharp angles
worn or ground away, and with a cu-cular edge
slightly gouge-like in character. It has been
ground transversely or obliquely on both faces, but
the stricb from the grinding are at the edge longi-
tudinal. I have a nearly similar tool from AVest
Stow, Suffolk (oj inches), and one from the neigh-
bourhood of Bridlington, Yorkshire, but the butt-
end is broken.
Another flint chisel, from the same neighbourhood, 3i inches long
and I inch wide, in my collection, presents the peculiarity of having
the butt-end ground to a sharp narrow semicircular edge, the principal
edge at the other end being broader and less curved. There can be
' " Brit. Barrows," pp. 22.5, 396.
- " Le Camp de Catenoy," N. Ponthieux, Beauvais, 1872, pi. v. i.
' Parenteau, " Invent. Archeol.," 1878, pi. i. 2.
Fig. 111.— Dalton, York-
shire. J
SMALL HAND tlllSELS.
177
little doubt of this having been merel}' a hand tool. A portion of the
■edge at the narrow end is worn away as if by scraping bone or some-
thing equally hard. This wearing away does not extend to the end of
the tool. Another specimen from Yorkshire is in the Blackmore
Museum.'
A chisel from Suffolk,- ground at both ends, has been figured.
The implement shown in Fig. 112 appears to belong to this same
class of tools, though closely resembling some of those which will
hereafter be described as " arrow-flakers," from
which it differs only in not showing any signs of
being worn away at the ends. It is of flint
neatly cliipped, and was foimd at Helperthorpe,
Yorkshire. I have another of the same form,
but a trifle longer, found by Mr. AV. "Whitaker,
F.E.S., near Baldock, Herts. Neither of them
shows any traces of grinding.
A similar chisel of flint, square at the edge,
and found near Londinieres^ (Seine Infcrieui-e),
is engraved by the Abbe Cochet.
Implements, which can without hesitation be
classed as chisels, are rare in Ireland, though
long narrow celts approximating to the chisel
form are not uncommon. These are usually of
clay-slate, or of some metamorphic rock. I
have, however, specimens of oval section not
more than an inch wide, and as much as 5 inches
long, with narrow straight edges, which seem
to be undoubtedly chisels. I do not remember
to have seen a specimen in flint, those described by Sir W. Wilde *
being more celt-like in character.
Narrow chisels, occasionally 10 and 12 inches long, and usually
scj^uare in section, and either polished all over or merely ground at the
■edge, are of common occurrence in Denmark and Sweden.-^ They are
sometimes, but more rarely, oval in section.
In Germany and Switzerland the form is scarce, but one from the
Sigmaringen district is engraved by Lindenschmit,® and a Swiss speci-
men, in serpentine, by Perrin.'
Some of the small celts found in the Swiss lakes appear to havebeen
rather chisels than hatchets or adzes, as they were mounted in sockets*'
bored axially in hafts of stag's horn. In some instances the hole Avas
bored transversely through the piece of horn, but even then, the tools
are so small that they must have been used rather as knives or drawing
chisels than as hatchets. Chisels made of bone are abundant in the
Swiss Lake-settlements. They are also plentiful in some of the caverns
in the French Pyrenees, which have been inhabited in Neolithic times.
Several have also occurred in the Gibraltar caves.
112. — Helperthorpe.
" Flint Chips," p. 76. ^ p,.^^ g,i^-^ j^^f j,-c/,., vol. ^■iL p. 209.
" Seine Inf.," 'Ind cd., p. 528. •• " Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 27.
Worsaae, "Nord. Olds." Nos. 20, 22 ; Nilsson, ♦' Stone Age," pi. vi. 127.
" Hoheuz. Saniml.," Taf. xliii. .5.
" Etude Prehist. sur la Savoie," 1869, pi. ii. 4.
Desor, "Palafittes," p. 23, &g. 19.
N
178
PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC.
[chap. VII.
Among tlie Maories of New Zealand small hand-chisels of jade are
used for carving -wood and for other purposes. They are sometimes
attached to their handles by a cmiously inter-
twined cord.^ and sometimes by a more simple
binding. For the sketch of that shown in
Fig. 113, I am indebted to the late Mr. Gay.
The original is in the British Museum.- It will
be observed that the end of the handle, which has
been battered in use, is tied round with a strip of
bark to prevent its spUtting. The blade seems
to rest against a shoidder in the handle, to which
it is firmly bound by a cord of vegetable fibre. A
stone chisel from S. E. Bolivia^ is mounted in
the same fashion, but the blade is shorter. The
stone chisels in use in ancient times in Britain
were, when hafted at all, probably mounted in a
somewhat analogous manner.
Consideriiig the great numbers of gouges
or hollow chisels of flint which have been
found ia Denmark and Sweden, their extreme
rarity in Britain is remarkable. It seems
possible that the celts with an almost semi-
circular edge, some of which, when the two
faces of the blade are not equally convex, are
of a gouge-like character, may have answered
the same purpose as gouges. It is to be
observed that this class of celts is scarce in
Denmark, where gouges are abundant ; but
possibly the ancient inhabitants of that
country may have been more of a canoe-
forming race than those of Britain, so that,
in consequence, implements for hollowing out
the trunks of trees were in greater demand
among them. The best-formed gouges discovered in England,
have, so far as I am aware, been found in the Fen country, where
it is probable that canoes would be in constant use.
Two such, foimd in Burwell Fen, are preserved in the Museum of
the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, one of which is shoAvn in Fig. 114.
The other is rather smaller, being 5 J inches long and 1^ inches broad.
They are entirely unpolished, with the sides nearly straight and sharp,
and one face more convex than the other. At the butt-end they are
truncated, or show the natural crust of the flint. The cutting edge at
' Wood, "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 201.
- Nilsson. •' Stone Age." pi. vi. 129, p. 54.
" ////. Arch. f. Ethn., toI. ii. p. 273.
Fig
113.— Xew Zealand
Chisel. \
GOUGES KARE IN BRITAIN.
179
the other end is a^jproximately at riglit angles to the blade, and is
chipped hollow, so that the edge is like that of a carpenter's gouge.
In Fig. 114a, is shown a tine gouge of white flint in my own collec-
tion. It was found in 1871 on the AVestleton Walks, Suffolk, and
was ceded t(j me by Mr. F. Spalding. It has been most skilfully and
symmetrically chipped out, but both the surface and the edge are left
-A«t
Fie. 114 — Burwoll.
Fig. 114a.— Westleton "Walks.
k
entirely unground. What may be termed tlio front face is flatter than
in the specimens last described. The cutting edge is more rounded.
The next specimen, Fig. 115, is less decidedly gouge-like in
character. It is of grey flint, and was in the collection of the late
Mr. Caldecott, of Mead Street, having been found at Eastbourne,
Sussex. The sides are sharp, but rounded towards the butt, "which is
also round. A large flake has been taken lengthways off the hollow
face, and it ma}* be mainly to this circumstance rather than to original
design, that the gouge-like character of the implement is due.
Most of the l)ani.«;h gouges have a rectangular section at the middle
of the blade, and the Ijutt-end is usually truncated, and sometimes
N 2
180
PICKS, CHISELS, GOUGES, ETC.
[chap. Vll.
shows marks of having been hammered, so that these implements
were probably used without hafting and in conjunction with a mallet
or hammer of wood or stag's horn. Another and rarer form of gouge
with a sharp elliptical section, tapers to the butt, and may have been
used for paring away charred surfaces without the aid of a mallet.
Some small examples of this class show, however, polished markings,
as if from having been inserted in handles.
Under the head of gouges I must comprise a few of those celt-like
implements already mentioned, which, without being actually ground
hollow, yet, bv having one of their faces much flatter transversely than
the other, present at the edge a gouge-like appearance, somewhat
Fig. 115. — Easttonme. I
after the manner of the "round-nosed chisels " of engineers. One of
these was discovered in a barrow on Willerby TTold.^ Yorkshire, by
Canon Greenwell, F.E.S., though it was not associated with any burial.
It is shown in Fig. 116, and is formed of a light green hone-stone,
carefully ground and even polished, and presents a beautifully regular
and sharp cutting edge. It would appear to have been intended for
mounting as a hollow adze rather than as a gouge, and would when
thus mounted have formed a useful tool for hollowing canoes, or for
other similar pui'poses.
In the Greenwell Collection is also another implement of the same
•chara<?ter and material, but smaller, being 4 inches long and 2f inches
1 "Brit Barrows," p. 181.
BASTARD GOUGES.
181.
broad. It was found at Ganthorpe, Yorkshire. The sides in this
case are flat.
The implement shown in Fig. 117 has, when the convex face is
seen, much tlie same appearance as Fig. 08. The other face, however,
is slightly hollowed towards the middle longitudinally, and is nearly
flat transversely, so that the edge presents a gouge-like appearance.
It was found at Iluntow, near Bridlington, and is in my own col-
lection. The material is greenstone, the surface of which is somewliat
Fig-. U7.
i
Fig. 116.— Willerby Wuld. ^
decomposed, and seems in places to have been scratched by the plough
or the harrow.
A considerable number of gouges of this bastard kind have been
found in Ireland, and I have figured one from Lough Neagh.' A few
of the Irish celts are actually hollowed at the edge, so as to become
more truly gouge-like in character.
Besides occurring in abundance in Scandinavia, gouges, properly
80 called, are also found in Northern Germany and Lithuania. They
also occur in Russia,'- Finland, and Western Siberia, and even in Japan
and Cambodia.
^ Arch., vol. xli. pi. xviii. 10.
- Mem. Hoc. li. des Ant. da Xord, 1872-77, p. 105. Zeilsch.f. Eth. vol. xix. \\ 413.
182 P1CK:S, CHISELS, GOUGE;^, ET( . [cHAP. VII.
One of flint. 5 indies long', from tte neig-hbourhood of Beauvais
(Oise\ is in the Blackmore Museum. The ^ame form has also been
found in Portugal^ and Algeria. -
A stone implement.^ " a square chisel at one end and a gouge at tl»e
other," -was foimd in one of the Gibraltar caves.
In North America.^ including Canada and Newfoundland, gouges
formed of other varieties of stone than flint are by no means un-
common, and among the Caribs of Barbados, where stone was not
to be procured, we find gouge-like instruments formed from the
colnmclh of the large Siromhis gigc^- On the western coast of North
America, mussel-shell adzes are still preferred by the Ahts* to the
best English chisels, for canoe-making purposes.
Some narrow bastard gouges, almost semicircular on one face and
flat transversely on the other, but not hollowed, have been found
in the Swiss Lake-settlements. I have one of diorite, of inches
long and 1 inch broad, from Sipplingen. The butt is roughened as
if for insertion in a socket. A similar foi-m is found in Germany.
I have a specimen 9^ inches long found in the neighbourhood of
Mainz.
A bastard form of gouge, mounted as an adze, is in use in the
Solomon Islands. One tied to its haft with rattan is in the Christy
Collection.
^ Cartailhac," Ages preh. de I'Esp. et du Port.."' p. 91.
- Trans. Ethn. Soc. N. S.. vol. vii. p. 47.
3 Trans. Freh. Cong., 1S68. p. 130.
* Schoolcraft, "Indian Trih»es," vol. iv. p. 175.
* Sproat, " Scenes and Studies of Savage Life.' p. 316.
183
CHAPTER VIII.
PERFORATED AXES.
I NOW come to a very important class of antiquities, the stone
axes and axe-hammers with a hole for the insertion of a shaft,
like the ordinary axes and hammers of the present day. As to the
method by which these shaft-holes were bored, I have already
spoken in a previous chapter. I have also mentioned that many
of them appear to belong to a time when bronze was already in
use, at all events for knife-like daggers, and that they have in
many countries shared with the more simply- formed celts the
attribution of a heavenly origin as thunderbolts, together with
the superstitious reverence due to their supernatural descent.
I have, therefore, but little here to add beyond a classification and
description of the various forms ; but I may mention that the
name by which such implements were " popularly known in
Scotland almost till the close of last century was that of the
Purgatory Hammer," buried with its owner that he might have
the wherewithal " to thunder at the gates of Purgatory till the
heavenly janitor appeared."^
They are for the most part made from metamorphic or volcanic
rocks, and occasionally from quartzite, but I have never seen a
British perforated axe made from ordinary flint, though hammers
of this material are known. Stukeley,'^ indeed, mentions that
in cleansing the moat at Tabley, near Knutsford, "they found an
old British axe, or some such thing, made of large flint, neatly
ground into an edge, with a hole in the middle to fasten, into a
handle ; it would serve for a battle-axe." Stukeley was probably
mistaken as to the material ; but there are in the Museum at
Copenhagen one or two flint axes ground to an edge, the shaft-
1 Wilson, "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 191; Arch. Scot., vol. i. p. 291.
* " Itin. Curios.," 2nd. ed., vol. i. p. 57-
184 PERFORATED AXES. [CHAP. VI II.
holes in which are natural, and no doubt led to the stones being
selected for the purpose to which they were applied. An artifici-
ally-perforated French specimen will subsequently be mentioned.
Flints both naturally and artificially perforated, have also been
occasionally converted into hammers and maces.
In Scandinavia and Northern Germany, perforated axes and
axe-hammers are frequently known as Thor's hammers,
as already mentioned,^ and some authors have maintained
that they were in use for warhke purposes so late as eight or
ten centuries after our era. Kruse," however, has urged that
though found in the neighbourhood of graves of the Iron Age in
Livonia and Courland, they are never found in the graves them-
selves, and that their use is not mentioned in any ancient
histories.
The principal forms may be classified as follows : —
1. Double-edged axes, or those with a cutting, or but slightly
blunted edge at either end.
2. Adzes, or implements with the edge at right angles to the
shaft-hole.
3. Axes with the edge at one end only, the hole being near
the other end, which is rounded. These shade off into —
4. Axe-hammers sharp at one end, and more or less hammer-
like at the other, the shaft-hole being usually near the centre.
To the weapons of the first of these classes the name of Ama-
zon Axe has been applied by Professor Xilsson ; ^ but the
Scandinavian axes expanding considerably at the cutting ends,
resemble the Amazonia securis of classical sculpture more than do
the English specimens.
Fig. 118 represents a beautifully formed axe of the first class, in
my own collection. It is of greenstone, and was found near Him-
manby, Yorkshire. The two sides are concave longitudinally, so that
it expands towards the edges. They are also sHghtly concave trans-
versel}-. The angles are rounded, and the edges are blunt, especially
that at the shorter end. The shaft-hole is oval, and tapers slightly
from each end towards the middle. It woiild appear to have been
worked out with some sort of chisel, and to have been afterwards made
smootlier bv grindino:.
A broader weapon of granite, expanding more at the ends (Scinches)
was found in the Tay.^ near Xewbvirgh, Fife. A flatter specimen of
porphyiitic stone 4 inches) was found on the shore of Cobbinshaw
Loch,5 TVest Calder, Midlothian, in 1885.
^ P. 58. - " Necrolivonica," Beil. C, p. 23; and Xachtrag, p. 20.
' " Stone Age," p. 71. * Froc. See. Ant. Scot., vol. x-viii. p. 310.
* P. S. A. S., vol. xxiv. p. 277.
SHARP AT BOTH ENDS.
185
A specimen of nearly the same type, found near Uelzen, Hanover,
is engraved by von Estorlf ; ' another from Sweden, by Sjclborg.-
In the Museum at Geneva is a very similar axe of greenstone (5^
inches), found in the neighbourhood of that town. One of serpentine,
much longer in its proportions (9;^ inches), and with an oval shaft-hole.
Fig. lis.— Iluiuuaiiby. J
is in the Museum at Lausanne. It was found at Agiez, Canton de
Vaud.
In the Collections ^ published by the Sussex Archfeological Society
is a figure, obligingly lent to me, of a beautiful axe-head of this class
(Fig. 119) found with the remains of a skeleton, an amber cup (Fig.
307), a whetstone (Fig. 18G), and a small bronze dagger with two rivet
holes, in an oaken coffin in a barrow at Ilove, near Brighton. The
» " Heidnischo Alterthiimer," 1846, pi. vi. 16. - Vol. ii. fig. 144.
^ Vol. i.x. p. r20. See Arch. Joiini., vol. xiii. p. 184, aiid vol. xv. p. 90.
186
TERFORATED AXES,
[chap. VIII.
axe-liead is said to be formed of some kind of ironstone, and is 5 inches
long. The hole is described as neatly drilled. A weapon of the same
kind (3i inches) blunter at the ends and described as a hammer, was
found with a deer's-horn hammer, and a bronze knife in a barrow at
Lambourn, Berks. ^ A small black stone axe-head of nearly similar
form was found near the head of a contracted skeleton at a depth of
12 feet in a barrow in Eolston Field, "Wilts.- A somewhat similar
specimen, with the sides faceted and blunt at one end, has been en-
graved as having been found in Yorkshire.^ It is, however, doubtful
whether, like many other objects in the same plate, it is not foreign.
The original is now in the Christj^ Collection.
A double-edged axe-head of basalt, injured by fire, and 4h inches
long, was foimd by the late Mr. Bateman, in a large urn with calcined
bones, bone pins, a tubular bone laterally perforated, a flint " spear-
head," and a bronze awl, in a barrow near Throwley, Derbyshire.*
This was the only instance in which he found a perforated stone axe
accompanying an interment by cremation.
An axe-head of basalt, with a double edge to cut either way, was
also dug up in the neighbourhood of Tidpswell, Derbyshire.'^
Fig. 119.— How.
A specimen of this kind (5 inches), edged at both ends, but "the
one end rather blunted and lessened a little by use." was found near
Grimle}-, "Worcestershire, and is figured by Allies.''
I have a specimen (5|- inches), much weathered, which is said to have
come from Bewdley in that county, but which maybe that from Grrimley.
An example, 5 inches long, engraved in the Salisbury volume ' of
the Archfeological Institute, from a barrow on "Windmill Hill, Abury,
"Wilts, is described as double-edged.**
The Danish and German axe-heads of this form have usually, but
not always, one edge much more blunted than tlie other. Occasionally
there is a ridge on each side at the blunt end, which shows that this
thickening was intentional. A fine double-edged axe-head of this
form from Brandenburg is engraved in the "Horse Ferales."^ The
■double-edged form is found also in Finland.^"
The form likewise occurs in France, but the faces are usually flatter.
I have one from the Seine at Paris (5^ inches). Another from the
^ Greenwell, in Arch., vol. lii. p. 60.
^ Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xx. pi. \]i. 1.
° " Veet. of Ants, of Derbyshire," p. 7.
^ "Ants, of Worcestershire," pi. iv. 8 and 9.
' Arch. Jounu, vol. vii. p. 899.
'" Aspelin, " Ant. du Nord Finno-Ougrien," No
- Hoare's " Soutli "Wilts," p. 174.
■* "Ten Years' Diggings," p. lo5.
'' P. 108, No. 4.
9 PI. iii. 9.
EXPANDING AT ONE END. 187
<lopartment of the Tliarente is engraved by de Eochebrune ; ' and a third
from the department of Seine et Oise is in the Musee de St. Germain. -
A fine example of the same form is in the Museum at Tours, and another
in that of Blois. In the collection of M. Eeboux'' was a curious imple-
ment from the Seine, formed of flint, pointed at each end, and per-
forated in the middle. Another, in flint, from Mesnil en Arronaise*
(Somme) (8i inches), has been figured. The perforations may be
natural, though improved by art. In my own collection is one of
the finest specimens that I have ever seen. It is also from the
Seine at Paris. It is 9.^' inches long, and slightly curved in the direc-
tion of its length ; on either side there is a long sunk lozenge, in the
centre of which is the cylindrical shaft-hole, and the ends expand into
flat semicircular blades about 2| inches across. The material is a
hard basaltic rock,' and the preservation perfect. It was found in 1876.
A stone axe in the Museum of the Eoyal Institution at Swansea,
and found at Llanmadock, in Gower, has been kindly lent me for en-
graving, and is shown in Fig. 120. It expands at the sharper end
much more suddenly and to a mucli greater extent than does that from
ITunmanby. The edge at that end, which is almost semicircular in
outline, has suffered from ill-usage since it was discovered ; the
material of which it is made being felspathic ash, the surface of which
has become soft by decomposition. The other and narrower end is
flattened to about half an inch in width. The implement has already
been engraved on a smaller scale. '^
In Bartlett's "History and Antiquities of Manceter, "Warwick-
shire,'"^ is engraved an axe of the same character as this, but expand-
ing at the bhmter end almost as much as it does at the edge, which is
described as being very sharp. It is said to have been formed of the
hard blue stone of the country, but "from age or the soil in which it
has lain " to be "now coloiu-ed with an elegant olive-coloured patina."
It was found on Hartshill Common, in 1770, where a small tumidus had
been cut through, "the bottom of which was paved with brick, which
by the heat of the fire had been nearly vitrified." There is probably
some mistake as to the bricks.
Another axe-head like Fig. 120, 8 inches in length, and more dis-
tinctly hammer-like at the narrow end, was found in the parish of
Abernethy, Perthshire, and has been engraved by Wilson."
In character these axes with expanded ends more nearly resemble
some of the Scandinavian and North German types than do most of
the other British forms. Broken stone axes expanding at the edge
have been found on the site of Troj'.
In the Museum of the Leeds Philosophical Society is a double-edged
axe-head of a larger and coarser kind, which is said to have been
found near Whitb}'. Its authenticity was strongly vouched for by
the late ^Ir. Denny, but I fear that it is a modern fabrication.
An implement of the same foi-m, from Gerdauen, East Prussia, is
' "Mem. BUT les Eestes d'Indust.," &c., 1866, pi. x. 12.
- Mortillet, "Promenades," p. 146.
' Cong.prih. Bologne, 1871, p. 101. Bo. Buda-Fcst, 1876, p. 87. "Mus. Preh.,"
No. 500. ./ . F . . y
* Rev. Arch., 3rd S., vol. vii. p. 66.
* Areh. Joi/rn., vol. iii. p. 67. " P. 17, pi. ii. 3.
^ " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 193.
188
PEllFOKATED AXES.
[CH.AI'.
VIII.
preserved in the Berlin M\iseum; and anotlier of greenstone was
found at Hallstatt.' A singular variety from the same spot has the
edge at one end at right angles to that at the other.
A small sketch of a ver}- remarkable curved blade, pointed at one
end and with an axe-hke edge at the other, is given in the Journal of the
Arclueological Association.'- It is of greenstone, 11 inches long and 2h
inches across, and was found in Guernse}-. By the kindness of the
late Eev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., of Wath, I am enabled to give an
Fig. 120.— Llanmadock.
engraving of tlie tj-pe in Fig. 121. A number of
found in the Channel Islands, to which the form
The second class into which I proposed to
ments consists of adzes, or blades having the
to the shaft-hole. Apart from a short notice
I believe that attention was for the first time
edition of this book, to the occurrence of this
1 Simony, "Alt. von Hall.statt," p. 9 ; Taf. vi. 3.
specimens have been
seems pecuhar.
divide these imple-
edge at right angles
by Mr. Monkman,
called in the former
form in Britain.
- Vol. iii. p. 128.
roiNTED AT ONE END.
189
The specimen I liave selected for engraving, as Fig. 122, gives a
good idea of the typical character. It is of greenstone, with the shaft-
hole tapering inwards from both faces, one of which is less convex
than the other. It was found at Fireburn Mill, near Coldstream,
Berwickshire, and is in the Greenwell Collection. In tho same
Fi''. 121. — Guciubev
collection is another of similar character, but having the butt-end
broken off and the edge more circular, found at Willerby Carr, in tlie
East liiding of Yorkshire.
I have a smaller specimen (42 inches), of a hard micaceous grit,
found at Allerston, in the North Riding ; as also a remarkably fine
and perfect adze of porphyritic greenstone (6' inches), ground to a
lyo
PERFORATED AXES.
[chap.
VIII.
roimded edge at the butt, instead of being truncated like Fig. 122.
Tlie shaft-hole, like that of all the others, tapers inwards from both
faces, in this instance from If inch to f inch. This specimen was
found at South Daltou, near Beverley. An adze or hoe of the same
kind, found at Wellburj-,! near Oflie}', Herts, is in the collection of Mr.
W. Eansom, F.S.A.
Another implement of the same class (9 inches), flat on one face, and
Fi?. 122.— Fireburn Mill, Coldstream. ^
much like Fig. 122, is in the National Museum at Edinburgh. It
is of greenstone, much decomposed, and was found at Ormiston Abdie.
Fife. A shorter specimen (3J inches) sharpened at each end, found
at Sandwiek, Shetland, is in the fine collection of ^Ir. J. W. Cursiter,
at Kirkwall.
Another, in outline more like the celt Fig. 57, though sharp at
the sides, is also in the GreenweU Collection. It is formed of red
1 Trans. Herts. X<tt. Hist. Soc, vol. rai., 189G, p. 176.
ADZE-LIKE IN CHARACTER.
19L
micaceous sandstone (6;^ inches), and was found at Scacldeton, in
the Nortli Eidin^ of Yorkshire. A rough sketch of it has been
published bj^Mr. Monkman.' In the same collection is another, rather
narrower in its proportions, Ijeing 7h inches long and 3 inches broad,
found at Pilmoor, as well as one 6 inches long and 2^ inches broad,
found at Nunningt(jn.
Another, !jh inches long, square at both ends, found near Whitby,
is in the Museum at Leeds.
The form is known in Denmark, but is rare. A more celt-shaped
specimen is engraved b}' Worsaae.- He terms it a hoe {hakke), and it
is, of course, possible that these instruments may have been used for
digging purposes.
Two short, broad hoes {hacken), of Taunus slate, found near Mainz,
are given by Liudenschmit.'' Another is in the IMuseum at Bruns-
wick.
Some hoe-like, perforated stone implements from Mexico, are in the
Ethnological Museum at Copenhagen. The so-called stone lioes of
North America* are not perforated, though sometimes notched at the
sides. Dr. Keller'' has suggested that a circular perforated disc from
one of the Swiss Lake-settlements may have been a hoe.
In the Museum of the Deutsche GeseUschaft at Leipzig, is a gi-een-
stone implement resembling these
adzes or hoes at its In-oader end,
but at the other, instead of being
square or rounded, presenting an
axe-like edge.
A narrow, thick adze of this
character, flat on one face, rounded
on the other, 4^ inches long, found
at Scudnitz, near Schweinitz,
Prussian Saxony, is in the Berlin
Museum. A rather similar form
has been found in Bohemia.®
An intermediate form between
a hammer and an adze will be
subsequently described at p. 231.
A small perforated adze in the
Museum of the Cambridge Anti-
quarian Society, Fig. 123, is more
truly celt-like in character, and
appears, indeed, to have been
made from an ordinary celt by
boring a shaft-hole through it. It is formed of a hard, green, slaty
rock, and was found in Burwell Fen. I believe that another, but
larger, specimen of the same type, was found in the same district in
Swaffham Fen.
The late Mr. G. W. Ormerod, F.G.S., brought under my notice another
1 Joiirii. Ethiiol. Soc, vol. ii. pi. xvi. 14.
2 "Nordiske Oldsafrer," No. 50.
3 " Alterthiimer," vol. i. Heft ii. Taf. i. 10 and 12.
* Smithsouiai) lieport, 1803, p. 379.
* Anz. f. Schiv. Alt., 1870, p. 141.
" Mitth. A,ith. r^cv. (/( Wien, vol. xxv. (1895) p. 39.
Burwell Fen.
192 PERFORATED AXES. [cHAP. vm.
specimen found, in 1865, at North Bovev, Devon. It is of greenstone,
about 3J inches long. The sides taper towards the butt-end, which is
rounded, and the hole in the middle appears to be only about i inch
in diameter, but bell-mouthed at each face. It is novr in the Museum
at Exeter. Another (3^ inches) was found at Ugborough, Devon.^
The implement showTi in Fig. 124 seems to be an unfinished speci-
men belonging to this class. It is formed of greenstone, portions of
the natural joints of which are still visible on its surface. It seems
to have been worked into shape by picking rather than by grinding ;
but the hole appears, from the character of the surface, to have been
ground. Had it been continued through the stone, it would probably
have been considerably enlarged in diameter, and if so, the implement
Fig. 124. — Stxjurton.
would have been much weakened around the hole. It seems possible
that it was on this account that it was left unfinished. It was found
near Stourton, on the borders of Somerset and "Wilts.
The third of the classes into which, for the sake of convenience,
I have divided these instruments, consists of axe-heads with a
cutting edge at one end only, the shaft-hole being near the other
end, which is rounded.
Fig. 125 represents an elegant specimen of this class, found at Bard-
weU, in Suffolk, and formerly in the collection of Mr. Joseph Warren,
of Ixworth, but now in my own. The material appears to be felstone.
The edge is slightly rounded, the shaft-hole carefuUy finished, and
the two faces ground hollow, probably in the manner suggested at p. 43.
^ Tr. Dev. Astoe., vol. xxii. p. 44.
CUTl'ING AT ONE END ONLY.
193
I have another made from a quartzite pebble (4f inches) with
the sides hollowed transversely, but rounded longitudinally, found
with an urn on Wilton Heath, near Brandon, in 1873. The blunt
end is bruised and flattened by wear. I have a second, also of
quartzite (5J inches), rounded in all directions, found near Ipswich,
in 1865. It retains much of the form of the original pebble.
In the ^Museum at Newcastle is preserved a specimen very similar to
Fig. 125, of mottled greenstone, beautifully finished ; the sides aro, how-
rig. 125.— Bardwell. ^
ever, flat and not hollowed. It is 6k inches long, the faces are rounded,
and the hole, which is about ^ inch in diameter, tapers slightly towards
the middle. It was found in the River "Wear at Sunderland. Another
of the same character, formed from a beautifully veined stone, accom-
panied a bronze dagger in a barrow near East Kennet, Wilts.'
I have another axe of the same kind, with both sides flat, 6^ inches
long, formed of porphyritic greenstone, and found near Colchester.
1 Proc. Soc. A»t., -ind. S., vol. iv. p. 339. Arch., vol.xliii. p. 410. A. C. Smith's
"Ant. of North Wilts.," p. 168. "Salisbury Vol. Arch. lust.," 1849, p. 110;
Arch. Joiirn., vol. xiiv. p. 29.
O
194
PERFORATEU AXES.
[chap. VIII.
Another, formed of basalt, 6;^ inches long, the sides slightly hollowed,
from Chest erf ord, Cambridge,' was in the possession of the late
Mr. Joshua Clarke, of Saffron Walden.
Another, 5 inches long, was found in the Thames oif Parliament
Stairs, and passed with the Eoach Smith Collection into the
British Museum. One, 5 J inches long, from Cumberland, is in the
Christy Collection.
One of sandstone (4^ inches) was discovered at Northenden,''
Cheshire, in 1883.
In the Greenwell Collection is one of greenstone, 6f inches long,
found at Millfield, near Sunderland. The hole is somewhat oval,
and tapers inwards from each side. There is also one of basalt, 4^
inches long, with an oval hole and slightly convex sides, from
Holystone, Northumberland. The edge, as usual, is blunt.
An axe-head of this kind, from a chambered timiulus or dolmen
at Craigengelt, near Stirling, Scotland, is engraved by Bonstetten.^
One with flat sides (G| inches) was found in the Tay, near Mug-
drum Island, Perth, ^ and another (7 inches) at
Sorbie, "Wigtownshire.*
Implements or weapons of this character
occasionally occur in Ireland,^ but the sides are
usually flat.
The exact form is rare iu Denmark and North
Germany. Lindenschmit' engraves a thin speci-
men from Liineburg. It occurs also in Styria.
A specimen from Lithuania, more square at the
butt, is engraved b}' Mortillet.* I do not re-
member to have met with it in France.
In one of the barrows on Potter Brompton
AYold,^ Yorkshire, explored by Canon Green-
well, accompanying an interment by crema-
tion, he found a beautifullj'-formed axe-head
(if serpentine (?) the surface of which was
in places scaling off from decomposition, arising
from its having been partly calcined. A single
view of it is given in Fig. 126. The hole is
about IJ inches in diameter on each side, but
rather smaller in the middle. The cutting edge
has been rounded as well as the angles round
the sides, but this process has been carried
to a greater extent on one than the other; possibly this was the outer
side.
A somewhat similar, but rather broader, axe-head of basalt, 5;^^
inches long, was found by the late Mr. T. Batemau in a barrow called
Carder Low,'" near Hartington, in company with a small bronze dagger,
and near the elbow of a contracted skeleton.
' Arch. Assoc. Jotirn., vol. xxv. p. 272.
* Fr. Lane, and Ch. Arch. Soc, vol. xi. p. 172.
^ " Essai 8ur les Dolmens," pi. iv. 1. * P. S. A. S., vol. viii. p. 264.
5 P. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 208. " Wilde, " Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 79.
' " Alt. u. H. v.," vol. i. Heft i. Taf. i. 18.
* Materiaux, vol. i. p. 462. ' " Brit. Ban'ows," p. 158.
10 "Vest. Ant.Derb.," p. 63. Cat., p. 6, No. V).
Fig. 126.— Potter Brompton
Wold. i
USED AS BATTLE-AXES.
195
Another, expanding rather more at the edge, from a barrow in
Devonsliire,* was in the Meyrick Collection.
A somewhat similar axe-head, more rounded at the butt and rather
more expanded at tlie cutting edge, was found in Annandale in 1870,
and was described to me by the late Mr. Joseph Clarke, F.S.A.
One of granite, much like Fig. 126, came to light in a cairn at Brec-
kigoe," Caithness.
In the same barrow at Eudstone,^ near Bridlington, as that in
which the block of pyrites and flint scraper, subsequently to be des-
cribed (Fig. 223), were found, but with a different interment.
Canon Greenwell discovered the beautifully formed axe-hammor
shown in Fig. 127. It is of very close-grained, slightl}'' micaceous
grit, and presents the peculiarity of having the rounded faces slightly
chamfered all round tlie Hat sides. The edge is carefully rounded, and
i'ig. 127.— Kudstone. ?,
the broad end somewhat flattened. It lay behind the shoulders
of the skeleton of an old man lying on his left side, with his right
hand on his head, and his left to his face. Before the face, was
a bronze knife 4 inches long, with a single rivet to fasten it to its
handle, and close to the axe-hammer lay a pointed flint flake re-chipped
on both faces. In a barrow at Sledmere * with burnt bones lay a
weapon of this kind battered at the blunt end.
An axe-head (G;^ inches), with convex faces, rounded at the butt,
and with an oval shaft-hole, was dredged from the Thames at London,*
and is now in the British Museum.
It seems almost indisputable that these elegantly formed axe-heads
belong to the period when bronze was in use, and from their occurrence
in the graves the}' appear to have formed part of the equipment of
warriors.
' Skelton's " Meyrick' s Armour," pi. xlvi. 3.
* Froc. Soc. Ant. iScot., vol. xxLx. p. C.
* Trans. E. R. Ant. Svc, vol. ii. 1894, p. 21.
O 2
3 " Brit. Banow.s," p. 266.
* " Horte Ferales," pi. iii. 4.
196
PERFORATED AXES,
[chap. VIII.
The careful manner in wliich their edges are blunted shows
that they cannot have been intended for cutting tools, but that they
must have been weapons of war. A blow from a battle-axe with a
blunted edge would be just as fatal as if the edge had been sharp and
trenchant, while the risk of accidental injury to the scantily- clothed
warrior who carried the axe was next to none when the edge of the
weapon was thus blunted. The practice of removing the edge by
Fig. 128.— BoiTOwash.
i
grinding was, no doubt, introduced in consequence |of some painful
experience.
Fig. 128 is of stiU more ornamental character, having a beaded
moulding towards each edge of the faces and following the curvatiu-e
of the sides. The drawing is taken from a cast in the Museum of the
Society of Antiquaries, presented by Sir "W. Tite. M.P.' The original
is said to have been found near Whitby. A fine axe-head " of red
granite, ornamented with raised mouldings," was, however, foimd with
' Proe. See. A„t., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 295.
ORNAMENTED ON THE FACES.
197
human bones near Borrowash, Derbyshire, in 1841/ and is in the
Bateman Collection, now at Sheffield. To judge from the woodcut in
the Catalogue, the cast must have been taken from this specimen.
"A very elegant axe-head, 5 inches long, of reddish basalt, beauti-
fully wrought, with a slight moulding round tlio nngles, and a perfora-
tion for the sliaft," is described by Mr. Bateman- as having been
found on a barrow eleven miles E. of Pickering, Yorkshire.
Mouldings of various kinds occur on Danish and German axe-
hammers of the Bronze Age,^ but this form of small axe with a
rounded butt is of rare occurrence. The longitudinal line in relief
which occurs on the sides of some German battle-axes^ has been regarded
as an imitation of tlie mark left on bronze axes by the junction of
the two halves of the mould. The small axe-heads from Germany^
are wider at the butt, and more like Figs. 118 and 120 in outline.
Fig. 129.— Criehie, Aberdeenshire.
The beautiful battle-axe, formed of fine-grained mica schi.st, found
placed on bui-nt bones in a "Druidical" circle at Criehie, near
Inverurie, Aberdeenshire,'' and presented by the Earl of Kintoreto the
National Museum at Edinburgh, has deeply-incised lines round the
margins of the hollow sides at the mouth of the shaft-hole. This
weapon is 4 inches in length, and is considerably sharper at the
broader end than at the other, though the edge is well rounded. For
the loan of Fig. 129 I am indebted to the Society of Antiquaries of
Scotland. In general character this specimen approximates to a some-
what rare Irish form, shortly to be mentioned, of which I possess a
^ "Vestiges of Ants, of Derbyshire," p. 7 ; Cat., No. 36 ; Brigg's "History of
Melbourne," p. 15; Wright's "Celt, Eoman, and Saxon," p. 69.
* "Ten Years' Diggings," p. 227. Cat., p. 25, No. 256.
^ Worsaae, "Nord. Olds.," No. 109; Lindenschmit, "Alt. u. H. V.." vol. i.
Heft iv. Taf. i. o, 6.
* Zeitsch. /. Ethn., vol. xxiv., 1892, p. (178).
* Lindenschmit, op. cit., vol. i. Heft i. Taf. i. 8, 9, and 10.
6 rroc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ii. p. 306; xviii. p. 319; " Cat. Arch. Inst. ilus.
Ed.," p. 19 ; " Horaj Ferales," pi. iii. 20 ; " Sculpt. Stones of Scot.," vol. i. p. xx. ;
AVilfion, "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. pi. iii.
198 PRRFOUATED AXES. [cHAP. VIIT.
specimen. The battle-axe from the barrow at .Selivood, Fig. 140, is also
slightly ornamented by lines on the sides, and that from Skelton
Moors, Fig. 139. is fluted.
Two axe-hammers of granite and greenstone (4J and 5 inches) of
much the same type as Fig. 129, but more elongated, so as in form to
resemble Fig. 13(3. were found near Ardrossan,' Ayrshire.
An unfinished axe-head of the same kind was found at Middleton,-
Stevenston, Ayrshire.
An axe-head of porphyritic greenstone (7^ inches long), from
Stainton Dale, near Scarborough.' is said to resemble in form an
Irish axe-head engraved in the Ulster Journal of Archceology } If so.
the sides through which the hole is bored were hollow, as in Fig. 129.
and there was also a moulding round them. This Irish axe-head is
formed of a kind of pale green hone-stone, and is now in the British
Museum. Instead of incised lines there are raised flanges on each face,
bordering the concave side in which is the shaft-hole. The length is
b\ inches, and the butt-end is half an oval, just flattened at the end.
It was found in the river Bann.
Axe-heads of a much more clumsy character than any of those last
described are of more frequent occurrence in this country. The one I
have selected for illustration as Fig. 130. is rather small of its kind. It
is made of greenstone, the surface of -which has considerably suffered
from weathering, and was found in draining at Walsgrave-upon-
Sowe. near Coventry. It was presented to my collection by the late
Mr. J. S. "Wliittem, F.G.S. The shaft-hole, as usual, tapers inwards
from buth sides ; its surface is more polished than that of the exterior
of the implement. A small portion of the end of the butt is flat, but
this appears due to accident rather than design. I have a rather
longer axe-head, of porphyritic greenstone, which was washed out of
the ground by a brook at Ayside, near Xewby Bridge, "Windermere,
and was given to me by Mr. Harrison, of Manchester. It is consider-
ably rounded in both directions at the butt, the edge is narrow, and
one side, probably the outer, much more rounded than the other. The
edge is carefully ground, but farther up the face, the surface shows
that it has been picked into form. The shaft-hole is much like that of
Fig. 130.
I have another specimen from Plumpton, near Penrith (9i inches),
rounded at the butt, but unsymmetrical, owing to a natural plane of
cleavage interfering with the shape, and, as it were, taking off a slice
of the stone. The shaft-hole is oval, the longer diameter being length-
wise of the blade, and the edge is oblique. The sides are flatter than
those of Fig. 130. In my collection are others from Mawbray and
Inglewood Forest, Cumberland '7^ and 8 inches', and one '7 inches)
from Cader Idris. Merionethshire. Another flO inches) was found at
Llanfairfechan,' Carnarvonshire, another at Llanidloes, Olontgomery-
shire, and a third in Anglesey.' The late Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A.,
had a flatter and longer specimen of this form (10 inches), found at
Winster, Derbyshire. Implements of this character, but often approxi-
> r. S. A. 5., vol. ix. p. 383, pi. xxii. ^ P. S. A. S., vol. xxi. p. 264.
' Arch. Joum., vol. xii. p. 277. * Vol. iii. p. 234.
* Arch. Camb., .5th S., vol. v. p. 170. « Jifoniff. Coll., vol. liv. p. 271.
" Arch. JouDi., vol. xixi. p. 302.
LARGE AND HEAVY.
199
mating in shape to Fig-. 131, have been found in considerable numbers,
though as isolated specimens, in the North. One found in Aberdeen-
shire (8i- inches long), of this class, but with the butt-end slightly
hollowed, and having a well-marked shoulder on each face, as if by
continual reduction by sharpening at the edge, is engraved in the
W'\
Fig. laO.— Wnlsgrave-upon-Sowe. A
Arvhaological Journal} One from Scotland- (10^ inches) was exhibited
by the Marquis of Breadalbane at Edinburgh, in 1856, and one (12
inches) from Alnwick.^ Others have been found at Tillicoiiltry Bridge,^
Clackmannan; Kelton,^Kircudbrightshiro ; in Wigtownshire" ; Silver-
1 Vol. viii. p. 421. - " Cat. Arch. Inst., Mus., Ed." p. 6.
3 Ibid., p. 45. ^ Arch. Scot., vol, iii., App., p. 121.
' Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vo'. vii. p. 478. * Ibid., vol. iv. p. 55
200 PERFORATED AXES. [cHAP. VIII,
mine,' Torphiclien. Linlithgow; and Laurie Street,- Leith; another
from the coast of Scotland is engraved in Skelton's " Mejrick's
Armour,'" but is there regarded as having been brought over by
Danish invaders. Other Scottish^ specimens are numerous. There
are thirteen in the Grierson Museum, Thornhill. Dumfriesshire. One
of the same form as the figure (9f inches) vras found at Dean/ near
Bolton. Lancashire, and others at Hopwood and Saddleworth in the
same county. One of grit (7^ inches) was found at Siddington,' near
Macclesfield. Another (8 inches), found at Kirkoswald. Cumber-
land, is in the museum at Newcastle, together with a similar speci-
men from Haydon Bridge ; and others have been found at Thirstone,
Shilbottle, Barrasford,' and Hipsburn,* Northumberland ; and in
Yorkshire.* One (lOi inches) was found at Ehenside Tarn.'"
Cumberland. Others at Eusland, North Lonsdale, and Troutbeck.
A long list of stone-hammers, &c., found in Cumberland and "West-
morland, has been given by Chancellor R. S. Ferguson, F.S.A.,"
and a similar list has been compiled for Lancashire and Cheshire.'^
They occur also in more southern districts. I have seen one (8
inches) from the neighbourhood of Glastonbury. Another of the
same length was found on Dartmoor, near Burnt Tor. Others (8^
and 9 inches) from Ashbury and Holsworthy, ^^ Devon, are in the
Museum of the Plymouth Institute. One was found at "Withycombe
Ealeigh," Devon. A fine specimen (8 inches long), with, the sides
somewhat hollowed, was found at Tasburgh, Norfolk. Another
of greenstone {oh inches), and rather curved longitudinally, was
found in the same parish. Other specimens from Norfolk are men-
tioned in the Norwich volume of the Archaeological Institute. I have
one of serpentine from Chatteris Fen, which has been broken diagonally,
and had a fresh edge ground quite awaj- from the middle. The Rev.
S. Banks had one of hard sandstone (7J inches), found in Cottenliam
Fen. Its faces are more parallel, so that the edge is more obtuse.
I have seen one, found near Stourton (9i inches), Somersetshire,
straighter at the sides, and having the angles rounded. They occur
in Leicestershire.'^ One (7 inches) from the Cemetery at Leicester,
and one (9i inches) from Barrow-on-Soar, are recorded. An axe of
the same kind, but smaller, found near Imola. has been engraved
by Gastaldi.'^
Perhaps the more common variety, in Cumberland, is that which is*
somewhat flattened at the butt, like Fig. 131, and which is, more
' Ibid., vol. vi. p. 86. = Ibid., vol. iv. p. 379.
3 PI. xlviii. 1.
* See F. S. A. S., vol. xii. p. .568 ; xiv. p. 126 ; xv. p. 266 ; x\-i. p. 76 ; xxiii. p.
205, 210 ; and Smith" .s "Preh. Man in Ap'sliire," 189-5, p. 39.
* Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xv., p. 232.
* Geologist, toI. vii. p. 56. ' Arch. Ael., vol. xii. p. 118.
* "Cat. Arch. Inst. 3Iub., Ed.," p. 38.
' Arch. Journ., vol. x. p. 65. '" Arch., vol. xliv. p. 284.
" Proc. Soc. Ant.. 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 489.
'2 TV. Lane. »nd Chesh. Ant. Soc, vol. v. p. 327. See also xi. p. 171.
" Tr. Dev. Assoc, vol. xxvi. p. 51.
'^ Tr. Dev. Assoc, vol. xxii. p. 208.
>* Itep. Leic Lit. and Phil. Soc, 1887-8, pi. iii.
'* Mem. Peal. Ace. delle Science, ^c, di Torino, Ser. II., vol. xxvi. Ta. i. 1. See
also for Italy, Pull, di Pal. Ital., 1882. p. 1.
A LARGE FORM COMMON IN THE NORTH.
201
properly' speaking, an axe-hammer. This specimen -^as found near
Red Dial, AVigton, Cumberland, and is in my own collection. The
two sides are nearly flat and parallel, and the edge appears to have
been re-sharpened since the axe-head was first formed, as it is ground
away to a shoulder a little below where it is perforated. It is formed
Fig. 131.— Wig:toii.
of an igneous rock. A very symmetrical example, Sh inches long,
with the sides nearly flat, from Aikbrae, Culter, Lanarkshire, is
engraved in the Jourtial of the Archccological Association}
A very similar specimen, 1 1 inches long, found in a turf moss near
Haversham, Westmorland, is engraved in the Arclmologia^' as is
' Vol. xvii. p. JO.
2 Vol. ii. p. 125.
202 PERFORATED AXES. [CHAP. VIII
another from Fumess.^ Another, with the sides more parallel, and
rounder at the end. 8 inches in length, was found near Carlisle up-
wards of a century ago, and forms the subject of an interesting paper
by Bishop Lyttelton.- Two also were found at Scalby,^ near Scar-
borough. In the Greenwell Collection are several implements of this
character, obtained in the North of England. They are 8 to 9 inches
long, and 4 to 5 inches broad. One (10 inches) is from Helton, in
the parish of Chalton, Northumberland ; and another, of nearly the
same size and form as Fig. 131. from Castle Douglas, Kircudbright-
shire ; another of greenstone 6 inches) from Bronipton Carr, York-
shire ; and others, varying in form, from Ousby Moor, Cumberland,
and Heslerton "Wold, Yorkshire. A fine example (8 inches', truncated
at the butt, from Dunse Castle,* Berwickshire, has been figured.
In the British Museum are several axe-heads of this form. One,
9 inches long, of a porphyritic rock, is said to have been foimd in a
barrow on Salisbury Plain. One, 12 inches long, is from Stone, Stafford-
shire, as well as another in which the boring is incomplete, there being
only a conical depression on each side. A third, thinner ''8 inches), was
found near Hull. A fourth, of compact felspathic material, 8J inches
long, is from the parish of Balmerino. Fife. A fifth, of similar material,
8 inches long, is from Llanbrynmair, Montgomeryshire.' It is worked to
a flat oval at the butt-end, but with the angles rounded. The hole, as
usual, tapers inwards from each side, but is not at right angles to the
central line of the axe. I have a fine implement of this class, but larger
and narrower than the figure, and concave on the sides, so that the edge
is wider than the butt. It is of basalt, much eroded on the surface,
and was found at Hardwick, near Bishop's Castle, Shropshire. It is
10 A- inches long, about 4} inches wide at the butt, where it is 3 inches
thick. The shaft-hole is nearly 2 inches in diameter, and almost
parallel ; the weight, Si lbs.
One (9J inches) was found at Grimley,® Worcestershire. Another,
of porphvry, nearly triangular in outline (7 inches), from Necton,
Norfolk, is in the Norwich Museum. The shaft-hole, in this case, is
parallel, but in most, it tapers both ways, contracting from about 1 f
or 2 inches on each face to about 1 1 inches in diameter in the middle.
One of greenstone (6 inches^, found near Ely, has an oval hole.
The late Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., had an axe-hammer of
this class (7^ inches), but still more flattened at one end, found in
Cambridgeshire. At the edge the faces form an angle of 45° to
each other, and there is little doubt that the implement has lost
much of its original length through continual sharpening. He
also kindly lent me for engraving the curious axe-hammer shown
in Fig. 132, and has made use of my wood-cut in his " Grave Mounds
and their Contents." ' It is formed of a very fine-grained, hard, and
slightly micaceous grit, and its weight exceeds 7| lbs. It is some-
what roimded at the hammer-end, which appears to have lost some
splinters by use, though the broken surface has since been partially
re-ground. The blade is slightly curved longitudinally, and both the
> Tol. xxxi. p. 452. - Arch., vol. ii. p. 118.
3 Arch., vol. XXX. p. 459. * F. S. A. S., vol. xiii. p. 334 ; xxii. p. 384.
' " Horae Ferales," pi. iii. 3.
« Allies' "Ants, of Wore.," p. 150, pi. iv. 10. ' P. 111.
FJ.UTED ON THE FACES.
203
outer and inner sides have been hollowed from the point, as far as tlie
perforation. The faces have each four parallel grooves worked in them,
80 that they are, as it were, corrugated into five ribs, extending from
near the edge to ojiposite the centre of the holo. The liollows on the
sides also show two slight ril)s parallel with the faces of tlie blade, the
angles of which are rounded. The shaft-hole tiipers .slightly in both
directions towards the centre, where it is about 1 jj inch in diameter.
204
PERFORATED AXES.
[chap. Vlll.
The grooves seem to have been produced by picking, but have sub-
sequently been made smoother by grinding. It was found at a spot
known as the Sand Hills, in Lord Middleton's Park.' near "Wollaton,
!Notts. The Eev. "NV. C. Lukis. F.S.A.. had a closely similar specimen
(10 inches', foimd at .Tervaux, near Bedale, Yorkshire. It is not,
however, fluted on the faces.
Sc)me of these iDstrum<;-nts are so heavy that they can hardly have
been wielded in the ordinary manner as axes, though they may have
served for splitting wood, either by direct blows or by being used as
Fig. 13a.— Buckthorj*.
wedges. Bishop Lyttelton thought they might have been battle-axes,
but Pegge- pointed out that they were too heavy for such a purpose
or for use as missiles, and came to the conclusion "that these per-
forated stones were not originally applied to anj- warlike purpose, but
rather to some domestic service, either as a hammer or beetle for
common use." Professor Nils son, ^ at a later date, has arrived at the
same conclusion, and considers them most suitable for being held in
the left hand by a short handle, and driven rate wood by blows from a
1 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 319.
- Arch., vol. ii. \>. 127.
' " fcjtoiie Age," p. 73.
hOKlNO, THE LAST PllOCESS.
205
club held in the right hand. He has suggested for them the name of
"handled wedges." In some parts of France I have seen extremely
heavy iron axes, much resembling these stone implements in fonn,
used for splitting wood. It seems possible that in old times these
heavy stone implements may also have been employed in agriculture.
Axes of this character, usually formed of greenstone, are very com-
mon in Denmark and Northern Germany. They are much rarer in
France, partly, no doubt, in consequence of the less abundance of
suitable material. They also occur in Russia' and in Italy.-
A snuili specimen of the same form but rather more square at the
butt than Fig. 1131, made of dark serpentine, and only 3| inches long,
was found at Tanagra, in Boeotia, and was formerly in the collection of
Dr. G. Finlay,'' of Athens.
Some of the forms last described, having square butt-ends, might,
perhaps, with greater propriety, have been included in the fourth
class into which I have proposed to divide these instruments, viz.,
axe-hammers, sharpened at one end and more or less hammer-
like at the other, and with the shaft-hole usually about the centre.
One of the simplest, and at the same time the rarest varieties of this
class, is wliere an implement of the form of an ordinary celt, like Fig.
69, has been bored through in
the same direction as the edge.
Fig. 133 represents such a
specimen, in the collection of
Messrs. Mortimer, of Driiheld.
It was foimd at Buckthorpe,
Yorkshire, and is formed of
close-grained greenstone. The
butt-end is circular and flat,
and the shaft-hole, which is
oval, tapers considerably both
ways.
An axe-hammer of diorite,
of nearly similar form, found
at Groningen, in the Nether-
lands, is in the museum at
Ley den.
Another simple form is that
exhibited in Fig. 134, taken
from a specimen in greenstone
found at Aldro', near Malton,
Yorkshire, and in the po.^ses-
sion of Mr. Hartley, of !Malton.
Its princijial interest consists
in its having been left in the
unfinished state, previous to its
perforation. We thus learn that the same practice of working the
axe-heads into shape before proceeding to bore the shaft-hole, pre-
' L'Atit/i., vol. ^d., l-89;3, p. 10. - " Abita/. lac. di Fimon," 1S70, p. 150, pi. .xiv.
•' " Cat. of Objects found in Greece, ' tig. 3.
Fig. 131.— Aldro'.
206
PERFORATED AXES.
[chap. VIII.
vailed here as in Denmark. lu that country numerous specimens have
been found, finished in all respects except the boring, and in many
instances this has been commenced though not completed. It would
appear from this circumstance that the process of boring was one which
required a considerable amount of time, but that it was most satisfac-
tordy performed after the instrument had been brought into shape ;
the position of the hole being adjusted to the form of the implement,
and not the latter to the hole. In the extensive Greenwell Collec-
tion is the cutting end of an axe which has been broken half-way
across the hole, which, though commenced on both faces, was never
finished. The conical, cup-shaped depressions produced by the boring
instrument, extend to some depth
in the stone, but are still J inch
from meeting. The fragment is
o|^ inches long, and was found at
.Sprouston, near Kelso.
In the same collection is a
small imfinished axe -head of
greenstone, 4 inches long, in
which the hole has not been com-
menced. It was found at Cox-
wold, in the North Hiding of
Yorkshire.
An unpierced axe - head of
greenstone, 4 inches long, in
form much like Fig. 136, but
with the hollowed face shorter,
was found in a grave in Stronsay,
one of the Orkney islands, and is
now in the National Museum
at Edinburgh. There are slight
recesses on each face, showing
the spots at which the perforation
was to have been commenced.
A perforated axe of serpentine,
of the same chariicter as Fig. 134,
but wider at the butt, was found
in the Thames, and is now in the
British Museum. It is 4 inches long and has the peculiarity of being
much thicker at the cutting end than at the butt ; the two sides taper-
ing from 1^ inch at the edge to f inch at the butt.
A similar feature is to be observed in another axe of hornblende
schist (5f inches), and of rather more elongated form tlian Fig. 134,
foimd at Cawton, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, and in the Green-
well Collection.
A partially-finished axe-head, with one side and about two-thirds of
the width of the faces worked into form, is engraved in the " Horse
Ferales." ^ It is not a British specimen, but its place of finding is un-
known. Perforated hammers, in form much like Fig. 134 and 135,
occurred among the early remains at Troy.-
A rather more elaborate form, having the two sides curved longi-
1 ri. iii. 24.
Schliemaim's " Troy," 1875, p. 94. Atlas, pi. ixii. 610.
axe-iiammp:rs hollowed on the sides.
207
tudinally inwards, and the edge broader than the hammer-end, is
shown in Fig. 135. The cutting edge is carefully removed, so that it
was probably a battle-axe. The original, which is of porjihyritic
greenstone, was discovered by Canon Greenwell, in a barrow at Cow-
lam,' near Weaverthorpe, Yorkshire. It lay in front of the face of a
contracted skeleton, the edge towards the face, and the remains of
the wooden handle still grasped by the right hand. Connected with
this grave was that of a woman with two bronze ear-rings at her head.
iig. 13t>.— Seglull. fj
Another of much the same fonn, but of coarser work and heavier,
was found near Pickering, and is preserved in the Museum at Scar-
borough.
I have seen a small axe of similar type, but with the edge almost
semicircular, and the hole nearer the butt, found at Felixstowe, Suffolk.
It is of quartzite, 4i inches long. The hole, though 1^- inch in diameter
1 Froc. Sjc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iv. p. GL " Brit. Barrows," p. 222.
208
PERFORATED AXES.
[chap. VI II.
at the sides, diminislies to ^ an inch in the centi-e. In this respect it
resembles some of the hammer-stones shortly to be described.
Fig. 136 presents a rather more elaborate form, which is, however,
partly due to that of the tlat oval quartzite pebble from which this
axe-hammer was made. The hammer- end seems to preserve the
form of the pebble almost intact ; it is, however, slightly flattened at
the extremity. The original is preserved in the Greenwell Collection,
and was found in a cist at Seghill,^ near Newcastle, in 1866. The
bones, by which it was no doubt originally accompanied, had entirely
gone to decay. A Scotch example, made of basalt, the sides of
which are much more concave, is shown in Fig. 136a. kindly lent by
Fig. 136a.— Wick, Caithness. i
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. It was found at Wick,-
Caithness.
It was an axe-head somewhat of the character of Fig. 136, but
sharper at the hammer- end, that was found in an urn, near Broughton
in Craven, in 1675, and with it a small bronze dagger (with a tang
and single rivet hole) and a hone. It is described and figured by
Thoresby.' Hearne* regarded it as Danish. It is described as of
speckled marble polished, 6 inches long and 3i inches broad, with the
edge at one end blunted by use. A nearly similar form 4-i inches)
has occurred in Shetland.^ What appears to be an unbored axe of
this kind is in the Powysland Museum.*
' Froc. Soc. Anl., 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 60. "Brit. Barrows," p. 224.
- Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xxix., 189.5, p. 66.
•' Thoresby's Cat. in TVTiitaker's ed. of " Ducatus Leod.," p. 114.
' Leland's "Coll.," vol. iv. vi.
^ P. S. A. S., vol. xxvii., 1893, p. 56. « Montg. Coll., vol. xiv. p. 276.
AXE-HAMMERS HOLLOWED ON THE SIDES.
20y
A still greater elaboration of form is exhibited in Fig. 137, from an
implement found at Kirklington, Yorkshire, and in the Greenwell
Collection. It is of basalt, worked to a fiat oval at the hammer-
end, and to a curved cutting edge at the other. The two sides are
rig. 137.— Kirklington.
ground concave, and the shaft-hole is nearly parallel. This axe-
hammer is of larger size than usual when of this form, being 8
inches in length.
Nearly similar Weapons have 1 een frequently found in barrows.
p
210
PERFORATED AXES.
[chap. VI II.
One such, of greenstone, about 4 inches long, was found by the late
Mr. Charles Warne, F.S.A., in a barrow at Winterbourn Steepleton,
near Dorchester, associated with burnt bones. He has given a tigure"^
of it, which, by his kindness, I here repi'oduce, as Fig. 138. Another
(4 inches) was found in a barrow at Trevelgue,- Cornwall, in 1872.
An extremely similar specimen, found near Claughton Hall, Gar-
stang, Lancashire, has been hgured.' It is said to have been found,
iin cutting tkrough a tumulus in 1822, in a wooden case, together with
an iron axe, spear-head, sword, and hammer. There must, however,
be an error in this account ; and as an urn, containing burnt bones,
was found in the same tumulus with the Saxon or Danish interment,
it seems probable that the objects belonging to different burials,
primary and secondary in the barrow, became mixed during the twenty-
seven years that elapsed between their discovery and the communica-
tion to the Archpeological Institute. Another weapon of much the
same shape, but 4f inches long, and formed of dark greenstone, is in
the British Museum. It was found in the Tliames, at London. The
Fig. 138. — "Winterboum Steepleton. J
process by which these hollow sides appear to have been ground will
be described at page 266.
Sir E. Colt Hoare has engraved two axe-hammers of this form, but
sUghtly varj'ing in size and details, from barrows in the Ashton Valley.*
In both cases the}' accompanied interments of burnt bones, in one
instance placed beneath an inverted urn ; in the other there was no urn,
but an arrow-head of bone la}' with the axe.
An axe (5:^ inches), of nearly the same form, but having a small
oval projection on each face opposite the shaft-hole, was found in the
bed of the Severn, at Eibbesford, Worcestershire, and is now in the
Museum of the Society of Antiquaries. It has been somewhat incor-
rectly figured by AUies,^ and rather better by AVright.'^
An axe-head (5 vo inches), of the same character as Fig. 138, but
in outline more nearly resembling Fig. 137, found near Stanwick,
Yorkshire, is in the British Museum." The cutting end of such a
weapon was dredged with gi-avel from the Trent, at Beeston, near
Nottingham, in 1862.
63.
- Arch., vol. xliv. p. 427.
" Celtic Tumuli of Dorset," p.
Arch. Journ., vol. \i. p. 74.
" South Wilts," Tumuli, pi. viii. " Cat. Devizes Mus.," Nos. lo, 17.
"Ants, of Worcestershire," pi. iv. 5, p. 146.
" Celt, Roman, and Saxou," p. 70.
" Horse Ferales," j)!. iii. 15.
AXE-HAMMEKS ORNAMENTED OX THE FACES.
211
Another axe-banimer of greenstone, with projections on the faces
opposite the centre of the hole, and with a hollow fluting near each
margin, that is carried round
on the sides below the holes,
is shown in Fig. 139. The
original was found by the
Eev. J. C. Atkinson, who
kindly lent it me for cii-
graA'ing. It lay in an urn
about 17 inches high, con-
taining burnt bones and some
fragments of burnt tiint, in a
large barrow on the Skelton
Moors, Yorkshire. In the
same barrow were found
eight other urns, all contain-
ing secondary interments.
In another barrow, on Wes-
terdale floors. Mr. Atkinson
found a second axe-hammer
of nearly the same size and
form, but more hammer- like
at the end. This also has
the channels on the faces. It
is of fine - grained granite,
and lay in an urn with burnt
bones, a small "incense-
Fig. 139.— Skelton iloors.
cup," and a sort of long bone bead, having a sjiiral pattern upon it
and a ti-ansverse orifice into the perforation, about
the centre. In this case, also, the interment wa-
not that over which the barrow was originally ' -- ,
raised. In another barrow, on Danby North
Moors, also opened by Mr. Atkinson, a rather
larger axe-hammer of much the same outline, lay
with the hole in a vertical j^osition, about 15
inches above a deposit of burnt bones. It is of
basalt much decaj'ed. An axe-hammer from
Inveraray,' Argyllshire (oj inches), in outline
rather like Fig. 143, has small projections on each
face opposite to the centre of the shaft-hole.
A longer and more slender form has also occa-
sionally been found in tumuli. Sir R. Colt Hoare
has given an engraving of a beautiful specimen
from the Selwood Barrow,- near Stourton, which is
here reproduced as Fig. 140. The axe is of syenite,
5^ inches long, and lay in a cist, in company with
burnt bones and a small bronze dagger, which in
the description is erroneously termed a lance-head.
Parallel with each side, there ajipears to be u
small groove worked on the face of the weapon.
A very pretty example of the same form accom-
' P.-S'..-i.S.,vol.xxm.p.8. 2" South Wilts" Tumuli, pi. i. "Cat.DevizesMus.,"No.283.
p 2
Fig. 140.— Sel wood Karro^r.
212
PERFORATED AXES.
[chap. VIII.
paniecl an interment in a barrow at Snowshill,' Gloucestersbire. With.
it were associated two bronze daggers and a bronze pin.
^In the Christy Collection is a similar but larger specimen, 7 inches
long, formed of dark greenstone. It also has the grooves along the
margin of the faces, and has an oval flat face about 1 inch by | inch
at the liammer-end. The hole, which is 1^ inch full in diameter at
one side, contracts rather suddenly to 1 inch at the other. This weapon
wa«; i'ormerly in the Leverian Museum, and is said to have been found
in a barrow near Stonehenge, which, from its similarity to Sir R. C.
Hoare's specimen, there seems no reason to doubt.
An axe-hammer of clay-stone porphyry, 4f inches long, and in form the
Fij?. 140a. — Longniddry.
same as those last described — except that there appears to be more of
a shoulder at the hammer-end — was found in a barrow at Winwick,'^
near Warrington, Lancashire. It was broken clean across the hole,
and had been buried in an urn with burnt bones. With them was
also a bronze dagger with a tang, and one rivet hole to secure it in
the handle.
An axe-hammer of much the same proportions, but more sijuare at
the hammer-end, was discovered in a dolmen near Carnac,' in Brittany.
A beautifvd. axe of the same character with ornamental grooves and
1 Arch., vol. lii. p. 70.
^ Arehceol. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 158. Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xvi. p. 295,
pi. XXV. 8; Trans. Hist. Soc. Lane, and Chesh., vol. xii. p. 189.
^ " Guide des Touristes, &c., dans le Morbihan," 1864, p. 43.
FREQUENTLY FOUNJ) IN BARROWS.
213
mouldings is in the Museum at Edinburgh, and is here, by favour of
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, shown as Fig. 140a. The
original is of diorite, and was dug up in IHOO at Longniddry , ' East
Lothian.
Another variety of form is shown in Fig. 141, reduced from Sir R.
Colt Tloare's great work.- In this case the hammer-
end w(ndd appear to be lozenge-shaped, as there is
a central ridge shown on the face. It was found
in the Upton Level barrow, on the breast of the
larger skeleton, near the feet of which the flint
celts, polished and unpolished, and various other
objects in bone and stone, were found, as previously
mentioned.'' The engraving of this weapon in the
Archeeologia differs considerably from that given by
Sir R. V. Hoare.
In Fig. 142 is shown another form, in which the
hammer-end, though Hat in one direction, forms a
semicircular sweep, answering in form to the cutting
edge at the other end. The two faces are orna-
mented with a slight groove, extending across them
parallel to the centre of the shaft -hole. The
material of which this axe - hammer is made
appears to be serpentine. It was found in the
Thames, at London, and is in the British Museum.
A "hammer" from a barrow at Wilsford,^ Wilts,
which was associated with a flat bronze celt and ^^' ' v^'^ '^ ■
other articles of bronze, was of the same type as Fig. 142, but without
the grooves.
The very neatly formed instrument represented in Fig. 143, seems to
occupy an intermediate place between a battle-axe and a mace or
fighting hammer. It is rounded in both directions at the butt-end^
i'ig. 1-12.— Thames, Loudon.
but instead of having a sharp edge at the other end it is brought to a
somewhat rounded point. The inner side is concave, though hardly
to the extent shown by the dotted line in the cut. The shaft-hole is
nearly parallel, though somewhat expanding at each end. The
> P. S. A. S., vol. xxviii. p. 241.
* " South Wilts," Tumuli, pi. v. ; " Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. 8 ; Jrch., vol. xv.
pi. V. 1. •' Supra, p. 83.
* Hoare's " South Wilts," p. 209 ; Arch., vol.xliii. p. 411 ; A. C. Smith's " Ants,
of North Wilts," p. 19.
214
PERFORATED AXES.
[chap. VI 11.
.t
material is greenstone. This weapon was found in tlie middle of a
barrow, or rather caim, formed of stones, i]i the parish of Pelynt,
Cornwall.' It lay among a considerable quantity of black ashes,
which had evidently been burnt on the natural surface of the ground
at the spot. There was no urn, nor any other work of art in com-
pany with it. In another barrow, in the same field, was a bronze
dagger with two rivets. I have never seen any other stone hammer of
this form found in Britain, nor can I call to mind any such in con-
tinental museums. The nearest approach to it is to be observed in some
of the Scandinavian weapons, in which the outer side is much more
rounded than the inner, but in
these there is usually an axe-like
edge, though very narrow. A
shuttle-.-Bhaped weapon of por-
phyritic stone, found in Ui)per
Egypt,- is not unlike it, but is
equally pointed at both ends.
The perforation narrows from
f inch to i. The concave side of
the Pelynt weapon is so much
like that of some of the battle-
axes, such as Fig. 137, as to
suggest the idea that originally
it may have been of this form,
but having in some manner been
damaged, it has been re- worked
into its present exceptional shape.
It will have been observed that
instruments, such as most of
those engraved, have accom-
panied interments both by cre-
mation and inhumation, and
have, in some cases, been found
in association with small daggers,
celts, and pins or awls of bronze.
Other instances may be adduced
from the writings of the late Mr.
T. Bateman, though sometimes the exact form of the weapons is not
recorded. In the Parcelly Hay Barrow,^ near Hartingtun, an axe-
head of granite, with a hole for the shaft, and a bronze dagger, with
three rivets for fastening the handle, had been buried with a con-
tracted body, above the covering stones of the primary interment.*
Another, of basalt, apparently like Fig. 126, broken in the middle,
is said to have lain between two skeletons at fvdl length, placed side
by side in a barrow at Kens Low Farm.* On the breast of one lay a
circular brooch of copper or bronze. "With the axe was a polished
porphyry-slate pebble, the ends of which were ground flat.
1 27th Report Roy. Inst, of Cornw., 1846, p. 35. I am indebted to the Secretaries
of this Institution for permission to engrave the specimen. It is also figured in
Borlase's " Naenia Comubi;e," p. 191.
* Proc. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. xiii. p. 347 ; xxvi. p. 398.
^ "Ten Years' Digginars," p. 24. * " Crania Brit.," vol. ii. xviii. pi. 2.
* " Vest. Ant. Derb.,"^p. 29. Smith, " Coll. Ant.," vol. i. pi. xx. 3.
Fig. 143.— Pelynt, Cornwall.
BUT LITTLE T^SED BY MODERN SAVAGES. 215
Looking at the whole series, it seems probable that they were
intended to serve more than one purpose, and that while the adze-
like instruments may have been tools either for agriculture or for
carpentry, and the large heavy axe-hammers also served some
analogous purposes, the smaller class of instruments, whether shar-
pened at both ends or at one only, may with some degree of cer-
tainty be regarded as weapons. That the perforated form of axe
was of later invention than the solid stone hatchet is almost self-
evident ; and that many of the battle-axe class belong to a period
when bronze was coming into use is well established. That all
instruments of this form belong to so late a period there is no
evidence to prove ; but in other countries where perforated axes
are common, as in Scandinavia and Switzerland, those who have
most carefully studied the antiquities, find reason for assigning
a considerable number to a period when the use of bronze was
unknown. On the other hand, it is possible that in some instances
the large heavy axe-hammer may have remained in use even in
the days when bronze and iron were well known. Sir W.
Wilde mentions one in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy,
10| inches long, which is said to have been recently in use.
Canon Greenwell had another which was used for felling pigs
in Yorkshire. Such, however, may be but instances of adapt-
ing ancient implements, accidentally met with, to modern uses.
I have already, in the description of the various figures, men-
tioned when analogous forms were found in other parts of Wes-
tern Europe, so that it is needless again to cite instances of dis-
coveries on the Continent. I may, however, notice a curious
series from Northern Russia and Finland.^ They are for the
most part pointed at one end, the other being sometimes carved
to represent the head of an animal. Some are pointed at each
end. In several there is a projection on both sides of the shaft-
hole, designed to add strength to a weak part, but at the same time
made ornamental. The animal's head occurs also on bronze axes.
Out of Europe this class of perforated instruments is almost
unknown.
Turning to modern savages, the comparative absence of per-
forated axes is striking. In North America, it is true that some
specimens occur, but the material is usually too soft for cutting
purposes, and the haft-holes are so small that the handles would
1 Mem. Soc. R. des Ant. du Nord, 1872-77, p. 107. Aarbiig. fur Oldk., 1872, d.
309-342. Cong. preh. Stockholm, 1874, p. 290. Aspelin, "Ant. du Nord. Finno-
Ougrien," No. 71-76.
216 PERFORATED AXES. [(;HA1', VUl.
be liable to break. It has therefore been iuferred that they
were probably used as weapons of parade. They are, however,
occasionally formed of quartz.^ Schoolcraft,^ moreover, regards
the semilunar perforated maces as actual weapons of war. One
of them, pointed at each end, he describes as being 8 inches long,
and weighing half a pound. The more hatchet-like forms he
considers to be tomahawks. In some instances^ the hole does not
extend through the blade.
In Central America, Southern Africa, and New Zealand, where
the art of drilling holes through stone is, or was, well known,
perforated axes appear to be absent. I have, however, heard of
an instrument of the kind having been discovered in New Zealand,
but have not seen either the original or a sketch. Some per-
forated hoe-like implements have been found in Mexico.
The nearest approach to such instruments is perhaps afforded
by the sharp-rimmed perforated discs of stone, mounted on shafts
so as to present an edge all round, which are in use, apparently
as weapons, in the Southern part of New Guinea, and
Torres Straits. Some perforated sharp-rimmed discs of flint and
serpentine, have been found in France.'* They are probably
heads of war-maces. In New Caledonia,^ flat discs of jade, ground
to a sharp edge all round, are mounted as axes, being let into a
notch at the end of the haft and secured by a lashing that passes
through two small holes in the edge of the blade.
The cause of this scarcity of perforated weapons appears to be,
that though it might involve rather more trouble and skill to
attach a solid hatchet to its shaft, yet this was more than com-
pensated by the smaller amount of labour involved in making
that kind of blade, than in fashioning and boring the jDerforated
kind. These latter, moreover, would be more liable to break in
use. Looking at our own stone axes from this point of view, it
seems that with the very large implements the shaft-hole became
almost a necessity ; while with those used for warlike purposes,
where the contingencies of wear and breakage were but small, it
seems probable that the possession of a weapon, on the production
of which a more than ordinary amount of labour had been
bestowed, was regarded as a mark of distinction, as is the case
among some savages of the present day.
' " Indian Tribes," vol. iv. p. 174. ' Op. cit., vol. i. p. 92 ; vol. ii. pi. 48.
» Op. cif., vol. iv. p. 167. * "Mua. preh.," No. 449. Mat., vol. xvii. p. 284.
^ Ratzel, " Volkerk.," vol. ii. p. 247. 3Iitth. d. Aitth. Qes. in U'ien,vo]. ix. (1880)
pi. ii.
217
CHAPTER IX.
VKKPORATEl) AND GROOVED HAMMERS.
Closely allied to the axe-haramers, so closely indeed that the
forms seem to merge in each otiior, arc the perforated hammer-
heads of stone, which are found of various shapes, and are formed
of several different kinds of rocks. In many instances, the whole of
the external surface has been carefully fashioned and ground into
shape, hut it is at least as commonly the case that a symmetrical
oval pebble has been selected for tlie hammer-head, and has been
tlius used without any labour being bestowed upon if, beyond
tliat necessary for boring the shaft-hole. By some antiquaries,
these perforated pebbles have been regarded as weights, for sink-
ing nets, or for some such purpose ; but in most cases this is, I
think, an erroneous view — firstlj^ because the majority of these
implements show traces, at their extremities, of having been used
as hammers; and, secondly, because if wanted as weights, there
can be no doubt that the softer kinds of stone, easily susceptible
of being pierced, would be selected ; whereas these perforated
pebbles are almost invariably of quartzite or some equally hard
and tough material.
There are some instances, indeed, in which the perforation
would appear to be almost too small for a shaft of sufficient
strength to wield the hammer, if such it were ; but even in such
cases, where hard silicious pebbles have been used, they must, in all
probability, have been intended for other purposes than for weights.
I am inclined to think that some means of httfting, not now in
use, may have been adopted in such cases, and that possibly the
handles may have been formed of twisted hide or sinews, passed
through the hole in a wet stale, secured by knots on either side,
and then allowed to harden by drying. Such hafts would be more
elastic and tough than any of the same size in wood ; but it must
be confessed that there is no evidence of their having been ac-
tually employed, though there is of the stones ha\'ing been in use
218 PERFOKATED AND GROOVEU HAMMERS. [CHAP. IX.
as tammers. I have an Irish specimen, 3| inches long, with the
perforation tapering from about If inch diameter on either side,
to less than ^ an inch in the middle, and yet each end o£ the
stone is worn away by use, to the extent of j inch below the ori-
ginal oval contour. It is possible that these deep cavities may
have been intended to assist in keeping a firm hold of the stone
when used in the hand as a hammer without any shaft, in the
same manner as did the shallow indentations, which occasionally
occur on the faces of pebbles which thus served ; but this is hardly
probable when the cavities meet in the centre to form a hole exactly
like the ordinary shaft-holes, except in its disproportionately
small size. It is worthy of notice, that even in axe-hammers
the shaft-hole appears to be sometimes absurdly small for the
size of the implement. I have a Danish specimen of greenstone,
carefully finished, G| inches long, and weighing 1 lb. 15 ozs.
avoirdupois, and yet the shaft-hole is only | inch in diameter on
either side, and but ^ an inch in the centre. The axe from Felix-
stowe, already mentioned, presents the same peculiarity'.
It has been suggested that one of the methods of hafting these
implements with the double bell-mouthed perforations, was by
placing them over a branch of a tree, and leaving them there until
secured in their position by the natural growth of the wood, the
branch being then cut off at the proper places, and serving as a
handle. I have, however, found by experience that even with a
fast-growing tree, such a process requires two or three years at
the least, and that when removed, the shrinkage of the branch in
drying, leaves the hammer-head loose on its haft. Such a system
of hafting would, moreover, imply a fixity of residence on the
part of the savage owners of the tools, which appears hardly com-
patible with the stage of civilization to which such instruments
are probably to be referred.
At the same time, it must be rememlered that the Caribs of
Guadaloupe and the Hurons are, as has been mentioned at
page I'jo, credited with an analogous system of hafting imper-
forate hatchets.
It has also been suggested that some of these pierced stones
were offensive weapons, having been attached by a thong of leather
to a handle,^ and used as " flail-stones," after the manner of the
" morning-stars " of the middle ages. Such a method of mount-
ing, though possible, appears to me by no means probable in the
' Arch. A$$oc. Journ., vol. xx. p. 102.
OF PECULIAR FORMS.
219
Fig. 144.— Balmaclellan.
TA
majority of cases, thougli among the Eskimos^ a weapon has
been in use, consisting of a stone
ball with a drilled hole, through
which a strip of raw hide is
passed to serve as a handle.
'L'iie first specimen that I have
selected i or illustration, Fig. 144,
might, with almost equal pro-
priety, have beeu placed among
the perforated axes, though it
has three blunt edges instead of
one or two. It was found at
Balmaclellan, in New Galloway,
and is now in the National
Museum at Edinburgh. It is of
very peculiar triangular form, 1 .V
inches in thickness,
and with a perforation
expanding from an
inch in diameter in the
centre, to 1^ inches on
each side. An en-
graving of it is given
in the Proceedings of the
Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland.'- This I
have here reproduced
on a larger scale, so as
to correspond in its
in-oportious with the
other woodcuts.
A curious hammer,
of brown haematite,
not quite so equilateral
as the Scotch speci-
men, and much thicker
in proportion, found in
Alabama, has been en-
graved by Schoolcraft.^
The holes, from each
side, do not meet in
the middle.
The specimen shown
in Fig. 145 was found
in the Thames, at Lon-
don, and is now in the
British Museum. In
form it is curiously like
m
w:
I-
Fig. 145. — Thames, London
1 Stevens, " Flint Chips," p. 499.
Vol. vii. p. 385.
^ " Indian Tribes," vol. iv. p. 1*>8.
220
PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS.
[chap.
IX.
a metallic hammer, svrelling out around the shaft-hole, and tapering^
doN\Ti to a round flat face at eiu-h extremity. So far as I know, it is.
unique of its kind in this country. It is more probably the head of a
war mace than that of an ordinary hammer. A somewhat similar
hammer, of porphyry, is in the museum of the Deutsche Gesellschaft
at Ijeipzig. It is, however, shorter in its proportions.
A stone hammer found at Claycrop, Kirkiuner,' AVigtownshire, is.
?
Fig. 145a. — Kiikinnc r.
by the courtesy of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, shown iu
Fig. 145a. In form, it is very like Fig. 136a from Wick, but blunter
at the edge.
The instrument shown in Fig. 146 is perhaps more like a blunted
axe-hammer than a simple hammer. It has at one end a much-
rounded j)oint, and at the other is nearly straight across, though
rounded in the other direction. It would appear to be' a weapon
' P. S. A. S., vol. xvi. p. 57.
SOME OF THKM WEAI'ONS, NOT TOOLS.
221
rather than a tocjl. It is formed of greenstone, and was found near
Scarborough, being now in the museum at the Leeds Philosophical
Hall. A similar form has been found in Italy.'
A beautifull}' finished hammer-head, cross-paned at both ends, and
with a parallel polished shaft-hole, is shown in Fig. 147. It is of
pale mottled green gneissose rock, with veins of transparent pale
green, like jade, and was found in a barrow in Shetland. It is
preserved in the National Museum at Edinburgh, where is also
another of the same form, but broader and much more weathered,
which was found at Scarpiegarth,- also in Shetland. Mr. J. W.
Cursiter has another of these ruder examples (3^ inches) from Firth.
He has also a very highly polished specimen made of serpentine
(4 inches) subquadrate in section, and with hemispherical ends, from
x;SSSi3Sra»w5«
Fis. HG. — Scarborough.
Fig. 147.— Shetland
Lingrow, Orkney. The perforation is conical, being 1 inch in diameter
on one face and only ^ inch on the other. A remarkably elegant
instrument of this kind, formed of a quartzose metamorphie rock,
striped green and white, and evidently selected for its beauty, is in
the well-known Greenwell Collection. It was found in Caithness. It
is polished all over, and 4| inclies long, of oval section, with the ends
slightly rounded. The shaft-hole is parallel, ^ inch in diameter, and
about f inch nearer to one end than to the other. In the same collec-
tion is another specimen, rather more elongated in form, and of more
ordinary material, found near Harome, in Yorkshire, in a district
where a number of stone implements of rare types have been dis-
covered. It is of clay-slate, 5:^ inches long, and of oval section. The
shaft-hole tapers from 1 inch at the faces to -^^^ inch in the centre.
A shorter hammer, of gneiss, 3f inches long, and of similar section,
' Bellucci, "Mat. Paletn. dell' Umhria," Tav. xi. fig. 3.
^ Froc. Soc. Aiit. ScoL, vol. vi. p. 327.
-222
PERFOR.^TED AND GROOA'ED HAMMERS. [cHAP IX.
with a parallel shaft-hole f inch in diameter, was foixnd near Blair-
Drummond. and is now in tlie National Museum at Edinburgh. It
has a thin rounded edge at one end, and is obtuse at the other, as if
it had been broken and subsequently rounded over. The form occasion-
ally occurs in the South of England. In the British Museum is a
beautiful specimen (4^ inches) from Twickenliam, and another of
more ordinary stone from the Thames, which was formerly in the
Eoots CoUectiou.
Another polished hammer (of grey granite) with curved sides, and
narrower at one end than the other, was found in a cairn in Caithness,'
in company with a Hint flake ground at the edge, some arrow-heads,
and scrapers. By permission of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,
Fi^. 148.— Caithness,
Fig. 149.— Leeds.
it is shown in Fig. 148. A somewhat similar form of hammer has been
obtained in Denmark. -
The hammer-head shown in Fig. 149 resembles the Shetland imple-
ments in character, though, besides being far less highly finished, it is
shorter and broader, and shows more wear at the end. The hole, also,
is not parallel, but tapers from both faces. It is stated to have been
found 12 feet deep in gravel, while sinking for foundations for the
works of the Xorth-Eastem Eailway in NeviUe Street, Leeds. It is
formed of greenstone, and has aU the appearance of having been made
out of a portion of a celt.
I have a somewhat smaller hammer-head, of much the same form,
from Eeach Fen. Cambridge, which also seems to have been made from
a fragment of a broken celt. I have seen one of the same kind,
found near BrLvham. in Devonshire.
I have another specimen, from Orwell, "Wimpole, Cambs.. in which
a portion of an implement of larger size has also been utilized for
1 Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii p. 499.
Ant. Tidsk., 1853-60, p. 277.
CONICAL, ROUNDED AT EACH END.
223
a fresh purpose. In this case the sharper end of a largo axe-head of
stone, probably much like Fig. 131, having been broken off, the
wedge-shaped fragment, which is about 3 inches long and 2 inches
broad, has been bored through in a direction at right angles to the
edge, and probably to the original shaft-hole, and a somewhat adze-
liko hammer-head has been the result, what was formerly the edge
of the axe being rounded and battered.
Fragments of celts which, when the edge was lost, subsequently
served as hammers, but witliout any perforation, have not unfrequently
been found, both h(?re iind on the Continent. The Eskimo hammer,
already mentioned, has much the same appearance and character as if
it had been made from a portion of a jade celt.
The form of liammer shown in Fig. 150, may be described as a
frustum of a cone with convex ends. The
specimen here figured is of quartzite, and
was found near Eockland, Norfolk. It is
preserved in the Norwich Museum. The
hole, as usual with this type, is nearly
parallel. The lower half of a similar ham-
mer, but of hint, 2 inches in diameter, and
showing one-half of the shaft-hole, which is
I inch in diameter, is in the British Museum.
It came from Grundisburgh, Suffolk.
A more conical specimen, tapering from
2§- inches to 1^- inches in diameter, and
3 inches long, with a shaft-hole | inch in
diameter within f inch of the top, is in the
Greenwell Collection. It is of basalt, and
was found at Twisel, in the parish of Norham,
Northumberland.
Some rather larger and more cylindrical
instruments of analogous form have been
obtained in Yorkshire. One such, about 4
inches long, and with a small parallel shaft-
hole about 5 inch in diameter, was found,
with an urn in a barrow at Weapon Ness,
and is in the museum at Scarborough. With
it was a flint spear-liead or javelin-head. It
is described as rather kidney-shaped in the
Archaiohgia} I have the half of another, made of compact sandstone,
and found on the Yorkshire AVolds.
The same form occurs in Ireland, but the sides curve inwards and
the section is somewhat oval. Sir W. "Wilde - describes two such of
polished gneiss, and a third is engraved in Shirley's "Account of
Farney." ' Sir William suggests that such implements were, in all
probability, used in metal working, especially in the manufacture of
gold and silver. Certainly, in most cases, they can hardly have been
destined for any ordinary purposes of savage life, as the labour
involved in boring such shaft-holes in quartzite, and especially in
Fig. 150.— Rockland
1 Vol. XXX. p. 461. - " Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 80.
' P. 94. See also Arch. Journ., vol. iii. p. 94; and Worsaae's " Prim.' Ants
Den.," p. 15.
of
224
PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS. [CHAP. IX.
flint, must have been immense. It seems quite as probable that
these were weapons as tools, and, in that case, we can understand an
amount of time and care being bestowed on their preparation such as
in modern days we find savages so often lavishing on their warlike
accoutrements. Another argument in favour of these being weapons,
may be derived from the beauty of the material of which they are
sometimes composed. That from Farney is of a light green colour and
nicely polished, and one in m}' own collection, found near Tullamore,
King's County, is formed of a piece of black and white gneissose
rock, which must have been selected for its beauty. One in the British
Museum from Lough Gur is of black hornblende.
The type with the oval section is not, however, confined to Ireland.
In the Greenwell Collection is a beautiful hammer of this class,
which is represented in Fig. 151. It is made of a veined quartzose
gneiss, and was found on Heslerton "Wold. York-
shire. As wOI be seen, it is somewhat oval in
section. The sides are straight, but the faces from
which the hole is bored are .somewhat hollow.
I have a specimen of the same form, but made of
greenstoue '3 inches), from the neighboiirhood of
Sutton Coldfield/ Warwickshire.
A barrel- shaped hammer (o| inches) "was found
on the hill of A.shogall.- Turriff, Aberdeenshire,
and a rude triangular hammer on the Gallow HiU.
of Turriff.
A smaller hammer-head, ciu-iously like those
from Farney and Tullamore, both in form and
material, was found with a small "food vessel"
accompanying an interment near Doune,^ Perth-
shire. It is 2| inches long, with a parallel shaft-
hole I inch in diameter.
Another, of small-grained black porphyry, neatly
polished, and about 3-1 inches long, similar in out-
line to Fig. 150, but of oval section, and little more
than an inch in thickness, was dredged up in the
Tidal Basin, at Montrose, and is preserved in the local museum.
A cylindrical hammer of grey granite (2 J inches) only partially
bored from both faces, was found in the parish of Glammis,^ Forfar-
shire. Mr. J. W. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, has a beautiful specimen
formed of striped gneiss (3^ inches) with well-rounded ends, and the
sides much curved inwards. It was foimd at "\Miiteness, Shetland.
Another of his hammers (2f inches) with a parallel hole (| inch) has
the sides straight and is of oval section. It is of beautifully mottled
gneiss.
Another variety, allied to the last, has an egg-shaped instead of a
quasi-conical form ; the shaft-hole being towards the small end of the
egg. The specimen here engraved, Fig. 152, is apparently of serpen-
tine, and was found at HaUgaard Farm, near Birdoswald, Cumber-
land. It is in the Greenwell Collection.
I have a smaller but nearl}' similar specimen in greenstone, from
» Proe. Soc. Ant., 2nd S. vol. vii., p. 268. - P. S. A. S., vol. ix. p. 155.
3 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ix. p. 39 ; x^■ii. p. 453. * P. S. A. S., vol. xvi. p. 171.
Fip
151.— Heslerton
Wold.
MADE FROM TEUBLES WITH NATURAL HOLES.
225
the neiglibourhood of Flamborougli, Yorkshire. The hole in this
is more bell-mouthed than in the other specimen, and a little nearer
the centre of the stone.
One of neaidy similar form, but rather flatter on one face, 3:Jr inches
long, found in Newport, Lincoln, is engraved in the Archcological
Journal.^
Another in size and shape, much like Fig. 1.32, was dug up at
Llanrhaiadr-yn-Mochnant, i\[ontgomer3'shire.- Another in the British
Museum came from the neighbourhood of Keswick.
An egg-.shaped hammer, 3 inches long, of mica schist, and found in
the Isle of Arran,^ is in the National Museum at Edinburgh. Tlie
shaft-hole is in the centre.
Sometimes these hammer-heads are, in outline, of an intermediate
form between Figs. 151 and 152, being oval in section, and more
Fig. 152.— Birdoswald. ,J
rounded at the smaller end than the larger, which is somewhat flat-
tened. One such, in the Christy Collection, is formed of granite, and
was found at Burns, near Keswick, Cumberland. Another, of quart-
zite, ^\ inches long, found on Breadsale Moor, is in the ]\[useum at
Derby. Neither of them presents the same high degree of finish as
Fig. 151. They seem, indeed, to have been made from pebbles, which
were but slightly modified in form by their conversion into hammer-
heads.
Occasionally, though rarely, flint pebbles naturally perforated have
been used as hammers. In excavating a barrow at Thorverton,^ near
Exeter, the Eev. R. Kirwan discovered a flint pebble about .'5i| inches
long, with a natural perforation rather nearer one end than the other,
but which on each face has been artificially enlarged. Each end of
the pebble is considerably abraded by use. No other relics, with the
• Vol. xxvii. p. 142. - Montg. Coll., vol. xiv p. 275.
^ Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 240.
* Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. iii. p. 497.
226 PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS. [CHAP. IX.
exception of charcoal, were found in tliebarrovr. Mr. Kirwan suggests
that the stone may liave been used by phicing the thumb and fore-
finger in each orifice of the aperture ; but not improbably it may have
been hafted. In the !Museum at Copenhagen are one or two axes of
flint, ground at the edge, but with the shaft-holes formed by natural
perforations of the stone. And in M. Boucher de Perthes' Collection'
were two hammer-heads, with central holes of the same character.
The beautiful and elaborately finished hammer-head found at Maes-
more, near Corwen, Merionethshire, and now in the National Mu-
seum at Edinburgh, is to some extent connected in form with those
like Fig. 152. It is shown in Fig. 153, on the scale of h- linear, but
a full size representation of it is given elsewhere.- It is of duslcy white
chalcedony, or of very compact quartzite, and weighs 10^^- ounces.
''The reticulated ornamentation is worked with great precision, and
must have cost great labour. The j^erforation for the haft is formed
with singidar symmetry'- and perfection ; the lozengy grooved
decoration covering the entire surface is remarkably symmetrical
and skilfully finished." The Eev. E. L. Barnwell,-' who presented
Fii,'. 153. — ilaesmore, Corwen.
it to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, has observed that ' ' the
enormous amount of labour that must have been bestowed on
cutting and polishing, would indicate that it was not intended for
ordinary use as a common hammer." " Some have considered it as the
war implement of a distinguished chief ; others, that it was intended
for sacrificial or other religious purpose, or as a badge of high,
office." Other conjectures are mentioned which it is needless to repeat.
My own opinion is in favour of regarding it as a weapon of war, such
as, like the jade mere of the New Zealander, implied a sort of chief-
tainship in its jiossessor. At the time of its discovery it was unique
of its kind. But since then a second example has been found, though
in an unfinished condition,^ at Urquhart, near Elgin, and has also been
placed in the museum at Edinburgh. It is rather smaller, but of
similar type and material to the Welsh specimen. The sliaft-holo is
finished, but the boring process has not been skilfully carried out, the
meeting at the centre of the holes bored from either face not having
' "Ant. Celt, et Anted.," vol. i. pi. xiii. 9, p. 327.
- Arch. Jinir., vol. xix. p. 92. ylrcli. Camb., 3rd S., vol. vi. p. 307.
•' Proc. Soc. Ant. Srof., vol. at. p. 43. See also Arch. Camb., iih. S., vol. vii. p. 183.
* J'roc. Soc. Ant. Hcot., vol. ix p. 259.
OF AX OKXAMENTKD CHARACTER. 227
been perfect ; and thougli tlie ]iolo lias Loon made straight by subse-
quent grinding out, there is still a lateral cavity left. The faceted
pattern is complete at the small end, and commenced on both sides.
Along the edge of the face small notches are ground, showing the
manner in -which the pattern was laid out before grinding the hollow
facets.
A third but ruder example of the same kind was found in the Thames,,
at Windsor,' and was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries in 1895>
by Mr. F. Tress Barry, F.S.A., who has kindly presented it to me. It
is of nearly the same size as the others, but the perforation is natural,
and there is no attempt at ornamentation, though much of the surface
has been ground in irregular facets.
The end of a naturally perforated flint nodule from ^Udbourne,
Wilts, in the collection of Mr. J. W. Brooke, seems to be part of a
hammer. It is neatly faceted like the nucleus. Fig. 189, and has been
roimded by grinding. The hole lias been partially ground.
A very peculiar hammer, discovered by Sir Richard Colt Hoare,- in
Bush barrow, near Normanton, Wilts, is reproduced in Fig. 154. It lay
on the right side of a skeleton, which was accompanied by a bronze celt
Fig. 154.— Normanton, "Wilts. ^
■without side flanges, a magnificent bronze dagger, the handle of which
was ornamented with gold, a lance-head of bronze, and a large lozenge-
shaped plate of gold. The hammer-head is "made out of a fossil mass
of tuhularia, and polished, rather of an egg form," or "resembling the
top of a large gimlet. It had a wooden handle, which was fixed into
the perforation in the centre, and encircled by a neat ornament of brass,
part of which still adheres to the stone." As it bore no marks of wear
or attrition, Sir Richard hardly considered it to have been used as a
domestic implement, and thought that the stone as containing a mass
of serpularia, or little serpents, might have been held in great venera-
tion, and therefore have been deposited with the other valuable relies
in the grave. Judging from the other objects accompanying this inter-
ment, it seems more probable that this hammer was a weapon of
offence, though whether the material of which it was formed were
selected from any superstitious motive, rather than for the beauty of
the stone, may be an open question. I have already mentioned instances
of serpula' limestone having been employed as a material for celts of
the ordinary character. The hole in this instrument appears to be
parallel, and may possibly have been bored with a metallic tool. The
occurrence of this hammer in association Anth such highly-finished and
> Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. xv. p. 349.
- " South Wilts," p. 204. " Cat. De%'Lzes Mua., No. 150." ^ Supra, p. 128.
Q 2
228
PERFORATED AND GROOVED HAMMERS, [CHAP. IX.
tastefully-decorated oT)jects of bronze and gold, shows conclusively
that stone remained in use for certain purposes, long after the know-
ledge of some of the metals had been acquired.
The hammer-heads of the next form to be noticed are of a simpler
character, being made from ovoid pebbles, usually of quartzite, by
boring shaft-holes through their centres. The specimen I have selected
for illustration, Fig. 155. is in my own collection, and was found in
Fi^'. 155. — Redgrave Park. 5
Redgrave Park, Suffolk. It is said to have been exhumed ten feet
below the surface, by men digging stone in Deer's Hill. The pebble is
of quartzite, probably from one of the conglomerates of the Trias, but
more immediately derived from the gravels of the Glacial Period, which
abound in the Eastern Counties. The hole as usual tapers towards the
middle of the stone. The pebble is battered at both ends, and slightly
worn away by use. I have a rather smaller, and more kidney-shaped
hammer, also slightly worn away at the ends, foimd at M'illerby Carr,
in the East Eiding of Yorkshire, and one (4 inches), that is consider-
ably worn at both ends, from Stanifield, Bury St. Edmunds. An
example was found at Normand}',^ near
Wanborough, Surre}'. I have seen one
formed from a sandstone pebble (4^-
inches) found near Ware.
In the Greenwell Collection is a large
specimen, made from a flat pebble {7^
inches) obtained at Salton, York, N.R.
Fig. 156 shows a smaller variety of the
same type, but rather square in outline,
and with the shaft-hole much more boll-
mouthed. The original is in my own
collection, and was found in Redmore
Fen, near Littleport, Cambridgeshire. I
have others from Icklingham (2f inches) and Harleston, Norfolk (3J
inches). Hammers of this and the preceding type are by no means un
1 Surr.Arch. Coll., vol. xi. p, 248-9.
Fig. 156.— Eedmore Fen.
MADE FROM QUART/ITE PEBBLES.
229
common. Mr. Josliuu W. Brooko has one (3} inches) from Liddingtou,
Wilts. One of ([uartzite, 5 inches long, was found in a vallum of Clare
Castle, Suffolk,' and is in the IMuseum of the Society of Antiquaries;
another (4.V inches) at Sunnin^j^liill, Berks ; - another (2^ inches) near
Reigate.'' One, in form like Fig. 1 .06 (4 [^ inches), was discovered in Fur-
ness.^ Others were found at Pallingham Quay,' and St. Leonard's For-
est,'' Horsham (5 inches), both in Sussex. AV'hat seems to be a broken
hammer (2| inches) and not a spindle-whorl was obtained at Mount Ca-
burn," Lewes. Another, circular in
outline, and 3 inches in diameter,
was found at Stifford," near Grays
Thurrock, and is engraved in the
ArchaologicalJoiirnaiy I have here
reproduced the figure (Fig. 157),
though the scale is somewhat larger
than that of my other illustrations.
In the British Museum is a speci-
men, originally about oh inches by
2\ inches, and []; inch thick, witJi
the end battered, which was found
in a tumulus at Cliffe, near Lewes.
Another, 3 J inches in diameter, from
the Thames ; a subtriaugular exam-
ple from ]\Iarlborough (4] inches) ;
and an oval one (3^ inches) from
Sandridge, Herts, are in the same collection.
A longer form (6| inches by 3^) was found at Epping Uplands,
Essex,'" and another about o inches, rather hoe-like in form, in the Lea,
at Waltham. Another (4.| inches) was found in London."
In the Norwich IVIuseum are two hammer-heads of this type, one
from Sporle, near Swaffham (3^ inches), of cj[uartzite ; and the other
of jasper, from Eye, Suffolk, o inches by 2| inches. In the Fitch Col-
lection are also specimens from Yarmouth (3^ inches), from Lyng (5
inches), and Congham, Norfolk (6 inches), as well as a fragment of
one found at Caistor.
The late Mr. Warren, of Ixworth, had one from Great Wratting,
near Haverhill (4 inches), and the late Mr. James Carter, of Cam-
bridge, one 3} inches in diameter, from Chesterton.
In the Museum of the Cambridge Antic^uarian Society is one of
irregular form, found near Newmarket. A thin perforated stone, 6
inches by 3 inches, from Luton,'- in Bedfordshire, may belong to
this class, though it was regarded as an unfinished axe-head.
In the collection formed by Canon Greenwell is one found at Coves
Houses, Wolsingham, Durham (3.V inches), and another of ciuartzite (4^
inches), with both ends battered, from JNIildenhall Fen. He discovered
another of small size, only 2 j inches in length, with the perforation not
' Archaiologia, vol. xiv. p. 281, pi. Iv. ; Cat., p. 14.
Fig. 157.— Stifford.
Arch. Joiirn., vol. ix. p. 297.
Archicologia, vol. xxxi. p. 4.52
Smsex Arch. Coll., vol. xxvii.
I'roc. Soc. Ant., 2ndS., vol. ii:
Essex Nut., vol. viii. p. 164.
Proc. Soc. Ant., 2ud S., vol. i
p. 181.
.p. 406.
i. p. 400.
Arch. Jonrn., vol. x. p. 72.
'' Sussex Arch. Coll., vol. ix. p. 118.
" Arch., vol. xlvi. p. 492, pi. xxiv. 22.
» Vol. xxvi. p. 190.
" Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xxix. p. 77.
230 GROOVED HAMMERS. [CHAP, IX.
more than -iV intli iu diameter in tlie centre, in tlie soil of a barrow at
Eudstone.' near Bridlington.
The late Mr. H. Diirden, of Blandford, had two fragments of these
hammers, made from quartzite pebbles, one of them from Hod Hill,
Dorset, and the other from the same neighbourhood. A perforated
oval boulder of chert was also found near Marlborough. -
Both roimd and oval hammer-stones are in the Leicester Museum.'
One {(jh inches) was found at Doddenham, Worcestershire, and others
(3| inches) at Silverdale,'' Torver.'^ and elsewhere in Lancashire. •"■ A
large specimen (8 inches) was found at Abbey Cwm Hir,' Iladnorshire,
and a small one near Khayader,'' Montgomeryshire. A circular example
(4 J inches), with a ver}' small central hole, was discovered in Pembroke-
shire.' Quartzite pebbles converted into hammer-heads occur also in
Scotland. The hole in one from Pitloehrie'" is only ^ inch in diameter
at its centre. In one from Ythanside, Gight," Aberdeenshire (4 J inches),
it is only J inch.
Besides quartzite and silicious pebbles, these hammer-heads were
made from fragments of several other rocks. The Rev. S. Banks had
one of greenstone, 5|- inches by oj inches, found at Mildenhall. A disc
of dolerite '- (4 inches) with convex faces and perforated in the centre in
the usual manner, was found at Caer Leb, in the parish of Llanidan,
Anglesea. Several hammer-stones of this kind were obtained by the
late Hon. W. 0. Stanley, M.P., in his researches in the Island of Holy-
head.'^ One of them, now in the British Museum, is of trap, 4h: inches
long and 3 inches broad, somewhat square at the ends ; another is of
schist, 3| inches long, and much thinner in proportion. Both were
found at Pen-j'-Bonc. A fragment of a third, formed of granite ( ? ),
"Was found at Ty Mawr, in the same island. One of granite (?)" was
found at Titsey Park, Surrey. A small one of "light grey burr stone,"
2f inches in diameter, was found at Haydock,^^ near Newton, Lan-
cashire. I have a subquadrate example (4 inches) of felsite, from Belper,
Derbyshire. The Scottish specimens are often of other materials than
■qiiartzite. A circular ' ' flailstone, " found at Culter, Lanarkshire, has been
figured,''' but the material is not stated. The same is the case with an
oval one, 4 inches long, found near Longman,'' Macduff, Banff; another
from Forfarshire ;'*' and a third, 4 inches by 3 inches, from Alloa.''
Others from Portpatrick-" (6f inches), and from a cist at Cleugh,-'
Glenbervie, Kincardineshire, have been figured. I have a disc (3
inches), nearly flat roimd the circumference like a Danish "child's
' " Brit. Barrows," p. 248. 2 ^ych. Joiirii., vol. xxv. p. 250.
^ Jiep. Leic. Lit. and Phil. Soc.,\?)l%, pi. iii. * Arch. Assoc. Jourii., vol. xxix. p. 305.
s Tr. Cumb. and West. Ant. Soc, vol. ix. p. 203.
'■ Tr. Lane, and Ch. Ant. Soc, vol. ii. pi. i.
" Arch. Cainb., 5th S., vol. xii. p. 247. * Op. cit., p. 249.
■■' Arch. Camb., 5th S., vol. v. p. 315. '" F. S. A. S., vol. xx. p. 105.
" P. S. A.S., vol. xii. p. 183.
'- Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xxii. p. 314. Arch. Camh., 3rJ S., vol. xii. p. 212.
'•' Arch. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 321 ; vol. xxvii. p. 147.
^^ Surrey Arch. Coll., vol. iv. p. 237 ; 18G8, p. 24.
^* Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xv. p. 233.
'* Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xvii. pi. iv. p. 5.
" Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. \i. p. 41. '* Ibid., vol. iii. p. 437.
'» Ibid., vol. iv. p. 55. 20 P. S. A. S., vol. xii. 568.
" Op. cit., p. 610.
PURPOSES TO WHICH APPLIED.
231
wheel " from Ballachulisli, Inverness. It is formed of liornblendic
gneiss. A lianuner-stone of this kind from Poyaune, Landes,' lias been
recorded.
. Some of these circular pebbles may have formed tlie heads of
Inrar-maces, such as seem to have been in use in Denmark in ancient
Ipimes and in a modified form,
among various savage tribes in
recent days.
A curious variety of this type,
tiat on one face and convex on the
other, is sho'vvn in Fig. 1.58. It is
made from a quartzite pebble, that
has in some manner been split,
and was found at Sutton, near
Woodbridge. It is now in the
collection of General Pitt Pivers,
F.RS.
In the Christy Collection is
another implement of much the
same size, material, and character,
which was found at Xarford,
Norfolk. The ends are somewhat
hollowed after the manner of a
gouge, but the edges are rounded.
It seems to occupy a sort of inter-
mediate position between a ham-
mer and an adze.
One of similar, but more elon-
gated form, found at Auque-
mesnil - (Seine Inferieure), has
been figured by the Abbe Cochet.
It is difficult to say for what purpose hammers of this perforated
kind were destined. I can hardly think that such an enormous amount
of labour would have been bestowed in piercing them, if they had
merely been intended to serve iu the manufacture of other stone imple-
ments, a service in which they would certainly be soon broken. If
they were not intended for weapons of war or the chase, they were
l^robably used for lighter work than chipping other stones ; and yet
the bruising at the ends, so apparent on many of them, betokens their
having seen hard service. 'We have little, in the customs of modern
savages, to guide us as to their probable uses, as perforated hammers
are almost unknown among them. The perforated spheroidal stones
of Southern Africa'' actmerel}- as weights to give impetus to the digging
sticks, and such stones are said to have been in use in Chili^ and Cali-
fornia.^ The perforated discs of North America appear to be the
fi\'-wheels of drilling sticks. Some c_[uartz pebbles perfoi-ated Avith
small central holes, and brought from the African Gold Coast," seem
to have been worn as charms.
» Rev. dTAni. 1st S., vol. iv. p. 25.5. - '• Seine Inf.," 2nd ed.. p. 313.
' "VTood, '• Nat. Hist, of Man." vol. i. p. 2.54. Proc. Soc. Ant. f>cot., vol. xi. p. 140.
* /'. S. A. S., vol. xiv. p. 17o. '•> Rau. "Smithson. Arch. Coll.," p. 31.
*• Sir J. Lubbock, in Jouni. Atith. Inst., vol. i. p. icv.
Fi?. 158.— Sutton.
232 PERFORATITD AND GIJOOVED HAMMERS. [CHAP. IX.
In Ireland, perforated hammer-stones are miicli more abundant
than in England. They are usuaUy formed of some igneous or meta-
morphic rock, and vary considerably in size, some being as much as 10
or 12 inches in length. 8ir AV. Wilde observes that stone hammers,
and not unfreqiiently stone anvils, have been emploj'ed by smiths and
tinkers in some of the remote country districts until a comparatively
recent period. If, however, these hammers were perforated, there can
be but little doubt that they must have been ancient tools again brought
into use, as the labour in manufacturing a stone hammer of this kind
woidd be greater than that of making one in iron, which would, more-
over, be ten times as serviceable. If, however, the stone hammers
came to hand ready made, thej' might claim a preference. For heavy
work, where iron was scarce, large mauls, such as those shortly to be
described, might have been in use rather than iron sledges ; biit the
more usual form of stone hammer would probably be a pebble held in
the hand, as is constantly the case witli the workers in iron of South-
ern Africa. Even in Peru and Bolivia, the late Mr. David Forbes,
F.R.S., informed me that the masons skilfiJ in working hard stone "with
steel chisels, make use of no other mallet or hammer than a stone
pebble held in the hand. The anvils and hammers used in Patagonia' in
working silver are generallj^ of stone, but the latter are not pei-forated.
In Germany, as already- incidentally remarked, anvils formed of
basalt were in frequent use in the sixteenth century.
In Scandinavia and Germany the same forms of hammers as those
found in the British Isles occur, both in quartzite and in other kinds
of stone. They are not, however, abundant. AVorsaae does not give
the type in his " Nordiske Oldsager," and Nilsson gives but a single
instance.'' Lindenschmit* engraves a specimen from Oldenstadt, Lilne-
burg, and another from Gelderland."^
In Switzerland they are extremely rare. In the Neuchutel Museum,
however, is a perforated hammer, formed from an oval pebble, and
found in the Lake-habitations at Concise ; another, 2 inches in diameter,
with a email perforation deeply countersimk on each face, has been
regarded by M. de Mortillef^ as a sink-stone for a net.
I have a lenticular mace-head, 3 inches in diameter and 2 inches
thick, formed of a silicious breccia from Pergamum. The hole tapers
from ^ inch to i inch.
The half of a small perforated hammer made of greenstone and
polished is recorded to have been found at Arconum,' west of Madras.
A perforated stone, possibly a hammer, was found in the Jubbulpore
district, Central India ; ** and a fine example from the Central Prov-
inces,'■" rather more oval than Fig. 157, has been figured by the late
Mr. Y. BaU.
In the British Museum is a perforated ball of hard red stone of a
different t3'pe from any of those which I have described, which came
from Peru. It is about 3 inches in diameter, with a parallel hole an
inch across. Around the outside are engi-aved four human faces, each
surmounted by a sort of mitre. It may be the head of a mace.
* Jourii. Anthrop. Inst., vol. i. p. 198. - Sup., p. G4.
'•> "Stone Age," pi. i. 12. ^ " Alt. u. h. V.," vol. i. Heft i. Taf. i. 4.
s Op. cit., vol. i. Jicft viii. Taf. i. G. « " Or. de la NaAng., &c.," fig. 20.
' Trann.preh. Cong., 1868, p. 236. » Froc. As. Soc. Bettg., 1866, p. 135.
' I'roc. As. Soc.Bcng., Mar., 1874.
MAULS FOR MINING PURPOSES. 233
Spherical mace-lioads of marble and of harder rocks occur among'
Egyptian anti(Xuitios. Thoy are sometimes decorated by carving.
In this i)Iaco ixn-haps it will be well to mention a class of large
hammer-stones, or mauls, as they have been termed, which,
though belonging to a period when metal was in use, are in all
probability oi: a high degree of antiquit}'. They consist, as a
rule, of large oval pebbles or boulders, usually of some tough
form of greenstone or grit, around which, somewhere about the
middle of their length, a shallow groove has been chipped or
" picked," from f inch to 1 inch in width. On the two opposite
sides of the pebble, and intersecting this groove, two flat or
slightly hollowed faces have often been worked, the purpose of
which is doubtless connected with the method of hafting the
stones for use as hammers. This was evidently by means of a
withe twisted round them, much in the same manner as a black-
smith's chisel is mounted at the present day. In the case of the
mauls, however, the withe appears to have been secured by tying,
like the haft of one form of Australian stone hatchets (Fig. 105),
and then to have been tightened around the stone by means of
wedges driven in between the withe loop and the flat faces before
mentioned.
A^ German stone axe seems to have been fastened to its haft in
the same manner.
In many of tlie Welsh specimens about to be mentioned, the flat
faces arc absent, and the notch or groove does not extend all round
the stone, but exists only on the two sides through which the longer
transverse axis of the pebble passes. In this case the wedges, if any,
were probably driven in on the flatter side of the boulder.
The ends of the pebbles are usually much worn and broken b}'
hammering, and not unfrequently the stone has been split by the
violence of tlie blows that it has administered. It is uncertain whether
they were merely used for crushing and pounding metallic ores,
or also in mining operations ; but with very few exceptions they occur
in the neighbourhood of old mines, principally copper-mines.
In some copper mines at Llandudno,- near the great Orme's Ilead,
Carnarvonshire, an old Avorking was broken into about sixty years
ago, and in it were found a broken stag's horn, and parts_of what were
regarded as of two mining implements or picks of bronze, one about
3 inches and the other about 1 inch in length. In 1850, another
ancient working was found, and on the floor a number of these stone
mauls, described as weighing from about 2 lbs. to 40 lbs. each. They
had been formed from water-worn boulders, probably selected from
' Zeitsch. f. yl. and E., vol. viii., 187(5, pi. xxv.
^ Arch. Joiini., vol. vii. p. 08 ; Gent.'s Mag., 1849, p. 130.
234 GROOVED HAMMERS. [CH.AP. IX.
tlie beacli at Pen-maen-mawr. One of the maiils in tlie AVarrington
Museum' is 6^ inches long, and -weighs 3 lbs. 14 ozs. One of basalt,
measuring nearly a foot in length, was found in ancient -workings at
Amlwch Parys ^Nliue,- in Anglesea. Others have been discovered in old
■workings in Llangynfelin Mine,^ Cardiganshire, and at Llanidan,*
Anglesea.
A ponderous ball of stone, about .5 inches in diameter, probably
used in crushing and poimding the ore, a portion of stag's horn,
fashioned so as to be suited for the handle of some implement, and an
iron pick-axe, were found in some old workings in the .Snow Brook
Lead Mines, Plinlimmon, Montgomeryshire.^
Two of these hammer-stones, 4^^ and 5 inches in length, were ob-
tained by the late Hon. AV. 0. Stanley, within hut ciixles, possibly
the remains of the habitations of copper miners in ancient times, at Ty
Mawr, in the Island of Holyhead. Some of these mauls are figured in the
ArchaohgicaJ Journal,'^ and are of much the same form as Fig. 159, the
original of which probably served another puri)ose. Others of the same
character, formed of quartzite, were found at Pen-y-Bonc,' HolyheaJ.
and Old Geir,- Anglesea. They have also been found at Alderley
Edge,* Cheshire.
A boulder, like those from Llandudno, but found at Long Low, near
AVetton, Staffordshire, is in the Bateman Collection.-" One from
Wigtownshire'' has been regarded as a weight.
They are of not tmcommon occurrence in the south of Ireland.''
especially in the neigbourhood of Killamey, where, as also in Cork,
many of them have been found in ancient mines. Thej' have, in
Ireland, been denominated miners' hammers. One of them is engraved
in " FKnt Chips." ^^ I have seen an example from Shetland.
They have also been found in ancient copper mines in the province
of Cordova,'* at CeiTO Muriano, A'illanueva del Eey,'^ and Milagro,
in Spain; in those of Euy Gomes,'* in Aiemtejo, Portugal; and at the
salt mines of Hallstatt,'' in the Salzkammergut of Austria, and at
Mitterberg,'' near Bischofshofen.
A large hammer of the same class, but with a deeper groove all
round, has been recorded from Savoy. '^
They are not, however, confined to European countries, for similar
stone hammers were found by Mr. Bauerman in the old mines of
AVady Maghara,-' which were worked for turquoises (if not also for
' Arch. A$80c. Joiinu, vol. xv. p. 2"A. • Arch. Journ., vol. vii. p. 69.
3 ^rch. Camb., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 331. ■• Arch. Ctnnb., 4th S.. vol. v. p. 181.
5 Arch. Journ., vol. svii. p. 66. ^' Vol xxvi. p. 320, figs. 10 and 11.
' Arch. Jourii., vol. xxvii. p. IGl. " Lib. Cit.. p. 164.
9 Journ. Anth. Itut., vol. v. p. 2. '« Cat., p. 28, No. 293.
" P. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 213.
'- " Cat. Mus. Jl. I. A." p. 85. The chLsel-edsrod specimens there described are
not improbably American. '^ P. 5.37.
1* Mortillet, " Jtf'if^riauz,''' vol. iii. p. 98; vol. iv. p. 2S1. Tubino, "Estudios
Prehi.storicos," p. 100. Cartailhac, p. 202.
'* Jiev. Arch., vol. xiii. p. 137.
^'^ Jor/i. de Sci. Math. Phv". y Xatiir., 1S6S, pi. viii.
'' Simonv, " Alt. von HaUstatt." Taf. vi. 5.
"• "Pr;ih. Atla-^." Wien, 1889, Taf. xix.
''•' Perrin. " Et. Prehist. sux la Savoie," pi. xv. 17.
^' Quart. Journ. Geol. Hoc, 1869, vol. xxv. p. 34.
OF WIDE RANGE. 235
copper ore) by the ancient Egj'ptians, so early as the third Manethonian
Dynasty. It is hard to say wliother the grooved stone found by
►Selilieuiann at Tro}'' was used as a hammer or a weiglit.
AVhat is more remarkable still, in the New "World similar stone
hammers are found in the ancient copper mines near Lake Superior.'^
As described by Sir Daniel Wilson/' " many of these mauls are mere
water-worn oblong boulders of greenstone or porphyr}^ roughly chijipcd
in the centre, so as to admit of their being secured by a withe around
them." They weigh from 10 to 40 lbs., and are found in enormous
numbers. M. Marcou^ has given an account of the discovery of some
of these mauls in the Mine de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, at Point
Kievenau, Lake Superior. lie describes them as formed of leptynite
(quartz and felspar), quartz, and porphyry, and weighing from 5 to 8
lbs. each ; and mentions having seen one of quartz weighing about
.3 lbs., wliich was in the possession of some Kioway Indians, and was
bound to a handle with a strip of bison skin.
This similarity or identity in form of implements used in countries
so wide apart, and at such different ages, does not, I think, point of
necessity to any common origin, nor to any so-called " continuity of
form," but appears to offer another instance of similar wants with similar
means at command, resulting in similar implements for fulfilling those
wants. Grooved hammers for other purj)oses, as evinced by their
smaller size, and a few grooved axes, occur in Scandinavia. An
examjile among one of the lower races in modern times is afforded by
a large crystal of quartz, with its terminal planes preserved at both
ends, which has been slightly grooved at the sides for the purpose of
attaching it to a handle, and was brought by Captain Cook, from St.
Creorgc's Sound, Avhere it appears to have been used as a hammer or
pick. It is now in the British Museum, and has been described hj Dr.
Henrj' Woodward.'
Even in IJritain the hammer-stones of this form are not absolutely
confined to mining districts. Canon Grreenwell. in one of the barrows
at Rudstone,^ near Bridlington, found on the lid of a stone-cist two
large greenstone jiebbles 8 and 9|- inches long, each with a sort of
" waist " chipped in it, as if to receive a withe, and having marks at
the ends of having been in use as hammers.
Closely connected in form and character with the mining hammers,
though as a rule much smaller in size, and in all probability intended
for a totally different purpose, is the class of stone objects of one of
which Fig. 159 gives a representation, reproduced from the ArcliccoJogical
Journal.' This was found in company with two others at Burns, near
Ambleside, Westmorland ; and another, almost preciselj^ similar in
size and form, was found at I'ercy's Leap, and is preserved at Alnwick
Castle. Another, from Westmorland, is in the Liverpool Museum,
and they have, I believe, been observed in some numbers in that dis-
trict. A stone of the same character, but more elaborately worked,
' " Troy and its Remains," p. 97.
- Schoolcraft, " Indian Tribes," vol. i. p. 9G ; Sqiiicr's " Ab. Men. of New York,"
p. 184 ; Lapham, "Ants, of Wisconsin," p. 71.
3 "Prelii^t. Man," vol. i. pp. 246, 2.53.
< Co.nptcs Jiendus, 18G6, vol. Ixii. p. 470; Geol. Mag., vol. iii. p. 214 ; Mortillet,
** Mat.,'' vol. ii. pp. 331, 401 ; vol. iii. p. 99. ' Brii. Assoc. Report, 1870, p. loS.
• Brit. Barrows, p. 239. ' Vol. x. p. C4.
236
GROOVED HAMMERS.
[chap.
IX.
having somewhat acorn-shaped ends, was found "by the late Hon.
"\V. 0. Stanley, at Old Geir,' Anglesea. Others from Anglesea,- one
of them ornamented, have been figured. They were originally re-
garded as hammer-stones, hut such as I have examined are made of
a softer stone than those usually employed for hammers, and they are
not battered or worn at the ends. It is, therefore, probable that they
were used as sinkers for nets or lines, for which purpose they are well
adapted, the groove being deep enough to protect small cord around
it from wear by .friction. They seem also usuallj- to occur in the
neighbourhood either of lakes, rivers, or the sea. A water- worn
nodule of sandstone, o inches long, with a deep groove round it, and
described as probably a sinker for a net or line, was foimd in Aber-
deenshire,^ and is in the National Museum at Edinburgh; and I
^
•^
Fig. 159. — Ambleside.
have one of soft grit, and about the same length, given me by Mr.
E. D. Darbishire, F.G.S.,. and found by him near XantUe, Carnarvon-
shire.
Many of these sink-stones are probably of no great antiquity.
"With two transvei'se grooves, they are still in use in Shetland. ■*
The Fishing Indians of Yaucouver's Island ^ go out trolling for
salmon in a fast canoe, towing behind them a long line made of tough
seaweed, to which is attached, by slips of deer hide, an oval piece of
granite perfectly smooth, and the size and shape of a goose's egg. It
acts as a sinker, and is said to spin the bait. A net-sinker, formed of
a pebble slightl}- notched or grooved, is among the antiquities from
1 Arch. Journ., vol. xxvii. p. 164, pi. xi. 5.
2 Arch. Camb., 4th S., vol. v. p. 181 ; is. p. 34.
3 I'roc. 8oc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. p. 209.
* P. .S. A. S., vol.ix. p. 382 ; xii. p. 266. Mitchell, '• Past in the Present," p. 124.
» J/Vw. Anthrop. Hoc. Loud. vol. iii. p. 261.
AND NET-SIXKERS. 237
Lake Erie, engraved by Sclioolcraft.' Others liave Leon found in tlio
State of New York.- See C. Rau's "Prehistoric Fishing." •*
Sink-stones are by no means rare in Irehmd, and continue in use
to the present day. One of the same class as Fig. 1.59, but grooved
round the long axis of the pebble, is engraved by Sir W. Wilde.'*
Similar stones occur in Denmark, and were regarded by Worsaae '•
as sink-stones, thougli some of tliem, to judge from the wear at the
ends, and the liardness of the material, were used as hammers. I
liave seen, in Sweden, the leg bones of animals used as weights for
sinking nets.
Another form of sink-stone, weight, or plummet, was formed by
boring a hole towards one end of a flattish stone. Such a one,
weighing 14} oz., was dredged from the Thames at Battersea.''
Another, of oval form, pierced at one end, from Tyrie,' Aberdeenshire,
is in the National Museum at Edinburgh ; and a wedge-shaped
perforated stone from Culter, Lanarkshire,'* was probably intended
for the same purpose. These may have been in use for stretching
the warp in the loom when weaving. They are found of tliis form
with Roman remains. '■'
1 " Ind. Tribes," vol. ii. pi. 39. - Op. cit., vol. ii. p. 90.
3 1884, p. 156 seqq., also Arch. f. Anth., vol. v. p. 262.
* " Cat. Mus. R. J. A.," p. 95, fig. 77.
* "Nord. Oldsag.," fig. 88 ; Nilsson, "Stone Age;' pi. ii. p. 34.
^ Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xiv. p. 327.
' Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 489.
* Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xvii. p. 19.
' See a paper on "Antike Gewicht-steine," by Prof. Ritsclil, in the Jahrh. d.
Ytr. V. AUerihums-fr. im Rheinl., Heft. xli. 9 ; also xliii. 209.
238
CHAPTER X.
HAMMKR-STONES, ETC.
Under this head I propose to treat of those implements which
have apparently been used as hammers, but which, for that pur-
pose, were probably held in the hand alone, and not provided with
a shaft, as the groove or shaft-hole characteristic of the class last
described, is absent. At the same time there are some hammer-
stones in which there are cavities worked on either face, so deep
and so identical in character with those which, in meeting each
other, produce the bell-mouthed perforations commonly present
in the hammers intended for hafting, that at first sight it seems
difficult to say whether they are finished implements, or whether
they would have become perforated hammer-heads had the pro-
cess of manufacture been completed. Certainly in some cases the
cavities appear to be needlessly deep and conical for the mere
purpose of receiving the finger and thumb, so as to prevent the
stone slipping out of the hand; and yet such apparently un-
finished instruments occur in different countries, in sufficient
numbers to raise a presumption that the form is intentional and
complete. There are some instances where, as was thought to be
the case with a quartz pebble from Firth,^ in Orkney, the un-
finished implements may have been cast aside owing to the stone
having cracked, or to the holes bored on each face not being quite
opposite to each other, so as to form a proper shaft-hole.
In other instances, as in Figs. 160 and 161, the battering of
the end proves that the stones have been in actual use as hammers.
It is of course possible that these cavities may have been worked
for the purpose of mounting the stones in some other manner
than by fixing the haft in a socket. A split stick may, for
instance, have been used, with a part of the wood on each side of
the fissure worked away, so as to leave projections to fit the cavi-
' Proc. Soc. Ant., 2n(l S., vol. ii. p. 274.
"WITH DEPKESSIONS ON THE FACES.
239
tics, and have then been bound together so as to securely grasp
the pebble. A stone mallet, consisting of a large pebble mounted
between two curved pieces of wood, somewhat resembling the
hames of a horse collar, and firmly bound together at each end,
is still used by the quarrymen of Trichinopoly,^ in India.
Another method of hafting stones, by tying them on to the side
of a stick with little or no previous preparation, is practised by
the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru." Mr. D. Forbes,
F.R.S., in his interesting account of this people, has engraved a
])ebble thus mounted, which was in use as a clod crusher. One
of them is preserved in the Christy Collection. Among the
Apaches,^ in Mexico, hammers are made of rounded pebbles
hafted in twisted withes.
A remarkable liammer-hGad, found at Ilelmsley, in tlie North
Eiding of Yorkshire, is iu the collection formed by Canon Greenwell.
It is shown in Fig. 160, and has been made from a rather coarse-
^> grained quartzite pebble, both ends of which
^ have, however, been worn away by use to aa
extent probably of an inch in each case, or of
two inches in the whole pebble. The worn
ends are rounded, but somewhat hollow in the
middle, as if they liad at that part been iised
for striking against some cylindrical or sliarp
surface. The funncl-sha2)ed cavities appear
almost too deep and too sharp at their edges
to have been intended merely to assist in
holding the hammer in the hand, and it
seems possible that their original purjiose
may have been in connection with some
method of hafting. The hammer has, how-
ever, eventually been used iu the hand alone,
for the wear of the ends extends over the face,
quite to the margin of one of the cavities,
and at such an angle, that it would have been
almost impossible for any handle to have
been present. But if the stone be held in
the hand, with the middle finger in the
cavity, the wear is precisely on that part of the stone which would
come in contact with a flat surface, in hammering upon it. AVhat
substance it was used to pound or crush it is impossible to determine,
but not improbably it may have been animal food ; and bones as well
as meat may have been pounded Avith it.
A quasi-cubical hammer-stone, with recesses on two opposite faces,
found at Moel Fenlli,^ Euthin, Denbighshire, has been figured. It
is now in my collection.
> Mem. Geol. Surv. Lid., vol. iv. pi. i. p. 203. Trans. Preh. Cong., 1868, p. 238.
2 Jotirii. Eth>iol. Soc, vol. ii. p. 2G3, pi. xxi. 7.
' Catlin's "Last Rambles," p. 188. * Arch. Camh., oth. S., vol. i. p. 307.
Fig. 160.— Helmsley. J
240
HAMMER-STONES, ETC.
[chap. X.
The specimen engraved as Fig. 161 has been made from a quartzite
pebble, and has the conical dejiression deeper on one face than the
other. It was found at Wiuterbonrn Bassett, Wilts, and is now in the
British Museum.
In the Norwich Museum is a similar pebble, from Sporle, near
-y Swaffham. It is o\ inches long, recessed on each face, with a conical
depression, the apex rounded. These cavities are about \\ inches
diameter on the face of the stone, and about | inch in depth. The
Eev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., had a hammer-stone of this kind, 3 inches
long, found at Melmerby, Cumberland. One (6 inches) was found at
Langtree,^ Devon, another (3|^ inches) at Trefeglwys,- Montgomery-
U^
Fig. 161.— Wmtt'ibournBassftt. 2
shire. I have one (3 inches) from Eyton-on-Dunsmore, Coventry, and
a thinner example, 2| inches, much worn at the ends, from Lithngton,
A circular rough-grained stone, 3 inches in diameter, with deep
cup-like indentations on each face, found on Goldenoch Moor, "Wig-
townshire,^ is in the National Museum at Edinburgh ; where is also
another hammer formed of a greenstone pebble (o^- inches', with
broad and deep cup-shaped depressions on each face, and much worn
at one end, which came from Dunning, Perthshire. There are other
examples of the same kind in the same museum. Many have, indeed,
1 Tr. Lev. Assoc, vol. xii. p. 71. " Montg. Coll, vol. xiv. p. 273.
3 Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 440; xiv. p. 127 : xv. p. 108.
WITH DEPRESSIONS ON THE FACES.
241
IGlA.— Golilenoch.
boon found iu Scotland. A good example from Machermore Loch/
AVigtownsbire, and several others,- have been figured.
That from Groldenoch, shown in Fig. 161a/ has a deep recess
on each face. Others from Fife' have the recess on one face only.
In the case of one from the
Island of Coll'^ the recesses are
at the sides instead of on the
faces.
In some cases the depressions
are shallower, and concave
rather than conical. I have a
flat irregular disc of greenstone,
about 2\ inches diameter and
I inch thick, thinning off to the
edges, -which are rounded, and
having in the centre of each
face a slight cup-like depression,
about I inch in diameter. It was found in a trench at Ganton, York-
shire. In the GreenweU Collection is a somewhat larger disc of sand-
stone, -worn on both faces and round the whole edge, and with a slight
central depression. It was found in a cairn at Ilarbottle Peels,
Northumberland. In form, these insti-uments are identical with the
Tilhiiggersteene '• of tlie Danish antiquaries, and it is possible that some
of them, especially those of the circular form, may have been used for
the purpose of chipping out other kinds of stone imjjlements.
The type is not of uncommon occurrence in Ireland." It is rare in
France, but a broken example from the neighbourhood of Amiens
is in the Blackmore Museum.
I have a sj^ecimen which might be mistaken for Danish or Irish,
but which was brought me from Port Beaufort, Cape of Good Hope,
by Captain H. Thurburn, F.G.S. It must have been in use there
at no vei'y remote period.
An oval stone, with what appears to be a cup-shaped depression
on one face, § inch deep, is engraved by Schoolcraft* as a relic of
the Congaree.s. Another, from the Delaware Eiver, of the Danish
form, is described by Nilsson* as a tool for making arrow-points.
He also engraves one from Greenland. Other so-called hammer-
stones in the same plate are more probably " strike-a-light " stones, and
under any circumstances belong to the Early Iron Period. Abbott '"
and Pan " also describe Indian hammer-stones, some like Fig. 161.
Highly polished, and deep cup-shaped or conical depressions are
occasionally to be observed occurring on one or both faces of large
pebbles, usually of quartz, and sometimes in two or three places on
' P. 8. A. S., vol. xi. p. .583, Munro "Lake-dw.," p. 448.
- ]\ S. A. S., vol. xiv. 127 ; xv. 2C7 ; xxiii. p. 211.
■' Kindly lent by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.
* P. S. A. S., vol. xxii. p. 62. * P. S. A. S., vol. xii. p. 688.
'' "Worsaae's " Nord. Oldnager," No. 32, 33. Nilsson's "Stone Age," pi. i. 14.
A Liiuebiirg specimen.with deep conical depressions, is given by Lindenschmit. "Alt.
u. h. v.," vol. i. Heftviii. Taf. i. 4.
■" Wilde's "Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 7.5.
** "Ind. Tribes," vol. iv. p. 165.
'0 " Prim. Industry," p. 42.5, et. seqq.
K
9 "Stone Age," p. 12, pi. i. 2, 3.
^' Arch. f. Antli., vol. v. p. 263.
242
HAMMER-STOXES, ETC.
[chap.
the same face. Though very similar to the holIo"\vs on the hammer-
stones, they are clue to a very different cause, being merely the results
of stone bearings or journals having been emplo3'ed, instead of those
of brass, for the upright spindles of corn mills. It seems strange that
for such a purpose stone should have gone out of use, it being re-
tained, and indeed regarded as almost indispensable for durability,
in the case of watches, the jiivot-holes of -which
are so frequentlj^ ''jewelled^'''
Fig. 162, which I have reproduced from the
Sussex Archceological Collections' on the same scale
as the other figures, shows a pivot-stone of quart-
zite (?) found in the ruins of St. Botolph's Priory,
Pembrokeshire, a few yards from a pebble (4A in-
ches) of similar material, in which a hole had been
bored to the depth of half an inch apparently by the
friction of the pointed end of the smaller pebble.
Another pivot-stone of the same kind was found at
Bochym,'- Cornwall. Such socket-stones were, imtil
Tig. 162.— St. Botolph's recently, in use in Scotland^ and Piedmont* for the
"°^^ ■ ' iron sjnndles of the upper mill-stones of small water-
mills. Pivot-stones with larger socket-stones were also used for field-
gates. Similar socket-stones occur in Switzerland,* and have puzzled Dr.
KeUer.
A stone, with a well-polished cavit}'-, found on the site of an old
mill near Carluke, Lanarkshire,'' was exhibited at Edinburgh in
1856. Another was found in Argyllshire; and I have seen other
specimens from Ireland. The socket of the hinge of the great gate
at Dunnottar Castle is said to have consisted of a similar stone.
>Stones with highly-poKshed hoUows in them, in which apparentlj'
the ends of drill - sticks revolved, are com-
mon on the site of ancient Naukratis.'
As has already been observed at page 223, it
is by no means uncommon to find portions of
polished celts which, after the edge has been by
some means broken away, have been converted
into hammers. Yery rarely, there is a cup-like
cavity worked on either face in the same
manner as in the celts shown in Figs. 87 and
88. A specimen of this character, from the
neighbourhood of Bridlington, is shown in
Fig. 163. It is of close-grained greenstone,
and, to judge from the thickness of the battered
end, the celt, of which this originally formed
the butt, must have been at least half as long
again as it is in its present form. The cavities
have been worked out with some kind of pick
or pointed tool, and from their position so near
the butt-end, it seems probable that they did
- Arch. Assoc. Joitni., vol. xxix. p. 344. Cum-
ming's " Churches and Ant.si. of Cury and Dunwalloc," 1873, p. 69.
~ P. S. A. S., vol. X. p. 634. Mitchell, " Past in the Present," p. 126.
iv. p. 139. i An:, f. Schw. AH., 1876, Taf. viii.
rig. 163.— Bridlington.
1 Vol. ix. p. 118.
Journ. Anth. Inst., vol.
" Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus., Ed^u.," p. 12
"Naukratis," 1886, pi. i. p. 4:
WITH DEPRESSIONS OX THE FACES.
243
Fig. 164.— Bridlington.
not exist in the original celt, but were subsequently added -vrlien it
bad lost its cutting edj^e, and -was destined to be turned into a hammer-
stone. In the Clreenwell Collection is a similar specimen, 4 inches long,
found at Wold Newton, in the East liiding of Yorkshire. In the celts
with cup-sliaped depressions on their faces, but still retaining their
edge, the depressions are nearer the centre of the blade.
This liollosving of a portion of the surface is sometimes so slight as
to amount to no more than a rougliening of the face, such as would
enable tlio thumb and fingers to take a
sufficiently secure hold of the stone, to
prevent its readily falling out of the
band when not tightly grasped ; a cer-
tain looseness of hold being desirable, to
prevent a disagreeable jarring when
the blows were struck. If, as seems
])robable, many of these hammers or
pounders were used for the purpose of
.splitting bones, so as to lay bare the
mixrrow, we can understand the necessity
of roughening a portion of the greas}'-
surface of the stone, to assist the hold.
In Fig. 16-11 have represented a large
quartz pebble found in Easton Field,
IJridlington, which has the roughened
depression on both faces rather more
strongly marked than usual, especially
on the face here shown. It is more
battered at one end than the other, and has evidently been long in use.
It shows some traces of grinding at the lower end in the figure, as if
it had been desirable for it to have a sort of transverse ridge at the
end, to adapt it to the purpose for which it was used.
Canon Greenwell found in a barrow at Weaverthorpe,^ Yorkshire, a
hammer-stone of this kind, but nearly circular in form. It is a flat
quartz pebble, about 1-|- inches in
diameter, battered all round, and
broken at one j)art, and having
the centre of one face artificially
roughened.
A round hammer (2.V inches), with
depressions on each face, was found
at Gatley,- Cheshire. Hammer-
stones of the same character occurred
abundantly on the site of ancient
Naukratis.^ The tcallong,^ or stone
used by the Australian natives for
grinding nardoo seeds on the yow ici, a large flat stone, is curiously like
Fig. 164.
To the same class, belongs the hammer-stone shown in Fig. 165,
found at Huntow, near Bridlington. It has been made from a quartz
pebble, of the original surface of which but little remains, and has a
r,-. Lane, and Ch. Arch. Sop., vol. xi. p. 172.
* Jouru. Anth. Inst., vol. vi. pp. -11, 195.
r2
Fig. 1<
/"i
' " Brit. Barrows," p. 200.
* "Naukratis," pi. i. 188G, p. 42.
244 HAMMER-SIONES, ETC. [CHAP. X.
well-marked depression about ^ inch, deep in the centre of each face.
The periphery is much Avorn away by use.
A tine-grained sandstone pebble, in form like a small cheese, about
3 inches in diameter, having the two faces smooth and perfectly flat,
was foimd at Eed Ilill,' near Eeigate, and was regarded as a muller
or pounding- stone used possibly in husking or bruising grain ; or even
for chipping flint, its surface bearing the mark of long-continued use
as a pestle or hammer.- '-'Precisely similar objects have been found
in Northumberland, and other»parts of England."
Canon Greenwell informs me that about twenty such, differing in
size and thickness, were found on Corbridge Fell, together with several
stone balls. He thinks they may possibly have been used in some
game. A paper on the stone hammer and its various uses has been
published by Mr. J. D. McGuire.^
The circular stone from Upton Lovel Barrow,* engraved by Sir
E. Colt Hoare, appears to be a hammer or, more probabl}-, a rub-
bing-stone, but it is worn to a ridge all round the periphery. ■ I
have a precisely similar instrument from Ireland. Other mullers
from "\S'iltshire ^ barrows have been figured by Dr. Thurnam. Several
such discoidal stones, somewhat faceted on their periphery, were
foimd by the late Hon. AV. 0. Stanley, in his examination of the
ancient circular habitations in Holyhead Island, and some have been
engraved.®
An almost spherical stone, but flattened above and below, where the
surface is slightly jwlished, was found in Whittington Wood, Glouces-
tershire, and exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries in 1866.' It is of
quartzite, about 3 inches in diameter. Another, of the same size, of
depressed spherical form, was found in Denbighshire,"" and another
flat disc of quartz in Aberdeenshire.^
Pebbles that have been used in this way, as pounders or mullers,
belong to various ages and different degrees of civilization. Some well
worn have been found in Yorkshire ^" barrows and elsewhere.^' One
from Philiphaugh,'- Selkirkshire, has been figured. I have one such,
worn into an almost cubical form, which was found with Eoman remains
at Poitiers, and I have seen several others said to be of Eoman date.
A pounding-stone of much the same form as Fig. 165, found on the
summit of the Mont d'Or, Lj'onnais,^ has been engraved by M. Chantre,
with others of the same character. I have seen examples in Germany.
I have a flat granite pebble, about 3^ inches by 3 inches, the sides
straight, the ends round, and with well-marked circular depressions in
each face, from Cayuga County, Xew York. It has certainly been used
as a hammer-stone. Such mullers are by no means uncommon in
North America. Some of the American ^* stone discs, which are ocea-
' Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 71. - Arch. Joiir/i., vol. xvii. p. 171.
3 Amer. Anthropologist, vol. iv., 1891, p. 301.
* " South Wilts," Tumuli, pi. vi. " Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. 3.
* See Arch., vol. xliii. p. 408.
* Arch. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 320, figs. 14, 15. Arch. Camb., 4th S., vol. v. p. 181.
' Proc. Soc. Ant., 2n(i S., vol. iii. p. 396. " Arch. Jouni., vol. x. pp. C4, 160.
3 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. p. 208.
»" Greenwell, " Brit, bar.,'' pp. 200, 239, 242.
^' Arch. Journ., vol. xxviii. p. 148. '- P. S. A. S., vol. xxviii. p. 341.
12 " Etudes Paleoethnol.," 1867, pi. iv. 1.
" Squier and Davis, " Anct. Mon. of Mississ. Valley," p. 222.
WITH CUr-SHAl'ED DEPRESSIONS. 245
sionally pierced, ai)pear to liave Loon more probably used in certain
games.
Oup-sliapod cavities occasionally occur on stones which have not
apparently been intended for use us hammers. In the soil of one of
tho barrows at lludstone, near Bridlington, Canon Groenwell found a
fragment of a greenstone pebble, nearly flat on one face, in which a
concave depression, about an inch over and \ inch deep, had been
l)icked. In tho National Museum at Edinburgh is a subquadrate
flat piece of grit, 1 inch thick and about 3.V inches long, on each
face of which is a cup-shaped depression about 1^ inches in dia-
meter. It does not appear to have been used as a hammer. Mr.
James Wyatt, F.G.S., had a piece of close-grained grit, in shape
somewhat like a thick axe-head, -1^ inches long, ;J inches wide, and
3 inches thick, with four concave deiiressions, one on each face and
side, found at Ivempston Eoad, near 13edford. What purpose these
hollows fulfilled, it is difficult to guess. The stones in which they
occur may, however, have been used as anvils or mortars on which to
hammer or pound ; or the cavities may have served to steady objects
of bono, stone, or wood in the process of manufacture. Anvil stones,
with pits worn on their faces, probably by Hints having been
broken upon them, have been found in Scotland.' A sandstone^
with a concave depression on each of its six faces has been re-
garded by IMortiilot as a grindstone for fashioning stone buttons or
the convex ends of other implements. I have seen analogous cavi-
ties produced, on a larger scale, on blocks of granite which have
been used as anvils, on which to break road materials. The cup
and ring cuttings •' common on ancient stone monuments, especially in
Scotland, do not come within my province. Flat stones, with cup-
shaped markings upon them, sometimes as many as seven on a stone,
were found in considerable abundance in some of the Yorkshire *
barrows examined by Canon Greenwell.
The stones with cup-shaped^ depressions in them, found in the
caves of the Eeindeer Period in the south of France, have the hollows,
in nearl}' all instances, upon one of their faces only, and have there-
fore more probably served as mortars than as hammers. The pebbles,
from the same caves, which have been used as knapping or chipping
stones, arc usually left in their natural condition on the faces, though
worn away at the edges, sometimes over tho whole periphery. A very
few of the hollowed stones show signs of use at the edges.
Stones with cup-shapod '"' depressions, like those from the French
caves, are in use in Siberia for crushing nuts and the seeds of the
Cembro Pine ; and among the natives of Australia ' for pounding a
bulbous root called beiiila/i, and the roasted bark of trees and shrubs
for food. Some Carib examples of the same kind are in the Ethno-
logical ^Museum at Copenhagen, as well as some from Africa, used in
the preparation of poison.
1 r. S. A. .v., vol. xiv. p. 314 , xxi. p. 13o. - " Mus. preli.," fig. o92.
•' See Sir J. Y. Simpson, I'roc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. App.
* "Brit. Barrows," 341, ct scqq. * See " Reliqiiise Aquit.," p. 60.
6 '< Rcl. Aquit.," p. 108.
'' Arch. Assoc. Jourii., vol. vii. p. £4. See Eyre's "Central Australia," vol. ii.
pi. iv. p. 14.
24G
HAMMER-STONES, ETC.
[chap.
Some of the so-called corn-crushers ' and mealing-stones from the
Swiss Lake-dwellings have shallow depressions on the faces, but for
the most part they belong to the class to be subsequently described.
I have one of granite, from Nussdorf, with a depression on one face,
in which the thumb can be placed, while the forefinger lies in a
groove, like that of a pulley, Avhich extends about half-way round the
stone. The opposite part of the edge is much worn by hammering.
It ajiproximates in form to tlie pulley -like stones to which the name of
sling-stones has been given, but the use of which is at present a mystery.
A hammer-stone, curiously like that which I have ongi-aved as Fig.
165, is among tliose found in the settlements of the Lac du Bourget,-
by M. Eabut. This or a similar one is in the British Museum. Another
from Picardy^ has been iigured.
Fig. 166.— Scamridge.
A hammer-stone, if so it may be called, of bronze, is among the anti-
quities from Greenland in the Ethnological ISIuseum at Copenhagen.
Occasionally' the depression is reduced to a minimum, and consists
of merely a slight notch or roughening on one or both faces of the
pebble which has served as a hammer or pounding-stone.
The irregular, flat greenstone pebble, worn away at both ends,
shown in Fig. 166, has on one face only a notch, apparently intended
to receive the thumb. It was foimd at Scamridge, Yorkshire, and is
in the Greenwell Collection. It will be observed that it is worn into a
curved ridge at one end. In the same collection is an oval quartzite
jiebble (4^]- inches), battered at both ends, and with a slight diagonal
ridge at that most worn away. This was found in a barrow at Weaver-
thorpe,* with an unburnt body. I have a flat greenstone pebble from
^ Keller's " Lake- dwellings," p. 137. Lindensclimit, "Holienz. Samml.," pi.
xxvii. 8.
- " Hab. Lac. de la Savoie," 1st Mem. pi. xi. 2.
" Rev. Arch., 3rd S., vol. -v-ii. p. 6S. ^ " Erit. Earrows," p. 193.
RIDGED AT THE END. 247
Scamridge, Yorksliiro, worn av>'iiy at ono end to a curved ridge-
somewhat oblique to tlie faces of the pebble, one of which is slightly
polished as if l)y constant rubbing. There is in the Greenwell Collec-
tion a granite pebble (3^ inches), from the same place, battered
at one end, and the other much worn away by use, which also has
one face flat and slightly polished. In the camp at Little Solsbury
Hill,' near Batli, I iound two quartzite implements of rudely quad-
rangular prismatic form, each having one end worn away to a ridge.
Another quartzite pebble, rubbed to an obtuse edge at one end, was
found by (ieneral I'itt llivers, F.R.tS.,'" within an ancient earthwork at
Dorcliester, Oxfordshire.
A hammer-stone of close-grained grit, having a ridge all round the
perii)hery, was found in Anglesea.-' Others with ridged ends have
occurred in crannogs at Lochlee,^ Ayrshire, and in Wigtownshire.''
Some of them seem to belong to the Iron Age.
Among the specimens just described, there are three peculiarities
which, though not occurring together on all, are worthy of notice — the
notch on the face, the ridge at the end, and the polished face.
There can be no doubt of the notch on the face being, like the cup-
shaped depressions, merely intended as an aid in holding the stone.
On the hammer-stones discovered by the late Mr. J. W. Flower,
F.Gr.S., in a post-Roman kjokken-mcidding, in the island of Herm,''
there were usually one or two rough notches or indentations on each
face, exactly adapted to receive the ends of the thumb and some of
the fingers ; and, curiously enough, I have a pebble notched in pre-
cisely the same manner from Delaware AVater Gap, Pennsylvania, and
no doubt intended for a hand-hammer or pounder.
In the same kjokken-muddingat Hermwere several' celt-like imple-
ments of j^orphyry and greenstone which, instead of an edge, had the
end blunt, but Avith a ridge obliquely across it, as on these pebbles.
Somewhat similar pounding-stones have been found by the late Hon.
"W. 0. Stanley, at Pen-y-I3onc," Holyhead, in some instances provided
with a depression fitting the thumb or finger, and several having the
ridge at the end.
The same sort of ridge occurs on pounding-stones from Denmark,
Portugal,' Spain,'" Ireland, and elsewhere, and occasionally extends all
round the stone when it happens to be disc-shaped, like those already
mentioned from Upton Lovol and elsewhere. Hammer-stones worn
to a ridge are also found in Egypt." It would appear that the face of
the hammer was ground away, either by a rocking motion on a flat
stone, or by the blows given with it being administered alternately from
the right and from the left, so as to keep any matter that was being
pounded with it from being di-iven out of position.
1 Trau.i. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. iv. p. 242.
- Jottrii. Ethnol. Soc, vol. ii. p. 413. ^ Arch. Canih., 4th S., vol. v. p. 184.
* r. S. A. .S'., vol. xiii. p. 204, Munro, "Liike-d\v.," p. 102.
•' 1'. H. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 214. " Jotirn. Aiith. Soc, 1869, p. cxvii.
' The burnishing stones in use umong powtorers are, when dismounted from their
setting, curiously like these blunt-ended celt-like instruments. They have no ridge,
however, at the truncated end. Some of the stone burnishers used by bookbinders-
are also in form like celts, but have a flattened edge.
■^ Arch. Juiini., vol. xxvii. p. IGI. " Trans. Eth)i. Soc, N.S.,vol. vii. p. 48.
"^ De Gongora, "Ant. Preh. dc Andalusia," p. 108.
" Zeitsch. f. Eihn., vol. xx. p. (3G5).
248 HAMMER-STONES, ETC. [CHAV. X.
I have, lastly, to notice the more or less polished condition of one
of the faces of these stones, which may be due to their being used for
grinding the material already pounded by their edges to a finer
powder on the slab, which served instead of a mortar. One of the
flat pebbles found in the Cave of La Madelaine. Dordogne, appears
to have served as a muller for grinding the haematite used as paint.
Sometimes these hammer-stones are mere pebbles without any
previous preparation, and indeed it is but natural that such should
have been the case. Canon Greenwell has found pebbles of quartz
and greenstone, worn and battered at the ends, accompanying inter-
ments on the Yorkshire "Wolds, and such are also occasionally present
on the surface, though they are, of course, liable to escape observa-
tion. A quartzite pebble that has served as a hammer-stone, and
is much worn and fractured by use, was found at Ty Mawr. and
is figured in the Jrchaohgical Journal} as are also several from
hut-circles in Holyhead and Anglesea.- A large sarsen-stone pebble,
weighing 4f lbs., and which had obviously been used as a hammer, was
foimd in the Long Barrow, at "West Kennet,^ "Wiltshire. A large coni-
cal sort of muller of sarsen-stone.' weighing 12^ lbs., was discovered
with twenty-two skeletons, various animal remains, and pottery, in a
large cist, in a barrow near Avebury. Mr. G. Clinch has a hammer
from West ^\'ickham, made from a nearly cylindrical quartz pebble,
much worn at both ends, one of which is more rounded than the other.
On the Downs of Sussex, in the pits of Cissbujy, in Yorkshire,
Suffolk, Dorsetshire, and other counties, hammer-stones of flint,
apparently used for chipping other flints, have been found, but from
their rudeness it seems hardly worth while to engrave any specimens.
At Grime's Graves the hammer-stones consisted principally of quartzite
pebbles, though some were of flint. In many instances the hammers
made of flint seem to be cores from which flakes have been struck,
but which, proving to be of refractory stone, have been found more
serviceable as hammers. Some of the cores found at Spiennes, near
Mons, have been thus used, as well as fragments of celts. Some of
the hammer-stones from the French eaves consist also of such cores.
; r;.-^. ;e7 :j;dl6S.— York<hirt Woldi. \
Stone mullers are in common use in most countries at the present day,
for grinding paint and similar purposes. They occur at the Cape of Good
Hope,^ but were there, no doubt, originally intended for other uses.
The general character of the chipped flint hammer-stones will be
gathered from Figs. 167 and 168, both from the Yorkshire "Wolds.
' Yol. xxiv. p. 251. - Vol. ixvi. p. .320: xxni. 147.
3 Areh., vol. xxiviii. p. -116. * "Cran. Brit.,"' vol. ii. pi. o8, p. 2.
* Trant. Freh. C<fng., 1868, p. 70.
MADE OF FLINT AND QL'ARTZITE.
249
Neither of thorn shows any trace of the original surface or crust of
the flint from wliich it has been fashioned. The larger one has been
chipped with numerous facets somewhat into the shape of a broad
bivalve shell, and is mucii battered round the margin. Pig. 168 is
niuch smaller than usual, and is more disc-like in character.
A large number of discoidal stones, formed from flattish quartzite
pobbles,lhave been found on the Culbin Sands, ^ Elginshire. By the
Fig. 168a.— Culbin S.inds. J
kindness of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, one of them is sliown
in Fig. 168a. They maybe hammer-stones, but show no traces of use.
IMore commonly, perhaps, the form is approximately spherical. Fig.
169 is, however, a more symmetrical specimen than usual. It was
found by Mr. E. Tindall at Grindale, near Bridlington, and its surface
is battered all over by continual
pounding. I have others of similar
character from Icklingham, Suf-
folk ; Jordan Hill, Weymouth ; and
elsewhere. Two from Old Geir,
iVnglesea, are engraved in the
Arc/iccoloffical Journal!-
Others were found in a tumulus
at Seaford, ' and at Blount Caburn,^
Sussex.
Numerous rude hammer-stones
have been found at Carnac,'^ Brit-
tany.
One of chert, 3 inches in diameter, was found in the Isle of Port-
land,'' and several have been found in Dorsetshire" which were sup-
posed to have been used in fashicmiug flint implements ; and balls of
chert, 2t} inches and 2| inches in diameter, found at West Coker,
Somersetshire," and another from Comb-Pyne, Devonshire,'-* have been
thought to have been " intended for the sling, or else to be tied up
in a leather thong attached to a staff, and employed as a sort of
mace."
1 r. S. A. S., vol. XXV. p. 496. - Vol. xxvii. pi. xi. 2, ;].
3 Susx. Arch. Coll., vol. xxxii. p. 171. * Arch., vol. xlvi. p. 492, pi. xxiv_. 26.
'•> Miln'.s " Excav. at Carnac," 1881, pi. xv. "^ Arch. Jouni., vol. ^xv. p. 47.
' Proc. Sue. Ant., 2ud S., vol. ii. p. 26.).
^ Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xviii. p. ;{93. ^ Ibid., vol. xxiii. p. :501.
Fig. 1C9.— lliiJlii
250 IIAMMEK-STONES, ETC. [CHAl-. X.
A globular noclulfi of flint, one pound in weight, and chipped all
over, found with numerous flint flakes in the long-chambered barrow
at AVest Kennet,' appeared to Dr. Tliurnam to have been used in
their production. Several others found together in the parish of Ben-
loch}-,-' near Blairgowrie, were regarded as sling-stones. A lump of
red flint found in a barrow near Pickering,'' in company with a flint
spear-head and two arrow-heads at the right hand of a skeleton, was
considered by Mr. Bateman to have been used as a hammer for chij^ping
other flints. A more highlj'-decorated class of stone balls will be
described at a subsequent page. Stone balls, such as were in common
use for cannon in the Middle Ages, and those thrown by catapults and
other military engines, do not come within my province.
Judging from the battered surface of the spherical stones now
under consideration, there can be no doubt of their having been
ill use as hammers or pounders ; but they were probably not in
all cases used merely for fashioning other implements of stone, but
also for triturating grain, roots, and other substances for food, in
the same manner as round pebbles are still used by the native
Australians,^ One such root, abundant in this country, is a prin-
cipal article of food consumed bytheAhts^ of North America, among
whom " the roots of the common fern or bracken are much used
as a regular meal. They are simisly washed and boiled, or beaten
with a stone till they become soft, and are then roasted." In
New Zealand also fern roots are jDounded for food, with pestles of
basalt. The corn-crushers and mealing-stones found in the Swiss
Lake- dwellings have evidently been intended for the purposes
which their names denote ; and at the present day among many
savage tribes, the only form of mill that is known is that of a flat
or slightly concave bed-stone, with a stone rolling-pin or muUer.
Among the Kaffirs^ and in West Africa the mill is of this char-
acter, the bed-stone being large and heavy, slightly hollowed on its
upper surface ; the muller, a large oval pebble which is used with
a peculiar rocking and grinding motion. The corn (maize or
millet) is often boiled before grinding. In Abyssinia'^ the bed-
stone of gneiss or granite is about 2 feet in length and 14 inches
in width. The face of this is roughened by beating it with a
sharp-pointed piece of harder stone, such as quartz or hornblende,
and the grain is reduced to flour by repeated grinding or rubbing
1 Arch. vol. xxxviii. p. 416. - Arch. Assoc. Journ.,yo\. xxiii. p. 391.
* "Ten Years' Dig^gs." p. 223. •« Tra7>s. Ethn. Soc, K. S., vol. iii. p. 278.
•'' iSproat's " Scenes and Studies of Savage Life," p. 5.5.
« Wood, "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. i. p. 152. Eatzel, " Yolkerk.," vol. i., 1887,
p. 216.
' " Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia," Baker, p. 78. See also "The Albert Nyanza,"
vol. i. p. 6.'). Klemra's " Cult.-Wiss.," p. 88.
SADDJ.E-QUERNS.
251
■with a stone rolling-pin. Sucli mcaling-stones are also in use in
South America.^ They have been occasionally found in Britain,
and the annexed figure shows a pair found in a hut-circle at Ty
Mawr,^ in the island of Holyhead. Others have been found in
Anglesea.^ Similar specimens have been obtained in Cambridge-
shire and Cornwall, and Mr. Tindall had a pair found near
Bridlington. A mcaling-stonc with the muUer was found in Ehen-
side Tarn,'* Cumberland. I have myself found a muUcr at Osbas-
ton, Leicestershire. A pair of stones from the Fens^ is in the mu-
seum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Some largo blocks of
flint, having a flat face bruised all over by hammering, have also
been found in the Fens, and may have served as mealing- stones.
The same form of mill is found also in Ireland,'' and not
improbably remained in occasional use until a comparatively late
Fig. 170.— Holyhead.
period. Fynes Moryson'^ mentions having seen in Cork " young
maidcs, stark naked, grinding corno with ccrtaine stones, to make
cakes thereof ; " and the form of the expression seems to point to
something different from a hand-mill or quern, which at that time
was in common use in England. The name of saddle-quern has
been given to this form of grinding apparatus. In the ])lack-
more Museum is one from the pit- dwellings at Ilighfield,^ near
Salisbury, which are not improbably of post-Roman date ; and in
the British Museum is one found near Macclesfield.
' Rev. Dr. Hume, "Ulust. of Brit. Ants, from Objects found in S. Amer.," p. C9.
- See Arch. Jottrn., vol. xxiv. p. 241, whero much information is given concerniug-
such stones.
^ Arch. JcMrn., vol. xxvii. p. 160, &c. ylrch. Cmnh., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 210 ; ord
S., vi. 376 ; vii. 40 ; viii. 157 : 4th S., xii. p. 32. * Arch., vol. xlvi. p. 28").
■' Arch. Camb., 3rd S., vol. vii. p. 240. '• Wilde'.s " Cat. ilus. R. I. A." p. 104.
" " Itinerary," 1017, pt. iii. p. 101. " •' Flint Chips," p. G2.
5
252 HAMMER-STONES, ETC. [CHAF. X.
They are also known in Scotland. One of granite, found near
"V\'ick,^ is in the National Museum at Edinburgh ; as is also
another, 20 inches by 12 inches, with a rubber 12 inches by
8 inches, found in a cave near Cullen, BanfFshire.-
They likewise occur in Shetland.^ Mr. J. TV. Cursiter has a
long narrow muUer with a curved back, in which are five grooves
to receive the fingers, so as to give it the appearance of being a
fragment of an ammonite.
Saddle-querns of the same character occur also in France.^ I
have a small example from Chateaudun. One from Chassemy^
(Aisne) has been figured.
Some were likewise found in the Genista Cave at Gibraltar.^
They are common in "West Prussia and in the Island of Riigen,
as well as in Scandinavia generally.
A German saddle-quern, from the ancient cemetery at Monsheim,
has been engraved by Lindenschmit.^ Others are mentioned by
Klemm.^ MM. Siret have also found them in their explorations
in Spain.
It will have been observed, in the instances I have cited, that
the movable muller or grinding-stone is not spherical, but elon-
gated; but what is possibly the more ancient form approached
more closely to a pestle and mortar in character, and consisted of
a bed-stone with a slight concavity in it, and a more or less
spherical stone for a pounder.
A grinding-stone of granite, with a cavity, apparently for bruising
grain by a globular stone, was found in Cornwall.^ and undressed
slabs with concavities of the size and shape of an ordinary soup-plate,
are of frequent occurrence in the Hebrides.^'' Others have been t'ovuid
in company with stone balls, in the ancient habitations in Anglesea.
Fig. 171 shows a trough of stone, found at Ty Mawr,'^ Holyhead,
by the late Hon. "W. 0. Stanlej', who kindly lent me the wood-cuts of
Figs. 170 and 171. The cylindrical grinding-stone or muller was
fotind within it, and has a central cavity on each face, to give the hand
a better hold in grinding. A similar appliance was found at Pen-y-
Bone '- in the same island.
A triturating trough from Cleveland" has been figured.
^ Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot. ,Tol.u. p. 377.
- P. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 9. 3 p s. A. .S.. vol. xi. p. 176.
* Garrison et Filhol, " Agede la Pierre polie,"' &c.. p. 27. Arch. Camb., 4tliS.,
Tol. i. p. 292.
^ "Mus. Preh.," No. 5S7. * Tran.'. Preh. Co»g., 1868, p. 155.
" " Alt. u. h. v.." vol. ii. Heft -i-iii. Taf. i. 16.
* "Cult.-Wisa.," p. 88.
' Arch. Camb., 3rd S., vol. iii. p. 356. i'» Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 1 17.
" Arch. Journ., vol. xxvii. p. 160, pi. ii. 1.
^- A. J., vol. sxiv. p. 247. '^ Atkinson's " Cleveland," p. 40.
PESTLKS AND MORTARS.
253
Tliey havo Leon found in Cornwall ' and in Ireland.-
Others havo been discovered in Brittany.
Hand-mills of granite formed in much the same manner have been
in use until lately in Brandenburg. The lower stones are described
as from 2 feet to 4 feet long, and nearly as wide, with channels, after
long use, as much as G inches deep ; the mullers are either spherical
or oval, and of such a size that tliey can be hold in the hand.-'
A largo sandstone, with a small bowl-shaped concavity worked in it,
was found near burnt bones, in a barrow at Elkstone,' Staffordshire ;
and two others in barrows near Sheon.'" Another, with a cup-shaped
concavity, 2\ inches in diameter, occurred in a barrow near Picker-
ing;" and in other barrows were found sandstone balls roughly chipped
all over, from 4 inches to 1 inch in diameter, in one instance associated
with a bronze dagger. A ball of sandstone, 2^ inches in diameter, was
found with Hint instruments accompanying a contracted skeleton in a
i•'l^^ 171.— Tv .Miiwr.
barrow near Middleton." A round stono like a cannon-ball was also
found in a barrow near Cromer," and three balls of stone, from 2^
inches to IJ inches in diameter, were picked up in a camp at Weet-
.^ wood," Northumberland.
Mealing-stones, both flat and hollowed, were found in Schliemann's^"
excavations at Troy.
In grinding and pounding a considerable amount of grit must havo
been worn off the stones and been mixed witli the meal. The usual worn
condition of the teeth in the skulls from ancient barrows may be con-
nected with this attrition. Mr. Charters- White," by examination of
' "Na?ma Comub.," p. 221.
2 Wood-ilartin " Lake-dw. of Ireland," 1886, p. 8.5.
•' Kirchner, ''Thor's Donncrkeil," 1853, p. 97.
* " Ten Years' Diggings," p. 172. '' Ibid., -p. 177.
« Ibid., pp. 213, 224, 226. " " Vestiges Ant. Derb.," p. 99.
^ Areh. Journ., vol. vii. p. 190. ^ Arch. Joiini., vol. xxiv. p. 81.
"» "Troy," 1875, pp. 151, 103.
" British Med, Journ., April 2nd, 1887, quoted in E^sex Xaturalist, vol. i. p. 92.
254
HAMMER-STOXES, ETC.
[chap.
some teeth from a long barrow at HeytesLury, T\*ilts. was able to
show the presence of grains of sand of dilferent kinds in the dental
tartar.
There are two other forms of grinding apparatus still in use —
the pestle and mortar, and the rotatory mill — both of "which date
back to an early period, and concerning which it "will be well to
say a few words in this place. The ordinary form of pestle — a
frustum of a very elongated cone with the ends
rounded, is so well known that it appears need-
less to engrave a specimen on the same scale as
the other objects. In Fig. 172 is shown one of
W
Kg. 173
Rg. 172.— Holyhead.
a more than usually club-shaped form, 11 inches
long, found in Holyhead Island.^
This cut originally appeared in illustration of an
interesting paper by Mr. Albert Way, F.S.A., on
some relies found in and near ancient circular
dwellings in Holyhead Island, in which paper
some of the other discoveries about to be men-
tioned are also cited. A pestle nke a small club,
9 1 inches long, was found in a gravel-pit near
Audley End,- with a Eoman cinerary urn. Another,
of grey granite, more cylindrical in form, and
flatter at one end, IH iaches long and 2 inches
in diameter, was f otmd at Pulborough, ' .Sussex, and
is engraved in Fig. 1 73. A limestone pestle of the
same character, 12 inches long and 2^ inches in
diameter, found at Clift Hill, is in the museum at
Leicester. A fine pestle of granite or gneiss (12f
inches^ from Epping Forest ^ has been figured, as
has been a shorter one from a barrow at Colling-
botim Ducis,^ Wilts. Another of greenstone,
-h.. probably a naturally-formed pebble, 10] inches
long and 2^ inches in diameter, rounded at
both ends, was found with three porphyry celts in a cairn at
Daviot,^^ near Inverness. It is now in the National Museum at
1 Arch. Jouni., \o\. xxiv. p. 252.
^ Arch. Journ., vol. xiv. p. 357 ; xtu. 170.
3 Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. ix. p. 117. " Chich. Vol. Arch. Inst.,"' p. 63. This cut
has been kindly lent me by the Sussex Aich. Society.
* £stex yatttraliit, vol. ii. p. 4.
5 Arch. Tol. xliii. p. 408. A. C. Smith, "Ants, of X. Wilts,"" p. 14.
<- See Pfoc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. p. 179, "where the mtasiirements hardly agree
with mine.
FROIvr SHKTLAXl) AND ORKNEY. 2'J5
EJinljurg-lx. Anothei- of j^veonstono, IG inches long, Avas found near
Carlisle'; and tlio late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., liad one of tlie
same material 10 inches long, tapering from 2 inches in diameter to
II inches, found in llilgayFen, Norfolk. A similar pestle-like stone, 6
inches long, found in tStyria, is engraved by Professor Unger.'- Another
of the same length was among the objects found in the Casa da Moura,"
Ptn'tugal. ^Mauy pestles, more or less well finished in form, have
been discovered by tlio late L)r. Hunt, Dr. Mitchell, Mr. Petrio, Mr.
Long, and others in the Orkney and Shetland Isles, and in different
parts of Scotland.
Those wlio wish to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with
the different circumstances of these discoveries, and with the various
forms of rough implements brouglit to light, will have to consult the
original memoirs '' which have been written concerning them. Both
in cists or graves, and in the remains of ancient circular habitations,
have numerous hammer-stones and pestles been found, associated
with various other articles manufactured from stone and bone. Some
of these are extremely rude, and appear hardly deserving of the
names of spear-hcads, knives, chisels, battle-axes, &c., which have
been bestowed upon them. Thero can, however, be no doubt of
their being of human manufacture, whatever purpose they may have
served. A few well-formed and polished stone celts were found in
company with the objects of this class in the "Underground House
of Skaill," Orkney, which, however, Avas not, strictly sjieaking, sub-
terranean. In the building, and in the midden around it, were
very great numbers of oval sandstone pounding-stones and of large
sandstone flakes, probably knives of a rude kind, a pebble with a
groove round it like a ship's block, and a few celts. In Shetland
these rude stone implements have been found with human skeletons
interred in cists, sometimes with polished weapons.* A very curious
implement, somewhat T-shaped, with pointed extremities, and grooves
round the transverse part, was found in the broeh of Quoyness,'' San-
daj', Orkney, and has been figured.
Many of the pestle-like stones are mereh' chipped into a somewhat
cylindrical form, but others have been picked or ground all over, so as
to give them a circular or oval section. The ends in many instances are
more or Ic^ss splintered, as if by hammering some hard substance rather
than by pounding, and the exact purpose to which they were applied
it is extremely difficult to divine.
Four of them are shown, on a small scale, in Figs. 174 to 177.
Some are more club-liko " in character, as in Fig. 178, and are
even occasionally wrought to a handle at one end, as was the case
^ Arch. Jourii., vol. xxiv. p. 253.
- Sitzungsb. der K. Akad. dtr Wiss. in Wioi, vol. Iv. p. 52S.
^ Trans. Ethn. Soc, N. S., vol. vii. p. 49.
* See Laing's "Prehistoric Remuins of Caitliness, " 1866. Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot.,
vol. vii. I'tjs.iim ; viii. 64. pi. vi. Jlcni. Anthrop. Soc. Lond., vol. ii. p. 294 ; iii.
216. I am indebted to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland for the loan of Figs.
174 to 179. See also P. S. A. S., vol. viii. pi. vi. ; xi. p. 173; xii. p. 271;
and Mitchell's " Past i:i the Present," p. 140.
* J'roc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 136.
•> P. S. A. S., vol. vii. pp. 358, 400.
' P. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 125.
256
HAMMER-STONES, ETC.
[chap. X.
with one found in the heart of a burnt stone tumulus at Bressay ^ (Fig.
179), so as tu give them much of the appearance of the short batlet or
I-.--. 1-4.
Fig. 175. — Shetland.
Fi'-. 176.— Shctlacd.
batting-staff used in the primitive mode of washing linen, such as is
still so commonly practised in many parts of the Continent. Nearly
Fis. 177.— Shetland.
similar rough instruments have been found al Baldoon,- Wigtown-
shire. Is it possible that these stone bats can have served a similar
Fig. 178.— Shetland.
21 in.
purjiose 'i In the Northern counties ^ a large smooth-faced stone, set
in a eloping position by the side of a stream, on which washerwomen
' P. S. A. .S., vol. vii. p. 127. ^ P. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 219.
2 See "SMiitaker's "Hist, of Craven.," 2nd ed., p. 468.
VARIOUS FORMS OP MORTARS. 257
beat their linen, is still called a battling-stone,' and the club is called
a batter, batlet, battledore, or battling-staff . Such clubs may also have
been used in the preparation of hemp and flax.
A stone club, from St. Isabel,- Bahia, Brazil, is described as 13|
Fig. 179.— Shetland.
inches long, 2i inches wide, and l^ inch thick. It may, however, be
a celt, like the supposed clubs from Lancashire^ and Cumberland.
There can be no doubt of several of the pestles, though probably not
all, belonging to the same period as stone implements of other forms.
The mortars in which they were used, were probably merely depres-
sions in blocks of stone, or even of wood. Some rude mortars have, as
already mentioned, been found in Holyhead Island, and Anglesea, but
it is uncertain to what age they belong. A portion of a mortar of
granite, with a channelled lip, found witli fragments of urns and
calcined bones in a grave at Kerris Vaen, Cornwall, is engraved in the
Archceologia Cambrensis.*
Very similar stone pestles to those from Orkney were in use among
the Nortli American Indians'' for pounding maize, and some are
engraved by Squier and Davis."
They also employed' a small form of mortar for pounding quartz,
felspar, or shell, with which to temper the clay for pottery. Stone
mortars and pestles were in use among the Toltecs and Aztecs in
making tortillas, and are found in South Carolina,* and elsewhere in
the United States. Among the ancient Pennacooks *• of the Merrimac
valley, the heavy stone pestle was suspended from the elastic bough of
a tree, which relieved the operator in her work ; and among the
Tahitians'" the pestle of stone, iised for pounding the bread fruit on a
wooden block, is provided with a crutch-like handle.
Some large circular discs of stone, apparently used for grinding, and
others with deep cup-shaped depressions in them, found on Dartmoor,
and probably connected with some ancient metallurgical operations on
the spot, have been engraved and described in the Transactions of the
Devonsk ire Association.^ '
' Wright's " Prov. Diet.," s.v. Cotgrave translates the word Baton " a laundress's
batting-stdff."
-' Arch. Assoc. Jotirn., vol. xxiv. p. 65. ■' Op. cit., vol. xv. p. 232.
■* 3rd S., vol. iii. p. 358. * Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tnbes," vol. i. p. 80.
•" '' Anct. Mon. of Mississ. Val.," p. 22it.
" Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. p. 90.
" Op. cU., vol. ii. p. 89. ^ Op. ci/., vol. iv. p. 175.
'" Cuming in Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. vii. p. 83, where .some interesting infor-
mation relating to mortars will be found. Ratzel, " ViJlkerk.,"- vol. ii. p. 179.
" Vol. iv. p. 136. See also a paper by Mr. R. N. Worth, on the progicss of
mining skill in Devon and Cornwall, in the Trans. Coniw. Polyt. Soc.
S
258 HAMMER-STONES, ETC. [cHAP. X.
The hand-mill formed with an upper rotatory stone is a mere modi-
fication of the pestle and mortar, and dates back to a very early period,
though it has continued in use in some parts of the British Isles even
unto our own day. The name quern, by wliir-h such mills are usually
known, occurs in closely similar fonns, in all the Teutonic dialects.
In Anglo-Saxon it appears under the form Cweom or Cwyrn, and in
modern Danish as Qvsem. An excellent example of this instrument,
■which had been, up to 1850, in use in the cabin of a Kilkenny peasant,
was presented by the Eev. J. Graves to the Archaeological Institute,
and is described and engraved in their Journal.' The upper stone is
of granite, the lower of millstone grit. The lower stone is recessed to
^ receive the upper, and has a central depression, in which a small block
^ of oak is fixed, from which projects a small pin — also of oak — to carry
^ the upper stone. This is about 2 feet in diameter, and is perforated
at its centre with a hopper-like hole, across the bottom of which a
.- small bar of oak is secured, having a recess in it to receive the pin,
!^ r\j but only of such a depth as to keep the upper stone at a slight distance
■^.. Vj from the lower. Through the upper stone, and near its verge, a
vertical hole is drilled to receive a peg, which forms the handle for
^ Vj' turning it. When in use it is worked, as in ancient times among the
.vJ Jews, by two women seated opposite each other, who alternately seize
and propel the handle, so as to drive the stone at considerable speed.
The corn, highly dried, is fed by handfuls into the hopper in the runner
or upper stone, and the meal passes out by a notch in the rim of the
nether stone. Pennant,- in his "Tour in Scotland," describes querns.
\ as still in use in the Hebrides in 1772. They were said to cost about
- , -^ fourteen shillings, and to grind a bushel of com in four hours, with
two pair of hands. He gives a representation of a quern at work, with
a long stick, hanging from the branch of a tree, inserted in the hole
in the runner, so as to form the handle. A somewhat similar method
of driving the hand-mill indoors, taken from a German MS. of the
^*^'' fourteenth century, has been reproduced from a work by Drs. Von
^ Hefner and Wolf in the Archaological Journal:'
A sketch of a hand-mill in use at the present day, at Abbeville, is
1.'. given in C. Eoach Smith's " Collectanea Antiqua."*
^ -;»Y' .. ' Even in the neighbourhood of water-mills, when the charge for
. . ■ grinding was at all high, we find these hand-miUs in use in mediaeval
^cP^ times. Such use. by the townsmen of St. Albans, was, in the begin-
ning of the fourteenth century, a fruitful source of litigation between
them and the abbots, who claimed the monopoly of grinding for their
tenants. •" Thirteen of these, however, maintained their right of using
hand-mills, as having been enjoyed of old, and some claims were raised
to the privilege of gi'inding oat-meal only, by means of a hand-mill.
It seems probable that these mediaeval hand-mills were of large size,
and with a comparatively flat upper stone, like the modern Irish form,
which is sometimes 3 feet 6 inches in diameter. One. 3 feet in diameter,
found near Hollingboume.^ Kent, was probably of no great antiquity.
{^' 1 Arch. Journ., vol. vij. 393. - Vol. ii. p. 323.
* " Die Burg Tannenberg," &c.. Arch. Jouru., yol. vii. p. 40-4.
« Vol. iii. p. 130.
5 " Gesta. Abb. Mod. S. -Ub.," vol. ii. p. 249.
* Arch. Asioc. Journ., vol. vii. p. 175.
HAIS'U-M1I,LS OR QUERXS. 259
k^y
The same may be said of a six-sidod quern, with an iron pivot, found
in Edinburgli.' A quern, found at West Ooker,- Somerset, with a
fleur-de-lis over tlie passage hy which the meal escaped, has been
assigned to the thirteenth century. The lower stcjue of a quern
.accompanied an apparently .Saxon interment at Winster,' Derbyshire,
lit was of the beehive* shape, and made of millstone grit. Similar ,
■querns, with iron ])ins, have been found at Bi'eedon,=^ Leicestershire, - KCT^
as well as others with the upper stone more conical. One of this class •; V"
was also found near Rugby.'' They frequently accompany Eoman' re- | , ,]^, ,
mains, but these are generally of smaller size, and of a more hemispheri- ' '' "
cal form, the favourite material being the Lower Tertiary conglomerate,
or Hertfordshire pudding-stone. Those of Andernach lava, from the
Rhine, are usually flat.
A complete quern was found at Ehenside Tarn,® Cumberland. The
upper half of another was in a post-Roman circular dwelling, near
Birtley,'-' Northumberland.
(iuerns of various forms are of frequent occurrence in Wales,
especially in Anglesea. An upper stone from Lampeter,'" Cardigan-
shire, has a semicircular projection at the margin round the hole for
the handle. In some districts" they have been in use until quite
recent times. '-
In Scotlimd, querus are of frequent occurrence in the ancient
brochs and hill forts. In one of the former, at Kettleburu,'-' Caith-
ness, a stone in preparation for a quern was found; in another, in
Aberdeenshire, an upper stone, 1 8 inches in diameter, was discovered.
Another stone of the same size, surrounded by four border stones to
prevent the scattering of the grain in grinding, was discovered in a
subterranean chamber in a hill fort at Dunsinane,'* Perth. A curious
pot-quern, the lower stone decorated with a carved human face, was
found in East Lothian, and is engraved by Wilson. '^
Some interesting notices of Scottish querns have been given b}- Sir
.Arthur Mitchell.'"
The upper stone, ornamented with raised lines, shown in Fig. 180,
from a cut kindly lent me by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,
was found in trenching a moss in the parish of Balmaclellan, New
(ialloway, with some curious bronze objects of '* late-Celtic " workman-
ship.'^
An upper stone (18 inches), ornamented in a nearly similar way,
was found near Stranraer,'* Wigtownshire, and another, with a tribrach
instead of a cross, at Roy Bridge,'" Inverness-shire.
' Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol iii. p. 203. - Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xv. p. 3;i'ci
•^ "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 99. . * Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xiii. 227.
■'• Ibid., vol. XV. p. 337. « Arch. .Tuurn., vol. v. p. 329.
' Smith's " Coll. Ant.," vol. i. p. 112. Arch., vol. xviii. p. 435 ; xix. 183 ; x.xx.
128. Vroc. Bury and Jf. Suff. Arch. I., vol. i. p. 230, &c. Froc. Soc. Aid., 2nd ;S.,
vol. iii. p. 2.59.
» Arch., vol. xliv. p. 285. » Arch., vol. xlv. p. 3GG.
'! ^'^^^^- (^'""^'■' -^tli S., vol. viii. p. 320. " Arch. Camb., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 210.
'■- Lee's " Isca Silurum," p. 114. '^ Froc. Soc. Ant. Scut., vol. i. p. 2(37.
'* P. S. A. i., vol. ii. p. 97. See also vol. v. p. 30.
'* Freh. Ann I'.s of Scot., vol. i. p. 214.
'* /' 5. A. & , vol. xii. p. 261. Mitchell's "The I'ast in the Present." p. 34.
" F. S. A. S , vol. iv. p. 417. ■" F. S. A. S., vol. xiii. p. 178.
'» F. S. A. S.. vol. xxi. p. 162.
s2
260
HAMMER-STONES, ETC.
[chap. X.
Some ornamentally carved upper stones of querns, one of them with
spiral and leaf -shaped patterns upon it, much like those on the bronze
ornaments of the "late-Celtic" Period, have been discovered in
Anglesea.'
Querns of green sandstone are stated, by Sir E. Colt Hoare,' to be
numerous in British villages and pit-dwellings in Wiltshire, as indeed
Fig. ISO.— Balmadellan.
they are in other counties,^ though formed of various kinds of grit.
They rarely occur in barrows, though burnt granite querns have been
found with burnt bones in cromlechs in Jersey.*
Some observations on querns by the Rev. Dr. A. Hume, are published
in the Archceologia Cafnbrensis.^ As these utensils belong, for the most
part, to Roman and post-Roman times, I have thought it needless lu
enter into an}' more minute description of their forms, or of the
•circimistances under which they have been found.
' Areh. Camb., 3rd S., vol. vii. p.
2 "South Wilts," p. 36.
* Arch.,\o\. XXXV. p. 246.
38.
"Vest. Ant. Derb.," 127
2nd 6., vol. ii. p. 89.
261
CHAPTER XL
GRINDING- STONES AND WHKTSTONES.
Before proceeding to the consideration of other forms of imple-
ments, it will be well to say a few words with regard to those
which have served for grinding, polishing, or sharpening tools
and weapons, and more especially such as there is every reason
to suppose, were employed to give an edge or finish to other
materials than metal, though the whetstones of the Bronze Period
must not be passed by unnoticed.
I have already mentioned the fact that the grindstones on
which stone celts and axes were polished and sharpened, were not
like those of the present day, revolving discs against the peri-
phery of which the object to be ground was held ; but stationary
slabs on which the implements to be polished or sharpened were
rubbed. Considering the numbers of polished implements that
have been discovered in this country, it appears not a little
remarkable that such slabs have not been more frequently noticed,
though not improbably they have, from their simple character, for
the most part escaped observation ; and even if found, there is
usually little, unless the circumstances of the discovery are pecu-
liar, to connect them with any particular stage of civilization or
period of antiquity. In Denmark and Sweden, however, these
grinding-stones, both of the flat and polygonal forms already
described, are of comparatively frequent occurrence. Specimens
are figured by Worsaae,^ Sophus Miiller, and others, and were
also given by Thomsen,^80 long ago as 1832. He states that they
have been found in Scandinavia, in barrows and elsewhere in the
ground, with half-finished stone celts lying with them, so that
there can be no doubt as to the purpose for which they were
intended. They are also described by Nilsson^ and Montelius.*
» "Nord. Olds.," Nos. 35 and 36.
* Tidjikrift for Oldkyndighcd, vol. i. pi. ii. p. 423.
» "Stone Age," p. 16. * "Ant. Sued "
262 GRINDING-STOXES AND WHETSTONES. [tIIAl>. XI.
]}oth slabs and prismatic pieces of saudstone have been found in
the Swiss Lake-dwellings/ several of the former with concavities
on one or both faces, resulting from stone hatchets having been
ground upon them.^
In France the discovery of numerous ' poJissoirs ' has been noticed,
some of them of very large dimensions. They are abundant in the
Departments of la Charente^ and la Dordi)gne,* and some fine examples
are in the Museum of Troyes (Aube). One, nearly 3 feet long, with
hollows of different characters, apparently for grinding different parts
of tools and weapons, is figured by M. Peiguo Delacourt ;'' an oval
concavity upon it is 2 feet 3 inches long by 1 foot wide, and seems well
adapted for grinding the faces of large celts. Another fine example was
in the possession of Dr. Li'veille,* at Grand Pres>^igny, and a large
specimen, also from Poitou, is in the !Musee de 8t. Germain. Several
have been found in I^uxembourg" and Belgium.
Flat grinding-stones of smaller dimensions have been found in the
turbaries of the Somme and in the Camp de Catenoy.*^ A narrow
sharjiening stone o inches long is recorded to have been found with
stone hatchets and other implements in the Cueva de los Murcielagos,
in Spain." Folis-toirs have also been observed in India. ^"
The Carreg y Saelhau," or Stone of the Arrows, near Aber, Carnar-
vonshire, has numerous scorings upon it, a quarter or half an inch in
depth ; and. though doubtless used for shar])ening tools and weajions
of some kind, it seems to belong to the metallic age. Canon Green-
well informs me that he observed a rock close to a camp on Lazeuby
Fell, Cumberland, with about seventy grooves upon it from 4 to 7
inches long and about 1 inch wide and deep, pointed at eitlier end, as
if from sharp-ended tools or weapons having' been ground in them.
The grooves are in various directions, Ihough sometimes in groups of
four or five together, which are parallel with each other. In the
course of his investigations in the barrows on the Yorkshire ^Voids'- he
has found a few of the flat slabs for grinding or polishing, though of
t^mall size. One of them, formed of a fiat piece of red sandstone about
4^ inches b}- 3^ inches, with both faces bearing marks of having been
in use for grinding, lay close to a deposit of burnt bones. Another
somewhat similar fragment of sandstone (2| inches by 2^ inches),
which also bore traces of attrition, was found in a barrow at Helpcr-
thorpe.
In another barrow at Cowlam,'-' Yorkshire, E. E., was a rough piece
' Keller's -'Lake -dwell.," p. 24.
2 Keller, "Pfahlbauten," Iter Bericht, Taf. iii. 19; 3ter. Ber. Taf. ii. 2.
' '• Les Polissoirs preh. de la Charonte.'' G. Chauvet, Angoxilcme, 1883.
* '• Les Polissoirs neol. du Dep. de la Dordogne," Testut. Mat.. 3rd S., vol. iii.
<1886) p. 65.
* "Notice sur deux Instruments," &c., p. 4. JIortDlet, Matiriaux, vol. ii.
p. 420.
^ See " Ant. Celt et Anted, de Poitou," pi. xxx.
' Ann. Soc. Arch, de BruxeUex, vol. x., 1896. p. 109.
8 B. de Perthes, "Ant. Celt et Anted.," vol. ii. p. 16.5. MortUlet, "Prom, au
Mus. St. Germain," p. 148.
* De Gongora y Martinez, " Ant. Preh. de Andalusia," p. 34, fig. 19.
'" Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. x\t. p. 73. ^' See Arch. Jourii., vol. xxi. p. 170.
'» "Brit. Barrows," p. 168. ^3 "Brit. Barrows," p. 220.
TJSEU FOR SHARPENING CELTS. 2G3
of grit, 2:1 inches long, with one end slightly hollowed, apparently Ly
grinding celts, and a large flat conipuft laminated red sandstone pebble
about 84' inches by 3 inches, witli b<jt}i faces ground away, the one
being evenly flat and the other uneven. In the same barrow occurred
one of the flint rubbers to be su])sequently described, and also a
quartzite pebble (2A inches long) that had been used as a hammer-
stone. A portion of a whetstone of I'ennant or Coal-measure sand-
stone was found in the long barrow at AVest Kennet, AViltshire,' in
which also occurred a thin ovoidal knife of flint, ground at the edges.
I have in my own collection a very interesting specimen of this kind
from Burwell Fen, near Cambridge. It is a thin slab of close-grained
micaceous sandstone, about 0^ by 4 inches, slightly holl()\\ed and
polished on both faces by grinding. AVith it were found two celts of
flint, -l.l and 5 inches long, of pointed oval section, one of them
polished all over, and the other at the edge only, which in all
probability had been sharpened on this very stone. In the same place
were two long subangular fragments of greenstone of the right form,
size, and character to be manufactured into celts, and which had no
doubt been selected for that purpose.
A grinding-stone with a celt lying in it, found at Glenluce,- Wig-
townshire, has been flgured.
On the Sussex Downs I have found flat pebbles 3 or 4 inches long,
which have evidently been used as hones, but whether for stone or
metallic tools it is impossible to say. Fragments of polished celts
and numerous flakes and "scrapers" of flint were, however, in their
immediate neighbourhood. Among the modern savages of Tahiti^ who
used hatchets of basalt, a whetstone and water appear to have been
always at hand, as constant sharpening was necessary. It seems
probable therefore that there must have been a constant demand for
such sharpening-stones in this country, and that many of them ought
still to exist. With flint hatchets, the constant whetting was, however,
no doubt less necessary than with those of the different kinds of basalt.
Their edges, if carefully chipped, will indeed cut wood without being
ground at all.
Mr. Bateman mentions " a flat piece of sandstone rubbed hollow
at one side " as having been found in a barrow at Castern, Staf-
fordshire,* but it is uncertain whether this was a grindstone.
It may have been used only as a mortar, for with it was a round
piece of ruddle or red ochre, *' which from its abraded appearance
must have been in much request for colouring the skin of its
owner. "^ In a barrow on the West Coast of Kintyre, there also
occurred a piece of red Lancashire or Westmoreland iron- ore or
haematite worn flat on the side, apparently by having been rubbed
upon some other substance. Nodules of ruddle are also said to
' Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 417.
■^ " Cook's Voyages," quoted by Tylor, "Early Hist, of Mank.," 2nd ed., p. 201.
3 F. S. A. S., vol. XV. p. 263.
♦ " Ten Years' Dig.," p. 169.
^ Areh. Scot., vol. iii. p. 43.
264 GRINDING-STONES AND ^VHKTSTONES. [CHAP. XI.
have occurred, interspersed with the charcoal in a barrow at
Broad Down, near Honiton.^
In one of the ancient habitations in Holyhead,^ was a large
stone 11 inches long, probably used for grinding haematite, with
which it was deeply tinged ; and a small stone box found with
celts and other relics at Skara, Skaill, Orkney,^ contained a red
pigment.
There can be little doubt of this red pigment having been in
use for what was considered a personal decoration by the early
occupants of Britain. But this use of red paint dates back to a
far earlier period, for pieces of haematite with the surface scraped,
apparently by means of flint-flakes, have been found in the French
and Belgian caves of the Reindeer Period, so that this red pig-
ment appears to have been in all ages a favourite with savage
Fi::. ISOa. — LambertoD Moor.
man. The practice of interring war-paint with the dead is still
observed among the North American Indians.*
• ' The paints that warriors love to use
Place here within his hand,
That he maj- shine with ruddy hues
Amidst the spirit land."
Some few of the grinding-stones found in this country resemble
those of polygonal foi-m found in Denmark,^ in so far as they are
symmetrically shaped and have been used on all their faces. One
13j inches long, found on Laniberton Moor,*^ Berwickshire, is shown in
Fig. 180a., kindly lent by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland.
In the Christy Collection is such a sharpening-stone, nearly square
in section, about 9^ inches long, and of the form shown in Fig. 181.
Both the faces and sides are worn slight!}- concave, as if from grinding
convex surfaces such as the edges of celts, though it is impossible to
say with any degree of certainty that this was really the purpose to
which it was applied. It is said to have been found near Barcoot, in
the parish of Dorchester, Oxon, in 1835, not far from a spot where a
^ Arch. Journ., vol. xxv. p. 295. - Arch. Journ., vol. xxvii. p. 161.
' Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 219.
* See Lyell, " Ant. of Man," 3rd ed. p. 189.
' "Worsaae, fig. 36. Nilsson, '• Stone Age," pi. ii. 15.
* Proe. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xv. p. 74.
FOUND IN HARROWS.
2(Jo
stone celt had beeu found a few years previously. In the same collec-
tion is a Danish whetstone of precisely the same character, but rather
broader at one end than at the other.
Fip. 181.— Dorchestsr.
A grinding-stone, 26 inches long, was
found at EhensideTarn,' Cumberland.
In Fig. 182 is shown, full size, a very
curious object formed of compact mica-
schist, which has the api^earance of having
served as a whetstone or hone. It has been
ground over its whole ."surface. The flatter
face is towards the middle somewhat hol-
lowed— rather more so than is shown in the
section — and shows some oblique scratches
upon it as if from rubbing a rather rougli
object upon it. It was found in 1870 by
Canon Greenwell, with other relics accom-
panying an unburnt body in a barrow at
Rudstone, near Bridlington.'^ About midway
between the head and the knees was a series
of articles in this descending order. On the
top was this whetstone — if such it be — rest-
ing on a carved jet ring, like Fig. 372, which
lay on the boss of a large jet button. Below
this was another jet button, like Fig. 371,
face downwards. Close by lay a half-nodule
of pyrites and a round-ended flint flake,
which will be subsequently noticed. Nearer
the face was a dagger-knife of bronze, with
three rivets through it, and two more for
fastening together the two plates of ox-horn
of which the hilt had been composed. The
whetstone may have been that used for shar-
pening this instrument.
An instrument of slate of nearly the same
> Jrrh.,vo]. xliv. p. 286.
- .]faUon Sffsteiiffer, Nov. 12, 1870. " Brit. Bar-
rows," p. 263.
Fig. l^J I., l-'.-iif. ;
26lJ GR1> DING-STONES AND WHEISTONES. [CHAP. XI.
form was found iu a caii-n at Penbeacon,' Dartmoor, and was regarded
by Mr. Spence Bate as a tool used in fashioninp: day vessels. Dr.
Thurnam- has suggested that if covered with leather these stones may
have served as bracers or arm-guards for archers.
Two pieces of a dark-coloured slaty kind of stone, of nearly the same
form and size as the Yorkshire specimen, and lying parallel with each
other, were found by Sir K. Colt Hoare' at the feet of a -skeleton,
together with a little rude drinking-cup, iu a barrow near Winter-
bourn Stoke. A stud and ring of jet, probably of the same character
as those from Kudstone, and a piece of Hint rudely chipped, as if in-
tended for a dagger or spear, were also found. No bronze objects were
discovered, but the ci.'^t appears to have been imperfectly examined.
I have already mentioned^ that in grinding and polishing the
concave faces of different forms of perforated stone axes, it is pro-
bable that stone rubbers were used iu conjunction with sand.
Even the smaller flat and rounded faces may have been wrought
by similar means. That rubbers of some kind must have been
ui-ed, is, I think, evident from the character of the surfaces, espe-
cially of those which are hollowed ; and the most readily available
material for the formation of such rubbers, was doubtless stone.
There is therefore an a pfiori probability of such stone grinding-
tools having been in use ; and if we find specimens which present
tlie conditions which such tools w'ould exhibit, we are almost
justified in assuming them to have served such purposes. Now
in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, Yorkshire, are
several pieces of flint and portions of pebbles of schist, flint, and
<iuartz fotmd in that neighbourhood, which are ground at one end
into a more or less rounded form, and exhibit striae running
along, and not across, the rounded surface. They have, in fact,
all the appearance of having been used with coarse sand for
grinding a concavity iu another stone, such, for instance, as the
concave face of the stone axe shown in Fig. 125. I am indebted
to their kindness for the specimen shown in Fig. 183, which con-
sists of a short piece of a conical nodule of flint, the
large end of which has been used for grinding in
ancient times, the striated face being now considerably
weathered. In the Greenwell Collection is a rubber of
Fig. 18.3.— Fim- the samo kind from Weaverthorpe on the Yorkshire
t)cr. J .^ _ ^
Wolds. Mr. H. S. Ilarland'' has found other speci-
mens in Yorkshire, of which he has kindly given me several.
Polishers^ are also found in Scotland. A polisher of somewhat
similar character, but made of serpentine, was found in the
' Tnins. iJev. Assoc, vol. v. p. .551. - Arch., vol. xliii. p. 426.
^ " South Wilts.," p. 118, pi. xiv. * P. 43.
' Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 399. " J roc. Soc. Ant. ^"^cot., vol. iv. p. 264.
FOUND JN liVKIunV.S.
267
Lugo di Varcse, near Coriio, where a number of stone implemenis
were also discovered.
At a later period larger rubbers of the same kind were used to
smooth the flutings of Doric columns. I have seen some among
the ruins of the temples at Selinunto, in Sicily.
Some long narrow rubbers, apparently intended for grinding
out the shaft-holes of perforated axes, have been found in the
Swiss Lake-dwellings ; and I have a slightly conical stone, about
an inch in diameter, from !Mainz, which may have been used
for the same purpose.
In the barrow at Cowlam, already inentioued. besides the grinding-
btoues of grit, there was a piece of iiint roughly chipped into a cubical
form, and having one face partly ground smooth. It may have been
used for polishing the surfaces of otlier stone implements, or possibly
merely as a muller. It is shown in Fig. 184. Thestriaj run diagonally
of the square face.
lu the collection fonued by Canon Ureenwell, is also a sandstone
pebble, 2^ inches in diameter, which has been "picked" into shape, and
has one face smooth as if used for grinding. It was found in a barrow
on Ganton Wold, luist Hiding. A rougidj' conical piece of oolitic sand-
stone, 2\ inches high, in places '• picked " on tlxe surface, and with the
bas*- apparently used for grinding, was found with a contracted body
and some flint llakes, in anotlier barrow on Ganton Wold.*
la the AViltshire barrows several rubbing-stones (or what appear to
be such) of a peculiar form liave been found, of which one is sliownin
Fig. 184.— Cowh-m.
Fig. ISO. — AiiR'sLiury.
Fig. 18.0. It is of close-grained grit, possibly from the Lower Green-
sand, and was discovered with two others in a barrow on Normanton
Down, near Amesbury. Two more wove in tlie collection of the late
Ecv. Kdvrard Luke, of Lake, near Salisbury, to whose kindness 1
am indebted for the loan of the specimen. Both are now in the British
■Musi'iini. These instruments var}' but little in shape, size, or character,
being usuall}' of a truncated hali'-ovoid form, witli a rounded groove
along the flat surface, and are formed of sandstone.
One was foxind in a barrow at Upton Level,- with flint celts, a per-
forated stone axe-head, various implements of bone, a bronze pin or
' " Brit. Barrows." p. 173.
2 Hoare's "South Wilt.s,"' p. 7.'j. .lirh., vol. xv. p. 12;'). "Cat. Dcvi/.es
Mu8.," No. 2.
268 GRINDING-STONES AND WHEl-STONES. [cHAP. XI.
awl, and other objects. Another oecurred in a barrow at Everley,'
with a bronze chisel, an unused whetstone of freestone, and a hone of
bluish colour : and another with a skeleton, a stone hauimer. a bronze
celt, a bone tube, and various other articles in a barrow at Wilsford.*
Two or three of these sharpening stones, found in a barrow at Eound-
way. near Devizes, are in the Museum of the "Wilts Areha'ological
Society-. One of these has been figured.^ A pebble with shallow
grooves on each face found at Mount Caburn. Lewes.* may possibly
belong to this class of implements, though it may have been a hammer.
A rubbing-stone of this kind was found at Topcliffe,* Yorkshire, but
nut in a barrow.
Sir R. C. Hoare considered whetstones of this kind to have been used
for sharpening and bringing to a point, pins and other implements of
bone, and they seem well adapted for such a purpose, and are stUl so
used by the Eskimos. They may also have served for smoothing the
shafts of arrows. Serpentine pebbles with a groove in them are used
for straightening arrow-shafts b}' the Indians of California,* and shaft
rubbers of sandstone have been found in Pennsylvania.'
The Eev. W. C. Lukis found a similar stone (4^ inches) in a barrow
in Brittany. It is now in the British Museum. Another from a dolmen
in Lozere- has been thought to be for sharpening the points of bone in-
struments. Stones of the same form have been found in Germany ; two
from the cemetery near Munsheini* are preserved in the Museum at
Ma?nz. They are rather more elongated than the English examples. A
specimen very Kke Fig. 185 has been found in Denmark.'- They seem
also to occur in Hungary.'^ I have a grooved stone of this kind from the
Lago di Yarese, Como, where the manufacture of flint arrow-heads was
carried on extensively. An object found with polished stone instru-
ments in the cave Casa da Moura, Portugal/- not improbably belongs
to this class of grooved sharpening stones.
From their association with bronze objects, they appear to belong to
the Bronze rather than to the Stone Period ; and the same holds good
with the more ordinary form of whetstone, of which an example is
given in Fig. 186. The original was found in the tumulus at Hove,^
near Brighton, which contained the stone
axe-head already mentioned, a beautiful
amber cup, and a bronze dagger. Another,
of compact red sandstone, 3f inches long,
Fi". 166.— Hove. - wdth the perforated end rounded, was found
in a barrow on Bow Hill,'* Sussex, and is
now in the British Museum. Another, 3 inches long, bluish grey in
• Hoare, "South TVUts," p. 182. " Cat. Dev. Mus.," Xo. 97. » " S. W." p. 209.
3 Arch., vol. xliii. p. 423. A. C. Smith, " Ants, of N. Wilts," p. 6S. " Cat.
Devizes il'os.," No. 172a. * Arch., vol. xlvi. p. 435. \\. ixiv. 20.
5 Reliquary, N. S.. vol. v., 1891, p. 47. « Arch. f. Anlh., vol. ix. p. 249.
' 13^/( Rep. Bureau of Ethn., 1896, p. 126. ■* "ilusee preh.." No. 593.
' Lindenschmit, "A. u. h. V.," vol. ii. Heft viii. Taf. i. 2. Ztitsch. de&
Vereins fiir Rhfin. Geschichte, ^c, in Mainz, vol. iii. Archiv fur Authrop., vol. iii.
Taf. ii. Rev. Arch., vol. six. pi. x. 2.
'* Sophus Miiller, "Stenalderen,'" fig. 196. " Zeitsch. f. Eih., 1891, p. 89.
1- Trans. Ethnol. Soc, N. S., vol. vii. p. 49.
'2 Sussex Arch. Coll.. vol. ii., p. 120, whence the cut is borrowed. Arch. Jourti.y
vol. xiii. p. 184 ; iv. 90.
'* Arch. Journ.. vol. x. p. 356. " Chichester Vol.," p. .52.
FOUND WITH INTERMENTS. 2G9
colour, was found with a bronze dagj^er and a stone axe-hammer in
an urn at Broughton' in Craven, in 1675.
Two perforated whetstones were found with a bronze dagger and pin
in the Silk Hill Barrow," Wilts. Another, with the perforation in a sort
of loop at the end, was found with two daggers and a crutched pin of
bronze, associated with burnt bones in a barrow at Normanton. ' Whet-
stones, in some cases not perforated, have occurred in other Wiltshire
barrows, associated with bronze daggers at AVilsford* and Lake, ^ and
with flint daggers or spear-heads at Durrington.'' The smooth stone
found with a iliiit dagger in a barrow near Stonehenge,^ may also
possibly have been a whetstone. Two from barrows at Knowle,''
Dorset, and Camerton, Somerset, have been figured by Dr. Thurnam.
Another of the same kind was found in a barrow at Tregaseal," St.
Just, (^ornwall, and two others wi h urns at Brane Common,^" in the
same neighbourhood. Others not perforated are recorded fromCotten-
ham," Cambs. One from Anglesea'- has been figured.
Two of greenish stone (chlorite?) one 2| inches long, pei'forated at
the end, were found at Drewton,'^ near North Cave, Yorkshire; and
another of similar material, 2 inches long, was found near some " Picts'
houses,'' '^ Shapinsay, Orkney. Half of a whetstone was found with a
bronze dagger and numerous flint flakes by Mr. Morgan in a barrow
at Penhow,''^ Monmouthshire; and a much-used whetstone was found
in a barrow near Scarborough,"'' but the form of neitlier is specified.
Several, both pierced and otlierwise, have been recorded from Scot-
land." One with the boring incomplete was found with a flint knife in
a cist at Stenton,'" East Lothian, and another, perforated, with a
thin bronze blade and an urn at Glenluce,'^ Wigtownshire. It
appears possible that some of the stones found in Scotland and per-
forated at one end, described by AVilson-" as flail-stones, ma}- after all
be merely whetstones. The perforated form is common in Ireland,
and is usually found in connection with metal objects.-' I have a
narrow lione of rag-stone, perforated atone end, which was found with
a remarkable hoard of bronze objects, including moulds for socketed
celts and for a gouge, in the Isle of Ilarty, Sheppe3^ An almost iden-
tical whetstone is in the Zurich Museum.
Wlietstone.s, perforated at one end, have occurred in the Swiss Lake-
dwellings." Most of those found in the ancient cemetery of Hallstatt,^
in the Salzkammergut, were perforated in the same manner, and in
' Thoresby's Cat. in Whitaker's " Due. Lend.," p. 114.
- Hoare's " South Wilts," y. 191. ^ Jbid., p. 199.
* Ibid., p. 209. * Ibid., p. 211.
6 Jbid., p. 172. '' Ibid., p. 164. "Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. 8.5
•* Arch., vol. xliii. p. 424. ■' Arch., vol. xlix. p. 194.
10 "Nienia Comubiic," 1872, p. 212. " Arch. Journ., vol. xxviii. p. 247.
'- Arch. Journ., vol. xxxi. p. i;02. '•• Arch. Journ., vol. xxi. p. 101.
'* Proc. Soc. ylnt. Scot., vol. iv. p. 490.
'•' Arch. Jvuri/., vol. xviii. p. 71. Lee's '' leoa Silurum," jpI. xlii. p. 108.
-® Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. iv. p. 105.
" P. S. A. S., vol. xii. p. 120 : xxiii. p. 219 ; xxviii. p. 230.
"* P. S. A. S., vol. xiv. p. 221. '9 P. S. A. S., vol. xxii. p. G7.
-" "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 188.
=' Wilde's "Cat. Mus. R. I. A." p. 87.
■-■- Perrjn, " Et. Prehist. sur la Savoie,' pi. xv. 12.
^ Von Sacken, " Grubf. von Hallstatt," Taf. xix. Simony, " Alt. von Hallstatt,"
Taf. vi. 6, 7.
270
GRINDING-STONES A>"D WHETSIONES.
CriAP. XI.
some cases provided with an iron loop for suspension. They are
visually of sandstone, and not formed from slaty rocks.
A whetstone, 5^ inches long, the two flat faces of which had evidently
been used for sharpening flat blades, while in the centre of each is a deep
groove, probabl}- caused by sharpening pointed tools, such as awls or
needles of bronze, was found at Ty Mawr, Anglesea, near a sput where
a number of bronze celts, spear-heads. &c., had previously been dug up.
It has been figured by the late Hon. W. 0. Stanley/ whose cut is
here reproduced as Fig. 187. The ends of the .«tone are somewhat
battered from its having been also used as a hammer.
The same explorer discovered in hut-circles in Holyhead Island -
other whetstones of the same character, in one instance with two
principal grooves and minor scorings crossing each other at an acute
angle, and in another with three parallel grooves in the face of the
fig. 187.— Ty Ma%5T.
stone. There can be little doubt that these sharpening stones belong
to a period when the use of metal for cutting and piercing instruments
was fully established.
There are frequently found in Ireland and Scotland flat pebbles
of quartz and quartzite, sometimes ground on the edges or faces,
or on both, and having on each face an indentation running in a
somewhat oblique direction to the longer axis of the pebble.
Specimens^ have been figured by Sir "William Wilde, who describes
them as sling-stones. The flat faces of some have all the appear-
ance of having been abraded by a pointed instrument. I have
never met with this form in England, but in the National
Museum at Edinburgh is a grooved pebble exactly like those
found in Ireland, from the broch, at Xintradwell,* Sutherlandshire,
and another from that at Lingrow, Orkney. One from Borness,^
' Arefi. Joum., vol. xxvii. pi. iii. 1.
- Arch. Joum.. vol. xx^^. p. 321, fig?. 18, 19.
■ " Cat. Mus. li. I. A..' p. 75. * P. S. A. 8., vol. ix. p. 358.
'> P. S. A. S., vol. X. pi. x\-iii. llo.
PEBBLKS WITH GKOOVES IN THKM. 271
Kirkcudbriu^htshire, lius been fifjurod. Others have been found ut
Dunino/ Fife, and Dunnichen,^ Forfarshire. This latter has an
oval hollow on one face and a groove on tlie other.
This pebble variety is rarely found in Scandinavia, but another
and probably rather later form, in which the pebbles have been
wrought into a long shuttle-like shape, is abundant. Some of these
are provided with a groove along the sides, which would admit of a
cord being fastened round them, by which to suspend them from the
girdle. On one or both faces there is often a similar indentation
to those on the Irish specimens, on which, however, it is, as a rule,
deeper than on the Scandinavian. On the latter, the grooves have
sometimes more the appearance of having been produced by
repeated slight blows than by friction. Specimens are engraved
by Worsaae^ and Nilsson.* The latter regards them as belonging
to the Stone Age. They occurred, however, with numerous
objects of the earl}' Iron Age at Thorsbjerg.^ and have even
been found with remains of both bronze and iron bands around
them, instead of an)' more perishable cord.
These grooved stones are not to be confounded with the ordinary
form of hammer-stone,^ but belong to a distinct category. They
were, in all probability, used as a means for obtaining fire, by
striking them with a pointed piece of iron. They constitute, in
fact, the "flint" part of a modification of the ordinary "flint
and steel."
Whetstones are, of course, commonly found with Roman
domestic antiquities ; with Saxon, which are usually of a more
purely sepulchral character, they arc rarely discovered. Canon
Greenwell found, however, two whetstones, one as much as 24
inches long, in graves of this period, at Uncleb}', Yorkshire.
In one of the German cemeteries on the Ilhine, corresjionding
to ours of Anglo-Saxon date, a small rubbing or sharpening stone,
almost celt-like in form, was found.^
In Dutch Guiana^ a small form of grinding-stone of quartz,
apparently of the same age as the stone hatchets of that country,
is known as a thunderstone, and great medicinal powers are
ascribed to it by the natives. I must, however, return to the
sharper forms of stone implements.
' P. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 234. - P. S. A. .S., vol. \iv. p. 27'3.
' "Nord. 01d«.," fior. 343. ♦ PI. i.
■' En^'.'lhardt, '• Thor.sbjcrg Musefimd," p. -"jI, pi. xii. 12.
« See Brit. Assoc. Jiep., 1881, p. 692.
' Jahrb. d. Ver. r. AH. fr. in, lihnnL, Heft iliv. p. 139, Taf. vi. 21.
" Note* and Queries, 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 92.
272
CHAPTER XII.
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC.
The different forms of implements and weapons which have been
treated of in the preceding pages have, for the most part, been
fashioned from larger or smaller blocks of stone, reduced into
shape by chipping ; the chips having apparently been mere waste
products, while the block from which they were struck was even-
tually converted into the tool or weapon required. "With the
majority, though by no means all, of the Xeolithic forms which we
still have to pass in review, the reverse holds good ; for the raw
materials, if I may so term them, from which the bulk of them were
made, were flakes or splinters of flint struck ofl" from larger blocks,
in such a manner that it was the spKnters that were utilized. The
block from which they were struck, instead of being the object of
the manufacture, became, when all the available flakes had been
removed from it, mere refuse, to be thrown away as useless.
Before considering any of the various tools and weapons into
which these flakes or splinters were converted by subsequent or
secondary working, it will be well to say a few words about the
simpler forms of flakes, and the cores or nuclei from which they
were struck.
I have already, in speaking of the manufacture of stone imple-
ments, described the manner in which flakes or spalls are, at the
present day, struck off by successive blows from the parent block
or core, and have suggested the probable methods employed in
-ancient times for producing similar results. Remarks on the
method of production of flint flakes have also been made by Sir
W. WMe,' Sir John Lubbock,- Mr. S. J. Mackie,^ Prof. T. McK.
Hughes,* and others. I need not, therefore, re-open the subject,
» " Cat. Mus. R. I. A.,"' p. 7. - '• Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 87.
s " GeoL and Xat. Hist. Rep.,'' vol. i. p. 208.
* " G. andN. H. Rep.," voL ii. p. VIH; Proc. Sqc. Ant., 2nd S., voL iv. p. 95.
THE CONE AND IJUI-R OF PERCUSSIOX. 273
though it will he well again to call attention to some of the dis-
tinctive marks by which artificially formed flakes may be distin-
guished from mere splinters of natural origin. The formation of
these latter is usually due either to the flint, while still embedded
in the chalk, having received some violent shock from disturbance
of the stratum ; or to unequal expansion, which sometimes causes
flints to split up into rudely prismatic forms, much like those
assumed by starch in drying, and sometimes causes cracks on the
surface, Avhich enable water and frost to complete the work of
splitting them. Occasionally, nearly flat planes of fissure are
caused by the expansion of some small included particle of a
different mincralogical character from the surrounding flint. In
such cases a series of concentric and more or less circular rings
may usually be traced on the surface surrounding the central
particle, which apparently mark the intervals of repose, when its
expansion had ceased for a time to exert sufficient force to continue
the fissure. This kind of fracture is most prevalent in flints upon
or near the surface of the ground, such as those in drift-deposits.
Tn hardly any instances of natural fracture does the surface of
the splinter show any trace of its having been produced by a blow,
though the violent impact of one stone upon another, by means of
a fall from a cliff, or of other natural causes, might produce a
splinter of the same form as if it had been struck oft' by a hammer.
There would, however, be the mark of the blow on one face only
of such a splinter, whereas in a perfectly artificial flake the traces
of the blow by which each facet was produced would be discernible.
On the sea-shore, natural splinters of flint, resulting from the blow
of one wave-borne pebble on another, may occasionally be found,
some of them having a kind of secondary working at the edges, the
result of attrition among the pebbles on the shore.
If a blow from a spherical-ended hammer be delivered at right
angles on a large flat surface of flint, the part struck is only a
minute portion of the surface, which may be represented by a
circle of very small diameter. If flint were malleable, instead of
being slightly elastic, a dent would be produced at the spot ; but,
being elastic, this small circle is driven slightl}' inwards into the
body of the flint, and the result is that a circular fissure is pro-
duced between that part of the flint which is condensed for the
moment by the blow, and that part which is left untouched. As
each particle in the small circle on which the hammer impinges
may be considered to rest on more than one other jDarticle, it is
T
274 FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. [fllAP. XII.
evident that tlie circular fissure, as it descends into the body of the
flint, will have a tendency to enlarge in diameter, so that the piece
of flint it includes will be of conical form, the small circle struck
hy the hammer forming the slightly truncated apex. That
this is not mere theory will be seen from the
annexed woodcut. Fig. 188, showing a cone of
flint produced by a single blow of a hammer.^
Fi" 18S — Artifiaal Somctimcs, as has been shown by Prof. T. McK.
Cone of Flint. Hughcs, F.R.S., the sides of the cone are in steps,
the inclination varying from 30^ to 110"^. This is probably to
some extent due to the character of the blow, and the form of the
hammer.
If the blow be administered near the edge, instead of in the
middle of the surface of the block, a somewhat similar effect will
be produced, but the cone in that case will be imperfect, as a
splinter of flint will be struck off, the fissure probably running
along the line of least resistance ; though, owing to the suddenness
of the blow, the conical character of fracture is at first produced
-at the point of impact. This fracture will vary to some extent in
accordance with the angle at which the blow is given, and the
character of the hammer ; but in all cases where a splinter of flint
is struck off by a blow, there will be a bulb or projection, of a
more or less conical form, at the end where the blow was adminis-
tered, and a corresponding hollow in the block from which it was
■dislodged. This projection is usually known as the " bulb of per-
cussion," a term, I believe, first applied to it b}^ the late Dr. Hugh
Falconer, F.R.S. ; and on every flake, all the facets of which are
purely artificial, this bulb will be found at the butt-end of the
larger flat face, and the hollow depressions, or portions of depres-
sions, on all the other facets. If on a splinter of flint such a bulb
occurs, it proves that it must have resulted from a blow, in all
probability, but not of necessity, given by human agency ; but
where the bulb is on the principal face, and analogous depressions,
or portions of them, are visible on the several other faces, and at
the same end of a flake, all of them presenting the same character,
• I first learnt the art of producing these cones from the late Eev. J. S. Henslow,
F.R.S., and have since then instructed many others in the process, among them the
late Dr. Hugh Falcoaer, F.K.S., whose account of the manufacture of flakes
(" Palseont. Mem.," vol. ii. p. 605) is, I find, curiously like what I have written
above. He insists rat her more strongly on the different characteristics of "iron-struck ' '
and " stone-struck " facets than I should be inclined to do. There is, however, in all
probability adift'eiencein the fracture resulting from hammers of different degrees of
hardness and elasticity The mechanics of the fracture of flint have also been studied
by the late M. Jules Thore, of Dax. {Bull, de la Hoc. dc Borda, Dax, 1878.)
CLASSIFICATION OF FLAKES. 275
and in a definite arrangement, it is in the highest degree probable
that such a combination of blows must be the result of design,
and the features presented are almost as good a warrant for the
human origin of the flake as would be the maker's name iipon
it. When, however, several of such flakes are found together,
each bearing these marks of being the result of several successive
blows, all conducing to form a sj'^mmetrical knife-like flake,^ it
becomes a certainty that they have been the work of intelligent
beings.
In size and proportions flakes vary considerably, the longest
English specimens that I have seen being as much as 8 or 9 inches
long, while some, which still appear to have been made use of as
tools, are not more than an inch in length. Their proportional
breadth is almost as variable.
With regard to the classification and nomenclature of these
objects, 1 would suggest that the name of flake should be limited
to such artificial splinters of flint as, either in their section or out-
line, or in both, present a certain amount of symmetry, and appear-
ance of design ; and that the ruder forms, such as would result
from chipping some large object into sliape, without any regard
to the form of the parts removed, should be called chips or spalls."
Such as show no bulb of percussion may be termed splinters. The
Scottish name for flakes is " skelbs."
The inner, or flat face of a flake, is that produced by the blow
which dislodged it from the pai-ent block, core, or nucleus. The
outer, ridged or convex face comprises the other facets, or, in some
instances, the natural surface of the flint. The base, or butt-end
of a flake, is that at Avhich the blows to form it were administered ;
the other end is the point.
Flakes may be subdivided into —
1. External, or those which have been struck off by a single
blow from the outer surface of a nodule of flint. Many of these
are as symmetrical as those resulting from a more complicated
process of manufacture, and they have frequently been utilized,
especially for scrapers.
2. Ridged flakes, or those presenting a triangular section. One
face of these sometimes presents the external crust of the flint, as
in Fig. 190. In others, the ridge has been formed by transverse
• Archccologia, vol. xxxix. p. 70.
'^ "Spalls or broken pieces of stones that come off in hewing and graving." —
"Nomenclator," p. Ill, quoted iu Halliweirs "Diet, of Archaic Words, «S:c."
" Spalle, or chyppe, quisquilia, assula.'" — " Proniptoriuin Parvulorum," p. 407.
t2
276 FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. [cHAP. XII.
chipping, as is the case ^vith the long flakes from Pressigny
(Fig. 6), but this method appears to have been almost unknown
in liritain.
3. Flat, where the external face is nearly parallel to the
internal, and the two edges are formed by narrow facets, as in
Fig. 200.
4. Polygonal, where the external face consists of many facets,
as in Fig. 192.
These several varieties may be long or short, broad or narrow,
straight or curved, thick or thin, pointed or obtuse. The character
of the base may also vary, being rounded or flat, thick or thin,
broad or narrow.
The cores from which flakes have been struck are, of course, of
various forms, some having had only one or two flakes removed
from them, and others several. In the latter case they are often
more or less regularly polygonal, though only few of the facets will
be of the full breadth of the flakes, as the external face of every
successive flake carries off some part of the traces of those pre-
viously struck off. Not unfrequently some of the facets are
arrested at a little distance from the end where the blows were
struck, in consequence of the flake having broken short off, instead
of the fissure continuing to the end of the block. Occasionally,
and more especially on the Yorkshire T\^olds, the nuclei are very
small, and much resemble in character those found, with numerous
flakes, in India, in the neighbourhood of Jubbulpore.^
It has been suggested" that cores were occasionally made on
purpose for use as tools ; but this appears very doubtful. Of
course, if a core were at hand, and seemed capable of serving
some special purpose, it woidd be utilized.
The core here engraved of the full size in Fig. 189 was found by
myself at "Weaverthorpe, Yorkshire. I have
already suggested that in striking off such
small flakes as those removed from this core,
some sort of punch may have been used, in-
stead of the blows being administered directly
Ly a hammer. We have no conclusive evidence
as to the purpose to which such minute flakes
were appHed, but the}- may have been fashioned
into drills or scraj)ing or boring tools, of very
i.^.i^j.~\;\^-.-..riuwip^. , diminutive size. Such small objects are so
liable to escape observation, that though they
may exist in considerable numbers, they are but rarely found on the
> Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 38. Froc. As. Soc. Beng., 1867, p. 137.
* Dr. Gillespie, in Jouni. Anth. Inst., vol. vi. p. 260.
POLYGONAL CORES. 277
surface of the ground. Numerous flakes, however, quite as minute,
with their edges showing evident signs of wear, are present among the
refuse left by the cave-dwellers of the Reindeer Period of the South
of France. As will subsequently be seen, these minute flakes have
been also found in Egypt and in Asia, as well as inl^ritain. See Fig.
232 A to 232 F. There is a class of ancient Scandinavian harpoon-heads,
the stems of which are formed of bone with small flint flakes cemented
into a groove on either side so as to form barbs. Knives of the same
kind are subsequently mentioned.
Among the Australians' we find very minute splinters of flint and
(juartz secured to wooden handles by " black-boy " gum, and forming
the teeth of rude saws and the barbs of javelins. Some remarkably
small flakes have also been found in the diamond-diggings of South
Africa in company with fragments of ostrich-egg shell, such as with the
aid of the flakes might have been converted into the small perforated
discs still worn as (»rnaments by the Bushmen.
There are but few published notices of the discovery of English cores
of flint, though they are to be found in numbers over a considerable
tract of couutr}', especially where flint abounds.
I have recorded their finding at Kedhill,- near Reigate, and at Little
Solsbury Hill,^ near Bath. I also possess numerous specimens from
Herts, Gloucestershire, Sussex, Bedfordshire, Suffolk, and Yorkshire.
In several instances two series of flakes have been struck off, the one set
at right angles to the other. More rarely the flakes have been obtained
from both ends of the block.
A core from the Fens^ is in the Museum of the Cambridge Anti-
quarian Society, and several were found, with other worked flints, in
the chambered Long Barrow at West Kennet, Wiltshire.
Numerous specimens from Peter's Finger, near Salisbury, and else-
where, are in the Blackmore Museum ; and a number were found by
General Pitt Eivers in his researches at Cissbury, Sussex, and by Canon
Greenwell at Grime's Graves.' Mr. Joseph Stevens has described
specimens from St. Mary Bourne,^ Hants. They are recorded also as
found with flakes at Port St. Mary,' Isle of Man.
A long bludgeon-shaped nodule of flint, from one end of which a
succession of flakes had been struck, was found in a grave, with a con-
tracted skeleton, in a barrow near Winterbourn Stoke,** Wilts.
Illustrations of cores, and of the manner in which flakes have been
struck from them, liave been given by various authors.'-'
The existence of flakes involves the necessity of there having been
cores from which they were struck ; and as silicious flakes occur in
almost aU known countries, so also do cores. A series of French miclei is
I "Wood, "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. pp. 36-38.
- I'roc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S.. vol. i. p. 7'5.
3 Trans. Ethn. Soc, N. S., vol. iv. p. 'Jll.
■• Arc/i. Joiint., vol. xvii. p. 170.
* Jottni. Ethnol. Soc. Zand., vol. ii. p. 430.
'"' For neolithic implements from this place, see Trans. Berks. Archaol. and Archil.
Soc, 1879-80, p. 49.
' " Manx Note Book," vol. i. (188o) p. 71.
" Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Land., vol. i. p. 142.
'■' See Worsaae " Nord. Olds.," No. GO ; •« Guide to North. ,Vrch.," p. 39 : and the
authors already cited at p. 272.
278
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETd
[chap. XII.
fip^iired by MortiUet.^ and a fine example from Olonetz,- Eussia, by
Worsaae. Tliey have also beeu found in the Arabian desert.' Those
of large size and of regular polygonal form are rare in Britain and
Ireland, and, indeed, generally in Europe. Some of tlie largest and
most regiilar occur in Scandinavia. I have also some good examples
from Belgium. Many of the cores from Spiennes, near Mous, Avere
subsequently utilized as celts; and the same vras the case to some
extent at Pressignj-. the large cores from ^vliich have already been
described. The Mexican^ and East Indian^ forms, in obsidian and
cherty flint, have also been mentioned. They are unsm-passed for
symmetry and for the skill exhibited in removing flakes from them.
It is worthy of remark that cores and flakes of obsidian, almost
identical in character Trith those from Mexico, but generally of small
S';>^'»-il^
Fig. 190.— XowhaTeii.J Fig.lfll.-EedMll.Reigate.i Fig.lt'2.— Icklingham.i Fig.liS.— Seaford.i
size, have been found in Greece, principally in the island of Melos.*^
Specimens are in the Christy Collection, and I possess several. Obsi-
dian nuclei are also found in Hungary.
Simple flakes and splinters of flint laave been found in considerable
numbers over almost the whole of Britain. Of the four here shown,
Eig. 190 was found near Newhaven, Sussex; Fig. 191 near Eeigate,
Surrey; Fig. 192 near Icklingham, Suffolk; and Fig. 193 at Seaford,
Sussex. At each of these places they occur in great numbers on the
surface, and near Eeigate some thousands were collected nearly forty
years ago by Mr. Shelley.' of whose discoveries I have given an account
elsewhere. The counties in which they principally abound are perhaps
1 "Mns. preh.," pi. xxTiii.
- Mem. Soc. R. des Ant. du Kord., 1872-7, p. 103.
^ Zeitsch. f. Ethn., vol. xvii. p. (133).
* P. 23. "Seeako Tylor, "Anahuac," p. 96.
•'■ Geol. Maf)., vol. iii. p. 433 ; iv. 43.
« " Objects Found in Greece," G. Finlay, 1SG9. Zeitsch. f. Ethn., vol. v. p.
(110).
' Eroc. Soc. A)if., 2nd S., vol. i. p. G9. See also Arch. Journ., vol. xvii. p.
171.
NUMEROUS IN ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS. 27^
Cornwall,' Devonshire,- Dorsetshire, "Wilts, Hants,^ Surrey,* Oxford-
shire,° Sussex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Derbyshire, Lancashire," and York-
shire ; but they may be said to be ubiquitous. In some parts of Devon-
shire, and especially near Croyde, they occur in great numbers, so
gi'eat, indeed, as to have led Mr. Whitley' to suppose them to have been
formed by natural causes rather than by human agency. Far more
rational accounts of them have been given by Mr. Townshend M.
nall,^Mr. H. S. Ellis,'-' and Mr. C. Spence Bate.'"
Flakes and splinters of flint frequently occur in and around ancient
encampments and settlements, as well as in association with inter-
ments both by cremation and inhumation. ^lan^- of the immense
number of " spear-heads" collected by Mr. Bateman in his investiga-
tions were of the simple flake form, and others were flakes ynih but
slight secondary working at the edges, such as will hereafter be
noticed. Many other instruments which he discovered were merely
flakes, such as the thick-backed cutting iustnmient of flint three inches
long, with a bronze dagger and two small balls of stone, in a barrow
containing a skeleton near Pickering,'^ which would appear to have
been of this character. They occurred with burnt bones in cinerary
urns at Broughton,'- Lincolnshire, in one case with aflat bronze arrow-
head; at Summer Hill,'' near Canterbury; with a flint arrow-head
at Sittingbourne ;'* with burnt bones and bronze daggers in a barrow
at Teddiugton,'^ Middlesex; at Penhow,"' Monmouth; and in the
Gristhorpe Barrow,'' near Scarborough; with burnt bones in a circle
of stones near Llanaber,'"' Merionethshire, where no flint occurs natu-
rally; with burnt bones in an urn beneath a tumulus at Br}Tibugeilen,''-'
Llangollen ; in a barrow near Blackbury Castle,^ Devon ; and in one
on Dartmoor ;-' and at Hollingsclough and Upper Edge," Derbyshire.
Flakes, not of flint, biit of a hard silicious grit, occurred in a cist with
burnt bones near Harlech ;-^ and of some other hard stone in a
cist in Merionethshire.-* Other instances have been cited by General
Pitt Eivers,^^ who found several rough flakes and splinters of grit and
felspathic ash in cairns near Bangor, North Wales, Some of these
showed signs of rubbing and use on their edges ; in some cases they
had the appearance of having been scraped by metal. Whether they
were the weapons and tools of the people buried in the cairns, or
' rroc. Soc. Ant, 2nd S., vol. v. p. 433.
- Tr. Dev. Assoc, vol. xvii. p. 70 ; xviii. p. 74. Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xx^'iii.
p. 220.
•* Jourii. Anth. Inst., vol. v. p. 30. Notes and Queries, 5th S., vol. vii. p. 447.
* " Flint Impts., (fee, found at St. Mary Bourne," Jos. Stevens, 1867.
•'' Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xiii. p. 137.
•^ Tr. Lane, and Chesh. Arch. Soc., vol. ii. pi. i. iv. p. 305.
' Journ. R. Inst. Cornii-all, Oct., 1864. « Proc. Soc. Ant., 2ndS., vol. iii. p. 22.
' Trans. Preh. Cong., 1868, p. 89. Tr. Devon. Assoc, vol. i. ; pt. v. p. 80.
1" Op. cit., p. 128. 11 "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 226.
'- Arch. Journ., vol. viii. p. 343. i' Arch. Assoc. Journ. ,\o\. xxii. p. 211.
1* Proc Soc Ant., 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 48. i^ Arch., vol. xxxvi. p. 176.
1" Arch. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 71.
1" Reliquary, vol. vi. p. 4. i" Arch. Journ., vol xii. p. 189.
i» Arch. Camb., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 331 ; ii. 222.
-" Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 58.
-1 Tr. Devon. Assoc, vol. vi. p. 272, fig. 2.
" Reliquary, vol. iii. p. 1()2. -•* Arch. Journ., vol. ix. p. 92.
-' Arch. Camb., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 102. "^'^ Journ. Ethnol. Soc, vol. ii. p. 306.
280 FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. [ciL\P. XII.
merely votive offerings, appeared to be somewhat doubtful. The urns
associated with them were such as might well belong to the Bronze
Period.
Flint flakes are described as found in graves with contracted inter-
ments at Amble,' Northumberland ; Driffield,- Yorkshire ; Ballidon
Moor,' Derbyshire ; Littleton Drew,^ and Winterbourn Stoke,* AVilts.
Canon Greenwell*^ has also found them in great numbers with inter-
ments of different characters. They occurred with extended burials
at Oakley Park,' near Cirencester. In some of the long barrows they
are especially numerous, upwards of three hundred having been found
by Dr. Thurnam at West Kennet,* while there were three only in
that of Eodmarton,'' and two were found at the base of the cairn in
the chambered tumulus at Uley,'" Gloucestershire. Another accom-
panied a skeleton in a ^long barrow near Littleton Drew.^^ Sir
Eichard Colt Hoare speaks of a great quantity of chipped flints, pre-
pared for arrows or lances, as having been found in barrows on Long
Street Down,'- and at Brigmilston, Wilts ;'■* but, as a rule, he seems
not to have taken much notice of such simple forms. Others have
been discovered with ashes at Helmingham,'* Suffolk.
It is, however, needless, to cite more instances of their occurrence
with interments belonging to the Stone and Bronze Ages, as the pre-
sence of flakes and ehippings of flint is in such cases the rule rather
than the exception.
In Scotland, where flint is a scarcer natural product, they are also
found. As instances, I may cite one foimd in an urn within a cist at
Tillicoultry,'^ Clackmannanshire; and in a cist in Arran."' In some
parts of Aberdeenshire'' and Banffshire they are numerous, and in the
Buchan district are associated with shell mounds, orkjokken-mciddings.
They occur also in Lanarkshire and Elgin. '^ In Orkney''' they abound :
as also at the Bin of Cullen,-'^ where a manufactory of arrow-heads
seems to have existed. In cists in Roxburghshire-' were sepulchral
urns and numerous flint flakes ; and in Argyllshire-'- there were in a
cist with a skeleton flint flakes in such numbers as to form a heap from
eighteen inches to two feet in height. Some of white quartz have
been found associated with arrow-heads in Banffshire."' Little heaps'^*
of six or eight were found in each corner of a grave at Clashfarquhar,
Aberdeen. The}' abound on the sand-hills near Glenluce and on the
Culbin Sands.
Of ancient encampments or settlements where flint flakes occur in
' Arch. Journ., vol. xiv. p. 281. - Arch., vol. xxxiv. p. 252.
3 " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 1, p. 2. * " Cr. Br.," vol. ii. pi. 24, p. 3.
* Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Lond., vol. i. p. 142.
* Arch., vol. lii. p. 12, and "British Barrows," passim.
' Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xvii. p. 73. " Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 416.
9 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 278. "> Arch. Journ., vol. xi. p. 322.
" Wiltsh. Mag., vol. iii. p. 170. '^ "South AV'ilts," p. 193.
" "South Wilts," p. 195. '* Arch. Journ., vol. xxi. p. 172.
15 "Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Edin.," p. 20. '« Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 507.
" Op. cit., vol. iv. p. 385, and vi. 234, 240. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 18G5, vol.
xxi. p. 1.
" P. S. A. S., vol. vi. p. 251, and v. 61. i' Arch. Journ., vol. xx. p. 35.
-" Anthrop. Rev., vol. ii. ; Ixiv.
21 Wilson, "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 177. 22 /j;,^.^ p_ 178.
23 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 13. ^4 jirch. Scot., vol. iii. p. 46.
LOCALITIES WHERE ABUNDANT. 281
numbers, I may mention Maiden Bower, near Dunstable ; Pulpit
AVood, near Prince's Eisborough ; Cissbury,' Beltout Castle, and other
encampments in Sussex ; Little Solsbury Hill, near Bath ; Castle
King,- Cannock Chase ; Avebury,^ "Wilts ; and Callow Hill,* Oxford-
shire. They have been found in wonderful abundance on the surface
in the counties already mentioned, and their occurrence has been
noticed near Bradford Abbas f near Folkestone f at Possingwortli
Manor,'' Uckfield ; near Hastings;*^ at Stonham'' and Icklingham,
Suffolk ; near Grime's Grraves, Norfolk ;'" at St. Mary Bourne,^^ Hants;
and in a turbary at Ileneglwys,'- Anglesea, an island in wbich no
flint occurs naturally. Two from Carno, Montgomeryshire, are
engraved in the Arcltoiologia Camhrensis}"^ They have also been found
under a submerged forest on the coast of West Somerset.^* I have
seen a few flakes made from Lower Tertiary conglomerate.
In districts where flint was an imported luxurj^, other stones, usually
containing a large proportion of silica, and when broken presenting a
conchoidal fracture, served, so far as the material allowed, the same
purposes as flint. Of this a few instances have already been given.
In some cases even laminated sandstones, shales, and slates seem to
have been utilized. Numerous relics of this kind, some so rude
that their purposes may appear doubtful, were found by the late
Mr. S. Laing,'^ in Caithness. Large oval flakes, made from sandstone
pebbles, occurred in very great numbers in and around the ancient
dwelling at Skaill, Orkney. In form, however, these approximate
more nearly to the Pict's knives, of whicli hereafter, than to ordinary
flakes. The method of their manufacture has been described by Mr.
Laing.'*'
A curious stone knife or dagger, found beside a stone cist in Perth-
shire,'' is described as a natural formation of mica- schist, the peculiar
shape of which has suggested its adaptation as a rude but efficient
implement.
Some rude spear-heads of flint and greenstone are said to have been
found near Pytchley,'* Northamptonshire ; and some of Kentish rag at
Maidstone.'^ I have also seen them made of Oolitic flint.
Plakes of quartzite have been found, together with some of flint and
quartz and with polished celts, in some of the caverns inhabited during
the Neolithic Period in the Pyrenees of the Ariege,'-" and also in the
Lake Settlement of Greug.^'
When we consider how well adapted for cutting purposes were
^ Arch., vol, xlii. p. 64. • Arch. Jouru., vol. xx. p. 198.
3 "Salisb.Vol. Arch. Inst.," p. 106. * Joi<rn. Ethn. Soc, vol. i. p. 10.
^ Arch. Journ., vol. xxiii. p. .300 ; vol. xxv. p. loo. ^ Gcol. Mag., vol. vii. 443.
' Arch. Journ., vol. xxii. p. 68. '' Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. xix. p. 53.
^ Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 182, &c.
'« Journ. Ethn. Soc, vol. ii. p. 421. '• " Flint Impts.," Jos. Stevens, 1867.
^- Arch. Journ., vol xxi. p. 168. '^ 3rd S., vol. iii. p. 304.
'* Journ. Ethn. Soc, vol. ii. p. 141.
15 •' Prehist. Rem. of Caithness," Froc Soc Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 37.
i« P. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 73. " P. S. A. S., vol. i. p. 101.
J* Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. ii. p. 203. '^ Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xiii. p. 319.
•" Garrigou et Filhol, "Age de la Pierre polio." &c., pi. vii. and viii.
-1 De Bonstetten, ♦'2nd Supp. au Rec. d'Ant. Suisses," pi. i.
282 FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. [cHAV. XII.
these simple flakes of flint, and liow they constituted, as it were,
the raw material for so many of the more finished forms, such as
arrow-heads, of which the consumption in ancient times must
have been enormous ; and when, moreover, we take into account
that in producing a well-formed flake many waste flakes and mere
splinters must probably have been struck off, and that in forming
the large implements of flint almost innumerable chips or spalls
must have been made, their abundance on the sites of ancient
dwelling-places is by no means surprising, especially as the
material of which they are formed is almost indestructible.
Such fragments of flint must have been among the daily neces-
sities of ancient savage life, and we can well understand the feeling
which led the survivors of the departed hunter to place in his
grave not only the finished weapons of the chase, but the material
from which to fcrm them, as a provision for him in " the happy
hunting grounds," the only entrance to which was through the
gate of Death.
The occurrence of flint chips and potsherds in the soil of which
barrows are composed, may in some cases be merely the result
of their being made up of earth gathered from the surface of the
ground, which from previous occupation by man was bestrewn
with such remains. It is, however, often otherwise, especially
when the flakes are in immediate association with the interment.
The practice of throwing a stone on a cairn is no doubt a relic
of an ancient custom.-^ The " shards, flint, and pebbles" which
Ophelia should have had thrown on her in her grave may, as has
been suggested by Canon Greenwell,^ point to a sacred Pagan
custom remembered in Christian times, but then deemed irre-
ligious and unholy.
The presence of flint flakes in ancient graves is not, however,
limited to those of the so-called Stone and Bronze Periods, but
they occur with even more recent interments. For it seems proba-
ble that the flint was in some cases buried as a fire-producing
agent, and not as the material for tools or weapons. In a cist at
Lesmurdie,^ Banffshire, apparently of early date, were some
chips of flint which appeared to the discoverer to have been
originally accompanied by a steel or piece of iron and tinder.
The oxide of iron may, however, have been merely the result of
' On this custom see Tran'^. Lane, and Chesh. Arch. Hoc, vol. vi. p. 58 ; yiii. p. 63 ;
xi. p. 27.
- Arch. Journ., vol. xxii. p. 116.
" I'toc. i>oc. Ant. Scot., vol. i. p. 210.
KOT tONFINEI) TO THE STONE PERIOD. 283
the decomposition of a piece of iron pyrites. At Worle Hill/
Somersetshire, " flint flakes, prepared for arro\y-lieads," were
found with iron spear-heads and other objects, though it is very
doubtful whether they weie in true association. In Saxon graves,^
however, small nests of chipped flints are not unfrequent, and
the same is the case with Merovingian and Frankish interments,
sometimes accompanied by the steels or briqiicfs,^ at other times
without them. I have a wrought flint of this class, curiously like
a modern gun-flint, from an early German grave near Yv^iesbaden.
Occasionally flakes of other materials than flint occur. Their
presence in graves is regarded by M. Baudot as due to a reminis-
cence of some ancient rite of sepulchre. In the Anglo-Saxon
burial-ground at Ilarnham Hill,^ near Salisbury, and at Ozengal,
steels were also found. Canon Greenwell found a steel, in form
much like those of modern date, in a Saxon grave at Uncleby in
the East Riding of Yorkshire. As has been pointed out by Mr.
Akerman, Scheffer ^ informs us that so late as the seventeenth
century, the Lapps were buried with their axe, bow, and arrows,
and a flint and steel, to be used both in a life to come and in find-
ing their v,ny to the scene of their future existence.
Flakes and rudeh' chipped pieces of flint are also of very com-
mon occurrence on the sites of Homan occupation, as, for instance,
at Ilardham,'" Sussex, where Prof. Boyd Dawkins found them
associated with Roman pottery. At Moel Fenlli,^ also, in the vale
of Clwyd, there occurred with Roman pottery some flint flakes
which have been figured as arrow-heads, and with them what is
termed a stone knife, but which is, however, more probably a
whetstone used to sharpen those of steel. I have myself noticed
flint flakes at Regulbium (Reculver), Yerulamium (St. Alban's),
and on other Roman sites. Many of them were no doubt used for
producing Are, but the more finished flakes may possibly have
served as carpenters' tools for scraping, in the same way as frag-
ments of glass are in use at the present day.
There is, however, another cause why rude splinters of flint
' Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xii. p. 299.
- See Arch. Journ., vol. xi. p. 211, and xx. 189; V/right, " Rems. of a Prim.
Poop, in Yorkah.," p. 10.
^ See Cochet, " Normandie Souterr.," p. 25S ; Baudot, "Sep. de.s Barbaras." p.
70 ; Troyon, " Tombeauxdc Bel- Air" ; Lindensclimit, '• Todtenlager bei Selzeu,"
p. 13.
* Arch., vol. XXXV. p. 2(57.
* "Hist, of Lapland," Ed., 1704, p. 313; Keysler, "Ant. Sept.," p. 17!.
^ Sussex -ireh. Coll. vol. xvi. p. 03.
" Arch. Cavil,., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 88.
2S4
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. [cHAP. XIL
should accompany Rotnan remains, especially in the case of villas
in country districts, for the tribuhim, or threshing implement
employed both by the Eomans and other ancient civilized nations,
was a " sharp threshing instrument having teeth," ^ in most cases
of flint. Yarro-thus describes the trilnlum : — "Id tit e tabula
lapidibus aut ferro exasperata, quaj imposito auriga aut pondere
grandi trahitur jumentis junctis ut discutiat e spica gruna."
Another form of the instrument was called traha or trahea. In
the East, in Xorthern Africa, Spain, Portugal, Madeira, Tenerilfe,
and probably other parts of the world, threshing implements,
which no doubt closely resemble the original tribula, are still in
use. The name is still preserved in the Italian irebbiatrice, the
Spanish trilla, and the Portuguese trilho, but survives, metaphori-
cally alone, in our English tribulation. In Egypt their name is
nureg, and in Greece aXwvi'arpa, from aXwvLa, a threshing-
floor. Drawings of various tribula have been given by various
travellers,^ and the implements themselves from different countries
may be seen in the Christy Collection and in the Blackmore
3Iuseum. Thev are flat sledires of wood, five to six feet in length,
and two or three in breadth, the under side pitted with a number
of square or lozenge- shaped holes, mortised a little distance into
the wood, and having in each hole a flake or splinter of stone. I
have seen them in Spain mounted with simple pebbles. In those
from Madeira the stone is a volcanic rock, but in that from Aleppo
— preserved in the Christy Collection,^ and shown in Fig. 194 —
each flake is of cherty flint and has been artificially shaped. Occa-
sionally there are a few projecting ribs or runners of iron along
part of the machine, but in most instances the whole of the
armature is of stone. As each tri//iO is j)rovided with some hun-
dreds of chipped stones, we can readily understand what a number
of rough flakes might be left in the soil at places where they were
long in use, in addition to the flakes and splinters which for cen-
turies have been used for striking a lio-ht.
Flakes and splinters of silicious stone, whether flint, jasper,
chert, iron-stone, quartzite, or obsidian, are to be found in almost
all known countries, and belong to all ages. They are in fact
^ Isaiah, chap. xli. ver. 15.
- •' De re Rust.," lib. i. cap. 52.
3 Smith's "Diet, of Gk. and Rom. Ant.," *.r. Tribulum. "Wilkinson's " Anc.
Egyptians," vol. ii. p. 190; iv. 94. Arch, per rAnt. e In Etn.." vol. xxiii. 57 ;
vol. xxvi. p. 53. Fellows. "Jonm. in Asia iMinor," 1838. p. 70. Paul Lucas,
" Vorage en Ade," Paris. 1712, p. 231. -V. and Q.. 7th S., vol. vii. p. 36.
* For the u.se of this cut I am indebted to Sir A. Wollaston Franks, F.R.S.
THE KOMAN T11I15ULUM.
285
the most catholic of all stone implements, and have been in use
" semper, ubique, et ab omnibus." Whether we look in our old
ScaU -^
rii,'. I'Jl — Tiibuluin from Alriipu.
liiver-gravcis of the age of the mammoth, in our old cave-deposits,
our ancient encampments, or our modern gun-flint manufactories,
286 FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. [CHAP. XII.
there is tlie inevitable flake. And it is almost universally the
same in other countries — in Greenland or South Africa, on the field
of Marathon or in the backwoods of Australia, among the sands of
Arabia ^ or on the plains of America, — wherever such flakes and
splinters are sought for, they are almost sure to be found, either in
use among the savage occupants of the country at the present day,
or among civilized nations, left in the soil as memorials of their
more or less remote barbarian ancestors.
Flint flakes are foimd in great abundance in Ireland, especially in
Ulster, where the raw material occurs in the chalk. At Toome
Bridge, on the shores of Lough Xeagh, man}- tliousands have beeu
foimd, and they occur in abundance in the valle}' of the Bann,- and in
.shghtly raised beaches along the sliores of Belfast Lough. They are
rarely more than 4 or 5 inches in length; and sj-mmetrical, flat,
parallel flakes are extremel}' rare. Many pointed liakes have been
sHghtly trimmed' at the butt-end, and converted into a sort of lance-
head without further preparation. Such flakes may have pointed
fishing-spears. They are occasionally formed of Lydian stone.
In Scandinavia, the art of flaking flint attained to great perfection,
and flat or ridged sjTnmetrical flakes, as much as G inches long, and not
more than ^-ineh wide, are by no means uncommon. Occasionally
they are no less than 13 inches long.* Two in the Museum at Copen-
hagen' (9 inches) fit the one on the other. The ridge is sometimes
formed by cross-chipping. The bulk of the flakes from the kji'kken-
mtiddings are of a rude character, though very many show traces
of use.
In Germany, long flakes of flint are rare, but one about 6i inches
long, found in Ehenish-Hesse, is engraved by Lindenschmit.*
In some parts of France they are extremely plentiful, especially on
and around the sites of ancient flint ateliers. Some flakes, like those
j^roduced at Pressigny, were of great length. One not less than
13J inches long, and not more than l\ inches broad at the butt, found
at Pauilhac, in the Valley of the Gers, has been flgured in the Revue
de Gascogne.' A flake from Gergovia, 9 inches long, is in the Museum
at Clermont Ferrand.
One 8 J inches long was found in the Camp de Catenoy "* (Oise).
Long flakes found in France have been engraved by numerous
authors, '■* and some from Belgium by Le Hon.''^
Obsidian cores and flakes have been found in Lorraine," the material
having been brought from Auvergne.
^ Pioc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. p. 253. - Jonrn. Anth. Inst., vol. x. p. 150.
3 Arch., vol. xli. p. 404. See also Wilde, "Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 10.
* See Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4th ed.. p. 94.
5 Mim. .%c. R. des Ant. da Xord., 1686—91, p. 232. Aarb. f. Oldkynd, 1886,
p. 227.
•i "Alt. u. h. v.," vol. ii. Heft. viii. Taf. i. 4. • Tom. vi. 1865.
* Ponthieux, pi. xxvi.
* Chantre, "Etudes Paleoethnol.," 1867. "Watelet, " L'Age de Pierre dans le
Dep. de I'Aisne," 1866. De Ferry, •■ Anc. de I'Homme dans le Maconnais," 1867.
10 " L' Homme Fossile," 2nded".,p. 150.
" Comptes Rendiis, 1866, vol. Ixii. p. 347; 1867, vol. Ixv. p. 116.
IN OTHER I'ARTS OF THE WORLD. 287
Flakes occur, Lut not so abundantly, in Spain and Portugal. A
fragment of a ridged ilake of jasper, found in the cave of Albunol in
Spain,' is l.V inches long. In one of the Genista Caves'- at Gibraltar
there was found one of the long flakes, but of wliich a part had been
broken off. Another was GV inches long and | inch wide. In
Algarve,' Portugal, they have been found up to 15 inches in length ;
some of them are beautifully serrated at the edges.
In Italy they are by no means uncommon, sometimes of great
length. One, 7 inches long, is figured by Nicolucci.*
Among the Swiss Lake-dwellers considerable use was made of flint
flakes, not only as the material for arrow-heads, but for cutting tools.
So great was the abimdance of flint left on the site of some of their
habitations, as at Nussdorf,' that in after ages the spot was resorted to
for generations, in order to procure flints for use with steel. It was
by their being thus known as flint-producing spots that some of the
Lake-dwellings were discovered. A flake nearly 7 inches long, from
peat, in the Canton de Yaud, has been engraved by De Bonstetten.''
A flake 9 inches long from Transcaucasia' has been figured.
In Egjqit" flakes of flint have been found in considerable numbers
in certain localities, some of them associated with polished stone
hatchets ; others are possibly of no extreme antiquity, though un-
doubtedly of artificial origin, and not of merely natural formation, as
has been suggested by Lepsius.'-" That distinguished antiquary has,
however, found a number of well-formed ridged and polygonal flakes
in Egypt, some of them in a grave which he has reason to assign to
about 2500 B.C.
A vast number of discoveries of flint flakes and other forms of
worked flints has, of late years, been made in Egypt. It will probably
be sufficient to indicate in a note'" some of the principal memoirs
relating to the subject. They are found also in the Libyan" desert.
The discoveries at Helouan will be subsequently mentioned.
The presence of numerous flakes, scrapers and other forins of flint
instruments, has also been noticed in Algeria.'- They are for the most
part rude and small.
Flint flakes and tools are found on Mount Lebanon,'^ and on the
Nablus'^ road from Jerusalem there are mounds entirely composed of
flint chij)pings.
* De Gongora, "Ant. Preh. de Andalusia," p. 49, fig. GO.
- Tram. I'reh. Cong., 18G8, pi. viii. 3.
3 " Ant. do Algarve ; " da Vciga, 188C, vol. ii. p. 1G2, pi. viii.
* " Di alcuni armi ed Utensili in Pietra," 18G3, Tav. ii.
'■^ Keller, " Pfahlbaiiten," 6 tcr, Ber, p. 272.
^ "Supp. au Rec. d'Ant. Suisses," pi. i. 5.
' Zeitsch. f. Ethn., vol. xvi. p. (105), pi. iii.
® liev. Arch., vol. xx. p. 441. MaUriaitx, vol. v. p. 399 bis ; Comptes llendus,
1869, vol. Ixix. p. 1312. Arcelin, " Ind. prim. en. Egypte et en Syrie," 1870.
^ Zeitschrift fiir JEgypt. Sprache, &c., Juli 1870.
^0 Journ. Anth. Inst., vol.iv. p. 215 (Lubbock): vii. p. 290. Zeitsch. f. Ethn.,
vol. xxi. pi. iv. v. "Die Stein-zeit Afrika's," R. Andrec. Intern. Archiv, vol. iii.
p. 81. "-^gypten's vor-metallische Zoit." Much, "Wiirzburg, 1880. Nature, \o\.
xx.xii. p. 161 ; xxxiii. 311 (Wady Haifa).
" Tr. (Jung. Freh. Stockholm, 1S74, p. 76.
'- Coi-iptes Itendiis, 1869, vol. Ixviii. pp. 196, 340.
'■' Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. i. pp. 337, 442.
'* Quart. St. I'akist. Expl. Fund, 1874, p. 158.
288
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC.
[CIIAP
XII.
Fig. 193. — Admiralty Islands.
lu Southern Africa,' near Capetown and Gra-
liamstown, Hakes abound on tlio surface of tlie
ground, sometimes of chert or Hint, but often of
basaltic rock. I have one from Grahamstown
8 inches in lengtli.
Their occurrence in India has alreadj' been
noticed. The flakes from Jubbuli^ore - are for
the most part of small size, b\it some of those
removed from the cores found in the river Indus
must have been at least 5 or G inches long.
In America, flint, or rather horn-stone flakes, are
not uncommon, though not so often noticed as the
more flnished forms. Some found in the mounds
of Ohio are of considerable length, one engraved
by Squier and Davis' being 5 A inches long.
Some of the Mexican flakes of obsidian are fully
6 inches in length.
In ancient times the IchthyopLagI are de-
scribed by Diodorus* as using antelopes' horns
and stones broken to a sharp edge in their
fishing, " for necessity teaches everything."
Flakes are still in some cases used without
any secondary chipping or working into form.
We find, for instance, flakes of flint or obsi-
dian, and even of glass, almost in the condition in
which they were struck from the parent block,
employed as lance and javelin-heads, among
several savage people, such as the natives of
Australia,^ ,and of the Admiralty Islands.^
One of those said to be in use among the latter
people is shown, half-size, in Fig. 195,^ and
exhibits the method of attachment to the shaft.
The butt- end of the flake is let into a socket
in a short tapering piece of wood, into the
other extremity of which the end of the long
1 Trans. Cong. Treh. Arch., 1868, p. 69. Geol. Mag.,
vol. V. p. 532. Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xi. p. 124. Camb.
Ant. Cumin., vol. v. p. 67.
- Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 38. Journ. of Ant.
Soc. of Cent. Frov., vol. i. p. 21. Journ. Ethii. Soc, N. S.,
vol. i. p. 175.
•■ " Anct. Mon. of Mississ. Vail.," p. 215.
^ Lib. iii. c. 15.
■'■' "Wood, "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 38.
'' Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. \i. p. 409, pi. xx.
'' For the use of this block I am indebted to the executors
of the late Mr. Henry Christy. See also Lubbock, " Preh.
Times," 4th Ed., p. 93.
THE USES OF FLAKES. 289
light shaft is inserted ; both flake and shaft are next secured by
tying, and then the whole of the socket and ligatures is covered
up with a coating of resinous gum, occasionally decorated with
zigzag and other patterns. Some flukes are mounted as daggers.
Some of the long parallel flakes also appear to have been haftcd.
One such, probably from Mexico, has been engraved by Aldro-
vandus as a cnltcr Idpideus} A tool in use among the natives
of Easter Island^ consisted of a broad flake of obsidian, with a
roughly chipped tang which was inserted in a slit in the handle
to which it was bound, the binding being tightened by means
of wooden wedges driven in under the string.
To return, however, to the flakes of flint which were used in this
country for scraping or cutting purposes, at an early period, when
metal was either unknown or comparatively scarce. Each flake,
when dexterously made, has on either side a cutting edge, so
sharp that it almost might, like the obsidian flakes of Mexico, be
used as a razor. Some flakes indeed seem to have served as
surgical instruments, as the practice of trephining was known in
the Stone Period. So long as the edge is used merely for cutting
soft substances it may remain for some time comparatively unin-
jured, and even if slightly jagged its cutting power is not im-
paired. If long in use, the sides of the blade become rather polished
by wear, and I have specimens, both English and foreign, on
which the polish thus produced can be observed. If the flake
has been used for scraping a surface, say, for instance, of bone or
wood, the edge will be found to wear away, by extremely minute
portions chipping off nearly at right angles to the scraping edge,
and with the lines of fracture running back from it. The coarse-
ness of these minute chips will vary in accordance with the
amount of pressure used, and the material scraped ; but generally
speaking, I think that I am right in saying that they are more
delicate and at a more obtuse angle to the face, than the small chip-
ping produced by the secondary working of the edge of a flake, of
which I shall presently speak. In all cases where any consider-
able number of flakes of flint occur, such as there appears to be
good reason for attributing to a remote period, a greater or less
proportion of them will, on examination, be found to bear these
signs of wear upon them, extending over, at all events, some
portion of their edges.
- " Mu«. Metall," p. 157.
- Two are figured in I'roc. Soc. Ant. Sett., vol. viii. p. 321. Soo also Ratzel,
" Volkerk," vol. ii.. 1888, p. 151.
V
290 FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. [CHAP. XII.
It is, however, difficult if not impossible, always to determine
whether the chipping away of the edge of a flake is merely the
result of use, or whether it is intentional. There can be no doubt
that for many purposes the acute edge of a flake, as originally
formed, was too delicate and brittle, and that it was therefore
re-worked by subsequent chipping, so as to make the angle more
obtuse, and thus strengthen the edge of the tool. It is curious to
observe how rarely the edges of flakes were sharpened by grind-
ing. It was probably considered less troublesome to form a new
flake than to sharpen an old one ; in the same way as it is recorded
that the Mexican barbers threw away their obsidian flakes as soon
as they were dull and made use of new ones. Dr. E. B. Tyler,
in the free translation of the passage in Torquemada relating to
these razors, appears, as has been pointed out by ^Messrs. Daubree
and Roulin,^ to haye fallen into a mistake in representing them
to have been sharpened on a hone, the original author having
merely said that the edge of the obsidian flakes was as keen as if
they had been forged in iron, ground on a stone, and finished on
a hone.
British flakes with ground edges are by no means common. One
from Yorkshire, in my own collection, is a thin, flat, external flake,
having both edges (which are parallel) ground from both faces to an
angle of about 60^. It has, unfortunately, been broken square across,
about 2 inches from the butt-end, and is 1 inch -wide at the fracture.
Another, from Bridlington, is an ovate flat external flake, produced,
not by art, but by natural fracture, and having one side brought to a
sharp edge by grinding on both faces. AVith the exception of its
being partially chipped into shape at both ends, this grinding is all
that has been done to convert a mere splinter of flint into a serviceable
tool. It is an interesting example of the selection of a natural form,
where adapted for a particular purpose, in preference to making the
whole implement by hand. The small celt. Fig. 31, atfords an
analogous instance. In the Greenwell Cullection are also two or three
very rude flakes from the Yorkshire Wolds, -n-hich are ground at some
portion of their edges.
In a barrow on Seamer Moor, Yorkshire, the late Lord Londes-
borough^ found, with other relics, a delicate knife made from a flake
of flint, 4|^ inches long, and dexterously ground. A trimmed flake,
Like Fig. 239, some small celts, and delicate lozenge-shaped arrow-
heads, like Fig. 276, were also present. The whole are now in the
British Musevmi.
A flake, from Charleston, in the East Eiding. presented to me by
Canon Greenwell, is shown in Fig. 196. It is of thin triangidar section,
slightly bowed longitudinally, having one edge, which appears to have
1 Comptes Rendm, 1868, vol. Ixvii. p. 1296.
' Arch. Assne. Joiirn., vol. iv., 1848, p. 105.
FLAKES GROUND AT THE EDGE. 291
been originally blunt, sharpened by secondary working. The other
edge has been sharpened to an angle of about 45° by grinding both on
the inner and outer faces of the Hake. The point, which is irregular
in shape, is rounded over either by friction or by grinding.
It seems well adapted for use as a knife Avhon held between
the ball of the thumb and the end of the first finger, with-
out the intervention of any handle.
Another specimen, 4 inches long, ground to a sharp
edge along one side, was in the collection of the late Mr.
J. W. Flower, F.G.S., and is now in mine. It was found
near Thetford.
Mr. Flower had also a flake from High Street, near
Chislet, Kent, with both edges completely blunted by
grinding, perhaps in scraping stone.
I have two trimmed flakes with the edges carefully
ground, from the neighbourhood of Icklingham, Suffolk,
and another ridged flake, 2f inches long, pointed at one end
and rounded at the other, one side of which has been care-
fully ground at the edge. I found it in a field of my own, in
the parish of Abbot's Langley, Herts. Canon Greenwell
obtained another 2.V inches long, ground on both edges, from Milden-
haU Fen.
I have seen a flake about 3 inches long, with the edge ground, that
had been found on the top of the cliffs at Bournemouth ; and another,
from a barrow near Stonehenge, in the possession of the late Mr. Frank
Buckland.
A flat flake, with a semicircular end, and ground at the edges so as
to form " a beautiful thin ovoidal knife three and a half inches long,"
was found by Dr. Thurnam,' with many other worked flints, in the
chambered long barrow at West Kennet, Wilts. Another, carefully
ground at one edge, was found by Sir R. Colt Hoare,- at Everley.
An oval knife, about 2 inches long, ground at the edge and over a
great part of the convex face, found at Micheldean, Gloucestershire, is
in the museum at Truro.
A cutting instrument, with a very keen edge, nicely polished, is
recorded as having been found, with twenty other fliut implements or
tools of various shapes, accompanying a skeleton, in a barrow near
Pickering.^ A so-called spear-head, neatly chipped and rubbed, was
found with burnt bones in another barrow near the same place.*
A few fiat flakes, ground at the edge, have been discovered in Scot-
land. One 2^ inches long was found at Cromar,^ Aberdeenshire ; and
a portion of another in a cairn in Caithness," in conipau}^ with a
polished perforated hammer and other objects.
Irish flake* are rarely sharpened by grinding. T liave, however,
one of Lydian stone,'' found in Lough Neagh, and ground to an edge
at the end.
In form the Charleston flake, Fig. 196, much resembles some of the
Swiss flakes, which, from examples that have been found in the Lake-
' Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 417.
2 " Anc. Wilts," p. 195. "Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. Uix.
^ "Ten Yeara' Dig.," p. 230. * " T. Y. D.," p. 224.
* P. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 320. « Op. cit., vol. vii. p. 499.
' Arch., vol. xli. p. 404.
IT 2
292 FLINT FL.UilES, COKES, ETC. [CHAP. XII.
dwellings, are proved to have been mounted in handles. One of these,
from Xussdorf, in the Ueberlinger See,' is in my o\m collection, and is
shown in Fig. 197. It is fastened into a yew- wood handle by an
apparently bituminous cement. The edge has been formed by
secondary chipping on the ridged face of the flake. I am unable to
say whether the edge of the
flake still embedded in the
wood is left as originally
produced or no, but several
unmovmted flakes from the
same locality have been re-
chipped on both edges. In
some instances, however.
Fig. 197.— ^'us^dorf . \ onlj' One edge is thus worked.
In the case of many of the
small narrow flakes from the Dordogne caves, one edge is much worn
away, and the other as sharp as ever, as if it had been protected by
being inserted in a wooden handle.
From the hole in the handle, this form of instrument would appear
to have been carried attached to a string, like a sailor's knife at the
present day — a similarity probably due to the somewhat analogous
conditions of life of the old Lake-dwellers to those of seamen. In some
French and Swiss flakes- which seem to have been used in a similar
manner, the ends are squared, and a central notch worked in eacli,
apparently for the reception of a cord. In this case, a loop at the
end of the cord would answer the same purpose as the hole in the
handle, which with these flakes seem to have been needless. They
are abundant at Pressigny.
A pointed flake in the museimi at Berne ^ is hafted like a dagger, in
a wooden handle, which is bound round with a cord made from rushes.
Some of the Swiss handles are not bored, and occasionally they are
prolonged at one end to twice the length of the flint, so as to form a
handle like that of a table-knife, the flint flake, though let in to a con-
tinuation of the handle, projecting and forming the blade. In some
cases there is a handle at each end, like those of a spoke-shave. The
handles are of yew. deal, and more rarely of stags'-hom ; and the
implements, though usually termed saws, are not regularly serrated,
and may with equal propriety be termed knives.
The late Sir Edward Belcher showed me an Eskimo "'flensing
knife," from Icy Cape, hafted in much the same manner. The blade
is an ovate piece of slate about -5 inches long, and is let into a handle
made of several pieces of wood, extending along nearly half the cir-
cimiference, and secured together by resin. Other specimens of the
same kind are in the British Museum, and in the Ethnological Museum
at Copenhagen. The stone blades are more Uke the flat Picts' * knives,
' Others are engraved in Kellers " Pfahlbaut.," Iter Bericht. Taf. iii. 8. Lin-
denschmit, --Alt. u. h. V.," vol. i., Heft. xii. Taf. i. 15. " Hohenzollemftch.
Samml.," Taf. xxvii. 18. Mackie, " Xat. Hist. Rep.," v I. i. p. 139. Le Hon,
"L"hi mme Foss.," •2nded.,p. 175. " Ant. Lac. duMus. de Lausanne," 1896. PI. x.
- " Mus. preh.," Nos. 276, 277. "Ant. Lac. du Mus. de Lausanne," 1896.
PI. X., 10. 11. 3 Ze-.lsc/t. f. Ethn., vol. xiv. p. (-531).
* Keller's " Lake-Dw.," pi. iii. 1 ; xxi. 10 ; xxriii. 9, 10. Trovon, " Hab. Lac,"
pi. V. 11. " Pfahlbanten," 2 ter Ber. Taf. iii. pi. 40. Desor, "Palafittes," fig. 12.
Rau's "Preh. Fishing," 1&&4, p. 186.
HAFTED FLAKES. 293
such as Fig. 263, than ordinary flint flakes. An iron blade, hafted
in a closely analogous manner by the Eskimos, is engraved by
Nilsson.'
As already mentioned, some of the Australian savages about King
George's Sound make knives or saws on a somewhat similar plan ;
but instead of one long flake they attach a number of small flakes in a
row in a matrix of hard resin at one end of a stick. Spears are formed
in the same manner.
In other cases, however, flakes are differently hafted. One such is
fehown in Fig. 198, from an original in the Christy Collection. One
edge of this flake has been entirely removed by chipping so as to form
a thick, somewhat rounded back, not unlike that of an ordinary knife-
blade, though rather thicker in proportion to the width of the blade.
The butt-end has then had a portion of the hairy skin of some animal
Fig. 198.— Australia. A
bound over it with a cord, so as to give it a sort of haft, and effectually
protect the hand that held it. The material of the flake appears to be
horn-stone. Another knife of the same character, from Queensland, is
in the Museum of the Hartley Institution at Southampton.
Another example, from the Murray River,^ but without the skin
handle, has been figured.
A friend in Queensland tried to procure one of these knives for me,
but what he obtained was a flake of glass made from a gin bottle, and
the wrapping was of calico instead of kangaroo-skin. Iron blades^
are sometimes hafted in the same way with a piece of skin. Some
Australian jasper or flint knives,^ from Carandotta, are hafted with
gum, and provided with sheaths made of sedge. These gum-hafted
knives are in use on the Herbert River ^ for certain surgical operations.
Some surface-chipped obsidian knives from California are hafted by
having a strip of otter skin wound round them, and Prof. FHnders
Petrie^ has found an Egyptian flint knife hafted with fibre lashed
round with a cord.
Occasionally flakes of quartz or other silicious stone were mounted
at the end of short handles by the Australians, so as to form a kind of
dagger or chisel. One such has been engraved by the Rev. J. G.
' " Stone Age," pi. v. 86. * P. S. A. S., vol. x. p. 263.
' Tr. lane, and Chesh. Arch. Soc, vol. iv. p. 377. * Ibid.
* Zfitsch. f. Ethn., vol., xiv. p. 28. " " Illahun, &c.," 1891, p. 13, pi. xiii.
294 FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC. [cHAP. XII.
Wood.' Another is in the Museum of the Hartley Institution at
Southampton.
In the Berlin Museum- is a curious knife, found, I believe, in Prussia,
which shows great skill in the adaptation of flint for cutting purposes
It consists of a somewhat lanceolate piece of bone, about 7| inches
long, and at the utmost i inch wide, and | inch thick. The section is
approximately oval, but along one of the narrow sides a groove has
been worked, and in this are inserted a series of segments of thin
flakes of flint, so carefully chosen as to be almost of one thickness,
and so dexterously fitted together that their edges constitute one con-
tinuous sharp blade, projecting about three-sixteenths of an inch from
the bone. In some examples from Scandinavia the flint flakes are let
in on both edges of the blade.* The flakes sometimes form barbs, as
already mentioned.
The Mexican* swords, formed of flakes of obsidian attached to a
blade of wood, were of somewhat the same character, and remains of
what appears to have been an analogous sword, armed with flint flakes,
have been found in one of the mounds of the Iroquois country.
Another use to which pointed flint flakes have occasionally been
applied is for the formation of fishing-hooks. Such a hook, the stem
formed of bone, and the returning point made of flint bound at an
acute angle to the end of the bone, has been engraved by Klemm.* It
was found in a grave in Greenland. Fishhooks formed entirely of
flint, and found in Sweden, have bten engraved by Nilsson,® and
others, presumed to have been found in Holderness, by Mr. T.
Wright, F.S.A." These latter are, however, in all probability,
forgeries.
Besides the flakes which may be regarded as merely tools for
cutting or scraping, there are some which may with safety be
reckoned as saws, their edges having been intentionally and
regularly serrated, though in other respects they have been left
entirely unaltered in form.
A specimen, found in a pit which appeared to have been excavated
by the primitive inhabitants of the district, at Brighthamj)ton, Oxon,
has been figured ; * and another oblong flint flake, with a regularly
serrated edge, but the teeth not so deep or well defined as in this
instance, was found by Dr. Thurnam in a chambered long barrow at
West Kennet, Wilts, with numerous flakes and " scrapers." ^
Figs. 199 to 201 represent similar instruments in my own collection
from the Yorkshire Wolds. The largest has been serrated on both
edges, but has had the teeth much broken and worn away on the
thinner edge.
1 "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 32. • See Arckiv. f. Anth., vol. v. p. 234.
■* Worsaae, " Prim. Ants, of Den.," p. 17. Nilsson, "Stone Age," pi. vi. 125,
126. Madsen, " Afb.," pi. xl.
* Wilson's " Preh. Man," vol. i. p. 225. " Anct. Mon. of Missis. Yalley," p. 211.
Squier, " Abor. Mon. of New York," p. 180.
^ " Cultnr-wiss.," vol. i. p. 61. " " Stone Age," pi. ii. pp. 28, 29.
■" " Remains of a Primitive People, &c., in Yorkshire."
« Proc. 8oc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iv. 233. '' Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 417.
FLAKES MADE INTO SAWS.
295
Fig. 200 is very minutely toothed on both cdg-es, and has a line of
brilliant polish on each niai'gin of its flat face, showing the friction the
saw had undergone in use, not improbably in sawing bone or horn.
Fig. 201 is more coarsely serrated, and shows less of this characteristic
polish, Avhich is observable on a large proportion of these flint saws.
The teeth are on many so minute that witliout careful examination they
may be overlooked. Others, however, are coarsely toothed. Canon
Greenwell has found saws in considerable numbers, and varying in the
fineness of their serration, in the barrows on the Yorkshire Wolds,
near Sherburn and elsewhere. In the soil of a single barrow at Eud-
stone there were no less thanseventy-
eight of these sa^'s. Some have
been found by Mr. Fj. Tindall in
barrows near Bridlington,' as well
as on the surface. Some well-formed
flint saws have also been found near
Whitby,- and some of small size
at West Wickham,^ Kent. In the
Greenwell Collection is a finely-
toothed saw, made from a curved
flake, found at Kenny Hill, Milden-
hall.
Five flint saws, finely serrated,
were found in a barrow at Seaford,*
and anotlier on St. Leonard's Forest,''
Horsham. One was also found in a
barrow on Overton HiU,'' AVilts.
Seven saws, thirteen scrapers, and
other worked flints were among
the materials of another barrow at
Rudstone.''
The teeth are usually but not
universally worked in the side edges
of the flakes. In Fig. 202 it is the
chisel-like broad end of a flake that
has been converted into a saw. This
sperimen was found by the late Mr.
J. W. Flower, F.G.S., in a barrow
at West Cranmore, Somerset, in company with numerous flint flakes
and " scrapers." A bronze dagger was found in the same barrow.
Near Newhaven, Sussex, I found on the downs a flat flake, about
2,1 inches long, and slightly curved sideways towards the point. At
this part the inner curve is neatly worked into a saw, and the outer
curve carefully chipped into a rounded edge as a scraping tool.
A flint knife serrated at the back to serve as a saw was found by
Mr. Bateman in Liff's Low, near Biggin.^
In Scotland several saws have been procured fi'om the Cvdbin Sands,*
Fig. 199.— Willerby
Wold. ]
Fig. 200.— Yorkshire
Wolds. I
' Arch. Jonrn., vol. xxvii. p. 74.
■■' Antiq., vol. XV., 1887, pp. •2;37-8.
* Urns. Arch. Coll., vol. xxvii. p. 177.
' "Brit. Burr.," pp. 251, 262.
» P. S. A. S., vol. XXV. p. 497.
■' Arch. Jnurn., vol. xxix. p. 284.
* Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. xxxii. p. 175.
" TFiits Arch. Mag., vol. xx. p. 346.
« <'Vebt. Ant. Derb.," p. 43.
296
FLINT FLAKES, CORES, ETC.
[chap. xn.
and near Gleiiliice.' They are also recorded Irom Forglen,- near Banff,
and Craigsfordmains/ EoxburghsLire.
In Ireland, flakes converted into saws an- scarce ; they occur occa-
sionally, though but rarely, wilh neolithic interments in France. In
the Museum at lo Puy is a ver}- good specimen of a flat flake, neatly
serrated with small teeth, found with a skeleton near that town.
Another, found in a dolmen in Poitou,^ has been published by M. de
Longiiemar. Mortillet* includes several forms under the general
denomination of scies.
Similar saws to those first described, aud made from flakes more or
less coarsely toothed, have been found in the cave-deposits of the
Eeindeer Period of the South of France, but in some caves, as, for
instance, that at Bruniquel explored by M. V. Brun, they were mucli
Fig. 201.— Scamridge.
Fig. 202.— West Crannioro. \
more abundant than in others. In the Yicomte de Lastic's cave at the
same place but few occurred, and in most of the caves of the Dordogne
they appear to be absent. An irregularly-notched flake was probably
almost as efficient a saw as one more carefully and uniformly toothed.
Flakes of flint, carefully serrated at the edge, have been found in
the Danish kjokken-moddings^; in Posen," Prussia; and with rehcsof
the Early Bronze Period in Spain.* One is recorded from the Algerian
Sahara.^ It has been suggested that some serrated flints were potters'
tools, by which parallel mouldings were produced on vessels.'-'
Among the more highly fijiished Scandinavian stone implements
there is some difficulty in determining exactly which have served the
purpose of saws. The flat, straight tapering instrument, with sen-ated
edges, which, from its many teeth at regular distances from each
other, Nilsson" is disposed to think has probably been a saw. Worsaae'^
1 r. S. A. S., vol. xi. p. 584. * F. S. A. S., vol. xii. p. 208.
« P. S. A. S., vol. xxviii. p. 337.
* Bull, de la 8oc. dts Ant. de l' Quest, 4 Trim., 1863, fig. 18.
* " Mu.s. Preh.," pi. xxxiv., xxxv. ^ Madsen, " Aibildninger,'' pi. i. 1.5.
' Zeits. f. Ethn., vol. xxviii., p. 348.
" H. and L. Siret, "Le.s premiers Ages du Metal,"' pi. xiii., xvi. Capello,
"I'Esp. centr.," 1895, p. 70, pi. vi. ' Zeitsch.f. Ethn., vol. xvii. p. 93.
i« Zeitsch.f. Ethn., vol. xiv. p. (483) ; xv. p. (116).
" " Stone Agp," p. 80, pi. v. 93. '* "Nord. Ulds.," Xo. 56.
SERRATED AS THE ARMATURE OF SICKLES. 297
regards as a lance-point. I am inclined to think tliat they were not saws,
for on such spec iraons as I have examined minutely I find no trace of
the teeth being polished by use. They cannot, however, in all cases
have been lance-heads, as 1 have one of those serrated instruments,
SI- inches long, with the sides nearly parallel and both ends square.
Some of the crescent-shaped ' blades have almost similar teeth on the
straighter edge, and some of these are polished on both faces as if by
being worked backwards and forwards in a groove, and have no polish
between the teeth, such as would result from their being used cross-
ways like combs. From this I infer that such specimens at all events
have been used for cutting purposes, and not, as may have been the
case with others, as instruments- for dressing skins, or heckling flax
or hemp. As has been pointed out by Professor J. J. Steenstrup,
many of these crescent-shaped blades seem to have had their convex
edges inserted in wooden handles, which would render them convenient
for use as saws. Their action on wood, though not rapid, is effectual,
and with the aid of a little water I have with one of them cut through
a stick of dry sycamore seven-eighths of an inch in diameter in seven
minutes. In Thomsen's ^ opinion, these implements with teeth were
intended for saws. Nilsson ^ also regards some of them in the same
light. The form seems to be confined to the North of Germany and
Scandinavia.^ They are frequently found in pairs, one being smaller
than the other. Mr. T. AVright,*' after engraving one of these Danish
saws as a British specimen, remarks that several have been found in
different parts of England. I believe this statement to be entirely
without foundation, so far as this particular form is concerned.
I have left what I originally wrote upon this subject with very little
modification, but Prof. Flinders Petrie's'' discoveries have thrown a flood
of light upon the purposes for which serrated flints were used. We now
know that tlie Egyptian sickle was formed of a curved piece of wood
in shape much like the jaw-bone of a horse, armed along the inner
edge with a series of serrated flint flakes, cemented into a groove.
Not only are there numerous pictorial representations of such instru-
ments going back so far as the 4th dynasty, but the sickles them-
selves have been found in a complete state, as well as numbers of the
serrated flakes that formed their edge. Similar flakes, which no doubt
served the same purpose, were found by Schliemann on the site of
Troy.^ Others have been found at Helouan.^ The whole subject has
been treated exhaustively by Mr. Spurrell,'" to whose paper the reader
is referred." Dr. Munro is, liowcver, inclined to regard most Eui-opean
examples as saws.
I now pass on to an instrument of very frequent occurrence in
Britain.
' "Nord. Olds.," No. 58.
'^ Lubbock, "Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 102. "Flint Chips.' p. 74.
=> Noxiisk Tidskri/ifor Oldk., 1832, p. 429. * " Stoue Ajre," p. 42.
* Franks, "Horse Ferales," p. 137. Tiisch, "Frederico-Francisc," p. 145.
* " Celt, Roman, and Saxon," p. 70.
'' " Kahun," 1890, p. 29, pi. ix. " lUabun. &c.," 1891. p. oO seqq. " Medura, *
1892, p. 31 stqq.
* "Troy," 1875, p. 94. Atlas, pi. xxv. ■' Zeilsch. f. Ethn., vol. xvii. p. (303).
'" Arch, journ., vol. xlix. p. 53. " Arch. Journ., vol. xlix. p. 164.
298
CHAPTER XIII.
SCRAPERS.
One of the simple furms into which flakes are susceptible of being
readily converted has, in consequence of its similarity in character
to a stone implement in use among the Eskimos for scraping skins
and other purposes, received the name of a " scraper," or to use
the term first I believe employed by the late M. E. Lartet, a
grattoir. A typical scraper may be defined as a broad flake, the
end of which has been chipped to a semicircular bevelled edge
round the margin of the inner face, similar in character to that
of a " round-nosed turnino- chisel."
Fig. 203.— Eskimo Scrai.vi .
A very good specimen of an Eskimo scraper of flint, mounted
in a handle of fossil ivory, is in the Christy Collection, and has
been engraved for the " Reliquiae Aquitanicac." ^ For the loan of
the woodcut. Fig. 203, there given, I am indebted to the repre-
1 Pt. ii. p. 14. One from Alaska of this fonnand anotherwith a long handle are
figured in Zeitsch. f. Ethn., vol. xvi. p. (222).
USED IN DRESSING HIDES. 299
sentatives of the late IMr. Christy. Sometimes the hafts are of
wood, and they have frequently indentations intended to receive
the ends of the fingers and thumb, so as to secure a good grasp.
In the collection of Sir John Lubbock is another specimen much
like Fig. 203, with a flint blade almost like a lance-hoad in cha-
racter, but with the more pointed end inserted in the handle ;
there is also another short straight-sided blade of jade bound in
a wooden haft, which is notched along one side to receive the
fingers, and recessed on the face for the thumb. This latter seems
well adapted for use as a knife or chisel ; in fact. Sir John Lubbock,
who has figured the instruments in his " Prehistoric Times," ^
terms them both knives. Another example has been engraved by
the Rev. J. G. Wood.^
These instruments arc said to be used for scraping skins,^ for
which indeed they seem well suited, if the flat face of the stone
be held vertically to the hide that is to be scraped. The handles,
however, are better adapted for pushing the scrapers forward on a
flat surface, and judging from the wear upon them they must have
been so used. The late Sir Edward Belcher * has described them
as Eskimo planes, for the manufacture of bows and other articles
of wood, but in this respect he may have been mistaken.
The scrapers in use among the Fuegians^are drawn towards the
operator and not pushed. Some North American varieties are
mounted after the manner of adzes.^ Mr. Otis T. Mason in his
Paper " on Aboriginal skin-dressing " has exhaustively treated
the subject.
A form of Skin-scraper, straight at the edge, was in use among
the Pennacook tribe ^ of North America, and though some of the
Eskimo instruments may have been used as planes, no doubt maiiy
were employed in dressing hides, A peculiar form in use among
the Gallas^ of Southern Shoa has been figured by Giglioli,'^ who
has also recorded the fact that flat scrapers of stone are still in
use in Italy and France for dressing hides.
Whether the instruments were used vertically as scrapers, or
horizontally as planes, the term " scrapers " seems almost equally
» "Prehist. Timef<," 4th ed., p. 513, fig.s. '214—6.
2 'Niit. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 699. » "Rel. Aquit.," p. 13.
« Proc. Ethn. Soc, N. S., vol. i. p. 137. See Rep. Bureau of Ethn., 1887-8, p. 294.
* P. S. A. S.. vol. xxiv. p. 142.
•' Hep. of U. S. Xaf. Mhs., Washington, 1891, p. 553.
' Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. iv. p. 175.
* Intern. Arehir., vol. ii. p. 212.
» Arch, per PAnt. e la Etn., vol. xxiv., 1894, p. 245.
300
SCRAPERS.
[chap. XIII.
applicable to them ; and there appears no valid reason w hy, for the
sake of convenience, the same term should not be extended to their
ancient analogues, especially as their edges, as will subsequently be
seen, are in many cases worn away in a manner indicative of their
having been used for scraping.
The names of "thumb-flints" and ''finger-flints " which have some-
times been applied to die shorter and longer varieties of these instru-
ments, though colloquially convenient, appear to me not sutficiently
definite in meaning to be worthy of being retained.
Scrapers may be classified and described — firstly, in accordance with
the character of the flakes from which they have been made ; and,
secondly, in accordance with the outline of the portion of the margin
which has been chipped into form, and the general contour of the
implement.
Their outline is in some cases horseshoe-shaped or kite-shaped, in
others it is discoidal or nearly circular, and in others again it may be
Fig. 204.— Weaverthorpe
compared with that of a duck's bill or of an oyster-shell. To these
may be added side-scrapers, or such as are broader than they are
long, and the hollow scrapers with a rounded notch in them instead of
a semicircular end.
When the flakes have been chipped into the scraper form at both
ends they may be termed double-ended scrapers — to which class
circular scrapers also belong ; where a sort of handle has been worked
they may be termed spoon-shaped, and where the butt has been
chipped to a sharp chisel-edge, at right angles to the flat face, they
have been called tanged scrapers.
In speaking of the sides as right or left, I do it with reference to
the flat face of the scraper, as shown in the first of the thi-ee views of
Fig. 204.
It will be well to pass some of the forms in review before entering
into any more general considerations.
The figures are all of full size. Fig. 204, from "Weaverthorpe, on
the Yorkshire Wolds, is a good example of a symmetrical horseshoe-
shaped scraper. It is made from a broad flat flake, of rather pink
HORSESHOE-SHAPED.
301
flint, with the point chipped to a neat semicircular bevelled edge, and
one of the sides trimmed so as to correspond with the other. The
bulb of percussion visible on the tlat face and side views has been
slightly splintered by the blow. It gives a graceful ogee curve to tlie
face longitudinally, which brings forward the scraping or cutting edge
at the end. In the centre this is slightly rounded and worn away by
use.
I have other specimens almost identical in form from other parts of
the Yorkshire Wolds, from Suffolk, Sussex, and Dorsetshire. The}'
are abundantly found of smaller dimensions, and occasionally of
larger, sometimes as much as 2^ inches in diameter.
Fig. 205 shows another horseshoe-shaped scraper, which has become
white and grey by exposure. I picked it up on the Downs near Berliug
Gap, on the Sussex coast, a few miles west of Eastbourne ; a district
so prolific, that I have there found as many as twenty of these instru-
Fig. 205. — Sussex Downs.
meuts, of various degrees of perfection, within an hour. In this case
tlie scraper has been made from a broad ridged flake, and it will be
observed that not only the end but one of tlie sides has been carefully
trimmed, while the other has been left untouched, and has, more-
over, a flat facet on it, as shown in the side view. It would appear
from this that probably the side as well as the end was used for
scraping purposes, that whoever used it was right-handed and not
left-handed, and, moreover, that it is doubtful whether the implement
was ever inserted in a handle, at all events at the butt-oud. I have a
nearly similar specimen, but trimmed at the end only, which I found
in the vallum of the camp of Poundbury, near Dorchestor, Dorset. I
have smaller instruments of the same form which I have found on
the surface of the ground at Abbot's Ijangley, Herts; at Oundle, North-
amptonshire ; and in the ancient encampment of Maiden liower, near
Dunstable. Large scrapers are abundant in some jiarts of Suffolk.
The form is of common occurrence in Yorkshire, in all sizes from
2^ inches to one inch in length. To show the great range in size, and
302
SCRAPERS.
[chap, XIII.
the variations in the relative thickness of the instruments, I have
engraved, in Fig, 206, a small specimen from the Yorkshire Wolds,
Fis. 206.— Yorkshire.
When the chipping to an edge is continued beyond a semicircle, in
the case of scrapers made from broad short flakes, an almost circular
instrument is the result. These discoidal scrapers are of extremely
common occurrence on the Yorkshire Wolds, Fig, 207 shows a speci-
men from Helperthorpe,
They are not unfrequently formed from external flakes or splinters,
and are sometimes made from fragments broken from long flakes, in-
asmuch as there is no bulb of percussion on the flat face. In rare
cases the flat face is the result of a natural fracture, and, more rarely
still, it is the external face of a flint nodule.
"VMien the instrument is broader than it is long, it has been termed
a side scraper. One in what is now white flint, made from a portion
of a flake, and showing no bulb on the flat face, is engraved in
Fig. 208.— Weaverthorpe.
Fig. 208. It was foimd at Weaverthorpe. Occasionally the arc is
flatter and longer in proportion to the height than in this instance.
Fig. 209 may be called a long horseshoe-shaped scraper. It has
been made from a thick flat flake, which there had evidently been
KITE-SHAPED AND DUCK-BILL-SHAPED.
303
some difficulty in shaping, as at least two blows had failed of their
desired effect before the iiake was finally dislodged. The back of the
scraper is disfigured by the marks of the abortive flakes produced by
Fig. 209. — Sussex Downs.
these two blows. The end, and part of the right side are neatly
trimmed into form. This specimen also I found on the Sussex Downs,
near Berling Gap.
The implements of this form are often neatly chipped along both
I'ig. "J 10. — Vurkshire.
Fig. 211.— Yorksliire Wolds.
sides as well as at the end. An example of the kind is given in Fig.
210, the original of which is in milky chalcedouic flint, and was found
on the Yorkshire Wolds.
Fig. 211 shows another specimen from the Yorkshire Wolds. It is
304
SCRAPERS.
[chap. XIII.
made from a flat flake, considerably curved longitudinally, and trimmed
at the end as well as along a small portion of the left side. Some are
more oval in form, and have been chipped along the sides, and some-
what rounded at the butt. In several instances the chipped edge at
the butt-end is slightly worn away by friction, the edge of the rounded
end being unworn.
Fig. 212 gives a kite-shaped scraper from Yorkshire, also made from
a flat flake, but showing a considerable extent of the original crust of
Fig. 212.— Yorkshire "Wold<
Fig. 213.— Sussex Dowiis.
the flint of which it was made. It comes almost to a point at the
butt-end, and both edges are somewhat chipped away as if the instru-
ment had at that end been used as a boring tool. The point is some-
what rounded by friction. Occasionally, scrapers of this form are
chipped on both faces at the pointed base, so as to make them closely
resemble arrow-heads. It seems possible that this pointing was for
the purpose of hafting the tool more readily in
wood.
Fig. 213 shows one of what may be termed
the duck-biU scrapers. It is made from a flat
flake as usual, somewhat curved, and showing
all along one side the original crust of the
flint. It is neatly worked to a semicircular
edge at the end, but the sides are left en-
tirely untouched. I found it on the Sussex
Downs, near Cuckmare Haven.
A smaller analogous instrument, from the
Yorkshire Wolds, is shown in Fig. 214. It is
made from an external flake, struck from
a nodule of flint of small diameter. The end alone is trimmed.
Scrapers made from such external flakes and splinters of flint are by
no means uncommon. I have one which appears to have been made
Fig, 214.— Yorkshire WolJs
SOME LIKE OYSTER SHELLS IN FOIIM.
305
from a splinter of a hammer-stone — a portion of the surface being
bruised all over.
In Fig. 21.3 is shown another duck-bill scraper, with parallel sides,
found by myself on the Sussex Downs, near Berling Gap. It is a
thick instrument, with botli sides and end trimmed into form, tlic flake
from which it is made having in all probability been originally much
broader, and more circular. The bulb of percussion is not in the middle
of the butt, but withiu three-eighths of an inch of the left side.
Another form of these instruments is not unlike the flat valve of an
03^ster shell, being usually somewhat unsj'mmetrieal either to the right
or to the left. A specimen of this class from the Downs, near Berling
Gap, is shown in Fig. 216. The end is neatly chipped to an almost
elliptical sweep, but the sides in this instance are left untrimmed ; the
right side shown in the side view being flat and almost square with
the face. In some instances the trimming of the sides extends all the
way round to the butt.
Occasionally, though rarely, one of the sides, either right or left, is
trimmed in such a manner that its more or less straight edge meets
the curved edge of the end at an angle, so as to form an obtuse point.
An example of this kind is shown in Fig. 217, from the Downs, near
Berling Gap. This instrument is made from an external splinter of
flint, the edge at the end and front of one side alone being carefullv
chipped into shape. It approaches in form to the grattoir-hec^ of
French antiquaries.
In most scrapers the bulb of percussion of the flake from which they
have been made is, as has already been said, at the opposite end to
that which has been trimmed to form the curved edge ; but this is by no
means universally the case, for sometimes the bulb is at the side of
the scraper, and sometimes, though more rarely, it has been at the
end which has been worked to the scraper edge.
It seems needless to engrave examples of these varieties, which are
' Bull. Soc. cCAnth. de Paris, 4th S. vol. vli., 1896, p. 374.
J06
SCRArERS.
[CHAF. XI 11.
only indicative of the maniLfacturers of the implements having made
iise of that part of the piece of flint Avhich seemed best adapted to
Fig. 216.— Sussex Dotms,
be chipped into the form they required. For the same reason we find
scrapers of an endless variety of forms, some of them exceedingly
Fig. 217.— Sussex Downs.
irregular, as any one who has examined a series from the Yorkshire
Wolds will know, I have not, however, thought it necessary to give
DOUBLE-ENDED AND SPOON-SHAPED.
307
representations of all these minor varieties, as even more than enough
arc engraved to show the general character of the instruments. It is
perhaps worth mentioning, that the flakes selected for conversion into
scrapers are iisuall}' such as expand in width at the point. It is
doubtful whether the long narrow flakes worked to a scraper-like
termination at one or both ends properly come under the category of
scrapers. I shall consequently treat of them under the head of wrought
flakes.
I must now jiass on to the consideration of the forms showing a
greater extent of trimming at the edge than those hitherto described.
Of these the double-ended scrapers, or those presenting a semicircular
edge at either end, first demand notice. They are of by no means
common occurrence. Those I have seen have been for the most part
found in Yorkshire and Suffolk. Fig. 218 exhibits a specimen from
Jridliiigtuii. Fig. 219.— Bridlington.
Bridlington. As is not unfrequently the case, it is rather thinner at
the end nearest to what was the butt-end of the flake. The sides are
left almost untrimmed, but each end is worked to a nearly semicircular
curve. In the Greenwell Collection is a specimen from one of the
barrows at Eudstone ; as well as a large one from Lakenheath, and
others from Suffolk. Occasionally the length and breadth are so
nearly the same, that the scraper assumes the form of a disc, with
sharp edges — a kind of plano-convex lens. A specimen of this form
from Bridlington is shown in Fig. 219. It is, however, exceptionally
regular in form. I have another smaller specimen, not quite so cir-
cular or so well cliipped, which I found on the Downs between New-
haven and Brighton, and I have others fi'om
Suffolk. Such a form was probably not in-
tended for insertion in a haft.
Sometimes, where the scraper has been made
from a flat flake, the trimmed edge curves
slightly inwards at one part, so as to produce
a sort of ear-shaped form. I have such, both
with the inward cixrve on the left side, as
shown in Fig. 220, and also with it on the
right side.
A deej^-notched tool, to which the name of hoUow scraper has been
applied, will be subsequently mentioned.'
1 P. 319.
x2
Fi?. 220.— Yorkshire Wolds.
308
SCRAPERS.
[chap. XIII.
There are some scrapers which at the Lutt-cnd of the flake are
chipped into what has the appearance of being a kind of handle, some-
what like that of a short spoon. That engraved in Fig. 221 is from
the Yorkshire "Wolds, and is in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer,
of Driffield. It is chipped from both faces to an edge at each side in
the handle-like part. I have an implement of the same character,
found at Sewerby, the handle of which is slighter but less symmetrical.
I have from the same district another large discoidal scraper, If inches
in diameter, and chipped all round, with a rounded projection, about
f of an inch wide, left at the thicker end of the flake.
The GreenweU Collection contains specimens of tlie same character
as Fig. 221, found near Eudstone.
A nearly .similar implement, iu the Museum of the Eoyal Irish
Academy, has been engraved by Sir W. "^'ilde.^
Some of the large Danish scrapers are provided with a sort of
handle, and have been termed by Worsaae'- " skee-f ormet, " or spoon-
shaped.
It will be well now to refer to some of the published notices of the
Pig. 221.— Yorkshire Wolds.
discovery of these implements, which seem to have met with little
attention from antiquaries until within the last forty years. There is,
however, in the British Museum a fine horseshoe- shaped scraper,
which was found long ago by the late Dr. Mantell, in company with
broken urns and ashes, in a barrow on "Windore Hill, near Alfriston.
In the same collection are four or five others of various sizes from
barrows on Lamboum Downs, Berks, as well as those from the Green-
weU Collection. Sir E. Colt Hoare has recorded the discovery of what
appear to be two discoidal scrapers, with a flint spear-head or dagger,
a smaU hone or whetstone, and a cone and ring of jet, like a puUey,
accompanying an interment, near Durrington "NValls." He terms them
little buttons of chalk or marl ; but from the engraving it would seem
that they were scrapers — jDrobably of flint, much weathered, or altered
in structure. It seems likely that many more may have escaped
his notice, as they are of common occurrence in the tumuli in Wilt-
shire, as well as in the other parts of Britain. They are also recorded
1 "Cat. Mu6. R. I. A.," fig. 8. - " Nord. Olds.," No. 29.
3 " South Wilts," p. 172, pi. lix.
FOUND WITH INTERMENTS. 309
from Morgan's Hill ' and "NVinterbourn Stoke. Tlie late Dean Mero-
wetlier- found several in barrows on Avebury Down, together with
numerous flint flakes.
Some were found with burnt bodies in barrows at Cockmarsli,^
Berks, and others in a barrow at Great Shefford.*
They occurred in barrows at Seaford,' Sussex, and Lichfield," Hants,
as well as in Devonshire" barrows.
Ten or twelve were also found by Dr. Thurnam in the chambered
Long Barrow, at West Kennet,** with about three hundred flint flakes.
There was no trace of metal, nor of cremation in this barrow.
A neat scraper was found in a hut-circle on Cam Brc," Cornwall.
In the Yorkshire barrows they abound in company both with burnt
and unburnt bodies,'" without any metal being present. Canon Green-
well lias in some cases found them with the edge worn smooth by
use.
^Ir. Bateman found many in Derbyshire barrows, as, for instance,
at the head of a contracted skeleton on Cronkstone Hill," and witli
another contracted skeleton with two sets of Kimmeridge coal beads,
at Cow Low, Buxton,'- and with four skeletons in a cist, in a barrow
near Monsal Dale.'-*
They not unfrecj^ueutly occur with interments in association with
bronze weapons. In a bari-ow on Parwich Moor, Stailordshire,'* called
Shuttlestone, Mr. Bateman found a skeleton, with a bronze dagger at
the left arm, and a plain flat bronze celt at the left thigh, and close to
the head a jet bead and a " circular flint." As before stated, the late
Mr. J. W. Flower, obtained three, and a bronze dagger, from the same
barrow as the saw engraved at p. 266. They were also found with
bronze in barrows in Kushmore Park.'^
They are frequentl}^ to be seen on the surface of the gi-ound. One such,
found by the late Mr. 0. Wykeham Martin, E.S.A., at Leeds Castle.
Kent,"' has been figured. Others from the neighbourhood of Hast-
ings, '' the Isle of Thanet, ''^ and Bradford Abbas, Dorset, '^ have also been
engraved. Many of those from Bradford are said to have a notch on the
left side, but I am doubtful whether it is intentional. Gen. Pitt
Pivers has found them at Callow Hill, Oxon,-" and at Potherley.
They are also recorded from Holyhead Island,-' Anglesea,^" Tun-
1 Arch., vol. xliii. pp. 420, 421.
- " Salisb. Vol. Arch. Inst.," p. lOG.
'■> Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. xii. p. 239.
* Arch, ylssoc. Joiirn., vol. xxii. p. 450. Arch., vol. xliii. p. 420.
•'' Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. xxxii. p. 174. Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. vi. p. 287.
•■• Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd. S. vol. x. p. 18.
' Trans. Dev. Assoc, vol. xii. p. 140.
*" " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii., pi. 50, p. 2. Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 41G.
" Itdiq., vol. xxxii., 189G, p. 109.
'" ^Lich. Joiirn., vol. xiv. p. 8.'j ; xxii. IIG, 245, 251 ; xxvii. 71. lleliquari/, vol.
ix. p. G9. " Ten Years' Di^'.," pp. 205, 208. " Brit. Bar." pp. 251, 348, s.-aA. passim.
'1 "T. y. D.,"p. 56. '- "A^est. Ant.Dcrb.," p. 02.
'•' "T. Y. D.,"p. 78.
'* " T. Y. D.," p. 35. Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. ini. p. 217.
'"' Pitt Rivers, " Exc. on Cranb. Chase," vol. ii. pi. Ixvi. and Ixxxix
"' I'roc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 7G. '" Sussex Arch. Coll., vol. xix. j). 53.
''^ Journ. Ethn. Soc, vol. i. pi. i. " Arch. Journ., vol. xxv. p. 155.
'-" Journ. JCthn. Soc, vol. i. p. 4. -' Arch. Catnb., 4th S., vol. ix. p. 37.
■•'■- Arch. Journ., vol. xxxi. pp. 297, 301.
310 SCRAPERS. [chat. XIII.
bridp:e,^ Milton, = and AVest ^'"icljliam." Kent ; Stoke Newington,*
Middlesex ; and AValton-on-tlie-!N"aze,' Essex.
I have found them in considerable numbers in and near ancient
encampments. At Maiden Bower, near Dunstable, a i\avty of three
or four have on more than one occasion picked uf) upwards of fort}'
specimens. I have examples from Hod Hill. Eadbury Kings, and
Poundbury Camp, Dorsetshire ; from Little Solsbury Hill, Bath; Pulpit
AVood, near Wendover, Bucks, and several localities in Suffolk,
Cambs, and other counties. Some are very thick, though quite sym-
metrical in outline. On the Yorkshii-e Wolds, the Sussex Downs," and
in parts of Wilts and Suffolk, they are extremely numerous ; but in any
chalk country where Hint is abundant, this form of implement can be
found. In other districts, into which flint has to be imported, they are
of course more scarce. They seem, however, to occur in greater or less
abundance over the whole of England.
They are very numerous in Scotland, and extensive collections of
them from Elgin, Wigtown, and other counties are to be seen in the
National Museimi at Edinburgh.
Specimens from a crannog in Ayrshire," Urquhart, Elgin," and
Gullane Links,^ Haddingtonshire, have been published.
They are found, of nearly similar forms in Ireland, but are there
rarer than in England, though fairly numerous in Antrim.'"
In France the same form of instrument occurs, and I have a number
of specimens from different parts of Belgiiim.
A spoon-shaped scraper from Neverstorff," Schleswig Holstein, is
figured. They are likewise found in South Russia. '-
In Denmark scrapers of various forms are found, and are not
uncommon in the kjokken-moddings and coast-finds. Sir John Lub-
bock'^ records having picked up as manj' as thirty-nine scrapers at a
spot on the coast of Jutland, near Aarhuus.
In the Swiss Lake-dwellings they occasionally occur. I have a fine,
almost kite-shaped, specimen from Auvernier, given me by Professor
Desor, and. others from Nussdorf. Some are engraved by Keller.
They are also found in Italy. I have a small specimen from the Isle
of Elba.
I possess specimens formed of obsidian, from Mexico ; and instru-
ments of jasper, of scraper-like forms, have been found at the Cape
of Good Hope.'^ As already mentioned, they are weU known in
America. Some are found in Newfoundland.'*
» Troc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. viii. p. 385.
^ Arch. Cant., vol. xiii. p. 124. " Coll. Cant.," p. 4.
3 Arch. Cant., vol. xiv. p. 88. ^ H.'sse.v Xat., vol. ii. p. G7.
•'' Essex Nat., vol. iii. p. 159.
'■ A considerable number of them are in the Lewes Museum. Suss. Ant. Coll.,
vol. xxx\nii. p. 226 ; xxxix. p. 97.
' Froc. Soc.Ant. Scot., vol. xv. p. 109. Munro's " Lake-dw.," pp. 109, 174.
» P. S. A. S., vol. ix. p. 461 ; vol. xLx. p. 250.
0 P. S. A. S., vol. xviii. p. 249.
^" Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. vii. p. 202 ; Lx. pp. 167, 320.
" Zcitsch. f. Ethn., vol. xvi. p. (356).
'2 Journ. Anth. Jnst., vol. x. p. 352.
'3 "Preh. Times," 4th ed. p. 110.
'* Trans. Preh. Conf/., 1868, p. 69. JoKrn. Ethnol. Soc, vol. i. p. o2.
'^ Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. v. p. 239, pi. xi., 4.
EVIDENCES OF WEAR UPON THEM. 311
Instruments of tlie same cliaraf'ter date back to very remote times,
as numbers liave been found in tlie cave deposits of tlie Keindeer
Period of the South of France, as well as in a few in our English bone
caves, as will subsequently be mentioned. A somewhat similar form
occurs, though rarely, among the implements found in the ancient
Kiver Gravels.
Besides being used for scraping hides, and preparing leatber, it
has been suggested, by Canon Greenwell/ that tbey might have
served for making pins and other small articles of bone, and also
for fabricating arrow-heads and knives of flint. As to this latter
use I am doubtful, but before entering into the question of the
purposes which implements of the " scraper " form were in ancient
times intended to serve, it will bo well to examine the evidence
of wear afforded by the implements themselves. This evidence is
various in its character, and seems to prove that the implements
were employed in more than one kind of work.
Among some hundreds of scrapers, principally from the York-
shire Wolds, I have met with between twenty and thirty which
show decided marks of being worn away along the circular edge,
by friction. In some, the edge is only worn away sufficiently to
remove all keenness or asperity, and to make it feel smooth to the
touch, and this perhaps along one part only of the arc. In others,
the whole edge is completely rounded, and many of the small
facets by which it was originally surrounded, entirely effaced.
The small strioc, resulting from the friction Avhich has rounded
the edge, are at right angles to the flat face of the implement, and
the whole edge presents the appearance of having been worn
away b}'' scraping some comparatively soft siibstance — such, for
instance, as leather. When w^e consider what an important part
the skins of animals play in the daily life of most savage tribes,
and especially of those exposed to a cold climate ; and when we
remember the amount of preparation, in the way of dressing and
scraping, the hides require before they can be available for the
purposes of clothing, or even tent making, it becomes evident that
some instruments must have been in use by the ancient occupants
of the country for the purpose of dressing skins ; and the proba-
bility of these scrapers having been devoted to this purpose is
strengthened by their being worn in just such a manner as they
would have been, had they been in use for scraping some greasy
dressing off not over-clean leather. The scrapers thus worn away
are for the most part of the horseshoe form. There are some,
^ Arch. Joio-ii., vol. xxii. p. 101.
312 SCRAPERS. [chap. XIII.
however, whicli have the edge worn away, not at the circuhir end
but along the edge towards the butt. In this case also they
appear to have been employed for scraping, but the evidence as to
the character of the substance scraped is not so distinct. It is,
however, probable that in the fashioning of perforated axes and
other implements, made of greenstone and other rocks not purely
siliciou?, some scraping as well as grinding tools may have been
employed, and possibly the wear of the edge of some of these tools
may be due to such a cause. Even among the cave-dwellers of
the Dordogne we find scrapers bearing similar marks of attrition,
and we also know that flint flakes were used for scraping the hard
hajmatitic iron ore, to produce the red pigment — the paint with
which the men of those times seem to have adorned themselves.^
It will of course be urged that it is, after all, only a small
proportion of these implements which bear these unmistakcable
marks of wear upon them. It must, however, be remembered, that
to produce much abrasion of the edge of an instrument made of so
hard a material as flint, an enormous amount of wear against so
soft a substance as hide would be necessary. It is indeed possible
that the edge would remain for years comparatively unworn were
the substance to be scraped perfectly free from grit and dirt. If
we find identically the same forms of instruments, both worn and
unworn, there is a fair presumption that both were intended for
the same purpose, though the one, from accidental causes, has
escaped the wear and tear visible on the other.
There are, however, circumstances which iu this case point to
an almost similar form having served two totally distinct pur-
poses ; for besides those showing the marks of use already described,
we find some of these instruments with the edge battered and
bruised to such an extent that it can hardly have been the result
of scraping in the ordinary sense of the word.
To account for such a character of wear, there seems no need of
going so far afield as among the Eskimos, or any other semi-
civilized or savage people, to seek for analogies on which to base
a conclusion — how far satisfactory it must be left to others to
judge. Among the primary necessities of man (who has been
defined as a cooking animal) is that of fire. It is no doubt a
question difficult of solution whether our primitive predecessors
were acquainted with any more readj' means of producing it than
' As another purpose to which these instruments may have been applied, Dr.
Keller (" Lake-DweUing-8," pp. 34, 97) has suggested that some of the scrapera
foimd in the Swiss Lake-dwellings may have been in use for scaling fish.
I'OUM) AMTIl I'YRITES. 313
by friction of two pieces of wood, especially at a time when there
is reason to suppose they were unacquainted with the existence of
iron as a metal. I have, however, already mentioned ^ that for
the purpose of producing sparks, pyrites is as eflfective as iron, and
was indeed in u?e among the Homans. Now the lower beds of
our English chalk are prolific of pyrites, though not to the same
extent as the upper beds are of flint ; and it is not impossible that
the use of a haramer-stone of pyrites, in order to form some in-
strument of flint, gave rise to the discovery of that method of
producing fire, the invention of which the old myth attributed to
Pyrodes, the son of Cilix. When exposed upon or near the surface
of the ground, pj'rites is very liable to decomposition, and even if
occurring with ancient interments it would be very likel}'' to be
disregarded. This may account for the paucity of ihe notices of
its discovery. Some, however, exist, and I have already men-
tioned ^ instances where nodules of pyrites have been discovered on
the Continent In association with worked flints, both of Neolithic
and Palaeolithic age.
There are also instances of Its occurrence in British barrows.
That careful observer, the late Mr. Thomas Bateman, found, in
the year 1844, in a barrow on Elton Moor,^ near the head of a
skeleton, " a piece of spherical iron pyrites, now for the first time
noticed as being occasionally found with other relics in the British
tumuli. Subsequent discoveries," he says, "have proved that it
w;is prized by the Britons, and not unfrequently deposited in the
grave, along with the weapons and ornaments which formed the
most valued part of their store." With the same skeleton, in a
" drinking-cup," with a small celt and other objects of flint, was a
flat piece of polished iron ore, and twenty-one "circular Instru-
ments." In another barrow. Green Low,* Mr. Bateman discovered
a contracted skeleton, having behind the shoulders a drinking-cup,
a splendid flint dagger, a piece of spherical pyrites or iron ore, and
a flint instrument of the circular-headed form. Lower down were
barbed flint arrow-heads and some bone instruments. In Dowe Low,^
a skeleton was accompanied by a bronze dagger and an " anmlet
or ornament of iron ore," together with a large flint implement that
had seen a good deal of service. A broken nodule of pyrites
showing signs of friction was found with a bronze dagger in a
' P. 16. "T. ]'}.
"■ " Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 53.
* Op. cit., p. 59. Jicliff., vol. iii. p. 176. " Ci-an. Brit.," vol. ii. pL xli.
* " Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 96.
314 SCRAPEKS. [chap. Xlll.
barrow at Angrowse ^ MuUion, Cornwall. In a barrow at Brig-
milston,- between Everley and Amesbury, Sir li. Colt Hoare found,
with an um containing ashes, " the fragment of a bone article like
a whetstone, some chipped flints prepared for arrow-heads, a long
piece of flint and a p>/t-itcs, both evidently smoothed by usage."
A piece of iron pyrites with a groove worn in it and a pecu-
liarly shaped implement of flint with evident marks of use at the
larger end were found with an interment near Basingstoke Station.^
Flint arrow-heads and flakes were also present.
Xodules of pyrites occurred in such numbers in a barrow on
Broad Down,^ near Honiton, as to suggest the idea of their having
been placed there designedly, but none of them are described as
abraded.
"We have here, at all eyents, instances of the association of lumps
of iron pyrites with circular-ended flint instruments in ancient
interments. Can they haye been in use together for producing
fire ? In order to judge of this our best guide will probably be,
so far at all events as the flints are concerned, those in use for the
same purpose in later times, and even at the present day.
In the Abbe Hamard's researches at Hermes^ (Uise), two flint
scrapers moimted in wooden handles round which were iron
ferrules are said to haye been discovered in Merovingian graves.
The Abbe Cochet^ describes some of the flints found with
Merovingian interments as resembling gun-flints ; one of these was
apparently carried at the waist, in a purse with money and other
necessaries. A steel and a small piece
of flint were found in a Saxon grave at
High Down, Ferring,' Sussex. A simi-
lar practice of carrying in the pocket a
piece of flint and some prejiared tinder
prevails in some parts of Europe to the
present day ; and, as I have before re-
Fig. 222.-Frencii " strike-a-Light." marked, flints for this purpose are arti-
cles of sale. Fig. 222 shows one of these
modern " strike-a-lights " which I purchased some years ago at
Pontleyoy, in France. It is made of a segment of a flake, one edge
and the sides of which haye been trimmed to a scraper-like edge, and
the other merely made straight. The resemblance between this and
' "Xaenia Comub.," p. 227. - " South "Wilts," p. 195. Arch., vol. xliii. p. 422.
^ FitUquary, vol. xxiv. p. 128. * Arch. Jouru., vol. xxv. p. 295.
^ Cong. Prih. Uahonne, 1880, p. 387. ' " Normandie Souterraiiic," p. 258.
'' Arch. vol. liv. p. .375.
THE IMODERN FORM OF STRlKE-A-LIGH'l'. 315
some of tlie ancient " scrapers " is manifest. Another strike-a-
lifflit flint, which I boufjht at a stall in Trier, is about 2 inches
long by 1;^ inches broad, and is made from a flat flake, trimmed to
a nearly square edge at the butt-end, and to a very flat arc at the
point, both the trimmed edges being of precisely the same
character as those of scrapers. I find, moreover, that by working
such a flint and a steel or briquet together, much the same bruising
of the edge is produced as that apparent on some of the old.
" scrapers." I come, therefore, to the conclusion, that a certain
proportion of these instruments were in use, not for scraping hides
like the others, but for scraping iron pyrites, and not improbably,
in later days, even iron or steel for procuring fire. Were they
used for such a purpose we can readily understand why they
should so often present a bruising of the edge and an irregularity
of form. We can also find a means of accounting for their great
abundance.
Looking at the question from a slightly different point of view,
this method of solution receives additional support. Everyone
will, I think, readily concede that, putting for the moment pyrites
out of the question, the inhabitants of this country must have been
acquainted with the method of producing fire by means of flint and
steel or iron, at all events so long ago as when their intercourse
with the Romans commenced, if not at an even earlier period. We
may, in any case, assume that flints have been in use as fire-
producing agents for something like 2,000 years, and that con-
sequentl}^ the number of them that have thus served must be
enormous. What has become of them all ? They cannot, like
some antiquities, be " only now rare because they were always
valueless," for in their nature they are almost indestructible.
Many, no doubt, were mere irregular lumps of flint, broken from
time to time to produce such an edge as would scrape the steel ;
but is it not in the highest degree probable that many were of the
same class as those sold for the same purpose at the present day —
flakes chipped into a more or less scraper-like form at one end ?
There is yet another argument. In many instances these
circular-ended flints, when found upon the surface, have a com-
paratively fresh and unweathered appearance ; and, what is more,
have the chipped parts stained by iron-mould. In some cases
there are jiarticlcs of iron, in an oxidized condition, still adherent.
Such iron marks, especially on flint which has weathered white,
may, and indeed commonly do, arise from the passage of harrows
316 SCRAPERS. [CUAP. XIII.
and other agricultural implements, and of horses shod with iron,
over the fields ; but did the marks arise merely from this cause, it
appears hardly probable that in any instance they should be con-
fined to the chipped edge, and not occur on other parts of the flint.
I had written most of the foregoing remarks when, in November,
LS70, an interesting discovery, made by Canon Greenwell, F.R.S.,
in his exploration of a barrow^ at Rudstone, near Bridlington, in
Yorkshire, came to corroborate my views. I have already de-
scribed a whetstone found with one of the interments in this barrow,
and mentioned that between the knees and the head were found,
with other objects, the half of a nodule of iron pyrites, and a long
round-ended flake of flint which lay underneath it. They are
Fig. 223.— Rudstone.
both represented full size in accompanying figure (Fig. 223).
A portion of the outside of the pyrites has been ground smooth,
and a projecting knob has been worked down, so as to bring it
to an approximately hemispherical shape, and adapt it for being
comfortably held in the hand. The fractured surface, where the
nodule was broken in two, is somewhat oval, and in the centre, in
the direction of the longer diameter, is worn a wide shallow groove,
of just the same character as would have been produced by constant
sharp scraping blows from a round-ended flake or scraper, such as
that which was found with it. The whole surface is somewhat
worn and striated, in the same direction as the principal central
groove ; and the edge of the flat face of the pyrites is more worn
away at the top and bottom of the groove than at the other parts.
The scraper is made from a narrow thick external flake, the end
of which has been trimmed to a semicircular bevelled edge — a
^ " British Barrows," p. 266.
rSED WITH I'YRITES FOR PRODUCING FIRE.
317
portion of one side has also been trimmed. At the end, and along
some parts of the sides, this edge is worn quite smooth, and rounded
by friction, and there are traces of similar wear at the butt-end.
In a second grave in the same barrow there lay, behind the back,
two jet buttons and a similar pyrites and flint. There can, I think,
be no reasonable doubt of their having been, in these instances,
fire-producing implements, used in the manner indicated in the
annexed figure. The finding of the two materials together, in two
Fig. 224. — Method of using Tyritos and "Scrnpor" for Striking a Liglit.
separate instances, in both of which the pyrites and the flint pre-
sented the same forms and appearance, establishes the fact of their
connection ; and it is hard to imagine any other purpose for which
pja-ites could be scraped by flint except that of producing fire.
Moreover, in another barrow on Crosby Garrett Fell,^ West-
moreland, Canon Greenwell found a piece of iron ore (oxidized
pyrites) held in the hand of a skeleton, and a long thick flake of
flint, evidently a " flint and steel."
It cannot have been merely for the purpose of producing a paint
or colour that they were brought together, as though the outer crust
of a nodule of pyrites might, if ground, give a dull red pigment, yet
the inner freshlj^-broken face would not do so ; and, if it would,
the colour would be more readily prociired by grinding on a flat
stone than by scraping. It would be interesting to compare these
objects with the pyrites and pebbles in use among the Fuegians^,
who employ dried moss or fungus by way of tinder, but ajjpear
to find some difficulty in producing fire. The Eskimos ^ and some
North American tribes also obtain fire from pyrites.
Sir Wollaston Franks has called my attention to another half
^ " Brit. Ban-.," pp. 26G, 390.
- Wood, "Nat. Hi.st. of Man," vol. ii. p. 522.
^ Hough "Fire Making Apparatus" in Rep. of U. S.Nat. Mus., Washington,
1888, p. 673.
318 SCRAPEKS. [CIIAP. Xlll.
nodule of pyrites preserved in the Briti>li Museum, whicli is some-
what abraded in the middle of its Hat face, though not so much
so as that from Yorkshire, It was discovered with flint flakes in
a barrow on Lambourn Down,^ Berkshire, by Mr. E. Martin
Atkins, in 1850. In a barrow at Flowerburn," Ross-shire, in 1885,
u similar half nodule and a flint scraper were found, and a dis-
covery of the same kind was made b}' Lord Xorthesk, at Teindside,^
near Minto, Roxburghshire, about 1870. A fine piece of pyrites
in company with worked flints was found in 1881, in a ruined
dolmen, in the He d'Arz,^ Brittany, by the Abbe Luco. A well
striated block of pyrites was also found with numerous objects
formed of flint and other kinds of stone, on the Eocher de Beg-er-
Goallenner, Quiberon, by M. F. Gaillard.^
A nodule of jDyrites, with a deep scoring u]30u it, and found
in one of the Belgian bone caves, the Trou de Chaleux, has been
engraved by Dr. E. Dupont,*' who regards it as having been used
as a fire-producing agent. The flint that produced the scoring
appears to have had a pointed, rather than a rounded end. Possibly
the wearing away of the ends of certain flakes, for which it has
been difficult to account, may be due to their having been used in
this manner for striking a light.
There are yet some other long flakes which are trimmed to a
scraper-like edge at one or both ends ; but in these cases the
trimming appears to have been rather for the purpose of enabling-
the flake to be conveniently held in the hand, so as to make use
of its cutting edge, than with the intention of converting the
trimmed end into a scraping or cutting tool. The ends of some
of the hafted knives or saws found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings
are thus trimmed.
On the whole, we may conclude, with some appearance of pro-
bability, that a certain proportion of these instruments, and more
especially those of regular shape, and those of large size, were
destined to be used as scrapers in the process of dressing hides and
for other purposes ; that others again, and chiefly those of moderate
size with bruised and battered edges, were used at one period with
iron pyrites, and at a subsequent date with iron or steel, for the
' Figured in Arch., vol. xliii. p. 422.
* Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xix. p. 356.
^ P. .S'. A. S., vol. viii. p. 137.
* "Expl. des Dolmens," Vannes, 1882, I. p. G.
■' C. R. de V Assoc, fr. pour Vav. des Sciences, Grenoble, 1885.
* " Les Cav. de la Belgique," vol. ii. pi. Lx. 2. " L'homme pendant lea Ages de
la Pierre," 1871, p. 74.
THE FLAT AND HOLLOWED KOUMS. 319
production of fire ; and lastly that others have had their ends
trimmed into shape, so as to render them symmetrical in form, or
to enable them to be conveniently handled or hafted.
There are still one or two other forms to which, from the character
of their edge, the designation of scraper may be given. The instru-
ment from the Yorkshire Wolds, shown in Fig. 225, may, for instance,
be called a straight scraper. It is made from a broad fiat flake, with
a well-developed bulb of percussion on the face, and the counterpart
of another at the back, so that the section at the base is much curved.
Tlie point of the flake and its loft side have been chipped away, so
that thoy are nearly straight, and form between them an angle of
about GO". The edge is sharper, and the form, I think, more regular
Fig. 225.— Yurkshire Wolds. Fig. 226.— Yorkshire Wold.s.
than if it had been used in conjunction with i:)yrites or steel, and I
am therefore inclined to regard it as a tool. The late Mr. Charles
Monkman, who gave me this specimen, also gave me another, more
crescent-shaped in form, the base being roughly chipped to a regular
sweep. I have another larger flint, similar to Fig. 225, found by the
late Mr. Whitbourn, F.S.A., in the neighbourhood of Grodalming.
Before pronouncing definitely as to the degree of antiquity to be
assigned to such instruments, it will be well to have authenticated
instances of their discovery in association with other remains, and not
merely on the surface. In character, however, they much resemble
other flint instruments of undoubtedly high antiquity, though they
present the peculiarity of having the edge at right angles to the axis
of the flake from which they are made, instead of being parallel
to it.
A singular flint instrument of a rudely heart-shaped form, with one
straight serrated edge, is figured with other tools, &c., from the Culbin
Sands.'
To another of these forms, of which a not very first-rate example is
given in Fig. 226, the designation of hollow scraper may be applied, the
scraping edge being concave, instead of as usual, convex. This speci-
men also is from the Yorkshire Wolds. I have, however, foimd analo-
gous instruments on the Sussex Downs, the hollowed edges of which
appear to have been used for scraping some cylindi'ical objects. In
1 Froc, Sue. Ant. Scot., vol. xxv. p. 499.
320
SCR.\1'ERS.
[CIIAF. Xlll.
Ireland this form not imfroquently occurs. I liave several specimens
with the liollow as regular iu its sweep as any of the scrapers of the
ordinary form, and I have thought it advisable to figure a typical
example as Fig. 226a. They seem well adapted for scraping into
regular shape the stems of arrows or the shafts of spears, or for fash-
Fig, 226a.— Xorth of Irclaml.
ioning bone pins. Among modern artificers in wood, bone, ivory, or
metal, scraping tools play a far more important part than would at
first sight appear probable, looking at the abundance and perfection
of our cutting tools and files. The latter, indeed, are merely compound
forms of "scrapers."
A less symmetrical hollow scraper from the Culbiu Sands' has been
engraved ; as has been another which Dr. Joseph Anderson- used in
the production of an arrow-shaft, and which he found to be a very
efficient tool. Some writers have regarded these hollos-edged scrapers
as saws^, but I think erroneousl}'.
Implements of the same character have been found in Egypt\ and
in France, and probably exist in other countries.
^ Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xxv. p. 497.
2 P. fi'. A. -S'., vol. xi. p. 512.
^ Dr. J. S. Houlder, /oi</-«. Anth. Inst., vol. iii. p. 338 ; iv. p. 19. See also Journ.
P. H. and Arch. Assoc, of IreL, 4th S., vol. v. p. 124.
* Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xi. pi. xxx.
321
CHAPTER Xiy.
BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS.
Another of llie purposes to wbicli flint flakes were applied appears
to have been that of boring holes in various materials. Portions
of stags' horns, destined to serve cither as hammers, or as sockets
for hatchets of stone, had either to be perforated or to have recesses
bored in them ; and holes in wood were, no doubt, requisite for many
purposes, though in this country we have but few wooden relics
dating back to the time when flint was the principal if not the
only material for boring-tools. To form some idea of the character
of the objects in the preparation of which such tools were neces-
sary, we cannot do better than refer to the vivid picture of ancient
life placed before us by the discoveries in the Swiss Lake-dwell-
ings. Besides perforated stone axes and hammers, such as have
been already described in these pages, we find stag's horn and
wooden hafts or helves, with holes and sockets bored in them,
plates of stone, teeth of animals, bone and stag's horn instruments,
and wooden knife handles pierced for suspension, and portions of
bark perforated, so as to serve like corks for floating fishing-nets.
Even in the caverns of the Peindeer Period of the South of
France we find the reindeer horns with holes bored through them
in regular rows, and delicate needles of hard bone with exquisitely
formed eyes drilled through them — one of which has also been
found in Kent's Cavern — as well as teeth, shells and fossils per-
forated for suspension as ornaments or amulets. So beautifully
are the eyes in these ancient needles formed, that I was at one
time much inclined to doubt the possibility of their having been
drilled by means of flint flakes; but the late Mons. E. Lartet demon-
strated the feasibility of this process, by bimself drilling the eye
of a similar needle wiih. a flint borer, found in one of the French
caves. I have myself bored perfectly round and smooth holes
through both stag's horn and wood with flint flakes, and when a
322
BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS.
[chap. XIV
little water is used to faciKtate the operation, it is almost surpris-
ing to find how quickly it proceeds, and how little the edge of
the flint suffers when once its thinnest part has heen worn or
chipped away, so as to leave a sufficient thickness of flint to stand
the strain without being broken off.
The most common form of boring tool, to which by some writers the
name of awl or di-iU^ has been given, is that shown in Fig. 227, from
the Yorksliire "Wolds. It is formed from a flat
splinter of flint, and shows the natural crust of tlie
stone at the broad end. At the other, each edge
has been chipped away from the flat face, so as to
reduce it by a rapid curve on each side to a some-
what tapering blade, with a sharp point. The sec-
tion of this portion of the blade is almost of the
lorm of half a hexagon when divided by a line join-
ing opposite angles. A borer of tlus kind makes a
very true hole, as whether turned round continu-
ously or alternately in each direction, it acts as a
half-round broach or rimer, enlarging the mouth of
the hole all the time it is being deepened by the
drilling of the point. The broad base of the flake
serves as a handle by which to turn the tool. Several
boring instruments of this form were found in the pits at Grime's
Graves,- already so often mentioned.
A borer of this kind has been experimentally^ tried and found efficient
for drilling a hole in jet.
Borers of the same character occur in Ireland' and in Scotland,*
where natural crystals^ of quartz seem also occasionally to
have been used as drills. I have also seen several found
near Pontlevoy, France, in the collection of the Abbe
Bourgeois.
Similar boring instruments of flint have been found in
Denmark, in company with scrapers and other tools. Two
of them have been engraved by Mr. C. F. Herbst.'
They are common in some parts of North America, and
finely chipped tools of the kind occur in Patagouia.* They
are tJso found in XataP and in Japan.
Sometimes the borer consists of merely a long narrow
pointed flake, which has had the point trimmed to a scraping
edge on eitlier side. A specimen of the kind, found near
&idi^4oi Bridlington, is shown in Fig. 228. Tiie point, for about a
ri:r. 2-27.— Yorkshire
Wul.ls. }
(\
^ Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4tli ed., p.
Journ., 1868.
- Jonm. Ethnol. Soc, voL ii. pi. xxviii.
•' Arch. Journ., vol. xxix. p. 2S4.
* See Arch., voL xli. pi. xviii. 5.
' Proe. Soc. Ant. Scot., toL xi. p. .546 ;
* P. S. A. S., vol. XV. p. 26.5.
' Aarboqer f. h'ord. Oldk., 1866, p. 311.
" P. S. A. S., vol. xiii. p. 106. Journ.
'■* Journ. Aiith. Intt., vol. viii. p. 1.5.
103. Monfanan, Yorks. Arch, and Top.
2, 3.
XXV. p.
498.
Anth. List., vol. iv. p. 311.
FOUND IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 323
sixteenth of an inch in widtli, has been ground to a nearly square edge,
so that it acts like a drill. Such a form was probably attached to a
wooden handle for use, but I doubt whether any mechanical means
wore used for giving it a rotary motion as a drill, and regard these
borers rather as hand-tools to be used much in the same way as a
broach or rimer.
Some implements from the lake settlement at Mellon, regarded by
Dr. Keller' as awls or piercers, are perforated at one end, and appear
to be ground over their whole surface.
Occasionally some projecting spur at the side of the flake has been
utilized to form the borer, as is the case in Fig. 229, also from the
Yorkshire Wolds. In this instance, the two curved sweeps, by which
the boring part of the tool is formed, have been chipped from the
opposite faces of the flake, so that the cutting edges are at opposite
angles of the blade, which is of rhomboidal section. This is the case
with some of the Scottish specimens,- which closely resemble Fig. 229.
Such a tool seems best adapted for boring by being turned in the hole
continuously in one direction. In some instances the projecting spur
Fig. 229.— Yorkshire WolJs. i Fig-. 230.— Bridlington. *
is so short that it can have produced but a very shallow cavity in the
object to be bored.
The tools, of which a specimen is shown in Fig. 230, also appear to
have been intended for boring. It is, however, j)Ossible that after all
they may have served some other purpose. That here engraved was
found near Bridlington, and is weathered white all over. It is made
from a flake, and the edge of the blade on the left in the figure is
formed as usual by chipping from the flat face. The other edge is
more acute, and has been formed by secondary chipping on both faces.
The spur to the left, which may have served as a handle for turning
the tool round when in use, has originally been longer, but the end
has been lost through an ancient fracture. The edges at the point of
the tool are somewhat worn away by friction.
I am uncertain whether the instruments shown in Figs. 231 and 232
1 '• Lake-Dw'elling.«i," p. 25. "Pfahlbauten," later Bericht, p. 76.
- Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xx\'ii. p. 3G1 ; vol. xx\-iii. p. 338.
y2
324 BORERS, AWLS, OR DRILLS. [cHAP. XIV.
can be with, propriety classed among boring tools, as it is possible that
they may have been intended and used for some totally dilferent
purpose, such, for instance, as forming the tips of arrows, for which,
from their s}-mmetrical form, they are not ill adapted. Though the
points of those, like Fig. 231, are much rounded, it maybe that they
were mounted like the chisel-edged Eg3-ptian liint arrow-heads, of
which hereafter. A number of instruments of this form have been
found in Derbyshire and Suffolk, but that here figured came from
the Yorkshire AVolds, and has been made from a part of a thin flat
flake, one edge of which forms the base opposite to the semicircular
point. The side edges, which expand with a sweep to the base, are
carefully chipped to a sharp angle with the face of the flake ; but in
some instances this secondary working extends over a greater or less
portion of both faces. Some specimens are also much longer in their
proportions. The original edge of the flake, which extends along the
base, is usually unworn by use, so that if these objects were boring
tools this part may have been protected by being inserted in a notch
in a piece of wood, which in such a ca^o would serve as a handle for
using the tool after the manner of an auger. A few examples of this
Fig. 231.— Yorkshire Wolds. i Fig. 232.— Yorkshire Wolds.
kind have been found on the Culbin Sands', Elginshire. The same
form has been found in the Camp de Chassey ■ (Saone et Loire).
Fig. 232 is also from the York:ihire Wolds. Though more acuteh'
pointed than Fig. 231, it seems to have been intended for much the
same purpose, and it has been formed in a similar manner. The second-
ary working is principally on the convex face of the flake, but owing to an
irregularity in the surface of the flat face, a portion of it has been re-
moved by secondar\- chipping along one edge, so as to bring it as nearly
as possible in the same plane as the other. For whatever purpose this
instrument may have been designed, its s}-mmetry is remarkable.
I have a somewhat similar instrument from Bridlington, but trian-
gular in form, with the sides curved slightly inwards, and the two most
highly wrought edges produced by chipping almost equally on both
faces of the flake. Such a form approximates most closely to some of
those which there appears reason for regarding as triangular arrow-
heads. In America, some forms which might be taken for arrow-
heads have been regarded as drills.
There is a series of minute tools of flint to which special attention
' I'roc. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. xxv. p. 498.
^ Perrault, " Note 6ur tm Forer, &c.," pi. ii. 15.
OF MINUTE DIMENSIONS.
32-:
has been called by Mr. J. Allen Brown, F.G.S., tbe Rev. Eeginald A.
(ratty,' and Mr. W. J, Lewis Abbott, F.G.S.- Through the kindness of
the last, specimens from a kjokken mtidding at Hastings are shown in
Figs. 2.')2a, 232i5, and 232c. They have been made from small flakes and
are of various forms, though I have only selected throe for illustration.
In two of these the end of the flake has been chipped into a straight
scraping edge at an acute angle to the body of the flake, so as to form
a tool which can bo held in the hand and used for scraping a flat sur-
face, perhaps of bone. "Whether the chipping of the edge is intentional
or the result of wear, or arising partly from both of these causes, is a
question of secondary importance. The oblique ends resemble those of
the flakes from Kent's Cavern, Figs. 398-400, and the selci rotnboidale'^
of Italian antiquaries. In the other form, one side of a flake has
been chipped in a similar manner, so as to form a segment of a circle,
or occasionally an obtuse angle ; the other side being left intact. Tliis
may possibly have been inserted in wood, and the tool thus formed may
Fig. 232a.
I'ig. 232r
[Fig. 232d. Fig. 232e. Fig. 232f.
Vindhya HiUs.
Fig. 2321!.
Hastings.
have been used for scraping or carving. Mr. Abbott disagrees with
this view, and thinks that many of the flakes may have been utilized
in the formation of fish-hooks. Such tools have been found in Lan-
cashire, far from the sea, and a series from hills in the eastern x^art of
that coimty has been presented to the British Museum by Dr. CoUey
March, Owing to their diminutive size they may readily escape ob-
servation. Mr. Gatty has found some thousands of these "Pygmy
flints " on the surface in the valley of the Don between Sheffield and
Doncaster. They no doubt exist in many other districts.
Curiously enough, identical forms have been found in some abun-
dance on the Vindhya Ilills^ and the Banda district, India ; at Helouan,*
Egypt, in France, and in the district of the Meuse," Belgium. Such
an identity of form at places geogi'aphically so remote does not imply
any actual communication between those wlio made the tools, but merely
shows that some of the requirements of daily life, and the means at
command for fulfilling them being the same, tools of the same character
have been developed, irrespective of time or space.
' Science Gossip, vol. ii. (189.5) p. 36.
- Journ. A)ith. Inst., vol. xxv. pp. 122, 137.
3 Bull, de Valet. It., vol. i. (1875) pp. 2, 17, Ml ; vol. ii. (1876) passim.
* Troc. Hoc. Ant. Scot., vol. x.wi. p. KiO. The cut is kindly lent by the Society.
Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xviii. p. 131. I'rac. Vict. /««^, March, 1889.
* Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S.. vol. vii. p. 229. P. S. A. S., vol. xii. ji, 614. Journ.
Anth. Inst., vol. vii. p. 396. De Morgan, " Rech. sur les Orig. de I'Egypte,'' 1896,
p. 130. He regards the crescents as arrow-heads, but I cannot agree with him.
^ Pierpout, Bull, de la Soc. Arch, de Brux., 1894 — 5.
326
CHAPTER XY.
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
Besides being converted into round- ended scrapers, and pointed
borins-tools, fliot flakes were trimmed on one or both faces into
a variety of forms of cutting, scraping, and piercing tools, and
weapons. In one direction these forms pass through daggers and
lance-heads, into javelin and arrow heads ; and in another through
cutting tools, wrought into s^Tnmetrical shape, and ground at the
edges, into hatchets or celts adapted for use in the hand without
being hafted.
The first I shall notice are flakes trimmed
into form by secondary working on both edges,
but only on the convex face, the flat face
being left either almost or quite intact. The
illustrations of these forms are no longer full
size, but on the scale of one half, linear
measure.
The simplest form of such instruments is when
merely the edge of the flake is worked, so as to
reduce it to a regular leaf-like shape. A beau-
tiful specim.en of this kind is preserved in the
Christy Collection, and is shown in Fig. 233.
It was probably found in the neighbourhood
of Cambridge, having formed part of the col-
lection of the late Mr. Litchfield of that town.
It is of gre}' flint, curved lengthwise, as is usu-
ally the case with flint flakes, and worked to a
point at each end, though rather more roiuided
at the butt-end of the flake. Such instruments
have sometimes been regarded as poignards,
though not improbably they were used for
various cutting and scraping purposes.
They rarely occur in Britain of so great a
length as this flake, which is 5^ inches long, but
those of shorter proportions are not uncommon.
In Ireland also the long flakes are scarce.
In France they are more abundant, though still rare. Some of those
formed from the Pressigny flints were, judging from the cores, as much
rig. 233.— Cambridge (!,'.
FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 327
as 12 inches long, but none have as yet been found of this length. One
trimmed on both edges, and 8^- inches long, was dredged from the bed of
the 8eino ' at Paris, and is now in the Musee d'Artillerie, with another
nearly as long found about the same time in the same place. Both
appear to be of Pressigny flint. Others have been found in different
parts of France." A beautiful flake, 82 inches long, trimmed on its
external face, and found near Soissons,^ was in the collection of M.
Bouclier de Perthes. I have one of the same character, 8^ inches
long and If inches broad in the middle, most symmetrically shaped
and perfectly uninjured, which was formerly in the collection of
M. Meillet, of Poitiers. It is said to have been found at Savanseau,
and in places has a red incrustation upon it, as if it had been embedded
in a cave. In the Grrotte de St. Jean d'Alcas,^ was found a blade of
the same kind, together with some lance-heads of flint worked on both
faces. Occasionally they are found in the dolmens. The AlUe couverte^
of Argenteuil furnished one, 7:} inches long; and one of the dolmens
in the Lozere "^ another, 8 inches in length. One almost 10 inches
long and 1 inch broad, found at Neviilly-sur-Eure,' has on the convex
face the delicate secondary working, like ripple marks, such as is seen
in perfection on some of the Danish and Egyptian blades of flint.
Others have been foimd in the dolmen at Caranda '^ (Aisne), du
Charnier^ (Ardeche), and in the Grotte Duruthy (Landes).^"
Curiously enough, the long flakes found in some abundance in
Scandinavia are rarely, if ever, worked on the convex face alone, but
are either left in their original form, or converted by secondary
working on both faces, into some of the more highly finished tools or
weapons.
In the Swiss Lake-dwellings flakes trimmed at the edges and ends
are of not unfrequent occurrence. Some of these, as already described,
have been regarded as saws.
Two long trimmed flakes, from Chevroux, tied to wooden handles,
both string and handle partially preserved, are in the Museum at
Lausanne. '^ There is a small pommel at the end of the handle.
A remarkabl}' fine Italian specimen of a ridged flake, 1 1 inches in
length, and carefully trimmed along both edges, is in the British
Museum. It is stated to have been found at Telese, near Psestum.'-
Many of these trimmed flakes, as well as in some cases those
entirely untrimmed, have been called by antiquaries spear-heads and
lance-heads. They have frequently been found witli interments in
barrows.
Not to mention numerous instances recorded by Mr. Bateman, I
may cite a flake found in company with a barbed flint arrow-head at
1 Rev. Arch., N. S., vol. ii. p. 129.
- Marchant, "Notice sur divers insts.," 1866, pi. i. Parentcau, " Inv. Arch."
1878. pi. ii.
3 " Ant. Celt, et Anted.," vol. i. p. 379.
■* Cazalis do Fondouce, " La grotte sep. de St. J. d'Alcas," pi. i. 1.
■' liev. Arch., N. S., vol. xv. pi. ix. 26.
' Mortillet, Matiriaiix, vol. v. p. 321.
' Jiev. de la fiioc. Lit. de VEure, 3rdS., vol. v.
* "Coll. Caranda," Moreau, 1877, pi. iii.
' "L'anc. deThomme dans le Vivarais," De ISfarichaud, 1870, pi. xi. o.
'" Mat., vol. ix. p. 102. " " Ant. Lac. du Mus. de Lausanne," 1S96, pi. ix.
'- "Hone Ferales," p. 137, pi. ii. 32.
328
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
[chap. XV.
the foot of a contracted skeleton in a barrow ^ at Monkton Down,
Avebury, and a " triangular spear-head of stone curiously serrated at
the edges," found with a flint arrow-head and perforated boar's tusk,
in an urn at the foot of a skeleton, in a barrow on Eidgewaj- Hill,-
Dorsetshire.
Among the flint implements occurring on the surface of the York-
shire "Wolds and elsewhere, flakes trimmed to a greater or less extent
along both edges, and over the convex face, are frequently found.
The point as well as the base is often neatly rounded, though the
former is sometimes chipped to a sharp angle.
There is a considerable difference in the inclination of the edge to
the face, it being sometimes at an angle of GO*^ or upwards, like the
edge of some scrapers, at other times acute like a knife-edge.
There is so great a range in the dimensions and proportions of this
class of instruments that it is almost impossible to
figure all the varieties. I have, therefore, contented
m.vself with the selection of a few examples, and
will commence with those having the more obtuse
edges.
Fig. 234, from the Yorkshire AVolds, is an external
flat flake, weathered white, and trimmed all round
the face, showing the natural crust of the flint, to a
point in form like a Gothic arch. A part of the edge
is bruised, but it is impossible to say for what wea-
pon such an instrument was intended. It can
hardly have been for a javelin-liead, though from
the outline it would seem well adapted for such a
weapon ; for in that case the edge would not have
become bruised. It may possibly be an abnormal form of scraper.
A nearly similar siiecimen, biit narrower in proportion, was found
by the late Lord Londesborough ^ in a barrow near Driffield, and is
described as a spear-head.
Another form, usually very thick in proportion to its breadth, and
neatly worked over the whole of the convex face, is shown
in Fig. 235. This specimen, also from the Yorkshire
Wolds, is in the Greenwell Collection, now Dr. Sturge's.
I have seen another from a barrow near Hay, Brecon-
shire ; and in the National Museum at Edinburgh is
a specimen found near Urquhart, Elgin. In an imple-
ment of the same form in my own possession some small
irregularities on the flat face have been removed by
delicate chipping. I have several examples from Suffolk.
There is nothing to guide us in attempting to determine
the use of such instrumenf.s, but if inserted in handles they
would be well adapted for boring holes in wood or other
soft substances. The same form occurs in Ireland.
In the Greenwell Collection is an Irish specimen ground
all along the ridge, and over the whole of the butt-end.
A pointed flatfish flake (41 inches), worked over the whole of the outer
face, from Eousay,* Orkney, has been figured.
•^ai- — ioriishire
Wolds. i
Fig. 235.— Yorlr
shire. J
1 "Arch. Inst. Salisb. Vol.
^ Arch., vol. xxxiv. p. 253.
105.
^ Arch., vol. XXX. p. 333.
* Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xvii. p. 72.
SOME TKIMMED FLAKES, rUOHAliLY KNIVES.
329
y%:
Fig. 236.— Bridlington.
Another much coarser but soinewhat similar form is shown in Fig.
236. The instrument in tliis case is made from a very thick curved
flake, roughly chipped into a boat-like form, and
then more carefully trimmed along the edges. It
may possibly have been used as a borer, as the
edges near the point show some signs of attrition.
It is of flint weathered grey, and was found near
Bridlington. I have found a similar scaphoid
form in Ireland.^
A rather thick external flake, worked over
nearly the whole of its convex face and reduced
to about half its breadth for about a third of its
length from the point, is shown in Fig. 237.
The narrower part is nearly semicircular in sec-
tion. It is difiicult to imagine a purpose for this
reduction in width ; and it hardly seems due to
wear. I have, however, another specimen, also
from the Yorkshire "Wolds, reduced, in the same manner along fully
three-quartei's of its length.
Some of the worked flakes frona the Dordogne Caves- sli^ow a some-
what similar shoulder, but it seems possible that with them the broader
l^art may have been protected by some sort of handle, as the original
edge of the flake is there preserved.
I now come to the instruments with more acute edges, made by
dressing the convex face of flint flakes. Of these the form shown in
Fig. 2.38 is allied to that of Fig. 23a,
but is considerably flatter in section
and more distinctly oval in outline.
The original was found near Bridling-
ton. A hard particle of the flint lias
interfered with the regular convexity
of the worked face, but in some speci-
mens the form is almost as regular as
a slice taken lengthways off a lemon,
though in others the outline presents
an irregular curve. The flat face is
generally more or less curved longi-
tudinally, and the ends are sometimes
more pointed than in the specimen
engraved. I have an exquisitely
cliipped and perfectly symmetrical
implement of this character (3 inches)
from the neighbourhood of Icklingham, Sufi'olk, in which county the
type is not uncommon. The flaking on the convex surface is very even
and regular, and produces a slightly corrugated surface, with the low
ridges following each other like ripple marks on sand. The edge is
minutely and evenly chipped, and is very sharp. The instrument may
perlu.ps be regarded as a sort of knife.
The form is well known in Ireland, but I do not remember to have
seen it in foreign collections.
The beautifully wrought blade of flint, shown in Fig. 239, presents
' Arc/i., vol. xli. pi. xviii. 6. - " Reliq. Aquit.," p. IS.
FiS.'239. i
Castle Carrock.
3:J0
TRIMMED FLAXES, KNIVES, ETC.
[CHAF.
XV
a more elong^ated variety of this form. It was found Ly Canon Green-
well, with a burnt body, in a barrow at Castle Carrock,' Cumberland.
Another blade, curiously similar in workmanship and character, was
found by the same explorer in a ban-ow near Eudstone. Yorkshire, but
in this case the body was unbumt. Another, with both ends rounded
and the edges more serrated, was found in a barrow at Eobin Hood
Butts, near Scarborough, and is preserved in the museum of that town.
Mounted with it on the same card are arrow-heads — leaf-shaped,
lozenge-shaped, and stemmed and barbed. Mr. Carrington- describes a
flake flat on one face, and laboriously chipped to a convex shape on the
other, as found with burnt bones in a barrow at Musdin, Staffordshire.
A similar specimen in Eibden Low accompanied a contracted inter-
/ 5^*^
J(^''
■^5^
^^
24U. — loiU, Xurthiiraberlaiid.
Fit'. 240a.— E:tvn.
ment. Mr. Bateman terms them lance-heads. In the GreenweU Col-
lection is a leaf- shaped blade of this kind, flat on one face, found in
Burnt Fen. A knife of the same kind ^2 inches) was found with an
interment at ChoUerford,^ Xorthumberland.
The skilful character of the surface chipping on these blades is
perhaps better shown in Fig. 240, which is drawn full-size from another
specimen, also in Canon Greenwell's collection, which was found in a
cist with the remains of a burnt body, on Ford Common, Xorthumber-
land.*
> " Brit. Barrowp," p. 380. where it is figured full pize. See also pp. 196, 270, &c.
- "Ten Years' Dip.," p. 1.51. See also p. 227. and " Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 105.
3 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2ndS., vol. xi. p. 188. F. S. A. Xeuc.-on-Tyne. N. S., vol. ii.
p. 171.
* "Hifit. of Berwicksh. Nat. Club, 1863—68," pi. xiii. 4. "Brit. Bar.," p. 407.
KNIVES FROM HARROWS.
331
Dal-
Canon Greenwell found other knivea in barrows at Sherburn^ and
Etton,^ Yorkshire. The latter is beautifully serrated and I am en-
abled to reproduce his figure of it as Fig. 240a.'' He found another of
the same character in a barrow at Bishop's Burton/ Yorkshire.
Knives not serrated have been found at Carn Bre/
Cornwall ; Chagford,*' Devon ; and Grovehurst'
Milton, Kent.
A serrated knife was found in a barrow at
more,® Alness, Koss-shire, and another, less distinotl}''
serrated, at Tarland," Aberdeenshire. In some instru-
ments, evidently belonging to the same class, the
secondary flaking does not extend over the whole of the
convex surface of the blade, but some of the facets of the
original Hake are still visible, or if it has been an ex-
ternal Hake, some portion of the original crust of the
flint remains. This is the case with the blade engraved
in Fig. 241, which was found by Canon Greenwell in a
barrow near Wcaverthorpe,^" Yorkshire. In another
barrow at Eudstone, Yorkshire, also opened by him, was a rather
smaller but similar instrument, very neatly formed, and somewhat
serrated at the edge. It lay at the feet of a ^^^
skeleton. General Pitt IJivers found one nearly
similar in a pit in the Isle of Thanot."
Knives of much the same form, but more
rudely chipped, from Udny, Aberdeenshire, and
TJrquhart, Elgin, are in the National Museum
at Edinburgh. They have also been found on
the Culbin Sands, Elginshire. '-
Some of these blades are left blunt at tlie
butt-end of the flake, or else not so carefull}'
worked round at that end, but that the square
end of the original flake ma}' be discerned. A
ver}'' fine specimen of this kind was obtained b}'
Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Wykeham
Moor, Yoi'kshire," and is shown in Fig. 242. It
was found lying side b}' side with a fluted bronze
dagger, afltording, as Canon Greenwell observes, a
valuable illustration of the contemporaneous use
of bronze and stone. He has found others, both
with burnt and unburnt bodies, in barrows in
Yorkshire and Northumberland. I have a beau-
tiful blade of the same general form, but rather
more rounded at the point and curved slightly in the other direction,
Fig. 241.— Wta-
verthurpc. \
^;fe
5^
1 " Brit. Barrows," p. 153. - Op. cit
3 By permission of tho delegates of the Clarendon Press.
* Arch., vol. lii. p. 31.
^ lUliq. and 111. Archaologist, vol. ii. p. 46.
* Trains. I)cvon. Assoc, vol. xii. p. 367.
^ Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xiii. p. 254.
1" "Brit. Barr.," p. 19S.
" Journ. Ethn. Soc, vol. i. pi. i. 14.
'■- J\ S. A. S., vol. lis. p. 10 : vol. xxv. p. 498.
'^ ylreh. Journ., vol. xxii. p. 243. " Brit. Burr.," p. 359
285.
"^ Arch. Cntii., vol. xiii.
' r. S. A. S., vol. xxii.
1-24.
332
TRIMMED ILAKES, KNIVES, El C.
[chap.
XV
and but little more than half the length of this specimen, •which was
found by Mr. E. Tindall. with another nearly similar, in a barrow near
Bridlington. Dr. Travis in 1836 described another (2=;', inches) from
a barrow near Scarborough. Another (2 inches) was found with food-
vessels in a barrow at Marton,' Yorkshire, E.E. A knife of the same
kind from a cave at Kozarnia.- Poland, has been figured by Dr. F. Romer.
Among other English examples I ma}' mention a thin llake {4\
inches), somewhat curved laterally, and trimmed along both edges and
rounded at the point, found in Burwell Fen, Cambridge. Another
from the same locality (3^ inches) is even more curved on the concave
edge. A recurved tlake or knife of flint, oh inches long, finely chipped
at the sharp convex edge, was found with jet ornaments and an
ovoid instrument of serpentine, accompanying a skeleton, in a
barrow near Avebury, Wilts. ^ I have several from the surface,
Suifolk, aud from the Cambridge Fens. In a larger instrument from
Icklingham. both edges are worn smooth and rounded
b}' use, as if in scraping some soft but gritty sub-
stance, possibly hides in the process of preparation
as leather.
In some of these instruments the point is sharp
instead of being rounded. One of them, found by
Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Potter Bromptou
Wold,^ is shown in Fig. 243.
I have a more trianiiular form of implement, of the
same kind, 3^ inches long, showing the crust of the
liint at the base, found near Icklingham, Suffolk.
Another from the same locality is of the same form as
the figure.
Instruments of the same character as these were
discovered by the late Mr. Bateman in many of the
Derbyshire Barrows. "What appears to be one of the
same kind was found with a ilake and burnt bones in
an urn at Broughton, Lincolnshire.^ It may, how-
ever, have been convex on both faces. A fragment of another was
found at Dorchester Dykes," Oxfordshire, by General Pitt Elvers.
The sharp-edged instruments of the forms last described seem to have
been intended for use as cutting, or occasionally as scraping tools, and
may not improperly be termed knives, as has been proposed by Canon
Greenwell." Even the last described, though sharply pointed, cannot
with certainty be accepted as a spear-head. To regarding the other
form, Fig. 242, as such, Canon Greenwell objects that "the people who
fashioned the arrow-heads so beautifully, if they fabricated a spear-
head in flint, would not have made one side straight, the other curved,
and carefully rounded it off at the sharper end." One of these pointed
instruments (3 inches), trimmed on one face and slightly curved, was
found with an urn and a whetstone in a cairn at Stenton,* East
Lothian.
' Trans. F.n. Ant. Sor.. vol. i., 1893, p. 49.
- " The Bone Caves of Ojcow," 1884, pi. i. 7.
^ " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 58, p. 2.
■• "Brit. Ban-.," p. 158, and 41, where it is figured full size.
* Arch. Journ., vol. viii. 1544. ** Journ. Etlmol. Soc, vol. ii. p. 414.
" Arc/i. Jour)/., vol. xxii. p. 243. ** Troc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xiv. p. 221.
Pig. 241.- i'ottor
Bromptoa Wold.
SOME POSSIBLY LANX'K-HEADS. Cdo
Sometimes the secondary workino; extends over part of both faces of
the flake, the central ridg-e of whicli is still discernible. Canon Green-
"o-ell found a lino instrument of this kind (o] inches), made from a
ridj^ed flake, with neat secondary chipping along both sides, and on
both faces, with a burnt body, in a barrow on Sherburn AVold.' The
flint itself is partially calcined. It is difficult to determine the claims
of such an instrument to be regarded as a knife or as a lance-head.
The pointed instrument from Snainton Moor, Yorkshire, which is
shcTwn in Fig. 244, and was kindly lent to me b}' the late Mr. C. Monk-
inan, of Malton, has more tin; appearance of having been a lance-head.
A fragment of another weapon of this kind was found in Aberdeen-
shire.-' Larger lance-heads of this form have been found in tumuli in
the South of France.^ A closely similar javelin-head, found at Vercelli,
has been engraved by Gastaldi,* as well as another longer and more
distinctly tanged, from Telese.^ A third from Tuscany has been en-
graved by Cocchi." A fourth of the same form, but slightly notclied
Fig. 244.— Snuiuton ilo jr.
Fig. 245.— Ford.
on each side near the base, was found with skeletons in Andalusia. '^
In the English specimen the secondary' flaking extends over the whole,
or nearly the whole, of both faces of the original flake ; and the same
is the case with the other instruments of this class which I am now
about to describe.
Fig. 245 represents an implement of dark grey almost unweathered
flint, found with burnt bones in a barrow at Ford." Xorthumborland,
examined by Canon Greenwell. It has been made from an external
flake subsequently brought into shape by working on both faces.
Judging from its form only, it would appear to have been a lance-
head ; but there are some signs of wear of the edge at the butt-
^ " Brit. Ban-.," p. 153, fig. 98. - I'roc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 102.
^ Mat. vol. xvi. p. 239.
* Jl/tvrt. Ace. li. deUc Sc. di Torino, vol. xxvi. Tav. v. 1.
* Op. cit., Tav. viii. 20.
* Le Hon, " L' Homme fos3.," 2n(l ed., p. 184.
" De Gon^ora, " Ant. Prch. de And.," p. 78, fig. 92.
» "Brit. Barr.," p. 410.
334
TRlMirED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
[cilAP. XV.
end, Trhich seem hardly compatible -with this assumption, unless,
indeed, like the natives of Tierra del Fuego,^ -who are said to make
use of their arrow-heads for cutting purposes, its
owner used it also as a sort of knife. Mr. C
Monkman had a blade of this character (o~ inches)
from Xorthdale, Yorkshire. Some lance-heads (3
and 2h inches) have been found at "West "Wick-
ham,- Kent ; and Carn Bre,-^ Cornwall.
The original of Fig. 246 was found at West
Huntow, near Bridlington. It is boldly chipped on
both faces, so that hardly any portion of the original
surface of the flake remains. It has a sharp edge
all round, which is, however, sHghtly abraded at the
blunter end; a small portion of the point at the
other end has been broken off. In character it so
-•-• -i- 7 -— r- : closely resembles a leaf-shaped aiTOw-head that
there seem some grounds for regarding this form as
that of a lance-head, though from the doubtful character of other
.•specimens of nearly similar form I have thought it better to place it
here. A much larger specimen of brown flint (3f by 2f inches), but
of nearly the same form and character, was found by the late Eev. J. C.
Clutterbuck, at Hounslow Heath. In the
Greenwell Collection is one of almost the
same dimensions foimd on "VS'iUerby "V\'old,
and others not qmte so large from Eudstone,
Yorkshire.
Some blades, similar in general form, were
found, with various other stone implements,
in sand-beds, near Y'ork, and have been
described by Mr. C. Monkman.'
I have collected somewhat similar blades to
that here engraved, though of rather smaller
dimensions, in the ancient encampment of
Maiden Bower, near Dunstable ; and I have
several found on the surface near Laken-
heath and Icklingham, Suffolk. I have seen
one of the same character, which was found
near Ware, Herts. General Pitt Eivers
found in the Isle of Thanet^ two lance-heads,
curiously like this and the preceding figure.
A far more highly-finished blade, but still
preserving the same general character, is shown in Fig. 247. The
original, of brown flint, was found in the Cambridge Fens, and is
now in my own collection. Though ground on some jjortions of both
faces, apparently for the purpose of removing asperities, the edges
are left un ground. They are, however, very carefully and dehcately
' NilsEon, "Stone Age," p. 44. See Col. A. Lane-Fox, ''Prim. "Warfare,"
pt. II. p. 11.
- Arch. Cant., vol. xiv. p. 87. Autiquar>j, vol. xv. p. 234.
2 lieliq. and III. Arch., vol. ii. p. 46.
* Yorkt. Arch, and Top. Jotin,., 1869, figs. 12, 13, 16. Jouni. Ethn. Soc, vol. ii.
p. 159.
* Journ. Ethn. Soc, vol. i. pi. i. 15, 17.
Fig. 247.— <-<Jiiiii-.e Feas.
KNIVES WITH ONE EDGE ]5LL'NT.
335
cliipped by secondary worl^ing' to a regulai^ sweep. I tliink tins instru-
ment must be regarded rather as a form of knife than as a head for a.
javelin or lance. In size, and to some extent in shape, it corresponds
with tlie more crescent-like or triangular tools described under Fig. 25G.
I have a rather smaller example from Bottisham, ground along one
side only.
This correspondence is still more evident in a ])lade now in the
Blackmore Museum, (Salisbury, of nearly the same shape but somewliat
less curved on one edge than the other, which has been ground along
the more highly curved edge. It was found at JIaniptworth, near
Salisbury.
A narrower form of blade is shown in Fig. 248. The original, ot
flint weathered nearly white, was found at Scamridge, Yorkshire, and
is preserved in the Grecnwell Collection. It is, as will
be observed, slightly nnsymmetrical in form, so that
it would appear to have been intended for a kuifo
rather than for a lance-head. A remarkabl}' fine speci-
men in the same collection, found at Flixton, York-
shire' (5 J inches), is in form much like that from'
Scamridge. A part of the edge towards the point on
the Hatter side is slightly worn. There is a consider-
able diversity of form amongst tlie instruments of this
character, some having the sides almost symmetrical,
■while others have them curved in different degrees,
so much so as to make the instrument resemble in
form some of the crescent-shaped Danish blades. In
a S2iecimen which I possess, from Gauton Wold,
one side presents the natural crust of the flint along
the greater part of its length, and has been left un-
workcd ; the other side has been chipped to an obtuse
edge, which is considerably bruised and worn. I have
others from Suffolk, sharpened by cross-flaking on one
edge only. Some such knives are rounded at one or both ends instead
of being pointed. A blade from the neighbourhood of IJridlington, in
my collection, is pointed at one end but rounded at the other, where also
the edge is completcl}^ worn away by attrition. In the case of another
symmetrical and flat blade, from Icklingham {3^ inches), rather more
convex on one face than the other, the edge on one side at the moro
pointed end is also completely rubbed away. I have as yet been
unable to trace on the face of any of these pointed specimens signs of
those polished markings which occur so frequently at a little distance
within the more highly curved margin of the Danish semi-lunar blades,
and from which Professor Stecnstruj) has inferred that they wore in-
serted in handles of wood or bone. A specimen from Craigfordmains,-
Eoxburghshire, has been figured.
A blade of the same kind as Fig. 248, 3| inches long, found in the
Department of the Charente, is engraved by de liochebrune,^ Others
of larger size were found in the Grotte des Morts, Durfort (Gard).^
' Yorksh. Arch, and Top. Jckdi., 1S68, fig^. 4G.
- P/OfT. Soc. Alii. Siol., vol. xxviii. p. 339.
^ " Mem. 6ur lea Ilcstes d'lndust.," &c., pi. x. C.
* Jftitvriaiix, vol. v. p. 249.
336
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
[chap. XV.
The view that many of these Llades were used as knives rather than
as hxnce-heads, seems to be supported by a specimen from Burwell Fen,
in the Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, and engraved in
Fig. 249. This blade is rather more convex on one face than the other,
and shows along half of its flatter face the original inner surface of
tlie flake from which it was made. One of its side edges has been
rounded by grinding along its entire length, so that it can be con-
veniently held in the hand ; the other edge is left sharp, and is polished
as if by use.
A remarkably large specimen of this kind, but with no traces of
grinding upon it, was found in digging the foundations of a house on
AVindmill Hill, Saffron Walden, and was in the possession of Mr.
Fi^. 249.— Burwdl Fen.
Fi°r. 250.— Saffron Walden.
AVilliam Tuke,^ of that town. It is shown in Fig. 250. One face is
somewhat flatter than the other, but both faces are dexterously and
symmetrically chipped over their whole surface. The small flakes have
been taken oif so skilfully and at such regular intervals, that, so far as
workmanship is concerned, this instrument approaches in character the
elegant Danish blades. The form seems well adapted for a lance-head,
but on examination the edges appear to be slightly chipped and worn
away, as if by scraping some hard material. It would appear, then,
more probably to have been used in the hand. In the often-cited Green-
Avell Collection is a blade of grey flint, also 5§ inches long, but rather
narrower than the figure, and straighter on one edge than the other,
found in Mildenhall Fen. In the same collection is a large thin flat
* Kindly communicated to me by the late Mr. Joseph Clarke, F.S. A.
OF OVAL FORM.
337
blade of flint, Sg inches long and 3 inches broad, more curved on
one edg-e tlian the otlier, and rounded at one end. The straighter edge
is also the sharper. It was found at Cross Bank, near Mildenhall. In
general outline it is not unlike some of the Danish lunate implements.
It may, however, ))e only the result of a somewhat unskilful attempt to
l>r(jduce a symmetrical dagger or spear-head, such as Fig. 2G4. I have
several iustrumeuts of this kind, found near Icklingham and at other
places in Sutfolk.
A lance-head of almost the same size and form as Fig. 250, from the
neighbourhood of Brescia, has been engraved by Grastaldi.' They are
also said to be found in Greece."
They sometimes occur among American antiquities. One of them,
1 1 inches in length, pointed at each end, is engraved by Squier and
Davis.'' I have a beautiful blade of pale butf chalcedony, acutely
pointed at one end and rounded at the other, which was found in com-
pany with a second of the same size and character, near Comayagua,
in Spanish Honduras. It is 6| inches long and 1| inches broad. Other
lance-heads from Honduras have been published.^ A flint sword or
spear-head 22 inches long, serrated at the end
towards the point, is said to have been found in
Tennessee.* Lance-heads of flint, not unlike Figs.
249 and 250, are found in South Africa.*
Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, Yorkshire, have
in their collection a remarkable specimen belong-
ing to this class of instrument, which instead of
being pointed is almost semicircular at both ends.
They have kindly allowed me to engrave it in
Fig. 251. It has been neatly chipped from a piece
of tabular flint, and not from a flake, and is equally
convex on both faces ; some of the salient part^
along both edges are polished, as if by wear, and on
either face are some of the polished •' Steenstrup's
markings," possibly arising from its having been
inserted in a handle. This form is perhaps more
closely connected with some of those which will
shortly follow than with those which precede it.
A somewhat similar oval blade of inches long and
2^ inches wide, found in the Thames at Long
Wittenham, and formerly belonging to the Eev. J. C. Clutterbuck, is
ground along both sides, and is now in the Oxford Museum.
A blade of the same form was found in the Grotte des Morts, Durfort
(Gard)."
In none of the specimens hitherto figured in this chapter, have
the edges been sharpened by grinding ; in the only instances
Fig. •251.— ±uuber.
licv. Arch,, vol. XV. p. 17.
xli. p. 50.
' " Nuovi Cenni, &c.," Torino, 1862, pi. vi. 16.
=» " Anc. Mon. of Jlissi.ss. Vail.," p. 211, fig. 3.
* Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 34. Arch. Journ., vol. xl. p. 323
Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. vi. p. 37.
* Jone.-*, "Ants, of Teun." (Smithson. Coll.), p. 58.
•• Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. i. p. xcvi. pi. i. ; vol. xiii. p. 162.
'' Matiriau.r, vol. v. p. 249.
:338
TKIMMKD Kl.AKES, KNIVES. ETC.
[chap
XV
where that process has Leen used, it has been for the purpose of
removing, not of sharpening the edge. In the case of the next
examples which I am about to describe, one or both edges, and in
some the whole of both faces, have been ground.
I have already mentioned instances of untrimmed flakes of flint having
been ground on the edge, but knives of a similar character made from
carefully chipped blades also occur, thougli so far as I have at present
observed, principally in Scotland.
One of these, caretully worked on both faces, and with one edge
sharpened by grinding, was found at Strachur.' Argyllshire, and is
shown fuU size in Fig. 252. Another, 2h inches long and | inch broad,
Fig. 252.— Argyllshire.
Fig. 253.— Glen Urquhart.
with less grinding on the surface, was found at Cromar, Aberdeenshire.
A third, of almost the same size, with the edge nearly straight and the
back curved, and with neatly chipped faces but little ground, was
found in a chambered cairn at Camster,'- Caithness. A nodide of iron
ore was foimd with it, but whether this was for fire-producing pui"poses
is not apparent. A fragment of another knife of the same kind was
found, in 1865, by Messrs. Anderson and Shearer in a cairn at Onnie-
gill Ulbster, Caithness ; and among the numerous articles of flint found
at Urqidiart,'' Elgin, is a very perfect knife of this kind, which is shown
in Fig. 253. All five specimens are in the National Museum at
1 P. S. A. S., vol. ix. p. 239.
- Mem. Anthrop. Soc, vol. ii. p. 248.
3 F. iS'. A. S., vol. ix. p. 239.
P. -S'. A. S., vol. vi. p. 450.
SHAUrKXED BY GRINDING.
339
Ediiiburgli. I liave two Euglisli w[)eciia(ins of the same kind but
pointed at the butt, from the nciglibourhood of Icklinghara.
The sharpened ends of stone celts, when broken off, have occasionally
been converted into knives. One such, from Gilling-, Yorkshirij, with the
fractured surface rounded by grinding, is in the (Jreenwell (Jollection.
Another form of knife closidy allied to the type of Fig. 25 1 , is broader,
and has all its edges sharpened. The instrument shown in Fig. 254
was found near Bridlington. It is made from a large broad flake, the
outer face of which has been re- worked to such an extent that not more
than one-fourth of the original surface remains intact. The inner face,
on tlie contrary, is left almost untouched, except just at the two ends.
As will be seen from the engraving, a portion of the original edge has
been chipped away, apparently in mod(>rn times, by the iirst tinder
having used it as a " strike-a-light" iliut. What remains of the
<L
FiL'. 255.— OvoiUiii.
>
original edge has been carefully sharpened, and the angles between
some of the facets on the convex face have also been removed by
grinding. An example of the same kind from Butterlaw,' near Cold-
stream, has been ligiired.
Others more or l(!ss perfect have been found at Glenluce,- Earlston,
and on the Culbin Sands.^
A nearly similar instrument, from Sweden, has been engraved by
Nilsson,'* but its edges are not described as ground.
A more highly finished form of the same implement is shown in Fig.
255. The original was found at Pick Rudge Farm,* Overton, Wilts,
in company with the large barbed arrow or javelin-head. Fig. 305, and
both are now in the Blackmore Museum. Like Fig. 254, it is flatter
on one face than the other ; it is, however, polislied all over as well as
ground at the edges. These are rather sluirper at the two ends than
at the sides. Another specimen of the same form, and of almost ideu-
' Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xxviii. p. 324.
- P. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 201. » P. S. A. S., vol. xxv. p. 499.
* "Stone Age," pi. x. 206. ' Arch. Jour>i., vol. xii. p. 28r>.
z2
340
TRIMMKD FLAKKS, KNIVES, ETC.
[chap. XV.
tically the same dimensious, was found atPentrefoelas,^ Denbighshire.
A tliird specimen, 3h inches long and 2^ inches wide, was found at Lean
Low, near Newhaven, Derbyshire, and is in the Bateman collection.^
In my own collection are two very fine and perfect specimens of this
class of instrument, both from the neighbourhood of Cambridge. The
larger of these is 4^ inches long, 2f inches broad at one end, and 2f
inches at the other. The ends are ground to a regular sweep, and the
sides are somewhat hollowed. It has been made from a very broad
thin flake, and is ground over nearly the whole of the outer and over
part of the inner face, and brought to a sharp edge all round. It was
found in Burwell Fen. The smaller instriiment has been even more
highly tinished in the same manner, everj' trace of the original chipping
of the convex face having been removed by grinding. The edge is
sharp all round, but the ends are more highly curved than in the larger
instrument. It is 3J inches long. 2^ inches broad at one end, and
l^ inches at the other, and was found in Quy Fen. In the Greenwell
Collection is a portion of what appears to have been another of these
instruments, ground on both faces and sharp at the edges, from
Lakenheath.
.J
Fia. 'J56. — Kempston. j
I have the half of another, 2 inches wide, fotmd near Bridlington,
and one of the same character, but oval in outline, from the same place.
The latter has lost one of its ends. Its original dimensions must have
been about 3 inches in length by If inches in extreme breadth, and
-i\ inch in thickness. Both faces are coarsely ground, the strise running
crossways of the blade. The edges appear to have been sharpened on
a finer stone. It has been supposed that these instruments were
intended to serve for dressing ■' the flesh side of skins, or for flaying-
knives.* Mr. Albert Way has called attention to the analogy they pre-
sent to an unique bronze implement found at Ploucour,* Brittany.
The beautifully-formed instrument shown in Fig. 256 belongs appar-
ently to the same class. It was found at Kempston, near Bedford, and
was kindly lent to me for engraving by the late Mr. James Wyatt,
F.G.S., who afterwards presented it to the Blackmore Museum.*' It is
of dark flint, the two faces equally convex, and neatly chipped out but
not polished. Eegardiug it as of triangular form, with the apex
rounded, the edges on what may be described as the two sides in the
' Arch. Joiirn., vol. xi. p. 414 ; xvii. p. 171.
3 Bateman, "Cat.," p. 6G.
* Arch. Journ., vol. xi. p. 414; xvii. p. 171.
' Arch. Camb., 3rd. iS., vol. vi. p. 138.
- " Cat.," p. 66, No. 18.
Flint Chips," p. 75.
OF CIRCULAR FORM. 341
engraving have been carefully .sharpened, while that of the base has
been removed by grinding. In the same field was found a flint lance-
head or dagger of fine workmanship, which will subsequently be
mentioned.
Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, possess an instrument of the same
character found near Fimber. It is more equilatorally triangular in.
form than the Kempston specimen, though the sides are all curved and
the angles rounded. It is polished all over on one face, though some
traces of the original flaking are still apparent. On th e other face, which
is rather more convex, the grinding is confined to two sides of the tri-
angle, which are thus brought to a sharp edge. The edge on the third
side, Avhich is rather straighter than the others, is very slightly rounded.
It seems probable that this blunter edge was next the hand when the
instrument was in use.
Another specimen, even more triangular in outline, was found in the
Thames, at Windsor; it is of ochreous flint, and the base, which is
S^ inches long, exhibits the natural crust of the flint ; each of the other
Fig. — 25tiA. — iitistboume, j
two sides, which are ground to a sharp edge, is about 2f inches long.
Another from Lakenheath, 3^ inches long and 3 inches wide at the
unground base, was in the collection of the late Eev. W. Weller Foley,
of Brandon.
I have an implement of this kind, much like that from Kempston,
but more curved at what is the base in the figure. All along this sweep
the edge produced by chipping out the form has been removed by
grinding. All round the other sweep the edge has boon carefuUy
sharpened by the same moans. A portion only of each face is ground.
This specimen was found near Mildenhall. I have another, more curved
both at the edge and the base, found near Icklinghara. From the
same district I have the form entirely unground. Other specimens found
in Derbyshire are preserved in the liateman Collection. There are
several in the Museum at Oxford.
In Fig. 2.56a is shown an almost circular knife of this kind found at
WilHngton Mill, near Eastbourne, which was kindly given to me by
Mr. K. Hilton, of East Dean.
In the Greenwell Collection is another nearly circular tool, about 2
inches in diameter, ground to an edge along most of the periphery, and
found in Yorkshire. Another rather smaller disc, in the same collection,
" Pioc. Soc. Ant., '2nd S., vol. v. p Or).
342
TIUMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
[chap.
XV.
and found at Hnntow, near Bridlington, is partly ground on both faces,
but not at the edge. A circular knife of the same kind was found at
Trefeglwys,' Montgomeryshire. It is 2^' inches in diameter and ground
to an edge all round except at two places at opposite ends of one of its
diameters, where for a short distance the edge is left as it was originallj-
(hipped out. It is now in the Powj-sland Museum. A circular knife
from Mam Tor,- Derbyshire, is in the Castleton Museum.
In the Greenwell Collection is an implement, about 2 inches in
diameter, found at Sherburn Carr, Yorkshire, and in outline like a
scraper, but with the greater part of the semicircular edge sharpened
by grinding. In character it much resembles some instruments occa-
sionally found both in Britain and Ireland, of which an examj^le is given
in Fig. 257. This is a horseshoe-shaped blade of flint, 3 inches over, with
the rounded part of the circumference ground to a fiiip cutting edge, so
Fig. 257.— Kintore.
Fig. '.'5.S— Ni-wiKai-ji, iii-rbyshire.
that it was probably used as a knife. It is in the National Museum at
Edinburgh, and was j^resumabh' found near Kintore, Aberdeenshire.
In the same Museum is another instrument of the same kind, but some-
what kidney-shajied in outline, found in Lanarkshire. It is 3^ inches
in length, and 2g inches in extreme width. On a part of the hollowed
side it shows the natural crust of the flint, but the rest of the periphery
is ground to a sharp edge, and the projections on the faces have been
removed by grinding. Others were found at Pitlochrie," Kincardine-
shire, and Turrift',* Aberdeenshire. Mr. C. Monkman, of Malton, had a
knife much like Fig. 257, 2| inches across, which was found at Huntow,
near Bridlington. I have an Irish specimen from near Bally mena
almost like that from Kintore, as well as one of longer horseshoe shape
found at Swan Brake, North Stow, Bury St. Edmunds, another large
1 I^rnr. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v. p. 441. Moutq. Coll., vol. v. p. xxvi. ; vi. p.
215 ; xii. p. 26 ; xiv. p. 278.
- Rooke Pennington, "Barrows and Bone-caves of Derbyshire," 1877, p. 62.
» r. 6'. A. 6'., vol. xi. p. 57G. *■ I'. S. A. -S'., vol. xii p. 207.
OK SEMICIRCULAR AND TRIANGULAR FORM. 343
one more subtriangular (3vo by 3tJ inches) found near Wallingford,
and a broad hatcliet-sliaped one from the Cambridge Fens.
In the collection (now in the British Museum) of the late Mr. J. F.
Lucas, is an instrumt'nt of this kind, 3 inches over, found at Arbor
Low, Derbyshire, in 1867. He kindly presented me with another,
(dosely resembling Fig. 257, and found at Mining Low. He also pos-
sessed a remarkably fine knife of this form, but with the edge unground,
which was found at Newhaven, Derbyshire, and is shown in Fig. 258.
An example more pear-shaped in outline and ground half-way round
the edge, found near Whitby, has been figured.^ I have a fine one
(4 inches)more rhomboidal fromSwaffham Fen, Cambridge, and another
smaller from Buvwell. From the latter place I have an oval knife
made from a broad external flake (2£ inches) ground along one side,
and a thick one also of oval form from Icklingham.
In all the specimens with the circular edge sharpened by grinding,
the flat side has been purposely made blunt, as if for being held in the
Fig. 259.— Iliirome, Yurk^hiri-. J
hand. The backs, however, may have been let into wooden handles,
in which case these instruments would have been the exact counterparts
of the XJlus, or Women's knives of the Eskimos.^
Though not formed of flint, but of a hard slaty rock of the nature of
hone-stone, an implement of much the same form as that from Fimber'
may be here described. It was found at Harome, in Eyedale, Yorkshire,,
and is in the Greenwell Collection, now Dr. Allen Sturge's. As will be
seen from Fig. 259, it approximates in form to an equilateral spherical
triangle with the apices rounded. It is carefully polished over the
whole of both faces, except where small portions have broken away,
owing to the lamination of the stone. Each of the three sides is ground
to a cutting edge, which however is not continued over the angles :
these are rounded in both directions, as each would probably be in
contact with the palm of the hand when the opposite edge was used
for cutting.
' Arrh. Journ., vol. xxix. p. 285.
- Oti.s Mason, Jiep. of U. S. Nat. M>is. for ISOO, Washington. LS92. •'' P. ;{4K
344
TKIMMED KI.AKtS, KNIVtS, ETC.
[cilAP. XV.
There can be no doubt that all these triangular instruments, whether
of Hint or other material, were used as cutting tools ; and the name of
sk inning-knife, which has been ap})lied to them as well as to the quad-
rangular instruments, not improbably denotes one of the principal
purposes for which they were made.
In the Greenwell Collection is another curious instrument, from the
same locaHty as that last described, which is shown in Fig. 260. It is
formed of a hard slaty stone, having one side ground to a regiilarly
curved and sharp edge, and the others rounded by grinding. The two
faces, which are equally convex, are also ground to such an extent that
but little of the original chipped surface can be discerned. In the face
shown in the figure there is a slight central dejiression, and on the
other face two such at about 2 inches apart, and in a line parallel with
the top or back of the instrument. "WTien it is held in the right hand,
with the fore-finger over the end, the thumb fits into the depression on
the one face and the middle and fourth fingers into those on the other,
Fig. 260. — Ilaromo, Yortstire.
•i
so that it is firmly grasped. It is evident that this must have been a
cutting or chopping tool: but the materials on which it was employed
would seem to have been soft, as the edge is by no means sharp, and
is also entirely uninjured by use. These depressions for the thumb
and fingers resemble in character those on the handles of some of the
Eskimo' scrapers and knives already described.
Another implement, of nearly the same form, but rather longer and
narrower, is in the same collection, and was found in Eyedale, York-
shire. It is of hard clay-slate, 5^ inches long at the blade and 2^ inches
wide, with a curved sharp edge, and a straight back rounded trans-
versely. It is bevelled at one end, which is flat, apparently owing to
a joint in the slate ; and somewhat roimded at the other, where it fits
the hand. Neither in this nor in a third instrument of the same
class, also from Ilarome, are there any dejiressions on the face. This
last has been formed from a flat kidney-shaped pebble of clay-slate,
the hollow side and one end left almost in the natural condition so as
to fit the hand, and the curved side ground to a sharp edge, which is
returned roimd the end almost at a right angle. The edge at the end
P. 299.
TlIK S()-(;AM,E1) I'lCTS KM\ ES.
345
is polished as if by rubbing, and looks us if it might liave been used in
the same manner as bookbinders' tools for indenting lines on leather.
This instrument is 6 inches long, 3 inches wide at the butt-end, and
2^ inches at the sharp end. It is nearly 1| inches thick.
Besides the three which I have mentioned several other instruments
of the same description have been foimd in the same part of Yorkshire.
I have never seen any specimens of precisely tliis character from
other localities ; but they were apparently destined for much the same
purposes as the " Picts' knives," slxortly to be mentioned, unless
possibly they were merely used in the manner just indicated. It is very
remarkable that the form sliould appear to be limited to so small an
area in England ; and though the specimens occur under the same cir-
cumstances as polished celts, it seems probable that for stone antiquities
they belong to a late period.
The large thin flat blades, usually subquadrangular or irregularly
oval in form, of which a large number has been found in the Shet-
land Islands, and which are known as " Pech's knives," or " Picth'
knives," apparently belong to the same class of instruments as the
quadrangular and triangular tools lately described, and this would
therefore appear to be the proper place for making mention of them.
They are never formed of flint ; the principal materials of which they
are made being slate and compact greenstone, porphyry, and other
felepathic rocks, and madreporite. Their usual length is from 6 inches
to 9 inches, and the breadth from 3 inches to 5 inches ; their thickness
is rarely more than 1 inch in the middle, and sometimes not more than
-i^r of an inch. They are usually polished all over, and ground to an
edge all round. Sojnetimes, however, the edge on one or more sides
is rounded, and occasionally an end or side is left of the full thickness
of the blade, and rounded as if for being held in the hand. I have a
specimen, 4h inches long, and o| inches wide at the base, formed of
porphyritic greenstone, and found at Hillswick, in Shetland, which
"was given me by the late Mr. .T. G^vyn
Jeffreys, F.Ii.S. Its cutting edge may
be described as forming nearly half of
a pointed elli^ise, of which the thick
side for holding forms the conjugate
diameter. This side is rounded and
curved slightly inwards ; one of the
angles between this base and the ellip-
tical edge is rounded, and a portion
of the edge is also left thick and
rounded, so that when the base is
applied to the palm of the hand the
lower part of the forefinger may rest
upon it. When thus held it forms a
cutting tool not unlike a leather-cutter's
knife. Instruments of this character
are extremely rare in England, but in
the extensive Greenwell Collection
is a specimen which I have engraved as Fig. 261. It was found at
Crambe, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, and is formed of an oolitic
shelly limestone, a material also used for the manufacture of celts in
Fig. 261. — Crumbc.
346
rUIMMEI) FI.AICES, KNIVES, ETC.
[chap. XV.
tliat district. Though smaller, and rather more deeply notched at tho
base than my Shetland knife, it is curiously like it in general form.
The edge, however, only extends along one side, and is not carried
round the point.
The specimens that I have engraved as Figs. 262 and 263, are in the
Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of London. They are formed of
thin lamina." of what is said to be madreporite, and are sharp all round.'
They were found with fourteen others at the depth of six feet in a peat-
mos!», the whole of them being arranged in a horizontal line, and overlap-
ping each other like slates upon the roof of a house. There are several
specimens formed of felspathic rocks, and from various localities in
Shetland, preserved in the British Museum. A note attached to one of
Fig. 262.— Walls, Shetland
them states that twelve were found in Easterskild, in the parish of
Sandsting. An engraving of one of them is given in the " Hora^
Ferales."^ I possess several; one of porphjTitic stone, oval, 8 inches
long, is polished all over both faces, one side is sharp and the other
rounded.
In the National Museum at Edinburgh^ are other examples, also
from Shetland. Several have been figured.* Some have a kind of
haft.^ They occasionally have a hole for suspension." Sir Daniel
Wilson' states that a considerable number of inijilements, mostly of
the same class, were found under the clay in the ancient mosses of
1 «« Cat. Ant. Soc. Ant.," p. 14. " Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.," p. 7. • PI. ii. 15.
3 Pioc. Soc. ^int. Scot., vol. iii. p. 437 ; iv. p. 52.
* I'. S. A. S., vol. xii. p. 271 ; xxix. p. 64. ^ />, <^ ^^ ^-^ y^i ^jj ^ .270.
^ Smith's 'Troh. Man in Ayrsliire, 1895, p. 45.
'• "Preh. Ann.," vol. i. p. 184.
T,IK?: THOSE OF THK ESKIMOS.
347
IJlairdrummond and Meiklewooil, but in tliis ho was in error. There
are some fine specimens from Shetland in the Ethnological Museum at
Copenhagen. Mr. J. W. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, has fine examples of
such knives from Shetland. One in his collection is 8 inches long and
5J inches broad, being in form much like Fig. 262.
There can be little doubt of these implements having been cutting
tools for liolding in the hand, though they have been described by Dr.
nibbert and Mr. Bryden' in " The Statistical Account of the Shetland
Isles " as double or single-edged battle-axes. They appear, however,
as Mr. Albert Way- has pointed out, to be too thin and fragile for any
warlike purpose. Those with the cutting edge all round were probably
provided with a sort of handle along one side, like the flensiuf-knife
from Icy Cape in the possession of Sir Edward Belcher, of which men-
tion has already been made. This is a flat thin blade, about 5 inches
long, and of subquadrangular form. It is sharp at the edge, but has a
guard or handle along the opposite side, made of split twigs attached
by resinous gum. In some Eskimo knives of the same kind in the
Christy Collection and in the Ethnological Museum at Copenha"-en the-
' " Statist. Account of Zetland," 1.S41, p. 112, et seqq.. quoted at lentrtb iu Mtm.
Anthrup. Soc. Land., vol. ii. p. 315. The late Dr. Hunt appears to have thought
that the passage referred to rude pestle-like stone implements sucli as he found iu
Orkney, and not to these knivpc."
- "Cat. Arch. Inst. :Muh. Ed.," p. 7.
348 TRIMMED FLAKES, K.MVES, ETC. [CHAF. XV.
wooden back is tied on by a cord which passes through a hole in the
blade. It is possible that the " Picts' knives " may in some cases have
been used, like those of the Eskimos, for removing the blubber from
whales.
It is difficult to assign a date to these instruments, which are almost
peculiar to the Shetland Islands. There are traditions extant of their
having been seen in use within the present century, in one instance by
an old woman for cutting kail, and in Lewis,' a sharp stone was used
in 1829, for cutting out a wedding dress. In the latter case the reason
assigned was the want of scissors, but it would appear to have probably
been merely an experimental trial of the cutting powers of a stone
which may not have been one of these primitive tools. The occurrence
of Picts' knives under so thick a depoait of peat shows, however, that
they do not belong to any recent period, thougli live or six feet of
peat do not of necessity indicate any very high degree of antiquity.
"VMien the Princess Leonora Christina- was imprisoned in Copen-
hagen in 1663 and she was deprived of scissors and cutting instru-
ments, she records, in 1665, that. "Christian had given me some pieces
of flint which are so sharp that I can cut tine linen with them by the
thread. The pieces are still in my possession, and with this imple-
ment I executed various things."
Stone knives of any form, having the edges ground, are of rare
octurrence on the Continent, though in Norway and Sweden' those of
what have been termed Arctic types are found. Nearly similar forms
occur in North America. A peculiar knife, with a rectangular handle,
much like a common table-knife, has been found in the Lake Settle-
ment of Inkwyl.*
A North American knife,' with a somewhat similar handle, has a
curved blade very thick at the back.
To return to the implements made of flint. Those which I have
next to describe have been termed spear-heads, lance-heads, knives,
and daggers. Their ordinary length is from 5 to 7 inches, and
their extreme width from I5 to 2^ inches. Their general form is
lanceolate, but the greater breadth is usually nearer the point of
the blade than the butt, which is in most instances either truncated
or rounded. They exhibit remarkable skill in the treatment of
flint in their manufacture, being as a rule symmetrical in form,
with the edge in one plane, and equally convex on the two faces —
wl.ich are dexterously chipped into broad flat facets — while the
€dges are still more carefully shaped by secondary working.
Towards the butt, the converging sides are usually nearly straight,
and in many, the edge at this part has been rounded by grinding,
-and the butt-end has had its angles removed in a similar manner.
> bee p. S. A. S., vol. xi. p. .579.
- y. and Q., 4th S., vol. xi. p. 302.
3 Co*)ff. preh. Stockhohn, 1874, p. 177, ct seqq.
* De Bonstetten, " Supp. au Rec. d'Ant. MiLsses,"" p\ i. 1.
■' Schoolcraft. " Ind. Tribes," vol. ii. pi. xlv. 1.
DAGGERS OR LANUK-IIEADS.
349
This may have been done either with the view of rendering the
instrument more convenient for holding in the hand, or in order
to prevent the Wade from cutting the ligaments by which it was
attached to a handle. For the latter purpose, however, there
would be no advantage in rounding the butt-end ; and as this,
moreover, is frequently the thickest part of the blade, it seems
probable that the majority of the instruments were intended
for holding in the hand, so that the term dagger appears most
appropriate to this form.
Other blades, with notches on the opposite sides, seem to have
been mounted with handles or shafts, and may have served either
as daggers or possibly as spear- heads.
I have figured four specimens showing some difference in shape,
mainly in consequence of the different relative positions of the
broadest part of the blades. This in Fig. 265 may be, to some
extent, due to the point having been
chipped away by successive sharpen-
ing of the edge by secondary chipping,
in the same manner as we find some
of the Danish daggers worn to a
stump, by nearly the whole of the
blade having been sharpened away.
In Fig. 264 is shown a beautiful
dagger of white flint, which was found
in a barrow on Lambourn Down, Berks,
in company with a celt and some ex-
quisitely-finished stemmed and barbed
arrow-heads of the same material. It
is now in the British Museum. Its
edges are sharp all along, and not
blunted towards the butt-end. It may
have been an entirely new weapon,
buried with the occupant of the barrow
for use in another state of existence, or
it may have had moss wrapped round
that part, so as to protect the hand ;
like the blade' of flint with Uijpnmn
brevirostre wrapped round its butt-end to
form a substitute for a handle, which
was found in the bed of the liiver Bann, _. „„^ r , ^^ i
r 1 1 i:i -VT .1 » • ■ Fig. 264.— Lambourn Down. i
m Ireland, feome iSortn American im-
plements of similar character are, as Sir Wollaston Franks'- has
pointed out, hafted by insertion into a split piece of wood in which
' Arch. Joiirn., vol. viii. p.
B. I. A., vol. V. p. 17(J,
329.
Brist.
Vol. Arch. lust.," p. lix.
- *' Hor. For." p. lo7.
Proc
360
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
[chap. XV.
they are bound by a cord. Oue from the north-west coast, thus
mounted, is in the British Museum.
Professor Nilsson' has eugTaved anotlier American knife, in the
same collection, but erroneously refers it to New Zealand.
A good specimen (6i inches was found in 1890 in a field known
as Little "Wansford, near Great Weldon, Northamptonshire. I have
specimens (6^ inches) from Fiskerton, Lincolnshire, and from Bottisham
Fen, Cambs (4| inches). There is a slight shoulder on the latter
rather nearer the butt than the x)oint. A beautiful specimen (6| inches)
from a barrow at Garton.- Yorkshire, E. R., has been fissured.
Fig. '2C5.— Thy
Fig. 2(Jt3.— llunit Feu.
The blade shown in Fig. 265 is in the British Museum, having
■been formerly in the Eoach Smith Collection. It is of nearly black
flint, and was found in the Thames. Its length is still 7 inches, but
from the form of the point it seems possible that it may, as already
suggested, originally have been even longer. There is in the Museum
another specimen from the Thames,^ 5f inches long, in form like Fig,
264. Both of these have the edges towards the butt rendered more or
less blunt, and have had any prominences removed by grinding. The
same is the case with a blade 6 inches long and 2| inches wide, found
'J' Stone Age," p. 38, pi. iii. 65. ^ Arch., vol. xliii. p. 413.
3 "Hor. Fer.," pi. ii. 27.
WITH NOTCHES AT THE SIDES. 351
«
in Qny Fen in 1849, and now in the Museum of the Cambridge
Antiquarian Society. In the same collection is a smaller specimen,
4|- inc]ios long and la inches wide, from Burwell Fen. This has its
edges sharp, and shows the natural crust of the ilint at the butt, as
does also one 7 inches long by 2.V inches wide, found at .lackdaw HiU,
near Cambridge.' Another blade (5^ inches) found at Wolseys, near
Duumow, Essex, is in the British Museum. A blade of this type from
a garden at Walton-on-TIiames- is recorded.
A remarkably fine spear-liead of the notched class, 6| inclios long,
was exhibited some years ago to the British Archaeological Association,
and their Proceedings,'-^ without giving any information as to the size,
shape, or character of the specimen, record as an interesting fact that
it weighs nearly four ounces. It was found in Burnt Fen, Frickwillow,
Ely, and is now in my own collection. It is engraved as Fig. 266. It
is of black flint, and has in the first instance been boldly chipped into
approximately the requisite form, and then been carefully finished by
neat secondary working at the edges, no part of which has been
rounded by grinding. On either side, at rather less than half way
along the blade from the base, are two deep rounded indentations not,
quite half an inch apai*t, in character much like the notches between
the barbs and stems of one form of flint arrow-heads. Tlie sam*-
peculiarity is to be observed in a somewhat smaller spear-head found
at Carshalton,* in Surrey, and forming part of the Meyrick Collection.
Of this it is observed that it " was let into a slit in the wooden shaft, and
bound over with nerves diagonally from the four notches which appear
on the sides." There can, 1 think, be little doubt of the correctness of
this view, nor of the method of attachment to the shafts or handles
having been much the same as that in use among the American tribes
for their arrow- and lance-heads with a notch on either side. Whether
the British blades were mounted with a short handle or a long shaft,
we have no means of judging; but if those with the edges rounded
towards the butt were knives or daggers, there seems some probability
of these also having served the same purpose, though provided with
handles like some North American and Mexican examples, and of their
not having been spear- or lance-heads.
I have another blade of this kind found in BurweU Fen, Cambridge,
about 5f inches in length, and Ig inch in width. At about 3^- inches
from the point there is on either side a slight notch ; beyond this there
is a narrow projection, and tlien the width of the blade is suddenly
reduced by a full eighth of an inch on either side, so as to leave a sort
of shoulder. Between this and the butt, at intervals of about an inch,
there are on each side two other notches, as if to assist in fastening
the blade into a shaft or handle. There has in tliis case been no
attempt to remove the edges by grinding.
A flint dagger (6f inches) found in the Thames,^ near London
Bridge, has a notch on each side 2| inches from the base. A smaller
notched example was found at Ilurlingham.
In the Christy Collection is anotlier of tliose blades, 5| inches long,
* Arch. Journ., vol. xvii. p. 170. - Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 73.
^ Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. vi. p. 441.
* Skeltou's " Meyrick's Armour," vol. i. pi. xlvi. ">.
•'* Land, and Midd. JSotebook, vol. i. (1891), p. 21.
352
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ET(
[CH
AT. XV.
with a notch on either side about If inches from the butt. It is un-
certain where it was found.
One with a notch at each side about mid-length was found at Uare
Park/ Cambridge.
A blade remarkably like Fig. "206 was found in the Dolmen of
Vinnac'- (Ave}Ton).
A beautifully formed blade, chipped square at the base, and with a
series of notches along the sides towards the butt, was found at Arbor
Low, Derbyehu-e. ' The late Mr. J. F. Lucas
obligingly lent it to me for engraving, as Fig.
267. It is now preserved in the British
Museum.
In the Wiltshire Barrows, explored by Sir E.
Colt Hoare, were several of these daggers.
One,* 6i inches long, was foimd with a skeleton
beneath a large " sarseu stone" near i>urring-
ton Walls, in company w ith a small whetstone,
a cone and ring of jet like a pulley, and two
small discoidal scrapers. Another,'' of much the
same form and size as Fig. 264, occurred in
company with a drinking-cup, and what was
probably a whetstone of " ligniformed asbestos,"
at the feet of a skeleton in a barrow near Stone-
henge.
^ ...- Others have been found in the barrows of
"^ Derbyshire and Yorkshire. In Green Low, on
Alsop Moor,'^ a dagger-blade of ilint, 6 inches
long, stemmed and barbed arrow-heads, a bone
pin, and other bone instruments, were associated
with a contracted interment. It was in this
barrow also that the pj-rites and scrapers, pre-
viously mentioned at p. 313, were found.
Another leaf-shaped dagger of white iiint, 4^
inches long, with the narrow half curiously
serrated — as boldly as Fig. 266, but with many
more notches — was found by Mr. Bateman be-
neath the head of a contracted skeleton in Nether Low.' near CheLmor-
ton. Another, 4 J inches long, was found with burnt bones in one of
the Three Lows,- near Wettou. A flint dagger,' elegantly chipped, 5j
inches long, was found on Blake Low, near Matlock, in 1786. Frag-
ments of similar daggers have been found with interments in barrows
near Pickering;^" and in Messrs. Mortimer's rich collection is a fine
specimen from a barrow on the Yorkshire AVolds.
One like Fig. 264, but of coarser workmanship, 5j inches long and
2f inches wide, was found in 1862, with a skeleton and an earthen
vessel, at Norton, near Daventry, and particulars sent to me by the
* Arch. Joiini., vol. x\T.i. p. 170. - Mat., vol. xi. p. 87.
•* Jewitt's " Grave Mounds," ti-;. I'lo, where it is shown full size.
* " South Wilts," p. 172, pi. xix. "Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. 85b.
3' " South Wilts," p. 164, pi. xvii. " Cat. Devizes Mus.."' No. 84.
« " Vest. Ant. Derb.,"' p. .59. " Cran. Brit." pi. 41. p. 3. Beliq., vol. iii. p. 177.
^ "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 52. '=' Ibid., p. 167. Bateman, •' Cat.," p. 38.
s " Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 5.
" "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 228. Bateman, " Cat.," p. 43.
ki'A. Ziii . — -Aj Dor Low.
FOUND IN OTHER COUNTRIES. 353
late Mr. S. Sharp, 1\S.A., F.Gr.S. ; and what would appear to have
been an instrument of the same character, 8 inches long, was found
near Maidstone.' A very good specimen, of fine workmanship, is in
the Museum at Canterhury, but its place of finding is unknown.
Another, more like Fig. 267, but not serrated, 6f inches long and
2 inches broad, was found with an urn at Ty ddu Llanelieu,^ Brecon,
and has been engraved.
In the Greenwell Collection is a blade like Fig. 264, 6 inches long
and 21 inches wide, finely chipped along the edges for 4 inches from the
point, which was found at Kempston, near Bedford, in the same field as
that shown in Fig. 2.56. There is also a specimen rather more rudely
chipped, and pointed at each end, from Irthington, Cumberland, which
has more of the character of a spear-head. In the Fitch Collection is
a fine but imperfect dagger from the neighbourhood of Ipswich, and I
have one in similar condition from Peasemarsh, near Godalming.
In Scotland one has been found in a cairn at Guthrie, Forfarshire,
6| inches long and H inches wide, which is engraved in the GenilemarC s
Magazine:' Sir Daniel Wilson* also mentions one 15 inches long, found
in a cairn at Craigengelt, near Stirling, but I think there must be some
error as to the length.
Mr. J. W. Cursiter, of Kirkwall, has a very symmetrical blade like
Fig. 264, but smaller, found in Blows Moss, South Ronaldsay, Orkney.
A blade from Nunraw,' Haddingtonshire (7J inches) with notches at
the side for hafting, has been engraved. Another (3f inches), was
found in a cairn near Kirkmichael. AjTshire.*'
Though occurring in so many parts of England and Scotland, these
daggers appear to be unknown in Ireland, where, however, some
large lozenge-shaped blades, ground on both faces, occur. Sword-Uke
blades made of slaty stone are also found in Ireland" and in Shet-
land.■* I have Irish specimens up to 15 inches in length, and have
seen the sketch of one of subquadrate section, and pointed at each end,
2 Of inches in length. It was found in the Lower Bann, near Port-
glenone, co. Antrim.
In some Continental countries, and especially in Denmark, Sweden, and
Northern Germany, similar weapons are far more abundant than here.
The shape is somewhat different, for the English specimens are as a
rule broader in proportion, and more obtusely pointed than the Scandi-
navian. These latter frequently exhibit the blunting at the edges
towards the butt-end, such as has been already mentioned. Occasion-
ally they have the notches at the sides. Daggers with square or fish-
tailed handles, like AVorsaae, Nos. 52 and 53, some of which present
delicately ornamented and crinkled edges, have not as yet been found
in Britain, though somewhat analogous forms occur in Honduras and
in North America. The crinkling is seen on some Egyptian knives.
Nearly similar blades to those from Britain are found in other parts
of Europe. Two lance-heads, made from flakes 5^ inches and 5£- inches
long, more or less worked on both faces, and reduced in width at the
' Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. x. p. 177.
- Arch. Cainb., 4th S., vol. ii. p. 327- ^ March, 1797, p. 200.
* " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 182. * P. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 18.
« Smith, "Preh. Man in Ayrshire," 189.5, p. 184.
' Wilde's '■ Cat. Mas. K. I. A.." p. 34. >* P. S. A. S., vol. xi. p. 170.
A A
354 TRIMMED FLAKFS, KNIVES, ETC. [cHAP. XV,
butt, SO as to facilitate insertion in a handle, were found in the sepul-
chral cave of St. Jean d'Alcas,' in the Aveyron. Another, worked on
both faces, about 7 inches long and 1 finches broad, notched in two or
three places on each side at the base, was found in one of the dolmens
of the Lozere.- A third, shorter and broader, but also notched at the
base, was in the dolmen^ of Grailhe (Gard).
A finely-worked, somewhat lozenge-shaped, blade of flint, 10 inches
in length, was found at Spiennes,* near Mons, in Belgium.
A lance-head (6J inches) from the Government of Madimir,* Eussia,
has been figured.
A lance-head of flint, 9 inches long and 2^ broad, tanged at the
butt, and with a notch on each side of the tang, has been figged by
Gastaldi" from a specimen in the Museum at Naples, found at Telese.
In Egypt, associated with other objects betokening a considerable
civilization, have been found several thin blades of flint, of much the
same character as the highly-finished European specimens. A magni-
ficent lance-head {1-ii inches', has been presented to the Ashmolean
Museum by Prof. Flinders Peti-ie". It is delicately serrated along the
edges for most of its length. A smaller blade is more leaf-shaped and
minutely serrated all round. Another appears to have been hafted as
a dagger. In my own collection is a leaf-shaped blade 7 inches long,
most delicately made and serrated. Others are, however, thick at the
back, and provided with a tang like a metallic knife. Two of these in
the Berlin Museum.,* are 7;^ inches and 6f inches long respectively,
and 2 J inches and 2 inches vriAe ; I have one 5^ inches in length. There
are other specimens in the Egyptian Museums at Leyden and Tiirin,
and in the National Museum^ at Edinburgh. A larger blade, and
even more closely resembling some of the Scandinavian lunate instru-
ments in form, being leaf-shaped, but more curved on one edge than
the other, is also in the Berlin Museum.'" It is 9 inches long and 2^
inches wide. A curved scimitar-Hke knife from Eg}-pt'' is figured, as
is one with a notch on each side of the butt.^ Another blade, of ovate
form, and without tang, 2| inches long and 1 inch wide, is preserved
in the Mayer Collection in the Museum '" at Liverpool.
Some other Egyptian blades will be subsequent!}' mentioned.
A dagger-blade of flint, still mounted in its original handle, is in the
British Museum,^* and has already been described.
Some of the dagger-blades in use in Mexico in ancient times were of
1 Cazalis de Fondouce, " LaGr. sep. de St. J. d'Alcas," 1867, pi. i.
' ifateriaux. rol. v. p. 321 ; viii. p. 39. ^ Materiaux, vol. v. p. 538.
^ Cong. Freh. Bruxelks, 1872, pi. 67, 3. Van Overloop, " Les Ages de la
Pierre," pi. viii.
5 Cong. Preh. Moscou, 1892, ii. p. 241.
6 Mem. R. Aee. delle Se. di Torino, xxvi. Tav. viii. 24. See also BuU. di Fal.
Ital., 1881, pi. vii.
" Arch. Journ. vol. liii. p. 46. See also Mat., vol. ii. p. 24, and De Morgan,
" Rech. BUT les Or. de I'Egjpte," 1896, p. 121.
8 Zeitschr.fur ^gypt. Sprache, &c., July, 1870. "Wilkinson, " Anc. Egyptians,"
vol. iii. p. 262.
9 P. S. A. S., vol. xivi. p. 399. '" Zeitschr. fUr jEg. Sp., ibid.
^' Journ. Anth. Jnst., vol. xi. pi. ixxiii. See also vol. xiv. p. 56 ; Proc. Soc. Ant.,
2nd S., vol. vi., p. 21 : and Petrie's " Hawara," 1889, pi. xxviiL
12 ZeiUeh. f. Ethn., vol. xiii., 1890, p. (516).
'^ Journ. Arith. Intt., vol. i. p. xcvi. pi. i. 3. '* See Fig. 1 p. 8.
CURVED AND C.RKSCKN T-SHAPED BLADES.
355
miicli the same character as these, being in some cases of flint, in otliers
of obsidian. A beautiful blade of chalcedony, 8 inches long, found at
Tezcuco, is in the Christy Collection, as well as another of chert ; but
the most remarkable is of chalcedony, still in its original wooden
handle in form of a kneeling figure, encrusted with precious materials,
including turquoise, malachite, and coral.' An almost similar specimen
was engraved by Aldrovandus.-
There are Japanese-^ stone knives and daggers polished all over and
with the blade and hilt in one piece. Some are as much as 1 5 inches long.
A peculiar form of knife, closely resembling in character some of
the crescent-shaped blades from Scandinavia, is shown in Fig. 267a.
It was found in the parish of Sewerby,^ near Bridlington, and some-
what resembles the blade fz'om Balveny, subsequently mentioned. I
have described it in some detail* elsewhere. A similar form occurs in
Fi?. 267a.— Sewerby.
J
Arctic America.^ A wider form from New Jersey* has been regarded
as a scalping-knife.
Another form of curved knife — for as such it would seem the instru-
ment must be regarded — seems to be more abundant in Britain than in
other European countries, unless possibly in Eussia. A somewhat
similar form is known in Denmark," of which a highly finished variety
is engraved by Worsaae ® from an almost, if not quite, unique example.
Examples of analogous knives from other countries will also be sub-
sequently cited. As the form has not hitherto received much attention
from antiquaries, I have engraved three specimens slightly differing
in character, and found in different parts of England.
2 " Musfcum Metallicum," p. 156.
* Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. vii. p. 328.
* Nature, vol. xii. p. 368.
^ Arch<eologia, vol. Uv. 391.
•'» Aarb.f. Oldk., 1879, p. 290.
* Mat., vol. ix. p. 401, pi. vii. 9
' "Madsen," pi. xxxvi. 8.
« '*Nord. Olds.," Fijj. 51 . Mini, de la Soc des Ants, du Nord., 1845—49, p. 139.
A a2
356
TRIMMED FLAKES, KNIVES, ETC.
[chap.
XA'.
Fig. '2GH represeuts a beautifully formed knife, with a curved blade
tapering to a point, and found in draining at Fimber, Yorkshire. It
is preserved in the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, who have
kindly allowed me to engrave it. It is about 7 inches in length, formed
of flint, which has now become ochreous in colour, and exhibits a
portion of the natural crust at the butt-end. The blade is nearly
equally convex on the two faces, but thickens out at the butt, which
seems to have formed the handle, as the side edges which are else-
Fi<r. 2t>--.— Fimber.
Fig. 269.— Yarmouth.
where sharp are there slightly blunted. The faces present no signs of
having been ground or polished.
I have two or three fragments of similar knives also from the York-
shire Wolds; and one almost perfect, but only 4^ inches long, from
Granton "Wold. In the Greenwell Collection is a fragment of one from
AVetwang, and the point of another from Kudstone. I have one(o inches)
perfect except at the butt, found at North Stow, Bury St. Edmunds.
Fig. 269 represents a near!}' similar knife, which has, however, been
already described, though not figured, in the Archceologieal JournaV
and in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiqiiariesr It was found on
Gorton Beach, midway between Yarmouth and Lowestoft, and belonged
' Vol. xxii. p. 75.
- 2ndS., vol. iii. p. 19, where it is erroneously stated to be only 5 inches in length.
CURVED KNIVES, PHOHABl.Y SICKI>ES.
357
v>
to the late j\h\ C. Cory, of Yarmouth, who kindly lent it to me for
engraving'. It has been suggested that it was fixed to a haft, possibly
of stag's horn or of wood, but there are no indtcup, of this having been
the case, though the side-edges are blunted towards the butt-end, where
also remains a considerable portion of the crust
of the long nodide of flint from which the instru-
ment was chipped.
For the loan of the original of Fig. 270 I am
indebted to the late Mr. Caldecott, of Mead
Street, near Eastbourne, near which place it was
found. It is of grey flint, and presents the
peculiarit}' of having one face partially polished
by grinding, which extends to the point, but does
not touch the edges, which, as in the other
instances, are produced by chipping only. It is
rather more convex on the polished face than on
the other, and it appears probable that recourse
was had to grinding in order to remove a hard
projection of the flint which had been too refrac-
tory to be chij)ped off. As usual, there is a por-
tion of the crust of the original flint visible at the
butt, where also the side edges have been blunted,
in this case by grinding. This instrument has
cdready been described and figiu-ed.^
A curved knife (7f inches) now in the British
Museum, much like Fig. 270, was found at
Grrovehurst," near INIiltou, Kent.
In the same m.useum is a beautifiilly-chipped
knife, 8J inches long, without any traces of
grinding, and of much the same form as this, but
with the point more sharply curved. It was
found in the Thames, at London, in 1868.
One from Bexley, Kent, is in the Ashmolean
Museum at Oxford, and another from the Thames
at Greenwich in the Jermjm Street Museum.
The (xreenwell Collection contains an implement of this class, but of
broader proportions, 4 inches long and If inches wide, with a portion
of the natural crust of the flint left on the convex side, not far from the
point. It is sharp at the base, which is semicircular, and the edge
shows signs of wear. It was found on Ileslerton "Wold.
A thinner form of curved knife (6^ inches), found at Balveny,^ Banff-
shire, has been figured.
The point of what appears to have been a curved knife of this cha-
racter was found in the Lake-dwelling of Bodmann.^ Some curved
knives from one at Attersee* have been engraved. A long flint knife
from Majorca,** nearly straight at the edge, but curved at the back, may
also be mentioned.
' Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 210.
- Arch. Cant., vol. xiii. p. 124, xi. Tayne's "Coll. Cant.," 1893, p. S.
^ J\ S. A. S.. vol. xxiii. p. 18.
* Keller, " Pfahlbauten,'' Gtor Bcr., Taf. vii. 32.
* " Phih. Atlas." Wien, 1889, Taf. xiii.
"^ Cartailhac, " Mon. prim, dee lies Balearea," 1892, p. 64.
270.— Eastboui-ne. .J
358 TRIMMED Fl.AKKS, KNIVES, ETC. [cHAP. XV,
Some curved knives of polished slate, about 5 inches long, notched
at the base as if for suspension by means of a string, have been found
in Norway. Small blades of chipped flint with a neck for the same
purpose are not uncommon in Japan, and occur more rarely in Eussia.'
In the Greenwell Collection is preserved a curved knife of slate
sharpened on the concave side, found in Antrim.
Curved knives of flint, as well as some of the crescent shape, have
been found in YolhjTiia.-
1 have seen flint knives in outline very like Fig. 240 in the museums
at Cracow, Moscow, and Kiev. Some are highly polished by friction
and may have served as sickles.
It is difficult to assign any definite use to the British form of knife,
but as the curvature is evidently intentional, and as probably it was
more difficult to chip out such curved blades than it would have been
to make them straight, there mu.st have been some advantage resulting
from the form. As both edges of the blade are sharp, it is hard to
say whether the convex or concave edge was the jirincipal object. But
inasmuch as the convex edge might more readily be obtained, and that
twice over, in a leaf-shaped blade, it appears that the concave edge
was the desideratum. The blimting of the edges at the butt-end
suggests the probability of the instruments having been held immedi-
ately in the hand without the intervention of any form of haft ; and
the view of the concave edge being the principal one is supported by
the circumstance that in the short knife from Granton Wold, already
mentioned, a considerable portion of the crust of the round-ended
nodule of flint from which it was made is left along the convex side
at the butt-end, while on the opposite side the edge extends the whole
length, so that it cannot be comfortably held in the hand except with
that edge outwards from the palm. It seems, indeed, adapted for hold-
ing in the hand and cutting towards rather than from the operator;
and looking at the form universal!}' adopted for reaping instruments,
which seem to require a concave edge, so as to gather within them all
the stalks that have to be cut, I am inclined to think that these curved
flint knives may not impossibly have supplied the place of sickles or
reaping hooks, whether for cutting grass to serve as provender or
bedding, or for removing the ears of com from the straw. We know
that amongst the inhabitants of the Swiss Lake-dweUings some who
were unacquainted with the use of metals had already several domesti-
cated animals, and cultivated more than one kind of cereal, and it is not
unfair to infer that the same was the case in Britain. It has already
been suggested that some serrated flint flakes may have served for
the armature of another form of sickle, like that in use in 'Egypt at an
earlj' period.
The analogy in form between these flint blades and those of the
bronze reaping-hooks occasionally found in Britain is striking, when
we leave the sockets by which the latter were secured to their handles
out of view. These also have usually the outer edge sharp as well as
the inner, but for what purpose I cannot say.
This seems a fitting place to say a few words with regard to some
' Cotiff. Preh. Moscoti, 1892, ii. p. 243.
2 L' Anthrop., vol. vi., 1893, p. 12. De Baye, "C. K. du neuv. Congres russe
d'Arch.," 1893, p. 54.
RIPPLE- M ARK KD EGYPTIAN BLADES. 859
Egyptian flint knives, for the knowledge of \rhicli we are mainly in-
debted to Prof. Flinders Petrie. and the workmanship of which is
absolutely unrivalled. They are of two kinds, both presenting an
outline curved on one or both sides. For the one kind a flake from 8
to 9 inches long of triangular section with a thick back and sharp edge
has been taken ; the back has been most carefully retouched and left
slightly convex ; the ridge of the flake has been wrought so as to
show a crinkled line like that on the handles of some Danish daggers,
the edge has been more or less re-worked, producing a bold convex
sweep, and what was originally the inner face of the flake has
first been delicately fluted by cross-flaking and then still more finely
retouched along both the back and the edge.
For the other kind the whole surface of the original flake has. as
Mr. Spurrell ^ has pointed out. been carefully ground, one face being
made rather more convex that the other. The flatter face has been left
almost imtouched. but one side has been trimmed by flaking at the
edge into almost a straight or slightly concave line : the other side is
boldly curved, the general outline having been produced dm-ing the
grinding process. The more convex face has been fluted or ••ripple-
marked "' by cross-flaking from either side in the most skilful manner,
the whole of the original polished surface being sometimes removed.
The projections at the butt-end between the successive flakes have next
been levelled down by secondary chipping, and finally the curved edge
has been minutely serrated, there being about 36 teeth to the inch.
These blades are from 7 to 9^ inches in length, and occasionally made
of beautiful chalcedonic flint. They are attributed by Professor Flinders
Petrie- to a period between the fourth and the twelfth Dynasty, but
may possibly be of even earlier date. As already mentioned, some
beautiful leaf-shaped lance-heads with finely-serrated edges have
been made in the same manner.
One of the fluted knives in the Ghizeh Museum^ is hafted for a
distance of about 4 inches in a thin plate of gold, engraved on the
one face with well-drawn figures of animals, and on the other with
floral ornaments arranged between two serpents. The plates of gold
are not soldered together, but se^vn one to the other with gold wire.
^ Arch. Journ.. voL liii. (IS96' p. 46. See also ZeiUeh. f. Ethn., vol. xx.. 1SS3.
p. (•209\ (344' ; vol. xxiii., 1S91. (p. 474}, pi. vii. viii.
- " Naquada and Ballad. '" 1S96, p. 60.
^ J. De Morgan. '• Reclierches sur les Originea de I'Egypte. L'age de la pierre
et Les metanx," 1S96, p. 11.5.
360
CHAPTER XVI.
JA^^ELIN A>fD ARROW HEADS.
I NOW come to a series of flint weapons, small but varying in size,
whicli though presenting a general resemblance in character to
each other, are still susceptible of being classified under several
types. The similarity is probably due to their having been all
intended for the same purpose — that of piercing the skin, whether
of enemies in war, or of animals in the chase ; the differences may
result from some of the weapons hiaving served for warlike and
others for hunting purposes. The variation in size probably arises
from some of them having tipped spears to be held in the hand
for close encounters, while others may have been attached to
lighter shafts, and formed javelins to be thrown at objects at
some distance ; and the majority of the smaller kind were, beyond
doubt, the heads of arrows discharged from bows.
The possibly successive ideas of pointing a stake as a weapon of
offence, of hardening the point by means of fire, and of substi-
tuting a still harder point made of horn, bone, or stone, must have
occurred to mankind at the earliest period of its history, and
weapons of one or all of these kinds are to be found among savage
tribes in all parts of the world. The discovery of the bow, as a
means of propelling javelins on a small scale to a distance, seems
to belong to a rather higher grade of culture, and its use is not
universal among modern savages. The use of the bow and arrow
was totally unknown to the aborigines of Australia,^ and even the
Maories ^ of New Zealand — who were by no means in the lowest
stage of civilization — had, when first discovered, no bows and
arrows, nor even slings ; in fact, no missile weapon except the
lance, which was thrown by hand.
In Europe, however, the use of the bow seems to date back to a
1 Trans. Ethn. Soc, N. S., vol. iii. p. 266.
^ See Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 478.
thp:ir earliest occurrence. 361
very remote period, as in some of the cave-deposits of the Reindeer
Period of the South of France, what appear to be undoubtedly
arrow-heads are found. In other caves, possibly, though not cer-
tainly, inhabited at a somewhat later period, such arrow-heads are
absent, though what may be regarded as harpoon-heads of bone
occur ; and in the River Gravel deposits, nothing that can
positively be said to be an arrow-head has as yet been found,
though it is barely possible that some of the pointed flakes may
have served to tip arrows.
The Greek myth ^ that bows and arrows were invented by
Scythes, the son of Jove, or by Pcrses, the son of Perseus, though
pointing to an extreme antiquity for the invention, not improbably
embodies a tradition of the skill in archery of the ancient Scythians
and Persians.^
The simplest form of stone-pointed spear or lance at present
in use among savages, consists of a long sharp flake of obsidian,
or some silicious stone, attached to a shaft, like that shown in
Fig. 195 ; and arrows, tipped, with smaller flakes, having but little
secondary working at the sides, beyond what was necessary to
complete the point, and to form a small tang for insertion into the
shaft, may also be seen in Ethnological collections. Between
these almost simple flakes and skilfully and symmetrically- chipped
lance and arrow heads, all the intermediate stages may be traced
among weapons still, or until quite recently, in use among savages;
as well as among those which once served to point the weapons of
the early occupants of this country.
It is indeed probable that besides these stone-tipped weapons,
other seemingly less efiective, but actually more deadly missiles,
were in use among them in the form of poisoned arrows ; but as
these at the present day are usually tipped with hard wood or bone,
as better adapted than stone for retaining the poison, the same was
probably the case in ancient times ; and while those of wood have
perished, those of bone, if foimd, have not as yet been recognized.
Such arrow-heads of bone were also in use without being poisoned,
as, for instance, among the Finns, or Fenni, as Tacitus calls them,
whose principal weapons were, for want of iron, bone-pointed
arrows.^ The use of poisoned arrows had, among the Greeks and
Romans, long ceased in classical times,^ and is always represented
' Pliny, "Xat. Hist.," Ub. vii. cap. 56.
- Herodotus, lib. iv. cap. 132; v. 49 ; vii. 61.
' " Sola in sagittis spes, quas inopia fcni ossibua asperant." — " Germ.," cap. 46.
' Smith's "'Diet, of Ant." a. v., Sagitta.
362
JAVELIN AND ARRQ-VV HEADS. [cHAP. XVI.
by authors, from the time of Homer downwards, as a characteristic
of barbarous nations ; and yet, in our own language, a word in
common use survives as a memorial of this barbarous custom
having been practised by the Greeks probably long before the
days of Homer. For from ro^ou a bow (or occasionally an arrow ^),
was derived to^ikov — toxiaim — the poison for arrows ; a term which
gradually included all poisons, even those of the milder form,
such as alcohol, the too free use of which results in that form of
poisoning still known among us as intoxication.
One of the first to mention the discovery of flint arrow-heads in
Britain was Dr. Plot, who, in his " Xatural History of Stafford-
shire" 2 (1686), speaking of the use of iron by " the Britains " in
Caesar's time, observes : " we have reason to believe that, for the
most part at lest, they sharpen'd their warlike instruments rather
with stones than metall, especiall in the more northerly and inland
countries, where they sometimes meet with flints in shape of arrow-
heads, whereof I had one sent me by the learned and ingenious
Charles Cotton, Esq., found not far from his pleasant mansion at
Beresford, exactly in the form of a bearded arrow, jagg'd at each
side, with a larger stemm in the middle, whereby I suppose it
was fixt to the wood." " These they find in Scotland in much
greater plenty, especially in the prefectury of Aberdeen, which, as
the learned S"" Robert SibbaldMn forms us, they there call EK-
arrows — Lamia nwi Sa git fas — imagining they drop from the clouds,
not being to be found upon a diligent search, but now and then
by chance in the high beaten roads." "Kor did the Britans
only head their arrows with flint, but also their mafarfs or British
darts, which were thrown by those that fought in essedis, whereof
I guess this is one I had given me, found near Leek, by my worthy
friend Mr, Thomas Gent, curiously jagg'd at the edges with such-
like teeth as a sickle, and otherwise wrought upon the flat, by
which we may conclude, not only that these arrow and spear-heads
are all artificial, whatever is pretended, but also that they had
anciently some way of working of flints by the toole, which mav
be seen by the marks, as well as they had of the Egyptian por-
phyry ; which, as the aforesaid worthy Gent. Sir Robert Sibbald.
thinks, they learned of the Romans, who, as Aldrovandus * assures
us, anciently used such weapons made of stones. However, still,
^ Homer, " I].," viii. 296. '^ P. ,396. "
3 " Prod. Nat. Hist. Scotia?," pt. 2, lib. iv. c. yii.
* "Mus. Met.," lib. iv. c. xvii.
THOUGHT TO FAIJ, FROM THE HEAVENS. 3G3
it not being lience deducible, but they may be British, they are not
ill-placed here, whatever original they have had from either
nation."
Plot gives engravings both of a stemmed and barbed arrow-head,
and of a leaf-shaped lance-head or knife.
Sir llobert Sibbald, in his^ " Scotia Illustrata," 1684, expresses
his belief that the flint arrow-heads are artificial, lie possessed
two, one like the head of a lance and the other like the end of an
anchor, or tanged and barbed. He also relates the account given
him by the Laird of Straloch, in Aberdeenshire, whicb ho had
passed on to the historian of Staffordshire.
It will be observed that Plot alludes to different opinions
regarding these instruments, it being a matter in dispute whether
they were artificial, natural, or partly natural ; in the same man-
ner as at the time when the flint implements were first discovered
in the Ptiver Gravels doubts were expressed by some as to their
artificial origin, while others regarded them as fossils of natural
formation ; and others again carried their unconscious Manichaeism
so far as to ascribe all fossils, and we may presume these included,
to diabolical agency. The old Danish collector, Olaf Worm,
speaks of a flint of a dark colour^ exhibiting the form of a spear-
head with such accuracy that it may bo doubted whether it is a
work of art or of nature, and of others like daggers, which, as
being found in ancient grave-hills, are regarded by some as the
arms of an early people ; while others doubt whether they are the
work of art or nature ; and others consider them to be thunderbolts.
One reason in former times for doubting the artificial origin of
the most highly finished instruments was ignorance of how such
objects could have been chipped out. After describing one of the
beautiful Danish daggers, with the delicately " ripple-marked"
blade and the square ornamented handle. Worm remarks — " si
silex ullo modo arte foret tractabilis, potius Arte quam Natura
elaboratum esse hoc corpus jurarcs."^
Aldrovandus ^ engraves a flint arrow-head as a Glossopetra —
a stone which, according to Pliny,^ " resembleth a man's tongue,
and groweth not upon the ground, but in the eclipse of the moone
falleth from heaven," and which " is thought by the magicians to
be verie necessarie for those that court faire women."
But perhaps one of the most curious of these early notices of flint
1 P. 49. - "Mus. Wormiaiium " (1G.5.')), p. 39. » L. e. 85.
♦ " Mus. Met.," p. G04. ' " Nat. Hist.," xxxvii. c. 10.
364 JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. [cHAP. XVI.
arrow-heads is that given in the " Catalogue and Description of
the Natural and Artificial Rarities belonging to the Royal Society
and preserved at Gresham College," ^ made by Nehemiah Grew.
M.D., F.R.S. In Part III., Chap. V., Of Regular Stone.s, Dr.
Grew speaks of " The flat Bolthead — Anchorites. Of affinity with
that well described by Wormius ^ with the title of Silex renabiili
ferreum ciispidem ejcade referens. By Moscardo^ with that of
Pietre Ceraunie ; who also figures it with three or four varieties.
This like those of a perfect Flint and semiperspicuous. 'Tis like-
wise, in the same manner, pointed, like a Spcer, having at the
other end, like those of Moscardo, a short handle. But, moreover,
hath this peculiar, that 'tis pointed or spiked also backward on
both sides of the Handle, with some resemblance to an Anchor or
the head of a Bearded Dart, from whence I have named it. 'Tis
likewise tooth'd on the edges, and the sides as it were wrought
with a kind of undidated sculpture, as those before mentioned.
Another different from the former, in that it is longer, hath a
deeper indenture, but no handle. Both of them strike fire like
other ffiiifs." There is a representation given of this Anchorites,
which shows it to have been a common barbed arrow-head with a
central stem.
Moscardo's ^ figures which are here cited represent for the most
part tanged arrow-heads. He says that Bonardo relates that they
fall from the clouds, and that those who carry them cannot be
drowned or struck by lightning. They produce, moreover, pleasant
dreams.
Mention has already been made of the superstition attaching to
flint arrow-heads in Scotland, where they were popularly regarded
as the missiles of Elves. In speaking of them Dr. Stuart ^ quotes
Robert Gordon of Straloch, the well-known Scottish geographer,
who wrote about 1661. After giving some details concerning elf-
darts, this writer says that these wonderful stones are sometimes
found in the fields and in public and beaten roads, but never
by searching for them ; to-day, perhaps one will be found where
yesterday nothing could be seen, and in the afternoon in places
where before noon there was none, and this most frequently under
' London, 1681. - <'Mug.," lib. i.. sect. 3, c. xiii.
•' "Mu8. Mo.sc," lib. ii. c. 1.
* Mu8. Mosc. (1672), p. 148. See Mat., vol. xi. p. 1.
' Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 66. In the T/ieatriim Scotia of Blaeuw's
" Atlas," is a plate of arrow-bearls found in Aberdeenshire. This has been pointed
out to me by the late Dr. J. Hill Burton. See his " Hist, of Scot.," vol. i. p. 136 n.
SUPEK:>T1T10NS ATTACHING TO THEM.
365
clear skies and on summer daj^s. He then gives instances related
to him by a man and a woman of credit, each of whom while riding
found an arrow-head in their clothes in this unexpected way.
Mr. F. C. Lukis, F.S.A./ draws a distinction between the elf-shot
or elf-arrow and the elf-dart, the latter being of larger dimensions
and leaf-shaped. He gives an engraving of one which has been
mounted in a silver frame and worn as a charm. The cut is here
reproduced, as Fig. 271. The
initials at the back are probably
those of the owner, who mounted
the amulet in silver, and of his
wife. It was worn by an old
Scottish lady for half a century.
Others thus mounted were ex-
hibited in the Museum of the
Archaeological Institute at Edin-
burgh in 1856.^
Another arrow-head, also thus
mounted, is engraved by Douglas,^
but in this instance it was found in Ireland, where " the peasants
call them elf-arrows, and frequently set them in silver, and wear
them on their necks as amulets against the aithadh or elf-shot.
Others are engraved in the Philosophical Transactions^ and in
Gough's " Camden's Britannia."^ Sir W. TVilde^ informs us that
in the North of Ireland, when cattle are sick and the cattle doctor
or fairy doctor is sent for, he often says that the beast has been
elf-shot, or stricken by fairy or elfin darts, and by some legerde-
main contrives to find in its skin one or more poiso'ned weapons,
which, with some coins, are then placed in the water which is given
the animal to drink, and a cure is said to be effected. The Rev.
Dr. Buick,^ in an article on Irish flint arrow-heads, has given
some particulars as to their use in curing cattle that are bewitched,
and the Folklore Society ® has published some details as to the
beliefs still existing with regard to fairy darts. The same view
of disease being caused by weapons shot by fairies at cattle, and
Fig. 271.— Elf-Shot.
- " Cat.," pp. 8 and 127.
See Vallancey, " Coll. de Keb. Hibem.
' Reliquary, vol. viii. p. 207.
•' " Nsenia," pi. xxxiii. 6, p. 1.34.
N. xiii. pi. xi.
* Pt. iv. pi. iv. fig. 11.
" "Cat. Mus. R. I. A.." p. 10.
and xxii. p. 31G.
' Jour». R. S. A. of Irel., oth S., vol. v. p. Gl.
•* Folklore Record, vol. iv. p. 112. Joimi., vol. ii. p. 2G0. See also "Folklore of
the Northern Counties," p. 18.3.
5 Vol. iv. p. 232, pi. xviii.
See also Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xxi.
p. 323,
366 JATELIN AND ARROW HEADS. [CHAP. X\a.
mucli the same method of cure, prevailed, and indeed in places
even now prevails, in Scotland.^
The late Dr. J. Hill Burton informed me that it is still an
article of faith that eK-bolts after finding should not be exposed
to the sun, or they are liable to be recovered by the fairies, who
then work mischief with them.
Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt has recorded a similar elf-arrow super-
stition^ as obtaining in Derbyshire, where flint arrow and spear
heads are by some regarded as fairy darts, and supposed to have
been used by the fairies in injuring and wounding cattle. It was
with reference to discoveries near Buxton, in that county, that
Stukeley wrote — " Little flint arrow-heads of the ancient Britons,
called elf s'- arrows, are frequently ploughed up here."^
The late Sir Daniel "Wilson^ gives many interesting particulars
regarding the elf-bolt, elf-shot, or elfin-arrow, which bears the
synonymous Gaelic name of Sciat-hee, and cites from Pitcairn's
" Criminal Trials," the description of a cavern where the arch-
fiend carries on the manufacture of elf-arrows with the help of his
attendant imps, who rough-hewed them for him to finish. He also
mentions the passage in a letter from Dr. Hickes' to Pepys,
recording that my Lord Tarbut, or some other lord, did produce
one of those elf-arrows which one of his tenants or neighbours took
out of the heart of one of his cattle that died or an usual death
(sic). Dr. Hickes had another strange story, but very well attested,
of an elf- arrow that was shot at a venerable Irish bishop by an
evil spirit, in a terrible noise louder than thunder, which shaked
the house where the bishop was.
Similar superstitions prevailed among the Scandinavian^ nations,
by whom a peculiar virtue was supposed to be inherent in flint
arrow-heads, which was not to be found in those of metal.
The fact, already mentioned, of arrow-heads of flint being
appended to Etruscan^ necklaces of gold, apparently as a sort of
charm, seems to show that a belief in the supernatural origin of
these weapons, and their consequent miraculous powers, was of
^ Pennant's " Tovir," vol. i. p. 115. " Stat. Accountof Scotland," vol. x. p. 15 :
xxi. 148. Collins' " Ode on Pop. Superst. of the Highlands." " Allan Ramsay's
Poems," ed. 1721, p. 224. Brand's "Pop. Ant.," 1841, vol. ii. p. 285.
- Reliqitary, vol. viii. p. 207.
3 " Itin. Cnr.," (ed. 1776), vol. ii. p. 28.
* " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 178, et seqq.
* Pepys' " Diary and Cor." (ed. 1849), vol. v. p. 366.
* See Nilfison's "Stone Age," p. 197. Wilson's "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i.
p. 180.
' Mat., vol. li. p. 540.
WORN AS AMULETS. 367
very ancient date. It has still survived in Italy/ where the
peasants keep flint arrow-heads to preserve their houses from
lightning, believing that the lightning comes down to strike with
a similar stone — a superstition which Professor Gastaldi also found
prevalent in Piedmont. In some instances they are carried on
the person as preservatives against lightning, and in parts of the
Abruzzo ^ they are known as liiigae di S. Paolo, and the country-
man who finds one devoutly kneels down, picks it up with his own
tongue, and jealously preserves it as a most potent amulet. In
the Foresi Collection ^ at the Paris Exhibition were some arrow-
heads mounted in silver as amulets, like those in Scotland, but
brought from the Isle of Elba. Another has been engraved by
Dr. C. Rosa."
M. Cartailhac^ has published an interesting pamphlet on such
superstitions, and Professor Bellucci has also dilated upon them.
They are abundant in the neighbourhood of Perugia.^
It is a curious circumstance, that necklaces formed of cornelian
beads, much of the shape of stemmed arrow-heads, with the per-
foration through the central tang, are worn by the Arabs of
Northern Africa at the present day, being regarded, as I was
informed by the Rev. J. Greville Chester, as good for the blood.
Similar charms are also worn in Turkey. I have a necklace of
fifteen such arrow-head-like beads, with a central amulet, which
was purchased by my son in a shop at Kostainicza,' in Turkish
Croatia, Among the Zunis*^ of New Mexico, stone arrow-heads
are frequently attached to figures of animals so as to form charms
or fetishes.
Enough, however, has been said with regard to the superstitions
attaching to these arrow-heads of stone ; the existence of such a
belief in their supernatural origin, dating, as it seems to do, to a
comparatively remote period, goes to prove that even in the days
when the belief originated, the use of stone arrow-heads was not
known, nor was there any tradition extant of a people whose
weapons they had been. And yet it is probable that of all the
' Gastaldi, "Lake Habitations of Northern and Central Italy," Chambers's
transl., p. 6.
- Nicolucci, " Di Alcune Armi ed Utensili in Pietra," 1863, p. 2.
* Mortillet, Mat., vol. iii. p. 319.
* Archivio per V Antr apologia, vol. i. pi. iv. 8.
* " L'age de Pierre dans les Souvenirs et superstitions populaires," Paris, 1877.
« Bull, di Palein. It., 1876, pi. iv. 7.
' A. J. Evans, "Bosniaand Herzegovina," 1876, p. 289 ; 1877, p. 291.
^ 2nd Ann. Rep. of Bur. of Ethn., 1880—1. Mat., 3rd S., ii., 1886, p. 532.
368 JAVELIN AND AKROW HEADS. [CHAP. XVI.
instruments made of stone, arrow-heads would be among the last
to drop out of use, being both well adapted for the pui"pose they
served, and at the same time formed of a material so abundant,
that with weapons so liable to be lost as arrows, it would be pre-
ferred to metal, at a time when this was scarce and costly. In this
country, at all events, the extreme scarcity of bronze arrow-heads
is remarkable, while we know from interments that flint arrow-
heads were in common use by those who employed bronze for
other weapons or implements. There appears to be some doubt
as to whether the arrow-heads, or rather the flakes of black flint or
obsidian wkich have been found in considerable numbers associated
with bronze arrow-heads on the field of 3Iarathon, were made in
Greece, or whether they were not rather in use among some of the
barbarian allies of the Persian King. M. Lenormant ^ is clearly of
the opinion that they are not of Greek origin,^ but this is contested
by others, and probably with reason. Whatever their origin, there
is a strong argument against stone arrow-heads ha'^'ing been in
use among the Greeks at so late a period as the battle of Marathon,
B.C. 490, in the fact that Herodotus,^ writing but shortly after-
wards, records, as an exceptional case, that in the army of Xerxes,
circa B.C. 480, the arrows of some of the -I^thiopian contingent
were tipped with stone, while those of some Indian nations were
even pointed with iron. So early as the days of Homer the arrow-
heads of the Greeks were of bronze, and had the three longitudinal
ribs upon them, like those in that metal found at Marathon, for
he speaks of the ■^aXfctjpe olotov* and applies to it the epithet
Even among such rude tribes as the Massagetas and Scythians,
the arrow-heads, in the days of Herodotus, were of bronze ; as he
records an ingenious method adopted by one Ariantas,^ a king of
the Scythians, to take a census of his people by levj-ing an arrow-
head from each, all of which were afterwards cast into an enor-
mous bronze vessel.
Besides the Ethiopians there was another nation which made
use of stone-pointed arrows in Africa, as is proved by the arrows
from Eg^-ptian tombs, of which specimens are preserved in several
of our museums. The head, which is of flint, differs however from
' Rev. Arch.f vol. iv. p. 145. Leake, " Demi of Attica," p. 100. Dodwell's
"Class. Tour," vol. ii. p. 159. Arch. Journ., vol. vii. p. 86.
- See Smith's '• Geog. Diet.," vol. ii. p. 268.
2 Lib. \-ii. cap. 69. * "II.."' xiii. 650.
5 "D.," V. 393. « IV. 81.
AN EGYPTIAN ARROW. 369
all the ordinary forms, inasmuch as it is chisel-shaped rather than
pointed, and in form much resembles a small gun-flint. The tip
of one of these, secured to the shaft by bitumen, is shown in
Fig. 272. The original is in the British Museum. In my own
collection are some specimens of such arrows. Their total length
is about 35 inches and the shafts for about two-thirds of their
length arc made of reed, the remainder towards the point being
of wood. Near the notch for the string are distinct traces of there
having been a feather on either side, in the same plane as the
notch. It is probable that arrow-heads of similar character may
Fig. 272.— Egypt. ]
have been in use in Britain, though they have hitherto almost
escaped observation, owing to the extreme simplicity of their
form. To these I shall subsequently recur.
Some of the Egyptian arrows ^ have supplemental flakes at the
sides, so as practically to make the edge of the arrow-head wider.
In October, 1 894, the Ghizeh Museum acquired from a Sixth
Dynasty tomb at Assiut, two squadrons of soldiers, each of forty
figures carved in wood. The figures of one set, presumed to be
Egyptians, have a brown complexion and are armed with bronze-
tipped spears and with shields. The figures are about 13 inches
high. The other group is shorter, and the soldiers are black-
skinned and armed with bow and arrows only ; each has a bow in
his left hand, and in his right four arrows with chisel-shaped
heads of flint.^
The better-known forms of arrow-heads which occur in Britain
may be classed as the leaf-shaped, the lozenge-shaped, the tanged
or stemmed, and the triangular, each presenting several varieties.
The arrow-heads of the third class are in this country usually
barbed ; those of the fourth but rarely.
Whether the forms were successively developed in this order is a
question difficult of solution ; but in an ingenious paper by Mr. W.
0. Little, of Liberton, published early in this century, being "An
Inquiry into the Expedients used by the Scotts before the Discovery of
Metals,"^ the lozenge-shaped are regarded as the earliest ; next, those
' See Do Morgan, op. cit. p. 121. ^ Academy, Oct. 27, 1894.
^ Archccologia Srotica, vol. i. p. 389.
1? B
370 JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. ' [cHAP. XVI.
barbed -with two witters/ but no middle tang ; and last, the tanged.
The same author argues from analogy that the ancients could extend
this flint manufacture to other purposes, ' ' as the same ingenuity which
formed the head of an arrow could also produce a knife, a saw, and a
piercer."
Colonel A. Lane-Fox, now General Pitt Elvers, in his second lecture
on "Primitive Warfare,"'* arranges the forms of arrow-heads in the
same manner as I have here adopted, and shows that the transition from
one form to the other is easy and natural. There are, indeed, some
arrow-heads of which it would be impossible to say whether they were
leaf-shaped or lozenge-shaped, or whether they were lozenge-shaped or
tanged.
Sir "William Wilde regards the triangular as the primary form, and
the leaf-shaped and lozenge-shaped as the last.
Mr. W. J. Knowles' has suggested a somewhat different classification,
but it seems unnecessary to alter the arrangement here adopted. He
does not enter into the question of the development of the forms. An
exhaustive paper on Irish flint arrow-heads, by the Rev. Dr. Buick,*
may be usefully consulted.
Whatever may have been the order of the development of the forms,
it would, in my opinion, be unwarrantable to attempt any chrono-
logical arrangement founded upon mere form, as there is little doubt
of the whole of these varieties having been in use in one and the same
district at the same time, the shape being to some extent adapted to
the flake of flint from which the arrow-heads were made, and to some
extent to the purposes which the arrows were to serve. The arrow-
heads in use among the North American Indians,* when intended for
hunting, were so contrived that they could be drawn out of the wound,
but those destined for war were formed and attached to the shaft in
such a manner, that when it was attempted to pull out the arrow, its
head became detached, and remained in the wound. The poisoned
arrows of the Bushmen of South Africa*^ are in like manner made
with triangular heads of iron, which become detached in the body if
an attempt is made to withdraw the arrow from the wound that it has
caused.
I have already remarked on the difl&culty of distinguishing between
javelin and arrow heads ; but, from their size, I think that the late Dr.
Thurnam was justified in regarding those engi'aved as Figs. 273, 274,
275, as heads of javelins ; and they may therefore be taken first in
order. Two of them have already been engraved.' Their beautifullj-
worked surfaces had, however, hardly had justice done them, and, by
1 This word, still in use ia Scotland for the barbs of a fishing-spear or hook, is a
good old English term derived from the Saxon pi^eji. Withther-hooked =
barbed : —
" This dragonn hadde a long taile
That was withther-hooked saun faile."
".iirthour and Merlin," p. 210.
HalliweU, " Diet, of Arch, and Prov. "Words," s. v.
* Journ. R. U. Serv. Inst.
' Journ. AntJt. Inst., vol. vi. p. 482
* Journ. E. S. A. of Irel., oth S., vol. v. p. 41.
= Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. p. 212.
« Wood's "Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. i. p. 284.
' Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 429.
JAVELIN HEADS.
371
the kindness of Dr. Thurnam, I was able to have them engi'aved afresh
full size. They were found in 1864, in company with another almost
identical in form with the middle figure, in an oval barrow on Winter-
bourn Stoke Down, about a mile and a half north-west of Stonehenge,
close to the head of a contracted skeleton. They are most skilfully
chipped on both faces, which are equally convex, and they are not more
than a quarter of an inch in thickness. Three are leaf-shaped, and one
lozenge-shaped, and this latter, though larger, is thinner and more
delicate. They have acquired a milky, porcellanous surface while lying
in the earth. They are all four now in the British Museum. As has
Fig. 273.
Fig. 274.
Winterboum Stoke.
Fig. 275.
been remarked by Dr. Thurnam, objects of this description have
rarely been found in barrows.
The two javelin-lieads, if such they be, found by Mr. J. R. Mortimer
in the Calais Wold barrow, near Pocklington, Yorkshire,' are lozenge-
shaped and much more acutely pointed, and were accompanied by two
lozenge-shaped arrow-heads. By the kindness of the late Mr. Llewellynn
Jewitt they are all four here reproduced as Figs. 27(5 to 279. A similar
javeHn-head to Fig. 277, 2 J inches long, now in the British Museum,
was found by the late Lord Londesborough in a barrow on Seamer
1 Troc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 324. Beliquary, vol. vi. p. 185.
H H 2
372
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
[chap, XVI.
Moor, near Scarborough.' A fine lozenge-shaped javelin-head (5
inches) was found with arrow-heads, scrapers, and knives, near Long-
oliffe,- Derbyshire, and some deHcate arrow-heads, broken, at Ilar-
borough Eocks,^ in the same county. Javelin-heads of much the same
form as those from Winterbourn Stoke and Calais Wold occur not
unfrequently in Ireland, but are rarely quite so delicately chipped.
Lozenge-shaped arrow-heads are recorded from a cairn at Unstan,*
Orkney, and from the Cidbin Sands. ^ The class haA-ing both faces
polished, though still only chipped at the edges, like "Wilde's^ Fig. 27,
has not, except in Portugal, as yet occurred out of Ireland. A few of
Fig. 277.
Calais Wold Barrow.
Fig. 278.
Fig. 279.
these may have served as knives or daggers, as they are intentionally
rounded by grinding at the more tapered end, which at first .sight appears
to have been intended for the point and not for the handle. The long
lozenge-shaped form is found in the Government of ^T.adimir, Russia.'
Large lozenge-shaped lance-heads were occasionally in use among
the North American Indians ; "* but the more usual form is a long
blade, notched at the base to receive the ligature which binds it to
the shaft.
' Arch. Assoc. Joiirn., vol. iv. p. 103. - Reliq., N. S., vol. iii. pi. iv. 8.
3 Op. cit., p. 224. * Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xix.
* P. .5'. S. A., vol. XXV. p. 499. « ggg Wakeman, "Arch. Hib.,"
' Cong. Frih. Mo.scou, 1892, vol. ii. p. 240.
'' Schoolcraft, "Ind. Tribes," vol. i. pi. xxvi. 4.
350.
270.
LEAF-SHAPED ARROW-HEADS.
373
Of leaf-shaped arrow-heads, which form the first class now to be
described, there are several minor varieties, both in outline and
section, some being longer in proportion to their breadth than
others, rounder or more pointed at the base, thicker or thinner, or
more carefully chipped on one face than the other. A few typical
examples are given full size in the annexed woodcuts. The originals
are all in my own collection, unless otherwise specified.
Fig. 280 is from the neighbourhood of Icklingliam, Suffolk, of flint
become nearly wliite by weathering, and carefully chipped on both
faces, one of which is, however, more convex than
the other. I have a larger but imperfect specimen
of the same form from Oundle. A nearly similar
arrow-head, of yellow flint, from Hoxne, Suffolk,
has been figured.' It was supposed to have occurred
in the same deposit as that containing large palseo-
lithic implements and elephant remains ; biit nothing
certain is known on this point, and from the form
there can bo no hesitation in assigning it to the
Neolithic Period. A rather smaller arrow-head, but
of much the same character, was found at Bradford
Abbas, Dorset.- Professor Buckman had several leaf-
shaped arrows from the same neighbourhood. Some
of them were long and slender, more like Fig. 286.
In Fig. 281 is shown an arrow-head of rather
broader proportions, from Gunthorpe, Lincolnshire,
which has been engraved in the Reliquary,^ whence
the block is borrowed. I have specimens of the
same form, delicately chipped on both faces, and
found near Icklingham and Lakenheath, Suffolk. Occasionally, one face
of the arrow-heads of this form is left nearly flat.
Fig. 282 shows a smaller specimen in the extensive Green well Collec-
Fig. 280.— Icklingham .
Fig. 281.— Gunthorpe. Fig. 282.— Yorkshire Wolds.
tion. In this instance, the flake from which the arrow-head was made
has been but httle retouched on the flat face. It is slightly curved
> Arch.Journ., vol. xvii. p. 261. ^ Arc/i. Joiini., vol. xxv. p. 156.
^ Vol. vi. pi. xvi. 6.
374
JA^-ELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
[chap. XVI.
longitudinally, but probably not to a sufficient extent to affect the
flight of the arrow. This form is of common occurrence on the York-
shire ''iVolds, though very variable in its proportions, and also in
point of symmetry, both as regards outline and similarity of the tsvo
faces.
In Fig. 283 is shown another and broader form, from Butterwick, on
Fi2. 283.— Yorkshire Wolds.
Fig. 284.— Little Solsbnry Hill.
the Yorkshire Wolds. It is in the same collection, and is worked on
both faces. The sides are slightly ogival, so as to produce a sharper
point
Occasionally, instead of being sharply pointed, arrow-heads are
more oval in'form. An instance of this kind is given in Fig. 284, the
original of which was found by Mr. Francis Galton. F.E.S., on the
occasion of a visit with me to the camp of Little Solsbury Hill, near
Bath. It is of flint that has become white with exposure, equally
convex on the two faces, and rather thick in proportion to its size. I
have a somewhat similar but broader specimen from the camp of
Maiden Bower, near Dunstable, and others even more roimded at the
point, and larger and thinner, from "Willerby Wold, Yorkshire, and
from Icklingham. I have one Yorkshire specimen, which is almost
Fig. 265.— Yorkshire "Wolds.
Fig. 286.— Bridlington.
circular in form, and bears traces of grinding on one of its faces.
In the Greenwell Collection are specimens of almost all intermediate
proportions between an oval like Fig. 284 and a perfect circle.
LEAF-SHAPED ARROW-HEADS POINTED AT 150TH ENDS.
375
More lanceolate forms are shown in Figs. 285 and 286, both from
Yorkshire. Fig. 285, though worked on both faces, still exhibits por-
tions of the original surface of the flake from which it was made ; but
Fig. 286, from Grindale, near Bridlington, is of transparent chalcedonic
flint, beautifully and symmetrically worked over both faces. This
elongated form is not of common occurrence. I have a beautiful ex-
ample, of the same general character, but pointed at either end, found
near Icklingham, Suffolk. A large
example of this form, from Derby-
shire, in the Bateman Collection,
may have been a javelin-head.
Other and shorter forms are shown
in Figs. 287 and 288, the former of
which has been made from a flat
flake, the original surface of which
remains intact on a large portion of
each face. Fig. 288, on the con-
trary, is carefully chipped over the whole of both faces, which are
equally convex. It has a slightly heart-shaped form.
It will have been observed that in all these specimens the base
of the arrow-head is much more rounded that the point. This,
however, is by no means universally the case with the leaf-shaped
arrow-heads, the bases of which are in some instances almost, if not
quite, as acute as the points. It is, in fact, sometimes difficult to
say which of the ends was intended for the point.
Fig. 289 shows a large arrow-head from Lakenheath, Suffolk, from
Figs. 287 and 288.— Yorkshire Wolds.
Tic. 289.— Lakenheath.
Figs. 290 and 291. —Yorkshire Wolds
the collection of the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G-.S. It is equally
convex on both faces, and almost equally shai-j) at both ends. In the
Greenwell Collection are similar specimens from Burnt Fen, Cambs.
'676
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
LCHAl'. XVI.
Others, of the same character, but of smaller size, are engraved in
Figs. 290 and 291. Both the originals are from the Yorkshire
Wolds.
That sho-wn in Fig. 290 is in the Green-weU Collection. It is thin,
slio-htly curved longitudinally, and very neatly worked into shape at the
edo-es. It is a form of not unfrequent occurrence in the Yorkshire
Wolds, sometimes of larger dimensions, and more roughly chipped, but
more commonly of smaller size. I have a beautifully-made arrow-head
of nearly the same size and shape, found at Lakenheath, Suffolk. It is
not more than one-eighth of an inch in thickness. One of wider
proportions from Burnt Fen is in the Greenwell Collection. Fig. 291
is thicker in proportion to its width, more convex on one face than the
other, and less acutely pointed at the base.
In Figs. 292 and 293 are shown some more or less unsymmetrical
varieties of form. Fig. 292 is, towards the point, equally convex on
each face ; but at the base the flat
inner face of the original flake has been
left untouched, so that the edge is like
that of a "scraper," or of a round-
nosed chisel. Though the point is, in
all respects, identical with that of iin-
doubted arrow-heads, and though I
have placed it here among them, it is
possible that that end may, after aU.
have been intended for insertion in a
handle, and that it was a small cutting
tool, and not an arrow-head.
There can be no doubt of the pui--
pose of Fig. 293, which is of white flint debcately chipped, and is
equally convex on the two faces. On one side the outline is almost
angular, instead of forming a regular sweep, so that it shows how easy
is the passage from the leaf-shape to the lozenge form.
There are often instances like that afforded b}- the
arrow-head engraved in Fig. 294, where it is hard to
say under which form a specimen should be placed.
The original of this figure forms part of the Greenwell
Collection, and is neatly worked on both faces. I have
a somewhat broader arrow-head of the same character,
which I found in the camp of Maiden Bower, near
Dunstable. General Pitt Elvers found one of the same
form, and one like Fig. 311, within an earthwork at
CaUow HiU,' Oxfordshire. Another was found with a
perforated hammer, a flint flake ground at the edge,
some scrapers, and other objects, in a cairn in Caith-
ness.^ One like Fig. 294, but smaller, was found in the Horned Cairn'
of Get, at Garrj-whin, Caithness. A large specimen from Glenluce*
has been figured. Another, very thin, found at Urquhart, Elgin, is
in the Edinburgh Museum.
It is to arrow-heads of this leaf-shaped form, but approximating
FiK. 292 and 293.— York-hire Wold>.
Fig. 234.— York-
shire Wolds.
1 Journ. Ethnol. Soc, vol. i. p. 5.
3 P. S. A. S., vol. ix. p. 246.
- P. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 500.
* P. 5. A. S., vol. xi. p. 586.
LOZENGE-SHAPED ARROW-HEADS. 377
closely to the lozenge-shaped, that Dr. Thuruam^ is inclined to
assign a connection with the class of tumuli known as long
barrows ; and in support of this view he has cited several cases of
their discovery in this form of barrow, in which no barbed arrow-
heads have hitherto been found. Some leaf-shaped arrow-heads
were found in a long barrow at Walker's Hill, Wilts.^
The annexed cut, kindly furnished by the Society of Antiquaries,
shows an arrow-head from a long barrow near Fyfield, AVilts. It is
delicately chipped, and weighs only forty-three
grains. Another, H inches in length, from a long ,^>
barrow on Alton Down, is of surprising thinness, / \
and weighs only tliirty grains. Others, it would
seem purposely injured at the point, were found in
the long chambered barrow at Eodmarton, Glouces-
tershire.'' Others, again, were found by Mr. Bate-
man in long barrows in Derbyshire and Stafford-
shire. One of these, from Eingham Low, is
2^ inches long and 1 inch broad, yet weighs less
than fort3^-eight grains. In Long Low, AVetton,* ■ . ,.- "^.
were three such arrow-heads, and many flakes of ' '^ ' 3
flint. Dr. Tliuruam, in speaking of the leaf-shaped , ■ f
as the long-barrow type of arrow-head, does not
restrict it to that form of tujiiukis, but merely v"'
indicates it as that which is alone found there. '- .^
The form indeed occurred elsewhere, thus, one ^^^
was found in a bowl-shaped barrow at Ogbourne,' Fig. 29.5.— Fyfieid.
Wilts.
The Calais Wold barrow/ already mentioned as having produced
four lozenge-shaped javehn and arrow heads, is circular, while that on
Pistle Down, Dorsetshire,' which contained four beautifully-chipped
arrow-heads of this type, is oblong.
Leaf-shaped arrow-heads are mentioned as having been found with
burnt bones in Grub Low, Staffordshire." The same forms, more or less
carefully chipped, and occasionally almost flat on the face, are fre-
quently found on the surface in various parts of Scotland,'-' especially
in the counties of Aberdeen, BanflP, Elgin, and Moray. One not of
flint, but apparently of quartzite, was found near Glenluce,'" Wigtown-
shire. Numbers have been found on the Culbin Sands," and at Urqu-
hart.^- They are comparatively abundant in Yorkshire, Derbyshire,
and Suffolk, but rarer in the southern counties of England. They
• Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 170.
- A. C. Smith, "Ants, of N. Wilts," p. 182.
3 Frov. Sue. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 278 ; iii. p. IGS.
^ Reliquary, vol. v. p. 28.
'^ Wilts Arch. Mag., vol. xix. p. 71. A. C. Smith's "Ants, of N. Wilts," p. 19/.
^ Beliquarij, vol. vi. p. 185.
' Wame's " Celtic Turn, of Dorset," Errata, pp. 1.5 and 27.
» "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 148.
9 See Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd 8., vol. i. p. 20. Arch. Journ., vol. x. p. 362. Froc.
Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iii. p. 362 ; iv. 54, 377, 553 ; v. 13, 185; vi. 41, 208, 234 : vu.
500 ; viii. 10. "' F. S. A. S., vol. xiv. pp. HI, l-^9-
»' F. S. A. S., vol. XXV. p. 499. '- /'. S. A. S., vol. xix. p. 251.
378
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
CHAP. XVI.
Kg. 296.— BriiUington
297.— Newton Kettoii.
have been found at Grovehiirst,' near Milton, Kent, and I have picked
up a specimen near Kit's Coty House. I have seen specimens found
at Eedhill, near Eeigate ; - near Bournemouth ; at Prince Town, Dart-
moor ; and near Oundle ; besides the localities alread}' mentioned.
Typical lozenge-shaped arrow-heads are, in Britain, and, indeed, in
other countries, rarer tlian the leaf-shaped. That shown in Fig. 296
has been made from a flat
;i^ flake, and is nicel}^ chipped
\ on both faces, though not
quite straight longitudinally.
It was found at Xorthdale
Farm, Grindale, Bridlington.
A Scottish specimen, from Ur-
quhart,^ Elginshire, slightly
smaller, has been figured.
The original of Fig. 297 forms
part of the Greenwell Collec-
tion, and has been made from
a very thin, transparent flake.
It is rather less worked on
the face opposite to that here
shown. It was found at New-
ton Ketton, Durham. One
like Fig. 297 was found on Bull HiU,* Lancashire. A regularly-
chipped arrow-head of lozenge sliape is said to have been found at
Cutterl}^ Clump, Wilts ; ^ and I have seen
a few specimens from Derbyshire. Those
from the Calais Wold Barrow have already
been mentioned.
A diamond-shaped arrow-head was
found at Cregneesh,'' Isle of Man;
and another, as well as one of leaf shape,
within a stone cii'cle near Port Erin.'
Lozenge-shaped arrow-heads are fre-
i^uently found in Scotland.
A more elongated form is shown in
Figs. 298 and 299, taken from specimens
found on the Yorkshire Wolds. Both of
them are neatly chipped on either face,
and have but little left of the original
surface of the flakes from which they
were formed. One of the shorter sides
of Fig. 299 is somewhat lioUowed, pos-
sibly to give a slight shoulder, and thus prevent its being driven into
the shaft.
This is more evidently the case with the arrow-head represented in
Figs. 898 and 299.— Yorkshire Wolds.
' Arch. Cant., vol. xiii. p. 124.
* Proe. Soc. A)tt., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 74. Arch. Journ.
•* Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xix. p. 251.
* Tr. Lane, and Chesh. Arch. Soc, vol. iv. p. 306.
^ Arch. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 75.
« " Manx Note-book," vol. i. (1885) p. 72.
' Trans. Biol. Soc, VpooL, vol. viii., 1S94, pi. xii.
vol. xvii. p. 171.
STEMMED ARROW-HEADS.
379
Fit'- 300. -Yurk-
shire Wulds.
Fig. 300, which., like so many others, comes from the "Wolds of York-
shire. It is made from a slightly curved flake, and is more convex on
one face than the other, especially at the stem or tang.
In the collection of Messrs. Mortimer, of Driffield, is another York-
shire arrow-head, which is leaf -shaped,
but provided with a sliglit tang.
Leaf-shaped arrow-heads, with a
decided stem like that of the leaf,
found in Arabia and Japan, will be
mentioned at a subsequent page.
Another of these stemmed but barb-
less arrow-heads, from the same dis-
trict, is shown in Fig. 301. It was
found at Amothei'by, near jSIalton, and
was given to me by the late Mr. Charles
^lonkman, of that place. It has been
made from a flat flake, and has been
worked into shaj^te bj' a slight amount
of chipping along the edges, which does not extend over the face.
There are numerous arrow-heads of the same class, though not of the
same form, which have been made from flakes of the proper thickness,
by a little secondary working to give them a point,
and by slightly trimming the butt-end of the flake.
They usually approximate to the leaf-shape in form,
but, as might be expected, vary considerably in size,
proportions, and the amount of s^-mmetry disi:)layed.
It seems needless to engrave specimens.
The weapon point shown in Fig. 302 is so large
that possibly it may be regarded as that of a javelin,
and not of an arrow. In was in the collection of
^Ir. H. Durden, of Blandford, and is now in the
British Museum. It was found on Iwerne Minster
Down, Dorsetshire. It is boldly and symmetrically
chipped, thick in proportion to its breadth, and
equally convex on both faces ; though distinctly
stemmed, it can hardly be said to be barbed. It
much resembles an Italian specimen in the Arsenal
of Turin.'
A somewhat more distinctly-barbed arrow-head
from the Yorkshire AVolds is represented in Fig. 303.
Its thickness, -i% inch, is great in proportion to its
size ; the two faces are equally convex, and the stem
widens out slightly at the base. The same is the
case with a smaller and thinner arrow-head in my
collection, of somewhat similar form, found near the
camp of Maiden Bower, Dunstable. A third, from
the Yorkshire Wolds, presents the same peculiaritJ^
which is still more apparent in an arrow-head from
a barrow on Seamer Moor, near Scarborough,' if indeed it has been
correctly figured.
J Mortillet, Mat., vol. ii. p. 89.
* Arch. Assoc. Joiirn., vol. iv. p. 103.
. 302. — Iweme
ilinster.
380
JAVELIX .OfD ARROW HEAD!
[CHAr.
XVI.
A magmficent specimen of much the same type as Fig. 303, hut
nearly twice as long, has been kindly lent me for engraving by Messrs.
Mortimer, of Driffield, Yorkshire. It was found in
the neighbourhood of Fimber, and is shown in
Fig. 304. It is neatly chipped over both faces,
which are equally convex, and the stem is carefully
shaped and of considerable thickness. The edges,
as is not unfrequently the case, are serrated.
The fine arrow-head engraved as Fig. 305 shows
the barbs or ''witters" still more .strongly deve-
loped. One of them is. however, less pointed than
the other. From its size, this and others may have
formed the heads of javelins rather than of arrows,
though arrow-heads as large are still in use among
some savage tribes. It was found at Pick Rudge
Farm,^ Overton, Wilts, in company with the oblong
implement engraved as Fig. 255. It is now in the
Museum, the Trustees of which kindly allowed me to
303.— YorfcMrt
Wolds.
Blackmore
figrure it.
I have a very fine specimen with even longer barbs, from Ashwell,
Herts, which is shown in Fig. 305a.
Fig. 306 represents another unusually large
specimen, found on
Fig. 304.— Yorkshire Wolds.
Tig. 305.— Pick Budge Farm.
Sherbum "Wold, Yorkshire. It is nicely worked on both faces, and the
end of the stem or tang has been carefully chipped to a sharj) semi-
circular edge, well adapted for fixing into the split shaft. One similar
to it was found on Bull Hill,- Lancashire. Mr. A. C. Savin, of Cromer,
1 Areh. Joiini., vol. xii. p. 285. " Cat. Mus. Arch. Inst, at Ed.," p. 40.
- Tram. Lane, and Cfiesh. Arch. Soc., vol. iv. p. 306.
STEMMED AND UARIiEI) ARKOW-HEADS.
381
has a rather smaller arrow-head of this typo, but with the sides more
curved outwards, like Fig. 313, found near Aylsham. Barbed arrow-
heads of various forms and sizes are of frequent occurrence in some
Fig. 305a.— Ashwcll.
FifT. 30C.— Sherburn Wold.
parts of the Yorkshire Wolds and Moors, and in parts of Berkshire,
Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Suffolk and Derbyshire.
It would be tedious to attempt to exhibit all the different varieties, but
Fig. 310.
Fig. 311.
Yoikshiio Wolds.
Fig. 312.
specimens of the more ordinary forms are given in Figs. 307 to 312, from
originals principally in the Greenwell Collection. As a rule, there is
but little difference in the convexity of the two faces, though very
382 JAVELIN AM) ARROW HEADS. [CHAP. XVI.
frequently one face is decidedly flatter than the other ; and occasion-
ally the flat face of the original flake has been left almost untouched.
Fig. 3 1 1 affords an example of this kind, being nearly flat on the face
not shown, vrhile the other face still retains part of the crust of the
flint nodule from which the flake was struck. The central stem or
tang varies much in its proportions to the size of the arrow-head, and
occasionally forms but an inconsiderable projection, as in Fig. 309,
making the form approximate to the triangular. Sometimes, as in
Fig. 312. the ends of the barbs are carefully chipped straight, as is the
case -with many arrow-heads from the more southern parts of England,
some of which will shortly be noticed. An arrow-head like Fig. 312
was fotind near --Vshwell,' Herts.
Before quitting the arrow-heads of the Yorkshire Wolds, I must
insert figures of two other specimens illustrative of another form. Of
Figs. 313 and 314 — Yorkshire "Wolds.
these, that shown in Fig. 313 was found at Northdale Farm. Grindale,
Bridlington. It is thick in proportion to its size, and skilf ullj' chipped
on both faces. The tang is thin and slight. The other arrow-head
(Fig. 314) is not so thick in proportion. In both, if the sweep of the
outline were continued past the barbs, it would about meet the ex-
tremity of the tang, and give a leaf-shaped form ;
so that it seems probable that this class was made
by first chipping out the simple leaf-shaped form,
and then working in a notch on either side to
produce the tangs and barbs. The same type
occTU's in Suffolk. An exaggerated example,
rather Kke Fig. 320 but broader, found near
leklingham, is shown in Fig. 314a.
The next specimen that I have selected for
Fig.siiA.-ickiingham. engraving, Fig. 315, is from another part of the
country, having been found by myself in 1866 on
the surface of a field, at the foot of the Chalk escarpment between
Eddlesborough and Tring, Herts. It can hardly be regarded as un-
finished, though one of the surfaces is very rough and the outline far
from symmetrical. It rather shows how rude were some of the appli-
ances of our savage predecessors in Britain. Cui-iously enough, some
barbed flint arrow-heads of nearly similar form, and but little more
1 Trans. Herts Xat. Hut. Sjc, vol. viii., 1S9G, pi. xil. 1.
STEMMED AND BARHED ARROW-HEADS. 383
symmetrical (to judge from the engravings), were found in 17G3 at
Tring Grove, Herts,' with an extended skeleton. They lay between
the legs, and at the feet were some of the perforated plates of greenish
stone of the character of Fig. 354. An arrow-head of much the same
form was found in a barrow near Tenby, '^ with human bones and a part
of a curioiis ring-shaped ornament, supposed to bo of ivory. The long
tapering arrow-head shown in Fig. 310 affords a contrast to this broad
form. Its barbs are unfortimately not quite perfect, but the form
being uncommon I have engraved it. It was found in Reach Fen,
Cambridgeshire. A ruder example of the same form as Fig. 316, from
Bourn Fen, has been figured in Miller and Skertchly's " Fen-land." ^ A
longer specimen, almost as acutely pointed, and with square-ended
barbs, found on Lanchester Common,^ Durham, is in the Museum of
u^...„......
Fig. 315.— Eddlcsborough. Fig. 316.— Reach Fen. Fig. 317.— Islcham.
the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle. I have several others of the
same type from Suffolk, some with the sides curved slightly inwards.
The next Figure (317) is illustrative of the extraordinary amount of
care and skill that was sometimes bestowed on the manufacture of
objects so liable to be broken or lost in use as arrow-heads. This
specimen was found at Isleham, Cambridgeshire, and has unfortunately
lost its central stem, the outline of which I have restored from a nearly
similar arrow-head found at Icklingham, Suffolk, which has lost both
its barbs. It is very thin, so much so that its weight is only thirty-
eight grains, but it is neatly chipped over the whole of both faces.
Nothing, however, can exceed the beautiful regularity of the minute
chipping by which the final outline was given to the edges, extremel}'
small ffakes having been removed at regular intervals so close to each
other that there are twenty of them in an inch. The inner sides and
ends of the barbs are worked perfectly straight, the ends forming right
angles to the sides of the arrow-head, and the inner sides being nearly
parallel with each other, so that the barbs are somewhat dovetailed in
foi-m.
The broader, but almost equally beautiful arrow-head shown in Fig.
' Arch., vol. \-iii. p. 429, pi. xxx. - Arch. Camb., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 292.
3 P. 579. * Arch. Journ., vol. xra. p. GO.
384
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
[chap. x^^.
318 was found in front of the face of an unbiu-nt body, in a baiTOw at
Eudstone, near Bridlington, by Canon Greenwell. I have a beautiful
specimen of the same type from Dorchester Dykes, Oxon, given to me
Fig. 318a.— Uuichi'stcr Dykos.
by the late Mr. Davey, of Wantage. It is shown in Fig 318a. A less
highly finished example from Chatteris Fen' has been figiu'ed.
The ends of the barbs thus chipped straight sometimes, as in Fig.
312, form a straight line. Occasionally, as in the arrow-heads found
by Sir R. Colt Hoare- in one of the Everley barrows, the base of the
barbs forms an obtuse angle with the sides of the arrow-head, so that
there is a sharp point at the inner side of the barbs. In others the end
forms an acute angle with the sides of the arrow-head, so that the point
of each barb is at the outer side. A beautiful specimen of this kind is
shown in Fig. 319. It is one of six, varying in size and somewhat in
Fig. 319.— Lumbouni Down.
Fig. 320.— Fovaiit.
shape, but all beautifully worked, found in barrows on Lambourn
Down, lierks, and now in the British Museum. In some few instances
the sides of the arrow-head are rather ogival in form (like the Scotch
^ Miller and Skertchly, " Fenland," p. 579.
2 " South Wilts," pi. xxii. p. 183. " Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. 105.
UNUSUAL FORMS.
385
specimen, Fig. 326), which adds to the acuteness of the point. In one
of this character from a barrow on the Ridge way Hill,' Dorsetshire,
and others from one of the Woodyates barrows,* the barbs are also
acutely pointed at the outer side. I have a rather smaller specimen
than that figured, from Lakenheath, Suffolk, and others from Thetford
and Reach Fen, with the sides even more ogival than in Fig. 326.
Others of the same character, found in Derbyshire, are in the Batemau
Collection. In some of the arrow-heads^ from the Wiltshire barrows
the barbs are inordinately prolonged beyond the central tang, which is
very small. Fig. 320, copied from Hoare,* gives one of those from
a barrow near Fovant, found with a contracted interment, in com-
pany with a bronze dagger and pin, and some jet ornaments. One of
similar character was found in a barrow on AVindmill Hill,'^ Avebury,
but its barbs are not so long. An arrow-head with equally long barbs,
but with the central tang of the same length as the barbs, was found
in a dolmen in the Morbihan, and is in the Musee de St. Germain.
Before proceeding to notice one or two Scottish specimens, I must
devote a short space to an exceptional form of
arrow-head shown in Fig. 321. Like so many
others, it is from the Yorkshire Moors, and was
probably either barbed on both sides or intended to
have been so. But one of the barbs having been
broken off, possibly in the course of manufacture,
the design has been modified, and the stump, so to
speak, of the barb, has been rounded off in a neat
manner by surface-flaking on both faces. The one-
barbed arrow-head thus resulting presents some
analogies with several of the triangular form, such
as Figs. 336 to 338, about to be described.
Arrow-heads either accidentally lost before they
were finished, or thrown away as " wasters," in con-
sequence of having been spoilt in the making, are occasionally found
Examples, apparently of both classes, are shown in Figs. 322 and 323
The originals form part of the
Greenwell Collection. Fig. 322,
from Sherburn Wold, appears to
have been completely finished,
with the exception of the notch
on one side of the central tang.
The face not shown in the figure
exhibits on the left side a con-
siderable portion of the surface of
the original flake, the edge of
which has been neatly trimmed
along the right side of the face
here shown. The base has been chipped on both faces to a sharp
hoUow edge, in which one notch has been neatly worked to form
the barb and one side of the stem. There is no apparent reason why
Fig. 321.— Yorkshire
Moors.
Figs. .322 and 323.— Yorkshire Wolds.
" Tlie Barrow Diggers," p. 75, pi. ii. 7.
"The Barrow Diggers," pi. ii. p. 6.
lb., pi. ixxiv. "Cat. Devizes Mus.," No.
" Salisb. Vol. of Arch. Inst.," p. 94.
C C
" South Wilts," pi. xiiiv.
203.
386 JAVELIX AND ARROW HEADS. [cHAP. XVI.
the other notch shovild not have been formed, so that the probability- is
that the arrow-head was lost just before completion. In the other case
the arrow-head, after being skilfully chipped on both faces into a tri-
angular form, has had one of the notches worked in its base : but in
effecting this the tool has been brought so near the centre of the head
as to leave insufficient material for the tang, and the barb has also
been broken off. In this condition it appears to have been thrown
away as a waster.
"^Tiether these views be correct or not, one deduction seems allow-
able, viz., that the barbed flint arrow-heads were, as a rule, finished
at their points, and approximately brought into shape at their base,
before the notches were worked to form the central tang and develop
the barbs.
A curious double-pointed arrow-head from Brompton,^ Yorkshire,
is, by the kindness of the Society of Antiquaries, sho-mi in Fig. 323a.
It had probably at first only a single point, and having
been broken was trimmed into its present shape. Some
of the "exceptional" forms from Brionio, in the Veronese,
approximate to this, but with all respect to the Italian
archaeologists, I agree with Mi'. Thomas "Wilson,- and
cannot accept these forms as genuine.
I must now give a few examples of the stemmed and
barbed flint arrow-heads found in Scotland, which, how-
Broinpum - evcr, do not essentially differ in character from those of
the more southern part of Britain. First among them I
would place a remarkably fine specimen found in the Isle of Skye,^
which has already been pubHshed more than once. It is very acutely
pointed, and expands at the base so as to give strength to the barbs,
which are slightly curved inwards. From its size it may have served to
point a javelin rather than an arrow.
The edges of some of the Scottish arrows are sometimes neatly ser-
rated. An example of this kind is given in Fig. 325, from a specimen
in the National Museum at Edinburgh. It is formed of chalcedonic
flint, and was found with others of ordinary types at Urquhart,^ Elgin.
The original of Fig. 326 is in the Museum of the Society of Anti-
quaries of London, and was found in Aberdeenshire. Its sides (like
those of some in the National Museum at Edinbtrrgh) are slightly
ogival, so as to give sharpness to the point. Another from TTrquhart,'
Elgin, has been figiared, as well as one from Ballachulish,^ with
straighter sides. One from Montblairy, Banff.' is of the same type,
as is one fi'om Kilmarnock.- The sides of Fig. 327 are curved out-
wards. This arrow-head was found in Glenlivet, Banff, a district
where arrow-heads are common, and is in the Greenwell Collection,
now the property of Dr. Allen Sturge, at Nice.
1 Froe. Soc. Ant., •2nd S., vol. vi. p. 398.
- Aisoe. fianq. pour Vavancem. des Sciences, Xancy, 1881, 16 aOiut.
s Wilson's "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," p. 127 (2nd ed. p. )82, pi. ii. 15). "Cat.
Mus. Arch. Inst. Ed.," p. 6, Fig. 9. For the loan of tlus block I am indebted to
Messrs. Macmillan and Co.
* P. S. A. S., vol. ix. pp. 240, 262.
5 F. S. A. S.. vol. xix. p. 251.
° F. S. A. S., vol. xiiii. p. 93. " P. S. A. S., vol. xxvii. p. 355.
«• Smith, " Preh. Man in Ayrsh." (1895), p. 105.
FOUNO IN SCOTLAND.
38:
I have already mentioned the counties of Scotland in which " elf-
bolts " are most abundantly found. I may now enumerate a few of the
Fig-. 325. — Urquhart.
Fig. 324.— Isle of Skye.
Fig. 326. — Aberdeenshire.
spots, and the characters of the specimens of this form. One much like
Fig. 327, but with the barbs more pointed, is figured
by Wilson,' as well as another like Fig. 305, found
in a tumulus at KUlearn, Stii'lingshire. One from the
Isle of Skye,'' Kke Fig. 316, and another from
Shapinsay, Orkney/ like Fig. 312, have been figured
by the Society of Anti(|uaries of Scotland. Others,
found with burnt bones in an urn deposited in a
cairn in Banft", have been engraved by Pennant,^
and some from Lanarkshire are given in the Journal
of the Archd-oloqical Associfftion.'^
Stemmed and barbed arrow-heads are recorded to have been found in
Fig. 327.— Ulenlivet.
"Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. pi. ii. 14.
" Ace. of lust., &c., of S. A. Scot.," p. 3S9.
"Tour, iu Scot.," vol. i, p. 156, pi. .\xi.
cc 2
- "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," p. 1S2.
* T. S. A. S., vol. xii. p. 183.
* Vol. xvii. p. 19.
388 JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. [cHAP. XVI.
Aberdeenshire at the following localities: — Slains,' Forgue," Kintore f
Kildrummy,* Strathdon,* and Cruden ; "^ one 3 inches long and 2i inches
wide, at Tarland,' and a large number at Cloister-Seat Farm,* Udny.
In Banif, at Mains of Auchniedden,^ Eden'" and Bowiebank, King
Edward; Cullen of Buchan/' Glen Avon/- Alvah,'^ and Longman,"
Macduff.
In Elgin, at St. Andrew's, Lhanbryd ; '■' Urquhart, and elsewhere.
In Forfarshire, at CarmyLUe'^ and elsewhere. Some Ayrshire'' speci-
mens have been figured.
They have also been found near Gretna Green"" and Linton,'^ Pee-
bles, and in numbers on the Culbin Sandhills,"" Morayshire, and KU-
learn,-' Stirlingshire. In Fifeshire. in a cist at Dairsie ;^
near Fordoun,^ Kincardineshire ; Glenluce,-* Wigtown-
sliire; and stemmed but not barbed, at Philiphaugh,^*
Selkirkshire This last is shown in Fig. 327a.
Other specimens, of which the form is not mentioned^
were exMbited in a temporary Museum of the Archseo-
Fig. 327a.. logical Institute at Edinburgh from the following
1 p aug . localities: — Caithness, -'' Cruden, Cromar, Kinellar,
Aberdeenshire ; Eobgill, EuthweU, Dumfriesshire ; Arbuthnot, Bervde
and Garvoch, Kincardineshire ; Braid wood and Carluke, Lanarkshire ;
and Burgh-head, Wigtownshire.
Other have been found at Elchies, Keith,-' and Oldtown of Rose-
isle,-* Morayshire ; Abernethy,-^ Inverness ; and at Mortlach^ and Les-
murdie,^' Banff.
In this place, also, it will be well to mention some of the discoveries
of stemmed and barbed flint arrow-heads in England which have not
already been cited. The following have been engraved : — One much
like Fig. 303, found in the Kielder Burn,^ North Tyne ; one like Fig.
327, found with burnt bones in an urn on Baildon Common,^ York-
shire ; another from Lake, "Wilts ;^* others, like Figs. 312 and 319,
from the Green Low Barrow,^ Derbyshire ; one like Fig. 308, from
' Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xii. p. 62.
- Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 294. ^ p ,5 4 g^^ ^qI. ^i. p. 2O8.
* lb., vol. vi. p. 234. 5 /j,^ yol. iv. p. 54 ; vii. 105.
6 lb., vol, viii. p. 10. '' /*., vol. vi. p. 89.
8 lb., vol. iv. p. 54 ; v. 185. » F. S. A., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 19.
1" lb., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 20. " F. S. A. S.. vol. iv. p. 54 ; v. 13.
1- Arch. Journ., vol. x. p. 362. ^3 p^qc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 20.
1* F. S. A. S., vol. vi. pp. 41, 234. is lb., vol. iii. p. 362.
i« lb., vol. V. p. 326 ; iii. 438 ; viii. 50; xiv. 267 ; xxiv. 13.
" F. S.A.S.,\o\. xxvii. p. 360. See also" Smith's Preh. Man in Ayrshire," (1895).
IS Arch. Scot., vol. iii. App. 135. F. S. A. S., vol. xii. p. 270.
18 F. S. A. S., vol. iv. p. 55. ■" lb., vol. iv. pp. 67, 377.
21 Wilson's "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 182.
" F. S. A. S., vol. xxi. p. 133.
-' F. S. A. S., vol. xiv. p. 267 ; vol. xxiv. p. 13. For a list of Kincardineshire
arrow-heads see vol. ix. pp. 461, 499 ; xi. p. 26.
•* F. S. A. S., vol. xi. p. 585. 2* F. S. A. S., vol. xxviii. p. 341.
26 <'Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.," pp. 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 20.
•-'7 F. S. A., 1st S., vol. iii. p. 224. 28 j> g ^_ g., vol. iii. p. 490.
29 Geologist, vol. i. p. 162. ^ F. S. A. S., vol. i. p. 42 ; vol. xix. p. 11 ; xxv. 500.
•" lb., vol. i. pp. 67, 190. ^2 ^rch. Journ., vol. xvii. p. bO.
3^ Arch., vol. xxxi. p. 304. " York Vol. of Arch. Inst.," p. 1.
3* Hoare's " South Wilts, " pi. xxx.
^^ Feliquari/, vol. iii. p. 177. " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 41. p. 3.
LOCALITIES WHERE FOUND. 389
Hastings ;' one like Fig. 307, found near urns, scrapers, &c., atWaver-
tree, near Liverpool ;^ some like Fig. 307, with ashes, at Carno,^^Iont-
gonieryshire ; and several others from barrows in Wilts,* Dorsetshire,
and Derbyshire. A considerable number of flint arrow-heads are
engraved in a plate in the Transactions of the Historical Society of Lan-
cashire and Cheshire.^ They are, however, for the most part forgeries.
Others from East Lancashire*^ and Rochdale'' have been described.
Besides the discoveries recorded by Hoare and Bateman, and those
made in Yorkshire," such arrow-heads are mentioned as having been
found in the Thames ; ' in the cemetery at Standlake, '" Oxon ; in West
Surrey," from which a number of arrow-heads of various forms have
been figured by Mr. F. Lasham ; St. Leonard's Forest,^^ Horsham;
Plymouth, ''on Dartmoor,'^ Devonshire ; at Horndean,'* Hants; and in
large numbers in Derbyshire, esj^ecially on Middleton Moor.'*^ Both the
leaf-shaped and the barbed forms have been found near Leicester."
A number have been found at Cam Bre,'* Cornwall.
Arrow-heads, of which the form is not specified, have been found at
Wangford,"* Suffolk ; Cliff e,-" near Carlebury, on the Yorkshire side of
the Tees; Priddy,-^ Somerset; Sutton Courtney," Berks; Lingfield
Mark Camp,-^ Surrey ; near Ramsgate ;^ Bigberry Hill,^ near Canter-
bury ; Manton,-®Lincolnshire ; Anstie Camp^' and Chart Park, Dorking.
Besides specimens already cited, and many from the Yorkshire
Wolds and Moors, there are in my collection stemmed and barbed
arrow-heads from the following localities: — One much like Fig. 307,
from Staunton, near Ixworth, Suffolk ; many others from West Stow,
Lakenheath, and Icklingham, in the same county ; from Hunsdon,
near Ware, Brassington, Derbyshire, and Turkdean, Gloucestershire,,
much like Fig. 308 ; one from Abingdon, like Fig. 327 ; and one from St.
Agnes, Truro, of the same form as Fig. 317, but not so delicately
worked ; and others from Wicken and Reach Fens, Cambs. I have alsa
1 Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. xiii. p. 309.
- Tr. Hist. Soc. Lane, and Chexh., N. S., vol. viii. p. 131.
3 Arch. Camb., 3rd. S., vol. iii. p. 303.
* Hoare's ' ' South Wilts," the " Barrow Diggers," Bateman's " Vestiges," Arch.,
vol. XXX. p. 333; vol. xliii. pp. 418, 420; vol. hi. pp. 48, 53, 61. Wilti Arch.
Mag., vol. vi. p. 319.
' Vol. xiv. pi. iii.
^ Tr. Lane, and Chesh. Arch. Soc., vol. ii. pi. i. Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc, vol.
xiii. p. 141 ; xiv. p. 284.
" Op. c'lt., viii. p. 127. Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc, vol. xvi. p. 287.
* For Yorkshire arrow-heads see Yorksh. Arch, and Top. Journ., vol. i. (1870),
p. 4.
" Troc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 64. i" Arch., vol. xxxvii. 369.
'^ Surr. Arch. Coll., vol. xi. ^- Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. xxvii. p. 177.
'^ Tr. Lev. Assoc, vol. xx. p. 44. •* Op. cit., xxvi. p. 53.
'■'' Arch. Journ., vol. xx. p. 372.
'^ Bateman's " Cat.," 47, et seqq. See also the York, Norwich, and Lincoln
Volumes of the Arch. Inst.
'" Harrison's " Geol. of Leic. and Rutl.," p. 49.
'" Rel. and III. Archaol., vol. ii. p. 45. Journ. Roy. List, of Cornw. vol. xiii.
p. 92.
'" Arch. Journ., vol. x. p. 354. -" Op. cit., vol. xiv. p. 79.
-' Op. cit., vol. xvi. p. 151. -- Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. i. p. 309.
2.T "Trane. Arch. Assoc. atGlouc.,"p. 94. •* A. A. J., vol. iv. p. 152.
-^ Op. cit., vol. xviii. p. 272. *^ Op. cit., vol. iv., p. 396.
'" Arch., vol. ix. p. 100.
390
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
[chap. XVI.
numerous examples of different forms from Stow-on-the-Wold, Glou-
cestershire, and trom the neighbourhood of Wallingford. The Earl of
Ducie has a series found near Sarsden House, Chipping Norton.
In the British Museum is a stemmed and barbed arrow-head, rather
more curved at the sides than Fig. 307, found at Hosne, Suffolk.
Another of the same class, from Necton, Norfolk, is in the Norwich
Museum, together with a smaller specimen like Fig. 308, from Attle-
borough. In the Cambridge Antiquarian Society's Museum is one
like Fig. 306, but with one of the barbs square-ended. It is 2| inches
long, and 1 A inch wide, and very thin, and was found in Burwell Fen.
Another, like it, but 2^ inches long, was found near Aldreth, Cambs.,
and was in the collection of the Rev. S. Banks. Canon Greenwell
obtained one of somewhat similar character, but narrow, from Barton
Mills, Suffolk ; and the Rev. C. R. Manning found one Like Fig. 31 1 on
a tumulus near Grime's Graves, Norfolk. One of the same class is in the
Penzance Museum; and Mr. Spence Bate, F.R.S., has shown me a
broken one like Fig. 308, found under six feet of peat at Prince Town,
Dartmoor, where also a leaf-shaped arrow-head was found. Prof.
Buckman had one much like Fig. 327, found at Barwick, Somerset-
shire. One like Fig. 309, from Milton, near Pewsey, Wilts, is in the
collection of Mr. "W. H. Penning, F.G.S. Mr. Durden had one rather
smaller than Fig. 308 from the neighbourhood of Blandford. I have
seen them both stemmed and barbed and leaf-shaped, found near
Boiimemouth. Sir John Lubbock has one with square-ended stem,
and barbs separated from it by a very narrow notch, found at Shrub
Hill, Feltwell, Norfolk ; and numerous specimens exist in other col-
lections.
Before entering into the circumstances under which fliut arrow-
heads have been discovered, it will be well to describe the remaining
Fig. 328.— Icklnigham.
I'ig. 329. — Langdale End.
Fig. 330.— Amotherby.
class — the triangular. Some of these differ only from those last de-
scribed in the absence of the central stem. Although this form is very
common in Ireland and in Scandinavia, it occurs but rarely in Britain.
The arrow-head shown in Fig. 328 was found near Icklingham,
Suffolk, and was formerly in the collection of Mr. H. Trigg, of Bury
St. Edmunds. Messrs. Mortimer possess a very similar specimen from
the Yorkshire AVolds near Fimber. One has also been figured by Mr.
C. Monkman' as from Yorkshire. An arrow-head from Forfarshire,
and one or two others of this type, are in the National Museum at
Edinburgh. One from Ellon,- Aberdeenshire, has been engraved, as
1 Torksh. Arch, ami Top. Journ., 1868, fig. 5.
- I'. S. A. S., vol. xiv. p. 267 ; xxiv. p. 13.
THE TRIANGULAR FORM. 391
well as one of mucli more elongated form, with a semicircular notcli at
the base, from Glenluce,' AVigtownshire. A broader arrow-head of the
same type was found by the Rev. James M. Joass at Grolspie, Suther-
land, and is now in the Dunrobin Museum. An example was also
foiind by Canon Greenwell in the material of a barrow at Childrey,-
Berks. Prof. Flinders Petrie has found the type in Eg3'pt.^
A beautiful specimen of another double-barbed triangular form is
shown in Fig. 329. It was found at Langdale End, on the Moors of
the North Eiding of Yorkshire, and is in the Greenwell Collection.
It has been surface-chipped over part of one face, but on the other
it still shows the central ridge of the flake from which it was made.
The sides are neatly serrated.
Fig. 330 represents a broader and less distinctly barbed form. The
original was found at Amotherby, near Malton, and is chipped over
both faces. I have another longer specimen from Sherburn, the base
of which is less indented. Allied to this longer form, but having the
sides more curved, is that shown in Fig. 331. The original was found
Fig. 331.— Weaverthorpe. Fig. 332.— Lakenheath. Fig. 333.— Yorkshire Wolds.
by Canon Greenwell in one of the barrows examined by him at Weaver-
thorpe, Yorkshire. Varieties of this form, with the sides more or less
straight, are of not unfrequent occurrence in Yorkshire. The same
type has been found near Mantua.*
The more perfectly triangular form shown in Fig. 332 is of rather
rare occurrence. This arrow-head was found near Lakenheath, Suffolk,
and is now in the Greenwell Collection. It is neatly chipped over
both faces, which are equally convex. I possess other specimens from
Suffolk. Some arrow-heads of the same shape from Gelderland are
in the Christy Collection.
In many instances rude triangular arrow-heads have been formed
from flakes and splinters of flint, which Avere evidently selected as
being nearly of the desired form, and were brought into shape by the
least possible amount of subsequent chipping. The secondary working
on Fig. 333 nowhere extends back so much as an eighth of an inch
from the edges, and the bulb of percussion of the splinter of flint from
which it was made is at the right-hand angle of the base, but not on
the face here figured.
' P. S. A. S., vol. xi. p. 585. "- Arch., vol. lii. p. 03.
3 " Kahun, &c." (1890), p. 21, pi. xvi. * Bull, di Pal. ItaL, 1877, pi. v. 25.
392
JAVKLIN AND ARROW HEAPS.
[chap. XVI.
In Fig. 334 the bulb is at the back of the left-hand angle, but this
specimen is much thicker, and shows a considerable amount of skilful
chipping on both faces. The angle at the bulb is rounded, while on
the opposite side of the base it is somewhat curved downwards, so as
to form a kind of barb. This obliquity of the face is more apparent
Fig. 334.— Yorkshire Wolds.
Fig. 335.— Yorkshire Wolds.;
in Fig. 335, though the barb is less pronounced. The flat face of the
original flake is in this instance left nearly untouched, but the ridge
side has been neatly wrought by removing a series of minute parallel
flakes. This form occurs in Ireland.^ and has been regarded as rather
a knife than an arrow-head. I have seen an arrow-head of much the
same form found at Bournemouth.
The character of surface-flaking, observable in Figs. 335, 336 and
337, is almost peculiar to Yorkshire ; and one of the most beautiful
examples that I have seen of it is on the arrow-head engraved as
S:m
Fig. 336.— BridlingtoD. Fig. 337.— Bridlington,
Fig. 336, which was found on Northdale Farm, Grindale, Bridling-
ton. The ripple-like flaking extends over nearly two-thirds of one
face, the remainder of which is a flat portion of the original surface
of the flake from which the arrow-head was made. On the other
face a rather larger portion of the original surface is left, but the
1 Wilde, " Cat. Mus. E. I. A.," p. 15, fig. 7.
SINGLE-BARBED ARROW-HEADS. 393^
surface-chipping, though neat, is not of this regular character. The
base is cliipped on both faces, so as to leave a sharp edge with a
delicate projecting barb at one angle only. The other angle is perfect,
and has never been continued so as to form a barb. I have fragments
of other arrow-heads of the same kind, from the same neighbourhood,
and on some the fluting along the base is as regular as that on the
side, and the two series of narrow shallow grooves " mitre " together
with great accuracy. I have arrow-heads of the same general form
and character from the neighbourhood of Icklingham, Suffolk ; and
in the Greenwell Collection is a small and elegant example from
Lakenheath ; but these are devoid of the parallel flaking, as are also
some of the Yorkshire specimens. The late Mr. J. F. Lucas, how-
ever, had an arrow-head of this form, with the fluted chipping, from
Middleton Moor, Derbyshire. Such regular fluting can, I think, only
have been produced by pressure, probably with a pointed instrument
of stag's-horn, as before described. It comes nearer in character to
the wonderful "ripple-mark flaking" on some of the Danish daggers
or lance-heads, and of the Egyptian knives, than the workmanship
of any other British specimens.
The same style of work is observable on anotlier arrow-head, Fig.
337, found on the same farm, though it is not of equal delicacy. In
this case, however, the flaking extends along both sides, and the two
series meet in the middle of the face, where but a very small portion
of the original surface of the flake is visible. The face not shown is
chipped in the same manner, but less neatly. One of the angles at the
base has unfortunately been broken off, but there is no appearance of
there having been more than one barb.
In some Egyptian arrow-heads from Abydos the surface seems to
have been made smooth by grinding before the
final flaking, just as was the case with the large
blades mentioned on p. 359.
Less finely executed arrow-heads, with a long
projecting wing or barb at one of the angles of
the base, are of common occurrence in Yorkshire
and Suffolk. They usually retain a considerable
portion of the surface of the flakes from which
they have been manufactured. They are also
found in Gloucestershire^ and Worcestershire."
An unusually well-finished specimen of this class
is engraved as Fig. 338. It was found in the neigh-
bourhood of Fimber, Yorkshire, and is in the col-
lection of Messrs. Mortimer, who have kindly
allowed me to figure it. It has been made from
an external flake, as there is a portion of the crust j,j„ g^g _Fiinber
of the flint visible on one of the faces, both of
which are neatly chipped. It is barbed at both angles of the base,
though the projection is far longer and more curved on the one side
than on the other. In most instances, however, there can hardly be
said to be any barb at all at one of the angles.
The form with the long single barb appears to be common on the
' rroc. Cottesicold Xat. Field Club, vol. x., 1889—90, p. 22, pi. i.
* Froc Soc. Ant., March 10, 1897.
394
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
[chap.
XVI.
Derb^'shire jMoors. In one instance a rectangular notch has been
■worked in the curved side, with what object it is hard to say. This
specimen, shown in Fig. 339, was found in a barrow at Hungry
Bentley, Derbyshu-e, by the late Mr. J. F. Lucas. It had been buried
together with a jet ornament and beads, subsequently described, in
an urn containing burnt bones.
The single-winged form is of rare occurrence in Scotland, but what
appears to be an arrow-head of this kind, from Caithness,^ has been
engraved by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and the cut is
here, by their kindness, reproduced. Another from Urquhart and
several from the Culbin Sands, Elginshire, and Glenluce Sands,
Wigtownshire, are in the Edinburgh Museum. By some- they are
regarded as knives, with the tang for insertion in a handle. The same
form is found in greater abundance in the North of Ireland. A
somewhat analogous shape from Italy has been figured by Dr. C.
liosa.^ The type also occurs in Egypt.
The varieties here engraved of single-barbed triangular arrow-
Fig. 339.— Hungry Bentley.
Fig. 340.— Caithness.
heads of flint are, I think, enough to establish them as a distinct class,
though they have received but Httle attention among the antiquities of
any other country than the United Kingdom, nor have they been
observed in use among modern savages. Many of the early bone
harpoons, as well as those of the Eskimos, are barbed along one side
only; and some of the Persian iron arrow-heads, as well as those of
the Mandingoes,* and of some South American tribes, are also single-
barbed. The same is the case with some arrow-heads of iron belonging
to the Merovingian period.'
Another form of triangular arrow-head is round instead of hollow
at the base, and bears an affinity with the leaf-shaped rather than
the barbed variety. One of these from the neighbourhood of Laken-
1 r. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 500.
- F. S. A. S., vol. xxi. p. 201 ; xxii. p. 51. Journ. H. Hist, a ad Arch. Assoc, of
Ireland, 4th S., vol. viii., 1887—88, p. 241.
■* Archivio per VAnthrop., &c., vol. i. pi. xii. 16.
< Wood, " Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. i. p. 679.
* Ann. de la Soc. Arch, de Xamur, 1859, pi. ii. 9.
THE CHISEL-ENDED TYPE.
395
tpath, in the Greenwell Collection, is shown in Fig. 041. It is
surface-chipped on both faces.
The chisel-ended type in use among the ancient Egyptians has
already been mentioned, and a specimen engraved in Fig. 272.
Another and much longer ' Egyptian form has now become known.
It approaches a triangle in form, but the base is indented like
the tail of many homocercal fishes. The specimens vary in length
from 3 or 4 inches to as much as 7 or 8 inches, so that some
appear to have been javelin-heads. The flaking is wonderfully
delicate, and the edges, for the most part, minutely serrated. Mr.
Spurrell has described and figured a triangidar blade, 4 A inches
long, which miich resembles the Egj'ptian form so far as general
character is concerned. It was found in Cumberland,- and is now in
the British Museum. I have specimens from Abydos of a small,
narrow, pointed and tanged arrow-head beautifully serrated at the sides.
Other forms are figured by De Morgan.
In Fig. 342 is shown what appears to be a large example of the
■chisel-ended type, which was found at Urquhart,-' Elgin, and is in
the National Museum at Edinburgh. The edge is formed by the
Fif;. 341.— Lakt;iiliu;ilh.
Fig. 342.— Urquhart.
sharp side of a flake, and the sharp angles at the two sides of the arrow-
head have been removed by chipping, probably to prevent their
cutting the ligaments that attached it to the shaft. Another was
found at the same place. A small specimen from Suffolk is in
the Christy Collection, and I have a few from the same count}'.
Canon Greenwell has obtained others from Yorkshire. It is ques-
tionable whether the specimens like Fig. 231 ought not also to have
been classed as arrow-heads.
A similar form to Fig. 342 occurs in France. In one of the dolmens
on the plateau of Thorus, near Poitiers, I found a small cliisel-onded
wrought flint, closely resembling the Egyptian arrow-heads ; and I
have observed in the collection of the late Eev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A.,
■others of the same form from chambered tumuli in Brittany. They
have been discovered with ancient interments in other parts of France,*
' Arch. Journ., vol. liii., 1896, p. 46, pi. iv. 3, 4. De Morgan, op. rit., p. 124.
• Op. cit., pi. vi. 11. a />. .V. A. S., vol. ix. pp. •.'40, 262; xi. p. 510.
* Jier. AreJi., vol. xv. p. 367.
396 JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. [cHAP. XVI.
and I have specimens found on the surface of the soil near Pontlevoy,
and given to me by the Abbe Bourgeois.
Baron Joseph de Baye has found them in considerable numbers in
sepulchres of the Stone Age in the department of La Marne.^ One
■was found embedded in a human vertebra. They also occur in the
Camp de Catenoy, Oise.
One from St. Clement's, Jersey, is in the British Museum.
Some are recorded from Namur and other parts of Belgium. -
Two arrow-heads of this class, found in Denmark, have been en-
graved by Madsen ; ^ one of them, to which I shall again refer, was
still attached to a portion of its shaft.
Nilsson* has also engraved some specimens of this form found in
Scandinavia. A considerable number of them were found at Lindorma-
backen in Scania,^ some of which, by the kindness of Dr. Hans
Hildebrand, are in my collection. I have also specimens from
Denmark. There are others from the same countries in the Christy
Collection, where is also an example of the same kind from Southern
Italy. Several are engraved by BeUucci.^
They occur also in Germany,' Spain,* and Portugal.^ Some
crescent-shaped flints with sharp edges and a central tang, found on
an island in the Lake of Yarese,'''may possibly be arrow-heads. Forms
of nearly the same kind have been found near Perugia.'^
In General Pitt Eivers's collection are some Persian arrows with
chisel-edged tips of iron. Crescent-like ^- arrow-heads or bolt-heads,
with a broad hollowed edge, were used in hunting in the Middle Ages,
and some are preserved in museums. The Emperor Commodus " is
related to have shown his skill in archery by beheading the ostrich
when at full speed with crescent-headed an-ows.
There still remains to be noticed another form of triangular arrow-
head, of which, however, I have never had the opportunity of seeing
a British specimen. It has a notch on either side near the base, which
is slightly hollowed, and in genernl fonn closely resembles a common
type of North American arrow-heads. A specimen of this form, said
to have been foimd at Hamden Hill, ^^ near Hchester, has been engraved.
Another, described as of much the same shape, was found in a barrow
in Eookdale, Yorkshire. ^^ A broken specimen, with the base flat in-
stead of hollowed, and found in Lanarkshire,^^ has also been figured.
I am not, however, satisfied that this triangular form, with notches
in the sides, is a really British type, though lance-heads notched in
this manner have been found in France.
Both in Yorkshire and on the "Wiltshire Downs arrow-heads have-
from time to time been found with their surface much abraded. There
1 " L'Axch. Preli.," p. 191, ed. 1888, p. 253. Her. Art/,. ,\oh xxvii., 1874, pi.
xi. p. 401. Mat., vol. viii. pi. ii. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 19 Dec, 1889.
- Bull. Soc. A>it. de Bruxelles, vol. vi. pi. i.
- " Afbild.," pi. xxii. 18, 19. See also Aarb.f. Oldk., 1890, p. 325, 329.
* " Stone Age," pi. ii. 36, 37. * " Antiq. Tidskr. for Sverige." vol. iii. fig. 3.
*- " Mat. paletnol. dell' Umbria," pi. ix.
' Zeitsch.f. Ethn., vol. xv. p. 361 ; xvi. p. (118). ^ Siret, p. 10.
3 Cartailhac, pp. 53, 173. lo Rxv. Arch, della Prov. di Cumo, Dec. 1879.
II Arch, per V Ant. e al Etn., vol. xiii. (1883), Tav. i.
'- Arch. Jour)i., vol. ix. p. 118. Lee's " Isca Silurum," p. 112.
'^ Herodian, lib. i. c. 15. '* Arch. Journ., vol. x. p. 247.
'' Arch. Journ., vol. x. p. 69. "' Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xvii. p. 19.
FOUND IN BARROWS. '697
seems little doubt that this wearing away has been effected during
their sojourn in the gizzards of bustards.
Having now descnbed the principal tj'pes of arrow-heads found in
Britain, it will be well to notice some of the circumstances of their
discovery in barrows and with interments, which throw light on the
manners and the stage of civilization of those who used them.
I am not aware of any well-established discovery of flint arrow-
heads in this country in association with iron weapons, and cer-
tainly such a mixture of materials would require careful sifting
of evidence to establish it. And yet we can readily conceive con-
ditions under which flint arrow-heads might be present in Saxon
graves, either from their having been dug in barrows of an earlier
period, in which case a flint arrow-head might already exist
in the soil with which the grave was filled ; or from the occupant
of the tomb having carried an " elf-bolt " as a charm, or even as
the flint for his briquet a feu. In the Frankish cemetery of
Samson,^ near ]S^amur, a broken flint arrow-head, almost of a
lozenge form, accompanied a human skeleton with an iron sword
and a lance ; and another stemmed arrow-head (now in the !Namur
Museum) was found in the soil. At Sablonnieres^ (Aisne) flint
arrow-heads were associated with Merovingian remains, and
numerous instances of such associations have been adduced by the
Baron de Baye.^ Even in modern times flint arrow-heads have
served for this fire-producing purpose. The late Earl of
Enniskillen informed me that with flint-guns and muskets in
Ireland* the gun-flint was frequently neither more nor less than
an " elf-bolt " often but slightly modified in form.
The occurrence in Northern Italy of a flint arrow-head, in com-
pany with ten of the degenerate imitations of the gold coin of
Philip II. of Macedon, known by the Germans as Hegenbogen-
schiisseln, recorded by Promis,^ may also have been accidental. I
have in my own collection a stone celt which is said to have been
found with a hoard of Anglo-Saxon coins of the tenth century in
Ireland,** but which can hardly be regarded as contemporaneous
with them. There are, however, as I have already observed,
many well-attested instances in which flint arrow-heads have been
discovered in this and other countries in true association with
weapons of bronz9. Sir P. Colt Hoare records several such in his
' Atin. de la Soc. Arch, de Namur, 1859, p. 361.
- Rev. Arch., vol. xxxiv. p. 183. ^ Qong. Preh. Lisbonne, 1880, p. 372.
* See also Nature, vol. xxiii. p. 218. * Berliner Blatter, vol. iii. p. 172.
« Num. Chron., N. S., vol. iii. p. 54.
398 JAVEMN AND ARROW HEADS. [cHAP. XVI.
examination of the barrows of South Wilts. In one near "Wood-
yates^ a skeleton in a contracted position was buried with a
bronze dagger and pin or awl, a jet button and pulley-like orna-
ment, four arrow-heads (one of thetn engraved as Fig. 320), and
" some pieces of flint, chipped and prepared for similar weapons ;
in another bowl-shaped barrow at Wilsford an interment of burnt
bones was accompanied by a small bronze dagger, some whetstones,
and instruments formed of stag's horn, an arrow-head of flint, and
another in an unfinished condition."
It is stated in the Arc/Kcolor/ia'- that with the well-known inter-
ment in the hollowed oak-trunk found in the Gristhorpe tumulus,
near Scarborough, were " a brass and a flint spear-head and flint
arrow-heads," &c. The flints^ were, however, in this instance,
merely flakes and the " brass spear-head " a bronze dagger.
In Borther Low,* near Middleton, Derbyshire, Mr. Bateman
found by the side of a skel'^ton a flint arrow-head, a pair of canine
teeth of fox or dog, and a diminutive bronze celt ; and in a barrow
on Roundway Hill," North "Wilts, a barbed flint arrow-head, like
Fig. 327, was found close to the skull of a skeleton in a contracted
posture, with a tanged bronze dagger at its left hand. Another
bronze fragment, and a small plate of chlorite slate engraved as
Fig. 355, were found at the same time. Similar plates, as well as
flint arrow-heads, accompanied the skeleton at Tring Grove,^ Herts,
and an interment at Cruden, Aberdeen.^
A stemmed and barbed arrow-head of calcined flint was found
in one of the urns containing burnt bones in the cemetery at Stand-
lake,® Oxfordshire. In another urn was a spiral finger-ring of
bronze, the only fragment of metal brought to light during the
excavations.
Flint arrow-heads have been so frequently found in barrows
containing both burnt and unburnt interments, and in company
with other implements of stone and with pottery, that it seems
needless to adduce all the recorded instances of such discoveries.
I give a few references below. ^
1 " South Wilts," p. 239. - Vol. xxx. p. 460.
3 See " Cran. Brit.," pi. o2, p. 9 * "Vest, of the Ant. of Derbysh.," p. 48.
5 " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. xlii. p. 3. Wilts Arch, and N. H. Mag., vol. iii. p. 185.
« Arch., vol. viii. p. 429 ; snpra, p. 383.
' "Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.," p. 11. Wilson, " Preh. Ann.," vol. i. p. 224.
■* Arch., vol. xxxvii. p. 369.
^ Arch. Jour)t., vol. x^^. p. 151 ; xxii. p. 249. "Ten Years' Diggings," pp. 60,
95, 96, 116, 127, 167, 178, &c. Arch. Assoc. Jouni., vol. iv. p. 103 ; vii. 215. Arch.,
vol. xxxi. p. 304. "Salisb. Vol. Arch. Inst.," pp. 25 — 105. Hoare'e "South
Wilts," pp. 182 — 211. Greenwell'f* "British Barrow.<i," pastim.
IRISH AND FRENCH TYPES. 399
The stemmed and barbed variety is of the most common occur-
rence in tumuli ; but, as has already been shown, one leaf-shaped
form appears to be, to some extent, peculiar to a class of long bar-
rows, though the stemmed and barbed/ lozenge and leaf-shaped
forms have been found in the soil of the same grave mound.
In several instances, stemmed and barbed arrow-heads have been
discovered with skeletons, accompanied also by the finely-chipped
leaf-shaped knife-daggers of flint. In Green Low,'* Alsop Moor,
Derbyshire, the dagger-blade lay behind the shoulders, and three
arrow-heads behind the back ; in one, as alread}^ mentioned, on
Seamer Moor, near Scarborough,^ " two beautifully formed knives
and spear-heads of flint," and four flint celts, accompanied
" beautifully formed arrow-heads of flint ; " and the dagger (Fig.
264) appears to have been found in the same barrow as the arrow-
heads, on Lambourn Down.
Occasionally arrow-heads are found in the " drinking-cups "
accompanying the skeleton, as in Mouse Low,^ Staffordshire.
It remains for me to say a few words as to the points of differ-
ence and resemblance between the arrow-heads of Britain and
those of other countries ; and also as to the method of shafting in
use in ancient times.
In comparing the arrow-heads of Great Britain with those of
what is now the sister kingdom of Ireland, we cannot but be
struck, in the first place, with the far greater abundance found in
Ireland, especially in its northern parts. How far this is due to
their use having come down into later times, and how far to the
character of the country, it is diflficult to say. It is, however,
evident that over so large an area of morass and bog, the number
of arrows lost in the chase during a long series of years must
have been immense ; that when once lost they would be preserved
uninjured, and remain undiscovered until the operations of drain-
ing and obtaining peat for fuel again brought them to light ; and
further, that the former of these operations has only been carried
on to a large extent within the last few years, while the latter has
also in all probability increased. On hard and stony soil, on the
contrary, even assuming an originally equal abundance of arrow-
heads, agricultural operations, after being carried on for a few
' " Ten Years' Dig.," p. 223. Arch. Assoc. Joiin/., vol. iv. p. 103.
2 "Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 59. " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 41, p. 3.
» A. A. /.. vol. iv. p. 10.5. * "T. Y. D.," p. 116. A. A. J., vol. vii. p. 215.
* For a comparison of arrow-heads from diflFerent countries see also Westropp's
" Prehistoric Phases," pi. i.
400 JAVELIN AMJ AKROW HEADS. [cHAP. XVI.
centuries, would infallibly destroy a large number of them, and
what were left would not be so instantly apparent to the eye as those
in a peaty soil, and would consequently be found in fewer numbers.
In districts where flint is scarce many ancient arrow-heads must
have been used as strike-a-lights and gun -flints. In Ireland,^ as
alreadv stated, they were highly esteemed for the latter purpose.
Even on land recently enclosed, and where arrow-heads and worked
flints may exist in abundance, unless some unusual inducement is
offered, they remain unnoticed by the farm-labourers; and it is only
owing to the diligence of local collectors that such numbers have
been found on the Yorkshire Wolds, the Derbyshire Moors, and
in parts of Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and SuflEblk. There
seems, howe\er, either from the character of the game pursued, or
from some different customs of the early occupants of the country,
to have been a far greater production of arrow-heads in these
districts than in some other parts of Britain, such, for instance,
as the Sussex Downs,^ where on land but recently enclosed,
almost innumerable flakes, scrapers, and other instruments of
flint may be found, but where I have hitherto never succeeded in
finding a single arrow-point. It is possible that in some districts,
bone may have been preferred to stone.
Apart from the greater general abundance in Ireland, there is
a far greater relative abundance of some particular forms, espe-
cially of the barbed triangular arrow-heads without a central stem,
and of the elongated form with the stem and barbs. Lozenge-
shaped arrow-heads are also more frequent, and some of the varie-
ties of this form do not appear to occur in Britain. As a rule,
Irish arrow-heads are also of larger size than the British. Their
forms have been described by Sir W. Wilde,^ Mr. "Wakeman* and
others.
In France, flint arrow-heads are at least as rare as in England, if
not indeed rarer. In some of the dolmens of Brittany explored by
the Eev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A.,* he has found them both leaf-shaped
and stemmed and barbed. Among the latter there are some of ex-
tremely neat workmanship, and closely resembling in form Fig. 312.
I have seen the same form from the Cotes du Nord. Some beautifid
examples, more elongated than Fig. 319 and with very small tangs,
were found in a tumulus at Cruguel,'^ Morbihan. The more common
1 Nature, vol. xxiii. p. 218.
* Dr. Mantell, however, found a flint arrow-head in a barrow near Lewes. —
" York Vol. of Arch. Inet.," p. 1.
3 " Cat. Mu8. R. I. A.," p. 19 scgq. * " Archseol. Hibera." (1891), p. 269 seqg.
' Arch. Asuoc. Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 40.
• liev. Arch., 3rd S., vol. xvi. pi. xvii. p. 304.
FRENCH TYPES. 401
French form is like Fig-. 311, but with both stem and barb rather-
longer and the sides straig-htor. Specimens have been engraved from
the neighbourliood of Jjondinicres ; ' from a dolmen at Villaigre,
Poitou;- a lake-liabitation at La Peruse^ (Charente) ; the Valley of
the Saone,' the department of the Aisno,' the Camp de Chassej/' and
other places.
Various forms from the Landes/ Girondo,'' Marne/ Gard,'" and other
Departmcnits " have been figured. Dr. Leith Adams traced a luanu-
fat'tory of flint arrow-heads in Guernsey. '-
I have several tanged, and stemmed and barbed arrow-heads frora
Poitou, as well as some of triangular form, both with a rounded seg-
mental base and with barbs. I have also leaf-shaped, lozenge-shaped,
and tanged and barbed examples from the neighbourhood of Clermont
Ferrand. Twenty-two of the latter form were found together, in
company with a bronze dagger, in a cist in Brittany.'^
Another common variety is stemmed and but very slightly barbed.
Some of these approximate in form to a lozenge, with two of its
sides curved inwards. Specimens from the dolmen of Bernac '*
(Charente), the Grotte de St. Jean d'Alcas,'^ and Argenteuil (Seine et
Oise),"^ and the dolmens of Taurine, Pilande, and des Costes (Aveyron),
may be cited. In several of the latter both leaf-shaped and lozenge-
shaped specimens were also found. Many are neatly serrated at the
edges, sometimes so as to form a sort of regular pattern, with only
two or three projections on each of the sides. A pointed leaf-shaped
arrow-head in a human vertebra was found in the Grotte du Cas-
tellet '^ (Gard).
The same varieties, as well as some triangular arrow-heads, occurred
in the Camp de Chassey.'^ Some of them are barbed without having
the central tang.
A large arrow-head from the dolmen of Bernac, with pointed barbs,
lias a strongly dovetailed central stem. I have seen other much more
elongated javelin-heads, four and five inches long, and an inch or an
inch and a quarter broad, with similar tangs, but without barbs, the
tang being formed by notches on either side at the base, as is the case
with so many North American specimens, which these resemble in form.
They were found at Corente, in Auvergne, and were in the collection
1 Cochet, " Seine Inferieiire," 2nd ed., p. 528.
- "Epoques Antcdil. et Celt, du Poitou," p. 102, pi. iv. bis. 3, 4, 5.
^ De Rochebrune, " Mem. sur les Restes d'Industrie, &c.," pi. x. 8, 9.
■* Chantre, " Etudes Paleoetlin.," pi. xiii. 7.
5 Watelet, " L'Agc de Pierre, &c.," pi. iv. 2. Coll. Caranda, Moreau, 1877.
^ Perrault, " Xote sur un Foj-er, &c.," Chalons, 1870, pi. ii.
' Iit'v. d'Anthrop., vol. iv. p. 258. * Materiaux, vol. xi. p. 207.
9 De Baye, "Arch. pr6h.," 1888, pp. 22.5, 255, 291, 292.
^^ Bull. (Ic la Sor. d' ElU'Ie des sr. iiat. de yimcs, 1894.
^' MortiUet, "Mus. preh.," pi. xliii. cC seqq.
1- Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. ii. p. G8.
'3 Rev. Arch., vol. XX. p. 359. " De Rochebrune, pi. xiii. 2.
!■' Cazalis de Fondouce, " La Pierre polie duns TAveyron," \A. i. 9 and 10 ;
pi. iv. 2, 3, &c. Trans. Frch. Conrj., 1867, p. 189; 1868, p. 351. MortiUet,
Materiaux, vol. ii. p. 146 ; vol. iii. p. 231.
'8 Rev. Arcli., vol. xv. p. 364.
1'' Cazalis de Fondouce, "All. couv. de la Provence," 2udMein. pi. ii. 18, Mat..,
Tol. xii. p. 432, pi. xii. 18.
^^ Materiaux, vol. v. p. 395. Perrault, op. cit.
I) D
402 JAVELIN AXD ARROW HEADS. [cilAl'. XVI.
of ]\I. Aymard at Le Pay, where was also a leaf-sTiaped arrow-head
with side notches, from Clermont. Another of the same kind, 4
inches long, with a more dovetail-like tang and better-developed
barbs, has been found near Laon.' Others of smaller size were found
in the Grotte des ^lorts, Durfort (Gard)."
A somewhat similar form has occurred among the lake-dwellings of
the Ueberliuger See.^
A type much like Fig. 314 also occurs in the lake -habitations of
Switzerland,^ where, as might have been expected, a large number of
stone arrow-heads have been found. Some few of them are stemmed
and barbed, much like Fig. 311, but with the tang and barbs rather
longer and sharj^er. More of them are tanged only, or but slightly
barbed, and in man}^, the tang has so slight a shoulder that the out-
line is almost, and in some quite, lozenge-shaped. The most common
form, however, appears to be the triangular, with the sides slightly
curved outwards and the base flat, or even slightly rounded outwards.
Many are a little hollowed at the base, so much so, in some cases, as
to be distinctly barbed. At Nussdorf one arrow-head was formed of
serpentine, and another of translucent quartz. One or two specimens
are of bone.
Leaf-shaped and stemmed arrows without barbs, from Hasledon
and Yvoir, are in the Museum at Namur, in Belgium. Belgian arrow-
heads have been described by Van Overloop.^
In the lake-dwellings of Xorthern Ital}*,'' as, for instance, at Mer-
curago, near Arena, and Cumarola, near Modena, the tanged arrows
prevail, though leaf- and lozenge-shaped also occur. The same is the
case in the south, where numerous discoveries of arrow-heads have
been recorded by Nicolucei.'' At Cumarola*' some skeletons were found
interred with flint arrow-heads and weapons of stone, in company
with others of copper and bronze.
In the valley of the Vibrata,'-' in the Abruzzo, Dr. C. Eosa has found
numerous arrow-heads, principally stemmed and barbed, but some
also triangular and leaf-shaped. One specimen appears to be barbed
on one side only, and a lance-head has a notch on each side near the
base like those from Auvergne.
In the Lake of Varese,^^' where the site of a manufactory of arrow-
heads was discovered by Captain Angelucci, the principal forms
were those with a pointed tang and barbs. The roughly-chipped-out
blocks were of a leaf -shaped form. A fine specimen like Fig. 302,
' Watelot, " Age de Pierre dans le Dept. de I'Aisne," pi. iv. 4.
2 Materiaux, vol. v. p. 249. ^ In the AVessenbergischc SammluTig, Constsnce.
* Keller's "Pfahlbauten," and "Lake-dwellings," jortssfw. Desor's "Palafittes,"
p. 17. Troyon, " Hab. Lac," pi. v. Ant. Lac. du Mus. de-Lausanne, pi. ix.
5 " Les ages de la pierre," pi. vi. and vii.
•^ Keller, op. cit., 4ter Ber. Taf. i. and ii. Strobel, "Avanzi Preromani," Parma,
18G3, 1864.
■> "Di Alcune armi ed utensile in pietra." Atli della R. Accad. delle Scienze,
Xapoli, 1863 and 1867.
*' Gastaldi, "Lake Habs. in Italy," p. 7. "Nuo\-i Cenni, &c.," Torino, 1862,
p. 10. Mem. Ace. R. di Sc. di Torino, vol. xxvi. (1869).
" Archirio per V Antropol, &c., vol. i. p. 457.
'" Mortillet, Math-inux, vol. ii. p. 87. "Promenades," p. 152. A. Angelucci,
" Lc PalaStte del Lago di Varesc" (1871) ; and llagazzoni, " Uomo preh. di Como "
(1878).
niOM VAllIOUS COUNTRIES. 403
"but rather longer, was found near Civitanova ' (Picono), and the form
occurs in Central Ital}-. A long leaf-shaped arrow from Italy is en-
graved by Lindensclimit,- us well as a tanged form without barbs.
The latter form occurs in tlie Isle of Elba.^ I have a series, from near
Bergamo, nearly all of wliich are tanged, tliough few of them are dis-
tinctly barbed. The various forms of lance and arrow heads in the
province of Perugia^ liavo been described by Prof. Bcllucci. The stone
arrow-heads frequently cited as liaving been found on the plains of
INIarathon'* appear to be only llahes,''' as are many of those from
Tiryns.' At Mycena),'^ however, in the fourth sepulchre, Scliliemann
found thirty-five beautifulh'-wrought arrow-heads of obsidian. They
are mainly of triangular form, hollowed at the base, though the long
leaf shape is also present. In general facies they closely resemble the
Danish forms.
In a dolmen in Andalusia'' a broken arrow-head of flint, with
pointed stem and barbs, was found ; and inasmuch as the fragment is
engraved by Don INIanuel de Gongora y Martinez as the head of a
three-pointed dart, it appears that the form is not common in Spain.
A number of arrow-heads, mostly tanged, have, however, been found
in the south-east of Spain by MM. Siret."^ In Portugal" the arrow-heads
are usually triangular, but often with long-projecting wings or barbs.
Peturning northwards, I may cite a small series of Hint aiTOW-
hcads in my collection, found near Luxembourg, where they appear
to bo not uncommon. They present the following forms : leaf-shaped,
tanged, tanged and barbed, triangidar with a straight base, and the
same with barbs.
Numerous arrow-heads of flint have also been found in Gelder-
land, and a collection of them is to be seen in the Leyden Museum.
Some are also in the Christy Collection. The most common forms
are triangular, with barbs, or with a somewhat rounded base, and
stemmed and barbed. Leaf-shaped and tanged arrow-heads appear
to be rarer. Some scarce triangular forms are equilateral, and others
long and somewhat expanding at the base. I have a series from
Heistert, Roermond, Limburg.
In Central and Southern Grermany flint arrow-heads appear to be
rather scarce. In Pomerania the prevailing type is triangular
hollowed at the base. The same form occurs in Thuringia. In the
Kunigsberg Museum there are arrow-heads leaf-shaped pointed at
both ends, lozengc-shapod, slightly tanged, tanged and barbed, and
triangular with and without the hollowing at the base. Linden-
1 Mortillot, Miderinitx, p. 89.
- " Alteith. uus. held. Vorz.," vol. i.. Heft vi. pi. i. 'J. " Hohenz. Samml.,'*
Taf. xliii.
^ Mortillot, Mat., vol. iii. p. 319.
' Air/iirio per I' Ant. e la Etn., vol. ix. p. 289. See also Marinoni, " Abit. lacust,
in Lombardiii," Milan (18G8), p. 20.
* Dudwell, " Class. Tour ia Greece," vol. ii. p. 159. Leake, " Demi of Attica,"
p. 100.
" F. Lenormant in Rev. Arch., vol. xv. p. IIG.
' Schliemann, " Tirvns," (18S6), pp. 78, 174.
'^ " Mycenae," (Murray, 1878), p. 272. See also pp. 7G and 1-jS.
'•' " Anti;riieda<ics Prehistoricas de Andalusia," p. 104.
^" " Les premiers Ages du Metal, &c.," Anvers, 1887.
>i "Ant. de Algarve," 1886. Cartailhac, p. 8(i, 159, 170.
t)d2
404 JAVELIX AND AKROW HEADS. [CHAP. XVI,
schmit' engraves specimens, like Figs. 311 and 327, from the Eliine
and Oldenburg, and a tanged arrovr-head of serpentine from Inzig-
hofen, near Sigmaringen, on the Danube.- Lisch also engi-aves a few
specimens from North Germany,^ which resemble the Scandinavian in
character. Near Egenburg/ in Lower Austria, a considerable
number have been found. Some Austrian ^ arrow-heads are barbed,
but without the central tang.
Considering the wonderful abundance of flint implements in Den-
mark and Southern Sweden, it is not a little singular that arrow-
heads should be there comparatively so rare. The leaf-shaped form
is extremely scarce, but a triangular form, resembling the leaf-shaped
in all respects but in having a rounded notch at the base in lieu of a
rounded end, is more common. Stemmed and barbed arrow-heads
are also very scarce, and those merely tanged are usually flakes
simply trimmed at the edges, with the exception of those of eqvii-
lateral triangular section, which are peculiar to Scandinavia. The
lozenge-shape appears to be unknown ; and by far the greater number
of arrow-heads are of the triangular form, sometimes but slightly, if
at all, hollowed at the base, though usually furnished with long pro-
jecting wings or barbs. The same type occurs in Norway .* Occasion-
ally the notch between the barbs is square, and the ends of the barbs
worked at an acgle of about 45°, like Fig. 319, without the central
stem. In some rare instances the barbs curve outwards at the points,
giving an ogee form to the sides. In others the barbs curve inwards.
In many, the sides are delicately serrated, and in most the workman-
ship is admirable. "WTiat appear to be lance-heads are sometimes notched
on either side near the base, like the common North American form, and
like those already mentioned as occurring occasionally in France.'
In Norway,'^ and more rarely in Sweden,^ stemmed and acutely
barbed arrow- and lance-heads, made of hard slate ground on the
surface, are occasionally found. Knives of the same material also
occur. They much resemble some of those from Greenland, and are
probably of comparatively late date. Some spear-head-like implements
of slate, ornamented with incised lines, have been found in a circular
fort on Dunbuie Hill,"^ near Dumbarton.
Triangular arrow-heads of flint, more or less excavated at the base
like those from Scandinavia, are also sometimes found in Russia,
Specimens from Ekaterinoslav in the South, and Olonetz in the
North, were exhibited at Paris in 1867. Others from Archangel
approach more nearly to the North American form. They are occa-
sionally tanged.'^
' " Alterth. u. h. Vorzeit," vol. i. Heftvi. pi. i. "Hohenz. Samml.," Taf. xliii. 17.
- " Hohenz. Samml.," Taf. xliii. 'Ih.
' "Frederico-l'rancisceum," 1837, Tab. xxvii.
* Von Sacken, " Grabfeld von Hallstatt," p. 38.
* Kenner, "Arch. Funde. i. d. Oesterr. Mon.," 1867, p. 41.
6 O. Rvgh, "Norske Oldsager," (1881), No. 76.
' Conf. Madsens " Afbildninger," pi. xxsvii. and xxxix. "Worsaae, " Nord.
Oldsager," fig. 68 et seqq. NHsson's " ytone Age," pi. iii. and v. Antiq. Tidskrift
for Sverige, 1864, pi. xxiii.
* Fore)iingcn til Xotbke lorlidsmindesmerkers Bevaring, Aarsber., 1867, pi. i. ; 1868,
pi. iii. 8.
9 Nilsson, "Stone Age," pi. iii. 59. « P. S. A. S., vol. xxx., 1896, p. 291.
1' VAnthropologie, vol. vi. (1895), p. 14.
AFRICAN AND ASIATIC TYPES. 405
In Nortliern Africa flint arrow-heads have been discovered, and the
leaf-shaped, triangular, and tanged and barbed forms have been found
in the dolmens of Algeria.^ Some have also been collected in Tunis,'^
and simple tanged arrow-heads have been found in the Sahara.^
But little is at present known of the stone antiquities of a great
part of Asia ; but an arrow-head from India ^ was in the possession of
Prof. Buckman, who obligingly furnished mo with a sketch of it.
It is acutely pointed, about 2| inches long, and tanged and barbed,
though the barbs are now broken off. Some small leaf-shaped
arrow-lieads have been found at Eanchi,'"' in the Chota-Nagpore
district. Mr. Bauerman, F.G.S., found, at Ghenneh, in Wady Sireh,
Sinai, a flint arrow-head, neatly chipped on both faces, of a very
peculiar form, being leaf-shaped, with a tang attached. It is in all
nearly 2 inches long, of which the leaf-shaped part occupies about
1 ^ inches, and the slender tang or stalk the other i inch. It lay in
a tomb " with a lance-head of flint, a bracelet of copper, and a neck-
lace of spiral shells. A very similar arrow-head, 2.V inches long,
from Wady Maghara, was presented by jMajor Macdonald ' to the
British Museum. The form seems also to occur in North America. ■
The Abbe Richard found some very finely worked arrow-heads on
and around Mount Sinai." Two ^" from that locality were presented
to the Society of Antiquaries in 1872. Flint arrow-heads have been
found on Mount Lebanon,^' mostly tanged, but without pronounced
barbs. A few are leaf-shaped and triangular.
Some obsidian arrow-heads from the Caucasus^- are triangular, with
a semicircular notch at the base. Some of flint and of leaf -shaped
form have been found at Hissar, '■' near Damghan, Persia.
Arrow-heads from Japan '^ are curiously like those from Europe,
being triangular with or without barbs, and stemmed and slightly
barbed. For the most part, they are narrower in their proportions
than the European. Some are formed of obsidian. Besides these, the
lozenge-shaped, the leaf-shaped, and a peculiar form with broad-ended
barbs and no central tang, occur. There is a fine series in the Museum
at Lej'den and in the British Museum.
In Greenland flat arrow-heads and harpoon-points of chalcedony
and slate are found, most of which approximate to ordinary North
American forms. I have one triangular arrow-head with the sides
' Bonstetten, " Essai sur les dolmens," pi. iv. ZeitscJi.f. Ethn., vol. xvii. p. (93).
■- V Anthropologie, vol. v. (1894), p. 538.
3 Rev. Arch., vol. xlii. pi. x. p. 1. ^ Arch. Soc. Journ., vol. xvii. p. 74.
^ Journ. As. Soc. Bingal, vol. Ivii. 1889, p. 392, pi. iv. 6, 7.
" Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxv. p. 35.
'' Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 322.
" Schoolcraft, "lad. Tribes," vol. i. pi. x\'ii. 9.
9 Rev. Arch., vol. xxii. p. 378. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1871.
"' Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v. p. 330.
" La Natnrc, 2.5 juillet, 1896. UAnthrop., vol. vii., 1S9G, p. 571.
1- Chantre, " Lo Caucase," (1885), pi. i. Zeitsch.f. Ethn., 1885, Supp., pi. viii.
':' Joarn. R. As. S., 1876, p. 425. Mitth. Anth. Ges. in Wioi, 1884. N. S., vol. iv.
p. (28).
" Trans. Preh. Congress, 1868, p. 2G6. Sec also Bull, de la Soc. Roy. (hs Ant. du
Kord, 1843-45, p. 26. Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. x. p. 395, pi. xviii. Proc. Soc. Ant..
2nd S., vol. vi. p. 15. Zcitsch. f. Ethn., vol. xxiv., 1892, p. (432). Materiaux,
vol. viii. p. 92; xiv., p. 32. T. Kanda, "Anc. St. Impts. of Japan," (Tokio,
1884).
406 JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS. [CHAr. XVI,
cui-ved outwards and delicately serrated. In Newfoundland' a narrow,
triangular form prevails, sometimes ground sharp at tlie base.
One of the ordinary- types in North America," viz., that -with, a
notch at the base on either side, has already been mentioned more
than once. This form shades off into that with a central dovetailed
tang, sometimes with, well-developed barbs. Others again have
merely a central tang, with little or no attempt at barbs. The tri-
angular form, usuall}- but little excavated at the base, is also common.
A rare form terminates in a semicircular edge. The leaf-shaped form
is rare. For the most part the chipping is but rough, as the material,
which is usually chert, horn-stone, or even quartz, does not readily
lend itself to fine work. They were made of various sizes, the smaller
for boys, and those for men varying in accordance with the purpose to
■which they were to be applied.^ They have been so fully described by
others that I need not dilate upon them. Some broken arrow-heads
have been converted into scrapers.
As we proceed southwards in America, the forms appear more
closely to resemble the European. Some of the obsidian and chal-
cedony ari'ow-heads from Mexico are stemmed and barbed, and
almost identical in shape with English examples. Don Antonio de
Salis ^ relates that in the Palace of Montezuma there was one place
where they prepared the shafts for arrows and another where they
worked the flint (obsidian) for the points. In Tierra del Fuego^
the natives still fashion stemmed arrow-heads tanged and barbed, or
of a triangular fonu, with a tang extending from the centre of the
base. In Patagonia,*' triangular, stemmed, and stemmed and barbed
arrow-heads occur in deposits analogous to the Danish kjokken-
nioddings. One brought from Eio Grande, and presented to me by
Lieut. Musters, E.N.. has a broad stem somewhat hollowed at the
base. Mr. Hudson, ' in giving an account of arrow-heads from the
valley of the Eio Negro, formed of agate, cr^-stal, and flint of various
colours, remarks that beauty must have been as much an aim to the
worker as utility.
Some of the flint and chalcedony arrow-heads from Chili are
beautifully made, and closely resemble those from Oregon, farther
north. A tanged and barbed point, embedded in a human vertebra,
was found in a burial mound near Copiapo."
A tanged arrow-head from Araucania, with a well-marked shoulder
at the base of the triangular head, so that it might almost be called
barbed, is engraved by the Eev. Dr. Hume.^ It is like an Italian form.
^ Journ. Ardh. Inst., vol. v. p. 241. pi. xi.
- Douo-las, " Xaenia Brit.," pi. xxxiii. 8. See Squier and Davis, "Arc. Mon. of
Miss. Valley," p. 212. Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. pi. xvii., xviii. ; vol. ii.
pi. xxxix.
3 Schoolcraft, op. cit., vol. i. p. 77. Catlin, "X. A. Ind.." vol. i. pi. xii. See
also Nature, vol. Ti. pp. 392, 413, 515; xi. pp. 90, 215. Gerard Fowke, "Stone
Art," IZth Ann. Pup. Bureau of Ethn. (1S91-2), 1896. P. S. A. S., vol. xxiv. p.
39G. Abbott's " Primitive Industry," (Salem, Mass., 1881).
* " Conquista de Mejico," bk. iii. chap. 14.
•^ Lubbock, "Preh. Times," 4th ed. p. 107. Douglas, "Naenia Brit.," pi. xxxiii.
9, 10.
* Strobel, "Mat. di Paletnolopria comparata," Parma, 18G8. Journ. AiitJi. Inst.,
vol. iv. p. 311, pi. xxiii. Nadailhac, " I'Amer. preh." (1863), pp. 27. 57.
' "Idle Days iu Patagonia," 1S93. p. 39. * Arch. Journ., vol. xxxviii. p. 429.
' " 111. of Brit. Ant. from objects found in South America, 18G9," p. 89.
SOUTH AMERICAN TYPES. 407
Stemmed arrow- or liarpoon-lieads of quartz are found in Chili and
Peru of much the same form as Fig. 303. The barbs, if such they
may be called, are usually at rather more than a rig-ht angle to the
stem, and occasionally project considerably from the side of the blade,
giving it a somewhat cruciform appearance. I have several which
Avero dug out by the late Mr. David Forbes, F.R.S., from graves close
to the shore, about tv\-o miles south of Arica.' In some instances they
are still attached to their shafts, which are unlike those of ordinary
arrows, being shorter and clumsier. I have them of two sizes, the
larger 10^ inches long, about 1; inch in diameter at the end, where the
head has been inserted in a socket, increasing to f in diameter towards
the other end. At a distance of 2 inches from this, however, there is
an abrupt shoulder, so that the diameter is increased by at least J of an
inch, and the shaft then rapidly tapers in the contrary direction. The
shafts have thus a stopper-like termination, which Mr. Forbes suggests
ma}' have been inserted in the end of a longer shaft of bamboo, so
that the whole weapon was a sort of spear or javelin, and not, stri-etly
speaking, an arrow. The smaller kind of shaft is of the same character,
but only G inches long, and proportionately smaller. This may possibly
have served as part of an arrow. The wood of all has been coloured
with a red pigment.
One arrow-head from the same spot is of remarkably elegant form,
and of wonderfully good workmanship. In general outline it is not
unlike Fig. 324, but the blade expands more rapidly to form the barbs,
which stand out well from the stem, and are separated from it by a
.slight hollow. It is 1| inches long. Its greatest width at the barbs
is but i an inch ; and the extreme acuteness and delicacy of the point
may be judged of from the fact, that a distance of an inch from the
apex the width is less than ^ of an inch. The heads appear to have
been secured in their sockets by binding with thread formed of vege-
table fibre. In some instances the wooden shaft is furnished with
barbs made of bronze, tied on a little distance behind the stone
point.
Leaf-shaped arrow-heads, as well as tanged and barbed, and barbed
without a central tang, are found in Peru.- Some leaf-shaped arrows
with a stalk, from New Granada, are in the Albert Memorial Museum
at Exeter.
It will, however, be thought that enough, and more than enough,
has been said as to the forms of arrow-heads occurring in various
parts of the world. Allowing for local dificrences, the general
correspondence in form is so great that we cannot wonder at Dr.
Woodward's^ suggestion that the first model of flint arrow-
heads was probably brought from Babel, and preserved after the
dispersion of mankind. To most, however, it will appear that
this general similaritj'- affords another proof that in all places,
and in all times, similar circumstances and similar wants, with
^ See also Mat., vol. xiv. p. 382. - Camb. Ant. Comm., vol. iv. p. 13.
3 " Method of Fossils " (1728), p. 43.
408
JAVELIN AND ARROW HEADS.
[cHAr.
XVI.
similar materials only at command for gratifying them, result
in similar contrivances.
I must, in conclusion, say a few words as to the method of
mounting these stone points upon the arrows ; and here we are
not left absolutely to conjecture, though the discoveries of flint
arrow-heads still attached to their shafts, in any part of the
Tnited Kingdom, are extremely rare. But in Ballykillen Bog,
King's County, a stemmed and barbed flint arrow-head was found,
still remaining in a part of its " briar-wood " shaft, and with a por-
tion of the gut-tying by which it had been secured, still attached.
It is in the museum of Mr. Murray, of Edenderry, and has been
figured by Sir TT. Wilde. ^ Another Irish example was found in
Xanestown Bog,- co. Antrim, and has been published by Mr. VT. J.
Knowles. In this case the head was barbed though not stemmed,
but the shaft was cleft to receive it, and was bound round with
gut or sinew for a length of about 4 inches. The shaft is thought
to have been of ash.
A third example was found in a moss at Fy vie,^ Aberdeenshire,
^nd has been described by Dr. Joseph Anderson. By the kindness
of the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland it is shown in
Fig. 342a. The point is leaf-
shaped, approaching to a
lozenge. It is inserted in a
cleft in the tapering shaft,
which extends almost to the
point. The nature of the
tough wood, of which the
shaft is made, has not been
determined, and the manner
in which the head was se-
cured in the shaft seems un-
certain ; but there may have
been a binding which has
perished. Dr. Anderson was
able to reproduce the shaft
in soft wood, making use of flint tools only.
Specimens have also been found in Switzerland and Germany.
Fig. 342a.— Fyrie,
Aberdeenshire.
343.— Switzerland.
1 " Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 254, fig. 164.
- Jot<ru. R. H. and A. A. of Ireland, 4th S. vol. vii., 1SS5. p. 12C.
' F. S. A. S., vol. xi. p. 509.
HOW ATTACHED TO THEIR SHAFTS.
409
One of the former has been figured by Dr. Keller,^ whose engrav-
ing I here reproduce, as Fig. 343; in the full size of the original
arrow, instead of on the scale of one-half. It was found, not in any
of the Lake habitations, but in the moss of Geissboden.
The arrow-heads found among theancient Swiss lake-
dwellings, often bear on their surface some portion of
the bituminous cement which helped to attach them to
the shafts. Dr. Clement^ possessed one, apparently
tanged but not barbed, the base of which is completely
incrusted with bitumen, with traces of the wood of the
shaft upon it, and of the cord by which the whole was
bound together. Another, leaf-shaped, similarly iii-
crusted, is in the Museum at Lausanne. The attach-
ment of a conical bone arrow-head to its shaft is of the
same character. Some single-barbed^ arrows were
made by tying a bone pin, pointed at each end, diago-
nally to the extremity of the shaft.
Another specimen has been engraved by Madsen,'* Fiinen^iJ™.
who, however, does not appear to have recognised it ^''^^^- ^
as an arrow-head. He describes it as " a flint instrument, fastened
by means of fine bast-fibre to a wooden shaft, of
which only I5 inch remains." I have here repro-
duced his engraving, as Fig. 344, and there can I
think be little doubt that it rejDresents the point
of an arrow of the same character as those in use
among the ancient Egyptians.^ It was found in
a peat moss in the parish of Yissenberg, Odense,
in the Isle of Fimen.
Among modern savages, v/e find the stone points
sometimes attached to the shafts by vegetable
fibre, not unfrequently aided by some resinous
gum, and also by means of animal sinew. The
annexed woodcut, Fig. 345, kindly supplied by
the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,^ shows an
arrow-head, stated to be fiom one of the South
Sea Islands, but more probably from California,
' " Pfahlbautcn," 2ter Ber. Taf. i. 5. "Lake-dwellings," pi. xxxix. 15. It is
curiously like an arrow of the Zoreisch Indiaus, fiijured Mltlli. d. Ant. Gesells. in
irieii, 1893, p. 119.
- Mortillet, Mat., vol. ii. p. 512. Mackic, "Nat. Hist. Rep.," vol. i. p. 137.
"Mus. Prch.," fig. 406.
^ Le Hod, " L'homme foss.," 2nd ed., p. 184. *• " Afbildniuger," pi. xxii. 19.
5 See p. 369. ^ iVoc, vol. iv. p. 298.
Fit?. 345.— Mixlern
Stono Arrow-head.
410 JAVELIN AND ARROAV HEADS. [CHAP. XVI.
attaclied by means of tendon to a reed shaft. The Indians of
California certainly affix their arrow-heads in a similar manner ;
hut commonly there are notches on either side of the head at the
hase, to receive the sinew or split intestine, "which is in the form
of tape about | inch -wide. The binding extends about an inch
along the shaft, and is of the neatest description. North Amer-
ican ^ arrow-heads, fastened in this manner, have been engraved
by Sir John Lubbock and the Rev. J. G. "Wood. The end of the
shaft has a shallow notch in it to receive the flint, which is
cemented into the notch before being bound on.
Among the Kaffirs," the iron heads of the assagais are usually
bound to the shafts with strips of wet hide, which contract and
tighten in drying.
The shafts of arrows are frequently of reed, in which case there is
often a longer or shorter piece of solid wood joined on to the reed
to which the head is attached. This is the case with the ancient
Egyptian arrows, and with those of the Bushmen,^ in which, how-
ever, bone and ivory replace the wood ; and the shaft generally
consists of three pieces — reed, ostrich bone, and ivory, to which
latter the head of iron is attached. In other cases the shafts con-
sist of straight-growing shoots of trees. Among the Eskimos,*
where wood is so scarce, a peculiai* tool — formed of bone, with an
oval or lozenge-shaped hole through it — is used for the purpose of
straightening arrow-shafts. The tang of their arrow-heads is
inserted in a socket, and bound fast with sinew.
For harpoons there is often a hole in the triangular armature.
One of these points was found in the bod}- of a seal killed in
Iceland ^ in 1643, and Olaf "Worm judiciously thought that the seal
had been wounded b}^ a Greenlander.
In most countries the shafts are feathered at the bow-string end,
and such was the case in the earliest historical times. Hesiod ^
describes the arrows of Hercules as feathered from the wings of a
black eagle, and Homer '^ speaks of the TTTepoevre^ o'iaroi! — if
indeed, as Mr. Yates suggests, this latter refers to the plumes.^
Herodotus,^ however, mentions, as a remarkable fact, that the
arrows of the Lycians in the army of Xerxes, like those of the
Eushmen and some other savages of the present day, had no
1 " Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 107. *'Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. ii. p. 648.
- Wood, " Nat. Hist, of Man," vol. i. p. 103. 3 /^.^ ^ol. i. p. 284.
* One is figured in Trnns. Lane, and Chesh. Arch. Soc, vol- iv. p. 369.
* "Mus. Wonnianum," 1655, p. 350. ® "Scut. Herculis," v. 134.
" "Iliad," v. 171.
8 Smith's " Diet, of Ant.," p. 1002. » Lib. vii. cap. 92.
HOWS IN EARLY TIMES. 411
feathers, so that this addition to the shaft was not indispensable.
It is said that some North American arrow-heads arc " bevelled *
ofC on the reverse sides, apparently to give them a revolving
motion," so as to answer the same purpose as plumes. But this
result seems very doubtful.
From what kind of wood the bows in Britain were made at
the time when Hint-pointed arrows were in use is uncertain ; the
yew, however, which is j)robably the best European Avood for the
purpose, is indigenous to this country. It is not probable that
the cross-bow was known in these early times, though it was in
use during the Roman period, as may be seen on a monument in
the museum at Le Puy.
I need, however, hardly enter into further details with regard
to arrows, and I therefore proceed to the consideration of other
forms of stone implements, including those by which it seems
probable that some of the arrow-heads were fashioned.
^ Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. i. p. 85. Nature, vol. x. p. 245.
412
CHAPTER XYII.
FABRICATORS, FLAKING TOOLS, ETC.
Ix treating of the manufacture of stone implements in preliistoric
times I have already (p. 41) described certain tools of flint witli
a blunted, worn, and rounded appearance at one or both ends, as
if resulting from attrition against a hard substance, and I have
suggested that their purpose may have been for chipping out
arrow-heads and other small instruments of flint. As, however, it
was not desirable to introduce unnecessary details when dealing
only with the processes adopted in the
manufacture of stone implements, the
more particular description of some of
the tools was deferred, until after an
account had been given of the objects in
the making of which they had probably
assisted.
lu Fig. 346 is shown, full size, a
characteristic specimen of tlie tool to
which I have provisionally assigned the
name of '' flaking tool," or fabricator. It
is symmetrically chipiied out of grey flint,
and is cui'ved at one extremity, probabl}^
witli the view of adaptin<r it for being
better held in the hand. The side edges,
which were originally left sharj), have
been slightly rounded by grinding, appar-
ently from the same motive. The angles
at the curved end have been smoothed ott',
but the other end is completely rounded,
and presents the half-polished, worn ap-
pearance characteristic of these tools. The
curvature lengthways to some extent re-
sembles that of theEskimo arrow-flakers en-
graved as Figs. 8 and •,), and is of common
occurrence among these tools. They vary much in the amoimt of work-
mansliip they display; some being mere flakes with the edges rounded
S46.— Yorkshire Wolds.
TIJKIK PllOHAliLK USKS,
413
by cLipping, and otliors as carefully wrought into form as any flint
hatchet or chisel. These skilfully-('hip[)e(l specimens are freciuently
much more convex on one face than the other. They vary in leng-tli
from about 2 to 4 inches.
An unusually long- example is, by permission of the Society of Anti-
quaries of Scotland, shown iu Fig. .'MO.v. It was found on the Hill
of Corennie,' Aberdeenshire, and closely resembles another imple-
ment of the same Kind found near Fordoun,^ Kincardineshire.
m
340,4. — Coixniiio.
Fis. 347.— Bridlington.
The rougher kinds are usually clumsy in their proportions, as if
strength were an object, and they not unfrequently show a certain
amount of abrasion at each end. An instrument of this coarser de-
scription is shown in Fig. 347. It is worn away and rounded, not
only at the point, but for a considerable distance along the sides, the
abraded surface having a somewhat bruised appearance. It is re-
markable that many of the IJanish Hint knife-daggers, especlall}' those
which have been so long iu iise that their blades have been much
diminished iu size by having been frequently re-chipped, present at tho
1 r. S. J. S\, vol. XV. p. 5.
R S. A. S., vol. xi. p. 2.5.
414 FABRICATORS, FLAKIXG TOOLS, ETC. [cHAP. XVII,
end and sides of the handles precisely the same kind of worn surface.
At one time I thought it possible that constant contact with hard
hands, not free from sand and dirt, might have produced this rounding
of the angles ; but closer examiuation proves that this cannot have
been the only cause of the wear, as it is sometimes the case that at
a certain distance from the end of the hilt, the abraded character dis-
appears entirely, and, with the exception of a slight polish, the anirles
are as fresh as on the day when the daggers were tirst manufactured.
This feature is most observable in the poignards with the beautifully-
decorated handles. I possess one of this kind — like "Worsaae, No. 52
— with the sides near the blade exquisitely ornamented with a delicate
wavy edging, and with a line of similar ornament running along the
centre of one face of the handle, the butt-end having also been edged
in a similar manner ; but for an inch and a-half from the end the
whole of tliis ornamentation is completely worn away, and the sides
are battered and rounded. To such an extent has this part of the
handle been used, that one of the projecting points of the original
iishtail-like end has entirely disappeared, and the other is completely
rounded. The blade is probably now not more than one-third of its
original size, so that we may infer that it must have been long in use
for its legitimate x^urposes. But during all this time the hilt must have
been made to serve some other and less appropriate piu-pose than that
of a handle, and as a result its original beauty of ornamentation has
been entirely destroyed. I tliink that tliis purpose must have been the
chipping, or rather the re-working, of the edges of other flint instruments.
AVTiether this was effected by pressure or by slight blows it is hard
to say ; but it appears probable that the ancient possessor of two
such daggers used the hilt of the one for re-chipping the blade of
the other, and it may be for re-chipping other implements. An
indirect inference deducible from this disfigurement of the beautifully
wrought handles, is that they were not originally made by the owners
who thus misused them — though they also must have been fairly
accomplished workers in flint — but that the daggers were procured by
liarter of some kiud from the cutlers of the period, whose special trade
it was to work in flint. For we can hardly conceive that those Avho
had bestowed so much time and skill in the ornamentation of the:>e
hilts, should afterwards wantonly disfigure their own artistic productions.
In Britain, where the larger forms of finely-wrought instruments are
scarcer, it seems most likely that these flakers were principally used
in the making of arrow-heads, though probably hard bone or stag's
horn was also employed, as already suggested.
Against regarding the ends of these tools as having been worm away
in the manufacture of other instruments of flint, it may be urged that
the butt-ends of some chisels present a similar appearance, and there-
fore that the wear may be the result of hammering with some kind of
hard mallet. It must, however, be remembered that no hammering
at the ends would psoduce the wearing away apparent on the sides of
the tools, and that the chisels which present the worn ends are in form
and size much the same as the "flaking tools," and may, like the
Danish daggers, have served a double purpose. It is also worthy of
notice that these " flaking tools " are most abundant in districts where
flint arrow-heads occur in the greatest numbers, as, for instance, on
USED FOR AVORKING IN FLINT.
415
tlio Yorksliire Wolds. In parts of Suffolk -whoi-e arrow-lieads are
common they too are abundantly present. I have also found them
in the camp at Maiden ]io\\er, near Dunstable, iu company with arrow-
heads.
In the case of the straig-ht implements, like Fig. 347, it is by no
means impossible that they were used with a mallet as punches or sets,
to strike off flakes in the manufacture of arrow-heads and similar
articles. As already mentioned, some of the American tribes use a
bone punch for this i^urposo.
In Figs. 348 and 349 I have engraved two Yorkshire instruments,
the one from Sawdon, and the other from Acklam Wold ; both from
the rich Greenwell Collection. At first sight they seem chisel-like in
character, but the edge in both is sendcivcular, and not ground, but
merely chii^ped. Fig. 348 is worked on both faces, thougli more
Fig. 348.— Sawdon.
Fia:. 349.— Acklam Wold.
convex on one than on the 'other. Fig. 349 is merely a flake with
its edges chipped towards its outer face, so that it resembles a long
narrow scraper. The butt-end in that from Sawdon is much worn and
rounded, its sides are also worn atva}' for about ^ inch at that eiid ;
the butt of that from Acklam AVold is also rounded, but principally
towards the flat face. The edges of both are sharp and uninjured.
It therefore appears jirobable that these tools were also made witli a
view to being used at the blunt, and not at the sharp end ; and it is
possible that the semicircular sharp ends may have been for insertion
in some form of wooden handle, in which the instruments were tightly
bound, and their projecting ends then used, it may be, for flaking
other flints. A flaking-tool from Unstan Cairn, ^ Orkney, is of the
same character as Fig. 349, but longer. What seems to have been a
" fabricator " was found at Torre Abbej' Sands,- Torbay. On referring
to page 38, will be seen some Eskimo arrow-flakers of reindeer horn
^ P. S. A. S., vol. xix. p. 351.
" Tr. Dev. Assoc, vol. xv. p. 138.
416 FABRICATORS, FLAKING TOOLS, ETC. [ciIAP. XVll.
attached to wooden handles ; and the instrument from Acklam Wold
8eems -well adapted for similar attachment, with its flat side towards
the wood.
Some bone instruments which have been found in barrows may
possibly have served as arrow-flakers. One from Grreen Low,' Derby-
shire, has been figured. An implement of deer's horn, with a small
jiiece of hard bone inserted in the small end, was found intheBroch-
oi Lingrow, Scapa, Orkney, but seems to belong to the Iron Period.
Xo flint arrow-heads are recorded from the Broch.
1 must confess that the suggestions I have olfered with regard to
the use of these tools are by no means conclusive. I can only hope
that future discoveries may throw more light upon the subject.
Canon Greenwell, who has figured a si^ecimen — like Fig. 346 — in the
Archaological Journal,^ was inclined to think that the other form of
instrument, like Figs. 348 and 349, was "used in dressing hides, the
sharp end ior removing the loose parts of the skin, the smooth end
for rubbirij^ down the seams when the leather was made u\) into a
garment." I do not think that this can really have been their purpose,
as for smoothing down the seams a natural pebble would probably be
preferable, and for cutting or removing the loose parts a flint flake
woidd answer better. Still, I have seen a somewhat pointed con-
cretionary nodule of stone, the end and point of which were polished
from use by a glovemaker, in recent times, in smoothing down the
seams of coarse leather gloves. The late Mr. (\ Monkman,^ like
myself, regarded these instruments as punches or fabricators, used
for chipping arrows and delicate flint weapons into shape. This is
also Canon Greenwell's present opinion. He has figured an example
in "British Barrows."^ In Yorkshire thcv aie known as "finger-
flints."
The worn ajipearance of the pointed end of some flakes is not im-
probably due, as has already been observed, to their having been
employed in " picking" into shape implements — such as hatchets or
axes — formed of greenstone and other rocks of a somewhat softer
nature than flint. The ends of the flaking tools, punches, or fabri-
cators are, however, usually far too blunt for them to have been api^lied
to such a purpose.
Another of the causes of the blunted and worn-away appearance of
the ends, and even sides, of originally sharp flint flakes and instru-
ments, I have alread}' described when treating of scrapers — namelj',
the striking off b}- their means particles from a block of pyrites, with a
view of procuring fire.
» Arch., xliii. p. 437, %. 136. ^ p,.^^ Soe. A»f. Scot., vol. ix. p. 3.56.
2 Vol. xxii. p. 246, 101 note. * Torksh. Arch, and Top. Journ., 1868.
* P. 40, fig. 21.
417
CHAPTER XVIIl.
SLIXG- STONES AND BALLS.
Passing ou from flint arrow-heuds and the tools which were pro-
bably used in the process of their manufacture, we come to another
form of missile weapon — the sling-stone — which also appears to
have been in use in Britain. It is needless here to enter into
details as to the early use of the sling among the more civilized
nations of antiquity, especially as comprehensive articles on the
subject have already been published in this country by Mr. Walter
Hawkins ^ and Mr. Syer Cuming.^
A stone thrown b}^ hand doubtless constituted the first missile
weapon, and some form of sling must probably have been among
the earliest inventions of mankind. What appears to be the
simplest kind, and one which, like Nilsson^ and Strutt,* I frequently
used as a boy, consists of a stick split for a short distance down
one end, so as to form a cleft, in which a stone is placed ; the
elasticity of the two halves of the stick, which are kept asunder by
the stone, retaining it there until the proper moment for its discharge.
Nilsson cites Lepsius as engraving in his great work on Egypt a
representation of a man armed with such a sling, which he appears
to use very actively in fight. At his feet there is a heap of small
stones in readiness for use. Nilsson^ also suggests that it was
with such a slino: that David was armed when he encountered
Goliath, who addresses him : " Am I a dog that thou comest to
me with staves? '"" that is, with the shepherd's staff and the sling
handle. The most ancient form, however, recorded by classical
writers is that of the ribbon sling, with a central receptacle for the
stone, and with strings on either side. The neatly plaited or
knitted cup or strap of a sling, with a portion of its cord, both
formed of flax, was among the objects discovered in the Lake-
' Arch., vol. xxxii. p. 96. Froc. Soc. Ant., vol. i. p. 157.
- Airfi. Assoc. Joinii., vol. xx. p. 73. See also "Flint Chipf," p. 302.
^ " Stone Age," p. 4'J. ' •' Sports and Pastimes," ed. 1845, p. ~t\.
5 "Stone Age," p. 49. "^ 1 Sam. xvii. 43.
E E
418 SLING-STONES AND BALLS. [cHAP. XVIII.
settlement of Cortaillod/ which was remarkably rich in bronze
objects. This probably is the most ancient sling now in existence.
The staff-sling reappears in Roman times in a somewhat modified
form, with a receptacle for the stone attached to the end of a staff.
To this weapon the name of fnstihahis was given.
The earliest sling-stones were, no doubt, like those used by David
against Gohath, the " smooth stones out of the brook ; " but in after-
times, among the Greeks and the Romans, sling-buUets of an almond
or acorn-like form were cast in lead, and flattened ovoid missiles were
formed in terra eotta ; both kinds, from their uniforniitj' in size, ensuring
greater precision of aim than could be secured with stones, however
carefully selected, and the former also offering the advantages of less
resistance from the air, as well as greater concentration of force when
striking the object. Some pohshed sling-bullets of loadstone or haematite
are mentioned by Schliemann- as having been found on the presumed site
of Troy. The advantages of uniformity of size and form are recognized
among some savage tribes, who make use of the sling at the present
day ; the shng-stones, for instance, of the New Caledonians being care-
fully shaped out of steatite, and, what is worthj^ of remark, approxi-
mating closely in fonn to the Roman glandes, being fusiform or pointed
ovoids. The same form on a larger scale, about 3 inches in diameter
and 4 inches long, has been adopted by the natives of Savage Island
for missiles thrown by the hand. These are wi'ought from calc-spar
almost as truly as if turned in a lathe.
Nilsson^ has engraved a sling-stone of this same form, found in
Sweden, where, however, tbey are by no means common, as he cites
but five specimens in the museums at Lund and Stockholm.
Artificially-fashioned shng-stones are^not, however, confined to this
fusiform shape ; those that were in use among the Charruas of Southern
iVmerica having been of a lenticular form, though slightly flattened at
the centre of each face. One in m}' collection is about 3 inches in dia-
meter and If inches thick in the middle. It has been ground over the
whole of both faces, and has the edge at its periphery .slightly rounded.
The objects so frequently found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings, and
to which the name of sUng-stones has been commonly given, were, as
Keller* has pointed oat, probably intended for some very different
purpose. Many of the forms described by Sir William Wilde,' under
the name of sling-stones, may also, I think, be more properl}' placed in
some other category. The carefully polished lenticular disc of flint
(Wilde, Fig. 9) seems better adapted for a cutting tool ; and the flat
oval stones, usually with " a slight indentation, such as might be
effected by rubbing with a metal tool," were, as I have already
observed, more probably used for obtaining fire, like those of the same
class belonging to the earl}' Iron Age of Denmark,'' which they much
resemble in character.
' Keller's " Lake-dwellings," pi. lxxx^^. 2.
2 " Troy and its Remains," (1878), p. lOL
3 "Stone Age," pi. v. 115. * " Lake-dwellings, " p. 135.
* '« Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," pp. 18, 74.
* Engelbardt, "Nydam Mosefundet," pi. xiii. 65.
SLING-STONES KOUGHLY CHIPPKU FROM FLINT. 419
The objects to wliicli iu this country the name of sling-stone has been
generally applied are more or less roughly- chipped, and appi'oxi-
mately lenticular blocks of Hint, varying considerably in proportionate
thickness, and usually from about 1^- to 3 inches in diameter. An
average specimen from the Yorkshire
Wolds is shown in Fig. 350. The
contour is frequently more truly cir-
cular or oval, and the faces somewhat
more carefully chipped. They are
found in considerable numbers on the
Yorkshire Wolds, in Suffolk, .Sussex,
and other counties where chalk flints
are common. Occasionally also they
■occur in Scotland.' Similar forms
are also abundant in the Danish Fig. 35o.-Yorkshirc woid
kjokken-mciddings and "coast-finds."
In this latter case it appears quite as probable that they may have
served for net-sinkers as for sling-stones ; although, as Sir John
Lubbock'^ has remarked, " that some have really served as sling-stoTies
seems to be indicated by their presence in the peat-mosses, which it is
difficult to account for in any other way."
Prof. Nilsson* objects that they are so irregular and sharp-cornered,
" that they would soon wear out the sling, even if it were made of
leather." He ];)resumes "that these sharp-cornered stone balls were
the first hand-missile weapons of the earliest and rudest savages, and
used by them to throw at wild animals or enemies." This objection
to regard them as sling-stones seems hardly well founded ; especially if
we consider them to have been in use with a stick-sling, in which case
their angularity would have been of some service in retaining them in
the cleft, while their lenticular form adapts them well for this kind
of sling. A more valid objection raised by Prof. Nilsson is that no
one "would give himself all this trouble to fashion sling-stones which
were to be thrown away the next moment, when he could find many
natural pebbles t_[uite as suitable." But to this it may be replied, that
at the present day we do find the New Caledonians, the Tahitians, and
other tribes, carefully fashioning their sling-stones ; and also that this
flat lenticular form is better adapted for the stick-sling than a natural
pebble of the usual oval form. As a fact, however, I think it will be
found that these flint discs, to which the name of sling-stones is applied,
are most abundant in those districts where natural rolled pebbles
happen to be scarce. If the case be really so, we can readily under-
stand why the cores, from which flakes had been struck for conversion
into arrow-heads and other instruments, should have been themselves
utUized as sling-stonos. If these^missLles were necessary, it would be a
question of which would involve the least trouble, whether to chip into
the required form a certain number of flints which came readily to
hand, at the same time making use of the resulting chips ; or to select
and bring together, possibly from a distant sea-coast, a bed of a stream,
or some uncovered patch of gravel, a number of pebbles of the right
size and form for slinging. In the camp at Hod Hill, near Blandford,
' Wilson, " Prch. Ann. of Scot.," voL i. p. 197.
♦ "Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. lOo. ,^ " Stone Age," p. 51.
E E 2
420 SLING-STONES AND BALLS. [cHAP. XVllI.
which, however, probably belongs to the Early Iron Period, the latter
course seems to have been adopted, as several heaps of rounded flint-
pebbles, either derived from the sea-coast or from some bed of Lower
Tertiary Age, have been found there, and in all probability consti-
tuted the munition of the slingers of the camp.
The late Mr. C. Monkman^ remarked that in Yorkshire he always
fo\md the small globular sling-stones most plentiful at a short distance
(50 to 200 yards away) from old entrenchments, and he was inclined to
class iinder the head of sling-stones, nodules chipped over their whole
surface, varjdng from an almost globular form to all degrees of
flatness, and in size from ^ inch to 3 inches in diameter. This is
perhaps too wide a definition, as most of the larger globular forms
appear to have been destined for hammer-stones ; and pebbles but half
an inch in diameter would be almost too light for missiles. It is, how-
ever, impossible to say with certaintj- that any given specimen was
undoubtedly a sling-stone, as the flatter forms, which were more pro-
bably missiles, merge in the form of a roughl^'-chipped oval celt like
Fig. 17 at one end of the series, and in that of a discoidal scraper with
a broken edge at the other. Many may be merely cores, from both
faces of which flakes have been struck, so that the term '' sling- stones,"
if employed for these roughly-chipped discs, must always be used in a
somewhat doubtful sense, and for convenience rather than precision.
In Polynesia.- besides rounded pebbles, sharp, angular, and rugged
stones were used for slinging. These were called Ofai ara, faced or
edged stones.
Another class of objects in stone which may possibly have
served for the purposes of the chase or of war, consists of balls
with their surface divided into a
number of more or less projecting
circles, with channels between them.
They seem, so far as is known, to be
confined to Scotland and Ireland.
That shown in Fig. 351 was found
in Dumfriesshire.* and has been en-
graved by Sir Daniel "Wilson. It
presents six circular faces. Others,
Bg. 3oi.-i>umine..^.. 3 ^hnost identical in form, have been
found at Biggar,* Lanarkshire; Dudwick.' Chapel of Garioch^ and
Migvie,' Tai-land, Aberdeenshire ; Kilmarnock,^ Ayrshire; and Mont-
blajiy,' Banflshire. Another, about 3 inches in diameter, with three
faces only, was found on the Tullo of Garvoch,^" Kincardineshire ; and
one, with four faces, in a cairn at East Braikie, Forfarshire. This
1 Yorkih.Arch. and Top. Jmim., 1868. ^ Ellis, "Polj-n. Researches," vol.i.p. 291.
^ " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 195. I am indebted to Messrs. ilacmillan
& Co. for the loan of this cut.
* Arch. Assoc. Joinn., vol. xvii. p. 20. = Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 102.
* Trans. Lane, and Chesh. A. A., vol. iii. p. 255.
' P. S. A. S., vol. ix. p. 393.
« Smith's "Preh. Man in Avrshire," 1895. p. 105.
' Proe. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. p. 11. '" " Cat. Arch. Just. Mus. Ed.," p. 14.
ORXAMEXTED BALLS PRINCIPALLY FROM SCOTLAND. 421
latter is in the Montrose Museum.' One of greenstone, 2^ inches
in diameter, found at BaUater,- Aberdeenshire, has six plain circular
discs, with the interspaces partially cut into small knobs or studs, the
ornaments being possibly in course of formation. Stone balls,'' about
2^ and 3 inches in diameter, covered over the surface with small
rounded projections, like enormous petrified mulberries, have been
found in the Isle of Skye, in Orkney, and at Garvoch Hill, Kincar-
dineshire. I i^resume the latter to be a different specimen from that
with three faces, previously described. Others are in the Perth
Museum.* A series of such balls, some highly ornamented, has been
described by Dr. John Alexander Smith.* One formed of hornblende
schist, with six strongl}^ projecting circular faces, was found near
Ballymena," co. Antrim, in 1850, and is now in the British Museum.
Probably the most remarkable of all these balls is that shown in
Fig. 352, from a cut kindly lent me by the Society of Antiquaries of
Fig. 352.— Towie.
Scotland. It was found at Towie,' Aberdeenshire, and is about 2^
inches in diameter, with four rounded projections, three of which are
ornamented with different incised patterns, while the fourth is smooth
and undecorated. From the character of the patterns, this object
would seem to belong to the Bronze Period rather than to that of Stone,
if not, indeed, to still later times. In connection with the pattern
upon it, attention may, however, be called to the remarkable carved
cylinders of chalk found by Canon Greenwell in a barrow on Folkton
Wold,^ Yorkshire, and now in the British Museum, which are certainly
not of later date than the Bronze Age. The ornament on a clay vessel
found in Devonshire^ may be compared with that of the sides of the
cylinders.
' Report Montrose Nat. Mist, and Ant. See., 1868.
* Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 340. » lb., vol. iv. pp. 186, 292 ; vii. p. 209.
* Wilson, " Prch. Ann. Scot.," vol. i. p. lOo.
* P. S. A. S., vol. xi. pp. 29, 313. •■' Arrh. Journ., vol. xi. p. 58.
' Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iii. p. 439. Wilson, " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i.
pi. iii. Photographs of three of the faces are given in the Reliquary and Illust.
Archteol., vol. iii. (1897) p. 103, q.v.
* Arch., vol. Iii. p. 14, pi. i. and ii. "^ Tram. Dev. Assoc, vol. xii. p. 124.
422 . SLIXG-STONES AND BALLS. [cHAP. XVllI.
These balls appear to me to differ most essentially from the
ordinary " sink-stones " found in Denmark and Ireland/ with
"which they have been compared. It is, however, by no means
easy to suggest the purpose for which they were intended. The
only suggestions that I have met with are, that they were used
in some game or amusement ; for defence when slung in a long
thong or line" ; as mace heads ^ attached to a handle ; or else for
purposes of divination.^ I must confess that I hardly see in what
manner the last purpose can have been served, especially as in
most instances all the faces of the ball are alike. Xor do I see in
what manner they can have been used in games, though of course
it is possible that they were so employed. It seems more probable
chat they were intended for use in the chase or war, when attached
to a thong, which the recesses between the circles seem well adapted
to receive. Among savage nations of the present day we find the
use of the holas, or stones attached to the ends of thongs, over a
great part of the southern continent of America : ^ while the prin-
ciple is known to the Eskimos, whose strings of sinew, weighted
with bunches of ivory knobs, are arranged to wind themselves
round the bird at which they are thrown, in just the same way as
the much stouter cords weighted at the ends with two or three
heavy stone balls which form the holas,^ twist round, and hamper
the movements of larger game.
The holas proper, as in use on the Pampas, consist of three
balls of stone, nearly the size of the fist, and covered with
leather, which are attached to the ends of three thongs, all
branching from a common centre. Leaden balls have now
almost superseded those of stone. The hunter gives to the hoJas
a rotary motion, and can then throw them to a great distance, in
such a manner that the thongs entwine roimd the legs, neck, and
body of his prey and thus render it helpless, so that it can then
be easily despatched. A hola of small size, but of lead or copper,
with a single thong about 3 feet long, is also used, and forms both
the sling and its stone. It likewise serves as a weapon for striking
in close encounter. Among the Patagonians^ the same two
' Worsaae, " Xord. Olds.," fig. 87.88.
- Report Montrose y. H. and Ant. Soc., 1868.
' P. S. A. S., Tol. li. p. 56. * Arch. Assoc. Joum., voL XTii. p. 20.
5 Trior, " Edrly Hist, of :Maiik.," p. 179.
•^ KJemm, " Cuitor-Gesch.," vol. ii. p. 17. " Azara," vol. ii. p. 46. Catlin's
"Last Rambles," p. 265. " Cult.-Wiss.," vol. i. p. bh.
' Lubbock, "Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 547. Falkner's "Patagonia," p. 130.
A set of these Patagonian tolas is engraved by the Eev. J. G. Wood, " Xat. Hist,
of Man," vol. ii. p. 529.
THE USE OF " BOLAS." 423
varieties are used, but those for hunting have usually only two
stones, and not three. They sometimes throw the single hola at
the adversary, rope and all, but generally they prefer to strike at
his head with it.
Assuming a difficulty in securing a ball of stone in a leather
case, and that therefore it would be necessary to fasten it by
means of a thong, some channelling of the surface would become
a necessity ; and the natural tendency of savages to decorate
their weapons might lead to regular circular discs being left
between the channels on the ball, and even to these discs being
engraved in patterns, that next the cord being, as in Fig. 352,
left undecoratcd. In the Christy Collection is a hola formed of a
polished red spherical stone, mounted in such a manner as to show
a considerable portion of its surface, which has evidently been,
regarded as too handsome to be entirely concealed by the leather.
Mr. C. H. Read suggests that these ornamented balls were
entirely covered with raw hide, which was allowed to dry, the
ends or edges being tightly tied. When dry the circles over
the knots were cut out so as to display the ornament and leave
a solid binding round the stone to which a thong might be
attached.
These bola stones are sometimes wrought so as to present a num-
ber of rounded protuberances. Of this kind there are specimens in
the Christy Collection^ and in that of the late Mr. J. Bcrnhard
Smith. Even if the use of the holas or the single bola Avere un-
known, there is a form of military flail or " morning star," a sort of
modification of the staff -sling, though the stone never quits the cord
by which- it is attached to the staff, for which such balls as these
might serve. A mediaeval weapon ^ of this kind, in the Meyrick
Collection, consists of a staff, to which is attached by a chain a
ball of wood with numerous projecting iron spikes. The citizens
of London will be familiar with the same weapon in the hands
of the giant Gog or Magog at Guildhall. The Calmucks, Mongols,
and Chinese,^ still use a flail of this sort, with an iron perforated
ball about two pounds in weight attached to the end of the thong.
Substituting one of these stone balls for the spiked morning-star,
and a leather thong carefully adjusted in the channels of the stone
for the chain, a most effective form of weapon for close encounters
would result. Among the North American tribes a somewhat
I SeoKatzel, "Yolkerk.," vol. ii. (1888), p. 6C4.
- Skelton's "Meyrick's Arm.," pi. xciii. 1.
3 EJemm's " Cultur-Wiss.," vol. i. p. 129. " Cult.-Gescli.," vol. x. pi. iii. 4.
424 SLING-STOXES AND BAl.LS. [ciIAP. Xvm.
similar weapon was lately in use, and is thus described by Lewis
and Clarke, as quoted by Squier and Davies : ^ — " The Shoshonee
Indians use an instrument which was formerly employed among
the Chippeways, and called b}' them poijnmoggon? It consists of
a handle 22 inches long, made of wood covered with leather, about
the size of a M'hip-handle. At one end is a thong 2 inches in
length, which is tied to a stone weighing two pounds, enclosed in
a cover of leather ; at the other end is a loop of the same material,
which is passed around the wrist to secure the implement, with
which they strike a powerful blow." Another form of club in
use among the Algonquins consisted of a round boulder sewn in a
piece of fresh skin and attached to the end of a long handle, to
which, by the drying of the skin, it becomes firmly attached.
Examples of both of these kinds are in the British Museum. An
engraving of a drumstick-like club of this character is given by
Schoolcraft.^ Unfortunately, however, the existence of such a
weapon in early times is not susceptible of proof. Whatever the
purpose of these British balls of stone, they seem to belong to a
recent period as compared with that to which many other stone
antiquities may be assigned.
1 "Anc. Mon. Mississ. Valley," p. 219.
' The same name, pogamugan, is applied by the Indians of the Mackenzie River to
a different form. See " Eeliq. Aquit.," p. 52.
3 " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. pi. xv.
425
CHAPTER XIX.
BRACE KS, AND ARTICf.ES OF ROXE.
Another object in stone, not unfi-equently found in graves, and
•of which the use is now comparatively certain, is a rectangular
plate usually round on one face, and hollow on the other, with
perforations at either end. These plates are commonly formed
of a close-grained green chlorite slate, are very neatly finished, and
vary considerably in length and proportions.
The specimen shown in Fig. 353 is in the National Museum at
Edinburgh, and : has already been engraved by Sir D. Wilson,'
and roughly figured in the Wiltshire Archceological
Magazine. It was found alongside of a human
skeleton, in a rudely-vaulted chamber in a large
tumidus on the shore of Broadford Bay, Isle of
Skye. It is formed of pale-green stone polished,
and has at one end an ornamented border of slightl}'
indented ovals. In the same Museum- is another
of longer projjortions, being 4.v inches by 1 J inches,
formed of fine-grained greenish-coloured stone, and
having at each corner a small perforation. It was
found, together with an urn and the remains of a
skeleton, in a short cist on the farm of Fyrish,
Evantown, lioss-shire. It is shown in Fig. 354.
There is also, in the same Museum, a fragment of
a flatter specimen formed of indurated clay- slate
of a lightish green colour, perforated at one end
with three small holes. It was found in a stone circle called "The
Standing Stones of liayne."''' Another example was found in a grave
at Dalmore,^ Eoss-shire. It is, however, imperfect. In the Arbuth-
not Museum, Peterhead, is another object of this class, 4^\ inches
long, with a hole at each corner, and slightlj' rounded on one face
and hollow on the other. It was found at Cruden,^ Aberdeenshire,
1 " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 223.
* Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. \n. p. 233. The Evantown bracer is shown on a
larger scale in P. S. A. S., vol. xvii. p. 454; and Anderson's " Scotl. in Tagan
Times," p. 15.
■•< I'roe. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ii. p. 429. " Cat. Mus. Arch. Inst. Ed.," p. 20.
* F. M. A. S., vol. xiii. p. 255.
» WUson, "P. A. of a.," vol. i. p. 7G. " Cat. Mus. A. I. Ed.," p. 11
, 863.— Isle of
Skyc. i
426
BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE.
[chap
MX.
in a cist surmounted by a small tumnlus. In the cist, were the skeletons
of an adult and a j'outh, as well as portions of that of a dog. Thej-
•were accompanied by two rude urns, several Hint arrow-heads, and two
flint knives.
The earliest recorded discovery of these objects in England is that
which has alread}' been mentioned as having taken place at Tring
Grove, Herts, about 1763.' In this case, a skeleton was found in
sinking a ditch in level ground; between the legs were some flint
arrow-heads, and at the feet " some small slender stones, polished, and
of a greenish cast ; convex on one side, and concave on the other ; the
larger were foui- inches long and one broad ; the smaller not quite four
inches long nor one inch broad, somewhat narrower in the middle, with
two holes at both ends " The ruterment was accompanied by two urns,
^ O
L
c o
glfe:2s
Fig. .%4.— Evantown.
Fig. 355.— Devizes. J
and a ring of jet, perforated for suspension at the edge. To judge
from the plate and description, the longer of the " slender stones " had
not been bored with holes at either end.
An oblong piece of chlorite slate, 5f inches long. If inches broad,
and ^ inch thick, rounded on one face and hollowed on the other, was
found in a gravel-pit at Aldington, AVorcestershire.- It has four holes
through it, one at each corner, just large enough on the rounded face
to allow a fine ligament to pass through, and countersunk on the other
face. The plate of chlorite slate shown in Fig. 355 is flat, instead of
hollowed, and the holes at the corners are countersunk on both faces.
It was found in a barrow on Eoundwa}'- Hill,^ near Devizes, in front of
the breast of a skeleton, between the bones of the left forearm, and
had, when found, a small fragment of bronze, possibly the tang of a
knife, much corroded, adhering to it. In the same barrow was a
' Aich., vol. viii. p. 429, pi. xxx.
- Wiltshire Arch. Mug., vol. x. (1867), pi. vi.
3 Wiltsh. Arch. Mag., vol. iii. p. 186. " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 42, p. 3.
Arch., vol. xliii. p. 429, fig. 120.
AVRIST-GUARDS OR HRACERS OF STONE. 427
stemmed and barbed flint arrow-head like Fig. 327, and a tanp^ed
bronze dagger. This bracer has been kindly lent to me by Mr.
Cunnington, of Devizes, who discovered it. Another flat wrist-guard
from a barrow at Aldbourne/ Wilts, has only two out of the four holes
fiinished. A third is incomplete. Dr. Thurnam- regards these flat
examples as breast-jilates or gorgets. One, found with an interment
at Calne, AVilts, is in the British Museum. It resembles Fig. oo4.
A bracer, formed of a green-coloured stone, was found in a gravel-pit
at Lindridge, 'Worcestershire.^ It is about 4f inches by 1 inch, and
I inch thick ; but it has been perfoi-ated at one end only, with a counter-
sunk hole in each of the two corners, a third hole between them being
only partly drilled. The other end is somewhat sharper and undrilled.
In tlie Christy Collection, is a plate of pale-green stone il inches
long, with both faces somewhat rounded, one of them polished, and the
other, which is rather flatter, in places striated transversely by coarse
grinding. At each end are three small countersunk perforations in a
line with each other. It was found with two small ornamented urns
near Brandon. Suft'olk. This bracer has been figured^ in illustration
of some remarks by Sir A. Wollaston Franks.
In a barrow near Sutton,* Sir li. Colt Hoare found, under the right
hand and close to the breast of a contracted skeleton, a plate of blue
slate, 4^ inches long and 2J inches wide, with three small countersunk
holes arranged in a triangle at either end. Near it were two boar's
tusks and a drinking-cup. It has been thought to be too wide for a
wrist-guard. A narrower specimen with six holes at each end is also
in the Stourhead Collection.'^
Another variety has but one hole at each end, and is flat and broadest
in the middle. In a cist in a barrow on Mere Down, Wiltshire," were
two skeletons, near the left side of the larger of which was a small bronze
dagger, with a tang for insertion in the hilt, and a piece of grey slaty
stone about 4 inches long, and 1^ inches broad in the middle, perforated
at the ends. There were also present a drinking-cup, and an instru-
ment of bone, as well as two circular ornaments of gold. A similar thin
stone, with a hole at either end, was found with part of a bronze spear
and other objects, associated with burnt human remains in a barrow
at Bulford, AYilts.** One of grey slaty stone with a countersunk hole at
each end accompanied an interment at Sittingbourne," Kent, and is now
in the British Museum. Another wasfound at Lancaster.'" Ihaveanother
from Sandy, Beds, but cannot say whether it accompanied any inter-
ment. Another, 3i inches long, nearly an inch broad in the middle, and
only the fifth part of an inch in thickness, was found near the tumulus
at Broadford Bay, Isle of Skye,'' already mentioned, and is shown in
1 Arch., vol. lii. p. 66. - Arch., vol. xliii. p. 428.
^ Arch. Journ., vol. vi. p. 409. Allies' " Worcester sh.," p. 142. ulreh. Journ.,
vol. xviii. p. 160.
* Froc. Soc. A»f., 2nd S., vol. v. p. 272. Arch., vol. xliii. p. 429, fig. 122.
> "South Wilts," p. 103. Arch., vol. xliii. p. 429, fig. 121. "Cat. Devize.s
Mus.," No. 63.
« " Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. 232. ■> Hoare's " South Wilts," p. 44.
* Arch. Joiir>i., vol. xi. p. 319.
9 I'roc. Soc. Aiif., 2Dd S., vol. x. p. 29. Payne's "Coll. Caut.," p. 12.
'" Arch. Assor. Jourii., vol. xxxiii. p. 126.
J' Wilson, "P. A. of S.." vol. i. p. 223. I am indebted to Messrs. Macmillan
& Co, for the use of this cut.
428 BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BOXE. [CHAP. XIX.
Fig. 356. One (3 J inches) was foxmd in Mull,' two (of and 3 inches)
came from Fyvie and Ballogie,- Aberdeenshire, and one (2| inches) from
Glenluce.'' Another (3i inches) in
the Museum at Edinburgh came
from the North of Ireland.*
A few specimens of the same
character as Figs. 353 and 356
have been found in Ii-eland. In
ig. oo .— s e o kye. , ^^^^ country, also, the same slaty
material was used, sometimes gpreen, and sometimes red in colour.
The curious plate of fine soft sandstone, 4 inches long and perforated
at each end, found in the Genista Cave, at Gibraltar,^ may possibly
belong to this class, but it is by no means certain. Some objects of
the same kind, with a hole at each end, have been found in the Cotes
du Xord.*' France. Some early Spanish" whetstones have one and
even two perforations at each end.
The material of which, this class of objects is formed is not ex-
clusively stone. A plate of bone, now in the Devizes Museum, about
3j inches by f inch, bored through at each end from the sides and
back, so as not to interfere with the face, was found with a small
bronze celt mounted as a chisel in stag's horn, and with bone pins
and two whetstones, in a barrow near Everley.*' A fragment of an-
other bracer made of bone was found at Scratchbiiry Camp, Wilts.
It is doubtful whether the richly-ornamented flat plate of gold,
with a hole at each corner, found with a bronze dagger in a barrow ^
at Upton Lovel, was destined for the same purpose. It led Sir R. C.
Hoare, however, to regard the slate plate from the barrow near
Sutton as a mere ornament, " an humble imitation of the golden
plate found at Upton Lovel." Others have regarded these stone
plates as amulets or charms ;^° as destined to be affixed to the
middle of a bow ;^^ or as personal decorations.^^ "Wilson has called
attention to their similarity to the perforated plates of stone, of
which such numerous varieties are found in North America.-^^ The
holes in these, however, are very rarely more than two in number,
and sometimes only one, and these almost always near the middle
of the stone ; their purpose possibly being to serve as draw-holes
for equalizing the size of cords, in the same manner as twine is
^ P. S. A. S., vol. ix. p. 537. Anderson, " Scotl. inPasran Times," p. 15.
2 P. S. A. S., vol. xxvii. p. 11. » p. s. A. S^, vol. xi. p. 586.
* P. S. A. S., vol. xiii. p. 73. = Trans. Prd,. Comj., 1868, pi. viii. 2.
* P. Salmon, " L'homme," 1886, p. 279. ' Siret's " Album." />(z««i»w.
* Hoare's " South Wilts," p. 182. " Cat. De^-izes Mus.," No. 96, 19a.
' Hoare's " South Wilts," p. 99. " Cat. De\'izes Mus.," Xo. 53.
I*' Arch. Journ., vol. vi. p. 319. " Cran. Brit.." vol. i. p. 80.
" "Cat. Mus. Arch. Inst. Ed.," p. 11. >- Wilson, " P. A. of S.," vol. i. p. 224.
^^ " Anc. Mon. Mississ. Valley," p. 237.
THE USE OF ARM-GUARDS. 429
polished and rendered uniform in size, by being drawn through
a circular hole b}' European manufacturers at the present
day. They may, however, have served as ornaments, or even in
some cases as wrist-guards. One engraved by Squier^ is much
like Fiir. 356, but thinner, and with the holes rather farther
from the ends. Schoolcraft,^ suggests their employment to hold
the strands or plies apart, in the process of twine or rope making.
The Rev. Canon Ingram, F.G.S.,^ was the first to suggest that
these British plates were bracers or guards, to protect the arm of
the wearer against the blow of the string in shooting with the
bow, like those in use b}'- archers at the present day. In corro-
boration of this view, he cites the position of the plate in the
Roundway barrow, between the bones of the left forearm, and the
fact of so many of them being hollowed in such a manner as to
fit the arm ; while he argues that the similarity in the character
and position of the perforations, in the hollowed and flat varieties,
affords presumptiA^e evidence that the use of both kinds of tablets
was the same. I am inclined to adopt Canon Ingram's view,
though, unless there was some error in observation, plates of this
kind have been occasionally found on the right arm. In a barrow
at Kelleythorpe, near Drifiield,^ examined by the late Lord
Londesborough in 18-51, was a chamber containing a contracted
skeleton, the bones of the right arm of which " were laid in a very
singular and beautiful armlet, made of some large animal's bone "
(actually of stone), ^ "about 6 inches long, and the extremities,
which were a little broader than the middle, neatly squared ; in
this were two perforations about half an inch from each end, through
which were bronze pins or rivets, with gold heads, most probably
to attach it to a piece of leather which had passed round the arm
and been fastened by a small bronze buckle, which was found under-
neath the bones." These objects are now in the British Museum.
In the cist was also a bronze dagger, with a wooden sheath and
handle, some large amber beads, a drinking-cup, and the upper
part of the skull of a hawk. Possibly this ancient warrior was left-
handed, like the seven hundred chosen men of Benjamin,'' every one
of whom could yet "sling stones at an hair breadth, and not miss."
' " Abor. Mon. of New York,'' p. 79. ■ " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. p. 89.
2 Wilts Arch. Mag., vol. x. (1867), p. 109.
^ Arch., vol. xxxiv. p. 204. Since tbis was written I liavehad an opportunity of
examining this bracer, and find tbat it is of the same green kind of stone as the other.-*.
It is figured by Greenwell, " British Barrows," fig. 32, p. 36.
■^ PriH-. Soc. Ant.. 2nd S., vol. v. p. 289. Areh., vol. xliii. p. 427.
^ Judges, ch. XX. 16.
430 BKACERS, AND ARTICLES OF BONE. [cHAP. XIX.
It may be observed that lef t-handedness is thougbt to have been
rery prevalent in early times, both in the Old "World ^ and the
Kevr.- Certainly this plate strapped upon the arm is curiously
similar in character to the bracer in use in England in later times,
which, though sometimes of other materials, consisted, according
to Paulus JoA-ius,^ of a bone tablet. A bracer of carved ivory, of
the sixteenth ceniury, is in the Meyrick Collection,* and Mr. C. J.
Longman has a collection of them, many artistically engraved,
dating from the 16th and 17th centuries. Amon» the archers of
ancient Egypt,^ we find that similar guards were in use for the left
arm. These were not only fastened round the wrist, but secured by
a thong tied above the elbow. The material of which they were
formed appears to be unknown. On a Roman monument^ found
in the Xorth of England, a soldier is represented with a bow in
his hand, and a bracer on his left arm. The Eskimos ' of the
present day also make use of a guard to save the wrist from the
recoil of the bow-string. It is usually composed of three pieces of
bone, about 4 inches in length, but sometimes of one only, and is
fastened to the wrist by a bone button and loop. An ivory guard,
attached by a strap and buckle to the arm, is still worn in India.
"Whatever was the purpose of those in stone they seem to belong
to the latter part of the Stone Period, and to have continued in
use in that of Bronze.
These bracers have occasionally been found in Denmark. One
of red stone, 4 inches long, and with four holes, was found in a
dolmen near Assens. It is ornamented with parallel lines along
the ends, and part of the way along the sides. Another, 3 inches
long, from a dolmen in Langeland, is of bone, with but two holes,
and is ornamented with cross bands of zigzag lines. Both are en-
graved in the " Guide illustre du Musee des Antiquites du Nord." ®
^^Tiat appears to be one of bone, found in a barrow in Denmark,^
with two skeletons, but with no other objects, has also been en-
graved. A second was found under similar circumstances.
1 Mortillet, Bull. Soc. Anth. de Paris, 3 July, 1890.
2 Dr. D. G. Bi-inton, Amer. Anthrop., vol. ix. (1896), p. 17.5. Sir Daniel "Wil-
son, " Lef thandedness, " 1891. Mr. O. T. Mason reduces the proportion to 3 per
cent. only. Amer. Anthrop., toI. ix. (1896) p. 226.
^ " Desc. Angl.," ap. Bale, Ed. Oporin, vol. ii. p. 21.
* Skelton's " Meyrick's Armour," pi. xxxiv.
5 Wilkinson's " Anc. Eg-.," vol. i. p. 306. :
* Bruce, " Roman Wail." 3rd ed., p. 97.
' Wood, "Xat. Hist, of Man," vol. n. p. 710.
« 2nded., 1870, p. 7. Aarboq. for 2sord. OMk., 1868, p. 100.
9 Ann.foi- Nord. Oldk., 1840-1, p. 166. Madsen, " Aibild.," pi. xxv. 16.
KONE LANCE- HEADS AND PINS. 431
One of fine-grained sandstone (4^ inches) with four holes was
found near Prenzlow ^ in North Germany, and another of choco-
late-coloured material, probably slaty stone, accompanied an inter-
ment at Ochsenfurt,^ Lower Franconia.
Although, possibly, not strictly within the scope of the present
work, it may be well hero to make a few observations relating to
the various articles formed of bone which are occasionally found
in association with those of stone.
More than three dozen bone instruments were found in the Upton
Level Barrow,' already froquoutly mentioned. Most of thorn were
pointed, varying- in length from about 3 to 9 inches, and formed
apparently from, the log-bones of different mammals. Tliey, for the
most part, show a portion of the articidar surface at the end wliich has
not been sliarpened, at which also they are perforated. Mr. Cuuning-
ton, their discoverer, was of opinion that they had been used as arrow-
or lance-heads ; and possibly some of the larger specimens served as
javelin-points, even if the smaller were merely pins to aid in fastening
the dress, to which they were secured by a string passed through the
hole, so as to prevent their being lost. Numerous other bone instru-
ments from barrows are described and figured by Dr. Thuruam * and
Canon Greenwell. I have two that are decidedly lance-heads, about
G inches long, made from log-bones, probably of roe-deer, which have
been pointed by cutting the bone obliquely through, so as to show a
long elliptical section, while the articular end has been excavated
into the cavity of the bone, so as to form a socket for the shaft, which
was secured in its place by a pin, passing through two small holes
drilled through the bone. One was found in S waff ham Fen, and the
other at Grirton, near Cambridge. Other spear-heads of much the
same character, from the same district, from Lincolnshire,^ and from
the River Thames, are in the British Museum, and some of them have
been described and figured by Sir Wollaston Franks.
I have also a bone dagger with the blade about 4 inches long, with
a rivet hole through the broad tang. It was found in the Thames
near AVindsor, and was given to me by Mr. F. Tress Barry, M.P., in
1895. I have also bones worked to a dagger-like form, but without
any tang, from the Cambridge Fens.
A pin or awl of bone,'' 4^ inches long, made from the fibula of
some small animal, probably a roe-deer, split, and then rubbed to
a point, was among the objects found by the Canon Greenwell, at
Grimes's Graves, Norfolk, as well as the rounded piece of bone already
mentioned at p. 34.
Bone pins or skewers, closely resembling those from British barrows,
are of frequent occurrence on the sites of Roman occupation. In the
name ol fibula, as applied to the small bone of the leg, we have an
• Zeitsch. f. Eth»., vol. xi. p. 21.
2 Arch. f. A)ith., vol. xxiv.. 1896, corr. Blatt., p. 59.
2 Arch., XV. p. 122. Hoaro's "South Wilts," p. 75.
^ Arch., vol. xliii. p. 431 ; Hi. p. 5. " British Barrows," jWdMiw.
* Proc. Soc. Ant , 2nd S., i. p. 162. '' Journ. Ethn. Hoc, ii. p. 429.
432 BR.\CEKS, AND AKTICLES OF BONE. [cHAP. XIX.
acknowledgment of its adaptability for making such pins ; in the same
way as its concomitant tihia was the bone best adapted for making into
flutes.
Bone pins, perforated at one end, were found in several of the
barrows explored by the late Mr. Bateman,' both with burnt and
unbumt bodies. Canon G-reenwell has also found them in the York-
shire tumuli ; in three instances with burnt bodies. I found one also
in a disturbed barrow at Sutton Cheney, Leicestershire, which I opened
in 1851. Others without the hole, some of which are termed spear-
heads by Mr. Bateman. were found in Derb^-shire and Stalfordshire
barrows,- with burnt and unburnt bodies, associated with instruments
and arrow-heads of flint. Another was found with burnt bones in a
barrow at Hacpen Hill,^ "Wilts; and part of one in the Long Barrow
at West Kennet.*
It seems probable that many of these pointed instruments may have
been used as awls, for making holes in leather and soft materials.
Others, as Mr. Bateman and Canon Greenwell suggest, may, with the
unburnt bodies, have fastened some kind of shroud; and with the
burnt, have served to pin a cloth in which the ashes were placed, after
being collected from the funeral pile.
In the Heathery Burn Cave, where so many interesting bronze relics
were foimd, there also occurred a large number of bone pins or awls,
a cylindrical bone bead -to inch long, a bone tube H inches long
with a small perforation at the side, a pierced disc of bone 1 1 inches
in diameter and \ inch thick, and a flat bone blade, somewhat
resembling in form a modem paper-cutter, 7f inches long and \\
inches broad. This same flat form of instrument, about 6A- inches
long and f inch broad, occurred in the Green Low Barrow.' Derby-
shire, but then, in company with a fine flint dagger and stemmed
and barbed arrow-heads, and with a bone pin. Mr. Bateman'' thought
that these instruments might have served as modelling tools for
making pottery, or as mesh rules for netting. One, 12 inches long,
with a drinking-cup and various instruments of flint, accompanied a
contracted interment in a rock-grave on Smerrill Moor,' Derbyshire,
With a similar interment in a barrow on Haddon Field ' was one 6|
inches long, cut from the horn of a red-deer, a flint arrow-head, and
a small bronze awl. Two others, cut from the ribs of a large animal,
and two barbed flint arrow-heads, were found inside a •• drinking-cup "
at the head of a contracted skeleton in Mouse Low ; ' and others,
again, with barbed flint arrow-heads, occurred with calcined bones at
Eibden Low."' They have also been found in Dorsetshire, perforated."
Whether these instruments really served the purposes suggested by
Mr. Bateman it is impossible to determine ; but they seem well
adapted either for finishing off the surface of clay vessels, or for net-
ting, an art with which the Swiss Lake-dwellers of Eobenhausen '*
' " Ten Years' Diggings." pp. 7o. 114. " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 60, x>. 2.
- " Ten Years' DigT," pp. 44, 77, 83, 112.
3 " Saliab. Vol. Arch. Inst.," p. 91. * Arch., xxxviii. p. 413.
'" " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 41, p. 3. ''Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 60.
* Catalogue, p. 5. ' "TenY'ears' Dig.," p. 103. » Op. cit., p. 107.
' Op. cit., p. 116. Arch. Assoc. Jourti., vii. p. 215. ^^ Op. cit., p. 127.
" Arch. Jouni., v, p, 352. '^ Keller, " Lake- dwellings," p. 328.
NEEDLES OF BONE. 433
were acquainted, though in that settlement but slight traces of a
knowledge of metal are exliibited.
Although needles of bone, carefidly smoothed all over, and having
a neatly-drilled eye, have been found in the cave-deposits both of
Britain and France, but few such implements have, as yet, been dis-
covered in these countries associated with objects of the Neolithic and
Bronze Periods.
A bodkin or needle of wood, G inches long, and of the ordinary form,
was, however, found in company with a small bronze dagger-blade, in
an urn containing burnt bones near Tomen-y-mur,' Carnarvonshire.
Needles of bone, botli with the central IkjIo (like some of those of
the Bronze Age) and with the eye at the end (like those of the present
day), have also been found in the Swiss Lakes.- One of the latter
class was discovered in the Genista Cave at Gibraltar.^ It is hard to
say to what period it belongs. Needles of both forms have been found
with arrow-heads and other articles of flint, in Danish grave-chambers.*
The pins or awls, already described, are so rude and clumsy, and
so large at the perforated end, that they could never have been
intended for use as needles ; and when we consider that the principal
material to be sewn must have been the skins of animals, and that,
even at the present day, needles are hardly ever employed for sewing
leather, but bristles are attached to the end of the thread, and passed
through holes i)repared by an awl, it seems possible that needles, if
ever they were used for this particular purpose, may have been super-
seded at a very remote period. The small bronze awl, so frequently
found in barrows, is singidarly like the "cobbler's awl" of the present
daj', though straight and not curved.
Among the Danish * antiquities of bi'onze, we find a remarkable
form of needle or bodkin, about 2h or 3 inches long, bluntly pointed
at each end, and provided with an oval eye in the centre, so that it
coidd be passed through a hole in either direction. This, with a bronze
awl for boring the holes, and a pair of tweezers to assist in drawing
the needle through, appears to have constituted the sewing apparatus
of that day. I mention this form of needle because in Eibden Low,*
Staffordshire, together with a burnt interment, and some barbed arrow-
heads of flint, were bone implements "pointed at each end " and " per-
forated through the middle," which may possibly have served such
a purpose. No dimensions are given by Mr. Bateman, but a bodkin
of the same kind from a barrow at Stourpaine, Dorset, is 4 inches long.
It is in the Durden collection in the British Museum. In a barrow, at
Bailey HiU,' some calcined bones were accompanied by a pair of bone
tweezers, neatly made and perforated for suspension.
Some of the needles of horn or bone in use among the Indians of
North America^ were in shape much like miniature elepliants' tusks.
Another bone implement appears to have been a chisel, of which a
good specimen was found by the Eev. W. C. Lukis, F.S.A., in a
' Arch. Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 17.
* Le Hon, "L'homme foss.," 2nd ed., p. 18G.
3 Trans. I'reh. Cong., 1868, pi. ix. p. 126 ' Madsen, " Afbild.," pi. xvii.
5 Worsaae, " Nord. Olds.," No. 275. « "Ten Years' Diff.," p. 127.
' lb., p. 169.
* Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. pi. xxxvii. "Anc. Mon. of Miss. Vail.,"
p. 220.
F F
484 BRACERS, AND ARTICLES OF RONE. [cHAP. XII.
•chambered barrow at Temple Bottom,' Wilts. It is formed of a
portion split from a leg-bone of some mammal, about 3^ inches long,
and f inch wide, sharpened from both faces to a segmental edge at
one end. A broader instrimient of the same character was found with
some long bone pins or awls near Cawdor Castle ; ' and ' ' a celt-shaped
instrument, 5 inches long, with a cutting edge, made from part of the
lower jaw of a large quadruped, rubbed down," was foimd with
oalcined bones in a barrow near Monsal Dale.'
As has already been mentioned, bone instruments in the shape
of a chisel occur in considerable numbers in the Swiss Lake-
dwellings and elsewhere, and have been regarded as tools used in
making and ornamenting earthen vessels.* That bone chisels are,
however, susceptible of more extensive use, is proved by the practice of
the Klah-o-quat Indians of Nootka Soimd,* who, without the aid of
fire, cut down the large cedars for their "dug-out" canoes with
chisels formed from the horn of the Wapiti, struck by mallets of
stone hafted in withes, or like dumb-bells in shape.
The only other forms of implement I need mention are those of
a hammer and a hoe, formed of the lower end of a stag's horn,
cut off and perforated. A hammer, or possibly a celt-socket, was
found with a skeleton in Cop Head Hill barrow,^ near Warminster,
together with fragments of flint " polished by use ; " another in
a barrow at ColHngbourn,^ Wilts, and a third in a barrow near
Biggin,^ with a contracted interment, and in company with flint
celts, arrow-heads, and knives. Canon Greenwell has likewise
found one in a barrow at Cowlam, Yorkshire, with an unburnt
body, and together with a stone axe-hammer among burnt bones
in a barrow at Lambourn,^ Berks. They have also been found
in some numbers in the Thames, near Kew.
I have already spoken of the use of stag's horn for pick-axes,
and for sockets for stone -hatchets ; occasionally, also, the horn
itself was sharpened and used as an axe or hoe.^'' One from the
Thames" near Wandsworth, with its wooden handle still preserved,
has been recorded by Mr. G. F. Lawrence. Stag's-horn axes
occur in various countries on the Continent. They are by no
means rare in Scandinavia, except in the case of those having
ring and other ornaments engraved upon them.^^ On an adze of
1 Froe. Soe. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 215. 2 Troc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 395.
3 "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 77. * Keller, " Lake-dw.," 2nd S., p. 26.
» Catlin's " Last Rambles," p. 101.
6 Hoare's «' South Wilts," p. 68. " Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. 224a.
■^ Arch., vol. xliii. p. 438. 8 << Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 42.
9 Arch., vol. Iii. p. 60, fig. 27.
'° Sproat, " Scenes and Studies of Savage Life, 1868," p. 86. Trans. Ethn. Soc,
N. S., vol. V. p. 250. 1' Daili/ Graphic, Dec. 28, 1896.
12 Ant. Tid.sk., 1852-54, p. 9. Mem. de la Soc. des Ant. du Nord, 1850-60, p. 29.
Madsen, " Afb.," pi. xxv.
HOES OF stag's HORN, 435
this kind, in the Stockholm Museum, is engraved the spirited
representation of a deer. In one instance,^ an axe has been made
from the ulna of a whale. Lindenschmit ^ has engraved several of
stag's horn, principally from Hanover. They occur also in France.^
Beads and buttons of bone* have been found with early interments ;
but the curious bone objects discovered in a pit at Leicester,^ and
in the caves at Settle, Yorkshire,^ belong apparently to too recent a
period to be here discussed. A kind of bone chisel has remained
in use until recent times for the purpose of removing the bark
from oak-trees for the supply of tanners. Some beads and orna-
ments formed of bone will be mentioned in a subsequent chapter.
' Mem. de la Soe. des Ant. du N., 1845-49, p. 168.
"^ " Alterth. u. heid. Vorz.," vol. i. Heft v. Taf. 1. See also " Horae Ferales,"
pl.i.
3 Boucher de Perthes, " Ant. Celt, et Anted.," vol. i. pi. ii. 5, 7.
* Arch., vol. XXX. p. 330. Hoare's "South Wilts," p. 103. "Cat. Devizes
Mus.," No. 10, 49d, 224, 302.
* Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 246. « Smith's " Coll. Ant.," vol. i. p. 69.
F f2
436
CHAPTER XX.
SPIXDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, WEIGHTS, AND CUPS.
Besides the weapons and implements used in warfare and the
chase, as well as for various constructive purposes, there were in
ancient times, as at present, numerous implements and utensils of
stone devoted to more purely domestic uses. Some of these, such
as corn-crushers, mealing- stones, querns, pestles, and mortars,
have been treated of elsewhere in this work, when, from the con-
nection of these instruments with other forms adapted for some-
what different purposes, it appeared appropriate to describe them.
There are, however, other classes, connected principally with
domestic occupations, such, for instance, as spinning and weaving,
about which it will be necessary to say a few words.
At how early a period the introduction of the spinning-wheel
superseded to some extent the use of the distaff and spindle, it is
difficult to say. It is by no means improbable that it was known
in classical times, as Stosch thinks that he has recognized it on
antique gems. The distaff and spindle remained, however, in use
in many parts of this country until quite recently, and are still
commonly employed in some remote parts of Britain, as well as
over a great part of Europe. To how early a date this simple
method of spinning goes back, we have also no means of judging.
We know that it was in use in the earliest times among the
Egyptians and Greeks ; and we find, moreover, in the lake-habi-
tations of Switzerland^ — even in those which apparently belong
to a purely stone age — evidence of an acquaintance with the arts
both of spinning and weaving, not only in the presence of some of
the mechanical appliances for those purposes, but also in the
thread and manufactured cloth. The principal fibrous materials
in use in the lake-dwellings were bast from the bark of trees
(chiefly the lime) and flax. No hemp has as yet been foxmd in
' Keller, •• Lake-dwellings," p. 326. Desor, " Les Palafittes," p. 30.
\
^
SUPERSTITIONS ATTACHING TO WHORLS. 437
any lake-dwelling. It seems probable that the raw materials
employed in neolithic times in Britain must have been of the
same character ; but we have here no such means of judging of
the relative antiquity of the textile art, as those at the command
of the Swiss antiquaries. Woven tissues have, however, been
found with ancient interments, apparently of the Bronze Age,
by Canon Greenwell,^ and Messrs. Mortimer, but made of wool,
and not of vegetable fibre. An article on prehistoric spinning
and weaving written by Dr. G. Buschan^ is worth consulting, as
well as one by Dr. Joseph Anderson,^ on these processes in con-
nexion with brochs. Sir Arthur Mitchell* has also written on
the subject of the spindle and whorl.
In spinning with tlie distaff and spindle, the rotatory motion of the
latter is maintained bj-- a small fly-wheel or " spindle- whorl," very
generally formed of stone, but sometimes of other materials, with a
perforation in the centre, in which the wooden or bone spindle was
fastened, the part below the whorl tapering to a j)oint so as to be
readily twirled between the finger and thumb, and the part above,
being also pointed, but longer, so as to admit of the thread when spim
being wound round it, the yarn in the act of being spun being
attached to the ujjper point. These spindle-whorls are, as might be
anticipated, frequently found in various parts of the country ; and
though, from the lengthened period dm*ing which this mode of spin-
ning was practised, it is impossible under ordinary circumstances to
determine the antiquity of any specimen, yet they appear to have been
sufficiently long out of use for local superstitions to have attached to
them, as in Cornwall they are commonly known by the name of
"Pisky grinding-stones," ^ or " Pixy's grindstones." In North
Britain,'' they are also familiarly called Pixy- wheels, and in Ireland''
'' Fairy mill-stones." In Harris, and Lewis, ^ the distaff and spindle
are still in common use, and were so until quite recently on the main-
land of Scotland.^ For twisting hair-lines or "imps" for fishing,
stone, lead, or earthenware whorls with a hook in them are used.
They are known by the name of " imp-stones." "^ Notwithstanding
this recent use, the original intention of the stone spindle-whorls,
which occur in Scotland, as elsewhere, appears often to be unknown.
They are called clach-nathrach, adder-stones or snake-stones, and have
an origin assigned them much like that of the ovwn anguinum of Pliny.
" When cattle are bitten by snakes, the snake-stone is put into water,
with which the affected part is washed, and it is cured forthwith."
(ilass beads " with spirals on them seem to have been regarded as
even more efficacious.
* Arch. Journ., vol. xxii. p. 253. "Brit. Barrows," pp. 32, 376.
* Arch. f. Anthr., vol. xviii. (1889), p. 235. See also Zeitsch.f. Ethn., vol. xxviii.
!(1896) p. 473.
3 Proe. i>. A. Scot., vol. ix. p. 548. * " The Past in the Present," (1880), p. 1.
* Arch. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 184. ^ lb. xxvi. p. 184.
•^ WUde, "Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," p. IIG.
8 Proe. S. A. Scot., vol. iv. pp. 72, 119-286. » Proc. S. A. S., vol. iv. p. 259.
10 Proe. S. A. S., vol. iv. pp. 149, 166. '• Proe. S. A. S., vol. v. p. 313.
438
SPINDLE-WHORLS, DLSCS, SLICKSTONES, ETC. [CHAP. XX.
Fig. 357. — Scamp-
ston. J
Spindle-whorls vary considerably in size and vreight, being usually
from an inch, to an inch and a half in diameter, but occasionally as
much as from two to three inches. They are sometimes flat at the
edge or cylindrical, but more frequently rounded. They differ much
in the degree of finish, some appearing to have been
turned in a lathe, while others are very rough and
not truly circular.
The specimen I have selected for engraving as
Fig. 357 is one of the more highlj- finished class,
and rather flatter than usual. It was found in
draining, at Scampston, Yorkshire, and is formed
of a hard slaty stone. It has been turned in a
lathe on one face, and at the edge ; the other face
is irregular, and seems to have been polished by
hand. "WTiat was evidently the upper face, is ornamented with two
parallel incised circles, and there are two more round the edge. The
hole seems to have been drilled, and is quite parallel. One of the
cheese-like spindle-whorls, of red sandstone,
and another, rounded at the rim, found in hut-
circles in Holyhead and Anglesea,' are shown
in Figs. 358 and 359. Another, of sandstone,
was found in Thor's Cave,'- Derbj'shire, with
various objects, some of them of iron. One
of lead, 1^ inches in diameter, convex on one
face, was found in the same place. One
found at Ty Mawr, Holyhead,' by the late
Hon. W. 0. Stanley, F.S.A., who kindly lent
me this and the preceding blocks, is shown
in Fig. 360. Numerous other specimens were discovered in the same
place. They are sometimes decorated with incised radial lines and
Fig. 35.S.— Holyhead.
Fig. 369.— Holyhead
Fig. S60.— Holj head.
shallow cavities more or less rudely executed. One such, found near
Camo, Montgomeryshire,^ has been figured. Several others are re-
1 A. J., vol. xxiv. p. 250 ; xxvii. p. 160. For others from Anglesea see Arch.
Camb., 5th S., vol. ix. p. 242.
^ Reliquary, vol. vi. pp. 207, 211. ' Arch. Joxtrn., vol. ixvi. p. 304.
* Arch. Camb., 3rd S., vol. iii. p. 305.
USES OF PERFORATED DISCS. 439
corded as having been found in the Principality.' In Cornwall,' they
seem to be especially numerous, occasionally occurring in subterranean
chambers. They have also been found in considerable numbers in
Scotland.^ The half of a clay spindle-whorl was found by Canon
Greenwell in the material of a barrow at Weaverthorpe.*
Sir Wollaston Franks* has suggested that some of these perforated
discs may have been used as dress-fasteners or buttons, and mentions
that very similar objects have been found in Mexico, which there is
every reason to believe have been used as buttons. lie also instances
a specimen from South Wales, which has evidently had a cord passed
througli it, as the edges of the hole in the centre are much worn by
friction. Such a view carries much probability with it, so far as it
relates to the thin discs of stone with small central holes not parallel,
but tapering from both faces ; especially if they are in any way orna-
mented. Some of the rougher kind, however, may have served some
such purpose as that of plummets or net-sinkers, as has been sug-
gested by Professor Nilsson.*^ Perforated ' pebbles of much the same
form have served as net weights in Scotland, and are still occasionally
in use. In Samoa, flat circular discs of stones, about two inches in
diameter, with central holes, are used to prevent rats from reaching pro-
visions, which are suspended in baskets by a cord. One of these discs
strung on the cord suf&ces for the purpose. A specimen is in the Christy
Collection. Their use is analogous to that of the flat stones on the
straddles on which corn-stacks are built in this country, though in that
case, the stones are to prevent the ascent and not the descent of the rats.
Judging, however, from all analog)', there can be little doubt that
in most cases where the holes are parallel, the perforated discs found
in Britain were spindle-whorls. As has been already observed, they
are frequently formed of other materials than stone ; and both the
spindles of wood and the whorls of bone have been found with Roman
remains.* They are also frequently formed of lead and earthenware.
Spindles of ivory sometimes occur both with Roman and Saxon relics. I
have several such, found with whorls of slaty stone in Cambridgeshire.
The Saxon whorls are of the same materials and character as those of
Roman age. Spindles of wood have been found in the lake-settle-
ments of Savoy.'' An interesting and profusely illustrated chapter on
spindle-whorls will be found in Hume's " Ancient Meols.'"" Earthen-
ware whorls, variously decorated, have been found in large numbers
on the site of Troy, and with Mycensean remains.
Allied to the whorls, but evidently destined for some other pur-
pose, is a flat disc of shelly limestone, now in my collection, found at
Barrow, near Bury St. Edmund's. It is 5^ inches in diameter, | inch
thick, ground from both faces to an edge all round, and perforated in
the centre with a hole f inch in diameter, counter-sunk on each face,
so as to leave only a narrow edge in the middle of the hole, which is
much polished by friction. The edge of the periphery is also worn
1 A. 7.,vol. Tiii. p. 427. Arch. Camb., •2nd S., vol.iii. p. 223 ; 3rdS., vi. p. 376.
- Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 170. Journ. Ji. I. Corn., vol. ii. p. 280.
' Froc. a. A. Scut., vol. iv. p. 54 ; v. pp. 15, 82 ; vi. p. 208. A. /., vol. x. p. 219.
* "Brit. Barrows," pp. 116, 196. " Arch. Journ., vol. ix. p. 11 ; xxiv. p. 250
6 " 8tonc' Age," p. 81. ' Froc. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 213.
■* C. K. Smith's " Cat. Lond. Ant.," p. 70. Lee's " Isca Silurum," p. 47.
» Rabut, " Hab. Lac. de la Sav.," 2me Mem., pi. vii. 1. ^^ 1863, p. 151.
440 SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKS! ONES, ETC. [cHAP. XX.
smooth. I am at a loss to assign a use to this object. In the Green-
well Collection a similar disc from the North Eiding of Yorkshire
.shows polish on one face. A somewhat similar disc with the hole
a little larger, so that it rather resembles a quoit, is in the Norwich
Museum. It may be a plaything of no great antiquity. An instrument
of similar form, engraved by Lindenschmit,' has a parallel shaft-hole.
Among the North American Indians,- perforated discs, but with broad
and not sharp peripheries, appear to have been used as a kind of quoits.
Some flat imperforate discs of stone, from two to nine inches in dia-
meter, roughly chipped round the edges, and in one instance oval,
were associated with bronze tweezers and articlesof iron, in a Pict's house
at Kettlebum, Caithness.^ Two polished stone discs were found in a
crannog near Maybole,^ Ayrshire, and a nearly sc^uare piece of stone
that had been polished on both sides in a crannog at Dowalton,^
Sorbie, "Wigtownshire. Others of large size occurred in another Pict's
house in Orkney,* and were regarded as plates. Six black stone
dishes, all about 2^ inches thick, and varying from 1 foot 8 inches to
10 inches long, were found with numerous other objects, among them
a copper needle, in a circular building in South Uist.' Other similar
dishes have been found near Sand Lodge, in Shetland,^ and elsewhere.
Possibly such stones may have been used in cooking oatmeal cakes or
bannocks — like the stones on which formerly " pikelets " or crumpets
were cooked in Leicestershire and other Midland counties, where their
modem iron substitutes are still called " pikelet-stones." Ornamented
stones for toasting oatmeal cakes in front of a peat fire are or were
until lately in use in Scotland.^ Cooking slabs of thin stone are used
by the natives of Guiana ^'' for baking cassava bread.
Dr. Joseph Anderson " has suggested that some of the small discs,
with the sxirface highly polished, such as have been found in Scottish
brochs of the Iron Age, may have served as mirrors.
Another purpose to which stone implements seem to have been
applied, in connection with weaving and the preparation of leather,
is that of burnishing or smoothing, somewhat in the same manner
as is now effected by the flat-iron. An oval pebble (4 inches)
rubbed all along one side was found by General Pitt Eivers in
one of the pits at Mount Caburn,^^ Lewes. Sir W. Wilde, speak-
ing of a quite recent period, observes that " it is well known that
weavers in the north of Ireland used a smooth celt, whenever they
could find one, for rubbing on the cloth, bit by bit, as they worked
it, to close the threads and give a gloss to the surface." ^^ Canon
1 "Alt. u. h. v.," vol. i. Heft ii. Taf. 1, &g. 1.
2 Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. p. 83.
* Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. i. p. 268. Arch. Journ., vol. x. p. 219.
* Froc. S. A. S., vol. xv. p. 108. « Froc. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 217.
* Arch., vol. xxxiv. p. 135. ' Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iii. p. 12.5.
« Froc. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 216.
9 Froc. S. A. S., vol. 3d. p. 351. Sir A. Slitchell, "The Past in the Present,"
p. 239 et seqq.
" Im Thum, " Among the Indians of Guiana," 1883, p. 427.
" Froc. S. A. S., vol. x. p. 717. " Arch., vol. xlvi. p. 430, pi. xxiv. 21.
" " Cat. Mufl. R. I. A.," p. 45.
USE OF SLICKSTONES. 441
Oreenwell had a celt from Yorkshire, which was used by a shoe-
maker for smoothing down the seams he made in leather. The
old English name for the smooth stones used for such purposes is
" slickstone." In the "Promptorium Parvulorum,"^ written in
the fifteenth century, a slekyston or slekenstoxe is translated,
' Unitorium, lucibriunculnin, licinitorium — terms unknown to classical
3^ . Latinity. Mr. Albert Way, in a note on the word, after giving
"^2 its various forms as slyke-stone, sleght-stone, sleekc-stone, &c.,
remarks, " In former times, polished stones, implements in form
— j of a muller, were used to smooth linen,'-^ paper, and the like,
^"^ ' and likewise for the operation termed calendering. Gautier de
Bibelesworth says, —
" Et priez la dame qe ta koyfe luche (slike)
"^ De sa luchiere (sliVingston) siir la huche."
In directions for making buckram, &c., and for starching cloth,
(Sloane MS., 3548, f. 102), the finishing process is as follows:
* Cum lapide slycstone levifica.' " " She that hath no glasse to
dresse ber head will use a bowle of water, she that wanteth a
sleeke stone to smooth her linuen will take a pebble."^
"Slickstones occur in the Tables of Custom-House Rates on
Imports, 2 James I., and about that period large stones inscribed
xJ with texts of Scripture were occasionally thus used. (See
Whitaker, ' Hist, of Craven,'^ p. 401, n.) There was a specimen
in the Leverian Museum. Bishop Kennett, in his * Glossarial
Collections,' s.r. ' Slade,' alludes to the use of such an appliance
' to sleek clothes with a sleekstone.' " Cotgrave, in his French
Dictionary, translates calendnne or pierre ca/endrine, as a sleek-
stone; and under the Avord "lisse " makes mention of "a rowler
of massive glasse wherewith curriers do sleeke and gloss their
leather." This, probably, was a substitute for a more ancient
instrument of stone. Sir Thomas Browne mentions slickstones
among electric bodies, and implies that in his time they were of
glass. ** Glass attracts but weakly though clear ; some slick-
stones and thick glasses indifferently." ^
I have two or three specimens of glass slickstones, which in
form resemble mushrooms. The lenticular part is usually about
5 inches in diameter, and its rounded surface was used for
' Camd. Soc. Ed., p. 458.
^ A polished flint is still used for producing a brilliant surface on some kinds of
coloured papers which are known as "flint-glazed." See "Elint Chips," p. 101.
^ Lilly's " Euphues and his England," ed. 1617.
* 2nd ed., p. 4G8. * " Vulg. Errors," ii. c. 4.
^
.. ^
442
SPINDLE-WHORI.S, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, ETC. [CHAP. XX.
polishing the linen. The handle or stalk is ribbed and about
4 J inches long. They are of both clear and of bottle-green glass.
A small slickstone of black glass without a handle was found in a
Yiking grave of a woman in Islay.^ The same form was recently
in use in Scotland. A large one is in the Kirkcudbright""^
Museum. Another^ provided with a long smooth handle has
likewise been figured.
A four-sided implement of stone, fashioned with considerable care,
the sides flat and smooth, and with an edge at one end, was found by
the late Hon. W. 0. Stanley, F.S.A., at Pen-y-Bonc/ and is shown La
Fig. 361, kindly lent to me by him. It has been regarded as a bur-
nisher or polishing stone. A similar specimen is in the Blackmore
Mxiseum.
Air. Syer Cuming^ mentions the discovery, at Alchester, Oxford-
shire, of a flat pyriform piece of red sandstone, 3^ inches long, 3^
inches wide, and 1 inch thick in the middle, with the edges rounded,
and the whole surface, with the exception of the obtuse end. polished ;
and he inclines to the belief that it was employed in smoothing hides
and rendering them pliant for clothing. Another " slickstone for taw-
ing or softening hides by friction," formed of quartz, 6^ inches broad
by 2^ inches in height, with a depression on either side to admit the
finger and thumb, and having the surface rounded and polished by
use, was found at a depth of three feet in the ground at Culter,
Lanarkshire.^ In the Shrewsbur}' Museum" is a perforated stone in
shape like a broad hoe, but with rounded edges ; it is thought to be a.
currier's tool. Three flint pebbles found with late- Celtic enamelled
bromze horse-trappings at "VVesthall, Suffolk,* and having one or both
' Proc. S. A. .S'., Tol. xiv. p. 64. - Proc. S. A. S., vol. xv. p. 192.
' Trans. Latic. and Chesh. Arch. Soc, vol. iii. p. 206.
* Areh. Journ., vol. xxvi., p. 321. 5 j^rch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xii. p. 177
' Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xvii. p. 20, pi. v. 1.
' Areh. Comb., 4th S., vol. xiii. p. 224. » Arch., vol. xxxvi. p. 456.
STONES AS BURNISHERS AND WEIGHTS.
443
of their sides much rubbed down, may possibly belong to this class of
objects. Sir E,. Colt Iloaro ' speaks of ''the hard flat stones of the
pebble kind, such as we frequently find both in the towns as well as
in the tumuli of the Britons," but does not suggest a purpose for
them. Polished pebbles have not unfrequently been found in tumuli
with stone weapons and implements. One tapering toward the ends,
which are rubbed flat, was found by IMr. Bateman." Another was
found in a barrow near Ashford-in-tho-Wator.^ It is possible they
may, as subsequently suggeste I. have been ornaments or amulets ; but
some pebbles, polished on part of their surface, as if by use, have been
found in tumuli by Canon Greeuwell.
A " .smoothing- stone" of hard grey stone, with a short tang appa-
rently for fixing it in a handle, has been engraved by the Rev. Dr.
Hume.* He does not, however, state where it was found. A some-
what similar implement is engraved by Schoolcraft,^ which he thinks
may have been designed for smoothing down seams of buckskin. As
stated at page 416, I have seen a stone which had been used for this
purpose in England.
Granite and other pebbles are used as ironing-stones in Orkney* and
in Scotland. Several have been described by Professor Duns.'
Dr. Keller" has shown that, in connection with what was probably
the earliest form of loom, weights were employed to stretch the warp.
These, however, in Switzerland, seem to have been for the most part
formed of burnt clay, though possibly some of the stones which have
been regarded as sinkstones or plummets, were used for this purpose.
Some of these have already been described.
Loom weights of burnt clay have been found in Scotland* and of
chalk'" in Sussex. I have one of burnt clay from Cambridge.
Another domestic use to which stones were applied was as
weights for the balance or scales ; though we have no evidence at
present that in this country, at all events, any weighing apparatus
was known so early as the Stone or even the Bronze Period.
Among the Jews the same word ]ns [Eben) denoted both a stone
and a weight ; and we have a somewhat similar instance of
customs being recorded in language in the case of our own
" stone " of eight or fourteen pounds,
of stone are not unfrequently found
occupation.
The moulds in which bronze weapons and tools were cast, were
often made of stone, but for any account of them I refer the
reader to my book on " Bronze Implements."
Another class of domestic utensils, frequently found in Scotland
» "South Wilts," p. 124. 2 '< Ve8t. Ant. Derb.," p. 29.
' ^rch., vol. xii. p. 327. ■» " Ancient Meols," p. 314.
* " Ind. Tribes," vol. ii. pi. .50.
6 Mitchell's " Past in the Present," pp. 122, 128-132. Proe. S. A. S., vol. xii.
p. 268.
' rroc. S. A. S., vol. xiii. p. 279. » »' Lake-dwellings," p. 331.
» Froc. S. A. a., vol. ix. pp. 154, 174, 557. "* Arch., vol. xlvi. pp. 4C8, 493.
Discoidal weights formed
on the sites of Roman
444
SinXDLE-WIIOKLS, DISCS, SLTCKSTONES, ETC. [CHAP. XX.
I'lg. at2.— Scutlau']
and the adjacent islands, consists of cup-like vessels formed of
stone, of various degrees of hardness, and usually provided with a
small projecting handle.
Fig. 362, borrowed from the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland.^ will serve to show their general character. Of the two
cups here engraved, one was
found near a megalithic circle
at Crookmore, Tullynessle,
Aberdeenshii-e, and the other
in another part of Scotland.
The material is described as a
soft calcareous stone. One of
steatite or "pot-stone," with
a large unpierced handle, was
found in a cairn at Drumkesk,-
near Aboyne, Aberdeenshire ;
and two others, one Avith the
handle projecting from the
side, and the other with a long
straight handle, at Strathdon ^ in the same county. Two others,
one of them of micaceous sandstone, ornamented with a band of
rudely-cut projecting knobs, and the other with incised lines in zigzag
herring-bone patterns, were dug out of a large cairn on Knockargity,'*
and others at Cromar,'' also in
Aberdeenshire. One orna-
mented in a similar manner
was found at Needless,* Perth.
Others have been found in
cairns in Bautf shire," Moray-
shire,*^ and Sutherlandshire,*
the engraving of the last of
which is here reproduced as
Fig. 363. It is 6^ inches in
diameter. They have also been
found in brochs, in Caithness,'"
Shetland," and in a "fort"
in ^Forfarshire.'- They have likewise been discovered under various
circumstances in Aberdeenshire," at Balmoral,'^ and in Forfarshire,'*
Perthshire,'*' and the Isle of Skye,'" as well as in the Isle of Man.'^
1 Vol. i. p. 117. Wilson's "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 207.
* Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 266.
Froc. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. v. pp. 30, 83.
Fig. 3Ga.— sulliW-laiia^lin
* F. S. A. S., vol. vi. p. 89.
^ Froc. S. A. S., vol. xxii. p. HI
8 " Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.," p. 18.
' Arch. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 186.
" Arch. Scot., vol. iii. app. 81).
'3 F. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 320.
1* Ibid.
" Ibid., vol. i. p. 180.
'* Arch. Journ., vol. xiii. p. 104
vol. ii. p. 330. Arch. C'amb., 3rd S., vol. xi. p. 429
" Cat. Arch. Inst. Mus. Ed.," p. 20.
■ F. S. A. A'., vol. i. p. 138.
F. S. A. S., vol. i. p. 267.
'" Arch. Scot., vol. iii. app. 50.
'- F. S. A. S., vol. ii. pp. 64, 71.
11 Ibid., vol. v. p. 82.
10 Ibid., vol. vi. p. 12.
" Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.," p 47. F. S. A. S.,
Fisr. 3G1.— Fur.ju Ijlands.
STONE CUPS. 445
Thej occur, tlioiigh rarely, in Ireland.^ I have one from Trillick,
Tyrone.
In former times these cups ■vrere regarded as " Druidical j';a^<;r« ; "
but Sir Daniel Wilson'- has pointed out that in the Faroe Islands, a
similar kind of vessel is still in use as a lamp or as a chaling-dish for
carrying live embers. He lias engraved one of them in the cut here
reproduced. The same kind of
rude lamp or cresset is in use
in Ceylon.^ These Scottish
vessels probably belong to no
very remote antiquity.
A shallow one-handled saucer
or stand of Ivimmeridge shale
■was found at Povington, Dor-
set,* but was probably in-
tended for some other purpose
than the Scottish cup. It has been suggested that it was for holding
the flakes of flint supposed to have been used for turning the armlets
and other objects of Kimmeridge coal, many fragments of which, as
well as numerous pieces of flint, were found with it ; but it seems more
probable that the turning tools were of metal. It may be an un-
finished lamp-stand, or possibly a lamp.
Cups, however, formed of shale, and most skilfully made, have
occasionally been found in barrows. The most remarkable is that
which was discovered in a tumulus at Broad Down,° near HonitoH,
by the Rev. Richard Kirwan, to whom I am indebted for the loan
of the full-sized figure (Fig. 365) on the next page. The wood-
cut gives so perfect a representation of its form that any detailed
description is needless. Its height is 3f inches, and its greatest
diameter, which is at the mouth, 3 inches. Its capacity is about
a gill. The material of Vhich it is formed appears in all proba-
bility to be Kimmeridge^ shale, though it is difficult to pronounce
on this point with certainty. In another barrow, also on Broad
Down,^ Mr. Kirwan came upon a bronze spear-head, or rather
dagger, which had been attached to its haft by rivets, lying on a
deposit of burnt bones ; and at a distance from it of about 3 feet he
discovered a drinking-cup of shale, of almost similar form and size
to that previously found. It is about 3j inches high, and 3 inches
in diameter at the mouth, and is now preserved in the Albert
Museum at Exeter. One very remarkable feature about these
' Wilde. " Cat. Mus. R. I. A.," p. lU.
- P. S. A. S., vol. i. p. 118. " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 208.
* Arch. Journ., vol. xiii. p. 104.
* Engraved ia. Arch. Joum., vol. xvi. p. 299.
* Arc/>. Journ., vol. xxv. p. 290. Trans. Preh. Cong., 1868, p. 363. Trans.
Devon. Assoc, vol. ii. p. 619; xii. p. 124.
" See Pengelly in Tr. Dev. Assoc, vol. iv. p. 105.
' Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. iv. p. W2, pi. iv. 2.
446
SPINDLE- WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKST05ES, ETC, [cHAP. XX-
cups is that they have been turned in the lathe, and not made by
hand ; and it has been suggested that by the use of the pole-
Fig.365.— :
-1 Honiton.
lathe, the great apparent difficulty of leaving the projection for
CUPS TURNED IN A LATHE. 447
the handle would be entirely removed. I had already arrived at
this conclusion before seeing, in Mr. Kirwan's paper, the views of
a "skilful practical turner" on this point; but it may be well to
describe the simple instrument known as a pole-lathe, with which
most of the constituent parts of a Windsor chair are turned at the
present day.^
On the bed of the lathe, which usually consists of two pieces of
squared wood nailed to two standards fixed in the ground, are two
wooden " heads," both furnished with pointed screws passing through
them, to form the centres on which the piece of wood to be turned
revolves. This, after having been chopped into an approxi-
mately cylindrical form, is placed between the two centres, and
above the lathe is fixed a long elastic pole of wood, to the end of
which a cord is attached, connecting it to the end of a treadle below
the lathe. The cord is hitched round the wood, and adjusted to such
a length as to keep the treadle well off the ground when the pole is at
rest. When the treadle is pressed down with the foot, it draws down
the pole, and the cord in its passage causes the piece of wood to
revolve. When the pressure is relieved, the elasticity of the pole
draws it back in the opposite direction, so that the workman by tread-
ing causes an alternate rotary motion of the wood. He turns this in
the ordinary manner, except that his tool can cut only intermittently,
that is, at the time when the revolution is towards, and not from him.
If now, a projecting stop were attached to the object in the lathe, so as
to prevent its making a complete revolution, it is evident that a por-
tion like that forming the handle of the cup might be left unturned.
Still, in the case of these cups, something more than the ordinary
pole-lathe with two " dead " centres must have been used, as with
such a lathe, it would be almost impossible to bore out the hollow of
the cup. It appears probable, therefore, that a mandrel-head with a
"live" centre, like that of our ordinary lathes, must have been used ;
though probably the motion was communicated by a pole and treadle,
and not, as with modem foot-lathes, by a large pulley on a cranked
axle.
We shall subsequently see that the waste pieces of Kimmeridge
shale, to which the unwarrantable name of " coal-money " has been
applied, testify to the use of such a lathe. Whatever may be the date
to which the manufacture of this shale into bracelets and other objects
was carried down, it seems probable that, assuming this cup to have
been of home manufacture and not imported, the use of the lathe was
known in this country in pre-Roman times. In the Broad Down
barrow no other object accompanied the burnt bones, and in the
trimk- interment in the King Barrow, Stowborough,^ near Wareham,
cited by Mr. Kirwan, where a somewhat similar cup appears to have
^ The pole-lathe is also still in use in the manufacture of metallic cocks in which
the revolution of the barrel being turned has to be stopped before the complete
circle has been gone through. — See Timmins'e "Eirmingham and Mid. Hardware
District," (1866), p. 291.
* Hutchins' "Dorset," vol. i. p. 38. Gough's "Camden's Brit.," vol. i. p. 70,
pi. ii. Wame's "Celtic Tumuli," § 3, p. 4.
448
SPINDLE-WHORLS, DISCS, SLICKSTONES, ETC. [cHAP. XX.
been found, there was no weapon nor trace of metal, unless it were
what was imagined to be some gold lace. The ornamentation of this
cup is different from that of the Devonshire specimen, and tlie work-
manship appears to be ruder. It was described at the time as of
wood, but was probably of shale, as has been suggested by Dr. "Wake
Smart. ^ Some fragments of cups of shale with flat handles were
foimd in the Eomano-British village at AVoodcuts.-
It is, however, but right to mention that a wooden cup with a handle
Bottom of Cup.
Fig. 366.— Rillaton, height Z\ inchc?.
at the side, and which had been turned in a lathe, was found in a
barrow in Schleswig,^ in a coffin made from the trunk of an oak, together
with a skeleton wrapped in woollen cloth, a bronze dagger, and other
objects. Professor Worsaae attributes these objects to the Early
Bronze Age. Mr. Kirwan has cited another instance of a somewhat
similar cuji, found with "coal-money."
It is true that these instances afford no actual guide as to date, but
1 Wame, /. e. ^ " Exc. on Cranbome Cliase,"[vol. i. pi. xlviii.
•^ Arch. Jottrn., vol. xxiii. p. 35.
AMBJiR CUP.
449
the interments were clearly not Roman. Some clue, however, is
alt'ordod by the discovery of the gold cup shown in Fig. 366, not un-
like this in form, in a barrow at Rillaton,' Cornwall, accompanied by
what appears to have been a bronze dagger ; - but the best evidence
as to the date to be assigned to this class of cups is probably that of
the very remarkable and beautiful specimen formed of amber, and
found in a barrow at Hove,' near Hrigliton.
In this instance an interment in a rude oaken coffin was accompanied
by the amber cup, here, by the kindness of the Sussex Archa3ological
Society, reproduced, a double-edged battle-axe of stone (see Fig. 119,
J). 186), a bronze dagger, and a whetstone. This cup is 3^ inches in
diameter and 2^ high, about vt,- inch in thickness, and its capacity
Handle of Cup.
Fig. .367.— IIovo.
rather more than half a pint. It is perfectly smooth inside and out,
and, so far as I could judge from seeing it through glass in the
Brighton Museum, it was turned in a lathe. It has been suggested
by Mr. Barclay Phillips that some process like that of boiling amber
in spirits of turpentine may have been known by which it would be
rendered plastic ; but this seems hardly probable. |J!5I
It is, of course, possible that such an object as this may have come
by commerce into Britain ; and, indeed, amber is one of the articles
mentioned by Strabo as exported from Celtic Gaul to this country. In
' Arch. Joiirn., vol. xxiv. p. 189, whence the cutis borrowed.
"^ Erroneouf^ly called a felt by Mr. Kii-^van.
' Arch. Joiirn., vol. xiii. p. 183; xv. 90. Sussex Arch. Coll., vol. ix. p.
G G
120
450
SPINDLE-WHORI^, DISC?, SLICKSTONES, ETC.
CHAP. XX.
the case of the shale cups, however, the evidence seems in favour of
their having been articles of home manufacture, and we shall shortly
see to what an extent jet was used here in early times for ornamental
purposes.
So far as amber is concerned, it is to be remembered that after
storms it occurs in considerable quantities along the eastern coast of
England, and on the southern coast at all events to Deal. An im-
portant work on the amber ornaments of the Stone Period has been
published by Dr. Eichard Klebs '
Vessels without handles were also occasionally formed of stone.
Six or seven of these, of various sizes and forms, were discovered in a
*• kist-vaen " in the Island of Unst,- and are now for the most part in
the British Museum. Four of them are of a rude quadrangular
form, with flat bottoms, and from 3^ to 7 inches in height. The other
three are oval. They are formed of schistose rock, and some of
ihem still bear traces of the action of tire. Sir WoUaston Franks,
with reference to these vessels, has stated that stone-vessels of a rude
Fig. 368.— Tv Mawr.
type are stiU in use in some remote parts of Norway. One is engraved,
as ancient, by 2>'ilsson.^
Several were found in the ancient dwelling at Skara, Orkney,* one
of which is hexagonal.
A small stone cup, found by the late Hon. "W. 0. Stanley in an ancient
circular habitation at Ty Mawi", Holyhead, is. through his kindness,
shown in Fig. 368.' A more oval cup. somewhat broken, was also
found.
An oval stone cup (4-i inches long), apparently made out of half of
a rounded boulder from the beach, was found in a barrow at Penmaen-
mawr.*^
A circular cup or mortar, barely 4 inches in diameter, from Angle-
sea, is engraved in the Archceological Journal''
Some small cup-shaped vessels of chalk, probably used as lamps.
1 " Der Bemstein-schmuck der Steinzeit," Konigsberg in Pr., 1882.
2 Mmn. Anthrop. Soc. Lond., toI. i. p. 296, pi. i. I'roc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii.
p. 51.
2 " Stone Age," pi. x. 210. ♦ Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. viii. p. 213.
* Arch. Jotirn., vol. xxvij. p. 160, pi. ii. 2.
' Arch. Camb., oth S., vol. A-iii. p. oQ. ' Vol. xxvi. p. 288.
VESSELS MADE OF STONE. 451
were found by Canon Greenwell, in the excavations at Grimes'
Graves.^
A cylindrical stone vessel, 5 inches high and 6^ inches in diameter,
with a cup-shaped cavity above, and a small hole below, as if for fixing
it on a stand, was found at Parton, Kircudbrightshire." Another,
found with a polished stone hatchet in a cairn in Caithness,' is of
circular form, ribbed externally like a melon.
Cups without handles have been found in Orkney* and Caithness,
some with a place for a wick, so as to serve as lamps.
In a cist in a barrow in Orkney^ the cinerary urn was formed of
" mica stone," about 19|^ inches high and 22 A inches in diameter, and
covered with a lid of undressed stone. Another of nearly the same
size was found in a barrow at Stennis.^ Another stone urn and two
stone dishes, with handles or ears, were fovmd in a grave in Forfar-
shire;" and two stone urns, one within the other, were turned up by
the plough at Aucorn,*" near Wick, Caithness.'^ One of these was
13 inches high and 21 inches in diameter, with two handles rudely cut
in the sides. The other was 8 inches in height and Hi- inches in
diameter, and was provided with a stone lid. Long oval vessels from
Shetland'" probably belong to more recent times. The " mell" '^ for
preparing pot-barley ma}' be still in use.
Stone vessels, one with a movable bottom and partly filled with burnt
bones, have been foimd in the Shetland Isles. '-
Stone vessels have also been discovered, though rarely, in barrows
in England. One such was found by Mr. Bateman, in company with
a small bronze bucket with an iron handle, in a barrow at Wetton.'^
It is only 4 inches high, and carved in sandstone, with four grooves
running round it by way of ornament. It is probably of late date.
A few urns formed of stone have also been found in Ireland.
One of the varieties of steatite has long been in use for the forma-
tion of hollow vessels for cooking and other purposes, and is still
known by the name of Pot-stone in English. Many of the cooking
vessels of the Eskimos are made of this material.
I now pass on to the consideration of personal decorations formed of
stone.
' Journ. Eth. Soc, vol. ii. p. 430. - T. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 478.
3 P. S. A. S., vol. vii. p. 502. fig. vii. ; viii. p. 232 ; xxix. p. 6.
* Troc. S. A. S., vol. xi. pp. 82, 83.
* Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ii. pp. 4, 59 ; vol. x. p. 539.
« Proc. S. A. S., vol. X. p. 539. " P. S. A. S., vol. ii. p. 191.
^ Proc. e. A. S., vol. X. p. 538. ^ Ibid., vol. i. p. 149.
'" Proc. S. A. S., vol. X. p. 548. " P. S. A. S., vol. xu. p. 263.
'2 Wilson's " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 206. Hibbert's " Shetland," p. 412.
"Cat. Mus. Soc. Ant. L.," p. 18.
'3 "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 173.
G G
452
CHAPTER XXI.
PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC.
Among all savage tribes tlie love of ornament and finery is very
great ; though it cannot well be greater than that exhibited by
more highly civilized races. It has, however, to content itself
with decorations of a simpler kind, and requiring fewer meclia-
nical appliances in their production ; so that shells, feathers, and
tropbies of the cbase, and ornaments wrought from bone and the
softer, yet showy, kinds of stone, usually replace the more costly
products of the loom and tbe jeweller's art.
The ornaments commonly found in tbis country associated with
interments belonging to the period when stone implements were
in use, are for the most part formed of jet, shale, and amber, and
occasionally, as has already been mentioned, of bone, and possibly
ivory, and even gold. Nearly all, however, appear to be charac-
teristic of the time when stone was already being superseded by
bronze for cutting purposes, and on this account, as well as from
their not being implements, but personal decorations, some of them
but slightly difiering from those in use at the present day, I
had at first some scruples in including them in this work. It
would, however, appear incomplete, were I not to take a short
review of some of the principal discoveries of such objects ; and
this will also incidentally be illustrative of some of the funeral
customs of prehistoric times and of the use of amulets of stone.
The simplest form of ornament, if indeed it can be properly so
called, is the button, which not unfrequently accompanies inter-
ments of an early date. The usual shape is that of an obtusely
' conical disc, in the base of which two convero:ino: holes are drilled
80 as to form a V-shaped passage, through which the cord for
attachment could be passed. These buttons are formed of
different materials, but most commonly of jet or shale.
BUTTONS OF JET, SHALE, AND STONE.
453
In Fig. 369 a ruder example than usual is shown, full size. It is
formed of a fine f^rained limestone, and was found by Canon Green-
well,' F.R.S., with a contracted body, in a barrow at Butterwick,
Yorkshire, in company with five buttons of jet, from IJ to 1|^ inches in
diameter, of which one that is pierced in an unusual manner is engraved
Fig. 360— Butterwick.
as Fig. 370. With the body, were a small dagger-knife, awl, and flat
celt of bronze, and a flint flake trimmed along one edge. Another
large plain button was found by the same explorer in a cist at Great
Tosson,^ Northumberland. A jet button nearly square and orna-
Fig. 370.— Butterwick. ]
mented with marginal lines was found in a cist on Dundee Law.^ The
cruciform ornament on the stone stud would at first sight suggest the
possibility of its being the Christian symbol. It is, however, so simple
a form of ornament, that it may be said to belong to aU time.
' " Brit. Barrows," pp. 33, 187, 188.
2 " Brit. Ban-ows," p. 431. "Cran. Brit.," pi. 54.
' Proc. S. A. 6'., vol. xiv. p. 266 ; xxiv. p. 10.
■l^-l
PERSOXAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC.
CHAP. XXI.
Numerous instances of its occurrence at an early period have been
collected by M. de Mortillet.^ Another instance of the kind is afforded
bv two jet studs found in two barrows
near Thwing and Eudstone,- Yorkshire, by
Canon Greenvrell. one of which is engraved
as Fig. 371. In one case, the button lay
about the middle of the right arm, and with
it a highly ornamented ring of jet pierced
at the bides. In the other instance, there
was a second jet button, as weU as a ring
of the same character, a bronze dagger-
knife, and other objects, some of which
have been already described.^ One of the
rings is shown in Fig. 372.* In both there
are two V-shaped perforations close to-
gether, and formed in the body of the ring
by drilling two converging holes. There
can be little doubt that the ring and stud
together formed some sort of clasp or fasten-
ing, but in what manner the string which passed through the perfora-
tion, was managed, it is difficult to say. Another jet ring and a kind
of button were also found in a bar-
row at Eudstone.^
A very highly ornamented jet ring
of this class, square in section, and
with a sort of beading at each angle,
the two faces and periphery decorated
with fine raised Imes. and with three
perforations as if for suspension, has
been engraved in the ' ' Crania Britan-
nica.'"^ It was found with the skele-
ton of a man. in a cist in a barrow
near Avebury, Wilts, with one small and two large jet studs, the
largest almost 3 inches in diameter, a flint flake, and an ovoid imple-
ment of serpentine subsequently to be noticed.
Fig. 3T1.— Eudatone.
Fig. 3T-2.— Eudstone.
Fig. 373.— Crawford M.oor.
The specimen engraved as Fig. 373, on the scale of one-half, is of
jet, and was found on Crawfurd Moor, Lanarkshire." It is now in the
1 " Le Signe de la CroLr avant le Christianisme," 1866.
• " Brit. Barrows," p. 264. ^ Antea, p. 265.
« "Brit. Barrows," p. 263. '" "Brit. Barrows," p. 230.
« Vol. ii. pi. 58, 2. See also " Cat. Devizes Uus.," No. 1S4a and No. 74.
' Wilson's "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 442. Proe. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. ii.
p. 307. " Cat. A. I. M. Ed.," p. 22.
BUTTONS FOUND IN BARROWS. 455
National Museum at Edinburgh. It shows the most common form
of button, and the cut has been made use of frequently. One of the
same character, l^ inches in diameter, and found in a barrow on
Lambourn Down, I3erk.shire, is preserved in the British Museum. It
has a rounded projection at the a])ex of the flat cone. In two of
Kimmeridge shale, from Net Low, Alsop Moor, Derbyshire,' there is
a similar projection and also a sliglitly raised beading round the edge.
They accompanied a large bronze dagger, which lay close to the right
arm of an extended skeleton. A button of jet, I4' inches in diameter,
was found near the shoulder of a contracted skeleton, in a barrow
near Castern, Derbyshire." A small piece of calcined flint lay near.
Several studs or buttons of polished Kimmeridge coal, of the same
character, but slightly more conical than Fig. 373, were found by
Mr. F. C. Lukis in a barrow near Buxton.^ A flint celt accompanied
another interment in the same barrow. What appears to be a small
stud of jet, but which is described as a cone, was found with a ring,
like a puUey, of the same material, and a fine flint dagger and other
objects, buried with a skeleton at Durrington Walls, Wilts.* A larger
ring and disc, pei-forated with two holes for suspension, together with
some beautifully formed stemmed and barbed flint arrow-heads (see
Fig. 320), and a bronze dagger, accompanied a contracted interment
in a barrow near Fovant, in the same county.^ A button formed of a
substance like concrete was found with part of a leaf-shaped arrow-
head, some beads, &c., in a barrow at Boscregan,*"' Cornwall. It is
nearly hemispherical in shape. In four cists at Tosson, near Roth-
bury, Northumberland," were conti'acted skeletons, two of them accom-
panied by an urn. In one of the cists were three of these buttons,
2 inches in diameter, described as of cannel coal ; and in another was
an iron javelin-head. The}' are sometimes of much smaller dimensions.
One of this character, found in the
Calais Wold barrow by Messrs.
Mortimer, has been figured full
size in the late Mr. LI. Jewitt's
Reliquary.^ His cut is reproduced
as Fig. 374. Twenty small but- Fig. 374.— Calais Wold Barrow. \
tons of inferior jet were found by
Canon Greenwell in a barrow at Hunmanby," Yorkshire. Two small
buttons of jet were picked up at Glenluce,"' Wigtownshire.
Occasionally we find conical studs of this form perforated by two
converging holes in the base, foniiing what were, in some cases, ap-
parently the termination of necklaces or gorgets. It seems possible
that these were not made to clasp the whole neck, but were merely
attached in some manner between the shoulders in front, as is sup-
posed to have been the case with many of the Anglo-Saxon neck-
laces. Two of these studs were found with other beads of a necklace
in Holyhead Island," and are mentioned at p. 459. With other
' "Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 68. 2 "Ten Years' Diggings," p. 152.
' Reliq., vol. viii. p. 8G. * Hoare's " South Wilts," p. 172.
* L. c, p. 239. 6 Arch., vol. xlix. p. 189.
■" I'roc. Sue. Ant. Scot., vol. iv. p. 60. " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. 54, 2.
* Vol. vi. p. 188. « Arch., vol. lii. p. 19.
'" Proc. S. A. S., vol. XV. p. 269. " Arc/i. Juitrn., vol. xxiv. p. 257.
456 PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. [cHAP. XXI.
necklaces, however, the studs are more nxunerous, and seem to have
been a form of Leads.
These studs or buttons are occasionally of amber. In a stone cist
in a barrow near Driffield, Yorkshire,' a contracted skeleton was
foimd, and with it, the bracer before described (p. 429), a bronze
dagger, and three conical amber studs, about 1 inch in diameter, flat
on the under-side, and pierced with two converging holes. Such
buttons of amber are found on the Baltic - coast, and even in Northern
Eussia.
Conical studs or buttons perforated at the base, formed of wood or
lignite covered with gold, and of bone or ivory, have becD found
in the "Wiltshire barrows.^ The jet studs are sometimes concave at
the base, with a knob left in the centre for attachment, instead of
being perforated. Five such were found with urns at Stevenston,
Ayrshire.* They are about an inch in diameter.
The rings of jet with perforations at the edges, such as have been
before mentioned as found in connection with buttons or studs, are
sometimes found without them. One such, nearly 2 inches in dia-
meter, perforated in the centre with a hole f inch in diameter, and
with "two deep grooves in the edges, and four holes near together.
two communicating with each other and capable of admitting a large
packthread," was found with the skeleton at Tring Grove,* Herts,
with which had been buried the flint arrow-heads and " wrist-guards "
before described.'' Two rings of jet, one punctured with two holes
as if for suspension, the other with one hole only, accompanied
an urn and two "spear-heads" of flint in a barrow near Whitby.'
A pulley -like ring, described as of cannel coal, with four perforations
through the sides at irregular intervals, was found in a cist near
Yarrow, Selkirkshire,- and has been engraved. A part of a stone
hammer lay in another cist at the same spot. A portion of what
apjjoars to be a similar ring was found near Lesmahago,^ Lanarkshire.
A jet ring notched on the outside, or ornamented with imperfect
circles, was found in the Upton Lovel Barrow,'" together with doubly
conical and cylindrical beads. There were both stone and bronze
objects in the same barrow, many of which have already been men-
tioned.
A ring of Kimmeridge shale, If inches in diameter, was found with
a penannular ring of bronze, flint flakes and arrow-heads, a perforated
whetstone, a bead of glass and one of bone, in examining a series of
barrows at Afilington, Dorset."
Another form of ornament, of which numerous examples have
been found with ancient interments, is the necklace, consisting of
1 Arch., vol. xxxiv. p. 256. They seem to be incorrectly represented in pi. xx.
- Klebs, " Der Bemstein-sclunuck der Stein-zeit." Konig'sberg, 1882.
^ Hoare's "South Wilts," pi. x. and xii. Arch., vol. xv. pi. vii. "Cat.
Devizes Mus.," No. 54.
^ Wilson's " Preh. Ann. of Scotland," vol. i. p. 441.
5 Arch., vol. viii. p. 429. « P. 426.
' Proc. Snc. Ant., vol. iii. p. 58. •• Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ii. p. 484 ; vi. 62.
* Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xx. p. 304.
>o Arch., vol. XV. p. 122. Hoare's "South Wilts," pi. vii.
^11 «'Cran. Brit.," voL ii. pi. 45, 3.
NECKLACES OF JET.
45i
beads, usually of jet, amber, or bone, generally of jet alone, but
sometimes of two of these materials together. It is, of course,
almost impossible to re- arrange a group of beads, often more than
a hundred in number, in the exact order in which they were
originally worn ; there are, however, frequently several pecu-
liarly formed plates found with the beads, which seem suscep-
tible of being arranged in but one particular order, so that it
appears probable that the manner in which some of these necklaces
have been reconstructed, as in Fig. 375, is not far from being
correct.
The original was found in an urn within a barrow at Assynt, Ross-
shire,' and is hero represented about one-fourth size, in a cut from
AVilson's " Prehistoric Annals of Scotland," kindly lent me by Messrs.
Macmillan. The flat beads, which are perforated obliquely from the
Fig. 375.— Assynt, Ross-shiif .
edges towards the back, liave patterns engraved upon them now studded
with minute specks of sand,- which resemble gold. Besides those figured,
there were present a number of irregulaidy oval jet beads. Other such
necklaces have been found at Torrish,^ Sutherlandshire (with flint
arrow-heads), at Tayfield,^ Fife (in a cist), and at Lunan-head,'' near
Forfar, in a cairn.
In most cases the flat beads of these necklaces are ornamented by
having dotted or striated patterns worked upon them by means of
some sharp-pointed instrument. These markings also occur on the
bone or ivory portions, when the necklace, as is sometimes the case,
is formed of a mixture of bone and jet or Kimmeridge shale.
A necklace ornamented in this manner was found, with a female
skeleton, by the late Mr. Bateman, in a barrow near Hargate "Wall,
Derbyshire." He describes the flat plates as being of ivory. Two
other somewhat similar necklaces were found by the same explorer
with a contracted female skeleton in a cist in a barrow at Cow Low,
' Wilson, "P. A. of S.," vol. i. p. 435. Arch. Scot., vol. iii. p. 49, pi. v. Proc.
S. A. S., vol. iii. p. 47. " Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.," p. 15.
- Arc/i.y vol. xliii. p. 515. ^ Proc. S. A. S., vol. viii. p. 409.
* Proc. S. A. 6'., vol. viii. p. 412. ^ Proc. S. A. S., vol.xii. p. 294.
* " Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 89. Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. ii. p. 234.
458
PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. [cHAP. XXI.
near Biixton ; ' but the plates in this case are described as of Ivim-
nieridge coal. A most elaborate necklace, consisting of no less than
425 pieces, was found by Mr. Bateman in a barrow near Arbor
Low.- They consisted of 348 thin lamina; of jet, fifty-four cylin-
drical beads, and eighteen conical studs and perforated plates of£jet
Reverse.
Fig. 376.— Pen-y-Bonc.
Obverse.
and bone, some ornamented with punctured patterns. Some flat
ornamented beads of bone were foujid in Feltwell Fen ^ in 1876.
In a barrow, called Grind Low, at Over Haddon,^ the ornaments
were seventy-three in number, of which twenty-six were cylindrical
1 " Vest. Ant. Derb.." p. 92
* "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 25.
pi. 35, 2.
' "Norfolk Arch.," vol. viii. p. 319.
* "T. Y. D.," p. 46. " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 35, 3.
Arch. Assoc. Joitrn., vol. ii. p. 235.
A. A. J., vol. vii. p. 216. "Cran. Brit.," vol. ii.
NECKLACES.
46»
beads, thirty-nine, conical studs of jet, pierced at the back by two
holes meeting at an angle in the centre, and the remaining eight,
dividing plates ornamented in front with a punctured chevron pat-
tern superficially drilled. Of these, seven are of jet, laterally per-
forated with three holes ; and the eighth of bone, ornamented in
the same style, but with nine holes on one side, diminishing to three
on the other by being bored obliquely.
Worked flints accompanied several of these Derbyshire interments.
The skeletons are all reported by Mr. Bateman to have been those
of females, but possibly he may have erred in some instances. Jet
ornaments of a similar character have been found in Yorkshire
barrows, near Pickering ' and at Egton,- with flint-flakes ; and some
from Soham Fen are in the British Museum. A very fine set of beads
of jet, or possibly cannel coal, found at Pen-y -Bone near Ty Mawr,
Holyhead,^ is, through the kindness of the late Hon. W. 0. Stanley,
shown in Figs. 376 and 377. The flat beads are not engraved with
Fig. 377. — Probable arrangement of the jet necklace found at Pen-y-Bonc, Holyhead.
any patterns. Armlets of bronze are said to have been found with
them. Some jet beads of the same character have been found near
Whitby.'' In Scotland several necklaces of this class have been dis-
covered, as, for instance, near Aberlemno,^ Forfarshire ; at E.othie.*'
Aberdeenshire, with two beads of amber, fragments of bronze, and
burnt bones ; at Eafford," Elginshire ; Houstoun,® Renfrewshire ;
Fordoun House, ^ Kincardineshire ; and Leuchland Toll, near Brechin.
Some found at Letham,"^ Forfarshire, are described as having been
strung together with the fibres of animals. A remarkably fine neck-
lace of this kind, consisting of 147 beads in all, was found in a cist at
> " Ten Years' Dig.," p. 228.
- Arch. Afixoc. Jouni., vol. vi. p. 4 ; xx. 104.
3 Arch. Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 257. See also Proc. Soc. Ant., vol. i
* Arch. Journ., vol. xxix. p. 283.
« lb., vol. vi. p. 203.
' Wilson, " P. A. of S.," vol. i. p. 434.
*■ Wilson, " P. A. of S.," vol. i. p. 435.
^ F. S.A. S., vol. iii.
34.
78.
10 Wilson, "P. A. of S.," vol. i. p. 436.
Cat. A. I. JIus. Ed.," p. 17.
» "Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.," p. 15.
460 PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. [CHAJ'. XXI.
Balealk.' Tealing, in the same county. Another of over 100 beads
was found at Mountstuart.- Bute.
The plates are occasionally of amber ; a set of six such, together
7 inches by 2| inches in extreme length and breadth, perforated and
accompanied by upwards of forty amber beads, some of jet, two of
horn, and others of "the vitrified sort called pully-beads," represent-
ing seven spherical beads joined together, were found with biirnt
bones in a barrow at Kingston Deverill,^ "Wilts. Another ornament
of the same character, formed of eight tablets, together upwards of
10 inches by 3 inches, with numerous amber beads and some gold
studs ^y), was found with a skeleton in a barrow near Lake.* In
what was probably another necklace, also from Lake, many of the
beads were round pendants, tapering upwards, and slightly conical at
the bottom. A necklace composed of small rounded beads, and some-
what similar pendants of amber, was found near the neck of a con-
tracted skeleton at Little Cressingham, Norfolk.^ By the side lay a
bronze dagger and javelin-head, and on the breast an ornamented
oblong gold plate. Near it was part of a gold armilla, one very small
gold box. and remains of two others.
In one of the Upton Lovel barrows, examined by ^Mr. Cunnington,
a burnt body was accompanied by somewhat similar little boxes of
gold, thirteen drum-Kke gold beads perforated at two places in the
sides, a large plate of thin gold highly ornamented, the conical stud
covered with gold already described (p. 456}, some large plates of
amber like those from Kingston Deverill, and upwards of 1,000 amber
beads. A small bronze dagger seems to have belonged to the same
deposit. I am inclined to think that the so-called gold boxes may
have been merely the coverings of some discs of wood perforated hori-
zontally, and thus forming large flat gold-plated beads. The gold
itself is not perforated, but the edges appear in the engraving to be
much broken. Possibly the supposed lids and boxes were in both
cases the coverings of one face only of a wooden bead.^ From the
occurrence of weapons in these interments, it seems probable that this
class of decoration was not confined to the female sex, but that, like
most savages, the men of Ancient Britain were as proud of finery as
the women, even if they did not excel them in this particular. A
necklace of large spheroidal beads of amber was found at Llangwyl-
log,' Anglesea.
1 am not aware of any of the jet necklaces having occurred on the
Continent, but beads and flat plates of amber perforated in several
places horizontally have been found in the ancient cemetery at Hall-
statt, in the Salzkammergut of the Austrian Tyrol.
In several instances, jet necklaces do not comprise any of these
flat plates, but consist merely of a number of flat discoidal beads
* Proc. S. A. S., vol. xiv. p. 261 ; xxv. p. 65.
^ Froc. S. A. S.. vol. xxvi. p. 6.
2 Hoare, " South Wilts," p. 46. See also " Cat. Devizes Mus.," No. 173a.
* A. C. Smith, "Ants, of N. Wilts," pp. 18, 19. TFilts Arch. Mag., vol. xvi.
pp. 179. 181. (These objects are now in the British Museum.)
^ " Norfolk Archaeology," vol. iii. p. 1.
^ "Cat. Devizes Mas.," Nos. 56, 57. In the Archaologia,, vol. xv. pi. vii., the rim
and the top or bottom of the box are shown as quite distinct, j^^ ^Mr. Cunnington
thought they might have covered the ends of staves.
' Arch. Camb., 3rd. S., vol. xii. p. 110.
NECKLACES. 461
witli one larger piece for a pendant. In a barrow at Weaverthorpe
Fig. 378.— Fimber.
Ling, Yorkshire, E.R., Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., di.scovored a con-
462
PERSONAL URXAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. [cHAP. XXI.
traded skeleton of a young person buried -svith a plain urn and a
necklace of 122 flat beads of jet, with a flat, spherically triangular
pendant, perforated at the middle of one of its sides, a short distance
from the edge. The beads vary in size from a little under, to a little
over a quarter of an inch in diameter, and the sides of the pendant
are about three-quarters of an inch long.
In a barrow near Fimber,^ Yorkshire, Messrs. J. E. & E. Mortimer
found, with other interments, a female skeleton in a contracted pos-
ture, with a small food-vase near the hand, a small bronze awl in a
short wooden haft behind the shoulders, and on the neck, a neck-
lace almost identical with that found at AVeaverthorpe, of which,
by the kindness of the late Mr. Llewellynn Jewitt, F.S.A., I am
able to give a representation in Fig. 378. One of the beads, the
pendant, and the bronze awl, and part of its wooden handle, are
numbered 2. 3, 4, and o.
Another form of jet bead is long, sometimes cylindrical, and some-
times swelling in the middle, and in a few instances almost square in
section. Fourteen of those with a round section, and from 1 inch to
IJ inches long, and one of those with the square, had been strewn
among the burnt bones, after they were cold, in an interment found
by Canon Greenwell. in a barrow near Egton Bridge, Whitby.
Two are here reproduced (Fig. 379) from the Arclmologica] Journal} In
Fig. c7a. — Yurksldre.
another Yorkshire barrow the same investigator f oimd, also with burnt
bones, a small flake of flint, a portion of a bronze pin, and four jet
beads, two of which are barrel-shaped and one oblong, while the
fourth is a small stud, like those already described. They are shown
Fig. 380.— Yorkshire. \
full-sized in the annexed cut (Fig. 380), also borrowed from the
Archaological Journal}
' Reliquary, vol. ix. p. 67.
- Vol. xxii. p. 112. •• Brit. Barrows," p. 334.
3 Vol. xxii. p. 245. " Brit. Barrows," p. 366.
BEADS, PENDANTS, AND BRACELETS. 463
Small barrel-shaped l)ea(Is, accompanied by smaller disc-shaped
beads, and two little studs of jet, were found by the late Mr. Bateman
in Hay-Top Barx'ow, Monsal Dale,' accompanying the skeleton of a
woman. With them was a curious bone pendant of semicircular out-
line, widening out to a rectangular base somewhat like a modern seal.
A necklace of ten barrel-shaped jet beads, and about a Jiundred
thin flat beads of shale, was found with a flint knife in a barrow at
Eglingham,- Northumberland, by Canon Greeuwell. Some long and
short barrel-shaped jet beads accompanied burnt bones in an urn at
Fylingdales,^ Yorkshire, and a necklace of short barrel-shaped
beads, principally of bone, was found in a barrow at Aldbourne,*
Wilts.
Jet beads, long and thin, but larger at the middle than at the ex-
tremities, and others barrel-shaped, were found with burnt bones in a
barrow examined by the late Rev. Greville J. Chester, near Cromer ; *
and a magniflcent necklace of jet beads, ranging from 1 to 5 inches
in length, some of them expanding very much in the middle, with a
sort of rounded moulding at each end, and having a few rough beads
of amber intermingled with them, was found with a polished celt of
black flint at Cruden," Aberdeenshire, in 1812, and is preserved in
the Arbuthnot Museum, Peterhead.
Some curious jet beads, one of them in the form of a ring perforated
transversely, found with bronze buttons, rings, armlets, &c., in Angle-
sea," are now in the British Museum.
A flat circular bead of jet, a flint scraper, and a bronze dagger and
celt, were found by the late Mr. Bateman in a barrow near Bakewell.**
A large pendant, apparently of jet, pear-shaped, and perforated near
the smaller end, was found in a bari'ow on Stanton Moor," Derby-
shire ; and a rudely-made bead of Kimmeridge shale in the long
chambered barrow at West Kennet,'" Wilts. Another pendant, con-
sisting of a flat pear-shaped piece of shale 2i inches long and 2 inches
broad, and perforated at the narrow end, was found along with querns,
stones with concentric circles and cup-shaped indentations worked in
them, stone balls, spindle- whorls, and an iron axe-head, in excavating
an underground chamber at the Tappock," Torwood, Stirlingshire.
One face of this pendant is covered with scratches in a vandyked
pattern. Though of smaller size, this seems to bear some analogy with
the flat amulets of schist, of which several have been discovered in
Portugal,'^ with one face ornamented in much the same manner. A
barrel-shaped bead of cannel coal (?), 4^ inches long, found near Loch
Skene, and a flat eye-shaped one of shale, found near Pencaitland,
East Lothian, have been flgured.'^
Pendants of jet of other forms are also occasionally found with inter-
ments. That shown in Fig. 381 was discovered in a barrow at Hungry
Bentley, Derbyshire, by the late Mr. J. F. Lucas, who kindly let me
1 "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 74. " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. GO. 2.
• " Brit. Barrows." p. 420, fig. 159. •* Arch., vol. lii. p. 41.
* Arch., vol. lii. p. o". ' ^ Arch. Journ., vol. vii. p. 190.
« "Cat. A. I. Mus. Ed.," p. 10.
' Arch. Journ., vol. .xxii. p. 74. Arch. Camh., 3rd S., vol. xii. p. 97.
' Arch. Assoc. J., vol. vii. p. '217. " ^i*rA., vol. viii. p. 69.
'" A'ch., vol. xxxviii. p. 413. ^' F. S. A. S., vol. vi. p. 112. App. p. 42.
'- Trans. Ethn. Soc, vol. vii. p. 50. !» P. S. A. S., vol. xiii. p. 127.
464
PERSONAL ORNAMEKTS, AMULETS, ETC. [CHAP. XXI.
Fig. 381.— Hungry Bentley.
engrave it. It lay in company -witii a globular and a ban-el-shaped
bead in an urn containing burnt bones. In character this ornament
recalls to mind the bronze pendants of
which so many occurred in the ceme-
tery at Halstatt, though this is of far
simpler design.
Armlets manufactured from a single
piece of jet are not uncommon among
Roman antiquities. They seem, how-
ever, also to have been made in this
country in pre-Roman times. Por-
tions of jet or lignite armlets of almost
semicircular section, and "evidently turned on the lathe," were found
with numerous bronze and bone relics in the Heathery Burn
Cave,^ Stanhope, Durham. One of
these, by permission of the Society
of Antiquaries, is shown as Fig.
381a. Another bracelet of jet wa*
found at Glenluce,- Wigtownshire,
together with several fragments.
* ^ In the cromlech of La Roche qui
sonnet Guernsey, Mr. F. C. Lukis discovered a remarkable oval armlet
of jet ornamented on its outer surface, and with countersunk perfora-
tions in several places. With it was found a bronze armlet of whitisli
colour. By the kindness of the Council of the British Archaeological
Association, figures of both, on the scale of \, are here reproduced.
Fig. 3?1a.— HeatLery Burn Cave.
Fig. oSi. — Jet.— Guernsey.
Fig. 383. — Bronze. — Guernsey.
AVith them were found pottery and stone instruments, mullers and
mills of granite. Armlets of bone ^ or ivory also accompany ancient
biirials, but hardly come within my province.
The use of jet for personal ornaments in pre-Eoman times in Britain
is quite in accordance with what might be gathered from the testimony
of early historians. Solinus {circ. a.d. 80) mentions the abundance in
this country of jet, which, he relates, burns in water and is extin-
guished by oil, and which, if excited by friction, becomes electric like
amber. His statements are repeated by other authors. The occur-
rence of amber on our coasts does not appear to have been observed in
1 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 131. Arch., vol. liv. p. 106.
2 Proc. S. A. S., vol. XV. p. 268.
3 Arch. A-s.toc. Journ., vol. iii. p. 344. Arch., vol. xxxv. p. 247.
* Hoare, "South Wilts," p. 124.
RINGS OF STONE. 465
ancient times, unless possibly by Sotacus.' As already observed, it is
occasionally found at the present day on our Eastern coast.
Beads formed of selected pebbles of quartz or other material are
rarely found accompanying interments of the Stone Age iu Britain. In
France - they seem to be more common. Some neatly-pierced pebbles of
rose-quartz, bored in the same manner as the perforated stone ham-
mers, were found iu the Alice couverte of Argenteuil ; and pendants of
jasper and callais in some of the tumuli near Carnac, Brittany.
It is rather doubtful -whether the discs of Kimmeridge shale, so
abundantly found in Dorsetshire, and to which the absurd name of
Kimmeritlge coal-money has been given, date back to pre-Eoman times.
Many of them were found by General Pitt Rivers,^ in the Romano-
British village at Woodcuts. These discs, as is well known, have on
the one face a centre-mark showing where they revolved on the centre
of the " back-poppet" in the course of being turned ; and on the other
face a square recess, ■* or occasionally two or three smaller round holes,
showing the manner by which they were attached to the chuck or
mandrel of the lathe. Very rarely they occur with a portion of an
armlet, which has broken iu tlie proct^ss of turning, still attached to
their edges. One sucli has been engraved in \hQ Archceological Journal,''
and another is in my OAvn collection. There can, therefore, be no
doubt, that instead of their having been expressly made for any pur-
pose, such as for use as money, they are merely the refuse or waste
pieces from the lathe. They all appear to me to have been worked
with metal tools, and, from a mass of them having been found " con-
glomerated by the presence of irony matter," " these would appear to
have been of iron or steel ; at the same time, however, numerous
chippings of flint were found, which, if used at all in the turning pro-
cess, may have served for roughing out the discs. I have, however,
not had an opportimity of personally examining these flint chippings.
An interesting article on objects made of Kammeridge shale' has been
written by Mr. J. C. Mansei-Pleydell.
liings of diiferent sizes formed of stone are occasionally found, but
their purpose is unknown. In a barrow at Heathwaite,® in Furness,
half a stone ring, about a couple of inches in diameter, and apparently
of circular section, was found. A ring of diorite,
A\ inches in diameter, with a central hole of
1;^ inches, sharp at the edge, but If inches thick
at the border of the perforation, and of nearly
triangular section, was found at Wolsoubury,
Sussex, and was in the collection of the late Mrs.
Dickinson of Ilurstpiei'poiut. A somewhat similar
ring of serpentine, bl inches in diameter, is in the
Museum at Clermont Ferrand. Another was found ng. as-i.-Keuts
near Dijon. A ring of black stone, found above Cavem. \
the stalagmite in Kent's Cavern, is shown in Fig. 384. It is slightly
rounded ut its edges.
Five small rings about an inch iu diameter, of a brown colour and
' riin., "Niit. Hist.," lib. xx-^vii. c. 2. - Itcv. Arch., vol. xv. p. 364.
■' "Exc. on Cranbome Chase," vol. i. pi. xlix.
^ See Arch. Assoc. Joiirn., vol. i. p. 325. '•' Vol. xvi. p. 299.
« Ihid., p. 300. « Arch., vcl. xxxi. p. 4.52.
' Froc. Dorset Sat. Eist^ and Ant. Field Cliih, vol. xiii., 1S02, p. 178.
H H
466
PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. [cHAP. XXI.
rig. o!^5.— I'y Mawr.
apparently made of lignite, -were found in an urn with biu-nt bones
and a bronze pin in a barrow near "Winterbourn Stoke.' One of them
was perforated near the edge as if for suspension.
A flat ring, from one of the ancient circular habitations at T}-
Mawr,- in ITolyhoad Island, is shown, fall size, in Fig. 385. It was
found by the late Hon. W. 0. Stanley,
F.S.A., who obligingly lent me the
cut. It is supposed to have been used
as a brooch. There is a slight notch on
each side, which might have served to
catch the pin.
He subsequently found a ring of the
same kind made from a piece of red
"Samian" ware. The presumption,
therefore, is that the other rings are
also Eomau or post-Roman. A ring and
a pendant of lignite were found with
burnt bones in a barrow at Aldbourne,^
Wilts. The latter resembles a mediaeval
finger-ring. A flat, oval, pendant,* of close-gi-ained stone, was found in
another barrow at the same place.
In Scotland, a curved pendant of jet was found at Glenluce.* Eings
of shale, from Wigtownshire,*^ have been figured, as also a ring of stone
from a crannog at Glenluce.' A pecuhar ring of shale, hollowed
externally, was found near AVest Calder.® In Ireland, some rings of
shale were found in a cinerary urn at Dundrum,'' co. Down.
Another form of personal ornament, or, more probably, amulet or
charm, consisted of pebbles, usually selected for their beauty or some
singidarity of appearance. They are very frequently accompaniments
of ancient interments, and are sometimes, though rarely, perforated.
In a barrow near Winterbourn Stoke, ^" there had been deposited near
the body, " a perforated pebble-stone, about 2 inches long, and very
neatly polished," which Sir E. Colt Hoare thought might have been
suspended as an amtdet from the neck.
In another barrow, in the same group," the interment comprised
" a pair of petrified fossil cockle-shells, a piece of stalactite, and a hard
flat stone of the pebble kind," besides a brass or bronze pin and other
objects.
In a third, near Stonehenge,'- there was at the left hand of the
skeleton a dagger of bronze, and close to the head, a curious pebble
described as "of the sardonyx kind, striated transversely with alternate
spaces that give it the appearance of belts ; besides these stria, it is
spotted all over with very small white specks, and, after dipping it in
water, it assumes a sea-green colour."
In another barrow near Everley'^ a heap of burnt bones was sur-
1 Hoare's " South Wilts," p. 114, pi. xiii. - Arch. Joimi., vol. xxvi. p. 304.
^ Arch., vol. lii. p. 52. ■* Op. cit., p. 56.
* I'roc. S. A. S., vol. XV. p. 269. « Froc. S. A. S., vol. xxiii. p. 219.
"> Proc. S. A. S., vol. XV. p. 268. Munro, " Lake-dw.," p. 50.
* Froc. S. A. 6'., vol. ix. p. 538.
» Wood-Martin, " Eude Stone Mon. of Ireland," 1888, p. 60.
'" Hoare, "South Wilts," p. 124. 'i Ibid.
'2 Op. cit., p. 165. 13 Qjj_ cit., p. 183, pi. xxii.
PEBHLKS FOUND IN BAKROWS. 467
rounded by a circular wreath of horns of the red deer, within which,
and amidst the ashes, were five stemmed and barbed flint arrow-heads
and a small red pebble.
In a barrow at Upton Level/ near the legs of a skeleton, there lay,
with a number of other objects, "a handful of small pebbles of dif-
ferent colours, several not to be found in the neighbourhood," and five
hollow flints broken in two and forming a rude kind of cup.
In a barrow at Eudstone,- Canon Grreenwell found with a skeleton
a part of an ammonite which appeared to have been worn as a charm.
A beautiful pink pebble, supposed to have been placed witli the
body as a token of affection, was found in a sepulchral cist at Breedon,^
Leicestershire. Some querns and an iron knife appear to have accom-
panied the interment, so that it may belong to a comparatively late
period. Quartz pebbles are, however, very frequently found with
ancient burials, and INIr. Bateman has recorded numerous instances of
their occurrence. Three such, one red, the others of a light colour,
together with a ball of pyrites, a flat piece of polished ii-on-ore, a flint
celt, and various other instruments of flint, were found with a skeleton
in a barrow on Elton Moor.^ In opening Carder Low,'* near Har-
tington, about eighty quartz pebbles and several instruments of flint,
including a barbed arrow-head, were found; and with the body, a
bronze dagger and an axe-hammer of basalt. Mr. Bateman has sug-
gested that the pebbles were possibly cast into the mound during its
construction, by mourners and friends of the deceased, as tokens of
respect. Numerous quartz pebbles, supposed to be sling-stones, were
found in a barrow near Middleton.'' In the same barrow was a por-
2ihyry-slate pebble, highly polished, ' ' the sides triangular and taper-
ing towards the ends, which are rubbed flat." A stone from a barrow
near Ashf ord-in-the- Water ' is said to have been of the same character.
In a barrow near Avebury,^ already mentioned, there were in a cist
■with a male skeleton, three studs and a ring of jet, a flint knife, and a
beautifully veined ovoid implement of serpentine, 4 inches long and 2
broad, the apex at each end ground flat. Dr. Thurnam does not
attempt to assign any purpose to this implement, if such it were.
Sometimes the pebble appears to have been actually placed in the
hand of the deceased, as was the case in a barrow near Alsop,'-' where
a round quartz pebble was found in the left hand of the skeleton ; and
in another barrow on Eeadon IliU,'" near Eamshorn, where a small
pebble was found at the right hand. A quartz pebble lay among a
deposit of burnt bones, accompanied by a bronze pin, in another barrow
near Throwley.^^ In another Derbyshire^- barrow a quartz pebble,
found near an urn, was regarded as a sling-stone.
In two barrows near Castleton,'^ opened by Mr. Eooke Pennington,
a quartz pebble accompanied the remains of children or young persons.
Pebbles have been found with interments in other parts of the
' Hoare, " South Wilts," p. 75. Arch., vol. lii. p. 430.
- "Brit. Barrows," p. 249. ^ Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xv. p. 337.
* "Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 53. •' Op. eit., p. 63.
0 Op. cit., p. 29. C. R. Smith, "Coll. Ant.," vol. i. p. 55
'' Arch., xii. p. 327. '* " Cran. Brit.," vol. ii. pi. 58, 2.
9 "Vest. ^int. Derb.," p. 67. '" "Tea Years' Dig-.," p. 123.
" "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 130. i- Reliquary, vol. iii. p. 206.
EeliqtMry, vol. xiv. p. 88.
hh2
468 PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMULETS, ETC. [cHAP, XXI.
country, as in the long "barrow at Eodmarton/ Gloucesterstdre, where
were a small round white pebble and Hint ai-row-head. An ovoidal
stone 4 x -V inches occurred in a grave at Athelney;'- and one of
chert, 8A X oh inches, in a barrow on Petersfield Heath.^ Canon
Greenwell has also found large pebbles or boulders in some of the
Yorkshire barrows. They seem to come under another categorj- than
that of the smaller ornamental pebbles.
A small piece ot rock crj'stal, probably an amulet or charm, lay in a
small cist at Orem's Pancy, Stronsay,* Orkney, and fragments of
quartz and selected pebbles frequently accompany early Irish in-
terments.^ At Caer Leb, Anglesea,*^ two silicious j)ebbles, one black
and the other red, with a band of little pits round it, were found in
1865, and supposed to be amulets.
Mr. Kemble' has observed that in Teutonic tombs stones occur,
deposited apparently from some supposed virtue or superstition, and
has instanced two egg-shaped objects, apparently of Carrara marble,
from Liineburg tumidi. It has also been stated that in Penmynydd
churchyard,* Anglesea, numerous skeletons were foimd with a white
oval pebble, of the size of a hen's egg, near each. It is doubtful
whether the bones were of Christians or not ; but the Rev. T. J.
Williams, in describing the discovery, has suggested that the stones
might bear reference to the passage in Eevelations (ii. 17) : — "To him
that overcometh will I give to eat of the hidden manna, and will give
him a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no
man knoweth saving he that reeeiveth it."
In interments of an earlier date, such instances seem to point to
some superstitious custom, possibly like that in India, where "the
mystic Salagramma pebble, held in the hand of the dying Hindoo, is
a sure preservation against the pains of eternal punishment." '•" This
pebble, however, was black.
Among the Tasmanians ^" sacred pebbles play a not unimportant
part ; and crystals, or sometimes white stones, are frequently worn in
bags suspended from the neck, and women never allowed to see them.
The symboKsm of a white pebble, as rejiresenting happiness or a
happy day, was widely known. The " calculi candore laudatus dies " "
was not confined to the Eomaus, but known among the Thracians ;
and the "black balls " at ballots of the present day carry us back to
the times when
" Mos erat antiquus niveis atrisque lapillis
His damnare reos, illis absolvere culpa." '-
Occasionally, fossil echini in flint are found buried with bodies.
Mr. AVorthington Smith found more than a hundred of them in a
barrow of the Stone Age on Dunstable Downs. ^'^ A pebble of white
(j^uartz lay with two skeletons, which were those of a woman and child.
' Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 278. - Arch. Jom-n., vol. xvi. p. 90.
3 A. J., vol. xiii. p. 412. ^ Proc. S. A. S., vol. viii. p. 350.
5 Wood-Martin, "Rude Stone Mon. of Ireland," 1888, p. 86. Joiirn. H. Hist,
and Arc fi. Assoc, of Ireland, 4tli S., vol. v. p. 107.
^ Arch. Assoc. Jonrn., vol. xxii. p. 314. ' A. J., vol. xiii. p. 412.
^ Arch. Camb., 3rd S., vol. vii. p. 91. Arch. Assoc. Joinn., vol. xvi. p. 326.
* Bonwick, " Daily Life of the Tasmanians," p. 194.
10 Bonwick, o;j. ciL, pp. 193-201. " Plin., "Nat. Hist.," lib. vii. cap. 40.
12 Ovid, "Met.," lib. xv. v. 41. i^ .. jx^n the rrim. Savage," p. 338.
LUCKY STONES AND AMULETS. 4()y
In a tumulus on Ashey Down,' in the Isle of Wight, an " echinite "
accompanied an interment of burnt bones, with which was a
bronze dagger. Douglas also found one with an amber bead by the
side of a Saxon skeleton near Chatham. He regarded it as an amulet,
and states that in Scotland the peasants still have a belief in the
virtue of these fossils. I have seen cidares forming part of Saxon
necklaces after having been perforated ; and others converted into
si)indle-whorls.
In fact, the use of stones as amulets still lingers on in the northern
l);irts of this country. There is in the National Museum at Edin-
burgh- a flat oval pebble, 2i inches long, which was worn as a charm
in a smaU bag hung by a red string round the neck of a Forfarshire
farmer, who died in 1854, tet. 84. The heart-shaped nodule of clay
iron-stone in the same Museum, with a copper loop for suspension,
and heart-shaped and oblong pendants of copper and silver, mentioned
in my former edition, prcjves to be a forgery.
The custody of charms sometimes became hereditary. Martin^
describes a stone in Arran possessed of various miraculous virtues.
" The custody of this globe is the peculiar privilege of a little family
called Clan Chattons." Other charm- stones and curing-stones have
been described in interesting papers by Sir J. Y. Simpson, Bart.,^ !Mr.
James M. Gow,^ Dr. Alexander Stewart,*' and Mr. Gr. F. Black.'
Among the Scandinavian nations ** the possession of certain stones
was believed to secure victory in encounters, and the belief is con-
stantly mentioned in ancient poetry.
A confidence in the virtues of " lucky stones," that is to say, pebbles
with a hole through them, or with a band around them, is still widely
spread, and I well remember the incantation —
" Lucky-stone, hicky-stone, bring me some luck,
To-day, or to-morrow by twelve o'clock."
These perforated stones were also sovereign against the nightmare.
" Take a Flynt Stone that hath a hole of hys owne kynde, and hang
it ouer hym and wryte in a bill —
' In nomine Patris, &c.
Saint George, our Ladye's Knight,
He walked day, so did he night,
Untill he hir found.
He hir beate and he hir bounde,
Till truely her trouth she him plyght
That she woulde not come -within the night,
There as Saint George, our Ladye's Knight,
Named was three tymes Saint George.'
And hang this Scripture ouer him, and let him alone." ^
In Bavaria '" a, Brutcn-stein is a natural pebble with a hole through
it, and is a charm against witches.
- Proc. Soc. Atit. Scot., vol. v. p. 327.
p. 226, quoted by Stuart, '< Sculpt. St. of
5 P. S. A. S., vol. xxii. p. 63.
' P. -S'. A. S., vol. xxvii. p. 433.
De Bonstetten, " Kec. d'.\nt. Suisses," p. 8. Nilsson, " Stone Ago." p. 215.
'■' Blundevill's " Fower chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship," quoted in
y. and Q., 6th S., vol. i. p. 54.
>« Arch. f. Anth., vol. xxii. (1894), " Corr. Blatt.," p. 101.
1 ArcJi.A
ssoc.
Jo urn..
vol. X. p.
164.
3 il
Desc.
of West.
, Isl. of Scot.,
1703;
Scot.,'
' vol.
ii. p
. Iv.
* P.
6'. A
. .s-.,
vol.
iv.
pp. 211. 2
79.
« P.
S. A
. 'S'.,
vol.
xxiv. p. 157.
470 PEKSONAL ORNAMENTSj AMULETS, ETC. [cHAP. XXI.
In Scotland such a stone is often called a witch-stone,' and hung
up in the byres as a protection for the cattle. The same is the case
in some parts of England. In the Museum at Leicester is a " witch-
stone " from Wymeswold, a pebble with a natural hole towards one
end, which has been preserved for mauy generations in one family,
and has had great virtues attributed to it. It prevented the entrance
of fairies into the dairy ; it preserved milk from taint ; it kept off
diseases, and charmed off warts, and seems to have been valuable
alike to man and beast. In the "Western Islands'- ammonites are held
to possess peculiar virtues as " cramp-stones " for curing cramp in
cattle.
Stones remarkable either for their colour or shape appear at all
times to have attracted the attention of mankind, and frequently to
have served as personal ornaments or charms among those to whom
the more expensive and civilized representatives of such primitive
jeweller}^ which now rank as j)recious stones, were either vmknown
or inaccessible.
Among the cave-dwellers of a remote age, both of France and
Belgium, fossil shells appear to have been much in use as ornaments,
numbers having been found perforated for suspension. Pendants of
stone occui- in some abundance with interments in the dolmens of
France ; ^ occasionally the living forms of shells also were perforated
and worn as ornaments, both in the days when the reindeer formed
the principal food of the cave-dwellers, and in more recent 3'et still
remote times. A black polished oval pebble, found in the lake-
dwelling of Inkwj'l,^ has been regarded by De Bonstetten as an
amulet.
In IMerovingian and Teutonic interments, we find occasionally,
pendants of serpentine^ and other materials, balls of crystal, and
sometimes of iron pyrites.^
A peculiar stone with a groove round it, not unlike in form to the
Danish fii'e -producing stones of the early Iron Age, was in use for
divining purposes among the Laplanders, and has been engraved and
described b}' Scheffer.'
What are regarded as ancient amulets of stone, found in Portugal,*'
are highly decorated.
Numerous amulets, commonly formed of various kinds of stone and
teeth of animals, usually perforated for suspension, were worn by the
North-American Indians.^ Indeed, among almost all savage nations
such charms and ornaments abound.
As T am not treating of ihe bidden virtues of stones and gems,
nor of their use as amulets, it is needless to say more in illustra-
1 r. S. A. <S'., vol. V. p. 128. Anthrop. JRev., vol. iv. p. 401. See also /om>v; .
Anth. Inst., vol. xvii. p. 135, and "The Denham Tracts," vol. ii.. Folklore Soc,
1895.
2 Froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 315.
3 Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 40. Materiaia; vol. v. p. 118, 249, &c.
* " Supp. au Rec. d'Ant. Suisses," pi. i. 2. "^ Baudot, " Sep. des Barb.," p. 78.
« LindenscLmidt. " A. u. h. V.," vol. ii. Heft xii. Taf. vi. 12.
' "Lapland," ed. 1704, p. 277.
8 Cong. Fnh. Lisbonne,'" 1880, pi. v. Da Veiga, "Ant. de Algarve," 1856.
Cartailhac, p. 92. » Schoolcraft, " Ind. Tribes," vol. i. p. 86.
CONCLUSIONS AS TO THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD. 471
tion of the causes why selected pebbles may have been placed in
ancient graves. Before proceeding;, however, to the next part of
my subject, which carries me back from recent times to those long
anterior, not only to the use of metals, but to that of the various
stone implements of which I have been treating, it will be well to
say a few words as to the results of the general survey which, so
far as regards the antiquities of the Neolithic, or Surface Stone
Period, is now complete.
These results, I must acknowledge, are, to my mind, by no
means entirely satisfactory. It is true that regarding the
various forms of objects described from a technological, or even a
collector's, point of view, the series of stone antiquities found in
Britain does not contrast unfavourably with that from any other
country. We have hatchets, adzes, chisels, borers, scrapers, and
tools of various kinds, and know both how they were made and
liow they were used ; we have battle-axes, lances, and arrows for
war, or for the chase; we have various implements and utensils
adapted for domestic use ; we have the personal ornaments of our
remote predecessors, and know something of their methods of
sepulture, and of their funeral customs. Indeed, so far as external
appliances are concerned, they are almost as fully represented as
would be those of any existing savage nation by the researches of a
most painstaking traveller. And yet when we attempt any chrono-
logical arrangement of the various forms we find ourselves almost
immediately at fault. From the number of objects found, wema}'"
indeed safely infer that they represent the lapse of no inconsider-
able interval of time, but how great we know not ; nor, in most
cases, can we say with any approach to certainty, whether a
given object belongs to the commencement, middle, or close, of
the Polished Stone Period of Britain.
True it is that there are some forms, which from their associa-
tion together in graves, we know to have been contemporaneous ;
and some, which from their occasionally occurring with interments
belonging to a time when bronze was beginning to come into use,
we must assign to the later portion of the Neolithic Period of this
country ; yet it is impossible to say of these latter forms that they
may not have been long in use before bronze was known ; nor of
the former, that certain kinds were not introduced at a much
earlier period than the others, which at a later date became asso-
ciated with them. The utmost that can with safety be affirmed
is, that some forms, such as the perforated battle-axes, the skil-
472 PERSONAL ORNAMENTS, AMU.ETS, ETC. [cHAP. XXI.
fully cLipped lance-lieads or daggers, the cups fashioned in the
lathe, and the ornaments of jet, appear to have been of later in-
troduction than most of the others. Moreover, though we may
regard these particular objects as comparatively late, the bulk of
the others, such, for instance, as celts, and possibly arrow-heads,
were subject to so little modiBcation during the whole of the
Neolithic Period, that it is almost impossible, from form only, to
itssign to individual specimens any chronological position. The
light reflected by foreign discoveries, such as those in the Swiss
lakes, and by the habits and customs of modern savages, enables
us, to some extent, to appreciate the relations- and bearings of our
native stone antiquities ; but the greater part of them have un-
fortunately been discovered as isolated examples, and without
attendant circumstances calculated to furnish data for determining
their exact age, or the manners of those who used them.
Enough facts, however, are at our command to show that pre-
ceding the use of metal in this country, there was a time when
cutting instruments and weapons were made of stone, either
chipped or ground to an edge ; and to encourage a hope that
future discoveries may throw more light on the length of the
period through which those who used them lived, and on the
stage of culture that they had reached. It will, I trust, be of some
service to those who are labouring, and will yet labour, in this
field of research, to find in these pages a classification of the
forms at present known, a summary account of the discoveries
hitherto made, and references to the books from which further
details may be gathered.
I now turn to the relics of a still earlier period, when the art
of grinding stone to an edge appears to have been unknown, and
when man was associated in this country with a group of animals
which has now for the most part disappeared, either by migration
to other latitudes, or by absolute extinction of the race.
47;^
IMPLEMENTS OF THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD.
CHAPTER XXII.
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
Ix this second division of my subject, I must pass in review a
class of implements of stone, which, though belonging to an earlier
period than those already described, it appeared to me to be better
to take second rather than first in order. My reasons for thus
reversing what might seem to be the natural arrangement of my
subject, and ascending instead of descending the stream of time,
I have already to some extent assigned, I need only now repeat
that our sole chronology for measuring the antiquity of such
objects is by a retrogressive scale from the present time, and not
h}' a progression of years from any remote given epoch ; and that
though we have evidence of the vast antiquity of the class of
implements which I am about to describe, and may at the present
moment regard them as the earliest known works of man, yet we
should gravely err, were we for a moment to presume on the
impossibility of still earlier relics being discovered. Had they
been taken first in order, it might have been thought that some
countenance was given to a belief that we had in these implements
the first efforts of human skill, and were able to trace the pro-
gressive development of the industrial arts from the very cradle
of our race. Such is by no means the case. The investigators
into the early history of mankind are Kke explorers in search of
the source of one of those mighty rivers which traverse whole
continents : we have departed from the homes of modern civiliza-
tion in ascending the stream, and arrived at a spot where traces of
human existence are but few, and animal life has assumed strange
and unknown forms ; but further progress is for the moment denied,
and though we may plainly perceive that we are nearer the source
474 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXII.
of whicli we arc in search, vet we know not at what distance it
may still be from us ; nor, indeed, can we be certain in what direc-
tion it lies, nor even whether it will ultimately be discovered.
TVliether or no, traces of human existence will eventually be found
in deposits belonging to Miocene, or even earlier, times, I may
take this occasion of remarking that the evidence hitherto adduced
on this point by continental geologists is, to my mind, after full
and careful examination still very far from satisfactory. At the
same time, judging from all analogy, there can be but little doubt
that the human race will eventually be proved to date back to an
earlier period than the Pleistocene or Quaternary, though it will
probably not be in Europe that the evidence on this point will be
forthcoming.
The instruments of stone, found in ossiferous caves and in
ancient alluvial deposits, associated with remains of a fauna now
in. great part extinct, belong to a period which has been termed
by Sir John Lubbock, the Palaeolithic, in contradistinction to the
Xeolithic Period, the relics of which are usually found upon, or
near, the surface of the soil. By others, the more familiar, even if
less accurately discriminative, terms of Cave Period and Eiver-
drift, or even Drift Period, have been adopted.
Though I propose in these pages to treat of the implements
from the caves and from the river-gravels separately, it must not
be supposed that there exists of necessity any demonstrable dif-
ference in the age of the two classes of relics. On the contrary,
though there can be but little doubt that the deposition of the
implement-bearing beds, both in the one case and the other,
extended over a very considerable space of time, and that there-
fore neither all of the cave-deposits nor all of the river-drifts can
be regarded as absolutely contemporaneous ; yet there appears
every probability that some, at least, of the deposits in each of
the two classes synchronize ; and that some caves were being
partially filled with earth containing relics of human workmanship
and animal remains, at the same time ihat, in certain ancient
river-valleys, alluvial drifts were being formed with similar works
of man and bones of animals belonging to the same fauna,
incorporated in them.
And yet, as a rule, the character of a group of implements
collected from the cave-deposits difiers in its general fades from
one obtained from the old Piiver-drifts. This is no doubt mainly
due to the different conditions under which the two deposits were
COMPARED WITH THOSE FROM THE RIVER-DRIFT, 475
formed ; for, especially when they were undoubtedly human
habitations, the caves seem to have been under more favourable
conditions both for the reception and the preservation of a greater
proportion of the smaller forms of instruments than the Eiver-
drifts ; but their comparative scarcity in the collections formed
from the latter is also no doubt partly due to the difficulty in
finding such minute objects when imbedded in a mass of gravel,
even had they remained uninjured in the course of its deposition.
On the other hand, the rarity of the larger forms of implements
in the cave deposits, appears to be due to these instruments
having been mainly used for what may be termed " out of doors "
purposes.
Again, though in some instances the River-drift and Cave-
deposits belong apparently to the same period, yet in others it
seems possible that we have, in the caves, relics derived from a
period alike unrepresented in the old alluvia and in the superficial
soil ; and which may belong to an intermediate age, and thus
possibly assist, especially in the case of some caves in the neigh-
bourhood of Mentone, to bridge over the gap that would otherwise
intervene between the River-drift and the Surface Period. It is
not, indeed, in our English caves, that such good evidence of a
sequence in the order of the deposition of their contents can be
observed, as in those of the south of France, and of Belgium, in
which a sort of chronological succession has been pointed out by
M. Gabriel de Mortillet and others, as will subsequently be seen.
It will of course be understood that this sequence in no way refers
to the occupation of caverns by man in modern, or even Neolithic
times. Many caves in this, as in other countries, have been the
retreats or dwelling-places of man at various, and often very remote,
periods : though subsequent to the time when their earlier contents
had been sealed up beneath a layer of stalagmite, itself a work of
centuries of slow deposition of carbonate of lime held in solution
by water infiltrating from above. It is owing to the occasional
admixture of the more recent remains with those of older date,
either in the progress of the excavation of the caverns, or by the
burrowing of animals, or in some cases possibly by pits having been
sunk in the floor of the cave by some of its successive human
occupants, that doubt has been thrown in former times on the value
of the evidence afforded by cavern-deposits, as to the co-existence
of man with animals now extinct, such as the Siberian mammoth
and its common associate, the woolly-haired rhinoceros. The more
476 CA^ E IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXH.
careful researches of modern times have, however, in most cases,
removed all sources of error under this head ; and the fact of this
co-existence being now established, we are to a great extent able to
eliminate the doubtful portions of the older- recorded observations,
and to give to the residue a value which it did not formerly possess.
Before proceeding, however, to discuss any of the evidence
afforded by cavern-deposits on the existence of man and the nature
of his tools and implements in those early days, it vn\l be well to
say a few words both as to the nature of ossiferous caves in
general, and as to the probable manner in which their contents
were deposited in the positions in which we now find them. In
doing this, I shall be as brief as possible, and will content myself
with referring the reader, who is desirous of further details, to
works more strictly geological.^
AYhat must strike all observers at the outset is, that caverns
vary greatly both in their character and in their dimensions ; some
being long and sinuous, in places contracting into narrow pas-
sages, and then again expanding into halls more or less vast ;
while others are merely vaulted recesses in the face of a rock, or
even long grooves running along the face of some almost perpen-
dicular though inland cliff. Most of the English ossiferous
caverns belong to the former class, while the majority of those
of the Dordogne and some other parts of the south of France
belong to the latter. These recesses and rock-shelters apparently
owe their existence to a somewhat different cause from that which
produced the long sinuous cavities. They usually occur in cliffs
of which the stratification is approximately horizontal, but where
the different beds vary much in their degree of hardness and per-
meability to water. The softer strata, underlying the harder
masses, are in consequence more liable to be acted upon by rain,
wdnd, and frost, so that they weather away faster, and leave deep
recesses in the face of the cliffs, admirably adapted for conversion,
with but little trouble, into dry and commodious shelters from the
weather, which have in consequence been seized on for habitation
by man from the earliest times to the present day. Caves of this
character may possilly in some rare instances have been due to the
eroding action of the sea, before the land was elevated to its present
1 See, for instance, Desnoyer's " Recherches sur les Cavemes " in the " Diet.
Cniv. d'Hii=t. nat." Pengelly, Geologist, vol. v. p. 6-5. Trans. I)eion. Assoc., •<io\.\.
pt. iii. p. 31. Lyell, " PriiiC. of Geol.," 10th edit., vol. ii. p. .514, &c. ; and W.
Boyd Dawkins, " Cave-hunting," 1874. Many British caverns have been well de-
scribed by ilr. E. A. Martel in his " Irlande et Cavemes Anerlaises," Paris, 1897.
(
FORMATION OF CAVERNS. 477
level ; but in most cases they have originated from the atmo-
spheric agencies that I have mentioned, attacking most destructively
the softer portions of the rocks, which are usually of a calcareous
nature.
The caverns of the other class also generally occur in limestone
districts, and seem in like manner to be mainly due to atmospheric
causes, though operating in a different manner. They usually
appear to Lave originated with some small crack or fissure in the
rock, along which, water falling on the surface was able to find its
way to some vent at a lower level; and this, by its continual
passage, was able to enlarge the channel along which it flowed.
The mechanically erosive force of pure water in passing over or
even falling upon a rock of moderate hardness is indeed but small,
though its powers of friction were long since recognized by that
most enlightened of ancient geologists, the poet Ovid,^ who classes
its effects with the wearing away of a ring upon the finger. Nor
was Solomon's likening of the contentions of a wife to a continual
dropping, without its geological significance. But in the case of
water derived from rain falling on the surface, and passing through
a fissure in a limestone rock, its first effects are chemical rather
than mechanical.''^
By contact with decaying vegetable matter the water becomes
charged with a certain amount of carbonic acid, and is rendered
capable of dissolving a portion of the calcareous rock through
which it passes, and thus carries it off in solution, while in so
doing it acquires the character known as " hard." Taking the
case of water delivered by springs in the chalk, which has but a
moderate degree of hardness, it is proved by analysis to contain
about seventeen grains of carbonate of lime to the gallon. Now,
out of a rainfall of say twenty-six inches annually, it has been
found by experiment, that in a chalk district about nine inches
would, in average seasons, make their way down to the springs ;
and it may be readily calculated that at the rate of seventeen
grains to the gallon, the amount of dry chalk or carbonate of lime
dissolved by this quantity of water, and delivered by the springs,
and thus carried away, is, in each square mile of such a district,
upwards of one hundred and forty tons in each year, or about a
^ " Gutta cavat lapidem, cousumitur aunuluy u.su." — Do Pont., lib. iv. El. x. v. 5.
See also Lucretius, lib. i. v. 313 ; —
" Anniilus in digito siibtertcnuiitnr liabcndd
Stillicidi casus lapidem cavat."
- See Prestwich, Qaar. Jourii. Geol. Soc, vol. xi. p. 6-1.
478 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [ciIAP. XXII.
ton to every four and a half acres. This serves to show how great
are the solvent powers of water charged with carbonic acid, and
the extent to which, in the course of centuries, it might remove the
calcareous rocks with which it came in contact. But when once
hv this action a channel had been excavated sufficiently large to
admit of the rapid passage of a stream of water through it, and
the circumstances of the case allowed of such a stream, its enlarge-
ment would probably become more rapid, as the water would be
liable to be charged with sand and small pebbles, the friction of
which would materially conduce to the removal of the rock, the
varying hardness of which, combined with the intersection of other
channels and fissures, would probably lead to the formation of
chambers of various sizes along the course of the channel. In
some caverns, we find the streams of water, to which probably they
owe their existence, still flowing through them ; but in others, the
external features of the surrounding country have so much
changed since their formation, that the gathering grounds for
such streams have been removed by denudation, and water now
only finds its way into them by slow percolation through the rock
which forms their roof and walls.
It is this same process of denudation which, by removing some
portion of the rock in which the caverns were originally formed,
has brought them in communication with the outer world, and has
thus rendered them accessible to man.
Leaving out of the question the blocks and fragments of stone
falling in from the ceiling: of the caverns, the methods bv which
the ossiferous deposits in them may have been formed, are various.
The bones may be those of animals which have died in the caverns,
or they may have been brought there by beasts of prey, or by
man, or by running water, or possibly by several of these agencies
combined.
In the case of the caves and rock- shelters of the Dordogne, and
many of those in Belgium, the deposits are almost exclusively
neither more nor less than refuse heaps, containing the bones,
fractured and imfractured, of animals which have served for human
food, mixed with which are the lost and waste tools, utensils, and
weapons, and even the cooking-hearths of the early cave-dwellers ;
so that in character they closely resemble the kjokken-moddings
of the Danish coasts ; though, from their position being usually
inland, the marine shells in which these latter abound are, for the
most part, absent. The object in resorting to the caves was, no
DEPOSITION OF STALAGMITE. 479
doubt, shelter ; while the reason for the Danish kjokken-moddings
occurring along the coasts is to be found in the fact, that the
principal food of those who left these heaps of refuse, was derived
from the sea.
In other instances, the tenancy of a cave by man seems to have
alternated with that by bears, hyasaas, or other predaceous ani-
mals ; so that the relics left by the two classes of occupants have
become more or less mixed, sometimes without the intervention of
water, and sometimes by its aid. In such caves, it is commonly
the case that the bones are imbedded in a red loamy matrix, to
which the name of ** cave-earth " has been given, and which
appears to consist, in a great measure, of those portions of the
limestone-rock that are insoluble in water charged with carbonic
acid.^ Such red loams are common not only in caves, but on the
surface of many calcareous rocks, and would be liable to be brought
into any place of resort of man or beast, adhering to the feet and
skin, especially in wet weather ; though some portion of what is
found in the caves may be a kind of caput inortuum left in position
after dissolution and removal of the calcareous rock ; or it may be
sediment deposited from turbid water.
Another important feature in caverns is the stalagmitic covering
with which the bone deposit is so frequently sealed up or converted
into a breccia. Like the stalactites on the ceiling, the stalagmite
on the floor is a gradually-formed laminated deposit, composed of
thin films of crystalline carbonate of lime, deposited from the
water in which it was held in solution as a bicarbonate, by the
escape of the excess of carbonic acid which rendered it soluble.
I have already cited the action of rain-water falling on a surface
of limestone covered with decaying vegetable matter as an agent
in forming subterranean channels ; but we have here, curiousl}'
enough, the reverse action produced of filling them up. For this
to take place, contact with the air appears to be necessary ; so that
at the time when a cavern was completely filled with water, no
calcareous spar would be deposited. If partially filled, though
stalactites might be formed, stalagmite would not ; and it is pro-
bably to some alternation of wet and dry conditions that several
beds of alluvium ^ occasionally occur interstratified between succes-
sive layers of stalagmite. When, as occasionally happens, the
' See Rjv. H. Eley, F.G-.S., in GcoL, vol. iv. p. 521. Pengelly, Gcol.,\o\. v.
p. 65.
- Lyell, "Princ. of Geol.," lOth edit., vol. ii. p. 520.
480 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [ciIAP. XXII.
water percolating through the rock finds its way into the cave by
the walls rather than the roof, we find stalagmite only, exliibitiug
its greatest thickness round the ed^es of the cave and ceraentine:
c o o
its contents into a breccia. This is the case with some of the caves
of the Dordogne and the South of France, and does not seem of
necessity to imply an}' great alteration in the physical conditions
of the surrounding country since the caves were formed. It is
also possible that the floors of the caves have, by being trodden,
become more impervious to water than they originally were, and
that a loose mass of porous bones upon them may, by conducing to
evaporation, have caused a deposit of carbonate of lime from water
which, had the caves remained unoccupied, might have run through
or over the floors without forming such a deposit.
With the other class of long and tortuous caves we must, in
nearly all cases, recognize, with Sir Charles Lyell,* three succes-
sive phases: — 1st, the period of the dissolution of the rock to
form the channel ; 2nd, the time when the channel was traversed
and enlarged by subterranean currents of water; and, 3rd, the
period when these currents were diverted, and the cave became
filled with air instead of water.
The rate of deposit of stalagmitic matter varies so much with
difi'erent conditions, that its thickness affords no true criterion of
the length of time during which it has accumulated. Under
ordinary circumstances, however, a thickness of even a few inches
requires a long period of years for its formation.
Having made these few preliminary remarks as to the formation
of caverns and the deposits occurring in them, I proceed to notice
some of their characteristics in connection with the relics of human
workmanship found in the deposits, and in doing so cannot restrict
myself to British caves, but must refer also to some of those on the
Continent, which are more numerous, and have likewise furnished
a more extensive and varied series of remains.
It had not escaped the attention of early authors, that in remote
times specuB eranf pro domibns ; ^ and, to use the words of Prome-
theus,^ " men lived like little ants beneath the ground in the
gloomy recesses of caves." It is, however, strange to find a Roman
author recording the occurrence of worked flints in the caves of
the Pyrenees ; for if we accept the description of the ceroiinia given
1 " Elements of Geol.," 6th edit., p. 122.
- Plin., " Nat. Hist.," lib. vii. cap. 56.
•* JEschylxis, " Prom. Vinct.," 1. 452.
DIFFERENT AGES OF CAVERNS. 481
by Sotacus, and preserved by Pliny, of which mention has already
been made, there can be but little doubt of the term referring
either to stone hatchets, worked flints, or arrow-heads, of some
such kind as those still known as thunderbolts ; and therefore that
when Claudian,^ early in the fifth century, wrote
" Pyrenteisque sub antris
Ignea flumineae legere ceraunia nymphse,"
he must have had in his mind some account of the occurrence of
such objects in that district, where so many discoveries of this
character have since been made.
The researches of MM. Tournal, de Christol, and Marcel de
Serres, now some sixty or seventy years ago, by which the co-
existence of man with many of the extinct mammals was rendered
probable, if, indeed, not actually proved, were directed to caverns
which, though not in the immediate neighbourhood of the
Pyrenees, were still in the South of France. These researches
are well known to geologists, but the most important discoveries
are those made in more modern times, in caverns principally in
the Dordogne and other departments of the ancient Province of
Aquitaine, by the late Prof. E. Lartet'^ and Mr. Henrj^ Christy,
as well as by M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, the Marquis de
Vibraye, MM. Garrigou, Rames, Brun, Cazalis de Fondouce,
Ferry, Gervais, Cartailhac, Piette, Boule, Massenat, Chantre, and
numerous other active investigators.
The discoveries made by Dr. Schmerling ^ in the caves of Bel-
gium, an account of which he published in 1833, showed that
human bones, as well as worked flints, and bone instruments were
associated with the remains of extinct animals in several instances ;
and, though not gaining general acceptance at the time, have since
been fully borne out by the investigations so ably conducted by
Dr. E. Dupont.
The late Prof. E. Lartet* some years ago suggested a classifi-
cation of the different divisions of Time represented in the French
caves containing traces of man associated with various animal
bones, under successive heads, as the Agea of the Cave-bear, the
Mammoth, the Reindeer, and the Bison, in accordance with the
comparative abundance of the remains of each of these animals in
' " Laus Serence," v. 77.
- Described in the "Reliquiae Aquitanicse," London, 1875.
' " Recherches sur les Ossemens fossiles decouverts dans les Cavemes dc la
ProTince de Liege," 2 vols., 1833.
* Ann. dea Sc. Nat. {ZooL). 4th S., vol. xv. p. 231.
I I
482 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXll.
the different caves. Had the conditions in all cases been the
same, there can be no doubt that any marked variations in the
fauna of the same region would afford valuable criteria for deter-
mining such a chronological sequence. But such decided differ-
ences cannot at present be traced ; and inasmuch as the animal
remains in the caverns under consideration have, almost without
exception, been introduced into the caves by human agency, and
been merely the refuse of the spoils of the chase consumed by the
old cave-dwellers, we may readily conceive reasons why, without
any great natural change in the fauna, the proportionate numbers
of the different animals eaten during a certain number of years
might vary in different caves. Still the effect of human agency
in causing an alteration in the larger mammalian fauna of a
district is great, and of this, researches in caverns may probably
afford evidence.
Dr. E. Dupont^ has adopted a somewhat similar, but more limited,
and therefore safer view with regard to the caverns of Belgium,
and has moreover correlated the cave-deposits with those of wider
range. The rolled pebbles and stratified clay of the river- valleys
he regards as synchronous with the deposits in certain caves
belonging to what he terms the Mammoth Period ; and the
angular gravels and brick-earth, of somewhat later date, he
connects with the caves of the Reindeer Period.
As will shortly be seen, there appears good reason for regard-
ing the two sets of caverns thus characterized, as belonging to
different ages ; and if the use of the terms Mammoth and Rein-
deer Periods be not supposed to limit the duration of the existence
of those animals in France and Belgium to so short a space of
time, geologically speaking, as that represented by the infilling
of each set of caves, no harm can arise from the adoption of the
terms.
Under any circumstances, with our present knowledge, there
seems a sufficient variation in the proportion of the different ani-
mals one to the other, and also in the character of the implements
in different caves, to justify the conclusion that the cave-remains
of Western Europe are memorials, not of some comparatively
short Troglodyte phase of the human race, but of a lengthened
chapter in its history. And yet this chapter seems to have been
completely closed before the implements belonging to the Neolithic
-or Surface Stone Period had come into use ; for though these also
^ " Lea Temps Antehistoriques en Belgique, " 1871.
CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE OF CA\T;RNS. 483
occur in the more superficial cavern-deposits, they are not only
stratigraphically more recent than the instruments often found
imbedded deep below them, but are also associated with a different
and more modern fauna, and even with domesticated animals, of
which none are as yet known to have belonged to the Paluoolithic
Period.
M. Gabriel de Mortillet,^ judging rather from the character of
the works of man found in the caves, and from what appears to be
the order of superposition in certain cases, than from the mam-
malian fauna, has arranged them in a manner which to some extent
coincides with the views of M. Lartet and Dr. Dupont. To each
division he has assigned the name of some well-known deposit,
such as he regards as being the most characteristic in its
contents.
As M. de Mortillet's classification has now been almost univer-
sally accepted, it will be well here to adopt it, though in some
respects it differs from the arrangement proposed in my first
edition. I there attempted to give references to the works in
which the different caves in France and other continental coun-
tries have been described, but, at the present day, the number
of caves explored is so great, and the literature relating to
them so extensive, that I must confine myself to British caves,
and make but passing reference to some of those in other countries.
1 take M. de Mortillet's arrangement in ascending, and not in
descending geological order ; that is to say, I here describe the
older deposits first. Leaving the Age of Chelles, or, as I prefer to
call it, of St. Acheul (Acheuleen), which is characterized by the
high-level River-gravels, subsequently described, we come to : —
1. Age of Le Moustier,^ DoRnoGNE(MousTERiEN). — Character-
istics— Ovate-lanceolate implements much resembling some of
those from the River-gravels ; large broad implements and flakes
worked on one face only into " choppers '' or "side-scrapers,"
like those from High Lodge, Mildenhall ; large subtriangular
flakes wrought at the edge into spear-head-like and round-
ended forms ; rough " sling-stones " and flakes ; scrapers not
abundant.
An almost entire absence of instruments of bone ; and a large
proportion of those of flint, of considerable size.
' Materiaux, vol. iv. p. 453 ; v. p. 172. Cong. Trih. Bruxelles, 1872, p. 432.
Hev. d' Anthrop., let S., vol. i. p. 432. " Musee Prehist." Tableau.
2 Lartet and Christy in Rev. Arch., vol. ix. p. 238. Le Hon, "L'homme foss.,"
36, 62. Mortillet, Materiaux, vol. iii. p. 191.
ii2
484 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXII.
Remains of mammoth and hyaena apparently more abundant
than in the following ages. Reindeer less dominant numerically
than at Solutre or la Madelaine. Bones comparatively scarce.
Xo remains of birds or fish.
2. Age of Solutre^ (Saoxe et Loire) (Solltreen). — Cha-
racteristics— Lance-heads or daggers delicately chipped on both
faces ; lozenge and leaf-shaped arrow-heads (?) closely resembling
some of those of the Neolithic Period. They are all scarce.
Sharp knife-like flakes trimmed to a narrow point at one end
from a shoulder about midway of the blade ; scrapers ; borers.
Pointed lance-heads of bone or reindeer horn. Engraved
bones, extremely scarce, but a small figure of a reindeer
carved in calcareous stone found at Solutre. Some carvings
in bone towards the end of the Period. A few marine or fossil
shells.
Fauna much as at la Madelaine. Several teeth of mammoth,
felis spel(Ba and cerrus megaceros, found at Laugerie. Horse
common ; but at Solutre, reindeer the principal food.
3. Age of la Madelaine, Dordggne (Magdalenien). —
Characteristics — Long and well-shaped flint flakes and neatly-
formed cores abundant, as are also scrapers ; but side-scrapers
extremely rare, and the leaf-shaped lance- and arrow-heads un-
known. Pebbles with mortar-like depressions, rounded hammer-
stones, grooved sharpening- stones. Scraped hasmatite. Saws of
flint in some caves.
Pointed dart-heads, both plain and ornamented on the faces,
arrow-heads, of bone split at the base, as well as harpoon-heads
formed of reindeer horn or bone, barbed on one or both sides, and
adapted to fit in a socket at the end of the shaft. Perforated bone
needles, often of minute size.
TTorks of art, such as engra^-ings on stone, bone, reindeer horn,
and ivory ; carvings in most of these materials, perforated and
carved " batons de commandement " of reindeer horn. Ornaments
formed of pierced bones and teeth, and of fossil shells.
Fauna much as in other caves, but a larger proportion of rein-
deer than horse. Mammoth remains scarce. Bones of birds and
fish abimdant.
In the cave of the Mas d'AziP was a layer of pebbles with
1 " Le Macon preh.," Arch, du Mm. d'hut. not. d^ Lyon, 1872, voL i.
2 V Anthropologie, vol. ii. p. 141 ; vol. vii., 1896, p. 385. Nature, vol. Iv., 1897,
p. 229.
FAUNA OF THE CAVES. 485
various patterns painted upon them in red. Such pebbles have
not as yet been found in any British cave deposits. Some
of the designs curiously resemble early alphabetic characters.
There is some doubt as to the exact age of the contents of this
cave, which not improbably may be Neolithic.
Such is a general summarj^ of Avhat appear to be the charac-
teristics of these three divisions. It must, however, be remembered
that, in some caves at all events, there is a probability of the con-
tents belonging to more than one of these periods, where the
occupation by man has been of sufficiently extended duration.
M. Philippe Salmon^ has united the Paloeolithic and Neolithic
Ages into one which he regards as continuous, and sub-divides
into six stages with transitions between them.
With regard to the fauna of the caves of Britain, I cannot do
better than refer to the comprehensive list published by Professor
Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. ; ^ and will merely cite some of the prin-
cipal animals now either extinct or no longer found living in this
country, the remains of which have occurred in association with
objects of human manufacture in caverns : — Spcnnophilus citil-
h(s, pouched marmot ; Mas lemmiis, lemming ; Lejms dUuvianus,
extinct hare ; Lagomys 2)usiUus, tail-less hare ; Ursus ardos, brown
bear ; Ursus spelceus, cave-bear ; Ursus ferox, grizzly bear ; Hycena
crocnta, var. spehea, cave-hysena ; Felis leo, var. spcl<va, cave-lion ;
Felis parclus, leopard ; Machairodus latidens, sabre-toothed tiger ;
Cervus megaceros, Irish elk ; Ccrvtis tarandus, reindeer ; Bos primi-
genius, urus ; Bison priscns, bison or aurochs ; Rhuioccros ticJwrhinus,
woolly-haired rhinoceros; Elephas pirimigcnius, mammoth ; Hippopo-
tamus amphihius, var. major, Hippopotamus. Further details as
to the fauna of Kent's Cavern will be foimd on a subsequent
page.
The fauna of the caves is in fact practically identical with that
of the River Gravels.
The same author^ has pointed out how vast is the difference
between the mammalian fauna of the Pleistocene, Quaternary,
or Paleolithic Period, and that of the Pro-historic or Neolithic
Period. " Out of forty-eight well-ascertained species living
in the former, only thirty-one were able to live on into the
latter ; and out of those thirty-one, all, with the exception of six,
' "Age de la Pierre," Alcan, Paris, 1891. Bttll. de la Soc. dauphinoise d" Ethn.t
5 mars, 1894.
• Quar. Joitrn. G. S., vol. xiv., 1869, p. 192. «' Cave-hunting," p. 359.
2 Tram. Frehist. Cotiy., 1868, p. 278.
486 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXII.
are still living in our island. The cave-bear, cave-lion, and
cave-hva?na had vanished away, along with a whole group of
pachvderms, and of all the extinct animals, but one, the Irish elk,
still survived. The reindeer, so enormously abundant during the
post-glacial epoch, lived on, greatly reduced in numbers ; while
the red deer, which was rare, became very numerous, and usurped
those feeding grounds which formerly supported vast herds of the
reindeer. With this exception, all the Arctic group of mammalia,
such as the musk-sheep and the marmots, had retreated north-
wards ; a fact which shows that the climate of Britain during pre-
historic times was warmer, or rather less severe than during the
former epoch." Only in the Neolithic Period do the goat, sheep,
long-faced ox {Bos longifrom), and dog, make their appearance iu
Britain.
This difference in the fauna is of great importance, as affording
some guide in judging of the antiquity of human remains when
found in caverns without any characteristic weapons or imple-
ments ; such, for instance, as the human skull cited by Prof. Boyd
Dawkins ^ as having been found in a cave at the head of Cheddar
Pass, in Somersetshire. For it must never be forgotten that the
occupation of caves by man is not confined to any definite period ;
and that even in the case of the discovery of objects of human
workmanship in direct association with the remains of the Pleis-
tocene extinct mammals, their contemporaneity cannot be proved
without careful observation of the circumstances under which
they occur, even if then. Another point may also be here men-
tioned, namely, that where there is evidence of the occupation of
a cavern by man, and also by large carnivores, they can hardly
have been tenants in common, but the one must have preceded
the other, or possibly the occupation by each may have alternated
more than once. Bones^ that have been gnawed by animals
have sometimes the appearance of having been shaped by man.
This is especially the case when beavers or porcupines have
gnawed the bones. In determining the age of a cave-deposit the
greatest circumspection is required, and special evidence is neces-
sary in each individual case. "Without, therefore, at present
entering on any such questions, I proceed to notice the principal
explorations of British caves, which have as yet been made, and
the narratives of those who conducted them. In doing this I
1 Trans. Preh. Cong., 1868, p. 272.
^ Beitr. ziir Ardh. Baierns, vol. ii. p. 210, pi. xii.
DEAN HUCKLAND's RESEARCHES. 487
shall, of course, confine myself to those caverns in which some
traces of man or his works have been discovered in connection
with the earlier fauna, of which mention has already been made.
First on the list of systematic explorers stands the name of
the late Dr. Buckland, subsequently Dean of Westminster, w^ho,
upwards of seventy years ago, conducted excavations in most of
the ossiferous caves of Britain at that time known ; and also made
more than one expedition into Germany, with a view of studying
analogous caverns in that country. His " Reliquiae Diluvianae,"
published in 1823, and containing, in part, matter already printed
in the PhiIoso2)hic((l Transactions of the previous year, presents an
interesting account of his researches. Unfortunately, however,
he sought in the phenomena of the caves and the old alhivia
evidence of a universal deluge, and not any record of an extended
chapter in the world's history ; and, though at a later period of his
life he renounced these views, yet the effect of his regarding all
human relics as post-diluvial, was to give a bias to geological
opinion so strongly against the belief in their true association
with the remains of the extinct mammals, as to cause some careful
inquirers almost to doubt the correctness of their own observations.
Still, so far as the instances cited in the "Reliquiae Diluvianae"
go, his judgment appears to have been in the main correct. The
only case in which there can be much doubt is that of the so-
called " red woman of Paviland;" for, as Prof. Boyd Dawkins^ has
pointed out, there appears to have been in this, as in some other
caves, a mixture of remains belonging to two distinct periods.
This is proved by the presence of remains of sheep, underneath
the bones of elephants and other Pleistocene mammals, as well as
by the disturbed state of the cave- earth, so that the skeleton,
though of very early date, may not impossibly belong to the
Neolithic Period. The discoveries in the caves near Mentone
may, however, eventually throw more light upon the question.
In size the skeleton equalled that of the largest male in the
Oxford Museum,^ so that the name of "red womm" appears
misplaced. The most remarkable feature in the case is that with
the skeleton were found a number of nearly cylindrical rods and
fragments of rings of ivory, which appear to have been made
from some of the elephant tusks in the cave. If this were so,
> Trans. Freh. Cong., 1868, p. 275. " Cave-hunting," p. 234.
- See " Rel. Aquit.," pp. 93, 94. Trans. Dev. Assoc, vol. vi. p. 322. Journ,
Anth. Inst., vol. ii. p. 2.
488 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP, XXII.
the state of preservation of the tusks at the time of their being
manufactured must have been better than is usual in caverns,
though fossil ivory from Siberia is still employed for making
knife-handles and for other purposes ; and an elephant's tusk,
found in a clay deposit in the Carse of Falkirk,^ was sold to an
ivory- turner and cut up into pieces for the lathe before it could be
rescued. The late Dr. Falconer,^ suggested that the ivory articles
may have been imported, and have had no connection with the
older tusks. Be this as it may, the case is not one on which to
insist ; and I therefore pass on at once to a consideration of those
caves in Britain in which the occurrence of stone instruments of
human manufacture, in close association with the relics of extinct
animals, and under such circumstances as prove a vast antiquity,
are thoroughly well authenticated.
Kent's cavern, Torquay.
The notices of this well-known cave by various authors, prior to
1859, have been carefully collected and published by the late
Mr. Pengelly, F.E-.S.,^ but of these, it is needless to cite here
more than the accounts given by the Rev. J. MacEnery,
F.G.S., Mr. R. A. C. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., and Mr. E.
Vivian.
MacEnery, who for many years was chaplain at Tor Abbey,
having had his attention first directed to the cave by the disco-
very in it of fossil bones, during the year 182-i— 5, by Mr. Xorth-
more and the late Sir W. C. Trevelyan, devoted himself in the
most enthusiastic manner to an examination of the contents of the
cavern, and with the most successful results. He prepared for the
press an account of his " Cavern Researches," for which numerous
plates were engraved, apparently by the aid of Dr. Buckland,
but he did not live to publish it, and it was first printed in a
somewhat abridged form by Mr. Vivian in the year 1859. The
whole of what remained of his MS. has, however, since been
publii^hed verbatim, by Mr. Pengelly.^ He relates the discovery in
the upper deposits of numerous relics, such as flakes and nuclei of
flint, polished celts of syenite and greenstone, bone pins, and long
^ Wilson's " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 48.
- *' Pal. Mem.," vol. ii. p. 522.
^ Trans. JDevonsh. Assoc, \o\. ii. p. 469; iii. 191; iv. 467. To this paper I am
largely indebted.
* L. c, vol. iii. p. 203.
Kent's cavern, Torquay. 489
comb-like instruments, all belonging to the Neolithic or Surface
Stone Period, and in some cases to a later date. But he also
describes three* special kinds of flint or chert instruments, to
which he calls particular attention, 1st. Flakes pouited at one
end. 2nd. Oblong double-edged splinters truncated at each end,
whicli he thinks may " have been employed as knives or chisels for
dividing and shaping wood, and which exhibit the marks of wear
on their edges ;" and 3rd, " Oval-shaped discs chipped round to an
edge, from 2 to 3| inches across, and some of them diminished to a
point, like wedges. This part in these specimens was observed to
be blunted, apparently from knocking like a hammer against hard
bodies, while the sides, which in such an operation would not be
used, still remained sharp," The modification in the substance of
the flint of which these instruments are composed is noticed, and it
is stated that at their transverse fracture many are porous and
absorbent, adhering to the tongue, like fossil bones, and so closely
that they support their weight.
Though evidently in dread of recording facts not quite in
accordance with Dr. Buckland's views, he states distinctly that the
true position^ of these implements was below the bottom of the
stalagmite ; and it is not a little remarkable that among the nine
specimens selected for engraving by Mr. MacEnery, and given in
his Plate T, as knives, arrow-heads, and hatchets of flint and
chert found in Kent's Hole, Torquay, three are of a distinctly
palaeolithic type, and two presumably so, the others being mere
flakes, but of a character quite in accordance with their belonging
to the same period as the better-defined types.
He further observes that " none of the cavern blades appeared
to have been rubbed or polished, but exhibit the rough serrated
edge of the original fracture. This difference alone may not be
sufficient to authorize us in assigning to the cavern reliques
a higher antiquity, but the absence of other Druidical remains at
the depth where the flints abound, is a negative confirmation."
That one who observed so well should, out of deference to the
prejudices of others, have sometimes been doubtful of the evidence
of his own eyes, and have been driven to postpone until too late
the publication of the records of his observations, must ever be a
cause of regret to all lovers of science and of truth.
The next explorer of the cavern was Mr. R. A, C. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S,, who in 1840 communicated a paper on the
' Trans. Dev. Assoc, vol. iii. p. 321. -' X, c, p, 327.
490 CAVE IMPLEMENT-. [cHAP. XXI 1.
"Bone Caves of Devonshire"' to the Geological Society, and
subsequently another memoir on the " Geology of the South-east
of Devonshire," in which the former was incorporated. He
stated that " works of art, such as arrow-heads and knives of flint,
occur in all parts of the cave, and throughout the entire thickness
of the clay ; and no distinction founded on condition, distribution,
or relative position can be observed whereby the human can be
separated from the other reliquia?," among which he mentions
teeth and bones of elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, horse, bear,
hyaena, and of a feline animal of large size.
In 1846 a committee was appointed by the Torquay Xafural
History Society, to explore a small portion of the cavern, and a
paper detailing the results of the investigation was communicated
by Mr. E. Vivian to the British Association and to the Geological
Society, in which he stated that the important point established
was that relics of human art are found beneath the floor of stalag-
mite, even where its thickness is about three feet. The abstract
of this paper, as published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geolo-
gical Society,- seems to show how little such a statement was in
accordance with the geological opinion of the day. It runs as
follows : — " On Kent's Cavern, near ToRorAY, by Edward Vi-
vian, Esq. In this paper an account was given of some recent
researches in that cavern by a committee of the Torquay Xatural
History Society, during which the bones of various extinct species
of animals were found in several situations."
In 18-56, Mr. Vivian again called the attention of the British
Association to this cavern, and, in 1859, he published the greater
part of Mr. MacEnery's MS., of which mention has already been
made. The ossiferous cave at Brixham had been discovered in
the previous year, in which also the collection of implements dis-
covered in the river-drift of the Valley of the Somme, formed by
M. Boucher de Perthes, had been visited by the late Dr. Falconer
— a visit which resulted in that of the late Sir Joseph Prestwich
and myself in 1859, and in public interest being excited in these
remarkable discoveries, the area of which was soon extended to
numerous other valleys, both in France and Britain. Encouraged
by the success which had attended the exploration of the old
alluvia, the British Association, in 1864, appointed a committee
consisting of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, Professor
1 Proe. G. S., vol. iii. p. 386. Trans. G. S., 2nd S., vol. vi. p. 433.
- Vol. iii. p. 353.
KENT S CAVERN, TORQUAY.
491
Phillips, Mr. Vivian, Mr. Pengelly, and myself, to make a syste-
matic exploration of Kent's Cavern, which was placed at our
disposal by Sir Lawrence Palk, the proprietor. From that time,
until 1880, the exploration was steadily carried on under the
immediate and constant superintendence of Mr. Pengelly and Mr.
Vivian ; and the names of Professor Busk, Professor Boyd Dawkins,
and Mr. W. A. Sanford, F.G.S., were added to the list of the
committee. Mr. Pengelly, who acted as reporter to the committee,
has in successive years rendered sixteen accounts to the Associa-
tion ^ of the progress of the researches, which have been printed
in their yearly Reports from 1865 to 1880. Mr. Pengelly has
also communicated a long series of papers upon the exploration of
the Cave^ to the Devonshire Association. I have been allowed,
for the purposes of this volume, to figure a certain number of the
instruments discovered in Kent's Cavern, and for the details I give
concerning them, I am indebted partly to the annual reports already
mentioned, and partly to the kindness of the late Mr. Pengelly.
The cave is about a mile east of Torquay harbour, and is of a
sinuous character, running deeply into a hill of Devonian Lime-
stone, about half a mile distant from the sea. In places, it expands
into large chambers, to which various distinctive names have
been given.
It is needless for me to enter into any particulars as to the
method employed in conducting the explorations, by which the
position of each object discovered was accurately determined.
I may, however, shortly describe the series of deposits met with
in the spacious chamber near the entrance to the cave, which has
been the principal scene of the discoveries, and which corresponds
in its main features with the other parts of the cave. The
deposits are as follows, in descending order: —
1. Large blocks of limestone which have fallen from the roof,
sometimes cemented together by stalagmite.
2. A layer of black, muddy mould, 3 inches to 12 inches in
thickness.
'3. Stalagmite 1 foot to 3 feet thick, almost continuous, and in
places containing large fragments of limestone.
4. Red cave-earth, varying in thickness, and containing about
' See Reports of the Brit. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science, 1865-71, inclusive.
See also a lecture on " Kent's Cavern, Torquay," by W. Pengelly, Esq., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., in Proc. R. I. Gt. Britain, Feb. 23, 1866. Dawkins, "Early Man in.
Britain." p. 194. " Cave-hunting," p. 324.
* Vols. vi. to xviii. See also Quar. Journ. of Science, April, 1874.
492 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAl', XXII.
50 per cent, of angular fragments of limestone, with numerous
bones of extinct animals, and implements fashioned by the hand
of man. Above this and below the stalagmite, in one part of the
cave there is a black band from 2 inches to 6 inches thick, formed
of soil like Xo. 2, containing charcoal, numerous flint instruments,
and bones and teeth of animals.
5, At the base of the cave-earth is another floor of stalagmite
in places 10 or 12 feet in thickness.
6. Below this again a breccia of ^ub-angular and rounded pieces
of dark- red grit, a few quartz pebbles, and angular fragments
of limestone, embedded in a sandy paste. This also contained
implements, and in places had been broken up and become lodged
in the cave-earth.
Above the upper stalagmite, principally in the black mould,
have been found a number of relics belonging to different periods,
such as socketed celts, and a socketed knife of bronze, some
small fragments of roughly-smelted copper, about four hundred
fl^int flakes, cores, and chips, a poKshing stone, a ring of stone
already described, numerous spindle- whorls, bone instruments
terminating in comb-like ends, probably used for wea\dng, pottery,
marine shells, numerous mammalian bones of existing species, and
some human bones, on which it has been thought there are traces
indicative of cannibalism. Some of the pottery is distinctly Roman
in character, but many of the objects belong, no doubt, to pre-
Roman times.
It is, however, with the implements found in the beds below,
which had already, at least two thousand years ago, been sealed
up beneath the thick coating of stalagmite, formed by a deposition
of film upon film of calcareous matter once held in solution, that
I have here to do.
In some places, it is true that owing to previous excavations, and
to the presence of burrowing animals, the remains from above and
below the stalagmite have become intermingled ; but I shall not cite
any objects, about the original position of which there is any doubt.
The principal forms are these : flat ovoid implements with an
edge all round ; pointed kite-shaped or triangular implements ;
flakes of flint of various sizes and wrought into different shapes,
including the so-called scrapers ; the cores from which flakes have
been struck, and stones which have been used as hammers or
pounders. Besides these, a few pins, harpoons, and needles of
bone have been discovered.
FROM Kent's cavern.
493
Prominent among the instruments of stone, both as exhibiting- a
great amount of skill and design in fashioning them, and as being
■ ■r^Tir:: -
Fig.;.
vern. (l.lfiS)
distinct in character from the forms usually found on the surface,
are the ovoid discs such as had already attracted the attention of
y'^^^HS-
Fig. 387.— Kent's Cavern. (286) }
Mr. MacEnery. Of these, specimens are engraved on the scale of one-
half linear measure in Figs. 386 and 387. The first (No. 1,163 in
494
CAA-E IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXII.
Mr. Pengelly's list) is of grey cherty flint, carefully chipped on both
faces, one of which is rather more convex than the other. It is
wrought to a slightly nndulating edge all round, except at one spot
on the side, where blows seem to have been given in vain in
attempting to remove a flake. The traces upon the edge, of wear or
use, are but slight. It was found in January, 1866, in the red cave-
earth, four feet below the stalagmite, which was about a foot thick,
and continuous for a considerable distance in every direction. The
smaller implement (Xo. 286) Fig. 387. is of much the same general
form, but more sub-triangular in outline. It is brought to an edge
all round, but this is not in one plane, and on one of the sides shows
a sort of ogival ctirve. The flint has become nearly white, and has
Fig. 38&— Kent's Cavern. (4,155) J
a lustrous surface. A portion of the edge along one of the sides has
been sharpened by removing minute chips from one face. It was
found in June, 1865, between 3 and 4 feet deep in the cave-earth in
the great chamber.
But in addition to these ovoid instruments which have been
chipped to a more or less acute edge all round, a thick pointed
instrument 'No. 4,155) of sub-triangular outline, represented as Fig.
388, has been met with, lying on the surface of the cave-earth in the
"Sally-port." It is much altered in structure, but seems to have been
formed from a cherty nodule ' ' apparently selected from the supra-
cretaceous gravel so abundant between Torquay and Xewton." The
butt-end still exhibits the original surface of the nodule, the rounded
form of which renders it well adapted for beiug held in the hand.
FROM KENT S CAVERN.
495
The point has unfortunately been damaged, so that it is impossible to
say whether it exhibited any signs of use. One face of the implement
is more convex than the other, and has been chipped in such a manner
as to leave a sort of central ridge. This implement may have been
derived from the breccia.
During the progress of the explorations^ subsequent to the
appearance of the former edition of this book, numerous other imple-
ments of flint and chert were discovered, closely resembling in fonn
the implements from the river- gravels, and apparently of the age of
St. Acheul or Chelles. Mr. Pengelly - has pointed out that these
belong to tlie breccia at the base of the cave-deposits, rather than to
the cave-earth above, in which thinner and more delicately-worked
forms have been found. He considers that there was a considerable
interval of time between the two deposits, and that there was a difl'er-
ence between the fauna of the one and of the other. I have an
implement almost the exact
counterpart of Fig. 388 from
the Thetford gravels.
Another implement (No. 6022)
found on Nov. 27th, 1872, at a
depth of 16 inches in the undis-
turbed breccia, is by the kindness
of the Plymouth Institution,
shown in Fig. 388a. Its resem-
blance to Fig. 414 from Bidden-
ham, near Bedford, is striking.
The illustration is on the scale
of three-fourths linear measure,
instead of on the usual scale of
one-half. From fifteen to twenty
implements were found in the
breccia and about seventy
worked flints of various forms
in the cave-earth.
Several implements, varying
in size and slightly in form, but
of the same general character
as the first two described, have
also been discovered in the cave.
Some of these present an ap-
pearance of having been used
for scraping a hard substance, a
part of the edge towards the
narrower end being worn away,
leaving a sort of shoulder near
the extremity. The wear on the
two sides is from the opposite
faces, as if the instrument had been turned over in the hand and used
in the same direction, whichever edge was employed. MacEnery, in
his Plate T, has engraved three instruments of this class, as Xos. 1 1 ,
12, and 13, and has remarked on the pointed ends being blunted,
' See Report Brit. Assoc. 1873, pp. 206, 209. - Op. cit., p. 209.
Fig. 38Sa.— Kent's Cavern. (6,022)
496
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXII.
"apparently from knocking like a hammer against hard bodies."
The blunting in those which I have seen, does not, however, appear to
me to be the result of hammering, but rather of minute splinters
breaking off during some scraping process.
Implements much resembling in form these from Kent's Cavern
have been found in the Cave of Le Moustier, Dordogne ; but these
latter are for the most part thicker in proportion to their size, especi-
ally towards the base, which is usually rather truncated, instead of
being brought to an edge. It is possible that they may have been
moimted in some sort of handle for use, but on the whole it appears
more probable that they were used unmounted in the hand, as a sort
of knives or scraping tools.
A smaller form {No. 1,515) of pointed instrument from the cave-
earth, is shown in Fig. 389. Both its faces are equally convex, and
Fig. 389.— Kent's Cavern. (1,515)
Fig. 390.— Kent's Cavem. (3,922) |
are chipped over their whole surface in the same manner as those of
larger sizes. In shape, it seems adapted to have formed the point
of a lance, but the edges and base are in many parts worn away, as
if it had been a sort of scraping tool. It much resembles some of
the instruments found in the Wookey Hysena Den, by Prof. Boyd
Dawkins.
Among the wrought flakes which next demand our attention, the
mo.st striking are some finely-pointed lanceolate blades of which one
(No. 3,922) is represented in Fig. 390. It has a somewhat rounded
point at each end, and has been made from a long flake, the outer
face of which has been fashioned by secondary' chijiping. A part of
the inner face at one end has also been re-worked. The edges seem
to be slightly worn away, and show, along the greater part of their
extent, the minute chipping probably produced by scraping some
ALTERATION OF STRUCTURE OF FLINT. 497
Jiard material. The flint is white and porcellanous on the surface,
and has become so liglit and soft in structure, that it can readily be
cut with a knife. It was found in the south-west chamber of the
cavern, beneath stalagmite not quite a foot thick, but touching the
ceiling of the chamber, or nearly so, in company with teeth of hysena,
bear, and fox, and a small quartz crystal.
With regard to this alteration in the colour and structure of
the flint, it may be well here to make a few remarks. At first
sight, it seems difficult to believe that in a material so hard, and
under ordinary circumstances so extremely durable, as flint, so
complete a change in colour and texture should have taken
place, during any lapse of time, however great. We find,
however, that under certain circumstances, even Neolithic im-
plements, which still retain their original black or dark colour
in the interior, have on their exterior become completely
whitened, and in some cases softened so much that they can be
scratched with a knife. The cause, as was first pointed out to
me by the late M. Meillet,^ of Poitiers, appears to be inherent in
the nature of most flints, the silica in which is of two kinds ;
the one crystallized silica or quartz, with a specific gravity
of 2 "6, and insoluble in water, the other colloid or glassy
silica, known as opal, with a specific gravity of 2*2, which is
much more transparent, horny, and soluble ; though in their
other properties both are chemically the same. It appears,
then, that in these whitened flints, the soluble portion has been
removed by the passage of infiltrating water through the body
of the flint, while the insoluble portion has been left in a finely-
divided state, consisting of particles susceptible of disaggregation
by moderate force, and is consequently white. This alteration in
structure is not confined to artificially-wrought flints, but may
take place even in flint pebbles, under certain circumstances, in
pervious soils ; for I have found Lower Tertiary pebbles in the
Woolwich and Heading beds, and also in the resulting conglome-
rates, which have become sufficiently disintegrated to be cut with
a steel knife. When it is considered that these pebbles were
originally the hardest part of chalk flints, or at all events those
parts which were best able to withstand the rolling and wearing
action of the Tertiary sea, the amount of alteration they have
since undergone, by the slow dissolution of a portion of their sub-
' " Recherches Chimiques sur la Patine des Silex tallies." Montauban, 1866.
See also Judd, in Proc. Gcol. Assoc, vol. x. p. 218, and Lobley, oj}. cit., p. 226; as
Also Comptt/s Rcndus de I' Ac. des Sc, 1875, p. 979.
K K
498
CAVE IMPI.EMEXTS.
[chap. XXII.
stance, is verr striking. The decomposed flint pebbles in tlie
cliflF at Southbourne-on-Sea ^ are well known, and belong to a still
more recent geological period. There is some difficulty in ascer-
taining the exact loss of weight incurred during the process of
alteration ; but I find that a flake of this porous white flint,
which, when dry, weighed one hundred and twenty-nine grains,
gained, by immersion for half an hour in water, thirteen grains,
so that, taking the specific gravity of flint at about 2-6, and
assuming that the flake was originally perfectly non-absorbent,
the loss would appear to have been about one-fifth of the original
weight.
But to return from this digression to the subject of the instru-
ments, of which several belonging to the same class as Fig. 390
have been found in Kent's Cavern. Some of them are pointed
at only one extremity, and that usually the point of the original
flake, the bulb-end being left more or less obtuse.
A remarkably elegant instrument of this class (Xo. 3,869) is shown
in Fig. 391. It has been made from a ridged or carinated flake, though
haying three facets at the butt-end, and a little
secondary working on one side : and at the
butt this external face has been left in its
original condition. The inner face of the
flake, however, which is shown in the figure,
has been almost entirely remoyed by secondary
m working, extending from the edges to the
middle of the blade, while the edges haye
again been re-touched, so as to make them
even and sharp. At the butt-end it is chisel-
like in form. It was found, on July 4th, 1868,
at a depth of 2 feet in the cave-earth, beneath
stalagmite 2 feet 8 inches thick. Several other
instruments of the same kind have been
found in the cavern. Some of them are even
longer than those figured.
These instrimients so closely resemble in
character the long flakes of obsidian and
other silicious stones in use, as javelin heads,
among the Admiralty Islanders and other
savage tribes imtil the present day. that one is
tempted to assign to them a similar purpose.-
It is possible that they may have been merely
knives, or they may have served for both purposes, like the arrow-
heads of the inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego. These EngHsh specimens
may be compared with some of the lanee-heads from the cave of
Laugerie Haute, belonging to the Age of Solutre, but they are not
quite so dexterously chipped.
1 Nature, vol. xlii. p. 7. - Nilsson, '-Stone Age,"' p. 44.
Fig. 391.
—Kent's Cavern.
(3,869)
TRIMMED FLAKES FROM KENT S CAVERN.
499
Another form of implement which is shown in Fig. 392 (No. 117)
was found in 1865, in the second foot in depth, in the cave-earth of
the great chamber. It appears best adapted for being held in the
hand and used as a scraping tool, possibly in the preparation of skins
for clothing ; and has been formed from a triangular flake, the ridge
of which is sHghtly curved, and runs obliquely along the instrument.
It has been trimmed by blows administered on the flat face, into a
pointed oval form with a bevelled edge all round, and this edge to-
wards the middle of one side of the blade is rounded and worn away
by use. It is well adapted for being held in the hand as a side-
scraper, and it is precisely that part of the edge which would be most
exposed to wear, if thus held, that is actually worn. This instrument
is not unlike some of the boat-shaped implements of the Surface
Period, but is broader and thinner in its proportions. Almost iden-
Fig. S'J2. — Kenl'8 Cavern.
Fig. 393.— Kent's Cavern. (3.918)
tical forms have occurred in the Brixham Cave, and in that of Aurig-
nac, explored by M. Lartet. Some of the trimmed flakes from the
cave of Le Moustier are of much the same character, but the edges
are perhaps sharper, and the butt- end of the flake is left of a more
rounded form. I have an instrument of much the same general
character, from the gravel of the valley of the Lark, at Ickliugham.
Suffolk, but it is not so neatly or symmetrically finished, and the
inner face of the flake is somewhat convex, instead of being concave.
Another instrument, of nearly the same nature, is shown in Fig.
393 (No. 3,918); one of its sides is, however, much straighter than
the other. The edge of this also is somewhat abraded by use. It is
formed of flint, which has become white, porcellanous, and light. It
was found in the south-west chamber, as was also that shown in Fig,
394 (No. -rs'i-z-)- This is a broad flat flake, the side edges of which
appear to have been trimmed by secondary chipping, and subsequently
to have been somewhat worn awav by use, whether as a saw or a
KK 2
500
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
[chap, XXII.
scraping tool it is difficult to say. The material is black flint, now
weathered grey, and is much heavier than the white flint, and apparently
more cherty. Other examples of semilunar implements were also found.
Some of the large flakes found in the cavern appear to have been
utilized with very little secondary trimming. That shown in Fig. 395
(No. 56^ is of cherty flint, with a sharp edge along one side, while the
other side i? blunt for half its length from the butt-end. where it is
half an inch thick and nearly square with the face, something like the
back of the blade of a knife. The edge on the left side of the figure
has been trimmed by secondary chipping, mainly on the outer face of
the flake, except for about an inch near the butt, where the trimming
has been on the inner face, the evident object having been to bring
the edge into one plane. The tool is well adapted for being held in
Fig. 394.— Kent's Cavern. (5^2) i
Fig. 395.— Kent's Cav.
the hand, with the thick side resting against the forefinger, leaving
the straight edge free for cutting or sawing along its entire length.
Part of the right edge near the point seems to have been used for
scraping some hard substance, such as bone. It was found in 186-5,
between one and two feet deep in the cave-earth in the entrance
chamber. There is considerable analogy beiween these large boldly
chipped flakes trimmed at the edge, and some of those found in the
Eiver-drifts and in the cave of Le Moustier.
A few of the round-ended instriunents, to which the name of scraper
has been given, were also found in the cave-earth. One of these (No.
2,183} is shown, full size, in Fig, 396, It has been formed from an
external flake, struck off a flint from the chalk, the end and one of
the sides of which have been re-chipped to a bevelled edge. This,
however, at the side becomes nearly at right angles to the face. The
butt-end has been also chipped almost to a point. The edge shows
SCRAPERS FROM KENT S CAVERN.
501
symptoms of wear in several places. It was found in the f ourtli foot
in depth, in the cave-earth ; but the ground at the spot had been
previously broken, so tliat its position cannot be regarded as certain.
Another instrument of the same class (No. 1,822) is shown, full size,
in Fig. 397. It has been formed from a ridged flake, and exhibits
marks of having been in use as a scraping tool, not only at one end
but at the sides. The inner face is beautifully smooth and flat. Some
of these scraper-like tools are more square at the end, and chipped and
worn along both sides, having evidently seen much service. So far
as form is concerned, there is little or nothing to distinguish them
from the analogous instruments of the Neolithic Period. Such scrapers
also occur in most of the caves which have furnished implements in
S\
Fig. 396.— Kent'hXavern. (2,163) \
Fig. 397.— Kent's Cavem. (1,822)
France and Belgium, and usually in much greater proportional abund-
ance than has been the case in Kent's Cavern. In some caves, how-
(n-er, as for instance in that of Le Moustier, instruments of this character
nre extremely scarce. They appear to me to have served for other
purposes besides that of dressing skins — one of the uses to which such
instruments are applied by the Eskimos of the present day. There is
great probability of some of them having been used for striking fire
by means of pyrites, as the French and Belgian caves have yielded
specimens of that mineral. In the Trou de Chaleux^ a block of pyrites
was found deeply scored at one end, as if by constant scraping blows
with flint ; and another block from Les Eyzies, with the end worn, is in
the Christy Collection.
Several examples of another form of tool, manufactured from simple
triangular or polygonal flakes, have occurred in Kent's Cavem. In
1 Dupont, " L'Homme pend. les Ages de la Pierre," p. 71.
502
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXII.
these, one end of the flake has been worked to an oblique straight
scraping edge, forming an obtuse angle with one side of the flake, and
an acute angle with the other ; the point being sometimes on the right,
and sometimes on the left side of the flake. tSpecimens of each variety,
Nos. —9^-3 and Ts'-e-s' which were found together, are engraved as
Figs. 398 and 399. The long side of the flake is usually but little
worn, but the short side and the obli(|ue end are always minutely
chipped, and sometimes have the edge quite rounded by wear. This
is particularly the case in Fig. 398, of which the long side also has
been used for scraping. This flake is considerably cui-ved longitu-
dinally, and its point has much the appearance of having been used
as a sort of drill. It seems probable that the obliquity of the edge at
the end of the tool is connected with the manner in which it was held
in the hand.
Eg. 398.— Kent's Cavern.
Fig. 399.— Kent's Cavern.
Fig. 400.— Kent's Cavern.
(2,253) }
The perfectly sharp condition of one edge of the flake, while the
other is chipped away and worn, is probably due to its having been
protected by some sort of wooden handle. We have already seen how
in the Swiss Lake-dwellings flakes of flint were mounted : and though
probably for these small flakes, such highly-finished handles were not
prepared, yet the insertion of one edge of a flake of flint into a piece
of split stick involves no great trouble, while it would shield the fingers
from being cut, and would tend to strengthen the flint. In several of
the French caves, extremely slender flakes have been found, with one
edge quite worn away and the other untouched, a condition for which
it is diflB.cult to account on any other hypothesis than that of their
having been inserted longitudinally into some sort of back or handle,
probably of wood.
At least two specimens of another form have occurred in which both
ends, instead of only one, have been slanted off. One of these (No.
2,253) is shown in Fig. 400. The other is of precisely the same size
and shape. In both, the two sloping ends and the short side are
CORES AND HAMMERS FROM KENT's CAVERN.
503
Fig. 401.— Kent's
Cavern. (1,970) i
worn by use, wliile the long side is unscathed except by accidental
breakage. In the instrument not figured, the scraping edge, both at
the side and ends, has been on the flat face of the flake. In the other,
this has been the case at the ends only, while at the side the scraping
edge has been on one of the facets. I am not aware of this form of
instrument having as yet been elsewhere noticed, nor indeed, to my
knowledge, has observation been called to those like Fig. 399, found
in the French caves. One or two specimens, of much the same
character as Fig. 399, were, however, found at La Madelaine, and
are in the Christy Collection. These bevel-ended flakes also occur in
Neohthic times.'
As might be expected, the bulk of the worked flints found in Kent's
Cavern are flakes and spalls, more or less perfect, and a very large
proportion of them show, on some part of their
edges, traces of use. It seems needless to engrave
any of these simple forms, as they present no
charactex'istics different from those of the flakes
and splinters of any other age. Many of them have
been made from rolled pebbles, no doubt derived
from the adjacent beach. Some of the cores from
which they have been struck have occurred in the
cave, of which one (No. 1,970) is represented, on the scale of one-half,
in Fig. 401.
Curiously enough, among the animal remains is a portion of a large
canine tooth of a bear, with the edges chipped away, so as much to
resemble a worked flake.
Of the stone implements not consisting of flint or chert, perhaps the
most remarkable is the hammer-stone (No. 597), shown on the scale
of one-half, in Fig. 402. It is formed
from a pebble of coarse, hard, red
sandstone, the outer surface of
which is still retained on the two
flatter faces of the stone ; but all
round, with the exception of a small
patch, the edge of the original
pebble has been battered away by
hammering, until the whole has
been brought into an almost cheese-
like form. It was found in 1865,
between one and two feet deep in
the red cave- earth, over which lay an enormous block of limestone,
but no stalagmite. MacEnery mentions, among the objects which he
discovered, a ball of granite, which was probably of the same class as
this. Many such hammer-stones have been found in the French caves.
I have one, formed from a micaceous qviartzose pebble, which I found
in the cave of La Madelaine, explored by Messrs. Lartet and Christy,
which almost matches this from Kent's Cavern in size and shape. It
seems possible that their use was for pounding some substances, either
animal or vegetable, for food. It is, however, hardly probable that any
cereals were cultivated by those who handled them. They may have
Fig. 402.— Kent's Cavern
' See p. 325 supra.
504 CAVE IMPLE>IENTS. [cHAP. XXII.
been used in breaking open the bones for the marrow, -which seems,
from the fractured condition of all bones that contained it, to have been
a favourite food among the French cave-dwellers. Wexovius, quoted
by Scheff er, ^ says : "The marrow of raindeer is of a delicious taste,
which they value in Lapland, just as we do oisters or some other out-
landish dainties."
Another object which has to be mentioned is a sort of whetstone of
purplish-grey grit. It is a nearly square prism, 4| inches long, and
with the sides rather less than 1 inch wide. It was found in a recess
beneath a projecting bed of limestone, in situ, but sealed in beneath a
thick mass of stalagmitic breccia. A fragment of another, of finer
grained greenish grit, has also been found beneath stalagmite, 26
inches thick. This latter, according to Sir Wollaston Franks, closely
resembles some stones found in the Bruniquel caves, both in form and
material.
It will natui-ally be inquired, for what purpose were these whet-
stones required, and what is the meaning of all these marks of wear
on the edges of the flint tools, as if they had been used for scraping
some hard substance ? Fortunately the answer is not far to seek.
The latter were used not only as weapons of the chase, and in cutting
and preparing food, but also in the manufacture of various implements
of bone, and possibly of ivory, such as hari^oon-heads, pins, and even
needles, as well as other instruments of unknown use. The wearing
away of the edges of many of the flint-flakes is precisely of that cha-
racter which I find by experiment to result from scraping bone ; while
it seems probable that the use of the whetstones was for putting the
final polish on the bone instruments, and sharpening their points, for
either of which purposes, mere scraping-tools like those of flint would
be but inefiicient.
It is not, of course, to be expected, that these instruments and
weapons of bone should occur in anything approaching to the same
numbers as the simple instruments of flint. The latter were readily
made, and therefore of little value. They were also soon worn out
and thrown aside ; but the former required considerable time and skill
in their prejiaration, and would not be discarded unless broken ; and
if accidentally lost, would be worth the trouble of being sought for.
In some of the French caves, however, in which the deposits, unlike
those in Kent's Cavern, are strictly of a refuse character, like the
shell-mounds of Denmark, a larger proportion of them has occurred
than here.
The principal objects of the kind, discovered below the stalagmite
in Kent's Cavern, are portions of harpoon-heads, a pin, awl, and a
needle, which it will be well to describe, as they afford links of con-
nection between the relics of this and other caves.
The harpoon-heads are of two kinds, some being barbed on both
sides, others on one only. Of the former kind, but one example (No.
2,282) has been found, which is shown in Fig. 403. It lay in the
second foot in depth, in the red cave-earth in the vestibule. Above
this was the black band 3 inches thick, containing flint-flakes and
remains of extinct mammals ; and above this again, the stalagmite
1 " Lapland " (1704), p. 223,
BONE HARPOON-HEADS FROM KENt's CAVERN. 505
floor 18 inches in thickness. It is as usual imperfect, Lut the 2}
inches which remain, show the tapering point and four barbs on either
side, which are opposite to each other and not alternate. It is pre-
cisely of the same character as some of the harpoon-heads from the
cave of La Madelaine, which are usually formed of reindeer horn.
The material in this instance is I believe the same. The striated
Fig. 403.— Kent's Cavern. (2,282) {
marks of the tool by which it was scraped into form are still distinctly
visible in places. Such harpoon-heads have been regarded as cha-
racteristic of the latest division in the sequence of this class of caverns,
and have been found in numerous localities on the Continent. A
doubly-barbed harpoon-head of bone, belonging to a much more
recent period, was found in the Victoria Cave,' at Settle.
Of the other kind, which have the barbs along one side only of the
blade, two examples have been found. One of these (No. 2,206),
Fig. 404.— Kent's Cavern. (2,206) }
though in two pieces, is otherwise nearly perfect, and is shown in Fig.
404. It also has its analogues among the harpoon-heads found in
the cave of La Madelaine and elsewhere, especially at Bruniquel. Its
stem shows the projection for retaining the loop of cord by which it
was connected with the shaft, though it was probably still susceptible
of being detached from immediate contact with it. In this respect, as
indeed in general character, these early weai:)ons seem closely to
resemble those of the Eskimos of the present day. A good series of
Fig. 40-5 .—Kent's Cavern . { 1 ,970 )
modern and ancient instruments of this class is engraved in the " Ee-
liquise Aquitanicfe."- An article on the distribution of harpoons in
the caverns of the Pyrenees, from the pen of M. Ed. Piette,^ may be
consulted with advantage. The other instrument of this kind (No.
1,9"0), shown in Fig. 405. is the terminal portion of a similar point,
but with the barbs all broken off at the base. It is about 3f inches
long, and was fovmd in the black band.
' Dawkins, "Cave-hunting," p. 112 2 P. 50.
3 r Anthropologic, vol. vi. 1895, p. 276, and Cartailhac, op. cit., vii. p. 309
506
CAVE IMPLEMEIsTS.
[chap. XXll.
The pin (No. 1,929), ah-eady mentioned, is shown in Fig. 406, and
was fonnd in the fourth foot in depth, in the cave-earth below the
stalagmite in the vestibule, which there attained a thickness of 20
inches. It lay with an unworn molar of Hhinoceros tichorhimis In the
black band above the cave-earth, but below the stalagmite, were
Fig. 406.— Kent's Cavern. (1,929) \
remains of the hysena and other cave-mammals. The pin is 3J inches
long, nearly circular in section, expanding into a head much like that
of a common screw, and tapering off to a sharp point. It bears a
hio-h polish as if from constant use, and was probabl}' employed as a
fastener of the dress, itself most likely made of skin.
A kind of awl made of bone (No. 1,835), about 3f inches long, and
sharply pointed at one end, was also found beneath stalagmite 16
'Fig. 407. — Kent's Cavern
inches thick. It is shown full size in Fig. 407. The marks of the
tool by which it was scraped into form may be distinctly seen upon it.
A lance-shaped bone tool (No. 3,428) 2-7 inches long, flat on one
face and convex on the other, was also found in the cave-earth.
But perhaps the most interesting of all the objects discovered in
the cavern, is the small bone needle found in 1866 in the black band
below the stalagmite, but not recognized until 1868, in con-
sequence of its having been enveloped in a stalagmitic
covering, which then fell oflf, and displayed the true character
of the object it contained. The needle has unfortunately
lost its point, but what remains is nearly ^ of an inch long,
as will be seen from Fig. 408. It tapers slightly, and is
somewhat elHptical in section, the greatest diameter at the
larger end being barely y^o of an inch, and at the smaller
end To-o- It has a neatly-di'illed circular eye capable of
receiving a thread about -„% of an inch in diameter, or about
the thickness of fine twine. The surface of the shaft shows
numerous fine longitudinal strice, as if it had been scraped into shape.
Such needles have been found in considerable numbers in the caves
of the age of La Madelaine, such as Les Eyzies, Laugerie Basse,
Bruniquel, and the lower cave of Massat, always associated with
Fig. 408.-
Kent's
Cavern.
FAUNA OF Kent's cavern. 507
Jiarpoons of the barbed type. They vaiy in length from 3J inches
to 1 inch, and some have been found which show that, after they had
been accidentally broken through the eye, a fresh eye was drilled. That
this could readily be effected by means of a pointed flint was proved,
as before observed, by the late Mons. E. Lartet, who both made bone
needles and bored eyes in them by means of flint tools alone. An
excellent and exhaustive essay on the employment of sewing-needles
in ancient times, more especially in connection with those from the
French caves, has been communicated by M. E. Lartet to the " Ee-
liqui^e Aquitanicic," ^ to which the reader is referred for further par-
ticulars. As with the Lapps, it seems probable that the thread in use
with these needles was made from reindeer sinews ; that animal, at all
events in the Dordogne, having formed a principal article of food at
the period of the occupation of the caves.
Such are the principal works of human art which have been
discovered in this most interesting cavern, in the researches
conducted under the superintendence of the late Mr. Pengelly,
and mainly through grants made by the British Association for
the Advancement of Science. A series of them is exhibited in the
British Museum.
Before attempting to account for their presence in the cave-
deposits, or to ascertain what that betokens, it will be well to
take a cursory glance at the animal remains with which they
were found associated. For this purpose I take the list prepared
by Prof. Boyd Dawkins and Mr. W. A. Sanford, and published in
the' Report of the British Association for 1869. It embodies, how-
ever, the result of an examination of less than one-tenth part of the
whole number of specimens obtained, though that tenth exceeded
4,000 in number. The following list comprises nearly all the
mammals, bones of which undoubtedly belong to the cave-earth,
and omits all species the determination of which is at all uncer-
tain, as well as birds and fishes : —
Lepus timidus (var. diluvianiis?), Hare Rare.
Lagomys pusillus, Tail-less hare Very rare.
Felis leo, var. speJcea, Cave-Lion Abundant.
Hyana crocuta, var. spelcea, Cave-Hysena .... Very abundant.
Gulo hiscus, Glutton Very rare.
Urstis spelicus, Cave-Bear Abundant.
Ursus priscus =^ ferox, Grizzly Bear Do.
Ursus arctos, Brown Bear Scarce.
Canis lupus, "Wolf Rare.
Canis ru/pes, var. spelaus, large Fox Do.
Elephas primiyenius, Mammoth Not very common.
Rhinoceros tichorhinus, AVoolly Rhinoceros . . . Abundant.
£quu8 cahaUus, Horse Very abundant
1 P. 127.
508 CAVE implements;. [chap. xxii.
Bos primigenius. Urus Scarce.
Bison priscus, Bison Abundant.
Cenus ynegaceros, Irish Elk . . • Not uncommon.
Cervus elaphus {Strongyloceros spelaus, Owen), Stag. Abundant.
Cerviis tarandus, Eeindeer Do.
ArvicoJa amphibius, "Water-vole Eare.
A. agrestis, Field- vole Do.
A. pratensis, Bank-vole Yery rare.
Castor Jiber, Beaver Scarce.
In the breccia the hyaena appears to be absent, while remains
of bear occur in great abundance.
The list published by Prof. Boyd Dawkins in his " Cave-
hunting " ^ adds a few mammals of minor importance, but also the
Machairodus hdidens, of which an incisor was found in the cave-
earth in 1872.^ Of this "sabre-toothed tiger" five canine teeth
and one if not two incisors were found in the cavern by MacEnery,
but doubts had been thrown upon his accuracy. The discovery of
1872 justified the Committee in reporting that Machairodus latidens
and Man had been contemporaries in Britain.
In the black mould above the stalagmite, where polished stone
and bronze instruments have occurred, a different fauna is pre-
sent. We there meet with the dog, short-horn ox [Bos long [fro tm),
roe-deer, sheep, goat, pig, and rabbit, of which no remains are
found in the cave-earth. In that deposit, on the contrary, by far
the greater number of the remains are of mammals now either
entirely extinct, or no longer to be found in Britain.
The mineral condition of the bones in the cave-earth, it is but
right to say, varies considerably ; so much so, as to lead to the
conclusion that some of the bones, especially of bear, are derived
from an earKer deposit of the same character. These more ancient
remains are, according to Prof. Boyd Dawkins, much more
crystalline, much heavier, and of a darker colour than the ordi-
nary teeth and bones. Still, nearly the whole of the bones in the
cave-earth beneath the stalagmite appear beyond doubt to belong
to one and the same period, though that period may have been of
long duration, and the breccia which contained implements of
River-drift types is of still earlier date. These bones have for the
most part been broken into fragments, sometimes split longitudi-
nally, and vast numbers of them have been gnawed, apparently
bv hyscnas. In what manner are we to account for the pre-
sence of the works of man among them, and are they of the
same age as the animal remains with which they are associated ?
1 p. 361. 2 Trans. Bev. Assoc, vol. v p. 179 ; vii. p. 247.
ANIMAL REMAINS ASSOCIATED WITH WORKS OF ART. 509
In considering this question, I do not take into account those
portions of the cave in which there are variations from what may
be regarded as the typical section, these being mainly due to
accidental and local causes, such as the breaking up of beds of
stalagmite of earlier date than those above the cave-earth, but
restrict myself to the main features of the case.
There can be little doubt that, as has been pointed out by
Mr. Pengelly, the accumulation of the cave-earth containing
these remains took place slowly and gradually ; large blocks of
limestone and films of stalagmite encrusting stones and bones, or
cementing them into a firm concrete, running at all levels and in
all parts of the principal chamber. So that, without entering
into any discussion as to the manner in which the red earth and
pebbles of the deposit were introduced into the cavern, which
would be here somewhat out of place, we may safely assume that
the bones and teeth, whatever may have been their antiquity at
the time of their introduction into the cave-earth, were deposited
in the jsositions in which they are now found, at the same time
as the implements with which they are associated. AYe can,
however, readily conceive circumstances under which old deposits,
containing relics of extinct animals, might be disturbed from
their position in a cave, and re-deposited with objects of human
workmanship belonging to a far more recent period. In fact,
among the bones themselves there are some which, as has already
been pointed out, have belonged to an earlier deposit than that
in which they are now found. Let us, therefore, examine into
the possibility of these instruments of flint and bone belonging to
a different period from that of the animals with the remains of
which they now occur. One thing, of course, is evident, that
whether there has been a mixture in the cave-earth of objects
belonging to various ages or no, such a mixture could only have
taken place before the thick coating of stalagmite which now
overlies them had even begun to accumulate. The amount of
time represented by such a coating, it is, of course, impossible to
calculate ; but, even under the most favourable circumstances, it
must have been the work of hundreds, or more probably thousands
of years ; and yet its deposit had been completed before the intro-
duction of the overlying black mould, which has proved to contain
objects to which an antiquity of at least two thousand years may
safely be assigned.
But what do the presence and condition of these instruments
510 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXII.
denote ? The flint flakes occur in great numbers, and have
mostly been used ; the blocks from which they were struck are
present ; there are traces of fire on some of the bones ; there are
hammer-stones, whetstones, weapons of the chase, and the needle
of the housewife ; all prove that during the accumulation of the
cave-earth, the cavern was, at all events from time to time, the
habitation of man. How far this human occupancy may have
alternated with that of predaceous animals may be a matter of
question ; but of man's sojourn in Kent's Cavern for a lengthened
period in all, before the deposition of the upper stalagmite, there
can be no doubt. But in all cases of hiunan occupancy of cave&
we find, and it could not well be otherwise, the refuse of man's food,
in the shape of the I ones of the animals whose flesh he con-
sumed, or the shells of the edible molluscs with which his meals
were varied. TTe have seen that in the black mould above the
stalagmite, the implements of bronze and stone are associated
with a fauna essentially the same as that of the present day. But
the bulk of the mammals which are found above the stalagmite
do not occur below it ; and assuming, as we must do, tbat the
earlier occupants of the cave subsisted on animal food, and were
imable to eat the whole of the bones as well as the flesh, some
portion of tbe bones below the stalagmite must be the refuse from
their meals. TVithout insisting on the perfect contemporaneity
of all tbe animal remains found together in the cave-earth, we
may therefore safely affirm that we have here reKcs of man asso-
ciated with a fauna from which the ordinary forms of ox, sheep,
goat, pig, and dog are entirely absent, and of wbich the majority
of forms are now either totally or locally extinct.
That tbe fauna represented in the cave-earth is, however, to be
regarded as all belonging to one and the same period — unless
possibly the Machairodus is to be excepted — is shown, as will sub-
sequently be seen, by the occurrence of the remains of, at all
events, all the larger mammals, associated together in the old
River-drifts.
Comparing this result with that obtained from an examination
of the French caves, the rock-shelters in which almost the whole
accumidation is a kind of refuse heap, we find it fully confirmed,
so far as the animals best adapted for human food are concerned.
The rarity of the remains of the other animals in these rock-
shelters is probably to be accounted for by the fact that the sole
occupants were human ; and that either their tenancy was con-
CORRELATION OF KENt's CAVERN WITH FOREIGN CAVES. 511
tinuous, or that during their absence these rock-shelters were not
the haunts of predaceous animals, for which indeed they are far
less well adapted than the sinuous caves.
In attempting to correlate the works of man from Kent's
Cavern with tliose from the French caves, we find in the first
place that implements of the types usually characteristic of the
River-gravels have been found in about a dozen French caves, of
which a list has been given by M. E. D'Acy,^ and, secondly, that
the harpoons and needle belong to the age of La Madelaine,
though bones engraved with pictorial designs — which are also
characteristic of that period — are wanting. Some of the flint
implements, however, approximate more closely in character with
those of the age of Le Moustier ; while the age of Solutre is not so
decidedly represented by any of its peculiar forms. If any value
attaches to these analogies, there would seem to be reason, on
these grounds also, for supposing that the infilling of the ca^e
with the red earth, to say nothing of the breccia at a lower level,
was the work of an immensely long lapse of time. The black band,
which in part of the cave lay beneath the stalagmite, and contained
numerous pieces of charcoal, seems to indicate some more continuous
occupancy of the cave by man, than at the time when the red earth
was accumulating. Then comes the stalagmite, in which but few
remains whether human or otherwise have been found, and these
for the most part may have fallen in from higher levels. It seems
to indicate a vast period of time, during which the cavern was
entirely unfrequented by man or beast, and during which the
fauna of the country was undergoing those changes — by the
extinction or migration of some forms of mammalian life, and the
incoming of others — which is so strongly marked by the difference
in the contents of the beds above and below the stalagmite. As
concerns this long chapter in the history of human existence tlie
records of the cavern are a blank.
It is, moreover, to be observed that though in Kent's Cavern
we have evidence of its occupation by Man more or less con-
tinuously from the Acheuleen down to the Magdalenien Age, a
space of time embracing nearly all the phases of the Palaeolithic
Period, there is no sign of any transition to the Neolithic Period,
the remains of which first make their appearance after the deposit
of the stalagmite.
' VAiitliropoloffie, vol. v., 1894, p. 371.
512 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXII.
BRIXHAM CAVE, TORQUAY.
The ossiferous cave of Brixham, near Torquay, was discovered
in the year 1858, and was almost iramediatelj'' brought under the
notice of the Geological and Royal Societies by the late Dr. Hugh
Falconer.^ The latter society, acting on the recommendation of
the council of the former, made a grant towards the exploration
of the cave in the manner suggested by the late Mr. Pengelly,
who was also assisted with money by the Baroness Burdett Coutts,
Sir J. K. Shuttleworth, and the late Mr. R. Arthington of
Leeds. "With Dr. Falconer was associated a committee of distin-
guished geologists, including Mr. Pengelly, under whose imme-
diate superintendence the works were carried on. Owing to
various delays, the final report of this committee, drawn up by the
late Sir Joseph Prestwich, was not presented to the Royal Society
until 1872, though some accounts of the progress of the explora-
tions^ had from time to time been made public.
The Report will be found in the Philosophical Transactions
for 1873^ and comprises a memorandum of my own on the objects
of human industry discovered in the cave.
Accounts of the cave have also been given by Mr. Pengelly*
and Prof. Boyd Dawkins.^
The cave itself is in Devonian Limestone, and consists of three
principal galleries, in plan not unlike the letter Z, with various
diverging tunnel-shaped passages, and a chamber at the right-
hand lower corner of the Z, the two entrances being at the
extreme points on the opposite side. The gallery represented by
the middle limb of the letter, known as the Flint Knife Gallery,
bears the most distinct marks of having been hollowed out by the
long-protracted action of running water, and the deposit in it was
nearly free from stalagmite. In the others, which are known as
the Reindeer and Pen Galleries, and which have more the
character of fissures, stalagmite abounded.
Where all the deposits of the cave were present,^ the following
was the section in descending order.
1. Irregular layer of stalagmite, 1 to 15 inches thick.
1 " Palaeont. Mem.," vol. ii. p. 486.
2 Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1860, vol. xvi. p. 189. Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4th
ed., p. 321. Geologist, vol. i. p. 538 ; vol. iv. p. 153. Brit. Assoc. Report, 1858.
2 P. 471. ^ Froc. Dcv. Assoc, vol. vi. p. 775.
5 "Cave-hunting," p. 319.
' Lyell, "Ant. of Man," 3rd ed., p. 99. Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. i. pt. iii. 31.
BRIXHAM CAVE. 513
2. Oclireous red cave-earth, with angular stones and some
pebbles, 2 to 13 feet.
3. Gravel, with many rounded pebbles in it.
In and on the stalagmite, were found antlers of reindeer, and a
humerus of bear, and in the cave-earth, numerous mammalian
remains. Among them, in one place, were nearly all the bones
of the left hind-leg of a bear, still preserving their true anato-
mical position,^ though with one of the bones of the fore-leg lying
with them. In close proximity lay one of the worked flints, of
which several were found in this bed. A few occurred in the
gravel. The fauna appears to be nearly identical with that of
Kent's Cavern, though the Machairodus is absent. "We have,
therefore, here another instance of the association of these works
of man with the remains of the extinct mammals, in a cave-
deposit beneath a thick layer of stalagmite, which, in this case,
had been for the most part deposited before the reindeer had
quitted the south of England, and while a large bear, probably
Ursus speheus, was still living in Britain. An interesting feature
in the case has been pointed out by Mr. Pengelly,^ who, from the
nature and origin of some of the pebbles in the cave-earth, argues
that to allow of their having been brought into the cave by means
of water — which in this instance, for various reasons, seems to
have been the transporting agent — the configuration of the surface
of the land in the neighbourhood must have been very different
from what it is at present ; and that a valley, 75 feet in depth,
which now runs in front of the cave, could not then have existed,
but must have been subsequently excavated.
The fragments of flint of various sizes discovered in the cave,
and showing in a greater or less degree traces of human workman-
ship upon them, were upwards of thirty in number. Like those
from Kent's Cavern, they have, for the most part, imdergone
much alteration in structure, having become white, absorbent, and
brittle to a greater or less depth from their surface, which in some
instances still retains a bright porcellanous glaze. The flint
appears to have been derived originally from the chalk, though in
some cases it had, before being utilized, been rolled into pebbles
on the beach.
The following are some of the most remarkable specimens : —
A round-pointed lanceolate implement, shown on the scale of \ in
Fig. 409. The point is symmetrically chipped, but the original sur-
' Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 296. ^ Geologist, vol. iv. p. 1-54.
L L
514
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXII.
face of the flint has been left untouched over the greater part of the
butt-end, which is roughly cylindrical, and more truncated than is
usual Tdth chalk flints, but is well adapted for being held in the hand.
This implement has had the pointed end broken olf by an irregularly
diagonal fracture rather more than half way along it, and the butt-end
has subsequently split up lengthwaj-s with what may be termed a
" faulted" line of fracture ; and about a quarter of it has been lost.
The fractures are evidently of very ancient date ; but what is most
remarkable is that the butt-end was found in August, 1858. 3 feet deep
Fig. •109. — Brixham Cave. \
in the cave-earth in the Flint Knife Gallery, and the point was not
found until nearly a month afterwards, a long distance away in the
Pen Gallerj-, at a depth of 3 feet 6 inches in the same bed. It was not
until some time afterwards that it was discovered that the two frag-
ments fitted each other, or that the true character of the implement
was seen. In general form it closeh' resembles oue type of the pointed
instruments from the Valley- gravels. In fact, it is in aU essential
points identical with them, and agrees in character with many of the
implements from the breccia of Kent's Cavern — especially with one
(No. 7,328) which might have been made by the same hand — while it
differs materially in form from the flat ovoid implements from the cave-
TRIMMED FLAKES FROM THE BRIXHAM CAVE.
515
earth, sucli as Fig. 386, whicli, however, also find their analogues in
the Eiver-Drift.
Another instrument, of an elongated-oval form, has been made from
a-large flake, or splinter, of flint with an approximately flat inner face,
showing strongly the curved and waved lines of conchoidal fracture.
It has been shaped by a succession of blows given in such a manner as
not to injure the flat face, but to produce a more or less bevelled
scraping or cutting edge all round, some parts of which present ap-
pearances of wear by use. It is shown in Fig. 410, and, as will be
seen, is of much the same character as the implement from Kent's
Cavern, Fig. 392, in the description of which the analogy of this type
with that of some of the French cave-implements is pointed out.
Fig. 410. — Brixham Cave.
Fig. 411.— Brixham Cave.
In Fig. 411 is represented an instrument found in the gravel in a
fissure in the West Chamber of the cave. It is a fragment of a large
broad flake, showing on its convex face a portion of the original crust
of the flint. It seems to have been at first of an approximately
oval form, but has lost one of its ends by a straight fracture. This
end appears to have been broken off in ancient times, after the rest of
the instrument had been chipped into shape. A portion of the other
end is also wanting, but the fracture in this case must have existed
before the completion of the implement, as several flakes have been
removed from its convex face, by blows administered on the fractured
surface. One side of the flake has been trimmed by chipping, at first
boldly and then more minutely, to a segmental bevelled edge, much
resembling in character that of some of the large "side-scrapers"
from the cave of Le Moustier^ in tlie Dordogne. Instruments of the
same character occur occasionally, though rarely, in the ancient
River-deposits. There are some traces of use on the edge of this
specimen.
A remarkably symmetrical scraper was also thought to have come
from the Brixham Cave, and is shown full size in Fig. 412. I re-
marked in publishing it that it closely resembled the scrapers found
> Such as " Eeliq. Aquit.," A., pi. v. fig. 2.
L L 2
516 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXII.
on the surface of the soil, and that it -was exceptionally short for a
cave-specimen. A little time after the first edition of this book had
_^ appeared, I discovered that this
^<CvS>^^=fe€;^fc^ /'''^ scraper had been found on the
/^f- ^^X ■' JSSl surface near the top of "Windmill
fK'' ^^i» I m^ Hill, and had been included with
].l ^^^V kW^ the other specimens by mistake.^
"t^. =^^^^B^^ B^A "^^ ^^ undoubtedly neolithic.
\^-; -^^^^^BP g^S^ The other implements from the
G*^ ^^n i^^M Brixham Cave consist for the most
qfe__^ N ijfe!^ SsRHi P^^^ ^^ flakes and splinters of
^^Bj|pp8^^ |jj^|i|y flint of different sizes, and more
IT ^,n Tj ■ I, r. or less chipped. One of these,
Fig.412.— Brixham Cave. o • i -t^^ -, ■> -, • \
2f mches long, has been chipped
or jagged along one edge, apparently by use, while the broad roimd
end is so much -worn away as to almost assume the appearance of a
" scraper." Most of them bear decided marks, either on their sides or
ends, of having been in use as scraping tools. About half way along
one of them is a rounded notch, aj^parently produced by scraping some
cylindrical object ; and in connection with this it may be mentioned
that a portion of a cylindrical pin, or rod, of ivory was found in the
cave, being the only object wrought from an animal substance. A
cylindrical piece of ivory about f inch in diameter was found in the
Gorge d'Enfer cavern, and is in the Christy Collection. Some of the
splinters of flint are very small, and yet one of them only f inch by
% inch shows the worn edge resulting from use. An irregular sub-
angular flint pebble somewhat pear-shaped in form has some of its
angles much battered, as if by hammering, and has probably served as
a hammer-stone, simply held in the hand. Pebbles similarly bruised at
the more salient parts have frequently been found in the French caves.
The Brixham Cave specimens are now in the British Museum,
and the general result of the examination of them, is that they are
found to present analogous, and in some cases almost identical,
forms with those discovered in other caves, and in the ancient
river-gravels, associated with the remains of animals now for the
most part extinct ; and that most of the implements prove not
only to have been made by man, but to have been actually in use
before becoming imbedded in the cave-loam ; while from the
whole of the flints discovered presenting these signs of human
workmanship or use upon them, it is evident that their presence
in the cave must in some measure be due to human agency, though
it was probably by means of water that they were deposited in the
positions in which they were found.
THE TOR BRYAN CAVES.
These caves, rock-shelters, or fissures are situated near Den-
^ See Froc. Ikvon. Assoc, vol. vi. p. 835. Phil. Trans., 1873, p. 561.
THE WOOKEY HYiRNA DEN. 517
bury, Devon, and were explored by Mr. J. L. Widger, with
results recorded by the late Mr. J. E. Lee.^ In them were found
numerous mammalian remains, including teeth o£ rhinoceros,
hyaena, and bear, and several worked flints. One of these,
described as a " Flint Implement of the older type," ^ was found
beneath two thick stalagmite floors. Many of the implements
from these caves are now in the British Museum.
In the Happaway Cavern,^ Torquay, teeth of the same mam-
mals were found, together with human bones and apparently a
flint flake as well as many splinters of flint. Human remains
were also found with those of hyaina in a cave at Cattedowii,*
Plymouth.
THE WOOKEY HY^NA DEN.
The so-called Hyaena Den at Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset,
has been explored at different times between 1859 and 1863 by
Prof. Boyd Hawkins, F.R.S., assisted by the Eev. J. Williamson,
F.G.S., Mr. James Parker, F.G.S., and Mr. Henry Willett,
F.G.S., and accounts of the exploration have been published in
the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society.^
The cave is situated no great distance from the mouth of the
large and well-known cavern of Wookey Hole, and pierces the
Dolomitic Conglomerate. It was first discovered about the year
1849, in cutting a mill-race along the edge of the rock, and con-
sists of a principal chamber, or antrum, connected with a bifur-
cated tunnel narrowing as it recedes from the chamber, and with
one branch terminating in a vertical passage. At the time of
the discovery, both the chamber and the passage were for the
greater part filled with red earth, stones, and animal remains
quite up to the roof, and in other parts to within a few inches of
it. In a few places only was there any deposit of stalagmite. In
the antrum, both the upper and lower part of the red earth which
filled the cave contained but few organic remains, though they were
abundant towards the middle of the deposit. In part of the passage,
however, there was an enormous accumulation of animal remains,
forming a bone-bed at the top of the cave-earth. The evidences
of human occupation were all found in the principal chamber.
' Froc. Sue. Ant., 2iid S., vol. viii. p. 247. - Op. cit., p. 462.
^ Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. xviii. p. 161. * Op. cit., vol. xLx. p. 419.
5 Vol. xviii., 1862, p. 115 ; xix., 1863, 260. See also Dawkin.s on " The Habits
and Conditions of the Tw^o earliest-known Races of Men," Quart. Journ. of Science,
1866, MacmiUan's Magazine, Oct. and Dec, 1870, "Cave-hunting," p. 295, and
"Early Man in Brit.," p. 193, and Hamy, " Paleont. Humaine," p. 117.
518
cwj: implements.
[chap. XXII.
They consisted of bone-ashes, and some instruments of stone and bone.
The bone objects are described as tM-o rudel}- fashioned aiTOTv-heads
of the shape of an equilateral triangle, with the angles at the base
bevelled off. They have, however, both been lost, so that I am unable
1.^!
Fig. 413.— Wookey Hyaena Den. (Four views of implement.)
to speak more positively as to their character. The stone objects are
still forthcoming, and some of them are preserved in the Museums at
Brighton and Oxford. One of the finest is shown in full size in foui-
news as Fig. 413, having been engraved for the Quarterly Journal of
FKOM THE WOOKEY HYAENA DEN. 519
the Geological Society} It lay at a depth of 4 feet from tlio roof, and at
a distance of VI feet from the present entrance. It is described an
having lain with some other implements in contact with teeth of
hyasna, between dark bands of manganese full of bony splinters,
which may have been old fioor.s * of the cave ; so tliat the occupa-
tion by the hytona seems to have succeeded, or alternated with,
that by man. It is of white flint, and closely resembles in fox-m some
of the smaller implements from the River-drift. It is of less size
than the ovoid instruments from Kent's Cavern, and is not so neatly
made as some of them. A smaller instrument from the Wookey
Hyaena Den is of much the same form, but still less artistically
worked. It is 2| inches long and 1| inches broad, and may be
compared with that from Kent's Cavern shown in Fig. 389. Other
specimens were more of the " sling-stone " form ; in addition to which
there wore numerous flakes and splinters of flint and chert. One
flake, which, though it has lost its point, is still 2| inches long, has
been trimmed by secondary chipping on the flat face, slightly so
along one side, but on the other, over half the surface of the flake,
which i^ \\ inches wide near the base. When perfect this instru-
ment was probably much like that from Kent's Cavern, Fig. 391.
Both its edges show considerable signs of wear by use. Another form
described by Prof. Boyd Dawkins is roughly pyramidal, with a smooth
and flat base, and a cutting edge all round, much like an instrument
found in the cave of Aurignac by M. Lartet. Of this form there
were two examples, both made of chert from the Upper Greensand.
The fauna of the cave, so far as the larger animals are concerned,
is the same as that of Kent's Cavern, with the addition of Rhino-
ceros hemitoechus, and of a lemming, and with the exception of
Machairodus. The exact method of accumulation of the deposits
in this cave it is very difficult to explain. Prof. Boyd Dawkins
has suggested that during its occupation by hysenas, and perhaps
for some time afterwards, it was subject to floods similar to those
which now from time to time take place in the caverns in the
neighbourhood. One thing appears certain, that previously to
the filling up of the principal chamber it must, for a longer or
shorter period, have been occupied by man ; who here also again
appears to have been associated with that same fauna, now either
totally or locally extinct, with which traces of his handiwork have
been discovered intermingled in so many other deposits of a
similar character, both on the Continent and in Britain. With
regard to the physical features of the country. Sir Charles Lyell ^
observes, " When I examined the spot in 1860, after I had been
• Vol. xviii. p. 118. For the use of this block I am indebted to the Council of the
Greologieal Society.
2 See Lubbock's " Preh. Timos," 4tli cd., p. 329.
3 "Ant. of Man," 3rdcd., p. 171.
520 CAVE IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXII.
shown some remains of the hyaena collected there, I felt convinced
that a complete revolution must have taken place in the topo-
graphy of the district since the time of the extinct quadrupeds.
I was not aware at the time, that flint tools had been met with in
the same bone- deposit."
LONG HOLE, GOWER, AND OTHER CAVES.
The next British cavern which I have to mentiun is one of the
series in the Peninsula of Gower, in Glamorganshire, explored by
Colonel \Yood and the late Dr. Hugh Falconer, F.R.S. The
cave in question was discovered in 1861, and is known as Long
Hole.^ It is about one mile east of the well-known Paviland
Caves, and is about 130 feet above ordinary high- water mark. It
penetrates the limestone rock to a distance of about 44 feet, and
when discovered did not exceed in its greatest dimensions 12 feet
in width, and 7 feet in height.
There was a deposit of about 7 feet of ferruginous, unctuous
cave-earth, mixed with angular fragments of limestone rock,
forming the floor, which was in part, if not wholly, of stalagmite.
The fossil remains found in the cave included Urstis spelcBUS,
Hyrena spelcea, Felis sjjeJcea, Rhinoceros hemitcechns and ticJiorhinus,
Elephas antiquus and jjrimigenius, Bison prisons and Census tarandus.
Flint implements, unquestionably of human manufacture, were
found along with these remains ; and one very fine flint " arrow-
head," as termed by Dr. Falconer," was found at a depth of
4r| feet in the cave-earth, contiguous to a detached shell of a milk
molar of Rhinoceros hemitcechns, and at the same depth. Other
flint implements were found at a depth of 3 feet below the stalag-
mite, associated with remains of Cervus Guettardi, a variety of
reindeer. Sir Charles Lyell ^ has remarked that this is the first
well-authenticated example of the occurrence of Rhinoceros hemi-
tcechns in connection with human implements. Dr. Falconer has
also recognized the same species, in the fragment of an upper
milk molar, discovered in the "Wookey Hole Hyaena Den by Prof.
Boyd Dawkins.
I have had an opportunity of examining casts of the worked
flints from Long Hole, in the Christy Collection, and find them to
' Falconer, " Palaeont. Mem.," vol. ii. p. 538. Cixar. Jf,»r». Gcol. Soc, vol. xvi.,
1860,Jp. 487. Geologist, vol. iii. p. 413.
- " Pal. Mem.," vol. ii. p. 540. 3 a ^^t. ^f iian," 3rd ed., p. 173.
THE GOWEK AND OTHER WELSH CAVES, 521
consist exclusiveh^ of flakes, some of them \vell and symmetrically
formed, and exhibiting on their edges the marks arising from
use.
In some of the other caverns in the same district, Prof. Boyd
Dawkins has also discovered flint flakes associated with the
remains of a similar group of animals. The Oyle Cave,^ Tenby,
and Hoyle's Mouth,^ have also afforded flint flakes associated with
the remains of a nearly similar fauna.
In the Coygan Cave,^ Carmarthenshire, Mr. Laws, of Tenby,
found two flint flakes with remains of mammoth and rhinoceros
below a foot of stalagmite. In the Ffynnon Beunos Cave,'* Dr. II.
Hicks, F.E.S., found several worked flints (one like Fig.
390) with bones of Pleistocene animals below a stalagmite breccia,
and in the Cae Gwyn Cave" a long scraper with bones of rhino-
ceros. A flint flake^ was found under Drift outside the covered
entrance to the cave. Dr. Hicks regards these caves as Pre-
Glacial, a view in which I cannot agree.
In the Pont Newydd Cave'^ near Cefn, Prof. T. McK. Hughes,
F.R.S., found, with plentiful remains of the Pleistocene fauna,
including Rhinoceros hemiUcchus, a number of implements of dis-
tinctly palaeolithic forms made of felstone and chert, as well as
one of flint. This cave can be proved to be Post-Glacial.
Another cave which may be mentioned is that known as King
Arthur's Cave, near Whitchurch, Ross, which was explored
by the late Rev. "W. S. Symonds, F.G.S., of Pendock.^ In this
instance flint flakes, and cores formed of chert were found in the
cave-earth, with bones and teeth of the usual mammals, in one
part of the cavern ; while in another, beneath a thick layer of
stalagmite, itself covered by what appeared to be a portion of an
old river-bed, flint flakes were found associated with the same
fauna. Mr. Symonds assigns these fluviatile deposits to an
ancient river now represented by the Wye, which flows 300 feet
below the level of the cave. If this view be correct, there can, as
he observes, hardly be better authenticated evidence of the anti-
quity of man in the records of cave-history, than that afforded by
' Geologist, vol. vi. p. 47 ; v. Ho. - Geol. Mag., vol. ii. p. 471.
■' Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. ix. p. 9.
* Q. J. G. S., vol. xlii. p. 9 ; xliii. p. 9. Froc. Geol. Assoc, vol. ix. p. 26.
* Q. J. G. S., vol. xliii. p. 112; xliv. 112. Fioc. Geol. Assoc, vol. x. p. 14.
Nature, vol. ix. p. 14. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1886.
« Q. J. G. S., vol. xliv. p. 564.
' Q. J. G. S., vol. xliii. p. 116. Joiirn. Anth. Inst., vol. iii. p. ;j87. Q. J. G. S.,
-vol. xxxii. p. 91. Dawkins, " Early Man in Brit.," p. 192.
^ Geol. Mag., vol. 'viii. p. 433. Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871.
522
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
[chap, XXII.
this old river-bed overlying the thick stalagmite, beneath which
the human relics were sealed up.
Since this book first appeared several important and interesting^
discoveries have been made in British Caves between Chester-
field and "Worksop. Perhaps the most remarkable are those
made in Creswell Crags on the north-eastern border of Derby-
shire, by the Rev. J. Magens Mello,^ and Prof. Boyd Dawkins,.
F.R.S.,"" who commenced their labours in the year 1875. The
ossiferous deposits, in which also traces
of man were found, lay both in
fissures and in caves in the Lower
Magnesian Limestone. Those which
yielded the most important stone
implements were the Robin Hood
and the Church Hole Caves, though
Mother Grundy's Parlour also con-
|t' ^^^^ tributed a few. In the Robin Hood
Cave a stalagmitic breccia lay above
the cave-earth. In this were found
implements of quartzite and iron-
stone, eighty-six in number, ruder
than those of flint in the breccia. By
the kindness of the Council of the
Geological Society I am able to give a
few representations of those of both
classes. Fig. 413a shows an implement
formed from a quartzite pebble worked
at the point and side and of a dis-
tinctly Palaeolithic type. It is much
like the specimen from Saltley, Fig.
4o0a, and some made of similar material found in the neighbour-
hood of Toulouse.
Fig. 413b is of iron-stone, and so far as form is concerned
might well have been found in a bed of old River-drift. Some
hammer- stones and a side chopper of quartzite, in form like
Fig. 443, were also found in the cave-earth. Some flint tools
from the breccia are shown in the next three figures. Fig. 413c
recalls one of the blades from Kent's Cavern, Fig. 390, though of
Tig. 413a.— Robin Hood Cave. 5
1 Q. J. G. S., vol. xxxi. p. 679 ; xxxii. p. 240 : xsxiii. p. 579 ; xxxr. p. 724.
- "Early Man in Brit.," p. 175. See also Pennington's '• Barrows, and Bone
Caves of Derbyshire," p. 99. Journ. Berb. A. and N. M. Soc, vol. iv. (1882), p. 169^
THE CAVES OF CRESWELL CRAGS.
523
smaller dimensions. Fig. 413d is almost identical with Fig. 399,
while the borer, Fig. 413e, resembles those of the Neolithic Period.
In all, there were found in the Robin Hood Cave no less than
1040 pieces of stone and bone showing traces of human workman-
ship. Among the bone objects were an awl and numerous pointed
Fig. 413b.— Robin Hood Cave. -i Fig. 413c.— Robin Hood Cave. J
antler-tips, but the most remarkable is a smooth and rounded
fragment of a rib having the head and forepart of a horse incised
upon it. It is shown in Fig. 413f. In the Church Hole Cave
213 relics of human workmanship were found, principally flakes
of flint, splinters, and quartzite stones. Two of the flakes, one of
Fig. 413d.— Robin Hood Cave.
Fig. 413e.— Robin Hood Cave.
which is shown in Fig. 413g, are worn away on one edge only, as
if the other edge had been protected by a wooden handle
as suggested in the sketch.
Among the bone objects was an oval plate notched at the sides
and a bone needle. Fig. 413h. It is of larger size than is usual
in caves of this period.
•524
CAVE IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXII.
The fauna comprised cave-lion, hya}na, bear, Irish elk, woolly
rhinoceros, and mammoth. A fine upper canine of Machairodus
was also found. Most of the objects described are now in the
British Museum. TVe have here another instance of quartzite
Fig. 41 3r.— Robin Hood Cave. i
implements of Palaeolithic type, being found well to the north of
the area in which drift -implements are usually discovered.
The relics found in the Victoria Cave^ at Settle belong to a
later period than that of which I am treating.
A cave at Ballynamintra," Co. TVaterford, is Xeolithic.
Fig. 413G.— Church Hole Cave.
The Mentone caves would open so large a field for discussion
that I content myself with a passing reference to them.
Were no other evidence forthcoming, the results of an exami-
nation of the British caves already described would justify us in
Fig. 413h.— Church Hole Cave. \
concluding that in this country man co-existed with a number of
the larger mammals now for the most part absolutely extinct, while
others have long since disappeared from this portion of the
globe. The association, under slightly differing circumstances,
' Jour. Anth. Inst., vol. iii. pp. 392, 516. B. A. Rep., 1874-5. Miall's " Geol.,
&c., of Craven," 1878, p. 25. J. Geikie's "Preh. Europe," p. 97. Dawkin's " Cave-
hunting," p. 81.
2 Tr. Berb. A. and X. H. Soe., X. S., vol. i. p. 177.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 525
and in several distinct cases, of objects of human industry with
the remains of this extinct fauna, in which so many of the animals
characteristic of the existing fauna are " conspicuous by their
absence," in undisturbed beds, and for the most part beneath a
thick coating of stalagmite, leads of necessity to this conclusion.
This becomes, if possible, more secure when the results of the
exploration of other caves on the Continent of Western Europe
are taken into account. How long a period may have intervened
between the extinction, or migration, of these animals and the
present time is, of course, another question ; but such changes in
the animal world as had already taken place at least three thou-
sand years ago, do not appear to occur either suddenly or even
with great rapidity ; and, leaving the stalagmite out of considera-
tion, we have already seen that in some instances the physical
configuration of the country in the immediate neighbourhood of
the caves seems to have been greatly changed since the period of
their infilling.
These changes are perhaps more conclusively illustrated in the
case of the old river deposits, in which the remains of the same
extinct fauna as that of the caves occur associated with imple-
ments manufactured by the hand of man, to which we must now
direct our attention.
526
CHAPTER XXIII.
IMPLEMENTS OF THE RIVER-DRIFT PERIOD.
In treating of tlie implements belonging to the PalaeoHtliic Period,
and found in tlie ancient freshwater or river drifts in Britain,
I propose first to give a slight sketch of the nature of the dis-
coveries which have been made in this particidar field of archae-
ology; then to furnish some details concerning the localities
where implements have been found, and the character of the
containing beds ; next, to offer a few remarks on the shape and
possible uses of the various forms of implements ; and, finally, to
consider the evidence of their antiquity.
So much has already been written in England,^ as well as on
the Continent, as to the history of these most curious discoveries,
that a very succinct account of them will here sufiice. It was in
the year 1847, that M. Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, called
attention to the finding of fliut instruments fashioned by the hand
of man, in the pits worked for sand and gravel, in the neighbour-
hood of that town. They occurred in such positions, and at such
a depth below the surface, as to force upon him the conclusion that
they were of the same date as the containing beds, which he
regarded as of diluvial origin, or as monuments of a universal
Deluge. In 1855, Dr. Rigollot,^ of Amiens, also published an
account of the discovery of flint implements at St. Acheul, near
Amiens, in a drift enclosing the remains of extinct animals, and
at a depth of 10 feet or more from the surface. From causes into
1 See Prestwich, Phil. Trans., 1860, p. 277—1864, 247 ; Evans, Arch., vol.
xxxviii. p. 280 ; vol. xxxix. p. 57. Sir J. Lubbock, "Preh. Times," p. 349. Nat.
Hist. Rev. (1862), p. 244. Sir C. Lyell, " Ant. of Man," p. 93. Wilson, " Prehist.
Man," vol. i. p. lOo. Falconer, '* Palseont. Mem.," vol. ii. p. 596. London Review,
Jan., 1860; Gentleman'' s Magazine, March and April, 1861 ; Blackwood^s Magazine,
Oct., 1860; Quarterly Review, Oct., 1863; Edinburgh Review, July, 1863; Rroc.
Royal Inst., Feb. 26, 1864, &c. It seems needless now (1897) to add to these refer-
ences.
2 "Memoire sur des Instruments en Silex trouves a St. Acheul, prcs Amiens."
THE DISCOVERIES AT ABBEVILLE AND AMIENS. 527
which it is not necessary to enter, these discoveries were re-
garded with distrust in France, and were very far from being
generally accepted by the geologists and antiquaries of that
country.
In the autumn of 1858, however, that distinguished palaeontolo-
gist, the late Dr. Hugh Falconer, F.R.S., visited Abbeville,Mn order
to see M. Boucher de Perthes's collection, and became " satisfied
that there was a great deal of fair presumptive evidence in favour
of many of his speculations regarding the remote antiquity of these
industrial objects, and their association with animals now extinct."
Acting on Dr. Falconer's suggestion, the late Sir Joseph Prest-
wich, F.R.S., whose extensive and accurate researches had placed
him in the first rank of English geologists, visited Abbeville and
Amiens, in April, 1859 ; where I, on his invitation, had the good
fortune to join him. We examined the local collections of flint
implements and the beds in which they were said to have been
found ; and, in addition to being perfectly satisfied with the
evidence adduced as to the nature of the discoveries, we had the
crowning satisfaction of seeing one of the worked flints still in situ,
in its undisturbed matrix of gravel, at a depth of 17 feet from the
original surface of the ground.
I may add that on March 26th, 1875, 1 dug out from the gravel,
in a pit close to the seminary at Saint Acheul, a pointed imple-
ment at a depth of 10 feet 10 inches from the surface.
From the day on which Sir Joseph Prestwich gave an account
to the Royal Society, of the results of his visit to the Valley of
the Somme, the authenticity of the discoveries of M. Boucher de
Perthes and Dr. Pigollot was established ; and they were almost
immediatel}^ followed by numerous others of the same character,
both in France and England.
Before proceeding to describe the discoveries made in this
country, it will be well to say a few words as to some others of
those which have been made on the continent of Europe. In
France such discoveries have been so abundant that it would be
an almost hopeless task to enumerate the whole of them, I must,
therefore, content myself by calling attention to a few only ; and,
moreover, shall not overburden my pages with references. One
of the earliest discoveries was made by M. Vincent at Troyes^
(Aube), where, in 1850, at a depth of 3 metres, ho found an
' " Pal. Mem.," vol. ii. p. o97.
2 P. Salmon, "Diet. Pal. du Dcp. deTAube," 1882, p. 170.
528 KIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIIU
OToid implement, but most of the recent finds date subsequently
to 1859. Those made at Chelles^ (Seine et Marne) deserve espe-
cial mention, inasmuch as M. Gabriel de Mortillet, regarding the
deposits at that place as being more of one and the same age than
those at St. Acheul, has termed his oldest stage of the Palaeolithic
Period Chelleen rather than Acheuleen. He places the Jlousterkn
next, but in some respects the subdivision is unsatisfactory. The
Elephas antiquus occurs at Chelles, but at Tilloux^ (Charente)
E. meridional is, E. antiquus, and E. primigenius all occur together
with well-marked pala?olithic implements of usual types. At Paris
itself, in the gravels of the valley of the Seine, numerous imple-
ments have been found, as well as lower down the valley at Sotte-
ville, near Rouen. At Argues,^ near Dieppe, Saint Saen, and
Bully,* near Xeufchatel, they have also occurred. At Grand
Morin^ (Seine et Marne) and Quievy,^ (Nord), fine specimens have
been foimd. At the Bois du Eocher,'' near Dinan, in the Cotes
du Xord, numerous implements, mostly small and of fine-grained
quartzite occur — I found eight there myself in 1876 — and near
Toulouse^ many larger and coarser examples chipped out of quart-
zite pebbles. I have also implements from Chelles made of a kind
of quartzite. Of other localities in the north of France I may
mention Guines and Sangatte, near Calais ; Montguillain and
other spots near Beauvais ; Thenay and Thezy, near Amiens, and
Yaudricourt, near Bethune. In the district of the Loire I have
found implements in the gravels of Marboue, near Chateaudun.
and at Yendome. Further south in Poitou they are abundant on
the surface at Coussay-les-Bois and other places near Leugny.
They have also been found in some abundance near Sens (Yonne),
and occur in Dordogne, the Maconnais and Champagne, the
departments of Correze, ludre et Loire, Nievre, and indeed over
the greater part of France.
In Belffivmi several discoveries have been made, notably at
Curange ^ and Mesvin.^°
1 MateHaux,\o\. xiii., 187S, p. 22: vol. xvi., 1S81, p. 329, 410. E. Chouquet,
" Les Silex tallies de Chelles," 4to, 1SS3.
2 U Anthropologie, vol. ri., 1895, p. 497.
^ Cochet. " Seine Inefrieure," p. 248.
* Op. eit., p. .o03. * G. Dmnoutier, 1SS2.
« Gosselet. Lille. 1891.
' " Mus. Preh.," 44, 46. Mac, vol. viii., 1873, pp. 163, 245.
8 Jiev, Arch, du Midi de la Frar.ee, 1868. Mat., vol. xiii., 1878, 40.
9 BuU. Soe. Ant. de Brux., vol. xiii. 1894-5.
"^^ Ann. Soc. Arch, de Brux. vol. v. p. 145. Rev. des Quest, scietit., July, 1891.
See also Cong. Frth. BntxelUs. 1872, p. 250, and Cong. Arch, de Brux., 1891, p. 538.
DISCOVERIES ON THE CONTINENT. . 529
To tLe east, in Germany,^ Austria,^ Hungary,^ and Russia/
such discoveries, though rare, seem to be not entirely unknown.
Further evidence, however, is desirable.
In Italy ^various implements, presumed to be of Palaeolithic age,
have been found in the gravels of the Tiber, but they are nearly
all rude flakes. One, however, of ovate form, has been found near
Gabbiano,^ in the Abruzzo.
Other well-defined implements have been found near Perugia,'
in the Iiuolese,® Ceppagna^ (Molise), and elsewhere.
In the gravels of the valley of the Manzanares, at San Isidro,
near Madrid, paloeolithic implements of the usual t3'pes have been
found, as well as some of a wedge shape, unlike the ordinary
European types, but similar to one of the Madras forms. They
are associated with the remains of an elephant, probably E. anti-
qiiiis. The Quaternary beds at San Isidro are nearly 200 feet
above the level of the existing river, and the implements that
they contain are varied in character, some chipped out of porphyry
and other old rocks, being very rude in fabric, while others
of flint are as dexterously made as any of the ordinary specimens
from St. Acheul. The first discovery made there was by M.
Louis Lartet.^*' I have on several occasions visited the spot.
Diagrammatic sections of the valley have been given by Prof. A.
Gaudry ^^ and M. E. Cartailhac.^^ Messrs. Siret^^ mention several
other localities in Spain that have yielded palaeolithic implements.
In Portugal^* also, both in gravels and in caves, such implements
have been found, and a good ovate specimen, made of quartz, from
Leiria, near Lisbon, has been figured by ^^Cartailhac.
In Greece some almond-shaped implements, of the true palico-
1 Zeiisch. f.Hthn., vol. xxiv., 1892, ip. 366. Mitth. tV Ant. Ges. in Wien, N.S.,
vol. xiii., 1893, p. 204. V A)dhropoloqie, vol. viii., Iis97, p. r)3.
2 Cing. Prch. Buda-Test. 1876, p. 33.
3 Mitth. cVAnth. Ges. in Wicn, N. S. vol. xiii. 1893, p. 77.
* L'Anthroj)., vol. vi. 1895, p. 1. De Baye, " Rapport sur les decouvertes de M.
Savenkow dans la liberie Orient.," 189-i.
° Nicolucci, Bendiconte ddV Accnd. di NapoH. August, 1868. Rossi, Rev. Arch.,
vol. x^d. p. 48. Ceselli, " Stromentiin Silice dlRoma," 186(5. Macoiillan's Maga-
zine, September. 1867.
^ Coneezio Rosa, "Ricerehe di Arch. PreLst." Firenze, 1871, pi. ii. 1.
■' Arch, per I'Ant. e la Etn., vol. viii., 1878. p. 41.
" Gastaldi, " Iconografia." 1869, 4to, vol. ii.
9 Bull, di Faletn. Ital., 1876, p. 122, pi. iv. 1.
1" Bull. Soc. Gi'ol. de France, 2 S., t. xx., 1863, p. 698.
" U^l'ithrop.. vol. vi., 189-5, p. 616.
'•- " Ages preh. de I'Esp. et du Port.," 1886, p. 26.
'3 " Les premiers Ages du met. en Espagne," 1887, p. 249.
'* Cong. preh. Lisbonne, 1880, p. 237.
'* "Ages preh. de I'Esp. et du Port," 1886, p. 30.
M M
530 ■ RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXIIl.
lithic type, are said to have been discovered in beds of sand near
Megalopolis/ \nth bones of the great pachyderms.
Returning to this country and to the year 1859, I may observe
that it turned out on examination that more than one such dis-
covery as those of Abbeville and Amiens had already been recorded,
and that flint implements of similar types to the French had been
found in the gravels of London at the close of the seventeenth
century, and in the brick- earth of Hoxne, in Suffolk, at the close
of the eighteenth, and were still preserved in the British Museum,
and in that of the Society of Antiquaries.
During the thirty-eight years that have elapsed since renewed
and careful attention was called to these implements, numerous other
discoveries have taken place in various parts of England of instru-
ments of analogous forms in beds of gravel, sand, and clay, for the
most part on the slopes of our existing river valleys, though in some
instances at considerable distances from any stream of water, and
occasionally not thus embedded, but lying on the surface of the
ground. Several of these discoveries have been made in localities
where, from the nature of the deposits, it had already been
suggested by the late Sir Joseph Prestwich and myself that imple-
ments would probably be found ; and others have resulted from
workmen, who had been trained to seirch for the implements in
gravel, having migrated to new pits, where also their search has
proved successful. In not a few instances the researches for such
evidence of the antiquity of man have been carried on by fully
qualified observers. It is, however, needless here to trace the causes
and order of the discoveries, and I therefore propose to treat them
in geographical, and not chronological, sequence. In so doing it will
be most convenient to arrange them in accordance with the river
systems in connection with which the gravels were deposited,
wherein for the most part the implements have been found.
The district of which, following the order formerly adopted, it
seems convenient first to treat, is the basin of the river Ouse and its
tributaries, comprising, according to the Ordnance Sui-vey,- an area of
2,607 square miles. Beginning in the west of this district, I may
mention the finding by Mr. Worthington G. Smith, F.L.S., of several
implements near one of the sources of the Ouse, a little to the north
of Leighton Buzzard. Through his kindness I possess a pointed,
thick and deejdy-stained implement, found at Bossington, about a
mde north of Leighton. A more important scene of discoveries of
this kind is the neighbourhood of Bedford, where the late Mr. James
^ Jiev. Arch., vol. xv. p. 18. ^ ''Rivers f.nd their Catchment Basins."
FOUND IN THE VALLEY OF THE OUSE. 531
Wyatt, F.G.S., obtained specimens so early as April, 1861, since
which time considerable numbers have been found. The pit in which
they first occurred is one near Biddenham, in which I had, some
few years before, discovered freshwater and land shells,' and vrhich I
had, previously to Mr. AVyatt's discovery, already visited with him
in the expectation of finding flint implements in the gravel. The
other localities in the immediate neighbourhood of Bedford where
palaeolithic implements have been found, are Harrowden,- Carding-
ton, Kempston, Summerhouse Hill, and Honey Hill, all within a
radius of four miles.
The Ouse near Bedford winds considerably in its course, which has
in all probabilit)' much changed at different periods, the valley
through which the river now passes being of great width. As in-
stances of its changes even within historical times, it may be mentioned
that the chapel in which Ofi^a,^ King of Mercia, was interred, is said
to have been washed away by the Ouse ; and in the time of Richard 11.^
its course was so much altered, near Harrold, that the river is recorded
to have ceased flowing, and its channel to have remained di-y, for
three miles.
At Biddenham, the beds of Drift-gravel form a capping to a low
hill about two miles in length, and about three quarters of a mile in
width, which is nearly encircled by one of the windings of the river.
Judging from the section given by Sir Joseph Prestwich,^ the highest
point which the gravel attains is about 59 feet above the river, and
its surface in the pit, where the implements are found, is 40 feet
above it. The gravel rests upon the Gorubrash, or upper member of
the Lower Oolite ; but the valley itself, though partly in the limestone
rock, has been cut through a considerable thickness of Oxford Clay
and of Boulder Clay, which here overlies it. The gravel consists of
subangular stones in an ochreous matrix, interspersed with irregular
seams of sand and clay.** It is principally composed of fragments of
flint, local Oolitic debris, pebbles of quartz and of sandstones from the
New Eed Sandstone conglomerates, with fragments of various old
rocks. All these latter have no doubt been derived from the washing
away of the Boulder Clay or of other Glacial beds. The thickness of the
gravel, in the -^it where the implements have been principally found,
is about 13 feet, and detailed sections of it have been given by Sir
Joseph Prestwich and by Mr. Wyatt. Dispersed throughout, from a
depth of about 5 feet from the surface down to the base, are to be
found laud and freshwater shells, mostly in fragments, but occasion-
ally perfect. Their character has been determined by the late Mr.
Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S. ; ' and they consist — including some specimens
from Harrowden and Summerhouse Hill — of various species of SpJm-
rium, or Ci/clas, Pisidium, Bythinia, Valvata, Hydrohia, Succinea, Helix,
' AUutmum, April 4, 1863, p. 459.
* Wyatt in Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xviii., p. 113 ; xx.,p. 187. Geologist, vol.
iv. p. '242. See a.\so Bedfordtihii-e Arc hit. and Archmol. Soe. Trans., 1861 and 1862.
Prestwich, P/aV. Trans., 1864, p. 253. Quir. Journ. Geo!. Soc, vol. xvii., p. 366.
Evans, Arch., vol. xxxix. p. 69. Lyell, " Aut. of Man," p. 163.
3 Matt. Paris, " Vit. Offte II.," p. 32.
* Walsingham, " Hist. Ang.," «. a. 1399.
* Fhil. Trans., 1864, p. 254. ® Prestwich, Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xvii., p. 367.
' Qitar. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xviii., p. 113 ; xx., p. 185.
MM 2
H7 414. — Biddenbam, L.euiui'i.
BIDDENHAM, BEDFORD.
533
Pupa, Planorhis, Limncea, Ancylus, Zua, and Unio. Of these the
Hydrohia {marginata) has never been found alive in this country.
IMamnialian remains also occur in the gravel, principally towards
its base. Including other localities in the neighbourhood of Bedford,
besides those already mentioned, but where the gravel is of the same
character, remains of the following animals have been found : ' JJram
Fig. 415. — Biddenharn, Bedford. {
spelceus, Cervus tarandics, Cervus ehiphics, Poft primif/cnius, Bison prisciis,
Hippopotamus major, Rhinoceros tichorJmms, Rhinoceros megarhinus, Elephas
antiqims, Elephas primigenius, Equus, and Hycena spelcea.
I have already given in the Archtcologia - full-size figures of two of
the implements from the Biddenham pit, wliich are here reproduced.
Fig. 414, though worked to a wodgc-liko point, is very massive,
weighing something over 1^ lb. The butt-end has been roughly
' Prestwich, Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 284. Wyatt, i<bi sup. * Vol. xxxix. pi. iii.
534 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIII.
chipped into form,, and has some sharp projections left upon it, so that
kW..9L\
?'**■■
/^.■■■,V.
K
Tig. 416.— Biddenham, Belford. J
i'lg. 417.— Biddenham, Bedford. J
it can hardly have been intended to be simply held in the hand when
KIDDEXHAM, BEDFORD.
535
used, but was eitlier mounted in some manner, or else some means
were adopted for proteoting the hand against its asperities. I have
ah'eady called attention to its resemblance to an implement from
Ivent's Cavern, Fig. 388a.
The second specimen, Fig. 415, still shows the natural crust of the
flint at its truncated end, and is well adapted for being held in the
hand when used.
Otlier specimens from the Biddenham Pit are engraved on the scale
of one-half linear measure in Figs. 416 to 418.
The whole, with the exception of Fig. 417, were in the collection of
the late Mr. Wyatt.
Fig. 416 is of ochreous cherty flint, symmetrically chipped, and
showing a portion of the original crust of the flint at the base. Its
angles are sharp, and not water- worn. In character it much resembles
many of the implements from the valley of the Little Ouse, and from
St. Acheul, near Amiens.
The original of Fig. 417 is in my own collection, having been kindly
presented to me by Mr. Wyatt. As will be seen, it is remarkably
thick at the butt, which is somewhat battered, almost as if the instru-
ment had been used as a wedge. On a part of the butt is a portion
of the white crust of the flint, which is somewhat striated, and sugges-
tive of the block of flint from which the implement was fashioned
having been derived from some Glacial deposit.
Fig. 418 represents a very curious form of implement made from
a part of a sub-cyiiudri(3al nodule of flint, and chipped to a rounded
point at one end, and truncated at
the other, where the original frac-
tured surface of the flint is left
intact. The angles at the pointed
end are but little worn.
Implements of various other
forms and sizes have been found
in the gravels near Bedfor.l, but in
character they so closely correspond
with those found in other parts
of England, and in France, that it
seems needless to particularize
them. One of them, however, in
my own collection, 10;^ inches long
by 4^ inches wide, tongue-like in
character, but of a long ovate
shape, deserves special mention. It
was found at Biddenham. The flat
ovate, or oval type, is there of
extremely rare occurrence.
I have numerous other speci-
mens from the Bedford gravels,
principally from Kempston, and others exist in various public and
private collections. Like the mammalian remains, they occur for the
most part towards the base of the gravel, but occasionally at higher
levels in the beds. Besides the more highly wrought instruments,
knife-like flakes of flint have been found, some of them presenting
Fi?. 418.— Biddenhain,r,e(iford.
536 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXIII.
evidence of use upon their edges. A fevr flakes trimmed at the end
into scraper-like form have also been discovered.
At Tempsford, some seven or eight miles below Bedford, the river
Ouse is joined by the small river Ivel. a branch of which, the Hiz,
rises from the Chalk escarpment near Hitchin, and joins the Ivel at
Langford. About two miles south of the junction of these two streams,
near Henlow, Bedfordshire, Mr. F. J. Bennett, of the Geological
Survey, found in 1868 a flint implement of palpeolithic type, not in-
deed in gravel, but lying on the surface. It is 4 inches long and 2^
broad, and of the same general character as that from Icklingham,
Fig. 420, but rather more acutely pointed at each end. It is ochreous
on one face, and grey black on the other, and not improbably may
have been derived from some gravelly bed. I remarked in 1872 that
this discovery seemed to place the Ivel and Hiz among the rivers, in the
valley-gravels of which, farther search would probably be rewarded.
Since then at Ickleford,^ near Hitchin, numerous implements, some
of them much water-worn, have been foimd by Mr. Frank Latchmore
and others in gravels lying in the valley of the Hiz. I have also
an acutely-pointed specimen from Bearton Green,- a little to the north
of Hitchin, in an angle between the rivers Oughton and Hiz.
But the most important discoveries are those which have been made
a short distance to the south of the town of Hitchin. There, near the
summit of a hill cut off by valleys on three sides from higher land, a
brickfield has been worked for some j-ears by Mr. A. Eansom.
Although attention was called to the discovery in 1877,^ the whole
circumstances of the case are only now being thoroughly worked out.
At that time the section exposed was about 20 feet in depth, of
reddish brick-earth with numerous small angular fragments of flint
throughout. In places there were seams in which flints were more
abundant. With them were a few quartz and quartzite pebbles.
Above one seam, about 9 feet from the surface, was a layer of car-
bonaceous matter. The implements,'' which are of various forms,
both ovate, like PI. II., No. 17-19, and pointed, like PI. L, No. 5-7,
are said to occur in the brick-earth, but not in the alluvial beds below.
They are mostly ochreous, but some are white. I have a hammer-
stone found with them which is made of an almost cylindrical portion
of a nodule of flint about 4;^ inches long, truncated at each end ; the
edges round both ends are much battered. It was probably used in
the manufacture of the other implements ; a hammer of the same kind
was found at Little Thurrock.= In October, 1877, a weU was sunk at
the bottom of the pit showing —
(a) Eed loam with a few quartz pebbles and flints, about 4 0
{b) White very sandy loam with freshwater shells ,, o 6
(c) Dark greenish-brown loam with numerous shells and
vegetable remains, among them Bythinia, Plan-
orhin and Limyicca ; also elyti-a of beetles, about 10 6
' Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. viii., 189G, pi. xi. 6. ^^ ^
2 Tram. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. viii., 1896, pi. xi. 2.
3 Tram. Watford Xat. Hist. Soc, vol. i. p. Ixi. Tram. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc,
vol. viii., 1896, pi. xi. 7.
* Several are figured in Tram. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. viii., 1896, pi. xii.
* " Man the Prim. Savage," p. 261.
HITCHIX, HERTS.
537
Mammalian remains are reported to Lave been found in the argilla-
ceous beds at Hitchin,' including bear, elephant, and rhinoceros.
In Fig. 418a is shown a small shoe-shaped implement from the
brick-earth at Hitchin, on which a considerable amount of the crust
of the original nodide of flint from which it was made still remains.
At the Folly Pit, about half a mile south and at a lower level, a
section was shown in 1877 of about 18 feet of Glacial Drift, with large
rounded pebbles of different rocks, false-bedded sands, &c. On an
eroded surface of sands and gravels of the Glacial Series was brick-
Fig. 418a.— Hitcluii. J
earth extending in the direction of Mr. Ransom's pit. At one spot
white marly sand-like beds, full of freshwater shells, were visible.
The brick-earth at Hitchin, like that at Hoxne, seems to have been
deposited in what were locally Post- Glacial times.
A detailed examination of the spot has recently been carried out by
Mr. Clement Eeid, F.G.S., who finds that the alhivial deposits beneath
the paheolithic brick-earth fill a deep channel and contain a temperate
flora, including such trees as the oak, ash, cornel, elder, and alder.
Towards the margin of the channel, in at least one place, the Chalky
Boulder Clay occurs beneath the ancient alluvial and palooolithic strata.
The succession corresponds closely with that found at Hoxne."
' Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xiv., 189G, p. 417.
- A detailed account of Mr. Eeid's work is given in the Froc. Roy. Soc, March
4th, 1897, vol. Ixi. p. 40.
538 RlVER-DRlFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIIl.
At Biggleswade, farther down the valley of the Ivel, a few paleeo-
lithic implements have been procured from the railway ballast-pit.
Northwards of Hitchin a flint flake has been found in the gravel of
the Ouse at Hartfoi'd,^ near Huntingdon, together with remains of
Elephas primigenius and Rhinoceros tichorhinm. I have also a well-,
shaped ochreous pointed implement (o inches) found at Abbot's Eip-
ton, 3^ miles north of Huntingdon, in 1896, as well as one like
Fig. 457 (of inches) from gravel at Chatteris. Cambs.
Proceeding eastward, the next important affluent of the Ouse which
is met with, is the Cam, the gravels along the valley of which present
in various places characters analogous with those near Bedford.
Numerous mammalian remains of the same Quaternary fauna have
been found along its course, especially at Barnwell and Chesterton, -
near Cambridge, where also land and freshwater shells occur in
abundance. I have also found them in a pit near Littlebury, a few
miles fi'om Saffron "Walden.
From Quendon, Essex, about 5 miles south of Saffron Walden, and
in the valley of the Cam, Mr. C. K. Probert. of Newport, Bishop
Stortford, obtained a magnificent sharp-pointed implement with the
sides curved outwards, 8 inches in length. It lay in sandy drift in a
pit about 12 feet deep.
In the publications of the Cambridge Antic|uarian Society^ is a
paper by the late Prof. Chas. C. Babington, F.E.S., " On a flint ham-
mer found near Burwell." It is described as a pointed implement,
very similar to those found at Hoxne and Amiens, as represented in
Phil. Trans., 1860, PL XIY., 6 and 8. It was not found in situ, nor
in gravel, but is said to have come from a mill used for cleaning
coproHtes, where it had been well washed with them. If it be the
specimen that I have seen in the museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian
Society, I fear it is a forgery. Another worked flint, also of rather
uncertain origin, but perfectly genuine, and having all the character-
istics of belonging to the Eiver-drift, was found in 1862 on a heap of
gravel, near Cambridge, by Mr. W. "Whitaker, F.E.S., who kindly
placed it in my collection. It is a thick polygonal flake, about 3
inches long and 1 inch broad at the base, tapering to the point, which
is broken oft". Its surface is stained all over of a deep ochreous
colour, its angles are slightly water-worn, and the edges worn
away, either by friction among other stones in the gravel, or by
use. In the Woodwardian Museum is another flake, apparently of
palteolithic date, which was found in gravel near the Cambridge
Observatory. The Eev. Osmond Fisher, F.G.S., possesses an imple-
ment in form and character much like Fig. 470, from Highfield,
Salisbury, which was found on a heap of gravel brought from Chester-
ton. Other discoveries have confirmed this evidence of the presence
of palaeolithic implements in the gravels of the valley of the Cam.
Mr. A. F. GriffithMn 1878 described a fine implement from the
Barnwell gravels (6J inches) in form and size almost identical with
1 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v. p. 3.T.
2 Seeley, Quar. Jmirn. Geol. Soc. (18GG), vol. xxii. p. 475.
^ Antiquarian Co»im., vol. ii. p. 201.
* Geol. Mag., 2nd Decade, vol. v. (1878), p. 400. See also Camh. Ant. Comm., vol.
iv. p. 177, where the specimens are figiired.
VALLEYS OF THE CAM AND THE LARK. 539
Fig. 414. Others have been found in gravel from the Observatory
HHl, Cambridge, and from Chesterton. Another tongue-shajjed
implement from the plateau near Upper Hare Park,' Cambridge, has
been found by Mr. M. C. Hughes.
I may add that in the gravel at Barnwell, at a depth of 12 feet, and
associated with remains of elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus,
was found in 1862, a portion of a rib-bone like that of an elephant,
showing at one end "numerous cut surfaces, evidently made with
some sharp instrument used by a powerful hand." I have not seen the
specimen, but Mr. H. Seeley, F.R.S.,'- who records the fact, has "no
doubt that the whittling is as old as the bone." The Corbiciila flumi-
iialis, Hydrohia marginata, and Unio rhomhoideus are among the shells
which are found in the Eiver-drift of Barnwell, but are no longer
living in England.
I have a number of implements, principally of ovate form, which are
said to have been found in the neighbourhood of Bottisham, but I am
not sure as to the exact locality. I believe them to have come from
gravel-pits about a mile to the north of Six Mile Bottom Station.
In gravel at Kennett Station,'' about 5 miles north-east by east of
Newmarket, but still in Cambridgeshire, several specimens have been
found by Mr. Arthur Gr. Wright and others.
I have a much- worn flat ovate specimen from Herringswell, three
miles to the north of Kentford Station.
Implements occur, though rarely, at the base of the peat in the
Fen country, below Cambridge. I have a small ovate specimen (3|-
inches) from Swaffham Fen. It is of black fliut with the surface
eroded as if a portion of its substance had been dissolved away. A
much larger implement (6 inches) from Soham Fen is also black, but
its surface is uninjured.
The valley of the Lark, the next river which empties itself into the
Ouse, has been much more prolific of implements in its gravels, than
that of the Cam. The fact of their occurrence in this valley was tirst
observed by myself, in 1860, in consequence of my finding among the
stone antiquities in the collection of a local antiquary — the late Mr.
Joseph AVarren, of Ixworth — two specimens, which I at once recog-
nized as being of palaeolithic types. On inquiry, it appeared that one
had been found by a workman in digging gravel at Rampart Hill,
Icklingham ; and the other by Mr. "Warren himself on a heap of gravel
by the roadside, which had been dug in the same neighbourhood.
The late Sir Joseph Prestwich^ and I at once visited Icklingham, and
though oui- search was at the time unsuccessful, yet the instructions
given to the workmen soon resulted in their finding numerous imple-
ments. The examination of the gravel was at the same time taken up
by the late Mr. Henry Prigg (subsequently Trigg), of Bury St.
Edmunds, to whose discrimination and energy the discovery of imple-
ments in various other localities in Suffolk is due. He brought
together a large collection of antiquities, of which the greater part,,
after his decease, came into my hands.
1 Nature, vol. xxx. (1884), p. 632.
2 Quar. Joxrii. Geol. Soc. (1866), vol. xxii. p. 478.
3 Nature, vol. xxxiv. (1886), p. .521.
*■ Qmr. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1861), vol. xvii. p. 363.
540
RlVER-DRlFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXI ri.
The principal places in the valley of the Lark, where palreolithic
implements have been found, are in the neighboui-hood of Bury St.
Edmunds, Icklingham, and Mildenhall. The first specimen from the
Eiver-drilt at Bury St. Edmunds was obtained by Mr. Trigg in gravel
at a low level, near the ruined Gatehouse of St. Saviour's Hospital, in
October, 1862 ;' since which time numerous other specimens have been
discovered, principally through his agency. Several were found in the
excavations made for the drainage of the southern part of the town in
1864 — one elongated oval implement having been discovered in
Botolph's Lane ; and three others, varying in form, in Maynewater
Lane, where also a flake was found. That here engraved as Fig. 419
is from this latter locality, and was found at a depth of 14 feet in a
bed of loamj', sub-angular gravel, underlying a deposit of fine grey
loam 6 feet thick, containing scales of fish, and abundant remains of
.»
M-
^
1
P'^
; - ^^ 7-
'-7^:^=^
m
Fig. 419.— Maynewater Lane, Bury St. Edmnnds. J
Anodonta and Bi/tkmia. It is now deposited in the Blackmore Museum
at Salisbury. Its edges are sharj) and unworn, and its colour black,
with ochreous spots. Others, since discovered, are of even finer work-
manshij). One in my collection is a much ruder specimen, though of
nearly similar general form, which was found in the South Gate in
1869. Several have been found in Westgate and St. Andrew's Streets,
and in Newton Eoad. The greatest number of implements found at
Bury have, however, come from what is known as the Grindle Pit, a
short distance to the south-east of the town, and on the summit and
western slope of a tongue of land between the Linnet and the Lark.
Some of them occurred in a dark, stiff, rather argillaceous gravel,
composed mainly of sub-angular flints, but also containing a small
proportion of the pebbles of the older rocks, derived from Glacial
- •' Flint Chips," p. 43.
BURY ST. EDMUNDS.
541
deposits. This gravel is from 2 to 3 feet in thickness, and underlies a
stratum of red brick-earth from 2 to 6 feet thick, which is again, in
places, surmounted by sands and clay with angular flints about 4 feet
in thickness, on which the surface soil reposes. This was the section
exhibited in 1865, but the beds are very irregular, and the character
of the section exposed in the pit varies considerably from time to time,
as material is removed. In places the Drift-beds are faulted, as if by
the giving way of the subjacent beds.
A beautiful and absolutely perfect specimen from this pit is shown
in Fig. 419a. It was found in a black vein in the lower loamy bed,
on February 4th, 1870. Though the implement has been most skil-
fully chipped, the edge is not in one plane, but when looked at side-
ways, shows an ogival curve. The regular contour is partly due to
"Eig. 419a — GiinOle Pit, Bury St. Edmunds. i
secondary working, but the edge is as sharp as on the day when the
instrument was made. Several others of almost the same form,
though not quite so delicately fashioned, came from the same pit, and
may have been made by the same hands.
I have a fine pointed implement, (5.V inches), also from the^Grindle
Pit. Another, ovate, is 7 inches in length.
A remarkably fine pahi?olithic flake from Thingoe Hill,' Bury St.
Edmunds, is shown in Fig. 419b. It is water- worn, and much re-
sembles some from the low-level gravels at Montiers, near Amiens,
and Montguillain, near Beauvais. It belongs, of course, to a much
earlier period than the mound in, on. or near which it was found.
As already observed, remains of shells, and some scales of fish, were
found in the Drift-beds during the drainage works, as also some mam-
' Areh. A^soc. Totem., vol. xxxviii. p. 208.
542
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIII.
malian remains. Thej were, however, scarce. Higher up the vallev
by about three miles, there have been found in a pit at Sicklesmere,
remains of Rhinoceros tichorhinus and Ehphas primigeniiis ; and. in
another pit, elephant remains ; specimens of all of which are now
preserved in the Bury Museum. Mr. Trigg obtained several well-
wrought implements from the brick-earth of Sicklesmere, near
Nowton, which there overlies the Boulder Clay; and has also found
examples in the gi-avels of the valley of the Kent, another small
affluent of the Ouse.
'f^^^^
Fig. 419b.— Bury St. Edmunds. i
One of these Nowton specimens is shown in Fig. 419c. It is broad
and kite-shaped in form and has weathered to a creamy white. In
type it approaches Fig. 435, from Santon Downham. Some remark-
ably fine implements, principally ovate, have been found at Westley,
about two miles west of Bury, and at Fornham All Saints, two miles
to the north ; and I have a pointed one from the Beeches Pit, West
Stow, five miles to the north-west, and nearer Icklingham. It was in
one of the pits at Westley, eroded in the old chalk surface and filled
with loam, that Mr. Trigg discovered portions of a human skull which
he described to the Anthropological Institute.^ In other pits at
' Journ. Anth- Itut., vol. liv. p.
280.
•51, pi. iv.-n. " Man the Primeval Savage,"
ICKLINGHAM.
543
the same spot were molars of Elephas jirimigenius, and the chopper-like
instrument shown in Fig. 419d.
In the valley of the Lark, about seven miles down from Bury, lies
the village of Icklingham, in the neighbourhood of which numerous
remains belonging to the Eoman and Saxon Periods have been found,
but where also relics belonging to both the Neolithic and Palfcolithic
Periods abound. Many of the latter have been discovered in the
gravel of Eampart Hill, about a mile to the south-east of Icklingham,
and nearer to Bury ; but still more numerous specimens have now for
many years also been found in the gravel at Warren Hill — sometimes
termed the Three Hills — about two miles on the other side of Ickling-
ham, and midway between that place and Mildenhall. A section
across the valley of the Lark, near Icklingham, has been given by Sir
Fig. 419c.— Nowton, near Bury St. Edmunds,
Joseph Prestwich.' The valley, wliich is excavated in the chalk, is in
its lower part covered by recent alluvial deposits, but on the slopes
of its northern side, the chalk is covered with sands and gravels
belonging to the Glacial Series, which are again overlain by the
Boulder Clay. The gravel both at Eampart Hill and Warren Hill
is of a different character from that belonging to the Glacial Series,
though of course containing a number of the silicious pebbles from
the conglomerate beds of the New Red Sandstone, and other pebbles
of the older rocks derived from the Glacial Di'ift. It is for the most
part composed of sub-angular flints in an ochreous sandy matrix, and
is spread out in irregular beds interstratified with seams of sand. At
Warren Hill there are great numbers of quartzite pebbles, as well as
' rhil. Trans., 1864. p. 253. See also Qtiar. Jotini. Geol. Soc. (1861), vol. xvii.
p. 364. Evans, Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 302 ; vol. xxxix. p. 63. Lyell, "Ant. of
Man," p. 169.
544
RI^■ER-DR1FT IMPLEMENTS.
[CHAJ'
XXllI,
very many formed from rolled chalk, mixed with the other constituents.
These are less abundant in the upper part of the deposit, which is
there of considerable thickness. I am not aware of the exact levels
having been taken at either place, but the surface of the ground is
probably from 40 to 50 feet above the level of the river. The gravel
beds are in places as much as 14 or 15 feet in thickness. Mammalian
remains are scarce, but teeth and portions of tusk of Elephas primi-
Fig. 419d. — Westley, neur Bui-y St. Edmunds. ^
genius have been found at Eampart Hill, and the core of the horn of
an ox, and teeth of horse, and bones and teeth of elephant, at Warren
HiU.
Up to the present time the search for remains of testacea in these
beds has proved unsuccessful.
Not only have the worked flints been discovered in considerable
numbers, but Canon Greenwell, F.R.S., has found in the gravel at
Warren Hill, several quartzite pebbles bearing evident marks of
ICKLINGHAM.
545
abrasion and bruising at tlie ends, such as may have resulted from
their having been in use as hammer-stones, either for chipping out
the flint implements or for other purposes. Ho also obtained an ovate
lanceolate implement from this spot, 4f inches in length, and formed
from a quartzite pebble, the original surface of which is still preserved
over nearly the whole extent of one of the faces.
Examples of the Icklingham implements are given in Figs. 420 to
424.
The finer of the two, of which mention has already been made as
liaving formed part of the collection of the late Mr. Warren, of Ix-
Fig. 420. — Rampart Hill, Ickliugham. .J
worth, is now in my own, and is shown in Fig. 420, It is more convex
on one face than the other, and a portion of the butt presents an
almost scraper-like appearance. The angles formed by the facets are
slightly worn, and the surface of the flint has been much altered in
character, having become nearly white, and quite lustrous. This
alteration in structure is almost imiversal with the Icklingham imple-
ments, though in many cases they are ochreous instead of white, and
not unfrequently the discoloration is only partial, giving them a dappled
appearance. In many specimens the angles are much water- worn.
The original of Fig. 421 is in the Blackmore Museum, and is of
X N
546
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap.
XXIII.
dark bro^m lustrous flint, almost equally convex on both faces, and of
very regxilar elliptical form.
^1 In most cases the outline
approximates more to that
of Fig. 467. These thin,
flattened, oval, and almond-
shaped, or ovate, imple-
ments seem, as !Mr. Trigg
has pointed out, to pre-
dominate at Icklingham.
Those of oval form are
especially abundant at
TVarren Hill.
Many of ruder character,
however, also occur, one of
which, in my own collec-
tion, is shown in Fig. 422.
It approaches more nearly
in form to some of the
roughly chipped instru-
ments of the Surface period,
such as Fig. 16, than do
most of the implements
from the Eiver-drift.
One of the fijiest speci-
mens hitherto found in this
coxmti-y is that shown in
Fig. 423. from the original
in the Blackmore Museum.
It is of dark ochreous flint,
with the surface consider-
ably decomposed, and the
angles but little worn. In
the same collection is an-
other Icklingham speci-
men, in form like that from
Thetford, Fig. 427, but
9 inches long and 4i wide.
Besides the more finished
implements, a few flakes
occur in the Icklingham
gravels. Some of these
have been chipped all round
the perijjhery by blows ad-
ministered on the flat face,
thus producing a bevelled
edge. One such, from
Warren Hill, in my own
collection, somewhat re-
sembles the implement
from Eeculver, Fig. 461.
It is, however, narrower
\
Kg.'
>
ICKLINGHAM.
547
in its proportions, being 4 J- inclies long and 2| broad. It has been
formed from an external flake, and has been carefully trimmed all
round into an almost perfect oval form, the butt alone having been left
imtrimmed for about half-an-inch in width. A small part of the other
rounded and scraper-like end has been broken off in ancient times.
* Fig. 423.— Icklingham. ^ ■
Others are wider in their proportions though not so sjTnmetrically
worked. The trimmed flake, shown in Fig. 424, is in my own collec-
tion, and at its rounded end is very scraper-like in character. A very
large flake, rounded into a broad scraper, and about 5 inches in
diameter, was found by myself at Warren IILll, and is now in the
Christy Collection.
N N 2
548
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIII.
Three-quarters of a mile to the north of the Warren Hill pits, and
on the same ridge, but at a rather higher level, is High or AVarren
Lodge, distant about tvro miles from ^lildenhaU. To the south of this
house, and by the side of the Thetford road, is a small pit on the slope
of the hill, where, in the process of digging clay for brick-making, a
considerable nimiber of worked ilints have been obtained, many of
which passed into the collection formed by Canon Greenwell, who has
furnished me with particulars of the discovery. I have also visited
the spot. The clay or brick-earth is of a reddish hue, and rests upon a
chalky Boulder Clay, which is exposed farther up the hill. It ranges
in thickness from about 4 to 6 feet ; and above it are sands and gravel,
the latter varying in thickness from about 2 to 6 feet, and of much
the same character as that of the Warren Hill pits, but containing far
less chalk. The sand occasionally comes down in pipes or pockets
Fig. 424.— Icklingham
Fig. 425.— High Lodge.
into the clay, and some of the worked flints occur in it, as well as in
the clay. Many of these are merely roughly-chipped splinters, but
several well-wrought forms have also been foimd.
Among them is an oval implement of a common Eiver-drift type,
4^ inches long, which, with three or four others of the same kind,
was found in the upper sands and gravel. From the clay itself are
several large side-scrapers, or choppers, made from broad flakes, 4 or
5 inches long, and in form similar to the specimen from Santon Down-
ham, Fig. 437, and of the same character as the implements from the
cave of Le Moustier.^ Besides these, there are several other large
flakes worked along the edge into side-scrapers, and presenting a Le
Moustier form.- Another is like that from Thetford, Fig. 431, and
worked along both edges. Even external flakes have been utilized ;
one of these, 4 inches long, having been neatly worked at one end
" Rel.'Aquit,," A. pL v.
- " Eel. Aquit.," A. pi. xvii. 3,4.
HIGH LODGE, MII^DENHALL.
549
into a segmental edge. Another large implement, 51 inches long and
3 inches broad, is ovate-lanceolate in form, flat on one face, and
worked to a sharp edge all round. Several others have been found of
the same type. I have a considerable number from the Trigg col-
lection.
One of the most beautifully formed of these implements from High
Lodge Hill is shown in Fig. 425. It has been made from a broad,
flat truncated flake, with a well-marked cone of percussion. The two
sides have been carefully trimmed to a curved edge, by secondary
chipping, and the edge itself has been finished by a subsequent process
of finer chipping. The angles where the truncated chisel-like end
joins the sides have also been retouched, but a portion of the sharp
edge is left in its original condition. The edge formed by the outer
face of the flake with its flat butt-end has also been re-chipped, and in
one place appears to have been bruised by an unskilful blow. The
Fig. 426.— High Lodge.
Fig. 426a.— High Lodge. J
workmanship generally is of a finer and neater character than is usual
on the implements found in the river gravels. In form and character
this instrument is remarkably similar to some of those found in the
cave of Le Moustier in the Dordogne.
Others, again, resemble the scrapers from the surface and the caves.
One of these is engraved full size in Fig. 426. The edge is more
acute than usual with scrapers, perhaps in consequence of the curva-
ture of the inner face of the flake from which it was made.
Another example with a straight terminal edge at an angle of 80°
to the side is shown on the scale of one half in Fig. 426a.
The flint of the High Lodge implements is but little altered in cha-
racter, but has either remained black or has been stained of a deep
brown ; the angles and edges being still as sharp as the da}- when they
were formed. In this respect they resemble the worked flints from
the brick-earth of Hoxne. Those from the brick-earth of the vaUey
of the Somme are usually quite white and porcellanous.
550 RI\'ER-D11IFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIII.
I have seen fragments of a molar of Elephas, probably primigeniv^,
from tbe clay at this spot, and also a bone of a ruminant, probably
Cerius megaceros.
As will subsequently be seen, there appears some reason for
believing that at a remote period, the River Lark took a northerly,
instead of a north-westerly, course from the neighbourhood of Mil-
denhall, and thus joined the Little Ouse instead of the Ouse itself ;
so that this pit may possibly be connected with the old channel of
the stream. On the slope of the hill to the east of Eriswell is
gravel of much the same character as that at "Warren Hill, but in
which as yet few implements have been found. I have, however,
one of ovate form from Holywell Row, near Eriswell, and another,
not unlike Fig. 471, from the surface at Cardwell, about three miles
farther north. To the east of Lakenheath, still farther to the
north, is an isolated hill, near Maid's Cross, capped with gravel,
in which flint implements have been found. It will be best to
describe this spot when treating of the discoveries that have
been made in the valley of the Little Ouse.
The source of this stream and that of the Waveney may be
regarded as one, inasmuch as both take their rise in a fen crossed
by the road at Lopham Ford ; the one river running east, and the
other west, of the road. By the time it reaches Thetford, how-
ever, a distance of about 12 miles, the Little Ouse has been joined
by the Txworth stream and the Thet, so that the area of ground
drained by it is considerably more than would at first sight appear
probable, being upwards of 200 square miles. "With the exception
of a broad flint flake, found by Mr. Trigg at Santon Downham,^
the first discovery of flint implements in the gravels of the Little
Ouse was made in 1865 at Redhill, near Thetford, by a labourer
from Icklingham, who had been trained to search for implements
in the gravel pits in his own parish. These specimens he brought
to Mr. Trigg, who subsequently obtained others at Whitehill,
farther down the valley on the same — or Norfolk — side of the
river ; and on my visiting the spot with him in December, 1865,
Mr. Trigg found in my presence a well-formed pointed implement
in some gravel at Santon Downham, on the opposite — or Suffolk —
side. Since then the discoveries have extended farther down the
valley, and numerous implements have been found at several
localities in the neighbourhood of Brandon, and at Shrub Hill, in
the parish of Feltwell, Norfolk.
1 Quar. Joitrn. Suf. Inst, of Arch, and I^. H., vol. i. p. 4.
KEDHILL, THETFORD. 551
In June, 1866/ the late Mr. J. W. Flower, F.G.S., who had
long carried on investigations in the district, communicated a
paper to the Geological Society on the subject of the discoveries
at Thetford, and again in April, 1869,^ a second paper on the
discoveries of flint implements in Norfolk and Sufifolk, with
some observations on the theories accounting for their distribution,
on which I shall have to make some comments hereafter.
The highest point up the valley of the Little Ouse at which,
up to the present time, flint implements have been discovered in
the gravel on its slopes, is Eedhill, on the Norfolk side of the
river, about a mile north-west of Thetford. The gravel at this
place is coarse in character, and consists principally of sub-angular
flints, some of large size, mixed with a few pebbles derived from
beds of the Glacial series, and deposited in a red sandy matrix. It
forms a terrace running nearly parallel with the present stream, and
ranging from about 12 feet to nearly 40 feet above its level. In
places, the gravel is from 12 to IG feet in thickness,^ the largest
stones, as usual, occurring towards its base, in which part of the
gravel the greater number, but by no means all, of the flint im-
plements occur, as some are dispersed throughout the whole thick-
ness of the mass. Occasionally they have been found in pipes of
gravel, let down into the chalk by means of water charged with
carbonic acid eroding its upper surface. Sandy seams'* are, as
usual, interbedded with the gravel ; and in one of these, about 10
feet below the surface, I found shells of Helix, Bythinia, CycIaSy
Pisidium, Ancylus, and Succinea. Of mammalian remains, those
of Elephas prhnigenius, ox, horse, and stag have occurred.
A very large number of implements have been found in the gravel
at Eedhill, of which specimens exist in the Christy Collection, the
Blackmoro Museum, and in numerous private collections.^ Those
selected for engraving here, are all in my own possession.
1 Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1866), vol. xxii. p. 567 ; (1867), vol. xxiii. p. 45.
• Quar. Journ. Geol. iSoc. (1869), vol. xxv. pp. 272, 449.
•' Mr. Trigtr {Quar. Journ. Suff. Just., vol. i. p. 5) gives the following section: —
1. Surface soil . 1 foot.
2. Yellow sand, slightly argillaceous, interspersed with ferru-
ginous 8eam.s and layers of small flint shingle . . 5 to 7 feet.
3. Slightly rolled and sub-angular flints in an ochreous sandy
matrix, with seams of silt and chalky detritus — variable . 6 to 9 ,,
4. A similar matrix, with larger chalky patches, largo masses of
flint but slightly broken, and some sub-angular flints —
variable . . . . . . . . . . 6 to 9 ,,
It is in No. 3 that the implements are usually met with.
* Mr. Flower is mistaken in saying that those are some feet above the gravel in
which the implements occur. Implements are foimd both above and below such
seams, though for the most part towards the base of the gravel.
5 Froe. Soc, Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 431.
552
RIVER- DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XX II I.
Fig. 427 shows a remarkably fine specimen, stained all over of a
deep ochreous red, tliougli slightly mottled, owing to the original
structure of the flint from which it was chipped. The angles are to
a small extent waterworn. On what is in the figure the left side of
the base, a portion of the original crust of the flint has been left, so as
to form a protuberance at that part, instead of the edge being con-
Fig. 427,— RedhiU, Thetford.
i
tinned all round the instrument. This protuberance is well adapted
to fit into the hand, like that of the Picts' knife, described at page 345,
80 that this may have been a cutting tool intended to be grasped.
I have another specimen of nearly the same size, and with the
same protuberance, from Santon Downham, and one of the imple-
m.ents from Southampton presents the same feature, which, indeed, is
not unusual. A flat surface is frequently left on the sides of the ovate
REDHILL, THETFORD.
553
implements in or about the same position. This flat space has been
referred to by the late Mr. Flower/ who considered it intended to
receive the thumb of the right hand, and not to go against the palm
or the fore-finger, as suggested by myself long ago.-
Fig. 428 represents another singularly fine specimen of a very un-
rig. 428.— Redhill, Thetford.
common form, it being much more acutely pointed than usual. It is
stained all over of a deep ochreous colour, and its angles are still sliarp.
It has been boldly but symmetrically chipped, and has a thick, heavy
butt, well adapted for being held in the hand. As is the case with
almost all these implements, an analogous form has been found in the
Quar. Journ. Geel. Soe. (1867), vol. xxiii. p. 47.
Arch., vol. xxxix. p. 77.
554
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXI II.
gravels of the valley of the Somme. The magnificent implement from
the gravel of Yaudricourt, near Bt-tliune. which was exhibited at Paris
in 1867, was also much of this type. Its length is lOJ inches; that
of the Thetford specimen being 8^ inches. It would be an endless
task to attempt to engrave all the varieties of f oi*m foimd at this place,
but Mr. Trigg is correct in his remark as to the comparative absence
of the flat oval form with a cutting edge all round. The most common
type here is the ovate-lanceolate, like PI. I., Fig. 5, rather thick
Fig. 429.— EedhUl, Thetford. ^
towards the butt-end. Mr. Flower has figured a fine lanceolate
specimen, and one of more ovate form from tliis place. ^
The finely- wrought symmetrical specimens are rarer at Eedhill than
at Santon Downham ; but here, as elsewhere in this district, imple-
ments are occasionally found of what has been aptly termed the shoe-
shaped tyjie, of which an example is shown in Fig. 429. The form is
flat on one face, the other being brought to a central ridge rising
towards the butt, which is usually rounded and obtusely truncated.
In this specimen the greater part of the butt-end or heel of the shoe
exhibits the original crust of the nodule of flint from which the imple-
1 Q. J. G. S. (1867), vol. xxiii. pp. 49, 52.
REDHILL, THETFORD.
555
ment was formed. The point, wliich is usually brought to a semi-
circular sharp edge, has been broken in old times either by use or by
attrition in the gravel. Most
of these shoe-shaped instru-
ments have been formed
from large spalls of Hint, so
that the flat face has been
the result of a single blow,
though occasionally re-
touched by subsequent chip-
ping.
The implement shown in
Fig. 430 is of this character,
but is too thin, in proportion
to its size, to represent the
typical shoe-shape. It has
been formed from a large
external flake, the bulb of
percussion being at the lower
left-hand corner of the
figure, but on the opposite
face to that shown. The
flake has been trimmed into
shape by chipping along the
edges on botli faces, so that
not above half of the original
inner face remains free from
secondary working. The
surface is, as usual, stained
of a rich ochreous brown.
A considerable number of flint flakes
have been found at Eedhill, many
of them showing signs of use and
wear on their edges, and some being
worked to a quadrant of a circle or
more, at the point, so as to make them
almost assume the form of scrapers.
I have one external flake in which
is worked a curved recess, as if by
scraping some hard cylindrical object,
such as a round bone. The flake
engraved as Fig. 431 was found by
myself in December, 1865, and has
had both its edges retouched by
secondary chipping. The edge thus
produced seems to have been worn
away by use. I have a rather larger
flake, presenting precisely the same
characteristics, from the valley gravel
of the Somme, at Porte IMarcade,
Abbeville
Fig. 430.— RedhiU, Thetford. A
of various sizes and shapes
Fig. 43l.-Redlull, Thetford. i
A little lower down the river, and on the same side as Eedhill, is
556
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIII.
m
I
i-
y^
the spot to which the name of '\\^hitehill has beeu given by Mr. Trigg.
The gravel is composed of similar materials to that at Eedhill, of
which it may be said to form a continuation, except that the matrix is
whiter. Mr. Trigg has informed me that beneath the gravel are beds
of red sand, and that at one time, a section was exposed of 26 feet in
depth. Of late, the gravel at this spot has been but little worked,
and but few implements have been found in it.
Mr. Trigg' records having obtained three flint implements from this
place, one of which, at present in the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury,
is engraved as Fig. 432. Its
surface has become white and
decomposed, and is partially
covered by an incrustation of
carbonate of lime. A part of
the edge, towards the point,
on the right side of the
figure, appears to be worn
away by use.
Remains of Elcplias primi-
genius and horse have been
found here, but no land or
freshwater shells.
Between "Whitehill and
Santon DowTiliam, but on the
Suffolk slope of the valley,
a considerable quantity of
gravel has been dug on Thet-
ford Warren. Though the
gravel is of much the same
character as at Redhill, no
implements appear to have
been found in it.
About three miles north-west of Thetford, and also on the Suffolk
side of the Little Ouse, is Santon Downham Warren, on the slope of
which towards the river, is a considerable expanse of gravelly beds,
which have been largely excavated for road-making purposes. On the
sketch map given by Mr. Flower,- this place is erroneously called
Whitehill. As has been already stated, the first implement from this
spot was discovered by Mr. Trigg, when in my company, in 1865.
Since that time, it has produced, at a moderate estimate, several h\in-
dred specimens, some of them affording the finest instances of the
skill of the Palaeolithic Period which have been found in Britain, or
indeed elsewhere. The gravel is at a somewhat higher level above the
river than that at Pedhill, but resembles it in character. It contains,
besides flints, a few of the quartzite pebbles of the New Red conglo-
merate, which have been derived from the Glacial beds and Boulder
Clay which cap the chalk hills on either side of the river. The gravel
is of considerable thickness, so much so that in places, caves of suffi-
cient magnitude to allow of a man standing inside, have been formed
within it, in consequence of the lower beds being let down into the
' Qtiar. Jov.rn. Suff. Inst., vol. i. p. 4.
- Quar. Joiirn. Geol. Soc. (1869), vol. xxv. pi. xx.
Fig. 432.— Whitehill, Thetford.
SANTON DOWNHAM,
667
chalk, through its erosion by water charged "with carbonic acid. The
same phenomenon has been observed at Bromehill, the spot next to be
mentioned ; and some connection was at one time supposed to exist
between these cavities and the implements often found in and near
them. I think, however, that the explanation' that I have elsewhere
given of their origin will be deemed satisfactory. No testaceous remains
have been found here, and mammalian remains are very scarce.
Among the implements from Santon Downham, the almond-shaped *
type seems to predominate, though other forms are also found.
Fig. 433.— Santon Downham
A very elegant pointed specimen, in my own collection, is shown in
Fig. 433. It is cliipped with great skill, and brought to a fine point,
the butt-end being comparatively blunt, so that it may have been used
in the hand without being in any way hafted. At the shoulder, shown
in the side-view, a part of the original crust of the flint is left, and
small portions are also left on the other face. In form, this implement
curiously resembles some of those from Hoxne, and that from Gray's
' See an article, '• On some Cavities in the Gravel of the Little Ouse," Geol. Mag.,
vol. V. p. 443.
- Franks, Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 124.
558
RI^■ER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap.
XXIII.
Inn Lane (Fig. 451). Like many of the implements from the gravel, it
is cracked in various directions, apparently from inward expansion,
and would break up into fragments with a slight blow. A very sharp
point, such as that presented by this specimen, is not uncommonly
met "with in implements found at Santon Downham.
The original of Fig. 434 is also in my own collection, and is cracked
in a similar manner. It is imiformly stained of a light buff colour, as
are many of the implements from this spot, and has dendritic markings
upon it, and in places, particles of ferruginous sand adhering to the
surface. It is fairly symmetrical in contour, with an edge all round,
which is somewhat blunted at what is the base in the figure. This
"' Fig. 434.— Santon Downham. \
edge, however, is not in one plane, but considerably curved, so that
when seen sideways it forms an ogee sweep, even more distinctly
than appears from the figure. I have other implements of the same
and of more pointed forms, with similarly curved edges, both from
France, and other parts of England, but whether this curvature was
intentional, it is impossible to say. In some cases it is so marked that
it can hardly be the result of accident, and the curve is. so far as I
have observed, almost without exception 8, and not S. If not inten-
tional, the form may be the result of aU the blows by which the
implement was finally chipped out, having been given on the one face,
on one side, and on the opposite face on the other.
Fig. 435 represents an implement of porceUanous, slightly ochreous
SANTON DOWNHAM.
559
flint, found at that ^ilace, and now in the Fitch collection at Norwicli.
The late Mr. Robert Fitch, F.S.A., kindly allowed me to engrave it, as
well as the specimen next to be described. Implements of this broad,
ovate-lanceolate form are extremely uncommon, and this is a remark-
ably sj'mmetrical specimen, of good workmanship, and almost equaDy
convex on the two faces. A few implements, almost circular in out-
line, have been found at this spot.
Another specimen from Nowton, Fig. 419c, shows almost the same
form. In the Toulouse Museum is an implement (5 inches) in flint
from Clermont, about 1 8 miles south of that town, found with remains
of mammoth and reindeer.
The original of Fig. 436 presents an example of another rare form,
almost crescent-like in character. There is frequently a slight want of
symmetry between the two sides of the ordinary ovate implements,
which gives them a tendency to assume this form, but I have never
Fig. 435.— Santon DownLam
seen it so fully developed as in some of the implements from Santon
Downham.
Another somewhat uncommon form is shown in Fig. 437, the
original of which, with several others, was presented to the Cliristy
Collection by the late Eev. W. W. Foley. It has been formed
from a large broad flake, the flat face of which is not shown in the
figure, and has been chipped to a bevelled segmental edge, so that it
assumes the form of a ' broad ' or ' side ' scraper, resembling in
character some of the implements from the cave of Le Moustier in the
Dordogne.
In the Greenwell Collection is a thick flake from Santon Downham,
4 J inches long and 2^ inches wide, trimmed at the butt-end to a
semicircular scraper-like edge.
Viewed as a whole, the implements from Santon Downham present
a higher degree of flnisli, and a greater skill in chipping the required
forms out of flint, than those found in the gravels of any other part
560
RI^'ER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIII.
of the valley of the Little Ouse, or, it may perhaps be added, of
England or France.
FoUo\ring the course of the river, the next spot at -which flint imple-
ments have been found in the gravel, is a pit known as the Bromehill
or Broomhill Pit, in the parish of Weeting. and on the Norfolk side
of the Little Ouse, about a mile and a quarter east of Brandon. The
gravel here is at a lower level than that at Santon Downham, or even
Fig. 436.— santon Downham. i
Eedhill, its base not being more than six or eight feet above the
river, to which it is close.
The late Mr. Flower^ has described the spot, but his description of
the section, and of the position in which the implements are found,
does not completely coincide with mine. On the occasion of one of my
visits to this pit, in July," 1868, in company with him, the section
exposed was 24 feet in height, fi-om the chalk at its base to the
superficial soil at the summit. The upper part of the section showed
1 Qwtr. Jouru. Geol. Soc. (1869), vol. i^cv. pp. 272, 449.
- GeoL Mag., vol. v. p. 44o.
BROMEHILL, AVEETING.
561
sand, witli a few gravelly seams, and from 8 to 10 feet in thickness;
at the base of this, a dark ferruginous band, a few inches in thick-
ness ; then some 8 or 9 feet of ochreous gravel, with a red sandy
matrix, which was separated by a band of gre}' sand from the lower
beds of gravel, which CDiitaiued a very large percentage of rolled
chalk and seams of chalky sand. Below the chalky gravel, ferru-
ginous beds also sometimes occur, containing large blocks of flint.
In the chalky gravel (the base of which is but a few feet above the
level of the river) implements are rarely found, but what there are,
are usually black. In the upper gravel they are more abundant, and
ochreous in tint. It was in this gravel that I had the opportunity of
examining one of the cavities already mentioned ; and in the pipe
formed through the more chalky gravel into which a part of the upper
Fig. 437.— 6auton Liownham.
bed had been let down. I witnessed the finding of a pointed flint
implement. In character, the implements found at this spot much
resemble those from Eedhill. They are, however, usually more rolled
and waterworn. There are but few pebbles from the Glacial Beds in
the gravel, but among these Canon GreenweU has found one of
quartzite, with the ends battered as if from its having been used as a
hammer-stone.
Eemains of EUplmsi primlgenius, and of horse, have been found here,
but as yet no land or freshwater shells.
The only specimen from this spot which I have thought it worth
while to engrave, is shown in Fig. 438. It presents a much narrower
form than is usual among the Pdver-drift implements, and in outline
closely approximates to some of the neolithic rough-hewn celts. It is,
o o
562
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[ciIAP. XXIII.
hovrever, much, more convex on one face than on the other, and pre-
sents what are apparently signs of wear along both the sides and the
ends, the broader of which is some-
what gouge-like in character.
In addition to the pit in the bluff
facing the river, there is another
in the same gravel, but on the
other side of the railway, which
has been here cut through the
Drift deposits. In this also imple-
ments have been found.
The next locality to be men-
tioned is on the Suffolk side of
the river, about two miles S.W.
of Brandon Station. This spot
has already been described by Mr.
Flower,' under the name of Gravel
Hill, Brandon ; it is also known
as Brandon Down, or Brandon
Field ; and from the contiguity of
one of the pits to Brick-kiln Farm,
Wangford, some specimens from
this place have been labelled as
found at AVangford.
The gravel is worked on both
sides of the point of a high ridge
of land, nearly at right angles to
the course of the river, and about
a mile distant from it. The summit
of the ridge between two of the
pits was found by Mr. Flower to be 91 feet above the level of the
river at its nearest point. The surface of the ground where gravel
has been dug is lower only by a few feet, and the beds possibly
extend through the ridge. Between the ridge and the higher land to
the S.W. a valley intervenes, along which the road to MildenhaU
passes, so that the hill on which the gravel reposes is isolated. The
gravel is usually not more than 1 0 feet in thickness, but often less,
and it rests in some places immediately on the chalk. It contains a
very large proportion of quartzite pebbles from the New Red Conglo-
merate, in some spots more than 50 per cent, of the whole, as well as
fragments of jasper, clay-slate, quartz, greenstone and limestone ; aU
derived from Glacial Beds, from wliich also many of the flints appear
to have come. The matrix is of coarse red sand, and there is usually
some thickness of sand above the gravel. In some few places there
are beds formed almost exclusively of the quartzite pebbles ; but Mr.
Flower's estimate of their forming three fourths of the whole mass of
gravel is, I believe, very far in excess.
Flint implements have been found here in considerable numbers —
at all events, many hundreds. I have myself found several, and
many flakes, but all in gravel already dug and not in situ. They
appear to occur at all depths ; but, as usual, for the most part, near
' Qu'ir. Jouni. Geol. Soc. (1869), vol. xxv. p. 449.
Fig. 438.— Bromehill, Brandon. J
GRAVEL HILL, BRANDON.
oQ'i
the base, and occasionally resting on the chalk. A large proportion
of them are very rude, though they were evidently chipped into shape
for some particular purpose, and approximate to the more symmetrical
specimens in general form. It seems hardly worth while to figure
any of these roughly chij^ped implements, the character of which was
no doubt in some measure determined by the shape of the original
blocks of flint from which they were fashioned.
Mixed with these ruder tools or weapons, are some of much higher
design and finish. Mr. Flower had some remarkably beautiful speci-
Fig. 439 —Gravel Hill, Brandon. j
mens, in form much like Fig. 472, from Milford HiU, two of which he
bequeathed to me. One of these is rather more than 9 inches long
and 4^ inches broad. Some of the flattened oval implements, such as
are common at Ickhngham, occur also at Gravel HiU. I have one
approaching the circular form, the length being 3^ inches and the
breadth 3^. Those which I have selected for engraving are for
the most part in my own collection. Fig. 439 shows an unusually
thick pointed specimen of dark flint, with ochreous stains in places.
This implement has been dexterously made from a nodule of flint,
0()2
564 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CH.U'. XXIII.
the original outer skin of which is visible along the greater part of the
Tig. 440.— Gravel Hill, Brandon. i
ridge of one of the faces. It has also been left on part of the butt,
which, though presenting some rather sharp
angles, may have been intended to be held in
the hand.
I am not quite sure as to the locality along
the course of the Little Ouse from which the
implement shown in Fig. 4-10 was obtained by
Mr. Flower, to whom it belonged, but it pro-
ill bably came from Gravel Hill. It presents the
W peculiarity of being almost as much pointed at
J one end as at the other. The depression in the
•J centre is the result of a large flake having been
removed, and is probably accidental. Though
pointed at both ends, it seems probable that
only one was intended for use, as a small flat
surface has been left at the other end, which
unfits it for cutting or piercing.
Flakes and spalls of flint are abundant
Fig. 44i.-Gravei Hill, Brandon, i ^j^ ^^^ gravel, though not often noticed by
the workmen. That shown in Fig. 441 was found by myself near
^'^
T
V
GRAVEL HILL, BRANDON.
565
Brick-kiln Farm. Except that the surface has undergone more
decomposition than is usual with flakes of the Neolithic Period, and
that it bears upon it some of those bright shining specks, so com-
mon on flint-s from the gravel, there is nothing to distinguish it from
one of much more modern date. These bright or polished spots, which
are very minute, seem to indicate points of contact with other stones,
and the lustre upon them is probably due in part to pressure and in
Fig. 4 12.— Ui-avei iiiii, Brandon.
part to friction. They are most apparent on dark-colotired flint, and
afford one of the tests of the aiithenticity of a worked flint professing
to belong to the Eiver-drift Period.
One of the most interesting features at Gravel Hill is that there, for
the first time, were found cutting stone implements of the Palajolithic
Period formed of other materials than flint, chert, or quartzite. That
shown in Fig. 442, though so identical in form with many of the imple-
5t56
RIVER- DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIIl.
ments of flint, is formed of felstone, no doubt derived eitlier from the
Boiilder Clay or from some other of the Ghicial Beds. One face appears
to show a considerable portion of the original surface of the block of
stone from which the instrument was fashioned, but the whole surface
is now somewhat decomposed, so much so, that it is difficidt to deter-
mine with certainty the natui'e of the material, which by some has been
regarded as diorite rather than felstone. One face has been carefully
chipped, the flakes ha^^ng been removed in much the same manner as
if the substance wrought had been flint. At one part of the other face
there is a considerable shoidder between the central ridge and the edge
near the butt, where, owing to the ' grain ' of the stone, the flakes have
run in and not come ofl kind!}-. The angles and edges are slightly
rounded.
Even the quartzite pebbles so abundant in this neighbourhood, were
occasionally utilized instead of flint, ilr. Flower obtained two pointed
instruments manufactured from
such pebbles, one of which he be-
queathed to me. Lord Northesk
had another well-formed ovate
specimen. Another has already
been mentioned as having been
found near Icklingham. Another
instrument, of a different form, was
found by myself in the gravel near
Brick-kiln Farm, and is represented
in Fig. 443. It is a broad flake,
having a well-marked cone of per-
cussion on the flat face. The other
face shows, over nearly its whole
extent, the original surface of the
quartzite j)ebble from which it has
been formed. It has, however, had
a portion removed on one side of
the cone, apparently to produce a
symmetrical form ; and the whole
of the edge at the broad end of the
flake has been trimmed by chipping
from the flat face, so as to produce a bevelled edge, which is now some-
what rounded, either by wear in the gravel or by use. In character
this implement is hke those from Santon Downham and Highbury
(Figs. 437 and 453), or the side-scrapers from the cave of Le Moustier.
On the opposite side of Wangford Fen, rather more than 2^
miles S.W. of Gravel Hill, and | mile E. of Lakenheath, close to
Maid's Cross, is an isolated hill, about three miles distant from the
Little Ouse, locally known as the Broom, but distinguished on the
old Ordnance Map by the words, " The Old Churchyard." The spot
has been described by Mr. Flower,^ with whom I have examined
it. The greater part of the hill is capped with gravel, in places
I Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1869), vol. xxv. p. 449.
Fig. 443.— Gravel Hill, Brandon.
LAKENHEATH.
567
from 8 to 10 feet thick, and of much the same character as that at
Gravel Uill, but less ferruginous, and not containing so many
quartzite pebbles. The beds here have not been excavated to the
same extent as those near Brandon, the gravel being only dug
for the repairs of the parish roads ; but several well-fashioned
implements have been found in them, mostly of pointed form.
Fig. 444.— Valley of the»Lark, or of the Little Ouse. }
8ome implements have also been found at a lower level in the
gravel on the slope of the hill towards the Fens, and close to the
main street of Lakenheath ; amongst them one of ovate form most
skilfully chipped into shape.
The curious implement shown in Fig. 444, which was presented
568 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXIII.
to me by Canon Greenwell, F.E.S., was procured from a Lakenheath
■R-orkman, but it is not certain whether it was found in the gravel near
that place, or in one of the pits near Brandon. It differs from all other
implements that I have seen from the Eiver-drift, in having an oblique
hatchet-like edge at the end, so that the side-view somewhat resembles
that of the iron Francisca of Saxon times. A considerable portion of
the original crust of the flint remains at the butt-end. Until other
specimens of the same form are discovered, it is hardly safe to regard
this as furnishing an example of a new type of implement ; 3'et its
symmetry and character seem to prove that it was designedly chipped
into this form, to fulfil some special purpose.
It will be best to postpone any remarks as to the probable con-
nection of the beds near Lakenheath with the ancient course of
the Lark and Little Ouse, until I come to consider the geological
aspects of the whole case.
It was from a place called Botany Bay, near Brandon, that Mr.
S. B. J. Skertchlv, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey, first obtained
evidence on which he founded the existence of the beds that he
termed Brandon Beds, which though containing paloeolithic imple-
ments he regarded as occurring below the Chalky Boulder-clay,
and as, therefore, of Interglacial date. The evidence that the
implement-bearing beds are, at all events in the Eastern Counties,
later than the Boulder Clay is now bej^ond all cavil, and, so far as
I could judge, the supposed Boulder Chiy lying above the imple-
ment bed at Botany Bay was not in its original position, but was
either remanie or had sKpped down from a higher level. It is,
however, but fair to state that the Rev. 0. Fisher,^ F.G.S.,
has accepted Mr. Skertchly's views, at all events with regard to
some of the localities, as to there having been three successive
Palseolithic Periods in Britain, each preceded and succeeded by
a Glacial Period."^ I can only say that I am not prepared to accept
such a view.
I must now proceed to describe another of the River-drift
deposits in the more immediate neighbourhood of the Little Ouse,
and lower down its course, at Shrub Hill, in the parish of Feltwell,
Norfolk.
This too has been described by Mr. Flower in the paper to
which I have already so frequently referred. It has also been
described by Mr. H. Trigg,^ to whom flakes from this deposit were
1 Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc, vol. iii. p. 285.
2 Geol. Survey Mem. "On the Manufactiire of Gun-flints," 1879, p. 68. J.
Geikie, " Preh. Europe," 1881, p. 263. Miller and Skertchly. "The Fenland,"
1868, p. 546. et seqq.
^ Quar. Jonrn. Suff. Inst., vol. i. p. 4.
SHRUB HILL, FELTWELL. 569
brought, so early as 1865. It caps a low-lying hill in the middle
of the Fens, about 8 miles nearly due "W. of Brandon, and 1 mile
N. of the present course of the Little Ouse, and just to the N.
of Fodder Fen Drove on the old Ordnance Map. Mr. Flower states
that the gravel here is about 12 feet in thickness, but that at the
surface it is only 6 feet above the river. Of course, however, the
thickness varies, being often less than 8 feet ; and I am inclined
to think that the elevation above the river is somewhat under-
estimated. The gravel consists mainly of subangular flints, mixed
with some rolled chalk, a considerable number of quartzite pebbles,
and rolled fragments of other old rocks, derived from the Glacial
Beds higher up the river. It is in a very sandy matrix, more or
less ochreous at different spots. In places, the sand predominates.
The Drift-beds rest upon the Gault clay, and not, as in most of
the cases already described, upon the Chalk. The implements
found here occur usually towards the base of the gravel, and as a
rule are rolled and waterworn. They have been found in con-
siderable numbers, and of various types, including many flakes.
It will be remembered that a barbed arrow-head and a partially
polished stone celt were also found here ; from which it seems
probable that in Neolithic times, Shrub Hill formed a habitable
spot in the midst of the Fens, or possibly of the watery waste
since choked up by vegetation. Teeth of J^kjj/ias primigeiii/is,^ and
fragments of the horns of deer, and teeth of some ruminant —
probably deer also — and of a small horse, have been found at
Shrub Hill in the gravel, but I have searched in vain for testace-
ous remains.
Among the implements found at Shrub Hill is one which is probably
the largest of its class as yet discovered in England or France, and
which was presented by the late Mr. Flower to the Christy Collection. It
is fully IH inches long and 5^ inches broad near the base. Its greatest
thickness is 3 inches. One face is much more highly ridged than the
other, and it has been boldly chipped with large facets. In general
form it resembles Fig. 445 from the same locality, but is somewhat
thicker and more elongated in its proportions, and is, as nearly as may
be, six times the length of the figure. It weighs 5 lbs. 7 oz.
An interesting account of large and heavy examples of palfcolithic
implements has been compiled by Mr. AVorthington Smitli.- The
heaviest is one formed of quartzite in the Central Museum at Madras.
It is 9-2 inches long and of wide with a weight of 6J lbs.
The small specimen here shown as Fig. 445 was found in 18(i6, and
is less waterworn than is usual with Shrub-Hill implements, though its
' Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1869), vol. xxv. p. 4o2.
- Ussez Nat., vol. ii. p. 97.
570 Kn-Ell-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXIII.
surface is beautifully sand-polished. Tt is of dark brown flint, in places
Fig. 445.— Shiub HiU, FeltweU. i
mottled witb a fine amber coloui'. It shows a part of the original crust
of the flint at its base.
Fig. 446.— Shrub Uill, Feltwell.
The same is the case with the implement shown in Fig. 446, which
also is in my own collection. It is a specimen of a thin broad type
SHRUB HILL, FELTWELL.
671
occasionally met with. Towards the point the edge bears all the
ajipearanco of having been worn away by use as a scraping tool.
rig. 447.— Shiub Hill, leltwell.
i
Another implement of somewhat the same character, but thicker at
the butt, and having the sides
rather straighter, so as to be more
acutely pointed, is shown in Fig.
447. The angles are much water-
worn, and the greater part of the
base shows the natural crust of
the flint.
The only other specimen which
I have thought it worth while to
engrave from this locality (Fig.
44S), shows a considerably smaller
example of the crescent-like imple-
ments, such as that already figured
from Santon Downham. It is,
however, of coarser workmanship,
and not so broad in proportion to
its length.
Most of the forms which are
found higher up the valley of the
Little Ouse occur also at Shrub
Hill, and include some of the
flattened oval type. But as a
rule, the general fades of the implements is more like that of
Fig. 448.— bhiub Hill, Feltwell.
572 RIVER-DKIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXIII.
Eedliill and Bromeliill than tliat of either Santon Downham or of
Gravel Hill, Brandon.
The Little Ouse joins the main river about 4 miles N.W. of Shrub
Hill ; and 5 miles N. of the junction the Ouse receives another affluent
— the Wissey or Stoke Eiver, draining 243 square miles — along the
course of which, however, no palaeolithic implements have as yet been
found. The same is the case with the valley of the Nar or Setchy, a
river which joins the Ouse just above King's Lynn, a few miles before it
discharges into the Wash, and which drains an area of 131 square miles.
Along a great portion of its lower course the Ouse runs through a
Fen country, where, of course, no gravel is to be seen ; but at Ash
Wicken and Leziate, a few miles E. of King's Lynn and at South
Wootton, about 2 miles to its N., the late Eev. John Gunn, F.G.S.,
found Drift-beds of apparently fluviatile character. In the gravels in
a side valley leading into the marshes, near the School at South
Wootton, Mr. "W. H. Houghton, having been set upon the search for
flint instruments by Mr. Gunn, found, in 1884, a tongue-shaped speci-
men, 5J inches long, in form much like that from Shrub Hill (Fig. 447),
but having the whole surface worked, and having the flatter face
slightly concave longitudinally. It is stained all over of an ochreous
colour, and shows signs of use near the point, a part of which has been
broken off. The angles, though not sharp, are not waterworn. The late
Mr. James Wyatt, F.G.S., of Bedford, also found, in the year 1870, in
gravel in a pit near L^mn — the base of which is seldom reached on accoimt
of its lying below the level of the water — an oval flint implement, well
formed and deeply stained, and another of rude workmanship.
Many miles to the east, but still in Norfolk, there is seen in the cliff
at AVest Eunton,^ near Cromer, what ajipears to be the channel of an
old river, filled up with gravelly deposits. In these, at a depth of 12
feet from the surface, and above a black freshwater bed, Mr. A. C.
Savin, of Cromer, in 1878, found in situ a fine well- wrought ovate
implement of flint 4f inches long. A few years later I found on the
sea-shore below, a large ochreous flake, aj)iDarently iDalseolithic, which
I gave to Mr. Savin.
About 3 miles S.W. of Eunton, near Gallows or Gibbet Corner, in
Aylmerton parish, Mr. F. C. J. Spurrell found, in 1882, an ochreous im-
plement from the gravels capping the hill, not far from Sherringham
Heath. At East Eunton,- in the pre-glacial " Forest Bed," Mr. AV. J.
Lewis Abbott thinks that he has found worked flints. I fail, however,
to see any distinct marks of human workmanship upon his specimens.
With these discoveries in Norfolk and those near the mouth of the
river, my account of the basin of the Ouse ceases, but before proceeding
southwards I must record some others of the same kind.
Yorkshire lies far away from the usual scenes of palaeolithic dis-
coveries, but I have seen a pointed implement (3| inches), in form like
Fig. 419, that was found on the surface at Huntow, near Bridlington.
There is no record of its having been associated with any remains of
the Quaternary fauna.
In the first edition of this book I recorded my finding an implement
in form like Fig. 434, on a heap of stones near King's Langley, within
1 This discovery is mentioned in Miller and Skertchly, "The Fenland " (1878;,
p. 353. 2 JYatural Science, vol. x. (1897) p. 89.
HOXNE, SUFFOLK. 57-3
a short distance of tlie railway. As the staining and incrustation upon
it -were unlike those on the stones of the local gravel, and corresponded
with those on the flints in the ballast of the railway, I was inclined
to refer the implement to that source, and to believe that it had been
brought from Oundle with the gravel, at that time used for ballast. A
visit to the pit proved unfruitful, but I suggested that in all proba-
bility a prolonged search might result in adding the valley of the Nene
to those in which palaeolithic implements have been found. My sug-
gestion has now been justified. In 1882 Mr. T. George, F.G.S., found
in a ballast pit at Elton, about 5 miles N. of Oundle, an ochreous pointed
implement, in colour and appearance identical with mine from Langley,
and kindly added it to my collection.
At Overton Longville, or Little Orton, two miles S.W. of Peter-
borough, a spot visited by Sir Joseph Prestwich and myself in search
of pala3olithic implements about 1861, some were found a few years
ago by the late Dowager Marchioness of Huntly.^
The next valley to be considered is that of the Waveney, a
river which, after a circuitous course of 53 miles, joins the Yare
a few miles S.W. of Yarmouth, and passes through Breydon Water
to the sea. It takes its rise, as has already been stated, at
Lopham Ford, close by the source of the Little Ouse.
Up to the present time there is but one locality known in its
valley, where palccolithic flint implements have been found ; but
this is of peculiar interest, on account of the discoveries having
been observed and recorded before the close of the last century,
and, therefore, at a time when speculations as to the great antiquity
of the human race can hardly be said to have commenced. And yet
Mr. John Frere, F.R.S.,^ in the concise and able account which he
gives of the discovery, shows himself to have been so much struck
by the situation in which the implements were found as to be
tempted to refer them " to a very remote period, indeed, even
beyond that of the present world." Mr. Frere states that the
implements or weapons, as he terms them, lay in great numbers at
the depth of about 12 feet, in a stratified soil, which was dug into
for the purpose of raising clay for bricks ; and he gives a section
of the strata. He states that shells, which he erroneously regarded
as marine, occurred in sand at a depth of 9 feet, together with
bones of great size, and that below this, in a gravelly soil, the
flints were found. His account is illustrated by excellent engrav-
ings of two of the implements, which I was enabled to reproduce
in illustration of my first Essay on Flint Implements from the
Drift, in 1859, and which have since been copied, on a smaller
1 Arch. Jouni., vol. xxxv. p. 265. - Arc/t., vol. xiii. p. 204.
^ 4th ed., pp. 353, 354. See also Geologist, vol. iv. p. 19.
574 RIVEK-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIII.
scale in Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times." ^ ^Ir. Frere presented
some specimens of the Hoxne implements to the Society of Anti-
quaries, which are still preserved in their museum ; and it was
my seeing these, on my return from Amiens and Abbeville, in 1859,
that again directed attention to this most interesting discovery.
Sir Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., in his admirable Papers on Flint
Implements and their containing Beds, published in the Philo-
sophical Transactions ^ for 1860 and 1864, has given fidl details of
the contour of the surrounding country, and of the section at that
time exposed in the brick-field visited by Mr. Frere more than
sixty years before, which is still in operation. It is situated
to the S.W. of the village of Hoxne, in Suffolk, and close to Fair-
stead Farm ; Hoxne itself being about 4 miles to the east and
slightly to the south of the market town of Diss, which is on the
other, or Norfolk, side of the Waveney.
The Drift deposits rest in a kind of trough, in the Boulder
Clay ^ which caps all the neighbouring hills, and forms a sort of
table-land through which the small valleys are cut. The top of
the freshwater beds reaches within 6 or 8 feet of the summit of
the hill of which they form an unbroken and uniform part. Their
upper surface is about 40 feet above the neighbouring Gold-
stream, from which they are not more than 200 yards distant,
and 50 feet above the Waveney, of which the Goldstream is a
tributary, and which flows within about a mile of the spot.
The present configuration of the surface is totally unconnected
with these beds of Drift, and must have been produced after they
"were deposited.
The part of the pit which was being worked in 1859 exhibited the
following section : —
1. Surface soil, with a few flints .... 2 feet.
2. Brick-earth, consisting of a Hght-brown sandy
clay, divided by an irregular layer of carbona-
ceous clay . . . . . . . 12 ,,
3. Yellow sub-angular gravel . . . 6 in. to 1 ,,
4. Grey clay, in places peaty, and containing bones,
wood, and freshwater and land shells . .2 to 4 ,,
5. Sub-angular flint gravel .
6. Blue clay, containing freshwater shells
7. Peaty clay, with much woody matter
8. Hard clay
2
10
6
1
The thickness of these lower beds was ascertained by Sir Joseph
1 1860, p. 277 : 1864, p. 247. See also LyeU, "Ant. of Man," p. 166.
- Prestwich, Fhil. Trans., 1860, p. 307.
HOXNE, SUFFOLK.
575
Prestwich and myself by boring, as the pit was not worked below the
bed of clay, No. 4. In another part of the pit we had a trench dug,
which exhibited the following section : —
1. Oehreous sand and gravel, passing down into
white sand .......
2. Seams of white and oehreous gravel
3. Light grey sandy clay .....
4. Coarse yellow gravel .....
5. Grey and brown clay, with abundance of
Bythinia .......
6. Boulder Clay .......
In the gravel thrown out from. Bed No. 4, I found an implement in
form like Fig. 433, but wliich had lost its point through having been
struck by the pick of the workman.
The mammalian remains, which had then recently been found in
4 ft.
9 in,
1 ft.
8 in.
0 ft.
8 in,
1 ft.
0 in.
2 ft.
4 in,
1 ft.
Oin,
Fig. 449.— Hoxne. \
this pit, consisted of those of deer, horse, and elephant. The shells com-
prised Cyclas, Pisidium, Unio, Bythinia, Helix, Limncra, Planorhis, Suc-
cinea, and Valvata. Among the remains of trees, those of oak, yew,
and fir had been recognized.
Implements ' still continue to be found from time to time in this pit.
Several of those foimd long since are also extant, in addition to those
already mentioned. One of pointed form was in the Meyi-ick- Collec-
tion of Armour, and is stated to have been found 12 feet below the
surface of the ground, and to have once been in the Leverian Museum.
' Geologist, vol. iii. p. 347.
Skelton's " Meyrick'e Armour," pi. xlvi.
576
RIVER-DRIFT niPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIII.
I have another of much the same character, which was sold by auction
in London as an ancient British S2>ear-head, but which I at once recoo--
nized as Palaeolithic, and after purchasing it, found my opinion confirmed
by the word Hoxne being written on its base.
In the account given by Mr. Frere, it is stated that the implements
had been found in such quantities that they had been thrown into the
ruts of the adjoining road, and it therefore appeared probable that in
the disturbed uj)per soil of the worked-out parts of the pit. some
implements still existed. I accordingly made search for them, and
succeeded in discovering, besides several flakes — one of which is
5 inches long and 2 inches broad — three implements, of which one is
engraved in Fig. 449. It will be observed that a flat place has been
left on one of tbe side edges of this instrument, probably to allow of
its being held comfortably in the hand, so as to serve for a rude kind of
knife.
Two remarkably fine specimens — one of them much like that from
Eeculver, Fig. 459, and the other somewhat more irregular in form but
also round-pointed — were like-
wise found in the disturbed soil
by Mr. Charles M. Doughty, of
Caius College, Cambridge, and
are now in the Woodwardian
Museum. There are other sj)eci-
mens in the Christy CoUeetion.
A pointed imj^lement from this
place has been figured by Prest-
wich.^
Another of these very acutely
pointed implements is shown in
Fig. 450, the original of which
is in my own collection. It pre-
sents the peculiarity, which is
by no means uncommon in ovate
implements, of having the side
edges not in one plane but form-
ing a sort of ogee curve like that
of Fig. 434. In this instance,
the blade is twisted to such an
extent that a line, drawn through
the two edges near the point, is
at an angle of at least 45^ to
a line through the edges at the
broadest part of the implement. I think, however, that this twisting
of the edges was not in this case intended to serve any particular j)ur-
pose, but was rather the accidental result of the method pursued in
chipping the flint into its present foiTa. Curiously enough, one of the
specimens presented by Mr. Frere- to the Society of Antiquaries
exhibits the same peculiarity, and, indeed, so closely resembles mine,
that they might have been both made by the same hand. An essay
on the Hoxne deposits by the late Mr. Thomas Belt, F.G.S., wiU be
found in the Quarterly Journal of Science.^
' FkiL Trans., 18G0, pi. xiv. 6. - Arch., vol. xiii. pi. xv. 3 i876, p. 289.
Fig. 450.— Hoxne.
HOXNE, SUFFOLK. 577
T have left my original account of this locality almost unaltered,
but the whole circumstances of the deposit have now been most
thoroughly and satisfactorily investigated. In 1888 Mr. Clement
Reid, F.G.S., and Mr. II. X. Ridley, F.L.S., communicated a paper
to the British Association,^ calling attention to the presence of
fossil Arctic plants in the lacustrine deposits at Hoxne. This
was followed, in 1895, by some further^ notes on the deposits by
the same authors, with the result that a small committee, of which
I was chairman, was appointed by the Association,^ " to ascertain
by excavations at Iloxne, the relation of the Palaeolithic deposits
to the Boulder Clay, and to the deposits with Arctic and Temperate
plants." A sum of money, subsequently supplemented by a grant
from the Royal Society, enabled Mr. Clement Reid, Messrs. E, P.
and H. N. Ridley, to carry out the necessary borings and exca-
vations, while Miss Morse aided in washing out specimens, and
Mr. Mitten in determining the species of the mosses. I cannot
here enter into the details of the case, but must refer the reader to
the "Report of the Committee"* for them. The general results
of the examination are as follows.
The deposits lie in a valley excavated in the Chalky Boulder Clay
of the district, through which a stream ran, probably connected
with the valley of the Waveney. By subsidence the channel of the
stream was converted into the bed of a freshwater lake which
gradually silted up, and its site became covered with a dense thicket
of alders. From some cause or other, lacustrine conditions re-
appeared and 20 feet more of freshwater strata were deposited, but
the climate had become Arctic or sub- Arctic. Then followed floods
which deposited the implement-bearing beds, and finally the strata
became sandy. During the formation and the silting up of the
channel, the climatic conditions seem to have changed at least twice,
having been at one time mild and then again Arctic. To use the
words of the report : " The Palaeolithic deposits at Hoxne are
therefore not only later than the latest Boulder Clay of East
Anglia, but are separated from it by two climatic waves, with
corresponding changes of the flora. Such sweeping changes can-
not have been local. They must have affected wide areas."
Subsequently, however, to the Palaeolithic beds being deposited,
all traces of the shores of the old lake have disappeared, and but
for artificial excavations the surface of the ground would give no
indication either of a stream or lake having existed at the spot.
• Report, 1888, p. 674. - Report, 189-5, p. 679.
3 Report, 1895, p. Ixxxvi. •• Report,\SQ(J, p. 400. Essex Xat., vol. ix., p. 24-5.
P P
578 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXIII.
Tliougli terraces of gravel are found at various places along
the course of the TTaveney, and apparently of the same age as
those of the Little Ouse valley, yet up to the present time no dis-
coveries of implements in them have been recorded, although it
seems improbable that it is at Hoxne alone that implements exist.
In the gravels of the valleys of the Gipping, and other small
streams between the Waveney and the Stour, no works of man
have as yet been discovered ; but in a pit worked for ballast, near
Melford Junction, on the Great Eastern Railway, and at no great
distance from the Stour, the late Mr. Henry Trigg discovered one or
two implements of flint, and a portion of a tooth of Elephas pri-
migenius. Some worked flints have also been found in the gravel
at Sudbury, Suffolk, and some palaeolithic implements in the
valley of the Stour, north of Colchester. In the cKfE at Stutton,
opposite Manningtree, is a freshwater deposit containing many shells
of Corhicula fluminalis. Numbers of these washed out from the clifP
are lying on the shore, and among them I found, in 1883, a broad
flake about 3 inches long, which has all the appearance of being
palaeolithic. At Lexden Park,^ near Colchester, Mr. Edward
Laver has found a small ovate implement with a cutting edge all
round, ogival in character. Some other specimens have been
discovered to the north of Colchester. On the banks of the Ter, a
tributary of the Chelmer, Mr. J. French^ has found two palaeolithic
implements near Felstead ; and in 1883, at North End Place, I5
miles south of Felstead, the Rev, A. L. Rowe, F.G.S., picked up
a rudely chipped heavj' oval implement of quartzite (6 inches)
which he has kindly added to my collection.
The valleys of the small rivers between the Stour and the
Thames, the Colne, the Blackwater, and the Crouch, have up to
the present time produced no relics of human workmanship,
though I have seen a rudely worked flint, apparently from gravel,
which was found on the sea-shore by Mr. TV. ^Vhitaker, F.R.S.,
a little to the north of the mouth of the Colne.
Before proceeding to discuss the discoveries that have been
made within the basin of the Thames and in the Southern coun-
ties, I must call attention to one that was made in 1890 in the
Midland Counties, not far from Birmingham.
The old gravels of the river Rea at Saltley, Warwickshire,
have for a long time been subjected to a careful examination by
Mr. Joseph Landon, F.G.S., of Saltley College, in the hope of
' Essex Nat., vol. ii. p. 187. ^ Essex Xat., vol. vi. p. 78.
SALTLEY, WARWICKSHIRE.
579
finding in them some relics of human workmanship; and his
search has been rewarded by the discovery of the undoubted
palaeolithic implement, which through his kindness I am able to
exhibit in Fig. 450a. It is 4 inches in length and has been
formed from a brown quartzite pebble which, by dexterous chip-
ping, has been brought into a nearly symmetrical form with a
sharp point and edge. It much resembles one from the Robin
Hood Cave, Creswell Crags, Fig. 413a.
Fig. 450a.— Saltley. i
The valley of the river Rea runs at Saltley in a more or less
N.N.E. direction, and is about a mile in width. Several stretches of
gravel are found at different heights on both sides of the valley,
but especially on the southern side. The highest and oldest
gravels on this side are exposed in a clay-pit just in front of
Saltley College, and are about 3 feet in thickness. They consist
in the main of small quartzite pebbles in a light-brown sandy
matrix, though some large pebbles and a few broken foreign
flints also occur, and below the sandy beds is a layer, 3 or 4 feet
thick, of Glacial clay and sand, with pebbles and boulders (Arenig
felsite, &c.), and below this again come the Keuper marls, which
are used for brick-making. The level of the top of the gravels is
395 feet above Ordnance Datum and that of the river is about
p p 2
580 KIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIII.
315 feet, so that the valley must have been excavated to the depth
of at least 80 feet since the gravels were deposited.
The implement was found at the base of the sandy gravel at a
distance of about 60 yards from the front of Saltley College. In
the same beds and in a small area, some 10 yards square, were
found a number of fractured quartzite pebbles, which though not
presenting such distinct signs of design may possibly owe their
forms to human workmanship. Some of the chipped pieces of
quartzite in the caves of Creswell Crags are rude in the extreme.
The discovery of this well-fashioned specimen suggests some
interesting considerations.
It has been held that the absence of pala)olithic implements
in Britain north of an imaginary line drawn from about the
mouth of the Severn to the "Wash, is due to glacial conditions
having prevailed in the north-west part of England and in Scot-
land at the time when the makers of these early tools or weapons
occupied the southern and eastern parts of this country, which,
however, in those days was not an island but was still connected
with the Continent.
The question now arises whether the assumed absence of palaeo-
lithic implements over this area may not be due to their not
having as yet been found, and not to their non-existence.
It must be remembered : —
1st. That flint is extremely scarce over a great part of the
area, and therefore that any implements would almost of necessity
have to be formed from some other material, such as quartzite or
one of the older rocks.
2nd. That in the case of implements made of such materials,
the evidences of human workmanship are not so conspicuous or so
easily recognized as on those formed of flint.
3rd. That owing to the nature of the rocks over which the
ancient rivers flowed, the alluvial deposits within the area in ques-
tion are of quite a different character from those formed in dis-
tricts where flint abounds.
4th. That such alluvial deposits are not so constantly being
excavated for economic purposes, and consequently not so open to
examination as ordinary flint gravels, and that implements made
from such materials as quartzite being probably more difficult to
make, they would be fewer in number over a given area and also
more highly treasured.
Even in the case of cave-deposits we have seen how, in those of
POSSIBILITY OF THEIR OCCURRENCE IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND. 581
Creswell Crags, a locality wliicli lies within the presumed non-
implementiferous district, all the larger implements were made
from quartzite, some of the tools being so rude that human work-
manship can hardly be recognized upon them. I therefore ven-
ture to think that if competent observers like Mr. Landon will
devote their attention to the ancient gravel-like alluvial deposits
of our northern rivers, and seek for implements not formed of flint
but of quartzite or some other of the older rocks, their search will
be rewarded. In some of the Welsh caves the implements were
for the most part made of felstone and chert.
The finding in the neighbourhood of Bridlington of a flint im-
plement of a distinctly palaeolithic type, seems to afford corrobora-
tive evidence in favour of extending the area of such discoveries,
though it must be admitted that so far as at present known it was
not lying in association with any remains of the pleistocene fauna.
It may be incidentally mentioned that palaeolithic implements of
quartzite, and even of Tertiary sandstones, occur though rarely in
districts in which flint abounds. Possibly it was found that this
material was tougher and less brittle than flint, and therefore
better adapted for certain uses when the sharpness of the edge
was not of primary importance. Most of the implements from
India are formed of a quartzite which is more easily chipped into
form than that of our EngKsh pebbles.
I now come to the important district drained by the Thames
and its affluents, which comprises an area of upwards of 5,000
square miles. The number of localities within this area, where
discoveries have been made in the ancient River-drift, has greatly
increased since 1872, and at some of them palasolithic implements
have been found in abundance.
The Thames valley may moreover lay claim to the first recorded
discovery of any flint implement in the Quaternary gravels, whether
in this or any other country. An implement is preserved in the
British Museum to which my attention was first directed by Sir
A. "WoUaston Franks, and which is thus described in the Sloane
Catalogue : — " No. 246. A British weapon found, with elephant's
tooth, opposite to black Mary's, near Grayes Inn Lane. Contjers.
It is a large black flint shaped into the figure of a spear's point.
K." This K. signifies that it formed a portion of Kemp's collec-
tion. It appears to have been found at the close of the seventeenth
century, and a rude engraving of it illustrates a letter on the
antiquities of London, by Mr. Bagford, dated in 1715, and printed
582
KIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP XXII I.
Pig. 451.— Gray's Inn Lane.
GRAY S INN LANE, LONDON,
583
in Hearne's edition of Leland's " Collectanea."^ From his account
it would seem that a skeleton of an elephant was found not far
from Battlebridge by Mr. Conyers, and that near the place where
it was found, " a British weapon made of a flint lance, like unto
the head of a spear, was dug up."
A full-sized engraving of this implement illustrated my first
notice of these discoveries, in the Archwologia^ and is here repro-
duced as Fig. 451. As will be seen, it is remarkably similar in form
to that from Santon Downham, Fig. 433, though rather larger in
size. During some excavations in Gray's Inn Lane^ in 1883 and
1884, several palaeolithic implements of different forms were found ;
but none I think so fine as that described by Leland. One found in
Clerkenwell Road in 1883 by Mr. G. F. Lawrence,* was, however,
slightly larger. Another implement was found in Drury Lane,^
and others from Jermyn Street and Prince's Street, Oxford
Street, are in the Museum of Economic Geology.
Before describing the recent discoveries which have been made
higher up the valleys of the Thames and its afiluents, it will be
well to discuss the various
localities in the immediate
neighbourhood of London, so
as not to disturb the sequence
of the Figures which is neces-
sarily that of my first edition.
It will be needless to do this
at any great length, as the
principal investigator of the
gravels around London, to
whom indeed the greater part
of the discoveries are due —
Mr. Worthington G. Smith
— has given fidl particulars
in his excellent book, " Man,
the Primeval Savage."^
In the British Museum is
an oval implement, formerly in
the collection of the late Eev. Dr. Sparrow Simpson, F.S.A., shown in
' Vol. i. p. Ixiv.
- Vol. xxxviii. p. 301. See also Lyell, "Ant. of Man," p. 160. Lubbock,
"Preh. Times," 4tli ed., p. 352. "Horae Ferales," p. 132, pi. i. 21. Dawkins,
" Eurly Man in Brit.," 1880, p. 156.
■' Sature, vol. xxviii. p. 564. * Nature, vol. xxix. p. 15.
* Sature, vol. xxviii. p. 564. * Stanford, 1894.
Fig. 452.— Hackney Down.
584 RIVER-DKIFT IMPLEMEN'TS. [CHAP. XXIII.
Fig. 452, and found by Mr. G. H. Gaviller in gravel dug at Hackney
Down, to the north-east of London, and not far from Shacklewell. It
is of ochreous flint, slightly roUed, and in form remarkably like that
from Bournemouth. Fig. 476. Though the exact place whence it came
is unknown, there can be no doubt of its belonging to the Hackney
Down gravels, which maybe regarded as identical in age and character
with those of Shacklewell, which have been described by .Sir Joseph
Prestwich.- The surface of the ground at Hackney Down- is 70
feet above Ordnance Datum, and in lSfi6 a shaft was there sunk
through gravel and sand, to a depth of 22 feet. In the sandy beds
at the base Mr. (f. J. Smith^ discovered numerous land and freshwater
shells, and among them the Hydrohia marginata — already mentioned as
having been found in the Bedford Drift, and as being no longer an
inhabitant of Britain — and the Corbicula Jfummalis, which has already
been cited as occurring near Cambridge, and of which more will be
said immediately. The Shacklewell gravel mainly consists of sub-
angular broken flints, some large flints but little worn, Lower Tertiary
pebbles, a few quartz and sandstone pebbles, and some rolled blocks
of hard Tertiary sandstone. In the pit described by Sir Joseph
Prestwich there is, at a depth of about 8 feet, a bed of sandy clay
intercalated in the gravel, and containing mammalian remains, nume-
rous land and freshwater shells, and remains of oak. elm, alder, and
hazel. The group of shells procured here resembles that of the Salis-
bury Drift, of which mention will be made hereafter.
Since 1854. when his paper was read, numerous specimens of the
Corhicida JlunmiaJis, or, as it was formerly called, the Cyrena consohrina,
have been found here by Sir Joseph Prestwich, Sir Charles Lyell,*
and others, including myself. This shell, of a mollusc no longer
living in Europe, though still found in the Nile and in several Asiatic
rivers, has also been found in the Drift deposits of the Somme at
Menchecourt, near Abbeville, associated with flint implements ; and is
likewise to be met with in the drift deposits of the Thames at Gray's
Thurrock, Hford, Frith, and Crayford, in several of which implements
have now been found. The beds at these places have by some geolo-
gists been regarded as belonging to an older and Pre-glacial period ;
but the discovery of an implement at Hackney Down raises a pre-
sumption that the gravel there is. like other fliiit implement-bearing
gravels. Post-glacial ; and the discovery of an implement in beds of
fluviatHe origin at a still higher level than those of Hackney Down
corroborates this view, as the lower bed is probably the more modem.
The fluviatile beds in question were exposed in two brick-pits at
Highbury New Park, near Stoke Newington, and attention was first
called to them in August, 1868,^ by the late :Mr. Alfred Tylor, F.G.S.
The surface of the ground at the more eastern of these two pits
is, according to Mr. Tylor, 102 feet above Ordnance Datum; and
22 feet below the surface there is a bed of clay 2 feet thick, full of
land and freshwater shells, accompanied by much wood. There are
' Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xi. p. 107.
- (Jeel. Mag., vol. v. p. 392. ^ q^^i ^nd Xat. Hist. Repei't., vol. i. p. 373.
* "Ant. of Man," pp. 161, 124.
* Geol. Mag., vol. v. p. 391. See also Q>Mr. Journ. Geol. 6'o<r. (1869), vol. xxv.
p. 96.
HIGHBURY, LONDON.
585
also shells in the lower part of the reddish loam or brick-earth imme-
diately above the clay. The shells are said to consist of Helix, Zua,
Clauulia, Succinea, Carychium, Limncea, Planorbis, Valvata, Fisidium,
and Cyclas; to which Mr. J. Wood Mason, F.G.S.,' added Achatina,
Bythinia, Pupa, and Velletia.
On reading the account of this discovery, I was at once impressed
with the possibility of the occurrence of palaeolithic implements in the
deposit; and accordingly in September, 1868, I visited the pit with
the view of searching for them, taking with me my youngest son,
Norman, who had a quick eye, and an almost instinctive power of
recognizing a worked flint. Our search was soon rewarded, for imme-
diately on descending into the lower part of the pit, where the shell-
Fig, 453.— Iligbbury New Park. a
bearing beds were exposed, my son picked up the remarkably well-
formed implement shown in Fig. 453. It was not in situ, but was
lying in the bottom of the pit ; and judging from the staining upon a
portion of its surface, it appears to have been derived from the brick-
earth, rather than from the more shelly beds below.
It is well adapted for being held in the hand as a sort of knife or
chopper, having a thick rounded back formed of the natural crust of
the nodule of flint from which it was formed. One face of it has been
the result of a single blow, and its surface is that of a jiortion of a
what irregular cone, at the apex of which the blow was struck, by
' Qww. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1869), vol. xxv. p. 99.
586 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXIII.
■which it -was produced. The other face, as will be seen by the figure,
has been fashioned by first roughly chipping the implement to a curved
edge, by blows administered on the flatter face, and then neatly trim-
ming this edge to a regular sweep by secondary chipping. The ends
have also been trimmed into shape. At the upper end, as shown in
the figure, a small piece has been broken off, but otherwise the edge
is uninjured. In character it is identical with the implement from th<>
Santon Downham gravel. Fig. 437, and it closely resembles some of thu
large trimmed flakes from High Lodge, near Mildenhall, and the
"choppers" from the cave of Le Moustier. The surface of the flint
is stained ochreous in places, and presents much the same appearance
as do some of the implements from the brick- earth at Hoxne.
It was in consequence of my publication of these discoveries that
the attention of Mr. Worthington Smith was directed to the gravels of
North-Eastern London, among which his labours have been crowned
with such marked success. Not only has he found palaeolithic imple-
ments in the City,^ Gray's Inn Lane, Clerkenwell, London Fields,
Dalston, Kingsland, Homerton, Hackney, Lower Clapton, Upper
Clapton, Stamford Hill, Mildmay Park, South Hornsey, Abney Park
Cemetery, Stoke Newington, and Shacklewell, but he has been able
to identify the old surface of the ground, which was occupied by the
earl}'' men who chipped out the implements. To this old land- surface
he has given the name of the " Pal ajolithic floor," and he has been able
to trace its existence over a considerable area of ground on the western
as well as the eastern side of the river Lea.- It consists of a stratum of
five or six inches of subangular ochreous gravel, in some places, how-
ever, only one or two inches in thickness, or only visible as a tone of
colour. On, and imbedded in this floor among roUed and waterworn
stones and bones, black, sharp and unabraded implements of flint occui',
together with flakes which, in some instances, have been susceptible
of being replaced in their original juxtaposition. Below the floor
are usually thin beds of sand containing shells of land and freshwater
mollusca, and beds of gravel, sometimes as much as 12 feet thick, con-
taining palseohthic implements more or less abraded. The sand is not
always present. Above the floor are usually contorted loamy beds of
" warp and trail," generally 4 to 6 feet thick, including the superficial
humus. These seem to be of subaerial origin and may be due to a
lengthened prevalence of a cold and rainy climate. The fauna of the
gravels is described as including Felis spelaa, Hymia, £lephas prhnigenius,
E. antiquiis, Rhmoceros mefjarlmms, li. leptorhimis, and H. tichorhinus,
Cervus tarandus, and Ilegaceros hibernicus. Remains of Antilope Saiga
have, I believe, been also found. Among the testaceous remains
Corbicula fluminalis and Hydrohia marginata have already been noted.
Another diligent investigator of the gravels of North-East London,
who has also treated of the Palsoolithic floor, is Mr. J. E. Greenhill.^
He has given some interesting sections, showing how the waterworn,
abraded implements underlie those of the Palaeolithic floor which are
quite unworn.* Professor Eupert Jones, F.E.S., has also written on
^ *'Man, the Prim. Savage," p. 214. Nature, vol. xx\-ii. p. 270.
2 Jonrn. Anth. Inst., vol. xii. p. 176 ; xiii. p. 357. Nature, vol. xxv. p. 460 ;
xjvi. p. 679. Froc. Geol. Assoc, vol. viii. p. 120. Essex Naturalist, vol. i. p. 125.
' Fi-oc. Geol. Assoc., vol. viii. p. 336. * Op. cit., vol. viii., p. 344.
I,OWER CLAPTON, STOKE NEWINGTON, ETC,
687
the subject. The best geological account is that given by Mr. W.
Whitaker, F.E.S.^
By the kindness of Mr. "Worthington Smith most of the impor-
tant specimens that he has found are now in my collection. I am
further indebted to him for the use of the blocks illustrating some of the
implements.* Fig. 453a exhibits a finely pointed implement from Lower
Clapton. Its surface is lustrous and it shows at its butt part of thfr
original crust of the nodule of flint out of which it was chipped.
The fine ovate implement,^ Fig. 453b, came from the 12 feet stratum
Fig. 453a.— Lower Clapton.
at Stamford Hill. It is of dark colour, lustrous, and has the angles-
slightly abraded.
A small example from the Palaeolithic floor at Stoke Newington is
shown in Fig. 4o3c.^ The edges are still quite sharp, and at one place
there appear to be traces of use. A quartzite* implement from the
same locality is shown in Fig. 453d.
Implements presumably of Palaeolithic Age have been found in the
bed of the Thames. One from Battersea is of pecviliar form, with a
' Mem. Geol. Survey, "The Geology of London, &c.," vol. i., 1889.
• " Man the Prim. Sav.," p. 222, fig. 148.
» Op. nt., p. 226, fig. 151. * Op. cit., p. 239, fig. 165.
= Op. cit., p. 224, fig. 150. See also Tram. Herts Nat. Hist. Hoe., vol. viii., 1896.
pi. xiii., xiv.
588
RIVER-URIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap, XXIII.
truncated butt, and has been presented to the Christy Collection by Sir
A. Wollaston Franks, F.E.S. Another from Hammersmith is in the
Fig. 453b.— Stamford Hill. i
same collection, having been formerly in that of the late Rev. Dr. Sparrow
Simpson, F.S.A. It is 8J inches long, and much resembles that from
Eeculver, Fig. 458, though somewhat
longer in its proportions and thicker in
the butt. It is much rolled and water-
worn, so that it has probably belonged to
a bed of gravel at a much higher level
than that from which it was dredged up.
Another (o^V inches) from the bed of the
Thames at the Chelsea Suspension Bridge
was found by Mr. Lambton Young,
C.E., in 1854, before general attention
had been directed to such relics. Mr.
G. F. Lawrence, of Wandsworth, has
ovate specimens from the Thames, at
Wandsworth, Battersea, Putney, and
Richmond, all but the latter much
rolled.
It will be most convenient to reserve
the discoveries in the South of London and in the valley of the
Fig. 453c.— Stoke Newington
Common. :
EALING AND ACTON.
689
Lea for future pages, and to proceed up the Thames valley towards
its sources.
Nearly ten miles to the west of London, and on the northern side
of the Thames, the careful researches of General Pitt Rivers, F.R.S.,
have been amply rewarded, he having found several implements
of well-marked palaeolithic types, and numerous flakes, in the
gravels of Ealing Dean and Acton. ^ He has fully described the
Fig. 453d.— Stoke Newington Common. J
localities and given sections of the beds in a communication to
the Geological Society.^
At the former spot, the surface of the groimd is 92 feet above
Ordnance Datum, and here several implements have been found. At
Acton the surface is from 60 to 80 feet above high- water mark, and here
an implement of oval form was found beneath 7 feet of stratified sand
and gravel, and resting on the clay beneath ; another, of pointed form,
was foxmd in the middle of the gravel, about 10 feet from the sxirface,
and beneath beds of sand 8 feet in thickness. Others were foimd in
gravel from the same spot, and from MiU Hill, half-a-mile to the
westward, which had been spread on the roads. One of the pointed
implements from Ealing Dean is shown in Fig. 454. In form it much
resembles that from Eeculver, Fig. 458, though smaller in size. Like
all the other implements from these two spots, it is stained of the
ochreous colour of the gravel, and has had its angles worn away by
being rolled in water along with the other constituents of the gravel.
The flakes, which are comparatively abundant, are for the most part
' Brit. Assoc. Report, 1869, p. 130. He has also kindly furnished me with other
particulars.
- Q. J. G. S., vol. xxviii. p. 449.
)90
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIII.
large and rude, but many appear to have had their edges chipped by
use. Some have been wrought into the scraper form. Cores or blocks
of flint from which flakes have been struck have also been found.
In May, 1871. an implement. 8 inches long, and of rather less taper-
ing form than that from Ealing. Fig. 454, was found at Acton, beneath
13 feet of sand and gravel, at a spot where the surface is 70 feet above
high-water mark. General Pitt Eivers has also seven or eight flakes
of flint, one of them oi inches long and 1 inch wide, which were found
together, beneath 9 feet of brick-earth and gravel, in excavating for the
Fig. 454. -Ealing Dean. ^
foundations of a house at Acton. Their edges are sharp and unworn,
so that they must have been deposited where they were found, prior
to the accumulation of the 9 feet of drifted beds above them. They
lay in a bed of ochreous sandy clay, about 1 foot ia thickness, which
reposed immediately on the blue London Clay.
In Acton village, the beds of Drift which constitute the first patch
of gravel occurring at so high a level as we go westward from London,
and which form a sort of terrace overlooking the broad valley of the
Thames, attain a thickness of 18 feet, and consist of layers of sub-
angular gravel, mixed with yellow and white sand, very irregularlv
stratified. The gravel consists principally of flints and Tertiary
pebbles, with some of quartz and quartzite. A few mammalian
remains, including a tooth of Elepha^ primige7i{us, have been found in
these beds, and south of Ealing Park' land and freshwater shells. At
' J. A. Brown, "Palaeolithic Man in N.W. Middlesex," p. 113.
WEST DRAYTON, BURNHAM, READING. 591
a lower level, and cut off from tlie upper gravels by an outcrop of
London Clay, is a wide terrace of alluvial deposits at an average
height of about 20 feet above high-water mark, and a lower terrace
still is to be found in the immediate neighbourhood of the river.
General Pitt Rivers's researches in the mid-terrace beds of gravel and
brick-earth liave not produced any implements of the River-drift types,
but he has obtained animal remains which were identified by the late
Mr. G. Busk, F.R.S., as those of Elephas primigenius, Rhinoceros hemi-
tcechus, Hippopotamus major, Bos primigenius, Bison prisons, Cervus
tarandus, and other species of deer. They occur invariably at the base of
the gravel 12 or 13 feet from the surface. The late Mr. Tliomas Belt,
F.G.S.,^ has speculated on the age and character of the Acton deposits.
Mr. J. Allen Brown, F.G.S.,- has diligently continued these
researches, and in laminated clay, 200 feet above O.D. at the Mount,
Ealing, has found an ochreous fUxke trimmed at the edge. At Creffield
Road, Acton,^ Middlesex, ho has discovered another " Palseolithic
floor," having found more than 600 flakes and implements in an
area of not more than 40 feet square. Besides implements from Acton
and Ealing up to 130 feet above O.D. he has described specimens from
East Sheen, on the other side of the Thames, and Hanwell,* Iver,
Gunnersbury, Kew, Turnham Green, and Dawley, near "West Drayton.
An ovate implement from Dawley is of felsite. He has also described
implements found at Southall ^ associated with remains of Elephas
primigenius. A pointed specimen from Southall is made of quartzite.
At Hounslow" also implements have been found. It is possible that the
gravels at West Drayton belong to the valley of the Colne rather than
to that of the Thames, as also those at Hillingdon, where in the Town-
pit, 180 feet above O.D., Mr. Brown has found palseolithic implements.
Fartherwest, at Langley and at Burnham, implements have been found
in the gravels. One from Burnham was given to me by Mr. E. Sawyer.
He has also found a broad-pointed implement at Cookham, near Maiden-
head. They have likewise been discovered at Ruscombe,' Taplow,*
Maidenhead, and Marlow. A very broad-pointed implement (5^
inches) found in high-level gravel at Cookham, Maidenhead, has
been shown to me by Mr. E. Sawyer. In my own collection are
specimens from the majority of the other localities here enumerated.
In form and character they approximate so closely to those from
similar deposits elsewhere that it seems needless to figure any of them.
Higher up the river Thames, the next important discoveries to recite
are those which have been made in and near Reading by Dr.
Joseph Stevens. At Grovelands,' about 80 feet above the level of the
' Qiiar. Journ. of Science, vol. viii., 1878, p. 316.
- Q. J. G. S., vol. xlii., 1886, p. 197. " Palseolithic Man in N.W. Middlesex,"
London, 1887. Nature, vol. xxxv., p. 555. Proc. Geol. Assoc, June 18, 1887,
vol. X., 1888, p. 172. Trans. Middlesex Nat. Hist. Soc, Feb. 12, 1889, Whitaker,
"Geol. of Lond.," p. 308. •
3 Froc. S. A., 2nd S., vol. xi. p. 211.
* /(OMrw. ^«^A. /««<., vol. ix. p. 316; 1881, p. 1. Proc. Geol. Assoc. ,yo\. -ay., ^.IbZ.
« Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. x., 1888, p. 361.
* "Man the Prim. Savap^e," p. 241. Nature, vol. xxvi. p. 293 ; xxviii. p. 617.
" TV. Berks. Archaol. and Archit. Soc, vol. ii., 1896, pp. 16, 39, 43.
* " Pal. Man in N.W. Middlesex, p. 31.
" Journ. Arch. Assoc, vol. xxxvii. pp. 1, 79. Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. viii. p. 348.
Tr. Berks. A. and A. Soc, 1882.
592 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXIII.
river, near the junction of the Kennet and the Thames, the Drift deposits
are ferruginous and about 15 feet thick. In them -were found a tooth
of a mammoth and numerous implements, principally of ovate forms
and made of flint, but among them one made of quartzite. At Red-
lands, at a lower level, about 40 fe^t above the river, mammoth
remains occur, as also at the Kennet Mouth Pit, Newtown, where a
kite-shaped implement was found. The geological position and struc-
ture of the Eedlandsbeds have been described by Prof. Poulton, F.E.S.'
In 1882 I found in the gravel at Pig's Green, near Eeading, the butt-
end of a pointed implement, which had been originally about 4J
inches long and had lost its point before being deposited in the Drift.
The gravel was subangular and ochreous, and contained from 15 to
20 per cent, of quartzite pebbles. Flint flakes were fairl}' abundant,
but finished implements, scarce. On the other side of the river, at
Caversham. Dr. Stevens has found implements in gravel 120 feet
above the level of the Thames. I have myself found an acutely-
pointed implement (4 inches) in the same beds.
These Caversham Beds have been well described by ]VIr. 0. A.
Shrubsole.^ At Toots Farm the implements are usually pointed, as
also at Shiplake, at a distance of about three miles and at a slightly
lower level. At Henley Road, Caversham, about 59 feet above
the Thames, he obtained a flat ovoid implement of flint. A molar of
£!lephas jji'hnigenius was found at this spot. South of the Thames,
besides the pits mentioned by Dr. Stevens, Mr. Shrubsole enume-
rates the following localities: a cutting of the South "Western Rail-
way at Earley, one of the Great Western Railway at Sonning, a
gravel-pit at Charvil Hill. Sonning, and a brick-yard at Ruscombe,
near Twyford. In the last -mentioned place several implements
of various types have been found. Some extremely doubtful speci-
mens, probably of purely natural origin, have been found on Fin-
champstead Ridges,^ but in gravel at Wokingham * a large highly
finished pointed implement has been obtained by Mr. P. Sale.
Some more or less worked flints from the Reading^ gravels
have been described and figured by Mr. O. A. Shrubsole, who has
assigned uses to what he terms " the less familiar forms of Palaeo-
lithic Flint Implements."
Still higher up the Thames, near Wallingford, there is a consi-
derable spread of gravel, some of it at a distance of two miles or
more from the existing streams. In this gravel implements have
been found, though up to the present time in no great abundance. I
1 Q. J. G. S., vol. xxx^^. p. 296.
2 Q. J. G. S., vol. xlvi., 1890, p. 582. See also Mr. H. W. Monckton. F.G.S., in
Q. J. G. S., vol. xUx.. 1S93, p. 310.
3 Journ. Anth. Ini>t., vol. xxiv., 189.5. p. 44, pi. iii.
* Q. J. G. S., vol. xlii., 1893, p. 321.
* Jouni. Anth. Inst., vol. xiv., 1885, p. 192.
OXFORD AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. 593
have a fine kite-shaped specimen of the type of Plate I., No. 6
(5^ inches), that was found at Gould's Heath, East of Walling-
ford, and two from Turner's Court,^ rather nearer the town. In
all three cases the flint has become more or less whitened. I
have another large flat ovate implement more like Plate I., No. 16,
that was found at Cholsey, on the other side of the river. It is
more lustrous and not so much whitened. Another was found on
the surface at Ipsden,^ 3 miles S.E. of AVallingford.
In the neighbourhood of Oxford a fair number of pala3olithic
implements have been found, some of which are in the University
Museum. The first of these was a fine specimen with a heavy
butt and pointed tip (broken off), procured, in 1874, by Sir Joseph
Prestwich from gravel on the left bank of the Cherwell, at
Marston Ferry, not more than from 4 to 5 feet from the surface.
Another, ovate (3f inches), was obtained by the late Professor
Rolleston from the foundations of the New Schools in the High
Street, in 1878, and two more of ruder workmanship came from
the site of the Girls' High School in the Banbury Road, in 1880.
Yet another was found below Oxford by the side of Bagley
Wood, opposite Iffley. The principal discoveries have, however,
been made at Wolvercote, about 1^ miles north of Oxford, whence
many have been collected by Mr. A. M. Bell,^ from whose account
of the discoveries I have been quoting. Among the specimens in
his and other collections are pointed and ovate implements, a
fine example of the shoe-shaped type, like Fig. 429 (8^, inches),
trimmed flakes and a hammer-stone. One of Mr. Bell's pointed
implements has been chipped out of quartzite. The brick-earth
and gravel deposits lie in what appears to be an old river-channel,
which has been cut into the Oxford clay and the superimposed
Northern Drift to a depth of about 17 feet from the surface. It
is at the base of this channel that the implements are found. In
the sand near the base nine or ten species of land and fresh-
water shells occur, and in a peaty bed immediately above the sand
and gravel the remains of various plants ; but both the testaceous
and vegetable remains belong to species still found in the neighbour-
hood. Mammoth, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus as well as Corhicubi
fluminalk have, however, been found in the Oxford gravels. The
beds at Wolvercote above the peat consist of clay and sand de-
posited evenly in successive layers, but towards the surface they arc
> See also Hedges' " Wallin^ord," 1881, vol. i. p. 29. » Op. cit., p. 29.
3 Antiquary, vol. xxx. pp. 148, 192. Brit. Asuoc. Re})., 1894 (Oxford), p. 663.
Q Q
594 R1^'ER-DR1FT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIII.
traversed by an iiTegular line of "trail," such as is often seen above
palaeolithic deposits and for which it is so diflBcult to account.
Mr. Percy ^Manning, F.S.A., possesses several palaeolithic im-
plements found near Oxford. Among eleven specimens from
"Wolvercote, mostly tongue-shaped, is one of brown flint 9^ inches
long and -ih inches broad, sharply pointed with a truncated butt
and the sides curving outwards somewhat like Fig. 475. Another
fine implement from the same place has straighter sides and is 6^
inches long. The others are smaller, but among them is one of
pointed form rather rudely chipped from a quartzite pebble.
Mr. Manning has also three implements dredged from a back-
water of the Thames between Oxford and North Hinksey, one of
them (4j inches; like Fig. 422, but more roughly chipped and
much waterworn. Another (4 inches) is like Fig. 436, but more
pointed. The third (5^ inches), is a remarkably symmetrical ovate-
lanceolate implement, in outline like Plate II., No. 11, made out of
a pebble of quartzite, or possibly of chert. This also is waterworn.
At BroadweU, Oxon, on the borders of Gloucestershire, Mr.
Manning found an implement (4^ inches) resembling Fig. 459,
apparently from gravel dug upon the spot. The village of
Broadwell lies about 3 miles to the north of the Thames.
In my former edition I called attention to the discovery in the
valley of the Wev, at Peasemarsh, between Guildford and Godal-
ming, by the late Mr. "Whitbourn, F.S.A.,^ some sixty years ago,
of the implement shown in Fig. 455, which is now in my own
collection. It was found emVedded in the gravel in a layer of
sand about 4 or 5 feet from the surface, in apparently undisturbed
ground. Mr. TVTiitbourn had heard of remains of large animals
having been discovered in the same beds, but not in very close
proximity to the spot where the implement was found. It is, as
will be seen by the figure, of a different shape from the majority
of the implements found in the River-drift, being very broad at
the base and short in proportion to its width. The flint of which
it consists is grey and slightly ochreous. At the base is a con-
siderable portion of the original crust of the flint, which is stained
of a dull red. The gravel beds, in which it was found, have been
described by Mr. R. A. C. God win- Austen, F.R.S.^ They rest
on Wealden Clay, and in places, on beds of the Lower Greensand.
The material principally consists of sub-angular chalk flints, and
' Evans, Arch., toI. xxxix. p. 72 ; Prestw^ich, Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1861), vol.
xvii. p. 367: l.yell. '• Aiit.of Man.""p. 161 ; Lubbock, "Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 353.
- Uuar. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. vii. p. 278.
PEASEMARSH, GODALMING.
595
IQ It have been found numerous remains o£ EIcjiJiUH priinff/miHs.
In places, the gravel overlies what appears to have been an old
land-surface, in the mould of which fragments of branches of
trees, and bones of ox and elephant, have been found uninjured
and lying together. Mr. Godwin-Austen does not record the dis-
covery of any land or freshwater shells in the gravels, nor on
visiting the spot was I able to find any, or any more worked flints.
In the Woodwardian Museum, at Cambridge, is an implement of
palaeolithic type, and of the ovate form, found higher up the valley
of the Wey, near Alton, but on the surface, and not in gravel.
Fig. 456. — Peasemarsh, Godalming.
At Farnham, between Alton and Godalming, many palaeolithic
implements have been secured from the gravels of the valley of the
"Wey, principally through the intelligent care of Mr. Frank Lasham,
of Guildford, and Mr. H. A. Mangles, F.G.S., of Littleworth
Cross, Tongham. The former has contributed a paper on
" Palaeolithic Man " to the Surrey Archaeological Society,^ and
has kindly given me much information on the subject. The beds
of gravel are from 10 to 40 feet deep, and lie upon the Lower
Greensand. They attain an elevation of 36-i feet'^ above the
mean sea-level, or about 150 feet above the present bed of the
river, and are principally dug in pits on the southern or right side
1 Surr. Arch. Coll., vol. xi. - Proc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xiii. p. 77.
Q Q 2
596 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS, [CHAP. XXIII.
of the Wey towards Wracklesham, pits which have furnished
several hundreds of palaeolithic implements of various forms and
sizes. The oval and ovate seem to predominate, but there have
been found not a few fine pointed implements. Associated with
the more sharply preserved specimens, are many of dark ochreous
colour, with their angles much abraded, which in all probability
have been brought down by the old river from beds higher up
its valley. Remains of mammoth occur occasionally in the
gravels. Some specimens of the implements are preserved in
the Charterhouse School Museum. Mr. Lasham informs me of
an implement having been found in gravel at Peperharow, of a
part of one near Farley Heath, and of one found at Frimley/ in
the valley of the Blackwater.
The discoveries of palaeolithic implements in the valley of the
Colne near its junction with the Thames, have already been
recorded. In the valley of the Misbourne, an affluent of the
Colne, an implement was found in 1891 in digging the founda-
tions of the bridge over the Metropolitan Extension Railway,
just north of Great Missenden. It is of a thick ovate form, made
of grey flint, rather narrower than PI. II., No. 18, and with
small flat surfaces of the original crust of the flint left about the
middle of each side. The specimen is in my own collection.
In the valley of the Gade, in Hertfordshire, a few have been found
by myself. The first of these was lying on the surface of a ploughed
field near Redmond,- in the parish of Abbot's Langley, at a spot
which, though probably 160 feet above the level of the nearest
part of the stream, is towards the bottom of one of the lateral
valleys leading into the main valley of the Gade, between Box-
moor and "Watford. The implement, which has unfortunately
lost its point, is remarkably similar in form and size to that from
Gray's Inn Lane, Fig. 451. The flint of which it is made has
become nearly white and porcellanous on both faces, though
more so on one than on the other. In places it has been so much
altered in structure that it can be cut with a knife. I have
noticed this feature in flints which have lain long in pervious red
brick-earth, and this leads me to suppose that the implement
may have been derived from some beds of that character at the
spot where it was found, though on this point I have no direct
^ Froc. Geol. Assoc, vol. xiii. p. 80.
2 Arch., vol. xxxix. p. 73. Prestwich, QiMr. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 368.
Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 355.
VALLEYS OF THE GAUE AND COLNE. 597
evidence. In 1892 ^ I found another small implement (4 inches)
of rude ovate form, among some stones recently placed in a rut
at Bedmond Hill. Here, again, there is no evidence as to the
exact geological position. Nor is there with regard to two other
implements, both of which I found in 1868, in gravel laid on the
towing-path of the Grand Junction Canal, which is there united
with the Gade, between Apsley and Nash Mills, about two miles
south of Hemel Hempstead. There is, however, no doubt of the
gravel in which they lay having been dredged or dug from the
bottom of the valley in the immediate neighbourhood. One of
them, of grey flint, is a neatly-chipped, flat implement, of ovate
outline, about 4 inches long, in form much like Fig. 468, from
Lake. The other is imperfect, but appears to have been origin-
ally of much the same character, though flatter on one face. It
is deeply stained of an ochreous colour, and its angles are con-
siderably waterworn. I have searched in the gravels of the
neighbourhood for other specimens, but as yet in vain. I may
add that during the formation of this part of the canal, some
eighty years ago, an elephant's tooth was found in the gravel,
within about 200 yards of the spot where I discovered one of the
implements.
Other specimens are reported to have been found near the head
of the tributary valley of the Bulbourne, at "Wigginton, near
Tring.
At Watford, Herts, on the left bank of the Colne, in gravel
near Bushey Park, at a height of about 40 feet above the level
of the existing river, Mr. Clouston has found several implements
of ochreous flint of various types. He has kindly given me a
square-ended flake, much like Fig. 426a, from High Lodge,
Mildenhall.
Some of the discoveries made by Mr. Worthington G. Smith
were in localities within the valley of the Ver, an affluent of the
Colne, rather than in that of the Lea, but inasmuch as many of
the beds which contained the implements found by him seem to
bear but little relation to existing watersheds, and are at no
great distance from the Lea, I shall at once proceed to the dis-
cussion of the remarkable series of facts which he has brought to
light. All details must, however, be sought for in Mr. W. G.
Smith's own book, " Man, the Primeval Savage." ^
^ Trans. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. viii. pi. xi. 8.
- Stanford, London, 8vo, 1894.
598 RI^'ER-DR1FT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIII.
The main source of the Lea is at Leagrave Marsh, about 3
miles X."W. of Luton, and 376 feet above Ordnance dattmi. On
the surface near this place, Mr. Smith ^ found a flat orate imple-
ment, in form much like those from Warren Hill or that from
near Dimstable, Fig. 17. He says that it may be neolithic, but
that he has found palaeolithic flakes, both ochreous and grey, in
situ in gravel at Leagrave. At Houghton Regis,- 11 miles north
of Dunstable, Mr. Smith found a fragment of an ovate implement
on the surface. Another implement, found so long ago as 1830 by
Mr. "William Gutteridge, at Dallow,^ or Dollar farm, f of a mile
west of Luton, is distinctly palaeolithic in form.
The most interesting of Mr. Worthington Smith's discoveries
have, however, been made on or near the summit of a hill, a good
2 miles from the Lea, and somewhat nearer the Yer. At and
around the village of Caddington there are several brickfields,
some of them no longer worked. The original surface of the
ground in some of these is as much as 550 * to 595 feet above
the Ordnance Datum. The brick-earth is of great thickness, in
places fully 50 feet, and overlies the Chalk. The upper portion
of the beds is much contorted, and has in it occasional seams of
flint gravel or tenacious clay, in which cream-coloured or brownish
palaeolithic implements occur. In the gravel, brown, ochreous,
slightly abraded implements and flakes are found, and at the base
in many cases is the old land- surface or " Palaeolithic floor "
resting on and surmoimted by brick-earth. In one pit were
three heaps of flints brought by hand in Paleolithic times from
flint-bearing beds either above or in the Chalk. On the Palaeo-
lithic floor were numerous sharp-edged flakes, which had hardly
been moved from the original place at which they were struck
off". Mr. Smith has replaced more than 500 flakes either on to
other flakes or on to implements and cores from the same floor.
One old land- surface was full of narrow vertical fissures, due
perhaps to the heat of a burning summer sun. "While they were
still open 18 inches of watery brick-earth, perhaps brought down
by a heavy storm of rain, filled up the fissures, covered up the
old surface and formed a new surface at a higher level. The
upper deposits often resemble contorted masses of half-frozen
mud and stone pushed over an old water-laid and perhaps frozen
surface of brick-earth. Mr. Smith's view is that Palaeolithic
1 "Man, the Prim. Savage,'" p. 179. - Ojj. cit., p. 91.
' Oj). cit., p. 170. Xature, vol. xliii. p. 345. * Nature, vol. xl. p. 151.
CADDINGTON.
599
man lived here by the side of one or more small freshwater lakes,
and manufactured his implements upon the spot which eventually,
by successive storms and flooding, became buried beneath accu-
mulations of mud. The neighbouring valley on the west was not
at that time excavated to its present depth. He considers that
the ochreous implements found at Caddington are of earlier date
than those of lighter colour found on the Paleolithic floor, and
points out that there is, moreover, a difference in the nature of the
tools, inasmuch as some well- formed scrapers occur in the brick-
earth of the Palaeolithic floor, while they are never found amongst
the ochreous tools. The difference seems consistent with the
probability that the tools for domestic use would be more
abundant on the spot where the men of the period were at home
Fig. 455a.— Caddington.
Fig. 455b. — Caddington
than elsewhere. One of the most interesting features of the case
is the number of instances in which Mr. Smith has been able to
bring together the fragments of implements broken in Palaeo-
lithic times,^ and to replace upon them the flakes removed during
the process of their manufacture. Of these he has given a long
series of illustrations in his book ; ^ those relating to one instance
are here by his kindness reproduced as Figs. 455a, b, and c.
In Fig. 455a is shown a finished implement broken in Palaeo-
lithic times, both pieces found separately and now conjoined.
Fig. 455b shows the other side of the implement, with three of
the flakes struck ofi" during its manufacture replaced, and Fig.
455c reproduces the first view, but shows a fourth flake re-
placed.
' Nature, vol. xxiv. p. 582 ; vol. xxviii. p. 490.
■i "Man the Prim. Savage," figs. 97, 98, 99, pp. 135, 136.
vol. i.
See also Essex If at..
600
RIVER-DKIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIIl.
A good series of these reconstructed implements is in the
British Museum.
Fig. 455d shows an ovate implement from the brown stony-
clay at Caddington. Fig. 4o5e
represents a scraper, and Fig.
455f a pointed tool from the
Palajolithic floor, and an ivory-
white sharp- edged implement
from the same source is illus-
trated in Fig. 455g. For all
these figures,^ I am indebted to
Mr. Worthington Smith, as well
as for very many acts of kind-
ness.
A paper by Mr. Smith on Neo-
lithic and Palaeolithic scrapers,
re-placed and re-worked, will be found in the Essex Naturalist?'
fig. 455c.— Caddington.
"^m
■^^
Fig- 4; 5d.— Caddington.
At Mount Pleasant,^ Kensworth, to the west, on the other side
of the extension northwards of the valley, and at a height of
760 feet above Ordnance datum, or nearly 200 feet higher than
the Caddington deposits, Mr. "Worthington Smith has found
• Figs. 58, 69, 70, and 71, in " Man the Prim. Savage."
* Vol. ii., 1888, p. 67. ^ q^^ ^^^^ p. jqi, fig. 65. :
NO MAN S LAND, VVHEATHAMPSTEAD.
601
some ochreous flint flakes, apparently of Palooolithic age, one of
them trimmed.
At Harpenden, 8g miles from the source of the Lea, and not
far from the stream, he has obtained a few ochreous palaeolithic
Fig. 455e.— Caddington. i Fig. 455p. — Caddington. 5
flakes. At Wheathampstead, a few miles further down the Lea,
he also met with a few ochreous flakes in gravel near the railway
station.
In gravel brought from No Man's Land, a common about a
mile south of "Wheathampstead, the late Rev. Dr. Griffiths, of
Sandridge, found two small ovate implements of whitened flint,^
Fig. 455o. — Caddington.
Fig. 455H.— Wheathampstead. .J
one of which he presented to my collection. Mr. Worthington
Smith, on visiting the spot in 1886, discovered a rude implement of
nearly the same character in situ in the gravel, and has lent me
the block,^ Fig. 455h, on which it is represented. He subse-
quently found an implement with only one edge and the point
1 Trans. Berts Nat. Hist. Soc, vol. viii., 1896, pi. xi. 4.
2 Op. cit., p. 180, fig. 125. IJxsex Xat., vol. i. p. oG.
602 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIll.
chipped into shape, also /« situ. He likewise discovered a third
implement and a well-formed scraper in the beds. The gravel
at Xo Man's Land is in a valley along which in former times the
Lea or a branch of its stream may have taken its course. Xear
Ayot St. Peter ^ and "Welwyn, in the valley of the Maran, Mr.
TVorthington Smith has found flakes only. I have recorded the
finding of an implement at North Minims," south of Hatfield.
At and near Hertford and "Ware, the Lea receives several other
afiluents coming from the north. Among these is the Beane, the
present source of which is near Stevenage. At Fisher's Green,'
a little to the north of that town, pointed ochreous implements
have been found in the brick-earth by Mr. Frank Latchmore
and myself. I have also a rough ovate specimen made from a
large broad flake, and found in a brick-field south of Stevenage.
Further south, in gravels exposed in a cutting of the Great
Northern Railway near Knebworth,* some well-formed imple-
ments, both pointed and ovate, were found in 1887. I have
several specimens, as well as an ovate implement found on the
surface in 1890. Still farther south, in a clay-pipe near
TVelwyn Tunnel, a pointed ochreous implement (4 inches) was
obtained in 1896, which Mr. Frank Latchmore has kindly added
to my collection.
PalseoKthic implements have been found by Mr. "Worthington
Smith in the gravels of the Lea ^ and Beane at Hertford and
Ware, one of them at Bengeo. They are of pointed fonns>
fairly well made, and much water-worn. He has recorded other
implement-bearing gravels a mile north-west of "Ware and at
Amwell. General Pitt Rivers has a remarkably fine palaeolithic
implement, which is said to have been found at Bayford, a mile
or so south-west of Hertford.
In the valley of the Stort, which joins the Lea near Hoddesdon,
two palaeolithic implements have been found by Mr. W. H.
Penning, F.G.S., in the neighbourhood of Bishop's Stortford.
Though in both instances lying on the siirface, yet the condition
of the implements is such that there can be no doubt as to their
having been but recently dug out of the soil ; the colour of both
is a dark brown, ochreous in places, and the general appearance
1 Op. cit. p. 184. - Froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v. p. 165.
3 Tram. Herts Xat. Hist. Sof., vol. viii., 1896, pi. xi. 3.
* Tram. Herts Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. viii., 1896, pi. xi. .5.
* Op. cit., p. 184. Journ. Anth. Imt. ,Yol. viii., 1879, p. 278. Xature, vol. xxiii.
p. 604.
VALLEY OF THE LEA. 603
much like that of the implements found in the brick-earth at
Hoxne. One of them was found at a short distance from the
river, by the side of a ditch cut in a thin deposit of valley brick-
earth, about a mile north of Bishop's Stortford, and probably
had been thrown out with the soil from the ditch. It is 5|
inches long and 3j inches broad, and in form it much resembles
Fig. 421. The other is of the same character, but is somewhat
broader, and is squarer at the base. It was found farther north,
on the sandy surface of a ploughed field, close to Pesterford
Bridge.
In 1872 Mr. Penning also found, near Stocking Pelham, tive
miles north of Bishop's Stortford, an ochreous, somewhat water-
worn, oval implement 5 inches in length.
At Flamstead End,^ one mile west of Cheshunt, and on the right
side of the Lea, Mr. "Worthington Smith has obtained several
implements in the gravels, some of which he has kindly added to
my collection. He has also found specimens at Bush Hill Park
and Forty Hill, near Enfield ; Rowan Tree Farm, Lower Edmon-
ton, and between Edmonton and Winchmore Hill. For his dis-
coveries on the east or left side of the Lea I must refer the
reader to Mr. Smith's book, " Man, the Primeval Savage." Suffice
it to say that he has found implements in Drift deposits at
Plaistow,^ Stratford, Leyton, Leytonstone, TVanstead, Waltham-
stow, Higham Hill, West Ham, Forest Gate, and Upton. In the
valley of the Boding he has added Barking, East Ham, and
Ilford, and farther east again Painham, Gray's Thurrock, Little
Thurrock, Tilbury, Mucking, Orsett, and Southend.
Mr. Hazzeldine Warren, of the Cedars, Waltham Cross, has
obtained several palaeolithic implements from gravels at Bull's
Cross and Bush Hill Park, Enfield, and a few at Hoddesdon. A
fine pointed specimen (7 inches) from Bull's Cross is rather like
Fig. 459, but is battered at the butt.
From gravel at Grove Green Lane, Leyton,^ some good
pointed implements have been obtained by Mr. A. P. Wire. One
of them is 6 inches long.
A thin ovate implement made from a piece of tabular flint
was found in gravel at Lake's Farm,^ Cannhall Lane, AVanstead.
A sub-triangular implement with a heavy butt was found in
gravel of the Roding Valley at St. Swithin's Farm,^ Barking
• Op. cit., p. 185. 2 Op. cit., p. 214.
3 £ssex Xat., vol. iii. p. 235. * Essex Nat., vol. iv. p. 17.
5 Essex Kat.f vol. ii. p. 262. _,
60-1 RI^^:R-DR1FT iMrLEMEXTS. [chap. xxni.
Side, and two others at T\'allend, one mile west of Barking town.
Mr. G. F. Lawrence found an oval implement in -sifu at Stratford.^
I have a rude specimen found at Shoeburyness bv Mr. B. Harrison.
Returning to London we must notice some discoveries on the
southern side of the Thames.
In 1872 - General Pitt Rivers recorded the finding of a
paleolithic implement and a flake in gravel on Battersea Rise,
at the junction of Grayshot Road and the Wandsworth Road ; and
in an excavation for a new house on Battersea Rise,^ near
Clapham Common, on one of the higher gravel-terraces of the
Thames, Mr. "Worthington Smith picked up a palaeolithic imple-
ment in 1882.
Mr. G. F. Lawrence has also found two or three implements
in gravel at East and West Hill, Wandsworth, on each side of
the Wandle, as well as at Earlsfield. One from the latter place,
now broken, must originally have been of very large size. This
and another are pointed. He has also found one at Lavender
Hill, and a small ovate specimen at Roehampton.
At Lewisham also an implement has been discovered. One of
ovate form (4 inches) was found in 1874 in gravel on Wickham
Road by Mr. A. L. Lewis, and by him liberally added to my
collection.
Further south, in a branch of the valley of the Ravensboume,
on a patch of gravel upwards of 300 feet above Ordnance Datum,
Mr. George Clinch,* in 1880, found, several ovate palaeolithic
implements, and in subsequent years many more ; in all some
fifty ^ in number.
About four miles farther east, at Green Street Green,^ about
250 feet above Ordnance Datum, Mr. H. G. ]S^orman found two
palaeolithic implements, on the surface of what is now a dry part
of the valley of the river Cray, about two miles above its present
source. They are both of ovate form, one much like Fig. 420,
the other Hke Fig. 468. Each is about oh inches in length.
" The gravel at this spot has afforded remains not only of the
mammoth, but also of the musk-ox."
1 Nature, vol. xxviii. p. 367.
- Q. J. G. S., vol. xxviii., 1872, p. 462.
3 Journ. Anth. List., vol. xii. p. 230.
* ' ' Note on the Disc, at Church Field, West Wickham,' ' privately printed. Arch.
€ant., vol. xiv., 1883, p. 88. Axtiq., vol. ix. p. 213. Clinch, "Antiq. Jottings,"
1889, pp. 180, 186.
5 Proe. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. xi. p. 164.
« Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. Soo.
VALLEY OF THE CRAY. 605
Mr. de B. Crawshay^ has also found about 40 ovoid and
pointed palaeolithic implements near Green Street Green.
The valley may be traced upwards for nearly five miles, in a
south-easterly direction, to Currie Wood, between Knockholt and
Shoreham ; and on the border of this wood, not far from Currie
Farm, I found on the surface of the ground, in 1869, a well-
marked flint implement, in character and size closely resembling
that from Swalecliffe, Fig. 462, and stained of a rich ochreous
colour. In places there are some ferruginous concretions
adhering to the surface, and it has all the appearance of having
been derived from the gravel which here not unusually forms the
superficial deposit. A part of one of the faces has been lost
owing to a recent fracture, and it can be seen that the implement
has been formed of what is now a light buff, somewhat chalcedonic,
flint, similar in character to that of most of the pebbles in the
gravel at "Well Hill, near Chelsfield, about midway between
Currie Wood and Green Street Green. A subsequent search on
the spot, in company with Sir John Lubbock, Sir Joseph Prestwich,
General Pitt Rivers, and Sir Wollaston Franks, was unproductive
of any more specimens. The remarkable feature in the case is the
elevation at which this implement was found, the level of the
ground being probably 300 feet above the neighbouring valley of
the Darent, and upwards of 500 feet above the sea. Regarding
the gravel, however, as connected with the valley of the Cray,
and not with that of the Darent, its elevation above the head of
the valley is but slight. In 1872 I remarked that it was
" necessary that further discoveries should be made in this
district, before it will be safe to speculate on the origin of these
gravels, and their relation to the superficial configuration of the
neighbourhood." Since then, as will be seen in subsequent
pages, these discoveries have been made.
Farther down the valley of the Cray than Green Street Green,
near Dartford Heath, about half a mile to the south of Crayford
Station, Mr. Flaxman C. J. Spurrell, F.G.S., has been so fortunate
as to discover, in .vtu, the beautifully symmetrical implement
which, through his kindness, I am enabled to engrave as
Fig. 456.
It is of dark, brownish grey flint, in places mottled with white.
It is worked to an edge all round, but is less sharp towards the base
than towards the point. On one side, near the point, the edge
1 Q. J. G. 6'., vol. xJrii., 1891, p. 145.
606
RIVER- DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[CHA-P. XXIII.
has been worn away by use into a curved notch. On the opposite side
is a more modern break. It is almost equally convex on the two
faces.
!Mr. Spurrell informs me that he found this implement lying on its
face, at a depth of 8 feet below the
surface of the gravel, which is that
of the upper level of Dartford
Heath, and appears to belong to
the valley of the Thames, and not
to that of either the Cray or the
Dart.
Another implement has been
found near the same spot by
Mr. C. C. S. Fooks.^ A Httle to
the north of Crayford, in the
brick-earth below an old cliff of
chalk and Thanet sands, Mr.
Spurrell has found a number of
flakes of flint associated with
remains of the Pleistocene fauna.
He has, indeed, discovered a
" Palaeolithic floor " on which
the ancient workmen lived while
they fashioned their tools. Xot many of the larger implements
were found, but many of the flakes after having been struck off the
nucleus had been trimmed at the butt-end. By patience and skill
Mr. Spurrell was able to bring many of the flakes together into
their original positions, and thus to reconstitute the blocks of flint
from which they had been manufactured.^ In one instance he
was able to build up around an implement — broken in old times —
the various flakes struck off during its manufacture, and thus to
reproduce the block of flint originally taken in hand by the
workman. Two hammer-stones were present, made from cylindrical
nodules of flint.
It is to be remembered that in April,^ 1872, the Rev. 0.
Fisher, F.G.S., found a worked flint, or flake, in Slade's Green
Pit, Crayford, beneath a sandy stratum containing among other
shells those of Corhicula fluminalis. In 1875 a large broad flake
(51 inches) was picked up by Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.,* in a
1 Q. J. G. S., vol. xxxvi., 1880, p. 547.
^ Arch. Journ., vol. ixxvii. 1880, p. 294, pi. i.
3 Geol. Mag., vol. ix., 1872, p. 268. Q. J. G. .S'., vol. xxviii.. 1872, p. 414. GeoL
Mag., 2nd Dec, vol. i., 1874, p. 479.
* Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1875, p. 175. Nat., vol. xii. p. 202. Proe. TV. Loud. Sci.
Assoc, 1876.
Fiff. 456.— Dartford Heath.
SWANSCOMB AND MILTOX STREET. 607
brick-earth pit at Erith. It is figured and described in the
Argonaut} Another flake found in 187G in the same stratum as
that in which ten years earlier a skull of a musk ox occurred,
has been figured by Professor Boyd Dawkins.^
The fauna of the Crayford beds is remarkable, and comprises
two Arctic forms, Ovibos moschatus and a Sjoermophilus, as well as
Megaceros hibernicus, Rhinoceros megarhinus, tichorhinus and
leptorhinuH, Elcphas primigcniufi and anfiquus, lion, hya3na, bear, and
bison. Professor Boyd Dawkins regards it as Mid-Pleistocene.^
Before proceeding to discuss the discoveries that have been
made in and near the valley of the Darent, it will be well to
follow the course of the Thames a little farther eastward, and
record those that have been made in the neighbourhood of North-
fleet, opposite Gray's Thurrock. At several places within about
a mile of Northfleet Station, and to the west of it, especially at
Swanscombe, Milton Street, and Galley Hill, gravel has been dug
in considerable quantities, and has proved to contain a very large
number of palaeolithic implements of various forms, among which
the pointed type is most abundant. At ]\Lilton Street^ the
surface level is about 100 feet above the Thames, and at Galley
Hill^ about 90 feet. It was in this pit, apparently at a depth
of about 8 feet from the top of the gravel, that a human skull, or
to judge from the presence of both fibue, a whole skeleton, was
discovered in September, 1888. No formal account of the dis-
covery was given until nearly seven years afterwards, when Mr.
E. T. Newton, F.R.S., communicated a detailed notice of the skull
and limb-bones to the Geological Society.^ I was present at the
meeting, but it appeared to me that the evidence as to the con-
temporaneity of the bones with the containing beds was hardly
convincing, and I ventured to assume an attitude of doubt with
regard to the discovery which I still maintain. There can, how-
ever, be no question as to the true palajjlithic character of the
implements found in the gravels, of which a few are figured
in illustration of Mr. Newton's paper.''
Leaving the Thames we come to the valley of the Darent, in
which, about a mile E.S.E.^ of Horton Kirby, Mr. W. Whitaker,
F.R.S., in 1861, found upon the surface, on the top of a hill, a
> Sep., 1875, p. 263. - -'Early Man in Brit," 1880, p. 13G.
3 Op. cit., p. 135. ^ Q. J. G. S., vol. xlvii., 1891, p. 129, pi. vi.
* Q. J. G. S., vol. li., 1895, p. 505.
« Op. cit., p. 505. " Op. cit., p. 623.
* Arch., vol. xxxix. p. 74 ; Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 355.
608 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIII.
small ovate implement about 3^ inches long, and in form much
like Fig. 468.
At LuUingstone,^ at an elevation of 400 feet, another implement
has been found, and a pointed specimen of the Amiens type was
picked up by Miss H. Waring on Cockerhurst Farm,'^ near
Shoreham, at the level of about 430 feet.
I now come to the numerous and important discoveries made
during the last thirty years by Mr. Benjamin Harrison,^ of Ight-
ham, which, aided by Sir Joseph Prestwich's interpretation of
them, have done much to revolutionize our ideas as to the age and
character of the Drift deposits capping the Chalk Downs in
AYestern Kent, north of the escarpment facing the Weald.
All around Ightham, at different elevations above the bottom
of the neighbouring valley of the Shode, Mr. Harrison has suc-
ceeded in discovering palaeolithic implements of flint, for the most
part of oval or ovate forms, but not unfrequently pointed. Fane
Hill, Bewley, Chart Farm, Stone Pit Farm, Stone Street, Seal
and Ash to the North may be mentioned among the localities
where his search was successful. He has also found nearly fifty
implements in the talus of Oldbury Hill."*
Some of those from Seal occurred at a height of 420 feet above
Ordnance Datum, and on what appeared to be the watershed
between the Medway and the Darent. An almost circular specimen
formed of ochreous flint and found at Bewley, Ightham, is shown
in Fig. 456a.
For full particulars of the localities and their relative levels,
the reader must be referred to Sir Joseph Prestwich's comprehen-
sive paper ^ on the occiirrence of pala?olithic flint implements in
the neighbourhood of Ightham, Kent, in which about forty places
are mentioned. Since that paper was published, Mr. Harrison,
aided by Mr. de B. Crawshay, has extended his researches with the
result that many more implements have been found at high eleva-
tions to the north of the escarpment of the chalk. These discoveries
enabled Sir Joseph Prestwich in another paper ^ on the Age,
Formation and successive Drift-stages of the valleys of the Darent,
and on the origin of its chalk escarpment, still farther to extend
his interesting speculations. It is true that he accepts as being
1 Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xxi., 1892, p. 246.
2 Q. J. G. S., vol. xlvii., 1891, p. 130. » Journ Anth. In.st., vol. xxi. p. 263.
* £rii. Assoc. Rep., 1891, pp. 353, 652. ^ Q. J. G. S., vol. xlv., 1889, p. 270.
'' Q. J. G. A'., vol. xlvii., 1891, p. 126. See also Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xxi.,
1892, p. 246 ; and Prestwich, " Controverted Questions in Geology," 1895.
IGHTHAM, SEVENOAKS.
609
of human manufacture, flints with bruised and battered edges,
which I and some others venture to regard as owing their shape
to purely natural causes. But fortunately this does not invalidate
his arguments, as in most cases where the so-called " Plateau
t}^es" have been found, more or less well-finished pakeolithic
implements of recognized form, though much abraded and deeply
stained, have also been discovered. The evidence of such wit-
nesses is not impaired by calling in that of others of more
doubtful character.
The continuous slope now extending from the neighbourhood
- '■''■- ^•li'-l
Fig. 456a.— Bewley, Ightham. |
of the Thames to the summit of the Chalk escarpment, and in
many places capped with implementiferous drift, appears to have
been continued southward within the human period over a part of
what is now the Lower Greensand area, if not, indeed, into that
of the Weald ; and subsequently the great valley that now inter-
venes between the Lower Greensand escarpment and the North
Downs must have been excavated.
Whatever causes we may assign for the changes in the surface-
configuration of the district, it must be borne in on all that the time
required to effect them is beyond all ordinary means of calculation.
West of Ightham, at the head of the present valley of the
Darent, is Limpsfield,^ the scene of some interesting discoveries
' I'roc. Geo!, Assoc, vol. xi. p. Ixxxii.
R R
610 RIVER-DKIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIII.
made bv Mr. A. Montgomerie Bell. These, also, have been dis-
cussed by Sir Joseph Prestwich in his paper on the Drift-stages of
the Darent Tallev, already mentioned; but for the following account
of the locality I am in the main indebted to Mr. Bell. Palaeolithic
implements have been found by him and others in the parish of
Limpsfield, Surrey, from the year 1883 up to the present time.
They are of the usual forms, both pointed and oval, symmetrical
and well made, though rarely exceeding 4^ inches in length.
Many of them have been found on the surface of the ground ;
but in a gravel-pit on the water-shed between the Darent and the
Medway, at an elevation of 500 feet above the sea, Mr. Bell has
succeeded in obtaining several implements out of the solid bed of
gravel, at depths of from 3 to 7 feet from the surface. The
gravel is about 8 feet in thickness and covers a considerable area.
The late Mr. Topley^ has pointed out that it presents some features
that are unusual in river gravels, and Mr. Bell is inclined to
invoke some kind of ice-action in its formation. I content myself
with recording these opinions.
Besides the gravel there is a second implementiferous deposit at
Limpsfield, on the slope of the Lower Greensand escarpment.
Here more than three hundred implements have been found, at
elevations of from 450 to 570 feet above the sea, principally on
the surface, but also in the brick-earth at a depth of from 3^ to 5
feet. They have been most frequent on Ridland's Farm, and
comprise all the forms that are usually obtained.
Eastward of Ightham, within the watershed of the Medway, im-
plements from the gravels have been obtained at "West Malling.-
Dr. C. Le Xeve Foster, F.R.S., in 1865, picked up a broken
ovate implement about a quarter of a mile S. W. of Marden Church,
on the edge of the vallev of the Teise, an affluent of the Medwav.
Though found on the surface, it is of an ochreous colour, and
apparently has been derived from some bed of gravel. In the
same year, in the valley of the Medway itself, at Sandling, he
found a rude, almost circular, implement, which, though on the
surface, was also ochreous.
The most important discoveries, however, have been made in the
well-known pits near Aylesford, in which some very fine imple-
ments have been found. I have several, one of which, of pointed
form, with a hea\y butt, must originally have been 9 inches long.
1 " G«ology of the Weald," pp. 193, 194, 297.
2 Journ. Anth. Inst., voL xxi., 1892, pi. 18.
VALLEY OF THE MEDWAV. 611
Tt has, however, had the end broken off. Mr. B. Harrison ha»
j^iven me another thinner and more perfect pointed specimen made
from a flat block of flint. Numerous remains of the pleistocene
fauna have been found in the gravels.
In 1862, Prof. T. McK. Hughes, F.R.S., found a rude palaeo-
lithic implement near Otterham Quay, Chatham, and another at
Gillingham, in the same neighbourhood. He also picked up a small
oval implement at Tweedale, half-way between Chatham and Up-
church ; and one of larger size, 5 inches long, with a rounded
point and truncated base, on the railway, west of Newington Sta-
tion. Prof. Hughes likewise found a rudely-chipped implement
in gravel said to have been brought from a pit near the railway-
cutting at Hartlip. There may be some question whether the
gravels at these latter places would be more properly classed ai?
belonging to the valley of the Thames, or to that of the Med way.
On the north of the Medway, at St. Mary, in the hundred of
lloo, Mr. "W. Whitaker, F.R.S., found a small, neatly-chipped,
pointed implement ; and another at Stoke, in the same district,
with rounded point, and sub- triangular in form. They are both
ochreous in colour, and have their angles much abraded. To the
south of Gravesend, at some distance from either the Medway or
the Thames, near Meopham, Nursted, and Cobhara, he has also
found broken implements of palaeoKthic types.
In the Christy Collection is an ovate implement, 4j inches long,
in form like Fig. 462, which was discovered by Mr. E. A. Bernays
on a heap of gravel at Chatham.
I have also an ovate implement found in gravel at the En-
gineering School, Chatham, in 1882, by Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S.,
who presented it to me ; as well as a good pointed implement
foimd at Chatham by Mr. Worthington Smith.
Farther east. Prof. Hughes found a large implement, which,
though wanting its point, is 8 inches long, in gravel said to have
been brought from a pit on the hill north of the railway, and
half a mile east of Teynham Station ; and at Ospringe, near
I'aversham, Prof. "W". Boyd Dawkins found, in 1865, not in
gravel, but on the surface, a small, neatly-chipped, ovate imple-
ment. In form it resembles Fig. 467, from the Isle of Wight,
but is white and porcellanous. I have another fine specimen, from
{he brick-earth at Faversham, which was given to me by Mr J. W.
Morris of that town. It is 5 inches long, in form much like Fig.
456, but thinner, and it has weathered to a porcellanous white on
R r2
612
RlVER-DRlFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXlll.
one face, and to a lipht grey on tlie other. South of Faversham,
at Moldash, Mr. C. E. Hawkins, of the Geological Survey, in 1872
came across a smaller and thicker porcellanous ovate implement
Tig. 457. -lie-culver.
lying on the surface of the ground. In the same district, 1^ miles
south of Selling Church, Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., has found
another small pointed implement of paleolithic character.
RECULVER. 613-
It is, however, in tlie neighbourhood of Ilerne Bay and Reculver,
that paheolithic implements have been found in the greatest number.
The first discoveries in that locality were made in the autumn of
1.^60 by Mr. Thomas Leech, ^ who had studied in the School of
Mines, in Jermyn Street, and who, while searching for fossil
remains at the base of the cliff between Heme Bay and Reculver,
picked up a flint implement which he at once recognized as
analogous in form with some of those from the E,iver-drift of the
valley of the Somnie. Continuing his search, he found six imple-
ments in all, which he placed in the Museum of Economic Geology,
in Jermyn Street. One of those is shown full size in Fig. 457, from
a block w^hich has already been used in the Archceologia. It is of
considerable interest, as having been formed from a Lower Tertiary
flint pebble, and not from a flint derived directly from the chalk.
The rounded end of the pebble, which forms the butt of the
instrument, is admirably adapted for being held in the hand. It
is singularly like the implement from St. Acheul, shown in PL I.,
Fig. 9.
On being informed of this discovery, the late Sir Joseph Prestwich
and I at once visited the locality. I have also been there on many
subsequent occasions. The implements in this case have not been
found in their original matrix, but exposed upon the sea-shore at the
base of the cliff, between Heme Bay and Reculver, and for the most
part at a short distance from the Bishopstone Coast-guard Station.
In all, there must have been upwards of a hundred discovered. I
have myself found at various times eight specimens. Sir Joseph Prest-
wich,- Mr. James Wyatt, Mr. Whitaker, and others, have also found
some. The g'reatest number, however, have either been found by or
passed into the hands of the late Mr. John Brent, -^ F.S.A., of Canter-
bury, who has supplied a series of twelve or fourteen to the Christy
Collection.
A magnificent implement was found near Bishopstone about 1891,
and has been brought under my notice by Col. A. J. CojDeland, F.S.A.
It is rather more pointed than Fig, 472, and is 11 inches long and
nearly 6 inches wide towards the base. It rivals in size that from
Shrub Hill, mentioned on p. 5()9.
The majority of the specimens seem to be of the pointed form, of
which the implement engraved full size in Fig. 458 offers a fine
example. It was found by myself in 1861, and has already been
figured in the Arclmologia,'^ as has also Fig. 459, the original of which
was found by Sir Joseph Prestwich.
A small, but rather curious implement from Mr. Brent's collection
' Archanloij'ui, vol. xxxix. p. 63.
-' Quar. Jnnrn. Geol. Sue, vol. xvii. p. 365. Lyell, "Ant. of Man," p. 161.
Lubbock, "Preh. Times," 4th ed.,p. 3)'). Geologist, vol. vii. p. 118. Once a Week,
.June 19, 1869. Geol. Ma;/., vol. iii. p. :53.5, Proc. Soc. Ant., 2udS., vol. iii. p. 465.
' Jour. Anth. ln->t., vol. iv. p. 38. * Vol. xxxi.x. yA. i. 1 ;'pl. ii. 1.
614
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXllI"
Fig. 458.— Near Reculver.
RECULVER.
615
Fie. 459. — Near Reculver.
€16
KIVER-URIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXI 1 1.
is shown in
htlv
Fig. 460.— Keculver.
curved in the direction of its
length, and has a remarkably
thick butt. The orig-inal of
Fig. 461 is in the Christy Col-
lection, and has been made
from a broad flake, which has
subsequently been chipped
into an oval form. Its surface
is much altered in structure,
and has become mottled and
ochreous. In general charac-
ter this instrument much re-
sembles the large br^ad flakes
ivom. the gravel at Montiers,
near Amiens, but it has been
chipped to a more symmetrical
outline than that which they
usually present. Another, of
much the same form, has been
found by Mr. Brent, in the
gravel at Canterbury. An en-
graving of another pointed im-
plement from Eeculver is given
in Once a Week} A few speci-
mens have been found of oval or ovate, and of sub-triangular form,
and equally convex on both
faces.
Thanks to Mr. F. Eut-
ley, F.Gr.S., I have a small
ochreous oval implement,
which he found on the
shore \h miles west of Ee-
culver.
Though the implements
are usually found on the
sea-shore at the foot of
the cliff, there can be no
doubt of their being de-
rived from the gravels at
its summit. They are
generally somewhat worn
by the action of the waves,
but occasionally they have
preserved their edges
quite sharp, and their
angles unabraded, so that
they could not have been
man}- days upon the shore,
and must have been quite
recentlv derived from the
Jr'ig. 401.— Keculver.
cliff. I have, indeed, been informed by* a coastguard-man that in
1 Vol. iii. p. 501.
RECULVER. 617
1884 he found an implement in situ in the f^ravol on the cliti'
somewhat west of Old Haven Gap. Many of them are stained of
the same ochreous colour as the other flints in the gravel, and I
have, moreover, in one instance, found the point of an iin' dement
on the surface a short distance inland. Dr. G. D. Gibb, F.G.S.,'
also records finding a broken implement on the top of the cliff, half-
way between Herno Bay and lieculver. The late Mr. Brent, F.S.A.,
had a long flake stained of an ochreous colour, and apparently
derived from the gravel, whicli also came from the top of the cliff.
The lower part of the cliff, of which a section has been pub-
lished by Sir Joseph Prestwich,- consists of Thanet Sands and the
sandy beds of the Woolwich Series, above which is a local pebbly
clay deposit of small extent, and about 8 feet thick, to which he is
inclined to refer tlie flint implements. Its height is about 50 feet
above the sea. At a higher level farther west, near Old Haven Gap,
are other gravel beds, which he presumes to be of older date. Into
this question I need not enter, but for further geological details will
refer the reader to my account of this discovery in the Archcp.ologia.^
There are pits, in which gravel is dug, near Chislet, where not im-
probably similar implements will eventually be discovered. I may add
that it is difficult to form an idea of the position of the coast-line at
the time when these gravels, which appear to be of freshwater origin,
were deposited ; as, owing to the soft nature of the base of the cliffs,
the gain of the sea upon tlie land has been very rapid in this district,
for even since Leland's time — say three and a half centuries ago — it has
encroached nearly a mile,* but to this subject I shall have to recur.
To the west of Heme Bay, and about midway between that place and
Whitstable, is another cliff, near Studhill, where, in the gravel which
caps it, .50 feet above the sea, I have found a portion of a molar of
Elephas 2)ri)nige7iius, and at the foot of the cliff, rather farther to the
west, the implement shown full size in Fig. 462.^ It is stained of an
ochreous colour to some depth, and its surface is much altered in
structure. Sir Joseph Prestwich '^ seems inclined to refer this imple-
ment to a stratum of clay and gravelly sand at a lower level, but its
colour is more in accordance with the higher beds. I subsequently
picked up another implement of sub-triangular form, deeply stained,
and much waterworn at the edges, at the foot of the same cliff. Tusks
and bones of Elephas primigenius? are stated to be found near this spot
when the cliff' falls, as is frequently the case, from its being under-
mined by the sea. Elephants' teeth are occasionally dredged up off the
shore, and I have seen one which was found on the shore at Keculver.
At Swalecliffe, nearer "Whitstable, where, in the shingle, an
ochreousl3'-stained flint flake was found by my son, and again, nearer
Heme Bay, at Hampton, there are more argillaceous freshwater beds
at a lower level, and containing land and marsh shells ; but these seem
to be comparatively modern, and connected with small lateral valleys
rather than with the main valley of the Thames, or of any otlier
ancient river.
^ Geologist, vol. v. p. 333. - Quar. Joiirn. Geol. Soc, vol. xvii. p. 364.
» Vol. xxxix. p. fiC. * Lyell, "Prin. of Geol.," 10th e<i., vol. i. p. 523.
s Arch., vol. xxxix. pi. ii. 2. « PhU. Tram., 1864, p. 254.
"^ Geologist, vol. iv. p. 391.
€18
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap.
XXIII.
Immediately east of Eeculver lies the marshy valley which separates
the Isle of Thanet from the rest of Kent, a valley which is traversed
by the river Stoxir, the principal stream of which passes by Sandwich,
eastward, while a smaller channel connects it with a small stream
rising to the west of Chislet, and conducts part of its waters north-
ward to Northmouth sluice. The Stour and its tributaries drain an
area of upwards of 300 square miles, and not far from its source at
Fig. 462.— Studlnll. \
Eowton Chapel, near Lenham, Mr. G. Bunyard, of Maidstone, found
in 1885 a good ovate palaeolithic implement of flint, while near
Canterbury, flint implements have been found in con.siderable num-
bers in the gravels in the neighbourhood of the river.
Their discovery is due to the late Mr. John Brent, F.S.A., of Can-
terbury, with whom I have visited the neighbourhood, and who has
most kindly furnished me with all the information at his command,
including some particulars of the levels, and has allowed me to
TIIANINGTON, KENT.
619
•engrave some of his specimens. One of the finest of these is shown
in Fig. 403. The flint of which it is composed has become porcel-
lanous, and nearly white. Small portions of the original crust are
left at the base, and on one of the faces ; the point has been broken
off in ancient times. It was found in Thanington parish, on the sur-
face, and not in the gravel, from which, however, it was undoubtedly
derived. Several other specimens have been found in the same
Fig. 463.— Thanington
manner, among stones gathered from the surface of the slope of the
southern side of the valley of the Stour, between Thanington and
Canterbury. I have a pointed implement, but unfortunately broken,
which was found by the late Mr. Frederick Pratt Barlow, on a heap of
.stones, when he visited the spot with me in 1B68. The gravel beds
near Thanington, out of which the implements appear to have come,
must be from 80 to 100 feet above the river. Nearer Canterbury, at
the back of Wincheap, between the waterworks and the gasometer,
pits have been sunk in the gravel, at a lower level, where the surface
620
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS
[chap. XXllK
Fig. 46J.— Canterbury.
of the ground is about 29 feet above the river, from -which the pits are
distant about 600 yards ; and from this spot Mr. Brent has procured
several well-wrought implements of various forms. One of these is
shown in Fig. 464.' Its surface is
lustrous, and of an ochreous colour,
and the central ridge is waterworn.
The gravel, which is about 12 feet
in thickness, and rests on the chalk,
is coarse, and consi.sts principally of
sub-angular flints, with an admixture
of rounded chalk, sandstone and iron-
stone pebbles, with some fragments
of fossil wood appaiently from the
Thanet Sands. The matrix is sandy,
and there are some sandy veins. In
parts of the pit there is a great thick-
ness of brick-earth or loam. No land
or freshwater shells have as yet been
found, but some mammalian remains
have occurred, among which is a
molar of Elephas primigeniu^. At a
lower level, in the gravel exposed by drainage works along Win-
cheap. I found several flakes ; and more recently, in 1870, Mr. Brent
has kindly sent me two pointed implements found in gravel in a pit
near the new gasometer, where the surface is lower than that near the
waterworks by o or 6 feet. One is of much the same t^'pe as the
Eeculver specimen, Fig. 458, but of coarser workmanship, and about
6 inches long. The other is less symmetrical, and only 4^- inches in
length. The surface of each is very much bruised and waterworn, and
deeply stained of a dark ochreous colour.
There are in my collection numerous other specimens from Canter-
bury, both pointed and ovate. Many of them are deeply stained and
much waterworn. One of these, by the kindness of Mr. Worthington
Smith, is shown in Fig. 464a.- The white patches marked A show
where chips that have been detached before the implement was left in
its final position in the gravel have left an unabraded surface. Mr.
Smith regards this implement as one of the oldest class, and certainly
it appears to have met with many vicissitudes and to have travelled a
long way down the valley of the Stour before attaining its last resting-
place. Another specimen, from the New Cemetery, is sharp and un-
abraded, and almost black and unstained. A fine pointed implement
7 inches long, has become white and porcellanous.
Higher up the valley, an implement has been found on the surface
near Chilham, by Mr. John Marten, formerly of Easinge. It was at a
distance of a quarter of a mile from the river, and at a height of
about 100 feet above it.
Lower down, near Wear Farm, between Chi-slet and Eeculver, on
the western bank of the North Channel of the Stour, is a pit with
sand and loam above the chalk, which has been described by Frest-
1 This specimen is also figured in Once a Week, June 19, 18G9, p. 501.
- " Man the Prim. Savage," fig. 144, p. 214.
CANTERBURY AND FOLKESTONE.
621
Tvich.' In the lower beds of sand, at a heiglit of but a few feet above
the sea, he found freshwater sliells (including the Corhicula Jluminalis),
mammalian remains, and valves of the marine shell Balanus, as well
as Entomoatraca and Foraminifera, characteristic of brackish water con-
ditions. It would appear that we have here another instance of the
occurrence of beds with the Corhicula, at no great distance from those
l)rodu(tive of flint implements, but at a lower level. From a pit of
the same character, on the opposite side of the road, I have seen
elephant remains in the possession of Mr. Slater, of Grays, near
Chislet.
-^r^
i'ig. 464a. -Canterbury. J
"" Another palaeolithic implement of ovate form was discovered in
1865, on a heap of stones, about 3 miles north of Folkestone, by Mr.
W. Topley, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey. It is of course im-
possible to say from what source it "was derived ; but it may be
mentioned that at Folkestone itself, at the top of the West Cliff, near
the Battery, at the height of 110 feet above low-water mark, are
some beds of Drift of much the same character as those in which
flint implements have occurred in other localities, containing remains
of Elephas primigetiiics, Hippopotamus major, and other mammals, and
shells of Helix.
Since this passage "was written, a remarkably well-shaped ovate
implement has been found in St. John's Road (Radnor Park end),
Folkestone, by Mr. Richard Kerr, F.G.S., in August, 1893. It lay in
brick-earth at a comparatively low level, and is of flint partially
whitened. With it was found a molar tooth of Rhinoceros tichorhinus.
It is now, through Mr. Kerr's kindness, in my collection, and is repre-
sented in Fig. 464b.
' Qunr, Journ. GeoL Soc, vol. xi. p. 110.
622
RIVER- DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIII.
Proceeding along the southern coast, the next discoveries that have-
to be recorded are those made to the west of Eastbourne hj Mr. R.
Hilton. At Bell's Field, Friston, he has found ovate implements,
both ochreous and white and porcellanous, and he has given me a
pointed implement from Crow Link Gap, East Dean. Although found
on the surface and not in gravel or brick-earth, the implements present
types which seem to justify their being regarded as of Palaeolithic age.
Farther west, in the so-called Elephant bed at Brighton, a bed
apparently of subaerial origin, and containing numerous mammalian
remains of the Pleistocene period, Mr. Ernest Willett, in 1876, found a
well-marked ovate implement, 5^ inches long, of the type shown in
Plate IL, No. 11.
Fig. 464b.— Folkestone.
"With these exceptions, if such they be, the valleys of the smaller
rivers along the southern coast of England have as yet been barren of
discoveries of implements in their gravels, until we come to the Itchen
and the Test, which unite below Southampton, and now discharge into
Southampton Water. As will be subsequently seen, there is good
reason for believing that at the time when these implements were in
use, a portion of the ground now covered by this estuary formed the
bed of a river, itself a branch of a larger stream, only a small part of
the course of which now remains, and that in a greatly altered con-
dition, having been widened out into the Solent and Spithead.
The localities at which pala?olithic implements have been found in
the neighbourhood of the Itchen and Test are as yet mainly confined
to the lower part of their course, namely, near the town of South-
ampton and along the shore of Southampton Water. The fiist dis-
coveries in the district were made in 1863,' by Mr. James Brown, of
Salisbury, who found several implements in the neighbourhood of
' " Flint Chips," p. 45.
SOUTHAMPTON.
623
Hill Head, about nine miles S.E. of Southampton ; while the earliest
discoveries near the latter place are of somewhat more recent date,
and due to Mr. W. Read, C.E., until lately a resident of South-
ampton.
I take the Southampton discoveries first, as being nearer the sources
of the rivers. The implements obtained by Mr. Read have come from
four different excavations in the gravel, at some distance from each
other, three of them on Southampton Common, all of which I have,
through liis courtesy, had the opportunity of examining in his com-
pany, and the other at Freemantle, to the west of the town, about 60
Fig. 465.— Southampton.
feet above mean-tide level. The first of those on the Common was on
the southern side, close by the road leading to the cemetery, where a
section of gravel about 6 feet in thickness was exposed. This consisted
principally of sub-angular flints and Lower Tertiary flint-pebbles
mixed with a few of quartz, in a loose sandy matrix, and with some
sandy and marly seams in places. At the base of the gravel was found
the pointed implement shown in Fig. 465. It is stained of an ochreous
colour, and has a projection on one side, towards the base, like that on
the implement from Thetford, Fig. 427. One face is more carefully
chipped than the other, and the edges and angles are slightly water-
C24 RlVER-DRlFT IMPLEMENTS. [CHAP. XXlll.
"wom. The elevation of the ground, at the spot where it was found,
is estimated to be 86 feet above the mean sea- level. ^
In another small pit, at a rather higher level, and close to the N.E.
corner of the cemetery, at a depth of 5 feet from the surface, an oval
implement was found by Mr. Eead, in situ, in the gi-avel, which here
attains a thickness of about 8 feet. In this, as also in the preceding
case, a bed of brick-earth or loess has been removed from above the
gravel. The surface of this implement is ochreous and polished, and
its angles are waterwom. The periphery is much twisted, like that
of Fig. 434 from Santon Downham.
At the X.W. comer of the Common, fully half a mile from the first
pit and at a higher level still, where the surface of the ground is
stated to be more than 160 feet above the mean sea-level, was the ex-
tensive excavation known as the Town Pit. The gravel here retains
the same character, but is perhaps rather less coarse ; and above it
is a thin bed of marl, which separates it from the loess or brick-earth,
which in most places has been removed for use. The gravel itself
attains a thickness of from 8 to 15 feet, and from '' a fall," at about
6 feet from the surface, was picked out an ovate implement 4i inches
in length, and in form like Fig. 419 from Bury St. Edmunds. Its
edges are sharp, and its surface lustrous and stained of an ochreous
tint, though on one face the flint has become partially whitened.
Another and still more interesting specimen (5i inches), which, like
that last described, is now, by the kindness of Mr. Eead, in my own
collection, has also been found in this pit. It is irregularly oval in
form, being somewhat trtmcated at one end, but bearing a strong
general resemblance to that from Hill Head. Fig. 466. Its surface
is lustrous and deeply stained all over of a bright ochreous colour, and
its angles and edges are much waterwom. The significance of this
fact, in the case of an implement found in gravel capping a gently
sloping tongue of laud, between two rivers, the levels of which are
now 160 feet below it, will be considered hereafter. Numerous other
implements have been found near Southampton, and extensive collec-
tions of them are in the possession of Mr. tV. E. Darwin and Mr. W.
Dale. There is also a series in the Hartley Institution at Southampton.
Higher up the valleys of the Itchen or the Test, none of the'more highly-
wrought implements have as yet been found in the gravels, although it
seems probable that they may eventually be discovered, especially if the
drift-beds at some considerable height above the present river levels be
excavated. I have, however, seen a flake with one face artificial, and
with signs of use or wear at the edge, which was found in a gravel-
pit near the Fleming Arms, Swathling, a few miles north of South-
ampton, by Mr. Spencer G. Perceval. In the gravel near this place
a molar of Elephas primigenius is recorded to have been fotind.-
1 have also a deeply-stained ovate implement from Eedbridge,
close to Southampton, found by Mr. Worthington G. Smith.
I have already, in 1864, described elsewhere ^ the discoveries
which have been made in the gravels on the eastern shore of
' Codrington, Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xxvi. p. 537.
- Geologiit, vol. vi. pp. 110-154.
2 Qtiar. Journ. Geol. Hoc, vol. xx. p. 1S8. See also Lyell, " Prin. of Geol.," 10th
*d., vol. ii. p. 560.
KILL HEAD, SOUTHAMPTON "WATER.
625
Southampton Water, in the neighbourhood of Hill Head. Since
that time a considerable number of flint instruments have been
found in this locality, principally by Mr. James Brown, the original
discoverer, and his friends.
A large number of specimens from this district are preserved
in the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury. Among them is at least one
of chert. Of those found near Hill Head, a large proportion are flat.
§. J ^-^-)^^f Vv; 'f
Kg. 466.— Hill TTead.
oval, and ovate specimens, one ot which is engraved as Fig. 466. It
was found by Mr. James Brown, in 1863, on the shore between
Brunage and Hill Head. It is ochreous, and has its angles slightly
waterworn, possibly in modern times, by the action of the pebbles on
the shore. Some of the specimens have suffered considerably from
this cause ; but that the implements are derived from the gravel is
proved by the fact of one having been discovered by Mr. James
Brown,' in a mass which had fallen from the cliff. Some of the
' " Flint Chip.s," p. 45.
s s
t)2b RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [tHAP. XXIII.
implements are of the pointed form with straight sides, and a feu-
have the rounded butt of the flint left untouched, apparently by way
of handle. One or two well-chijiped broad flakes have also been found.
The discoveries have extended over about 9 miles of the coast between
TVarsash and Gosport. Along a great part of this distance there is a
low clitT, ranging in height from about 20 to 38 feet' above the mean
sea-level, and consisting of sand> belonging to the Bracklesham series,
capped by gravell}' beds, in many places 10 to 12 feet thick, and
in some, as much as 15 or 16 feet. These beds are almost continuous,
and rest on a nearly horizontal base, except where the cliff is inter-
sected by transverse valleys. The gravel consists almost entirely of
chalk flints, mostly subangular, among which are some of con-
siderable size, and some quite fresh and unrolled. There are also a
few quartz and chert pebbles in the mass, and some large blocks of
sandstone of Tertiary origin. Some loamy and sandy beds occur at
intervals, but no mammalian remains or land or freshwater shells
have, I believe, as yet been found in these beds of Drift. The gravels
extend eastward a considerable distance, as may be seen on the
excellent map^ given by Mr. Codrington in illustration of his paper
on the Superficial Deposits of this District, as well as on the new Greo-
logical Sui'vey Map. Since his paper was written Mr. Codrington has
fotmd in situ, in a gravel-pit at AVarsash, a mile to the north of Hooka
■well- wrought, long, pointed imj)lement, at a height of about 46 feet
above the mean sea-level. Two implements, one of them much like Fig.
468. found on Southsea Common to the east of Portsmouth, by Lieut.
Oliver, E.E.. and Mr. Gr. Smith, are now in the Blackmore Museum.
Daring building operations at Lee on the Solent,-* numerous palaeo-
lithic implements have been found and preserved by Sir J. C. Robin-
son, F.S.A., to whom I am indebted for several specimens.
On the other side of Spithead, at the Foreland or most eastern point
of the Isle of Wight, the cliff-section shows a bed of shingly gravel,
apparently a beach-deposit, according to Mr. Codrington. and between
30 and 40 feet thick, resting in a deep valley in the Bembridge marl.
Towards the edge, where the gravel would abut against the marl, it
is cut off by a trough filled with brick-earth 36 feet thick, wdth a few
seams of small angular flints. This brick- earth appears to extend
some distance upwards over the slope of the marl as well as over the
shingly gravel ; and among some flints derived from it, at a height of
about 80 feet above the mean sea-level, Mr. Codrington found the
neatly- chipped ovate implement shown in Fig. 467. Its surface is
lustrous and in part whitened, and its angles and edges are sharp and
unworn. The possible connection of the bed containing this instru-
ment with others in this district is a matter for future consideration.
The discovery is not, however, the only one that has been made in
the Lsle of Wight. I have two ovate water-worn specimens, found
on the shore at Bembridge, and a thick, pointed implement, found on
the beach between the flag-staff at Bembridge Point and the ferry.
Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.E.S., has also found two implements on the
shore at Seaview betweeu Eyde and Bembridge.
' Codrington, Quar. Joitrn. Geol. Soe. (1870), vol. xxvi. pi. xxxvi.
- Quar. Journ. Geo!. Sue. (1870), vol. xxvi. pi. xxxvi. p. .341.
* Proc. Soe. Ant., 2nd S., vol. xv. p. 72.
THE FORELAND, ISLE OF WIGHT.
627
I now turn to the discoveries made in the valleys of the Avon and its
affluents, which drain an area of about 670 square miles. The first of
these took place in the Eiver-drift beds, in the neighbourhood of
Salisbury ; beds which were pointed out by Sir Joseph Prestwich in
1859 ' as likely to contain implements of the same class as those from
the valley of the Somme. This prognostication was made in ignor-
ance of the fact that, already in 1846, a palaeolithic implement had
been found near Salisbury, and had come into the possession of the
late Dr. S. P. Woodward, of the British Museum, who at that time
put it aside, as having little reference to his own special studies.
In 1863, however, Dr. Humjjhrey P. Blackmore, of Salisbury, dis-
covered a flint implement in the gravel at Bemerton, near that town ; and
since that time numerous other discoveries have been made by him in the
district, and also by the late Mr. E. T. Stevens, Mr. James Brown, and
other explorers resident at Salisbury, the results of whose zealous re-
Fig. 467.— The Foreland, Isle of Wight. i
searches may be seen in the admirable Blackmore Museum. These dis-
coveries have been made in the valleys of the Avon and the AViley, and
also on the spur of land separating those streams, and on that between
the Avon and the Bourne. In the valley of the Avon, implements have
been found at Lake, about 6 miles above Salisbury ; and also at Ashford,
near Fordingbridge, about 12 miles below its junction with the Wiley
and Nadder at that city. As Lake is the highest point in the VaUey of
the Avon proper at which, up to the present time, such discoveries have
been made in the Eiver-drift, it will be weU to notice it first, though it
must be mentioned that Mr. F. J. Bennett, of the Geological Survey, has
found a good palaeolithic implement farther north, near Pewsey Station.
Implements were found at this spot, in 1865, by Mr. Tiffin, jun., of
' " Opening of the Blackmore Mus.," p. 29. "Flint Chipe," p. 47.
ss2
628
KIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap.
XXIII.
Salisl)urA', ' but only a ievr have since been discovered, as the gravel is
little, if at all, -worked ; and it is therefore only on the slope of the
hill where the beds have been cut through by the deepening of the
valley that they occur. That shown in Fig. 468 is preserved in the
Blackmore Museum. It is stained of an ochreous tint, and is worn
at its edges. Others of similar form, but white, have also been found,
as well as some large broad flakes. It is needless to discuss the cha-
racter of the gravel, as so many discoveries, of which the circumstances
can be better ascertained, have been made in the same neighbourhood.
In the valley of the Wiley, at South Newton, about 5 miles above
Salisbury, an isolated specimen of a flat ovate implement has also
been foirnd.
Nearer Salisbury, at Bemerton and Fisherton, the discoveries have
Kg. 468
been of more interest and importance. They have already, to some
extent, been described by myself,- principally from information given
me by Dr. Humphrey P. Blackmore. The beds of Drift at these two
places are at different levels on the slope of the north side of the valley
of the Wiley, and of different characters ; that at Bemerton being at
the higher level, and principally gravel, and that at Fisherton lower,
and principally consisting of brick-earth, with a few gravelly seams.
The pit at Bemerton, in which most of the implements have been
foimd, is about a mile west of Salisbury, nearly opposite the new
church, and close to the lane connecting the roads to Wilton and
Devizes, and nearly midway between them. The gravel consists
mainly of subangular flints, with a few Upper Greensand pebbles and
Tertiary sandstone blocks in a red clayey matrix. It is 10 to 12 feet
1 " Flint Chips," p. 47.
2 Q. J. G. S. (1861), vol. XX. p. 188. See also Lvell, " Ant. of Man," 3rd ed.»
p. 519 ; and Geologist, vol. vi. p. 395.
BEMERTON, SALISBURY.
629
in thickness, and attains a height of at least 100 feet above the river,
though in this particular pit it is only about 80 feet above it. The
gravel caps the hill, instead of lying merely in a trough along its side,
so that in this particular, the section I have elsewhere given is in-
con-ect. The chalk comes nearly to the surface, lower down the slope,
Fig. 469.— Bemerton.
and divides the gravel from a brick- earth deposit continuous with that
of Fisherton, farther down the valley.
The implements found at Bemerton are principally oval, ovate, and
ovate-lanceolate. They are for the most part considerably altered in
texture at the surface, and many of them are
much rolled and waterworn. A few flakes
and -spalls of flint have also been found.
The original of Fig. 469 is in the Black-
more Museum, and is of grey flint, not
waterworn. It shows some marks of use on
the edge, towards the point, and a portion
of the natural crust of the flint remains at
the base. In all, upwards of twenty speci-
mens have been found in this gravel, one
of them as high as the cemetery. Several
others have also })een found between that
place and Highfield, which is about a
quarter of a mile nearer Salisbury than the
Bemerton Pit ; and in gravel which there
caps the hill between the Wiley and the
Avon, implements have also been found.
A remarkably small specimen from this
place is shown in Fig. 470. It is of grey flint, slightly ochreous, and
with its angles somewhat worn. The original is in the Blackmore
Museum.
Fig. 470.— Highfield
630
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[CHAF. XXIII.
I am not aware of any organic remains having as yet been found in
these upper gravels, though they are abundant in the brick-earth at a
lower level, at Fisherton Anger, where, however, tlint implements are
so scarce that only few have been found ; two of these are in the
Blackmore Museum. One of them, obtained beneath remains of the
mammoth, in 1874,' is shown in Fig. 471. The flint of which it is
made has become white and porcellanous, its angles are sharp, but
along the edges of both sides towards the base there are marks of
wearing away by use. The other specimen is onl}' fragmentary, but the
flint has assumed the same characters. The edge is like that of Fig.
437 ; one face of the implement having been flat and the section wedge-
shaped.
The Drift deposits at Fisherton have long been known to geologists,
Fig. 471.— FisheitoD
and have been described by Sir Charles Lyell,- Sir Joseph Prestwich,^
and others. They present a great similarity to the implement-bearing
beds at Menchecourt, near Abbeville, as has been pointed out by Sir
Joseph Prestwich ; * and this circumstance led us to visit the spot in
1859, with a view of discovering works of man in the beds, though at
that time our search was unrewarded.
It is needless for me here to describe the beds in detail : suffice it
to say, that resting on a more highly inclined surface of chalk is a
deposit, the upper portion of which forms the surface of the present
slope on the northern side of the valley of the united Wiley and
Nadder. It is in some places nearly 30 feet in thickness, but thins out
• "Flint Chips," p. 47. Quar. Joitrn. Geol. Soc. (1865), vol. xxi. p. 252.
' - I'roc. Geol. >Soc., vol. i. p. 25. ^ Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1865), vol. si. p. lOJ .
* Phil. Tram. (1860), p. 302.
FJSHERTON AND MILFORD HILL, SALISBURY. 631
towards the bottom of the valley. This deposit,' leaving the super-
ficial soil out of the question, has usually in its upper part a rubbly
gravel, with angular and subangular flints, fragments of chert, iron-
stone, and chalk, mixed with clay and brick-earth, to a thickness of 4
or 5 feet ; below that is from 10 to 18 feet of brick-earth mixed with
variable masses of flint and chalk rubble, and containing bones and
shells, principally in its lower part ; below this again, from 1 to 2 feet
of fine marl, full of well-preserved shells and a few bones ; and at the
base, flint and chalk rubble, with sand and clay.
The following species are recorded by Dr. Blackmore as having
occurred in these beds : — Canis lupus, Cam's vulpes, Hyana spelcea, Felin
spelcea, Bison mino)%- Bos primigenvus, Ovibos moschatus, Cervus tarandus,
Cervus ( Guettardi ?), Cervus elaphus, Eqims (four varieties). Rhinoceros
t ichor in us, Elejyhas primigenius, Sperinophilus (superciliosics?), Zemmus
torquatus, Lemrnus {^norvegiciis ?), Arvicola {sp. nov. ?) and Lepua
timidus.
Of birds, some bones of the wild goose, Anser segeium, have been.
found, and portions of the shells of eggs corresponding to those of the
same bird, and of the wild duck. Anas boscas.
The land and freshwater shells consist of Ancylus, LimncBa, Plan-
orbis, Btjthinia. Valiata, Pisidium, Acme, Carychium, Succinea, Helix,
Limax, Pupa, Zonitfs, and Zua.
It is worthy of notice in passing, that the presence of the musk ox,
the marmot, and the lemming, to say nothing of the reindeer, seems
to point to a colder climate having prevailed at the time of the deposit
of these beds, than now. The e^g of the wild goose, if such it be, is
also suggestive of a more arctic climate ; as the breeding-place of this
bird is i)resumably in the far north. This question of climate will
come under consideration farther on.
The discoveries at Milford Hill have already been placed on record
by Dr. H. P. Blackmore.^ This hill, the name of which has on the old
Ordnance Map been by error assigned to Cricket Down, forms a spur
between the valleys of the Avon and the Bourne, and is in fact a
continuation of Mizmaze Hill, from which, however, it is cut off by a
transverse valley about 30 feet in dejith. The summit of the hill rises
to an elevation of about 100 feet above the waters of the Avon and
the Bourne, which flow on either side of it, and unite below the point
of the spur. At the summit of the hill the gravel attains its greatest
thickness, which is about 12 feet. It rests on an in-egular surface of
chalk, occasionally running down into pipes, and thins out towards
the sides, ceasing altogether rather more than half way down the hill.
In places, there is chalk rubble or gravel in a clialky matrix at the base.
The gravel consists principally of subangular flints, a few Tertiary
pebbles, and blocks of sandstone, and contains a larger proportion of
Upper Greensand chert than the Benierton gravel — the whole mixed
with a variable proportion of sand and stiff clay, and for the most part
deeply stained by iron. Many of the large flints are said to present
' Prestwich, Quar. Jottru. Geol. Soc, ro\. xi. p. 103. Stevens, "FliDt Chips,"
p. 12.
- Formerly deicribed erroneously as Bos longifrons.
■' Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (186-5), vol. xsi. p. 250. Arch. Journ., vol. xii. pp-
243, 269.
632 KIVER-DRIKT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP, XXIII.
no signs of wearing by water transport. On the slope of the Lill, near
the base of the gravel, a narrow seam of sand was found to contain
some land sheUs of tlie genera Helix, Pupa, and Zua. No mamma-
lian remains, with the exception of a tooth of horse, have been found
in the gravel.
Flint implements have been discovered here in considerable numbers,
mostly of the pointed lanceolate form ; some of ovate, and other forms,
including a scraper, have also occurred. ^lost of them are now in the
Blackmore Museum. More than one specimen is of chert. In about
150 yards of gravel, excavated to form a cellar at Elm Grove, Milford
Hill, no less than twenty implements of different forms were found,
principally by ^Ir. James Brown. Dr. Blackmore observes that the
im])lements on the side of the hill are relatively only half as numerous
as on the top, and that the condition of their surface varies consider-
ably, the majority being waterworn, but others having their edges
and angles as sharp as if they had been made yesterday. The degree
of staining also varies, and is not always due to their present position
in the gravel, some deeply stained having been dug out of the chalk
rubble at the base, where they lay side b}' side with fragments of
flint, which retained their original colour ; and, on the other hand,
perfectly unstained specimens having been obtained from the ochreous
gravel. Several implements were observed, m situ, by Mr. Wheaton,
Mr. James Brown, and others ; and they were found scattered
\inevenly through the deposit, but the majority low down and towards
the base. Many of them are extremely rude ; in fact, as a whole,
" ruder and less skilfuDy made than most of the specimens from the
valley of the Somme." Flakes and spalls were found in consider-
able numbers, and also a few remarkably well-made implements, of
which a magnificent specimen is shown in Fig. 472. It is of light-
grey flint, with the natural crust on part of the base. The face not
shown is roughly chipped, but it has been neatly wrought at the edge
to a symmetrical form. Its angles are but slightly rounded. A de-
tailed accoimt of the discoveries at Bemerton ' and Milford Hill, with
maps and figures of several implements, has been given by Mr. C. J.
Eead, of Salisbury.
A scraper-like implement from Britford, a short distance below
Salisbury', is in the Blackmore Museum.
About 6 miles below Salisbury, in gravel, near Downton,'^ and at an
elevation of about 150 feet above the river Avon, Sir Joseph Prestwich
picked up a small ovate implement, in form like Fig. 456, but more
sharply pointed and only 3 inches in length. Between the pit, in
which it was found, and the river, two gravel-terraces occur, one
80 to 110 feet, and the other 40 to 60 feet, above its level. At
Breamore, farther south, a well-shaped pointed implement of chert
was found by Mr. E. Westlake in 1888, in gravels 100 feet above the
Avon.
A few miles farther down the valley, and about half a mile S.W. of
Fordingbridge, at Ashford^ railway station, is a gravel-pit, which was
largely worked for the purpose of ballasting the railway, and in this
1 Wilts Arch. Mag., vol. xxii. p. 117.
2 Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc. (1872), vol. xx-\-iii. p. 39.
3 " Flint Chips," p. 47.
MILFORD HILL, SALISHURY.
633
gravel also, implements have been found ; first by Mr. Toomer, of
Salisbury, in 18G6, and subsequently by Mr. James Brown, myself,
and others. Several specimens are preserved in the Blackmore
Fig. 472.— Milford HiU, SiiliBbnry. J
Museum, one of which is shown in Fig. 473. It is of ochreous flint,
with the angles slightly waterworn. Some of the implements found
in this gravel have been much rolled. Mr. J. W. Brooke, of Marl-
634
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[I'H.'
AP. XX! 11.
borough, has in his collection a series of ahout forty implements and
flakes from Fordingbridge. manv of them water-worn.
The gravel here rests upon Tertiary beds, and consists principally
of subangidar flints, with many Lower Tertiary pebl)les, a few
pieces of greensaud iron-stone, and more rarely quartz pebbles among
them. The beds are about 10 feet thick, and their height above the
river about 40 feet. Eemains of mammoth ' have been found in them.
Farther down the course of the Avon, palaeolithic implements have
not as yet been found ; and in the basin of the Stour, which joins
the Avon at Christchurch, but one discovery has been made. This
was of a small brown ochreous implement, made from a large ex-
Fig. 473. — Fordingbridge
ternal flake, trimmed into a somewhat kidney-shaped outline, and
having its edges worn round, and its angles waterworn. It was
found at Wimborne Minster, by Mr. W. F. Tiffin, of Salisbui-y, in
gravel brought from a pit in the neighbourhood, and not in situ. I
have searched for implements, but in vain, in some of the pits near
"Wimborne, though the gravel, especially at Oakley, has all the
characters of a deposit likely to contain them.
Though the united Avon and Stoiu- now find their way into the sea
near Christchurch, it seems probable, as will subsequently be shown,
that they were in remote times affluents of a river running from west
to east, and that a portion of this river, now widened out by the sea,
p> 537.
Flint Chips," p. 28. Codrington, " Qitar. Jeurn. Geol. Soc. (1870), vol. xxvi.
BOURNEMOUTH.
635
has become the Solent between the Isle of "Wight and the mainland.
The course of this ancient river appears to have been a little to the
south and seaward of the present line of the coast at Bournemouth ;
and some of the gravels which formerly lined its valley now cap
the cliifs for some distance between Poole Harbour and Hengistbury
Head, and thence on in the dii'ection of Portsmouth.
In these gravels, a very large number of palaeolithic implements
has been found. The first discovery at Bournemouth was made in
1866,' by Mr. Alfred H. Stevens, of Salisbury, and in immediately sub-
sequent years they were principally due to Dr. H. P. Blackmore, my
son, P. Norman Evans, Mr. Albert "Way, and others. The first imple-
ments were found in the gravel, after it had been dug and spread upon
the roads ; but Dr. Blackmort; found an implement in situ, and two or
i'lg. 474. — Boscoiiibe, Bournemuu.b. J
three rough flakes, close to Boscombe Mouth, at almost the highest
point of the cliff, more than 100 feet above the sea-level.
This implement, which is nearly white and unworn, is preserved in
the Blackmore Museum, and is represented in Fig. 474. Numerous
implements of other forms have since been found in the gravel dug in
the neighbourhood of Boscombe. Among them is a side-scraper 31
inches long and of the same type as that from Santon Dowuham,
Fig. 437. It was found by Mrs. E. Sandars, of Bournemouth, who
has kindly added it to my collection. A rude chopper-like implement
was also found there. One of the finest, however, of all the early
Boscombe implements is that shown in Fig. 475, which was found by
my son Norman in 1808. It has unfortunately lost a portion near the
1 " Flint Chip.-<," p. 48. Lyell, " Prin. of Geol.," 10th cd., vol. ii. p. 662. Cod-
rington, Qiiar. Juurn. Geol. Hoc. (1870), vol. xxvi. p. 637.
^36
RIVER-UKIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXlll.
base, through a crack in the stone, but is otherwise perfect. The
material is not, as usual, flint from the Chalk, but chert from the Upper
Greensand. The surface is slightly ochreous, and to some extent
lustrous. I have another implement of chert, but of ovate form, found
at Boscombe, as well as some good pointed implements of flint. In the
railway-cutting east of Boscombe, I, some years ago, foxmd a flake of
fliut. Other implements have been found in gravel which is believed
to have been dug to the west of Boui-nemouth, near the Bourne
Fig. 475.— Boscombe, Bournemouth. J
Valley Pottery and the turnpike on the Poole road. That shown in
Fig. 476 was found by Miss Way, and kindly communicated to me by
her father, the late Mr. Albert Way, F.S.A. It is of flint, now of a
milky- white colour. Mr. Way has found three or four other speci-
mens of much the same character. I have two large, rather coarsely
chipped, irregularly oval specimens from the same gravels, both found
by my son Norman.
The beds near the turnpike are from about 6 to 8 feet thick, and
rest on a slightly irregular surface of Bagshot Sands. The gravel
BOURNEMOUTH AND BARTON CLIFF.
63r
consists principally of subangular and rolled flints, a few Tertiary fliut-
pebbles, a considerable proportion of small quartz pebbles, and a few
fragments of old rocks and Upper Greensand chert ; the whole in a
sandy matrix, and having in places some sandy seams. I am not
aware of any mammalian or molluscan remains having been found
in them. They are nearly, if not quite, on the summit of table-land,
slightly inclining seawards, and with the valley of the Bourne to the
north, with higher ground beyond it and also to the west. The sur-
face near the turnpike is about loO feet above the mean sea-level.
Following the i)resumed course of the ancient river Solent for about
ten miles eastward, along what is now the coast, we come to Barton.
For the whole distance the land to the north is thickly capped with
gravel ; and at Barton, on the slope of the cliff, a flat, oval implement,
6 inches long, and in form much like that from Hill Head, Fig. 466,
_^.^,K
"^
Fig. 476. — Bournemouth. ^
was found by an officer of the Coast Guard, about 1868, and was subse-
quently presented to the Christy Collection by Mr. Albert Way, F.S.A.
Since that time an astonishing number of palaeolithic implements
has been found in the district extending from Chuton Bunny by
Barton and Hordwell to Milford. I have about sixty specimens from
this district in my own collection, many of them very perfect of their
kind. For the most part they have been picked up on the shore and
on the talus of the gravel-capped cliff, but they have occasionally been
found in the gravel itself, A few have been made of Upper Greensand
chert, but the majority are of flint. Nearl}' all the usual types are
represented, several by large examples. I have pointed, oval, and ovate
specimens, as much as 8 and 8.] inches in length. Those from the
gravel are as a rule sharp and but little abraded, while the condition
of those found on the shore depends upon the length of time that they
have been exposed to the rolling action of the sea since their fall
from the cliff.
638
RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS.
[chap. XXIIl.
A palaeolithic flake has been found still farther east, at Stone,'
between Exbury and Calshot Castle.
Assuming the existence of an ancient river Solent flowing at an eleva-
tion of upwards of 100 feet above the present level of the sea at Bourne-
mouth, its western sources must have drained much the same basin
as that of the rivers now discliarging into Poole Harbour ; but without
at present entering into tliat question, I may mention the discovery
of a palaeolithic implement at Dewlish, about 3 miles N. of Piddletown,
Dorsetshire, by Mr. James Brown, of Salisbury. It is very neatly
Fig. 477. — Broom Pit, Axminster
■chipped, but slightly unsymmetrical in form, one side being straight
and the other curved ; but in general character it resembles Fig. 430
from Thetf ord, having been made from a large flake, and showing the
original crust of the flint at its base. It was found on the surface, at
the top of a high hill, at no great distance from the branch of the
Trent or Piddle, which flows past Dewlish. Elephant' remains have
been found near the same place, which have, however, been assigned
to Elep}ias meridionalis.
' Q. J. G. S., vol. xlix. (1893), p. 327. == '* Flint Chips," p. 28.
VALLEY OF THE AXE. 639
In the Blackmore Museum there were in 1872 four implements of
chert, of oval and tongue-shaped types, found during the erection of
the telegraph posts between Chard and Axniiuster. There was also
another thin oval implement of ochreous Hint, 7^ inches long and 3 A
broad, which was found near Colyton, JJevon. The exact locality
where those first mentioned were found, is unknown ; but it appears
probable that the gravel, like that at Colyton, belongs to the valley
of the Axe, in which I suggested in 1872 that fiirther search should be
made.
Such a search has long since been rewarded. In 1877^ I recorded
some discoveries at Broom, near Axminster, and in 1878 the late Mr.
W. S. M. D'Urban^ gave an account of the ballast pit at Broom, in the
parish of Hawkchurch, near Axminster, and close to the river Axe.
It was worked in a low hill consisting of chert gravel intermingled
with seams of ferruginous and sandy clay, and a section was exposed
about 40 feet deep, the base being about 150 feet above the level of
the sea, which comes within a distance of about six miles. At that time
numerous palaeolithic implements of various types had been found in the
pit. They were formed of dark Upper Greensand chert, and some were
much water-worn, while others were quite sharp and uninjured. Since
then very many more have been collected, and a fine series of them is
preserved in the Albert Memorial Museum at Exeter. There are also
some good specimens in the Horniman Museum^ at Forest Hill, S.E.
I have engraved a typical example of the ovate form in my own collec-
tion as Fig. 477.
Some implements from Broom are of large size. I have a very rude
specimen that I found among the ballast on the South Western Rail-
way in August, 1877. It is 8^ inches long and 6 inches wide. Other
specimens are small. The ovate type seems to predominate, but the
pointed forms are not scarce. A few broad flakes trimmed at the
edges, of the so-called Le Moustier type, occur wdth the other forms.
In the valley of the Culm, at Kentisbeare, near CuUompton, Mr. W.
Downes,* in 1879, found a chert implement in form like Plate II.,
Fig. 17.
With the exception of those from the bone-caves of Devonshire, no
palseolithic implements have as yet been found farther west in Britain.
' Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1877, p. 116. Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. vii., 1878, p. 499.
^ Geol. Mag., Dec. 2, vol. v., 1878, p. 37. See also Trans. Dev. Assoc, vol. xvi.,
1884, p. 501.
3 "Natural Science," vol. x. (1897), p. 224.
* Geol. Mag., 2nd Dec, vol. vi., 1879, p. 480. Trans. Devon. Assoc, vol. xii.,
1880, p. 445.
640
CHAPTER XXIY.
FORMS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF IMPLEMENTS FROM THE
RIVER-DRIFT.
Having now briefly described the circumstances of the discovery
of these palaeolithic implements in various localities in England,
and given illustrations showing their usual forms, it will be well to-
say a few words as to their character and probable uses. The general
resemblance in form between the series of implements found in the
River- drift of England and in that of France, is obvious to all who
have had the opportunity of examining collections formed in the
two countries ; while the character of the deposits and of the
associated mammalian and molluscan remains being also the same,
the implements in each may be regarded as being practically of
the same age, and formed by the same race of men. In my
former attempt at classifying them, I therefore took my charac-
teristic specimens indifferently from either side of the Channel ;
more especially, as in 1861, when I drew the plate ' illustrative of
the different types, but few discoveries had been made in England.
As this plate has been considered useful as affording a convenient
conspectus of the prevailing forms found in the River-drift, I make
no apology for here reproducing it in a somewhat modified form,
though many of the specimens engraved are of French and not of
British origin. In conjunction with the woodcuts given in the
text, the two plates into which it is now divided wull give a fairly
complete idea of most of the forms of palaeolithic implements.
In first writing on this subject in 1859,^ I divided these imple-
ments generally into three classes, as follows : —
1. Flint-flakes apparently intended for arrow-heads or knives.
2. Pointed weapons analogous to lance or spear-heads.
3. Oval or almond-shaped implements presenting a cutting edge
all roimd.
' Archaol., yxxix pi. iv.
* Phil. Trans., 1860, p. 310. Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 289.
FLINT FLAKES. 641
I stated at the same time that of the second class there were
two varieties, the one with a rounded cutting point, and the other
acutely pointed ; and that there was also so much diversity in their
forms, that the classes, especially the second and third, might be
said to blend, or run one into the other. In reconsidering the
question in 1861,^ I saw but little to alter in the proposed classi-
fication, and even now find no cause for suggesting any material
modification, though there are certainly some additional types to
be added to those with which I was then acquainted.
The late Mr. E. T. Stevens,^ who had as much experience as any
one in classifying these implements, suggested a somewhat different
arrangement of the forms, dividing them under seven heads ; and
in the following remarks I shall adopt some of his terminology,
though slightly departing from his order of sequence.
FLAKES.
These may be divided in the same manner as those belonging to
the Surface or Neolithic period, into external, ridged, flat, and
polygonal. They are either simple or un worked ; or wrought into
form along the whole or part of the edge.
1. External flakes, or those first struck ofi'a block of flint, the
crust of which forms their convex face, are of common occurrence
in the River-drift, but they are not often noticed or preserved by
the workmen. Many of them are probably mere spalls resulting
from the manufacture of the more highly-wrought implements.
Some few, however, appear to have been utilized as tools, appa-
rently for scraping.
2. Ridged flakes, or those of triangular section with a single
ridge formed by two facets on the convex face, are extremely rare
in the gravel-deposits, though occasionally found. Indeed, the art
of making long narrow flakes, such as abounded in Denmark in
Neolithic times, and are not uncommon in Britain, seems to have
been almost unknown to the men whose relics we find in the
River-drift ; unless, perhaps, their absence in the gravel may be
accounted for in some other way than by their non-existence. It
is indeed possible that the implements found in the River-gravels
were those for out-door, and not for domestic, use ; and certainly,
in some of the cave-deposits, where the large implements are
extremely scarce, these skilfully-formed long flakes occur in
considerable numbers. Generally speaking, the proportion of
' Arch., vol. xxxix., p. 57. - '' Flint Cliips," p. 41.
T T
642 RIVBR-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIV.
flakes to the more highly- wrought implements appears also to be
far greater in the caves than that in the gravels. This apparent
greater abundance may, however, to some extent be due to the
flakes in the gravel escaping the notice of the workmen, or to their
having been broken to pieces during the formation of the gravel.
3. Flat flakes are more common, but these are usually shorter,
thicker, and broader than those of the Surface Period. They
frequently exhibit that minute chipping at the edge, which is
probably the result of wear from scraping some hard substance, such
as bone or even wood. Occasionally a notch has been worn in the
edge of the flake, as if the object scraped had been cylindrical.
4. Polygonal flakes are those most abundant in the Ptiver-drift ;
but the large, broad flakes of this character, such as are common
in the valley of the Somme, and especially in its lower deposits,
as at Montiers, near Amiens, are much rarer in England. Fig.
461, from Reculver, is a flake of this character, but I am not sure
whether it does not, more properly speaking, come under the head
of a wrought flake, as it appears to have been somewhat trimmed
at the edges. It is worth while remarking, that many of the
French specimens have the edge worn away by use, just on one
side of the bulb of percussion, at a place where there is generally
a clean sharp edge in a new]y-made flake of this form. Occasion-
ally similar marks of use are apparent on English specimens of
the same character.
Taken as a whole, the simple flakes of the River-drift Period
may be described as larger, coarser, thicker, and broader than
those of the Surface Period, or of caves of later date than Le
Moustier. Their use appears to have been for cutting and scraping
whatever required to be cut or scraped.
I formerly regarded some of them as having possibly been
arrow-heads, but the extreme rarity of any light, sharp-pointed
flakes, and the absence of any evidence that those who fashioned
them were acquainted with the use of the bow, render this assump-
tion almost untenable. It is, however, bareh' possible that some
may have served to tip spears or lances.
TRIMlvrED FLAKES.
One of the commonest forms into which flint flakes were
fashioned in Neolithic times, is that produced by trimming the
end of the flake to a semicircular bevelled edjre. To this form the
TRIMMED FLAKES. 643
name of " scraper " has been applied, from its still being used in
that capacity by the Eskimos and some North American tribes.
The same, or nearly the same, form occurs among- the instruments
belonging to the Palaeolithic Period. Such scrapers are very
abundant in many of the French caves, and, as has already been
seen, are not entirely wanting in Kent's Cavern and in other
British caves. They are, however, of very rare occurrence in the
River-drift, and when found, are hardly ever trimmed to so regular
and neatly-chipped a segmental edge, as those either from the
surface or from the caves.
Occasionally the end of a flake has been worked to a quadrantal
edge, so that one of the straight sides is much longer than the
other. In some cases the end of the flake appears to have become
rounded by wear rather than by trimming.
The implement from Icklingham, Fig. 424, formed from a
polygonal flake, is very scraper-Kke in character. Its convex face
shows a great many more facets than is usual with the scrapers of
the Neolithic Period. A more characteristic scraper is that from
High-Lodge Hill, Fig. 426. It is mainly among the implements
found in a matrix of clay, or on a "Palaeolithic floor," that these
more delicate forms occur. They are not only more likely to have
been injured by rolling, but when they form constituent parts of
beds of gravel are also less liable to attract observation than are
the larger implements.
There is another form which, when of large size, seems almost
pecuKar to the caves and the River- drift, and to which the term
" side-scraper " may be applied. The instruments of this kind are
made from broad flakes, usually about twice as broad as they are
long. The butt-end of the flake — that at which the blow was
administered to strike it off from the parent block — is either left
blunt, or trimmed into such a form as may conveniently be held
in the hand ; the other end, which, owing to the great breadth of
the flake, forms the side of the implement, is trimmed to a seg-
mental edge by blows given on the flat inner face of the flake which
is left as originally produced. Figs. 437 and 453 show implements
of the side-scraper form in flint, and Fig. 443 one less carefully
finished in quartzite. The edge is in some instances much more
acute than in others. They appear to have been held in the hand,
and used in some cases for cutting or chopping, and in others for
scraping. The flints of what have been termed the "Plateau
types " have their edges much more obtuse and rounded, and
T T 2
644 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIV.
their chipping and wear seem to me due to natural causes and not
to human workmanship. There are some implements which have
been made from broad flakes, but which have both faces more or
less trimmed, so as to come perhaps more properly under another
category. Another form of trimmed flake is that in which the
side-edges have received their outline by secondary chipping, as
in Fig. 431. Occasionally they are worked to a sharp point, like
the Le Moustier type of Mortillet ; and when large, and boldly
re-chipped on the convex face, merge in what has been termed the
shoe- shaped type.
POINTED IMPLEMENTS.
These are very various in form, and present great difficulties in
any attempt to classify them. There are, however, some charac-
teristic types, to attain which would seem to have been the aim of
those who made the implements, though they were not always
successful ; and an innumerable variety of intermediate forms has
been the result. To one of these types Mr. Stevens has applied
the term "pear-shaped," but though the outline may be that of a
pear, the section is so difierent, that the term seems open to objec-
tion. I would rather follow the nomenclature of the French
quarry-men, who have given the name langues-de-chat to these
implements ; and term them " tongue-shaped." They are indeed
as varied in their forms as the tongrues of the different members
of the higher orders of the animal creation, including both birds
and beasts, and range as widely in their proportions, but they
still retain a general resemblance to a tongue. They are either
acute, or round, at the point, and the side-edges are usually sharp ;
but the characteristics of the form are that the greatest thickness
of the implement is far nearer to the butt than to the point, and
that the butt is more or less truncated. Fig. 428 gives a typical
example of a long, narrow, acutely-pointed, tongue-shaped imple-
ment, equally convex on both faces, with straight side-edges, and
thick truncated butt trimmed into form. Fig. 417, though so
different in proportions, is a short implement of the same character.
Fig. 427 afibrds an example of a broader variety, with a rounded
point, and Fig. 447 of one broader still.
Figs. 458 and 463 may be described as tongue-shaped imple-
ments, with incurved sides ; Fig. 433 as kite-like ; Figs. 420 and
472 as ovate ; and Fig. 423 as sub- triangular ; but the general
form of the implements is still, in each instance, tongue-shaped.
POINTED IMPLEMENTS. 646
It is frequently the case that one face of these implements is more
convex than the other.
Another variety shows upon the rounded butt some considerable
portion of the outer surface of the original pebble or flint from
which the implement was made, as in Fig. 457. All such seem to
belong to the tongue-shaped class, the character of the butt proving
beyond all doubt that it was the pointed end that was used for
cutting or piercing, while the butt-end, as is almost universally
the case with the tongue-shaped implements, is adapted for being
held in the hand.
I was at one time inclined to think that a considerable proportion
of these instruments might have been attached to shafts, so as to
serve for spear or javelin-heads ; but so few of them are so roughly
chipped at the butt-end as to render them really inconvenient
to be held in the hand, that their use as spear-heads is very
doubtful. A specimen from Bedford^ is said to have had the
appearance of having had the butt -end wrapped round with grass
so that it might be the more conveniently held in the hand. It is
true that the acutely -pointed instruments appear to be rather
weapons of offence than mere tools or implements, and not impro-
bably to have been used in the chase ; while those with rounded
points seem to have been more adapted for the ordinary purposes of
life. Some of them show marks of wear at the end, as if they had
been used for chopping ; and others, at each side, as if produced
by boring some hard substance. They may have been used for
digging in the ground for esculent roots ; for cutting holes through
ice, for fishing purposes, as suggested by Sir Joseph Prestwich ; or
even for tilling the soil, were those who fashioned them acquainted
with agriculture, which I must confess appears to me improbable.
Another form of pointed implement is flat on one face, and
convex on the other. The flat face has frequently been produced
by a single blow, so that the form might be regarded as a variety
of trimmed flake. The convex face has, however, in general been
fashioned by bold strokes, in the same manner as the more common
forms of large implements. In typical specimens the butt is thick,
and the whole form is so like that of a shoe, that the term " shoe-
shaped " has been applied to it. For the thinner specimens, I
woiald suggest the term " flat-faced." Specimens of the shoe-
shaped and flat-faced types are given in Figs. 418 \, 429, and 4;30.
It is hard to say what particular purpose such instruments were
intended to serve.
' Nature, vol. xxv., 1881, p. 17o.
646 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIV,
Another form of pointed implement has a sharp edge along one
side and at the point only, the other side being left thick, and
occasionally with the natural crust of the flint upon it. Such
thick-backed single-edged implements appear to have served as
knives of the rudest kind. Fig. 10 in Plate I. shows a specimen
of this character. Others, like Fig. 41 9d, present a more chopper-
like form, and were probably used as hatchets held in the hand
without hafts. The form is not uncommon in the Le Moustier
cave.
In other cases, the end of a long nodule of flint has been chipped
to a pointed form, as in Fig. 418 ; or a flint has been converted
by half a dozen blows into a rude pointed implement, probably to
serve some temporary purpose. If, after being used, such tools
■were thrown away, as not being worth preserving, their abundance
in some gravels is the less remarkable.
There is yet another large subdivision of the pointed imple-
ments, in which the butt is chipped to a sharper edge than in those
to which the name of tongue-shaped more properly applies. They
pass imperceptibly from the tongue- shaped at one end of the series
into the oval or almond-shaped implements, presenting a cutting
edge all round, at the other. For these latter I would propose
the name of
SHARP-RIMMED IMPLEMENTS.
These are usually almost equally convex on the two faces, but
var}" in form, being most frequently ovate — that is to say, rounded
at both ends, but having one end broader than the other — oval,
with the two ends similar or nearly so, and almond-shaped, or
ovate-lanceolate, with one end pointed. Rarer forms of the same
character are heart-shaped, sub-triangular, lozenge- shaped, and
lunate. To these must be added the form to which the term
" perch-backed " has been given, from its resemblance to that
fish ; and that to which Mr. Stevens has applied the term dis-
coidal.
The ovate sharp-rimmed implements vary considerably in size
and also in general proportions. Specimens of the type may be
seen in Figs. 456 and 467.
In some of these ovate specimens a flat place has been inten-
tionally left on one of the sides towards the broad end, apparently
to facilitate its being held in the hand and used as a knife. In
some of the implements, which, like several of those from Hoxne,
SHARP-RIMMEU IMPLEMENTS. 647
and that from Bury St. Edmunds, Fig. 419a, haye lain in brick-
earth instead of gravel, so that the edges are uninjured, minute
marks of wear, as if from scraping or cutting, may be seen on the
edges, principally opposite to this flat spot.
Both these and the oval sharp-rimmed implements are, as a
rule, thin in proportion to their size. Specimensof the latter form
are shown in Figs. 421 and 406.
The typical almond-shaped implements are scarcer than either
of the foregoing. They also occasionally exhibit the flat spot
already described, on one of their sides. A remarkably sym-
metrical and short example of this form is shown in Fig. 435.
The heart-shaped sharp -rimmed implements are rare, and
resemble the sub-triangular, with the exception of their having a
slight curvature inwards at the base. One of these is shown in
Fig. 432. Mr. Stevens considers, that if any of the drift imple-
ments were used as spear-heads, they were of this form.
The sub-triangular sharp-rimmed implements are much rarer
than those of the tongue-shaped character, in which the base of
the triangle is blunt. Fig. 471, however, belongs to this class,
though it is much rounded at the point. Some of the cave-
implements, like Fig. 386, are intermediate between this and the
ovate form. Among the curious implements, apparently of
Palaeolithic age, which have been found in some abundance in
parts of Poitou, the sharp-rimmed sub-triangular type is common.
The form has also been found in the Department of the Aisne,^ and
in the cave of Hydrequent, in the Pas-de-Calais.
The lozenge-shaped implements of this class are pointed at each
end, but the sides are never straight. Fig. 440 shows a thick
specimen of this form. Some of the large flat implements from
the valley of the Somme are more of the pointed oval or vesica
piscis form, than lozenge-shaped.
The lunate and perch-backed implements having one side con-
siderably more curved than the other are very scarce, but more
have been found at Santon Downham than elsewhere. One of
these is shown in Fig. 436, and another from Shrub Hill in Fig.
448. I have also met with the form among the implements from
Barton Cliff, Hants. They are possibly mere accidental varieties
of the oval or ovate form ; and indeed it seems doubtful whether
it is worth while to insist much on these subdivisions of form,
many of which must, necessarily, have resulted from the manner
' Watclet, 1866.
648 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIV.
in which the flint happened to break during the process of manu-
facture. Though, therefore, I have here attempted a somewhat
detailed classification, it must not be supposed that I consider each
form of implement to have been specially made to serve some
special requirement, as is the case with many of the tools and
weapons of the present day. I am far more ready to think that
only two main divisions can be established, though even these
may be said to shade ofi" into each other ; I mean pointed imple-
ments for piercing, digging, or boring, and sharp-edged implements
for cutting or scraping.
The discoidal implements are described by Mr. Stevens ^ as
very coarsely worked ; in typical specimens, nearly circular, very
thick in the centre, and brought to an edge all round. He thinks
they may have been used as missiles. The same may be said of
polygonal blocks of flint, from the whole surface of which broad
flakes have been dislodged by blows given in various directions.
They may, however, possibly be only cores. In form they much
resemble the blocks or " knuder " from the Danish kjokken-
moddings.
I have never seen any of the long prismatic cores from the
River-drift, though some are of rather regular form. A few
hammer-stones, such as must have been used in fashioning the
flint implements, have been found, and some have been already
mentioned. It is, however, difficult, among a mass of rolled and
waterworn pebbles, to recognize with certainty such as have
served as hammers.
If, to the more regular types embraced in the foregoing classi-
fication, we add a considerable number of roughly-chipped, un-
symmetrical, but, generally speaking, pointed forms of imple-
ments, and a few abnormal shapes, as, for instance, that shown in
Fig. 444, we shall have a good idea of the character of the stone
implements hitherto discovered in the Eiver-drift, whether of
England or the Continent.
A glance at the figures will at once show how different in
character they are, as a whole, from those of the Surface or Neo-
lithic Period, excepting, of course, mere flakes, and implements
made from them, and simple blocks and hammer-stones. So far
as we at present know, not a single implement from the River-
drift has been sharpened by grinding or polishing, though, of
course, it would be unsafe to affirm that such a process was
' "Flint Chips," p. 41.
DIFFER FROM THOSE OF NEOLITHIC AGE, 649
unknown at the time when they were in use. With the un-
polished implements of the Neolithic Period, which most nearly
approach those of the Palaeolithic in form, it will as a rule be
found that the former are intended for cutting at the broader
end, and the latter at the narrower or more pointed end. Even
in the character of the chipping, a practised observer will, in
most instances, discern a difference.
Thirty-eight years ago, when first treating of the character of
these instruments,^ I pointed out these differences between the
implements of the two periods, as being marked and distinct ; and
though since that time, from our knowledge of the form and
character of the stone implements of both periods having been
much enlarged, some few exceptions may be made to a too sweep-
ing assertion of these differences, yet on the whole, I think, they
have been fully sustained.
Un ground flint implements, with a sharp point, and a thick
truncated butt, and, in fact, what I have termed tongue-shaped in
form, are, for instance, no longer confined to the Drift, but have
been found by myself, with polished implements, on the shores of
Lough Neagh,^ in Ireland ; and yet, though analogous in form,
they differ in the character of the workmanship, and in their
proportions, from those from the gravel. The difference is such,
that though possibly a single specimen might pass muster as of
Palaeolithic form, yet a group of three or four would at once
strike an experienced eye as presenting other characteristics.
In the same manner, some of the roughly-chipped specimens from
Cissbury and elsewhere, such, for instance, as that shown in Fig. 28,
appear to be of the tongue-shaped type, or of some other River-
drift forms. These are, however, exceptional in character ; and as
their finding appears to be confined to the sites of manufactories
of flint implements, where a very large proportion of the speci-
mens found are merely " wasters " produced in the manufacture,
it is doubtful how far they are to be regarded as finished tools.
On this subject of the difference in character between the
Palaeolithic and Neolithic forms, i have been severely taken to
task by M. Zinck,^ who has figured several Danish Neolithic
specimens in juxtaposition with some of my own figures of imple-
ments from the Drift. In many cases, however, the comparison
is made between implements of very different dimensions, though,
' Arch., vol. xxxviii., 1860, p. 291.
- Arch., vol. xli. p. 401, ]>\. xviii. 9.
» Aarbdger f. Xord. Old/.-, og Hist., 18G7. p. 283.
650 RIVEK-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS, [cHAP, XXIV.
by being drawn to different scales, they are made to appear of the
same size in the figures ; and, in other cases, the specimens en-
graved are apparently unfinished, or merely wasters thrown away.
But even granting that these exceptional instances of resem-
blance can be found, there is no one who can deny that the
general faciea of a collection of implements from the River-drift,
and that of one from the Surface is absolutely distinct. With
regard to the Scandinavian stone antiquities, I possess perhaps as
extensive a collection of them as any one out of that country ;
and further, I have more than once examined the collections, both
public and private, at Copenhagen, as well as at Christiania,
Stockholm, and Lund, and yet I do not remember to have seen
any specimen — unless, possibly, a mere flake or rough block —
which, if placed before me without comment, I should have taken
to be Palseolithic.
In most cases, even if a similarity of form should be found to
exist, there will be a difference in the character of the surface of
the material ; the deep staining, more especially, and the glossy
surface so common on the implements from the gravel, being but
rarely met with on those from the surface soil.
But though, on the whole, so widely differing from the imple-
ments of the Neolithic Period, those belonging to Palaeolithic
times show a marvellous correspondence with each other, in what-
ever part of England they are found ; and this correspondence
extends, in an equal degree, to the implements found in the Piver-
gravels of France and of other Continental countries. In illustra-
tion of this, Mr. Flower has engraved,^ side by side, two implements
from Thetford, and two from St. Acheul, each pair being almost
identical both in shape and size. But what is more remarkable
still, this resemblance in form prevails not only with the imple-
ments from the River-gravels of Western Europe, but with those
from the lateritic beds of Southern India. It is true that the
material is somewhat different, the Indian implements being
formed of compact quartzite instead of flint, and that this circum-
stance somewhat affects the character of the fracture and facets ;
but so far as general form is concerned, they may be said to be
identical with those from the European River-drifts.
The original discoverer of these implements (in 1863), Mr. R.
Bruce Foote,^ has described them on more than one occasion, and
' Q. J. G. S. (1867), vol. xxiii. pp. 48, 52.
2 Madras Journ. Lit. and Science, Oct., 186(3. Geol. Mag.,\o\ ii. p. 503. Q.J.G.S.,
THEIK OCCURRENCE IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD. 6-51
it would be out of place here to enter into details concerning
them. Suffice it to say, that they have been found in the ^iladras
Presidency by Mr. Bruce Foote, Mr. King, and others, in situ, in
beds to which, whether correctly or not I will not attempt to
determine, the name of " lateritic " has been given, and at an
elevation of 300 feet and upwards, above the sea in the neigh-
bourhood of which they often lie. These lateritic beds consist prin-
cipally of a red ferruginous clay, more or less sandy, and occasion-
ally contain, or pass into, gravelly beds. Those fringing the
coast have been regarded as of marine origin, but as they contain
no marine organisms, and as in some of their characters they
closely resemble undoubtedly fluviatile deposits, it is possible that
this view may be incorrect, and that they originally covered one
of the slopes of a valley connected with a large river, the other
slope of which has now disappeared in consequence of the en-
croachment of the sea. However this may be, in several valleys,
at a higher level above the sea than the beds in which most of
the specimens were found, " chipped quartzite implements were
obtained from unquestionable river-gravels." ^
They have also been found in the South Mahratta country,
especially in the Malprabba ^ valley. In 1873 Mr. Hacket ^ found
an ovate implement of quartzite (5 inches), in .sifii, in clay, in the
Narbada valley, eight miles north of Gadarwara, below a bed of
ossiferous gravel, apparently of Pleistocene age. Mr. W. T.
Blanford has found them in Hyderabad, Mr. V. Ball in Orissa,
and Mr. J. Cockburn ■* in South Mirzapore. Mr. Bruce Foote ^
has recorded a large number of other Palocolithic finds in Southern
India, between 10' and 16'^ of X. latitude and 76° to 80° E.
longitude, mostl}' in connection with existing river-valleys.
The curious flint or chert implements found at Abu Shahrein,^
in vSouthern Babylonia, which much resemble those of the Palaeo-
lithic age in form, seem more probably to be Neolithic. The
broad end appears to have been that intended for cutting, the
point being left blunt.
An implement of more truly palocolithic character, found on
1868, vol. xiiv. p. 484. Trans, of Inter. Cong, of Preh. Arch., 1868, p. 224. Proc.
As. Sac. Bengal, Sept., 1867. Aarbog. f. Xord. Oldk., 1869, p. 339. Mem. GeoL
Survey India, vol. x., 1873, p. 43. Essex Naturalist, vol. ii. p. 97. Geol. Mag.,
Dec.. 2, vol. vii., 1880, p. 542.
' Q. J. G. S., 1868, vol. xxiv. p. 493. ■ Mem. G. S. India, vol. xii. p. 241.
3 Jifc. G. S. India, Aug., 1873, p. 49. Dawkins, "Early Man in Brit.," p. 166.
* Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xvii., 1888, p. 57.
* Journ. As. .Soc. Bengal, vol. Ivi., 1887, p. 249.
" Proc. Soc. A,it., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 66. " Horte Ferales." p. 132, pi. i. 19.
652 KIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS, [cHAP. XXIV.
tte surface of a bed of gravel between Mount Tabor and the Lake
of Tiberias, was exhibited by the Abbe Richard * at the meeting
of the British Association at Edinburgh in 1871.
Another implement of palaeolithic type was obtained by M. de
Vogue at Bethsaoui',' near Bethlehem. Others, both of quartzite
and flint, have been found by Mr. Frank Calvert on a ridge of
hills near the Dardanelles.^ Mr. H. Stopes, F.G.S., also found
such an implement near Jerusalem ^ in 1880.
In Algeria implements of undoubted palaeolithic forms have
occurred at Ousidan ^ and at Palikao,^ in the province of Oran.
Sir John Lubbock has also found a specimen made of flint at
Kolea," Algeria. "WTiat may be instruments of the same age
have been found in gravel at Gafsa,^ in Tunis. In Egypt several
well-marked palaeolithic implements have been found. That
picked up near Thebes in 1872 by the late Mr. Ouvry ^ I then
regarded as Neolithic, but it may be of earlier date. Those de-
scribed by Sir John Lubbock ^° in 1873, and Professor Henry W.
Haynes, of Boston, Mass., in 1881, have many of them greater
claims to be regarded as palaeolithic. But the discovery of flint
flakes by General Pitt Rivers ^^ in the stratified gravel in which
the Tombs of the Kings, near Thebes, are hewn, placed their
great antiquity beyond doubt. Mr. H. Stopes also found an im-
plement of palaeolithic type half a mile from the spring of Moses,
near Cairo,^^ in 1880. More recent discoveries of well-marked
palaeolithic implements at high levels above the valley of the
Nile, such as have been made by Professor Flinders Petrie ^^ and
Mr. H. W. Seton-Karr, show that what is now Egypt was occu-
pied by man in Palaeolithic times. Numerous other discoveries in
Egypt of implements of well-marked palaeolithic forms have been
recorded by M. J. de Morgan. ^^ More remarkable still is the
discovery by Mr. Seton-Karr of implements of most of the well-
known palaeolithic forms at high levels in Somaliland,^^ in posi-
tions apparently connected with existing river-courses, such as
that of the Issutugan.
' Trans. Preh. Cong. 1878, p. 278. - 2rat., vol. viii. 1873, p. 179.
3 Journ. Anth. Inxi., vol. x., 1881, p. 428. ^ £rit. Assoc. Rep., 1880, p. 624.
5 Mat., vol. X., 1875, p. 197. « Mat., vol. xxii. 1888, p. 221.
' Journ. Anth. Inst., -vol. x. 1881, p. 318, pi. xvi.
« L'Anthrop., vol. v., 1894, p. 530. » Proc. Sac. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v. p. 331.
'<* Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. iv., 1875, p. 215, pi. xvi.
11 Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xi., 1882, p. 382. i- Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1880, p. 624.
•' "Hawara," 188£, pi. xxvii., and subsequent expeditions.
1* " Rech. 8ur les Origines de I'Egypte," 1896, q.v.
1^ Journ. Anth. hist., vol. xxv. 1896, p. 272, pi. xix.-xxi. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1895,
p. 824. Proc. M. S., vol. Ix., 1896, p. 19.
FOUND IN AFRICA. 653
In the southernmost part of Africa, in the Cape Colony,^ and
in Natal, stone implements have been discovered which, from
their shape, if that alone were sufficient, may be classed as Palgeo-
lithic. They are chipped out of various silicious rocks, and are for
the most part found upon the surface, though occasionally at con-
siderable depths below it. They have been described by Mr. W. D.
Gooch,^ Mr. W. H. Penning,^ Mr. J. C. Rickard,^ and others. Mr.
Rickard describes four series from the Jimction, Port Elizabeth,
East London, and the Diamond Fields. He has presented me with
several specimens, mostly in quartz. Mr. E. J. Dunn has given
me a remarkably symmetrical ovate implement (6 inches), made
of some metamorphic schist, and found under nine feet of strati-
fied beds at Process-fontein, Victoria West, in 1873, and Mr. J.
B. Taylor has presented to me ovate implements of quartzite
from the valley of the Embabaan, Swaziland.
I have elsewhere, ' when calKng attention to the discoveries of
Mr. Setou-Karr in SomaKland, remarked that their great interest
consists in the identity in form of the implements with those found
in the Pleistocene deposits of Xorth-Western Europe and elsewhere.
Any one comparing the implements from such widely separated
localities, the one with the other, must feel that if they have not
been actually made by the same race of men, there must have
been some contact of the closest kind between the races who
manufactured implements of such identical forms. Those from
SomaKland occur in both flint (much whitened and decomposed
by exposure) and in quartzite, but the implements made from the
two materials are almost indistinguishable in form. Those of
lanceolate shape are most abundant, but the usual ovate and other
forms are present in considerable numbers.
Turning westward from Somaliland we meet with flint imple-
ments of the same character found by Professor Flinders Petrie
at a height of many hundred feet above the valley of the Nile.
A few have been discovered in Northern Africa ; they recur in the
valley of the Manzanares in Spain, in some districts in Central
Italy, and abound in the river-valleys of France and England.
Turning eastward we encounter implements of analogous forms,
one found by M. Chantre in the valley of the Euphrates, and
1 Q. J. Ethn. Soc, vol. ii. p. 41, pi. i. 3.
- Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xi., 1882, p. 124. Brit. As^oc. Rep., 1880, p. 622.
* Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xvi., 1887, p. 68.
* Camb. Ant. Comm., vol. v. p. 57, 6 plates.
5 Fr»c. £oi/. Soe., vol. be., 1896, p. 19.
654 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIV.
many made of quartzite in the lateritic deposits of India ; while in
Southern Africa almost similar tj^es occur, though their age is
somewhat uncertain.
That the cradle of the human family must have been situated
in some part of the world where the climate was genial, and the
means of subsistence readily obtained, seems almost seK-evident ;
and that these discoveries in Somaliland may serve to elucidate
the course b}' which human civilization, such as it was, if not
indeed the human race, proceeded westward from its early home
in the East is a fair subject for speculation. But, under any
circumstances, this discovery aids in bridging over the interval
between Palaeolithic man in Britain and in India, and adds
another link to the chain of evidence by which the original cradle
of the human family may eventually be identified, and tends to
prove the unity of race between the inhabitants of Asia, Africa,
and Europe, in Palaeolithic times.
"With regard to the reputed discoveries of palaeolithic imple-
ments at Trenton,^ New Jersey, and elsewhere in the United
States of America, I venture to reserve my judgment. Opinion in
America ^ is divided, one antiquary recording that in a quarry,
the antiquity of which does not exceed two hundred years, and
from which the Indians obtained chert from which they chipped
out their implements, forms which exactly resemble the " turtle-
backs" of Trenton occur ; while other writers carry back the beds
and the implements the}' contain so far as to Glacial times. Recent
excavations seem to give evidence of, at all events, a high antiquity.
To return to the purposes of the implements themselves. "With
regard to their general uses, many opinions have been expressed.
Sir Joseph Prestwich ^ has suggested that some of them may have
been used as ice-chisels, for cutting holes in ice, to obtain water
and to be enabled to fish during continued frosts, as is practised by
many occupants of northern regions at the present day. Such a
use is of course possible ; but the occurrence of implements of
similar forms in Madras, Somaliland, Northern and Southern
Africa, seems to militate against this view, unless we are to sup-
pose that at some remote time a glacial climate may have prevailed
in those parts of the world also, as we believe it to have done here.
' C. C. Abbott, "Primitive Industry," 1881; Eeport, 1877, 1878. Froc. U. S.
Nat. Hist. Mm., 1888, Appendix ; 1890, pp. 187, 371. Froc. Bost. Nat. Hist. Soc,
vol. xxi. pp. 124, 132. T. Wilson, " La Periode paleol. dans I'Amer. du Nord.,"
'Paris, 1892.
- W. H. Holmes, Smithsonian Just. Rep., 1894. Nature, vol. xlviii., 1893,
p. 253 ; vol. Iv. 18'.)7, p. 459 v. ; Mercer's "Res. upon the Ant. of Man in the
Delaware Valley," 1897. ^ <- Flint Chips," p. 42.
THEIR PROBABLE USES. 655
M. Boucher de Perthes thought that some of the pointed forms
might have been used as wedges for splitting wood or grubbing
for esculent roots, or possibly for tilling the ground. Some of the
sharp-rimmed implements he regarded as hatchets. He has
pointed out various methods in which they might have been
hafted and used.^ Some of the smaller size, I have suggested,
may have been missiles. On the whole, however, although I
have pointed out the manner in which some of the implements
appear to have been held, and have called attention to the marks
of wear on their edges, I revert to my old opinion,'^ " that it is
nearly useless to speculate on the purposes to which they were
applied."
To use the words of Sir John Lubbock,^ " Almost as well might
we ask to what would they not be applied. Infinite as are our
instruments, who would attempt even at present to say what was
the use of a knife ? But the primitive savage had no such choice
of tools ; we see before us, perhaps, the whole contents of his
workshop ; and with these weapons, rude as they seem to us, he
may have cut down trees, scooped them out into canoes, grubbed
up roots, killed animals and enemies, cut up his food, made holes
in winter through the ice, prepared firewood, built huts, and in
some cases at least, they may have served as sling-stones." To
these possible uses I may add that of fashioning other instruments
of wood and bone, such as may yet be eventually discovered M'ith
them in the same beds of drift, as has already been the case in
caves, with regard to those of bone or stag's horn.
Considering the number of the stone implements which have
been collected, it seems at first sight singular that no other relics
of those who made them have as yet been discovered. For,
nothing of moment in the shape of implements, utensils, or ap-
pliances, made of other materials than stone, have as yet been
found, nor with but few exceptions, any portions of the human
skeleton. It must, however, be remembered how imperishable
in their nature are flint and the other silicious stones used for
these ancient implements, as compared with the other materials
which, among a savage people, come readily to hand, such as
wood, bone, horn, or hide ; and, moreover, that even the flint
implements, in many cases testify to the rough usage they have
undergone by water transport, before being finally laid in their
' "Ant. Celt, et Anted.," vol. iii. p. 76, et scqq. ; 455, et seqq.
» Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 291. ^ Nat. Mist. Jiev., 1862, p. 250.
656 RIVER-URIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIV.
resting-place in the gravel. Lighter objects, such as those of
wood and other organic materials, would, if exposed to the action
of a stream, in manv cases have been washed right away to the
sea ; or, if accidentally lodged, would have perished by the ordi-
nary processes of decay. It is only in the case of bone imple-
ments that we can hope that future discoveries may bring them
to light ; but even this contingency depends mainly on their
attracting the eye of some intelligent gravel-digger ; since, for one
yard of gravel examined by a scientific observer, it is probable
that thousands pass through the hands of ordinary labourers, who
require some instruction before they can be brought to recognize
even the best-wrought forms of flint implements. Some few
objects both of wood and bone, showing traces of having been cut
by Palaeolithic man, have been found near London by Mr.
Worthington Smith,^ but these traces are but slight.
The comparative absence of human bones in these beds seems
to be partly dependent on the same cause of deficient observation ;
but portions of a human skeleton, apparently contemporary with
the beds in which they lay, and in which also palseolithic imple-
ments occurred, have been found in the neighbourhood of Paris,
and a human skull near Bury St. Edmunds.^ The Galley Hill ^
skeleton affords but a doubtful instance.
Li^dng, as in all probability man must have done, by the chase,
his numbers must necessarily have been small, as compared with
those of the animals on which he subsisted. Sir John Lubbock
has calculated that among the North American Indians the pro-
portion is about 1 to ToO : and as man is in all probability at
least four times as long-lived as most of these animals, the propor-
tion might be increased to 1 to 3,000. If this were so, and all
the bones were preserved, it would follow that about 3,000 bones
of the different animals of the chase w^ould be found to one of
human origin. But here again the fact comes in, which is also
pointed out by Sir John Lubbock, that in most of the beds of
gravel no trace has as yet been found of any animal so small as
man. Other possible causes for this scarcity of human remains
in the River-drift will be mentioned at a subsequent page. Even
in sepulchres of the Neolithic * period the bones of those buried
have not unfrequently entirely disappeared.
Of what was the condition and stage of civilization of the men
' " Man the Prim. Savage," p. 26S.
- P. 542 supra. ^ P. 607 supra.
* Nature, vol. xxvii., 1883, pp. 8, 53, 54, 102.
THE CIVILIZATION THEY BETOKEN. 657"
of that time, it is probable that the implements by themselves
afford but insufficient means for judging. Many of them, though
rude, may be matched in that respect by stone implements in use
among the Australian savages of the present century ; while
others again show great dexterity in working so intractable a
material as flint, though in no way approaching that attained by
some of the flint-workers in Neolithic times. Comparing the
implements of the two periods together, the main differences are
that the forms are fewer, and, as a rule, larger and more rudely
chipped in the earlier period ; and, beyond this, that the art of
grinding to an edge appears to have been unknown. If we
regard, as probably we safely may do, the remains of human art
found in caves like Kent's Cavern, associated with bones of
animals belonging to the same fauna as that of the River-Drift,
as being attributable to the same age and probably to the same
race of people, we get some further insight into their habits and
conditions of life. The evidence seems to justify us in regarding
these River-drift or Cave folk as hunters, and probably nomads,
subsisting to a great extent on the produce of the chase ; living
where possible under natural shelters, to which they brought
either the whole or portions of the slaughtered animals, the bones
of which, fractured for the purpose of extracting the marrow, we
find accumulated in the caves : during the latter part of their
occupation of this country acquainted with the art of spearing fish
by means of barbed harpoons ; and able to sew, though probably
not to spin or to weave. This last supposition, like some others,
rests on negative evidence only, but is still justified by the absence
of spindle-whorls. Their thread, like that of the Eskimos, would
seem to have been formed of animal sinew or intestine, and to have
been used for joining together skins, in which the holes, for the
needle to pass through, were made by awls of pointed bone.
Some knowledge of drawing and engraving is evinced by our
own Cave-dwellers, as well as by those of France. These latter
had personal ornaments in the shape of perforated shells and
teeth, and if the view could be supported that the perforated
fossil Coscinopora glohularis ^ was in use for beads of necklaces,
we should have evidence of a similar use of personal ornaments
among the River-drift folk.
A want of acquaintance with cereals is suggested by the ab-
sence of mealing-stoncs or corn-crushers. The pounding-stones,.
' Nature, vol. xxix., 1884, p. 83. *' Man the Prim. Savage," p. 272.
U U
658 KIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXTV.
such as have been found, would seem to have been used for
crushing some other sort of food, possibly roots.
The art of pottery also appears to have been unknown, so far as
this country is concerned, but it is said to have been practised in
Belgium.
Slijjht as was the knowledge of the useful arts exhibited by
the River-drift men, it will I think be clear to the dispassionate
observer, that we cannot regard their implements, however ancient
they mty be, as the earliest productions of the human race; on
the contrary, we must conclude that man had already existed for
an extended period upon the earth, before these relics were im-
bedded in the gravels. The mere identity in shape of various
classes of implements occurring in distant localities, seems to
afford sufficient evidence of a long lapse of time, during which it
was discovered that certain forms were best adapted for certain
purposes, and the custom of thus fashioning them became estab-
lished, and, as it were, hereditary over a large area. Still, though
eventually works of man will, in all probability, be discovered in
-older beds than these Quaternary gravels, I must repeat that I
cannot at present accept the views of the Abbe Bourgeois ^ and
others as to their occurring in the Pliocene beds of St. Prest,
near Chartres, and in the Miocene beds at Thenay, near Pontle-
voy ; nor can I regard the so-called Plateau - types as being of
necessity of human workmanship, and still less as being the pre-
cursors of the Palaeolithic forms. To judge from the figures, the
so-called Pliocene flake from Burma is not artificial, as it has no
:flat face. An article on the fractured flints found on the sea-
shore, and their resemblance to so-called Tertiary implements, has
been published by M. Michel Hardy .^
Leaving these older deposits out of the question, I must now
pass on to a consideration of the degree of antiquity which must
be assigned to the Quaternary beds of Paver-drift ; but before
doing so, it will perhaps be well to say a few words as to the
characteristics of authenticity presented by these implements ;
for, as is so universally the case, where the demand for an article
has exceeded the supply, spurious imitations of them have been
fabricated, and in some cases successfully passed off upon avid but
unwary collectors. In England, indeed, this has perhaps not
been the case to the same extent as in France ; but I have seen a
^ Cono. Inter. cTAnthrop., &c., 1867, p. 70. Hamy, " Paleont. Hum.," p. 49.
^ See F. C. J. Spurrell in Areh. Journ., toI. xlviii.. 1891, p. 315. Journ. Anth.
Init.,\o\. xxiii. p. 260. Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1892. p. 900. yat. S.r\ence,yo\. v., Oct., 1894.
3 " Explication de Tapparence de taille, &c.," Dieppe, 1881.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THEIR AUTHENTICITY. 659
few fabrications of Palocolithic forms, produced both by the
notorious "Flint Jack" and by more humble practitioners in
Suffolk. More skilful, however, have been some forgers in the
North-East of London,^ whose productions can with difficulty be
distinguished from the genuine articles.
As a rule, however, unless the forged implement has been put
through some process, for the purpose of altering the character of
its surface (which it is hardly ever worth the while of the ordi-
nary forger to do, even supposing him to be acquainted with
means for so doing), its surface can always be restored to its
original condition, assuming it to have been smeared over with
some substance in order to give it an appearance of antiquity, by
thoroughly washing it in hot water. The surface of a newly-
chipped flint can then in almost all cases be at once recognized by
its peculiar dull lustreless appearance, especially if it be black
flint, such as is best adapted for being chipped into form. Not
unfrequently the metallic marks of the iron hammer with which
it has been chipped out are risible, the angles are sharp and
harsh, or, if smooth, show traces of having been ground, and the
character of the chipping is usually different from that of genuine
implements, as is also often the form.
The genuine specimens from the beds of River-drift, with but
very few exceptions, present some one or more of the following
characteristics ; ^ — glossiness of surface, dendritic markings, cal-
careous incrustations, and discoloration, varying, of course, with
the nature of the beds in which they have lain. The angles are
often somewhat smoothed, even if not distinctly waterworn ; and
when, as happens in some rare cases, the flint has remained
unaltered in colour, and without presenting in a marked manner
any of the characteristics above specified, its surface will, on close
examination, be found dotted over at intervals with bright glossy
spots, probably those at which for ages it has been in contact with
other stones.^ The glossiness of surface so frequent on these
implements appears to be partly due to mechanical, and partly to
chemical causes. The polishing effect of the friction of sand on
flints in the bed of a river, or even when lying on the surface of
the ground, is well known ; and the brilliantly-polished flakes not
unfrequently found in the bed of the Seine at Paris, and those
from the sandy heaths of Norfolk and Suffolk, afford examples of
' See Worthington Smith in Joiirn. Anth. Inxt., vol. xiii., 1884, p. 377, and "Man,
the Prim. Savage," p. 294 et geqq.
• See also Prestwich, Phil. Trans., 1860, p. 297. ^ See antea, p. 565.
TJ U 2
660 RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENTS. [cHAP. XXIV.
the results of this friction since Neolithic times. In the Palaeo-
lithic implements, however, the gloss which so frequently accom-
panies a structural alteration in the surface of the flint, seems due
to the same chemical cause which has produced the alteration in
the structure ; and this cause, as I have already remarked, appears to
be the infiltration of water partially dissolving the body of the flint.
An interesting paper by M. E. d'Acy,^ on the patination of the
worked flints of St. Acheul, was communicated to the Anthropo-
logical Congress at Paris in 1878.
The dendritic markings are more common on the implements
from some localities, as, for instance, Santon Downham, than from
others, and are due to the crystallization of peroxide of man-
ganese upon their surface. Although these moss-like forms do
not of necessity take any great length of time for their produc-
tion, as is proved by their occasional occurrence in paper of recent
manufacture, in which particles of manganese have been accident-
ally present, yet to superinduce them on a forged flint would pass
the ordinary fabricator's skill, and their presence may safely be
regarded as an indication of an old surface. The same may be
said of the calcareous incrustations, which also are by no means
of universal occurrence. The safest and indeed the most common
indication of an implement being really genuine is the alteration
in the structure of the flint which has taken place over the greater
part, if not the whole, of its surface, and the discoloration it has
undergone. In ochreous beds of gravel the specimens are fre-
quently much stained of a yellow, bufi", or brown colour ; where
less iron is present they become grey, especially at the angles, and
often more so on one face than the other. In red or brown marl,
and in places where they lie at no great depth from the surface,
or where there is a free passage for water charged with carbonic
acid, they frequently become white ; whereas, in more impervious
clay, they are often stained brown, or even remain black, though
the surface is rendered glossy. In beds where much chalk is
present they seem to have a tendency to retain their original
colour. The discoloration of the surface is not always attended
by the glossy appearance already mentioned, but this depends in a
great measure on the character of the flint originally employed.
It sometimes happens that the upper side of an implement has
been whitened during its sojourn in the earth, while its lower side
has remained almost unaltered.
1 C. E. du Cong. Intern, des Sci. Anthrop., 1880, p. 234.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THEIR AUTHENTICITY. 661
The recognition of these marks of authenticity has in some
cases induced forgers to re-work, and according to their view,
improve, genuine but imperfect ancient implements ; but the
newly-chipped surfaces can always be recognized on washing the
specimens. In France some attempts have been made to dis-
colour the surface of flints by chemical means, but in the instances
which have come imder my notice, the process has not been very
successful ; for though the surface of a dark flint has been whitened,
it has become rough and somewhat pitted. A more deceptive
discoloration has sometimes been produced by leaving the forged
implements for many months in a kitchen boiler, the hot water in
which gradually dissolves away a small portion of the surface of
the flint and thus changes its colour. In such cases the form
will often reveal the hand of the forger. It may, however, be
thought that, by dwelling too much on this subject, suggestions
will be ofiered, of which the fraudulent skill of some future
forger will avail himself ; and I therefore return from this digres-
sion to the consideration of the antiquity of the flint implements
from the River-drift.
662
CHAPTER XXY.
ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT.
In order to discuss this subject, it wUl be necessary to enter into
some geological details ; as it is evident that the least antiquity
that can be assigned to the implements is that of the beds of
gravel, sand, and clay in which they occur, and of which, in fact,
they may be regarded as constituent portions. TThether they may
not in some instances have been derived from beds of even greater
antiquity than those in which they are found, is another question,
which will subsequently be dealt with ; but any one examining
the condition of the beds in which the implements occur, will have
no difficulty in seeing that they have not been disturbed since
their deposit ; while in most cases, the colouring of the worked
and of the unworked flints they contain is similar, and afibrds
proof of their having long lain together under the same con-
ditions.
That the containing beds have, at all events in most cases,
been deposited by fresh water, and not by the sea, is proved by
the occasional abundance in them of land and freshwater shells,
and the absence of those of marine origin ; while their general
analogy with the flood deposits of existing rivers, and their almost
imiversal contiguity to them, raises the strongest possible pre-
sumption of their existence being due to river action. At the risk
of being thought to have prejudged the question, I have, therefore,
made no scruple in treating them hitherto as being River-drift.
To show that for the most part they are so in reality, and to enable
the reader to form some opinion of the manner in which deposits
originally formed in and about the beds of streams or lakes, now
in some cases occupy the tops of hills, and cover the slopes of
valleys, far above the level of any existing neighbouring river, or
even at a considerable distance from any stream, it will, I think,
be well to state a hypothetical case ; and then to compare the
actual phenomena with it, and see how far they correspond.
HYPOTHETICAL CASE OF RIVER-ACTION. 66$
Should it appear that with a certain given configuration of the
land surface, a certain character of rock, a certain climate, and a
certain number of years, certain effects must, judging from all
anal( gy, have been produced ; and should we in the case of these
ancient Drifts find some of the conditions to have existed, and all
the phenomena to be in accordance with the hypothesis, we may
with some confidence assume that the other original conditions
existed also ; and build up a connected theory which will account
for the whole of the observed results, and will also throw light on
their causes, as well as on the duration of time necessary for their
operation to have produced such effects. In stating the case, I lay
no claim to originality, and do little more than follow in the steps
of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir Joseph Prestwich, and others who have
made a study of the character and effects of fluviatile action.
As it is in the gravels of Chalk districts that Palaeolithic imple-
ments have been chiefly, though by no means exclusivel}', found, let
us base the hypothesis on the assumption that an extensive and
almost horizontal area of Upper Chalk, covered for the most part
with beds of marine clay and shingle, gradually rose from beneath
the sea, to an elevation of 200 feet above its level. Let us also-
assume that the land was elevated at a rate far in excess of that
at which any subaerial action, such as rain, frost, or snow, would
enable a river flowing over it to excavate its valley to the depth,
of 200 feet in the space of time required for its elevation to that
height. Let us further assume, that the winter climate was some-
what more rigorous than that which at present prevails in this
country, and that there was a considerably greater annual rainfall.
We may also, for the purposes of the argument, take the position
of the coast-line as permanent, instead of its constantly receding
in consequence of the eroding power of the sea upon the cliffs.
Let us now see what would theoretically be the effect produced
by subaerial causes on the river- valleys in this area during an
indefinite number of centuries.
Under ordinary circumstances, and with our present amount of
rainfall, there is no geological formation less liable to floods than
the Chalk, or at all events, its upper portion. It is of so absorbent
a nature that it is only in the extraordinary event of the ground
being hard frozen at the time of a heavy fall of rain, or of a rapid
thaw of snow ; or of some inches of rain falling in the course of a
few hours, that the soil is unable to absorb the water as fast as
it is delivered upon it. The moisture when onco in the soil ia
664 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIKT. [cHAP. XXV.
either carried off again by evaporation and vegetation, or descends
to a point at which the chalk is saturated with water, which is,
however, constantly being drained off by springs along the valleys.
Thisbodj' of water has been termed " the subterranean reservoir "
in the Chalk. The consequence of this absorbent power of the soil
is that the streams and rivers in a Chalk country are not liable to
floods, and moreover that their flow is but little affected at the
time by rain ; they being almost entirely dependent on perennial
springs, which, during the driest of summers, still continue to
deliver the water that in the course of the preceding winter, or
even previously, has accumulated in the body of the Chalk.
The surface of the " subterranean reservoir " in the Chalk is by
no means level, but always pre^^ents a gradient towards the point
at which the springs are delivering its contents, so that within a
chalk-hill forming a watershed between two streams there is what
may be termed a hill of subterranean water, the summit of which
need not, and often does not, correspond with the apparent water-
shed on the surface. The angle of the water-surface gradient
depends principally on two factors, the degree of friction in passing
through the chalk, and the amount of rainthat finds its way down
from the surface.
The height of saturation varies much in different seasons, as is
evinced by the intermitting streams, often known as bournes,^ which
perhaps only flow for a few months once in every six or seven
years. Near the Chalk escarpment in Hertfordshire, at a spot
several miles distant from any stream, I have known this height of
saturation, as shown by the level of water in a deep well, to vary
•as much as 70 feet in the course of a single year. But with a
greater rainfall than at present, the Chalk might at all times be in
a state of saturation up to within a few feet of the surface ; and
this would be materially assisted, were there no deep valleys in
existence into which the subterranean water could be delivered ; as,
of course, if the outfall were raised, the level of permanent satura-
tion would be raised also. "Were the Chalk in a less porous con-
dition than at present, of course also its absorbent powers would
not be so great. Under the circumstances, therefore, which have
been supposed, the river- and spring-water from a Chalk district
would be delivered in a manner very materially differing from
that which at present prevails. The delivery of water by springe
'Would be but small in shallow valleys ; and, indeed, the only
1 See Tram, Watford Nat. Hist. Soe., vol. i., 1878, p. 137.
ORIGIN OF RIVER SYSTEMS. 665
important springs would be those along the sea-shore ; while irre-
spective of this, the greater rainfall would keep the soil so saturated,
that floods would bo as readily produced by heavy storms of rain
as if the soil were the most unabsorbent of rocks. If after some
lapse of time the rainfall diminished, and the valleys were
deepened, so that the outlets for the springs were at a consider-
ably lower level than that of the principal area of the country, the
case would be altered, and the tendency to floods would be imme-
diately reduced.
At the commencement of the state of things supposed in our
hypothesis, these outlets, with the exception of those on the sea-
shore, would be but little lower than the general surface of the
country, which, however, would not be perfectly plane. For it
seems probable that the waters of the retreating sea would, during
the elevation of the tract of land, form shallow channels, cutting
down some little distance into the clay or chalk ; and thus, as it
were, mark out a course along which streams or rivers would flow,
after the land was completely free from the sea. In some places,
perhaps, shallow lakes might be left, but these also would have
channels draining oS their waters when they rose above a certain
elevation.
With a bare surface, such as a newly-elevated tract would
expose, there can be no doubt that the eroding power of heavy
rains would be highly effective ; as may be seen at the present day
in the far greater eflfects of heavy showers on bare soil than on
that which is protected by turf and vegetation. At the same
time, with a rigorous climate, such as that supposed, the winter
accumulation of snow and ice would be great, and its thawing
during the summer months would add enormously and rapidly to
the streams draining the area, which would in consequence have
great power to deepen and widen their channels. The outflows
from the lakes, if any such existed, would also be enlarged, while
their upper portions would be filled with material brought down
by the streams, and eventually they would be drained, with the
exception of some channels in their beds through which the streams
would pass.
We may therefore readily suppose that in the course of no very
great interval of time, geologically speaking, a river-system for
carrpng off the waters falling from the heavens, analogous in
character to those of the present day, but with shallower valleys,
would be formed on the surface of the elevated tract. Let us
6^)6 ANTIQIITY OF THE UIVLR-DKIFT. [cHAP. XW.
suppose that while this, as it may be termed, preliminary configu-
ration of the surface has been taking place, the land has become
tenanted by various trees, shrubs, and plants affording means of
subsistence to different forms of animal life ; while the streams also
have been occupied by colonies of freshwater testacea ; and let us
now trace what would be the action of the rivers. To use the
words of Sir Charles Lyell,^ " when we are speculating on the
excavating force which a river may have exerted in any particular
valley, the most important question is, not the volume of the
existing stream nor the present levels of its channel, nor even the
nature of the rocks ; but the probabilitj' of a succession of floods
at some period since the time when the valley may have been first
elevated above the sea."
Now in the first place, all rivers whose banks are not artificially
protected, and whose channels are not kept clear, are of necessity
more liable to floods than those in ci^dlized countries, which bear
much the same relation to rivers flowing through uncultivated
lands, as domesticated animals do to wild. We have, moreover,
ex Iii/pof/icsi, a fruitful source of floods in a greater rainfall and in a
more rigorous winter climate. The marvellous effects of such floods
in excavating channels, and in transporting materials, can only be
estimated by those who have seen their results, or have studied the
accounts given of them. When we read of a small rivulet on the
Cheviots,^ swollen by heavy rain, having transported several thou-
sand tons of gravel and sand into the neighbouring plain, and
having carried blocks of stone, weighing upwards of half a ton, two
miles down its course, while another block weighing nearly two
tons was transported the distance of a quarter of a mile, we may
form some conception of the effects of even a flooded brook. The
blocking of a stream by ice or fallen trees, so as to keep back its
waters, and thus form a lake, which is suddenly drained by the
breaking of the barrier ; a heav}' fall of rain ; or a rapid fall of
snow on ground hard frozen, and therefore impervious, are common
causes of floods ; and such as we may presume to have prevailed in
our hypothetical case. What, therefore, would be the effect of
such floods ?
The first effect would no doubt be to cause the streams to over-
flow their banks, and spread over the bottom of the valleys in
which they usually flowed. The shallower the valley the greater
Lyell, " Principles of Geol.," 10th ed., vol. i. p. 354.
2 Op. Cit., p. 350.
AMOUNT OF SOLID MATTER IN TURBID WATER. 657
probably would be the sinuosities of the stream, and the wider
would its waters spread. The greater also would be the probability
of the stream, on the cessation of the flood, not returning to its
original channel, which might have become obliterated or filled up,
but of its flowing along some new course, it may be miles away
from its former channel. Even when not flooded so as to overflow
their banks, rivers along which a larger body of water flowed than
there does at present, would, so long as they were not confined
within deep valleys, have a tendency to wander over a much wider
tract of country than that now occupied by their valleys. The
tendency of all rivers to produce sinuosities in their course is well
known ; but Mr. Fergusson, in his excellent paper on recent
changes in the Delta of the Ganges,^ has called attention to the
fact that all rivers oscillate in curves, the extent of which is
directly proportionate to the quantity of water flowing thro ugh them.
But rivers in a state of flood, or passing even at a moderate
speed over soft or incoherent soil, are always turbid, owing to the
presence in their waters of earthy matter which they are trans-
porting towards the sea. The character of the solid matter thus
transported by water in motion is entirely dependent on its velo-
city. A velocity of 300 yards per hour is sufficient to tear up fine
clay ; of 600 yards, fine sand ; of 1,200 yards, fine gravel ; and of a
little over two miles per hour, to transport shivery angular stones
of the size of an egg.'^ Considering the small velocity requisite to
remove the finer particles of the soil, and to retain them in suspen-
sion, a river such as has been supposed, must have been excessively
turbid, so long as any fine earthy particles were accessible to its
waters, or to those of the streamlets delivering into it.
The amount of soKd matter suspended in turbid water is
greater than might be imagined. Mr. A. Tylor has calculated that
the detritus carried down by the Ganges is equivalent to what
would result from the removal of soil a foot in depth over the
whole of the area which it drains in 1,791 years,^ and that brought
down b\' the Mississippi to one foot in 9,000 years. Other esti-
mates fix this at one foot in 6,000 years, while the sediment con-
tained in its stream has been estimated at from , .,' ■ to -t^Vtt oi the
weight of the water.'* Taking this latter proportion, an inch of rain
1 Quar. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. xix. (1863), p. 321.
* " Ed eye. Brit." — Art. "Rivers." Lyell, " Princ. of Geol," lOtli ed., vol. i.
p. 348. Lubbock, "Prehistoric Times," 4th ed., p. 382.
3 (^uar. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. ix. (1853), p. 48.
* Lyell's "Princ. of Geol.," vol. i. p. 4o8. Geikie, Geol. Mag., vol. v. p. 250.
€68 ANTIQUITY OF THE KIVER-DRIFT. [cHAP. XXV.
falling on a square mile of ground, and flowing off it in a turbid
state, would carry with it at least forty-three tons of sediment ; and
were we to assume an annual rainfall of fifty-four inches — which,
though exceptional, is by no means unknown even in the British
Isles — about 2,300 tons of fine earthy matter would be removed
from a square mile of country in a single year. Taking a cubic
yard of solid ground as equal to a ton in weight, this would involve
the removal of one foot in depth from the surface in about 450
years. If, however, a portion of the rainfall were delivered by
springs, or fell on hard or rocky ground, so as not to be rendered
turbid, of course the effect would be proportionally diminished.
Sir Archibald Geikie^ has estimated that practically, at the present
day, the Thames (apart from about 450,000 tons of chalk and
other matter carried away annually in solution), lowers its basin
at the rate of one foot in 11,740 years ; the Boyne, one foot in
6,700 years; the Forth, one foot in 3,111 years ; and the Tay,
one foot in 1,482 years. It is, however, with water moving with
far greater velocity than that merely sufficient to keep fine sedi-
ment in suspension, that we have to deal in this hypothetical case ;
and we may readily suppose the streams, at more or less regular
intervals, liable to violent floods, eroding the chalk and the super-
imposed clays and gravels, and carrying with them not only the
finer particles and sand, but the pebbles, large and small, of the
gravel, and the flints washed out of the chalk.
Let us now consider what would be the condition of the surface
of a broad shallow valley, on the cessation of a flood such as that
which has been supposed. In certain parts removed from the
main current, and where the water had been nearly stationary, we
should find deposits of fine mud or clay ; in others, where the
water had still moved with sufficient velocity to retain the clay
and fine silt in suspension, the heavier particles of sand would have
accumulated ; in others, again, the smaller stones and pebbles ;
while near the main current, especially on the inner side of any
curves which it had made, and where of course its velocity had
been diminished, we should find the larger flints and pebbles, pro-
bably to some extent intermixed with part of the finer materials.
In the beds of mud and sand, we should probably find the shells of
some of the molluscs inhabiting the waters, and also those of ter-
restrial species, washed in from the inundated land surface, or
brought down from the banks of the tributary rivulets; while
» Geol. Mag. (1868), vol. v. p. 250.
NATURE OF FLOOD-DEPOSITS. 669
mixed among the larger pebbles we might expect to find any
animal bones that had been lying on the land contiguous to the
stream, or any of the larger and heavier objects of human work-
manship, that would have been carried off by such an inundation,
had mankind been living on the banks of the river.
Were men, or any of tiie larger animals overwhelmed and
drowned by the flood, it seems probable that, owing to the slight
difference between their specific gravity and that of water, they
would eventually have been carried down to the sea, unless by
some means accidentally arrested in their course, or carried into
the more stagnant waters. In either case, they would, on the
waters subsiding, probably be exposed on or near the surface, and
not be imbedded in any of the deposits of the stream. Assuming
the existence at that time of a respect for the dead, such as may
be regarded as almost instinctive in man, any human remains
would be buried or otherwise disposed of, while the bones of the
other carcases would be left within reach of the waters, should
another flood occur.
At the mouth of the river, where it joined the sea, its excavating
power would be considerably greater than farther inland ; for at
first, on account of the land having — as was presumed, in this hypo-
thetical case — risen faster than the river could excavate its valley,
the stream must have fallen as a cascade into the sea. This, by the
cutting back of the lip in such a soft rock as the Chalk, would soon
be converted into a rapid, where the greater velocity of the water
wculd much add to its erosive power ; and, ere long, a mouth to the
river would be formed, which would soon become tidal. Before
tracing the results that would be due to this greater declivity of
the river-bed in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea, it will
be well to consider what would be the results of successively
recurring floods, in the less inclined broad shallow valley, on which
we have been speculating.
There can be no doubt that with each succeeding flood the
valley would be deepened ; and the fact of its being thus deepened
would tend to make it narrower, by restricting the windings of
the river. We can, however, hardly imagine that in this deepen-
ing process the whole of the deposits spread by the former floods
over the bottom and slopes of the valley would be removed, but
must acknowledge the extreme probability of some portions of
them having remained intact, especially those which were left at
the greatest distance from the coiirse eventually taken by the river
670 ANTIULITY OF IHE RIVEK-URIFT, [cHAP. XXV.
during its period of flood. When once thev had been thus left,
the chances of their being again assailed by the stream would
become more and more remote with each successive flood ; and
though the waters might reach some deposit of the larger pebbles
formerly carried down by the main stream, but now at a distance
from it, yet they would only belong to the more sluggish portions
of the flood, and at first might envelope them in beds of sand ; and
subsequently, when they were only accessible to the more stagnant
turbid waters, leave layer upon layer of muddy silt or clay upon
them. In forming the more loess-like beds the action of the
wind in transporting sand and dust might also assist. In some
cases, and especially at the extremity of curves, and at the end
of the tongue between two streams, the accumulation of one
period, though at a lower level than that of earlier date, might
abut upon it, or even become mingled with it, so that an almost
continuous coating of Drift-deposits might extend from the highest
level to the lowest.
The bulk, however, of the deposits of one inundation would
be moved by the next, or by one of those which subsequently
recurred ; and stones, and pebbles, and other objects might thus be
transported down stream, from place to place, an indefinite number
of times, and form constituent parts of an indefinite number of
gravelly beds along the bottom of the flooded stream. They might,
under some circumstances, lie for a long period of years in some
particular bed, in which they would become stained by salts of
iron or otherwise, and subsequently be transported and re-deposited
among unstained, or differently stained pebbles. The angles of
any flints thus transported from place to place would also become
rolled, as would, in like manner, those of bones or teeth. In the
same way, assuming, as we have done, that the surface of the
Chalk in the district was in part, or wholly, covered with beds of
marine clay and shingle, it is evident that in the earlier deposits,
when the river flowed at the higher level, and was, as it were,
commencing to excavate its valley, the proportion of the pebbles
derived from these beds to the flints was^ied out from the Chalk,
would be much greater than at a later period. For in the course of
time the river would have worked its way below the level of these
upper beds, and many of the pebbles at first deposited in its gravels
would have been disturbed, again and again, in their beds ; on each
disturbance carried farther down the stream, and eventually so far
as the sea or the tidal portion of the river. At the same time the
EFFECTS OF GROUND-ICE. G71
river itself would be priacipally excavating the Chalk which had
been freed from the marine shingle, and would therefore be
forming the gravel in its bed, for the> most part, from flints
derived from the Chalk.
In the same manner, pebbles brought from a distant part of the
country, and higher up the rivez", would eventually become more
abundant in the deposits near its mouth, than they were at the
first. Still no amount of transport of this kind could bring any
pebbles into the bed of the river, which did not, in some form or
other, exist within its drainage area.
Besides the transporting power of water, which by itself is,
under favourable circumstances, capable of producing considerable
excavations in a comparatively short period, there is another force
at work, where, as has been supposed in this case, the climate is
severe, which not only aids in the transport of pebbles and blocks
of stone from one part of the bed of a river to another, but is a
fertile source of floods. This is the formation of ground-ice. Sir
Joseph Prestwich,* in his second " ^lemoir on the Flint Implement-
bearing Beds," has given numerous instances of the transporting
power of this agent, and shown the method of its occurrence in
running streams, when the cold suffices to reduce the temperature
of the water, and of the bed of the river itself, to the freezing
point. Under such circumstances a gravelly river bed — and on
mud alone, ice rarely forms — may become coated with ice, which
being lighter than water will, on acquiring certain dimensions,
overcome the forces which keep it at the bottom, and rise to the sur-
face, carrying with it all the loose materials to which it adhered.
M. Engelhardt," director of the forges at ]N^iederbronn, in the
Yosges, has, perhaps, more minutely than any one else investigated
the causes of the formation of ground-ice ; and to prevent its
effects in causing floods, actually removed each year from the bed
of the stream supplying the motive power to his works, the stones
and other extraneous bodies round which it was likely to form.
His account of the effects of ground-ice in causing floods in the
upper part of the E,hine and the Danube is worth transcribing.
These two rivers having " a rapid current, do not freeze, like the
Seine, by being covered with a plane and uniform stratum ; they
bear along large blocks of ice, which cross and impinge upon one
another, and becoming thus heaped together, finally barricade the
river. It is a grand spectacle, when the Rhine is thus charged,
' Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 293. See also Lyell, " Princ. of Geol.," vol. i. p. 366.
* Annates de Chi)ytic et de Physique, 1866. Trans, in 5»iii/«so«ia« 7i<7>o»-<, I866,p. 425.
672 AKTIQVITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. [cHAP. XXV.
to see these countless drifts adjust themselves in their relative
position, where they unite by congelation, and convey the idea of
the fall of some mountain which has covered the plain with rocks
of every dimension. But it is not this accumulation of ice-drifts
in the Rhine which is of itself the cause of danger ; it is, on the
contrary, the debacle, or breaking-up, which is often productive of
calamitous consequences. When this debacle commences in the
upper part of the river, above the point where the latter is com-
pletely frozen, the masses of ice, drifting with the current and
unable to pass, are hurled upon those already soldered together ;
thus an enormous barrier is formed, which the water, arrested in
its course, cannot pass over, and hence overflows to the right and
left, breaking the dykes, inundating the plains, and spreading
devastation and suffering, far and near. The disasters caused by
the debacles of the Rhine have taught the riparian inhabitants to
observe attentively the facts which may serve them as a prognostic,
and put them on their guard against the irruption of the ice. It
is thus that they have been led to observe the grund-eis — that is to
say, the ice formed at the bottom of the rivers — for it is this ice
which, in becoming detached from the bottom and rising towards
the surface, unites itself to the under surface of the masses already
in place, and by further embarrassing the discharge, exposes the
country to inundation."
Another most effective agent in transporting the pebbles and
larger blocks of stone along the course of rivers is shore-ice.
During a severe winter masses of thick ice are formed which
enclose the larger stones on the bottom of the river towards its
edge ; these masses are dislodged and carried away by subsequent
floods, whether arising from rapid thaws or from rain higher up
the river, or from accumulations of ice, such as those described,
having formed a temporary barrier across the stream through
which the pent-up water eventually burst and carried all before
it. The lateral pressure of such dams of ice, with a large body of
water behind, must be enormous ; and we can readily conceive
their crumbling-up any beds of gravel on the banks of the rivers
against which they might happen to abut.
But there is still another way in which a severe climate, such
as has been supposed, would act upon the rocks, namely, by their
being rent and disintegrated by frost. This has been well pointed
out by Sir Joseph Prestwich,^ who has cited numerous instances
1 Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 296.
DEPOSITS LEFT ON THE SLOPES OF VALLEYS DURING EXCAVATION. 67 'i
of its effects, and mentions having seen a low cliff of chalk, 15
feet high, form a talus or heap of fragments at its foot, 6 feet
broad and 4 feet high, in the course of an ordinarj^ winter.
As I am by no means attempting an exhaustive geological essay
on this subject, which is indeed hardly needed, I think that enough
has been said to show that under conditions such as have been
supposed in this hypothetical case, the great subaerial agents —
rain and snow, ice and frost — would, in the course of time, enable
rivers to excavate their valleys to an almost indefinite extent.
Indeed, one can conceive the process being carried on, until what
had been rivers became estuaries or arms of the sea ; or, until a
large island once traversed by rivers became converted into several
smaller islands, by the cutting back, and subsequent junction, of
its various river -valleys.
Without, however, carrying the excavatory process to such an
extreme, let us now consider what would be the condition of our
hypothetical river-valley when excavated to a depth of say 100 feet,
at a point about midway between its source and the sea. We have
already seen that at an earlier period — when the river ran at a
higher level by 100 feet than that it is now supposed to occupy —
its valley must have been broader, and its bottom strewn with
detritus of various kinds, in the shape of gravel, sand, and clay,
and, it may be, some larger blocks of stone. In the further process
of excavating by agents such as have been described, it has also
been seen, that it is in the highest degree improbable that the
succeeding floods and other transporting agents should have entirely
removed and obliterated the deposits left by those of earlier date.
We should, therefore, expect to find, at various heights on the
slope of the valley, remains of such beds of detritus, and especially
at points such as the junctions of affluents with the river, and the
inner side of the bends it makes in its course, which would natur-
ally be the least exposed to the violent invasion of the stream. In
these beds we might reasonably search for the remains of the
surface and freshwater life of the period ; and had there been any
amelioration of cKmate during the process of excavation, a larger
proportion of silt and clay, and less of coarse gravel, in the lower
and more recent deposits, would testify to the fact. Looking also
at the power possessed by rivers of levelling the bottoms of their
valleys, during their successive changes of course, we might
expect to find in places, tracts of these old valley-bottoms left as
terraces on the slopes of the more deeply excavated valleys. The
X X
674 ANTIQnTY OF THE KIVER-DRIFT. [^CHAP. XXV.
upper surface of any such relics of a former condition of things
would, of course, be covered with debris and rain-washed clay,
brought down from a higher level on the slopes, but on digging
into them their true nature might be recognized.
Nearer the sea, and farther up the valleys, the state of things
would be somewhat different. At the mouth of the river, as has
already been pointed out, the declivity of the stream would have
been greater, and its excavating power therefore increased. If, as
originally assumed, the bed of the river, when the land was first
elevated, was, at a mile distant from the sea, 200 feet above its
level, the declivity would be 200 feet to the mile ; when the
200 feet level was 4 miles from the sea, the slope would still be
50 feet to the mile ; at 10 miles distance it would still be 20 feet,
and it would not be until the 200 feet level was 15 miles from th&
sea that the ordinary slope of the bottom of the Chalk valleys of
Hertfordshire, which is about 13 feet 6 inches to the mile, would
be attained. In the meantime, however, if the sea were encroach-
ing on the shore, or were, owing to the nature of the rocks, widen-
ing and extending that portion of the river subject to tidal influ-
ences, the actual point of contact with the sea would be carried
far inland, and — assuming the rock traversed to be of one uniform
nature and hardness — it would be long before the river towards
its mouth ceased to have a greater declivity than nearer its source.
"We see, then, that the amount of excavation effected by the river,
during the time necessary for the deepening of the valley by 100
feet, at a point midway in its course, would, near the sea, have
been twice as great, or 200 feet. "We should, therefore, expect to
find beds of the same age as those which, at the middle of its
course, were 100 feet above the river, at relatively twice that
elevation near the mouth ; and any intermediate beds would also
be proportionally higher above the then existing stream, than
contemporary beds farther up the valley.
At the heads of the valleys, the excavation would, on the con-
trary, have been less than towards the middle of the course of the
river ; partly owing to there always being less water present,
partly to the reduced liability to floods, and partly to other causes.
The heads of the valleys would, however, be constantly receding in
all cases, and their retrogression would in most instances be aided
by springs issuing from them. In cases where, from some geo-
logical cause, the heads of two valleys running in opposite direc-
tions receded in the same line, we can readily imagine their meet-
SOLVENT POWER OF CARBONIC ACID. 675
ing eventually at the watershed, and cutting through it so as to
form apparently but a single valley, though on either side of
the highest portion of its bottom, the waters flowed In opposite
directions.
The mention of springs recalls another denuding agent, which
has been already discussed in connection with caverns, and seems
to have assisted in moulding the surface of the country and in
excavating the valleys. It is well known that the water flowing
in the streams of a chalk-country contains, in solution, a consider-
able amount of chalk, or rather, of bi-carbonate of lime ; the water
on entering the ground deriving a certain amount of carbonic acid
from the decaying vegetable matter contained in the soil, and when
thus charged, becoming capable of dissolving a corresponding
quantity of the chalk. The amount is usually 17 or 18 grains in
the gallon ; and even in the Thames at London, not a purely chalk-
stream, there are about 14 grains. Taking the proportion of 17
grains to the gallon, it will be found by calculation that every inch
of rain which falls over a square mile of chalk-country, and passes off"
by springs, carries with it, in solution, and without in the slightest
degree interfering with its brightness, no less than from 15 to 16
tons of solid chalk. The quantity of rain whicli thus finds its way
to the springs has, as already stated, been ascertained by experi-
ment to be as much as 9 inches per annum in average seasons,
giving an amount of about 140 tons of chalk thus annually carried
away from each square mile of country at the present day ; so that
the loss is still going on at the rate of 140,000 tons of dry chalk
to each square mile in every ten centuries.
The lowering of level from this cause is probably not uniform
over the whole surface. For the acidulated water sinking into
the chalk on the top of a hill, and descending one or two hundred
feet before reaching the surface of "the subterranean reservoir,"^
might, in its almost vertical passage, become saturated with car-
bonate of lime, and only render the chalk through which it passed
somewhat more porous, without materially affecting the level of
its surface. On the other hand, that absorbed in a valley would
probably, to some extent, acquire the chalk which it eventually
held in solution during its almost horizontal passage to the point
of its delivery by springs ; and as this would be at no great depth,
the abstraction of solid matter would become more perceptible on
the surface, so that the level of the valley would bo lowered more
' See p. 664.
xx2
676 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. [cHAP. XXV.
rapidly than that of the hill. "With an increased rainfall, such
as we have supposed, this removal of solid matter by solution
must have been considerable ; but still nothing in comparison
with that effected by the other denuding agencies which have
been mentioned. It is, moreover, to be borne in mind that, as
will shortly be seen, until the valleys had been excavated to a
considerable depth, the amount of water delivered by the springs
would, with the same rainfall, have been far less than at present.
The springs would also, to some extent, have been affected by the
chalk being in a less porous condition than it now is, owing to
its not having lost so much of its substance by the chemical
action which has just been described.
Before comparing the actual phenomena with the results of
the conditions which have been assumed, it will be well to say a
few words as to the jirobable effects of an ameKoration of climate,
and a diminution in the rainfall, upon a valley already excavated
to an average depth of 100 feet, such as has already been described.
It is evident that any transport of materials due to the action of
ice, by floating loose stones and pebbles from one part of the bed
of the stream to another, would be materially diminished ; as would
also the number of floods resulting from the thawing of the winter
accumulation of ice and snow, and from rain falling on frozen
ground. The only remaining principal cause for floods would
be the heavy fall of rain during storms or wet seasons ; but here,
a comparatively slight alteration in the conditions will have made
a vast difference in the results. When the valleys were once
excavated to a certain depth, the level of the springs or outfalls
carrying off the accumulation of water in the absorbent soil, would
be proportionally reduced, as would also be the line of permanent
saturation in the chalk. The effect of this would be that during
any dry interval, the water contained in the upper part of the
chalk would gravitate downwards, until it reached the subterranean
reservoir of water saturating the chalk ; and thus leave the surface
soil in the same absorbent condition as it is at present, and capa-
ble of receiving a much greater amount of rain than formerly,
before any would flow from off its surface.
Even with a constant and excessive rainfall, the result of the
continued deepening of the valleys would be to cause more and
more to flow off by the springs, and less from the surface ; but with
the valleys once deepened, a small diminution in the rainfall, or
its more even distribution over the whole year, might cause the
THE RESULTS OF THE DEEPENING OF VALLEYS. 677
flow from the surface almost entirely to cease, and allow the whole
to be carried off by the springs. Whenever this was the case,
any great and rapid excavation of the valleys from rain alone
would be rendered almost impossible ; and with no extreme
reduction in the total amount of annual flow of the rivers, yet by
their originating in perennial springs subject to but slight varia-
tions, and from their being no longer to any extent immediately
connected with the surface drainage, there would cease to be that
immense difference between their maximum and minimum volume,
which must have formerly existed. The result of this compara-
tively uniform flow would be a great diminution in the tendency
of any river to change its bed, and even if it occasionally received
a great accession of water, it would find relief by overflowing into
the wide valley due to its former more violent action. In the
less inclined portions of its valley, the parts now almost deserted
by the stream would be favourable for vegetation, such as would
result in the formation of peat, and any occasional overflowing of
the banks might, owing to the less torrential character of the
inundations, have a tendency to fill up and level these marginal
spaces rather than to excavate them deeper. The deposits of
gravel, sand, and clay at the low levels would also be more con-
tinuous than those at the higher.
In tracing the effects of subaerial action in forming valleys, I
have assumed the subsoil or rock in which they were formed to have
been chalk, as it is principally in vallej^s in the Chalk that the
gravels containing Pala3olithic implements are known to occur.
This is probably on account of the greater natural abundance of
flints in such valleys, which of course led to implements being
there chipped out in greater numbers, as well as to their being less
cared for, from their being more easily replaced than they would
be where flint was scarce. The effects on other soft and absorbent
soils would not materially diff'er from those on chalk. On clay,
the general amount of denudation would perhaps be greater, but
the valleys broader, and with less inclined slopes on their sides.
In a clay country we might, I think, expect to find the old river-
gravels not unfrequently at greater distances from the existing
streams than in a chalk-district.
It must, however, be borne in mind that in such a country
the materials from which river-gravels can be formed are
usually absent, and can only have been derived from older super-
ficial beds, or brought from Chalk higher up the valley. In some
€78 ANTIQUITY OF THE KIVEK-DRTFT. fcHAP. XXV.
Talleys, partly or almost entirely excavated in Pre-Glacial times,
gravels belonging to the Glacial Period exist, and tend to com-
plicate the question of the more recent River-drifts.
Any theory of the valleys having been excavated at some
remote period in some unknown manner, and then having been filled
with gravels derived from an unknown source, and again re-exca-
vated, presents such difficulties that, to my mind, it cannot well
be entertained. If, however, such a xievr be accepted, it seems to
add to the time necessary for the excavation of the valleys ; as
much of the rainfall might find a subterranean vent at a low level
through the gravel lining the bottom of the fiUed-up valleys, and
thus keep the upper soil in a more absorbent condition and there-
fore less liable to erosion.
I must not, however, dwell too long upon this hypothetical
case, which perhaps is such as may not have found an absolutely
exact analogue in nature, but which may yet, I think, be accepted
as a fair typical example of the results which, under the supposed
conditions, must, judging from what we know of the action of
subaerial causes, in all probability have ensued.
Let us now compare the phenomena as we find them in the
gravel-beds of our present river-valleys, with those of the hypo-
thetical case, and we shall, I think, find them coincide in a
remarkable manner.
In the first place, the constituent parts of the gravels of the
beds of Drift containing Palajolithic implements are always,
petrologically, such as are to be found in the existing river-basins,
as they must also of necessity have been in the hypothetical case.
This fact, which holds good both in France and England, has
been insisted on by Sir Joseph Prestwich, and such insistency
cannot be too often reiterated. "Where old superficial marine
deposits of the Glacial or any other period, consisting of pebbles of
various ages and origins, exist within a river-basin, there also will
such pebbles be found in its gravels, but the originally derivative
character of the pebbles prevents any strong argument being
founded upon their presence. "Where, however, no such beds exist,
the case can clearly be made out. Unless a river traverses a granite
or slate country, no granite or slate is found in the Quaternary
gravels of its valley : unless it passes over Oolite, Purbeck, or
Greensand, no blocks or pebbles of these rocks occur. This fact
suffices to prove that the gravels are due to some local cause, such
as river-action, and not to any general submergence or supposed
ACTUAL PHENOMENA COMPARED WITH ITIE HYPOTHETICAL. 679
" wave of translation," whicli would of necessity bring in materials
not to be found in the existing basins.
That the various deposits resulting from a flooded river, should
contain some of the land and freshwater shells, and animal bones
of the period, is, as has been shown, most natural. Such shells and
remains are of constant occurrence in the Quaternary gravels. If
they prove nothing else, their evidence as to the freshwater
origin of the beds must be accepted as conclusive. It is true that
in all cases such land and freshwater remains have not as yet
been found; but if in a dozen instances we find beds of a certain
character containing these remains, and also flint instruments
wrought by the hand of man ; and in a dozen other instances,
similar beds in analogous positions, also containing implements of
the same kind, but, so far as is known, no such organic remains ;
we are justified in regarding both sets of beds as due to the same
original cause, and in believing that the organic remains, if
actually absent, are so from some accidental circumstance. We
may indeed accept the implements as being truly characteristic
fossils of a certain class of deposits. The character of the beds,
consisting as they do, of gravel, sand, and fine silt, brick-earth or
loess, and their manner of deposition, are also absolutely in
accordance with the river-hypothesis.
On the higher levels above but near the valleys, we frequently
find these beds at a considerable distance from the existing stream;
we find them at all levels on the flanks of the valleys, and occa-
sionally almost at their bottom, or even below it. In these lower
beds, the implements, if of the same form and character as those
in the upper beds nearer the source, are, in accordance with what
would be the case under the hypothesis, very frequently much rolled
and water-worn. The beds at the low level are also usually,
so far as the gravel is concerned, of a finer character than those
at the high level, and present a greater abundance of sand and
brick-earth. They seem, in fact, indicative of some such ameliora-
tion of climate as that supposed.
Looking again at the position of the deposits with regard to the
neighbouring rivers, we find them, as a rule, exactly in such
positions as might have been expected, had their presence been
due to the action of a stream in the process of excavating its
valley, in such a manner as that described. So constantly is this
the case, that a practised geologist, from a mere inspection of the
Ordnance map, could with almost certainty predict where deposits
€80 ANTIQUITY OF THE KIVEK-DHIFT. [cHAl\ XXV.
of River-drift would occiir, of such an age and character as to be
likely to contain Pahxjolithic implements. In more than one
instance, indeed, as has already been mentioned, the probability
of certain gravels containing these relics of human art, was pointed
out before their actual discovery.
These are some, but by no means all, of the points in which the
actual phenomena agree with those which must have resulted from
river-action such as suggested in the hjpothesis, and they are
alone sufficient to raise the strongest presumption that the pheno-
mena are due to such action, and that the theory that would
account for them in this manner, cannot be far from the truth.
I will, however, now pass in review some of the principal
localities where Palseolithic implements have been found in Drift-
deposits, and see what other points of accordance, aud what diffi-
culties, if any, they present.
Taking first the basin of the Ouse and its tributaries, we find at
Biddenhara, near Bedford, one of the principal localities for Drift-
implements, the gravel on the inner side of a bold sweep made by
the river, and from forty to fifty feet above it. Its constituent
stones are all derived either from the rocks in the neighbourhood,
or from the Glacial beds which cap them, and which have
evidently been cut through by the river. Throughout the beds
are seams containing numerous freshwater shells, mixed with
some derived from the land and from marshy places ; numerous
bones of terrestrial mammals also occur. In the valley of the Lark
remains of such shells occur at Bury St. Edmunds, in the same
beds as the implements. Farther down, at Icklingham, the beds at
Rampart Field cap a rounded knoll on the inner side of a curve
of the river, which appears, however, to have somewhat straight-
ened its course since they were deposited. Below Icklingham, the
whole surface of the country, and its drainage, have been so much
modified by the invasion of the sea, which produced the wide level
of the Fens, that we should expect to find any deposits of an
ancient river, which existed before that great planing down of the
adjacent country, in somewhat anomalous positions.
I need not here enter into the history of the origin of the Fens ;
it is enough to say that the subsoil of almost the whole district
consists of clays, belonging cither to the Oolitic or Cretaceous
series, and unprotected by any rocks of a more durable nature
towards the sea, which has thus been enabled to invade it.
The presence of the sea is attested in various localities by marine
THE DENUDA'llON OK THE FEN tOU.NTKY. ()^i
remains. Bnccinum, Trophon, Littoinna, Cardium, and Ostrea are
abundant in the gravel at March. ^ In the valley of the
Nene, near Peterborough, oysters and other marine shells
occur, mixed with those of land and freshwater origin. In
Whittlesea Mere, remains of walrus and seal, and sea shells are
found ; while so far south as Waterbeach, less than ten miles
from Cambridge, remains of whale have been discovered.
The old land-surface having been thus destroyed, we cannot
with certainty trace the course of the ancient representative of
the river Lark, below Mildenhall; it seems, however, to have pro-
ceeded northwards by Eriswell and Lakenheath, to join the Little
Ouse. Ax Eriswell, a gravel of the same character as that near
Mildenhall, occurs on the slope of the hill towards the Fen ; but in
it, us yet, few implements are recorded to have been found. At
Lakenheath, however, they occur in the gravel now capping the
hill overlooking the Fen, as well as on the slope.
Owing to the distance of these beds from any existing rivers, the
late Mr. Flower^ found great difficulty in reconciling them with
any theory which would account for their presence by the action
of rivers. If, however, we regard the great denudation of the Fen
country as subsequent in date to the deposit of the gravels, it
appears to me that any difficulty on this point vanishes. That this
denudation was in fact, at all events in part, subsequent to the
deposit of the gravels, is proved by the position of the beds at
Shrub Hill, which there cap a small area of Gault, and which,
being above the general level of the Fens, can hardly have been
deposited in the position they now occupy, when the configuration
of the country was at all like what it now is. Such beds must, on
the contrary, have been deposited in the bottom of a valley ; and
it appears as if in this case, by their superior hardness to the clay
around them, or from some other accidental cause, they had pro-
tected this small spot from tidal action, which in the adjacent
river, previously to the construction of Denver Sluice, extended
nearly as far as Brandon.
The rolled condition of so many of the implements found at
Shrub Hill, proves that they must have been transported some
distance by water, from beds of a higher level.
Turning now to the existing valley of the Little Ouse, we find,
at Brandon Down, the gravel occupying the summit of a high
ridge of land almost at right angles to the present course of the
> H. G. Seeley, Q. J. G. S., vol. xxii. p. 472. ■ Q. J. G. S., vol. xxv. p. 455.
682 AXTIQT'ITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. j^CHAP. XXV.
river. It is difficult to account for its occurring in this position,
unless we are to suppose that at an early period before the
complete denudation of the Fen country, and while the Boulder
Clay still covered the surface of the Chalk, and the level of satura-
tion was higher in the latter than at present, a tributary stream,
possibly the old representative of the Lark, flowed into the Little
Ouse near this spot, and the gravel was deposited on the tongue
of land near the confluence. The country drained by the Little
Ouse seems at one time to have been almost covered by Glacial
deposits, including beds of shingle, composed for the greater part
of quartzite pebbles. The beds at Brandon Down are nearer the
sea than any analogous beds towards the source of the stream,
and occupy a higher position relatively to the existing river, being
90 feet above it. If they resulted from river-action, they would, in
accordance with the hypothesis, be among the oldest of the river-
deposits ; and would, as indeed they do, consequently contain a far
larger proportion of the quartzite pebbles than those of somewhat
later age and farther up the valley.
At Broraehill, where the drift is but a few feet higher than
the present level of the stream, and would, in accordance with the
hypothesis, belong to a later period, there are but few of these
quartzite pebbles, but the gravel contains a very large proportion
of rolled fragments of chalk, which, so far as I have observed,
are absent in the probably older beds, at Brandon Down ; the
implements also are frequently much rolled and water-worn. This
fact is also in accordance with the hypothesis, for the river at the
time of the formation of these lower beds would, in the lower part
of its course, have completely cut through the Glacial deposits
above the Chalk, and would have been attacking the Chalk itself.
There is also an abundance of rolled chalk in the Shrub Hill beds,
which seem to be of much the same age. In the valley of the
Lark, the rolled chalk pebbles occur in gravels at a somewhat
greater elevation. Higher up the Little <Juse, the gravel at Santon
Downham occupies the slope of a hill on the inner side of a great
sweep of the river, while at Thetford, the beds form a long terrace
by the side of the stream, with a rather abrupt slope towards it.
Here also, land and freshwater shells have been found in the
gravel, but neither these nor implements have as yet been observed
in the gravels of the valley of the Little Ouse, or of its tributaries,
above Thetford.
Tracing the main stream back to its source, we find that both
THE VAJXEY OF THK WAVKNEY. 683
the Little Ouse and the Waveney, the one flowing westward, and
the other eastward, take their rise in the same valley, and within
a few hundred yards of each other, at Lopham Ford. With regard
to the elevation of this spot above the sea-level, there has been
some diversity of opinion. On the Grcenough map, published by
the Geological Society, it is erroneously stated at 15 feet; and
Mr. Flower,^ in arguing in favour of his views, that the beds at
Brandon are not connected with any river-action, assigns it a
height of only 23 feet above high-water mark. That this also is
erroneous can be readily shown, for Sir Joseph Prcstwich ^ has
recorded the level of the "Waveney at Moor Bridge, near Hoxne,
ten miles below its source, as being 59 feet 9 inches above high-
water mark at Yarmouth. Mr. Alger, of Diss, who has surveyed
the district, informs me that the level at Lopham Ford is 75 feet
3 inches above high- water mark ; and as by actual survey he found
the fall, from the head of the Waveney to Hoxne Mill, to be
upwards of 15 feet, there can be little doubt of this level being
approximately correct. Still, the gravel beds at Brandon being
upwards of 90 feet above high-water mark, there can be no doubt
of their being at an elevation actually above the source of the
present stream ; and at first sight, this fact appears difficult of
reconciliation with the view that they are due to fluviatile action.
Without, however, calling to aid any possible oscillations in the
level of the land, varying in amount at different parts of the
course of the stream, an examination of the local geological
conditions suffices to throw light on the causes, why the erosion of
the land at the sources of the Little Ouse and Waveney has been
abnormally great ; so that not only have the streams excavated
back the heads of their respective valleys until they have met,
but their inclination at the upper part of their course, instead of
being as usual in chalk countries at the rate of 12 to 18 feet in a
mile, is only about 18 inches.
The general level of the country for some distance around
Lopham Ford is at least 100 feet above it, and the Chalk and the
superimposed beds are for the most part covered with a deposit of
impervious Boulder Clay, through which the valleys of the Little
Ouse and of the Waveney have been cut. But, at the time of the
litst emergence of this district of country from beneath the sea,
this clay must have been continuous across the tract since exca-
^ Quar. Jouni. Geol. Soc, vol. xxv. p. 4o3.
2 Phil. Tra»s., ISGO, pi. xi.
68-i ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVEK-DHIFT. [cHAP. XXV.
yated, so that at that time the sources of the streams flowing in
either direction must have beeu at least 100 feet above their
present level, and 80 feet above the gravels at Brandon Down,
and probably at some distance apart. That the heads of the two
streams should have cut back their valleys, and at last have met,
appears to be due to the fact that, previously to the covering
of Boulder Clay being deposited, there existed an old depression
in the Chalk, which had been tilled with laminated sandy clays,
either Glacial or belonging to what is known by geologists as the
Chillesford series. These being more easily acted on than the
chalk by rxmning water, led the streams to follow the course of
the old depression which they filled, and it is to their presence
that the small inclination of the upper part of the valle}' of the
Waveney appears to be mainly due. Another cause is to be
found in the country near Lopham Ford being coated with clay,
so that the streams, even at the present day, exhibit the remark-
able phenomenon of being liable to floods at their source. An
isolated hill, about 30 feet high, formed of the laminated beds,
and with a slight capping of gravel, still remains in the valley of
the "Waveney, near Redgrave, to show the nature of the beds
which have been removed.
The only spot in the valley of the Waveney, where as yet
Palaeolithic implements have been found, is at Hoxne, where the
summit of the beds is about 111 feet above high- water mark at
Yarmouth, and though at a higher level than the existing source
of the Waveney, probably much below the level of its earlier
source. Since the beds were deposited, the surface of the ground
in the neighbourhood has been completely remodelled by sub-
aerial denudation, and they now lie in a trough on the summit of
a hill,^ both sides of which slope down to small streams which are
tributary to the Waveney, and are still at work cutting out their
valleys in the Boulder Clay. The beds in which the implements
occur are beyond all doubt of freshwater origin, being full of
freshwater shells. The trough in which they lie, has much the
appearance of the deserted bed of a river, silted up under more
lacustrine conditions. Such a change in the position of a rirer-
bed, and its subsequent infilling, is quite in accordance with the
hypothetical case of river-action, especially when, as here, its
eventual valley had not been distinctly carved out.
The phenomena at Hoxne have lately been more fully examined
1 Prestwich, Phil. Trans., 1860, pi. xi. See p. 577, lupra.
THE VALLEY OF THE THAMES. 685
by Mr. Clement Heid/ by means of j^rants from the Britlsb Asso-
ciation and the Eoyal Society ; and the views that I expressed, in
1872 have been in the main corroborated. The deposits are
proved to be distinctly more recent than the Chalky Boulder Clay
of the district, and there is evidence of oscillations in climate
since the valley was formed in which the lacustrine beds were
laid down, and before any Palroolithic implements or the brick-
earth containing- them had been deposited.
The beds at High Lodge, near Mildenhall, are of somewhat
similar character to those at Hoxne, though occupying a depres-
sion on the slope of a hill, instead of a trough on the summit ;
and were probably deposited under nearly the same circumstances,
though as yet no testaceous remains have been found in them.
Turning south, to the valley of the Thames, we find the gravel-
beds at Acton and Ealing, though occasionally at a higher level,
forming a terrace 80 or 90 feet above Ordnance Datum, along the
side of the broad valley, at a height of some 50 feet above the general
surface of the valley. In the bottom of this are spread out other
beds of gravel, sand, and brick-earth, exactly as might be expected
on the river-hypothesis; while at Highbury New Park, and Hackney
Down, we have beds of the same character, which contain land and
freshwater shells and flint implements, at a height, in some cases, of
100 feet above Ordnance Datum. The presence of these beds
in such a position, consisting, as they do at Highbury, of sand and
brick -earth, such as can only have been deposited in comparatively
tranquil water, involves the necessity either of a large lake having
existed at the spot, or of its having been within access of the flood-
waters of the river. But either of these conditions is impossible,
unless we are to suppose that the lower part of valley of the Thames,
in which London now stands, was at that time non-existent. It must,
therefore, have been subsequently excavated. But again, at lower
levels at Hackney Down, and in Gray's Inn Lane, we have gravels
of a more distinctly fluviatile character, and also containing
pakeolithic implements. The existence, character, and position of
all these beds is, therefore, perfectly in accordance with the tlicory
of the excavation of the valley by the river, and it is extremely
difficult, if not impossible, to account for them satisfactorily in
any other manner.
At Hitchin beds of much the same character occur, which there
also are newer than the Boulder Clay of the district.
' jBrii. Assoc. Report, 1896, p. 400.
686 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DKIFT. [cHAP. XXV.
At Caddington the discoveries are quite consistent with, the
hypothesis, but point to a period when the excavations of the exis-
tent valleys had made but little progress.
Higher up the Thames valley at Reading and at Oxford the pheno-
mena are all in accordance with the hj^pothesis; at the former place
the river has deepened its valley to the extent of at least 100 feet.
The discoveries in the gravels capping the North Downs and
those made near Ightham and Limpsfield in the transverse valley at
the foot of the Downs, seem at first sight difficult to reconcile witli
any river-theory. But assuming that the beds capping the hills
were at one time continuous with others in the Wealden area, and
that the transverse valley was produced by denudation at a later
date, the difficulties disappear, though the time requisite to effect
such superficial changes may seem to be immense.
Passing by other localities where implements have been found
in the valley of the Thames, such as Swanscombe and Xorthfleet,
though it may be observed that the gravels in which they have
occurred are, on the river-theory, exactly where they might have
been expected to be present, we come to the beds near lleculver,
where they have been found in large numbers. Looking, however, at
the enormous encroachment of the sea, even within the last few cen-
turies, upon the soft cliffs of sand and clay at that spot, it is difficult
to form any satisfactory idea of the conditions under which a river
may have flowed near the spot at a remote period, or of the position
of the coast at the time. Where, however, as is here the case, a large
tract of land has been washed away, which must of necessity have
had its system of superficial drainage by streams, and may possibly
have had rivers passing through it, which now, owing to the
altered conditions, find their way into the sea at a point much
nearer their source than formerly, we should expect to find on
the top of the cliffs traces of the former state of things; and where
any portion of the slope of an old valley remained, to see its
gravels, though now so close to the sea, at a height far above
its level. Still, it is hard to saj' whether the implement-
bearing beds at Reculver are connected with the old valley
of the Thames, or with that of some other stream which has now
disappeared, but of which the upper portion is to be traced in the
Swale, which now separates the Isle of Sheppey from Kent, and
which appears to afford, in its junction with the West Swale and
Long Reach, an instance of two valleys being gradually eroded
inland until they met. The beds may even be connected with the
DEPOSITS IN THE SOUTH OF ENGLAND. 687
valley of the Stour ; for it is by no means impossible that the
present second and northward mouth of that stream may run along
the valley of un old river, which originally flowed southward past
Eeculver, and joined the old representative of the Stour, some-
where to the south of where is now the village of Sarre.
The great tract of gravel which at some little distance inland
fringes the East Essex coast, between Shoeburyness ^ and the
Blackwater estuary, may also be connected with some old river ;
but as yet no well-defined implements or freshwater shells have
been found in it, though Mr. Whitaker has discovered shells near
Southend. The fluvio-marine deposits at a lower level at Clacton,
just north of the Blackwater, like those at Chislct, in Kent, seem
to belong to a somewhat later period, when the rivers had so far
deepened their beds as to have become tidal.
Though no land or freshwater shells have as yet been found in
the gravel beds near Canterbury, yet their position is quite in
accordance with the theory of the excavation of the valley by
river-action ; and here as elsewhere the implements from the
lower beds are often much water- worn.
The superficial deposits of the south of Hampshire and the Isle
of Wight, and in a lesser degree those of the neighbouring coun-
ties, have been fully discussed in an able paper by Mr. T. Codring-
ton, F.G.S.,^ though since it was published a large number of
implements has been found near Bournemouth, Barton, and
Hordwell. He has pointed out that the whole of the New Forest,
between Poole and Southampton Water, appears at one time to
have been an extensive plain, with a gradual slope to the south,
very generally covered with gravel and brick-earth. This has
since been in great part cut up, and over large areas entirely
removed by the action of the streams and rivers, which latter flow
in well-defined valleys.
The formation of this table-land and the overlying deposit of
gravel which, in places far inland, is found at a height of more
than 420 feet above the present sea-level, appears to be due to
marine action, though as yet no marine remains have been dis-
covered in it. Sea-shells have, however, been found by Sir Joseph
Prestwich'^ in an old sea-beach at Waterbeach, near Goodwood, and
similar beds, at Avisford Bridge, near Arundel, occur at a height of
80 or 100 feet above the sea. We seem, then, here to have evidence
1 GeoL Mag., vol. iii. p. 348. - Q. J. Geol. Soc, vol. xxvi. p. 528.
2 Q. J. Geol. Soe., vol. iv. p. 219.
688 ANTIQUITY OF THE KIVER-DRIFT. j^CHAP. XXV.
of a considerable elevation of the land from beneath the sea ; and
as the gravel in places overlies late Tertiary beds, this must have
taken place at a comparatively late geological epoch. When
rivers run through a tract of country covered with a marine
gravel of this kind, itself apparently deposited in a somewhat
contracted area, it is, in the absence of organic remains, difficult
to distinguish the reconstructed gravels resulting from fluviatile
action, from the older beds. Any one, however, who is acquainted
with the country, or who will examine Mr, Codrington's map,
will see what an enormous denudation has been effected in this
great sheet of gravel, b}' rivers and streams, and by subiierial action.
When once the protecting gravel has been cut through, and the
soft Tertiary beds of sand and clay below have been reached, the
process seems to go on with great rapidity, A large tract of land
west of Southampton appears to have been in this way almost
cleared of its gravel, of which but patches are left. Even the
principal portion of the old table-land which has survived, that to
the east and south-east of Fordingbridge, is deeply cut into by
numerous valleys, many of a depth of 200 feet. The existence of
these valleys is clearly in accordance with the river theory.
Let us now examine the discoveries in the valleys of the Test and
of the Itchen from this point of view. Looking at the numerous
instances of the finding of flint implements in gravels containing
terrestrial and freshwater remains, and looking at the improba-
bility of their occurring in a purely marine deposit, I venture to
regard them as being equally characteristic of freshwater deposits
as any organic fossils, and to claim the beds in which they occur as
being of freshwater origin.
At Southampton several implements have been found in the pits
upon the Common at heights ranging from 80 to 150 feet above
the sea-level. The gravel there slopes at a considerably greater
inclination than that of the table-land nearer Chil worth, with
which it is continuous, and from which it would appear to have
been in part derived. It occupies a tongue of land between the
valley of the Itchen and that of the Test, now widened out by tidal
action. It is in places covered by brick-earth, and its position and
character are quite in accordance with a fluviatile origin. If, from
their proximity to the apparently marine gravels, we assume these
beds to belong to an early period in the history of the excavation
of the valley, their high position above the present tidal stream is
such as, according to the hypothesis, was to be expected.
DEPOSITS NEAR SALISBURY. 689
The gravels found lower down the course of the river, at Hill
Head, Brown Down, and Lee on the Solent, appear to belong to
a somewhat later period ; and to bear much the same relation to
those of Southampton Common, as do the beds at Shrub Hill
to those of Brandon Down. As I pointed out long ago, " There
can be but little doubt that these gravel beds are merely an exten-
sion of the valley-gravels of the rivers Test, Itchen, Ilamble, and
other streams, which at the time they were deposited, flowed
at this spot in one united broad stream, at an elevation of some
forty feet above the existing level of their outfall, over a country
which has since, by erosive action, been in part converted into
the Southampton Water." ^ We shall shortly have to revert
to this circumstance ; but before returning to the coast, we
must take a short glance at the features of the discoveries near
Salisbury.
In the neighbourhood of this city there can be no doubt of the
deposits being thoroughly in accordance with the river theory.
The Fisherton and Milford Hill beds occupy points or spurs of
land, in the forks above the junction of streams, or precisely those
spots in which their presence was to be expected. There are the
usual beds of gravel, sand, and clay, the usual bones of the Quater-
nary fauna, some representing what are now Arctic species, and
therefore presumably indicative of a severer climate than at pre-
sent; and the usual land and freshwater shells. Though the
valleys, being confluent, are excavated to the same depth, yet, on
examination, their sectional areas will be found to be approximately
proportional to the extent of country drained by the rivers still
flowing through them. At Milford Hill, the deposit is cut off
from the main spur of land by a kind of transverse valley, about
thirty feet in depth, besides having on either side a valley some
100 feet deep. On any hypothesis of the beds having been
deposited by aqueous action — and no other can for a moment be
entertained — these valleys must have been mainly excavated since the
deposition of the gravels. For had the valleys at that time existed,
we can conceive of no conditions under which a body of water sufii-
cient to fill the valleys to their summit, and able to carry along
detrital matter with it, would leave its heavy contents at the top
of the hills instead of at the bottom. The old fluviatile beds occur
also at various levels on the slopes, in complete accordance with
the theory of gradual excavation ; and farther down the valley, at
' Q. J. Geoh Soc, vol. xx. p. 189.
Y Y
690 ANTIQUITY OF THE KIVER-DRIFT. fcHAP. XXV.
Fordingbridge, we find them again occurring with remains of
Elephas primigenius at about forty feet above the river.
The circumstances of the discoveries at Bournemouth seem at
first sight almost irreconcilable with any river-hypothesis ; as it is
difficult to conceive how gravels capping the cliffs along the sea-
shore for miles, and at an elevation of from 130 to 90 feet above
its level, can have been deposited in such a position by the agency
of a stream. And yet on a closer examination of the case, all such
difficulties vanish, and the ancient existence of a river at such an
elevation, and running in such a direction that it would leave
these gravels to testify to its former course, seems absolutely
demonstrable. Without being aware of the results at which
others had arrived, I came, after due consideration of the facts of
the case, to the conclusion that, as has already been mentioned in
an earlier page, there must in ancient times have existed a river
draining an extensive tract of country along the southern coast,
and flowing in an easterly direction ; and that of this river a por-
tion still survives in an altered and enlarged condition as the
Solent Sea, which separates the Isle of Wight from the mainland.
Mr. Codrington, whose paper I have already so often quoted,
arrived on independent grounds at substantially the same con-
clusion. But at an earlier epoch still — in 1862 — before any flint
implements had been found at Bournemouth, or indeed in any of the
gravels of the South of England, the late E-ev. W. Fox,^ of Brixton,
in the Isle of Wight, published nearly similar views as to the
origin of the Solent. As his opinions cannot by any possibility be
supposed to have been influenced by preconceived views as to the
antiquity of man, I prefer stating the case, in the first instance, in
his words rather than in my own: — "The severance of this island
(the Isle of Wight) from the mainland, it appears to me, was
effected under very unusual circumstances, and at a very distant
period. The present channel of the Solent, being pretty nearly
equally deep and equally broad throughout its entire length of
twelve or fourteen miles, proves at once that it was not formed in
the usual way of island-severing channels, that is, by gradual
encroachments of the sea on the two opposite sides of a narrow
neck of land" . . . "it is to be accounted for, therefore, not by the
excavations of a gradually approaching sea, but, as I shall here-
after have to attempt to show, by its being originally the trunk or
outlet of a very considerable river." . . . " Whoever, as a geologist,
^ Otologist, Tol. V. p. 452.
THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLENT. 691
examines the vei'tical strata of the Chalk at the Needles^ nay, and
throughout the whole lenyth of the Isle of Wight, and the strata
of the same rock in exactly the same unusual position on the bold
white cliff on the Dorsetshire coast some twenty miles westward
of the Needles, will not doubt but that the two promontories were
once united, forming a rocky neck of land from Dorset to the
Needles. This chain of chalk might, or might not, be so cleft in
twain as to allow the rivers of Dorset and Wilts to find a passage
through them to the main ocean. My opinion, however, is that
they had no such outlet, but that at that far distant period, the
entire drainage of more than two counties, embracing the rivers
that join the sea at Poole and Christchurch, flowed through what
is now called Christchurch Bay, down the Solent, and joined the
sea at Spithead."
" According to this theory, the Solent was at that time an
estuary somewhat like the Southampton Water, having but one
opening to the British Channel, but of so much more importance
than the latter as it was fed by a vastly greater flow of fresh water."
" Of course, according to this view, the sea would lose its original
condition as an estuary at the time when the British Channel had
so far made a breach through the chain of rocks connecting the
Isle of Wight with Dorsetshire as to give an opening into itself
for the Dorsetshire rivers, somewhere opposite to the town of Christ-
church. From that time forth the Solent would become what it is
at present, losing its character as an estuary, and assuming that of
a long narrow sea." . . . "The distant period at which such changes
took place it would be hopeless to guess at, amid the dimness of
the data on which calculations could be founded. It could not be
less, however, than many thousands of years, seeing that since that
time, the British Channel has not only made a broad breach of
twenty miles through a chain of slowly yielding rocks, but has
also pushed its way gradually across the broad extent of the Poole
and Christchurch Bays."
Such is the theory of Mr. Fox, which places the probable course
of events fully and fairly before our view. I see in it but little
on which to comment, except that it does not appear to have sufii-
ciently taken into account the widening of the Solent subsequently
to the time of its becoming a channel of the sea ; and that in a
passage, which I have not quoted, Mr. Fox estimates the drainage
area of the ancient river as but little inferior to that of the Thames
or Himiber. Taking the basins of all the streams discharging
Y y2
^92 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. [cHAP. XXV.
into the sea between Ballard Down, near Poole, on the west, and
Calshot Castle and the Medina on the east, but not including the
latter river, I find that, according to the Ordnance Map,^ the
present land area which would have drained into an ancient river
such as that supposed, is 1,617 square miles. To this ma}' be
added another 100 square miles, representing the area included
between the present coast and an extension of the chalk downs
from Ballard Down to the Needles, the whole of which has been
washed away; though within this large area, the present depth of
the sea attains in but very few places to ten fathoms. The
drainage area of the ancient river Solent can therefore have been
but about one- third of that of the Thames and its affluents, unless
we are to suppose that, as is the case in the neighbourhood of Caris-
brooke Castle and with the Medina, a portion of land to the south of
the old chalk downs drained northward through some gap in the
range of hills. That such land existed seems probable, from the
occurrence of gravels with elephant remains along the south-west
coast of the Isle of Wight at an elevation of 80 feet and upwards
above the sea, which, Mr. Codrington has suggested, may have
been deposited by tributary streams of a river flowing northwards
through the chalk range to the Solent. But even with any such
addition the area drained by the old River Solent can hardly have
been half that of the basin of the Thames.
With regard, however, to the former existence of this range of
chalk hills and the land to the north of them, Mr. Codrington has
shown, in the paper already so often quoted, that the spreading
out of the marine gravel, and the levelling of the table-lands was
probably effected in an inlet of the sea, shut in on the southern side
by land which connected the Isle of Wight with the mainland,
and opening to the eastward. Assuming, then, the existence of
this ridge of high land, it is evident, as Mr. Fox has pointed out,
that the only outlet for the rivers now represented by the Frome,
the Trent or Piddle, the Stour, Blackwater, Avon, and other
streams now discharging into the sea, must have been by an
eastward channel, in fact, a continuation of the rivers now dis-
charging through Poole Harbour. The course of such a river
would naturally be guided, in the first instance, by the configura-
tion of the surface of the old marine gravels of the sloping table-
land. This, as has been shown, slopes upward from the present
coast northward, and attains its highest level inland ; but traces
of the same gravel occur also in the Isle of Wight, though it there
' " Rivers and their Catchment Basins."
DEPOSITS AT BOURNEMOUTH. 69-3
slopes upward in a southerly direction, attaining a height of 368
feet at St. George's Down, but being only from 100 to 160 feet
above the sea in various places along the northern shore of the
island, at a distance of about a mile inland. It appears, therefore,
that there must originally have been a valley running east and
west in the old marine gravel, forming a natural course for the
drainage of the country, and probably finding its way towards the
sea, somewhere within the space now occupied by the Solent and
Spithead, though not actually discharging into the sea until it had
attained some distance eastward.
Evidence as to the highest level at which freshwater action
removed and re-deposited the marine gravel on the southern slope
of the valley is at present wanting ; but, judging from a section
across the Isle of Wight from St. George's Down to Norris Castle,
given by Mr. Codrington, the declivity is so much more rapid
below the 160 feet level than above it, that the ancient river may
have commenced its action at about that level. How far eastward
the Isle of Wight may have extended at that time it is difficult to
say ; but from the enormous denudation of land to the west, and
the range of the ten-fathom line, there may probably have been
land at all events as far east as opposite to Selsey, the extensive
estuarine beds at which place, containing remains of Elephas
primigenius,^ are possibly connected with this old river.
The precise manner in which the Foreland gravels and brick-
earth, in which Mr. Codrington found a palaeolithic implement
at 85 feet above the sea-level, were connected with the old
river-deposits, is difficult to determine. Mr. Codrington is inclined
to think that a rise of land to the extent of 70 or 80 feet must have
taken place since the deposition of the brick-earth in which the
flint implement was embedded, but this to me seems unnecessary.
It is, however, unsafe to speculate on a single specimen found in
such a position. The implements found at Seaview andBembridge
may have been washed out of gravel-beds at a lower level than
those of the Foreland, or even have been transported for some
distance by marine currents.
Turning to Bournemouth, where so many more have been
found, the highest and most westerly point at which implements
have occurred appears to be about 130 feet above the sea." Farther
' R. A. C. Godwin -Austen, Q. J. G. S., vol. xiii. p. 50.
- There may be some deffi-ee of uncertainty whether the gravels at this spot are to
be connected immediately ^Wth the main stream, or with an affluent running into it
approximately by the same course as that of the present Boiuue, but this is of Uttle
moment.
694 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. [cHAP. XXV.
east, near Boscombe, the level is about 120 feet ; midway between
that spot and Hengistbury Head, the height of the gravel is 90
feet ; at High Cliff, 84 feet ; at Ilordwell, where implements
abound, a short distance inland, 60 feet ; and about midway along
the northern shore of the Solent, 50 feet. The surface of the ground
is, of course, much cut up by the numerous streams coming in
from the north ; but the general fall of the gravel from west to
east is perfectly in accordance with its having been deposited in
the valley of an ancient river running in this direction, the whole
of the southern side of which has since been carried away by the
sea. "Whether the old river had become tidal so far west as
Hurst Castle, when first it was intercepted by the sea to the south,
does not appear to me to be a matter of importance, inasmuch as
no doubt a valley was already formed, along the course of which
the encroachments of the sea would be more rapid than where the
cliffs were higher, and more solid matter had to be removed.
That the valley, in which is now Southampton Water, was also
originally, for the most part, scooped out by the rivers coming
from the north, which in remote times flowed into the old River
Solent, is, I think, beyond all reasonable doubt. The increased
volume of the ancient river, after receiving so important an
affluent, is evinced by the widening of the channel, from Calshot
Castle eastward by Spithead, to a full third more than it is to the
west, along what is now the Solent Sea.
As to the character of the gravels at Bournemouth, it is, as
already observed, hard to distinguish those presumably of
fluviatile origin from the older and probably marine beds. In
the railway- cutting between Bournemouth and Christchurch, ]
thought, however, that in places I could trace the superposition of
the one upon the other. The more recent deposits contain water-
worn fragments of quartz, granite, and porphyry, as was noticed
long ago by Mr. Godwin-Austen,^ who, from this circumstance,
saw reason for connecting them with the gravels capping the
tabular hills of Devon and Dorset to the west.
It is, of course, e%'ident that at the period when the river ran
at this high level, past the spot where now is Bournemouth, all
the land to the immediate west must have been far higher than it
is at present, and that Poole Harbour could not have existed. In
attempting to reconstruct the map of a country, the shores of
which have been much wasted by the sea, in order to show what
' Q. J. G. S., vol. xiii. p. 4.5.
BHEACH THROUGH THE CHALK-RANGE SOUTH OF BOURNEMOUTH. 695
must have been at some remote period the old coast-line, the task
is rendered difficult and within certain limits impossible by the
absence of any evidence as to the elevation above the sea of the
land removed, and as to the channels along which the sea could
work. In this case, however, there is a strong presumption as
to the unbroken continuity of the chalk-range, and of its eleva-
tion having been much the same throughout, as it now is at both
ends of the breach. The general character of the beds above the
Chalk, 80 far as their power of resistance to water-action goes,
seems also much the same at either extremity ; though perhaps
the beds at the Isle of Wight end of the breach are somewhat the
harder. Assuming nearly equal conditions, and looking at the
form of the present coast-lino, which is indented by two distinct
broad bays, it seems probable that the old course of the river may
have been intercepted by the sea at two several points, the one
nearer Poole and the other nearer Lymington. Directly this
closer communication with the sea was formed for the Dorset-
shire rivers, they would, of course, owing to the more rapid fall,
excavate their valleys with greater speed at their mouth, and
directly they became tidal, the sea would make rapid inroads on
the soft sand and clay exposed to its action. So effective is this
action, that at Hordwell Cliff the waste of the shore is said to be
now going on at the rate of about a yard per annum,^ or upwards
of half a mile every thousand years, though perhaps this is some-
what exaggerated.
In discussing this question, I have purposely avoided com-
plicating the subject with the effects of any general lowering of
the surface of the ground by erosion either chemical or mechanical ;
or of upheavals and depressions of the land during the period of
the formation of the valleys, though no doubt this also has
taken place, especially along the southern coast of Britain. I
must, however, mention the existence of a submerged forest,
occasionally visible at low water, at the foot of the cliffs at
Bournemouth, which seems to show that there as elsewhere a
depression of a former land surface has taken place. The late Mr.
Albert Way, F.S. A., who had the opportunity of examining some
of the stumps of trees exposed at rare intervals at low water,
informed me that they appeared to be those of the true Scotch fir ;
and also that local tradition speaks of an impassable morass
having, so late as the commencement of the present century,
> Q. J. G. S., vol. xxvi. p. 532.
696 ANTIQIITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. [^CHAP. XXV.
intervened between the line of cliffs and the sea. On the occasion
of one of my visits to Bournemouth, some of these stumps were
fortunately visible, and were pointed out to me by Mr. "Way at a
spot but a few yards to the west of the pier, and between high
and low water-mark. They appear to be of no very remote
antiquity, geologically speaking, and to be connected rather with
the present valley of the Bourne than with the valley of the old
river Solent, as the trees, some of which were fully a hundred
years old, grew on the surface of a thick bed of hard peat.
Under any circumstances, however, the presence of such remains
at the foot of the cliff does not tend to diminish our estimate of
the antiquity of the freshwater beds containing the works of
man, which we find occupying their summit.
In passing the deposits containing flint implements in different
parts of this coimtry under review, enough has, I think, now been
said to show that in position, in character, and in the nature of
their organic contents, they are perfectly in accordance with what
might have been expected from river-action under certain circum-
stances. The case might indeed have been made much stronger
had deposits in other places, in all respects similar, except that the
presence of flint implements has not as yet been observed in them,
been brought into account ; and it must not be forgotten that this
might, with perfect propriety, have been done, as there can be no
possible doubt that a certain series of gravels, sands, and clays,
containing organic remains and flint implements in extremely
variable quantity, all belong to one geological period, and owe
their existence to similar causes.
But though on no other hypothesis than that of river-action
can the phenomena be accounted for, yet, as has already been
seen, it is necessary, in order that river-action should have pro-
duced such effects, that the streams, during some portion of the
year at all events, should have been more torrential in character
than they are at the present day. If, however, we see satisfactory
grounds for attributing these beds containing land and fresh-
water shells and remains of terrestrial animals, to rivers formerly
flowing at much higher levels than at present, which have since
excavated their valleys — and it seems impossible to do otherwise
— then we must also accept as a fact that the climatal conditions
were such as woiild enable the rivers to perform the work. It
is, as Sir Joseph Brest wich ^ has shown, quite out of the question
1 Fhil. Trans., 1864, p. 266.
THE QUESTION OF CLIMATE. 697
to suppose that with the valleys excavated to the present depth,
any meteorological causes could fill them to their summits; or
even if they could and did, that they would leave such deposits
as we find at high elevations on their slopes, or even on detached
eminences. It will, however, be well to examine briefly any
corroborative evidence that may be forthcoming, as to the proba-
bility either of a severer climate involving a greater accumula-
tion of winter snows, or of a greater rainfall, or of both. The
one, indeed, seems hardly probable without the other, as a cold
land surface " presented to vapour- laden sea- winds, as in the
mountainous districts of the north-west of Spain, in our own
lake districts, and in Scandinavia," ^ involves of necessity a heavy
rainfall.
With regard to climate, we may take into account that which
prevailed at a somewhat earlier date ; for there appears no doubt
that the flint implement-bearing gravels are all of later date than
the Chalky Boulder Clay of the Eastern Counties, a deposit which
belongs to the so-called Glacial Period, during a portion of which
a great part of England and Scotland was submerged beneath
the sea, and became coated with masses of Boulder Clay and
other deposits, derived for the most part from the moraines of
glaciers, sometimes at no great distance, and possibly in the main
transported and dropped in their present positions by means of,
icebergs and coast ice. That they are of later date is proved by
more than one of the implement-bearing beds reposing in valleys
either in, or cut through, this Chalky Boulder Clay ; and at Hoxne
the interval between the Glacial deposits and the Palaeolithic beds
is marked by two sets of lacustrine strata, the lower and earlier
with a flora characteristic of a mild climate, and the upper by one
which points to the recurrence of Arctic conditions. Prof. Boyd
Dawkins ' has suggested the probability of the higher ground of
North Wales and the northern part of England having been
still enveloped in an ice-mantle at the time that the mammoth,
reindeer, and other post-glacial mammals were living in the lower
and less inclement districts. But this view is to some extent
founded on negative evidence, and on the assumption that palaeo-
lithic implements do not exist in this northern area. I have
already commented^ on the possibility of implements being even-
tually found in it.
The crumpling and contortion of some of the beds of River-
1 Phil. Trans., 18G4, p. 291. ^ q j gr. ^.^ ^ol. xxv. p. 209. ^ p. 530 supra.
698 ANTIQUITY OF THE KIVEK-DRIV I. [cHAP, XXV.
drift, especially at high levels, has been regarded by Sir Joseph
Prestwich ^ as possibly resulting from the lateral pressure pro-
duced by packing and jamming together of blocks of ice, such as
may now be witnessed in rivers like the Danube and the Rhine.
The "trail and warp" of Mr. Trimmer, those superficial deposits
80 common over a large portion of this country, which, indeed,
constitute so large a portion of the arable soil, seem also, as the
Rev. Osmond Fisher^ has pointed out, to be significant of a severer
climate than at present prevails. The " Palaoolithic floors," both
near London and at Caddington, are buried under a considerable
thickness of this " trail." There is moreover a high probability
that, at the time of the deposit of the gravels, Britain was still
united to the continent ; so that, apart from other causes, there
was a tendency for the climate to partake more of a continental
character than at present, and to induce greater cold in winter
and greater heat in summer.
That the existence of enormous glaciers is as indicative of the
action of heat, in order to convert the water of the ocean into
vapour, as of cold to condense it, has been insisted on by Professor
Tyndall,^ and even more strongly by Professor Frankland. If at
the time of the rivers flowing at the high level, Britain was still
connected with the continent, it is by no means impossible that
the temperature of the seas on either side of the connecting
isthmus may have been different. That connected more imme-
diately with the Southern Ocean would have been the warmer of
the two, from which a copious supply of vapour would be carried
by the southerly winds, and be condensed as rain in its passage
northward.
Mr. Alfred Tylor, r.Gr,S.,'' in his profusely illustrated papers
on the Amiens gravel, and on Quaternary gravels, contends for
the existence of a " Pluvial period " subsequent to the Glacial, in
which the rainfall was far greater than at present, and such a
view has much to commend it for acceptance. But when he
proceeds to assert that the surface of the Chalk in the valley of
the Somme, and in all other valleys of the same character, had
assumed its present form prior to the deposition of any of the
gravel or loess now to be seen there, and to argue that the whole
of the gravels at all levels on the slopes are of one age, and due
' Q. J. G. S., vol. vii. p. 31 ■ Q. J. G. S., vol. xxii. p. 553.
^ " Heat considered as a Mode of Motion," p. 182. Lubbock, " Preh. Times,"
4tli ed., p. 408.
* Q. J. 0. -S'., vol. xxiv. p. 103 ; xxv. p. 57.
EVIDENCE AS TO CLIMATE. 699
to floods extending to a height of at least 80 feet above the level
of the rivers, we may well hesitate before we give in our adhesion
to such views. In the first place, it is, to say the least of it,
unphilosophical to rely too much on a single example, such as
that of the valley of the Somme ; and to account for its phenomena
by causes which are evidently incapable of producing the effects
observable in other localities, as, for instance, at Southampton,
close to the sea, and 160 feet above its level. But what shall
we say to floods raising the levels of rivers upwards of 80 feet,
yet having no erosive power, and the waters of which, regardless
of the laws of gravity, tranquilly deposited their solid contents
evenly over the slopes, or often in the greatest thickness on their
higher part, and in some cases on almost isolated hills, instead of
principall}^ on the bottom of the river-valley ? Whence all the
materials for the gravels are to be derived, how they are to be
reduced to a subangular condition by water-wear, especially in
the case of the flint implements occurring in the gravels, are
points on which further information will have to be supplied,
before any such views can be seriously entertained.
I have up to this point almost left out of view any distinctive
differences between the deposits at a high level and those at a low
level in the river-valleys. That such, however, exist has been
pointed out by Sir Joseph Prestwich ; ^ and judging from the
northern range of the group of shells found in the high-level beds,
the absence of southern species, the character of the mammalian
and vegetable remains, the transport of large blocks such as could
only be effected by ice and the other physical features of the case,
he is inclined to assign a winter temperature to the period of their
deposit from 19° to 29° Fahr. below that which now obtains in
these regions. From a consideration of the features of the low-
level deposits he considers that at the time of their deposit, the
climate was rather less severe, by about 5°. The presence of the
mammoth and woollj^-haired rhinoceros, animals specially adapted
for cold climates ; of the musk-ox, the reindeer, the lemming,
and marmot, corroborates the same view ; while the hippopotamus,
which seems characteristic of the low-level deposits, is suggestive
of a somewhat warmer climate. Like the mammoth and rhinoceros,
its structure may, however, have been somewhat modified, so as
to enable it to occupy colder regions than at present, or it may
have been merely a summer visitor ranging northwards before the
» Phil. Trans., 18G4, p. 278, &c.
700 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. [cHAP. XXV.
separation of Britain from the continent. Under any circum-
stances its presence seems to indicate that the volume of the
rivers was probably in excess of what it is at the present time.
But whatever may have been the degree of winter cold, or the
amount of the snow and rainfall, the one was not so extreme as
to prevent there being an abundance of animal life, nor the other
so great as to interfere with the growth of a sufficient supply of
vegetable food on which it might subsist.
It has, indeed, been supposed by some that the remains of the
early mammals occurring in the gravels are derived from older
beds, and that their presence in association with flint implements
no more proves the contemporaneity of the men who made those
implements with the old Quaternary fauna, than their association
with Chalk fossils proves that mankind were originally inhabitants
of the bed of the Cretaceous ocean. Did. the gravels only occur at
such levels as are within reach of existing streams, there might be
some reason in such a view, which is, moreover, in certain cases and
within certain limits, probably correct. For we have seen how in
the course of the excavation of a valley, the beds deposited at one
time are liable to be disturbed at another, and re-deposited in a
fresh place ; which could hardly happen without an admixture of
fresh materials, some probably of a more recent date. In the
process of transport, however, not only the implements but the
still softer bones are liable to wear and abrasion of the angles, and
it is impossible to conceive that, assuming the Quaternary fauna to
have disappeared from this region before the valleys were exca-
vated, and the implement-bearing beds deposited, their bones
could still exist in such numbers, and so often in an unrolled con-
dition in the low-level beds.
Had this older fauna disappeared, it is evident that man could
not have subsisted here alone, unaccompanied by other animals to
furnish him with food ; and if these animals belonged to the later
or " prehistoric " fauna, where, as Sir John Lubbock pertinently
asks, are their bones ? If, however, we acknowledge that the
pleistocene mammals still occupied this country at the time of the
low-level beds being formed, and if we find their remains also in
those at a high level, and at all intermediate heights, it is evident
that they must have persisted here during the whole period
of the excavation of the valleys ; while, if we find also flint imple-
ments in an unrolled and unworn condition at all heights, it is
evident that those who made them must also have been co-occu-
ASSOCIATION OF IMPLEMENTS WITH A QUATERNARY FAUNA. 701
pants of the region during the same period. If, indeed, as appears
to be in some valleys the case, the unworn implements occur only
in the high-level deposits, while in the lower they are either
absent or in a much worn condition, the inference is, that in those
particular valleys the occupation by man, though for some time
contemporaneous with that of the mammoth and his congeners,
ceased before the extinction or emigration of the old fauna. In
some cases, however, as at Fisherton,^ the worked flints have been
found below the remains of mammoth ; while in the beds at
Menchecourt, near Abbeville,^ in which the implements occur, were
found the bones of a hind leg of rhinoceros still in their natural
position, so that they must have retained their ligaments when
deposited, and could not since have been disturbed. With regard
to the amelioration of climatal conditions which led to the cessation
of the excavation of the valleys, it may not impossibly have been
connected with the insulation of the country, when the isthmus
connecting it with the continent was cut through by the sea. But
this is hardly the place for such speculations. If, however, we
may regard the estuarine deposits at Selsey, in which almost entire
skeletons of mammoth occur, as belonging to the period when the
deposit of the low-level gravels was ceasing, it would appear from
the associated molluscan forms, as interpreted by Mr. Godwin-
Austen, that the temperature of the waters of the English Channel
was at that time such as may now be met with twelve degrees
farther south.
If there was a difference in the climatal conditions of the high
and low-level deposits, it might have produced some effect on the
method of living, and on the implements of the men of the two
periods. At one time I thought it probable that a marked distinc-
tion might eventually be drawn between the high- and low-level
implements, but so far as Britain is concerned, this can hardly be
done. Still the fades of a collection from two different spots is
rarely quite the same, and I think there is generally a preponder-
ance of the ruder pointed implements in the high-level gravels,
and of the flat ovate sharp-rimmed implements in the low-level.
In the vallej' of the Sorame, the broad polygonal flakes are
certainly most abundant in the lower beds, as at Mon tiers, near
Amiens.
I would, however, deprecate the introduction of such terms as
' "Flint Chips," p. 47.
- Ravin, Jf(<m. de la Sue. d'Emul. d Abbeville, 1838, p. 196. I'hd. Trans., 1860,
p. 301.
702 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. fcHAP. XXV.
" Eolithic " and " Mesolithic " in order to distinguish two phases
in the Stone Period as being both unfounded and misleading. We
know not where or when the dawn of human ci\-ilization arose, but
it was probably long before the date of our earliest River- Gravels
and in some part of the world more favoured by climate than
Britain. "Why then should we .<peak of British implements as
Eolithic ? And how can we apply the term MesoHthic to a period
intervening between the Palaeolithic and Xeolithic Ages, when
we know neither when the one ended nor when the other beg;in ?
Enough has now been said with regard to the manner in which
these beds of Ptiver-drift were probably deposited ; and the irre-
sistible conclusion is, that, owing to the wasting agency of rain,
frost, and rivers, there must have been a vast change in the super-
ficial features of the country, since the time when those who
fashioned the flint implements found in the high-level gravels were
joint occupants of the land with the mammoth and rhinoceros and
the other departed members of the Quaternary fauna. A similar
change in the surface of the country has also taken place in the
neighbourhood of the caves in which the remains of this same fauna
occur, associated also with similar relics of human workmanship.
What length of time it must have taken for such changes to be
effected, is a question we must now approach ; but before doing so
it will be well to say a few more words, in addition to what has
already been said, on the almost entii-e absence of human bones in
the beds containing those of the associated mammalia.
In the first place, it is well to repeat that whatever may be the
case in the brick-earth, or loess, there have not, as has been pointed
out by Sir John Lubbock,^ been found in the gravel up to the
present time any remains of animals so small as man, who, as the
same author observes, must of necessity have been few in number
in comparison with the animals by the chase of which he must
have subsisted. Another cause appears also to have been at work ;
for however barbarous we may suppose the human race to have
been at that remote period, we can hardly believe them to have
been so destitute of all natural affection as to deny some rites of
sepulture to friends or relatives removed by death. There would,
therefore, in all probability, be but few or no human bones exposed
on the surface in such a manner as to be carried off by the flooded
streams, and imbedded in their gravels ; while, in case of any
human beings perishing by drowning, their bodies, as I have
1 " Preh. Times," 4th ed,, p. 365.
SCARCITY OF HUMAN BONES IN THE RIVER-DRIFT. 703
already shown, would probably either be carried to sea, or left in
such a position as to allow of their recovery, at all events before
they became disarticulated.
This is, however, a matter of but small importance, as there will
be but little difficulty in conceding that an implement fashioned
by human agency — and on this point there can be no question,
unless we are to assume in ancient times the existence of some
other now extinct race of intelligent beings — is as good an evidence
of the existence of man, as would be any or all of his bones. More-
over, human bones are I'cported to have been discovered in these
Quaternary beds, both in this country and in France. In England,
I have already mentioned a human skull found near Bury St.
Edmunds by Mr. Trigg, and the more doubtful skeleton found near
Northfleet. I will not, however, insist upon either discovery being
beyond all cavil.
Nor will I do more than allude to the too celebrated Moulin
Quignon jaw, over which I have already pronounced a Requiescat
in pace, ^ but the discovery of portions of the human skeleton by
M. Bertrand, and M. Reboux, in the valley of the Seine, at Clichy ^
and elsewhere near Paris, in the same beds in which implements
of true Pala)olithic types have been found, seems better substan-
tiated.
Whether the Pithecanthropus erectus of Dr. Dubois was human
or simian, and what is the date of the beds in which his remains
were found, and whether there is evidence of the existence of
Miocene or Pliocene Man^ in Burma, Portugal, France, Italy, or
California, are questions which want of space compels me to leave
on one side. I have, however, more than once elsewhere expressed
my opinion on the subject of Tertiary Man.*
I need hardly again repeat that according to my view it is not
in Britain, but in some part of the world more favoured by climate
that the cradle of the human race is to be sought. And yet the
antiquity of Man in Britain seems to extend far beyond any of our
ordinary methods of computation. In attempting to estimate it,
however vaguely, I must at the outset observe that with our
present amount of knowledge, it is hopeless to expect that it can
' Atheneenm, 1863, July 4.
^ Hamy, " Paleontolog-ie humaine," p. 210, et seqq. Bull. Roc. d^ Anthrop. de
Tarts, 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 331. Belgrand, " Bassin de la Seine," pi. xhiii. and xlix.
' liec. Geol. Sur. of India, vol. xxvii., 1894, p. 101. Geol. Mag., Dec. 4, vol. i.,
1894, p. 525. Nat. Science, vol. v. p. 345, vol. x. p. 233.
* Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc.,vol. i. p. 145. Jirit. Assoc. Rep., 1890, p. 963.
Nature, vol. xlii. p. 50.
704 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. [cHAr. XXV.
be determined with anything approaching to precision. Not only
have we no trustworthy measure of the rate of excavation of the
valleys, which might give us an approximate date for the higher
deposits in them, but we are at a loss to know at what epoch their
excavation in the lower part of their course ceased, and what may
be termed the modern alluvial deposits, which to some extent have
partially refilled the old channels, began to accumidate.
That the general configuration of the surface of the country, in
Neolithic times, when the ordinary forms of polished stone imple-
ments were in use, was much the same as it is at present, is proved
by the fact of such implements being frequently found in recent
superficial deposits. Were we, in defiance of probability, to
assume that the use of these polished implements did not date
farther back than two thousand years from the period when we
are first made acquainted with this country by history, this would
give an additional four thousand years beyond the period necessary
for the excavation of the valleys for the date of the older River-
drift implements. Such a period as two thousand years is in all
probability almost ridiculously small to assign for the duration
of the Neolithic and Bronze Periods; but however this may be,
there appears, in this coimtry at all events, to be a complete gap *
between the Eiver-drift and Surface Stone Periods, so far as any
intermediate forms of implements are concerned ; and here at least
the race of men who fabricated the latest of the palaeolithic imple-
ments may have, and in all probability had, disappeared at an
epoch remote from that when the country was again occupied by
those who not only chipped out but polished their flint tools, and
who were, moreover, associated with a mammalian fauna far nearer
resembling that of the present day than that of Quaternary times.
So different, indeed, are the two groups of animals that, as has
already been observed, Prof. Boyd Dawkins ^ has shown that out
of forty-eight well-ascertained species living in the Post-glacial or
Piver-drift Period, only thirty-one were able to live on into the
Prehistoric or Surface Stone Period. Such a change as this in the
fauna of a country can hardly have been the work of a few years,
or even of a few centuries ; and yet we must intercalate a period
of time sufficient for its accomplishment between the remotest date
1 Several -writers have attempted to bridge over this gap, or to show that it does
not exist. See Journ. Anth. Inst., vol. xxii. p. Gd. Cazalis dc Ft-ndouce. Co)ig.
Freh. Htochholm, 1874, p. 112. Brown, "Early Man in Midd." "Wortliington.
■Smith, "Man the Prim. Savage."
- Tram. Freh. Cong., 18G8, p. 278. Stq>ra, p. 485.
ATTEMPTS TO FORMULATE CHRONOLOGICAL DATA. 705
to which we ciiu cairy back the Neolithic Period, and the close of
the Pala3olithic Period as indicated by the low-level gravels. The
antiquity, then, that must bo assigned to the implements in the
highest beds of River-drift may be represented (1) by the period
requisite for the excavation of the valleys to their present depth ;
plus (2), the period necessary for the dying out and immigration
of a large part of the Quaternary or Post-Glacial fauna and the
coming in of the Prehistoric ; plus (3), the Polished Stone Period ;
plus (4), the Bronze, Iron, and Historic Periods, which three latter
in this country occupy a space of probably not less than three
thousand years.
A single equation, involving so many unknown quantities, is,
as already observed, not susceptible of solution ; but various
attempts have been made to arrive at some approximate idea
of the amount of time it represents. One method has been
that of assigning a date for the Glacial Period, deduced from
astronomical causes, mainly in connection with the eccentricity of
the earth's orbit, as pointed out by M. Adhemar and Mr. Croll.
From data thus obtained, Sir Charles Lyell^ inclines to place it
at a period of extreme cold about 800,000 years ago, though Sir
John Lubbock^ would rather accept an epoch of somewhat less
severity about 200,000 years removed from our time.
Another and more direct method suggested by Sir Archibald
Geikie,^ following in Mr. A. Tylor's track, is that of estimating
the time required for the excavation of the valleys by the amount
of soKd matter carried down in suspension by various rivers at
the present day. He estimates that this amount, if spread over
the whole area drained by the rivers, represents, on an average, an
annual loss of about -g-oVo- ^^ ^ foot ; but inasmuch as the erosion
of the slopes and watercourses is very much greater than that of
the more level grounds, the excavation of the valleys must proceed
at a more rapid rate, which he assumes to be about x^Vo" P^^^ of a
foot per annum, or one foot in 1,200 years. Such a calculation
is, of course, open to various objections, as we may readily con-
ceive the bottom and slopes of a valley to have been so far washed
that, under ordinary circumstances, they afford little or no fine
earthy matter to be taken up by the rain falling on their surface ;
and in such a case, the rivers, if turbid, would derive their tur-
bidity from the water delivered from the higher and comparatively
' "Princ. of Geol.."' lOtli eJ., vol. i. p. 295.
' "Preh. Times," 4tb ed. p. 42:5. 3 Oeol. Mag., vol. v. p. 249.
Z Z
706 ANTIQUITY OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. fcHAP. XXV.
unwashed table lands. Or again, the soil may, like the Chalk
under ordinary circumstances, be so absorbent that but little of the
rainfall flows off from its surface. The calculation has already been
made, that a rainfall of 5-4 inches annually, supposing the whole of
it flowed ofi" the land into the sea in a turbid state, containing,
like the Mississippi, -jVt V^^^ ^^ ^^^ weight of solid matter, would
lower the surface a foot in 450 years ; but as has already been
observed, we cannot conceive it possible that with such soils as
we have here to do with, the constant turbidity should have been
anything like so great. And, in fact, the whole system of calcu-
lation is one which may be regarded rather as proving the neces-
sity of valleys being in course of time formed by subaerial action,
than as giving any definite guide by which to calculate the period
requisite for their formation. There can, indeed, be no doubt that
the denuding power of the falling rain is greater on the slopes
than on the level surfaces ; but it seems impossible to assign any
proportions to the effects on land lying at different inclinations, of
different characters, and under different circumstances as to any
vefjetable coverinof. Were the action uniform over the whole sur-
face exposed, of course no alteration beyond a general lowering of
the land-surface would result from this cause, and the valleys would
remain of precisely the same depth with regard to the adjacent
land as they did at remote epochs. Looking at the quantity of
brick-earth still left on the slopes of many of our valleys, I am
inclined to think that the lowering of the surface has been more
general than has been supposed by Sir Archibald Geikie. The
presence of these soft and easily denuded beds is also an argument
against the excavation of the valleys having progressed in a uni-
form manner, by heavy rains falling during the period of the year
when such beds were soft and unfrozen ; and seems rather signifi-
cant of the excavation of the valley by floods principally occurring
at a time when the upper part of the soil was in a frozen condition.
Certainly the whole character of the deposits is more in accord-
ance with their resulting from the occasional flooding of the
streams than from any other cause. If this be so, who shall tell
at what intervals such floods occurred, and what was the average
effect of each in deepening the valleys ? That they were of com-
paratively rare occurrence, and not so frequent that they were
foreseen by the men of those days, seems deducible from the
number of their implements found in the gravels. For there is
much probability that these must have been washed in from settle-
DATA FROM EROSION. 707
ments on the banks of the rivers, which, notwithstanding previous
catastrophes of the same land, were constantly placed within reach
of the stream when flooded.
Sir Joseph Prestwich^ has suggested as a possible gauge of
the antiquity of the deposits, the natural funnels eaten into
the chalk by the action of water charged with carbonic acid,
and has cited one at Drucat, near Abbeville, which has been
formed since the deposit of the gravel containing flint imple-
ments, and is upwards of 20 feet in diameter at top, and probably
100 feet in depth; but here also it seems impossible to introduce
a factor by which the time represented can be ascertained. There
are, however, features in connection with this case which can
only be reconciled with the former high level of the bottom of
the adjacent valley, and with its gradual excavation. It will be
remembered that similar pipes of erosion, leading in some cases
to caverns above them, occur in the Drift-beds of the valley of
the Little Ouse.
There is yet another means at our command for forming, at all
events, an approximate idea of the time that has elapsed since the
deposit of the beds containing the remains of the old Quaternary
fauna, inasmuch as at the time of their introduction into this
country, if not for a lengthened period afterwards, Britain had
apparently not become an island, but was still connected by an
isthmus of greater or less width with the Continent. To estimate
the time, however, that would be required for cutting through this
isthmus and widening the Channel to its present dimensions, is a
work from which the mind almost recoils. Even the wearing away
of that tract of land to the south of the present Hampshire coast,
which must almost of necessity have existed at the time when the
Bournemouth flint implement-bearing gravels were deposited,
taking the present rapid inroad of the sea on the unusually soft
cliflFs at Hordwell as a gmde, would seem to involve a period of not
less than 10,000 years; but inasmuch as the cliff's during a con-
siderable portion of the time must have been of chalk instead of
sand and clay, and as a chalk cliff 500 feet high, instead of being
worn away at the rate of a yard each year, is said only to recede
at the rate of an inch in a century,^ the actual period necessary
for the removal of this tract must probably have been many
1 Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 299. Vroe. R. S., xiii. p. 135.
= Lubbock, " Preh. Times," 4th ed., p. 430.
z z 2
708 ANTIQUITV OF THE RIVER-DRIFT. [CHAP. XXV.
times 10,000 years, and can with certainty be regarded as having
been immensely in excess of such a lapse of time.
On the whole, it would seem that for the present, at least, we
must judge of the antiquity of these deposits rather from the
general effect produced upon our minds by the vastness of the
changes which have taken place, both in the external configuration
of the country and its extent seaward, since the time of their
formation, than by any actual admeasurement of years or of
centuries. To realize the full meaning of these changes, almost
transcends the powers of the imagination. TTho, for instance,
standing on the edge of the lofty cliff at Bournemouth, and
gazing over the wide expanse of waters between the present
shore and a line connecting the Needles on the one hand, and
the Ballard Down Foreland on the other, can fully comprehend
how immensely remote was the epoch, when what is now that
vast bay was high and dry land, and a long range of chalk
downs, 600 feet above the sea, bounded the horizon on the
south? And yet this must have been the sight that met the
eyes of those primeval men who frequented the banks of that
ancient river which buried their handiworks in gravels that
now cap the cliffs, and of the course of which so strange but
indubitable a memorial subsists in what has now become the
Solent Sea.
Or again, taking our stand at Ealing, or Acton, or Highbury,
and looking over a broad valley fully four miles in width, with the
river flowing through it at a depth of 100 feet below its former
bed, in which, beneath our feet, are relics of human art deposited
at the same time as the gravels ; which of us can picture to
himself the lapse of time represented by the excavation of a
valley on such a scale, by a river larger, it may be, in volume
than the Thames, but still draining only the same tract of
country ? But when, to this long period we mentally add that
during which the old fauna, with the mammoth and rhinoceros,
and other to us strange and unaccustomed forms, was becoming
extinct, so far as Britain was concerned ; and also that other,
we know not how lengthened period, when our barbarous pre-
decessors sometimes polished their stone implements, but were
still unacquainted with metallic tools ; and then beyond this, add
the many centuries when bronze was in use for outting purposes ;
and after all this, further remember that the ancient and mighty
CONCLUSION. 709
city now extending across the valley does not, with all its
historical associations, carry us back to the times even of the
bronze-using people, the mind is almost lost in amazement at
the vista displayed.
So fully must this be felt, that we are half inclined to sympa-
thize with those who, from sheer inability to carry their vision
so far back into the dim past, and from unconsciousness of the
cogency of other and distinct evidence as to the remoteness of the
origin of the human race, are unwilling to believe in so vast an
antiquity for man as must of necessity be conceded by those, who
however feebly they may make their thoughts known to others,
have fully and fairly weighed the facts which modern discoveries
have unrolled before their eyes.
FINIS.
710
DESCEIPTIOX OF THE PLATES.
PLATE I.
1. Simple ridged flake. Porte Marcade, Abbeville.
2. Sharp-pointed flake, ■nith several facets on its convex side. Montios,
near Amieiis.
3. Chisel-pointed flake. Ibid.
4. Large polygonal flake. Ibid.
5. Eound-pointed, tongue-shaped, sub-triangular implement. Biddeii-
ham, near Bedford.
6. Acutely pointed, kite-shaped ditto. St. Acheul, near Amiens.
7. Sub-triangular ditto, "svith truncated butt. Ibid.
8. Ditto, with incurved sides, and butt formed of the natural surface of
the flint. Ibid.
9. Ditto, made from a round-ended nodule of flint. Ibid.
10. Thick-backed, single-edged implement of wedge-shaped section.
Ibid.
PLATE n.
11. Ovate tongue-shaped implement. St. Acheul, near Amiens.
12. Ovate-lanceolate ditto, with rough butt. Ibid.
13. Ditto, with truncated butt. [Brick-earth), St. Acheul, Atmeim.
14. Rough, wedge-shaped implement. St. Acheul, Amiens.
15. Round-pointed implement with untrimmed butt. Ibid.
16. Ditto, with naturally rounded butt and side. Ibid.
17. Thin, ovate, tongue-shaped implement. Champ de liars, Abbeville.
18. Ovate implement of intermediate form between the tongue-shaped
and sharp-rimmed. St. Acheul, Amiens.
19. Ovate, thin, sharp-riinmed implement. Menchecourt, Abbeville.
20. Irregularly ovate ditto. Moulin Quignon, Abbeville.
Plcitc I.
''^k. s^ inches h ty f.o, jr half hnear measure. IMPLEMENTS FROM THE RIVER-DRIFT.
Plate II
)liN £-■.'<. -If. f S ^ □^L '
«!/^ ,."fiir- inches to ihe Jo,
711
GENERAL INDEX.
Abbeville, hand-mill at, 258
Abbott, Mr. J. W. Lewis, on minute flint
tools, 325
Aberdeenshire, flint workshops in, 22
Abnormal peculiarities in celts, 130
Abrasion of flints by fire-producing', 315, 318,
416, &c. ; by hammering-, 217, 413, &c.
Abydos, Egyptian arrow-heads from, 393, 395
Achilles, spear of, 4
Adams, Dr. Leith, Guernsey arrow-head
factory traced by, 401
Adder-stones, 437
Adhemar, M., as to date of Glacial Period,
70s
Admixture of objects of different periods, 210,
475, 479. 487. 492
Adzes, in Burma and Assam, 59 ; of Clalam
Indians, 165 ; of New Guinea, 162 ; Poly-
nesian, of basalt, 69 ; bronze, 4 ; with carved
handle, 166, 167 ; celts adapted for use as.
94, 122, 124, 135; of chalcedonic flint, 138 ;
hafting of, 164, 165 ; for hollowinij canoes,
165, 166; of horn, carved, 435 ; of mussel-
shell, 182 ; perforated, 188-192 ; uses of,
215
•■Elfric's Glossary on Sian-cex, 145
.^neid, mention of bronze arms in, 4
Africa, sacrificial use of stone in, to ; flint flakes
in diamond diggings of, 277
Agate, arrow-heads of, 406 ; cliisel of, 40 ; gun-
fiints of, 21
Agatharchides on Egyptian chisels, 6
Ages, Stone, Bronze, and Iron, succession of, 2
Agricola, Georgius, on Brontia and Ceraunia,
64
Agriculture, possible use of stone implements
in, 71, 205, 64s
Ahts of North America, fern-roots eaten by,
250; mussel-shell adzes used by, 182
Aithadh, or elf-shot, 365
Akerman, JMr., on Lapp burials of needed
objects, 283
Alaska, stone hammer from, 25
Albania, gun-flint making in, 21
Albite, chloritic, celts of, 109
Aldrovandus, his culier lapideus, 289 ; on the
Glossofiftra, 363 ; on Roman stone wea-
pons, 362 ; his seem IS lapiJea, 157 ; on
stone implements, 63, 04
Aleppo, threshing instrument from, 284
Aleutian Islanders, thong-drill used by, 48
Alexius Comnenus, celt presented by, to Ger-
man limperor, 59
Alger, Mr., on level of Waveney Valley, 683
Algeria, flakes from, 287
Algonquins, form of club used by, 424
A llee couverte oi Ai^enieuW, perforated pebbles
from, 465; stag's horn socket from, 160;
worked blade from, 327
Alluvium, beds of, between stalagmitic layers
in caverns, 479
Almond-shaped implements, 647
Alteration in structure of flint, 487, 497, 513, 556,
596,659,660
Alum, its wood-preservin5power, 152
"Amazon axe," 184
Amber, beads of, in interment, 429 ; cup of, at
Hove, 449 ; with perfoiated axe, 185 ; with
whetstone, 268 ; importation of, to Britain,
449 ; piece of, in interment, 149 ; plates of,
for necklaces, 460 ; studs or buttons of,
456
America, doubtful evidence of palaeolithic re-
mains in, 654
Ammonites in barrow, 467 ; their use as
" cramp-stones," 470
Amulets, arrow-heads mounted as, 365, 367 ;
celt probably used as, 145 ; of iron-ore in
interment, 313 ; Portuguese decorated, 470 ;
of schist, 463 ; stones in interment as, 466,
468, 469
Anchorites, Dr. Grew's description of, 364
" Ancient Meols," Hume's, referred to, 439
Anderson, Dr. J., experiments with flint imple-
ments, 320, 408 ; on polished stone discs,
440
Andree, Richard, on beliefs concerning stone
weapons, 60
Angelucci, Capt., stone arrow-head factory
discovered b)', 402
Anglesea, querns in, 259
Anglo-Saxon burial ground, flint and steel in,
283
Animals, canings of, on weapons, 215, 435 ;
engravings of, on Egyptian gold halt, 359 ;
extinct, their co-existence with man, 513,
524. &c.
Antiquity of celts, 143, 150; of man in Britain,
704 ; of river-drift implements, 700
Antlers of deer, celt-sockets made from, 160;
circle of, in barrow, 466; used as picks at
Cissbury, 79 ; flat instrument of, 432 ; at
Grime's Graves, a
Anvils, stone, early use of, 245 ; recent use of,
II, 232
Apaches of Mexico, arrow-head making among,
24 ; hammer-hafting, 239
Arabs, arrow-head charms among, 367
Archer, Mr. F., neolithic flakes fitted on to core
by, 20
Arctic fauna, of Crayford beds, 607 ; northward
retreat of, 486; of Salisbury beds, 689:
plants, fossil, at Hoxne, 577
Ariantes, his method of numbering the people,
368
Armlet on arm of skeleton, 429 ; bronze, in
cromlech, 464 ;" coal-money " the central
disc of, 465 ; of jet, lathe-turned, 464
Arrow-flakers, 37, 416
Arrow-flaking, art of, in America, 42 ; experi-
ments on, by author, 41 ; use of fossil ivory
for, 37
Arrows and arrow-heads, African and Asiatic,
405 ; American, 406, 407 ; Arab, 367 ; of the
Bushmen, 370 ; Californian, 39, 40 ; Danish,
35, 306 ; Egyptian, 368, 369, 395 ; Eskimo,
712
GENERAL INDEX.
25f 37 ; French, 395, 400-402 ; Gelderland.
403 ; German, 403 ; Greek, 368 ; Indian,
405 ; Irish, 365, 370, 399, 400; Italian, 350,
402 ; Japanese, 405 ; from Lake-dwelling,
402 ; Lycian, 410 ; Mexican, 39; Patagonian,
406 ; Persian, 394, 396 ; Peruvian, 407 ;
Russian, 404 ; Scottish, 386 ; Scandina-
vian, 353, 404 ; Spanish, 403 ; Swiss, 409;
Virginian, 37 ; barbed, 3S0-390 ; bone, 210,
361 ; bronze, scarce in England, 368 ; chisel -
ended, 409 ; crescent-shaped, 396 ; detach-
able from shaft, 370 ; double-pointed, 386 ;
featherless, 410 : iron-tipped, 394, 396 : leaf-
shaped, 373-378, 484; lozenge-shaped, 378,
484 ; manufactories of, 268, 280, 350, 401, 402:
methods of shafting, 408, 410 ; modem use
of, for fire-producing, 397 ; in necklaces, to,
366 ; notched, 372, 396, 406 ; poisoned, 361,
370; single-barbed, 385, 393, 306 ; stemmed,
379 ; successive developments of, 369 ;
superstitions concerning, 362-367 ; trian-
gular, 390 ; in human vertebrae, 375, 396,
406
Arrort--shafts, concave scrapers for fashioning,
.^20 ; grooved pebbles for straightening,
268 ; Irish, 408 ; South Ameiican, 407
Art, works of, in caves, 484, 523, 657
Arundelian marbles as to date of discovery ot
iron, 4
" Asbestos," ligniformed, whetstone of, 352
Ash, Irish arrow-shaft of, 408 ; in brick earth at
Hoxne, 537
Ashes of bone in hjaena den, 518
Asia, beliefs in, concerning celts, 59
Asphalte, use of, in mounting Swiss celts, 163
Assagais, Kaffir mode of shafting, 410
Assiut, figures from.tomb at, 369
Astropelekia, 59
Atkins, ^Ir. E. Martin, abraded pyrites found
by, 318
Atkinson, Rev. J. C, barrows examined by.
211
Attrition of teeth by gritty food, 253
Atys, stone knife used by, 9
Augustus, bronze arms as antiquities in time
of, 4
Australians, celts handled by, with gum, 137,
170,171; flint an article of barter among,
80 ; flints mounted by, as saws, 277, 293 ;
g^nding nardoo-seeds, 243 ; hatchet-haft-
ing among, 233 ; pounding-stones of, 243,
245 ; tomahawks, mode of mounting by, 166 ;
tools of, 97
Authenticity of palaeolithic implements, 658,
659
Awls, bone, from Kent's Cavern, 506 ; bone
instruments used as, 432 ; bronze, in inter-
ments, 84, 186 ; bronze, with wooden shaft,
462 ; flint, 321-325 ; periforated, 323 ; use of,
in sewing leather, 433
Axes, 32, 63, 149 ; hafting of, 155-163, 168, i6o ;
used in the hand, 151 ; of Montezuma II.,
157; hieroglj'ph of Nouter, 62
Axes, perforated, Brazilian, 157 ; in Brittany,
212; Danish, 32, 186, 205; French, 186;
German, 145, 186, 191 ; Greek, 205 ; Kjok-
ken-modding, 69; Lake- dwellings, 158;
Mexican, tqi ; Scandinavian, 187, 215 ; of
basalt, 186 ; boring of, 46-52 ; with carved
handles, 167; classification of, 184; con-
temporaneous with bronze, 193, &c. ; cutting
at one end, 192, &c. ; double-edged, 184-
192; fluted, 203,211; grooved, 168, 169;
hafting of, 151-171 ; hollowed on sides, 209 ;
in interments, 83, 163, &c. ; large and
heavy, 198, 199 ; little used by modem
savages, 215 ; lozenge-shaped, 213 ; orna-
mented, 196, 209, 211 ; pointed at one end,
188; single-edged, 184, 192-196; supersti-
tions concerning, 62, 63, 65, 145, 146 ; of
ulna of whale, 435
Axe-hammers, 168, 200-205
Aymara Indians, hatchet -hafting among, 160,
239
A)Te, Col., R.A., 78
Aztecs, their method of stone working, 23 ; their
stone mortars, 257
B
IJabington, Prof. C. C, on flint hammer from
Burwell, 538
Bcetuli, virtues of, 65
Bahia, stone club from, 251
Baines, Mr., on Australian stone-working, 26
Balanus, presence of, in Stour Valley, 621
Ball of Towie, 421
Balls, stone, can-ed, 422 ; in lead mines, 234 ;
perforated Peruvian, 232 ; possibly used in
games, 244; their use among Eskimos, 219;
in grinding com, 253 ; as hammers, 249 :
with channelled surface, 420-423
Ballast for railways, implements found in, 573,
578, 632, D,-,3, 639
Barbers, Mexican, their obsidian razors, 290
Barbs of arrows, various forms of, 380, &c.
Bark, Australian hammers hafted with, 167,
168
Barlow, Mr. F. Pratt, pointed drift implement
found by, 019
Barnwell, Rev. E. L., on Welsh hammer-head,
226
Barrows, bronze and flint found together in,
397, &c. ; chambered, bone chisel in, 433 ;
cups of shale in, 445 ; fossils in, 466, 467,
469; gold cup in, with bronze dagger, 449;
jet ornaments in, 265, 454, &c. ; long, leaf-
shaped arrow-heads^in, 377 : necklaces in,
456-463 ; pebbles in, 443 ; pyrites and flint
in, 265, 467 ; spindle whorl of clay in, 439;
stag's horn hammer in, 434
Barry, Mr. F. Tress, 227
Barter, flint an Australian article of, 80 ; flints
at Cissbury probably formed for, 80 ; finely
worked daggers procured by, 414
Bartlett's "History of Manceter" referred to,
187
Basalt, axe hammer of, in interment, 467 ; heads
of, 186, 194, 197, 202, 208, 211, 214 ; celts of,
106, 114, 140 ; hammers of, 25, 223 ; hatchets,
34, 85, 170 ; late use of, for anvils, 232 ;
maul of, 234
Basaltic rock, African flakes of. 288
Bastard gouges, 180-182
Bast-fibre, its use in arrow shafting, 409 ; used
in weaving, 436
Bate, Mr. Spence, 266, 279
Bateman, Mr., on pebbles in interments, 467
" Bitons de commandement," in La Madeleine
caves, 484
Bats, stone, possibly used for preparing hemp,
257
"Batting-staff," 256
Battle axes, 195, 197, 207 ; with amber cup in
cofiin, 449
"Battling-stones," 257
Baudot, M., on flakes in interments, 283
Bauerman, Mr., on stone hammers in Egyptian
mine, 581
Baye, Baron Joseph de, j6o
Beads, amber, 457, 459, 460 ; animal fibre used
for stringing, 459 ; like arrow-heads, 307 ;
bone, 432, 456, 457 ; with spiral pattern, 211 ;
glass, 437, 456 ; jet, 83, 394, 457-462 ; Kim-
meridge clay, 309, 457 ; of peculiar shapes,
463 ; quartz, 465 ; shale, 463 ; various, 457-
463
Bear, chipped tooth of, 503 ; bones of, in position
at Brixham, 513
Beauty, materials chosen on account of, 224,
227, 406, 466
Beckmann quoted as to date of flint-locks, 17
Bed-stone and rolling pin, 250
Bees-wax and mastic, axes mounted with, 170
GENERAL INDEX.
713
Beetles, elytra of, in brick-earth. 536
Beger, " celtes" first named by, 55
Belcher, Sir Kdward, on Eskimo arrow- flakinp,
37,39; " flensing-knife," 292; stone work-
in)j, 25 ; stone planes, 299
Bell, ilr. A. M., discoveries of implements by,
503,610
^«////aA, Australian mode of poundinfr, 24,';
Belt, the late Mr. Thomas, on Hozne depo-
sits, 576
B6NinC, interpretation of, 5
Bennett, Mr. F. G., implements found by, 536,
627
Bemays, Mr. E. ;A., pateolithic implemeit
found by, 611
Bicarbonate of lime, proportion of, in chalk-
streams, 675
" Bill," meaning of, 146
Bipcnnt!:, 146
Birds, remains of, in Fisherton beds, 631
Bison, caves of the age of the, 481
Bitumen, use of, in Swiss Lake-dwellings, 170,
292, 409 ; Egj'ptian arrows secured to shaft
by, 369
" Black balls," present use of, in ballots, 468
" Black-boy gum," flints mounted in, 277
Blackmore, Dr. Humphrey P., drift implements
found bj-, 627, 628, 635
Blacksmiths, modern, their mode of hafting
chisels, 168, 233
Blades of flint, crescent-shaped, 355; Egyptian,
354 ; from Kent's Cavern, 496
Blanford, !Mr. W. T., Indian drift implements
found by, 651
Blunting- of battle-axes, ig6, 207
Boars' teeth in interments, 83, 148, 328, 427
Bodkin of wood in urn, 433
Bodmann, flint manufactory at, 22
Bohemian stone axes, 51
Bolas, present mode of using, 422
" Boltiiead, the flat," 364
Bonardo on flint arrow-heads, 364
Rone, arrow-heads of, 21,361,402; awl, 523 ;
beads, 211, 432, 456; blade of, flint flakes
inserted in, 277, 294 ; chisels, 177 ; harpoons
of, 277, 394; instruments in interments, 313,
314, 431, Sec; needles, 321, 433,523; objects
of, in caves, 484, 488, 492, 523, &c. ; late
Roman, 144 ; pins, 34, 40, 83, 186, 431, 432 ;
plate of, perforated, 428 ; rounded piece of,
34 ; single-barbed arrow-head of, 409 ; tools
of, Eskimo, 410; tube, 268 ; used in arrow-
chipping, 30, &c. ; wedge lor working ob-
sidian, 24
Bones, crushing of, probably for marrow, 25, 239,
504, 657 ; gnawed, 486. 508 ; human, with
those of extinct animals, 481, &c. ; mineral
condition of, in caves, 508
Borers or awls, 321-325
Boring of stone, methods of, 47, 48, 52 ; incom-
plete, of stone implements, 205, 206, 226
Bos primigenius, celt imbedded in skull of, 91,
92 ; longi/roiis not found in Britain Lefore
neolithic times, 486
Botocudo Indians, their method of hafting, 156;
their use of stone blades, 171
Boulder, cup formed from, 450
Boulder Clay, anterior to implementiferous
deposits, 577, 685, 697; East Anglian, 683
Boulders, American use of, 235 ; used as ham-
mers, 233,234
Bourgeois, Abbe, on human works in Pliocene
times, 658
" Bournes," causes of intermittence of, 664
Bow, use of, not general among savages, 360
Bows and arrows, Egj-ptian carved figures
armed with, 369 ; myth concerning, 361
Bowen, Mr., as to African " thunderbolts," 60
Box, stone, containing red pigment, 264
Bracelets (see Armlets)
Bracers, 425-435, 456
Bracken, use of, as food, 250
Brandon, manufacture of gun-flints at, 14, 17
Brazilian stone axe, 157
Breacii through the chalk range near Bourne-
mouth, 605
Breccia, formation of, in caves, 479 ; imple-
ments from, in Kent's Cavern, 495 ; mace-
head made of, 232
Brent, Mr. John, implements found by, at
Reculver, 613-620
Briar-wood shaft, arrow-head found with, 408
Brick-earth, implements from, 530, 536, 542,
548 ; old land surface underlying, 598
Bright spots on drift implements, 565, 659
tirigueis with flints in graves, 283, 397 ; bruising
of flints by the use of, 315
Brittany, superstitions regarding celts in, 57 ;
early incised drawings of celts in, 62
Brixham Cave, discovery of, 490 ; fauna of, 513 ;
implements of, 513-516 ; section of, 512
Broch of Lingrow, 416, 440
Brochs, cups in, 414, 440 ; querns in, 259 ; stone
and bronze in, 440; whetstones in, 2O9
Bronze Period in E^jpt, 6 ; in Greece and
Italy, 4, 5 ; probable duration of, 704
Bronze, armlets of, 459 ; arras, mention of by
Homer, 4 ; arrowheads, 368 ; awls, 84 ;
bucket, 451 ; celts, 213, 268, 453 ; celts
mounted in stag's horn, 428; chisels, 6;
d.'igger with ox-horn hilt, 265 ; daggers, 185,
193, 194, 208, 227, 398, 427, &c. ; earrmgs,
207 ; Egyptian hatchets, 169 ; finger-ring,
398 ; " hammer-stone," 246 ; implement
found at Ploucour, 340; knife in interment,
195 ; knife, socketed, in Kent's Cavern, 492;
mining instruments, 6, 233 ; moulds for
celts, 269 ; needle, central-eyed, 433 ; pal-
staves, 163 ; pins, 267, 269 ; tube, 49; tweez-
ers, 433; use of, in Britain, 147; use of,
contemporaneous with that of stone, 84,
143. 2". 331, &c.
Brooch of metal in interment, 214 ; possible use
of ring as. 466
Brooke, Mr. J. W., his implements from Ford-
ingbridge, 633
Brown, Mr. J. Allen, on minute flint tools,
325 ; researches at Ealing, &c., 591 ; Mr.
James, drift implements found by, 622,
625, &c.
Browne, Sir Thomas, on slickstones, 441
Brun, M. V., his explorations at Bruniquel, 296
Brunswick, first use of flint-locks by soldiers of,
17
Buckland, the late Mr. Frank, 291
Buckman, Prof. J., manufactory of celts re-
corded by, 35
Buschan, Dr. G., on prehistoric spinnii ij, 437
Buick, Dr., on Irish arrow-heads, 365, 370
"Bulb of percussion," 274
Bunyard, Mr. G., drift implements found by,
618
Burma and Assam, stone adzes in, 59
Burnishers of stone, 103, 130, 442
Burton, Dr. J. Hill, on elf-bolts, 366
Bushmen, arrows shafted by, with ostrich-bones,
410 ; ostrich-egg-shell fragments perforated
by, 277 ; poisoned .irrows of, 370
Bustards, flint arrow-heads abraded by giz-
zards of, 396
Butt end of celt, definition of, 66 ; roughened
for insertion into socket, 128
Buttons, early use of, 452 ; of jet in interments,
45J> 455> ^c. ; possible use of perforated
discs as, 439
Caesar, Julius, Gaulish use of iron in time of, 10
"Caillouteur," daily production of gun-flints
by, 2 1
Cairns, itones thrown on, 282
Calc-spar, sling-stones of, 418
14
GENERAL INDEX.
Calcareous' nodule, celt formed from, 115;
incnistatioDS un palxolitbic implements,
659, 660
Caledonians, their early use of iron, 11
Calendering effected by slick-stones, 441
CaUndrine, in Cotgrave's Dictionarj-, 441
Califomians, arrow-head makings among the,
423 ; grooved stones of the, 268 ; knife, 273
Calmucks, use of military flail among the, 423
Calvert, Mr. F.. implements found by, near the
Dardanelles, 652
Cambodia, superstitions as to celts in, 60
Camenz. bronze tube found at. 40
Cane, possible use of, in stone-drilling, 50
Canoes, adze for hollowing, 165, 166; celts
found with, 129, 150 ; gouges for hollowing,
178 ; hollowed by bom chisels, 434
Cantabria, imperial omen in, 65
Carbonic acid, its solvent power on chalk, 477,
675, &c.
Caribbean character of certain implements, 129,
130, 168, i6a
Caribs, axe- bafting among, 155, 218; their shell
gouges, 182
Carreg-y-Saelhau, or stone of the arrows, 262
Cartailhac, M., his sections of San Isidro
valley, 529
Carved representation of celt in dolmen, 153
Carvings in caves, 484, 523
Cassava bread, stone slabs for cookintr, 440
Catlin, Mr., on American flaking-tools, 24
Cattle, elf-arrows the cause of disease among.
365, 365 ; protection of, by witch-stone, 470 ;
snake-bitten, how to treat, 437
Cave-bear, age of the, 481
Cave-deposits, rarity of large implements in,
641
Cave-dwellers, their mode of living, 657
" Cave-earth,'' 479, 492
Cave-implements, 473, &c.
Cave-remains prior to XeoHthic times, 482
Caves, alternate tenancy of, b\- man and beasts,
479 ; chronological sequence of contents of,
475, 481-485 ; deposits of, compared with
river gravels, 474 ; early use of for habita-
tions. 126; formation of, 477, 480; ossiferous,
474, 476 ; sepulchral, 126 ; stalagmite of,
470
Belgian, 286, 475, 478
Brixham, 512-516
Creswell Crags, 522-524
French, arrowheads in, 306; bone and horn
objects in, 177, 321 ; character of imple-
ments of, 53 ; flint flakes in. 292 ; hammer-
stones, 248 ; quartzite flakes, 281, 292 ; ser-
rated flakes, 296
Gibraltar, bone objects in, 177, 433 ; long flake
in, 287 ; saddle-quern in, 252 ; sandstone
plate in, 428 ; stone chisel-gouge in, 182
Happawaj-, 517
Kent's Cavern, 488-511
Long Hole, Gower, and other Welsh Caves,
521
of Palestine, early sepulture in, 9
Tor Brj-an, 516
Wookey hya;na-den, 517-520
Canities in gravel, bow formed, 556, 557, 561
C«//^, occurrence of. in Vulgate, 55
Celts, suggested etj-mologj- of, 55 ; supersti-
tions concerning. 56-65'; classification of,
66
chipped or rough hewn, 67-86 ; chisel-edged,
with cunature ot face, 67, 68, 73 ; with
equal faces, 75 ; long and narrow, 81 ;
tanged, 83 ; wedge-shaped, 82 ; small, made
from fragments of larger, 87,97; of stones
other than flint, 84
ground at the edge, 90-97
polished, with abnormal peculiarities, 130 ;
accompanj-ing interments, passim; ap-
proximate date of, 147 ; broken, conversion
of, into other implements, 242, 248, 330 :
; bronze, from barrows, 213, 268, 309 ; chisel-
I like, 103, 120, 121; classification of, 08;
with cutting-edge blunted, 138 ; with flat-
tened sides, 110-119; found in canoe, 130;
grooved or notched, 136 ; mode of haft-
i ing, 151; oblique-edged, 113, 124: oval in
section, 122, 129; perforated, 142; range
of, in time, 147, 150 ; recent use of, by Irish
' weavers, 440 ; rectangular in section, 119-
122; sharpened at both ends, 118; stag's-
hom sockets for, 163 ; for use in band, 133,
136, 171 ; various uses of, J71, 172
Cembro pine, Siberian stones for crushing nuts
of. 245
I Cements used in hafting implements, 170, 171 ;
bituminous, in Swiss hatting, 292, 409
Cemetery, Frankish, of Samson, 307
Cerauniii, old German authors concerning, 63 ;
Sotacus on the, 64, 480 ; Pliny concerning,
I 65
Cereals, absence o^ among cave - dwellers,
; 657
Ceremonial stone-adze, 167
; Chafing-dish of stone, 445
I Chalcedonic flint, celts of, 92, 138; Egyptian
i blades of, 359 ; serrated arrow-head of,
385
, Chalcedony, American lance-head of, 337;
I Chilian arrow-heads of, 406; gun-flints of,
I 21 ; harpoon-points of, in Greenland, 405 ;
: implements of. their French provenance,
80; Mexican dagger-blade of, 354; oma-
I mental hammer of, 226 ; small Indian cores
of, 23
Chaldaeans, their reverence for the hatchet, 62
j Chalk, absorbent nature of, 663 ; carved cylin-
ders of, 421 ; cups of, 34 ; cup-shaped ves-
sels of, 450 : districts, implementiferous
gravels in, 663 ; mining in, for flints, n, 79,
172 ; solution of, by carbonic-acid-charged
water, 477, 557, 675 ; " subterranean reser-
voir" in, 664
Chamacocos, socketed axes among the, 157
Champignolles, pit for extraction of flint at,
35
Changes, geological, in cave regions, 521, 525 ;
affecting the River Drift, 662, &c. ; coast-
line affected by, 695
Chantre, M.,133: on hafting of celts by savages,
164, 241 ; drift implement iound by, in Eu-
phrates valley, 653
Charms, arrow-heads used as, 364-366; heredi-
tarj' custody of, 469 ; pertorated pebbles as,
231
Charruas, the, lenticular sling-stones used by,
418
Charters-White, Mr,, on the attrition of teeth
by grit, 253
Chert, balls of, 249; Bntish celt of, 65; cores
of, in Welsh caves. 521 ; Eskimo use of, for
arrow-heads, 25 ; implements of, in Welsh
caves, 581 ; Irish tool of, 175
Chester, the late Rev. Grerille J,, barrow ex-
amined by, 463
Chieftainship, decorative weapons a mark of,
226
Children, quartz pebbles in interments of,
467
Chinese, use of military flail among the, 423
Chipping flints, relation of, to grinding, 85, 86,
290
Chisels, blacksmiths' present moce of hafting,
168, 233 ; bone, 177, 433 ; bronze, in Egyp-
tian gold-mines, 6 ; of deer's horn, 434 ;
distribution of, 177 ; Maori hafting of, 178 ;
and picks, 173-177
Chlorite, whetstone of, 269 ; slate, plates of, in
interment, 308
Chloritic albite, celts of, 109 ; stone, hatchet
and haft made of one piece of, 171
Chronology- of Neolithic Period, difficulty of
ascertaining, 471 ; of the River Drift at-
GENERAL INDEX.
715
tempted, 705, &c. ; of stone implements,
purely retrogressive, 473
Cidares, fossil, in interments, 469
Cilix, myth of, 313
Circles, concentric, on stones, 463
Circular habitation, stone cup in, 450
Circumcision, use of stone knives in, g
Cissbury, flint manufactory at, 33 ; objects
found at, 32, 81 ; Neolithic fauna at, 80 :
General Pitt Rivers' explorations at, 78-82
Cists in barrows, objects found in, 248, 330,
.4.53-456, &;c.
Civilization of maritime tribes in time of Ca;sar,
10; degree of, among the cave-dwellers,
657
Clach-nnihrach, 437
Clalam Indians, 105, i56
Clan Cliattons, stoue charm in the possession
of the, 469
Claudian, religiosa silex of, 10 ; flint and steel
mentioned by, 16; on the ceraunia ot
Pyrcnean caves, 481
Clavigero on the rate of obsidian working, 2 | ;
on metal Mexican axr?;, 155
Clay, burnt, loom weights of, 443
ironstone, celt of, 120
pipe, implement found in, 602
slate, celts of, 65, loO, 114, 136
valley-forming in, 677
vessels, instruments possibly used in shaping,
266, 432, 434
Climate, zoological evidences as to change of,
. 584, fqg
Clinch, Mr. G., 248 ; ovate implement found
by, 604
Clod-crusher of stone, 239
C-loth. Irish, celt used for giving gloss to, 440
Cloud River Indians, use of bone punch by,
Clouston, Mr., drift implements found by, 597
Club, so-called, of hone slate, 118
"Coal money," 447, 448; traces of lathe on,
465
" Coast finds," so-called sling-stones in, 419
Coast line, variations in, 617, 695
Cochet, Abbe, on flints in Merovingian inter-
ments, 314
Cocks, metallic, pole lathe still used for mak-
ing, 447, note
Codrington, Mr. T., on Southampton drift, 626 ;
on Hampshire deposits, 687, 688 ; on origin
of Solent, 690, O92 ; his section across Isle
of AV'ight, 693
Coffin of odk in barrow, 185 ; at Hove, con-
tents of, 449
Coin de foiidre, $7
Collections of Aymard,M., of LePuy, 114, 202,
402 ; Banks, late Rev. S., 103, &c. ; Beloe,
Mr. E. M., 142; Borgia, 62; Bourgeois,
Abbe, 322 ; Braybrooke, the late Lord,
144, 173 ; Brent, the late Mr. J., 102, 613,
618, &c. ; Brooke, Mr., of Marlborough,
18, 107, 227, &c. ; Chaplain Duparr, 43 ;
Christy, passim ; Cursiter, Mr., of Kirk-
wall. 124, 171, 190, 221, 224, 252 ; Clement,
Dr., 161 ; Courvale, M. de, 161 ; Duke, the
late Rev. E., 267 ; Durden (in I'.rit. Mus.),
69, 93, 125, 126, 17/I, 176, 230; Evans, pas-
sim ; Finlay, late Dr., of Athens, 114, 205 ;
Flower, the late J . W.. 74, 93, 107, 125, 175,
247-25^, 291, 295, 309 ; Foresi, 367 ; Green -
well, passim; Jewitt, the late Mr. Llewe-
llynn, 198, 202, 352 ; Klemra, 49, 157, 163,
105, 252, 294; Litchfield, Mr., 326; Lucas,
the late Mr. J. F., 96, 107, 136, 343, 352,
463; Meyrick, 105, 351, 423, 575, &c. ;
Alonkman, the late Mr. C, 92, 121, 122,
188, 191, 319, 333. 334, 342; Mortimer,
Messrs., of Driffield, passim ; Neuberg,
IS.iron de, 5r ; Perthes, Boucher de, 226,
3.^7; Foley, the late Rev. W. Weller,
341; Ransom, Mr. W., 196; Reboux,
M., 187; Rivers, General Pitt, 88, 140, 144,
155,231, 247, 277, 278, 279, 309, 332, 334;
Sturge, Dr. Allen, sec Grecnwell ; Warren,
the late Mr. Joseph, of Iiworth, 88, no,
113, 192, 229, 539
Comb-like instruments in Kent's Cavern, 489,
492
Commerce in amber, 449
Coramodus, the Emperor, his skill in archery,
Cone of percussion, 273, 274
Congarees, stone implements of the, 241
Continent, British connection with, in Drift
Period; 6g8
Contracted position in interments, 149
Conyers, ]\Ir., " British weapon " found by,
58 1, 582
Cooking vessels of steatite, 451
Copcland, Colonel A. J., 173 ; pointed drift
implement obtained by, 613
Copiapo, human vertebra, with arrow-bead cm-
bedded, found near, 406
Copper, bracelet of, 405 ; needle, 440 ; smelted,
in Kent's Cavern, 492
Copper mines, American, stone hammers in,
235; of Maghara, 6; objects found in old
workings of, 233 ; Spanish, &c., mauls
found in, 234
Corbicula flumiitalis, former presence of, 578,
584, 586; found above worked flints, 606;
found below drift implements, 621
Cores or nuclei, 20, 23, 276; boat-shaped, 27 ;
and flakes, their mutual relation, 31, 272 ;
possibly resulting from tube-bonng, 47 ;
flint, used as hammers, 248 ; occasionally
used as sling-stones, 419 ; palaeolithic, from
Kent's Cavern, 503 ; flakes refitted to, 20,
598, 606 ; long, their absence from River
Drift, 648
Corisco, Portuguese name for stone axe, 59
Com-crushers from Swiss Lake-dwellings and
others, 246, 250 ; -grinding, Irish, 251, 258 ;
-mills, stone spindles for, 242
Coscinopora globularis, possible use of, as
beads, 657
Cotton, Mr., his gift of flint arrow-heads to Dr.
Plot, 362
" Cramp-stones," ammonites used as, 470
Crannog, possible hatchet-haft found in, 155 ;
ridged hammer stones in, 247 ; scraper
from, 310 ; polished stone discs in, 440
Craveri, Signor, on Mexican arrow-making, 39
Crawshay, Mr. de B., palaeolithic implements
found by, 605, 608
Crayford beds. Arctic fauna of, t07
Crescent-like implements, 559, 571
Crinkling of flint dajger-handles, 359
Croll, Mr., as to date of Arctic Period, 705
Cross-bow, use of by Romans, 411
Cross-chipping, practice of, in .Scandinavia, 28;
shewn by Greek obsidian cores, 28
Crystal, balls of, in Merovingi.in graves, 470 ;
arrow-heads of, 406 ; quartz, modern use of
as pick, 23s ; used as drill, 322
CuUer lapideus. 289
Cuming, Mr. Syer, as to so-called club, 118;
on slickstone, 442
Cutifus fiihninis, 63
Cunnington, Mr. W., barrows examined by,
83, 460; celt belonging to, 91
Cup-shaped; marks on stones, 245; vessels of
chalk, 450, 451
Cujjs in interments, of hollow flints, 83 ; orna-
mented, 148; earthenware. 149; rude, 266;
with pyrites, 313; with jet objects, 352;
containing arrow-heads, 399, 432 ; with gold
ornaments, 427 ; with amber beads, 429 ;
handled, 444, 449; turned in lathe, 446-449;
wooden, 448; ot amber, 449 ; of gold, 449
"Curing-stones," 469
Currier's tool, perforated stone used as, 442
716
GENERAL INDEX.
Curved edge to implements, 576, 624 ; knives,
555*55^ ; recess in pala-olithic flake, 555
Cushing. Mr., arrow-head made by, 39
Custom House rates, "slick-stones" in table
or". 441
Cutting powers of flint, 289
Cutting tools of slaty stone, 344; for holding
in hand, 247 ; moidem use of, 348
D
r>acotahs, pump-drill used by, 48
Ij'.-Vcy, M. E., on implements of the French
caves, 511
Daggers, bronze, in interments, 185, 103, 194,
20*, 211, 212, 214, 268, 2to, 331,308, 448;
with gold on handle, 227 ; fluted, 331
flict, in interments, 208, 313, 353, &c. ; for
holding in hand, 348; leaf-shaped, j;.2:
leaf-shaped, unknown in Ireland, 353 ;
notched, 3>3; square-handled, 353; Egj"p-
tian and Danish, with crinkled hanales,
350 : handles of, used for re-chipping, 414
bone, 431
Dagger-knives, bronze, in interments, 265, 300,
513 ; flint, 208, 313 ; highly worked Danish,
413. 4H
Damour, M. A., on materials of celts, 66
Dana on the malleability of meteoric iron, 5
Danish flint daggers, ornamentation of, 42 ;
perforated celts, 114; celts of great size,
118; tumuli, iron found in, 144 ; handleo
scrapers, 308 ; graves, needles in, 433
Darbishire, Mr. R. D., £nds of celts, 84, 152,
236
Darwin, Mr. W. E., 624
Daubree and Ronlin, M.M., on Mexican
razors, 200
David, possible nature of his sling, 417
Dawkins, Prof. Boyd, on flints upon Roman
sites, 283 ; on the fauna of British cave=,
485 ; en human skull in Cheddar cave.
4&6 ; on condition of bones from cave-
earth, 508 ; on Brixham cave. 512 : on Welsh
caves, 521 ; on Crayford beds, 607 ; ovate
implement found by, 611; on possible
glaciation of N. Britain in Mammoth
period. 607 ; on the extinction of some Post-
Glacial animals, 704
Dawson, Mr. W. C, on a supposed hafted celt,
Debacle, results of, on the Rhine, 672
De Bonstetten, 287, 470
Decorations, personal, 452-472
Deer, represt-ntaiions of on stag's horn adze.
4.54 • 435
Deer's horn, see Stag's horn
Deluge, stone implements taken as evidence
of, 526
Dendiitic-markings on imp'ements, 558; as
testimonj- to authenticity of implements,
659 ; to what cause due, 660
Denmark, approximate dates of Periods in. 2,
23: bracers in, 430; cores of boat-shaped
form from, 27 ; square-sided hatchets from,
32 ; grinding stones, 43 : mode of testing
thonderLolts in, 57 ; general use of flint
for celts in, 85 ; comparati\erarity of arrow-
heads in, 4C4
Denudation, opening of caves by, 478; of the
Fen countr}-, 680, 681 ; of Hampshire
gravels, bSS
Deposits, implementiferous, due to river action,
696 ; marine, in Fen gravels, 681, 686; ossi-
ferous, in caves, 478 ; in valle5-s, varying
with the elevation, 609, 701
Depressions for holding, worked in cutting tool,
344
Desor, Professor, on method of boring stone,
51 ; referred to, 159, 161, 310
Detritus, amount of, brought down bj- rivers,
667, 705
Deventer, modem use of ftone axe at. 157
Devonian limestone, caverns in, 491, 512
Dickinson, the late Mrs., on collective burial of
celts, 75 ; her collection referred to, 93, 465
Diodorus Siculus on the use of stone in em-
balming, 8 ; on the implements of the Ich-
thjopbag^, 288
Diorite. axe-bammer of, 205 ; axe-head of, 213 ;
bastard-gouge o^ 182 ; polished celt of,
107 ; ring of, 465
Discs, imperforate, 440
perforate, of dolerite, 230; as fly-wheels of
drilling-sticks, 231 ; of jet, 455 ; ovoid, in
Kent's Cavern, 493 ; possible uses of, 244,
439; quoit-like, 440; sharp-rimmed. 216
Discoidal implements possibly used as missiles,
648
Discoloration of flints, evidence afforded by,
659. 600, 661
Dish with lid, 451
Dishes, stone, 440; with handles, 451
Distaff and spindle, recent use of, 436, 437
Divining, grooved stone used in, 470
Dog, bones of in cist, 426 ; first appearance of,
in Neolithic times, 486
Dolmens of Brittanj-, arrow-heads in. 385, 400 ;
axe-hammer in, 212; carved illustration of
celt in, 153; jadeite celts in, 109; chisel-
ended implement from. 505; long whetstone
from, 268 ; pyrites and flint in, 318
of other parts of France, lance-beads from,
352, 354; polished chisel from, 176; stag's
horn sockets from, 160 ; worked flakes, 327 ;
Danish, stone bracer in, 430 ; Spanish,
arrow-heads in, 430
Dolomieu, on French gun- flint making, 18; his
estimate of work of Catllouteur, 21
Dolomitic conglomerate, cave in, 517
Domestic use, instruments for, 436, 599
Dondeibeitels and Uonner^tein, 58, 63
Dordogne caves, objects from, 262, 292, 296,
312, 329; nature of, 476; deposits in, 478,
480
Doughty, Mr. Charles M., his finds at Hoxne.
376
Douglas, Mr., suggestion as to celt in inter-
ment, 145
Downes, ilr. W., chert implement found by,
639
Drainage area of ancient Solent River, 691,
692
Drift-stages of the Darent Valley, 690
Drill, antiquity of use of, 48 ; hollow, probable
use ot in America, 50
Drilling by flint flakes, 321 ; by quartz crystals,
322
" Drinking cups." See Cups.
" Druidical circle," 149 ; objects found in, 197
Druten-stein, as charm against witches, 469
uubois, Dr., his Pithecanthropus, 703
Dugdale, Sir "William, on stone celts, 3
"Dug-out" canoes hollowed by stag's horn
chisels, 434
Dunn, Mr. E. J., African drift -implement
found by, 653
Dupont, Dr E., on a worn nodule of pyrites,
318; his investigation of Belgian caves,
481 ; his classification of cave deposits, 482
D'Urban, the late Mr. W. S. M., on the ballast
pit at Broom, 639
Ear-rings, bronze, in interment, 207
Earthenware, cupot, in interment, 149; spindle
whorls of, 439
East Anglia, relations of paixolithic deposits
in, 577
Eben, double meaning of, 443
Echini, fossil, in interments. 468, 460
Edkins, Mr. Joseph, on stone hatchets in China,
ti4
GENERAL INDEX.
Eggs of wild goose, portions of in Fisherton
beds, 631
Egypt, boring by tubes in, 51 ; drill and bow
used in, 48 ; early use of sling in, 417 ; evi-
dence as to date of iron in, 6; flakes from,
replaced on each other, 20 ; meteoric origin
of iron used in, 5
Egyptian arrows, chisel-shaped, 368,395,409;
blades, leaf-shaped, 8, 354 ; flint flakes, 287 ;
knives, leaf-shaped, 8 ; knives of polislud
stone, 6. 34S ; knive«, ripple-marked, 359 ;
mode of mounting adzes and hatchets, 167,
169; notched hammer, 169 ; sickle, mount-
ing of flakes in, 297, 358 ; soldiers, carved
wooden, 3O9 ; wrist-guards, 430
Elagabalus, the Syrian god, 10
Elephant-bed at Brighton, 622
Elt-arrows, 362-366 ; -bolts, 387; probable in-
terment of as charms, 397 ; -darts, mounted
as amulets, 365 ; -shot, arrow-heads as pro-
tection against, 365
Elissa, bronze sickle of, 5
Embalming, use of stone implement in, 8
Emery-powder, alleged use of in drilling meres,
52
Encampments, ancient, presence of flakes in,
280, 281
Engelhardt, M. C, his method of preserving
wood, 152
Engelhardt, M., on the formation of ground-
ice, 671
Engra\'ings on bone by cave-dwellers, 484, 523,
657
Enniskillen, late Earl of, on Irish gun-flints,
397 .
" Eolithic," use of term deprecated, 762
Erosion of valleys, 665-671 ; chronological data
from, 707
Eskimos, their arrow-flakers, 25, 37, 412, 1414 ;
ball-weapon, 219; bone harpoons, 394, 505 ;
bone tool for straightening arrow-shafts,
410; flail stone, 219; "flensing knife," 292 ;
hammer of jade or nephrite, 25 ; iron knife
of, 293 ; meteoric iron used by, 5 ; mode of
bafting knives, 347 ; pyrites, their use of for
producing fire, 15, 317; steatite cooking
vessel, 451 ; stone scrapers, 39, 208, 299,
344; stone scrapers used as planes, 299;
weighted throw-strings, 422 ; whetstones
for bone implements, 268; wrist-guard, 430
Etruscan necklaces, arrow-heads as charms in,
65, 366 ; tombs, gold wreaths for, 84
Euphotide or Gabbro, hatchet chipped of, 36
Europe, earl^- use of the bow in, 360
Evans, Mr. Arthur John, implement found by,
72; Dr. Philip Norman, drift implements
found by, 518, 617, 635, 636
Evolution of arrow-heads. 369
Experiments on arrow-flaking by pressure, 39 :
on arrow-shaft forming, 320, 408 ; on
fashioning a hatchet, 36 ; on drilling bone,
321, 322; on drilling stone, 48, 50; on saw-
ing stone, 45 ; on tree-cutting, 69, 162 ; on
the wearing of flint flakes, 504; on wood-
cutting, 297
External flakes defined, 641
Fabricators and flaking-tools, 412-416; dagger-
hilts used as, 413, 4r4
Faces of celts, definition of, 66
Fairy darts, effect of on cattle, 365, 366 ; mill-
stones, 437
Falconer, the late Dr. Hugh, on the "bulb of
percussion," 274 ; his work at Brixh.am
cave, 512 ; on tooth found at Wookey, 520 ;
on worked flints at Abbeville, 527
Fauna, climatal changes shown by, 486, 584,
631, 689; mammalian, altered byman, 4S2;
Brixham, 513; of the caves, 479, 483-4.'*6;
Creswell, 521; French, 510; Happaway,
517 ; Kent's Cavern, 507, 508 ; Long Hole,
Gower, 520; Paleolithic and Neolithic
compared, 485; Tor Bryan, 517; Welsh,
521; Wookey hy.cna den, 519; of the
River drift near Aylesford, 6n ; Bury St.
ICdraunds, 542, 543 ; changes of, between
Drift and Surface Periods, 704 ; Fisherton
beds, 631; French, 528; Hitchin brick-
eartli, 537; Lark valley, 543, 550; Little
Ouse valley, 551, 556, 561, 569; northern
character of in high level gravels, 699 ;
Ouse gravels, 533-538 ; Spanish, 529 ;
Thames valley, 586, 591 ; molluscan, at
Bury St. Edmunds, 540 ; of Cam, 539 ;
characteristic of brackish water, in Stour
valley, 621 ; of Fisherton beds, 631 ; of
Hitchin brick-earth, 536; at Hoxne, 575 ;
of Little Ouse valley, 551 ; marine, in Fen
gravels, 681 ; of Milford Hill, 632; of Ouse
gravel, 531-3 ; at .Stutton, 578 ; in Thames
valley, 5S4, 585
Feathering of arrow-shafts, 410
Felsite, hammer-head of, 230 ; ovate implement
of, 591.
Felstone, implements of, 66,96, 116, 119, 124,
135, 521, 566; spherulitic, celt of, 124
Fenni, use of bone arrow-heads among the,
361
Fens, denudation of the, 680, 681
Fergusson, Mr. James, on the three Periods of
antiquities, 3 ; on changes in the Ganges
delt.-i, 667
Fern roots used as food by the Ahts, 250
Fibrolite, traces of sawing on French hatchets
of, 43 ; Spanish celt of, 44 ; hatchet, 144 ;
stone resembling, celt of, 188
Fibula, pins and skewers made from the, 431
Fibula, Roman, found with celt in Saxon grave,
144
"Finger flints," 416 ; -ring, spiral, of bronze,
398
Fire-arms, flints used for, 17
" Fire-drill," widespread use of, 48
Fire, early use of flints for procuring, 15 ; early
modes of producing, 312, 313; use of pyrites
in producing, 15, 315 ; traces of, on bones
in caves, 510
Fish, scales of, in river drift, 540, 541
Fisher, Rev. Osmond, 538 ; on successive
Pateolithic Periods, 568
Fishing, mode of twisting lines for, 437
Fishing-hooks of combined flint and bone, 294
Fishing Indians, use of sinkstones by, 236
Flail, military, its nature, 423
" Flail-stones," 218, 230; possibly whetstones,
269
Flakes,;bevel-edged, 546,559; as borers, 321 ;
broad, 701 ; circular, 341 ; in caves, 492, &c. ;
classification of Neolithic, 275 ; of Pal.f o-
lithic, 641 ; effects of diff'erent uses on, 289;
external, 275, 641 ; as fish-hooks, 294 ; flat,
276, 642 ; hafted, 228, 229, 292, 293, 327 ; in
interments, 279, &c. ; leaf-shaped, 326, &c. ;
long, 28, 35, 641, 642 ; manufacture, &c., of,
22, 35,83,606; manufacture of for gun-flints,
19, 20; minute, 325 ; modes of fracture of,
272 ; notched by use, 642 ; on Pal,Tolithic
floor, 586, 598, 606 ; polygonal, 276, 642,
643 ; rarely ground at edge, 290 ; relation of
cores to, 20, 31, 272; replacement o!', on
cores, by Mr. Archer, 20; by Mr. W. Smith,
20, 586, 598, 599; by Mr. Spurrell, 20,
6o5 ; ridged, 275, 641 ; in River Gravels,
536. 546, 555. 586, 8:c. ; on Roman
sites, 283 ; row of, mounted at knives, &c.,
293 ; row of, as armature of sickles, 297 ;
sawing by means of, 45 ; as scrapers, 298,
312; seriated, '294-297 ; side scrapers, 548,
643 ; square-ended, 597 ; of Surface Period
compared with Pal.rolithic, 642; Swiss,
mounted, 292; tools employed for making,
24, 25 ; triangular, 340, 343 ; trimmed, 326,
&c., 042 ; wide range of, 283, 288
18
GENERAL INDEX.
Flaking tools. 24, 412; probable uses of, 413;
dag^er-hilts used as, 414
Flax, possible use of stone bats in preparing,
257 ; early use of, for weaving, 436
" Flensing-knife." Kskimo, 292 ; Shetland
blades resembling, 347
" Flint Chips" referred to, 234
Flint Jack, arrow-heads made by, 42, 659
Flint-koapping, 17-22
Flint, alteration in structure of. 404, 489, 497, 40^;
ancient workshops of, 22, 006 ; as article 01
barter, 55, 80; brittle condition of, 558;
cutting powers of, 281, 282 ; difficulty ot
pen'orating, 223, 224 ; durabilit>- of, 655 :
experiments in shaping, 36, 41; flakes and
cores of, 20, 31, 272. 279; grinding of, 43 :
hardened by exposure, 18. 32, 33 ; impor-
tation of. 281 ; minute tools of, 325 ; modem
ceremonial use of, 9 ; necessity of, in
savage life, 282 ; ochreous, 536, 553, 597.
602 ; pits for extraction of, 33, 55, 78, 79 :
prismatic splitting of, 88 ; processes for
grinding, 43 ; result of abundance of, in
chalk districts, 677 ; scarcity of in Northern
Britain, 5S0 ; softening of in zed brick-earth.
596; and steel, early use of, 16, 271, 282 :
and steel, meaning of, in intemaents, 283 :
tools for working. 41 ; use of, with pyrites.
16, 313, 319; whitening of, 494, 498, 49;.
545, 549, 596, 611, 619 ; whitening, cause of.
^97 ; worn by use, 311. 312, 414, 416
Flints, accidentally fractured. M. Hardy on.
658 ; heaps of, on Palseolithic floor, 598
Flood deposits, varying nature of, 658, 669;
their removal by subsequent floods, 670
Floods, their action in valley-erosion, 666, 706;
as caused by ground-ice, 671
" Floor-stone," gun flints made from, 33
Flora, temperate, below brick-earth, 537 ;
recent, in Oxford peat, 593 ; of various
climates at Hoxne. 577, 697
Flower, the late ilr. J. \V., on East Anglian
flint implements, 551, 556; on section at
Brometill, 681 ; on French and English
palxolithic implements, 650 ; on Drift-
beds of the Fens, 681 ; on tbe Drift-beds
of Brandon, 683
Fluting on arrow-heads, 392; on aie-hammer,
203 ; on Danish dagger-hilts. 42, 393 ; 01.
Egyptian blades, 359 ; probably effected by
pressure, 42, 393
Fluviatile origin or implementiferons beds, 688
Folklore Society referred to as to fairy darts.
5^5 , „. .
" Food-vessels in mterments, 224, 462
Fooks, Mr. C. C. S., implement found by, 606
Forbes, the late Mr. David, Boli\-ian imple-
ments described by, log, 232, 239
Forei, Dr. F. A., his experiment in stone-
working, 36
" Forest Bed," Norfolk, suposed worked flints
from, 572
Forest, submerged, at Bournemouth, 695
Forgeries of arrow-heads, 42; of Paleolithic im-
plements, 658, 659
" Fort,' cup found in, 444
Fossils, ascription of, to diabolical agency,
363 : use of, as ornaments, 470, 657 ; in in-
terments, 466, 4O9
Foster, Dr. C. Le Neve, drift implement
found by, 610
Fox, Rev. W., as to origin of Solent Sea, 600
Fracture of flint, natural and artificial com-
pared, 273
Fragments of implements, use of, 223, 242, 339
Frankish Cemeteries, objects found in, 283, 307
Frankland, Prof., on climatal conditions o;
glacier formation, 698
Franks, Sir A. WoUaston, on an abraded
pyrites nodule, 318 ; on cafting of American
flint blades, 349 ; on perforated discs, 439 ;
on present use of stone vessels, 450
Freni:h, Mr. J., drift implements found by, 578
Frere, Mr. John, his discoveries at Hoxne,
573,576
Friction, polish of stone saw by, 293
Frost, disintegrating effect of, 672
Fuegians, their arrow chipping, 39, 406 ; their
use of arrow-heads as knives, 334; their
mode of fire-producing, 15, 317 ; their mude
of using scrapers, 299
Fungus, its use as tinder, 16, 317
Fustibaius, Roman use of the, 418
Future existence, belief in, implied by objects
in interments, 84, 283
Gabbro, tools for flint-working made of, 22
Gaillard, M. F., Breton finds of pyrites and
flint by, 318
Gallas, form of scraper among the, 299
Games, possible use of stone balls in, 244, 245
Ganges, estimate of detritus carried by, 667
Gastkldi, Prof., on arrow-head superstitions,
367 ; engra\-ings by, 120, 200, 333,337
Gatty, Rev. Reginald X., on minute flint tools,
325
Gaudry, M., sections of San Isidro valley by,
Gaul, Celtic, importation of amber from, 449
Gaulish coins, stone hatchet found with, 144
Gautier de Bibelesworth quoted as to slick-
stones, 441
Gariller. Mr. G. H., oval implement found by,
584 ■
Gay. the late Mr., 178
Geikie, Sir Archibald, on lowering of river-
basins, 668 : on chronology of valley ero-
sion, 705, 706
Gems on hilt of Mexican chalcedony blade. 355
Geological data as to antiquity of man in Bri-
tain, 704, &c.
George, Mr. T., his find at Elton, 573
Georgius Agricola on thunderbolts, 64
Germanv, superstitions in, regarding celts, 57,
58 ' ,
Gesenius, his mention of stone knives in Pales-
tine, 9
Gibb, Dr. G. D.. drift implement found by.
617
Gibraltar, objects found in caves of, 177, 182,
252, 287, 428, i^^
Gimawong, sacrificial use of stone in honour
of. 10
Glacial deposit, celt found in gravel of, 136 ;
deposit in Little Ouse valley, 682 ; Period,
flint-bearing deposits subsequent to, 607 ;
Period, attempt to date astronomically, 705 ;
Periods, their relation to Pala;oiitLic
periods, 568
Glaciers, heat action indicated by, 698
Gladstone, Dr. J. H., broad flake found by,
606
Glandes, the Roman sling-stones, 418
Glass beads in barrows, 437, 456 ; modem cere-
monial use of flakes of, 9; " slickstones "
of, 441,442
Glossiness of surface of palaeolithic implements,
659 ; to what cause due, 660
Glcssopetra, Pliny's account of the, 363
Glovemakers, recent use of stone nodules by,
416
Godwin-Austen, Mr. R. A. C, bis exploration
of Kent's Cavern, 489; on gravels of Wey
valley, 594; on origin of Bournemouth
gravels, 694 ; on former temperature of
English Channel. 701
Gneiss, hammers of, 221, 223, 224
Gnostic inscriptions, Egyptian celt bearing. 60,
61
Goat's horn, use of, by Mexicans in arrow
making, 39
Gog and .&iagog, their military flail, 423
GENERAL INDEX.
719
Gold, armill.'i of, 460; box-like objects of, 460;
circular ornaments of, 427 ; cup of, in bar-
row, 449 ; engraved haft of, with Egyptian
blade, 359; on handle of bronze dagger,
227 ; perforated studs covered with, 456 ;
plates of, in barrow, 227, 428
Gold mines of Egypt, bronze chisels in, 6
Gooch, Mr. W. l3., on African palxolithic im-
plements, 653
Goose, wild, remains of in Fisherton drift beds,
631
Gordon, Robert, of Str iloch, on elf-darts, 364
Gouges, abundance of, in Scandinavia, 178 ;
bronze mould lor, 209 ; Irish, 181 ; rare in
Britain, 178
Granite, ball of, in Kent's Cavern, 503 ; blocks
of, used as anvils, 245 ; celt of, 108 ; ham-
mer stone of, in Kent's Cavern, 503 ; hand-
mills of, in recent use, 253 ; ironing stones
of, 44J ; perforated axes of, 195, 198 ;
polished hammer of, 222 ; saddle-quern of,
252 ; wedge-shaped bhules of, 97 ; water-
worn fragments of, in Bournemouth
gravels, 694
Grass, asserted hafting of implement with,
645
Grass-tree, Australian use of gum from the,
170
Graitoirs, 298
Gratioir-bec, 305
Gravel, pipes ot in chalk, 551 ; bones of ani-
mals smaller than man not found in, 656
Gravel Hill, Brandon, 562-567
Gravels, French, 526-8, 6g8 ; Spanish, 8cc.,
529 ; English, 530 et seq. ; deposited, trans-
ported, and re-laid, 670, 693, 700 ; nature of,
governed by local causes, 078 ; see " Sec-
tions " ; relations of to Boulder Clay, 577,
685, 697
Graves, Rev. J., on recent use of a quern, 258
Greece and Italy, precedence of* bronze to
iron in, 6; obsidian cores from, 28; stone
implements as thunderbolts in, 59
Greek language, priority of bronze and iron
shown by, 5 ; inscription on celt, 61, 62
Greeks, their reverence for the hatchet, 62 ;
use of sling bullets among the, 418
Greenhill, Mr. J. E., on the London gravels,
,586
Greenland, fish-hook in grave in, 294 ; har-
poon points of chalcedony in, 405
Greenough map, the, referred to, 683 ""
Greenstone celt, sawing of, with flint flake,
Greenwell, Canon, his explorations at Grime's
Graves, ^i, 40 ; of barrows, passim
Gregory, Mr. A. G., on stone-working in
Australia, 26
Grew, Dr. Nebemiah, on " the flat Bolthead,"
364
Grewinck, Herr, on stone-boring tools, 47
Griffiths, Rev, Dr., ovate implements found by,
601
Grime's Graves, explorations by Canon Green-
well at, ;,^, 40
Grinding implements, absence of, in pala;o-
lithic times, 649; corn, medi.tval litigation
as to, 25; corn in Ireland, 251; maize,
Kaffir mill for, 250
Grinding stones and whetstones, 261-271 ; in
interments, 83, 84 ; fixed, not revolving, 43,
261 ; -Scandinavian, 13, 261
Grit, from millstones, teein worn by, 253 J
Grooved hammers, 233-236; sharpening stone
from La Madelaine, 484
Grooves worked on axes, 168, 169, 211, 212; for
hafting, on hammer stones, 233 ; on rocks,
due to sharpening tools, 262 ; pebbles with,
271
Grottoes, funereal, 160
Ground-ice, formation of, 671
(luanches, obsidian knives used by the, 8
Guernsey, manufactory of arrow-heads in, 40:
Gum, Australian implements liafted with, 97,
137
Gun-flints, present manufacture of, 14, 18
Gutsmuths on ancient stone-boring, 49
Gutteridge, Mr. William, drift implement
found by, 598
H
Habits of Palaeolithic Period, 656-658
Hdchcs a boiiion and a tete, 135
Hacket, Mr., Indian quartzite implement found
by, 651
Hacquet, ^I., on the manufacture of gun-flints,
18, 21
Hajmatitc, celts made of, 127 ; hammer of, 219 ;
scraped, for personal decoration, 248, 263,
264, 312, 484 ; sling bullets of, 418
Haft of celt, carved, 152 ; of Mexican blade,
jewelled, 355
HaUs, club-like, 155 ; forked, for hatchets, 163,
164
Hafted celts, discoveries of, 151-155
Hafting, Carib method of, ly, ; contrivances
for assisting, 141, 151-172; of daggers by
split wood, 349 ; of flakes, 288, 289, 292, 293,
502 ; by flexible wooden binding, 167 ; of
flint blade by moss, 349 ; or hammers with
small perforations, 217; of Maori chisels,
178; by means of growing wood, 155, 218;
of spear-heads, 350, 351
Ha/cke, or hoes, 191
Halberd, meaning of, 146
Halliwell, Mr., on the .Stone axe, 146
Hallstatt, objects from, 460, 464, 465 ; ornaments
from, 84 ; perforated whetstones, 269 ; tran-
sitional period of cemetery of, 7
Hamard, Abbe, his researches at Hermes, 314
Hammers, barrel-shaped, 224 ; boulders used
as, 234 ; broken celt converted into, 242 ;
for chipping flints, 248-258 ; conical, 223 ;
cylindrical, 224 ; with depressions of faces,
239, 240 ; egg-shaped, 224, 225 ; Eskimo, 25 ;
grooved, 233-236; from Kent's Cavern, 503 ;
ornamented, 226; horn, in contracted in-
terment, 434 ; ovoid pebbles perforated
tor, 228 ; of peculiar forms, 219: perforated,
217-232; possible use of, as weapons, 220,
221 ; Purgatory, 183 ; of stag's horn, 35, 41,
434 ; stone, still used in Iceland, 11
Hammer-stones, in barrows, 235, Scc. ; of bronze,
246; cavities worked in, 23S; definition of,
238 ; with depressions of faces, 240-246; dis-
coidal, 249 ; flint, at Cissbury, 32 ; grooved
for hafting, 233 ; made from cores, 248 ;
North American, 241 ; pal.eolithic, 536; on
Pal.colithic floor, 606; perforated, abun-
dance of in Ireland, 232 ; polished by use,
248; ridges on, 246
Hand, implements adapted for holding in the,
136, 140, 151, 358, 552, 557, 04s
Hand-hatchets, 137
Hand-mills of stone, recent use of, 253 ; with
rotatory upper stone, 258
Handle, jewelled, of Mexican blade, 355 ; skin,
of flint flake, 293 ; of turned stone cups, how
left; 446, 447 ; wooden, of celts, 119, 152 ;
wooden, of celts, rare in Britain, 151;
wooden, of stag's horn axe. 434
Handled celt, representation of in dolmen, 153
■' Handled wedges," 205
Hardening of flints by exposure, 32
Hardy, AI. Michel, on accideiuallv fractured
flints, 658
Harland, Mr. H. S., grinding tools found by,
266
Harpoon-heads, of horn or bone, in French
caves, 484 ; of horn in Kent's Cavern, 504 ;
Eskimo, single barbed, 304; perforated.
410; of quartz in S. America, 407
720
GENERAL INDEX,
Harrison, Mr. Benjamin, as to dritt caps on
chalk downs, ood; impiemenu found and
given by, 92, 174, 198, 604, 611
Hastino^s, stone missiles probably used at Battle
of. 147
Hatchets, Australian, fitted with handles, 70 ;
bronze, E^-ptian, 169; butt-end roughened
for socketin.s, 46 ; oif Danish type, 68, 69 ;
baftin^ of, 151, 161 ; oblique-bladed, 152;
of one piece with handle, 171 ; sacred im-
portance of, with Greeks, 62 ; stone, form
of, affected oy bronze influences, 75 ; stone,
method of forming-, 31 ; wit a loop for sus-
pension, 171 ; with semicircular cutting
edge, 136; worn, re-chipping of, 102 ; nuclei
made into, at Spiennes, 35
Hawk, skull of, in interment, 429
Hawkins, Mr. C. E., drift implement found by.
612
Hajmes, Prof., Egyptian implements found bv,
652
Heaps of flints prepared for slingers, 419
Heather}- Bum Cave, bronze aad bone objects
in, 432
HelUbard€, et\Tnology of, 146
Helwing on the true nature of celts, 63
Hemp, absent from Lake Dwellings, 436; pos-
sible use of stone bats in preparing, 257
Hernandez, his account of obsidian-working, 24
Herodotus on the ritual use of stone, 8 ; on the
arrows used by the army of Xenes, 368 ; on
the featherless arrows of the L5-cians, 410
Hesiod, his mention of the earn- use of bronze,
4 ; as to the feathering of the arrows of
Hercules, 410
Hickes, Dr., on the shooting of elf-arrows.
366
Hicks, Dr. H., on date of Welsh caves, 521
Hides, importance 01, in savage life, 311 ; pre-
sent use of stone scrapers in preparing, 36,
299 ; stone implements possibly hafted 65-,
217, 235; stones used for smoothing, 442;
wear of implements by scraping, 332 ; wet,
assagai-heads bound on by, 410
Hildebrand and Hadubrand, song of, 146
Hill -forts, querns found in, 259
Hilton, Mr. R., 94, 341 ; drift implements found
by, 622
Hilts of flint daggers, their probable use as
flaking tools, 413
Hindoos, pebble superstition among, 568
Hippopotamus, its evidence as to former volume
of English rivers, 6og, 700
Hoare, Sir Richard Colt, examination of bar-
rows by, 143, 148, 210, 211, 227, 244, 260, 280,
291, 30S, 314, 352; on pebbles in tumuli,
443; on whetstones, 268
Hoe, use of stone implements as, 71, 191 ; of
stag's horn with handle attached, 434
Hoe-like implements in Mexico, 216
Holes through stones, natural, utilization of,
225, 226
Hollow scrapers, 319, 320
Hollowing canoes, stone gouges for, 178; wapiti
born used for, 434
Holmes, Mr. W. H., on a chert quarry in Mis-
souri, 80
Homer, mention of bronze arms in, 4, 368
Hones, 268, 269 ; burial of, 208
Hone-stone, celts of, 96, 105, 106, 117, 120, 121 ;
green, hollow adze of, 180
Hornblendes, various, implements of, 125, 128,
206, 224, 230
Horse, representation of, on bone, 523
Horse trappings, late Celtic, pebbles found
with, 442
Houghton, Mr. W. H., drift implement found
by, 572
Hove, amber cup found at, 449
Hoxne, brick-field at, 574 ; climatal changes
shown by, 697; implements found at, 374
Hug^hes, Prof. T. McK., cave researches by.
521 ; drift implements found by, 539, 611 :
on production of flint flakes, 272
Human race, evidence for antiquity of, 658, &c.;
pala?o)ithic eridence for unity of, 654; pro-
bable origin in favourable climate, 703
Human remains in pa'a»olithic caves, 487, 517 ;
in gravel pit, 542; in Thames gravel, doubt-
ful evidence of, 607 ; causes of their rarity,
656, 669, 702 ; in Seine valley, 703
Huntley, the late Dowager Marchioness, im-
plements found by, 575
Hurons, asserted methods of hafting among,
15.=;. 218
Hut-circles, hammer-stones found in, 234 ; dis-
coidal stones in, 244 ; saddle-quern in, 251;
scraper in, 309 ; spindle whorls in, 438 ;
whetstones in, 270; worn pebbles in, 248
Hysnas, alternate occupation of caves by man
and, 519 ; absent from Kent's Cavern, 508
Hydrobi'a Tnarginata, former presence of, in
England, 551. 533, 539, 584, 586
Ice, possible action of, in Darent gravel-bed,
610 ; transporting power of, 671, 672
Ice-chisels, possible use of early implements as,
^ 645,654
Iceland, stone hammers in use in, 11
Ichthyophagi, the, Diodorus on their use of
stone, 288
Icklingbam, gun-flint factory ftJrmerly at, 14
" Imp-stones," 437
Implements, palaeolithic, chronology of, retro-
gressive, 473 ; from caves and drift com-
pared, 474 ; large, rarity of in caves, 475 ;
with extinct fauna, 481-486, 490, &c., 513,
620, 701 ; of caves, classification of, 483,
484; joined up, 20,514, 586; British area
of, 524, 580; of the River Drifts, 526 et seq. ;
of materials other than flint, 565, &c. ; below
the Palseolithic floor, 586, 591 ; first dis-
covery of in quaternary beds, 581 ; beneath
mammoth remains, 630; classification of,
640, 648 ; compared with neolithic, 648-650,
657 ; from Asia and Africa, 650 ; forms of,
almond-shaped, 529, 540, 557, 647 ; bevel-
edged, 546, 559 ; broad and short, 594 ; cir-
cular, 559, 608 ; crescent-like, 559, 571, 647 ;
discoidal, 648 ; flat-faced, 645 ; kite-shaped,
492, 542, 593, 644 ; lanceolate, 554 ; large
and heavy, 532, 569, 613; lozenge-shaped,
647; oblique-edged, 567, 568 ; oval, 589, 625,
604, 629 ; ovate, 515, &c., 593, Stc, 602, 618 ;
ovoid, 492, 493 ; perch-backed, 646, 647 ;
pointed, 557, 563, 603, 613, 644, &c. ; scraper-
shaped. 500, 632 ; sharp-rimmed, 642, 647,
701 ; shoe-shaped, 537, 554, 593, 645 ; tongue-
shaped, 539, 572, 644, 649 ; triangular, 492 ;
wedge-shaped, 529
Incantations regarding stones, 469
" Incense-cup" in barrow, 211
Incisions on bone objects, 523, 656
India, small chalcedony cores in, 23 ; super-
stitious reverence for jade in, 5o; celts in,
88, 89 : ivory wrist-guard used in, 430
Indians, North American, arrows, 370; Cali-
fomian, arrow-chipping bj-, 39; Califomian,
obsidian worked bj-, 27 ; Cloud River,
arrow-chipping by, 59 ; of Ecuador, axe-
mounting among, 170 ; flaking tools of, 24 ;
fleshing instruments, 126 ; hatchets, 97 ;
hatchets, mounting of, 168 ; holes drilled
by, 50, 52 ; lozenge-shaped lance-heads,
372 ; p)'rites used among, for fire-producing,
317; quoits, 440; Snake River, obsidian-
working by, 40; tomakawks made by, 52
Indra, hammer as attribute of, 62
Indus, large nuclei from banks of, 23
Ingram, the Rev. Canon, as to bracers, 429
Interments, stone and bronze found together
GENERAL INDEX.
721
in, 123, ^43. S'C- » primary and secondary,
mixinf^ of, 210, 211 ; Saxon, with quern, 259 ;
late presence of flint in, 282; objects ac-
companying,/ai\f/>« ; burnt, objects found
with, 96, 105, 186, 194, 197, 210, 253, 291, 330,
377i 39^. &c. ; contracted, cause of position,
149; objects found in, 230, 280, 371, 385,
429, &c.
Intrenchmcnts, old, relation of sling-stones to,
Ireland, abundance of flint arrow-beads in, 399,
408; arrosv-heads relatively larger in, 400;
blades of slaty stone in, 353 ; flint celts rare
in, 84, 133; late use of stone implements in,
II ; recent use of stone anvils in, 232 ;
superstitions in, concerning celts, 57
Iron Age, Bronze Age succeeded bj', 5 ;
grooved stones with objects of the, '271 ; axe-
head in barrow, 463 ; axes, French, resem-
bling stone t)pes, 205 ; blades, Eskimo,
skin-hafted, 293 ; late use of, in Egypt, 6 ;
date of discovery as given by Arundelian
marbles, 4; early use of, in liritain, 10;
infrequent mention of by Homer, 4 ; knife,
487 ; metenric, probably first used, 5 ;
-mould, staining of scrapers by, 315 ; objects
of, in interments, 210, 394, 397, 438, 455 ; ore
in barrow, 263, 313, 338; Period, Earl}-,
"strike-a-light" stonesof the, 241 ; pickaxe
in old workings of lead mine, 234 ; used for
pins of querns, 259
Ironing stones of granite, 443
Iron-stone, Sussex, celt of, 84 ; axe-head of,
186 ; cave implement of, 522
Iroquois, the use of pump drill b}', 48 ; sword of,
294
Isle of Wight, severance of, from mainland,
690 ; former extent of, 693
Italy, arrow-head superstitions in, 367; iron
preceded by bronze in, 5 ; ridged flake in,
327 ; stone " thunderbolts" in, 59
Ivory, articles of, at Paviland, 487 ; carved
bracers of, 430; fossil, used by Eskimos for
arrow-flaking, 37 ; fossil, Eskimo scraper
hafted in, 298 ; fossil, present use of, in
Siberia, 488 ; plates of, in necklaces, 457 ;
rod of, in Brixhara cave, 516; spindle-whorls
of, 439 ; used for shafting arrows of Bush-
men, 410
Jacquard, M. Ed., on " Ceraunies," 57
Jade, adzes. New Zealand, 166, 167 ; boring of,
in New Zealand, 46; celts of, 109, 114;
discs of, 216.; Eskimo hammer of, 25 ; found
in Europe, no; Maori chisels of, 178 ; saw-
ing of, 45 ; wooden-hafted blade of, 299
Jade-like stone, French chisel of, 176
Jadeite, celt of, worn as charm, 57; celts of,
58, 107, 129 ; celts of, in Brittany dolmens,
109
Japan, European appearance of arrow-heads
from, 405 ; stone axes considered as thun-
derbolts in, 59; stone blades from, 355
Jasper, flakes, cutting power of, 6; hammer-
head of, 229 ; pendants of, 465 ; scraper of,
310 ; Spanish flake of, 287
Java, stone axes in, 59
Javelins and arrow-heads, 360-411 ; distinction
between, 370
Javelin-heads in interments, 371, 455 ; Austra-
lian mode of shafting, 288 ; Irish, with
polished faces, 372 ; Italian, 333 ; present
use of flakes as, 288 ; stemmed, 379
Jaw-bone of animal, implement formed from,
434
Jaw, human, from Moulin-Quignon, 703
Jeffreys, the late Mr. J. Gwyn, 345
Jet, armlets of, 464 ; beads, 309 ; beads, oblong,
149; buttons, 265, 398, 453; cone of, 308,
352 ; necklaces of, 456-463 ; ornaments of.
33^, 385, 394; rings, 265, 426; rings asso-
ciated with studs, 266, 454 ; Solinus on the
properties of, 464
Jewitt, the late Mr. Llewellynn, on elf-arrows,
366
Jews, modern, ceremonial use of flint by, 9 ;
their use of stone-struck fire, 16
Jones, Prof. Rupert, on the London gravels,
586 .
Joshua, his ceremonial use of stone knives, 9 ;
discovery of flint flakes in tomb of, 9
Judd, Prof. J. W., drift implement found
b}', 611
Kaffirs, their present use of stone implements,
II ; their present use of bed-stone and nd-
ling pin, 250 ; their mode of shafting assa-
gais, 410
Kahun, manufacture of stone implements at, 45
Keller, Dr., on the tools of iloosseedorf, 22 ;
on sawing stone implements, 44 ; on tube-
boring, 49, 50 ; referred to, 159, 162, 242,310,
323 ; on weights for weaving, 443
Kemble, 'Sir., on stones in Teutonic tombs, 468
Kennett, Bishop, quoted as to slickstones, 441
Kentmann, thunderbolts described by, 63, 64
Kent's Cavern, Torquay, awl of bone from,
506; bone, objects of, 504-506; bones,
mineral condition of, 508 ; bronze objects
in upper layer, 492 ; charcoal in, 492, 511 ;
co-existence of man with extinct animals
in, 510; cores and hammers from, 503;
correlation of, with foreign caves, 511 ; de-
posits of, 491 ; examinations of, 488-491 ;
fauna of, neolithic, 508 ; fauna of, pala-o-
lithic, 507 ; flakes from, 498, Sic. ; flint im-
plements from, 492-503 ; harpoons, 504 ;
human remains, 492 ; implements lielow
the stalagmite, 489; implements, neolithic,
from upper layers, 492 ; needle of bone,
321, 506; pin, 506 ; sabre-toothed tiger, 508 ;
scrapers, 500, 502 ; whetstone, 504
Kerr, ilr. Richard, ovate implement found
by, 621
Kilkenny, modern use of quern in, 258
Kimmeridge coal, beads of, 309 ; liuttons of,
455 ; " coal money," how made, 465 ; shale,
bead of, 463 ; shale, ring of, 456 ; shale,
saucer of, 445 ; shale, waste pieces of from
lathe, 447, 465
King, Mr. C. W., on an engraved Egyptian
celt, 60
Kintore, Earl of, battle-axe presented to Edin-
burgh Museum by, 197
Kioway Indians, stone hammer used by, 235
Kirchner on stone-boring, 51
Kirivan, Rev. R., on a worn perforated pebble,
225 ; on turned stone cups, 445, 447, 448
Kist-vaen, vessels found in, 450
Kite-shaped palaeolithic implements, 542, 592,
644
Kjokken-miJddings, Danish, axes of the, 68 ;
flakes in, 280, 286; hatchets from, 32;
motive for their position, 479 ; post-Roman,
hammerstones in, 247; scrapers, 310 ; ser-
rated flints in, 296 ; sling-stones in, 419
Klah-o-quat Indians, their wapiti-horn chisels,
434
Klcbs, Dr. R., on amber ornaments of Stone
Age, 450
Knife Gallery, Brixham, 514
Knife-shaped implements, 535, 646
Knives, blunted at one edge, ^^-i, 336 ; bronze,
5 ; chipped, not ground, 356 ; circular, 341,
342 ; cur\-ed, 355-358 ; Egyptian, 8, 354. 359 ;
Eskimo, of meteoric iron, 5; fluted, 359;
flint, 290, 356, &c. ; ground, from Scotland,
338 ; hafting of, 346 ; horseshoe-shaped,
342 ; Japanese, 355 ; of mica-schist, 381 ;
peculiar, in Lake dwellings, 348 ; Picts',
3a
'22
GENERAL INDEX.
perforated, 346 : Picts', probably handled,
347; of poliihed slate, 358; Scandinavian,
of slate, 404 ; serrated, 331 ; of small flakes
continuously mounted, 277, 293 ; of stone,
ceremonial use of, 8-10; triangular, 340,
343
" Knockin'-stones " in Scotland, n
Knowles, the late Rev. Dr., 138
Kotzebue Gulf, arrow-flakerfrom, 38
Kruse on perforated axes, 1S4
Labour necessary tor stone-working, 107, 226,
231
LaStau on the time required for tomahawk-
making, 52
Laing, the late llr. S.. rude implements found
by, in Caithness, 281
Lake-dwellings, arrow-heads of, 402 ; axes,
socketed, in, 158; corn-crushers in, 246;
flakes in, 281-287 ; grinding-stones in, 262 ;
handled flakes from, 292 ; mealing-stones
in, 250 ; narrow rubbers in, 267 ; perforated
hammer, 232; perforated whetstones, 269 ;
scrapers, 310, 318 ; slings of flax, 417 ; spin-
ning and weaving in. 436; stag's horn
sockets, 43, 136, 161, 177 ; wooden spindle-
whorls, 439
La Madelaine, characteristics of Age of, 484
Lamiarum sagittas, 362
Lamps of stone, 445, 450, 431
Landon, ilr. Joseph, examination of Rea
gravels by, 578
Lance-heads, from barrows, 333 ; of bone,
431; flakes used as, 288; ot flint, 348-351 ;
fluted, at Sourdes, 43 ; lozenge-shaped, 372 ;
notched, in Norway, 404
Lane-tox, Col., see Rivers, Gen. Pitt
Laitgues-Je-chaf, 644
Lapis lyJi'us, celt of, 114
Lapps, the, divination by stones among the, 470;
flint and steel buried with the, 283 ; their
use of sinews for thread, 507
Lark River, older representative of the, 682
Lartet, Prof. E., on boring with flint flakes, 321 ;
his chronological classification of caves,
481 ; experiments with flint tools, 507 ; on
graiioiis, 298
Lartet, Prof. Louis, his Spanish finds, 529
Lasham, Mr. Frank, on the gravels of the Wey
valley, 595
Lastic, Vicomte de. his cave at Bruniquel, 296
Latchmore, Mr. Frank, drift implements found
by, 536, 602, 604
"Late-Celtic" Period, stone ornamentation of,
260
"Lateritic" beds in Madras, implements found
in, 651, 654
Lathe, amber cup turned in, 449; use of, pro-
bably pre-Roman, 446; for turning cups, 446;
for turning spindle-whorls, 438 ; " coal
money" the waste product of, 465
Lauth, Prof., on the origin of iron in Egypt, 5
Layers, Mr. Edward, ovate implement found by,
578
Lawrence, Mr. G. F., implements found by, iii,
604
Laj-ton, Mr. T., Thames finds in possession of,
74. J6i
Lead, present use of forBolas, 422; sling bullets
of, 418; spindle-whorls of, 439
Lead-mines, implements found in. 234
Leather, celts buried in case of, 109; method of
sewing, 433 ; scrapers for preparing, 311 ;
stones used in preparation of, 440 ; stones
used for smoothing seams in. 443
Leech, Mr. ITiomas, implements found by, at
Reculver, 613
Left-handedness, early evidence as to, 429
Leg-bones ofaniraal, chisels of, 434; implements
made from, 431 ; used as net-sinkers, 237
Leh.iie, M. A. Houzeau de, on the flint factor}-
at Spiennes, 34
Lemming, remains of, at Wookey, 519 ; remains
of in Fisherton beds, 631 ; remains of, as
indicative of climate, 699
Le Moustier, Age of, implements of, 483, 496
Leonora Christina, Princess, flint used by for
cutting, 348
Lepic, Vicomte, his suggestions as to mounting
stone implements, 102
Lepsius on Egyptian flakes, 287
Lewis and Clarke quoted as to pogamogso" ,
Lightning, connection ofstone implements with,
63 ; stone implements as safeguards against,
145, j6i
Lightning-teeth, stone axes known as, in Java,
59
Lignite, rings of, in urn, 465 ; pendant of, 466
Limestone, buttons of, 453 ; celt of, 122 ; oolitic,
knife of, 345 ; rocks, caves in, 520, 522
Lindenschmit, on stone-boring, 49 ; referred to,
163, 177, iQi, .94, 232
Lindsay, Dr. "W. Lauder, on Maori hatchets, 172
Linen, polishing of, by slickstones, 441
Lingue di San Paolo, 367
Lisch on stone-bonng, 49
Lithuania, central core from tube-boring found
in, 47
Little, Mr. W. C, on the development of flint
arrows, 369
Livres de beurre, 27
Loadstone, sling bullets of, 418
Loams, red, in caves, 479
Loir et Cher, manufacture of gun-flints in, 15
Londesborough, objects found by the late Lord,
in barrows, 148, 160, 290, 328
Long barrows, flakes in, 280 ; leaf-shaped arrow-
heads peculiar to, 599
Long Hole, Gower, fauna of and flints from, 520
Longman, Mr. C. J., his series of early bracers,
Lona^erier, M., on hatchet worship, 62
Looms, earl}-, use of weights in, 443
Lorraine, Prince Francois de. lurkisli stone
hatchet presented to, 59
Lottin, Dr., on the manufacture of gun-flints,
18
Lower Tertiary conglomerate, flakes of, 281 ;
querns of, 2^9 ; pebble, palxolithic imple-
ment made from, 613
Lubbock, Sir John, Algerian implement found
by, 652 ; on the comparative numbers of
men and objects of chase, 656 ; as to date of
Glacial Period, 705 ; names of Xeo- arid
Palaeolithic due to, 12, 474 ; referred to, 272,
299, 310; on sling-stones, 419 ; on the uses
of stone implements, 655
Luco, Abbe, pyrites and flint found by, in dol-
men, 318
" Lucky Stones," virtues of, 469
Lucretius as to successive Periods of culture, 4
Lukis, Capt., polished celt found by, with
skeleton, 149
Lukis, the late F. C, M.D., on the connec-
tion between celts and lightning, 57 ; on
elf-arrows and elf-darts, 365 ; on the hand-
ling of celts, 171 ; oval armlet found by,
464 ; referred to, 127, 141
Lukis, the late Rev. W. C.,of Wath, referred
to, 188. 204, 240, 268
Lycians, the, their arrows featherless, 410
Lydian stone, celt of, 115, 167 ; Irish flakes of,
281, 291
Lye, his dictionary referred to as to stone bill,
145
Lyell, Sir Charles, on the Fisherton beds, 630 ;
on the formation of caverns, 480 ; on geo-
logical changes near Wookey, 519; as to
Glacial Period, 705 ; on rhinoceros in
Gower, 520; on river action, 663; on the
Shasta method of arrow-chipping, 40
GENERAL INDEX.
72^^
Lyme Regis, manufactory of flint implements
at, 35
Lyon, Mr. Caleb, on Shasta arrow-head mak-
inff, 40
Lysons, Mr. Samuel, excavations at Witcombc,
144
Lyttelton, Bishop, on stone hatchets, 3, 202,
204
M
Mace-head, lenticular, of breccia, 232
Maces, flints naturally perforated used for,
184
Maces, sec Hammers
MacEnery, the Rev. J., his researches in Kent's
Cavern, 488, 495
IMachairodits, the, 508, 524
Maghara, copper mines of, 6 ; stone hammers at,
230; flint arrow-hoad from, 405
Mahanuddy, small nuclei from bunks of, 23
Jlahudel, on the early use of stone, 3
Maize, Kaffir mill for grinding, 250 ; stone
pestles for crushing, 2^7
Mallet, Indian mode of hafting, 239
Mallftts fiilmineus, 63
Mammoth, caves of the Age of the, 481
Man, antiquity of in Rritain, 703 ; his co-exist-
ence with extinct animals, 474, 508, 513, 524,
700, &c. ; early occupation of caves, 475,
480, &c. ; mammalian fauna altered b\',
482
Mandingoes, single-barbed arrows of the, 304
Manethonian dynasty, the third, use of grooved
hammers in, 235
Manganese, dendritic markings due to presence
of, 660
Mangles, Mr. H. A., drift implements found in
AVey valley by, 505
Manning, Mr. Percy, implements found by, near
Oxford, 594
Mantell, the late Dr., 84, 148, 308
Manufactories of flint implements, 34, 268, 280,
350, 401, 402 ; at CissLury, 79; at Crayford,
6o5 ; in Guernsey, 401 ; at the Lake of
Varese, 402 ; at L5'me Regis, 35 ; at Mas-
singham Heath, 83 ; at Moosseedorf, 22 ;
" wasters " found at, 80, 649
Maoris, bows unknown among the, 360 ; their
jade chisels, 178 ; uses of the " Toki " among
the, 172
Marathon, source of stone arrow-heads at, 368,
403
Marboda:"us quoted as to the ceraitnius, 64
Marcou, M., on N. American mauls, 235
Marine deposits in Fen gravels, 681
Marmot in Crayford beds, 607 ; in Fisherton
beds, 631; presence of, indicative of cli-
mate, 699
Marrow of bones,'a primitive delicac)', 504, 657
Marten, Mr. John, drift implement found by,
620
Martha's Hof. celt kept in a granary at, 58
^Martin, Mr. C. Wykehara, scraper found by,
309
Mas d'Azil, painted pebbles in cave of, 484,
„ 485
Mason, Mr. Otis T., " on aboriginal skin-
dressing," 299
Massaget.e, their bronze nrrow-heads, 368
Materials of which British celts arc made, 65,
66, &c. I relative durability of, 65,
Matter, solid, amount ot in turbid water, 667
Mauls, stone, method of hafting, 169; in old
copper workings, 233
Mealing-stones, absent in pala-olithic times,
657; and muller, 251; from .Swiss Lake-
dwelling, 246, 250; on the site of Troy, 253
Medicinal powers, supposed, of stone imple-
ments, 271, 365,437
Meillet, M., referred to, 327 ; on the causes of
alteration in flint, 407
" McU " for preparing barley, 451
Memnon, bronze sword of, 4
Mcntone, intermediate age of deposits in caves
near, ^75, 487
Mercati, his suggestion as to the origin of celts,.
62
Meres, New Zealand, difficulty of boring, 52 ;
mode of using, n8; as denoting chieftain-
ship, 226
Mcrewethcr, the late Dean, implements found
hy, 309
Mcriones, bronze arrow of, 4
Merovingian interments, flint chips in, 28; ;
flint implements in, 144, 145 ; iron arrow-
heads in, 394; iron-mounted scrapers in,
3:4 ; stone objects in, 470
^lesolithic, use ot term deprecated, 702
Metal-working, possible use of, small hammers-
for, 223 ; stone discs perhaps connected
with, 257
Meteoric iron, probably the first used, 5
Mexican arrow-heads, 24, 39; English appear-
ance of, 406 ; blade with original handle,
355 ; flakes of obsidian, 288 ; hafting of metal
axes, 155, 156; obsidian cores, 23 ; obsidian
razors, 290 ; obsidian swords, 294
Meyer, Dr. A. B., his catalogue of jade objects,
no
" Meyrick's Armour " referred to, 200
ilica schist, with garnets, celt of, 97 ; battle-axe
of, 197 ; hammer of, 225
Micaceous grit, axe-head of, 19S ; celt of, 97 ;
perforated adze of, 189
]Mid- Pleistocene character of Crayford beds,.
607
Mildenhall, recent arrow-heads made by work-
man of, 42
Mill, bed-stone and rolling pin .as, 250; rotatory,.
254 .
" Mill-bill" of present dav, 146
i\Iill-(lues of St. Albans, 258
jMills and balls in barrows, 253
Milner, Col., his celt with Gnostic inscriptions,.
60
Mine de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest, mauls
found in, 235
" ^liners' hammers," Irish, 234
Alining, in chalk, 33, 79, 172 ; stone mauls used
for, 233, 234
Mining instruments of bronze, 233
Miocene Age, evidence doubttulas to existence
of man in the, 374
Mirrors, possible use of polished stone discs as,
440
Missiles, possible use of discoidal implements
as, 65s
Mississippi, estimated amount of detritus carried
by, 667
Missouri, chert quarry in, 80
Mitchell, Sir A., on the spindle and whorl, 437
Mitten, Mr., on the fossil mosses from Hoxne,
577
Mongols, use of military flail among the, 423
IMonkman, Mr. C, on sling-stones and in-
trenchments, 419
Montelius, Prof., referred to, 154, 261
Montezuma, arrow-making in palace of, 406 ;
stone axe of, 157
Moraines of glaciers, boulder-clay mainly de-
rived from, 697
Morison, Fynes, on Irish corn-grinding, 251
Jlorlot, M., his suggestions as to grinding
flint:?, 43
"Morning star," a modification of the staff-
sling, 423
Morse, Miss, her assistance with fossil plants
from Hoxne, 577
Mortars, 245, 257, 450
Mortillet, M. A. de, on celt with haft -mark,
154; M. Gabriel de, on boring of Swiss
axes, 51 ; on the chronological sequence of
cave deposits, 475 ; classification of caves
I>yi ^^i • "° <^ cubical grindstone, 245 ; on
3 a2
724
GEXERAJ- INDEX.
early cruciform ornaments, 454 ; on Greek
inscribed celt, 62 ; his subJivisions of Pala-o-
lithic Peiiod,528; on tube-boring, 47 ; re-
lerred to, 194, 232, 278, 206
^loscardo on ttie Pieire ceraunie, :S\
illoseley, Mr. H. X., worked jade brought by,
from New Zealand. 46
Moss, flint blade handled with, 349
Mosses, fossil, at Hosne, 577
Moulds, bronze, for celts, S:c., 269 ; stone, for
bronze implements, 443
Mound in Tennessee, hatchet from, 171
Mousterien Age, characteristics of, 483
Much, Dr., on the Hellebarde, 146
Miiller, Dr. Sophus, on the burial of axes, 76 ;
referred to, 261
MuUers, present use of, 248; various forms of,
244. 252
Mumford. Rev. George, celt fixed in a tree
found by, 150
Munro, his "Luke Dwellings" referred to, 45,
297
^fur de Barrez, flint pit at, 35
Museums of — Antiquaries, Soc. of, England, 78,
126, 141, 150, 196, 220, 346, 377, 405 ; Berlin,
188, 191, 294; Blois, 187; Bonn, 136;
Brishton, 440,518; British, />aw/>«; Bruns-
wick, 191; Cambridge Antiquarian Society,
73, 74, 88, 92, 100, 104, 178, 191, 251, 336, 3QO,
538 ; Fitch, 100 ; ^Voodwa^dian, 92, 100, 538,
595; Canterbury, 353; Castleton, 342;
Charterhouse School, 596; Clermont Per-
rand, 286, 465 ; Copenhagen, Ethnological,
167, 183, 191, 226, 245, 246, 286, 292, 347;
Derby, 225; Devizes, 428; Douai, 169;
Dresden, Ethnological, iii ; Historical,
157 ; Economic Geolog}-, Jermyn Street,
84, 174,357,583,613 ; Edinburgh, National,
passint ; Exeter, Albert, 192, 407, 445, 639 ;
Geneva, 113, 185 ; Ghizeh, 359, 369; Grier-
son, atThomhill, 200; Kelso, 119 ; Keswick,
Crosthwaite collection, 106, 117; Kirkcud-
bright, 442 ; Konigsberg, 403 ; Lausanne,
185, 292, 327; Leed?, Bateman collection,
passim ; Philosophical Societ)', 187, iqi,
221 ; Leicester, 103, 230, 254, 470; Leipzig,
191, 220; Le Puy, loi, 296, 411 ; Leverian,
212, 441, 575, &c. ; Lewes, loi, 174 ; Leyden,
114, 128, 205, 40^, 405 ; Egj'ptian, 174,
354 ; Liverpool, Mayer collection, 96, 151,
235i 354; Lund, 418; Lyons, log ; Ma-
dras, Central, 569; Mainz, log, 160, 268 ;
Montrose, 224, 421 ; ^lorbihan, Societe
Polymathique de, 109; Namur, 402 ; Nancy,
Musee Lorrain, 59; Naples, 354 ; Neuf-
chatel, 232 ; Newcastle, Soc. Ant., 104, 123,
124, 126, 128, 193, 200, 383 ; Northampton,
110, 124; Norwich, 91, 100, 150, 202, 223,
229, 240, 440 ; Fitch collection, passim ;
Over Vssel, 157 ; Oxford, 337, 341, 518, 593 ;
Ashmolean, 104, 354, 357; Paris, Musee
d'Artillerie, 327; Perth, 421; Peterhead,
Arbuthnot, 425, 463 ; Plj-mouth Institute,
200, 495 ; Powysland, 208, 342 ; Roval Irish
Academy, 43, 85, 215, 308; St. Germain,
109, 160, 187, 262 ; Salisbury, Blackmore,
passim; Scarborough, 207 ; Southampton,
Hartley Institute, 293, 294; Stockholm,
418, 435; Stourhead Collection, 427 ; Sus-
sex .\rcha;oIogical Society, 185, 242, 249 ;
Swansea, Royal Institution, 187 ; Toulouse,
559 ; Troyes, 262 ; Truro, 187 ; Turin, Ar-
senal of, 379 ; Turin, Egyptian, 354 ; L'p-
sala, 58; Vanncs, 109; Vienna, Ambr.is,
157 > Warrington, 234 ; Weimar, 109 ; Wilts
Archaeological -Society, 268 ; Zurich, 269
Musk ox, remains of, in Cray Valley, 604, 607 ;
remains of in Fisherton beds, 631 ; as
indicative of climate, 699
Mussel-shell adze.«, present use of, 182
Mycense. earthenware spindle-whorls at, 439;
obsidian arrow-heads at, 403
N
Nardoo, Australian stones for gfrinding, 243
Necklaces, of arrow-heads, as charms, 367 ;
Greek or Etruscan, 10 ; of jet, and other
materials, 455-463
Needles, bone, in cave deposits, 433 ; in Cres-
well caves, 523, 524 ; drilled with flint, 321 ;
in French caves, 484, 506 ; in Kent's Cavern,
506 ; bronze, central-eyed, 433 ; copper,
440
Needs, identical, like results produced by, 325
Neolithic Period, characteristics of, 5t ; dilli-
culties of chronology of. 471; its range in
time, 147 ; sepulchres, frequent disappear-
ance of bones in, 656
Nephrite, traces of sawing on celt of, 43 ; en-
grraved celt of, 60
Net-sinkers, 236, 237
Netting, possible use of bone instruments for,
432
New Caledonians, sling-stones of, 418, 419
Neuwied, Prinz, on Australian stone blades,
I7t
Newton, Mr. E.T.,on human remains in Thames
valley gravel. 607
New Zealand, jade adzes of, 166. 167 ; sawing
of jade in, 45 ; thong-drill used in, 48
Nickel, presence of, in meteoric iron, 5
Nightmare, perforated stones good against,
469
Nilsson, Prof., on the date of certain axes. 52 ;
on the obliquity of celt edges, 113 ; on )>er-
forated discs, 439 ; on rude sling-stones,
419; suggestion as to David's sling, 417;
referred to, 184, 204, 241, 261, 271, 293, 294,
296, 297.339, 350, 450
Nodule of flint, bludgeon-shaped, in grave, 277
Nodules of pyrites, their use in producing fire,
313-319
Norman, Mr. H. G., paleolithic implements
found by, 604
Norwa}-, method of testing celts in, 57
Notches on axes, for hafting, 169 ; on hammer-
stones, 246, 247 ; worn on flakes, 642
Nouter, axe personified by. 62
Nuclei, their relation to flakes, 272 ; ' French,
277 ; small, 23
O
Oak, coffin, gold cup in, 449 ; trees, bark re-
moved by bone chisels, 435; trees, experi-
mental felling of, 162 ; trunks, hollowed,
interments in, 398, 448
Oaks, present in brick-earth at Hoxne, 537
Obsidian, arrow-heads of, in California. 37 ;
arrow-heads at Mycenae, 403 ; arrow-heads
from the Caucasus, 405 ; arrow-heads made
in the Palace of Montezuma, 406 ; cores of,
from Greek sites, 28, 278 ; Easter Island
tool of, 289 ; flakes of, in Greece, 278, 284,
286 ; jade bored by, in New Zealand, 46 ;
knives of, skin-hafted, 293 ; knives of, in
Teneriffe, 8 ; methods of working, 23-25, 39;
Mexican dagger-blades of, 354 ; scrapers of,
310
Ochre, red, in interment, 149; use of as cos-
metic, 263
Ochreous tinting of gravel implements, 617, &c.
Ofai nra, Polynesian sling-stones, 420
Ohio Valle}-, steatite tubes from, 50
Ojib way Indians, 168
Oliver, Lieut., R.E., drift implement found by,
626
Ophthalmia, Burmese treatment of, 60
Ore, iron, in interment, 313, 317
Ornament, cruciform, early occurrence of, 453
Ornaments, funereal, 84 ; perforated for sus-
pension, 321; personal, 452-472, 484, 657;
pulley-like, of jet, 398
Ornamentation on axes, 196-198, 211 ; on baking
GENERAL INDEX.
725
stones, 4(o; on balls, 420; on beads, 457,
458; on cups, 444, 448; on cylinders of
chalk, 421 ; on hammer, 226; on jet ring,
454 ; on lamp, 445 ; on querns, 250, 260 ; on
spindle-whorls, 438 ; on stone vessel, 451
Ostrich, esg-shell, discs of, worn by Bushmen,
277 ; bone used by Bushmen for arrow-
shaftin;j, 410
Otter-skin, Californian knives hafted with, 203
Out-door and in-door use, varying implements
for, 641
Ouvry, late Mr. F., Egj-ptian implement found
by, 652
Overlapping of the three Ages, 11, 227
Ovid, bis mention of the sickle of Medea, 5 ; his
mention of the stone used by Atj's, 9; on
the wearing action of water, 477
Oviedo on sawing with sand and string, 44
Ox, African, sacrifice of, with stone implement,
10
Ox horn, possible use of, in tubc-borMig, 50;
dagger-hilt of, 265
Paint, red, early use of, 149,263, 264 ; fromh.xraa-
tite, 312; stone mullers used for grinding,
248
Pakeolithic deposits, their relation to Boulder
clay, 577, 685, 607
floors, buried under "trail," 698; discovery
of, 586, 591 ; flint workshop on, 606 ; heaps
of flint lying on, 598 ; implements from,
587 ; preservation of delicate flakes in.
643 ; replacement on original cores of,
flakes from, 598; under brick-earth, 598;
under Wey valley gravels, 595
implements, compared with neolithic, 12, 648,
657
man, 'evidence for unity of races of, 654
Paheolithic Period, characteristics of imple-
ments of, 53 ; grindstones apparently un-
known in, 85 ; conditions of hunrin life in, 657
Palestine, ceremonial use of stone knives in, 9
Palstaves, bronze, hafting of, 163
Patagonians, arrow-heads of, 406 ; varieties of
Bolas among, 422
Patination of flints, 187, 660
Patroclus, prize at funeral games of, 5
Paulus Jovius on bone bracers in England, 430
Pausanias on the use of metals in the heroic
times, 4, 7
Peale, Mr. T. R., on the use of bone in arrow-
chipping, 39
Peat, injurious effect of, on wood, 152; moss,
hafted hatchet found in, 151 ; moss, sling-
stones in, 419 ; moss, stone knives arranged
in, S93 ; Oxford, recent flora in, 593 ; paIa;o-
lithic implements at base of, 539
Pebbles, as amulets, 466, 469; cheese-shaped,
2J4; with depressions worked, 241, 244, 270;
flint, disintegration of, 497 ; grooved, 271 ;
in interments, 467, &c. ; naturally per-
forated, 469, '470 ; painted, in the cave of
Mas d'Azil, 484; perforated, for hammers,
217 ; perforated, for net-sinkers, 439 ;
polished, in tumuli, 214, 443, 467 ; as
pounders, 244 ; of quartz, battered by use,
25 ; of quartzite, hammers of, 228 ; sacred,
468 ; for slinging, 419
Pemberton, American inscribed axe from, 58
I'endants of amber, 460 ; of bone, 463 ; of bronze
at Hallstatt,464; of jasper and callais, 4t)5 ;
of iet, 461, &c., 466 ; of serpentine, 470
Pcngelly, Air., exploration of Krixham cave by,
512 ; of Kent's Cavern, 488, 491
Pennacooks, mode of using pestle among the,
257 , their scrapers, 299
Pennant, Mr., on querns in the Hebrides, 258
Penning, Mr. W. H., on African pal.colithic
implements, 653 ; palxolithic implements
found by, 602, 603
Pennington, Mr. Rooke, barrow opened by,
467
Perceval, Mr. Spencer G., drift implement
found by, 624
Perforations in celts, 142; incomplete, of axe-
heads, 205, 226; natural, in flints, 184, 225;
in pebbles, 217, 470 ; in stone, how effected,
46, 47 ; in stone, possible use of in cord-
making, 428 ; in whetstones, 268; in wooden
handle of flake, 292
Perrault, M., researches in the Camp de Chas-
sey, 159
Persian .irrows, iron, 394, 396
Persians, myth as to their skill in archery, 361
Person.il ornaments, amulets, &c., 452-472
Perthes, M. , Boucher de, discoveries in Somme
valley, 12 490; on celt handle, 160; onuses
of pointed implements, 655 ; on worked
flints at Abbeville, 526
Peru, obsidian working in, 24
Pestle and mortar, 252, 254
Pestle-like implements, 135, 149
Petrie, Prof. Flinders, on Egyptian blades,
ripple-marked, 359; on fibre-hafted knife,
293; flint hatchets, hafting of, 169, 170;
lance-head, 354; pal.eolithie implements
found by, 652, 653 ; on sickles, 297 ; on tube-
boring, 51
Pfahl-bauten, Swiss, flint workshop in the, 22;
sawing on celts of, 43
Philip II. of Macedon, imitations of coin of,
found with arrow-head, 397
Phillips, Mr. B., on softening amber, 449
Picket, Conrad, his name Latinized into Celtes,
56
Picks of red deer horn used for flint extraction.
Picks and chisels, 173-182
" Picts' Castle," 138
" Picts' houses," see Brochs
"Picts' knives," flakes resembling, 281, 292;
not of flint, 345 ; recent use of, 348 ; pos-
sible use of in whaling, 348
Pierre de toiinerre, 57
I'ig, Roman sacrifice of, with flint weapon, lo
" Pikelet stones" now made of iron, 440
Pins or awls, 433 ; bone, in interments, 83 ; from
Kent's Cavern, 488, 506 ; bronze, 214 ; pos-
sible use of, in interments, 432
Pipes of erosion, 548, 602, 707
Pisander, bronze axe of, 4
" Pisky grinding-stones," 437
Pitcairn on the diabolical origin of clf-arrows,
3C6
Pitch, Scandinavian use of, formountingbronze
implements, 170
Pithecantluopus erectus, Dr. Dubois', alluded
to, 703
Pits for the extraction of flints, 33, 33, 78
Pivot stones, 242
Planes, Eskimo, use of scrapers as, 299
" Plateau type," doubtful character of flints of,
609. 643, 658
Plate of gold in barrow, 227
Plates of amber for necklaces, 460 ; of jet, 457,
&c.
Pleistocene fauna, association of worked flints
with, 606, 700, 701, &c. ; implements, Euro-
pean, similarity of those of Somaliland
with, 653
Pliny as to Ceratinius, 64, 481 ; on the Closso-
pefra, 363; on the ovum ang^uinum, 4iT,
on pyrites, 16
Plot, Dr., on the true character of stone axes,
63 ; on flint arrow-heads, 362
Ploughshare, bronze, ceremonial use of, by the
Tuscan's, 5
Plowright, Dr. C. B., on a Norfolk flint factory,
83
Plutarch on the bronze weapons of Theseus, 4 .
" Pluvial Period," Mr. Tvlor on the, 698
Poem, early German, referred to, n6
.726
GENERAL INDEX.
Ppgamoggon, its use by Shoshone Indians, 424
Poison, etymological testimony to its use on
arrows, 362
Pole-lathe, mechanism of, 447
Polished patches on celts due to hafting, 89,
337
Polishers of stone, 266, 267 ; in Kent's Cavern,
492
Polishinsr, absence of from paleolithic imple-
ments, 649 ; processes for, 43
" Polissoirs," 262
Polygonal flakes, abundance of, in River-Drift,
642
Poppe, Mr. A., doubtful discoveries of haftcd
natchets bj-, 163
Porphyritic greenstone, axes of, 193, 198 ; celts
of, 104, 116, 124, 125, 120, 130, 136; chisel-
like implement of, 176 ; knife of, 346 ; per-
forated adze of, 189
Porphyrj-, rolled fragments of, in Bournemouth
gravels, 694 ; Spanish implements of, 529 ;
slate, polished pebble of, 467
Pottery, absence of, from palajolithic deposits,
658; association of, with celts, 152; frag-
ment of, from Cissbury, 79; in interments,
160, 248, 464 ; materials pounded for
making, 257 ; possible use of bone instru-
ments in making, 432: Roman, flint flakes
with, 283 ; serrated flints for decorating,
296
" Pot-stone,'' or steatite, 444; why so called,
451
Poulton, Prof. E. B,, drift implements found bj-,
626
Pounders, pebbles used as, 244-248 ; ridged by
use, 246 ; spherical, 250
Pounding-stones, palx'olithic, probable uses of,
Pourtales, !M. F. de, on the use of bone in
arrow-chipping, 39
Pressigny-le-Grand, cores from, 27, 28; long
flakes at, 29
Prestwich, the late Sir Joseph ; researches with
author in Somrae valley, 490, 527 ; at Ick-
lingham, 539 ; at Reculver, 613 ; his report
on Brixham Cave, 512 ; section of Ouse
valley, 531; section of Lark valley, 543;
section of Reculver Sands, 617; on drift
deposits at Hoxne, 574 ; on drift deposits
capping chalk downs, 608 ; implements
found by, S93, 632 ; on Fishertonbeds, 630 ;
on .uses of pointed implements, 645, 654;
on river action, 663 ; on transporting power
of ground-ice, 671 ; on disintegrating effect
of frost, 672 ; on materials of drift gravels,
678 ; on level of Waveney valley, 683 ; old
sea-beach found by at Waterbeach, 687 ;
on valley erosion, 697 ; on difference be-
tween high and low level valley deposits,
699 ; on time needed for forming pipes of
erosion, 707
Probert, Mr. C. K., drift implement found by,
538,
Prometheus as to cave-dwelling men, 480
Ptojnptoriiim Parvulortim quoted as to slick-
stones, 441
Ptalimes, his name on stone knife, 8
Puildingstonc, Hertfordshire, querns of, 259
PulU-y-beads, 560
Pulley-shaped rings, of jet, 352, 398, 455 ; of
cannel-coal, 456
"Pump-drill" for producing fire by friction,
48, 49
Punches, probable uses of in flint-flaking, 23,
25, 278 ; in making axes, 32
" Purgatory Hammer," 183
"Pygmy flints," 325
Pyrenees, Claudian on worked flints of the caves
of, 480
Pyrites, association of, with worked flints, 5,
7>''i> 3i4i 316; in Belgian bone caves, 15,
318; in interments, 265, 313, &c., 467;
scored, in Trou de Chaleux, 318, 501 ; use
of with flint for fire-producing, 5, &c. ; its
use evidenced by its name, 16
Pj'rodes, myth as to his introduction of fire, 16,
Q
8uarries of stone for implements, 80
^uartz, American arrow or harpoon heads of,
407; Australian hafting of flakes of, 293 ;
beads of, 465 ; celt of, 136; cr^-stalsof, used
for boring, 322 ; Egyptian celt of, 113; flat
disc of, 244 ; pebbles, association of, with
flint flakes, 25; hammers of, 243, 248;
pebbles in interments, 467 ; slickstones of,
442 ; Swiss arrow-head of, 402; implements,
African, 653 ; implements from Portugal,
529
Quartzite, axe-hammer of, 207 ; celt of, 113 ;
flakes of, 281 ; hammer heads of, 225, 228,
229 ; implements of, 587. 593, 650, 651, 654 ;
implements from Somaliland, 653; mauls
of, 234; pebbles of, battered glacial, 561 ;
pebbles, implements of, 506, 570, 594 ; peb-
bles in Little Ouse valley, 682; plano-
convex disc of, 231 ; qualities of, for imple-
ment making, 581; Scotch arrow-head of,
377 ; spherical implement of, 244
Quaternary beds, freshwater origin of, 679 ;
first discovery of implements in, 581 ; in
Portugal, 529 ; reported human remains in,
703 ; tauna, continental conditions of in
England, 707; gravel, character of flint
implements from, 12
Queen Charlotte Islands, basalt hammer from,
25
Querns, 258-260; from Brochs, 463
Quoit, disc resembling, 440
R
Rabut, M., hammer-stone found by, in the Lac
du Bourget, 246
Rain, proportion of, that reaches chalk springs,
67s
Raintall, dependence of height of saturation of
chalk on. 664 ; valley erosion dependent on
amount of, 666, 668
Rats, perforated discs for guarding against,
439 ,, . . , .
Rau, Prof., his experiments on bonng stone,
48 ; referred to, 237, 241
Rayos or Centellos, 58
Razors, Mexican, of obsidian, 290
Read, Mr. C. T-, on Milford Hill finds, 632
Read, Mr. C. H., on Bolas, 423
Read, ]\Ir. W., C.E., drift implements found
by, 623
Red deer, antlers of, used in flint digging, ^t, ;
found at Cissbury, 79 ; flat instrument
made from, 432 ; circle of in barrow, 466 ;
sockets made from, 160
" Red woman of Paviland," 487
RccJs, use of, for shafting arrows, 369, 409,
410
Refuse heaps in Dordogne caves, 478
" Rcgenbogcn-schiisseln," with flint arrow-
head, 397
Reid, Mr. Clement, on the Arctic flora of
Hoxne, 577 ; on the Hoxne deposits, 685
Reindeer or Cavern Period, arrow-heads of,
361 ; cave-dwellers of, in S. of France,
277; characteristics of, 53 ;_ characteristics
of caves of the, 482 ; objects found in
caverns of, 321 ; scrapers of, 311 ; toothed
flakes of, 296 ; use of red paint in, 264 ;
worked stones in caves of, 245
Reindeer horn, Eskimo flaking-tool tipped
with, 37 ; harpoon-heads of, 484 ; rows of
holes bored in, 321
Religious rites, survival of ancient customs in,
5,7
GENERAL INDEX.
727
" Reliquix Diluvianac," Dean Buckland's,
., .■»«7 . . „
Resin, its use in mounting flakes, 293, 409
Rhinoceros, bones of leg of, in apposition, 701 ;
hemitcL-chus, remains of, in Wales with hu-
man works, 520
Rib, with incised horse on it, 523
Rib-like bone, marks of sawing on, 539
" Ribbon-sling," 417
Richard. Abbe, flint flakes found by, in tomb
of Joshua, 9 ; Syrian drift implements
shewn l)y, 652
Rickard, Mr. J. C, on pal.Tcolitliic African im-
plements, 653
Ridged fl.'ikes defined, 641
Ridges worn on hammer stones, 246
Ridley, Messrs. E. P. & H. N.,on fossil plants
at Hoxno, 577
Rigollot, Dr., on implements at St. Acheul, 526,
. 527 .
Rings of jet in interments, 265, 266, 308, 352,
426, 455 ; with radial perforations, 454, 456 ;
of Kirameridge shale, 456 ; penannular, of
bronze, 456 ; of .Samian ware, 466 ; sjiiral,
of brcnzc, 398 ; of stone, 465 ; studs com-
bined with, for fastenings, 454
Ripple marking on Egyptian and Danish
blades, 359 ; on British arrow-heads, 392,
3<?J
River basins, present lowering of, 668
River Drift, antiquity of, 662, &c. ; causes of
crumpling, 697, 698 ; and surface periods,
gap between, 650, 70.; ; implements of, 526,
ei seqq. ; implements compared with those of
caves, 474 ; Erench and English, resem-
blance of, 627, 630 ; mammalian remains
in, 528, &c.; molluscan in, 531, 536, 539, &c. ;
sorting of materials ; of, by water action,
667, 673
River gravels, scrapers rarely found in, 311;
stone implements found in, 147-150
Rivers, amount of detritus carried by, 667;
former,near Cromer,572; former, preceding
the Solent, 622, 634, 690,694 ; former, con-
nected with the Waveney, 577 ; former, re-
presented by the Wye, 521 ; origin of sys-
tems of, 665 ; transporting power of, 666,
&c.
Rivers, General Pitt, bis explorations at Ciss-
bury, 33, 78-82; on the classification of
flint arrows, 370 ; on impU-racnts in the
London gravels, 580 ; flint flakes found b}-,
in Egyptian gravel, 652 ; palx-olithic imple-
ments found by, 604
Robenhausen, pyrites found in lake settlement
of, IS
Robinson, Sir J. C, paleolithic implements
found by, 626
Rock-crystal, perforation of, on the Rio Negro,
52 ; piece of in cist, 468
Rocks, calcareous, erosion of, 477, &c.
Rock-sheltprs, formation of, 476
Rolled condition of implements in lower parts
of valleys, 681
Rolleston, the late Prof., his find at Oxford,
593
Rolling-pin and bed-stone, 250
Komano-Hritish village, "coal money" in,
465 ; shale cups in, 4 (8
Roman remains, stone objects with, 109, 144,
237, 244,283; in I-aik valley, 543; sites,
flakes found on, 283; sites, bone pins on,
431 ; sites, discoidal stone weights on, 443 ;
soldier with bracer represented on monu-
ment, 430
Romans, ceremonial use of flint by the, g; pv-
rites used by, for fire -producing, 313 ; staff-
slirg used by, 418
Rome, bronze shears used at, by priest of Jupi-
ter, 5
Roots, possible use of pointed implements in
digging for, 645, 655
Rose, Mr., his suggestion as to tube-boring,
,S0
Rotatory mill, 254
Roughening of implements for insertion into
sockets, 46, 125, 128, 136; of hammers for
grasping, 243
Roundels of stone, suggested use of, 49
" Round-nosed chisels," stone implements re-
sembling, 180
Rowe, Rev. A. L., quartzitc drift implement
found by, 578
Rubbers needed for polishing concave surfaces,
266
Ruddle, rubbing stone associated with, 263 ;
nodules of, with charcoal, 263, 264
Rumph on the " Dondersteenen" of Java, 59
Runic characters on stone celts, 58
Rushes, use of, ibr cord in hafting, 292
Rutley, Mr. E., drift implement found by,
616
Sabines, use of bronze knives by priests of
the, 5
Sabre-toothed tiger, presence of, in ]}ritisli
caves, 508, 524
Saddle-querns, 251
St. Acheul, Kent's Cavern implements of the
age of, 495
.St. Alban's mill dues, 258
" Salagramma pebble," Indian custom concern-
ing, 468
Salmon, M. Philippe, his division of the Stone
ages, 485
Salt-mines, grooved axes in, 169 ; stone mauls
found in, 234
" .Samian ware," ring of, 466
Sand, use of, in boring stone, 49 ; use of, in
grinding concave surfaces, 266; polishing
eff'ect of, 659
Sandars, ^Irs. E., side scraper found by, 636
.Sandstone, cup of, 444 ; grooved pieces of, i% ;
grooved nodule of, as sinkstone, 236 ; per-
forated plates of, 428, 431 ; pyriform piece
of, 442
Sarmatians, their early ignorance of the use of
iron, 7
"Sarsen-stone," mullers of, 248; interment
under, 352
Saucer of shale, 445
.Savage Island, shaped sling-stones in, 418
Savages, modern, hafting of implements by,
155, 161, &c. ; their use of perforated imple-
ments, 215; ot stone implements, 172; of
unmounted tools, 171
Savoy, superstition regarding celts in, 57
Saws, flint, in La IMadelaine caves, 484 ; serrated
flakes as, 249, 297 ; small flakes mounted
as, 293
Sawing, mechanical aids to, 44; modern ex-
periments in, 44, 297 ; signs of, rare in Bri-
tish implements, 43 ; traces of, on Spanish
celt, 44
Saxo Grajiintaii'cus on Thor's Hammer, 62
Saxon graves, fibula and flints in, 144; flint
arrow-heads in, 397 ; quern in, 259; steels
and chipped flints in, 283
Saxon remains in Lark valley, 543 ; spindle-
whorl with, 439
Scales offish in river drift, 540, 541
Scaling fish, possible use. of scrapers for, 312,
note
Scalping knife, possible use of stone blade as,
355
Scandinavian axes, 184 ; how bored, 49 ; blades,
crescent-shaped, 297; flint knives, 8; har-
poon-heads, 277 ; hone, 271; superstitions
as to stone implements, 366, 469 ; two-edged
flint blades, 294
Schlalura Indians, adze of the, i66
Schcffcr, on burial customs of the Lapps, 283
Lapp divining stone engraved by, 470
728
GENERAL INDEX.
Schliemann, arrow-heads found by, at Mycena?,
403 ; flakes for sickles found by, 297 ;
grooved stone mentioned by, 235 ; mealing
stones found by, 253; on Trojan sling bul-
lets. 418
Schmerling, Dr., his discoveries in Belgian
caves, 481
Schoolcraft ' on American 'perforated maces,
216; on hammer -stones, 210, 241
Sciai-hee, Sir D. Wilson on the, 366
" Scies," 296
Scotch fir, submerged forest of, at Bourne-
mouth, 605
Scrapers, classification of, 300 ; discoidal, 302,
308; double-ended, 307 ; duck-bill shaped,
304, 305 ; from Pa!a:olithic Floor, 600; hol-
low, 310 ; horseshoe-shaped, '300, 308, 311 ;
in brick-earth, 500 ; iron-mounted in Mero-
vingian graves. 314 ; irregular in form, 306 ;
kite-shaped, 303, 304 ; in kjokken-moddings,
310 ; method of makiug, 36, 298, &c.; modem
use of. 200, 320 ; numerous, where flint
abounds, 310; rare in River Drift, 643 ; re-
semblance between ancient and modem,
314,315; of the Reindeer Period, 311;
spoon-shaped, 308, 310; straight, 319;
traces of wear on, 311, 495 ; use of, in pre-
paring hides, 311, 312 ; use of, in producing
fire, 312-319, 501 ; whj- so named, 643 ; with
bronze weapons, 309
Scraping, results of, on flint flakes, 289 ; wear
from, on Brixham flints, 516
Scj-thes, mj-ths concerning, 361
Scythians, their skill in archery, 361; their
bronze arrow-heads, 368
Sea, rate of encroachment by the, 695 ; on soft
clifis, 707 ; at Keculver, 686
Sea shells in "V\Tiittlesea Mere, 681
Sections of Brixham Cave, 512, 513 ; at Brome-
hill, 560, 561 ; at Hackney Down, 584; of
Hitchin brickfield, 536, 537 ; at Hoxne, 574,
575; of Isle of Wight, 626; of Kent's Ca-
vern deposits, 491 ; of Lark valley, 543 ; of
Ouse valley, 531, 551 ; of Rea vallej-, 579;
ofReculver cliflFs, 617 ; at Shrubhill, 569;
of gravels at Southampton, 623
Seelej-, Mr. H., on an incised bone, 539
Sehested, 2tlr., his expeiimcntswith stone imple-
ments, 50, 69
Selci rotnboidale,i2^
Sellers, Mr. G. E., on stone-chipping, z\
Serifontaine, pits for flint extraction at, 35
Serpentine arrow-head, Swiss, 402 ; axe-ham-
mers, 206, 213 ; celts, 66, 125, 130, 138 ;
chisel, Swiss, 177 ; Merovingian pendants
470; ovoid implement, 467 ; perforated discs,
216; hammers, 121, 224; ring, 465
Serpula limestone, instruments of, 128, 227
Serration, varying, of flint saws, 204, 207
Seton-Karr, Mr. H. W., discoveries in Somali-
land, 652, 653 ; paleolithic Egyptian imple-
ments found b}', 652
Sets or punches, 24, 25
Shafting of arrow-heads, metlods of, 408-411
Shafts of arrows, compound, 410 ; concave
scrapers for, 320 ; grooved pebbles for
straightening, 268 ; South American, 407
Shale, cups of, 445 ; pendants of, 463 ; rings of,
466
Sharpening-stones, 161-171
Sharp-r mmed implements, classification of, 646
Shasta Indians, arrow-cbipping among, 39, 40
Shellej-, Mr., flakes collected by, 278
Shell-gouges, Carib use of, 182
Shells, extinct in England, in Cam river-drift,
539 ; fossil, as ornaments, 484 ; fresh water,
their eridence as to source of gravels, 679 ;
fre.sh water, with Hoxne implements, 684 ;
fresh water and land, in Ouse gravels, 531 ;
land and marsh at Hampton, 617 ; used
as pendants, 470
Shetland blades, 347
Shield, wooden, in Saxon tumulus, 163
Shoe-shaped implements defined, 645
Shore-ice, transporting power of, 672
Shoshonee Indians. militar>- flail used by, 423
Shrubsole, Mr. O. A., on the Caversham
beds, 502
Sibbald, Sir Robert, on elf-arrows, 362 ; on
the artificial nature of flint arrow-heads,
Siberian use of stones for pounding, 245
Sickle, bronze, of Medea, 5
Sickles, Egj-ptian, 297 ; possible use of curved
knives as. 358
Side-scrapers, definition of, 300, 302 ; in caves
and River drifts, 548, 635, 643
Silex, suggested etymology of, 15
Silica, two forms of, m flint, 497
Silver, arrow-heads mounted in, 365,367; pre-
sent use of stone tools in working, 232
Similarity of wants, similarity of implements
due to, 235, 407
Sinew, animal, mode.Tj use of, in arrow-shaft-
ing, 409, 410; Eskimo weapon of chase
made of, 412 ; its use for sewing, 507, 657
Sink-stones, present use of, 236, 237
Siret, M. M., saddle-quems found by, in Spain,
252
" Skelbs," Scottish for flakes, 275
Skeletons, bracers on arms of, 426, 429, 456 ;
cause of contracted attitude, 149; con-
tracted, articles with, 309, 313 ; female,
necklaces with, 457, 459, 462, 463 ; jet orna-
ments with. 454 ; pebbles in hands of, 467,
468 ; in Quatemar)' beds, 656, 703 ; in Spain,
articles lound with, 333, 352
Skertchley, Mr., on manufacture of gun-flints,
IS. 18; on the date of the Brandon beds,
568
Skins, flakes bafted by, 293 ; preparation of,
with stone implements, 127, 299, 340 ; scra-
per for, from Kent's Cavern, 499
Skull, human, in Cheddar Cave, 480; in gravel
pit of Ouse vallej-, 542 ; near Bur}' St. Ed-
munds, 656, 703
Slabs for sharpening stone implements, 261
Sladen, Major, jade celts brought from China
by, 127
Slate, chlorite, perforated plates of, 425 ; knives
of, 358 ; used for arrows and lance-beads,
404
" Slekenstone, its renderings into Latin,
■ ■'^^
Slickstone of glass in woman's grave, 442
Slickstones, various, 441
Sling, early use of the, 417
Slinging by means of split stick, 417
Sling-stones, earlj" forms and materials of, 418 ;
in Kjokken-moddings, 419 ; their relation
to intrenchments, 420
Sloane catalogue, reference to "British wea-
pon " in, 581
Smith, ilr. G., implement found by, at South-
sea, 626 ; Captain G. V., experiments with
Kjokken-modding axes, 6q ; Captain John,
on arrow-chipping in Virginia, 40 ; Mr.
Worthington G., echini found \)y, in bar-
row, 468 ; flakes fitted on to palaeolithic
cores by, 20, 598 ; finds old land surface
under brick-earth, 598 ; palaeolithic imple-
ments found by, in gravels, 530, 5S3-586,
601-604, 611, 624
Smoothing stone, tanged, 443
Snake River Indians, arrow-chipping by, 40
Snake-stones, snake bites treated by, 437
Socket of celts, polishing due to friction of, 89,
142 ; intermediate, of stag's horn, 158, 160;
mode of fastening axe in, 156; stone, for
hinge, 242
Solent, ancient river of the, 634, 637 ; its former
basin, 638, 600 ; subsequent wideningof, 691
Solinus on the abundance of jet in Britain, 464
Solutre, characteristics of Age of, 484
GENERAL INDEX.
729
Solvent power of carbonic acid, 675
Sommc, implements in the dritt ot tlic valley of
the, 490
Sophocles, his mention of the bronze sickle of
Medea, 5
Sotacus, concerning Ceraiiniie, 64, 480; his
date, 65
South Sea Islanders, adze-like implement of,
Spanish irtllas, 284
Spalls of flint, 564
Spalding, Mr. F., 179
Spear-heads of flint, 348, &c. ; witli notches at
side, J5I
Spear-shafts, concave scrapers for shaping,
.320
Specks, shining, on flints from the gravel, 565,
.659
Spiennes, cores from, 27 ; flint manufactory at,
34 ; stag's horn hammers at, 35
Spindles, upright, of corn-mills, 242
Spindle-whorls, 436, &c. ; absent in pal.xo-
lithic times, 657 ; cidares used as, 469; in
Kent's Cavern, 492 ; varieties of, 438
Spinning and weaving, early practice of, 436;
method of, 437
Spinning-wheel, possible classical use of, 436
Spiral ornament on bone bead, 211 ; on glass
bead, magic virtue of, 437
Splinters and flakes of flint, distinction between,
Springs in the chalk, 664, 675
Spurrell, Mr. Flaxman C. J., flint flakes
replaced on cores bj-, 20, 606 ; on final
flaking of Danish daggers, 42 ; imple-
ments found by, 572, 605, 606 ; on ripple-
marked Kgyptian blades, 359 ; on stone
implement making at Kahun, 45 ; on flakes
mounted for sickles, 297
Staft- sling, its use in Roman times, 418
Stag's horn, axe or hoe of, 434 ; bone-tipped
implement of, 416 ; for hafting celts, 128 ;
for hafting flakes, 292 ; hammers of, 35, 41,
186, 434 ; implements for arrow-flaking, 41,
393 ; in interments, 148, 398 ; in mines, 233,
234 ; picks of, 33, 34 ; punch of, for obsidian
working, 25 ; sockets of, 158, i5i ; in Swiss
Lake-dwelling, 321
Stalactite, formation of, 479 ; piece of in barrow,
466
Stalagmite, deposition of, 479 ; of Kent's
Cavern, 511
Stan-(ex and sian-bill, 141;
Stanley, the late Hon. \\ . O., researches in
Holyhead, 230, 234, 244, 252, 450, 466
Steatite, cup of, 444 ; New Caledonian sling-
stones of, 418; sawed with string and sand,
45 ; tubes of in Ohio valley, 50; its use for
hollow vessels, 451
Steels with flints in Saxon graves, 283
Steenstrup, on marks of attrition on celts, 89,
297 ; as to use of Kjokken-modding axes,
69
" Steenstrup's markings " on oval blade, 337
Stevens, Mr. Alfred H., implements found by
at Bournemouth, 035; the late Mr. E. T.,
classification b}-, of pahx-olithic implements,
641, 644, 646-648 ; implements found by,
627 ; Dr. Joseph, drift implements found
by, in Thames valiej-, 143, 591, 592 ; referred
to, 277
Stick, split, slinging by means of, 417
Stone of the Arrows, 262
Stone of Heaven, 5
Stone Age, division of into Earlier and Later
stages, 12, 474
Stone and Bronze Periods, overlapping of, 89,
i.:3, 150, 211, 471, &c.
Stone weight, name suggestive of origin,
443
Stopes, Mr. H., Sj-rian and Egyptian imple-
ments found by, 652
Strabo, on the exportation of amber to Eng-
land, 449
" .Strahlhammer," 63
Streams, carrying power of, 666
"Strike-a-light" flints, arrow-heads used for,
400; present manufacture of, 17, 21; their
resemblance to early scrapers, 314
Studs of amber, 456 ; of jet with rings in inter-
ments, 454-456
Strombus gii^as, gougc-like instrument formed
from, 182
Stukeley, his account of a stone axe, 183 ; on
elf's arrows, 366
Submarine forest at Bournemouth, 695; at
Hunstanton, celt found in tree of, 150
" .Subterranean reservoir" of the chalk, 66 1
Suetonius on a portentous find of stone axes.
Superstitions concerning stone : adzes, 59 ;
arrow-heads, 363-367 ; axes, 62, 63, 145, 183 ;
celts, 56-61 ; hammers, 62 ; •' lucky-stones,"
469; pebbles, 467, 468; " witch-stone," 470
.Surface-flaking of arrow-heads, 392, 393
Surface Period, synonymous with Neolithic,
12 ...
Surface drainage, lessening with amelioration
of climate, 676
Survival of bronze implements in religious
rites, 5
Swiss Lake-dwellings, arrow-heads, bone, in,
402 ; animals, domesticated, 358 ; awls, per-
forated, 323 ; bastard gouges, 182 ; bitumen,
use of in hafting, 170, 409; celts, socketed,
128, 136; degree of civilization in, 358;
disc, perforated, 191 ; flakes, trimmed, 327 ;
flakes, mounting of, 502 ; hafting of celts,
167; hafting of hatchets, 155, 158, 162;
knife, peculiar, 348; needles of bone, 433;
sling-stones, 418
Swords, bronze, 4 ; leaf-shaped Egyptian, 8 ;
Mexican obsidian, 294
Sword-like blades, Irish, of slaty stone. 363
Syenite, axe-hammer of, 211 ; celt of, 127 ; and
greenstone, celts of at Kent's Cavern, 488
Symonds, Rev. W. S., on changes in Wye
valley, 521
T
" Taawisch," Nootka Sound war axes, 157
Tacitus, on the arrows of the Fcnni, 361
Tahitians, their shaped sling-stones, 419;
sharpening of hatchets by, 263 ; stoi.e
pestle of, 257
Tasmanians, pebble superstitions among the,
468 ; unmounted celts used by, 171
Taunus slate, perforated hoe of, loi
Taylor, Mr. J. B., African paheolithic imple-
ments brought by, 653
Teeth, attrition of, by grit from grinding-
stones, 25--,, 254
Tenerifi'e, use of obsidian knives in, 8
Terraces of gravel left during erosion of valleys,
673 ; near London, 590, 685 ; in Waveney
valley, 578
Tertiary implements, so called, 658
Teutonic interments, stone objects in, 468, 470
"Thesaurus Brandenburgicus," occurrence of
Celtes in, 55
Thong-drili, use of, 48
" f hor's Donncrkeil," 51
'I'hor's hammers, 62, 145, 184
Threshing instrument resembling the iribuhnn,
284
"Thumb-flint," method of making, 36
" Thunder axes," 56
"Thunder-stones" in Dutch Guiana, 271 ; in
AV'estern Africa, 60
Thurburn, Capt. H., Greek celts brought
by, 126; African celt brought by, 241
Thurnam, the late Dr., on the connection of
leaf-shaped arrow-heads with long barrows,
377 ; on flat plates of stone, 427; on javelin-
•30
GENER.VL INDEX.
beads, 370; referred to, 244, 250, 269, 280,
291, 294, 309
Tibia, its use suggested by its name. 432
Tierra del Fuego, pyrites used in for producing
fire. 15
Tiffin. Mr., junr., implements found by, 627,
Tiger, sabre-toothed, in Kent's Cavern, 50S ; in
Creswell C rags, 524
■"Tilhuggersteene," Danish, 241
Time, incalculable, needed for geological
changes, 609, S:c.
Tindall, Mr. K., implements found by, 240, 251,
205, 332
Tinder-boxes, no early record of the use of flint
for, 17
Tiryns, flint flakes from, 403
Tobacco pipes, X. American, boring of, 52
•• Toki " of the Maoris, 172
Toltecs, use of stone mortars by, 257
Tomahawks, Australian, 26; mounting of, 166;
time required to make, 52 ; North Ameri-
can, 216
" Tonderkiler " and " Torden-steen," 57
Tongue-shaped implements defined, 644 ; found,
539, 572. 640
Topley, Mr. W., on possible ice action in
Darent valley, 610 ; ovate implement found
by, 621
Tor Brj-an Caves, 316, 517
Torquay Xat. Hist. Soc, exploration of Kent's
Cavern by, 490
Torquemada, his account of Aztec obsidian
■working, 23 ; on Mexican razors, 290
Touraine, flint industry of, 30
" Traha," a form oi tribulum, 284
" Trail and warp," 698
Trees, branches of, with bones under gravel,
595 ; species of, in Bournemouth submarine
forest, 695 ; below Hitchin brick-earth,
537 ; in Hoxne brick-earth, 575
Tremlett, Admiral, on the cutting power of
jasper flakes, 6
Trephining, practice of, in the Stone Period,
289
Tribrach-formed instrument, 77, 78
Tribulum, Varro's description of the, 284
Trigg (fonnerly Prigg, the late Mr. Henry,
implements found by, 539-542, 550, 554-556,
55^1 578 ; section of Redhill by, 551
Trimmer, Mr., on Trail and Warp, 698
Trou de Chaleux, p}T-ites in, 286
Trough, triturating, 252
Troy, earthenware whorls from site of, 439 ;
sling-bullets from, 418
Tro}-on, M., on stone boring, 50; on the use of
sand in sawing stone, 44
Truguet, M. Franck de, Swiss boring instru-
ment found by, 46
Trunk interments, 398, 447, 448
Tube, boring by means of, 47, 49, 52 ; in Klemm
collection, 49
Tubularia, hammer-head of fossil mass of.
229
Tumulus, mixing of objects of different date in,
210
Turquoise mines, stone hammers found in,
^ 234
Turquoises on ileiican dagger-hilt, 325
"Turtle-backs" of Trenton, 80, 654
Tuscans, their ceremonial use of a bronze
ploughshare, 5
Tusks of wild boar in interments, 83, 148, 328,
Tweezers, bone, 433 ; bronze, 433, 440
" Twibill," 146
Twigs, haftinir of stone blade by, 347
Tylor, Mr. Alfred, on detritus brought down
by rivers, 667 ; on fluviatile beds, near
London, 584 ; on the " Pluvial Period."
698
Tylor, Dr. E. B., on et^-mology of "supersti-
tion," 8; on obsidian working in Peru, 24,
290 ; on stone drilling, 48
Tyndall, Prof., on conditions of glacier forma-
tion, 698
U
Ulna of whale, axe made of, 435
Ulus, or Eskimo women's knives, 343
Ulysses, his use of the drill, 48
" Underground bouse of Skaill," objects found
in, 255
Upsala, axe in museum of, with Runic inscrip-
tion, 58
Urns, bronze and stone objects in, 208, 269, 8cc.;
ornamented, found with bracer, 427 ; jet
ornaments with, 456 ; wooden bodkin in,
433
Use, traces of, on implements, 504, 555, 647
Utensils, domestic, 436-451
Valleys, climatal changes shewn by deposits
in, 699 ; erosion of, later than cave deposits,
513, 521 : erosicn of, later than gravel de-
posits, 580; erosion of, affected by changes
of climate, 666, 676, 697 ; erosion of. hypo-
thetical, 6C2-678 ; retrogression of heads of,
674, 683, 686
Vallej- slopes, detritus gradually left on, 673
Varro, his description of the iribulum, 284
Vegetable fibre, use of, in hatting arrows, 407,
409 ; matter, decaying, a source of carbonic
acid, 675
Venus, Paphian, on C^'priote coins, 10
Vesica pisci's-formed implements, 647
Vessels, stone, in English barrows, 450, 451
Vertebrae, human, with arrow-heads embedded,
at the Grotte du Castellet, 375, 401 ; in la
Mame, 396 ; near Copiapo, 406
Victoria Cave, doubly barbed harpoon from,
505 ; River, stone working on the banks of
the, 26
Viking grave of woman, slick-stone in, 442
Villas, Roman, stone celts found in, 144
Vincent of Beauvaisas to derivation ot "silex,"
15
Vincent, M., his early discovery of flint imple-
ment, 527
A irginia, early account of arrow-chipping by
Indians of, 40
Virgil, bronze arms mentioned by, 4 ; bronze
sickle of Elissa. 5 : on flint and steel, 16 ;
quoted as \.o jactare, 147
Vi\ian, Mr. E., his examination of Kent's Ca-
vern, 488, 490
Vogt, Prof. Carl, suggestions as to stone
roundels. 49
Vogue, M. de, Syrian palxolithic implement
obtained by, 652
Von Esiorff en stone boring, 49
Von Sacken, Baron, on the Hallstatt graves, 7
Vulgate, occurrence of Celte in, 55
W
Wallong, the Australian. 243
"Walrus, remains of, in A\Tiittlesea Mere, 681
Walrus tooth used for tipping flaking tools, 24
Wapiti, chisels made from horn of, 43 j
War-axe of Gaveoe Indians, 156 ; of Nootka
Sound Indians, 157
War, blunting of axes for, 196 ; or chase, pro-
bable use of stone balls in, 422 ; decorations
on weapons of, 226
War maces, possible use of circular pebbles as,
231; paint, interment of, with the dead,
264
W aring, Miss, drift implement found bj-, 608
"Warp and trail," 593,698
Warren, Mr. Hazzeldine, implements found by,
139. 603
GENERAL INDEX.
731
Washing linen, " b.ittinK staff" employed in,
256
"Wasters," presence of, in flint implement
manufactories, 385, 649
Water, its action on flint, 497 ; carbonic-acid-
charged, its action on chalk, 477, 557 ;
fresh, drift beds deposited by, 662 ; trans-
porting power of, 51.3 ; transporting power
dependent on rate of flow, 607
Water-mills, stone pivots and sockets for, 242
Watson, Mr. Knight, on the word Celte in
Vulgate, 56
Wauwyl, flint manufactory at, 22
Way, the late Mr. Albert, his finds at
liourncmouth, 635, 637 ; on the submerged
forest at Hournemnutli, 695 ; referred to,
74, 160. 254, 340,347; Miss, drift implement
found by, 036
Weapons, association of, with decorations in
graves, 460 ; bronze, in the heroic times, 4 ;
elaboration of, a mark 'of dignity, 216, 226;
hammer-heads as, 224 ; probable use of
perforated axes as, 215 ; Scandinavian form
of, found in IJritain, 213 ; wearing and re-
chipping of, 349
Wear on implements, its evidence as to mode
of use, 311
Weaving, early Ipractice of, 436; possible use
of perforated stones in, 237
Weaverthorpe, stag's horn pick found at, 34
AVedding dress cut out by stone knife, 348
Wedge, bone, 24 ; certain celts possibly used
as, 82, 87, 655; of granite, 97 ; tightening
of hafting by means of, 233
Wells in the chalk, varying height of water in,
664
Wcstlake, ]\Ir. E., implement found by, 632
Wexovius as to reindeer marrow, 504
AVeights for scales, stones as, 443
Whale, axe made from ulna of, 435 ; remains of
near Cambridge, 081
Wheel-lock, use of pyrites in, 16
Whetstones, 261-271 ; of the Bronze Period,
268; in caves, 504 ; Danish, 264, 265 ; with
gold cup in cofiiu, 449; in interments, 185,
208, 271, 332, 353; with iron loop for sus-
pension, 270; with metal handles, 270, 271;
Spanish perforated, 438
Whitaker, Mr. W.. paUeolithic implements
found by, 538, 587, 007, 611, 612, 613
"Whitbourn, the late iMr,, implement found
by, in Wey valley, 319, 591
AVhite pebbles, symbolism of, 468
Whitening of flint, 497, 549, 556
Wild goose, remains of, in Fisherton beds, 631
AV^ilde, Sir William, on boring instruments for
stone, 47 ; on classification of arrow-heads,
370; late use of stone implements recorded
by, 11; on Irish treatment [of sick cattle,
365 ; on use of celt in Irish weaving, 440 ;
referred to, 154, 177, 215, 223, 232, 270, 272,
308
Willett, Mr. Ernest, his explorations at Ciss-
bury, 78 ; his discovery at Brighton, 622
William of Poitiers quoted, 146
Williams, Rev. T. J., on white stones in inter-
ments, 468
Wilson, the late Sir Daniel, on American stone
hammers, 235 ; on celt found in canoe.
iSo; on "elf-arrows," 366; on a find of
" Picts' knives," 346 ; on stone boring, 47 ;
on stone cups as lamps, 445
Wire, Mr. A. P., pointed implement found by,
603
" Witch-stone " as protection for cattle, 476
Withies, stone implements hafted by, 167, 168,
233. 239
" Witters " or barbs of arrow-heads, 370, note
" Women's knives," Eskimo, 343
Wood, bodkin of, in urn, 433 ; tire produced by
friction of, 313 ; fossil, from Thanet sands,
620 ; method of preserving, 152 ; spindles
of, with Roman (remains, 439 ; split, haft-
ing of daggers in, 349 ; split, hafting of
spear-heads in, 350; stone boring by means
of, 48, 49, 50, 52 ; used for splintering ob-
sidian, 24
Wood, Rev. J. G., his Nat. Hist, of Man re-
ferred to, 166, 167, 168, 299
Woods, various, used for batting implements,
153. 155. 159. 160, 162, 163, 164
Wooden cup with handle in barrow, 448 :
figures, car\ed Egyptian, 369; objects asso-
ciated with celts, 152
Woodward, Dr. Henry, crystal pick described
hy, 23s ; the late Dr. S. P., referred.to, 627
Woodward, Dr., his suggestion as to arrow-
heads, 407
Wookey Hyx-na Den, 517 — 520
Wool, tissues of, in bronze interments, 437
Woollen cloth, skeleton wrapped in, 448
Worm, Olaf, on early stone implements, 363 ;
his recognition of a Greenland harpoon, 410
Worsaae, Prof., suggestions as to early stone
boring, 47, 48; referred to, 191, 232, 261,
271, 278, 298, 308, 353, 448
Wri^jht, Mr. Arthur G., drift implement found
Wrist-guards of stone, 425-428
Wyatt, the late Mr. James, finds of imple-
ments, 572, 613; his section of Ouse valley,
531 ; referred to, loi, no, 245, 340
Wye Valley, geological changes in, 521
Wyeth, IMr. , on arrow-chipping by .Snake River
Indians, 40
X
Xanthorrhxa gum, its use in hafting hatchets,
i37> 170
Xerxes, stone and iron-tipped arrows used by
army of, 368
Yew, flake-handle of, 292 ; in Hoxne beds, 575 ;
probable use of for British bows, 411
Young, Mr. Lambton, C.K., drift implement
from the Thames found by, 588
Yun-nan, iade-working in, no
Z
Zinck, M., his criticisms on distinctions between
palxo- and neo-lithic forms, 649
Zigzag incised lines on sandstone cup, 444 ;
ornamentation on stone bnacer, 430
Zufiis of New Mexico, arrow-head charms
among the, 367
732
INDEX,
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL.
BEDFORDSHIRE.
Bedford, SjO, 645
Bedfordshire, 277
Biddcnham, 495, 531, 532, 6S0
Biggleswade, 538
Bossington, 530
Cardington, 531
Dallow Farm, near Luton, 59S
Dunstable Downs, 72, 468
Harrowden, 531
Henlow, 536
Honey Hill, 531
Houghton Regis, 598
Kempston, 105, 125, 245, 340, 353, 531, 535
Leagrave Marsh, 598
Leighton Buzzard, 91, 530
Luton, 22g
Maiden Bower, near Dunstable, 69, 281, 301,
,,.,310, 334. 374. 376, 379. 4^5
Aliller s Bog, near Pavenham, loi
Sandy, 427
Summerhouse Hill, 531
Terapsford, 536
Wanlud's Bank, Luton, 68
BERKSHIRE.
Abingdon, 103, 389
Berkshire, 381
Cherburj- Camp, Pusey, m
Childrey, 391
Cholsey, 503
Cockmarsh, 309
Gould's Heath, 303
Great Shefford, 309
Grovelands, 591
Kennet Mouth Pit, near Newtown, 592
Lambourn Down, 186, 318, 349, 384, 399, 434,
,, .455
Maidenhead, 174, 501
Pig's Green, near Reading, 502
Reading, 591, 592
Redlands, 592
Ruscombe, 591
Sunninghill, 229
Sutton Courtney, 389
Thatcham, near Newbur}-, 76
Wallingford, 343, 390, 592
Wokingham, 592
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.
Bumham, 591
Chalvey Grove, Eton Wick, loi
Dawley, near West Drayton, 591
Great Missenden, 596
Iver, 59t
Langley, 591
Marlow, 591
Pulpit Wood, Prince's Risborough, a8i, 310
Taplow, 591
CAMBRIDGESHIRE.
Aldreth, 300
Barnwell Gravels, 538, 539
Bartlow Hills, 68
Bottisham Fen, 68, 73, 116, 174, 333, 350, 539
Bottisham Lode, no
Bourn Fen, 383
Burnt Fen, Prickwillow, Ely, 68, 330, 351, 376,
Burwell Fen, 68, 72-75, 88, 92, 93, 107, 109, irs,
125, 174, 175, 178, 191, 263,332,336, 340, 343,
351.. 390. 538
Cambridge, 310, 326, 340
Cambridge Fens, 70, 71, 92, 100, 104, 1:6, 125,
178, 251, 277, 332. 334. 343, 431, 538, 539.680
Cambridgeshire, 77, 202, 251, 439, 443
Chatteris, 538
Chatteris Fen, 200, 384
Chesterford, 139, 194
Chesterton, 229, 538, 539
Coldham's Common, 125
Coton, loi, 104, 116
Cottenham, 135, 200, 269
Digby Fen, 104
Ely, 202
Girton, 431
Grantchester, 129
Hare Park, 352
Histon, 103
Ickleton, 144
Inglewood Forest, 198
Isleham, 383
Jackdaw Hill. 351
Kate's Bridge, 104
Kennett Station, 539
Litlington, 240
Alanea, 116
March, 681
Melbourn, 173
Newmarket, 229
Orwell, Wimpole, 222
Quy Fen, 174. 340, 351
Rampton, 111
Reach Fen, 75, 88, 92, 102, 122, 138, 222, 383,
38s, 38?
Redmore Fen, Littleport, 228
Six-Mile Bottom, 539
Soham Fen, 116, 459, 539
Swaffham Fen, 92, 95, no, 125, 191, 343, 431,
539
Upper Hare Park, S39
Waterbeach, 681, 687
Wicken Fen, 68, 389
Whittlesea Mere, 681
CHESHIRE.
Alderley Edge, 234
Cheshire, 200
Gatley, 243
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
733
Macclesfield, 251
Northenden, 194
Siddington, ^lacclesfield, 200
'I'abley, Knutsford, i8j
'Iranmere, 151
CORNWALL.
Angrowse Mullion, 314
Bochym, Cury, 130, 242
Boscregan, 455
Brane Common, 269
Cam Bre, 309, 331, 334, 389
Cornwall, 56, 130, 251, 252, 253, 279, 437, 439
Falmouth, 107
Kerris Vaen, 257
Pelynt, 72, 214
Rillaton, 448, 449
St. Agnes, Truro, 389
St. Just, 84
Tregaseal, St. Just, 269
Trevelgue, 210
Truro, 122, 138
CUMBERLAND.
Burns, Keswick, 225
Carlisle, 202, 253
Castle Carrock, 330
Cumberland, 106, ii2, 117, 194, 200, 257, 393
Ehenside Tarn, 133, 152, 200, 231, 239, 263
Great Salkeld, 117
Hallgaard Farm, Birdoswald, 224
Int,'lewood Forest, 198
Irthington, 353
Keswick, 96, 118, 225
Kirkoswald, 200
Lazonby Fell, 262
Jlelmerby, 240
!Mawbray, 198
Korth Lonsdale, 200
Ousby Moor, 202
Penrith Beacon, 104
Plumpton, Penrith, 198
Ked Dial, Wigton, 201
Kusland, 200
Sol way Moss, iig
Troutbeck, 200
Wigton, 117
DERBYSHIRE.
Alsop, 467
Arbor Low, 72, 343, 352, 458
Ashford-in-the- Water, 443, 467, 632
Bakewell, 463
Ballidon ^loor, 280
Belper, 230
Bigifin, 434
Blake Low, 352
Borrowash, 197
Borther Low, Middleton, 358
Brassington, 389
Breadsale Moor, 225
Brierlow, Buxton, 108
Buxton, 366, 453
Carder Low, Hartington, 194, 467
Castleton, 467
Church Hole Cave, Creswell, 522, 323
Cow Low, Buxton, 309, 457
Creswell Caves, 522
Cronkstone Hill, 309
Cross Low, Parwich, 149
Derbyshire Moors, 394, 400
Derbyshire, 143, 279, 309, 324, 332. 34ii 352. 375,
^ 377. 378, 381, 385. 389, 394. 400,1432, 439, 467
Dow Low, 313
Elton Moor, 139, 148, 313, 467
Oospel Hillock Barrow, Buxton, 149
Greei Low, Alsop Moor, 313,352,388, 399, 416,
« . '"*
Grind Low, Over Haddon, 458
Haddon Field, 432
Harborough Rocks, 372
Hargate Wall, 457
Hay-Top Barrow, Monsal Dale, 463
Hollingsclough, 279
Jlopton, 107
Hungry Bentley, 394. 463
Ken's Low Farm, 214
Lean Low, Newhaven, 340
LiflTs Low, Biggin, 91, 148, 293
Longcliffe, 372
Mam Tor, 342
Middleton, 253, 467
Middleton Moor, 96, 136, 389, 393
Mining Low, 343
Monsal Dale, 30Q, 434
Mother Grundy's Parlour, Creswell Crags,
322
Nether Low, Chelmorton, 352
Net Low, Alsop Moor, 433
Newhaven, 343
ParccUy Hay Barrow, Hartington, 214
Readon Hill, Ramshorn, 467
Ringham Low. 377
Robin Hood's Cave, Creswell, 322, 323
Smerrill Moor, 432
Stanton Moor, 463
Thor's Cave, 438
Three Lows, The, Wetton, 332
Throwlcy, i85, 467
Tideswell, 186
Upper Edge, 279
Wetton, 431
Winster, 198, 239
Wormhill, Buxton, 96, 104
DEVONSHIRE.
Aslibury, 200
Axminster, 639
Beer Head, 15
Blackbury Castle, 279
Bridge Farm, Tawton, 92
Brixham, 222
„ Cave, 490, 499, 512-317
Broad Down, Honiton, 264, 314, 445-7
Broom, 639
Burnt Tor, Dartmoor, 200
Cattedown, Plymouth, 517
Chagford, 331
Chard, 639
Comb-Pyne, 249
Croyde, 279
CuUompton, 639
Dartmoor, 237, 270, 389
Devonshire, 195, 279, 309, 421, 694
Happaway Cavern, Torquay, 517
Hartland, 89
Hawkchurch, 639
Holsworthy, 200
Kentisbeare, 630
Kent's Cavern, Torquay, 321, 323, 465, 488-311,
535. 657
Langtree, 240
North Bovey, 192
Penbeacon, Dartmoor, 266
Plj'mouth, 389
Prince Town, Dartmoor, 378, 390
Thorverton, Exeter, 223
Tor Bryan Caves, Denbury, 316, 517
Torre Abbey Sands, Torbay, 413
Torquay, 116
L'gborough, 192
Withycombe Raleigh, 200
DORSETSHIRE.
Afflington, 456
Badbury Rings, 310
Blandford, 60, 390
Bradford Abbas, 309, -73
Creakmoor, Poole, 122
Dcwlish, 638
Dorsetshire, 77, 248, 240, 279, 301, 389, 432, 691,
694
Farnham, 73
■34
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
Hod Hill, Qj, 176. 230. 3iOj 419
Isle of Portland, 113, 249
Iwerne Minster Down, 174, 379
Jordan Hill, Weymouth, 249
King Barrow, Stowborough, Wareham, 447
Knowle, 269
Langton, Blandford, 125
Lyme Rejjis, 35
>laiden Castle, 70
Morton, Dorchester, 01
Pistle Down, 377
Poundbury Camp, Dorchester, 301, 310
Povington, 44 ^
Ridgway Hill, 328, 385
Tarrant Launceston, 126
Wareham, 127
Wimbome Minster, 634
Winterboum Steepleton, 210
Woodcuts Common, 144, 448, 465
UCRHAM.
Coves Houses, Wolsingham, 229
Cowshill in Weardale, 106
Heathery Bum Cave, Stanhope, 432, 464
Jarrow, loi
Lanchester Common, 383
Millfield, Sunderland, 194
Newton Ketton, 378
Raby Castle, 105
Sherbum, 125
ESSEX.
Audley End, 254
Barking. 603
Battlebridge, 583
Blunt's Hill, Witham, 75
Clacton, 687
Colchester, 193, 578
East Ham, 603
Epping Forest. 254
,, L"plands, 229
Felstead, 578
Forest Gate, 603
Graj-'s, 13
GraVs Thurrock, 603
Great Easton, Dunmow, 173
Grove Green Lane, Leyton, 603
Higham Hill, 603
Ilford, 603
Lake's Farm, Camshall Lane, Wanstead, 603
Lea Marshes, iii
Leiden Park, Colchester, 578
Leyton, 603
Leytonstone, 603
Littlebury, Saffron Walden, 538
Little Thurrock, 536, 603
Mucking, 603
North End Place, Felstead, 578
Orsett, 603
Plaistow, 603
Quendon, 538
Rainham, 603
St. Swithin's Farm, Barking Side, 603
Shoeburjness, 604
Southend, 603
Stifford, Graj-'s Thurrock, 93, 229
Stratford, 603, 604
Temple Mills Lane, Stratford, 100
Tilbury, 603
Upton, 603
Wallend, 604
Waltham, 229
Walthamstow, 603
Waltoi>-on-the-Naze, 125, 310
Wanstead, 603
West Ham, 603
Windmill Hill, Saffron Walden, 336
Wolseys, Dunmow, 351
GLOUCESTERSHIRE.
Cirencester, 116
Gloucestershire, 277, 381, 393, 400
Great AVitcombe, 144
Hinchcombe, 89
Mitcheldean, 291
Oakley Park, Cirencester, 2S0
Rodmarton, 280, 377, 468
Snowshill, 212
S:ow in the Wold, 390
Turkdean, 389
Uley. 280
Whittington Wood, 244
H.\MPSUIRE.
Alton, 595
Andover, 70
Ashey Down, Isle of Wight, 469
Barton, 637, 687
,, Cliff, 647
Basingstoke. 314
Bembridge, Isle of Wight, 105, 626, 693
Bere, Forest of, 77, 82
Bishopstow, lot
Boscombe, 635, 636
Bournemouth, 74, 291, 378, 390, 392, 633, 687,
690, 693-696
Bourne Valley Potter}-, 636
Brown Down, 689
Brunage. 625
Chuton Bunny, 637
Dunmer, 72
Ellisfield Camp, 72
Fleming Arms, Swathling, 624
Fordingbrida;e, 634
Foreland, Isle of Wight, 626, 693
Freemantle, 623
Hampshire. 81, 92, 100,279, 687
Hengistbury Head, 694
Hill Head, 623, 625, 689
Hordwell, 687, 694, 707
Homdean, 389
Isle of Wight, 78, loi, 68-
Lee on the Solent, 626, 689
Lichfield, 309
Milford, 637
Minley Manor, Blackwater, 125
Needles, The, Isle of Wight, 691
New Forest, 687
Petersfield Heath, 468
Portsmouth, in
Redbridge. 624
St. Mary Bourne, Andover, 70, 277, 281
Sea%-iew, Isle of Wight, 626, 693
Selsey, 693, 701
Solent, 690, Sec.
Southampton, 623, 6S8
,, Town Pit, 624
„ Water, 689
Southbonme-on-Sea, 49S
Southsea Common, 626
Stone, 638
Swathland, 624
Warsash, 626
HEREFORDSHIRE.
King Arthur's Cave, WTiitchurch, Ross, 52X
HERTFORDSHIRE.
Abbot's Langley, 78, 87, 139, 291, 301
Albury, Bishop's Storttord, 100,
Apsley, 597
Ashwell, 380, 382
Ayot St. Peter, 602
Baldock, 177
Bayford, 602
Bearton Green, Hitchin, 336
Bedmond, 78,596, 597
Bengeo, 602
Bishop's Stortford, 602
Bushey Park, Watford, 597
Caddington, 39S, 686, 698
Eddlesborough and Tring, between, 382
Fisher's Green, Stevenage, 602
GEOGKAPHICAL A^^D TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
735
Flamstcad End, 603
Harpcnden, 601
Hertford, 602
Hertfordshire, 70, 277i 664
Hitchin, 537 ^ ^„
Hitchin and Pirton, between, 114, 437, Sj^*. t'«5
Hunsdon, Ware, 389
Icklcford, Hitchin, 536
King's Langley, 572
ICncbworth, 602
Blount Pleasant, Kensworth, 600
No INIan's Land, Wheathampstead, 601, 602
North Mirams, 602
Panshanprer, loi
Pesterford Bridge, I'.ishop's Stortford, (ki3
St. Alban's, 258
Sandridge, 229
Stocking Pclham, 603
Tring Grove, 383, 398, 426, 456
Verulamium, 283
Ware, 70, 228, 334, 602
Watford, =;q7
Wellbury, Offley, 190
Welwyn, 602
,, Tunnel, 602
Wheathampstead, 601
Wigginton, 597
Hl'NTIXGDOXSlIIRIi.
Abbots Ripton, 538
Elton, Oundle, 573
Hartford, 104, 538
Keystone, 137
Little Orton, 573
Overton LongvlUe, 573
KENT.
Ash, 144, 145, 608
Aylesford, 610
Hewle^', 608
Bexley, 103, 357
Bigborough Hill, Cantcrburj', 380
„ Wood, Tunford, Cantorbur}', 102
Bishopstone, 613
Canterbury, 70, 616, 6i8
„ New Cemetery, 620
Chart Farm, Ightham, 174, 608
Chatham, 469
,, Engineering School, 6ri
Chilham, 542, 620
Chislet, 617
Cobham, 611
Cockerhurst Farm, Shoreham, 608
Crayford, 606, 607
Curric Farm, 605
„ Wood, Shoreham, 605
Dartford Heath, 605
Dover, Priory Valley, 91
Eritb, 607
Fane Hill, 608
Faversham, 611
Ferry Harty, Isle of Sheppcy, 154
Folkestone, 281,621
Galley Hill, 607
Gillingham, 611
Green Street Green, 604, 605
Grovehurst, Milton, 331, 357, 378
Hampton, 540
Hartlip, 611
H irty, Isle of Shcppey, 269
Heme Bay, 613
High Street, Chislet, 291
Hollingbournc, 258
Horton Kirby, 607
Ightham, 608
Isle of Thanet, 309, 331, 334
Kingsdown, 139
Kit's Coty House, 378
Leeds Castle, 309
Lewisham, 604
Lullingstone, 008
Maidstone, 28r, 353
Marden Church, 610
Meopham, 6n
Milton, 310
,, Street, 607
Moldash, 612
Newington, 611
North Downs, 6og, 686
Northflect, 607, 686, 703
Nursted, 611
Oldbur)', Ightham, 92
„ Hill, 608
Old Haven Gap, 617
Ospringe, Faversh.un, 611
Otterham Quay, Chatham, 6u
Ramsgate, 389
Ravensbourne Valley, 604
Reculvcr, O13-617, 642
Regull)ium, 283
Rowton Chapel, Lenham, 61S
St. Mary, Hundred of Hoo, 6n
Sandling, 610
Seal, 608
Selling, 6t2
Shoreham, 71
Sittingbourne, 279, 427
Slade's Green Pit, Crayford, 606
Stoke, 6n
Stone Pit Farm, 608
Stone Street, 608
Studhill, 617
Summer Hill, Canterbury, 279
Swalecliffe, 617
Swanscombe, 607
Teynham, 611
Thanington, 540, 619
Tunbridge, 309
Tweedale, 6ii
Wear Farm, Chislet, 620
West Mailing, 610
West Wickham, 248, 295, 310, 334
Wickham Road, Lewisham, 604
Wincheap, Canterbury, 619, 620
LANCASHIRE.
Aysidc, Newby Bridge, Windermere, 198
Bull Hill, 378,380
Claughton Hall, Garstang, 210
Conishead Prior}', 104
Dean, Bolton, 200
Furness, 202, 229
Haydock, Newton, 230
Heathwaite, Furness, 465
Hopwood, 200
Lancashire, 209, 257, 279, 325, 389
Lancaster, 427
Liverpool Docks, 168
Newton, 118
Saddleworth, 200
Shaw Hill, Flixton, 118
Silverdale, 230
Solway ^loss, Longtown, 119, 151
Torver, 230
Toxteth, 90
Wavertree, 389
Windy Harbour Farm, Pendle, 117
Winwick, Warrington, 212
LEICESTERSHIRE.
Barrow-on-Soar, 200
Breedon, 259, 46;
Cliflf Hill, 103, 254
Leicester, 144, 200, 389, 435
Loughborough, iii, 129
Osbaston, 251
Sutton Cheney, 432
Wyraeswold, 470
LINCOLNSHIRE.
Broughton, 279, 332
Fiskerton, 350
736
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOrOGRAFHICAL INDEX-
GuBttorpe. 373
Lincolnshre, 431
Manton, 58^5
Newport, 225
Spaldiog', 124
MIDDLESEX.
Abney Park Cemeter>-, 5 66
Acton, ^Sg, 590, 501
Bull's Cross, Enfield, 603
Bush Hill Park, Enfield, 603
Dalston, ^S6
Dawley. West Drayton, 591
Ealing Dean, 569
„ The Mount, 591
Edmonton, 603
Forty Hill, Enfield, 603
Gunnersbury, 591
Hackney, 586
,, Downs, 584
Hanwell. sot
Hi2hbur>- New Park, 585
Hillingdon, 501
Homerton, fSo
Hounslow, ;qi
„ Heath, 334
Kjngsland, 586
London, 127, 229, 530, 656
„ City, 586
Clerkenwell, 585, 586
„ Drury Lane, 583
„ Gray's Inn Lane, 583
„ Jermyn Street, 583
, London Fields, 386
,, Main Drainage Works, loi
„' Prince's Street, Oxford Street, 583
Lower Clapton, 586, 587
MUdmav Park, 586
Mill mil, 58Q
Xorthwood, Harefield, 102
Rowan Tree Farm, Lower Edmonton, 603
Shacklewell, 584, 580
South Homsey, 586
Southwell. 591
Stamford Hill, 586, 587
Stoke Kewington, 310, 586, 587 :
Teddington, 76. 279
Twickenham, 222
Upper Clapton, 586
MON'MOUTHSHIRE.
Penhow, 269, 279
NORFOLK.
Ash Wlcken, 572
Attleborough, 500
Aylsham, 100, 381
Barton Bendish,*ioo
Beachamwell, 100
Blofield, 100
Bolton, Great Yarmouth, 100
Breccles, 100
Bromehill Pit, Weeting, 560
Buckenham, 34
Caistor, 229
Catton, 15
Congbam, 229
Corton Beach, Varmouth, 357
Cromer, 253, 463. 572
Dull's Lane, Loddon, 125
Dunham, 91
East Runton, 572
Eaton, 34
Elsing, 100
Felrwell, 174, 458
Gallow's Comer, Aylmerton, 572
Grime's Graves, Hriudon, 53-35, 40, 72, 77,
125, 248, 277, 281, 322, 390, 431, 451
Harleston, 228
Heckingham Common, 103
Hilgay Fen, 100, 255
Hunstanton, 150
King's Lynn, 572
Leziate, 572
Little Cressinghara, 460
Little Dunham, 70
Lopham Ford, 107
Lyn?, 220
Massingham Heath, 83
Narborougb, Swafffaam, 100
Nan'ord, 231
Necton, 202, 390
Norfolk, 77, 200, 279
North Walsham, 173
Norwich, 77
Oxburgb, 100
Pentney, 103, 151
Redhill, Iberford, 550. &c.
Rockland, 223
Shrub Hill, Feltwell, 96, 390, 550, 568, 569
South Wootton, 572
Sporle, Swaff haim, 229, 240
Stanford, 91
Swannington, no
Tasborough, 200
Tbetford, 69, 75, 92, 93, 142, 291, 385
Thorpe, 01
Trimingham, 100
Wereham, Stoke Ferry, 142
Westacre Hall, 102
Weston, 00, 139
W^est Runton, Cromer, 572
■Whitehiil. 550, 556
Yarmouth, 229
NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
fiilsborough, no
King's Sutton, 130
Little Wansford, Great Weldon, 350
Northampton, 124
Norton, Daventry, 3^2
Oundle, jor, 373, 378
Peterborough, 681
Pytchley, 281
Towcester, 104
NORTHUMBERLAND.
Alnwick, 199
Amble, 280
Barrasford, 200
Bellingham, North Tyne, 126
Birtley, 259
Branton, 126
Burradon, 103, 116
Chollerford, 330
Coldstream, 168
Doddington, 116
Eglingham, 463
Ford Common, 330, 333
Great Tosson. 453
Halton Chesters, 105
Harbottle Peels, 241
Haydon Bridge, 200
Helton, 202
Hipsbum, 200
Hoh-stone, 104
Ilderton, 117
KJelder Bum, North Tyne, 3S8
Northumberland. 244, 331
Percy's Leap, 235
Ponteland, 105
Seghill, 208
Shilbottle, 2co
Thirstone, 200
Throckley Fell, 128
Tosson, Rothbury, 455
Twisel, Norham, 223
Weetwood, 253
AVoodhall, Harbottle, 92
NOTTISGH.KMSHIRE.
Beeston. 2to
Sand Hills, Wollatoa, 204
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
737
OXFORDSHIRE,
Alchoster, 141, 442
Baglcy Wood, 593
Barcoot, Dorchester, 264
Brightharapton, 294
Broadwell, 594
Callow Hill, 281, 309, 376
Caversham, '592
Hcnlej' Road, 592
Cockshott Hill, Wychwood Forest, 160
Dorchester, 247
„ Dykes, 332, 384
Eynshara, lot
Ipsden, 593
i\Iarston Ferry, 593
Oxford, 593
Oxfordshire, 279, 581, 400
Sarsdea House, Chipping Norton, 390
Shiplake, 592
Standlake, 125, 389, 398
Toots Farm, Caversham, 592
^V'olvercoto, 593, 594
SHROPSHIRE.
HarJwick, Bishop's Castle, 202
SOMERSETSHIRE.
Athelnoy, 468
Barwick, 390
Camerton, 269
Chard, 639
Cheddar Pass, 486
Glastonbury, 200
Hamden Hill, Ilchester, 396
Little Solsbury Hill, Ba:b, 25, 247, 277, 281,
310. 374
Priddy, 389
Somersetshire, 281
Stourton, 192, 200
West Cokcr, 249,' 259
AVost Cranmore, 295 ;
AVookev Hya;na Den, 517-520
Worlo Hill, 283
STAFFORDSHIRE.
Bailey Hill, 433
Beresford, 362
eastern, 263, 455
Elkstone, 253
Grub Low, 377
Leek, 362
Long Low, Wetton, 231, 377
Mouse Low, 399, 432
Musdin, 330
Ribden Low, 330, 432, 433
Shuttlestone Barrow, Parwich Moor, 309
.Staffordshire, 377, 432
Stone, 202
"Wetton, 451
Alderton, 102
Bardwell, 192
]<arrow, Bury St. Edmund's, 435
Barton Mills, 390
Beeches Pit, West Stow, 542
I iotany Bay, Brandon, 568
Botcsdale, 100, no
J^randon, 14, 17-21, 427, 550, 562, 568
Brick-kiln Farm, Brandon, 565, 566
Bury St. Edmund's, 91, 174, 540, 656
Cardwell, 550
Cavenham, 142
Clare Castle, 229
Cross Bank, Mildenhall, 337
Culford, 8i
Debenham, 91
Eriswell, 550
Eye, 229
3 B
Felixstow, 207, 218
Fornham All .Saints, 542
Gravel Hill, Brandon, 507, 562, 563
Great W'ralting, Haverhill, 229
Grindle Pit, Bury St. Edmund's 540
Grundisburgh, 100, 223
Helminghara, 280
Helperthorpe, 89
Hep worth, roo, 102
Hfrrmgswell, 539
Hij,'h Lodge Hill, Mildenhall, 549, 643, 685
Hoxne, 373, 39°. 53°. 573. 574. 577
Icklingham, 14, 70, 87, 93, 176, 228, 249, 278, 281,
291. 329. 332. 334, 335. 337. 339, 34', 343.
373-375, 3Si, 3&h 389, 390, 393. 543, 546, 643
Ipswich, 34, 100, 193, 353
Kenny Hill, :Mildenhall, 78, 295
Kesgrave, 100
Lackford, 112, 113
Lakenheath, 73, 125, 307, 334, 340, 341, 373, 375,
376, 38s. 389, 391, 393. 394
Livermere, 116
Maid's Cross, 550 ; Old Churchyard, 566 ; The
Broom, Maid's Cross, 566
Market Weston, 100
Martlesham Hill, 89
Melford Junction, 578
Alclton, Woodbridge, 174
Mildenhall, 42, 56, 67, 68, 73, 75, 88, 91, 93, 104,
110,229,230,291,336,341
North Stow, 176, 356
Nowton, 512,559
Plaj-ford, loi
Ramp.art Hill, Icklingham, 539, 543, 54}, 545
Redgrave, no, 228
Santon Down ham, Thetford, 70, 92, 99, 542,
550, 552, 554-559, 647, 660 ,
-Shelley, io6
Sicklesmere, Bury St. Edmund's, 542
.Sproughton, 126
.Stanifield, Bury -St. Edmund's, 228
Staunton, Ixwjrth, 389
.Stonhara, 2S1
Stow Heath, 100
.Stowmarket, no
Stutton, 578
Sudbury, 117, 578
Suffolk, 71, 89, 177, 248, 277, 279, 301; 307, 310,
324,328,332, 335, 337, 377, 381, 382, 383, 391,
393, 395, 400, 419, 539
.Sutton, III, 231, 427
Swan Brake, North Stow, Bury St. Edmund's,
342
Thetford Warren, 74, 75,550
Thingoe Hill, Bury St. Edmund's, 541
Thurston, 97
Troston, 97. 128
Undley Common, Lakenheath, 94 ; Hall, loo
Wangford, 389, 562
Warren Hill, 543, 544, 546, 547
Warren Lodge, 548
Westhall, 442
Wcstleton Walks, 179
Westley, 542
West Stow, 92, 176, 389
Wilton Heath, 193
Anstie Camp, Dorking, 389
Ash, Farnhara, 101
Battersea Rise, 604
Carshalton, 351
Chart Park, Dorking, 389
Cookharo, Maidenhead, 591
Croydon, lOi
Farley, 592
Karlstield, 604
East Hill, Wandsworth, 604
East Sheen, 591
Egham, lot
Farley Heath, 596
738
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL IXDZX.
Famham, 595
Frimley, 596
Godalmin^, 319
Hurlingham, 3SI
Kingston-on-Thames, 126; Ctelsea "\\ ater-
works at, 150
Lavender Hill, 604.
Limp'^field, 609, 610
Lingfield Mark Camp, 589
I<«ormandy, Wanborough, 228
Peasemarsh. Godalming, 353, 594
Peperharrow, 596
Redhill, 244, 277, 378
Reigate, 100, 229, 277, 278
Ridland's Farm, Limpsfield, 610
Roehampton, 604
Sheen, 253
Sonning, 592
Surrey, 127, 279, 389
Titsey, 144. 2;o
■V\'alton-on-Thames, 351
"West Hill, Wandsworth, 601
"Wishmoor, 70
"Wisley, loi
W'racklesham, 596
Alfriston, 84, 148
Avisford Bridge, 687'
Bell's Field, Friston, 622
Beltout Castle, 281
Berlins Gap, 301, 303, 305
Bow Hill, 268
Brighton (Elephant bed), 622
Cissburv, 32, 33, 35, 72, 75, 78, 80, 81, 82, 248,
277, 281
Clayton Hill, 76
Cliffe, Lewes, 229
Crow Link Gap, East Dean, 622
Cuckmare Haven, 304
Eastbourne, 76, 87, 126, 144, 179, 357
Hardham, 283
Hastings, 71, 281, 309, 323, 389
High Down, Ferring, 314
Horsham, 389
Hove, Brighton, 185, 268, 449
^litchdean, 134
Mount Cabum, Lewes, 229, 249, 268, 440
Mount Harrj", Lewes, 174
Xewhaven, 278, 293
Newhaven and Telscombe, between, 71
Oi."ing, Chichester, 69
Pallingham Quay, 229
Possingworth Manor, L'ckfield, 281
Pulborough, 254
Pycombe Hill, 93
Ringwood Gore Farm, East Dean, 94
St. Leonard's Forest, Horsham, 229, 295, 389
Seaford, -r. 140, 240, 278. 205, 309
Sussex, 68, 84, 277, 279, 301, 419, 443
Sussex Downs, 32, 36, 79, loi, 248, 263, 307, 310,
319, 400
"U'ilhngton Mill, 341
"VN'indore Hill, Alfriston, 308
"V\"olsonburj-, 465
WARWICKSHIRE.
Castle Ring, Cannock Chase, 281
Hartshill Common, 187
Rugby, 259!
Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Coventrj-, 240
Saltley, 322. 578
Sutton Coldfield, 224
Walsgrave-upon-Sowe, 198
WESTMORLA.VD. "
Bums, Ambleside, 235
Haversham, 20t
Loughrigg Tarn, 133
Westmorland, 112, 117, 20c, 235
WILTSHIRE,
Aldbourne, Hungerford, 78, 96, 227, 427, 463,
466
Alton Down, 377
Ashtord-in-the-Water, 443, 467, 632
Ashton Valley, 210
Avebury, 248, 281, 332, 454, 467
Avebury Down, 309
Beraerton, 70, 627-629, 632
Bradford Abbas, 281
Breamore, 107, 632
Brigmilston. 280, 314
Britford, Salisburj-, 632
Bulford, 427
Bush Barrow, Kormanton, 227
Clarendon, 15
Collingboume, 434
CoUingbourne Ducis, 251
Cop Hill Barrow, Warminster, 434
Crudwell, in
Cutterly Clump, 378
Downton, 632
Durrington, 269
Durrington Walls, 308, 352, 455
East Kennet, 103
Elm Grove, ililford Hill, 632
Everley, 160, 268, 291, 384, 4&6
Everlej- and Amesbury, between, 314
Fisherton, 628
Fisherton Anger, 630
Fovant, 385, 455
Fyfield, 377
Galley Hill, 656
Great Bedwin, 102
Hacpen Hill, 432
Hamptworth, 335
Hamham Hill, 283
Heytesbury, 254
Highfield, Salisbury, 25l,'538, 629
Kingston Deverill, 460
Knook Castle, L'pcon Level, 148
Lamboum Downs, 186, 308, 318, 349
Lake, Salisbury, 125, 269, 388, 627
Liddington, 229
Littleton Drew, 280
Long Street Down, 280
Marlborough, 229, 230
Alere Down, 427
Milford Hill, 631-633
Milton, Pewsey, 390
Monkton Down, 328
Morgan's Hill, 309
Normanton Down, 267, 269
Norton, Daventree, 352
Ogboume. 377
Overton Hill, 205
Ozengall, 283
Peter's Finger, Salisbury, 277
Pewsey, 627
Pick Rudge Farm, Overton, 331, 380
Rolston Field, 1S6
Rotherley, 300
Roundway Hill, Devizes, 268, 398, 426
Rushmore Park, 309
Salisbury, 627
,, Plain, 202
Selwood, Stourton, 198, 211
Silk Hill Barrow, 269
South Xewton, 628
Stanton Fitzwarren, lor
Stonehcnge, 107, 212, 269, 291, 332, 466
Stourton, 192
Sutton, 427
Temple Bottom, 434
Upton Lovel Barrow Down, 88, 143, 148, 213,
244, 267, 428, 431, 456, 460, 467
Walker's Hill, 377
West Kennet, 248, 230, 263, 277, 280, 291, 294,
300, 432, 463
Wilsford, 213, 268, 26-9, 398
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL IN])EX,
739
Wiltshire, 77, 83, 244, 260, 267, 270, 310, 352, 385,
389, 396, 397, 456
WinJiniU Hill, Avebury, 186, 385
Winterbourn Bassett, 240
„ Stoke, 266, 277, 280, 309, 371, 4C6
Wishford, Great Bedwin, iii
Woodyates Barrow, 385, 397
WORCESTEKSHIRi:.
Aldington, 426
Jiewdlcy, 180
Doddenliam, 230
Griralcy, 186, 202
Lindridge, 427
Worcestershire, 393
YORKSHIRIC.
Acklam "Wold, 140, 415
Aldro', Malton, 205
Allerston, 189
Araotherby, ^lalton, 105, 379, 391
Athelney, 4e8
Biildou Common, 388
Barmston, 128
Uarugh, 114
Bempton, 72
Birdsall, Malton, leS
Bishop's Burton, 331
Bridlington, 124, 125, 176, 242, 251, 290, 295,
307, 322-324, 329, 332, 335, 339, 340, 5S1
Brompton, 386
Brorapton Carr, 202
Broughton-in-Cravcn, 208, 269
Buckthorpc, 205
Butterwick, 374, 453
Calais Wold Barrow, l^ocklington, 371, 377,
455
Carnaby Moor, 91, 115
Cawton, 206
Charleston, Bridlington, 176, 290, 291
Cleveland, 252
ClifFe, Carleuury, 389
Corbridge Fell, 244
Cowlam, 176,207, 262, 267, 434
Coxwold, 2o5
Crambe, 125, 345
Crosby, Garrett Fell, 317
Dalton, 176
Danby, North Moors, 211
Urewton, North Cave, 269
Driffield, 280, 328, 456
Duggleby, 140
Easton, Bridlington, 128, 243
Egton, 459
,, Bridge, 462
Etton, 331
Fimber, 105, 140,266, 337, 341, 356, 380, 393, 462
Flamborough, 225
Flixton, 335
Folkton Wold, 421
FVidaythorpe, 105
Fylingdales, 463
Ganthorpe, 18 1
Gaaton, 94, 241
„ Wold, 73, 89, 267, 335, 336, 356, 358
Garton, 91, 350
Gilling, Vale of Mowbray, 119, 120, 339
Grindale, Bridlington, 96, 249, 375
Gristhorpe Barrow, Scarborougii, 279, 398
Harome, Ryedale, 133, 221, 343, 344
Helmsley, 239
Helpertliorpe, 89, 177, 262, 302
Heskrton Carr, 120
„ Wold, 202, 224, 357
Holme, Spalding Moor, 100, 117
Hull, i02
Hunmanby, 184, 187, 455
Huiitow, Bridlington, i8r, 243,342, 572
Jervaux, Bedale, 204
Kellythorpe, Driffield, 429
3b
Kilham, 91
King's Fi<'ld, Bridlington, gi
Kirby Underdale, 91
Kirklington, 209
Lady Graves, Fimber, 91
Langdale End, 391
Leeds, 222
Malton, 46, 105, 128, 135
Marton, 332
Mcnnithorpe, 136
North Burton, 96
Northdale, Bridlington, 174, 33 t
,, Farm, Grindale, Bridlington, 378,
3>*2, 392
North Holme, 128
Norton, Malton, 102
Nunnington, 104, 115, 116, lor
Osgodby, 122
Oulston, io6
Pickering, 148, 197, 207, 250, 253, 279, 291, 352,
., 459
Pilmoor, 128, 191
Potter Brompton Wold, 194, 332
Ravenhill Tumulus. Scarborough, 143
Robin Hood Butts, Scarborough, 330
Rochdale, 389
Rookdale, 396
Rudstonc, 34, 176, 195, 230, 23s, 245, 26s, 295,
307, 308, 316, 330, 331, 334, 356, 384, 454, 467
Rye Bank, Ness, 119
Ryedale, 136, 344
Salton, 228
Sawdon, 89, 415
Scackleton, 191
Scalby, Scarborough, 202
Scampston, 126, 438
Scamridge, 77, 240, 247, 335
,, Dykes, 121
Scarborough, 160, 221, 269, 332
Seamer, 91, 126
„ Moor, 96, 105, 148, 290, 371, 379, 399
Settle, 435
,, Victoria Cave at, 505, 524
Sewerby, Bridlington, 355
Sherburn, 34, 128, 295, 331, 391
„ Carr, 342
Wold, 333,380, 385
Skelton Moors, 198, 211
Sledmere, 195
Snainton ]Moor, 333
South Back Lane, Bridlington, 129
South Dalton, Beverley, 190
Speeton, Bridlington, 125
Stainton Dale, Scarborough, 19S
Stanwick, 210
Svvinton, ALilton, 121
Thixendale, 128
Thorn Marsh, 102
Thwing, 454
Topcliffe, 268
Unclcby, 96, 271, 283
Weapon Ness, 223
Weaverthorpe, 34, 243, 246, 260, 276, 300, 302,
331,391, 439
Weaverthorpe Ling, 461
Westerdale -Moors, 211
West Huntow, Bridlington, 334
Wetwang, 356
Whitby, 187, 191, 196, 29s, 343, 459
Whitwell, 122
AVillerby, 125
„ Carr, 189, 228
Wold,89, 180, 334, 374
Wold Newton, 243
Wykeham Moor, 331
York, 92, 96, 150, 334
Yorkshire, 41, 77, 143, 177, 186, 2co, 277, 279,
290, 301,307, 33t, 341. 345.374. 377.389. 39i,
392, 393. 395. 420, 440-4} J
1 orksbire Barrows, 244, 245, 309, 432, 468
,, Wolds, 23, 36, 77, 89, 223, 2)8, 262,
266, '276, 290, 294, 301, 302, 303, 304, 30a,
2
740
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
310, 311, 3ig, 322, 323, 324, 328, 329, 352,
356, 374. 376, 378, 379. 381, 382, 385. 389^
390, 400, 412, 415, 416
ISLE OF MAK.
Cre^resh, 378
Isle of Man, 444
Port Erin, 378
Port St. Mary, 277
CHANNEL ISLANDS.
Channel Islands, 57, 188
Guemsc}-, 127, 188, 401
Hemi, 247
La Roche gut sonne, 464I
St. Clement's, Jersey, 396
St. Sampson, Guemsej-, 141
Avon. Valley of, 626, 627, 632-634, 692
Axe, Valley of, 639
Beane, 602
Blackwater, 692
Bourne, Vallej' of, 631, 636, 637, 695
Bulboume, Valley of, 597
Cam, Valley of, 538, 539
Chelmer, 578
Cherwell, 593
Colne, Valley of. 578, 597
Cray, Valley of, 604, 605
Culm, Valley of, 639
Darent, Vallej- of, 605-607, 609, 610
Gade, Valley of, 596, 597
Gipping, Valley of, 578
Goldstream, 574
Hamble. Valley of, 689
Hiz, Valley of, 536-538
Itchen, Valley of, 622, 688
Ivel, Valley of, 536-538
Kent, Valley of, 542
Kennet, 592
Lamboum, 126
Lark, Valley of, 499, 539-543. 554. 559, 681, 6S2
Lea, 229 ; Valley of, 586,598, 602, 603
Linnet, 540
Little Ouse, Valley of, 551-559, 681-683, 1°7
Maran, Valley of, 602
iledwa}-, Valley of, 608, 610
Misboume, Valley of, 596
Nadder, 630
Nar, or .Setchy, 572
Nene, 681
Oughton, 536
Ouse, Valley of, 530, 531, 680
Ravensboume, Valley of, £04
Rea, Valley of, 578, 579
Severn, at Ribbesford, 210
Shode, Valley of, 608
Solent, Valley of the ancient, 635
Stort, Valley of, 602
Stour, Valley of, 578, 618, 619, 634, 687-692
Swale, Valley of, 686
Teise, Valley of, 610
Ter, Valley of, 578
Test, Valley of, 622, 688
Thames, 74, 75, 91, 123, 206, 222, 229, 350, 380,
431, 581 ; Valley of, 581, 604-607, 668, 685';
at Battersea, 71, 237, 587, 588; Chelsea,
588; Cowey Stakes, Egham, no; Green,
wich, 357; Hammersmith, 588; Hampton
Court, no; Kew, 161, 434; London, 100,
122, 195, 210. 213, 219, 350, 357; London
Bridge, 351; Long AVittenham, 337; Oxford,
594 ; Parliament Stairs, 194 ; Putney, 588 ;
Reading, 143 ; Richmond, 588 ; Teddlng-
ton, 100; Twickenham, 174; Wandsworth,
434. 588; "Windsor, 227, 341, 431
Thet, 550
Trent, at Beeston, 210
Trent or Piddle, Valley of, 638, 692
Ver, Valley of, 597
Wandle, Valley of, 604
Waveney, Valley of, 573, 577, 5/8, 683, (
"Wear, 193
"VN'ev, Valley of, 594.596
"Wiley, Valley of, 628-630
AVissey, or Stoke, 572
"Wye, 521
"V\'ALES.
South "V\*a!es, 439
ANGLESE.\.
Amlwch Parys Mine, 234
Anglesea, 84, 104, ir.8, 236, 247, 251, 252, 257, 259,
260, 269, 309. 438, 450, 463
Caer Leb, Llanidan, 230, 468
Heneglwj's, 281
Holyhead, Island of, 130, 244, 248, 254, 257, 264,
270, 309, 438; 455
Llangwjllog, 103, 460
Llanidan, 234
Old Geir, 234, 236, 249
Penmynydd, 468
Pen-y-bonc, Holj'head, 89, zjo, 234, 247, 252,
142, 459
Ty Mawr, 230, 234, 248, 251, 252, 270, 438, 430,
466
BRECON.
Hay, 328
Ty ddu Llanelieu, 353
CARDIGANSHIRE.
Lampeter, 259
Llangynfelin Mine, 234
CARMARTHENSHIRE.
Cae Gwyn, 521
Coygan Cave, 521
Ffynnon Beunos Cave, 521
Pont New)-dd Cave, Cefn, 521
CARNARVONSHIRE.
Aber, 262
Bangor, 279
Carreg-y-Saelhau, Aber, 262
Dwygyf\lcbi, 8i
Llandudno, 233
Llanfairfechan, 198
NantUe, 236
Pen-maen-mawr, 84, 450
Tomen-y-Mur, 433
DENBIGHSHIRE.
Brynbugeilen, Llangollen, 279
Denbighshire. 244
Moel Fenlli, Ruthin, 239, 283
Pentrefoelas, 340
Rhos Digre, 126
Ty-newydd, Llansilin, 143
GLAMORG-ANSHIRE.
Cardiff, no
Llanmadock in Gower, 187
Long Hole, Gower, 520
Melj'n "Works, Neath, 125
Paviland Caves, 487, 520
MERIONETHSHIRE.
Cadcr Idris, 19S
Harlech, 279
Llanaber, 279
Maesmore, near Corwen, 226
Merionethshire, 279
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
''4X
MONTGOMERYSHIRE.
Carno, 281, 389, 438
Llanbrj'nraair, 202
Llanidloes, igS
Llanrbaiadr-j'n-Mochnant, 225
Rhayader, 230
Snow Brook Lead Mines, Plinlimmon, 234
Trefeglwys, 240, 342
PEMHROKESIIIRE.
Hoyle's Mouth, Tenby, 521
Oyfe Cave, Tenby, 521
Pembrokeshire, 230
St. Botolph's Priory, 242
Tenby, 383
RADNOR.
Abbey Cwm Hir, 230
SCOTLAND.
Scotland, 123, 199, 200, 242, 245, 252, 255, 267,
269, 270, 322, 323, 338, 377, 378, 386, 419, 420,
437. 439. 442. 443. 4^9
ABERDEENSHIRE.
Aberdeenshire, 22, 97, 103, 130, 149, 199, 236,
244. 250. 280, 333, 362, 377, 386, 444
Ashogall, lurriff, 224
Ballater, 421
Ballogie, 428
Balmoral, 444
Bog^ingarrv, Old Deer, 89, 94
Brindy Hill, 117
Clashfarquhar, 280
Cloister-Scat Farm, Udny, 388
Corennie, Hill of, 413
Critchie, Inverurie, 197
Cromar, 291, 338, 388, 444
Crookmore, Tullynessle, 444
Cruden, 149. 388, 398, 425, 463
Don River, 22
Drumkesk, Aboyne, 444
Dudwick, 420
Ellon, 390
Fernie Brae, Slains, 138
Forgue, 388
Fyvie, 408, 428
Gallow Hill, Turriff, 224
Garioch, Chapel of, 420
Kildruramv, 388
Kincllar, 388
Kintore, 342, 388
Knockareity, 444
Leochel River, 22
Loch Skene, 463
Migvie, Tarland, 420
Newburgh, 68
Newton, 106
Old Deer, 35
Kothie, 4^9
Slains, 388
Strathdon, 388, 444
Tarland, 331, 388
Towie, 421
Turriff, 342
Tyrie, 237
Udny, 331
Ythansidc, Gight, 230
ARGYLLSHIRE.
Ardrossan, 108
Argyllshire, 212, 280
Carapbelton, Kintire, 143
Inveraray, 2H
Island of Coll, 241
Islay, ii42
Southend, Kintire, 143
Stracbur, 338
AYRSHIRE.
Ardrossan, 198
JLvrshire, 310, 388
Kilmarnock, 386, 420
Kirkmicbael, 353
Lochlee, 247
Maybole, 440
Middlcton, Stevcnston, 198
Stevenston, 456
BANFF.
Alvah, 388
H.-ilvcny, 357
Banff, 280, 377, 387, 444
Bowicbank, King Edward, 388
Cullen, cave near, 252
Cullen of Buchan, 388
Cullen, Bin of, 280
Eden, 388
Forglen, 296
Glen Avon, 388
Glenlivpt, 386.
Lesmurdie, 282, 388
Longman, iSIacduff, 230, 388
Mains of Auchmedden, 388
Montblair)-, i85, 420
Mortlach, 388
BERWICKSHIRE.
Berwickshire, 108, 130
]{utterlaw, Coldstream, 338
I^unse Castle, 202
Fireburn Mill. Coldstream, 189
Lamberton Moor, 264
Ambrisbeg Hill, 128
Isle of Arran, 225, 280
Mountstuart, 460
CAITHNESS.
Aucorn, 451
Breckigoe, 195
Caithness, 129, 221, 222, 281, 291, 376,
444. 451
Camster, 338
Horned Cairn of Get, Garrywhin, 376
Kettleburn, 259, 440
Ormiegill Ulbster, 338
Wick, 208, 220, 252, 451
CLACKMANNAN.
Alloa, 230
'I'illicoultry, 280
Tillicoultry Bridge, 199
CROMARTYSHIRE.
Cat's Cairn, J49
DUMFRIESSHIRE.
Annandale, 195
Dumfriesshire, 420
Gretna Green, 388
Mains, Dumfries, 108
Robgill, 388
Ruthwell, 388
EAST LOTHIAN.
East Lothian, 259
Gilmerton, 103, 130
I.ongniddry, 2:3
Pencaitland, 463
Stenton, 269, 332
EDINBURGH.
Edinburgh, 259
Lcith, 200
Redhall, 106
Trinity, 142
ELGIN (see also moravshire)
Culbin Sands, 249. 280, 295, 319, 320, 324, 331,
339, 372, 377. 388
hlgin, 280, 377
Fochabers, 112
Raflord, 459
742
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
Urquhart, 90, 226, 280, 310, 328, 331, 338, 376,
377. 378, 586, 388, 394, 395
FIFE.
Balmerino, 202
Dairsie, 3?^
Dunfermline, 109
Dunino, 270
Fifeshire, 126, 241
Kirkcaldy, 112, 120
Ormiston Abdie, 190
St. Andrew's, Lhanbryd, ,^88
Tay River, near Kewburgh, 184
Tayfield, 457, 475
FORFABSHIKE.
Aberlemno, 459
Balcalk. Tealing, 460
Carmyllie, 388
Dundee, 89. 92, 114
Dundee Law, 453
Dunnichen. 270
Druinour. Glenshee, 110, 133
East Braikie, 420
Forfarshire, 128, 230, 390, 444, 451, 469
Glamis, 224
Glenshee, 151, 154
Guthrie, 353
Letham, 450
Leuchland Toll, Brechin, 459
Lunan-head, 457
Montrose, Tidal Basin at, 224
H.UJDINGTON.
Gollane Links, 310
Knnraw, 353
INVERNESS.
Abemethy, 388
Ballachulish, 231, 386
Daviot, 107, 13;, 140, 254
Druim-a-shi, Culloden, 112, 149
Roy Bridge, 259
KINCARDINE.
Arbuthuot, 388
Berrie, 388
Cleugh, Glenbervie, 230
Dunnottar Castle, 242
Fordoun, 01, 388, 413, 459
Garvoch Hill, 421
Little Barras, Drumlithie, 138
Pitlochrie, 230, 342
Tnllo of Ganoch, 420
Lochleven, 114
West Coast of, 263
KIRKCUDBRIGHT.
Balmaclellan, New Galloway, 219, 2^9
Bomess. 270
Castle Douglas, 202
Kelton, 109
Parton, 451
LAXARKSHIRB.
Aikbrae, Culter, 179, 201
Biggar, 420
Braidwood, 388
Carluke, 242, 388
Crawfurd Moor, 454
Culter, 2jo, 237, 242, 442
Dolphinton, 154
Glasgow, 129, 150
Lanark, 280, 342, 387, 396
Lesmahago, 456
UNUTHGOW.
Dalmeny, 113
Silvermine, Torphichen, 200
MIDLOTHIAN.
Cobbinshaw Loch, West Calder, 184
MOR-VYSHIRE.
Elchies, 388
Keith, 388
Morayshire, 377, 444
Old Town of Roseisle, 3S8
Cawdor Castle, 434
PEEBLES.
Linton, 388
South ijUpperfield, West Linton, 91
PERTHSHIRE.
Aberfeldy, 109
Abemethy, 187
Benlochy, Blairgowrie, 250
Doune, 224
Dunning, 240
Dunsinane, 239
Needless, 444
Perth, 281, 444
Pitlochrie, 230
Rattray, 109
Ta)-, near Mugdrum Island, 194
RENFREWSHIRE.
Houstoun, 459
ROSS-SHIRK.
Assynt, 457
Dalmore, Alness, 331, 425
Flowerbum, 318
Fyrish, Evantown, 425
Kinlochew, 91
Standing Stones of Raj-ne, 42
ROXBURGHSHIRE.
Craigfordmains, 296, 335
Cunzierton. Jedburgh, 109
Lempitlaw, 119
Roxburgh, H2, 280
Sprouston, Kelso, 115, 206
Teindside, Minto, 318
SELKIRKSHIRE.
Philiphaugh, 244, 388
Yarrow, 456
STIRLINGSHIRE.
Blair-Dmmmond, 222, 346
Craigengelt, 194, 353
Falkirk, Carse of, 488
Fochabers, 112
Killeam, 387, 388
Meiklewood, 346
Stirling, 133
Stirlingshire, 118, 132
Tappock, Torwood, 463
SUTHERLANDSHIRE.
Golspie, 301
Kintradwell, 271
Melness, 142
Sutherland, 444
Torrish, 457
Baldoon, 256
Burgh-head, 388
■WIGTO^\•NSHIRE.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
743
Claycrop, Kirkinner, 220
Dowalton, Sorbie, 440
Earlston, 330
Ervic, Glenlucc, 154
Goldenoch Moor, 240, 241
Glenluce, 109, 263, 269, 280, 296, 339, 376, 377,
388, 391, 428, 455, 464, 466
Kirklauchline, 131, 135
Machermorc Loch, 241
Portpatrick, 230
Sorbie, 194
Stranraer, 259
West Calder, 466
"Wick, 252, 451
AVigtownsbire, 199, 234, 247, 310, 4C6
HEBRIDES.
Broadford Bay, Isle of Skye, 425, 427
Coll, Island of, 241
Harris, Island of, 437
Hebrides, 252, 238
Lewis, Island of, 348, 437
Mull, Isle of, 428
Skye, Isle of, 112, 117, 386, 387, 421, 444
South Uist, Isle of, 440
Western Islands, 470
Blows Moss, South Ronaldsay, 353
Firth, 221, 238
Lingrow, Kroch of, Scapa, 221, 271, 416
Northmavinc, 76
Orem's Fancy, Stronsay, 468
Orkneys, 07, 150, 171, 255, 257,280,345, 348, 421,
440,443, 451
Quoyncss, Sanday, 255
K-Ousay, 328
Shapinsay, 269, 387
Skaill, Underground House of, 255, 281
Skara, Skaill, 264, 450
Stronsay, 206
Unstan Cairn, 372, 415
SHETLAND ISLANDS.
Bressay, 256
Clickemin, Lerwick, 138
Cunningsburgh, 128
Easterskild, Sandsting, 345
Firth, 221
Hillswick, 345
Lerwick, 130
Lunnasting, 124
Sand Lodge, 440
Sandsting, 124, 346
Sandwick, 190
Scarpiegarth, 221
Selter, Walls, 124
Shetland, ii6, 122, 123, 124, 130, 135, 138, 150,
208, 221, 234, 236, 252, 255, 345, 346-8, 353,
4J4, 451
Tresta, Aithsting, 124
Trondra, 124
Unst, Isle of, 450
West Burrafirth, 116
Whiteness, 224
Yell, Isle of, 124
IRELAND.
Antrim, 310, 358
Armagh, 115
Arran, Island of, 469
Ballykilltn Bog, King's Co., 408
Ballymena, Antrim, 342, 421
Bann River, 198, 349; Lower, iSi; Valley of,
286
Belfast Louph, 286
Cookstown, Tyrone, 154
Cork, 234, 251
Dundrum, Down, 466 Bay, 20
Farney, 223, 224
Ireland, 84, 85, 124, 128, 130, 137, 140, 142, 150,
I75i '77. i94f 218, 223, 224, 232, 237, 241, 242,
247, 251, 253, 269, 270, 310, 320,322,326,328,
329. 342. 365, 372. 390, 392, 394, 399, 400, 4to,
422, 428, 437, 468
Kanestown Bog, Antrim, 408
Kilkenny, 258
Killarncy, 234
Lough Our, 224
Lough Neagh, 77, 175, i8r, 291, 649
Jlonaghan, 154
Portglenone, 353
Toonie liridge. Lough Neagh, 286
Trillick, Tyrone, 445
Tullamorc, King's Co., 224
Ulster, 73, 92, 286
FRANCE
AIS.VE.
Aisne, 401, 647
Caranda, 327
Chassemy, 252
Laon, 402
.Sablonniores, 397
Soissons, 109, 327
ALPES MARITIMES.
Mentone, 475, 487
Du Charnier, 327
ariSge.
Alassat, Caves of, 560
Pyrenees, Caves of the, 28 1
Troyes, 527
AUVERGNE.
Province of, 43, 286, 402
Corente, 401
.VVEYRON.
Des Costes, 401
Mont Sargel, i6o
Mur de Barrez, 35
Pilaude, 401
St. Jean d'Alcas, 327, 354, 401
Taurine, Dolmen of, 401
Yinnac, Dolmen of, 352
BRITTANY.
Province of, 57,62,109, 142, 253,268,395,400, 401
Carnac, 135, 212, 249, 465
lie d'Arg, 318
La Table des Marchands, Locraariaker, 153
Ploucour, 340
CH.\MI'AGNE.
Province of, 69,. 528
CH.\RKNTE.
Department of, 187, 262, 335I
Bcrnac, Dolmen of, 77, 401
La Peruse, 401
Tilloui., 528
Department of, 528
COTE d'or.
LabruyJrc, 144
CoTES DU NORD.
Department of, 400, 428
Bois du Rocher, Dinan, 528
"U
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAnilCAL INDEX.
Province of, 133
DORDOGNE.
Department of, 262, 528
Caves of, 292, 296, 329, 476, 478-481
La Madelaine, 248, 484, 505
Laugeric basse, 506
Laugerie haute, 53, 498
Le Moustier, 79, 483, 496, 500, 501, 515, 548
Les Evzies, 501, 506
Mas d'Azil, 484
EURE ET LOIRE.
Cbateaudun, 252
Marboue, 528
Neuilly-sur-Eure, 327
St. Jean, Cbateaudun, log
St. "Prest, Cbartres, 658
FI.SISTERE.
Department of, 141
22, 70, 85, 87, 97, 113, 114, 124, 125, 127, 130—
136, 140, 147. 154, 186, 205, 216, 286, 29g, 310,
311, 320, 325, 395, 396, 435, 465, 470, 653,
657 ; North of, 03 ; South of, 40, 43, 245,
277, 333. 475, 476, 480, 481, 510, 511
Department of, 401
Grailbe, Dolmen of. 354
Grotte des Morts, Durfort, 335, 337, 402
Grotte du Castellet, 375, 401
Grotte Durutby, 327
GERS.
Pauilhac, Valley of Gers, 2S6
GIROXDE.
Department of, 401
HAUTE GAROX.VE,
Aurignac, Cave of, 499
Toulouse, 528
IXDRE ET LOIRE.
Department of, 528
Pressigny le Grand, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35, 69, 262,
278, 286
Department of, 401
Poyanne, 231
Sourdes, 43
LOIR ET CHER.
Pontlevoy, 69. 314, 395
Vendome, 538
LOIRE INFiRIECRE.
Department of, 135
Dijon, 465
Mont Beuvray, 144
Penhouet, St. Nazaire-sur-Loire, 160
Pamic, 176
LORRAINE.
ProWnce cf, 286
L02ERB.
Dolmens of the, 268, 327, 354
Mont d'Or, 244
MACONNAIS.
District of the, 528
Department of, 385
Bemon, Arzon, 109
Cruguel, 400
Rocherde Beg-er-Goallenner, Quiberon,3i8
Department of, 528
Quie\-}-, 528
Beauvais, 182, 528, 541
Breteuil, 109
Camp de Catenoy, 6g, 176, 262, 286, 396
ChampignoUes, 35
Hermes, 314
Montguillain, Beauvais, 528, 541
Serifontaine, 35
PAS DE CALAIS.
Guines, 528
Hydrequent, 647
Sangatte, 528
Vaudricourt, Bethune, 554
Province of, loi
Province of, 246
Province of, 71, 73, 77, 262, 295, 647
Poitiers. 244
Tombelle de Brioux, 141
Villaigres, 401
PXrV DE DO-MB.
Clermont Ferrand, 401, 402, 559
Gergovia, 286
Caverns of the, 505
Nougaroulet, 131
SAONE ET LOIRE.
Camp de Chassey. 159, 324, 401
Saone, Valley of the, 401
Solutre, 484
SAVOIE.
Lac du Bourget, 246
Lakes of, 439
Savoie, 234
SEIKE.
Clichy, 703
Paris, 109. 528, 656, 659, 703
.Seine, at Paris, 77, 186, 187, 327
Seine, Valley of the, 528
SEINE ET MARNE.
Chelles. 528
Grand Morin, 528
SEINE ET OISE.
Allee Couverte, Argenteuil, 160, 327
Argenteuil, 401, 465
SEINE INffiRlEL'RB,
Argfues, Dieppe, 528
Auquemesnil, 231
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRArHICAL INDEX.
745
Dieppe, 528
Eu, 109
Londiniftres, 177, 401
St. Saen, 528
Sotteville, Koucn, 528
Vauvray, 160
Abbeville, 68, 258, 527
Amiens, 77, 24 'i S27. 608
Camp de Cesar, Pontrcmy, 174
Drucat, 707
Menchecourt, Abbeville, 701
Mesnil-en-Arronaise, 187
^liannay, Abbeville, 109
Montiers, 69, 77, 541, 616,642, 701
Porte Marcadc, 5^5
St. Acheul, 4S3, 526
Somme River, 647
Somme Vallev.og, 160, 262, 490,526,554,584,
Thenay, ^S, 658
Thezy, 528
TARN ET GARO.N'.VB.
Bruniquel, Cave of, 296, 505, 506
Province of, 30
VIENNE.
Chatellcrault, 69'
Coussay les Bois, 528
Savanseau, 327
Thorus, Poitiers, 395
Sens, 528
AUSTRIA.
Austria, 404, -29
Egcnburfj, 404
Hallstatt, Salzkammcrgut, 84, 188, 234, 269, 460,
464
Hungarj-, 268, 529
Salzburg, 163
Styria, 194, 255
BELGIUM AND NETHERLANDS.
Aerschot, 161
Belg-iura, 71, 72, 87, 92, 97, 113, 262, 278,286,310,
318,396, 470, 475,478, 481
Brussels, 109
Curange, 528
Flanders, 145
Gelderland, 232, 391, 403
Ghlin, 23
Groningcn, 205
Hasledon, 402
Heistert, Rocrmond, 403
Holland, 58
Luxembourg, 262, 403
Maffles, 109
Mesvin, 528
Meuse, District of, 325
Mons, 90
Namur, 396
.Samson, 397
Spienncs, Mons, 27, 34, 77, 80, 93, 248, 278, 354
Irou de Chaleux, 318, 501
Winterswyk, 163
Yvoir, 402
DENMARK, NORAVAY, AND SWEDEN.
(SCA.NDIXAVIA.)
Aarhus, Jutland, 310
Asscns, 430
Denmark, 27, 32, 43. 49, 51, 57, 58, 62, 68, 69, 71,
73. 76, 77. 84. 85, 97. 104, 114, 118, 121, 125,
142, 144, 169, 177, 178, 191, 194, 197, 205, 218,
222, 237, 247, 261, 264, 268, 296, 310, 353,355,
396, 404, 413. 419. 422, 430, 478, 479, 6oi
Faroe Islands, 445
Iceland, 410
Jutland, 118
Langeland, 430
I.intlormabacken, Scania, 396
Norway, 57, 348, 358, 404, 450
Scandinavia, 28, 43, 170, 174, 184, 232, 252, 26r,
271, 278, 286, 296, 207, 327, 355, 396, 434, 469
Store Lyngby, Denmark, 70
Sweden, 57, 77. 85. '54. 177, 178, 185, 261, 339,
348, 353, 4°4. 418
Thorsbjerg, 271
Vissenbcrg, Odcnse, Isle of Fiinen, 409
GERMANY.
Bavaria, 58, 469
Berlin, 163
Bohemia, 51, 191
Brandenburg, 186, 253
Brunswick, 191
Camcnz, 49
Cracow, 358
Dienheim, 160
Gerd.iucn, 187
Germany, 22, 57, 58, 145, 160, 177, 181, 182, 184,
194, 197, 205, 232, 244, 297, 353, 396, 403, 404,
408, 529
Gonsenheim, Mainz, 144
Hanover, 435
Inzighofcn, Sigmaringen, 404
Island of Riigen, 252
Jiilich, 64
Kiistrich, Gonsenheim, 109
Lang Eichstatt, 163
Liineburg, 194, 468
Mainz, 182, loi, 267
Martha's Hot, Bonn. 58
IMitterberg, Bischofshofen, 234
Monsheim, 252, 268
Moravia, 58
Neverstorff, Schleswig Holstein, 310
Ochsenfurt, Lower Franconia, 431
Oldenburg, 404
Oldenstadt, Liineburg, 232
Pomerani.i, 403
Posen, 296
Prenzlow, 431
Prussia, 252, 294
Rhenish-Hesse, 286
Rhine, 259, 271, 404
Schleswig, 448
Schraplau, 163
Scudnitz, .Schweinitz, 191
Sigmaringen, 177
Sodcn, 136
Thuringia, 403
Torgau, 63
Trier, 315
Uelzen, Hanover, 185
Weser and Elbe, district between, 163
Wcsseling on the Rhine, 109
Wiesbaden, 283
GREECE.
Greece, 6r, 62, 114, 126, 127, 337, 529
Marathon, 286, 368, 403
^Megalopolis, 530
Melos, Isl.md of, 28, 278
Mycenx, 403, 439
Sardis, Lydia, 117
Tanagra, Boeotia, 205
ITALY,
Bergamo, 403
Brescia, 337
^46
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAnilCAL INDEX.
Brionio, Veronese, 386
Ceppagoa, Molise, 529
Civitanova, Piceno, 403
Cumarola, Modena, 402
Elba, Island of, 310, 367, 403
Gabbiano, Abruzzo, 529
Imola, 200
Imolese, 529
Italy, 59, ICO, 126. 142, 205, 221, 287, 295, 310,
529 ; Central, 403, 653 ; Northern, 47, 129,
397, 402 ; Southern, 396
Majorca, 357
Mantua, 391
Mercurago, Arona, 402
Perugia, 367, 396, 403, 529
Piedmont, 242
Sicily, 114
Telese, Pxstum, 327, 333, 354
Tiber Valley, 529
Tuscany, 333
Varese, Lago di, 267, 268, 396, 402
Vercelli, 333
Vibrata, ^■alleJ• of, 402
PORTUGAL.
Algarve, 287
Casa da ^loura, 255, 268
Leiria, 529
Portugal, 44, I53i ^A°> 182, 247, 281, 372, 396,
403, 463, 459, 470
Ruy Gomei, copper-mines of, Alemtejo, 234
RUSSIA.
Aleutian Islands, 48, 166
Archangel, 404
Armenia., Russian, 169
Caucasus, 169, 405
Courland, 184
Ekaterinoslav, 404
tinland, 181, 1S6, 215
Kiev, 358
Koulpe, salt-mines of, 169
Kozamia, Poland, 332
Lithuania, 47, 181, 194
Livonia, 184
Moscow, 358
Olonelz, 278, 404
Russia, 181, 205, 215, 310, 355, 358, 456, 529
Siberia, 181, 245, 488
Vladimir, 78, 354, 372
Volhynia, 358
SPAIN.
AlbuCol, 287
Andalusia, 105, 333, 403
Cadiz, 130
Cantabria, 65
Cerro Muriano, 234
Cordova, 234
Cueva de los Murcielagos, 262
Genista Cave, Gibraltar, 252, 2S7, 428, 433
Gibraltar, 177, 1S2
Manzanares V'allej', 529, 653
iMilagro, 234
San Isidro, Madrid, 529
Spain, 44, 58, 247, 252, 284, 296, 396, 403, 428
\ iilanueva del Key, 234
SWITZERLAND.
Agiez, Vaud, 185
Aitersee, 357
Auvemier, 310
Ijudmann, 22, 357
Bully, Neufchatel, 528
Concise, 158, 161, 232
Cortaillod, 418
Geissobdcn, moss of, 409
I Greug, 281
Inkwjl, 348, 470
Lausanne, 327
Meilon, 323
MoossecJorf, 22
Nussdorf, 167, 246. 292, 310, 402
Kobenhausen, 15, 155, 159, 432
Sipplingen, IC7, 182
Swiss Lake Dwellings, 43, Sac,
Switzerland, 46, 47, 51, 136, 162, 167, 170, 177,
182, 191, 232, 242, 250, 262, 2&7, 292, 402,
408. 443
Ueberlinger See, 167, 402
Unter Uhldingen, 16
Vaud, Canton de, 287
Wauwyl, 22
Zurich, 269
TURKEY IX EUROPE.
Armenia, 141
Avlona, Albania, 2i
Crete, 28
Dardanelles, 652
Kustainicza, Turkish Croatia, 367
Transcaucasia, 287
AFRICA.
Accra, 127
Ethiopia, 368
Africa, 60, 245, 250, 410; Northern, 2S4, 405,
653; South, 155, 216, 231, 277, 337, 370, 054
Aleppo, 284
Alexandria, 169
Algeria, 182, 287, 405
Assiut, 369
Cape Colony, 653
Cape of Good Hope, 248, 310
Capetown, 288
Diamond Fields, 653
East London, 653
Egj-pt. 51. 60. "0. 167, 169, 214, 223. 247, 277,
284, 287, 293, 297, 320, 344,354) 358, 359..^t)8,
3=1. 394. 395. 417. &52
Embabaan, Swaziland, 653
Gafsa, Tunis, 652
Gold Coast, 60, 127, 231
Grahamstown, 288
Helouan, Eg5-pt, 297, 325
Issutugan River, ^omallla^d, 652
Kolea, Algeria, 652
Kahun, 45
Libyan Desert, 287
Madeira, 284
Medum, Egj-pt, 170
Natal, 322, 653
Naucratis, 242, 243
Ousidan, Algeria, 652
Palikao, Algeria, 652
Port Beaufort, Cape of Good Hope, 241
Port Elizabeth, 653
Process-fon:ein, \ ictoria West, 653
Qumah, Egj-pt, 71
Sahara, 405
Somaliland, 652, 653
Southern Shoa, 299',
Spring of Moses, Cairo, 652
Tenenflfe, 284
Thebes, 71 ; tombs of the Kings at, 652
Tunis, 405
A\'ady Maghara, 6, 234, 4C5
AMERICA.
Alabama, 219
Alaska, 25
America, Arctic, 355 ; Central, 24, 80, 216 ;
North, 24, 50, 52, 85, 07, 121, 127, 165, X67,
1S2, 215, 231, 244, 250, 257, 264, 299, 348,349,
353. 370, 372, 4051 406, 410, 411, 423, 428, 433,
440, 470; South, 250, 394, 418
GEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX.
'47
Araucania, 406
Arica, 407
Barbados, 182
Bolivia, 157, 169, 178, 232, 239
Brazil, 59, 157, 166
California, 37, 231, 368, 293, 409; North, 39,
40
Canada, 182
Cape Lisburnc, 37
Cayuga County, Xew York, -r, 244
Chili, 2ji, 406, 407
Chiriqui, 103
Cloud River, 25, 39
Comayagua, Spanish Honduras, 337
Copiapo, 406
Costa Rica, 141
Delaware Water Gap, 247; River, 241
Greenland, 241, 246, 2S6, 294, 404, 405
Guadaloupc, i^j, 218
Guiana, 169 ; British, 141, 169; Dutch, 271
Honduras, 78, 337, 353
ley Cape, 292, 347
Jamaica, 129
Kotzebue Gulf, 38
Lake Erie, 237; Superior, copper-mines near,
235
Merrimac Valley, 257
Mexico, 23, 24, 39, 155, 191, 216, 239, 278, 288,
289, 290, 294, 310, 354, 406, 439
Missouri, 80
Napo River, Ecuador, 170
Newfoundland, 182, 310, 406
New Granada, 407
New Jersey, 355
New Alexico, 367
New York, State of, 237
Nootka Sound, 157, 434
Ohio Valley, 50, 288
Oregon, 406.
Patagonia, 322, 406, 422
Pemberton, New Jersej', 58
Pennsylvania, 268
Peru, 24, 232, 239, 407
Puget's Sound, 166
Queen Charlotte's Islands, 25
Quito, 142
Kio Frio, Nicaragua, 155
Rio Grande, Patagonia, 406
Rio Negro, Patagonia, 52, 406
St. George's Sound, 235
St. Isabel, Brazil, 257
South Carolina, 136, 232, 257
Smith's Sound, 15
Snake River, 40
Straits of de Fuca, 166
Surinam, 169
Tennessee, 171, 337
Tezcuco, Mexico, 355
Tierra del Fuego, 15, 59, 299, 406, 498 ,
Trenton, New Jersey, 80, 654
Vancouver's Island, 236
Victoria River, 26
Virginia, 40
AVest India Islands, 129
Yucatan, 78
ASIA.
Abu Shahrein, S. Babylonia, 651
Abydos, 45, 393, 395
AbysNinia, 250
Arabian Desert, 278, 280
Arconum, India, 232
Asia, 277; Minor, 126, 127
Assam, .sg, 114
Banda District, India, 325
Betlisaour, Bethlehem, 652
Bundelcund,88
Burma, 59, 158
Cambodia, 60, 158, 181
Ceylon, 445
Euphrates Valley, 653
Ghcnneh, Wady Sireh, Sinai, 405
Hissar, Damghan, Persia, 405
Hyderabad, 651
India, 62, 97, 126, 127, 140, 141, 158, 232, 262,
278, 405, 4O8, 481, 650, 654
Indus River, 23
Jerusalem, 652 ; Nablus road from, 287
Jubbulporc, 232, 276, 2S8
Aladras Presidency, 89, 651
Mahanuddy River, 23
Malprabba Valley, 651
Mount Lebanon, 405
iMount Sinai, 405
Mount Tabor, 652
Muquier, .S. Babylonia, 114
Narbada Valley, 651
Orissa, 651
Pergamum, 232
Persia, 306
Ranchi, Chota-Nagpore, 405
Siam, 121
South Mahratta, 651
South Mirzapore, 651
Tiryns, 403
Trichinopolj', 239
Troy, site of, 187, 206, 235, 253, 297, 418, 439
Lpper Scinde, 23
Vindhya Hills, 325
Yun-nan, Southern China, 110, 114, 127
OCEANIA, 8cc.
Admiralty Islands, 156, 288, 498
Australia, 25, 80, 82, 85, 97, 137, i66, 167, i;o,
171,243,245,250,277,288,293
Borneo, 97
Carandotta, Australia, 293
Caroline Islands, 164
Celebes, 162
Easter Island, 289
Kntrecasteaux Islands, 162
Fiji, 164
Hervey Islands, 76
Japan, 59, 97, 114, 116,128, 181, 322, 355, 35S
^ 405
Java, 59, 114
King George's Sound, 293
Malay Peninsula, 121
Mangaia, 167
^Murray River, Australia, 167. 293
New Caledonia, 162, 163, 164, 216, 419
New Guinea, 162, 216
New Hanover, Island of, 156
New Ireland, 167
New Zealand, 45, 48,52, 138, 16O, 172, 178, 216
Pcrak, 114
Polynesia, 69, 167, 420
Queensland, 293
Samoa, 439
Savage Islands, 166, 418
Solomon Islands, 182
South Sea Islands, 166
Tahiti, 167, 263, 419
Tasmania, 171, 468
Torres Straits, 216
PEETTED BY J. 8. VIETUE AND CO., LlillTED, CITX EOAD, LOKDON.
/^
GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
3 3125 01076 9954
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