^^^
THE'2tVDES ^
i-n y
i>? AMAZOM
:^
K
■ ■ ' ■; ; ... 1
m
■■.■■•■■■■•■".■■.■■ •.'jfc, . ,.' '^^^•••Miidtak.J-. ''.■■',■■'.
!►'.':
I ■■■■..■■■■
■ •■"■''■*."■,'-
f^i^iiWBSm
^^^^ 'B. WxMMM :^^I^P
sm
W ENOGK
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive
in 2007 witii funding from
IVIicrosoft Corporation
littp://www.arcliive.org/details/andesamazonlifetOOenocuoft
THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON
aSs tbe same Sutbor
PERU. Its Former and Present Civiliza-
tion, Topography and Natural Resources,
History and Political Conditions, Com-
merce and Present Conditions. With an
Introduction by Martin Hume, a Map,
and numerous Illustrations, Demy 8vo,
cloth. los. 6d. net.
{The Sozitk American Series),
London : T. FISHER UNWIN
FronUspiece.
\NDES AND THE
AMAZON
LIFE AND TRAVEL IN PERU
C. REGINALD KNOCK, F.R.G.S.
AUTHOR OF "PERU" AND "MEXICO" {K | //
/n the "South American Series"
WITH FIFTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS
FOURTH IMPRESSION
LONDON
T. FISHER UNWIN
ADELPHI TERRACE
First Edition, . . 1907.
Second Edition, 1908.
Third Impression, . 1908.
Fourth Impression, . 1910.
[A// rights reserved.'^
PREFACE
PERU is a country covered with a certain halo of
romance — the romance of history; of that time
when continents were found, taken, and explored ; the
romance of a civilised and little-known race — the Inca —
extending back before the keels of those old caravels
from Europe ploughed the seas of the New World ; the
romance of the Spaniards, picturesque and cruel ; the
romance of Nature in her most stupendous operations,
her Andean and Amazonian handiwork.
The true traveller must not banish the natural
sentiment of such portentous matters from his vision.
It is not a sentiment which will render it opaque, but
is rather the stimulus of imagination, which directs his
steps and urges his pen and pencil to the portraying
of the things which pass before his senses.
Moreover, the true traveller must be an Universalist.
That is, he must see the good of things, the good which
penetrates everything in conjunction with, or in superior
relation to, the so palpable evil of Man and Circum-
stance. The bare wilderness and the poor Indian have
some use and intrinsic value, as well as the cultivated
valley and the civilised dweller of the cities. Loyal to
Nature and the universe of which he is a part, the
traveller and observer will be an impartial judge ; he
will ever refrain from " drawing up an indictment against
a whole nation," or from hastily condemning any existing
thing.
VI
Preface
Let me, therefore, in this spirit, paint something of
the picture in my mind, the impress of long sojournings
and journeyings within that little-known region of the
western sea : that fascinating land of Peru.
A blue ocean is beating gently upon a thousand miles
of sandy coast, backed by the far ranges of the Andes
all along, which tower up faintly into an equally azure
sky. I see yellow, burning sands from which the
shimmering heat -mirage arises and shrouds the track
over which I have come, and over which I must
continue. Beyond, are the blue mountain ranges, and
from them arise the white porcelain-gleaming peaks
where everlasting snow abides. I ascend, and see and
feel terrific storms — the wind, and rain, and hail, and
snow come out of their abiding-places and beat upon
the head of the traveller. There is no shelter ; man
scarcely inhabits these inclement altitudes of the Andes.
There is no human habitation here. . . . None? What,
then, are these — ghostly castles and dwellings which
appear from out of the mist on yonder hill? Are they
not the habitations of man? . . . They were, centuries
ago; and a busy population thrived and had its being
within those old stone ruins. But no man lives there
now. I descend and traverse fertile valleys, and now I
reach the borders of the Montana — the boundless forests
of the Marafion and Amazon, extending away for ever,
it seems, towards the sunrise. I have traversed Peru,
and crossed the Andes from west to east!
Blue seas, cities with white-domed churches, green
plantations, burning deserts ; gleaming, snow-capped peaks
and eternal snow -fields, rushing streams, mysterious
ruins, villages nestling against hill -slopes, sandalled
Indians with flocks of llamas, herds of alpacas, high
plateaux, across which cold winds blow inhospitably ;
azure lakes, impenetrable forests, and endless rivers. All
these rise before my vision as I write. They start from
\
Preface vii
the mists which bathed them on the heights, or the
mirage of the plains ; and the mist, mirage, and halo of
memory and romance attend them.
And what of the history of this strange land? Out
of the fabled lore of the past arise the figures of the
founders of the Inca dynasty — Manco Capac, Child of
the Sun, born of virgin birth, and with his sister-wife
establishing the great capital of Cuzco where were
wrought into a nation the numerous and warring Indian
tribes of those vast Andean regions. The long array
of Inca Emperors and the civilisation they maintained ;
the advent of the Spanish, the adventures and atrocities
of Pizarro and his companions ; the destruction of a
primitive civilisation, and the planting of another by
sword and cross, accompanied by such methods against
Nature as even to-day bear their evil fruit — as acts
against Nature ever must.
And then the adventurers from Britain, their enter-
prise aroused by Spanish success and spoils of gold
and, treasure, and their rude honour abhorrent of Spanish
cruelty and pretensions — Drake and his fellow-buccaneers.
How they swept around the Horn, harried those coasts,
and disturbed the rule of Viceroy, Governor, and Priest
upon those peaceful shores ! How well, indeed, may
the Colonial chroniclers of Spain narrate their exploits !
And what of to-day and to-morrow in Peru? A
nation long torn and disrupted by civil strife — the selfish
and unrestfui pride, and distorted ideals of liberty and
individualism which the South American inherited from
the Spaniard, now giving way to the reign of sense and
humanity born of the spread of science and the world-
march of truth and fair opinion. For the heart of the
world is throbbing swiftly ; changes and influences are
strongly working, and no man and no nation can now
be isolated or exempt therefrom. Internecine warfare
and the rapacity of neighbours brought the country low
Vlll
Preface
indeed ; but the present reveals progress, and the future
holds forth hope. The race, like the territory it inhabits,
contains unknown possibilities : resources lying dormant,
waiting the hour when Nature and Time shall call upon
them to perform their functions and fulfil their destiny.
The consciousness of progress and betterment in a
community, when it occurs, is unmistakable, although the
condition may not be one which can be measured by
distinct data of time or circumstance. Such matters are
rather indefinable, like all great changes in Nature's
marshalling of Man. Such a change is taking place in
Peru : that vast territory bordering upon the Pacific
Ocean, and extending inwards into the heart of the South
American continent, whose small population occupies a
region — an empire ; whose resources and conditions are
still but little known to the outside world.
The Republic of Peru, like all other communities of
Spanish America, has endured its baptism of sword and
priestcraft. But the Peruvian proclaims that the day of
metamorphosis is at hand ; and, as will be shown, he is
losing some of the evil conditions which were grafted upon
his country by his progenitors. The three main causes
which have dominated the community to their hurt have
been political methods, militarism, and clericalism ; but
these are now giving way to the principles of fair
government which the inexorable march of civilisation
demands.
In politics the " Caudillo " — a word which hardly has
its translation in English, unless it be the American
" Boss " of Tammany dialect — tends to disappear. These
political "wire-pullers" — candidates for the Presidency,
supported by those followers who sought only their
own ends — have in Peru long prostituted the term of
Republicanism. But their domination is threatened now
with extinction. As to militarism, the sword is falling
also into the crucible of reformation, which may trans-
Preface ix
form it from the oppressor of its country into the
defender thereof, for the tendency to civil strife is
disappearing. And the retrograde influence of the
Romish Church is waning, dying a natural death ; or
will do so if its exponents fail to adapt their machinery
to the needs of modern intelligence and awakening
truth.
But it is no less in the general tone and method of
thought and aspiration of the people that the change
is evident. In the capital, as in the provinces, any
suggestion of revolution needs no burning of powder to
put it down ; it is rather frowned down by popular
feeling, by the citizens who, from the highest to the
lowest, see the vanity of former ways. This has been
exemplified in the election of the last and present
Presidents, when the laws of voting have been more
respected.
There is a spirit arising among the upper class
regarding the development of the resources of their
country which is in contrast with the lack of enterprise
formerly displayed. The professions of the Army, the
Law, and Politics, so much sought after by the Spanish
American, who, sometimes contemptuous of the truly
producing avocations, has been content to live at the
expense of, rather than to the benefit of, his country,
are no longer considered the only ones to be followed.
Engineering as a profession, for example, is much
esteemed and followed by the younger generation, and
it is safe to say that such a condition is a mark of
progress. If these matters are yet only upon a small
scale they are significant, nevertheless, of some renaissance
in the body politic. They are allied to the true interests
of the soil — the only real base of national greatness for
Peru ; and as to the resources of their soil, the Peruvians
have a heritage which must some day afford them great
thing's.
X Preface
For Peru is a country, as the observant traveller may-
bear witness, endowed with everything in the mineral
and vegetable world which could make its inhabitants
prosperous. The gold-fields contain gold whose value
may take rank with those of any other country ; the
silver mines have been famous for centuries ; the iron,
copper, lead, and quicksilver deposits will be the base
of much wealth ; and the coal-beds might render the
country in the future a manufacturing nation.
Peru contains all the products of the tropical, semi-
tropical, and temperate zones ; and her 1,400 miles of
Pacific littoral, and situation upon the largest system of
navigable waterways in the world — the Amazon and its
affluents — must some day cause her to become the
centre of a busy and extensive population. If she can
now but assure stability within and peace without, an
era will have arrived for her which is the commence-
ment of real progress.
It is a good sign, with nations as with individuals,
when the misfortunes of the past have come to be
looked upon as chastening events in their history; as
events which, bitter at the time, have brought some
benefit in disguise, and some enduring lesson. This has
taken place to some extent with regard to the loss of
the riches of their nitrate fields, which were taken from
Peru as indemnity by the Chilians during the war.
Many Peruvians state that they look back upon that as
the source of too easy a revenue ; that corruption resulted
from its enjoyment, decay of national morals and the
engendering of dishonesty. " All of these qualities," the
Peruvians say, "have been inherited by the Chilians
along with their ill-gotten gains, and are rapidly bearing
their evil effect." Be that as it may, the justice or
injustice of those events relating to Tarapaca and Tacna
and Arica is not to be considered lightly; but there is
probably much that is true in the Peruvian view, and it
Preface xi
is doubtful if much lasting good has accrued to the
Chilians as a nation from the valuable possessions they
acquired, and the large revenues from the nitrate fields
which they enjoy.
The relations of Peru are, preferably, friendly with all
her neighbours : that is, as friendly as it is possible to be
under the conditions of ill-defined boundaries of frontiers,
and other clashing interests. A disposition is growing
among all these Republics, happily, to submit their
boundary disputes to arbitration, and to abide by the
result.
And it is very necessary to define these boundaries,
for, unknown and uninhabited as the vast territories
which they enclose are, some day they must figure
largely among the " assets " of the globe. As for Peru,
every diversity of climate and topography is hers. I
have often stood upon the summit of the Andes, on that
perpetual snow-cap where the aneroid shows 16,500 feet
above the sea, and watched the snowflakes falling. On
the one hand where they fall they melt and fade into
the streams which descend to the Pacific. On the other
they merge into the rivulets, which in gathering volume
rush eastwardly to where, a thousand leagues away, the
vast Amazon debouches into the Atlantic Ocean.
" Do not write of the Incas ; of our buried temples ;
of a past civilisation," the Peruvian will entreat you,
" but tell of our natural resources : of what we can offer
to Capital and Emigration." He will often add a
corollary of regret that the Anglo-Saxon had not been
the " Conquistador " instead of the Spaniard ; and truly,
upon reflection it is a regret which expresses a truth.
Whether the Inca civilisation would have bequeathed
something which might have been perpetuated and
developed by a more practical and tolerant race than the
Spaniards leaves little room for doubt ; but one thing is
certain, that the unspeakable acts of Pizarro and his
xu
Preface
uneducated companions not only stamped it completely
out, but left behind them a legacy of the defects of their
race and status which centuries have not served, and will
not serve, to extirpate. They committed an outrage
against Nature, and, like all such violations, it has borne
a bitter fruit. They and their race spoilt the develop-
ment of a continent which, when it arrives some day
to overcome the defects it has started with, will have
done so in great part, it is more than probable, by the
co-operation of Anglo-Saxon nations.
But let us turn from these considerations and examine
the physical aspect of this vast region. Let us ascend
and cross the huge Cordillera of the Andes, the father
of the country; for the Andes is its source of life, the
raison d'etre of its being.
CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
II, THE ANDES
III. PERUVIAN TRAVEL
IV, PERUVIAN TRAVEL {continued)
V, PERUVIAN TRAVEL {continued)
VI. PERUVIAN TRAVEL {continued)
VII. THE UPPER MARANON .
VIII. REGION OF THE UPPER MARANON
IX. LIFE IN THE CITIES OF THE ANDES
X. LIFE IN THE CITIES OF THE ANDES {continued)
XI. THE REGIONS OF SANDIA AND CARABAYA, AND
LAKE TITICACA . . .
XII. HUANCAVELICA AND ADJOINING DEPARTMENTS
XIII. THE PERUVIAN INDIANS OF THE ANDES
XIV. THE CHURCH IN PERU
XV. THE HIGH ANDEAN PLATEAUX
XVI. ASCENTS OF SNOW-CAPPED SUMMITS AND PEAKS
XVII. MINERAL WEALTH ....
XVIII. MINERAL WEALTH {continued)
XIX. MINERAL WEALTH {continued)
XX. THE INC A CIVILISATION . . .
PAGE
I
lO
17
31
44
58
69
81
no
126
137
152
160
171
184
197
205
210
XIV
Contents
CHAP. PAGE
XXI. THE INCA RUINS ..... 220
XXII. THE RUINS OF HUANUCO VIEJO . . . 229
XXIII. THE INCA ROADS ..... 237
XXIV. THE INCA CIVILISATION IN THE AMAZONIAN FORESTS 245
XXV. THE MONTANA AND THE AMAZON . . . 256
XXVI. THE MONTANA AND THE AMAZON {continued) . 264
XXVII. THE MONTAffA AND THE AMAZON {continued) . 277
XXVIII. THE MONTANA AND THE AMAZON. INDIA-RUBBER 285
XXIX. THE PERUVIANS ..... 294
XXX. LIMA ....... 307
XXXI. LIMA {continued) . . . . ,312
XXXII. LIMA {continued) ...... 320
XXXIII. PIRATES AND BUCCANEERS ; EARTHQUAKES AND
TIDAL WAVES . . . . -331
XXXIV. COLONISATION, COMMERCE, RAILWAYS . . 346
XXXV. SOUTH AMERICAN RELATIONS .... 358
INDEX ....... 371
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR
FOSSIL AMMONITES IN THE ANDES
TYPICAL VILLAGE OF THE ANDES .
THE UPPER MARANON ; VILLAGE OF TANTAMAYO
PART OF AREQUIPA, AND THE MISTI VOLCANO .
SUMMIT OF THE ANDES : PASS OF YANASHALLAS
CHOLO POLICEMEN AND HORSE-THIEVES : RECUAY
INCA BRIDGE AT CHAVIN ....
SUBTERRANEAN MONOLITH ; CASTLE OF CHAVIN
CARVED INCA STONE FROM CHAVIN
THE MONTANA : COCAINE FACTORY AT MONZON
THE UPPER MARANON : RUINED INCA CASTLE
THE UPPER MARANON : AN INCA FORTRESS
SH^^HERD'S COTTAGE IN THE ANDES
CITY OF HUARAZ AND PART OF THE CORDILLERA
BLANCA .....
RELIGIOUS PROCESSION AT HUARAZ
LOOKING ACROSS THE VALLEY OF HUAYLAS
PEAK OF COROPUNA
OLD GOLD MINES OF APOROMA
STREET IN AREQUIPA (see p. 97) .
INDIAN JUNKS ON LAKE TITICACA
INDIAN HOUSES NEAR LAKE TITICACA .
INCA RUINS NEAR PISCO .
RUINS OF INCAHUASI : INTERIOR COLUMNS
VIEW ON THE OROYA RAILWAY
CHOLA GIRL OF THE ANDES
ANDEAN VALLEY, SHOWING "ANDENES" .
RELIGIOUS PROCESSION NEAR HUARAZ .
THE HIGH PLATEAUX : HEAD OF A VALLEY AND
INCA RUINS ....
SUMMIT OF THE ANDES
Frontispiece
To face page 61
„ 20
28
» 54
., 69
71
» 11
» 74
75
n
78
80
86
92
94
no
115
123
123
124
127
128
135
137
140
156
160
164
XVI
List of Illustrations
ON THE SUMMIT OF THE ANDES .
PROFILES OF THE PERUVIAN ANDES {Two Diagrams)
THE HIGH PLATEAUX : RETIRING SNOW-CAP
CITY OF HUARAZ AND THE HUASCARAN PEAK
GLACIER AT HEAD OF QUILCAY VALLEY, NEAR
HUARAZ .....
HEAD OF A VALLEY : CORDILLERA BLANCA
VALLEY OF HUAYLAS : TOWN OF YUNGAY AND
THE HUASCARAN PEAK
THE HUASCARAN PEAK : A SNAPSHOT : SOROCHE
STRICKEN MULES
TYPICAL MINING HACIENDA IN THE ANDES
COAL STRATA ON THE PACIFIC COAST
LAKE TITICACA : TEMPLE OF VIRACOCHA ,
CUZCO : BASE OF THE PALACE OF HUAYNA-CAPAC
BASE OF THE PALACE OF OLLANTA
RUINS OF HUANUCO VIEJO ; ONE OF THE DOOR-
WAYS TO THE INCA PALACE ; LOOKING WEST
RUINS OF HUANUCO VIEJO : RUINS OF THE INCA
PALACE : LOOKING EAST
RUINS OF HUANUCO VIEJO : THE INCA BATHS
SUMMIT OF THE ANDES : AN INCA PASS .
PART OF THE CASTLE OF CHAVIN .
GOLD AND OTHER OBJECTS FROM SUBTERRANEAN
INCA TEMPLE : HUARAZ
GROUP OF LLAMAS .\T A RAILWAY STATION
THE EDGE OF THE MONTANA
THE AMAZON AT IQUITOS .
INDIAN RAFTS AND CANOES ON THE MARANON
ANUESHA INDIAN WOMAN OF THE FORESTS
THE MONTANA : CANNIBALS OF THE PACHITEA
RIVER .....
THE MONTANA : LORENZO INDIANS
LIMA : THE CATHEDRAL
THE PRESIDENT : DOCTOR JOS£ PARDO .
^ace
page
164
»)
166
j>
168
»
171
55
172
15
176
178
183
200
207
216
221
222
230
233
234
239
241
251
252
256
264
275
277
279
279
307
320
THE ANDES AND THE AMAZON
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Spanish - American Republics are generally vaguely
thought of in Europe as small communities with an
incipient civilisation and endless revolutions, where all
soldiers are "generals," and all citizens government
employees. And there has really been some foundation
for this view, especially among some of the lesser States
of those fertile regions. But there are other and more
favourable conditions underlying these communities ; con-
ditions which are comparatively little known to the outside
world, and which are worthy of serious consideration.
The foundation for the elements of greatness of a
nation — after the weighty matter of race character —
depends upon the geographical conditions of its soil.
There is a certain condition of " geographical continuity,"
if I may invent the term, which should be characteristic
of the territory of a great nation. This term involves
a feeling of amplitude and extension ; of unconfined
frontiers, bordering upon public or international high-
ways, such as oceans or vast rivers — the possibility of
ingress and egress at more than one side.
Peru has this condition of "geographical continuity"
in a marked manner, in that whilst possessing a vast
littoral and interior dominion upon the Pacific side, she
stretches across the Andes, and also has her natural
outlet upon the system of Amazonian rivers towards
A
2 The Andes and the Amazon
the Atlantic. She is, in a sense, a trans - continental
State.
Peru, almost alone of her neighbours in South America,
possesses this characteristic. If she consisted only of a
strip of coast-zone between the Andes and the sea, such
as is Chile, she would have a much less important future.
Brazil, with her vast area of territory, has no outlet or
dominion on the Pacific. Bolivia is entirely surrounded
by the territories of other States since her Pacific seaport
of Antofagasta was taken by Chile, although she still
enjoys a portion of navigable waters of the affluents of
the Amazon. Ecuador borders only upon the Pacific,
although the result of the arbitration of her dispute with
Peru may allot her a strip of territory which includes
navigable arms of the Maranon, so giving access to the
main stream of the Amazon. Colombia alone fronts upon
two oceans — the Pacific and the Caribbean Sea; but
she has lost the sovereignty of the isthmus of Panama.
Venezuela is a country without communication upon
the Pacific or the Amazon; her interests are upon the
Caribbean Sea and the Orinoco.
The geographical situation of Peru is, then, favourable
to future development, and it is only a question of time
before the tide of human activity sets that way. Let us
consider some of the physical features of the country.
The Pacific coast-line of Peru is about 1,400 miles in
length, from its boundary in the north with Ecuador,
to that in the south with Chile; that is, from Santa
Rosa to the valley of Camarones. Its northernmost coast
point is near latitude 3° south, and its southernmost near
latitude 18° south. As to its longitude it lies between
62° and 81° west of Greenwich.^ It is to be recollected
that South America as a whole is almost totally east of
North America; and Lima, the capital of Peru, is east
of the capital of the United States— Washington.
Along this coast-line there are many harbours and
ports, whence produce is shipped and goods disembarked.
Some of these are splendid harbours, especially Callao,
^ The Eastern frontiers are in dispute.
Introduction 3
Chimbote, and Payta. Others are only open roadsteads,
where landing is often difficult, as Eten, Salavery,
Mollendo, etc.
The rivers of Peru are very varied in their character-
istics. Those descending to the coast-zone of the Pacific
are only important as sources of water for irrigation
purposes. They are not navigable, as their trajectories
are short and steep: the only exceptions being those of
Tumbez and Chira, for small launches or canoes. On
the eastern side of the Andes a very different condition
obtains, however, and within the territory belonging to
Peru there are from 10,000 to 20,000 miles ^ of navigable
streams and rivers — the Amazon and its affluents, as
later described. There are three regions of navigation
belonging to the country. First, the 1,400 miles of
" silent highway " upon her coast, the Pacific Ocean ;
second, upon that vast inland sea — the most remarkable
lake in the world, in some respects — Lake Titicaca, which
is 165 miles long and an average of 63 miles broad,
12,370 feet above the level of the sea; and third, the
waterways of the Amazon, which penetrate through the
vast territory of the Montana. There is, of course, no
communication by water between these three systems,
but the coast and the lake are united by the Arequipa
railway, whilst the river system is yet unconnected in
any way with the ocean ports except by mule trail, the
principal of which is the central, or Pichis road.
The area of Peru is given as 701,600 square miles, but
this includes the zone in dispute and arbitration with
Ecuador, to the north. This country, therefore, which is
usually looked upon in England as a small, remote spot
on the west coast of South America, generally coloured
green, is about thirteen times the size of England and
Wales.
Peru is a country of large things. It has one of the
greatest mountain ranges in the world — the Andes. It
has the longest river system — the Amazon and its affluents
— and the most extensive forests. It has some of the
' According to season.
4 The Andes and the Amazon
highest peaks on the globe, and many of its mineral
deposits are, of their kind, the largest in the world.
From all this greatness of nature, shall not there spring
some day greatness of man — a leader of nations of her
race and in her hemisphere? Time will show. Her
children have a magnificent heritage, and they are work-
ing now towards the time when it shall no longer be said
of them, as it might, indeed, have been written of all
Spanish-America, " Unstable as water ; thou shalt not
excel ! "
The country is worthy of a wider and better reputation
than it possesses. Its inhabitants have had many difficulties
to struggle against — difficulties of race, of inherited defects
and characteristics from their Spanish ancestors ; difficulties
of topography and of geography ; and difficulties of border
feuds and of rapacious neighbours. They are striving to
carry forward the principles of Western civilisation in a
vast and difficult area of a little-known continent, and they
are worthy of help and encouragement from richer and
more advanced nations.
I have touched somewhat upon the climate and pro-
ducts of the country, and the very diversified character of
the different zones into which the republic is divided by
its physical formation. The vast chain of the Andes,
which I have termed the father of the country, positively
divides Peru into two regions of entirely different character,
and, except in one case, it is impossible to pass from one
to the other without ascending and crossing this vast range,
at an altitude of 13,000 to 14,000 feet. This great difference
of climate, and therefore of vegetation, is due to the fact
that the whole of the coast-zone from the south of Ecuador
down to, and including much of, Chile, is a region practically
without rainfall.
To what is this phenomenon due ? It is explained by
two causes. The first is that the high chain of the Andes
intercepts the prevailing wind, which blows from Africa
and the Atlantic, and across the plains and forests of
South America itself, intercepting the moisture with which
this is laden, depositing it in the form of snow upon the
I
Introduction 5
summits. Secondly, the cool current flowing up the
Pacific coast of South America, from south to north,
known as the Humboldt current, and which, being lower
in temperature than the air and the sea, prevents the
evaporation of the latter. This current flows at a rate
of about 10 miles an hour, and is from 20 to 40 leagues
in width ; and it gives rise to the relatively cool and
equable temperature of the coast-zone, and is also the
cause of the heavy mist upon the coast, known as
Camanchaca, which prevails at intervals from December
to May, and which permits the existence of natural pasture
on the foothills.
I have spent long periods in observing the coast of
Peru, from the decks of the comfortable steamers that ply
up and down, and which are the only means of com-
munication from one port to another. And I have ridden
along it for days on horseback — days of azure sky and
ocean, of yellow sands and lapping waves upon that
junction where land and water unceasingly struggle for
mastery: a solitude unbroken by any human element,
except the occasional Indian fisher with his net.
What a fascination there is in those journeys ! Alone,
except for my arriero and servant, generally far behind
me on their respective beasts, driving the straying pack-
mule with my baggage. Alone with those glorious
expanses of Nature in that remote region, studying that
open book, whose pages, one by one, she presents to the
observer. What landscape studies in geology are laid
bare there ! Here are the underlying plutonic rocks of
the very foundation of the continent, polished by the waves
and sand ; here are masses of strange conglomerate, look-
ing like some Titanic work of concrete ; here are strange
wind-laid strata of sand, forming cornices and entablatures
along the summits of low cliffs ; and curious caves, worn
by the ceaseless action of wave and wind-blown sand.
From time to time I pass rocky promontories where
the trail necessarily winds upwards from the beach to
surmount them, and I look down where the rollers break
below. Small rocky points of islands arise just beyond,
6 The Andes and the Amazon
covered with myriad sea -fowl — those manufacturers of
the coveted phosphates — the " guano," of commerce.
Of so much wealth in past years, and of such evil
reputation has been this product, such fortunes made,
such reputations ruined, that the very word conveys an
evil odour ! One thinks of bribed Senators, fraudulent
shipments, and ill-gotten gains squandered in Parisian
delights !
The trail winds on, and the sea-front is for a moment
hidden by sand-dunes, and suddenly upon my ear there
falls a continuous bleating as of sheep in distress. I look
around to discover them. " Where are the sheep ? " I ask
my native servant in surprise, as he rides up, for the
sandy wastes show no single blade of herbage. "They
are not sheep, Sefior," he replies. "They are lobos del
mar (sea wolves) " ; and, sure enough, on emerging from
the sand-dunes, I behold hundreds of seals upon a rocky
promontory below, where the waves beat ceaselessly.
Further on my horse stumbles over some object half
buried in the sand. It is a whale - bone, fully 14 feet
in length, and here and there are the enormous frontal
bones of these great mammals, thrown up heaven knows
how long ago. It is easy riding along the very verge
of the ocean — the sand is wet, and the horse's hoofs
leave a bare impression. Higher up it is more difficult,
and the animal sinks deep in the loose, dry sand. Here,
also, are the curious travelling sand-dunes which one finds
in these places, known in Spanish as Medanos, and which
I have described elsewhere.
The Pacific coast of South America is at first sight
disappointing, perhaps because the traveller has expected
to find a region covered with tropical vegetation, forgetting
that in a rainless zone nothing grows except under irriga-
tion. Interminable barren stretches of sandy precipices,
monotonous in the little-broken line of sea-front, present
themselves to the eye when beheld from the steamer's
deck, and rocky promontories, washed by the waves. The
whole coast-zone, the relatively narrow strip between the
ocean and the Andes, seems to be largely a residue or
Introduction 7
after-formation of the latter, with which the sea constantly
disputes dominion. It presents in places a sharply cut-off
face of unstable sandy soil, and, far beyond, the foothills
of the Andes arise ; whilst behind there is the faint grey,
serrated edge and mass of the main range, topped at times
by the far-off white point of a snow-capped peak.
But there are, nevertheless, numerous bays ; unsheltered
often, where the coast-line is broken away by some descend-
ing river, giving rise to a fertile plain, a town, irrigated
plantations of cane and cotton, and the conditions necessary
for the life of man. The steamer has anchored off such a
port. A long mole stretches out beyond the succeeding
lines of breakers, but not far enough into deep water for
the steamers to go alongside. Huge launches, which have
laid at anchor all night awaiting the steamer's advent, now
toil out towards us. They are loaded with bales of cotton,
or sacks of sugar ; often they contain bags of ores — gold,
silver, and copper, from the mines of that far-off Cordillera —
or bars of bullion ; and the four or five rowers stand in the
prow bending the long sweeps in their movement of the
heavy mass they are slowly urging forward. Behold these
sons of toil ! They are generally a mixture of the negro
and the Cholo^ or Peruvian-Indian, and they bear the
imprint of their low caste upon their countenances. Yet
life is not hard for them, except on steamer days, and
they may take their fill of sunshine ; whilst empty bellies
are more easily filled in tropical ports, where a handful of
bananas may be begged, or stolen from the cargo — more
easily than in the more civilised poverty of Britain or
North America, where starvation is less picturesque and
more frequent !
But the steamer's siren blows. The dilatory captain of
the port, in his gold-laced uniform, disturbed from his
siesta, comes forth at length from the shore with the ship's
papers ; what time the skipper, tramping his quarter-deck,
sends forth strange Anglo-Saxon oaths whose condemna-
tion includes, for the time being, everything connected
with Spanish America, geographically and ethnologically !
The rattle of the engine-room bell sounds " stand by " ; up
8 The Andes and the Amazon
comes the iron-linked cable from the bottom of the bay ;
the shore recedes, and the freshening breeze succeeds the
warm air of the land. The waves lap upon the prow
and hull of the steamer in motion again, as I turn to
contemplate and meditate.
The sea is always a silent and mournful watcher of
human effort, that is if Nature in any of her elements
takes any note of humanity at all, which is doubtful.
The long-drawn moan of recurring wave-swells thrown
off in monotonous succession from the steamer's prow
seems to speak, at times, of the inevitable and hopeless
strife and work of man. This changeless and impression-
less sea ! The keels of a myriad barques have ploughed
it, and left their momentary wake thereon — for as long as
the following seagull could pursue it. Here the keel of
Drake, such centuries ago, scurried in harryings of gold-
laden galleons ; and gold, and galleons, and crew have left
no ripple but in the minds of men. The voice of the sea
seems often that of an unfeeling monster ; its hollow wave-
echoes upon the shore seem soulless, its briny foam a
protest flung against stable matter and sentient man !
Yet how strange a glamour hangs over the tales of
the sea, of old ! What fascination enshrouds the old
vessels of the past ! Think of their gleaming sails ; their
trim hulls, as they came up over the edge of the world ;
their captains, their crews ; the smells, the oaths, the
battling with wind and tide, the long reaches against
billow and adverse gale, all toward some distant port,
longed for until reached, and left again with rejoicing !
The poor and hard-worked crew with their miserable
rations, blistered hands, and brutality ; striving, as man
will ever strive, for mirth and profit. Away, away they
went ; on, on they toiled, beating beneath tropic skies
far from their homes; thrashing through seething seas
— for what ? For a wretched pittance of gain ! Then
to disperse, or go down, lost and forgotten as the years
roll on, buried in the misty halo of the past, leaving no
trace upon that soulless medium whereon they lived and
moved and had their being. And the silent sea, blue,
Introduction 9
or grey, or angry, or reposeful, brims full and impression-
less as then, as now, and as shall be for all time !
Ha ! but what is this ? A long Pacific roller, born
in mid-ocean, or on the shores of China or Australia,
5,000 or 6,000 miles away, shakes the steamer from stem
to stern. She rises to it, and throws a fringe of foam
away on either hand, some of which soars upwards on
the freshening breeze and is flung into my face sharply,
and I taste the brine upon my lips. The sea protests ;
she is not soulless, she seems to say. Rather, she bears
us on — as she bore our fathers, and shall bear our sons —
on towards new horizons of hope and knowledge ; on to
fresh fields of action and accomplishment !
CHAPTER II
THE ANDES
Heavenward thrown, crumpled, folded, ridged and
fractured, with gleaming " porcelain " gnomons pointing
to the sun ; shattered strata and sheer crevasse ; far
terraces and grim escarpments, hung over with filmy
mist-veils, and robed with the white clothing of crystal-
lised rains and mists ; the birthplace of the winds and
hails ; the father of the rivers whose floods are borne
a thousand leagues away — the mighty Cordillera is !
From north-west to south-east, a wall 3,000 miles in
length, dividing the Pacific world from the boundless
empire plains of Amazonas and the east, it crouches,
rears, and groans upon the western sea - board of the
Continent. Kissing the cerulean space with snowy peaks,
five miles above the level of the ocean's ebb and flow,
and groaning over its dun and desert wastes below, with
earthquake grumbles, the ponderous mass, from rock-
ribbed base to filmy summit-edge, where matter ends,
keeps its eternal vigil ! Mineral-loined, and girt with
silver, gold, and cinnabar, abides this mighty banker of
the sunset world ! The beautiful Andes ; the terrible
Andes ; the life-giving Andes ; the death-dealing Andes !
For the Andes are of many moods, and whatever change
of adjectives the traveller may ring, he will fail of truly
describing them.
When the delicate tints of early morning shine on
the crested snow away on either hand in rarest beauty,
and the light and tonic air invigorates both man and
horse, and the leagues pass swiftly by, there is joy on
the face of Nature, which enters into the traveller's being.
10
The Andes 11
When the snow clouds gather and the icy breeze and
pelting rain beat mercilessly upon him throughout an
entire day : night approaches, and there is no shelter for
rider or beast : then does the weight of weariness and
melancholy descend upon him. Twelve times have I
crossed these summits, and rarely did the snow, and sleet,
and hail, and rain, and other cosmic matters fail to come
out of the horizon what time I passed.
But the early morning is exceedingly beautiful. It is
inspiring to those minds open to such influences. The
bright sun and blue sky, the glorious light and shadow
on the tree - filled valleys and canyons beneath are
enchanting with their silent and uninhabited panorama.
The white mist-sea is far below, but it is rising. It rolls
against the grim and ancient rock-escarpments caressingly ;
wisps, separated from the main bulk, float like thin white
veils in horizontally-flung lines across the facades of the
precipices, or move slowly upward, impelled by some faint
air-current. But the sun is getting higher, and the whole
mist-sea is ascending ; mark how it engulfs the ridges
and peaks with its appalling crests ! Huge foam-billows
menacingly breast the hills ; they rise and break like
sea-waves against the obstruction. The milky line is
sharply defined against the blue sky beyond — a moment,
when the mist-sea is flung upwards, is dispersed in a
thousand directions : fills the whole horizon, and covers
the glowing sun-ball. A chill creeps over all, until, faint,
thin, and evaporated, that seemingly irresistible ocean of
unstable vapour has vanished in accordance with the laws
it obeys. The sun emerges again, and makes glad the
faces and the depths of the frowning Cordillera.
There is nothing more remarkable in the Andes than
these mist effects. The most curious and weird trans-
formation scenes take place, at morning and at evening.
Now the sun has set. It still tinges the western sky
with its beauteous but indescribable tints. The palest
saffron fades into the pearly green of the zenith, and the
last and orange rays, calm and cold, flash faintly and
expiringly upwards. In and among the deep canyons
12 The Andes and the Amazon
of the stern and purple-green hills below, the fleecy cloud-
masses of pearly vapour slowly pour, filling them with
impalpable lakes, so soft, so pure, they seem the essence
of the elements, nightly spread for the couch of some
unseen god-traveller. No eye but mine beholds these
rare stupendous beauties. My Indians, busied over their
camp fire, do not note them, and my companions doze
within the tent. Below, wrapped in the sombre veil of
night, are those steeps, ways, and canyons I have passed,
those precipices and trails I scaled, and traversed yester-
day, which lead from the far, mysterious Montana. Now
they are covered with the fleecy mist-masses, which some
evening breeze is urging upwards. Appalling masses,
which break over dim, distant peaks like awful billows.
They rise slowly, surely, terribly, as if to engulf me even on
the high point whereon I stand. But night is at hand, and
even as they rise they are covered with its sleepy pall.
A single and glorious jewelled planet has dominated the
eastern escarpment and gleams softly down upon me. Rest!
I have said that the Andes is the father of Peru, the
origin of all the country possesses, and this fact cannot
fail to be impressed upon the traveller. The strong
influence which topographical conditions exercise upon
a people is here exemplified. The climate, which moulds
to so considerable an extent the characteristics of races,
is governed altogether by the existence of the Andes.
The sterile and rainless region of the coast owes its
condition largely to the interposition of the mountains
between the easterly winds and the Pacific Ocean. The
moisture, instead of descending upon this zone, is inter-
cepted at the summit and forms the snow-cap, and gives
rise to the constant rain-storms of those altitudes. Due
to this circumstance the physical characteristics of the
Peruvians who inhabit these higher regions differ from
those of the dwellers on the coast, as elsewhere described.
These differences are evident not only in physical, but
also in sentimental matters, and Peru is still practically
two countries divided from each other by the vast wall
of the Andes.
The Andes 18
The natural resources of the country — and they are
linnitless — are due to the Andes. The great diversity
and extension of the mineral deposits, such as iron, coal,
copper, lead, silver, gold, quicksilver and all the metals
known to commerce, are a result of the geological changes
which have taken place in the formation of the chain.
The varying temperatures of the various regions of the
country are due to the vast differences of altitude
occasioned by these mountains, and which give rise to
the existence of such diversity of species in the vegetable
world. On the barren coast-zone of the Pacific side life
is only possible from the cultivation produced in the
valleys under irrigation from the streams which descend
from above, so that as far as their water supply is con-
cerned the Andes have in the first instance intercepted
it and then afforded it.
The topographical formation and the structure of the
Andes is remarkable and interesting. The system consists
principally of two parallel chains, one generally known
as the Occidental or coast Cordillera, the other as the
Oriental Cordillera, which in places is known as the
"white" Cordillera, or "Cordillera Blanca," due to its
snow-cap. These two ranges are joined in places by
nudos or " knots," or transverse connections, four in
number, and known respectively as — the knot of Vil-
canota, near Cuzco ; the knot of Cerro de Pasco, the knot
of Loja, and the knot of Pasto : the two last being out of
Peru, beyond its northern boundary. Between these con-
nections exist a series of longitudinal valleys or basins
of immense extent. The southernmost of these is the
lake-basin of Titicaca, bounded on the north by Vilcanota,
and at the south terminating in the pampas of Bolivia ;
next in the series, going north - westerly, is the river-
basin of the Ucayali — that great waterway which at its
junction with the Marafion forms the mighty Amazon.
North of the Cerro de Pasco "knot" are such basins as
that of the valley of Huaylas, and the upper Marafion.
Except in one place (Huarmarca), the traveller cannot
pass the Peruvian Andes at a less height than about
14 The Andes and the Amazon
I3,cxx) or 14,000 feet above sea-level ; for the passes of
the Cordillera reach invariably that altitude. Of the two
railways which cross the summit, that of the Oroya, or
Central, rises to 15,642 feet; and that of the Southern
Railway, beyond Arequipa, to 14,666 feet. The highest
peaks of the Coast Cordillera rise to 16,500 feet, but the
phenomenon is observed that their summits are free from
perpetual snow, notwithstanding that they are above the
line of perpetual snow of the main parallel chain. The
highest peaks on the Cordillera Blanca ascend to more
than 22,000 feet, and among them are the highest in
the whole of America, North or South. Indeed, one of
them — Sorata, with its 23,600 feet altitude — is stated to
be the third highest peak on the globe. I have elsewhere
described some of the snow-capped ranges and peaks,
some of which I have ascended. They are in many cases
indescribably beautiful and imposing, and their imprint,
perhaps, never fades entirely from the mind of the traveller
who has sojourned among them.
Among geologists it is held that the western, or Coast
Cordillera, is the oldest ; and the eastern the later for-
mation. The whole is an upheaval of the plutonic
rocks : granite, porphyry, diorite, basalts, etc., crowned by
enormous areas of sedimentary and metamorphosed rocks
and conglomerates, as limestones, slates, quartzites, etc.
In some places, as, for instance, around Arequipa, are vast
extensions of volcanic tufas, and terrible and barren wastes
of contorted debris^ without water, herbage, or life. The
railway which descends from the Peruvian and Bolivian
punas or plateau of the Titicaca basin to the fertile
valley of Arequipa, winds for an entire day's travel, with
rapid grades and sharp curves, among these appalling
heaps of Nature's escoria of a bygone age.
So broken is the country, and so steep the descent,
that the trajectory of this railway is remarkable, and the
traveller has his eyes for hours upon the volcano of the
Misti, which is close to Arequipa, but which, first on one
side, and then the other, of his line of direction, seems
almost to be elusive, and to recede as the train advances.
The Andes 15
As to the Oroya railway the altitude is dominated by a
series of interminable loops and zigzags up the slopes,
whereby the train, travelling alternately in opposite
directions, at length gains the summit of the Cordillera.
But the traveller in Peru journeys far away, generally,
from the lines of the railways. His road from the sea-
port, in the saddle, lies over the most diverse and marked
geological formations, and as the coast-zone, the uplands,
and the Cordillera are free from dense vegetation, gener-
ally, these changes are displayed to the eye. The
enormous areas, at the higher levels, of granite, quartzite,
slate, and limestone are the birthplace of great wealth
in metalliferous minerals, as gold, silver, copper, lead,
etc., and enclose in their strata innumerable seams of
anthracite and other classes of coal, such as in the future
will form one of the country's most valuable assets. I
have seen coal strata of many feet in width standing
vertically within their enclosing rock walls, and towering
upwards for distances of thousands of feet. No Engineer
who has travelled in Peru can fail to appreciate the
variety and extent of the country's mineral resources,
and all this prodigality of wealth has for the author of
its being this vast and little-travelled Cordillera.
The Andes, like all great and portentous matters,
whether physical or abstract, dawns slowly upon the
observer's mind, if I may use the term. The traveller,
as he slowly approaches from the coast, obtains no coup
doeil whereby he might dominate its beauty and extent
as a whole. The Queen of the snow-summits does not
so easily display her charms, but only from time to time
permits the weary horseman, toiling over the sunburnt
plains, glimpses of her virgin towers above. Between the
prosaic hills of the lower altitudes the snow-capped peaks
at times appear, so white and dazzling that they might
be close beyond — an hour's ride, no more. But nothing
is more deceptive. Ordinary ideas of distance are set at
naught, and only days of riding will bring the traveller
up to them. But when he shall have braved the tempest
and the steeps ; when his slow and panting beast, soroche-
16 The Andes and the Amazon
stricken, has overcome the last few rising steps upon the
trail that tops the summit of the western range, then
as the dark horizon of the foreground rocks gives place
his astonished gaze rests on that glorious range of white-
clothed sentinels beyond. There they mark the eras ;
there they stand, performing their silent work ; and there,
when evening falls, it tints their brows with orange and
with carmine, and wraps their bases in the purple pall
of finished day. The lurid sun has set upon the escarp-
ments of an unfinished world !
Some time since the Jurassic or Silurian ages arose
these mighty guardians of the western shore, carrying
some ocean-bed from where it lay, and bore it upward
three miles and more towards the clouds. Strange
creatures of the deep :
" Dragons of the prime,"
which had their being within its ooze in those long ages
past, now stand in rigid schools upon the stiffened summits.
Huge ammonites and cephalopods, whose petrified scrolls
and fossil circles catch the traveller's eye as his weary mule
stumbles over the limestone strata ; and, blurred by the
eternal pelting rain, and loosened from the stony grasp by
frosts and sun, they, together with the rock-ribbed walls
which enclose them, are again dissolving into particles : a
phase within the endless sequences of Nature's work ; an
accident of her ceaseless and inexplicable operations !
8 '^
CHAPTER III
PERUVIAN TRAVEL
What, it may be asked, are the objects with which
travellers woyld traverse these hot deserts, these high and
snow-capped Cordilleras, cross and ascend these wind-
swept steppes and altiplanicies^ or penetrate these vast
and uninhabited regions of the Peruvian and Amazonian
forests? Some well-defined object must tc.ke him there,
for no ordinary tourist, on mild distraction bent, is likely
to brave the rigours and difficulties which at every turn
present themselves. It is the Engineer, that pioneer of
civilisation, with the stimulus of his scientific-commercial
errand ; the explorer, the archaeologist, the botanist who
principally have travelled through these fastnesses and
labyrinths. The hunter, of course, finds fairly abundant
quarry ; and the artist, the painter, could find among the
snowy beauties and the azure lakes of the Cordillera, the
rare and marvellous mist-effects, and the wondrous sunset
skies, material such as might immortalise him.
But it is Nature and her resources that will be the object
of his journey, be he whom he may, for of modern man
there is not much to attract. That is, there is no flash
and glow as of Eastern worlds; no galleries, statues, or
palaces ; no gardens of delight, and no alluring bowers of
pleasure. Nature is in a sombre mood in this her vast
workshop of the Western world ; and even at times it
seems that she is offended, as if the place were not yet
prepared for man's habitation, and she looked upon him
as an interloper !
17 B
18 The Andes and the Amazon
Indeed, it has sometimes occurred to me, as I wearily
approached the end of some hard day's ride, that Peru
(as also other parts of the New World) is still in the
making : not yet ready for man ; and that Nature seems
to protest in that her laboratory was invaded before her
handiwork was perfected.
A barren shore, rainless and ugly ; hot, burning plains ;
narrow V-shaped valleys where a little cultivation struggles
to retain a foothold. Bleak and sterile uplands where the
dreaded soroche weakens the venturesome traveller, and
appalling peaks crowned with unconquerable snows and
endless glaciers !
Nature protests. She required a short span of some
few million years to round those grim escarpments ; to
fill in those valley floors, and form her fertile plains ; to
lower those towering Andean crests, and let the Amazonian
dews over to form a gentle rain upon the western slopes :
in short, to put her finishing touches upon it. But man,
restless and exploring, has invaded the workshop, and now
he must assist in the work.
To return, then, to the traveller, and the means he
must employ in his journeyings. The railways of Peru,
as before stated, will bear him across the Andes at two
different points, distant from each other several hundred
miles. But his impressions of travel will not be from
these means of conveyance, fine examples of the work
of the Engineer as they are. His way will be over rough
trails, and his seat will be the saddle.
As regards the conditions of horse and mule trans-
portation in the interior, the experience of the traveller
resolves itself into certain recollections which crystallise
themselves into aphorisms. One of these is that, "The
principal food of saddle-animals in Peru is the spur " !
and another that, " If there existed in Peru a Society for
the prevention of cruelty to animals, all the owners of
pack-mules would be taken to prison"!
At any rate, I have found these two notes several times
inscribed in my note-books, although they need not be
taken too literally. It is not that the people are inten-
Peruvian Travel 19
tionally cruel, but they are not rich, generally, and the
unfortunate beasts have to yield up their last iota of
service, and to work in places often where fodder is scarce
and expensive.
On looking back over notes made during long journeys
in the interior, I find expressions of opinion which certainly
described the circumstances of the moment, but which
might seem harsh when applied generally. There is an
anecdote in Peru about an Englishman who happened to
go out into the street after lunch, at the moment when
a policeman was killing a mad dog. This observant
Briton, according to the story, having looked at his watch,
took out his note-book and inscribed therein :
" In Peru, at 2 P.M., it is customary for the police to
kill dogs"!
This is supposed to be a warning against hasty general-
isations.
Much to the amusement of a Peruvian friend, at whose
house I was staying, was the following generalisation of
a similar nature, which I read him from my note-book :
" In Peru, Indian women who sell guinea-pigs, steal
penknives " !
For, a few days previously, a Chola girl had entered my
room to sell me a cui, or guinea-pig, which animals form
a considerable article of food in little interior villages.
I bought the cut, but after the woman had left I turned
round to where my knife had been lying upon the table.
It was gone also !
In making expeditions through the country, extend-
ing over weeks or months, the traveller has to employ
one of two methods : either to depend upon hiring animals
at the different points, or purchasing his beasts outright
before starting. Employing the first, it is advisable to
carry letters of introduction to the various Gobernadores,
or petty authorities, of the towns and villages en route.
In this manner the traveller is passed on from one point
to the other, often with much delay, due to the difficulty
20 The Andes and the Amazon
of getting animals even under the autocratic mandates
of the gobernador.
The following scene generally takes place. The
traveller arrives and presents his letter to the gobernador,
which is perhaps from the functionary of the last town.
It is duly read, and the gobernador "places his house
and his services entirely at your disposal."
This polite formula being gone through — and it is
not to be supposed that it is meaningless, for the
gobernador generally does all in his power to further
your efforts, especially if you are a foreigner and bent
upon some scientific or exploratory work — he calls the
Alcaldes. These individuals are generally Indians ; in
fact, in many places I have visited the gobernador has
been the only person who could speak Spanish. The
alcaldes arrive. They carry, as insignia of their office,
white or black wands, generally ornamented with silver
mountings, and of which they are very proud. A con-
versation in Quechua takes place between them, and
they depart, and the gobernador informs me that horses
will be forthcoming to-morrow. It is a mandate which
has been issued, and on the following day various un-
willing Indians arrive, ushered in by the alcaldes, and
leading various kinds of beasts in all conditions of age
or decrepitude. The gobernador eyes them wrathfully ;
none of them are fit for the saddle. Fresh orders are
issued to the alcaldes, who again depart accompanied by
the Indians and their sorry brutes. The day is lost.
" To-morrow, Senor, without fail, there will be animals,"
the gobernador assures me, and he takes me in to
" breakfast."
It would not arouse the appetite of the reader to
describe this meal. The food is of a primitive nature,
generally consisting of soup made of potatoes and dried
cod-fish, followed by boiled meat of the consistency of
india-rubber. Often there is no bread, but cancha, or
toasted maize, is eaten as a substitute.
The morrow arrives ; six o'clock, eight o'clock comes,
for the impatient traveller has risen early and paces up
Peruvian Travel 21
and down, cursing the dilatoriness of the alcaldes — for
there is no sign of horse, mule, or Indians. Nine o'clock,
and the distance to the next point is fully ten leagues,
over broken ground, and nine hours' ride.
It is winter -time, and to pass the Cordillera the
traveller must make an early start in order to cross the
summit if he would escape the wrath of the elements,
which is poured out after the sun passes the meridian.
It is almost useless to start to-day ; and as this fact
impresses itself upon the traveller's mind, the alcaldes
and the rain arrive at the same moment, the former
unaccompanied by any specimen of the equine race
whatever. Another day is to be lost !
The rain pours down in sheets, and it is cold and
uncomfortable. I go in and sit down at the table, a
prey to disgust and weariness. And here let me tran-
scribe from notes made at the time, and which do not
exaggerate in any respect.
"Down each side of the street, if it may be called
such, straggle without intent of order the miserable hovels
of the Indian inhabitants ; without doors or windows,
except that the former are represented by an unclosed
aperture. It has been raining all day — it ever rains in
the Peruvian Cordillera — and there is mud and filth every-
where. The Indian women pass in and out of their
wretched domiciles, heedless that their skirts drag in the
black mud they trample upon. They are themselves un-
washed and uncombed, stockingless and bootless, yet with
a certain pretentious finery about their extraordinarily-
shaped hats. The men, who have passed the day doing
nothing — their usual occupation — congregate, now that
evening falls, in some 'shop,' if the building or hovel,
with its petty collection of bad and dear articles, brought
at vast expense of carriage from coast ports, may be
described as such. The article principally dealt in seems,
to be alcohol. An Indian woman, old, wrinkled, and
filthy, has just entered the shop of the goberpador,
where I am, to purchase some of the fiery liquid. Large
quantities of this alcohol, which is termed chatta, and
of 40 degrees of strength, is consumed daily and nightly
by the Indians of both sexes. They are brutalised with
its effects ; they are filthy, bedraggled, cold, wet, ignorant
22 The Andes and the Amazon
— perhaps the awful stuff brings them some surcease ;
although I doubt if they possess the faculty of comparison,
and are aware of their condition."
I have been waiting all day, two days, for a beast of
some kind : the means of escape from this place. Money
has no value here, and although there are both mules
and horses about, none of these ignorant and besotted
citizens will hire. They are apathetic ; they are morally
defunct. But as I write I receive notice of the arrival of
a horse, produced by repeated orders of the gobernador.
I examine it. It consists, like those of the previous day,
of a framework of bones, with an awful patch of sores
where the flesh upon the backbone should be. It would
be kind of me to end its days with a ball from my
revolver. The gobernador again appears, and still counsels
patience, for I threaten to leave the place on foot and to
report to the Government, from whom I have brought a
circular letter of recommendation.
The evening closes in, and various individuals arrive,
having heard of the presence of an Engineer, bringing
samples of gold and copper and other ores belonging
to mines of which they state they are the owners, and
assuring me that untold wealth awaits me if I will visit
them. But nothing can arouse me from the attack of
spleen which has come upon me ; and informing them
of this fact, I seek my cot and turn in.
But salvation is at hand when least expected. In
the early hours of the morning — it is still dark — I am
awakened by the tramping of animals, and my boy
informs me that two excellent mules have arrived in
charge of an alcalde, who has, by fair means or foul,
obtained them from the owner. I turn over peacefully
for another sleep, but am soon afterwards awakened
again by further tramping. A suspicion flashes across
me — the result of other experiences of a similar nature —
and I arise hastily and go out in my pyjamas. It was
well I did so, for the owner of the mules has arrived
and is stealthily endeavouring to drive them away again.
Peruvian Travel 28
Patience has been one of the virtues, but now " battle
and murder" seem to acquire that quality, and the dire
threats I use and the language in which they are expressed
are such as it would be impossible to inscribe within these
faithful chronicles ; but they are effective, and the owner
of the animals departs, satisfied in a measure that it is
a foreigner who has taken charge of his property. He
feels more assured of his pay !
But " the day dawns ; the shadows have fled away."
I am in the saddle, and the beast beneath me is a good
one with a comfortable pace. Have you ever felt that
species of contentment, good reader, when all your worldly
belongings are packed securely upon two pack-mules who
ascend the road in front of you ? Your arriero cracks his
whip and whistles cheerily to his beasts. The air is fresh
and exhilarating, and the early sun gleams upon wet
herbage and the silver streamlets that rush downwards
through the pebbles. Before you is the open country,
and the exhilaration of treading terra incognita fills your
veins.
As before insinuated, you may purchase your beasts
at the outset of your journey ; and it is often much
better to do so, for you are then always sure of them, and
know their quality and powers. Also, if you have not been
too heavily defrauded in their purchase, you can generally
sell them again at little less than what they cost you.
The next difficulty with which the traveller has to
contend is that of obtaining fodder : that is, in the higher
regions ; for the alfalfa, which is (apart from the spur)
the principal food of the animals, does not grow above
an altitude of about 12,000 feet.
Peru is a country which has the highest inhabited
places on the globe. What would be thought in England,
for example, of extensive mining operations at an alti-
tude of 15,000 or 17,000 feet above sea-level; higher than
the summit of Mont Blanc? Nor is it to be supposed
that at such altitudes the climate is unbearably rigorous.
Stoves are almost unknown in the houses, and custom
renders the inhabitants proof against the cold.
24 The Andes and the Amazon
In one of the famous auriferous regions of the south
of Peru, which I speak of elsewhere, "hydraulic" mines
are working at an altitude of 15,500 feet above sea-level;
but, notwithstanding this, the thermometer marks only
from 41° to 50° Fahr. in summer, and a minimum of 11° to
14° in winter. Comparing this with the great ranges
of temperature of North America, where the thermometer
descends below zero, it will be seen that the climate is
rather remarkable. At another point in the more northern
part of Peru, a productive mine is being worked above
the line of perpetual snow, at nearly 17,000 feet; the
main tunnel of this mine pierces the snow and ice-cap
in order to reach the ore -body. In these places the
only fodder obtainable is barley, in grain, or straw, which
is grown at a lesser elevation, but which produces no
grain within the husks.
Even in those places where alfalfa is produced, it often
happens that the owners will not sell. It may be that
they have only sufficient in the fields for their own beasts,
or that they will not sell simply out of pure " cussedness,"
to use an Americanism. For the first instinct of the
Chacarero, or small landholder, is to reply in the negative
to everything that is asked him. This is also the prin-
cipal characteristic of the Indians. The stereotyped reply
to all questions, at first, is ^^ No hay, SeHor*' ("There is
none, Sir"). (Pronounced "No Aye.")
This has often been dwelt upon in books treating of
travel in South America, but loses nothing by being
repeated. The weary traveller arrives late at some small
group of huts, trusting to buy at least something of
sustenance for himself, his men, and his beasts. He rides
up to the door, and after half a dozen wretched dogs
have been induced to quiet their ferocious altercations,
the Seilora of the place is interrogated :
" Have you any alfalfa ? " " No hay, Sefior"
" Any barley ? " " No hay, Senor."
" Any chickens ? " " No hay, Sefior."
" Eggs ? " " No hay, Senor."
" Meat ? " " No hay, Senor." And so on, ad nauseam.
Peruvian Travel 25
In these places there often exist thieves who steal
horses or mules at night, and experience has taught me
to finish my list of interrogations with one relating to
that matter.
"Are there ladrones (robbers) here?" To which
generally she replies : " Si hay, Sehor " (" Yes, there
are"), adding that it is advisable to vigilar the animals
all night.
As will be imagined, the sum total of the informa-
tion extracted is not comforting, but the experienced
traveller knows that conditions are not necessarily so
black as have appeared. At the termination of the
conversation, my method of procedure has been to dis-
mount and light a cigarette, taking care to give one
all round to the occupants of the place. By this time
they have been able to see that it is a buena persona
who is with them ; that there are no soldiers. Also,
my men have at once entered into conversation ; con-
fidence is inspired, and ere long, aided by a few small
coins paid in advance, alfalfa, chicken, eggs, and whatever
else the place may contain, are forthcoming.
I have always endeavoured to leave these poor people
more contented when I left than when I arrived. I have
tried to remove a little of their desconfianza, representing
to them that an ingles always pays for what he takes.
The Englishman who travels has often to bear the weight
of his country's errors ; it is just that he should at times
also shoulder her virtues !
Of course, it must be understood that these remarks
refer to small, remote places. At any town where there
are people of a higher class, such incidents do not occur,
and hospitality is pressed upon one, and pleasant recollec-
tions of these people mingle equally in the mind of the
traveller with the difficulties he has encountered.
As before intimated, the best method of procedure
for an extended expedition is to purchase both saddle and
pack animals. Good mules cost from ;i^20 upwards, and
fair horses somewhat less. Having done this the traveller
will have eliminated the principal source of delay and
26 The Andes and the Amazon
trouble. He will, of course, under no circumstances,
travel without his own saddle and other equipment ; that
goes without saying.
In addition to this, and in order to render oneself
independent as much as possible of the people of the
No hay stamp, a tent should be taken, and a certain
amount of provisions. I have followed this system with
much comfort. Whenever the night overtook me I
had the tent planted ; there was no straining to reach
stated stopping - places, and the only absolute require-
ments were forage and water. As regards these, except
on the coast deserts, there is generally grass, which forms
good feed for the animals for a while ; and by taking
the precaution to give them alfalfa or barley when it is
possible, the traveller may journey, in this way, with
facility. As to water, this exists everywhere, except in
places on the coast - zone — the rainless region ; and the
camp must be pitched where water is. Even there,
distances are comparatively short, or easily comprised
within one day's journey.
The equipment and personnel which I have carried
on some of my expeditions was as follows :
Imprimis^ myself, mounted upon the best mule I have
been able to obtain. Mules are preferable, especially
when travelling in the Cordillera region and uplands.
They stand the hardships of precarious fodder and rough
weather better than horses ; they are more sure-footed —
a desirable quality on precipitous trails — and they do
not suffer nearly as much from the soroche^ due to
the altitude. As regards saddles, there are none better
or more comfortable for these journeys than those made
in Lima. An English saddle should never be used ; it is
quite unsuitable.
Secondly, the arrierOy or mule driver, whose duty it is
to keep his animals going as fast as time requires, or
circumstances permit. Two pack-mules have generally
been sufficient, and they carry 200 to 300 lbs. each.
Their load consists of the tent, my folding - cot and
blankets, the cooking utensils and the store of provisions,
Peruvian Travel 27
and a small portmanteau with my clothes and the few
necessary books and other articles. On return journeys
mineral samples have brought the load up to its maximum,
or required the hiring of an additional animal.
Thirdly, my " boy," who may or may not be a youth,
but whose duties consist in doing everything that may
be necessary. Often I added a native miner, if the
expedition was a prospecting one.
Both men are generally mounted, although in some
places the Indian arrieros go on foot. This, however,
means slower movement, as the march of the party is
regulated by the pace of its slowest member. There
are, therefore, at least five animals to secure fodder for;
and this question of fodder is the first one that presents
and has to be dealt with.
On arriving at a predetermined point at the close of
day, if the inhabitants are absolutely and obdurately
of the No hay type, which I have previously described ;
or if, as often happens, there is no fodder grown at all
in the place, the animals must be turned out on to the
natural pasture. This is sometimes good, and at others
exceedingly poor and sparse, and the animals suffer
accordingly. They must be hobbled, or tied by the
" hands," as in Spanish the fore - feet of beasts are
termed. If there are thieves about, watch must be
kept all night ; the men taking turns at doing this.
In some situations the amiable and diplomatic method
before described for securing sustenance for man and
beast are useless, and the traveller must resort to more
resolute methods. During one journey in the interior
I almost starved, as the people would absolutely give
nothing ; and I ' was obliged to burst open the door of
a hut and forcibly appropriate a basket of eggs, leaving
its value in the hands of its protesting owner.
As regards habitation on these journeyings the tent
is generally sufficient, although in the rainy season, when
it is expected to remain some days at a certain given
point, it is advisable to hire an empty house, and usually
such is to be found in the villages.
28 The Andes and the Amazon
In a village on the upper Marafion I stayed for some
weeks in a thatched adobe house on the banks of the
river, and retain certain recollections of my "tenancy."
I hired the place at the not exorbitant rental of twenty
cents per week, which amount I handed to the owner on
receiving the key. I had just had it well swept out,
my baggage installed and travelling cot put up, and was
enjoying a cigarette in full possession of the premises,
when a wrathful Senora appeared, asking my servant by
what right I was there. As he seemed to be treating
her with scant ceremony I bid him explain, when it
transpired that she laid claim to the ownership of the
place, saying that the person to whom I paid the rent
was an impostor, who had absolutely no right to the
house at all. Weary, at length, of the voluble arguments
of the woman, who went back into the remote history
of the village to prove her claim, I hit upon the simple
method of getting rid of her by paying her the amount
of the rent, the disputed twenty cents in full, but I took
the precaution to obtain a receipt this time. The dame
having departed with profuse thanks for my generosity,
as she styled it, I again lay back in my cot, and was just
falling into a siesta, lulled by the murmur of the river
and the midday drone of insects outside the open door,
when more wrathful voices aroused me. Behold ! three
other women and a man were laying claim to the house
and its corresponding rent, and were only prevented from
entering by the knowledge that the patron was asleep
within, as my men informed them, and sleep is much
respected among these people.
This was really too much, and I sent my boy for the
Gobernador. ^^Ah! indios^ ptcaros, brutosl'^ exclaimed
this worthy, when he had been informed of the matter ;
and he threatened to have all the rival claimants forth-
with reduced to prison. After much sifting of evidence,
however, it appeared that the last claimants, the man
and his three cousins, held probably the most likely
right to title ; and to get rid of the whole affair I again
produced a twenty-cent coin, and deposited it temporarily
Peruvian Travel 29
in the keeping of the Gobernador, until such time as a
judicial decision on his part should be arrived at. Such
is the tricky nature of these poor people.
Like most people of whatever society or status, these
Peruvian natives are much won over by ordinary justice.
It is the case a good deal among the petty authorities,
and sometimes of the landholders, to employ the Cholos,
and fail to remunerate them according to contract.
From this, largely, arises their lack of confidence, and
unwillingness to work. On several occasions, when I
have paid them for work done, at the close of the day,
I have heard them informing each other with surprise
that they have been paid ; their wages, in current silver
coin, had positively been handed to them, without rebate,
fines, or procrastination. " Look ! " they have exclaimed.
" This gentleman has paid us ; here is the money ! " And
the next day, instead of a scarcity of labour, I found a
surplus.
As regards their ideas of honesty, I do not think they
consider it wrong to steal, only to be found out. They
are generally timid, even in their thefts, as the following
will show. I left the house one morning with the door
open, and with four hundred silver sols, or dollars, on the
table in four piles of one hundred each. On returning, I
observed a Cholo emerging from the house, and seeing
me, he fled away. My suspicions were aroused, and
counting the money, I found four dollars missing, one
from the top of each pile ! The man might as easily
have taken the whole amount, but he feared to do so.
This particular house affords me yet another incident.
Wishing to foment habits of cleanliness and decency
among my men, I had, upon leaving, given orders to
have the place thoroughly swept out and cleared of the
litter of departure of my men and baggage, and went
on ahead. When the arriero and my servant joined me
I enquired if my instructions had been carried out, and
saw by their answers that such had not been the case.
Forthwith I ordered a right-about-turn — we were already
some fifteen minutes on our journey — and the village
30 The Andes and the Amazon
was shortly astonished at our rearrival. I set the men
to work, and had the place left in thorough order in less
than half an hour, whilst the villagers crowded around
wonderingly. " Know," I said grandiloquently, as having
mounted again I turned and addressed them, "that
an Englishman always leaves a house cleaner when he
goes away than when he entered it ! "
CHAPTER IV
PERUVIAN TRAVEL — Continued
On one of my expeditions I formed a camp in the
mountains in order to make a thorough examination of
a group of gold mines, which had been worked centuries
ago, and abandoned.
There is much of pleasure in this temporary dwelling
entirely away from the haunts of man. Imagine this
canvas habitation, kind reader, the surrounding amphi-
theatre of rocks and sparse vegetation ; the blue sky
overhead ; the boundless horizon where cloud - shadows
drift away on the edge of the world. And past the
door of your tent flows the rippling stream, the author
of being of the patch of vegetation on the valley floor,
and the fountain wherein you, your attendants, and your
beasts thankfully slake your noonday thirst. At night
the breeze whispers past, and only the champing of the
mules, tethered near by, breaks the silence.
But Nature is not always inspiring. Sometimes she
is unlovely. Sunset and sunrise, especially in tropical
and semi-tropical countries, are her most attractive occa-
sions. Bare, rocky slopes of useless debris and sterile
plains take on an air of mystery and beauty when the
shadows cast by the coming or departing orb are pro-
jected thereover. But, sunless, in the tropics. Nature is
depressing.
I took the bridle off" my mule to allow the animal to
refresh itself on the scanty herbage, one day, whilst I
waited for my man, whom I had despatched to a village
near by on some errand. I had left early in the morning,
and the camp was some five leagues away. Mounting a
31
82 The Andes and the Amazon
small eminence whence the landscape could be observed,
I fell into a reverie, which, later, cost me dear.
Below me stretched the landscape, now grim and
grey under a lowering and leaden-coloured sky, whilst
some straggling and miserable vegetation lay near the
base of the bare, rocky hills. Some evidences of man's
habitation, several wretched and poverty-stricken chozas,
or Indian huts, were clustered there, surrounded by dirt,
rags, and evil odours, which latter ascended even to where
I was, for primitive man is a dirty being, and defiles the
land for a remarkably large radius around him. The
whole ensemble combined to produce in me a sense of
depression, such as is experienced at times by those fond
of Nature and her moods. Not a gleam of radiance
touched with softening beam the far rocky fastnesses, and
scarcely a change of colour between east and west indi-
cated where the sun was deserting so uninviting a scene,
for evening was approaching. The distant range, in its
uniform garb of grey, and the middle distance of scarcely
a mellower tint, bore out the harmony of monotony which
the treeless waste and verdureless foreground completed.
The face of Nature was overcast. Beautiful when gay,
grand when angry, she, sullen and dispirited, casts her
mood upon the mind of man. Her joyless landscape,
the poetry of its colour banished, weighs upon his heart,
and her sad firmament sometimes saddens his spirit.
The leaden pall of the heavens exposed no edge of silver,
and gave no promise for the morrow by some parting
glow, nor showed a break in its opaque rigidity indicative
of a bright beyond.
At such moments the mind sometimes questions the
wherefore of existence, and indulges the vain speculation
of reason as to the justice of Nature and Circumstance.
What is the object of those miserable specimens of human-
kind below in their wretched huts? Why do they re-
produce their kind ; dirty, ignorant, of brutish intellect,
and which, if the elements were not sometimes tempered
to them, would share the same fate of so much of Nature's
progeny, to which she gives birth only to destroy ? What
Peruvian Travel 88
are they for : to be " cast as rubbish to the void " ? And
even their observer, with his mere accident of a heavier
brain, and all his kind — Man —
" Her last work, who seemed so fair,
Such splendid purpose in his eyes.
Who rolled the psalm to wintry skies,
And built him fanes of fruitless prayer " !
Enough ! This would not do at all, I shook myself
mentally, and arose. Where was my man? We must
return to camp.
I descended the hill, intending to mount and ride
homewards — a gallop would banish the fit of depression.
Rounding the base of the hill, I came towards the rock
around which I had made fast the halter. The mule was
gone! Gone during my vain reverie.
Here was a pretty state of things. Five leagues, and
night at hand ! I rapidly remounted the hill and gazed
towards the plain, hoping to see the animal in the gather-
ing dusk, but nothing rewarded my search. I took up
the carbine I had removed from the holster, from the
rock against which it leaned, and approached the Indian
huts. " Buenas tardes " ( " Good afternoon " ), I said to the
Chola woman, mistress of that unlovely abode, and her
brood of Indian children. " Have you seen my mule ? "
They had not. " Where is your man ? " I continued, for
there was the possibility that the presiding male genius
of the place had stolen the animal. She explained in
such a way as showed me that these fears were un-
founded, looking fearfully the while at the stranger and
his shouldered carbine. But I reassured her ; gave her a
small silver coin, and told her (she understood Spanish)
what had occurred, munched a piece of cheese made of
goat's milk which she offered, and, finding there was no
guide who could conduct me across the mountain spur —
which would greatly shorten the distance to camp — I
" girded up my loins," and set forth alone, to cross it,
confident of finding the way.
The quebrada, as in Peruvian-Spanish are termed the
C
34 The Andes and the Amazon
V-shaped valleys which descend from or bisect the hills,
and which in Mexico are termed arroyos, had for its
floor a broad stream of dry sand deposited by the
torrent which came down in times of rain, and which
had filled up the interstices in the rocks, forming an
easy path upwards, along which a motor-car might
almost have ascended. But I was far away from those
somewhat oppressive engines of modern locomotion !
Great ledges of quartz, polished by the action of the
sand and water until they shone as if artificially wrought,
the matrix in places of gleaming pyrites and other
minerals, crossed the torrent way at different places ;
and huge boulders of the same material, rounded by
the same agency, protruded here and there their glossy
spheres from the bed, whilst the sand itself, left by the
water, lay flat and level as a billiard table, except that
it inclined upwards in a gentle plane. On either hand
grim caverns opened in the wall of the canyon as I
ascended, and far above, to where they were lost in the
vapour of the gathering night, arose the mighty peaks
of the secondary Andean chain.
On, on I went, up this untrodden way. Weird rock-
forms, time - sculptured porphyry spectres, flanked the
turns of this great stairway ; and giant cacti, drawing
their scanty nourishment from the crevices, stretched their
skinny arms athwart the path as if in thorny embrace
toward the unwary. Sheer precipices, quarried by the
elements, towered upwards, like huge tablets upon whose
surface some giant chisel might inscribe. Bastions and
turrets, of Nature's fortifications, presented themselves
at every turn ; and not of Nature alone, for the ruins
of prehistoric fortresses, the dwellings of some bygone
Inca or Quechua tribe, frowned down upon the way in
stern abandonment. Dark passages of entering torrent-
beds, faintly discernible through the gloom, branched
from the main descent, leading, perchance, to mysterious
spaces where the genii of night might dwell, or the spirits
of those ancient inhabitants have habitation. Huge store-
houses, rock-walled and grim, were there, where perchance
Peruvian Travel 85
imprisoned tempests dwelt — vast chambers such as dreams
present, echoless, soundless, and alone. Cathedral towers
and sculptured domes of Nature's building, against whose
far facades the night-mists rolled dreamily, audience of
the music of silence, the choir of the invisible ; and
pillars and buttresses, isolated and fantastic, the seeming
remnant of some Cyclopean architect's handiwork, yet
nought but the result of Nature's strange catastrophes.
High terraces and grim escarpments, where cloud-spectres
paced to and fro like vague deliberators, I saw ; and long
vistas of dim peaks, stretching away for ever, maze after
maze in labyrinthine sequence, greeted my eyes. There
arose dim rock -bowers, time-rippled and impressed, a
far blending of stern stone and vapour, and ether-kissed
summits, where avenues opened to nought save the
imagination, and where the vision passed with fearful
glance. Lost in grey distance were these soundless
panoramas, far-stretching, awful, fascinating: where the
soul, inspired for a period, leaves its clay. Alone, silent,
inscrutable, inexorable, stern solitude reigned supreme,
sovereign of that inorganic world !
Far up in that great labyrinth I stood, good reader.
A sense of admiration mixed with awe takes possession
of me, as such a scene and time must ever impress,
from Moses on Sinai to the mountain-climber of to-day.
Yet in such a situation a frivolous or fearful spirit would
be overcome with dread — the terror of being alone, whilst
the heart that knows itself to contain something of the
elements whose influence it feels, knows its kinship and
seeks its association. The grandeur of the scene, and
mystery of the coming night, together with the sense
of being utterly alone with the elements, awakens an
indescribable charm, such as one has felt in childhood
when dreaming that he held converse with an angel.
I had expected to reach the summit before it became
dark, and to be able to observe the valley where my
camp was pitched, but amphitheatre was succeeded by
amphitheatre, labyrinth by labyrinth, summit by summit
and I had to confess myself lost. The cold became
86 The Andes and the Amazon
intense; the darkness closed in around, and the moon
would not, I knew, arise for some hours. But there
was nothing for it but to bear with philosophy, not
only the cold, but the pangs of hunger which now
attacked me. It was dangerous to go on in the gloom,
so I sought a cavern. I made a futile search for fuel,
but there was nothing that would burn ; and having
taken a drink of whisky-and-water from my small flask,
I entered the cave to sleep.
Now, caves have always had a peculiar attraction for
me since, as a boy, I read about Robinson Crusoe's Cave.
You may recollect, good reader, for you have doubtless
perused that interesting volume, that when Crusoe dis-
covered his cave he penetrated to the far end of it, and
discerned in the gloom a pair of gleaming eyes! But
Crusoe was a devout man — rendered so by trial and mis-
fortune ; and being perfectly sure that the Devil could
not lie concealed there, he investigated the matter au fond,
and as a result routed out an old goat. So it befel me !
Investigating the depth of my cave, I heard in the farthest
corner a curious snorting, or breathing, and seemed to
discern a dark form, with the occasional gleam as of
demoniacal eyes ! Have you ever experienced that curious
sensation, good reader, when "gooseflesh" covers your
body, and the scalp seems to be slowly lifted from your
head ? I felt it then, and these truthful chronicles must
record it. But the feeling of fear, if such it were, was
also accompanied by one of anger — a curious psycho-
logical combination — and I advanced with cocked carbine
slowly towards the object. There was a horrid snort ; a
bound ; a rush, and . . .
It was nothing more than a wild bull, which, more
fearful than I, avoided me and bounded out of the cave.
I rushed after it with the intention of bringing it down
with a ball, but it was immediately swallowed up in the
obscurity, and I heard it crashing away among the rocks
and stones as it pursued its headlong flight down the
gloomy canyon.
Having made sure that there were no further bovine —
Peruvian Travel 87
or other — occupants of the cave, I lay down upon the
soft white sand of its floor, with carbine and pistol close
at hand, a flat stone for a pillow, and tried to woo a
fitful slumber. Outside the mists floated down the valley,
and the scarcely-perceptible breeze moaned within the
cavern's mouth and played among the rocks in unseen
sport. Otherwise not a sound broke the stillness ; the
solitude was uninterrupted ; not a living thing was abroad,
and even the only human being within that vast amphi-
theatre of the Andes was soon absent in the land of
dreams.
Some hours must have passed, when I awoke, disturbed
by a snorting and pawing, and looking up I beheld the
form of the bull intercepting the light at the cavern's mouth.
The animal, doubtless asking itself by what right he had
been turned out of his warm cavern, had returned to see
if the intruder had gone. I waved my arm. " Go away,"
I shouted, and, respecting the sound of a human voice,
he retired. " Your hide," I meditated aloud, " is thicker
than my cuticle, and can stand the cold better," adding :
" This is the working of the laws of compensation, for the
animal of greater intelligence is less thoroughly protected
against the elements." The bull was probably, however,
not consoled by this platitudinous remark, or indeed by
any philosophical reflections, for he continued to paw
the ground outside as if desirous of entering and contesting
the matter.
A shaft of light suddenly entered the cave, and an
upward effulgent glow illumined the sky outside, and the
edge of a bright disc, silvery and soft, protruded above
the black rampart of the hills on the opposite side of the
valley. A rapid change took place within the canyon, and
the darkness slowly disappeared, the light of the rising
luminary invading the field it had occupied, leaving only
the black shadows cast by its impinging rays upon the
rocks. The full moon rose, and her fair face passed clear
above the opposing hills, standing black as jet against
her radiance. The light brought into strong relief the
exposed surfaces of the landscape, touched the distant
38 The Andes and the Amazon
peaks, brightening them with faint hues, and disclosing
the places where Nature slumbered, to where, far away,
the dominion of darkness still shrouded the distance.
I sprang up, my teeth chattering with cold ; seized
my carbine, stretched my cramped limbs, and draining
the last mouthful from my flask, sallied from the cave.
The way was now clearer, illumined by the moon, and
I could continue my ascent of the canyon.
Hearing a noise I turned round, and the bull was
standing close by. I advanced slowly towards him, and
he did not retreat, but eyed me angrily. I raised my
rifle, pointed it at the spot on his forehead between his
eyes where a bullet's impact would cause him to drop
like a stone, and gazed along the barrel. The animal
and myself looked long at each other in the moonlight.
" Should he rush ? " he asked himself " Should I fire ? "
I asked myself. Poor beast, why should I wantonly slay
you? I lowered my weapon, and the animal lowered
his noble head. I backed away, with my eyes still on
him, and turned and pursued my road. At a turn of the
canyon I looked around. The bull was now standing
in front of the cave, as if in possession of his domicile
again, and he watched me steadfastly until the landscape
shut him out from view.
For hours I pursued my way, and the moon ran her
course, and the sun arose over the eternal Andean summits
to the east before I discerned, far, far below, the plain
at whose farther side I believed my tent was pitched.
I was intensely thirsty, rendered so by the keen air, and
was now parched by the heat of the sun. Not a stream
crossed the tortuous way by which I descended — a way
fit rather for vicunas or llamas than men, for, indeed,
I simply zigzagged down the slopes as best I could,
hoping to find some torrent-bed which should form a
path. And yet these ravines are at times exceedingly
difficult to descend. You are sometimes lured on by
what seems an easy and favourable path, when suddenly
you are brought to the verge of a frightful precipice,
down which the stream leaps in time of rain, but which
Peruvian Travel 39
affords you no passage, and you may have to ascend again
for many weary paces and find another way. How thirsty
I was, with the fatiguing advance !
As I have elsewhere remarked, in the vicissitudes of
travel changes sometimes occur, which bring home to
the traveller how slight is the breach between comfort
and danger. Most travellers in wild countries have
experienced this contrast. You pursue your way to
carry out your plans, and all seems well, when lo ! a
sudden change of circumstance occurs, and before you
realise it you are comparing the danger and discomfort
of the dilemma you are in, with the security of yesterday.
From the depths of your armchair, kind reader, in your
comfortable club or home, you may not be able to grasp
this. None of us could. Little are we able to realise
the effect of sudden changes, until they are upon us.
Yesterday,' perchance, we were in comfort and plenty ;
to-day in difficulty and starving, our former resources
far removed from us.
I had now reached the lower slopes of the hills, but so
far had not crossed any stream or rivulet where I could
drink, for this western slope of the Andes, the coast range,
is an almost rainless region, and water is scarce. The
zenith sun now beat down mercilessly, and the rocks gave
forth a reflected heat. Nature cried out for moisture, as
had, perchance, many a thirsty being on this inhospitable
plain, where no Moses with impatient divining - wand
appeared, to strike the rocky ribs of the mountain-side
and bring forth water !
I now reached the level and sandy desert at the base
of the hills : a wide waste which I knew would be difficult
and trying to cross on foot. It was evident that the
windings of the canyon which I had been obliged to
follow had taken me considerably out of my way, and
to reach my objective point I should have to round a
spur whose promontory descended into the desert many
miles towards the horizon. The shorter cut had proved
to be a long route, as often happens ; and it would have
been wiser to have followed the plain at the other side,
40 The Andes and the Amazon
where I had lost my mule, than to have attempted this
way alone.
The region I was now traversing was a volcanic one.
Enormous sheets of old lava, or tufa, capped the lower
hills, worn away, however, in the ravines, and exposing
the underlying granite. The sandy floor of the desert
was covered in places with white volcanic ash, drifted
hither and thither by the wind from some long -past
eruption of far-off volcanoes. All was still ; not a whisper
broke the sultry noonday silence, and no movement was
visible upon the tableland, where the only effect upon the
tympanum of the attentive ear was that curious feeling
of such places, where the " sound " of the sunshine is
almost apparent. The steely azure of the farthest range
stood out against the grey-blue, which a cloudless tropical
sky at noonday presents. The enchanting hue of the
atmospheric distance bathed the scarred and ridged topo-
graphy with its indefinable influence, and the shadows
cast by the varying formations athwart the slopes brought
out the tracery of the mysterious and distant canyons,
where successive peak, spur, and valley displayed their
geometrical combinations to the view. They seemed like
intersecting planes, pyramids, and cones : in their pro-
digious disarrangement the deserted work of some giant
geometrician, who, wearied of problems of their dis-
position, had left his mighty models there in disorder
strewn ; or, like the neglected cubes of some Cyclopean
child, whose dawning reason some half-hour of an JEon
ago had dallied away the — to him — few fleeting moments
of a geological age, in meaningless displacement of his toys !
But if both had suspended their labour or their
pleasure the elements had taken up their operations.
These unflagging agents of inexorable time, these demo-
cratic levellers who work unceasingly to bring the proud
and lofty summits down, had, in their endless, silent
quarryings, destroyed the solids' symmetry with fractured
strata and sheer crevasse — the complement of plutonic
upheavals of ages past ; new pages in this book of stone,
for the intermittent rains of higher regions had hurtled
Peruvian Travel 41
down their slopes, pouring towards the plain in impetuous
passage, excavating scarred quebradas, deep cut within the
bowels of the rocky hills.
Notwithstanding the hunger and thirst from which I
suffered, I marked, both from habit and from interest,
the varying formation of the region, for to the trained
mind the geological and topographical features of a land-
scape are of intense interest. Pulling myself together,
I struck across the sand desert, towards the distant spur
beyond which — I hoped — my camp must lie. God help
me if it did not !
What for are these vast expanses of desert, hot by
day and cold by night? Are they mighty sun-engines,
whose difference of potential only awaits the application
of man's growing intelligence to yield him some use and
profit? What for are these inexhaustible constituents of
granite and rock? shall not the embodied energy which
put and holds their elements in unison disclose and lend
itself — some day — to the machinations of the human
engineer? Does Nature at times commune with man?
Has she some continuous messages from some other state
which she is always endeavouring to impress upon the dull
understanding of her principal creation — man? Doubt-
less ; for is he not ever striving to catch its meaning,
listening upon the confines of his world to grasp and
register some accent of that Voice which floats upon the
endless mean ; pressing to the keyhole of the empyrean
his earthly diaphragm, and striving to learn a glint of
destiny !
Such reflections passed through my mind as I tramped
onwards across the desert, my eyes ever upon the distant
spur ; and I fell into a sort of dreamy state, due to hunger
and lack of sleep, and the effect of the sudden changes
of temperature which I had undergone. The air came
as if in blasts from a furnace. Miniature cyclones, small
"water-spouts" of dust, whirled skywards on the far
horizon, with a spiro-vortex motion which carried their
upper extremities to the sky — veritable pillars of sand,
which followed each other over the plain as if in some
42 The Andes and the Amazon
gigantic game of elusion and pursuit, whose helical
eddyings and intermittent lurchings seemed to betoken
a scarcely self -containing force. The phenomena of
nature seemed to be acutely present to my mind, and
a species of semi-delirium rendered me almost oblivious
of bodily fatigue. I thought of home, of a Devonshire
garden amid the scent of wallflowers or violets. Oh,
God of Spring ! A whole world opens to my senses —
a world so far away, so long ago ! I pull down the
brim of my hat, and shut out the glowing sun-ball, and
dwell a moment in that springtime garden with loved
ones sitting there. But I nearly lose my footing, and,
pulling myself together, stride forward. I will not sit
down on that grassy bank of dreamland !
The sand is whirled into my face as if some demon
of the desert mocked me. The mirage, a phenomenon
of those regions, builds a vague and unstable world on
the horizon — a lake, houses, trees, which recede as I
advance. Again I pull down my hat's brim and enter
the springtime garden, and again the sand-sleet strikes
my face and wakes me, and — garden, lake, trees, and
home, they are retreating ever, like the mirage, like
hope — that pillared cloud of day or night, alternate
grim or gay, elusive on the future's borderland !
Good reader, possibly you have never suffered from
the effects of fatigue, exposure, thirst, hunger, and the
like. I was going to say I trust you never will, yet
there are sweet uses and comparisons of such adversity.
For, as the pitiless sun approached the horizon, and as
I staggered on and reached the point or spur towards
which I had set my course, as I rounded a huge projecting
buttress of rocks, I came suddenly upon — what ? — a stream
of water sparkling down from above, so sweet and clear
that imagination might declare it bom but recently of
some divine intent — and falling with a gentle murmur
as if the echoes of the voice which bid it be, still lingered
in it.
I quenched my thirst at this beautiful stream. It
Peruvian Travel 43
was, I knew, the source of that whereon my camp was
pitched. As I rested there, gratefully, under the shadow
of a rock, I heard the noise of approaching hoofs, and
around the farther side of the promontory appeared two
men and three animals — my servants and my mule. As
they informed me, the animal had returned alone to
camp with the bridle tied to the saddle-bow, as I had
left it. They had returned over the trail and interviewed
the Chola woman, who had told them of my intention
to take a "short cut" over the mountains, and it being
impossible to take the mules that way, they had returned
to seek and meet me.
They made a fire, and I partook of some soup, and
other satisfactory matters, ingredients of which were in
my saddle-bags ; and, having rested a while, we mounted
our mules and returned to the camp.
CHAPTER V
PERUVIAN TRAVEL — Continued
The coast of Peru possesses some excellent seaports, as
has been shown, whilst others of the places of debarka-
tion are exposed and difficult, and passengers have some-
times to be hauled up in a barrel, by means of the steam
crane used for unloading goods. Among the worst of
these ports is Mollendo, some 450 miles south of Callao,
and which, notwithstanding the fact that it is the ter-
minus of the Southern Railway of Peru — an important
system many hundreds of miles in length, giving access
to Lake Titicaca and communication with Bolivia, and
outlet to its commerce — is nothing but an open road-
stead ; and the waves, at some seasons of the year,
roll in against the landing - place with such force that
passengers cannot be landed. This port is a living
example of the "sins of the fathers being visited upon
the children," unto the second and third generation at
least ; for the port and railway terminus was made at
Mollendo instead of Islay — a natural harbour a few
miles further north — in accordance with certain vested
interests, and accompanied by bribery and corruption —
elements which, indeed, were rife in Peru during the
epoch of railway construction and the guano negotia-
tions, last century, and whose evil -effects have borne a
lasting fruit. Some work was recently undertaken to
"improve" the small rocky inlet where landing is
effected. I examined this work, and it consisted of
cutting off the top of a rocky hill - promontory, and
forming with the dibris a species of breakwater. It
did not seem to occur to the individuals who carried
44
Peruvian Travel 45
out this work that the light material resulting from
this excavation would be washed away during the first
storm, and which, in effect, has taken place to some
extent, partly filling up the inlet. I drew attention to
this in the Lima papers, and the work was stopped,
whether as a result of this, or of other investigations,
I do not know. Doubtless the terminus will be made
at Islay in some future period.
Northwardly and southwardly of Mollendo the land
consists of the usual sterile sandy coast plains, occasion-
ally broken by valleys with cane and cotton plantations,
irrigated from the descending rivers. Going northwardly
along the coast, on my way to examine some gold mines
in the interior, I passed several fine streams and valleys
of this nature, such as the rivers of Camand and of
Ocofia. The inhabitants of the towns of the same
names, in these respective valleys, are all Spanish-speak-
ing ; and Quechua is not understood by the Indians in
the coast cities. Nearly all the products of semi-tropical
regions are grown, such as sugar-cane, coffee, bananas,
oranges, figs, etc., whilst enormous groves of olive-trees
abound, the great diameter of whose trunks attest their age.
The houses of the Indian part of the population are
built of wattles or canes, neatly tied together or plaited,
and with lattice-work for the windows, and steep pitched
roofs of thatch : the whole presenting a picturesque
aspect, and being an adaptation to climatic conditions
of heat, calling for consequent free ventilation. In
Ocofia the houses are of one storey, the walls and roof
supported by uprights made of forked olive trunks,
placed outside like columns, which give the streets a
curious appearance. These wattle houses are sometimes
newly built of green cane with the leaves on — a fact
which I noticed by reason of my mule on one occasion
endeavouring to eat up a portion of such a dwelling.
The animal had been tethered near the wall, at the end
of a day's journey, and a few minutes afterwards the
owner of the place — an Indian woman — came rushing
about to find me. "Senor," she exclaimed, "please to
46 The Andes and the Amazon
have your mule taken away ; it is eating my house ! "
She further declaimed that she was a poor widow,
scarcely able to support herself and her children ! I
returned to the spot with her, and found that the mule,
growing impatient at the delay of the arriero, who had
gone to purchase fodder, and hungry after the day's
journey, had eaten a large hole in the wall, and was
now attacking the roof, whilst the pack animals had
also demolished one corner of an outhouse. Removing
the animals, I made the old woman some compensation
for the damage. My mule was evidently of a pharasaical
disposition, for had he not "devoured widows' houses"?
But I forgave him that misdemeanour, for he was a
good and astute beast, and served me on the morrow.
I was early in the saddle, for before us lay 20 leagues
of hot and toilsome road, across an absolutely uninhabited
and treeless desert. I left before daybreak, and the orb
of day had described his glowing arc across the heavens,
and sank again beneath the horizon, long before I arrived
at my objective point. Wearied of waiting for the lagging
pack-mule and arriero, I had advanced considerably on
the way as night fell, although I did not know the road
— if such the occasional track of animals' footprints in
the sandy hills might be termed — badly illumined by
the faint rays of an intermittent moon. Plunged in
abstraction, my thoughts far away, I missed the track,
and came to a sudden halt as the fact dawned upon me
that I was lost ; but I wisely forbore to go on, lest
I might wander altogether from the way. Suddenly my
mule pricked up his ears and sniffed the evening breeze.
I let the reins hang loose — I knew he had often been
over that route before — and the intelligent beast moved
on and continued the march with confident stride, and
unerringly wound his way through sandy defiles and
around the gloomy bases of the hills until the lights
of the town appeared, only stopping before the door
of the fonda, or little hotel, of the place. Such is the
instinct of these animals, and the wise horseman in such
Peruvian Travel 47
circumstances does not force his beast to a direction
against its will.
Next to his own health, the main consideration for
the traveller in South America is the quality of his horse
or mule. Hard and toilsome will be your day's travel
if the animal is a poor one ; and this reminds me of a
trying experience in crossing a desert in the region of
the nitrate fields of Tarapacd, in the northern part of
Chile (and which formerly belonged to Peru). I left
the Cordillera early in the morning, expecting to arrive
at one of the nitrate ojicinas at 6 P.M. — a matter of 75
miles ; but I had not reckoned upon my mule falling
lame — due to its having been badly shod — and which
happened about midday. In the deep sand of that rain-
less region the unfortunate beast floundered hopelessly,
and I dismounted for a space and led it. The sun beat
down fiercely, as it only can on that frightful plain,
and swirling sand-storms enveloped me at times. I
did not lose the track — why? For a curious reason.
The trail over this desert is securely marked out by
reason of the numberless empty bottles which strew it
— bottles which have contained water and other liquids,
and which have been thrown away (the bottles, not the
liquids) by travellers who have not desired to carry any
useless dead load. There are champagne bottles, beer,
whisky, brandy, mineral water, and every other kind
of bottle known — I was going to say, to civilised man!
They bear every known label, and cart-loads of them
could be recovered. I may add that the seaport for this
region is Iquique, where dwells a large and prosperous
British community engaged in converting nitrate into
pounds sterling, and which operation is generally success-
fully performed to the profit of the aforesaid Britishers
and their dependent shareholders. But I digress. My
reason for speaking of the British colony was only to
explain the original existence of such numerous bottles,
with foreign labels, in the country !
To return to my journey. I was just about to mount
the unfortunate mule again in order to try to urge it to
48 The Andes and the Amazon
something speedier than a crawl, when the attention of
both of us was drawn towards an extraordinary object
which was rapidly advancing in our direction, accompanied
by a singular banging noise. At first sight I could not
explain what it was, and indeed my attention was diverted
towards the mule, who, affrighted, endeavoured to bolt,
notwithstanding its lameness. The object rapidly neared
us, and I was able to see what it was — nothing more
fearful or dangerous than a large, square petroleum tin,
which had been caught up by a small cyclone, or dust
whirlwind, and was bounding along in the centre of a
dust column, giving forth a characteristic banging every
time it struck the ground. I could scarcely refrain
from laughing, but it proved to be no laughing matter,
for, terrified out of its senses by the object, which was
heading straight for us, the mule bolted ; and as I had
wound the reins around my wrist for further security in
holding it, I was jerked over and dragged along in the
dust.
Now, it is no joke to be dragged by a mule, even on
account of a flying petroleum tin. I remember wonder-
ing what Don Quixote would have done under the
circumstances ! He who charged at wine-pots, and did
battle with windmills. But I would not let go — to lose
my mule, well I knew, would expose me to the danger
of a terribly fatiguing tramp through the loose sand of
the desert, with heat, thirst, and hunger as my companions,
for my attendant had got drunk the night before, and I
had been obliged to set out alone.
I struggled to my feet. The object v^^hich had
frightened the mule had passed, and was disappearing
on the far horizon of the desert. Fortunately the bridle
had not broken, and I mounted. The animal settled
down to its former lameness, and I made but little
progress over that interminable sea of sand. The day
wore on. The sun went down ; the moon went down,
the stars came up and went down, and at last my mule
went down, and I only avoided going down myself by
an alert movement.
Peruvian Travel 49
Only those who have crossed these strange deserts can
picture their curious formation. Like a suddenly arrested
or frozen sea of mud -waves, saturated with salt, and
showing white on their under edges, the surface presents
itself to the traveller's gaze bounded only by the horizon.
Picture yourself struggling, kind reader, across this
appalling place, breaking knee-deep into' the dry mud-
waves every instant, and the wretched beast behind you
pulling back at the lariat in your hand. If your
imagination is strong enough, you have a picture of
Hades, and a lost spirit wandering over endless freshly-
made tombs ! Add to this a parching thirst, and
weariness unspeakable, and then settle down comfortably
into your armchair. Fortunately I was not famished.
I had brought some light refreshment, and had, in
addition, followed — as I ever did in these travels — the
sage advice contained in the Spanish proverb :
" De tu casa i la agena
Sal con la barriga Uena ! "
which I may freely translate : " From thine own to a
stranger's house, go forth with a well-filled belly ! "
But to cut short this most unpleasant account, I
arrived towards the early morning upon an eminence,
and beheld the light of the town, whilst the faint whistle
of a locomotive upon the nitrate railway fell like music
on my ears.
To return to the journey to whose description this
chapter is devoted. The sandy hills and valleys along
the Peruvian coast are often trying to the horseman, the
going being fatiguing to man and beast, on account of
the floundering through loose sand which has to be
performed. In places, the whole country is strewn with
volcanic ash : the result of the eruptions of far-off
volcanoes in bygone years. On the coast, and the plain
further inland, are encountered many of the extraordinary
sand-dunes known in Spanish as Medanos, which arrest
the attention of the observant traveller, and are worthy
of some description. The view I give shows an " army "
D
50 The Andes and the Amazon
of these curious structures "marching" across the desert
near Arequipa, for they veritably move, creeping slowly
along like colossal turtles. I examined these ; they consist
of heaps of the finest wind-blown sand, and possess the
strange property of preserving always a certain form or
geometrical shape. They are circular on plan with a
crescent-shaped front ; the horns of the crescent forming
the " prow," if such it may be termed. Progress is caused
by the wind, and on examining them closely, when the
wind blows it is seen that their backs are covered with
minute waves or vibrations, giving a quivering appearance
to the mass ; and the particles of sand constantly change
place, rolling over and over to the front ; and by virtue
of this change of position of its particles the whole mass
advances, retaining, however, its curious form. Their
formation is shown on the accompanying sketch.
Other curious caprices of Nature in the disposition
of earth, sand, and rocks are often witnessed in these
strange regions. I have seen vast sand -banks, with
beautiful crests and summits ; waves of sand, which are
built up by the wind, and advance as if to engulf whatever
they may encounter. And I have crossed plains strewn
with slabs of volcanic rock, thousands of which had been
worn into troughs and basins by the action of the wind
and sand. Thousands of others had holes through them,
as if bored by some implement, and on examination the
operation of boring is disclosed. A hollow or depression
is formed or exists in the slab, and it is seen, on observing
closely, that a little vortex of sand is busily at work,
actuated by the wind, in the bottom of this depression,
where, in the course of long periods, a hole is gradually
worn right through. Many of these slabs present the
appearance of having been artificially worked.
Another curious formation of the elements — a caprice
of water this time — are the Lloclias, a name given by
the Indians to the alluvial fans at the head of the small
ravines on precipitous mountain - sides. The water, in
times of rain, rushes down the rocky gullies of the steep
slopes, forming curious open conduits with walls built
Peruvian Travel 51
up of blocks of stone, which have the appearance of having
been put in place artificially ; and it is difficult to explain
the action of the water in making these structures. It
is probably due to the intermittent force of floods; and
the walls are piled up of blocks and pebbles, with flat
faces often, and much steeper than the natural "angle
of repose" for such material. Below where this natural
conduit terminates, the fine matter brought down from
the slope above, during the ages, spreads out in a flat
bar, or alluvial fan, sometimes of considerable area; and
here the Indians construct their huts, and plant their
maize or vines, etc. The name Lloclia is given to these
places, and they form a marked feature of the ravines
of the foothills of the Andes.
On my journey along the coast I passed through a
jaguey (pronounce " ha-why " ), or small wood, and which
had an evil reputation. The name is given especially to
thickets or woods in a sandy desert which are due to the
presence of water underground, from a stream or river
which sinks in such places, not being of sufficient volume
to reach the sea. The word is, possibly, allied to the
Brazilian word jaguar, from the animal which inhabits
the woods on the Amazon.
Well, the evil reputation of this place was due — so
my attendant, who knew it, informed me — to the murder
by some thieves of a messenger who was journeying to
an adjacent mine with bags of silver coin to pay the
miners, years ago. The robbers had waylaid him in
the wood, slain him, and appropriated the money. Other
outrages, he said, had been committed upon travellers
here, and he looked fearfully around in the growing dusk
as we entered the place, as if momentarily expecting to
behold the forms of some robbers, or the apparitions of
some murdered wayfarer, and only gathering some re-
assurance from contemplating the large Colts' revolver
which I carried at my belt. An old ruined wattle house
stood near the trail, and as nightfall was at hand, and a
sand - storm impending, I decided to halt and make use
of the shelter : a proceeding which by no means met with
52 The Andes and the Amazon
my servant's approval, in view of the matters previously
related. The night fell ; the door was barred. The wind
whistled drearily about the place, and the Pacific rollers
beat upon the shore but a thousand yards away. The
impatient mules stamped their indignation at the scant
fodder which had been given them, and snorted from
time to time as if apprehensive of some prowling footsteps.
The portable spirit-lamp was lighted, and coffee and food
partaken of, and my cot having been set up, I laid down
to slumber ; whilst my attendant, spreading his poncho
in one corner, also endeavoured to woo some fitful and
nervous repose.
I had scarcely been asleep for half an hour when I
was aroused by a frightful yell, and starting up, I hastily
lit a match. My man was on his feet, with signs of
fear upon his countenance — it was he who had cried
out — and in response to my question, informed me that
there were robbers about, and that some one had pushed
against the frail wall of the hut from outside. I certainly
heard footsteps in the cleared space outside the house,
and, fearing for the safety of the mules, I hastily put
on my boots, and grasped the revolver. Then I bid
the boy open the door, and rushed suddenly out into
the moonlight with cocked weapon, ready to fire, if such
were necessary. But this truthful narrative has to record
that no dramatic sequel was experienced. What I found
was that the arriero had arrived with the pack-mules —
he had been delayed at the last stopping-place — and was
peacefully engaged in unloading the animals, so I turned
in and slept peacefully until morning.
The rivers which flow to the Pacific coast, such as the
Ocofia and Camana, do not form estuaries or harbours at
their embouchures. In the dry season, when the streams
are at their lowest, the sea throws up a great bank of
stones and shingle right across the mouth, and the rollers
beat against it, and the fresh -water current has outlet
by a narrow channel at one side ; whilst in the rainy
season large volumes of water descend from the Cordillera
and sweep this bar entirely away, filling the wide channel
I
Peruvian Travel 58
from side to side, and the fresh water plunges into the
sea, the current battling fiercely with the waves as it
mingles therewith.
I have spoken elsewhere of the vestiges of the great
earthquake wave which devastated that coast long ago,
and even now the people retain the recollection, handed
down to them, of that fearful time when " salto la mar"
(" the sea came out "), as they put it. At that, and
subsequent periods, the buildings, and especially the
churches, in the interior towns were cracked or ruined.
At one of these, a small town, the cura and principal
inhabitants requested me to examine their church, and
give them, as an engineer, some idea as to its possible
restoration, and which I gladly did for them. The
building was in a dangerous condition. The boveda, or
vaulted roof — for it had been well constructed of stone —
had partly fallen, and was rendered useless, whilst the
walls were leaning outwards, seriously far from the
perpendicular. To restore the roof was hopeless, but
I advised attempting the drawing in of the walls by
means of placing iron bars across and screwing them
up at the ends — a suggestion which filled them with
delight, and which, I believe, was subsequently carried
out. As to the roof, it was hopeless ; and the cura
informed me with much pride that he intended to
re-roof it with "a beautiful modern material, worthy of
a house of God ! " Can you guess, kind reader, what he
had in view ? Corrugated iron ! That most prosaic and
hideous product : that horrible material whose appear-
ance marks the frontiers of civilisation : the exile of
beauty and of art, and the edge of decency and order!
Shades of Ruskin and the poets ! Corrugated iron upon
an ancient temple ! But I condemned the idea in toto,
and after due consideration of all available material,
advised the use of tiles. These tiles are of a beautiful
red colour, made in the vicinity, in the form of pan
tiles, such as are common in Europe ; and the corrugated
iron was not ordered, for which I congratulated myself
In this neighbourhood I saw other ruined temples
54 The Andes and the Amazon
for, although in the chapter on "The Church in Peru"
I have described the general structure as being of adobe,
nevertheless there are some regions where stone is
employed. And here is an example of the effect on
man's architecture of the material of a particular environ-
ment. In this region, as in Arequipa, the buildings are
of cut blocks of a soft white volcanic stone, or tufa,
which is durable and lasting, and lends itself readily to
the chisel. Here, then, in Peru are all the ages of
architecture — the wattle hut, the adobe walls, and the
stone temples.
I have elsewhere described the characteristics of the
inhabitants of these regions. The Cholos are ever prone
to give miraculous origins, portents, and meanings to
things, and to invest chance occurrences with some
supernatural attributes. It chanced that for one night,
whilst on this expedition, we had slept on a high plateau,
as time had not permitted us to descend before nightfall.
In the early morning — the sun had risen — we came
down, and I beheld some of the remarkable mist-effects
of those regions. The valley below us was filled with
a sea of mist, but a sea with a surface on which we
looked down as upon an ocean of waters, so sharply
defined was it, and so remarkably did the mist-billows
roll against the rocky promontories. At length we came
down to the surface of this sea — all below being invisible.
The road wound along the edge of a precipice, and
looking down from my mule upon the mist — I was in
advance — I beheld a strange phenomenon. There, a few
yards away, was the image of a man mounted upon a
beast, and around his head was a glorious halo of rainbow
light and colours. It kept pace with me, stopped when
I stopped, and moved when I moved. For a moment I
was dumbfounded, so remarkable was the apparition. I
halted, watching it in amaze, and at length the truth
flashed upon me. It was an Anthelion — a halo or nimbus
projected from my own figure by the rays of the sun
upon the mist, and such as occur in Alpine regions and
elsewhere. In fact, I recollected having seen the same
Peruvian Travel , 55
phenomenon, though far less perfect, in the flying foam
at the foot of Niagara falls, years ago. My men came
up, and as they approached, wishing to mark the effect
upon them of this magical apparition, I bid them halt,
and pointed to the precipice. Exclamations of astonish-
ment arose from them. "It is Christ riding upon an
ass," they said ; and really the image was very similar
to the popular coloured pictures representing Jesus of
Nazareth, which are common in Spanish - American
countries. The men became quite excited ; and one
threw himself from his horse in an attitude of adoration,
and I thought it time to undeceive them.
" No," I said, " it is my shadow ; the "■ gloria^ as you
call it, is around my head." "Then," replied one of
them, as they gazed in astonishment at me, "the Senor
must be a holy personage," and they seemed bent —
poor fellows — on rendering me some adoration or
homage. This was rather embarrassing, and better to
explain the matter to them, I said : " Look, I will make
it disappear ; " and I advanced away from the edge of
the precipice, so that the sun's rays should no longer
project the image upon the mist below. But to my
surprise they replied that the halo had not gone ; and
for a moment I was puzzled. Of course — how stupid !
— each head projected a halo! That which I had seen
was my own ; that which they had seen was not mine,
but their own. Nor could any one see more than one
— his own. Having argued this in my own mind, I
explained it to the men, and proved it by the waving
of arms and ponchos ; and although they accepted the
explanation, they still attached something supernatural
to it, and informed the people in the next village that
we had seen a Celestial apparition. I was obliged to
give a sort of lecture on the matter to the Indians, and
I took the opportunity of pointing a moral, saying that
every individual possessed equal attributes for good,
that miraculous manifestations were not necessary to
mankind, and that every one might possess a halo of
glory in his own right, did he but strive to attain
56 The Andes and the Amazon
it ! This was well received ; and probably the Indians
of that place recollect the incident of the Anthelion
still, and the ingUs who conjured it up.
The incident reminded me of a former one, wherein
I had also been invested with some "holy" attributes.
I had at that time a very intelligent mozo, or servant,
who was fond of reading, and who had studied the
Bible — a rare thing in Spanish - American countries.
I had been making endeavours for several days to
arrange a certain matter regarding the title to some
mines with the owners, who were principally women,
and which had been difficult to bring to an end. In
conversation with my servant, casually, I mentioned
how obstinate these people were. He went out on
an errand soon afterwards, and when he returned he
informed me that he had seen the women, and that
the affair was satisfactorily arranged. "And what have
you told them, to cause them to accede?" I asked in
surprise. " I said," he replied gravely, " * Ladies, you
must concede what this gentleman wants, because he
is of the same family as Jesus Christ ' ! " Astonished,
and almost shocked, at this assertion, I commanded him
to explain ; which he did by reminding me that my
name (Knock) was similar to the Enoch of early Bible
history, who was of the line of ancestry of the Holy
Family !
It is remarkable how, in such countries as Peru and
Mexico, as indeed throughout Spanish- America generally,
the persons of the Holy Family, the Saints, the Cross,
and all and every other attribute of the religion of
which they are part, are interwoven with the every-
day life and acts of the people of those regions. It
was a field peculiarly susceptible for the reception of
the incidents and influences of Roman Catholicism.
Credulous and imaginative, the mind of the Indian
took hold of its incidents and attributes, and the
"outward and visible" forms of its strange imaginings
he henceforward adopted, and they are indelibly stamped
into the regimen of his existence. Every hill is sur-
Peruvian Travel 57
mounted by a Cross ; every mine, and every different
gallery therein, bears the name of some Saint ; every
one has his patron saint — his Saints' day ; and every
man and every woman carries some amulet — some
charm, image, or representation, of cross, or bleeding
heart, or Virgin, or other holy attribute, which shall
protect them, they say, against the powers of dark-
ness ; and stories and histories grow about valleys,
hills, and plains, of miraculous visitations, upon the
smallest pretext. A story among the people in some
parts of Peru is that about the painted Christ which
all could see. Once upon a time a stranger — a painter
— visited a certain village, and during his stay he
ascended a hill which overlooked the place, and painted
on a flat, vertical rock — so he informed them — a picture
of Christ upon the Cross. " But," he further informed
them, "this representation has the peculiar quality that
it is only visible to those of pure and charitable mind."
After his departure the inhabitants sneaked up the
hill, one by one, and alone whenever they could, not
wanting to be discomfited by the possible failure to
see the representation, before others. " Have you seen
the Christ ? " and " Have you seen it ? " was asked among
them. " Oh yes, we have seen it ! Have you ? " was
freely replied. All had seen it, they stated ; and some-
time afterwards the painter returned. " Oh yes ; it is a
beautiful representation," they answered in reply to his
questions ; but, curiously enough, none were able to
give the slightest description of the detail or colours of
the painting. "Good people," at last said the painter,
when he had questioned them all, "it is true that I
painted the Christ on yonder rock, but it was done
with pigments so rare that they faded away before sun-
rise, and before a single inhabitant had ascended the
hill!"
CHAPTER VI
PERUVIAN TRAVEL — Continued
On arriving at the river from the plateau where we had
slept on the night previous to seeing the Anthelion, we
were hungry and thirsty, for the camping out had been
unpremeditated, and but little in the way of provisions
carried. On the river banks were Indians fishing, catching
quantities of huge fresh-water prawns, or " Camarones."
A pot was boiling, and having purchased a heap of the
Crustacea, I had them plunged in, and we devoured them
to our hearts' content, whilst the mules drank their fill
from the limpid stream. The Camarones are caught by
the method of damming up the stream by stakes driven
into the bed, and willow branches twined in between,
leaving a small opening in one place which is filled by
a long taper basket, the wide mouth up stream. The
Camarones are swept down, or swim along with the
current, and are so trapped in the basket, where they
are promptly bagged.
In many of the coast valleys excellent wine is made —
port, claret, sherry, etc. — in the primitive wine - presses.
In some places it is stored in enormous earthen pots,
and these pots are worthy of mention. The art of
making them is not now known to the people in those
places, and they do not seem to know whether they were
originally made by the Spaniards, or whether they belong
to prehispanic art. Probably the Spaniards showed the
natives how to make them, for they seem to be more
or less like those of the land of Don Quixote de la
Mancha. These huge pots are in some cases as much
as 9 feet high, and 6 in diameter, tapering towards
58
Peruvian Travel 59
the bottom, and beautifully true in circular form ; of a
red clay, and partly glazed. They could not have been
turned on a potter's wheel, and must have been moulded
in some way.
I have not made mention of Inca pottery ; thousands
of examples of these are constantly found in the huacas
or burial places, and are known as huacos. They are
often exceedingly beautiful, and cleverly made. In general
they take the form of vessels for water, usually of two
such, joined together, and ornamented with grotesque
devices, often of intricate and well-executed moulding or
sculpture. Often they are in the form of birds or animals,
and a favourite device has been to give them certain
acoustic properties, so that when water is poured from
one to the other they imitate the sound made by the
creatures they represent, such as swans, ducks, etc. A
friend in Huaraz described one of these, which he
possessed, and which had such lifelike attributes in the
notes it represented when water was poured in — it was
in the form of two ducks, and gave forth the noise
similar to two of these birds when fighting — that when
it was made to operate, the real ducks outside in his
yard, hearing the noise, immediately raised an answering
clamour! I am not prepared to vouch for the truth of
this, and can only state that these clay huacos are
wonderfully made, and are of beautiful form, and that
their makers, both in these articles and in other matters,
showed a high knowledge of acoustics. The priests of
the Inca regime undoubtedly imposed upon their votaries,
by this method, in hollow images and subterranean altars.
The modern pottery of the Indians is far less notable
or finished than that of their predecessors in the art,
although on the high plateau of Titicaca I have purchased
and seen really beautiful and ingenious pieces of modern
pottery, made by the Peruvian and Bolivian Quechua
and Aymard Indians. Also, the Indians of the interior
are very clever weavers of textile fabrics, as coloured
mats and carpets. In these they picture the forms of
birds, animals, and men and women, always well done
60 The Andes and the Amazon
and perfectly recognisable. The women are clever at
knitting. I have purchased knitted objects representing
Indian men and women, llamas with burdens, vicunas,
and even mountains and scenery, all reproduced in
coloured wools, and in three-dimensional form — that is,
as true objects, not as pictures or flat representations.
They also knit woollen caps, which the Indians wear
over the head and ears on the cold puna^ and some-
times with figures of men and animals decorating them.
I have found these caps very comfortable in passing the
cold winds of the mountains, and a protection against
soroche.
Another branch of their modern art is that of hand-
somely decorated gourds, the "engraving" or decorating
being cut or burned in. All these matters show the
great patience with which the Indian is endowed. What
other race, for example, could spend months, even years,
over the production of a single hat, such as the best
class of so-called Panama hats require, and which are
really made by the Indians of the northern part of
Peru and the adjoining regions of Ecuador? Some of
these hats are of the most exquisite workmanship ; they
are made of the most chosen part of the grass which
yields the fibre, and are woven only at a certain time of
day during which a certain temperature exists. They are
frequently sold — this highest class of hat — for as much
as £^0 each.
The ponchos, which the Indians weave, are further
examples of their textile art. Those made of vicuna
wool may cost, at times, as much as ;!^20 to ;^5o
each. The workmanship is marvellous ; and so close and
careful is the weaving that they are waterproof. You
can hold water in them at times, and it will not pass
through, as indeed may be done also with the Panama
hats. They also weave large check "tweeds," such as
might excite the envy of the Cockney tripper, did he
extend his excursions far enough!
The Indians of these countries have learned to make
very extensive use of the natural products which surround
Peruvian Travel 61
them. The prairie grass which abounds on the table-
lands, the ichu^ has furnished them with fuel for smelting
ores, ropes for suspension bridges, fibre for hats, material
for rafts, covering for roofs, fodder, and a variety of
other uses. The Maguey {agave Americana)^ or American
aloe, known also as the Century plant, furnishes them
with fibre for ropes; whilst the stems, which grow 20 or
more feet high, form poles for rafters, or other purposes.
It is a remarkable thing that the Indians of South
America have never learned how to use the sap or juice
of the Maguey to make pulque^ the famous national
beverage of the Mexicans, the making of which is such
an important industry in Mexico. The plant abounds
in every valley up to a certain altitude, and is, in fact,
known among the Peruvian Indians by the name of Penca
Mexicana \ and I see no reason why it should not be used
for the same purpose in South America. I endeavoured
to instruct some persons in one part of Peru in the
matter, but I was without the peculiar syphon - like
implement that the Mexicans use for the extraction of
the juice — or agua mtel, as they term it. Probably some
enterprising individual might build up an industry in
this matter.
At present the Peruvian Indian takes large quantities
of his favourite chicha, or fermented drink, made from
cereals — especially maize — and other plants. This is not
a spirit ; it is rather a species of beer, and is generally
wholesome and refreshing. Unfortunately, he is acquiring
more and more the vice of drinking the fiery sugar-cane
rum, whose ravages I have elsewhere described. I recollect
towards the close of day, after a long and toilsome day's
ride, with only hasty rations eaten in the saddle, finding
that my stock of tea was entirely exhausted — and tea
I always took in the afternoon. No matter where I was,
at the hour sacred to that beverage, I invariably called a
halt, and over a fire of wood or grass, or spirit-stove, the
non-inebriating cup was prepared, and I arose refreshed, to
conquer further leagues. On this occasion the road passed
through numerous villages, replete with small tiendas and
62 The Andes and the Amazon
chinganaSy as the little native shops are termed. What
was stacked on the shelves in these places? Bottles of
rum — nothing else, generally. Village after village, and
shop after shop, I bid my servant enter as we passed ;
but no one sold tea. Some of them had heard of it,
and directed us to other places, where, they said, it
might possibly be procured ; but it ever proved futile.
Nor could they understand why an able-bodied traveller
should ask for tea, when such large amounts of rum
were to be had for a few cents !
At last I called a halt in a village, around whose
green, or plaza, I saw some shops of quite a promising
aspect, as if packages of tea might be reposing on the
shelves, which I dimly discerned from afar. Alas, vain
hope! At shop after shop, riding my mule up to the
door, I enquired of the presiding genius for "Tea." My
men went on a similar errand in the side streets, with
a like effect ; and as I rode to the centre of the plaza,
a small crowd had collected, curious to see the ingles
who wanted some tea. " Listen," I said, addressing them,
" 1 will give a libra de oro (a golden pound) for a pot of
tea ! " I gazed expectantly around after this rash offer,
which, however, I would have fulfilled ; but, notwith-
standing the excitement which it created, there were no
bidders, and, metaphorically shaking the dust off my feet
of that place, I departed.
The traveller in these regions should not fail to carry
with him certain essential matters in the way of provisions,
as tea, coffee, bread, cocoa, sugar, and other matters. Fowls,
eggs, cheese, meat and vegetables he may obtain in the
villages through which he passes, unless he is in the heart
of the No hay zone, which I have elsewhere described. One
general axiom may be borne in mind — that tinned meats
and other provisions should be avoided. They suffer from
two causes : the first being, especially in the American
products, the doubtful nature or quality of the material ;
and secondly, the fact that the tin undoubtedly exercises
a deleterious effect on the contents. I recollect nearly
dying from excessive vomiting on one occasion, on the
Peruvian Travel 63
top of the Andes, due to having eaten some Chicago
"salt horse," or other tinned quadruped masquerading
under the name of meat ; and on another, a tin of sardines
rendered me incapable of action for nearly two days. I
will forbear to give the names of the makers of these,
although they deserve to be denounced. The traveller
will be better off if he shuns preserved goods. A diet
of rice, potatoes, and the various other native products
of the country he passes through are preferable to the
tinned abominations of commerce. Tinned milk, and
meat extracts, such as " Liebigs " or " Bovril," are the
only preserves which, apparently, can be used without
evil effect, and it is essential to carry them. Fresh meat
can generally be obtained ; and I have often carried a
slaughtered sheep on the top of the baggage mule's
burden, cutting pieces off when necessary. Fowls can
be bargained for at wayside places ; and if the inhabitants
are too obdurately of the No hay stamp and refuse to
sell, there is always the time-honoured remedy, if one is
too near starving — which sometimes happens — of knock-
ing the bird over with a stone, and then saying, " Sefiora,
what is the price of your fowl ? " I have not employed
this method exactly, although I have observed it mentioned
in books of travel dealing with South America.
But I did once play an old trick on a community of
the No hay type — for whose invention I am not responsible,
as it is based on an anecdote known to South American
travellers. Arriving one evening at a place of the No
hay description, with empty saddle-bags, I petitioned the
inhabitants for rice, potatoes, fowl, or anything where-
with to make some soup. Useless ; they would not part
with anything, either for love or money ; so I bid my
servant collect and wash a dozen small, smooth stones.
A pot of water had been put on the fire, and — in the
presence of several of the villagers who had collected
there — I carefully placed the stones therein. When the
contents boiled I stirred it vigorously ; and ordering my
servant to pour out the " soup," partook thereof with
manifest relish, whilst the persons present who stood
64 The Andes and the Amazon
around, gazed with wondering eyes at this curious per-
formance. " You see," I said, " I am able to dispense
with you people's miserable attentions. Behold and taste
this excellent sopa de piedras (soup of stones)" — and,
suiting the action to the words, I ladled out a cupful and
handed it round. The Indians smelt and tasted, and
found the mixture excellent, especially with the addition
of a little salt and pepper. After concluding my meal,
I ostentatiously ordered the stones to be thrown away,
and retired into my tent, from an aperture of which I
watched the Indians surreptitiously collect them again,
and depart to their houses, with the object — as I well
knew — of endeavouring to make more of the excellent
soup for themselves and their families ! But it transpired
that, notwithstanding that they boiled and stirred them
vigorously, the water remained clear, and the soup refused
to materialise ! I did not find it necessary to inform
them that at the moment of stirring I had surreptitiously
let fall into the pot the contents of a jar of "Liebig's
Extract of Beef"! And to this day the people of that
place speak of the marvellous sopa de piedras^ of which
they partook.
It was during this expedition that I experienced several
narrow escapes of disaster. Our way lay across some of
the vast swamps which are encountered on the high table-
lands of the Andes, and my guide somehow got us right
into the middle of one of these, on to a species of island
of unstable matter. There we remained a moment, seeking
the way out, whilst the whole " island " slowly began to
sink beneath the weight of the mules. One of the pack-
mules, loaded with heavy sacks of mineral samples, broke
through the crust and began to sink, the poor beast making
frantic endeavours to flounder on towards a rocky pro-
montory some few hundred yards away. But its efforts
seemed futile ; it sank deeper at every struggle, and was
already up to its knees in the ooze. Dismounting for an
instant, I cut the ropes which held its pack, and the sacks
soon disappeared below the surface. It seemed that we
might all share their fate, for the whole crust of the
Peruvian Travel 65
" island " was becoming submerged ; the black ooze slowly
rising all around. Action was necessary. " Seek a way
out at all hazards," I said to the guide ; and that individual,
who was, fortunately, accustomed to pass these swamps,
applied the spurs to his beast, and leaped towards another
island similar to that on which we were, for there existed
a series of such at varying distances apart. The guide's
mule landed with his fore-feet on the firm part and his
hind-legs in the treacherous mud. A few inches less and
he would have been lost, but the animal scrambled up
and regained its footing. It was my turn now. It was a
long leap from such insecure footing. Between, lay the
chasm of ooze of unknown depth ; but it was useless to
ponder. I drove my spurs into the flanks of my mule —
the same good beast I have before described — and he
responded nobly, although trembling in every limb with
fear and apprehension, for he knew perfectly well the
risk he ran. But like a deer he bounded over, and we
landed in the middle of the island. There remained now
my servant and the other pack-mule. A ri'a^a was thrown
across, and the latter, by dint of pulling in front and
whipping behind, essayed the leap and passed safely. As
for the servant, the beast he rode absolutely declined to
leap, and the poor fellow protested that he should die
there. We could not waste time ; our second island was
sinking also. An idea occurred to myself and the guide
simultaneously — a rz'aia was again thrown across, and my
mule made to leap back ; the Indian mounted it, leaped
safely over the abyss, and his own beast, seized with that
inevitable panic of being left alone in danger, which ever
attacks animals, as it does men of weaker spirit — followed,
missed, plunged into the mire, and was only saved from
death by the most strenuous efforts on our part.
Meanwhile, the weight on our new refuge had caused
it to begin to settle down considerably. But Nature had
disposed a series of smaller islands between us and the
rocky promontory, and in trembling and apprehension we
leaped our beasts from one to the other, landing on the
quartzite strata of ierra firma.
B
66 The Andes and the Amazon
I know of no situation so trying, as the foregoing, of
passing these swamps. With tight hand on the bridle ;
spur ready against the flanks of the beast ; momentarily
expecting to be plunged into unknown depths of ooze ;
the animal trembling and snorting with apprehension ;
essaying and not finding footing ; and then the leap,
and — safety ! The mental strain is very severe, to say
nothing of the physical effort.
As for the other mule, it endeavoured to struggle
towards us, sinking deeper and deeper. Notwithstanding
the pity I felt for the poor beast, nothing we could do
would save it, and we should only have uselessly risked
our own lives. The guide suggested shooting it, with a
carbine, from the bank ; but this I forbade, desirous to
give it a last chance of floundering out. We were obliged
to push on to water and fodder.
It might have been supposed that the day's dangers
were now past, but fortune seemed determined to frown
upon us still. Having left the swamps behind, the trail
wound along a steep hillside, and entered upon the
face of a precipice formed of loose and sliding shale,
which terminated in a roaring torrent hundreds of feet
below. The track or path had been narrowed by the
rains and landslips to a width which rendered passage
perilous, but — saving the way across the swamp — there
was no other route. I had found that my own mule had
strained a leg somewhat in the leaping before described,
and I had exchanged it for that which my servant had
ridden, whilst he mounted the pack-mule. As we were
proceeding along the path, with the mule, after the
manner of his kind — which seems to prefer the outer
edge of a precipice to the inner — walking along with
my left leg hanging over the abyss, I suddenly felt his
hind-quarters giving way. Now, I am ever prepared for
this in such places, and always ride with the outside foot
loose in the stirrup, ready for instant dismounting. The
habit served me in good stead. In less time than it
takes to relate, I had swung from the saddle, as the
mule went over the precipice, a part of the road going
Peruvian Travel 67
with him, and leaving me insecurely poised on a narrow
ledge of rock. I retained the long bridle in my hand,
instinctively ; and as the mule slid slowly downwards
amid the debris, I endeavoured to stay him by pulling
gently, hoping he might regain a footing on some rocky
prominence. It was useless. The bridle strained to
breaking, and pulled me towards the verge. I must let
go, or be dragged to destruction. I loosed it. The
animal turned with the pressure of the sliding earth ;
rolled over and over with gathering impetus amid the
shouts of my men, who were in front, and were witnessing
the occurrence ; gave a final somersault and disappeared
from view. A second later a loud splash in the water
below announced its fall, and I discerned its body beihg
fast carried away by the whirlpools.
I looked around, and only then observed that I was
a prisoner on that rocky ledge. The road, both in front
and behind, had fallen away; above me was a sheer
rock-face ; below, the loose earth and shale still poured
gently downwards towards that fatal verge. What if
I were to slip? A vertigo seized me. I clutched the
rock. Ha! — was I slipping in reality? I took a last
glance at the sky and cliff overhead, my eyes closed —
and . . .
The tent was comfortably pitched in a green hollow
by a clear, trickling stream ; and whilst I lie at ease
on my camp-bed after supper, with coffee and cigarettes
at hand, and my men smoking contentedly outside by
the fire, I will apologise, kind reader, if I have harrowed
your feelings in my narration of these truthful chronicles.
I did not fall. I conquered the vertigo by an effort of
will ; took a running jump, passed the chasm between
me and the road, and landed safely, and am now as
comfortable here as you in your armchair. And my
contentment was increased when towards nightfall my
men informed me that the mule, lost in the swamp, had
arrived. Doubtless it had by good chance struggled to
a rocky bottom and emerged, finding its way, with the
sagacity of its kind, towards our camp.
68 The Andes and the Amazon
The sun set ; the day stars' course was done. Above
the faint purple of the distant hills the glorious rays were
flung upwards towards that calm and softly-glowing vault
of sky o'erhead, and soon, "heaven spread some silent
stars, to shew mortals the way thither." The far horizon
— that horizon that day by day beckoned me, that called
me on, as the horizon shall ever call until these days are
done — took on the purple tints of peaceful night ; the
reprieve of action ; the legal rest of Nature and of Man.
And here let me ask you, kind reader, to recollect with me
how slight is the distance, how unexpected the moment,
which separates plenty from famine, security from danger,
life from death ! In the morning the traveller may be
in the midst of flocks, herds, and plantations ; at nightfall
upon the bleak plateau, with empty saddle-bags and
hunger at his vitals. At one moment he treads the firm
highway ; the sun goes down, and a gloomy precipice
yawns before his erring feet. Now his heart beats high
in response to the call of Nature and action ; anon he
lies, stricken by accident or disaster within the gates of
death ! Truly there must beat within his breast the
spirit of the real traveller — the traveller through the
abstract as well as the material world ; the spirit which
brings him forth from the mire and sets his feet upon
a rock ; which yields him a table in the wilderness, and
which knows not death because it neither courts, nor
fears the King of Terrors !
CHAPTER VII
THE UPPER MARANON^
Towards the end of March, 1904, I returned to Huaraz
from an expedition to the Upper Maranon, and the region
bordering thereon. The primary object of my journey
was to examine and take possession of some gold and
quicksilver - bearing concessions, which I had acquired
previously; but in addition I wished to study, as far as
time would permit, the geological conditions of the
district, as well as to gain some knowledge of the ways
of the natives, and to visit some of the numerous Inca
ruins which exist there.
I have accomplished the journey from Huaraz to
Chavin in one day ; but it is a very hard day's ride.
The distance is only about 14 leagues, but the main
range of the Andes has to be passed midway ; and from
Huaraz the trail rises from about 9,930 to 15,350 feet
— the summit of the Pass of Yanashallas — and descends
again to 10,500 feet at Chavin : a steep and trying " road,"
where the horseman is generally pelted for hours with
driving snow, and chastised with the bitter blast.
Beneath this summit, by means of a tunnel, would
pass a portion of the projected Pan-American railway
according to a reconnaissance made some years ago.
Although the summit of the pass is above the per-
petual snow-line, it is a rather remarkable fact that the
snow-cap does not cover the road, notwithstanding that
it lies on either hand at a distance of a few hundred
metres. I have been informed by the natives that the
snow-cap existed here formerly, but that "the snow dis-
appears always from the immediate vicinity when there
is continued traffic " ; presumably due to the continued
^ Read before the Royal Geographical Society.
69
70 The Andes and the Amazon
presence of living beings. Whether this hypothesis is
well formed or not, I am not prepared to say ; but it is
to be noted that the same circumstance has taken place
in other passes which cross the same range — for example,
that of Huarapasca, some leagues to the south, and which
I speak of later.
The formation here is quartzite, which stands up in
enormous vertical strata ; and lower down numerous
small lakes occur, generally presenting the appearance
of having been artificially dammed up by embankments,
which are really moraines left by the retiring snow-cap.
In this connection it may be observed, that, according
to the observations of the people of the region, the
perpetual snow-cap has retired and diminished very
notably during last century — at least upon this portion
of the Andes.
I have again to confess that the photographs taken
here were not a success, and I must have recourse to
my note-book for sketches of the formation.
Nearing the summit these roads are sometimes formed
by a series of rude steps excavated in the rock, or filled
up of flat slabs of stone, made originally by the Incas.^
In the background on this particular summit are peaks of
pronounced and curious form, and the contrast of the
marked stratification of the rock and the dazzling surface
of the snow is striking. They are veritable " pinnacles " —
the termination of Andean towers, naves, and aisles — and
mark the edge of stable matter where it penetrates the
empyrean.
The lake - formation near the summits is interesting
as showing the probable origin of springs in regions
below, the thawed snow entering the lines of stratifica-
tion of the vertical strata, and being conducted thence.
These appalling ramparts of nature tower heavenwards
at all angles, and frown down upon the way in stern
rigidity. An idea of their structure will be gained from
the sketch. The two small lakes shown in the illustration
are exactly at the summit : the water - parting of the
' See page 239.
I
The Upper Marafion 71
continent. On the left side — the east — the waters of
the melting snow gather in streams, and descend to the
tributaries of the Maranon, finding their outlet — i,ooo
leagues away — by the Amazon upon the Atlantic coast.
On the right-hand side they flow to the River Santa, and
debouch at Chimbote in the Pacific Ocean.
At the foot of the Cordillera exist some thermal
springs, which the inhabitants of the village of " Olleros "
use — very occasionally, I suspect, judging from the appear-
ance of the latter — as baths. This village is on the
western side, and is chiefly famous, or rather infamous,
for its cattle and horse thieves. I had the satisfaction
of seeing some of these individuals taken into custody,
and as types of Indian robbers I append their photo-
graphs. Many a sleepless night have the Indian horse
thieves caused me and my men in the trails of the
interior, necessitating constant vigilance to avoid the
robbery of our animals.
In some of the views it is observed that wooden
crosses are placed at the summits, and, in fact, the sacred
emblem is in evidence in Peru, even in the most in-
accessible places, as indeed it is throughout Mexico, and
Spanish-America generally. Whether it be to indicate
a summit, to mark the leagues on a mountain road, the
position of a spring or well, or to hold in reverence
the wayside spot where some tragedy has occurred — for
it is used for all these purposes — the devout Indian has not
failed to preserve it there, where in silent sentiment it
confronts the view, and from the chance wayfarer —
" Implores the passing tribute of a sigh ! "
and no hand, however ruthless, thinks to disturb it.
The town of Huantar, where I arrived, is some leagues
down the valley of Chavin on the river Poccha, a tributary
of the Maranon. I took there some views of the place :
a group of Indian women getting water at the well,
and having their photographs taken for the first time
in their lives !
This out-of-the- world town of Huantar is one of the
72 The Andes and the Amazon
most primitive places that can be imagined ; the chief
feature about the inhabitants is the prevailing deformity
known as Coto, or technically Bocio^ and consists of an
enormous double swelling of the neck, which hangs down
like great pouches. This strikes pity and disgust to the
mind of the traveller, especially when it is known that
the disease has its remedy in the use of iodine, and results
from negligence and lack of initiative on the part of the
better members of the community. Here is a field for
a self-denying doctor, who would sacrifice himself to dwell
among these poor and backward inhabitants of this
district !
Near this town are numerous ruined habitations and
fortresses of the " Gentiles," as the present inhabitants
of Peru term the ancient Quechua and Inca dwellers of
the country ; and in the quartzite formation are numerous
silver and silver-lead mines, which, however, are scarcely
worked by the modern inhabitants. Some veins of
bismuth are encountered near here ; coal also occurs.
The name of this town is derived, I was informed there,
from a corruption of the Spanish words Aguantar o'
Reventar, meaning literally, " Suffer, or burst ! " — this
having been formerly the mandate of the Spaniards in
that neighbourhood, who forced the Indians to abandon
their dwellings in the almost inaccessible hills, and to
form a town on the plain below, the actual site of Huantar.
At the foot of the Cordillera is the castle of Chavin.
These ruins are of much interest, and worthy of more
study. They are quite extensive, principally subterranean,
and have been built of squared stones carefully set. I
had but little time to examine these ruins, intending to
return later. The portion I examined consists of a series
of small, square, underground chambers, communicating
with each other by passages, and also by curious small
horizontal galleries, not large enough to admit the body
of a man. It is stated that below these chambers exists
a similar series ; and certainly upon looking down a hole
which had been made, accidentally or by design, in one
of the passages, a space or chamber was observed. It
i
The Upper Maranon 73
is difficult to know what purpose these apartments
served ; possibly they were dungeons. In one of the
passages is a stone column with characteristic Inca scroll
carving upon it, circular in form — a monolith of con-
siderable size. Some time ago efforts were made to
extract this stone, but it was found that it penetrated
the ceiling of the passage above, and extended down-
wards, and absolutely could not be moved. In the park
of the Exhibition in Lima is a large carved stone,
which was taken from these ruins and conveyed thither,
and of which I give an illustration. This stone is about
7 feet in height.
I repeat that these ruins are worthy of further
examination ; and some work and excavation would
undoubtedly disclose matters of interest, and possibly
unearth some treasure. The view given is part of the
exterior.^
Close to the castle is a bridge, which was built by
the Incas, spanning a stream which descends from the
Cordillera. The principal feature of this structure is that
the floor is composed of single slabs of stone, about 15
feet in length. The four pillars at the corners are modern,
and the carved stone heads built therein were taken from
one of the subterranean chambers of the castle, and
are good examples of Inca carved grotesque heads.
In Huantar I lodged as the guest of the gobernador,
the petty authority of the place. I there observed the
method by which the Indians make their complaints,
or "state the case" in any question they may have
to lay before him. Before presenting themselves, they
arrange the formula in which the plaint is to be delivered,
concocting certain phrases which they deliver, all in a
monotone, reiterating the phrases without any pause.
This in the Quechua language ; and it lasts some ten
or fifteen minutes, during which the gobernador listens
patiently and judicially, and then announces his decision.
The complainants may, for example, have come to
supplicate for the release of some friend or relative who
■^ See page 241.
74 The Andes and the Amazon
has been confined in jail for some petty theft or mis-
demeanour, and the plaint may take this form : " Taita
(father), permit that our dear relative be released " ; " Taita,
permit that our dear relative be released " ; " Taita" etc.,
etc., ad infinitum. If any one among them fails to perform
his part in the chorus, or has done it perfunctorily, the
rest, upon leaving the presence of the authority, fall
upon him and thrash him soundly with sticks, saying :
" Thou hast not fulfilled thy part ; thou art useless ! "
In these remote towns, the church and priestly
influence plays an important part, and both are matters
of wonder for the foreigner. The edifice, which is
generally built in a primitive manner of adobes, is
stocked with gaudy images and tinselled trappings of
every description, crude and grotesque. The day I
visited the church of Huantar was some Saint's day —
I forget which — and the building was filled with
vegetables and earthen pots of chicha, the native drink
made from maize. These were not, however, presented
as a harvest thanksgiving, but are placed there in order
that "the spirits of the departed might not suffer
hunger " ; and really, in the belief of the donors, the
comestibles were to satisfy the hunger of their relatives
who had died, wherever they might be imagined to be
at the time. I met one old Indian woman as I left the
building staggering under the weight of an enormous
earthen jar of this beverage — chicha ; and to my question
she replied in broken Spanish that " her beloved husband
had been fond of chicha during his life, and that she feared
he might now be in need of the same refreshment " ! It
is a fact that the priests permit, and even encourage, this
superstition in some places : making use themselves of
the articles afterwards. When I mentioned this matter
to the gobernador, he professed to be very indignant,
as it was "against the civil law," and he made a show
of going — as he said — "to have the whole church cleared
out" I suspect, however, that this was only for the
benefit of the ingles, and furthermore so on partaking
of part of a fat fowl at table later, which I thought I
recognised as having seen in the temple.
Part of Sihikkkankan Monolith : Casti i; (U Chavin.
Carved Inca Stone from Chavin.
The Upper Maranon 75
To describe the remarkable customs and superstitions
of these poor and backward people on the eastern side
of the Andes would occupy too much time and space.
They inspire me with pity —
" Knowledge to their eyes her ample page ;
Rich with the spoils of time "—
unrolls so infinitely slow for them. They have the weight
of centuries upon them ; dragged down by the chain of
deadly ignorance — inheritance of the methods of their
Iberian conquerors.
I now left the cold and inhospitable plateaux of the
Andes, and planted my tent on a green meadow where
the Maranon rolls by, where the warm rays of the sun
fell comfortingly upon us, drying our clothes and bedding,
damp and heavy from days of rain and snow.
The famous river at this point is small, and resembles
rather an English river ; whilst overhead are the azure
areas and cumulous cloud - masses of a " Devonshire "
sky. The valley slopes are cultivated with maize and
potatoes ; and numerous villages on the banks, with their
white walls and red -tiled roofs, give, at a distance, an
air of smiling prosperity. This latter characteristic, how-
ever, vanishes somewhat upon entering the streets, when
the poor and primitive method of living of the inhabitants
becomes evident.
I have passed in succession the towns of San Marcos,
Puntou, Punchao ; the village and bridge of Chuquibamba,
above which the first view of the Maranon is obtained,
Chavin de Pariaca, Tantamayo, Yanas, Pachas, Ovas,
Silyapata, and others whose names and altitudes are
recorded in my note-book.
All these towns, or rather villages, are more or less
of a similar type. They consist generally of a small
plasa, or public square, with the temple on one side, and
the streets set out squarely after the usual Spanish-
American style, which is too well known to require
description. Here the houses are of tapialeSy a construc-
tion in which the earth, wet, is rammed in between
76 The Andes and the Amazon
planks set upright, so forming walls, after the style of
concrete construction. The roofs are high-pitched, and
covered with pan-tiles, or thatched with grass.
The bridge of Chuquibamba is on the road to the
Montana, or tropical interior of the country. This
little bridge is a primitive affair formed of logs covered
with twigs and soil, before entering upon which the
prudent traveller will alight, lest the horse or mule he
bestrides breaks through the fragile covering with its
hoofs. The altitude of the river at this point is about
9,100 feet above sea -level. The climate is generally
mild, and might be compared to that of the south of
England. The width of the river is generally about
100 feet here, but at the bridge narrows between the
rock, outcropping to a few yards ; the channel, however,
being correspondingly deep, as shown by the view on a
previous page, which also shows the method of bridging
by corbelling out from the abutments to reduce the
span, which might be described as a species of rude
cantilever. The flow of the current is swift at this point,
and I was nearly carried away on one occasion whilst
swimming in a pool above the bridge. The flow or
volume, according to my gauging in January, was
approximately 300 cubic feet per second.
The river is famous at this point for the occurrence
of gold in its bed. In fact, the principal occupation of
a number of Indians here is that of gold-washing or
extraction, both by men and women. I have, personally,
obtained gold-dust and small nuggets from the gravel
at the verge, and a portion of my concession covers this
part of the river. I have purchased from the Indians,
on several occasions, nuggets of gold weighing up to
half an ounce, and quantities of dust, and there is not
the least doubt that wealth is contained here. Below
the bridge the river widens out into a species of whirl-
pool, which, according to the Indians, contains a vast
quantity of gold, deposited by the current. Years ago
some persons endeavoured to examine the bed here by
means of a diving-suit, and, I am informed, but have not
The Upper Maranon 77
been able to vouch for the truth of the rumour, that one
of them perished beneath the waters.
The geological formation of the valley of the Maranon,
in this region, is a talcose slate, occurring in thin bands
alternately with quartz, the latter generally stained with
limonite. The formation has been much twisted, folded,
and contorted, probably by " end pressure," and the quartz
is probably an " after deposition " between the laminae.
On the western summit of the river-valley is a capping
of white sandstone, and on the eastern of red slate-
quartz conglomerate. The river-level is 5,000 to 6,000
feet below the summits of the valley, in vertical altitude.
There are numerous deposits of gold-bearing gravel and
conglomerate laid down at previous epochs above the
present river-level. Some of these have been worked
by the Indians, by means of tunnels.
The photograph shows the bridge and river -valley
slopes looking northwards, and might almost be taken
for a view upon a Devonshire river.
Leaving the Maranon, I proceeded eastwards towards
the Montana, arriving at the lakes of Carpa, only a few
miles from the tropical region of Monson, where there
exist several factories for the production of cocaine.
The view shows one of these places, where the alkaloid,
about 85 per cent, pure cocaine, is extracted from the
coca plant, or shrub, which flourishes there in abundance.
The altitude is 5,300 feet above sea-level.
The lakes of Carpa are very picturesque, and of
some considerable size; the altitude is 11,500 feet.
In the neighbourhood of the village of Tantamayo,
about 4 leagues from Chuquibamba, are numerous old
Inca ruins. In fact, all along the road from that point
to the village mentioned, are the remains of the fortresses
and structures of these ancient people, crowning almost
every hill. Opposite Tantamayo is a remarkable row
of square towers on the summit of a hill ; and as I
passed they stood outlined against the evening sky, weird
and romantic in their almost inaccessible abandonment.
A little further on the ruined walls and towers of a
78 The Andes and the Amazon
whole ancient village presents to view at a turn of the
road, massed on a sombre ridge on the opposite side
of the valley. Above rolled the sombre night-clouds ;
below rolled the folds of mist which arose from the
Maranon ; 6,500 feet below, the white, fleecy mist which
only the midday sun dispels:
" Slow lingering up the hills like living things."
Near at hand a ruined castle stands, such as might
have appeared to the lonely watcher in "the valley of
St John," where Triermain hurled his axe. Strange and
romantic are the situations of these old structures.
In the gorge to the left hand runs the Maranon, far
below. The view is exceedingly picturesque at evening,
but I am unable to do it justice in the sketch made in
passing, intended only to supplement the photographs —
as to colours — which were spoilt afterwards. However, an
idea may be formed of the remarkable position in which
these edifices were constructed, and the very consider-
able altitude at which their inhabitants dwelt. Judging
from these ruins, it would seem that these people dwelt
in constant fear of attack ; and, in fact, it is well known
that the population consisted of numerous divided tribes,
who constantly made war upon each other. I have
discussed this in the chapter dealing with the Incas.
Some of the above ruins are nearly 16,500 feet above
sea-level, and the clouds are actually both above and
below them — a situation which is almost appalling.
Notwithstanding their altitude, however, there is no
perpetual snow in these situations, and the hill-slopes
have at one time been cultivated, as shown by the
remains of the Andenes, or old cultivated terraces.
There is nothing which arrests the attention of the
traveller in the Andes more than the peculiar aspect
which these interminable slopes present, due to this
anterior cultivation. At first sight he is unable to
explain the remarkable " rippled " appearance, until he
sees that it is the result of innumerable terraces, which
have previously been small plantations or fields partly
i
\--.'^iV'^A3-
The Upper Maranon 79
excavated on the upper, and embanked on the lower
side. These andenes, as they are termed, have given
rise, it is sometimes supposed, to the name by which the
Cordillera of South America is designated — the Andes ;
although there is another derivation from the Quechua word
antes, or mineral. Moreover, the evidence of a very large
anterior population is ever before the traveller, in that
in some of these extensive regions every possible square
foot of ground is so terraced, and has been at one time
cultivated, however inaccessible it may appear to be.
Also, the very extensive ruins of habitations bear witness
to a numerous people, whose customs and methods seem
to have been subordinated to the rules of some absolute,
yet apparently prosperous monarchy, or other individual
ruler.
These extensive remains scarcely excite the notice of
the present native inhabitant of the country. When
questioned as to their age or purpose, he simply replies
that they are " Casas de los Gentiles " (" Houses of the
Gentiles "), which is the extent of his archaeological know-
ledge. He does not even search or excavate in the
hope of finding buried treasure, for superstition so bids
him reverence these ancient dwelling-places that he almost
fears to enter them, and fear, combined with lack of
initiative, operates against any exploration. Unfortunately,
however, in some cases he pulls down the stones to form
corrals, or enclosures, for his cattle.
The river is so far below that, notwithstanding the roar
of its torrential passage, only the faintest murmur of its
voice reaches these "cloud-capped towers" above it, and
indeed, at times, not even the faintest whisper breaks the
solitude. Far away, to where they are lost in the earth's
curvature, arise the summits of these endless mountains,
whose successive peaks and ranges develop their limit-
less and silent geometry^ to the eye. The fading day
rests lingeringly upon them, tinting them in subdued
* Mountain ranges seen from above present views of cones and solids
intersecting with planes.
80 The Andes and the Amazon
colours, to where, in an indistinguishable haze, the realm
of distance and of darkness renders all invisible. The
night descends as I watch from where my tent is pitched ;
the scene is blotted out, and —
" Like an unsubstantial pageant, faded.
Leaves not a wrack behind ! "
< c
CHAPTER VIII
REGION OF THE UPPER MARA5J0N i
The changes of climate are quite marked in one day's
journey even, in the Peruvian interior ; the traveller may,
during the early morning, be among the inclement climatic
conditions of the high puna^ or uplands, whilst the after-
noon sun may find him where oranges and lemons grow.
At the general altitude of 10,000 to 13,500 feet a
flora very similar to that of the south of England is
encountered, and I extract from my note-book — almost
illegible from being written on mule-back as I journeyed
along slowly, waiting for my lagging muleteers — the
following notes :
"It would be difficult to find a place more like
Devonshire than some of these uplands. Here are the
same hills and streams, the same moist, soft, cold atmos-
phere ; the vales of mist and rushing streams of distant
Dartmoor, except that these come from eternal snows
above. Here are ferns and nettles, fields carpeted with
buttercups in bloom, and deep in mossy bank and beneath
grey stone walls are violets and stitchwort. I see no well-
known furze, or gorse, but the hartstongue fern is here,
and high heads of yellow mustard are in bloom. The
little plantations of potatoes might belong to a Devonshire
moorland farm, and the dandelions to the border of her
country roads. The ' cock's shrill clarion ' sounds from
the straw-thatched cottages, and cattle are browsing knee-
deep in the meadows. But there is snow behind the grey
quartzite blocks on either hand, from yesterday's storm
upon the Cordillera, and — strange contrast — clumps of
blue lupinus raise their heavy azure heads along the edges
of the fields — often beneath the shadow of the mountain
ish."
^ Read before the Royal Gec^raphical Society.
81 F
82 The Andes and the Amazon
And here, as on Dartmoor, are the megalithic remains of
prehistoric man.
But there is little timber ; the quinual and quishua
trees are those which principally predominate, and the
eucalyptus, transplanted from Australia, is encountered
in many places ; some are to be observed at Tantamayo
as also at Huaraz.
Continuing my journey I arrive at the town of
Aguamiro, on the river Vizcarra, which is a branch of
the Marafion, where both men and beasts halt for a few
days' well-earned rest.
The Marafion divides near the town of Pachas, one
branch descending from the south, and the other from
the south-west. The former is the Marafion proper, and
at this point is only about 50 miles from its source — Lake
Lauricocha. The latter is termed the Vizcarra, and has
its origin in the Cordillera of the Andes, near Huarapasca.
At the discussion upon my paper, read before the
Royal Geographical Society, it was objected that this
lake is not the true source of the Marafion. I meant it
in a general sense ; it is true that there is an entering
stream which comes from the Cordillera some small
distance away, which may be considered to be the further
source.
After leaving the town — the head of the province —
of Aguamiro, upon the Vizcarra, I arrived at Huallanca —
a small place, which is of growing importance, due to
mining development and enterprise. In this neighbour-
hood are extensive deposits of anthracite coal in the
quartzite formation, which in some near future time must
cause this region to become important. A smelting works
has been established, as the ores of copper, silver, lead,
zinc, etc., are abundant. The coal formations are very
marked, and in many cases stand vertically within their
enclosing strata, which latter has been upheaved and dis-
torted. The coal seams tower up to a height of hundreds
of yards above the river; and from their topographical
formation would lend themselves to economical mining
methods.
Region of the Upper Maranon 83
Undoubtedly, Peru should some day become an im-
portant coal-producing country — when the railways are
increased, and tap the coal-fields.
Leaving the Vizcarra on the west, near its headquarters,
I arrived within a short distance of my objective point,
Chonta, when a fierce snowstorm overtook us, and caused
us to lose the track. On many of these mountain uplands,
or punas, interminable swamps exist, such as previously
described ; and across some of these we floundered for
hours, nearly losing, on several occasions, some of the
pack animals. One of these almost disappeared with its
load in a treacherous place, and was only saved by super-
human exertions. Shortly afterwards another, in crossing
a bog, went down, and in struggling overturned its load
of provisions and utensils. Freeing itself partly, the
animal bolted, dragging after it its burden, and dis-
appeared, in spite of our efforts to stop it, around the
base of a hill. Whilst the muleteer pursued it, I rode
over the track "locating" the utensils, such as pots, the
frying-pan, cups, spoons, packets of flour, sugar, and
coffee, and divers such articles, which were strewn among
the snow. Night was upon us ; there were no habitations
and no fuel in the vicinity, for the only combustible in
the high punas is the dried grass. There was nothing
for it but to face circumstances as they were, and I gave
the order to clear a space from the snow, and plant the
tent. The altitude was nearly 16,000 feet — something
like 3 miles vertically above sea-level I The icy blast
blew through and through us, and the water poured in
beneath the bottom edge of the canvas. Just previous
to this my mule had slipped and fallen, rolling on to me
not doing me more injury, however, than that of a broken
finger : the pain of which by no means detracted from
the discomfort which I experienced.
But the traveller who has chosen the winter-time for
his travels in the Andes — against the advice of his friends
— must make light of the consequences ; and I ordered a
trench to be dug on the upper side of the tent, which
prevented the water entering and further wetting the
84 The Andes and the Amazon
bedding, etc. ; whilst the snow shortly covered the canvas
to a depth of a foot, and afforded protection from the cold.
A small alcohol lamp which I carried for emergencies
afforded the means of making coffee, and I was able to
obtain a few hours' sleep ; my only preoccupation being
for the unfortunate mules, who, exposed to the gale,
found but little fodder for the depth of snow.
My three Cholos, who had been my only companions
during this arduous expedition, resisted uncomplainingly
the hardships they were called upon to suffer. Wet to
the skin, and exhausted with the pursuit and capture of
the mule, they, nevertheless, put forth every effort towards
securing the comfort of their " patron " ; for I have always
been fortunate in being able to attach these faithful fellows
to me by methods of kindness and strict justice towards
them.
On the following day the sun shone brightly, and my
hardships were forgotten. I examined my concession at
Chonta, which embraces a large area of cinnabar-bearing
formation, and may prove to be an important quicksilver
mine.
The altitude of this place is 14,680 feet, and is stated
by Raimondi, in his work published in 1 874, to be " one
of the highest inhabited places on the globe." The mines
were first discovered in 1756, due to an order by the
Crown of Spain for the search for new quicksilver mines,
and in the past have produced a good deal of this metal.
At present they are almost abandoned.
From Chonta I obtained a view of the hills which
bound Lake Lauricocha — the source of the Marafion— -only
20 miles distant from where I stood ; and on the south-
west arises a magnificent series of snow - capped peaks,
whose name I was unable to obtain. I could not sleep
here during several nights, due, not so much to the cold,
as to the exceeding rarefaction of the atmosphere. The
organs which are affected, however — the heart, the lungs,
the brain — soon accustom themselves to their environ-
ment.
It was a source of regret to me that I was unable to
Region of the Upper Maranon 85
arrive actually at the lake ; but it was impossible. Some
of my men were worn out with constant exposure, and
ill with tercianaSy or intermittent fever, for we had been
out for many weeks, and they could no longer endure
these high altitudes. The mules were not in a condition
to pass the swamps between us and the lakes ; for the
roads, due to the exceptionally rainy season, had become
converted into such ; and the only fit member of the party
was now myself. However, I had performed my work
in the region — the inspection of the mines — in spite of
the weather ; and in the proper season these difficulties
do not occur. But I beheld the blue hills above the
lake as a sort of "promised land," to which 1 had been
denied admission.
From this point I began my return journey to Huaraz,
passing the summit of the Andes again at another point
— the Pass of " Huarapasca " ; altitude, 15,760 feet. The
end of March was approaching ; and the expiring winter
seemed bent upon expending its last fury upon the head
of the traveller who had defied it in its stronghold. For
eight long hours, as I passed the summit, the wind and
snow and sleet came out of the west in long, horizontal
lines, converging, apparently, upon the track where I
descended. For eight long hours we plodded on with-
out once descending from the saddle, except near the
summit, to rearrange the pack-mules' burdens. Between
those tearing tempest-clouds the sun flashed out for one
brief moment, lighting up that labyrinthine wilderness
of eternal snows — the roof of the world — and flinging
strange shadows upon the appalling terraces of that vast
solitude.
But the moment was sufficient, and I was able to take
some instantaneous views, and which show something of
that high environment.
It was but a brief pardon. The thunder - clouds
gathered in front : the lines of descending snow increased
again their vigour, and the winter lightning flashed
The gathering volume of the stream in front of me,
which formed the "road," hissed angrily as it brushed
86 The Andes and the Amazon
aside the pebbles in its path. The scene was changed
again :
" And such a change : '
Oh ! night and darkness, thou art wondrous strong ! "
for the Andean night closed in, and the weary pack-
mules could scarcely advance. A shepherd's cottage —
incredible that these people live at such an altitude —
gave shelter at length, and permitted the preparation of
some " breakfast " ; for it was the first meal of which
we had been able to partake.
But I could not sleep. The cold and the rumbling
of the avalanches on the peaks behind the " house "
drove sleep away.
At 5 A.M. I stood outside the wretched hovel. Will
the morning never come ? The cold is intense ; the
breeze freezes my finger-tips and ears, and scarcely the
faintest gleam comes from the snow beyond. Will "the
dayspring from on high" never visit us? It comes as I
stand there! In the east a faint light appears through
the driving snow, and from behind a distant hill a tear-
ing veil of cloud makes way for a lake of blue, and in
an instant closes again as if reluctant to release the
firmament from its dun dominion. Will day never dawn ?
Again the icy breeze blows past, and I feel faint for lack
of food and sleep. " Get up, lazy animals, and make my
coffee ! " This to the sleeping Cholos, who roll over and
arise.
At last the day. I do not wonder that the ancient
Incas worshipped the sun. A beam shoots upwards — the
arm of the sun-god — a sunbeam, and banishes the hungry
clouds of night. It grasps the veil of darkness and hurls
it aside ; the mists roll off down the valley ; the eternal
snow upon the everlasting peaks fast tinges with a rosy
light ; the tint is reflected, is flung into the western sky ;
a bird twitters among the grass and snow. It is day !
We journey onward and downward. The formation
is a limestone, and I halt for a moment to sketch a
huge fossil ammonite, which stands facing the road like
Shepherd's Cottage in the Andes.
Sketched on the spot by the A ulhor.
Region of the Upper Maraiion 87
a stone carved with an Inca scroll, shown in a previous
chapter.
The number of these fossils at this point is remark-
able; they stand in rows like an arrested and petrified
"school," in a marked vertical strata, or series of strata,
which run north and south. Their diameter, or at least
of that I measured, was 80 centimetres, or say 32 inches,
across the curved portion. The nucleus, or central portion,
appears to be better preserved than the rest ; and hundreds
of these centres, in the form of flattened spheres, strew
the track across the formation.
Still we descend, and the streams now flow westward,
carrying their dibris to the Pacific Ocean. The traveller
is witnessing in these heavy storms the formation of new
" horizons," and, relatively of course, the Andes are being
worn away before his eyes. The head of a valley is
reached, and I am tempted to sketch some of the natural
" reservoirs " or lakes : the remarkable symmetry of whose
enclosing moraines seems the work of man in an artificial
embankment Some of these are 50 metres high.
There are three Cordilleras to be passed by this route
— that is to say, three " undulations " of the Cordillera ; and
after two days' riding we descend to the plain, or pampa^
of Lampas. This plain, which is of some 10 leagues
broad, is remarkable for its exceeding flatness ; stretch-
ing away before the view of the traveller to where its
horizon line cuts the base of the hills which bound it.
It is of a gravel formation — partly auriferous. On its
south-westerly side is Lake Conococha, which, doubtless,
covered it at a former epoch, and is the source of the
river Santa, which, as elsewhere described, flows north-
westerly to the Pacific Ocean, down the valley of Huaylas.
The hills above this lake are of somewhat remarkable
forms of volcanic rock, and various metalliferous ores
are found there. The altitude of this plain and lake is
13,200 feet.
From this point to Huaraz the road follows the verge
of the river, a distance of about 16 leagues, passing the
towns, respectively, of Ticapampa and Recuay, where a
88 The Andes and the Amazon
good deal of mining — principally silver ores — is carried
on. The river was in flood below the lake where we
passed, and one of the mules was nearly carried away.
A survey has been made for a railway along this
valley to Chimbote on the coast, and its construction
would greatly benefit the region.
The buildings and towers of Huaraz, as I approached
the city, seemed, after the primitive places where I had
sojourned, to form a " grand metropolis " : such is the
effect of comparison. The photograph gives an excellent
idea of the city seen from afar. I was glad to arrive.
I was weary of battling with the elements ; my mules
were in need of rest and good fodder, my men anxious
to be with their families. My spurs were worn down to
the rowels, and my india-rubber cape absolutely rotten
with continual wettings ; and the prospect of a com-
fortable bed, clean surroundings and good food, and
other usual adjuncts of civilised man, were most alluring.
CHAPTER IX
LIFE IN THE CITIES OF THE ANDES
What are the conditions of ordinary life and its sur-
roundings in these remote mountain regions, it might
be asked ? What impression is formed in the mind of
the European traveller ? What idea of " Americanism "
will he gather from his observations of them? It is a
difficult task to sum them up, or to decide what is their
meaning — their part in the scheme of things, except to
say that they form a community in process of develop-
ment ; an aggrupacion of dwellers, at present ill-connected,
with its destiny still vague and shadowy, yet not without
promise.
Let me lightly describe some of these places, and
the people who inhabit them, and you may form your
own opinion, good reader, upon what are more or less
exact observations and descriptions.
Very typical parts of Peru, as regards regions of the
Sierra, are the communities described in another chapter,
lying at elevations of about 8,000 feet to about 13,000
feet above sea-level : such cities as Arequipa, Huaraz,
Cajamarca, etc.
The valley of Huaylas, of which I have made mention,
and in which Huaraz is situated, is a remarkable longi-
tudinal valley of the Andes, running parallel with the
general axis of the range, about N.N.W. Its length is
about 100 miles, its width varies from i to 5 miles, and
it is bounded on both sides by the high ranges of the
Cordillera. That on the eastern side is known as the
"White Cordillera," from its snow-cap, as described else-
89
90 The Andes and the Amazon
where; and that on the west as the "Black Cordillera,"
free from perpetual snow.
To enter the valley of Huaylas from the coast port
of Casma the trail winds over this Black Cordillera,
reaching at the pass an elevation of about 13,000 feet.
To leave the valley, going eastwardly to the Maranon,
the trail crosses the "Cordillera Blanca" at an elevation
of about 15,000 feet above sea-level.
The river Santa flows down the valley, rising in Lake
Conococha, and emptying into the Pacific Ocean near
Chimbote. This river appears to have broken through
this western Cordillera, in ages past, turning sharply
from its course down the valley, to the west, and passing
through a deep canyon known as the Canyon del Pato.
The ground at this point is exceedingly broken, friable,
and precipitous. Loose cliffs, thousands of feet in height,
overhang the river — of gravel and conglomerate standing
nearly vertical — and threatening to fall and block the
entire passage.
This has, in effect, taken place at some previous time
on more than one occasion. A line of railway ascends
from Chimbote for a distance of about 50 miles, crossing
the sandy coast-zone and entering the canyon. Part of
this railway was carried away years ago, due, probably,
to a catastrophe of the above nature, when the waters
of the river became dammed up. I rode my mule all
day long over this ruined railway at the bottom of this
canyon. In places the rusty rails hung in long festoons
between the old abutments of bridges, or remaining
portions of embankments. Here, and there vast blocks
of conglomerate — hundreds of tons — had come down
from above, twisting and distorting the strong steel rails,
which in some cases overhung the torrent like a veritable
road leading to destruction. Lower down, on emerging
from this canyon, the railway is in running order, and
passes through large sugar-cane plantations and haciendas,
and over great areas of ground which are susceptible of
irrigation and cultivation.
The upper part of the valley is of an entirely different
Life in the Cities of the Andes 91
character to the canyon ; the fall of the floor being slight,
and the ground being much under cultivation. It is, in
fact, one of the most numerously-populated parts of Peru,
and contains several important towns, the centres of agri-
cultural and mining districts.
The principal of these is Huaraz, a typical town or city
of the Peruvian Sierra. It lies within a broad Campinas
or cultivated area, watered by the river. Its altitude above
sea-level is 9,930 feet : which in Peru ensures a mild and
healthy climate, although cold and rainy at certain seasons.
The population of this city is about 5,000, or about 10,000
including the outlying district. Of these the greater part
are the Cholos — the Quechua Indians, more or less crossed
with Spanish-Peruvian blood. The upper class is formed
of Peruvians of Spanish descent. The inhabitants live by
agriculture, mining, and commerce with the exterior. The
means of communication with the coast and the interior
are by difficult pack-mule roads — mountain paths — which
necessarily cross one or the other ranges of the Andes,
at great altitudes.
The city is built after the usual plan. A large plaza
is surrounded by the Cathedral on one side, municipal
buildings, shops, and houses on the other. The Cathedral
— a somewhat high-sounding name for the adobe structure
with little pretension to architectural construction — is in
rather a ruinous condition. I was informed that this
unfortunate condition was due to the Bishop — who had
been charged with the funds for the restoration — having
spent the money in a journey of pleasure to Europe !
A large Indian population lives in the neighbourhood
of these important cities — the usual Cholos of the Sierra,
who are principally agriculturalists, owning and working
their small chacaras, or farms, and living an exceedingly
independent life, as elsewhere described.
On market-days, fairs, and dias de fiestay or Church
feast - days — which latter, it may be remarked, are
numerous — the Cholos and their women crowd the place,
lending, with their bright-hued ponchos and white felt hats,
a picturesque aspect to the narrow streets and large plaza.
92 The Andes and the Amazon
These feast-days are the veritable harvest-time of the
priests, and the Cholos the real sheep of his flock, whose
shearing provides him with no stinted supply of this
world's goods. The "prices" or fees charged by these
functionaries are rigorously exacted ; no Indian can be
born, baptized, married, or buried without the necessary
tribute. The greatest drunkenness prevails often upon
these feast-days, which are fomented, and even invented,
on every conceivable occasion by the priests in order
that some contribution from mass, orations, baptisms,
christenings, and so forth, may accrue to them. The
temples are open, and few of the Indians fail to enter
and leave a contribution of some kind.
The religious processions, especially during Holy Week
— the " Semana Santa " — are quite striking in interior towns
such as Huaraz, and the ceremonies and performances
pertaining thereto are perpetuated principally by the
priests and the Indians — the better class holding aloof.
Life-sized figures of Jesu-Cristo and the soldier - execu-
tioners, arranged as a kind of tableau upon a platform,
are borne through the streets upon the shoulders of
Indians, groaning and sweating beneath the load, yet
full of satisfaction from the honourable and sacred task
which, from their point of view, they are performing
Other incidents in the life of the Holy Family are
also represented, the foremost and favourite figure being
that of Maria. It is to be observed, in this connection,
that the Indians do not reverence these figures as such,
but declare that they are an actual personification or
embodiment. Formerly, there was also a procession of
SeiioritaSy or young ladies of the upper class ; but this
custom now appears to be falling into disuse.
There is undoubtedly a decline in these old religious
customs in Peru, some of which savoured more of idolatry
than anything else. There is some reaction taking place
after centuries of priestcraft and the ignorance which it
perpetuates, and which often brings into effect the opposite
extreme of materialism. I was surprised to find, in such
a stronghold of Roman Catholicism as Arequipa, plenti-
Life in the Cities of the Andes 93
fully displayed in the windows of book-shops, numerous
works of modern scientists, philosophers, freethinkers,
evolutionists, materialists, etc., including those of Darwin,
Spencer, Draper, Reclus, Renan, Haeckel, Schopenhauer,
Kropotkin, and many others. These are all in Spanish,
cheap paper-covered editions, with good type, and are
issued by a publisher in Madrid. It is by no means a
bad sign that these works are purchased and read.
Under any circumstances it was inevitable, sooner or
later.
As regards the processions, they are beginning to meet
with disapproval, as before mentioned. I preserved a
rather striking handbill which was on one occasion freely
distributed by some protesting and justifiable reformer.
It consisted of an extract — in Spanish, of course — from
Jeremiah :
"For the customs of the people are vain, for one
cutteth a log out of the forest, the work of
the hands of the workman with the axe.
They deck it with silver and with gold ;
they fasten it with nails so that it move
not. They were made in the likeness of a
palm tree and will not speak. They must
needs be borne because they cannot go. Be
not afraid of them, for they cannot do evil ;
nor good. There is no likeness to Thee,
Lord ; Thou art great, and Thy name is
great in might. But they are altogether
brutish and foolish ; the log is a doctrine of
vanities ; every founder is confounded by the
graven image, for his molten image is false-
hood, and there is no breath in them. They
are vanity and a work worthy of ridicule ;
in the time of their visitation they shall
perish. For the pastors are become brutish,
and have not sought the Lord. Therefore
they do not understand, and all their flock
shall be scattered."
I have quoted the whole of this to show the ingenious
selection which had been made from the text of the tenth
chapter, in condemnation of images and priests who use
94 The Andes and the Amazon
them. Any variation of a few words from the English
Bible is due to my having translated literally from the
Spanish, as the words seemed more pointed. It is use-
ful to note, in this connection, what an added meaning
is given to Scriptural passages by comparing them in
more than one language.
A curious feature of the interior cities of Peru is
the absence of vehicles. There are no roads to the
outside world where such could go, and the traveller
finds himself in streets where no wheels rattle over the
pavements. Roads and railways are difficult of construc-
tion and maintenance in these regions. Rock excavation
and terracing along steep hillsides is expensive, whilst
the heavy rainfall and consequent disintegration of the
slopes call for constant repair. The heavy gradients,
also, necessary to overcome the summits of the ranges,
renders the cost of carriage high in the existing railways.
Nevertheless, if the inhabitants of these places possessed
a greater spirit of enterprise they could do much toward
bettering their conditions, instead of waiting for foreign
capital to build railways for them. Such cities as Huaraz,
Huancavelica, Huancayo, Cajamarca, Huanuco, and others,
all important centres of population and produce, might at
least construct carriage roads to their respective sea-
ports. As it is, the existing mule -trails are not even
kept in order, as a general rule. The city of Huancayo
lies in a fertile valley, as I have described elsewhere,
with numerous other towns not far away, yet no road
has been made connecting them, nor any vehicular
traffic established. Similar conditions exist with regard
to Huaraz and the valley of Huaylas, and a fine road
could be built here at small cost. In all these regions
there exists cheap labour: the Cholos, at small pay,
could construct these roads, and the shopkeepers and
merchants of the cities should contribute towards them,
if the Government grants are not sufficient. Above all
— and here is the rub — the funds should be honestly
administered and strictly used for this purpose.
The roads to these cities from the coast generally
r
Life in the Cities of the Andes 95
ascend the river - valleys, and wind along difficult and
precipitous side-hills. During the war with Chile, and
subsequent occupation of the country, the Chilian
soldiers invaded all these interior cities, notwithstanding
the difficulty of access thereto for men and cannons.
" How is it," I have often asked the Peruvian of the
interior cities, "that this was possible? There are
passes in these valleys which the enemy had, perforce^
to traverse, where twenty resolute men with a field-gun
could almost hold an army at bay." Their reply is that
the country was divided in civil war at the time, and that
little resistance was, in some cases, offered to the Chilian
invasion of the interior. Apathy and indifference marked
the behaviour of the inhabitants ; and, moreover, the
Peruvian Cholo soldier is not the equal in aggressiveness
or resistance of the Arucanian, which is the basis of
the Chilian common soldier. Stubborn resistance was,
however, in some cases offered.
The "common carrier" over the roads of the Andes
is the arriero, or muleteer. All freighting of goods
is done from the coast by means of pack-trains, and
the muleteer is an important element in the economic
life of the community. Dirty, picturesque, and hard-
working, he is a veritable knight of the road, charging
all he can from you, but generally doing all in his
power to serve you, with the exception of economising
time — a matter to him of little moment, and of surprise
that you should be impatient. How often have I cursed
his dilatoriness in getting away in the morning, and his
incapacity to see that it is not the same thing to arrive
to-morrow as to-day ! I recollect on one occasion being
obliged to waste an entire morning waiting for my
arriero and beasts. The place where I was staying had
a large blank wall, painted white, in full view of a
bridge crossing the Maranon river, where a good deal
of traffic generally passed ; and I amused myself during
the lost time in painting on this wall, in enormous black
letters, the words " Tiempo es oro" in English meaning,
"Time is money." A crowd of villagers soon collected
96 The Andes and the Amazon
to enquire the signification and reason of this legend ;
and probably to this day the words remain there, and
are studied by the wondering arrieros as they pass the
bridge, and bringing back to the simple people of the
place some recollection of the inglh who had sojourned
among them.
It is no easy matter, at times, to pass a pack-mule train
upon a mountain-path. On one side rises the rocky wall,
on the other is a sheer descent, and sometimes the ancient
carcasses of mules far below are seen, which have fallen
over, or been crowded off the path. When you hear the
tinkling of the leading animal — generally a horse — of an
approaching recua, or mule train, you and your mule
hug the wall side of the road, and let the others pass you
on the outside, taking care that your outside leg is not
carried away by the projecting burdens of the mules — tins
of petroleum or alcohol, baulks of timber, bundles of
" Manchester " goods, sacks of ore, or whatever they may
be carrying. It does not soothe one's temper to be
prodded in the leg with the corner of a sheet of corrugated
iron, for example, or to have your saddle-bags crushed by
the impact of a sack of silver ore !
However, you are generally safe enough, and watch the
train pass with interest. The line straggles up the steep
path ; the tinkling bell of the leader gets farther and
farther away ; the last, the arriero^ salutes you respectfully
with ^^Buenos DiaSy Sefior" and spurs his emaciated steed
to greater effort with his enormous spurs. His method
of admonishing his lagging pack animals is curious
and original. At times he addresses them in terms of
endearment or persuasion, begging them as a favour not
to delay, or crowd each other off the path. At others he
brings forth a long string of epithets, such as it would be
impossible to reproduce in these chaste chronicles. "Ah
— ill - bred female mule ! Ah — old horse of doubtful
ancestry ! " and so on, in picturesque and descriptive
obloquy ; and having at length exhausted his extensive
vocabulary he winds up with the last and deadliest insult
of all, which is contained in the single word, "Animal!"
Life in the Cities of the Andes 97
This has been reserved till last ; and if it fails to have the
desired effect, there is no remedy but for him to dismount
and approach the offending animal on foot, and employ
other methods.
These interior cities are much isolated from each other,
and from the coast. In his journeying from one to the
other the traveller is ever rising and descending, crossing
deep valleys and high ridges along which the trail winds
interminably. " One league an hour " is his general
average rate of travel, unless the ground is flat, and he
is unaccompanied by the pack-mule with his baggage.
What do the inhabitants of these places do to fill in
their existence ? it might be asked ; and truly there is
little to vary the monotony of time and circumstance in
those communities. Moreover, they do not appear to
be always sociable among each other, and the "defects
of small communities" are noticeable in the coldness
and jealousies which sometimes mark their intercourse.
However, they pass, at least, a tranquil existence; and
poverty is less acute than in European or North American
cities, whilst pride and snobbishness are not as marked as,
for example, in English country towns.
Hygienic conditions do not greatly trouble them. The
drains are open conduits which are flushed by a constant
stream of water diverted from the river which flows
through the campina. Heaps of garbage are deposited
at the street corners at night, and I recollect, in Arequipa,
that bands of huge dogs surrounded these in the dark,
almost disputing passage with the lonely pedestrian
returning late to his hotel. In some towns the wary
traveller will keep his eye open for the possible contents
of some receptacle, which might be discharged from some
balcony near which he were passing ! I once called down
the wrath of some Peruvian friends by stating that this
had occurred on several occasions. They indignantly
repudiated it, saying that such a thing was impossible in
a cultivated community ; and it did not mend matters
when I said that I had brought a good strong umbrella
from London, and should put it up when I went along the
G
98 The Andes and the Amazon
streets of that particular town again ! Umbrellas, I may
point out, are almost unknown in Peru.
In the plaza of these cities there is generally a retreta,
or performance by the band, although this is often con-
spicuous by its absence. In this respect the Peruvians
are much behind the Mexicans ; in Mexico, every town,
however small, has its regular serenata in the plaza. I
recollect on a certain evening — it was my birthday — in
a Peruvian town where I was staying, feeling awfully
ennuied. There was no distraction of any kind; all the
good people were shut up in their houses behind the
customary barred windows, and for a number of days
the band had failed to play, due to the lack of con-
tributors for its support among the inhabitants of the
city. Indifferent as the music of these performers was,
it would have broken the deadly monotony of the
evening, and an idea occurred to me. If the people of
the place were too stingy or poor to have the band
to-night, I would have it myself, on my own account!
To think was to act. I despatched my boy to find
the bandmaster, who shortly appeared. " How much
will you charge," I asked him, "to play me an hour's
retreta in the plaza ? " " Four soles, Senor (about eight
shillings)," he replied ; and the bargain being struck, he
departed to collect his musicians. Having dined, I
repaired to the deserted plaza at the hour I had indi-
cated, and took solitary possession in the chair which
my servant had brought, and waited for the band. It
came. A battered violin, a harp of huge size, and a
drum, and a stirring march was whanged and thumped
out upon the air. The effect was marked. Doors and
lattices were hastily thrown open in the houses adjoin-
ing the plaza ; curious persons issued forth, anxious to
learn the reason of this unexpected and unannounced
retreta ; others followed, a small crowd collected, and
soon pretty girls came forth to promenade, asking
among themselves who was the cause of the entertain-
ment. Afterwards, when the band made an attempt at
" God save the King," they learned that it was provided
Life in the Cities of the Andes 99
by the solitary and eccentric Britisher — the stranger
within their gates ; and I received various congratulations
upon my birthday anniversary. A dance was got up
at the house of one of the principal families, which I
attended. Some of my men, having imbibed too much
chacta in honour of the occasion, made a great disturb-
ance in one of the fondas^ or small houses of refresh-
ment ; struck a gendarme^ who wished to arrest them,
and caused a large crowd to collect in the street. The
Sub-Prefect, who came to enquire the meaning of the
disturbance, was hissed by some of the people — he was
not popular — and several arrests followed. I was obliged
to go and bail my servant out. So that my innocent
endeavour to break the monotony of the evening had
the unexpected effect of putting the whole place into
an uproar.
CHAPTER X
LIFE IN THE CITIES OF THE ANDES — Continued
The Peruvians are a hospitable people, as I have shown
elsewhere; and the traveller, especially if his errand be
a scientific one, is well received by the people of the
places he passes, who do all in their power for him. At
some houses where I have stayed, I have, out of polite-
ness, been obliged to consume as many as five substantial
meals in a single day, and I should hesitate to record
the number of copas, or small glasses, of wine or spirit
which are pressed upon one on such occasions. Feasts
are prepared, and the principal members of the com-
munity are invited, and the traveller speedily becomes
the centre of a group, who ply him with questions,
insist upon drinking with him, compliment him upon
his Spanish, and enlarge upon the topics of the day,
and the attractions or notable points of the neighbour-
hood. This is sometimes trying, but there has often
been to me much of novelty and pleasure in meeting
these people, and in fulfilling the part of the "dis-
tinguished foreigner" to their satisfaction.
I have at times been called on to make grandiloquent
speeches in return for their compliments — a difficult task
for an Englishman. On a certain occasion a shooting
match had been arranged between the civilians of the
town and a regiment of soldiers which had been tem-
porarily quartered there. I was requested to act as a
judge or umpire — "the intachable British sense of fair
play," as they kindly put it, being " absolutely necessary "
for the occasion. So all the notables of the place —
including myself — mounted their horses and foregathered
lOO
Life in the Cities of the Andes 101
in the plaza, whence a start was made to the shooting
range. The procession was headed by the Prefect ; next
came the Colonel of the regiment — the streets, it must
be mentioned, hardly permitted riding abreast — next,
myself, followed by the principal residents of the town,
whilst numerous "nobodies" brought up the rear. The
inhabitants lined the streets to see us pass, and enthusi-
astically applauded, arriving afterwards en masse at the
range to finish up anything in the way of '* free lunches "
which might be forthcoming.
Well, I took up position as umpire about fifty yards
to one side of the target, and it nearly cost me dear ;
for some wild shooting was performed by the civilian
challengers, and just as a mauser ball sang by my ear
and ploughed up the dust behind me, the bugle sounded
the note of "cover," which I promptly took. This had
been done by order of the Colonel at the firing line, as he
did not wish — he afterwards informed me — to see me killed.
After the match the principal event of the day came
off — the breakfast, or rather lunch. Much eloquence was
displayed during the terminating champagne, and it was
here that I passed the ordeal of making a speech in
Spanish. Some of the speakers had dwelt on the Chilian
invasion and indemnity of last century, as they often do
at such gatherings, for the recollection of these matters,
and the continued occupations of Tacna and Arica by
the Chilians, rankles deeply in the breast of the Peruvian
ft; — their Alsace — Lorraine. One of them, the Prefect, had
made some kind remarks about the pleasure they had
had in seeing foreigners among them on that occasion —
remarks which called for some acknowledgment. There
were present a German, an Italian, and a Spaniard, all
older men than myself; but as they made no show of
getting up, and as glances were directed towards me,
there was nothing for it but to speak, and fortunately
inspiration came. With a wave of my hand I bid the
band cease playing, and summoning my best Spanish,
I briefly spoke of the pleasure I had experienced in
being among them, and then wound up with the
102 The Andes and the Amazon
following : " Gentlemen ; civilians, or soldiers, — I have
observed your unrest regarding your neighbour — Chile.
I know something of that country, from my travels, as
I also know much of your own ; and I think I see,
with a philosophical eye on the horizon of the future,
that day approaching when Chile will ask to be admitted
as a distant Province of Peru ! "
The effect was tremendous. Soldiers and civilians
hammered the table with bottles and glasses, and the
Colonel came round and positively fell on my neck ;
whilst the glasses of champagne, whisky, beer, brandy,
and every other alcoholic drink on the ground which
were pressed upon me would speedily have rendered
me fuera de combate had I partaken of them all. I
was the hero of the moment.
Of course, by this sally, I meant nothing which
could offend Chilian susceptibilities. I referred rather to
geographical and commercial considerations, such as a
unification of territory, or interests which surely must,
at some future date, take place among nations of the
South - American Continent. Also, the Peruvians are
undoubtedly worthy of some sympathy in the question
of Tacna and Arica ; looking at it disinterestedly.
I fear that rather too many healths were drunk on
this occasion. A great deal of food and drink had been
brought on to the ground for the banquet, and neither
were wasted, for, possibly on account of the jollity
which obtained, the populace which attended thronged
around the kitchen afterwards, and made a clean sweep
of everything in sight. I saw an Indian woman and
her baby regaling themselves with raw sausages and a
bottle of champagne ; whilst another Cholo improved the
occasion and appeased his appetite with a tin of pate
de fois gras and sweet French biscuits !
Whatever may be the disadvantages of living in such
remote communities as these, it must be conceded that
living is not dear. Ground can be obtained for a mere
nominal price ; building material is absurdly cheap, houses
usually being constructed of adobe dug and made in situ.
Life in the Cities of the Andes 103
and with roofs either flat or covered with thatch or tiles.
Any foreigner with a small fixed income could live in such
towns with considerable comfort — not, of course, in luxury
— and enjoy distinction socially, and take prominent part
in the affairs of the community. He could easily acquire
servants, land, cattle, plantations and mines, create valu-
able properties and do much good, if he were an educated
and well-disposed person. The country is stagnant for
want of money to develop it, and a great deal can be
obtained for a very small expenditure.
In these places anything that may offer occasion
for diversion is seized upon. The people are fond of
music and dancing, and bailes are frequent. I have
often been pressed to attend these ; and though I have
protested that I did not care for dancing, they insisted
on my going, unless I were positively able to assure
them that it was " mail day," or other valid excuse.
" Come, Sefior," they would often say. " We have not, it
is true, got the best whisky such as you Englishmen
always require {sic\ but, on the other hand, we can offer you
an open heart ; and plenty of pisco (native grape-spirit) ;
and — there are pretty girls to fall in love with ! "
Who could resist such an appeal ? I go to the ball.
The ladies sit on one side of the room on benches
against the wall, and the men on the other, with at first
a good deal of restraint. But after being warmed up
by dancing and the consumption of copitas of pisco,
the company becomes much more animated, and a good
deal of " falling in love " takes place : bright eyes give
forth expressive glances, hands are squeezed freely, and
at length all adjourn to supper, after which the dancing
continues until the early hours of the morning.
In Peruvian cities, generally, there are far more women
than men, and the relations between the sexes are not
governed with the same rigidity as in Europe — a condition
which it would be impertinent for the foreigner to criticise,
in view of matters of race, temperament, and general
conditions. In Spanish - America generally there is a
tendency in this respect to a mode of life somewhat.
104 The Andes and the Amazon
approaching that of Bible history. Man, in the primitive
and undeveloped conditions of the interior communities,
seems to be called upon by Nature not to be too artificial
or rigid in his customs ; and to increase and multiply is
her first mandate. The atmosphere, the environment, the
general conditions of life are full of difference to those
of Europe or North America, and do not fail to exercise
some effect, even upon the foreigner.
I have referred elsewhere to the strong influence the
Church and its officials exercise in these communities :
an influence sometimes for good, sometimes for evil. On
one occasion I inadvertently masqueraded — of all things,
as a bishop ! One morning, quite early, my boy came to
rouse me, saying that a lady wished to see me urgently.
I arose hastily in my pyjamas, and covered myself with
a long black cloak that I had, as the morning was chilly,
and entered the room I reserved for visitors. An elderly
lady, of one of the best families of the place, was there
awaiting me in the obscurity of the early morning ; and,
sitting down at some distance from her, I put myself at
her service.
" Seftor," she began, " there has been an abduction !
My daughter has been taken away in the night ! "
Surprised at this remarkable beginning, I remained
silent for a moment. Surely this worthy dame was not
accusing me of having abducted her daughter ! I searched
my memory — no difficult operation — but finding no such
incident recorded there, remained with a clear conscience
and an undisturbed and judicial exterior.
"An abduction," I repeated, "of your daughter!"
The lady replied in the affirmative, and went on
volubly to describe the details of the matter, as far as
she knew them.
" I regret very much to hear of the affair," I said,
as she paused. " Only tell me in what way I can be of
any assistance to you, and I will do anything in my
power. But I hardly know what I can do."
" Will you not use your influence to force the young
man to marry her at once ? " she asked.
Life in the Cities of the Andes 105
"But I do not even know him. I fear it would be
useless," I replied in surprise.
The lady had been regarding me rather closely for,
a few seconds, and a light seemed to dawn upon her.
"But you are the Bishop, are you not?" she asked
breathlessly.
" No, Madam ; I regret to say I am not a Bishop. I
wish I were, in order that I might assist you," I returned
gravely.
"But, at least, you are the Bishop's secretary?" she
asked in agitation.
" I am sorry to say that I am not even the Bishop's
secretary. I am an Engineer," I answered.
The poor lady was overcome with embarrassment at
hearing this. I begged her, however, not to be troubled
about it, that what she had told me should be held as
confidential. It transpired that she had entered the
wrong house — the Bishop lived exactly opposite me — and
moreover, seeing me in a long cloak, with a shaven face,
and in the gloom of the early morning she had been
deceived. She departed, thanking me, and I saw her
enter the dwelling opposite. The sequence of the matter
I never learned, as, of course, my lips were sealed against
enquiry.
The foregoing incident had, if I recollect rightly
taken place near Carnival time. During the three days*
play and licence, to which the whole of the population
of the country gives way at this time, many interesting
things occur.
Formality is much relaxed, especially between the
sexes, and friends invade each other's houses armed with
squirts containing scented waters ; india - rubber toy
balloons filled with water, known as globos ; packets of
powders : all of which they discharge over each other,
amid much horse-play. They get soaked to the skin
and covered with powder ; especially the girls, whose
hair and dress I have seen sometimes rendered a sticky
mass. It is considered part of the game sometimes to
place a young lady, despite her struggles, in a bath
106 The Andes and the Amazon
(where baths exist) with all her clothes on, and turn on
the tap ! There is one favourable circumstance accruing
from this temporary state of licence, which is that more
marriages result — brought about, doubtless, by the stirred
blood of contact in their friendly struggles. At any
rate, I have been informed that the birth-rate sometimes
shows an upward fluctuation at a certain period after
an unusually animated Carnival time !
During these three days it is absolutely impossible
to walk up the streets of a town, unless you are prepared
to be wet to the skin and covered with powder. From
all the overhanging balconies dozens of globos are dis-
charged ; even entire buckets of water and bags of flour
are fired at you, as well as explosive squibs and coils
of paper, and confetti. When these matters give out,
less agreeable ammunition is sometimes employed.
As I generally felt little desire to take part in these
boisterous affairs, I usually lay low in my habitation ; but
one evening — it was in Lima, the capital, although
similar things happened in the interior cities — feeling
very ennuied, I thought I would venture out to the
post - office for my letters, hoping by taking a round-
about route through side streets to escape the storm of
water and powder I knew was raging in the main street.
It was useless. No sooner had I sallied forth — covered
with a cloak and an old hat — than a well-directed globo
from a balcony partly soaked me. The street was lined
with balconies, and every balcony had its full complement
of pretty girls, all armed with ample ammunition of globos.
It must be explained that these missals are heavy, and
burst upon striking one, covering you with water, and
are capable of being hurled with unerring aim.
Yells of delight arose from the balconies as I
appeared. What fortunate chance had brought a nice-
looking Englishman along that unfrequented street? The
opportunity could not be lost. A veritable hail of globos
whizzed around me ; but I seemed to bear a charmed
life, and they only burst upon the pavement at my
feet. Seeing that I was in for it, I pulled my collar
Life in the Cities of the Andes 107
up and hat -brim down, and walked calmly along the
middle of the street. Dozens of globos and bags of
flour saluted me from every point of vantage, but these
I did not much mind, as they generally fell short ; and
the buckets of water could only be emptied upon any
one forgetful enough to pass directly beneath a balcony :
which I avoided. Towards the end of the street the
fire slackened somewhat, as the houses were without
balconies, and here I breathed a moment, deciding as
to what course I could most safely pursue to gain the
post-office, as I did not want to be soaked. The gauntlet
I had run had been severe, but was not, I knew, of the
worst.
Looking up I beheld two isolated balconies opposite
each other, and the occupants — some ladies whom I
knew — were making signs to me to approach. I did so,
little suspecting treachery, for as one of them laughingly
engaged me in conversation, the others, without warning,
shot out a bucket full of water, which, had it struck me
fairly, would have drenched me from head to foot. This
was too much. Even the sangre fria of an Englishman
was aroused, and I decided on vengeance. Calling some
of the boys, who are always about on these occasions with
cloths full of globos for sale, I purchased a large heap of
ammunition, and proceeded to wage a fearful war upon
the balconies at both sides of me, my volleys being hotly
replied to by the ladies. Taking careful aim, I succeeded
in scarcely losing a shot, and had the satisfaction of see-
ing the globos burst on my fair antagonists' heads or
limbs, soaking them to the skin. The street was narrow,
and buckets of water, globos, and bags of flours, from
both sides, freely reached me, with the eflect that may
be imagined ; but I waged the single-handed war, until
a large crowd collected in my aid. This, however, seemed
ungallant, and I retired, when the ladies closed the shutters
of the balcony windows. I did not mind the wetting.
I was charitable enough to know that I had at least
afforded them some sport, for it was an unfrequented
spot, and, indeed, they afterwards informed me that they
108 The Andes and the Amazon
had only had the opportunity before my arrival of soak-
ing a few wretched Indians and a postman, and that
when they saw me they were about to send out their
servant to implore me to come and play.
But the evening's adventures were not yet at an end.
Having obtained my letters, I put them for security against
wetting in an inner pocket, and prepared for the return
journey — useless to look for a vehicle, for all were
occupied. A favourite dodge of people in the balconies
is to tie a bag of flour to a stout cord, and when any
one passes below to let it swiftly down, striking them on
the hat, and then to haul it rapidly up again. This
appears to afford them keen delight, and many are the
unwary foot-passengers who are caught in this way. So
it befell me. I felt a stunning bang on the head, but
instantly realising what it was, I reached quickly upwards
with my stick and successfully hooked the bag. In vain
they pulled from above, and in vain they poured down
torrents of water, for the floor of the balcony, under
which I stood, acted as a shelter, and I retained my
hold. At last I heard appealing voices, and peering
upward I saw three faces bending over — young ladies
again — for women are, I think, the principal perpetrators
of these affairs — whom I knew. They begged me to
let go, as they did not want to lose their weapon. I
promised on condition that no water should be thrown
as I emerged, to which they assented gleefully. But I
ought to have been prepared for this new proof of female
perfidy, for scarcely had I let go, still looking up at the
pretty flushed faces above me, when down came a great
bucket of water, absolutely deluging me from head to
foot, whilst roars and shrieks of delight accompanied
this treacherous act!
This was too much, really. Hastily filling my pockets
and hands with globos, squirts, and powders, from a
boy who stood by, I rushed up the staircase, and with-
out ceremony penetrated into the room above. Here an
indescribable mHee ensued, in which all became soaked,
torn, and covered with white, to say nothing of the
Life in the Cities of the Andes 109
furniture. " Stupid ! " they said, when I reproached them.
" If you had been a Peruvian instead of an English-
man you would have known better than to believe
a woman's promise at Carnival time ! " Hot punch
was brought in as a preventive against taking cold ;
and the ladies kindly insisting on having my clothes
dried and brushed, I changed them, being obliged, on
account of there not being any gentleman's garments
available, to dress myself in one of their frocks, in
which guise I had, perforce, to pass the rest of the
evening in their company. I do not know why I record
these foolish matters, except to show how the most
serious-minded and circumspect among us may at times
be drawn into frivolities by no fault of their own.
A quaint and pleasing feature of travel in the interior
regions of Peru is the despedida, or farewell to any well-
known visitor or resident who is leaving. His friends
foregather, mounted on horseback, and accompany him
some distance out of the town, generally as far as the
nearest dividing ridge of the mountains. Here all halt,
and the departing guest produces from his own or his
servant's saddle-bag the liquid refreshment with which
he has provided himself for the occasion : beer, whisky,
or champagne, according to the occasion. The bottles
are opened, and healths are drunk all round, and often
verses are improvised about the city which lies below,
or about the visitor, or any other conceivable subject.
The empty bottles are then placed on the rocks, and
all take a hand at breaking them with rifle or revolver
shots, from the various weapons which each may carry.
The echoes die away ; a last health is drunk, and all
mount their horses, waving a last salute, when hosts
and guest take their separate ways ; the former return-
ing to their habitations, and the latter descending the
valley road which leads him away to other scenes,
carrying with him kind recollections of their hospitality.
CHAPTER XI
THE REGIONS OF SANDIA AND CARABAYA, AND
LAKE TITICACA^
Early in August, 1904, I left Lima with the object of
examining some ancient gold mines in the interior of
Peru, beyond the Andes, upon the head-waters of the
river Inambari. This river is an affluent of the great
Madre de Dios river, which forms part of the fluvial
system draining the western portion of the watershed of
the Amazonian basin, and which, rising in the Andes
near the boundary of Peru with Bolivia, unites with the
river Beni, and under the name of the river Madera falls
into the Amazon.
Three days' steaming from Callao brought me to
the port of Mollendo, previously described, whence the
Southern Railway of Peru, via Arequipa, took me to the
station of Tirapata, a distance of 337 miles by train.
The railway crosses the Andes at a height above sea-
level of 14,666 feet at "Crucero Alto," and descends
thence into the basin of Lake Titicaca. It then runs
north-westerly to the station Sicuani, from which point
construction work is now being carried out, in order to
complete the connection to the old Inca capital of Cuzco.
Looking westward from the railway near the summit —
Crucero Alto — a glimpse is obtained of the peak of
Coropuna, of unknown height,^ but which, judging by its
considerable ice-cap, must be of great elevation. The
accompanying view is not taken from this point, however,
but from much nearer the peak, on a subsequent journey.
The elevation of Tirapata, where I exchanged the train
for the saddle, is 12,731 feet. It is surrounded by the
^ Published in the Royal Geographical Journal.
' Given in Peruvian Geographies as 32,900 feet.
1 10
Sandia, Carabaya, and Lake Titicaca 111
vast stretches of dreary, flat land, ox pampa^ which extend
north-westerly from the shore of Lake Titicaca along the
Pucara and Azangaro rivers. Save at midday, when the
sun shines strongly, the region is cold and bleak, and
the air rarefied, due to the altitude. From the same
cause cereals and alfalfa do not flourish, and the chief
product is that of potatoes, and the principal industry
among the Quechua Indian inhabitants that of breeding
alpacas and sheep for their wool, and llamas as beasts
of burden.
The first three days of my journey were performed
over a new road, which had been constructed by an
American mining company, and on the third night I
arrived at the town of Crucero, 13,800 feet. From this
point the road becomes very rough and broken, due to
the steep ascent to the main summit of the Andes,
known at that part of its course as the Cordillera of
Azangaro. The name " Azangaro," I may mention in
passing, is that of a town on the river of the same name,
and is stated to be a corruption of a Quechua word,
meaning "the farthest away," as it is supposed to be
the furthest easterly point — the Cordillera — dominated
by the Inca regime.
The trail crossing the summit, skirts the shore of a
large lake — Lake Aricoma — whose green and blue pro-
fundity reflected the peaks, covered with perpetual snow,
which arise immediately upon its eastern verge, and
whose glaciers give birth to the constant streams which
feed it. The altitude of this beautiful lake is about
15,000 feet above sea -level, and the road ascends to
about 16,500 feet shortly beyond, crossing a portion of
the ice-cap. I again passed this point upon my return
journey, and shall further speak of it. To the north-
west are seen some of the snow - clad peaks of the
Nevado de Vilcanota : a colossal range.
This summit of Aricoma marks the water-parting of
the continent, the southern side forming that of the
watershed of Titicaca, whilst the northern is that of
the Amazonian basin. The usual Andean storm came
112 The Andes and the Amazon
on as I descended ; and, pelted, battered, and soaked
with rain and snow, I arrived at nightfall at the village
of Limbani — 11,700 feet altitude — and lodged at the
house of the gobernador. Here I met a Peruvian
engineer, bound for the same place as myself, and we
decided to make the journey in company, to my objec-
tive point, known as Aporoma^ where the gold mines are
found. Near Limbani are grottoes containing mummies,
which I regret I had not time to examine. I was informed
that the mummies exist in a sitting posture.
Having overcome the difficulties and delays which are
the invariable accompaniment of the organising of an
expedition in Peru, we set out in the early morning on
the last day of August. The expedition included ten
Indians, armed with machetes, etc., and carrying heavy
packs consisting of our bedding, implements, and food
for three weeks' journey ; for the route lay through an
uninhabited region where no supplies could be obtained.
Nine of these Indians were the usual Cholos of the
Sierra, whilst the tenth was a Chuncho, of the — reputedly
— cannibal tribe of that name, inhabiting the far interior
of the Montana. Nevertheless, the Chuncho, having come
to the Sierra when comparatively young, had become
somewhat civilised, and was, moreover, almost the only
one among them who could speak or understand a little
Spanish.
I had taken a consensus of opinion as to the route
it would be necessary to traverse, and as a result decided
to go on foot — a proceeding which I found to have been
wise, as the trails were impossible in places for horses or
mules. Our way lay at first along the river Limbani,
and leaving this the trail wound up a long, steep ridge
to a height of 13,500 feet. The granite formation at
Limbani had now changed to a slate, and gold-bearing
quartz lodes are encountered in the region. Having
crossed the high ridge, slowly and with frequent halts,
for the rarefied air of that altitude renders walking
fatiguing and the work upon the lungs severe, we
descended the difficult zigzag and scarcely visible trail
Sandia, Carabaya, and Lake Titicaca 118
to a grass-covered valley below, and slept in a tambo,
upon the banks of a stream near a small Indian village
known as Cutani. A tambo is a building which serves
for the common accommodation of travellers, and a few
of these huts — for they are nothing more — are maintained
in one or two places in Peru by local authorities for
that purpose, although, unfortunately, they are very scarce,
notwithstanding that routes of travel often pass through
uninhabited regions.
Poor as was this tambo, its roof was water-proof, and
there was some dry firewood inside, which ensured supper
and a dry bed. For many subsequent nights these
desirable adjuncts were only obtained with considerable
difficulty, as, in order to sleep within a hut of any
description, this had first to be constructed.
The progress of the party was, as regards actual
leagues covered, relatively slow, for the Indian carriers
were rather heavily laden, and my companion, moreover,
was not a rapid pedestrian. I frequently found myself
far in advance of the rest of the party, alone in those
strange and untravelled solitudes of the Andes, upon
the border of the mysterious Montana.
The descent of the eastern slope of the Andes is
rapid, and the change of temperature as the traveller
approaches the region of the forests very noticeable.
At the end of the second day I found myself alone,
following the trail along what appeared to be the back
of a high, sharp ridge ; for the heavens were entirely
obscured in a thick, warm mist, and the landscape
entirely shut out from view. Looking through the
bushes on either hand, it was apparent that the ground
descended precipitously on both sides, and, indeed, on
the right hand I could hear, as if far below, the murmur
of running water. This I knew to be the river Pacchani,
which rises in the Cordillera and empties into the
Huari-huari, and so into the Inambari river, before
mentioned.
The mist panoramas in these regions are remarkable
at certain seasons, and the rains are heavy and continuous
H
114 The Andes and the Amazon
after midday. I sat down and waited for the rest of the
party, and as soon as the Indians approached set them
to work in cutting boughs and building a shelter for the
night on the only spot available — a small ledge of rock
about 6 feet wide, with an abrupt precipice of some
thousands of feet of sheer descent into the river below,
and over which our feet almost hung as we lay down
to sleep upon our blankets.
For two days more we pursued our journey, the rain
pouring down upon us incessantly. The "trail" — if by
courtesy I may term it such — passed at times through a
series of rock - basins worn in the slate, and progress
was made through them as through a succession of
"baths," for they were full of water from the rain. I
made no pretence of keeping dry ; it was impossible
during the march, for, apart from the " baths " underfoot,
the vegetation met overhead, and being loaded with
water sent down its showers at every step. Impatient
of the wearied Indian bearers, I carried a machete in
my hand, and often was obliged to carve a way through
the thick growth of the brushwood which covered the
old trail, for we had now left the open slopes of the
Cordillera, and entered upon the upper edge of the
Montana, or region of forests.
The altitude at which this vegetation begins is from
10,000 to 11,000 feet above sea-level, and the line of
demarcation is strongly noticeable. Above are the slopes
and valleys of the pajonaleSy or grass-covered areas, free
of trees of any description ; whilst below the traveller
enters among thickets of tangled brushwood of all
kinds, and in places of beautiful flowering shrubs. As
he pursues his journey onward and downward palms
and tree-ferns appear, the atmosphere becomes warmer,
the mists lie heavier, and the silence is broken only
by the patter and fall of the heavy water-drops from
the boughs above. Scarcely a living thing appears to
inhabit this upper fringe of the tropical Montana. There
are no monkeys, no snakes, no birds, and very few insects.
An occasional puma is heard, and at times the swish of
Sandia, Carabaya, and Lake Titicaca 115
condorian wings in the ambient above ; but Nature here
is in a changing phase, and her profusion of animal life
seems to be reserved for the more tropical interior, still
many leagues away towards the sunrise.
At times the mists lifted for brief moments, and gave
me glimpses of far-reaching tree-clad slopes divided by
profound valleys, stretching away into the vast Amazonian
basin. At a turn of the trail, which brought me out
upon the brow of a hill, I beheld a cascade on the
opposing slope of a valley — a high, white, lace-like fall
among the green background of the branches ; and I
hailed it with satisfaction, for, from descriptions of the
place, I knew it to be not far from the point of my
destination. It forms the source of a small river, the
Puli-puli, which runs close to the mines of Aporoma.
Difficult as the trail had been, it nevertheless bore
witness to the considerable work which had at one time
been carried on at these mines, for long portions of it
were constructed of slabs of stone placed in the form
of steps, and must have been made at considerable
expense in the past centuries when the mines were
worked, first by the Incas, and later by the Spaniards,
for these latter did but work on a larger scale, in many
cases, what the former had previously discovered and
used, as elsewhere described.
At length, after more than four days on foot from
Limbani, and sleeping and eating under difficulties, we
arrived at Aporoma. It was already evening ; the rain
was falling heavily, as usual, and there was no habita-
tion or living being in the vicinity, notwithstanding that
in bygone ages it had been the scene of the activity of
thousands of workers, and that a village had existed
there. But after diligent search among the vegetation,
in a spot which the Indian guide — with that strongly-
developed faculty for locality which his kind possesses —
had stated as being the site of the former house near
which he had worked when a boy, the walls of a
habitation were discovered. Animating all hands, I
directed the clearing away of the heavy growth of
116 The Andes and the Amazon
vegetation which cumbered them, and within a couple
of hours the interior was free ; a durable roof, composed
of strong branches covered deep with leaves and grass
was constructed upon the walls ; our beds were arranged
upon a floor-covering of aromatic boughs, and a fire was
kindled in one corner; so that we were able to con-
template the coming night with something of equanimity.
The altitude at this point was about 7,200 feet; the
temperature at 8 P.M., 46° Fahr., and at 3 P.M., in the
afternoon, 60° Fahr.
The mines are worthy of description. They consist
of a large area between the rivers Huayna, or Puli-puli,
and Pacchani, of Tertiary gravel : the bed of an ancient
river, upheaved by some eruptive action, probably, and
resting upon a bed-rock of clay -slate. As previously
stated, they were worked many years ago as open placer
mines. Conduits and sluices were constructed of stone,
and tunnels through the gravel banks, and various other
works, which in some ancient records are stated to have
cost a sum equal to more than half a million pounds.
Vast quantities of gold were extracted, and the old
workings — very extensive — attest the activity which was
displayed. A "grant" of six thousand Indians was
"spent," it is stated, upon this work, by a Spanish
viceroy, and much of the gold extracted went to Spain.
The "grant" of Indians principally left its bones in
the vicinity of its toil ; decimation of the population
came about by rebellion, greed, and avarice ; abandon-
ment followed ; and Nature presently covered up the
scarred evidences of man's transitory handiwork with
her generous robes of flower and foliage.
I penetrated some leagues further into the Montafta,
following the course of the river, and descended to an
elevation of 5,000 feet. The temperature here was much
higher, due to the descent, and registered in the evening
69° Fahr. The hill-slopes and valleys are thickly covered
with trees of comparatively small girth and height, and the
existence of a few cedars marked the beginning of the
region where these flourish. The country is exceedingly
Sandia, Carabaya, and Lake Titicaca 117
broken and difficult of access here, and the rivers are
torrential and rapid. The geological formation is a slate,
heavily charged with iron pyrites, and containing quartz
veins, gold-bearing.
Returning to Aporoma to finish my study of the
mines, I was confronted with a strike of the Indians.
The cause of this was the lack of provisions, which had
given out. To gain a couple of days, we despatched home
those among them who were not absolutely necessary,
and supplied the remainder with food from our own
slim remaining stores. But at length I had to give the
order to depart, for there remained nothing but rice and
tea ; and on this we were obliged to subsist for five days,
under forced marches, in order to get out of the Montafta
and return to Limbani.
The traveller has continually to observe the truth
that misfortunes never come singly ; and on the second
day one of the Indian bearers — the Chuncho — disappeafed,
and left his baggage in the trail. As the other bearers
were already over-loaded, it was impossible to distribute
his bundle among them, and, ordering a halt, I was
obliged to have a selection made of articles which
could be dispensed with most easily. I abandoned my
travelling-cot and various articles of clothing, and my
companion some of his instruments, whilst we reduced
the number of our cooking utensils to the lowest possible
limit. The Chuncho we never saw again, and the
Indians considered that he had gone to rejoin his tribe.
As a tribute to aboriginal honesty, I may state that he
took nothing away but his own things, notwithstanding
that among the articles he carried were my saddle-bags,
containing a sack of Peruvian and Bolivian silver dollars.
At the end of the third day our meagre rations of rice
and tea were concluded, and we formed camp early, with
the intention of making a long march on the morrow to
the town of Phara, which was rather nearer than Limbani.
A rude roof of branches was constructed, but, fortunately,
the rain had held off during the return journey. The
sky had been clear, but as evening fell the mists arose
118 The Andes and the Amazon
and formed one of those curious and weird transforma-
tion scenes such as the traveller in the Andes may-
witness. Some descriptions of these I have in my note-
book, written on the spot, and they are reproduced in
the chapter descriptive of the Andes.
We duly arrived at Phara, and breakfasted at the
home of the cura^ and in return for his hospitality photo-
graphed the ancient church there. Within this building
is an enormous altar composed of mirrors and brass-work,
which latter was at one time covered with gold and
silver. The point of interest about this altar was that it
had originally belonged to the church at Aporoma, I
was informed, which had stood in the village there — the
vestiges of which, as I have described, are now buried
under the dense vegetation — the growth of generations.
Gold is found even at Phara. The cura, during our
conversation on the matter, said to me : " Oh, I have
got plenty of gold in my garden ! " And, taking a
porongo, or pan, we went outside, where from among
the potatoes an Indian servant took some shovelfuls of
black soil. This the cura skilfully washed out, and then
handed me the pan, in the bottom of which were several
flakes of alluvial gold.
At Limbani I paid off the Indians, and, having with
great difficulty secured mules, we again ascended the
steep eastern slope of the Cordillera, and arrived at
Aricoma, before described. The Indians gave themselves
over to a carousal at Limbani, and I may here again
mention the evil effects which are being produced in the
regions of the Cordillera by the abuse of alcohol among
the indigenes. I have on some occasions had to waste
several days in attempts to secure beasts and a guide
in these interior towns ; but, nevertheless, have met
cavalcades of twenty or thirty mules or horses entering
or leaving the place, and loaded with — what? — square
tins of alcohol ! This terrible stuff is alcohol of 40 degrees,
made from sugar-cane, and enormous quantities are con-
sumed by the Indians, who will go to any lengths to
obtain it. At times it is impossible to purchase a piece
Sandia, Carabaya, and Lake Titicaca 119
of bread in the native shops, or anything in the way of
provisions ; but, nevertheless, they are all replete with
bottles of this aguardiente, or rum. I have seen huts
covered with the sides of the empty tins, and in one
place the church is actually roofed with these tins ! It
is a lamentable state of affairs, and must lead to the
diminution of the working population, but its remedy
seems to lie only in the hands of the wealthy sugar-
growers, who make the rum, and who are sometimes the
legislators of the country.
The lake of Aricoma runs north and south, about
2 leagues in length. Its depth seems to be very consider-
able, as I have observed in many other similar lakes
which are so remarkable a feature of the Cordillera of
the Andes throughout its length. The existence of these
numerous bodies of water, actually astride the summit of
the mountain range, is a matter which arrests the attention
of the engineer, and probably some day they will form
a valuable source of hydraulic power.
Our journey was slow, for my companion was not a
good horseman, and a heavy snowstorm overtook us upon
the edge of the lake. Night was approaching, and the
group of Indian huts we had expected to reach was still
many miles distant. It was useless to proceed, and I
called a halt. The only shelter was that afforded by the
remaining walls of an ancient Inca ruin, and 1 formed
a sort of tent by securing the corners of the sheets of my
bedding into the interstices of the stone-work with stones
rammed in. Under this we arranged our couches, and
made coffee over our spirit-lamp, afterwards obtaining a
few hours' sleep, whilst the snow steadily piled up on
our fragile roof, which, later, fell down upon us ! Not-
withstanding the altitude — 15,000 feet at this place — it
was not very cold, the thermometer scarcely going down
to freezing point, which was fortunate.
Instead of returning over my original route, I had
decided to extend my journey to include others of the
auriferous regions of the provinces of Sandia. We, there-
fore, followed a south-easterly course along the tableland
120 The Andes and the Amazon
which forms a plateau below the snow-capped peaks, at
an altitude more or less equal to that already recorded,
with the town and mines of Poto at our objective point.
The topographical and geological formation over this
distance is remarkable. Our way lay principally along
the bank of the Poto river, which runs through extensive
pampas or plateaux, as above stated, of auriferous glacial
or alluvial drift. In many places the Indians work on
the banks of the streams by the method known to them
as acochar, which consists in damming the water up in a
small reservoir, and then allowing it suddenly to flow
out and impinge against a bank or area of auriferous
material, washing it down into a rude stone-paved sluice,
where the gold is recovered. These auriferous pampas
and banks, which cover distances of many leagues, are
probably deposits formed by glacial action upon the
gold-bearing slates and quartz of which the Cordillera
is composed. The stones and material are not water-
worn, as in alluvial gravel elsewhere, but are angular,
and contained in an ashen-hued soil, carrying the gold.
The pampas are strewn with boulders of white quartz
for many leagues, which catch the rays of the sun. The
more broken portions of the plateau and the lateral valleys
are covered with pasture, and hundreds of thousands of
head of sheep, llamas, and alpacas abound, belonging to
the Indians of the region. I encountered large herds of
vicuna, and quantities of geese, ducks, etc., upon the
numerous small lakes. Some of these plateaux have
probably been at a former epoch lake - bottoms ; and,
indeed, I passed through remarkable formations, consist-
ing of long " shores " of conglomerate, or indurated gravel
which stood up in vast cliffs underlaid by caves, and
which latter were the home of thousands of vizcachas, or
native squirrels.
The town and mines of Poto are at an altitude above
sea-level of nearly 16,000 feet. Very extensive mining has
been carried out here by the Indians before and during the
Spanish rigime, by the method previously described of
acochar. There is, at present, a modern plant working by
Sandia, Carabaya, and Lake Titicaca 121
the "hydraulic" method with water in "monitors" under
pressure, upon an enormous moraine of gold-bearing
detritus. The huge bank descends from the Cordillera
of Ananea, above the line of perpetual snow a few miles
distant. There are also mines at Ananea, more than
17,000 feet elevation, and these workings are certainly
among the highest on the globe. During my stay at
Poto (in September) the thermometer registered generally
104° Fahr. at midday, in the sun, and 37°-4 Fahr. in the
shade, by which it will be seen how considerable is the
range of temperature due to heat of the sun and the
rarefaction of the air. Nevertheless the cold is not
excessively intense even at the coldest season, although
snow and rain-storms are frequent and severe. Terrible
thunderstorms occur, and the lightning continually strikes
exposed points. I may here mention that the presence of
electricity in the atmosphere, even at normal times, is very
noticeable. The boas, made of vicuna fur, which one
wears as protection against the wind, and one's clothing
" crackle " in a remarkable manner when the least friction is
applied. The same effect is strongly produced in comb-
ing one's hair ; and if it be done in the dark, sparks are
observed to be produced by the friction of the comb. At
Poto a curious scene is observed — the half of a church
tower protruding from a stony plain. Seven years ago a
lake or reservoir burst, somewhat higher up in the hills,
and brought down vast masses of gravel and dSrts, which
buried the village entirely, leaving only the church tower.
Leaving Poto, I continued my journey alone, except
for my Indian guide, still in a south-easterly direction,
with the intention of skirting the northern end of Lake
Titicaca, and arriving at the station of Juliaca, on the
southern railway of Peru.
The country was entirely covered with freshly-fallen
snow. The temperature was like that of the breaking up
of an English winter and the coming of spring, for the air
was soft and mild in the early morning. Beautiful white
cumulous cloud-masses against a glorious blue sky, with a
bright sun, were reflected in the mirror-surfaces of the
122 The Andes and the Amazon
numerous small lakes I passed. Magnificent water-fowl
swam upon these lakes, and I obtained one of them with
a shot from my long-barrelled Colt's revolver — this not as
a wanton taking of life, but that the bird would supply the
scarcity of provisions I knew I should encounter on the
morrow.
Bands of vicuna stared wonderingly as I passed, and
one splendid fellow — a sentinel upon a knoll — is almost
within reach of the revolver's range, so near that I am
tempted to try a shot. But I might have saved my
cartridge, for he and his ten companions are away like
the wind, only to stop and utter their curious and plaintive,
protesting or warning cry 300 yards away, where they
stand gracefully and gaze at me. Both the vicufla and
the huanaco, or guanaco, are found at these elevations,
the latter being less plentiful.
Ever these glorious white, cloud-massed, cumulus
columns, upward flung into the blue empyrean ; ever
these silent and virgin everlasting peaks of eternal snow,
which I am paralleling, upon the Bolivian border, and
whose mysterious canons and violet snow-cornices blend
from time to time with the fleecy mist-matter above
them ; ever this unbroken solitude, and the feeling of
being upon the top of matter ; and ever this extensive
silence, undisturbed save by the cry of the alcamarini'^
or the vicuna. Strange and beautiful region, working
out some function of the world's changes in the plan of
Nature's endless operations !
But the late afternoon advances, and a bitter wind
arises from the snow- clad Cordillera and changes the
aspect of all, and the sun has long since set, when, cold,
hungry, and weary, I arrive at the town of Cojata. The
industry of the people here is that of the breeding of
alpacas and llamas, and the buying and selling of wool.
Gold mining is also carried on, and a considerable trade
done with Bolivia in the aguardiente, or rum, before spoken
of. Cojata is very near the frontier line of that country,
which there consists of a small stream intersecting the
^ A white, gull-like bird.
Indian Junks on Lakk Titicaca.
A Strket in Arequipa.
{See p. 97,.
Sandia, Carabaya, and Lake Titicaca 123
pampa (part of the river Suchis). The vast glacial
moraines of gold-bearing detritus are a feature of the
region, as are also the pampas of similar material ; and
there is no doubt that these provinces of Sandia and
Carabaya form one of the most important auriferous
regions in the world. The Bolivian and Peruvian Indians
here speak nothing but their language of Aymard. They
— men as well as women — wear their hair in long trensas^
or queues, like Chinamen ; and they often have a distinc-
tive dress and headgear highly ornate. Their principal
diversion appears to be the consumption of aguardiente^
accompanied or followed by a jarania, or fandango.
Physically, they are by no means an inferior race ; and
the women are often of fair height, robust, and not un-
attractive in appearance, save that they are unwashed.
The altitude of Cojata is about 14,800 feet.
Leaving this point, the trail ascended an eminence,
from which I got a faint and momentary view, far to
the south, of the famous peak of Sorata, or Llampo,
(23,600 feet altitude), in Bolivia. Passing, now, down-
wards, and through areas of a remarkable rock-formation
of hard white sandstone, lying in horizontal strata, the
trail descends rapidly towards Lake Titicaca ; and at
every turn of the road I strained my eyes in search of
its blue surface — my first approach thereto. At length
I beheld it, still far off, and between the barren and
rocky hills which I had to pass before reaching my
halting-place — the town of Huancan^. The first view
of Titicaca was very beautiful.
From Huancane to Juliaca is a long day's ride, and,
having secured a guide, I left before sunrise. The road
lay, at first, through the lands cultivated by the Indians,
between Lakes Arapa and Titicaca, and the swamps
and marshes bordering thereon. These latter places are
dangerous, and it was necessary to wade through a sheet
of water, with my horse submerged to the saddle-bags.
One may, also, cross by means of the curious balsas, or
rafts, which the Indians use for navigation, and which
are constructed of masses of woven grass or rushes, with
124 The Andes and the Amazon
sails of the same material.^ They are well shown in
the accompanying view. At one portion of the route
the scenery is exceedingly picturesque. There are areas
of yellow water - weed, from which numerous scarlet-
feathered herons arise as the traveller passes. The tips
of the white Cordillera are reflected in the blue surface
of the lakes, and the remarkable conical-shaped houses
of the Indians give a character to the scene not found
elsewhere in Peru. I examined some of these houses ;
they are square at the base, built in regular courses of
adobe bricks. Each course is set in from the lower one,
and thus the structure becomes a cone, curved in profile,
and circular on plan in the upper portion. How did
the Indians learn to build these curious dwellings? I
have spoken elsewhere of these houses.
After sundown the cold became intense, due to the
bitter blast which swept across the plateau from the lake.
The altitude of Titicaca is 12,570 feet above sea-level.
My guide had brought me by a longer route than was
necessary, and it was not until 9 P.M. that I drew rein
upon my wearied horse before the station hotel at Juliaca,
where I again enjoyed the luxuries of a good dinner
and comfortable bed, after nearly two months' journeying
in those interesting but inhospitable regions — inhospitable
not so much as regards man, but nature.
As will have been seen, some of the portions of the
country I traversed are very little known, and upon
the verge of the Montafta, uninhabited. The most
easterly point at which I arrived, near the junction
of the streams before mentioned with the Huari-huari,
or Inambari river, is south - west of and only about
25 or 30 miles from the port Markham, on the
navigable river Tambopata, a port named after the
late President of the Royal Geographical Society,
whose work and interest in the country are always
gratefully remembered by Peruvians. I had desired to
extend my journey to this river, but the circumstances
already described rendered it impossible.
' These rafts form a Knk with an assumed Egyptian origin.
Sandia, Carabaya, and Lake Titicaca 125
The region is one of vast possibilities, both as regards
the auriferous plateaux and the zone of the Montana,
which is healthy, and capable of producing crops of
any kind after clearing and cultivation shall have taken
place. Roads, however, or branch railways must be built
before much colonisation can be brought about, and some
advance is already being made in this respect. When
the project of uniting the railway system of the Pacific
with the navigable head-waters of the Amazonian fluvial
ways is carried out, a beginning will have been made
in the opening up of one of the most valuable portions
of the earth's surface. I have enlarged upon this theme
in a subsequent chapter.
CHAPTER XII
HUANCAVELICA AND ADJOINING DEPARTMENTS^
To reach the interior of Peru, and the rich mineral-
bearing zone upon the eastern slope of the Andes, the
traveller must, from the Pacific littoral, invariably cross
the summit of the Cordillera, for this vast natural barrier
parallels the coast, and leaves no pass, speaking generally,
at less altitude than 14,000 or 15,000 feet above sea-level.
The Department, or state of Huancavelica, which I
visited in November, 1904, is one of the richest of the
mineral-bearing regions of Peru ; but it is difficult of access,
due to its mountainous nature and to the fact that no
roads, worthy of the name, have yet been constructed
to give outlet to its products, or communication with
the coast.
My way lay by the port of Pisco, about one day's
steamer journey south of Callao, and past the town of
lea, a few miles from the port, and connected by a railway
thereto. lea is the centre of a fruitful agricultural district,
where cotton, sugar-cane, wine, brandy, etc., are produced.
The crops here, like all those of the agricultural regions
upon the coast -zone, are grown under irrigation, for,
as has been described, the whole of this vast stretch
of continent, from Ecuador to Chile, is a rainless region.
Vegetation exists by virtue of the streams of water
descending the western slope of the Cordillera — streams
which have their origin in the ceaseless thawing of the
ice-cap, and the heavy rains of that lofty region. For
the Andes, having deprived the western zone of its rainfall
^ From the Royal Geographical Journal.
126
a-"^
-ii\
N-'
< -a'
y. o
Huancavelica and adjoining Departments 127
by reason of the climatic conditions brought about through
its agency, has, in part, remedied the defect by giving
origin to these torrential streams.
My first day's journey lay across the usual sterile desert
zone between the coast and the foothills of the Cordillera
— deserts over which the ennuied horseman toils from
sunrise to sunset. There is a group of extensive Inca
ruins upon the desert, which I examined in passing.
The principal feature is a large courtyard some hundreds
of feet in length and width, with a series of doorways
opening therefrom. Between these doorways, which are
symmetrically spaced, are niches, and both are of the
tapering form so often seen in Incaican architecture. A
portion of one wall is shown in the accompanying
sketch ; the walls are of adobe and rough pieces of stone,
the whole being rendered to a smooth surface with plaster
formed of mud or clay. The general face of the walls
has been coloured with red paints, and the niches with
yellow paint or pigment. Parts of this colouring still
remain, notwithstanding the centuries that have passed
over it. The pigment may have been formed of iron
oxides, or possibly vermilion from the cinnabar mines
of the interior, at Huancavelica.
Regarding these ruins upon the coast-zone, it has been
a matter for observation that they are not built like those
of the interior — of cut stone — and they still exist, only
by reason of the rainless climate and the climatic con-
ditions generally, which tend towards exceedingly slow
disintegration.
Whilst speaking of this immediate region, I may
mention the ruins of Incahuassi (house of the Inca),
which are found some 50 miles to the north-west of this
point, near the coast also. They are chiefly interesting
as showing the use of columns in Incaican architecture,
various writers upon Peru having asserted that columns
were unknown to those builders. The columns are
shown in the accompanying sketch ; they are 65 to 85
centimetres in diameter, and the ruins are stated by
Seftor Larrabure (an archaeologist and late minister of
128 The Andes and the Amazon
foreign affairs in Peru), who visited them, to belong to
the fifteenth century.
At nightfall I arrived at Humay, a hacienda upon the
Pisco river, and whose extensive vineyards are irrigated
therefrom. This place, although peaceful and picturesque,
has not left a pleasant impression upon me, for during
the night my room was invaded by swarms of mos-
quitoes, whose stinging was the cause, undoubtedly, of the
tercianas^ or intermittent fever, from which I suffered
afterwards.
Upon leaving this point I knew little of the hard-
ships I should be obliged to endure for the remaining
four days of my journey to my destination. The road
by which I had been directed passed through a portion
of the country, void of towns or villages, and, conse-
quently, of food of any nature, notwithstanding that I
had been informed that such was available. The arriero
who conducted my pack-mule and served as guide was
almost constantly drunk with aguardiente, and, as far
as I could observe, took no other nourishment (!) during
the last three days' travels. On two occasions I searched
his saddle-bags and confiscated and destroyed the bottle
of alcohol he carried, but he again obtained supplies of
this from acquaintances among the Indian shepherds en
route. These people were also drunk, even early in the
morning ; and there is no doubt that the effects of alcohol
is beginning to ruin the inhabitants of these regions, as
I have elsewhere observed. Due to the effects of the
fever, I could not touch the coarse and scanty food of
these shepherds' huts. At night the cold was intense,
for we were now at a considerable altitude, and I had
foolishly neglected to bring my cot or a mattress,
desiring to travel rapidly without impedimenta.
There was nothing for it but to get out of the situa-
tion, and although I could scarcely mount my mule I
was obliged to keep on, driving in front of me the
drunken arriero and the pack-mule. Towards the close
of the day a violent attack of vomiting came on, and I
fell rather than got down from the saddle, and lay upon
il
Huancavelica and adjoining Departments 129
the plain utterly exhausted. The altitude was 16,000 feet
above sea-level, the air exceedingly rarefied, and a bitter
blast swept across the plateau. I thought for some time
that I should never rise again from the spot, and it was
only by an effort of will that I did so. But I managed
to swallow two or three spoonfuls of condensed milk,
and, mounting with the aid of the arriero, who was now
sober and penitent, I continued onward, and near mid-
night arrived at my objective point — Santa In^z.
Situated here are the silver mines of Quespisisa, which
have produced great quantities of that metal in the past,
and which still contain extensive ore -bodies. Hydro-
graphically, the region is interesting also, for there are
two large lakes of true Andean character here. The
higher, known as Lake Orcococha, is 16,000 feet, and
the lower. Lake Choclococha, 15,000 feet above sea-level.
They are separated only by a distance of a few thousand
yards, the upper being dammed up with a natural dam,
formed by a moraine of soil and gravel. A noteworthy
feature of this lake-basin is that, although it is upon the
western or Pacific side of the summits of the Andes, it
nevertheless is drained into the eastern or Amazonian
watershed, by means of the river Pampas, which breaks
through the Cordillera, and so into the Apurimac river
and head- waters of the Ucayali and Amazon. Close at
hand to the west, and at slight difference of elevation,
are other smaller lakes, which give rise to the Pisco river
flowing to the Pacific. Here, then, is another of those
numerous instances which are met with in the Andes,
where the water-parting of the continent is defined by
a lake, a part of whose waters, in times of abnormal
flow, may positively belong to the one, or to the other,
of its adjoining watersheds. There is no fish life within
their waters — a common characteristic in the lakes in
these high regions. Each is 5 or 6 miles in length, and
about i^ in breadth; whilst at a depth of 250 feet, I
was informed, the bottom was not reached in the middle.
Their blue surfaces reflect the snow-capped range to the
I
130 The Andes and the Amazon
east, but in the rainy season are lashed into fury by the
terrific thunderstorms of this altitude.
The general rock-formation is a trap, whose terraced
lines are seen far off upon the peaks, as they emerge
from beneath the ice-cap. A remarkable peak of diorite
stands solitary, not far from the lake-shore, and is known
among the Indians by the name of Quispijahua, which
means "the flower of glass." This name is due to its
form, for at the summit it spreads out into almost a
petal-like shape, a result partly of geological formation,
and partly to its having been continually riven and split
by lightning strokes. It is reverenced by the Indians,
and legends have been woven around it.
The whole of this region, from Castrovirreyna on the
west to Ayacucho on the east, is exceedingly rich in
minerals, including silver, copper, gold, as well as salt,
and in places coal — all of which, when the country
becomes more known and opened up, will be valuable
elements on industry. The highest elevation at which
I arrived was I7,5CK) feet, just below the ice-cap.
After a sojourn of about two weeks in the neighbour-
hood, I continued my journey in a north-westerly direc-
tion. But my troubles were not yet over, for I was
again attacked by the tercianas^ and rendered unable to
go on. These intermittent fevers have the characteristic
of quite suddenly depriving one of one's strength, and
there was nothing for it but to give up the idea of
reaching the next village, and to sleep out upon the
puna, or plateau. Fortunately, the temperature fell but
little below freezing-point. During the night the arriero
— not the former one — let the mules escape, and was
obliged to follow them, leaving me alone and unable
to get up for the whole of the following day. The sun
blazed down, and I was consumed with thirst, and never-
theless unable to reach the shimmering blue lake which
lay within lOO yards of me. At length I beheld, afar
off, an Indian approaching with some llamas, and I
hailed him. But, after the manner of his kind, he was
afraid ; and, instead of coming towards me, he quickened
Huancavelica and adjoining Departments 131
his pace, and soon disappeared. I suffered greatly from
thirst, and with the sun and the fever was almost delirious ;
and still no sign of the arriero. I managed to reach my
saddle-bags and took a mouthful of extract of coffee, which
revived me a little ; but what I wanted was water. Again
I saw another Indian, towards the close of day, and as
he came within hearing, I called him ; not this time, how-
ever, in Spanish, which might have had the same effect as
before, but in the few words of Quechua which I was able
to employ. " Shami, yacu-t-apami ! " (" Come here ! Bring
some water ! ") I shouted ; and the poor Indian, gathering,
probably, some confidence from being addressed in his
own tongue, came up to me, and, following my directions,
brought me water from the lake. I rewarded him with
a silver dollar, and he stayed by me until nightfall, when
the arriero returned with other animals from the hacienda.
After a loss of various days, due to this fever and its
results, I arrived at the city of Huancavelica, 14 leagues
from Santa Inez, and which can be accomplished in one
long day's hard riding. The country passed over was
the usual treeless puna, alternating with lakes, swamps,
rocks, and streams, and generally covered with grass,
which gives pasturage for herds of cattle and sheep.
The climate is exhilarating, and the views magnificent,
and in the intervals when the fever did not trouble me,
I enjoyed the ride and the unfolding landscape.
At Huancavelica are the famous quicksilver mines,
which are generally mentioned in all geological treatises.
The history of the mines would fill a bulky volume.
They were discovered in 1566, and were administered
under a Spanish viceroy, and since that period have
produced approximately 60,000 tons of mercury from
the cinnabar ores, which exist in an enormous lode or
farallon, to use the Spanish term. In 1786 bad work
caused the mine to collapse, and it is stated that 500
Indian miners remained entombed therein. Huancavelica
was visited and described both by Bufon and Humboldt,
as also Raimondi. I penetrated into some of the vast
subterranean caverns, which luve been excavated to
132 The Andes and the Amazon
extract the ore, and made an examination of the general
conditions of the region, in order to draw up a report
thereon. The workings are about 2,400 feet above the
level of the cathedral and city of Huancavelica, which
latter is at an elevation of 12,300 feet above sea-level.
The Huancavelica river flows through the city, emptying
lower down into the Mantaro, which in turn falls into
the Apurimac, before mentioned, and so into the fluvial
system of the Ucayali and Amazon. The Mantaro
river, almost alone of Peruvian rivers, runs in this part
of its course to the south-east, or directly opposite to
their general north - west direction, over nearly 3° of
latitude, to where its course abruptly changes near
Huanta. The climate of Huancavelica is cold, but
temperate. Alfalfa and cereals are not produced, owing
to the altitude ; and the principal industry is that of
cattle, and was formerly, and some day must again
become, mining. The general geological formation is
limestone and sandstone, and hot springs occur, and are
used as baths. I have spoken of these quicksilver mines
again, elsewhere.
Leaving this remarkable place, my way lay across a
lofty punUf some thousands of feet above the town; for,
notwithstanding the marvellous wealth in minerals that
the region has produced, no road had been made, beyond
the primitive mule-trail, to the outside world. Such was
the Spanish method of mining, from which no benefit
accrued to the community, who toiled and died to enrich
an arbitrary and distant monarch. The arms of Spain
carved on the stone at the portals of the mine, with
figures of saints, and ruined churches, are the principal
remaining vestiges of this regime — unless, indeed, the
defects inherited by the present inhabitants, of lack of
enterprise and the love of officialdom, be counted as such.
Descending rapidly from this plateau, the track passed
into the valley below. The change from these dreary and
inclement altitudes to the warmer climate of this valley
was very agreeable, especially in my still weak state. The
piercing wind gives place to a balmy breeze, and the dry
Huancavelica and adjoining Departments 183
grass of the puna changes to other vegetation. I pass a
tree, and recollect Thalaba and the Sledge —
" Behold ! the signs of life appear,
The first and single fir ! "
It is not a fir ; there are no firs on the Andes ; but it is
a real tree, although a wind-beaten specimen, drawing its
scanty nourishment from the rocky soil, and stretching its
attenuated boughs athwart the path. A tree ! the first I
have seen for weeks. It has green leaves ; and, moreover,
a bird carols in its branches. A little lower down a patch
of celandines and dandelions bring to my senses a waft as
from England's lanes. Here, also, are glorious masses
of yellow acacia, and other flowers and shrubs on either
hand, through which my mule brushes as we descend.
But what is this — this sweet, familiar perfume which
suddenly greets me ? Familiar, although for the moment
I cannot recognise it. I look about, and, behold ! there it
is — a low hawthorn bush in flower. Its leaves are some-
what different in form to those of English hawthorns, but
there is no mistaking the well-known dark green hue and
glossy sheen of the leaves, nor the little white flowers
and the sweet, subtle perfume which carries the mind
momentarily to another land. It is "may"!
I pass through the villages of Acobambilla and
Huando, ascend and pass a high ridge, and again
descend by steep and rapid zigzags down the sides of
its cafion to the river Mantaro, or Jauja, before mentioned,
and sleep at the town of Izcuchaca, lo leagues of a broken,
steep, and tortuous road from Huancavelica.
Izcuchaca is somewhat of a strategic point. A stone
bridge crosses the river, and the place was generally early
taken and held by various revolutionary forces in times
past, as it commands the road to the interior of a large
and important part of the country. I found the greatest
difficulty in obtaining anything to eat along the whole
of this route. The Indians are of a surly and suspicious
character, and will sell absolutely nothing to the traveller.
In Izcuchaca I had expected to find an inn and some
184 The Andes and the Amazon
comforts, but the place was dominated by a Chinaman
who was the gobemador, as well as the owner of the inn.
This individual, due to some caprice which I was unable to
explain, absolutely denied me food and shelter ; and even
several Peruvians of respectable appearance who were
standing by failed to offer such, or indicate where it could
be secured, notwithstanding that they knew I was a
stranger, a traveller, and that night had fallen and a heavy
rain set in. This is the only place in Peru where I have
experienced such a lack of hospitality, and I retain an
unpleasant impression of the place. But I found shelter
at length in the hut of a humble but honest individual,
who, moreover, obtained alfalfa for my animals, which
was the most important, for they had eaten but little for
several days. There was no food in the house, and it
was too late to purchase anything in the place; and all
that I and my arriero could obtain was a cup of weak
tea and a piece of dry bread from my saddle-bags, the
only food of which we partook until the following night
upon arriving in Huancayo.
On the next morning, at daybreak, I shook the dust
off my feet of Izcuchaca, having first rewarded the wife of
the humble but honest individual with three silver dollars
— perhaps more money than the family had long since
possessed. Also, I did not fail to visit the Chinaman
gobernador in order to give him my opinion of his
methods, and which I came near to emphasising in
other than verbal ways.
My way now lay along the bank of the rapid river for
some distance, and leaving that I crossed another high
ridge and plateau, and at length descended into the large
and fertile plains of Jauja, and slept in a fairly comfortable
inn within the important city of Huancayo, 13 leagues
from my last stopping-place. This plain, through which
runs the river Mantaro, or Jauja, which I had been more
or less following, is one of the finest agricultural regions in
Peru, and crops of every description are produced. Not
far away are extensive and valuable mines of good coal,
as well as of copper and silver.
Huancavelica and adjoining Departments 185
From Huancayo to Jauja, my next day's journey,
the road is flat, and passes through numerous towns
and villages : which, with their cathedrals, squares, and
trees, present a restful and old-world appearance. The
altitude of Huancayo is 10,680 feet, and that of Jauja
11,870 feet, the distance between the two cities being
10 leagues. The small Indian shops all along this route
seem to contain little but bottles of aguardiente, or rum ;
and a great deal of drunkenness is encountered among
the Indian labourers.
On the morrow I began my last day's journey in the
saddle. The road left the pleasant valley and wound up
on to a high, cold plateau. Fourteen leagues lay between
Jauja and my objective point, Oroya, the terminus of
the famous Oroya railway, where I should take the train
for Lima. It is a remarkable thing that the inhabi-
tants of Jauja and of the numerous towns of the valley
have been content to live through the many years
since that railway was constructed without making any
attempt at a road for vehicles which would give them
cheap and comfortable communications thereto. The
existing trail is simply a track, innocent of improvement,
over the limestone strata, where the wearied pack-trains
stumble ceaselessly, in the same condition almost as
when the Andes were upraised from chaos. However,
this is now being remedied, in the construction of a
branch railway from Oroya.
The altitude of the latter place, where I arrived in
the late afternoon, is 12,178 feet above sea-level, and
the railway thence rises at the summit of the Andes
to the west, to 15,642 feet, the highest in the world,
and doubtless the only existing instance where the
traveller is carried from the limit of the perpetual snow-
cap to sea-level in a few hours. North of Oroya great
activity is being displayed upon the famous Cerro de
Pasco mines, which are pronounced to be the largest
copper deposits in the world.
The region which I traversed is but little known
outside the country. It is embraced between the parallels
186 The Andes and the Amazon
of 11° and 14° S. lat, and yf 10' to 74° 45' meridians
west of Greenwich. It is a region of great resource, and
will undoubtedly be the scene of an early development,
for the dawn of an era of progress is upon the old empire
of the Incas, awakening it from years of stagnation, and
giving it place among the progressive nations of its
hemisphere.
On the morrow I took the train for Lima. I had
purposely hurried upon my journey, bent upon arriving
in the Capital on Christmas Day, for — good reader, smile
not ! — the thoughts of Christmas cheer, and the society of
my countrymen, had assailed me on those inhospitable
steppes. Roast beef and plum-pudding ! Are they not
satisfactory matters for contemplation for the weary and
hungry traveller?
CuoLA Girl of the Andes.
P. 137
CHAPTER XIII
THE PERUVIAN INDIANS OF THE ANDES
At the beginning of this chapter is the picture of a
Peruvian Chola girl. It is taken from the cover of a
small book on the country published in Spanish, long
ago, and the artist, whoever he may have been, has
certainly drawn a most typical portrait, and I have
reproduced it for that reason.
The Chola Indian girl is far more typical of the
country — as, indeed, are the Cholo and Quechua Indians
generally — than the cultivated race and people of the
cities. I am speaking now of the inhabitants of the high-
lands and the Cordillera ; and in the face of this girl is
reflected the melancholy — the unwitting melancholy, of
these vast, solitary, and stupendous regions. Her simple
dress, bare and brown legs and arms, and wealth of hatless
hair ; her semi-barbarous face, yet with much of sweetness
in her glance, and her stalwart frame form a type more
American — in a sense — than the pale, lovely damsels,
brave in Parisian attire, of the Capital. In her eyes is
the melancholy of ages, yet there is a certain coquettish
disposition of her simple dress. She is seated upon a
block of granite — the only chair she knows — and behind
her are the everlasting hills, the virgin snow - cap, the
perpetual white clothing of Andean summits. No truer
child of Nature could be found.
I have continually seen splendid types of barbarous
womanhood among these Cholo Indians of the Cordillera.
The women of this race are exceedingly hardy, and very
prolific. It is commonly related of her that at child-birth,
she — alone, perhaps, in her solitary hut at the moment —
137
188 The Andes and the Amazon
herself, gets up, goes out and collects firewood and heats
water, wherewith to wash the new-born babe !
The population of the Peruvian uplands ought really
to increase instead of remaining almost stationary, as it
appears to do, were it not that the mortality is so great
among infants. I have been informed by Peruvian
medical men who have studied the subject, that the
loss is 40 per cent, of births. This is due to the hard
conditions of life in the mountains, and the rigorous
climate, which, however, would be healthful were better
food, shelter, and clothing obtainable, and hygienic
methods inculcated among the inhabitants of those
regions.
The Cholos, it must be here explained, are not a
barbarous Indian race. They are the original Quechua
Indians of the uplands, which are quite distinct from
those of the tropical river and forest regions, and some-
times they have an admixture of Spanish blood. They
are those who formed the great population under the
Inca regime^ and who had developed a certain civilisa-
tion. They are often of refined features, and light-
coloured skin ; whilst others are dark, copper - coloured,
with heavier features. Nevertheless, they curiously regard
the Spanish-speaking people — the dominating race — ever
as interlopers and a people apart, and although they
understand Spanish, they often prefer to reply in their
own dialects of Quechua and Aymara. The Cholos,
therefore, are not true Indians. The true Indians in-
habit the warm tropical regions east of the Andes, and
came neither under the dominion of the Incas nor the
Spaniards, nor ever received the influence of the Roman
Catholic religion. They are known as the Barbaras,
or Salvages ; whilst the Cholos are the most ardent
supporters of the regime of the priests. The forest
Indians are described in a subsequent chapter.
The Cholos are a docile and peaceful race. They work
when they will, and rest or idle when the necessity for
work does not press. Their wants are few. Most of
the Cholos* clothing, and that of his woman, is made
The Peruvian Indians of the Andes 139
by himself from the wool of his own sheep or alpaca.
Even his white wool or felt hat, and his sandals, are
his own product. He cultivates his small ckacara, or
farm, and grows sufficient maize, potatoes, and alfalfa
for his own consumption, and is almost independent of
current coin — save, alas ! for alcohol.
It is a remarkable feature of the Peruvian Cholo that
he has always been a small landed proprietor. It will
be recollected that under the Inca regime every inhabitant
had a certain area of land apportioned to him, and was
obliged to work it, receiving one-third of its products.
Now there is no restriction imposed upon him except
some small tax, and he cultivates little more than suffi-
cient for his requirements. This state of independence
has both its good and its bad sides. It is undeniable
that the citizens of a country have a right to possess or
enjoy a portion of the area of its soil (notwithstanding
the fact that the most civilised nations of the world have
allowed this condition of primitive justice to be usurped
among them). The Cholo supports himself and his
family ; in poverty sometimes, in comfort according to
his standards, generally, and what more does he require,
he might ask, did a contrary set of conditions ever occur
to him. On the other hand, this independence leads to
stagnation. When the Indian has no wants, or no
necessity to work, there is no stimulus to advancement,
no ambition, and therefore no progress either of the
individual, the family, or the race.
It can hardly be said, however, that his holding does
not cost him some work to secure and maintain. The
little chacaras are built in the most difficult places often ;
terraced on steep hillsides, banked up between crags and
rock outcroppings, and literally wrested from Nature's
topographical chaos upon the Andean valley slopes. I
have observed how the smallest possible places have
been made use of by banking up on the lower side and
digging out on the upper : a series of terraces which
extend up the precipitous flanks of hills, from the valley
floor, in a most remarkable way, only ending where the
140 The Andes and the Amazon
ground became absolutely sterile by reason of the rock
cropping, or nearly vertical from its precipitous gradient.
Indeed, it is highly probable that its inaccessibility is
partly the cause of his possessing it. Had it existed in
places of easier access, probably it would have been con-
fiscated by some more powerful neighbour, as in earlier
days in Europe. Peru, at any rate, is saved from the
reproach of its territory all being held by a handful
of landlords, as in Great Britain !
Generally, an irrigation ditch marks the upper limit
of these lands, keeping all green below it, in sharp
contrast to the line of sterility above. I have often
examined these native works of engineering, and it is
remarkable how the frail open conduit is carried around
rocks, built up with rubble walls, and patched with adobe
clay at weak spots.
But it is less the modern than the old works of
this description which attract the traveller's attention. I
have elsewhere spoken of the irrigation canals of the
Inca period ; the chacaras and andenes, the old terraced
fields of that time, cover most of the Andean slopes ;
the cultivable lateral and longitudinal valleys. Standing
sometimes on the summits of the hills, the observer, as
far as the eye can reach, beholds these once-cultivated
terraces. In places they have been almost carried away
by the slow action of the elements, but the practised eye
does not fail to see their position, especially when the
sun is low and long shadows fall upon the hill-slopes,
bringing the ruined terraces into relief — a "rippled" or
chequered appearance of much beauty and singularity.
The existence of these numerous works has partly
given rise to the supposition that a much vaster popula-
tion inhabited Peru in centuries past — 90,000,000 of
people have been spoken of; and whilst undoubtedly
the number of inhabitants was much greater than the
3,000,000 of the present census, still, it is doubtful if it
could have reached the larger figure. Also, it is to be
remembered that there was not necessarily only one
chacara to each inhabitant, but various. These terraced
The Peruvian Indians of the Andes 141
places, as I have stated elsewhere, were termed in Spanish
andenes, or platforms, and it is said that the name of
the Andes is derived therefrom.
The Cholos lived, as stated, in the most remote and
solitary places. The greater part of these uplands or
punas are from 12,000 to 14,000 feet above sea-level. I
have, on my journeys in these regions, often heard the
far-off, melancholy notes of the flute or pan-pipes, and
have discerned a solitary Cholo sitting on an almost
inaccessible point of rock somewhere, with his herd of
goats nibbling the scanty herbage on the bare hillside.
Or, I see a Chola maid sitting upon an eminence near
the road. She is spinning — she is always spinning,
except when she is asleep — making yarn in her deft
and primitive way, simply with a ball of crude wool and
a little spindle a few inches long, which she incessantly
twirls. Perhaps she is minding her llamas or sheep the
while she spins ; and her chacara, although you cannot
see it, is among the rocks near at hand. Probably she
has a child slung at her back ; one at her bosom, or
perhaps another in visible anticipation ! For she mates
early and is prolific. Perhaps she is unattached, a maiden
still ; and, if so — behold ! there she was a moment ago
spinning, spinning, and overlooking the road and the
approaching stranger on horseback. Raise your eyes
again — where is she now ? Gone ; disappeared as softly
and lightly as a deer or a squirrel — and as fleetly ; and,
if you think you can catch her, she will laugh at you
from afar ! But if you stay long enough in one neigh-
bourhood you may win her regard.
I do not know that the sentiment of love exists
very strongly among these people. The Cholo attaches
little importance as to the chastity of his female com-
panion before their lot in common began. Probably he
looks upon her as a sort of superior chattel, after the
general custom of semi - barbarous races. Indeed, her
capacities as a housewife, and whatever property she
may have, in the form of cows or sheep, are more
important to him. In one part of the country where I
142 The Andes and the Amazon
sojourned, a curious custom of selection of a wife exists.
The suitor, having declared his intentions, is permitted
to live for a term of six months with the girl at the
house of her parents. At the expiration of this time
the father speaks to his probable son-in-law somewhat
in this wise. " Get thee hence, call thy friends, make
ready, we will feast, and thy wife may depart with thee."
If the suitor is satisfied with the damsel, from the know-
ledge he has gained of her in the above period, he joy-
fully carries out the mandate; and all duly comes off
as expected. But if, on the other hand, he is not satisfied,
he informs her father of that fact ; when the latter, aided
by his own wife and relations, fall upon the young man
and thrash him with sticks, saying : " Go forth, ungrateful
one ! There are not wanting others who will appreciate
my daughter!" Any children resulting from this temporary
union are taken care of in the house of the disappointed
father-in-law.
I have spoken of the sentiment of love among these
people, and probably it is a plant which would flourish
with more vigour under kinder cultivation. I have
observed that Chola women sometimes acquire a strong
liking for foreigners ; and, personally, I have found that,
after some acquaintance, and on being treated as women,
not as chattels, they have developed stronger feelings. I
recollect a Chola girl, in one place where I stayed, who
nearly lost her life in trying to do me a service. I had
only employed her in the prosaic occupation of doing
my washing, but had paid her promptly always, and
treated her as an Englishman always treats women.
Possibly I had — quien sabe — looked kindly at her, as
man will look at a robust and well-formed girl. One
evening I was writing in my lonely room, when a form
intercepted the shaft of light shed by the lamp through
the open door on the darkness outside, and the girl came
breathlessly in, almost nude, and with water streaming
from her. She had just passed the river which ran close
by, and which was swollen with the rain, and had been
carried off her feet, she informed me, and nearly drowned.
The Peruvian Indians of the Andes 143
struggling ashore in the dark, alone. The object of this
perilous performance was to inform me of a plot to steal
my mules that night, which she had overheard in the
village on the opposite bank of the river. Poor, brave
Chola girl ! How could I reward her ? She wanted no
reward, she said ; she had done it to serve me. I gave
her brandy and quinine, to ward off the Ura'anas, or
malaria, which attacks one after abusing cold water in
those places, and made her wrap herself in blankets, for
the night was cold, and her garments had principally
remained on the other side. I was able to immediately
take such measures as prevented the theft of the mules,
which would have been very serious.
On another occasion I was surprised at receiving
amatory advances from a prepossessing young Chola
woman, and found out that it was a result of the follow-
ing incident. In a village near at hand a chapel had
long been in course of erection ; but, due to the laziness
and parsimony of the Indian population, the roof had
not been put on in time for the dedication by the visit-
ing priest. The priest, angered at this neglect, took the
opportunity of reading his flock a stern lecture during
the celebration of mass, reproaching them, and saying :
" Lazy and ungrateful ones ! Notwithstanding that an
eminent foreign gentleman and engineer" — referring to
myself — " has come all the way from his country to visit
you, you have failed to complete your chapel. What
idea will this gentleman form of you ? " The woman
was so much impressed by the fact of my name being
mentioned during the mass, that she conceived a kind
of adoration or affection for me on this account, and
this was the reason for her " wooing " of me !
Chola women often look very stout, but they are not
necessarily so. The appearance is sometimes due to the
large number of skirts they have on. This is considered
an evidence of wealth, and I have seen as many as eight
worn, at times. This has fallen under my observation
when I have been obliged, on journeys in remote districts,
to sleep in Cholo houses. There is generally but one
144 The Andes and the Amazon
room, and the whole family and the traveller sleep in it,
the former upon the floor, and the latter in his travelling-
cot. I have often congratulated myself on having brought
this, as it raised me some i8 inches above the half-
dozen women, children, and man, who were my hosts,
and above the other numerous inhabitants of lesser cate-
gory which the place may have contained ! Fortunately,
in the Peruvian highlands, the traveller is above the
"flea zone," if I may term it so, for fleas do not live
at a greater elevation than about 8,000 feet above sea-
level. Unfortunately, however, " there are others " !
One of the most objectionable vermin of the valley
places is the alacran, or scorpion. This horrible little
beast stings, and causes a bad, and sometimes fatal,
poisoning. The sting is a sharp lancet in the tail, and
it is a fact that the reptile stings itself and dies when
unable to escape, as I have several times observed. Akin
to this is the centipede, which, however, I have seen
but little in Peru, although plentifully in Mexico. The
scorpion inhabits old walls, and thatched roofs; and I
have often seen the lace -like trail which marks his
course in the dust on the floors of abandoned mine
galleries.
It has sometimes been rather embarrassing to undress
before a room full of women, when forced to sleep in
an Indian house with the whole family ; especially to
one accustomed to put on his pyjamas, and when they
all stare at you ; but the traveller in Spanish America
gets used to these and many other similar incidents of
travel.
The Indians are always eager to exchange work for
play, and to seize on anything in the nature of a fiesta,
as the observance of the numerous "Saints' days" attest.
The most uproarious time is that of Carnival. The
absurd Carnival customs — some of which I have described
elsewhere — extend even to the most remote regions and
Indian villages. I had hoped to escape the boisterous
affair on one occasion, being upon an expedition to the
Marafton ; but in vain. As I was riding slowly along.
The Peruvian Indians of the Andes 145
across an almost uninhabited plateau, meditating upon
anything rather than carnival, three Indian women
issued from a hut, and stood in the road awaiting me.
" Pardon, Caballero," they said, as I approached ; and,
thinking they wanted some help, or something, I drew
rein. But I had scarcely opened my mouth to reply,
when, " Paugh ! " — a handful of flour was flung full into
my face, nearly choking me, and covering me with white.
The three Amazons then threw themselves upon me,
endeavouring to drag me from the saddle and to take
my saddle-bags, and with the greatest difficulty could
I resist them. Fighting and pushing, with my india-
rubber cape torn to strips, I drove the spurs into the
mule and started off", the three viragos hanging on to
the stirrups, bridle, and the animal's tail. A pretty
figure we must have looked, for the women were painted,
and inflamed with drink, whilst I was covered with flour.
I might easily have got rid of them by striking them
with my heavy riding - whip, but I could not bring
myself to do this. My servant, however, had fewer
scruples, for, seeing what was taking place, he had
ridden rapidly up and now laid about among them with
a long whip, whereupon the women let go for a moment.
This was sufficient, and putting our beasts at the gallop
we left them soon behind, shrieking and tearing along
after us.
In all the villages I passed through during those three
days — and they were numerous — the inhabitants, without
exception, were marching about in painted processions,
or dancing, or lying drunk by the roadside, generally
gaudily decorated. In several places attempts were made
— generally respectfully — to stop us ; which, however, I
resisted. In one small village several individuals, drunk,
and brandishing bottles of brandy in one hand and clubs
in the other, demanded that I should stop and drink
with them, and join in their games. Weary of their
threats and nonsense, I declined, when they approached
with menacing gestures of their clubs ; one, moreover,
brandishing a machete. Without further ceremony or
K
146 The Andes and the Amazon
parley I spurred my mule — a large, powerful animal —
and jumped upon the leader of the bandits, full force.
He rolled like a log upon the road, and turning upon
another, I struck him a heavy blow with my revolver-
butt, for I had slipped the weapon out of my pocket
in case of emergencies. Away he staggered, and my
servant having ridden over a third, we started away at
a gallop, pursued by the whole crowd and thousands
of dogs, but fortunately we outdistanced them easily.
Poor, ignorant, and backward dwellers of those regions !
When will the light of real progress and reason dawn
upon ye?
These Cholo-Quechuas are a very superstitious people,
and it is greatly for that reason that the methods of
Papistry have been so easily grafted upon them, and are
retained. They have curious ideas, inherited from pre-
Columbian days, regarding hobgoblins, and especially
spirits, which, according to them, inhabit the earth, rocks,
or water, or lurk in valleys and forests. It is common in
some places to observe the Cholo, when he eats his lunch
on a march or out of doors, offer a little maize, meat,
alcohol, or coca to the rocks : to the spirit which he
supposes inhabits it. "Take, eat," he exclaims, "so that
thou mayest not eat me ! " When a woman, running,
falls down, she hastily wraps herself in her skirt, in
order that she may not become pregnant with the earth-
spirit ! And she always instructs her child, when it
stumbles or falls, to snatch up and place a little earth
in its mouth. " Eat first ; so as to prevent it eating
thee," she says.
In some districts there is held to exist an imaginary
being known as a Pistaco, and foreigners are some-
times supposed to embody it. I recollect on one occa-
sion that I required a guide to conduct me across the
Cordillera, and I sent my boy to secure one. Impossible !
For some reason the word had gone round that I was
a Pistaco ! None would accompany me ; they feared
that I " would cut them in small pieces and throw them
into the river " ! At length, under promise of good pay,
The Peruvian Indians of the Andes 147
I secured an unwilling individual. He took leave of
wife and family, embracing them, and charged his friends
with their care, and we set out, he keeping far ahead
upon the road, until we reached the summit. When the
noon hour arrived I called him, and with difficulty I
made him approach, conversing with him, and telling
him that he might return home now. I also made him
eat some of my lunch, and then, paying him his due,
with something over, I dismissed him. The poor fellow
was astonished at this treatment, and departed joyfully,
and I afterwards heard that on arriving home he had
called his friends together, and, showing them his neck,
said : " Look, I am uninjured ; the misti (gentleman) has
done nothing evil to me ! "
Another curious idea or superstition in certain places
is that the Government constantly requires "human
tallow" for greasing the soldiers' carbines, and that the
gobernadores are sometimes commissioned to have Indians
killed and boiled down for this purpose. They also
greatly fear any kind of machinery, until they are used
to it, fearing that the Pistaco dwells therein, and also
requires human tallow for lubrication. A friend of mine,
who had a small mill in a certain region, informed me
that an Indian had approached him on the previous
day, saying that he had an enemy he desired to be rid
of. " He is a fat man, and would yield, were he boiled
down, a large quantity of human tallow," he had said.
How this remarkable idea arose I do not know, but it
is generally stated to have been an invention of the
Spaniards.
The Cholo - Quechua Indians are of a poetical and
melancholy habit of thought, although often happy and
simple as children. They are fond of music, and they
have even invented a species of national piece, well-
known in Peru, and termed the Yavari. Their chief
instruments are pan-pipes and flutes. Among the ancient
dwellings of the "Gentiles," described elsewhere, there is
a hill covered with ruins, near Huantar, and which is
still known by the name meaning " the hill of the flute."
148 The Andes and the Amazon
It was so called because the tribe inhabiting it had
installed large flutes in the high apertures of the rock,
which, due to the draught blowing up from some cave
below, gave forth a continuous, mournful sound, which
was heard far and wide by the tribes on the adjacent
hills.
An exceedingly curious and mournful sound is produced
by the playing of the flute inside a large earthen pot,
or olla. This strange melody is practised much in some
regions ; and Ricardo Palma, a Peruvian writer, tells an
affecting story of a young priest, which this matter brings
to mind. The priest passionately loved a beautiful Indian
girl, who lived with him as his mistress. On a certain
occasion he was called away to a distant region, and
during his absence the girl fell ill, and died a few hours
before his return. Overcome with the most poignant
grief, he shut himself in the habitation with the dead
body, and refused to hold communication with the out-
side world. By day and night, intermittently floating on
the wind, the mournful sound of the flute played inside
the olla was heard by the neighbours for more than eight
days, when it was heard no more. The door was at
length broken open, and they entered. The young priest
was lying on the couch with the form of his beloved in
his arms — dead also.
During my enforced sojourn in remote places I have
often lent ear to the curious and poetical folk-lore of
these people, who delight in such ; and the gobernadores
and priests, whose guests I have often been, have beguiled
the hours with me in anecdote and story. Sometimes,
although not a good raconteur^ and it being also not
easy to relate such matters in a foreign language, I have
recounted stories from English literature to them. I
recollect that on one occasion the gobernador was reduced
to tears at my recital of the story of the " Mistletoe
Bough " — the story of Christmas - time memories. He
was much affected at the description of the finding of
the skeleton and tattered wedding dress years afterwards
in the old chest.
The Peruvian Indians of the Andes 149
The Quechua and Aymara languages, which differ
from each other somewhat, but have, nevertheless, much
of similarity, are quite poetical in their words and the
ideas they express. I recollect an old Cholo Indian who
came along one evening with his flute, poor, and asking
food and shelter. He sang us songs low and musical, to
his own accompaniment, in Quechua — extempore songs,
said the people at whose hacienda I was — and he desired
to sing one in my honour, which he did, extempore, with a
pretty refrain repeated at the end of each verse. This
refrain they translated for me into Spanish, and the burden
of it was that the m,isti (myself) "had come from a far
country, here, his only lamp being the moon."
The word misti is a Quechua word meaning Senor,
or "Gentleman," and is applied by the Indians to a
superior. When you ask one of these people their
opinion of the probable course of the weather, and it
happens to look a little stormy, he sometimes replies :
^^ Misti manchacki" which means to say that it will be a
shower only ; that is, it will be something that will
perturb a misti, but would not bother an Indian !
The Indians of the Andean regions often give very
appropriate names to places, at times even poetical ones.
I have always enquired carefully into the names of places,
and have written them with the Spanish spelling, when
possible. It is generally to be found that all places —
such as hills or valleys or any abrupt topographical
change — has its Indian name whenever there are any
inhabitants in the region. On one occasion I required
the name of a certain hill, in order to mark it on the
map of some mining concessions I had taken, near the
Upper Marafion. There appeared to be no name, or no
one who could give it, but at length I found a solitary
Indian house, with its occupant of an old Cholo Indian,
close at hand. He knew the name of the hill well enough,
and its signification in English was, " House of the winds,"
or perhaps better expressed, " Abiding-place of the wind-
god." Singularly appropriate it was, for it was a high and
wind-swept place. Not far away was another hill, where
150 The Andes and the Amazon
the Indians had driven galleries into the gravel to extract
gold. On enquiring its name, I was informed that it was
called Puma-Chupan — Quechua for "lion's tail"; and, really,
on observing the contour of the hill, it seemed to have a
form which suggested the name — tapering off in a curve.
Speaking of the term puma, it is to be noted that the
Quechua language has given us this word in English.
Nor is this the only one derived from that source, for we
also use pampa in speaking of South American plains land.
Other words of Peruvian origin used in, or adapted to,
English are the names of products, such as cocaine, from
coca, cocoa, quinine, and others, also condor ; and the
word "jerked," applied to dried beef, is a corruption of
the Chilian Indian term Charqui. Alpaca, Vicuna, and
Llama are, also, Quechua words.
Most of the Indian names of places — and they are all
preserved on present maps — are due to topographical or
climatological nomenclature, and their explanation is
generally forthcoming to the traveller who enquires of
the inhabitants of the particular spot, or studies a
Quechua dictionary.
I have always felt drawn towards these poor people.
I should like to alleviate their hard lot, if it were possible.
They have many good qualities, which cannot, however,
expand under the existing regime, unless the Peruvians
who govern them make some advance in their methods.
They are too often ill-treated and exploited, and kept in
ignorance. Let me translate from a recent number of the
Comercio — leading newspaper of Lima — in this connection,
in order that my statements may not be criticised as
exaggerated. Under the heading, " Exactions against the
Indians," the paper says :
" It is not rare, unfortunately, in the Republic, that
the authorities of all kinds raise up abuses as supreme
law against the villages of the interior. For the Indians
of the mountain and the punas, and even of regions
nearer the coast, there often exists neither the Con-
stitution nor positive rights. It would be useless to
seek in the indigenous race beings really free, and
The Peruvian Indians of the Andes 151
masters of their acts and persons. It looks as though
independence had only been saved for the dweller of the
coast ! From the moment that the traveller's view ceases
to observe the ocean, and is directed over the interminable
chain of the Andes, it ceases also to observe free men, the
citizens of an independent republic ! To this condition —
which is not abnormal, because it has always existed — the
ignorance of the Indian contributes, but also the abuses of
the authorities, who, with rare exceptions, make of them
objects of odious spoliation. Such depredations are aggra-
vated when its victims are unfortunate and unhappy beings,
towards whom there is every obligation to protect, and not
to exploit."
Of course, the Indian's lot is better under the Republic
than it was in the Colonial days of Spain. They are not
slaves, and forced work is not legally permitted. The
evils to which they are principally subject at present
apart from the matters of priestcraft and alcohol, are :
abuse of power by the petty authorities, including the
defrauding them of part, or all, of their wages, when under
employ ; false imprisonment ; abuses connected with con-
scription ; confiscation of their property ; fraud in selling to
or buying from them ; in fact, petty oppression of all kinds.
For his part the Indian is, or becomes, lying, tricky, lazy,
and dishonest. Improvement must to some extent be
mutual, but must begin with the authorities. What is
the remedy? A higher standard in these authorities
should be inaugurated. The Central Government should
create and maintain a civil service, and endeavour to
form a body of small rulers such as render such splendid
service to Britain, in such countries as India, and other
dependencies ; and last, but not least, immigration must
be brought about, in order to change the stagnation of
the existing condition, by bringing in influences and new
ideas from the outside.
CHAPTER XIV
THE CHURCH IN PERU
In considering the conditions of the Roman Catholic
Church in South America, and the priests which officiate
there, the observer should strive to be impartial in his
criticism. It must be borne in mind that the Church is
an organisation which was primarily established for good ;
and, really, it is necessary at times to remind oneself of
the fact. It is an organisation with a complicated and
powerful machinery, which, whatever its defects, could not
be hastily replaced by another system, supposing it were
suddenly banished. It is, in Peru, a restraining authority,
especially among the semi-savage population of Indians,
and as such performs certain useful functions. It is also
the religion of an intelligent upper class, and as such
may not be too hastily considered. As a restraining and
organising device, therefore, exist its principal merits ; and
as a medium of real religious thought and a vehicle for
the teachings and operations of truth and reason, it is
perhaps not much more faulty than other systems in other
countries and Churches.
It is necessary to make the above admission, and to
bear it in mind, lest the criticism of the traveller and
observer become altogether harsh and denunciatory ; and
so having taken up this neutral stand, let us examine the
conditions under which the system lives, and the machinery
operates.
In the interior towns, away from the Capital, the
church or temple is a structure of adobe, or sun-dried
earthen bricks. This material does not lend itself to
any form of architectural beauty ; nor is the knowledge
152
The Church in Peru 158
of architecture possessed by those who are, or were,
responsible for its erection, of an advanced order. At
a distance these edifices possess a certain picturesque
appearance ; they have an air of romance and antiquity,
such as is not possessed, for example, by the prosaic
wooden or iron structures found in small interior towns
in North America. Their whitewashed earthen walls,
and red-tiled or thatched roofs, blend into harmony with
their surroundings, as the traveller approaches ; and,
surmounted by the blue sky of the uplands, and perhaps
backed by the white and shining peaks of some snow-
capped Cordillera, they form features of man's handiwork
in the landscape which are restful to the eye, and of
seeming promise.
But, alas ! on approaching, these features are found to
have been but the enchantment which distance lends.
The buildings are primitive and tawdry ; their exteriors
ill-proportioned, and their parts badly executed. Both
lack of skill and lack of care are evident in their
construction.
In the interior, paint and tinsel, gaudy images and
unclean mirrors, rob the whole of that air of dignity,
and banish the sentiment of reverence which houses
reared to God possess and inspire in the mind of the
observer under other conditions. Here are glass cases
enclosing painted, tawdry, and simpering dolls ; here
are hideous life-sized figures with crowns of thorns upon
their brows and modelled clots of blood upon their
ghastly semblances. Here are rudely-constructed cruci-
fixes and badly-painted pictures, dirty walls and floors,
gaudy altars and multitudinous candles ; tumbledown
confessional boxes, and rickety furniture, often carelessly
improvised from unsuitable material. Here are all the
foolish trappings and machinery of what scarcely seems
less than idolatry and superstition, and which helps to
keep in domination and ignorance the unfortunate votaries
of these semi-barbarous regions, and serves as the medium,
often, for their cynical exploitation. Alas ! for the name
of religion ; for the easy credulity of poor mankind, and
154 The Andes and the Amazon
for the stupidity and duplicity — both — of priestcraft. A
prey to depression, and with a note of protest uselessly
registering itself in his mind, the observer leaves the
building, passing between the crowd of ignorant and
dirty Indian "worshippers" grovelling upon the floor.
Again outside, he ponders on the friable and "tem-
porary" appearing material of which the edifices are
constructed. They are not monuments of beauty and
stability which could endure for centuries, and remain
as eloquent witnesses — at least, to the sincerity of those
who reared them ; they are not legacies left to genera-
tions to come, such as the sculptured temples of Britain
and Europe ; and they seem to bear upon them the stamp
of early perishableness, as if the methods and ideals which
they shelter, should endure but a brief span upon the pages
of the future.
Is this criticism not too harsh? It does not seem so
if we judge the matter in the light of an ideal of truth
and common-sense, but it seems harsh if we look at it
in comparison with the temples in our own country.
Behold the churches in our towns ! Are they not some-
times the abode of curious rites and priestly appurte-
nances, of draperies, candles, genuflexions, affectations,
and singular and mysterious operations? If churches
exist at all in their present form they must, presumably,
have these accessories, and between those of one country
and another, then use or abuse is only a question of
degree. If the buildings, which in Britain shelter them,
are more beautiful architecturally, and are of greater
permanence as structures, this is due to their having
been erected by richer and cleverer communities. The
sculptured stone upon which the artists of past centuries
lavished their love and skill have, it is true, little counter-
part in the poorer structures of Spanish- American interior
towns. But it must be remembered that these have often
been raised by the united efforts of poor Indians, who
give their time and work as a labour of love thereto.
Often, on the beams and rafters of the roof, one observes
the names of their constructors — poor and simple Indian
The Church in Peru 155
carpenters — burned into the wood-work in rude letters,
setting forth the date and occasion, and generally accom-
panied by some devout phrase. The widow's mite !
It is not to be supposed that all the temples of the
country are of the above primitive nature, however ; the
cathedrals of the Capitals, principally Lima, Trujillo,
and Arequipa, are large, handsome, and durable buildings,
with chaste interiors, and, saving earthquakes, may last
for ever.
It is a debatable point with the traveller, whether
he shall describe and criticise the religious matters of
a community, or whether he shall let the subject entirely
alone. It is a delicate subject. By nothing are a people
more easily offended ; and in nothing is the critic more
likely to fall into a denunciatory line of thought or
expression. It is especially difficult to the student of
science to avoid condemning when the subject of his
criticism is the religion of Roman Catholic countries,
and, above all, of those which bear the stamp of Spain.
But, as before stated, the thinker and true observer must
be a universalist. He will strive ever to see the good
in these things, as well as, or in superior relation to, their
defects. To him, nothing can be utterly condemned, for
he ever —
" Trusts that, somehow, good
Will be the final goal of ill ! "
Treated as a matter of courtesy, the foreign critic
need have no scruples, however, with regard to his
handling of Roman Catholicism. Whatever happens he
is a "heretic"!
The careful observation of the traveller in the interior
of Peru regarding religious practices will, it may be stated
at the outset, lead him to conclusions which can be but
little short of condemnatory. His scruples will, moreover,
be less when it is seen that there are no stronger critics
of the priests, in their country, than the Peruvians
themselves.
If it were possible to lay bare the inmost thoughts
156 The Andes and the Amazon
of a great many of these clericals it seems probable
that it would be seen that they look upon their profession
principally from the point of view of expediency ; or
as a means to their own living and enrichment. For,
it is incredible that a body of men, if they were of
righteous ways of thought, or philosophical, or ordinarily
intelligent, could follow the methods which they adopt,
or perpetuate the singular mediaeval customs which do
duty for religion. There are, of course, exceptions,
especially among the self-sacrificing missionary priests
who live among the savages of the Montana or region
of the forests.
But it is only a truism to state that a country whose
national religion is Roman Catholicism is handicapped
from the very beginning, in its social and industrial
development. Whatever may be the true principle of
this religious system, its methods are antagonistic to
progress ; the fact is rendered evident by an examina-
tion of any of these nations. Inexplicable, truly, are
the operations of destiny, or whatever term may be
applied to the workings of circumstance, that this old
religion of an old age and of the Old World should have
been transplanted to this virgin soil of the New World,
there to so long detain the hands of time and progress.
The total number of priests at present in the country
must be difficult to estimate, for they are continually
arriving from other countries, especially from France,
Italy, and Spain. To the Briton, accustomed to the
refined and educated clergy of his own country and
Church, the appearance and methods of the curas of
Spanish America is a matter for surprise. In the interior
towns of Peru (and other similar countries) the cura is
often an individual of unprepossessing appearance ; some-
times dressed in a slovenly manner, unshaven, probably
unwashed, and living on and exploiting the poor Indians
in a way difficult to realise in a more civilised country.
These priests often become exceedingly wealthy, due to
the contributions which they exact from the Indians.
They possess lands, flocks, and herds, and even mines ;
The Church in Peru 157
and this even in the very poorest communities, at
times.
In one of my journeys I stopped at a little village
at the foot of the Andes, one evening. The topic of
conversation for the moment among the people there
was regarding a "deal" which had just been performed
by the cura. This worthy had long had his eye on a
fine herd of forty bullocks, belonging to an old woman
who lived near by. The old soul was ill, and thought
she was about to die, and the enterprising priest had
just "concluded a treaty" in which she made the herd
of bullocks over to him, receiving in return "the road
to heaven " ! I was unable to find out whether any
document accompanied this exchange, or whether it
was only verbal ; but the woman had recovered, and
was now demanding her bullocks back again !
On another occasion I was riding along a road which
passed through well-cultivated fields and plantations. I
asked my boy to whom they belonged, and he replied :
" They are the property of the cura^ Sefior." I rode on for
a space; other fine plantations lined the road on either
hand, and again I asked who was the owner. " They
belong to the cura now, Sefior," he again replied. Some
distance further on a well-built house was seen, by the
roadside, and as I passed a pretty girl appeared at the door,
and smiled. " Whose is this house ? " I again asked my
servant ; and again came the same reply : " It is the cura's,
Sefior." " And whose is that nice - looking girl there ? "
I continued to interrogate, as I eyed the smiling damsel.
" Oh, she belongs to the cura, Sefior," he stolidly replied.
I put spurs to my horse and departed at a gallop,
without drawing rein until I had arrived far beyond the
limits of the curcCs jurisdiction !
The law requiring celibacy among the priests in Peru
is honoured in the breach rather than in the observance.
In the interior towns and small villages they often live
openly with their families. This, to an Englishman, of
course, is remarkable only as being a breach of the
principles to which they are supposed to conform. To
158 The Andes and the Amazon
the philosophical mind, or even to the rulings of ordinary
common-sense, it is only censurable for the same reason.
The fatuous ordinance which would condemn men to
live without women entirely defeats its own end, and
creates evils which are far-reaching. The immorality of
the curasy in many places, is so common as scarcely to call
for comment among the inhabitants of the place; and
any allusion to the matter of their wives only induces a
smile or a shrug of the shoulders. The female companion
of a priest has no standing socially ; and if she is not
openly ostracised by the people among whom she dwells,
she is nevertheless regarded askance, as are, also, her
offspring, who are commonly termed " Anti-Cristo" !
These priests, notwithstanding their failings, are gener-
ally hospitable. I have often arrived with my men and
animals at a place where I knew absolutely no one. In
such cases I have gone direct to the house of the priest
in order to secure food and lodging, for, it need scarcely
be stated, there are no hotels. They have always brought
forth the best they had, and conversed intelligently upon
the topics of the day ; and I retain many pleasant recol-
lections of my stay in their houses. The civil adminis-
tration of these places consists of a Gobernador — rather
a high-sounding name for the type of individual who
generally performs the office ; and these are sometimes
not able to put very much before the traveller in the
way of comfort. The priest is generally the best-educated
person in the place, and the power he exercises is
autocratic.
These two elements — the civil, as represented by the
gobernador, and the ecclesiastical, represented by the
cura — are often in considerable friction. This is not an
undesirable condition, for, otherwise, either one would
become too absolute ; and it preserves a species of equili-
brium in the social state of their primitive communities.
The Church is a heavy load for Peru. That is to say,
it is the same load which all countries whose destiny it
has been to exist under the Church of Rome have to bear.
Unfortunate destiny, it were more true to say, for all
The Church in Pern 159
these papist-dominated communities, in whatever part of
the world, show the retarding action of the load they bear.
Does it yield any corresponding advantages? Observa-
tion shows that it does. The deeply religious practices of
the women in Spanish America inculcate a strong sense
of refinement ; vulgar women, such as the Anglo-Saxon
type produces, are unknown in Spanish America. The
upper class is refined and proud ; the lower modest and
respectful. Also, the condition known as "race suicide"
obtains no foothold in these communities, nor is it likely
to do so whilst the women remain influenced by this
religion. But it does not inculcate morality generally.
Spanish-American women have, probably, a less sense of
honour than Anglo-Saxon as regards relations between
the sexes ; and marital fidelity seems to be less strong.
They are much more creatures of impulse than the women
of more northern nations.
The tendency of the Roman Catholic religion is to
keep its world stationary, to endure the evils it has in
stagnant peace, rather than to go on to "evils which it
wots not of" ; evils of development, which must be passed
by mankind on his road to good. For without change
and experience there is no progress, and that part of
mankind which fears to pass the milestones of evolution,
must ever remain secondary in the world's advancement.
CHAPTER XV
THE HIGH ANDEAN PLATEAUX
I HAVE before remarked upon the structure of the Andes,
and the influence of the different regions of the Andean
territory upon the races which inhabit the country.
The traveller, after gaining some knowledge of Peru,
and the similar bordering countries of South America,
finds himself naturally referring all places to their altitude.
If such and such a town, place, mine, or region is
mentioned, his first idea is to ask what is its altitude
above sea-level, for this will at once determine its prime
characteristics, such as climate, rainfall, heat or cold,
means or methods of communication, provisions, and
so forth ; and this directs his choice of clothing, and, in
short, all the preparations he must make to visit it. As
regards weather in the Cordilleran regions, he may take
it as an axiom never to go without his impermeable
riding cape, and thick woollen ponchos. However fair
the heavens are at starting, they may at any moment
pour out their floods of rain and hail. A Peruvian
proverb runs in this wise: "A dog's limping, a woman's
pouting, and a Cordilleran sky : be ye ever doubting ! "
Peru has been likened to a sheet of notepaper
crumpled up in the hand and allowed to open ; and,
indeed, the Andean region is so crumpled, so broken up
into ridges and valleys, and sub-ridges and sub-valleys,
in every conceivable direction, that the traveller often
wonders where are the " flat " places. Moreover, the first
essential for a large civilised population is the existence
of large, " flat " places ; and I have before remarked that
Nature is still at work here in preparing the land for
i6o
The High Andean Plateaux
161
habitation. Her elements work day and night to that
end. The crests of mountains are worn away, particle
by particle, and carried down to the streams and rivers
to form new plains. I have observed the slopes of the
hills veritably groaning and disintegrating under the
action of the elements, at times, and this is no figure
of speech. For example, after a snow-storm and frost
a hot sun comes out. The snow thaws ; the rocks split ;
flakes of stone and soil fall down the slopes with audible
noise and visible movement. The limestones are also
pitted in curious forms by the action of acids in the air
and water; the granites disintegrate and form sand, or
the remarkable spherical shapes which at times are seen,
giving the slopes the appearance of great fields strewn
with skulls. These become detached, and roll down to
the stream beds, or go to pieces in their characteristic
onion-like peeling process. The porphyries, at times,
form the most remarkable groups of natural sculpture,
which almost startle the horseman, as, in a reverie, he
descends the winding trail among them. I recollect one
statue of a gigantic friar with a cowl, which I used to
pass regularly for some time at a certain place. The
quartzites last the longest ; they only fall away in blocks,
and do not decompose, but are slowly ground to sand
by their mutual friction under the action of moving
water. In Peru I have observed a curious and elegant
form of lichen, which I have never seen on any other
rocks than the quartzite, and I could generally distinguish
this particular kind of stone for that reason before
examining a clean fracture.
Earthquakes here are also destructive and constructive
in their effect. In one part of the Andean Cordillera,
where I stayed for some months, I almost daily recorded
slight shocks, and continuously observed new boulders
upon the paths or stream beds which had been brought
down by this agency during the night. In short, the
traveller has continually before him the most striking
object-lesson of the forces of Nature at work in her
rebuilding.
162 The Andes and the Amazon
The hydrographic structure and functions of the Andes
have already been touched upon. The Andes may be
considered as a mighty machine which collects and stores
up water on its summits in the form of permanent ice, as
the ice- and snow-cap, which, ever thawing on its lower
edge, gives birth to the streams which flow down both
eastern and western slopes. The value of the Andes
as an "hydraulic machine" will in the future be more
and more taken into account ; for its powers are very
evident to the observations of the engineer who travels
there. Water-power will be developed on a large scale
some day, and hydro-electric stations established which
will supply mines, manufactories, and agriculture, with
mechanical energy, as is being done so largely in Italy,
Switzerland, California, Africa, etc. The value of this
source of energy is considerable ; the streams which flow
down the western or Pacific slope have a very rapid fall
in a short trajectory, and although their volumes are not
generally large, nevertheless they form both a source of
energy and a supply for irrigation purposes. As an
example, the river Rimac, which is born in the ice-cap
and descends the western slope of the Cordillera, flowing
through Lima and debouching at Callao, has a trajectory
only about lOO miles long, and a fall of something like
i4,ocx) feet, from its source. The other rivers of Peru
which flow to the Pacific have more or less similar con-
ditions as regards their trajectory. They are about
forty-nine in number, but some of them are but small
streams in the dry season. In several instances, cities
are lighted electrically from hydro - electric stations on
these rivers, as Lima, Arequipa, Trujillo; and in the
former an extensive electric street-car system is work-
ing from this source of energy.
A remarkable feature of the hydrography of the
country, and of which I have spoken elsewhere, is that
of the Andean lakes. These are generally in and among
the tablelands — the punas or altiplanicies, at an altitude
above the sea-level of 12,000 feet to 15,000 feet, or more.
I have described some of these elsewhere. They are fed
The High Andean Plateaux 163
by the heavy rainfall of those regions, and in some cases
by the thawing of the lower edge of the ice-cap. Among
the most notable of these is the famous lake Titicaca,
12,370 feet altitude, 165 miles long, and an average of
6^ broad. This great inland sea, in conjunction with
Lake Poopo and the Desaguadero river, in Bolivia, forms
its own hydrographic system, and has no outlet. Lake
Arapa discharges into it, and there are other smaller
sheets of water forming part of the same system, and
which I have spoken of elsewhere. Evaporation is the
only agency of exhaustion of this system.
Next, may be considered the series of Andean lakes
which are the sources of rivers, as Conococha, from which
rises the river Santa or Huaraz, flowing to the Pacific ;
Lauricocha, source of the Marafton (see note in former
chapter) ; Chinchai-cocha, or Junin, 9 leagues long and
2 wide, source of the Mantaro river ; Orcococha and
Choclococha, source of the Pampas river ; Langui of the
Urubamba ; Vilafro of the Apurimac ; Lake Parincochas,
etc. — most of which I have visited. The word Coc/ia is
Quechua for Lake.
Besides these there are innumerable smaller lakes
upon these high punas, wherever the traveller may
journey, and which form natural reservoirs, often without
any outlet. Bordering upon them are extensive swamps
and bogs, where, without a guide, disaster would be
encountered. The existence of these great areas of
swamp and lack of natural drainage seems to be due
to impermeable underlying strata of quartzite, or other
rock, which permits no percolation of the waters to
lower elevations, from these numerous basin - shaped
areas.
Other great lakes have formerly existed in some
of the longitudinal valleys, which have broken down
their enclosing natural dams, and so drained themselves.
Among these are those which existed in former epochs,
in the Jauja and Huancayo valleys, and which opened a
way for themselves at Izcuchaca, and broke through the
eastern Cordillera, to the Amazon. Similar conditions
164 The Andes and the Amazon
attended the lake-basins of the Huallaga and Marafton
rivers.
Whilst the Andes are generally divided into two
parallel ranges, termed the Eastern and Western
Cordilleras, respectively, the true " Cordillera," it ever
seems to me, must be considered that whose summit
forms the actual divortia aquarutn of the system and
the continent. The passage over these summits must
be made ever at an altitude of 13,000 to 14,000 feet
above sea-level, with — as far as Peru is concerned, in
her 1,500 miles of Cordillera — only one exception.
This is in the northern part of the country, the
Department of Piura, and embodies several remarkably
low gaps in the Cordillera of the Andes varying from
6,000 to 7,000 feet in altitude, above sea-level. The
summit or pass is here about 100 miles from the
coast of the Pacific ; and in my preliminary report,
written in July 1906, upon the project for a railway
uniting the ocean with the navigable head-waters of the
Amazon, I have said :
" Leaving the Port (Payta), and traversing eastwardly
the flat coast-zone, the line will reach the Andes, and
ascending the western slope will cross the summit at an
altitude above sea-level of about 6,600 feet, by means of
a pass which seems almost to have been made by Nature,
in order that man might create a way of travel between
the world's greatest ocean and vastest river, crossing one
of the highest mountain ranges of the globe; for, in all
the 1,500 miles of Peruvian Cordillera there is no pass
at a less altitude than 13,500 feet."
This fact will be rendered more palpable when it is
recollected that the two existing trans-Andean railways
cross at 15,642 and 14,666 feet, respectively.
There is a small village church at Huarmaca — on the
summit near this point — where it is proposed to cross to
the Maranon exactly on the line of the divortia aquarum ;
and the water which is shed from the falling rain on the
one side of the roof goes to the Pacific Ocean, whilst that
on the other flows to the Atlantic.
On the Summit of the Andes.
Summit of the Andes.
The High Andean Plateaux
165
As aflfording a general idea of the remarkable altitudes
at which people live in the Peruvian cities of the Andean
region, I will give some figures of the elevations above
sea-level of some of the Capitals of the Departments, or
States, with their distances from Lima, as follows :
Cities
Cerro de Pasco
Puno
Huancavelica
Cuzco
Huaraz
Ayacucho .
Cajamarca
Abancay .
Arequipa .
Altitude
Distance from Lima
in feet
in miles
14,380
174
12,645
825
12,530
219
11,445
567
9,930
192
9,216
315
9,440
474
8,060
471
7,850
666
The climate of these places is cold, and often rainy,
but healthy and invigorating, and produces a more
energetic people than that of the coast cities. Some of
them are situated in mining regions, and have been
described elsewhere. The arriero, or pack - mule train
driver, living in these high regions, greatly objects to
journey to the coast ; and the serranos, as the inhabitants
are termed, generally fall a prey to light fevers or
tercianas when they make these journeys to Lima, or
other coast points.
Conversely, the dweller in the mild and changeless
temperature and sunny climate of the coast dislikes to
ascend and encounter the — to him — inclement conditions
of the uplands.
These coast cities form a striking contrast in their
lower elevation, as shown below by the respective figures
of some of the principal ones.
p. Altitude Distance from Lima
" in feet in miles
Callao .... Sea-level 6
Trujillo 370 339
lea 1,335 174
Chiclayo 82 456
Piura 174 612
166 The Andes and the Amazon
Intermediary between the two foregoing lists, in point
of altitude, and generally enjoying a delightful climate
which in some cases may be described, without too
much exaggeration, as " perpetual spring," are such cities
and towns as Moyobamba, Chachapoyas, Moquegua,
Hunauco, Yungay, etc. The profiles of the Andes,
which I give, will render evident the striking changes
of altitude which the traveller encounters in his journeys,
and the great barrier which these mountains present to
communication between the coast -zone and the region
of the forests. These profiles are taken at considerable
distances apart, aggregating about 1,000 miles, and are
about normal to the coast -line and main axis of the
Cordillera. Beginning towards the north, we have a
section through the Andes from the coast between Eten
and Payta, passing the summit at Huarmaca — which,
as has been explained, is the lowest point in the
Peruvian Andes — and down to the river Marafton at the
junction with the Amazon, whence steam navigation
begins.
The second, southwards, is through Salavery, Trujillo —
the summit — and down to and beyond the Marafton.
Third : through Huaraz and the valley of Huaylas ;
the Marafton and Huallagas rivers.
Fourth : through Callao, Lima, Oroya, and down to
the Ucayali. The Central Railway runs eastwardly as
far as Oroya.
Fifth : through Pisco, Santa Ynez, Ayacucho, and the
Apurimac.
Sixth : through Mollendo, Arequipa, Titicaca, and the
Montafta. The Southern Railway runs as far eastwardly
as Titicaca.
The line of perpetual snow in the Andes, or the
lower edge of the ice -cap, appears to become lower as
one approaches the northern part of the chain. It would
rather have been supposed that the reverse would be the
case, as in going northward the equator is, of course, being
y^7'o/i/es o^/^e, 7^7'€tzria?z j'7??c:ies
EAi'i
^iic,/.
4
Csean I CoAt^ ^e^/»>* J/ett'ei, ^e^/otr
T/Tort/Sfitt, /Tef/trt rort £>/mo^
^O
■- -I- - -
/bcyfc fyi^fvAejC - - j»a. ^wttjftr ^^^ut/Tt. h^t/frj/^e^ .
So
^e^Afc frit^frAe/C . jfj^ . j^fTfajtf -/f^/af>/'<c kyiu/Fr'sAfa.
ZS_ooo /^. Acatcgygn
/i.eao
1 /o,oeo
/%e/j-/6
Cce^tti-
/oooo.
m
^v»r
^/vc^
1
S'ooa ^^^
^^_Lj^^^_
^ua^/asa.
1
^Cy/c'^
Jtkxrere^^^^^m
^^^■1^^^^^^^^
\ _.
OC€a.r*
^
J/e»-
(-.
- -^ -
1
I
A'f 3.
c.fiy
p. 166(a).
fite'^M
/'ro/L /es pi /Xe ^^7 'cc z/i aft^ yjri eies
/y? 5"
2e,eoo./t
i^
ja,>A
/l^t/erjAeiA
/S.ooe.
iJO.OOO
77^c.
/J/^/oc/es irt j-ee/^ a&ovt^ set* Z*^^
O.A. J'^i/'/*ei /?/h-a''/'a. A«ua>'vm
The High Andean Plateaux 167'
approached. This, at any rate, seems to be shown by the
altitudes of points which I have visited, as follows :
-,, Altitude of snow-line
Approximate
Jriace
in feet
S. Latitude
CoUuahuasi ^ (no snow-line)
17,000
ao'oo'
Misti „ „
19,000
i6°io
Aricoma ....
16,500
i4°3o'
Santa Ynez ....
17,500
I3°20'
Huarapasca ....
14,775
io°oo
Yanashallas
14,650
9-40
Mataraju (glacier)
. 13,300
9-25
Huascaran
14,400 9»o5
Whether the number of points observed is really
sufficient to form a general result, or whether the re-
spective heights are only due to some local influence, I
am not prepared to decide. In this connection it is to
be recollected that the height of the perpetual snow-line
varies much, due to local conditions. For example, the
volcano Misti, near Arequipa — i9,ocx) feet — has no perma-
nent ice-cap ; whilst Sara-Sara, Solimana, and Coropuna,
not very greatly to the north of Arequipa, have a very
low snow-line. These are, however, all isolated peaks.
It seems to be a matter of general opinion in these
regions, among the inhabitants of the puna towns, that
the snow-cap has been retiring of recent decades ; and
this really seems to be borne out by the appearance
of the moraines and debris at their lower edges. The
ice-cap seems to have extended further down the slopes
at no very distant period. Whether this is only part of a
recurring phase of retirement, or whether of a permanent
diminishing, it would, of course, be impossible to say
without observations extending over the corresponding
periods. But the latter seems the more probable.
One of the most remarkable characteristics of these
high places in the Andes is the soroche: the uncomfort-
able and even dangerous effect of lack of oxygen and
rarefaction of the air, due to altitude. In many places
it is impossible to advance, when on foot, at more than
the slowest walking pace, and even then the heart beats
^ Province of Tarapaca, Chile.
168 The Andes and the Amazon
violently and the head swims. The most common
symptoms are severe headache, accompanied by vomit-
ing, although these are not necessarily always present.
I shall never forget some of my own experiences in
this respect. On one occasion I was examining some
mines at an altitude of 17,000 feet, when a strong wind
blew my hat off. Seeing that it was rolling away towards
a precipice, and would be lost, I foolishly ran after it. I
had run about fifty yards, when I felt a sudden suspen-
sion of all my powers : a terrible faintness at the heart
and weakness of the limbs. I recollect murmuring to
myself: " This is death ; I am really dying ! " and then
the ground rose up and struck me — I mean that was the
impression created — not one of falling — although I scarcely
felt the blow before utterly losing consciousness. When I
came to, my friends had propped me up and were forcing
some brandy between my teeth. "You fell like a man
shot," they said, "throwing your arms up in the air and
falling inert ; dead in the act."
On another occasion I arrived late at night on horse-
back at a certain place, of about similar altitude. A bitter
and searching wind swept across the mountains, and
probably helped to induce the soroche which came on,
striking upon the back of my head. This time it took
the form of excruciating headache, which, after lasting
several hours, was only eased by the severe vomiting
which followed. The effect was very weakening, and
required a couple of days in bed to overcome it.
Fortunately, I found I could always avoid the soroche
by careful methods, and in any case I became accustomed
to the altitude and rarefaction after a few days, when I
could ascend on foot the highest and most difficult places
without inconvenience. Not so with many other persons.
I have seen men brought down to lower altitudes, who
had gone up a few days previously, on stretchers, crying
that they were dying, and suffering exceedingly.
It is nearly always the case with persons who travel
on the Oroya railway from Lima, that they suffer from
soroche — headache and vomiting — when the train nears the
The High Plateaux : Retiring Snow-cap.
P. 168.
The High Andean Plateaux 169
summit. This is, however, rather a severe test, for the
passengers are taken from sea-level to an altitude of 15)642
feet in a few hours — the only instance in the world, I
believe, where such is possible. I have seen a car full of
passengers, unwell, and reminding me of a deck-load of
sea-sick people. In some cases blood issues from the nose
and ears.
The remedies which I have found most efficacious
against soroche are, first, of course, to go about as gently
and collectedly as possible, and to keep the head and neck
thoroughly protected from the wind. For this purpose
I have found the long fur boas, made of vicufla fur, and
which are obtainable in some places, most useful and
comforting. These can be wound twice round the neck.
Also, the knitted woollen masks or head-coverings which
the Indians of the highlands make and use, are excellent.
They cover the whole of the head, leaving the eyes, nose
and mouth free.
It is generally advised that alcohol be avoided and
that little food be consumed, although the very opposite
advice is also given by some. Personally, I find it better
to abstain both from alcohol and tobacco, and consider
that alcohol is harmful under such circumstances. Other
internal remedies seem to be the brown sugar I have
spoken of elsewhere, and ajos — a species of shalot — is
recommended, both to be eaten and rubbed upon the
temples. But, like sea -sickness and kindred maladies,
there is probably no specific remedy, and all depends upon
the individual and the circumstances of the moment. The
actual effect, it appears to me, is largely due to diminished
pressure upon the brain, for at these heights there is, of
course, a pressure due to only half an atmosphere, more
or less, and this is rendered more harmful by the cold
— which latter, at least, can be guarded against. I have
heard of cases where the brain has been so affected that the
sufferer had desired to commit suicide. I have not exactly
experienced such a desire, I must admit, but it has occurred
suddenly to me, sometimes, on riding past some one of
these peaceful blue lakes at these high elevations, that
170 The Andes and the Amazon
life was hard and weary, and that the translucent waters
looked exceedingly peaceful ! Another noticeable effect
of these high altitudes is the increased desire for sexual
intercourse ; and this is even found to be an antidote, in
some cases, for soroche.
The Cholo Indians, bom at these altitudes, are free
from the effects of the thin air. It is remarkable how they
run up the hills like goats, and how the miners work
constantly at their hard labour of drilling, at these eleva-
tions. Imported labour cannot compete with them for this
reason, and the European can only act as superintendent,
and the Chinaman must remain nearer the coast regions.
Nature has preserved these high regions, in this respect,
for the true sons of the soil ; those who, at least, have paid
her the homage of being born there.
What are these vast plateaux for ? What is their signi-
ficance in the cosmos? Comparatively little vegetation
flourishes there, and man can scarcely inhabit them. Of
course, they are the primary cause of secondary useful
conditions ; as, for example, great watersheds, great natural
manufacturies and storers of water, which is enjoyed by
the lower regions, and this alone warrants their existence.
For man can only ask the " use " of anything as regards
its relations with himself, if I may be pardoned such a
platitude. But, possibly, we may look further than hydro-
graphic or climatic uses, valuable though they are. It
must surely be that the future of science will reveal to us
new and strange purposes of uses for high altitudes. It
may be that great available differences of elevation shall
afford some source of energy, some difference of potential,
or other condition, unsuspected at present. It may be
that the being able to reach up so far into the unexplored
regions of the air shall afford us some supply of hitherto
unknown waves, vibrations, light, dynamic energy, atmos-
pheric products, which our evolving mechanical skill, and
the researches of our tireless physicists, shall harness for
man's uses. In my mind, there is no doubt of this.
Time will show.
CHAPTER XVI
ASCENTS OF SNOW-CAPPED SUMMITS AND PEAKS ^
During my stay in Huaraz, I was asked by the
authorities of the place to explore a pass upon the
Cordillera Blanca^ or eastern range of the Andes, which,
as elsewhere described, bounds the valley of Huaylas on
the east.
The object of this exploration was to determine the
practicability of making a mule road from Huaraz to the
towns on the other side of the Cordillera, eastward, such as
Huantar and Huari, as also to open up a nearer route to
the tropical Montana, for this proposed road would shorten
the distance to the latter place by several days' journey
from Huaraz, and its construction was of decided im-
portance to those communities.
No white man had ever crossed this portachuelo, as the
snowy passes of the Peruvian Andes are termed, notwith-
standing that various persons had set out from Huaraz or
Huari at different times to undertake it ; and indeed it had
only been traversed by two or three Cholo Indians, who,
under the stimulus of reward, had ventured across the ice-
cap which covered it. The authorities were now desirous
of taking advantage of the fact of an English engineer
being among them, as they informed me, in order to have
the pass examined, and I accepted the commission ; not so
much in a professional sense, but in a spirit of exploration
and a desire to do something which might benefit the
community, whose hospitality I had enjoyed a good deal.
However, the municipality afterwards insisted on present-
ing a fee.
Accompanied by four young Peruvians of Huaraz, an
^ Read before the Royal Geographical Society.
171
172 The Andes and the Amazon
Indian guide, and eight Cholos, who carried the baggage
and instruments, I set out on 3rd October (1903), and
we ascended the canyon of Quillcay-huanca, down which
flows the small river Quillcay, and formed camp at the
foot of the glacier which gives birth to that river. The
elevation of this point is 13,300 feet, the western edge of
the perpetual snow-line.
Sleep was continually disturbed by the thundering of
the avalanches, and towards morning a heavy rainfall
began, succeeded later by snow. The temperature, how-
ever, was quite mild, and at nine o'clock the party,
having ascended the rocky wall on the right-hand side
of the canyon, previously crossing the lateral moraines
and dibris deposited by the glacier, entered upon the
snow-cap.
Here all secured themselves to the rope which had
been brought for the purpose, for numerous crevasses in
the ice-cap were encountered, in many cases invisible from
the light covering of freshly-fallen snow which concealed
them. The ascent was gradual, rising gently towards the
summit ; but before this was gained the snow was falling
thickly, and in a few minutes entirely obscured the view.
In the face of this the party was brought to a standstill,
for, in the obscurity, a false step might have precipitated
one or all into a crevasse.
After the lapse of an hour, the storm showing little
signs of abating, and the Cholos complaining that their
feet were freezing — for they wore neither boots nor
sandals, but marched with bare feet — it was decided to
make a move, cautiously. But the guide, an Indian who
had only once made the passage, and in fairer weather,
had now become confused, and, after vacillating for some
minutes, desired to set out in a direction which was very
nearly that by which the party had arrived, or the reverse
of which it was necessary to follow, trying to influence
the Cholos to follow this course.
But I had previously taken an approximate bearing,
and in view of this was obliged to take a firm stand,
and to threaten with dire penalties any further insistence :
Glacier at hkad of Quilcav Valley, near Huaraz.
°. 172.
Ascents of Snow-capped Summits 173
and ostentatiously display the Colt's revolver which I
carried ; for the route the guide desired to take led to
a sheer descent of some hundreds of metres. At this
moment the sky cleared slightly, and a landmark — a high
peak — was recognised, when the course was followed in
the direction indicated by my compass. The track behind
was spotted with blood, which came from the bare feet
of the Indians — who, however, accustomed to hardships,
scarcely complained, but staggered on under their burdens,
sustaining their energies with the coca leaves which they
carry with them, and continually masticate.
In a short space the summit was reached, and a view
obtained of the eastern slope of the Cordillera. Here I
fired three shots : the signal agreed upon with the party
who should have ascended from that side to meet us.
All waited, and scanned the white landscape eagerly,
but in vain ; there was no answering shot or shout. I
was not altogether unprepared for this, for a good many
years' experience in Spanish America shows that one
of the qualities of the Spanish American is "failure to
make connections," and to depend upon the efforts of the
natives is often to lean upon a broken reed. This, of
course, apart from the many good and useful qualities
which they possess.
In front of us stretched downward long slopes and
sheer descents, the former crossed by yawning crevasses
of unknown depth, among which there appeared to be no
passage. Beneath our feet the snow, heavily fallen during
the night upon that side of the mountains, lay to such
a depth that at every step we were buried to the waist ;
and fear, amounting almost to panic, lest a crevasse filled
with the soft material should swallow them up, possessed
itself of some members of the party. Above our heads
the sun, which for a few brief moments had appeared,
again became obscured by the falling snow, which
threatened to again blot out the landscape and leave
us halting upon that debatable ground. The guide, more-
over, had lost confidence in himself, and feared to take
a single step in advance.
174 The Andes and the Amazon
" Vamos cH regresar" ("Let us go back"), was the cry
of my companions ; and even the stolid Cholos echoed
the suggestion among themselves — not in Spanish, but
in their native Quechua. To this, however, I opposed a
firm negative. It was not that professional pride was
aroused, nor that the character of intrepidity of the
whole British nation, as represented by my unworthy
self, was at stake ; nor that bets had been freely placed
by friends in Huaraz that the inglis would accomplish
the passage ; but simply a desire to fulfil what had been
begun, believing it perfectly feasible with calmness and
caution.
Moreover, I thought I discovered a possible path
among the crevasses, and across a natural bridge of ice
and snow which spanned an abyss. So, seeing that the
guide would not advance, and that further hesitation
would lead, perhaps, to mutiny, I proposed that my
companions should hold firm to one end of the rope,
whilst I alone, tied to the other end, should explore the
way in advance, in short stretches.
To this, however, they demurred, fearing for my safety ;
and at last, impatient of the delay, and seeing that every
minute added to the obscurity due to the thickly-fallen
snow, I took the guide's place, and, animating the others,
we slowly commenced the descent, sinking waist-deep at
every step in the snow.
After advancing some short distance, the guide,
beginning to recognise the ground, again took the lead,
and, fastened to a rope with one of my companions,
explored the way in advance.
Slow, laborious, and exceedingly fatiguing was the
descent. The utmost caution was necessary in order to
avoid the crevasses, which in many cases were covered
with a light cap of snow, incapable of sustaining the
weight of a man. In spite of all our caution some narrow
escapes were experienced, for one of the young Peruvians
fell suddenly into a crevasse. Fortunately, the rope in
a measure sustained him, as well as the support he was
able to obtain with his elbows in the walls of the opening,
Ascents of Snow-capped Summits 175
for, although deep, the crevasses were generally of small
width ; and he was promptly released from the dangerous
situation.
Shortly afterwards, in descending a slope, I felt that
the ground beneath my feet was giving way. It was
another crevasse, the " bridge " over which had broken
through. I obtained a momentary glimpse of blue walls
below, which extended downwards until lost in obscurity ;
but with the quickness of thought I threw myself back-
wards at full length upon the snow, and slowly retreated,
making signs to those who followed me to do likewise.
The remnants of the " bridge " slowly slid into the abyss,
and we sought another way whereby to avoid the spot.
So fatiguing was the advance, due to the depth of
soft snow, that it was necessary to pause at every few
steps, and it seemed as if night would overtake us in
that perilous spot. It was then that I remembered my
experiences in " tobogganing," both in England and in
i Canada ; and, taking the large, stiff underpart of leather,
which Peruvian saddles have, from the Cholo who carried
it, I rolled up the front edge to form a sort of sledge,
j and, sitting on it, tobogganed down the slope with com-
'i parative ease. The Cholos and my companions followed
i suit with any other articles, including their blankets,
which lent themselves to the purpose, and in that manner
we descended for some distance.
The afternoon sun again appeared, and calling a halt,
I had some photographs taken — for we carried two
cameras — both of the people and of the snow-covered
slopes. It was just before this that the blue spectacles
I wore — for these are necessary to avoid snow -blind-
ness— had become broken, and had to be discarded ; and,
although I felt no inconvenience during the journey from
the reflection from the snow, nevertheless on the follow-
ing day I was almost blind from the consequent swelling
and inflammation of the eyes. As for the guide, who
had neglected to provide himself with spectacles — he
was almost totally blind for several days afterwards.
Wet, cold, and hungry, our privations were further
176 The Andes and the Amazon
added to by the carelessness of one of the Cholos, who
carried the basket of provisions and the bundle of cooking
utensils ; for, on descending a slope, I was horrified at
seeing these articles roll past me ! The Cholo behind
had loosened his hold of them, and away they went. I
made a wild grab at the tea-kettle as it passed, but
missed it, and, together with the provisions, it disappeared
into a crevasse.
Fortunately, none of the party suffered from the
dreaded soroche, or mountain fever, which generally
attacks persons accustomed to lower altitudes. This,
as is well known, takes the form of violent headaches
accompanied by vomiting; and I, having experienced
a severe attack in the Andes at less altitude, had taken
some precautions against it, and which proved efficacious.
Included in these was the eating, from time to time,
some of the raw, brown sugar which the Cholos carried
in cakes, and pressed upon me.
After some six or more hours of floundering,
tobogganing, and struggling, the party reached the
eastern edge of the perpetual snow -line, and regained
again the solid rock. From this point the descent was
easier, and at 7 P.M. we arrived in the valley below,
and which, with the river which flows down it, bears
the name of Pamparajo.
Here the night was passed in one of a series of
caves which exist there, and such refreshment was
partaken of as could be procured. I found the infusion
of the leaves of the coca, taken as tea, agreeable
and sustaining ; and a native remedy, consisting of a
starchy, tuberous root, applied to the eyes, speedily
cured the effects of snow-blindness.
The principal point of geographical interest of the
region, apart from the route, as a means of communica-
tion, as before described, is that the summit passed is
the divortia aquarum of the Continent. The waters of
the river Quillcay, where the ascent was made, flow to
the Pacific Ocean ; those of the Pamparajo, where the
descent was accomplished, flow to the Atlantic. The
Head of a Valley: Cordillera Blanca.
P. 176
Ascents of Snow-capped Summits 177
former by the river Santa, which flows along the valley
of Huaylas and debouches into the Pacific at the port
of Chimbote, a trajectory of only some 50 leagues;
whilst the latter, the Pamparajo, via the Marafion, flows
through that vast and comparatively little-known territory
of the interior of Peru — the Montana — and through the
Amazon and Brazil, to where the latter mighty river
empties into the Atlantic.
As stated, the greatest altitude gained was approxi-
mately 16,100 feet, or considerably more than that of
the summit of Mont Blanc. The extension of the ice-
cap was somewhat more than a league in width. The
rock-formation of the lower slopes of the route passed
over is of a hard porphyry capped higher up, and probably
beneath the snow, with a slate, fast disintegrating under
the action of the elements.
I have spoken of the infusion of the coca leaf, as
having been beneficial in warding off the effects of
cold and fatigue ; and whilst it is a fact that cocaine is
an injurious drug when taken in excess, nevertheless,
like some others, it is stomachic, and useful in certain
circumstances, such as described, and its use might
reasonably be extended.
The dried coca leaves are the Indians' best friend.
Provided with a pouch full, and the little gourd of
lime which he carries, the Cholo can abstain from
food for days together, when on a march. A certain
stimulant, or reaction, takes place in the stomach after
masticating the leaves and lime, but its too constant
use has a deadening or stupefying effect on the Cholo,
undoubtedly because he takes it to excess. The dried
coca leaves are one of the principal articles of commerce
among these people, and at times even takes the place
of current coin.
Somewhat to the north of the snowy pass which I
traversed is the peak of Huascaran, of which I attempted
an ascent, as described below.
There are many high peaks in the Peruvian Andes,
which have never been ascended ; many whose height
M
178 The Andes and the Amazon
is not known ; and others whose names are even
unrecorded.
The peak of Aconcagua in Chile is probably the
highest point in the Andes, as, indeed, in the whole of
the Americas, North, Central, or South. Its height is
23,080 feet ; but the Sorata, near Lake Titicaca, upon the
Bolivian side, is by some authorities stated to be 23,600
feet high, and in this case would be the foremost. Other
writers, however, give it as slightly over 23,000 feet.
Next in order comes the Huascaran,^ given by
triangulation as 22,180 feet — probably the third or
fourth highest peak in the New World, and whose
ascent I attempted to make, gaining a point which
no human foot has ever yet reached. This peak is in
the Eastern Cordillera, or "Cordillera Blanca," of the
Peruvian Andes, in the Department of Ancachs ; and
in fine weather, at a sufficient distance from the coast,
its summit can be seen from the Pacific Ocean.
My ascent was made in May 1904, and the account
was read before the Royal Geographical Society by the
then President, Sir Clements Markham, on my behalf I
do not think this peak is mentioned in any existing work
on geography, and indeed it is but little known.
This splendid granite uplift, with its gleaming mantle
of perpetual snow, always fired my imagination as I
beheld it from Huaraz, during several months' stay there.
Seen from that city, it reflects the colours of the morning
and evening sun with indescribable beauty, and towers
upwards from among its sister members of the chain
towards the blue heavens in impenetrable majesty, silent,
solitary, eternal. Impenetrable, because no human foot
has, so far, ever pressed its summit. Raimondi attempted
it, but failed, and only established its height by triangula-
tion— 6,721 metres above sea-level. I had often desired
to make the ascent, in spite of the reiterated assertion
of the inhabitants of the valley that it was absolutely
impossible.
But I have long since found out that the "absolutely
^ Also Coropuna, 22,900 feet.
Ascents of Snow-capped Summits 179
impossible" — especially in Spanish America — is only
another term for the absolutely untried, and shortly the
opportunity presented itself. Some Peruvian friends of
Yungay, a pretty and industrious little town in the valley
of Huaylas, not far from the peak, took me to examine
some gold mines, which proved to be upon the very base of
the mountain ; and I resolved, at least, to make a recon-
naissance of the possibility of ascending.
I sent back, therefore, to Yungay for blankets, hatchets^
provisions, blue spectacles, rope, etc. Guides there were
none, as no one had ever ascended much beyond the
snow-line.
On the following day, 5th May, 1904, at 6 A.M. I began
the ascent, accompanied by a Peruvian friend of Yungay,
an Italian from the mines, and five Cholos. The sky was
clear. The way at first lay up easy slopes and ravines,
and through thickets of flowering shrubs and of light
timber — quenua and quishua ; often with a carpeting of
a hard-wooded, blue lupinus. At 11,500 feet altitude the
Italian became fatigued, and returned to the mines, the
rest of the party continuing upwards. The slopes of the
mountain, below the snow-line, were now very steep, and
covered with great blocks of granite, which made walking
very fatiguing. Besides, the rarefaction of the air made
breathing difficult, and my companion, the Peruvian, fell
behind somewhat, but nevertheless continued manfully
upwards. We were obliged to stop every twenty or thirty
steps to recover breath, and the distance which separated
us from the base of the ice-cap, which we beheld above us,
diminished by very slow degrees. A damp mist now
appeared and enveloped us, blotting out the view.
Fortunately, this mist disappeared shortly with the heat
of the sun, and at 1 1 A.M. we reached the snow-line, at an
altitude of 14,500 feet. Here we called a halt for breakfast,
making coffee with a fire of dried grass pulled from
between the rocks just below the snow-line. I expected
to have suffered from soroche^ but was pleased to find
myself free from this troublesome effect of high eleva-
tion, and attributed it to having lived for some months at
180 The Andes and the Amazon
the altitude of Huaraz, so becoming somewhat accustomed
to the thinner atmosphere. Also the chancaca, which we
carried and ate occasionally, seemed to stave it off. This
is nothing but small cakes of crude brown sugar, which is
made in those regions, and which the natives know from
experience to be beneficial. I have noted the effect of this
in other similar situations, and the sugar, undoubtedly, has
some virtue for mountaineers.
After breakfasting we continued upwards, but my
companion could not advance over the snow ; his feet
slipped back at every step, and even the Cholos walked
with difficulty. The snow at first was soft below, covered
with a thin, hard crust sufficiently strong to bear the weight
of a man, advancing with care. For my part, I found I
could ascend with considerable ease, so that I soon left the
rest of the party behind, and found myself alone, treading
those virgin dazzling slopes where human foot had never
trod until that moment.
The Peruvian remained below with one of the Cholos,
and I continued upward with the other four. We passed
various grietas, or crevasses, and arrived at a small
saddle-back from which an outcrop of rocks protruded
through the ice-cap. At this place one of the Cholos
broke through the snow-crust and became buried to the
arm-pits ; and, although there was little danger, the
occurrence inspired such fear in the timid souls of the
others that they declined to go on. The aspect of the
glaciers beyond was, it is true, awe-inspiring. Frightful
precipices opened to the view, showing where avalanches
had fallen ; and even as I watched an avalanche fell — a
wave of snow whose resounding roar wound grimly among
those high terraces and far facades, and possibly caused
the people in the valley towns below to look upward.
My first intention had been only to pass the snow-line,
but the desire to attempt the summit had been taking
possession of me as I ascended. The tonic air invigorated
the body ; the glorious panorama inspired the mind ; and
I felt capable of reaching the crest of one of those beauti-
ful twin peaks of the Huascaran which towered above.
Ascents of Snow-capped Summits 181
The cowardice of the Cholos inspired me with anger and
disgust, and in vain I offered them reward ; they would
not leave the point of rocks where they had taken refuge.
At length I left them, and went on alone.
At 16,500 feet I stopped. Before me was a deep and
narrow crevasse, which it seemed imprudent to cross alone.
I long stood on the verge, for the desire to go on was very
strong. At the other side, still far away, the twin peaks
gleamed like purest porcelain in the rays of the afternoon
sun. Blue and pearly shadows shaded gently off upon
their flanks, losing themselves in grim profundities, where,
far below, the foamy blanket of the avalanche now lay ;
the mist of its pulverisation still hanging like a faint white
curtain near the base. Nearly 6,000 feet above me the
northernmost peak stood out, piercing the blue heavens
like the gnomon of a mighty dial, along whose sloping
side I could ascend. I was alone in the midst of that
awful yet beautiful solitude : alone with Nature upon the
highest points of matter — the roof of the world !
But an unstable matter, for at my right hand were
millions of tons of ice and snow, so insecurely poised upon
the abrupt steeps that a breath, it seemed, might hurl
them down upon me, and which, even as I watched, seemed
almost to be in movement Also, the broad ice-field over
which my gaze wandered, and which intervened between
me and the base of the " gnomon," was crossed by faint
blue lines — the surface edges of innumerable chasms and
crevasses. Should I go on alone }
Yes. I passed the crevasse, and continued onward
over the ice-cap, slipping at times, and stopping to recover
breath from the thin air, and to observe the panorama
below. Again I was brought to a halt by an abyss wider
and deeper than before, whilst near at hand and all
around were others. The ice-cap was folded, rigid and
cracked ; a false step might send me down a thousand
feet or more : was it wise to proceed alone ?
The majesty of that vast solitude fascinated me : I
was glad to be alone where no human foot had ever
trod. Far below and far away, north and south, extended
182 The Andes and the Amazon
the valley of Huaylas, threaded by the river Santa, the
villages upon its banks scarcely distinguishable through
the shimmering mists ; whilst to the west the clouds
which hung upon the "Black Cordillera" shut out the
vast horizon of the Pacific Ocean. But not a cloud rested
on the twin peaks of Huascaran, as their "porcelain"
slopes pierced the cerulean vault above me. Upon their
sides, near the noble crests, enormous banks of ice — vast,
unsupported snow-cornices — stood out, overhanging the
abyss below in fearful equilibrium, and casting sharp,
violet shadows upon the white fa9ades from which they
projected. Again it looked as if a breath might hurl
them downwards — as indeed they had been hurled before
— and again I seem to see them move. Suppose they fell
— why not now, as at any other moment in time and
space? I seemed to watch, fascinated, the breaking
away — I could imagine exactly what it would be like.
A thunderous roar: an engulfing wave of snow and
ice whose appalling crest would sweep the tableland
between us, more terrible than an ocean billow.
Again I hesitated, still drawn onward, and again I
examined the crevasse. Part of the tuft of snow whereon
I stood, upon the verge, crunched and gave way, falling
down, down, down. Was it a warning? To continue
onward might be death. Yet what a resting-place and
grave-stone for a wearied mortal! By day rearing its
splendour on high, this gnomon peak ; by night ever
cutting its silent arc against the purple dome of the
starry firmament — a launching point in space whence a
last human thought might wing its way, leaving its
material temple to eternal preservation in the matter it
strove to overcome.
I turned away regretfully, and followed my own foot-
prints— the only ones which had ever been made there
by man — downwards again, passed the crevasse, crossed
the tableland, and shortly arrived at the place where the
Cholos anxiously awaited my return. There I made
them build a cairn of loose granite blocks ; it was with
a species of satisfaction that I saw them groan and
Ascents of Snow-capped Summits 183
sweat — a punishment for having failed to accompany me,
so preventing the probability of arriving at the summit.
Within the cairn I enclosed a bottle containing my
name, the date and the altitude at which I had arrived —
16,500 feet. Then we descended to the lower edge of the
snow-line where my Peruvian companion was still await-
ing me, and we made and took some tea, which was very
acceptable.
I found it relatively easy to descend over the ice-cap,
by the method of sliding in an erect position, down the
slopes, digging my heels and staff into the snow when I
began to attain too great a velocity. The Cholos seeing
me perform this, were much amused, and bursting into
laughter endeavoured to imitate the method, but generally
fell over in the attempt, or lost their sandals in the snow.
We arrived later at the mine again, and the following
day I returned to Yungay, where news of the attempted
ascent had preceded us, people turning out to observe the
Englishman who had undertaken such a dangerous and
— to their way of thinking — useless adventure. " Only an
ingles would have done it," was their comment.
I consider that the ascent of the Huascaran could be
made without great difficulty, with proper companions
and appliances. I felt a species of regret as I looked
back at the virgin slopes above where I had ascended ;
that regret which he might feel who has loved, whose
love has been reciprocated, but who had been separated
by the iron hand of circumstance from the beloved object
before the consummation of his affections !
There is a series of other beautiful and lofty snow-clad
peaks in the continuation of the "Cordillera Blanca," to
the north. Some of these, whose heights were attained
by triangulation, do not fall very greatly below that of
the Huascaran. The latter name was given to the peak
by Raimondi. The name by which the Indians know
it is Mataraju or Matarao, which is a Quechua word
meaning the " Twin snow peaks," or " Snow forehead.."
CHAPTER XVII
MINERAL WEALTH
Most of the Republics of Spanish America have been
endowed by Nature with abundant wealth in metalliferous
and non-metalliferous minerals, Peru is remarkably situ-
ated in this respect, and enjoys so diversified a range of
minerals within her soil that their enumeration almost
exhausts the list of ores known to commerce and science.
The mineral-bearing regions cover a zone of i,ooo
miles in length by 200 to 300 in width, embracing both
the eastern and western slopes, and the summit, of the
Cordillera : the whole of the region, in short, which comes
within the direct influence of the Andes, The rocks are,
speaking generally, of the Jurassic and Cretaceous age.
The mineral-bearing formations may be roughly divided
into, (i) lodes or veins, and (2) deposits. Among the
former I have examined numerous lodes of gold, silver,
copper, lead, zinc, iron, quicksilver, wolfram, molybdenite,
and all others, excepting tin. Among the latter — gold,
silver, copper, quicksilver, coal, salt, nitrate, borax, etc.
Many of the gold and silver mines were worked in
the remote past — even in the most remote places — by
the Indians before or during the Inca regime ; and the
Spaniards followed after with more ambitious enterprises.
In my expeditions I have often penetrated into the bowels
of some ancient mine, abandoned for centuries, inhabited
only by bats, and — according to the superstitions of my
guides — by the spirits, generally evil, which guarded these
old scenes of man's sweat and avarice. I have seen no
spirits, but imagination might easily conjure up the forms
of toiling Indians, doomed by hard task-masters to labour
184
Mineral Wealth 185
to their end, unpaid and ill-fed. Well might their groan-
ing flesh have left some protesting phantom, which should
haunt these abandoned galleries, until some final day when
they should bear witness against those who destroyed
them !
For the Spaniards took little heed of Indian life. For
them the Indians were but instruments by which a certain
amount of gold or silver ore could be extracted from its
abiding-place, and the flow of noble metals which poured
into the coffers of that once-powerful Empire of Iberia
called a heavy toll upon the Indian population of South
America. The decimation which was caused in Peru by
the Spaniards has been spoken of in terms of millions ;
but whatever may be its real amount, the fact remains
that Pizarro found a country whose population exceeded
many times its present number, and that the slavery
employed in the mines by the Viceroys and others, was
greatly responsible for its rapid reduction.
The history of the yellow metal in Peru is largely the
history of the country itself. There is no doubt that
the Incas possessed enormous quantities of gold. It is
not, however, to be supposed that gold existed in nature
then in a condition which rendered its winning any less
difficult than at present. The secret of the great mining
operations of both the Incas and the Spaniards was in
" cheap mining labour " ; that is to say, in co-operation
on a large scale among the Incas, and in slavery and
sacrifice of Indian life by the Spaniards. I have examined
many mines in the interior of Peru, which have been
worked on a large scale, including gold-bearing gravel
deposits, where the excavation which has been carried
out in centuries past is considerable. The material of
these deposits did not necessarily carry a high proportion
of gold, but it was abundant, and large quantities were
handled by means of huge "grants" of Indians — who
received little or no pay — and produced important supplies
of gold.
In the south of Peru there is an auriferous region which
is probably one of the most important in the world, and it
186 The Andes and the Amazon
is remarkable that it is so little known elsewhere. This is
the famous region of Sandia and Carabaya ; provinces of
the Department of Puno, and which I have spoken of
elsewhere. The remarkable feature of this region is its
geological and topographical formation, and the con-
siderable elevation at which portions of it are situated
— spanning the main range of the Andes — 15,000 to
17,000 feet altitude above sea-level. Here are great
deposits of gold-bearing material in the form of huge
banks, miles in extent. These are, perhaps, glacial
deposits — moraines ; and in some instances they form
escarpments whose upper extremities are contiguous to,
or rather are thrown off from, the very summits of the
perpetual snow-capped range. One of these enormous
banks, more than 2 leagues in length, has been worked
at one end from time immemorial, and at present the
material is being treated by hydraulic methods with
" monitors." A theoretical calculation has been made
of the gold contained in this moraine — if such it be —
which results in a sum greater than the total value
which has come out of California since the discovery
of that country. This is the great Bank of Poto.
There is a series of these remarkable banks, and lower
down, and forming the plains at the immediate base of
the snow - capped peaks of the Andes, are extensive
plains, or pa7npas, whose material is a gold - bearing
soil. Certain areas might be susceptible to profitable
working by means of dredging, or other well - known
methods. These plains are at an elevation of about
15,000 to 16,000 feet, and the climate is not excessively
rigorous, except at certain seasons. I have slept in the
open air on several occasions in this neighbourhood,
even at a higher elevation, and have experienced little
inconvenience from the cold.
These auriferous earths, at any rate in some cases,
are of glacial formation. The stones they contain do not
generally show the effect of attrition, such as in the
deposits of water-worn gravel which occur at a much
lower elevation in the same district, but are generally
Mineral Wealth 187
angular, and rests in a position which shows that they
have been deposited in quiet waters, and have not travelled
far from their place of origin to their final resting-place.
The mass of the material is a marly and ashen-hued
earth ; the stones or fragments of rock are of slate and
quartz, the same material as the mountains upon which
they rest All along these extensive gold-heainng pampas
are strewn blocks, generally small, of white quartz, which
are very noticeable, as they are washed clean by the
frequent rains, and shine out from the grey soil of the
plains.
Alternative to the supposition of the glacial formation
of these enormous auriferous deposits in this region, is
the assumption that they are the result of action caused
by the bursting of enormous lakes, which had this sedi-
mentary gold-bearing material below their waters. And
this action has undoubtedly taken place in some cases,
as the topographical conditions show. The waters of
these former lakes seem to have forced a violent passage
to the lower levels, destroying the rocks and carrying
down the debris. The effect of such huge bodies of
water, released from considerable heights, and descending
the slopes of the Andes, can be partly imagined ; and
the vast quantities of material which have been moved,
and its general disposition, bears out this idea in a
striking way.
As to the lakes, many exist still, and nothing more
attracts the attention of the traveller and engineer than
the existence of these huge bodies of water, actually
astride the summit of a mountain range at an altitude
above sea -level of 15,000 to 17,000 feet. For example.
Lake Aricoma, upon whose shores a heavy snow-storm
overtook me at nightfall, and where I was obliged to sleep
without shelter, is at 1 5,000 feet. It is 2 to 3 leagues in
length, more than a mile in width, and, judging by the
violets and greens of its tranquil waters, must be of great
depth. I have described this lake elsewhere.
The eastern flanks of the Andes descend rapidly ; and
within one day's journey the traveller has descended from
188 The Andes and the Amazon
these high places to the more sheltered valleys below,
almost at the beginning of the forest regions, and at
an elevation of io,cxx) or 12,000 feet. Penetrating still
further, the traveller arrives at that remarkable system
of gold-bearing rivers and streams, still in the same
Province, which forms the head-waters of the Madre de
Dios river.
Here are some enormous deposits of auriferous gravel —
old river-beds, or lake- bottoms — which have been upheaved
to their present position by subsequent geological move-
ment. One of such deposits — Aporoma — which I visited,
has been the scene of extensive work during, as well as
before, the Spanish regime, and is described in a former
chapter.
Where did the Incas obtain their great wealth of gold?
There is no doubt that they worked these huge auriferous
alluvial deposits, and that they partly formed the source
of their treasures. The Spaniards on their arrival appear
to have immediately taken note of these gold mines, for
one of the Pizarros took possession of one of the richest,
and worked it on a large scale immediately after the
conquest of Peru.
There, then, are these vast mines, generally in entire
abandonment. They have yielded up much gold for
generations past. They have been the scene of blood-
shed, cruelty, and avarice in forgotten years of long ago,
and there they lie, inviting modern enterprise, modern
fraud, and modern avarice. The filibusters of the past
may be succeeded by the "buccaneers" of to-day, and
the London or New York promoters and stock exchange
gamblers may now take precedence !
On some of these rich gold-bearing streams the Indians
work for the extraction of gold, employing the methods
which they themselves have developed. In some places
they have constructed what they term "gold farms,"
where they literally " harvest " their annual crop of gold.
This consists in the paving of suitable river-bars with
large stones set edgeways, forming a "floor," the stones
and the interstices between them acting as "riffles."
Mineral Wealth 189
When the river rises in flood, it carries down the gold-
dust within its waters, and deposits it upon the prepared
area. When the dry weather causes the volume of the
flood to decrease, the " farm " is again laid bare, the stones
are removed, the rich gravel deposited between them
collected and washed, whence gold in nuggets and dust
in large quantities is extracted. The stones are again
placed in order, and the " farm " is ready for another
"harvest." On the higher pampas^ of which I have
previously spoken, a different method is employed. An
open conduit or ditch is run from some small stream, as
nearly horizontal as possible, in order to gain altitude
above the stream-bed, or ganancia, as the Spanish term
has it. From this conduit small sluices are conducted,
terminating in the stream-bed ; and into these, which are
paved with stone, the earth or gravel is thrown. The
water is admitted into the conduit, and rushes violently
down the sluices, washing away the soil and leaving a
gold-bearing residue of sand, which is collected, and the
gold washed out in bateas or pans.
In examining these regions I have employed the
Indian miners at tintes, and they are very expert with
the batea. Diligently and patiently they wash out pan
after pan of soil, as I stand over them.
'* Ori Cancha ?" \ ask them, perhaps, as the material
disappears, which in their language of Quechua is, " Is
there gold?" '^ Manam Cancha" they sometimes reply,
which being interpreted means, *' There is no gold." But
generally they hand me the batea, with several bright,
yellow particles reposing among the black sand at the
bottom. In the former instance, if the undesirable
negative recurs too much, the following operation is
necessary, in order to appease some unamiable spirit
which is supposed to be hovering nigh, and which has
exerted its influence to prevent the gold appearing.
The Indian takes a mouthful of native brandy from my
bottle — which I generally carry for "emergencies" — and
blows a portion of the alcohol to the north, the south, the
east, and the west. A small portion is poured into the
190 The Andes and the Amazon
pan, and also — superfluous to add — down his own throat.
This being performed, all the warring elements are
appeased ; the washing continues, generally with satis-
factory results. I have observed that this invisible agency
requires appeasing several times during the day, and with
marked regularity, but 1 have not generally considered
it necessary to enquire too closely into its methods.
The region above described is traversed by innumer-
able lodes of gold-bearing quartz, but, with few excep-
tions, these are unknown and un worked. The formation
of the country is, as stated, slate with quartz. Some of the
lodes are phenomenally rich in gold, one in particular
having been a by-word in the country. This was being
worked by an American company, and the gold was
sent to the Lima mint. A shipment of the gold in
bars passed me on the road, of three hundredweight,
which was stated to be only a fortnightly remittance,
and the result of the working of ten stamps. It speaks
well for the conditions of the country that the only
escort with this treasure was a solitary individual with
a carbine. The mine is in a region covered with vegeta-
tion, and was discovered by accident, due to a landslip.
These very rich lodes, however, are not of great extension
or permanence.
The gold, therefore, in this part of Peru exists under
diverse conditions. There are the great banks before
described, with a value in gold of perhaps twenty or
thirty cents, upwards, per cubic yard, and which is
recoverable by the " hydraulic " system with *' monitors."
There are the level plains or pampas of auriferous soil
which are probably susceptible to gold recovery by means
of dredges. There are the river-beds and bars, where the
gold may be recovered in some places by dredging, in others
by washing in sluice boxes, and lastly, the veins and lodes
which call for the use of machinery adapted thereto.
Other famous regions where auriferous gravels are
encountered are the districts of Pataz, and the river
Maraflon. This latter has been described in the chapter
dealing with my expedition thereto. The Indians of
Mineral Wealth 191
the Maranon wash out gold-dust and nuggets from the
river-bed at certain seasons when the water is low. They
were not acquainted with the use of quicksilver for this
purpose, apparently, before I showed them how to
employ it.
The regions of gold - bearing alluvial deposits are
entirely on the summit or eastern slope of the Andes.
None of the rivers flowing into the Pacific carry gold,
except in one exception of the Chuquicara river, join-
ing the river Santa, which breaks through the western
Cordillera at the termination of the valley of Huaylas.
Not so, however, with the quartz lode-bearing formations
which occur in almost every part of the country. Some
of the better-known gold-bearing regions, including those
already described, may be briefly enumerated. On the
western side of the Andes are those of Salpo, Otuzco,
Huaylas, Yungay, Ocros, Chorillos, Canete, lea, Nazca,
Andaray, Arequipa, etc., and on the summit, tablelands
and eastern slope, and Montana ; Pataz, the Upper
Maranon, Huanuco, Quinua, Huancavelica, Cuzco, Cota-
tambas, Aymaraes, Paucartambo, Quispicanchi, Marcapata,
Santo Domingo, Poto, Aporoma, etc., in Sandia and
Carabaya ; and a host of others throughout the vast
zone already spoken of
Comparatively few of these regions contain mines in
work at the present. The total output of gold in 1901
was only about ;^250,ooo, and fell in 1904 to ;^8o,ooo.
The total amount of gold coined at the Lima mint in
the years 1898 — when the coinage of silver was suspended
— up to and including the first half of 1905, was ^^5 56,480.
It is seen, therefore, that at present the industry of
gold mining is but little developed ; not due to lack of
the prime material, but to other causes. The auriferous
quartz lodes are generally found in the granite and
dioritic rocks.
In the history of gold in Peru mention may not be
omitted of the Inca treasures, and the rescate or ransom
of the ill-fated Atahualpa, and I am tempted to translate
from the Peruvian writer, Zapata (see page 212), although
192 The Andes and the Amazon
his information is largely gathered from sources which
have been employed by other historians. He says :
"Atahualpa was not Emperor of Peru, but a tyrant
of this Empire. According to the laws of the kingdom
he was a bastard son of the great Huayna-Capac. In
possession of the kingdom of Quito when the latter
died, and not content therewith, he aspired to the whole
Empire.
" To accomplish this Atahualpa sent numerous troops
to Cuzco, the capital of Peru and Inca Court, against
Huascar, his brother. Thirty thousand men were slain
on both sides, and both monarchs were made prisoners
by their respective enemies. Atahualpa escaped, and
caused forty-three of his brothers to be beheaded, and
Huascar — the real Emperor — was thrown into prison."
It should be here observed that most Spanish
historians endeavour to paint Atahualpa in dark colours :
possibly to excuse the crime of their countrymen in
betraying him.
"In this condition was Peru when the Spaniards arrived
in the country for the second time — their first visit had
been to Tumbez in 1525. Pizarro marched to Cajamarca,
by request of Atahualpa, and sent Hernando Soto as
emissary, who was received by the Inca with presents of
gold and silver, and told to inform Pizarro that he would
see him on the following day, when he must give him
the reason for his arrival in that country.
" Pizarro disposed 300 men behind the walls bound-
ing the plaza, and these were encamped when the Inca
entered, accompanied by his followers and grandees,
borne in palanquins of gold on Indians' shoulders.
Pizarro was presented, and asked by the Inca the reason
of his visit to such remote regions. Reply was made by
Vicente Valverde, the friar, by means of the interpreter,
Felipe Huallpa, to the effect that the High Pontifice
and the Emperor had sent his Chief to announce to
them the true faith of Jesus Christ, and that as they —
the Spaniards — were emissaries of these two supreme
heads of the world, tribute must be paid them. The
Inca replied that he could be tributary to no other
monarch ; payment of homage would be foreign to his
sovereignty. Even less could he adore the god they
announced, or recognise their Pontifice.
Mineral Wealth 193
" Fray Vicente Valverde, desiring to persuade him
upon the last matter, the Inca requested some testimony
as to the truth of what he affirmed, and Valverde put into
his hand an open breviary. Thinking that the book might
satisfy him, the Inca spoke to it, turning the leaves mean-
while ; but, seeing no reply forthcoming, he threw it from
him with a mocking gesture.
" ' Christians ! The Evangelist trampled upon ! ' cried
out Valverde at the instant,"
and this seems to have been the signal for a massacre,
for Zapata goes on to describe how the Spaniards fell
furiously upon the Indians, killing five thousand, and
taking Atahualpa prisoner.
Then came the offer of the famous rescate, or ransom ;
and it is recorded that Atahualpa, reaching up at arm's
length against the walls of the room where he was
imprisoned, offered to fill it to that height with gold
if he were released, and, in addition, to fill the whole
house with silver. The room was stated to be 22 by 27
feet, and, supposing the line marked to have been 6 feet
high, the value of the cubical contents ^ of the apartment,
taking the modern price of gold, might be calculated
at one hundred million sterling. This would be about
equivalent to four years' production of the Transvaal
mines, taking their present annual output of twenty-five
million pounds.
There seems to be no doubt that the offer could have
been fulfilled as far as the existence of gold in the
possession of the people was concerned, but, impatient of
delay, the Spaniards killed Atahualpa and burned his
body, on the 3rd May, 1532. Their excuse for this
barbarous act was that the Inca had caused his brother
Huascar to be secretly assassinated, and that the
emissaries he had sent out to bring in the gold had
charged the Indians to come to his succour. The actual
amount collected was equal to a value of about three
and a half million pounds, says the historian, Garcilaso.
Zapata, like all other writers on the subject, gives
details of the vast treasures of gold possessed by the
^ Made up of objects and utensils of gold.
N
194 The Andes and the Amazon
Incas, in the form of vessels and utensils. Statues of the
previous Incas, adornments of temples, such as the solid
sheets and plates of gold covering the walls of these at
Cuzco and Pachacamac ; gardens full of artificial flowers,
etc., formed of gold ; the figures of animals in the same
metal. He also speaks of the great amount of treasure in
gold that was obtained by the early Conquistadores in
Cuzco and other places, as well as the vast quantities
which are supposed to be still hidden or buried in
different parts of the country, especially in the neighbour-
hood of Cuzco, Cajamarca, and Pachacamac. He quotes
from Garcilaso as follows :
"If all the treasure buried in Peru were discovered it
would be impossible to enumerate its value ; so powerful a
sum is it that all that the Spaniards have obtained is in
comparison but little."
He also speaks of the treasure hidden in Lake Orcos,
near Cuzco, and says :
" It is stated that the Indians threw therein the great
chain of gold that Huayna Capac had made in celebration
of the birth of his son, to whom he gave the name of
Huascar, which word means rope or chain. This chain,
according to Solorzano, could scarcely be carried by two
hundred Indians, and was 233 yards long, and of corre-
sponding thickness."
Whatever may be the truth of all these accounts,
it is certain that the Incas wrought in gold with much
ingenuity and delicacy. I have seen gold objects which
have been dug up from the huacas — tombs or temples —
some of very fine workmanship.
It is to be observed that among the old inhabitants of
Peru gold was much associated with religious thought and
worship, as indeed it has been with peoples of earlier
semi-civilisation generally throughout the world. During
my stay in the city of Huaraz some religious objects
were discovered not far away, in a subterranean temple,
upon an altar of curious conical form, having beneath
it a chamber for acoustic purposes, and which latter I
Mineral Wealth 195
examined. The objects, of which I was given a photo-
graph, which is shown elsewhere, consisted principally of
discs of gold, silver and copper, tied together with a ribbon
of gold, strong and flexible ; shells formed of delicate leaves
of gold ; two figures representing some animal, and two
sea-shells. The occurrence of the three metals mentioned,
and which, I was informed, always appear among Inca
traditions in the neighbourhood, has a special signification.
The belief was that in ages past there fell from heaven an
egg of copper, from which the first Indians sprang ; after a
time a second egg, of silver, fell, from which issued the
nobility ; and that after a long lapse of time a third egg of
gold fell, from which came forth the Inca. The god they
adored in that region was the well-known deity Viracocha
or Huiracocha, and the sea-shells had probably some bear-
ing upon the matter.
Zapata writes lengthily of the Temple of Pachacamac,
near Lima, which was one of the principal centres of
religion of the former people. To-day it is a heap of
ruins, for, unlike the temples of the interior, it was con-
structed only of adobe bricks, which have not been able
to resist the ravages of time. He says :
" The Indians profusely used the purest gold in their
offerings in this temple. . . . The Spaniards took 27 loads
of gold from this place, but were unable to obtain some
400 other loads of gold and silver, which, according to
tradition, is hidden, buried in the sandy plain near at
hand.
" The temple was dedicated to Pachacamac, which
means ' the Spirit of the Universe.' In its dedication,
Cuyus-Mancu, who was the Chief of the valley, denied
the omnipotence of the Sun — the belief in which was
held by the other Indians. There is no doubt that
this prince was the first in America to worship the true
God, constructing a temple in his dominions ; and, although
it is pretended that the Incas adored Pachacamac, they
had no notice of him until Tupac-Yupanqui, Inca XI.
of Peru, carrying his conquests to that region, entered
Pachacamac, and, hearing that it was the ' Unknown God '
that those people adored, respected his sacred name.
" Cuyus-Mancu gathered together the philosophers and
196 The Andes and the Amazon
priests," continued Zapata, "and set forth as a law
touching this deity who must be adored, the following
clauses : ' He (the Sun) cannot be an universal God, who,
giving light to some, interposes a cloud between his
rays, darkening the light for others. Have then as the
supreme God He who created the world and taught
the hearts of men, and call Him henceforward Pachacamac
— He who is the real Creator and the vivifier of all
things ' ! "
We see, therefore, according to these accounts,^ that
this Indian chief, who was not even an Inca, had raised
up an altar to the " Unknown God " — a God, who,
according to their beliefs, could have no tangible form
and no visible representation in any image or likeness,
yet who pervaded everything.
' The best accounts of all these matters are to be found in Markham's
translations for the Hakluyt series.
CHAPTER XVIII
MINERAL WEALTH — Continued
In the last chapter I have touched upon the historical
side of gold mining and finding in Peru. Gold is ever
interwoven with man's history, wherever it may be. The
principal miners have been, in their respective epochs, the
old inhabitants of the country, the Incas and Aymaraes ;
followed by the Spaniards and Portuguese. Indeed,
traditions in some of the gold-bearing regions aver that
mining was carried on long before the Inca regime.
During the colonial period of Spain a great development
in mining took place, as has already been shown, and
colonies of Portuguese became established, in the pursuit
of this industry. In 1642, however, the Portuguese were
prohibited from working, and they largely left the
country. They abandoned, in some cases, partly-worked
mines, many of which have recently been shown to be
of much value.
Many of the quartz lodes of gold-bearing ores, which
I have visited, have extensive old workings upon them,
although these did not penetrate much below the oxidised
zone, where the material is richer and more easily worked
by reason of the dissolution of pyritical matter, and a
certain natural concentration which takes place consequent
thereon. The Indian miners extracted the gold — and still
do so in some regions — by means of primitive appliances
for crushing, known as kimbaletes. These generally consist
of a hollowed-out block of granite with a rocking-stone
placed therein — a species of huge pestle and mortar, into
which the ore, broken up fine, water, and quicksilver, are
fed. They vary much in size, being sometimes 3 or
197
198 The Andes and the Amazon
4 feet in diameter, and often worked by two men. I
have seen hundreds of these ancient appliances in the
neighbourhood of the old mines, and have, at times,
even used them for testing the value of the ores in my
examination of these mines.
I have found the lodes sometimes honeycombed, near
the surface, with old workings, and near at hand large
heaps of ore which had been discarded as being of too
low a grade for the primitive workers, or containing
pyritous material which rendered it refractory to their
method of amalgamation with quicksilver. The mining
regions of Peru contain thousands of workings of this
nature, which are lying idle or abandoned, and which
will, some day, form the basis of extensive gold mining
enterprise. It is true that .they are often remote ; that
the country is broken and mountainous, and that roads
are poor or non-existent. But it must not be forgotten
that these very conditions contain certain advantages.
The deep valleys and high summits crossed by the lodes
permit these to be worked by tunnels run upon the ore-
bodies : a more economical method than that of hoisting
through shafts. The configuration of such mountainous
regions generally assures the existence of streams of
water in the valleys, and often of available water-power ;
whilst the lack of roads in the past has, at least, had
the merit of reserving for the present generation what
otherwise might have been consumed by a former.
Some of the mines I have examined have the outcrops
of the lodes 2,000 and 3,000 feet above their lowest
available adit level on the valley floor, and the lodes
varying from 2 to 8 feet, and in some cases up to 50
feet wide, are traceable for leagues across the country.
Some of the lodes I have visited, containing complex
ores of gold, silver, lead, copper, and zinc, in the same
matrix, are more than 100 feet wide.
Of course, where the metal recovered is gold or silver
the question of roads is not so serious, as the machinery
once being established, the product is easily brought out
on mule-back. But where other minerals are recovered,
Mineral Wealth 199
or ore exported, it may render working prohibitive at
present. Smelting operations, moreover, require fuel to
be carried to the site.
Primitive smelting was practised in the metallurgy
of the old inhabitants of Peru, in pre-Columbian days.
I will translate a little from Zapata on the subject. He
says :
" At first the Spaniards worked the mines, extracting
only the richest ores (silver), treating them by means of
smelting in furnaces where draught was artificially obtained
by means of bellows. Afterwards, the Indians showed
them the method which they had used, from time im-
memorial, for founding their metals. This they did in
furnaces called guayras, which were of clay, of about a
yard in height, nearly square, open above by four small
apertures in the sides, and narrower at the bottom than the
top. The ores, sufficiently wetted and incorporated with
others that facilitated their smelting, were deposited in the
apparatus, which was then filled up with some combustible,
and the whole began to burn by means of the natural
blowing of the wind, which gave a better result than the
artificial draught of a bellows. This method of smelting
was continued, so that at night, upon the heights of the
hills, the lights of more than 15,000 little furnaces were
seen. The word guayra means, in Quechua, * wind.' "
Zapata, in the above, has quoted principally from
Pinelo, and the mines where these operations were carried
out seem to have been the silver-lead mines of Potosi. It
is to be noted that these rude furnaces had something
in common with modern smelting practice, and that they
were of tapering or "boshed" form, as it is technically
known, and such as is now used in smelter practice. I
have found remains of these appliances in different parts
of the country. In Tarapaca also, in the valleys upon
the western slope of the Andes, I have seen numerous
small primitive ore-smelting ovens, but of a different
form, and which, although they present the appearance
of long abandonment, did not seem to be of so remote
a period as the Inca.
Silver is one of the most — perhaps the most — prolific
200 The Andes and the Amazon
of the minerals of Peru. There is hardly any mining
region where it is not found, and it generally accom-
panies gold ores, just as gold in Peru accompanies nearly
all metallic ores, whether of copper, silver, or iron. To
attempt to enumerate the silver mines of the country
would be to fill a volume. The silver-mining region of
the Department of Junin, in which the well-known Cerro
de Pasco copper mines are situated, produced, it is
stated in Government documents, silver to the value of
;^40,ooo,ooo between 1784 and 1889. The country is
dotted with small oficinas which mine and treat silver
ores by lixiviation and amalgamation methods. Some of
the better-known districts may be mentioned, beginning
at the north of Peru, as Salpo, Hualgayoc, Huari, Hual-
lanca Huaylas, Recuay, Cajatambo, Yauli, Cerro de Pasco,
Huarochiri, Huancavelica, Quespisisa, Castrovirreyna,
Lucanas, Lampa, C^illoma, Puno, etc., and a myriad
of others hidden away in the valleys of the great
Andean region. Nearly all the silver regions of import-
ance are at high elevation in the broken country of
the true Cordillera, generally upon the eastern slope.
The ores occur principally in the sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks, and chiefly comprise the sulphides
and red oxides of silver. Argentiferous galena is exceed-
ingly abundant, and it is a feature of the silver-mining
districts that coal-beds are often found in close proximity.
Water is generally plentiful ; wood and timber often
scarce, and the climate generally cold. There is a sort
of popular saying among the miners in Peru that the
gold seeks a warm climate, and the silver a cold one :
a maxim which, however, has many exceptions. The
character of the scenery where the silver regions exist
is wild in the extreme, and often stupendous, as will be
seen from the accompanying views.
The production of silver in Peru in recent years fell
below that of former periods, owing to low prices for the
metal. During 1904 the value was estimated at slightly
under half a million sterling. There are signs that it
is again increasing, due to better prices, The ores are
Mineral Wealth 201
often exceedingly rich, great " pockets " of the red oxides
being commonly found within the lodes, a single one
of which may constitute a fortune. Many of the silver
mines have long ago reached water-level, and require
draining in order to further extract the great boyas or
bonanzas which remain, and which had to be left for that
reason. These mines have generally been worked down-
wards by means of irregular shafts from the outcrop,
and now tunnels or adits are being driven in from low
levels in order to secure natural drainage and ventilation.
This is the present condition of most of the Peruvian
silver mines.
Much interesting history, ancient and modern, attends
these mines. They have, like the gold mines, been the
scene of toil and avarice in ages past, of cruelty and
dishonesty ; of bitter sacrifices, deferred hopes and vain
expectations ; as also of sudden wealth — the reward of toil,
and the caprice of fortune.
The poor Peruvian native miner inspires me with
interest and sympathy. What tales he unfolds as he
accompanies me into some appalling and dismal cavern
in the bowels of the mountain, excavated laboriously with
the sweat of a past generation, where our flickering light
falls faintly upon those grim subterranean walls, corridors,
and chambers, and the dank and mouldy smell assails
our nostrils ! How eagerly he points out this or that
great boya or chamber, where a vast pocket of rich ore
was encountered, and details the history of the fortunate
ones who found it ! Driving on and on through the hard
rock, sacrificing, perchance, their last coin to perforate
those few remaining feet of rocky wall which separated
them from the coveted treasure ; and when at length the
miner's eager chisel and practised ear detected by feel
and sound the proximity of the valuable mineral mass,
what joy, congratulations, and feasting followed thereon!
How carefully he conducts me through those labyrinths
and across those dark yawning pits, so respectful of my
appellations of ingles and ingeniero ! And I reward him
by the interest I display, the sympathetic hearing I give
201 The Andes and the Amazon
him, treating him like a fellow-miner, far more than in
the silver coin I put into his horny and steel-galled hand
at parting. Poor fellow! he hopes I will return with
money and powers from those far-off '* capitalists " of my
far-off country to work those ancient labyrinths again !
Another of the " noble " metals which is found in Peru
is quicksilver. There are several districts where this is
found ; the two principal ones being those of Huancavelica
and Chonta. The old mines of Santa Barbara, at Huan-
cavelica, had been among the most remarkable in the
history of mining in the whole world. Their own history
would alone form the subject of a lengthy theme. They
have been visited and described by such savants as Bufon,
Humboldt, and Raimondi, as well as numerous engineers
of different nationalities. I have spoken of my visit there
in another chapter, but may here touch lightly upon the
history of Azogue in Peru, as quicksilver is termed in
Spanish. This word, it may be said in passing, is of
Arabic derivation.
Zapata says :
" Quicksilver mines were unknown in America before
the Conquest, and some years passed before our people
discovered them. The Indians worked them in antiquity,
but not for mercury. They sought only vermilion, which
is nothing else but the sublimated metal on the walls of
the mine, and which was used by the women of the
nobles to colour their faces."
The mines of Huancavelica appear to have been
discovered in 1566, and were, as stated elsewhere,
worked on a large scale for long periods, producing
as much as 670 tons of mercury per annum, and
rendering possible by their exports of the liquid metal
the treatment of silver and gold ores throughout South
America and Mexico. This mine was termed by the
Viceroys of Peru "one of the greatest marvels of the
earth," and it afforded considerable revenue to the
Court of Spain for many years. It was worked with-
out any method, excavating the cinnabar ore in vast
Mineral Wealth 208
chambers insecurely supported, and at length fell in,
entombing many of the Indian miners, it is recorded.
The ores were treated in small furnaces, using dried
grass as fuel, and the vapour was condensed in earthen
pots surrounded by water. This process was still being
carried out at the time of my visit in December, 1904,
and a heavy percentage of loss is sustained in the
primitive operation. The ore is contained in a vast
lode or deposit of sandstone, which traverses a limestone
formation, and the outcrop and old workings are more
than 2,000 feet above the city and river of Huancavelica.
My project for reworking these valuable mines was to
drive a tunnel from the river-level, upon the lode, using
water-power and mechanical drills. The whole immediate
region is traversed by cinnabar - bearing lodes ; and a
Company which should take up the enterprise of their
exploitation might later be in a position to control the
world's quicksilver market, for the material is plentiful.
At Chonta the ores were subjected to a primitive
form of "pyritic smelting" in small furnaces, mixing
iron pyrites with a material as a combustible, and
firing with dried grass. I have spoken of these mines
in the chapter upon the Upper Maranon.
In the three noble metals, therefore, of gold, silver,
and mercury, Peru is well dowered. But most of the
mines, whether partly worked or entirely virgin, are in
a state of abandonment. It is often asked why this
is the case ; if such wealth is really contained there,
why is it not taken profit of? And the reply is in
the history of the country and the character of the
people. The wealthy class, living formerly in luxury
and idleness upon the easy proceeds of the nitrate of
Tarapaca, until they lost it, troubled little about minerals
so hard to win as gold and silver. They disliked to
leave their comfortable capital, and to venture into the
inhospitable fastnesses of the Sierra. Also, the frequent
civil wars and revolutions prevented the spending of
money on enterprises of any nature. The Peruvian
character, moreover, does not lend itself to the working
204 The Andes and the Amazon
of mines in the form of joint-stock companies. Quarrel
and dissension too generally arise among the members
of such, and sometimes bad management and insufficient
respect for the use of the general fund. In addition to
this, the roads and trails are difficult, and freighting
expensive. So the Englishman, the American, and the
Frenchman come in and benefit by this mineral wealth.
Here, then, are these numerous mines, holding untold
wealth. They have been the scene of toil and greed,
and cruelty in the past ; let us hope that they will not
be the subject of avarice and iniquity in the future.
For it is a remarkable thing that the crystallisation of
mineral matter below the surface of kind Mother Earth
seems to call forth the evil qualities of mankind more
than anything else contained within her exhaustless
Cornucopia. The task-masters and evil-doers of a by-
gone age have given place to the operators, promoters,
capitalists and stock exchange gamblers of to-day, whilst
the adventurous filibuster of the past seems to be succeeded
by the business buccaneer of the present. Fortunately,
however, we may at least congratulate ourselves that
disinterested Science and Progress attend us in our
winning of the noble metals, as time goes on.
CHAPTER XIX
MINERAL WEALTH — Continued
Among the base metals which will now form a source of
industry in Peru is copper. The present demand and high
price throughout the manufacturing world has stimulated
the search for this metal, and some good copper-bearing
regions have been taken up. So far, the mines of any
importance are few, but this is largely due to lack of
exploration rather than paucity of the material.
The principal region is that of Cerro de Pasco, the
famous old silver mines where the American Company
which purchased them has erected machinery capable of
smelting, it is stated, i,ooo tons of copper ore per day. The
ores contain lo per cent., upwards, of copper — generally
being much richer — and the mines have been character-
ised by reliable English and American authorities as being
among the largest copper deposits in the world. The
region is exceedingly high and bleak, its elevation above
sea-level being more than 14,000 feet. The European
and North American finds life exceedingly trying at such
altitudes, and a constant change of employees is found to
be resultant upon enterprises here. The altitude and
rarefaction of the air, also, give rise to certain difficulties
in the smelting, and, naturally, mining labour has to be
recruited from among the indigenes of the Cordillera alone.
In spite, however, of these matters, successful operations
are to be expected, for, really, science and energy backed
by money, can overcome all these matters.
This rich silver- and copper - bearing district of Cerro
de Pasco is within a species of depression surrounded by
the hills which form the " knot " of Pasco, one of the
205
206 The Andes and the Amazon
main culminating points of the Andes ; and the great
ore deposits are described as a tertiary formation within
cretaceous rocks. There are other smaller examples of
this formation in Peru.
Not far away also are numerous regions with copper-
bearing lodes, such as Yauli, Morococha, Huayllay, etc.,
all of which are beginning to come forward as producers of
copper.
These copper mines of Cerro de Pasco furnish an
example such as have often occurred throughout history,
of mines being the cause of new influences and conditions
in the life of a community. The North American spirit
of enterprise and energy is having a marked effect on
that immediate region. Railways, furnaces, and electric
appliances are taking the place of pack-mules, arrastras,
and other primitive methods, and wages are increased in
accordance with the demand for more labour. These
adjuncts of mechanical science are, as ever, accompanied
by less desirable matters, and the Anglo-Saxons from the
country of " big oaths and overalls " will certainly not yet
be a refining element in the community. They will stamp
certain conditions of energy, higher wages, better food and
living, improved mechanical methods and other desirable
matters upon the character of the Peruvian miner of that
region ; but they will also give some of their unlovable
qualities of business cruelty, business dishonesty, lack of
politeness and consideration for others, which mark them,
and which seem to be an inevitable adjunct of business
enterprise. Possibly the North American in Peru will
learn something of polished social treatment from the
Peruvians, as he has in similar situations in Mexico. The
Peruvians, like the Mexicans, do not like the Americans,
but they like American gold ! On the whole, good will
probably result from the contact" of the two races.
These great Cerro de Pasco mines, upon which the
North Americans have spent, it is stated, some fourteen
million dollars in purchase and equipment, and which may
become the largest copper producers in the world, might
have been British, but British enterprise was too slow and
Mineral Wealth 207
cautious, and lost the opportunity in its preliminary stage.
Copper exists, however, in many of the mining regions
of the Peruvian Andes, and further exploration will
certainly disclose new sources of the metal. Some of
these regions are Moquegua, Cuzco, Andahuaylas, lea,
Huancavelica, Huancayo, Yauli, Chimbote, Cajamarca,
etc. There are several oficinas which produce copper
mattes ; that of main importance being the Casapalca
smelting works on the Oroya railway. The export of
copper from Peru in 1900 was valued at only ;^620,C)00,
and in 1904 ;^400,ooo, a diminution due to the stopping
of the Cerro de Pasco output pending completion of the
plant. The copper ores of Peru are largely tetrahedrites,
grey copper ore, and chalcopyrites. They generally
carry gold and silver in combination.
Lead is one of the most plentiful of the metals found
in Peru — principally as galena — and bearing high value in
silver. All the regions mentioned under the description
of that metal are equally lead-bearing. The heavy cost
of freight has prevented the export of lead, so far. Iron
is found in several regions, but no attention has been
given to it, as freight costs would be heavy in bringing
the ore to the coast. The ore of zinc is a plentiful
metal. Graphite, molybdenite, wolfram, nickel, cobalt,
bismuth, magnesia exist, and will doubtless be worked
in the future. Salt, sulphur, mica, borax, are very plenti-
ful in certain regions, and coal and petroleum are valu-
able products. As regards coal, it is remarkable how little
knowledge of the occurrence of this exists : even the most
recent Encyclopaedias stating that coal is scarcely found
in South America. The coal deposits of Peru are one of
the country's most valuable assets, and if they have not
been much worked so far, it is due to lack of means of
transport to the coast ; and imported coal is at present
placed in Peruvian ports at a less cost than the domestic
product, notwithstanding its abundance. But this will
doubtless be obviated later on, and, in addition, some coal
deposits exist in Peru right upon the sea-coast, or in near
proximity thereto. The varying classes of coal include
208 The Andes and the Amazon
pure anthracites, bituminous coals, and lignites. The coal
seams generally outcrop, and are often strong and of great
extent. In one region a report calculates 400,000,000
tons of good coal " in sight " — that is, more or less ex-
posed by upheaval and topographical formation. These
coal seams are often workable by means of horizontal
galleries from daylight, and sometimes by open quarrying.
I have seen in some of the interior villages anthracite
used in kitchen hearths, burning night and day, without
chimneys, as the material gave forth no flame or smoke.
To enumerate the coal-bearing districts of Peru would be
to give a list of almost all the regions of the country,
but a few of the better known may be mentioned, as :
Cerro de Pasco, Yauyos, Huarochiri, Huancayo, Huallanca,
Hualgayoc, Otuzco, Huaylas, Cajatambo, Huari, Islay,
Huamachuco, Pacasmayo, Pisco, and a host of others.
First-class coke is produced near Cerro de Pasco, and
used for smelting. The anthracite has also been success-
fully employed in water-jacket copper-smelting furnaces
in other parts of the country. The number of coal-bear-
ing mining claims registered in the Government list of
1905 was 3,288, but the industry of coal mining is in
its infancy, the production being only 50,000 or 60,000
tons per annum.
Sulphur is found almost commercially pure near the
volcanoes of the south, and in the north the great desert
of Sechura has formed the basis of a business for treat-
ing and refining sulphur, which is there found in great
abundance. This sulphur is about 50 per cent. pure.
The production of petroleum is becoming an im-
portant industry in Peru. This is found principally
in two regions — that near Lake Titicaca, and that at
Tumbez — the latter on the coast in the northern part of
Peru. There are several Companies engaged in the work
of extracting the oil, principally organised with British
capital. The output of these enterprises, in crude
petroleum, kerosine, and gasoline for the year 1904,
represented a value of about ;^ 150,000. The conditions
for boring and extraction are favourable, and the deepest
Mineral Wealth 209
well is 1,700 feet deep. A good deal of the product is
used as fuel on the locomotives and elsewhere, on the
west coast of South America.
It is seen, therefore, that a very wide range of minerals
exist in Peru, and there is consequently ample field for
industries connected therewith. The mining laws are, on
the whole, good, with some defects which will probably
be remedied in time. Title to property is held direct
from the Government, and is ensured in perpetuity as
long as the annual tax of £3 per claim is paid. The
size of the claim, or pertenencia, is 2 hectares, of 100
metres square each — equal to about 5 English acres — for
minerals in the form of lodes. For minerals in deposits,
as coal, alluvial gold, etc., the claim is twice this size,
or 4 hectares — equal to about 10 acres. Borax, nitrate,
and kindred mineral deposits are subject to other
measurements.
The mining enterprises which offer most attraction
to the capitalist, as more likely to give commercial
results at present, are — Gold mining, both quartz lodes
and "hydraulic" mines, copper, silver, coal. Capitalists
and their agents will find in Peru both Government
officials and inhabitants who will welcome them in their
enterprises, although in dealing with mine-owners firm-
ness and circumspection must be employed, as Peruvian
ideas are different to British in the conduct of business.
Mining matters, whilst they arouse the spirit of enterprise
of mankind, also arouse less desirable qualities, as I have
averred elsewhere, and these are not confined to any
community or race, but taint the methods of London,
Paris, or New York, as well as shifty mine-owners in
Spanish - American Republics. Personally, I have been
defrauded both by Peruvian mine-owners and London
promoters, so that I am in a position to form an
impartial judgment as to race honesty in mining matters !
CHAPTER XX
THE INCA CIVILISATION
What was the origin of the Incas and of their civilisa-
tion ; or, rather, what was the origin of Man in America
at all?
It is a subject that has called forth much study and
speculation, and on the part of many and varying writers ;
and numerous theories have been advanced, the general
one for the existence of Man in Peru giving him an
Asiatic origin.
Why should we endeavour to trace all mankind to a
common source? The tendency to do so is innate and
strong — a species of " Universalism " which is alluring.
Yet, if we accept the theory of evolution — and who after
any careful consideration of Man and Nature can reject it ?
— why is it not equally rational or interesting to suppose
that man became generated or evolved in all, or several,
of the continents of the globe independently, and, perhaps,
contemporaneously : that he is autochthonous in his vary-
ing habitat ? There have been, in the different continents,
varying grades of intelligence, whilst we seem to trace
only one continent and region as being the real cradle of
civilisation. This might seem to bear out the argument
of autochthonous origin for men, for all races have gener-
ated, or developed, their native intelligence to some extent,
but some generated the highest, due to circumstances
of superior environment or other accident or design of
Nature. This takes nothing away from the grand idea
of Man's being, or creation : rather it shows more strongly
the sublime principle — that matter and idea shall, and
210
The Inca Civilisation 211
must, personify themselves and materialise, in terms of
the objective world.
If we dispose thus, then, of the origin of indigenous
man in America we may still ask our first question as to
the origin of the Incas, unless we choose to consider it
replied to by the same argument : of natural development.
Be that, however, as it may, it is interesting to briefly
mention some of these theories, and nothing can be more
just, as regards Peru, than to consider the opinions of
scientific men of the country itself upon the subject.
In tho. Journal of the Geographical Society of Lima —
Corresponding Member of which I have the honour of
being — a review of the subject, published in the latter
half of 1903, says :
" The Spaniards, on arriving in the new world, found a
country different in every respect to their own, and since
then it has been a matter of vast interest for science to find
out from where the people of America really came ; but
the confusion of ideas and the difficulty — instead of dissi-
pating— has become stronger. One writer states that he
had found the language of Adam in a village near Titicaca
— the primitive tongue which contains the roots of all
modern languages — and that this place was the real cradle
of civilisation ! Other writers give this source, respec-
tively, as Canaan, Judea, Egypt, Carthage, Norway, Japan,
China, Syria, Mesopotamia, etc. ; and all their claims are
more or less based upon philosophical and scientific
observations and deductions, which might seem to prove
each and every assertion were it not that the claims are
conflicting. And the only satisfactory result is to suppose
that the continent had been visited by people from all
these sources, who have left some influence of their
characteristics ; and to point to the possibility that strange
dramas have been played out, of conquests, colonisations,
and changes, upon the great territories of this continent we
call 'new,' which are hidden from our knowledge of the
world's history."
As is natural, a more or less miraculous founding of
the Incas, their dynasty and Capital, was handed down
by their descendants, and imparted to the first European
arrivals in Peru. This miraculous origin seems ever to
212 The Andes and the Amazon
be a part of man's history beyond where memory permits
us to establish fact and law. As regards Peru, its legends
and histories, attributes and conditions are well set forth
by the many writers on the subject, from Sarmiento and
Garcilasso to Prescott and Markham. I shall not refer
much to these famous authors, as I rather prefer to
translate from Peruvian writers, who have not much
been heard of, perhaps — and to give the result of my
own observations and travel, which latter I may modestly
claim have been somewhat extensive as regards, at least,
the present physical characteristics of the country.
I shall translate, among others, from the writings of
Eusebio Zapata, a Peruvian man of science and letters,
written in 1761. This interesting volume was given me
in Lima, in March 1906, by Senor Ricardo Palma, a
well-known Peruvian writer, by whom it was acquired
in manuscript form in Madrid, in 1893, being a copy
of the work presented to Carlos III., King of Spain, in
1 76 1, by its author. I do not think any writings have
appeared in English from this source, or indeed in
Spanish. He says :
"The Empire of Peru, as far as the account of the
knowledge recorded by the Quipos goes, was monarchical
in its principles, governed by curacas, who were the
heads of one or many communities. The land had as
many lords as there were towns and communities, and
each was independent of the other."
It must be here recollected that the Quipos were the
Inca mnemonic archives, in the form of knotted cords
of various colours — the only system of record the
Incas possessed, as writing or hieroglyphic representa-
tions seem to have been unknown to them.
"The many conflicting interests caused war to be
made by these different chiefs upon each other, and
they committed the greatest atrocities that ignorance
and malice could invent. Submerged in this barbarous
condition were the inhabitants of these regions when
Mama - Huaco, a wise woman, bethought herself of
The Inca Civilisation 213
civilising these ferocious people ; making rational beings
out of brutes and politicians from savages. She was
pregnant, and feigned to have conceived by the Sun ;
and she gave birth to a son so beautiful as had never
been known there, presently hiding him in the darkest
cave of Tia-Guanaco."
This place, I must explain, is the island in Lake
Titicaca, which was the cradle of the Inca race and
civilisation, and where are found some of the marvellous
old buildings and monoliths which they erected.
"As soon as the child was a few years old, she
exposed him on the summit of a hill, dressed in ear-
rings and sandals of gold, and prostrating herself, in
company with her daughter, Pilco - Sifa, before him,
adored him as the Supreme King and Lord of that
country."
Here, it may be noted in passing, are incidents not
unlike some in the Christian Bible.
"The Indians, who from the slopes of the adjacent
hill witnessed this performance, wished to learn its
meaning, and were informed by the mother and
daughter that the child was a son of the Sun ; upon
hearing which they also fell down and worshipped
him, acclaiming him as the Inca and their sovereign.
The news went forth throughout the region around
Titicaca, and to the most remote provinces, that the
Sun had sent his son in order that he might govern
them.
"Thousands of Indians congregated, and, assured of
the perfection of the young child, did not doubt that
he was a son of heaven ; and acknowledging him as
the son of the orb which they worshipped, they called
him ' Manco - Capac,' which, being interpreted, means,
' Almighty Child ' ; and ' Huac - Chacuyac,' or ' Lover
of the Poor.'
" The child grew up adorned with all those gifts of mind
which the heavens concede to those destined for vast
enterprises. He was exceedingly wise and prudent, as
he had been schooled by his mother, the great heroine
Mama-Huaco. Before using the rights and power of his
sovereignty he created the laws of his Empire. The first
214 The Andes and the Amazon
of these was the cult of the sun as the Supreme Deity or
life-giver, and for this purpose he reared temples, which
were known as Huacas, which signifies prayer, or grief.
He established the sacrifices of animals, but the sacrifice of
human blood was forbidden under the severest penalties."
The Inca, it is generally stated, never permitted
human sacrifice, nor cannibalism. They were guided
strictly by the laws of Nature, say various writers.
" Having ordained the religious cult, he imposed the
laws which were to be observed regarding the succession
to the throne. The first-born were to be called Inca, and
they were always to marry their own sister, who was to
be called Coya. Any son born of another woman was to
be considered illegitimate ; and the object of this was to
prevent the decadence of the house by intermarriages.
This custom and principle was observed inviolate from
the first monarch to the last.
" It was also ordained that the first-born should not
inherit his father's riches, but that these should be divided
among the royal family and the temples. Details of
royal dress were arranged, and ordered to be observed,
and an exclusive language was to be used by the royal
family.
*' After having established these laws he disposed those
which were to be kept by the people. He ordered as
the first of these that 'they should love one another.'
Polygamy was made illegal, and also marriage at a less
age than twenty. Marriage was only to be with women
of the same lineage. The death penalty was dealt out
to robbers, murderers, sodomists, adulterers, and liars."
Zapata here quotes several Spanish writers, who
express their admiration and approbation of these laws,
and their surprise that such should have been instituted
by a barbarous nation.
" Manco-Capac married his sister Mama-Ocllo-Huaco,
who was the first to have the title of Coya, or Empress.
She devoted herself to teaching the Indian women the
arts of spinning and weaving the fine wool with which
the country abounded, whilst Manco occupied himself
with giving the people laws of agriculture. The just
fruits of all work these monarchs endeavoured, by a
The Inca Civilisation 215
system of economical government, to distribute to the
enjoyment of all ; and the Indians of the country, seeing
the justice and order of this rigime, continued in their
belief that these were the children of the Sun ; and the
vassals of the new dominion increased rapidly.
" Becoming too numerous for the island of Tia-
Guanaco, the court and people passed to Cuzco, making
this the Capital and centre of the Empire. Upon dying,,
Manco charged his descendants to continue the enforce-
ment of the good laws he had inaugurated, and exhorted
them to extend the boundaries of the Empire to the
regions most remote."
His successors followed these mandates, and each one
enlarged the dominion, until, in the zenith of its power,
it embraced territory 2,000 leagues in length, when de-
cadence set in, after a total existence of more than five
hundred years.
The thirteen Incas and their respective Coyas, from
Manco -Capac to Huascar and Atahualpa, include the
names of all those famous in the history of that time, all
of which flourished before the advent of Pizarro and his
Spaniards. At that time the Empire was divided by
rival claimants to the throne, as the last Inca seems to
have left no truly legitimate descendant. This seems to
have been the signal for its downfall.
Such is the description given by Zapata, and though
it differs somewhat from other historians, it is perhaps
equally acceptable. The first Inca — Manco - Capac —
seems to have flourished at the end of the eleventh or
the beginning of the twelfth century of the Christian era.
One of the most famous of the Inca — if such he truly
were — was Atahualpa, disputant with Huascar for the
throne, and who was traitorously murdered by the
Spaniards. His fate reminds us of that of the unfor-
tunate Guatemoc, of Mexico, who was also murdered by
the Spaniards for the recovery of his gold.
It is contended by many writers that there was a pre-
Inca period, of a superior and probably foreign race, and
that the Incas learnt their building and other arts from
them. Recent investigators have endeavoured to prove
216 The Andes and the Amazon
this, after examination of the Inca ruins and the Huacas,
or old burial-places. I will not pretend to dispute this, for
my part, for to speak with authority would require more
study of the matter, and more knowledge of such subjects
than 1 have had time or opportunity to acquire. But I
merely in passing make the observations that the theory
and distinction seems rather a fine or fanciful one, and
must be regarded as " not proven." Of course there were
numerous warring tribes pre-existing, who were builders of
rude structures.
According to the foregoing history of Zapata it seems
that Manco, or his mother, was simply a superior unit of a
race which separated itself from the bulk and set itself up,
following the dictates of a natural aristocratic organism of
mind and body, and the rest followed naturally. It is, in
effect, an everyday process among any nation, civilised or
barbarian, that individuals so separate themselves by some
natural effect of concentration, when, if they were enabled
to give full play to their ideas and actions, they acquire a
position above the common bulk, and in the lapse of time
fable envelops them.
As regards the theory of pre-Inca occupation of the
country and their supposed temples, I translate the follow-
ing from an article by Dr Pablo Patron of Lima, one of
the most eminent Peruvian students and writers, whose
words are worthy of all consideration and weight. The
article was read at the Congress of Americanists at
Stuttgart, in August, 1904. He says :
" I do not think that there has been in Peru, in
primitive times, any special race different from the actual
race, constructors of Cyclopean works. All these works
which exist in Peru have been made by the Aymaraes
and Quechuas during the time of their greatest culture.
The most notable of these, those of Tiahuanako, prove it.
The ruins which we contemplate to-day are those of the
temple reared by the Aymaraes in honour of Huirakocha,
in remembrance of the creation of the world by him,
according to their cosmogenical beliefs, in Lake Titikaka.
It is not necessary to have recourse to indirect arguments
to demonstrate this. On the monolithic portal of Akapana
La\e Titicaca : Temple of Viracocha.
P. 216.
The Inca Civilisation 217
Huirakocha is shown in the centre with a fish having a
human face sculptured on his bust, this supreme God of
the Andeans being the 'Abyss of the Waters,' as Ea
was among the Chaldeans. Later, Huirakocha was
confounded with the tempest. Moreover, the name of
Huirakocha is sculptured repeatedly upon the same
portal according to the iconographic systen" of writing
general to America."
It is interesting to compare the above with statements
relating to the megalithic structures and hieroglyphics
found on Easter Island, 2,400 miles westward of the
South American coast. Have these structures anything
in common with those of Peru ? Some writers endeavour
to trace a connection between these remains and the
Inca and Aymara civilisation of the Andes.^ I received
from the Admiralty an extract from the log of H.M.S.
Cambrian, which, with the Flora, visited Easter Island
in July 1906 — giving an interesting description of that
place. An account was also published in the Press,
recently written by a member of that expedition ; and
it will be of interest to reproduce some of the ideas given
there, as bearing upon a possible connection between the
two matters. The account says:
" Tradition tells that they (the prehistoric settlers of
Easter Island) came in two canoes, their king, Hotu
Metua (Prolific Father) in the one, and their queen in
the other; that they found this island which they called
Te pitofenua ('the land in the midst of the sea'), and that
here they settled and made their homes. There are the
hieroglyphics chiselled on the faces of the tombs and on
the crater walls ; line upon line of curiously-carved shapes
and symbols, to which, alas ! there is no key. The shape
of a fish appears most constantly, and coupling this with
the conspicuous sea face of the papooka, it may be that
this people, wafted across the ocean to their island home,
held sacred some finny monster of the deep. Probably,
if one could but read the tale written on these stones, then
indeed might the veil be lifted from many a mystery
which surrounds the peoples of the Andes. These carvings
* Man, for January 1904.
218 The Andes and the Amazon
of Rapa Nui bear a remarkable resemblance to those of
the Aymara, an ancient race of Peru."
But it is with Egypt, perhaps, that an origin is most
commonly traced, and various points of similarity are
advanced to prove a connection between Peru and Egypt,
among them being : the cult of the sun, and the symbol
of the serpent ; the construction of hydraulic works, and
the encouragement and initiative given to agriculture by
reigning monarchs ; the use of copper tools, tempered in
a special manner ; the working and transport of monoliths
by unknown methods ; the tendency to pyramidal form in
edifices ; the tombs and mummies — the embalsaming of
the dead ; the rafts or junks of Lake Titicaca, said to be
similar to those figured on the tomb of Ramesis III.; and
other matters real or fanciful.
As to the true descendants of the Incas there appear to
be none remaining. Zapata, from whom I have previously
translated, says :
"There is not known in Peru to-day (1767) any pure
Indian, formerly descendent of the monarchs of that
Empire. The few who might have proved this origin are
already Spanish in their greater part. If any Indian were
to pretend to any genealogy with the royal house it would
be very difficult to prove."
He then goes on to show that intermarriage has
rendered impossible any real descendants, and further
advises " that any magistrate should punish with severity
any Spaniard or Indian who, proclaiming himself an Inca,
should so pretend to foment rebellion or discontent among
the people."
Many of the Indians — the Cholos or Quechuas — still
believe that an Inca will yet return and establish the old
Empire again ; and truly their lot was, if history be true,
superior during that old regime than under the present
system of so-called Republican government, which seems
unable yet to come really into touch with the Indians.
That, however, is but a dream, and the future of the
Indian must be worked out in accordance with the modern
development of the continent he inhabits.
The Inca Civilisation 219
Zapata is emphatic in his conclusions regarding the
descendants of the Inca. He writes :
" There is another error much more pernicious than
that I have refuted. It is the story that one of the Incas
of Peru retired to the forests of the Orinoco and populated
those extensive regions. This fable was fomented in the
accounts of the Admiral Raleigh, in the years 1595 and
1 596, who reduced to ashes the cities of San Joseph, in the
island of Trinidad, and Cumana, on the coast of Guayana,
for which, at the solicitude of the Emperor of Spain, the
Parliament of England, under various pretexts, ordered his
head to be cut off in Westminster, on 29th October, 161 8.
The Inca imagined by this malicious Admiral was not of
the monarchs of Peru. He was Ruminavi, a general of
Atahualpa, who, having traitorously shed the legitimate
blood of the Inca at a banquet, was so hated by the
Indians that he retired to the Orinoco forests, where he
died, devoured by wild beasts. I do not know where
Mr Raleigh discovered this thing of the supposed Inca of
the Orinoco ; probably from the same place where he pro-
duced the foolish prognostications which he pretends, with
derision of Indians and Spaniards, was found in the temple
of Cuzco, in favour of the English, who well repaid him the
vanity of these desires which had been forged in dreams
and frenziedly written upon paper ! "
There is probably more prejudice displayed, however,
than impartial rendering of history in some of the state-
ments of Zapata, and I only record them to give the views
of a Spanish Colonial writer.
CHAPTER XXI
THE INCA RUINS
The ruins of the buildings of the Inca and Aymara
periods are encountered in almost every part of the
great territory of Peru, to say nothing of parts of
Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile. These are ruins of temples,
of fortresses, of castles, of dwelling-houses, of cities and
of tombs, mounds and pyramids, as also of bridges,
aqueducts, and roads.
As far as they are concerned structurally, these ruins
may be divided into three classes : — those built of adobe
or sun-dried earthen bricks ; those of loose blocks of
unhewn stone, with or without mortar ; and those of hewn
or worked stone.
The buildings of the first kind are generally found
upon the western side of the Andes — the Pacific or coast-
zone ; and this was probably a result of the climate — the
rainless region which permitted the use of such material.
It is remarkable bow these, which are simply structures
of dried mud, have retained their form throughout the
centuries. Among this class are all those numerous ruins
of temples and villages found at different points nearly
all along the 1,500 miles of Peruvian coast -zone, and
include Pachacamac, near Lima, the one-time wonderful
temple dedicated to the god Viracocha — and those near
Piura, Chimbote, Casma, Pisco, etc., some of which I
describe elsewhere. The stone structures are found on
the plateaux and the Cordillera, where they are exposed
to the heavy rain of these regions. Those built of un-
shaped stone are exceedingly numerous. They are found
all over these vast upper regions ; they crown every hill
220
The Inca Ruins 221
in some districts, and line the slopes and bottoms of
valleys. The material consists of natural blocks of lime-
stone, quartzite, or granite, unhewn and unshaped just
as they have been collected from the talus or debris of
mountain slopes, or dug from the loose strata of the rock
outcroppings. The buildings take the form of castles and
villages, which appear to have been constructed by various
tribes as though for protection against each other's raids,
as I have described in the chapter dealing with my
journeys on the Upper Marafion. Indeed, to my mind,
the description of these old settlements — huge human
"warrens" — strikingly bear out the statement made by
the historian, which I have before given, that "the land
had as many lords as there were towns and communities,"
and that, " the conflicting interests caused war to be made
by the different chiefs." It is remarkable how the most
inaccessible places were selected often. I have seen them
on the most precipitous summits, especially in the Depart-
ment of Ancachs, in the region of the Upper Maranon.
The hewn-stone edifices — the true and lasting works
of art of those people — are much less plentiful, as is
naturally to be expected, being, as they are, principally
in the nature of palaces and temples. The remarkable
characteristics of the stone-work are, first, the excessive
care with which the joints were fitted, leaving no space
between, and yet, in spite of this, the indifference to
horizontality or verticality in the sides of each block, in
some cases.
In my description of the ruins of Huanuco Viejo, I
have given diagrams of this noticeable feature of their
stonemasons' art ; and it is also shown in a remarkable
way in some of the views of the edifices of Cuzco,
especially in that of the Palace of Huayna Capac and
Pachacutec. One of these stones goes by the name of
Hatum-Rumi, and forms an irregular polygon of twelve
entering and salient angles. Rumi means in Quechua
" stone," and Hatum " large." They are of granite. Not-
withstanding the many varying sides and angles of these
stones they fit perfectly into those placed against them
222 The Andes and the Amazon
in the wall. In some of the structures, however, this
feature does not exist ; the blocks are cubical in form,
with horizontal sides and square corners, and are simply
placed together in the ordinary way. It has been sug-
gested that these are of later date than the former.
The other remarkable characteristics of some of these
structures is that the blocks are great monoliths. These
are described in various of the existing books upon Peru,
and some of the largest are stated to be 38 feet long,
18 wide, and 6 thick.
How were these shaped, brought from their quarries,
and raised into position, are the problems which occur
to the observer, as they have occurred regarding the
ruins of the old structures of Asia and Africa.
The most remarkable of all these stone buildings
are those of Titicaca, and those of Cuzco and its
immediate neighbourhood, which latter city was the
Capital, and centre of the Empire. These palaces of
Huayna Capac, and various other buildings, including the
Temple of the Sun, are situated in the streets of the
city of Cuzco, and in some cases form part of the modern
edifices. Others, near at hand, are the remarkable ruins
of the fortress of Sacsaihuaman, Ollantaitambo, and
those of Intihuatana — which I speak of later.
Zapata says of these :
" Among the most memorable edifices which the
antiquity of our country presents, is the fortress of
Cuzco — a marvel of art. This great castle is situated
in Sacsa-Huaman, a high hill to the north of the city,
and is the work of Pachacutec, Emperor IX. of Peru,
who spent half a century in its construction. It is more
than 400 yards long. The rows of stones are of varying
height, and so well united that no mortar is seen. In
front of this wall the slope of the hill continues, and
here, in this, were built three more walls, each 200 yards
long. The stones of these were not similar to the first ;
they are so great that it can only be supposed that the
Indians understood the art of ' melting ' them, and cast-
ing them in moulds of that size. There is not wanting
those who have attributed to diabolic agency the artifice
and perfection of this work."
The Inca Ruins 223
Zapata, therefore, seems also to hold the curious
opinion that the Indians were acquainted with some
wonderful method of softening and moulding stone, a
belief such as is still current among the Indians of the
present day, who have assured me often that this was
the method employed. They do not refer to the making
of ordinary concrete, because these are all natural stones.
I have spoken of this in the account of the ruins of
Huanuco Viejo.
Zapata goes on to describe these buildings in detail,
with their subterranean chambers, and stories and legends
of the vast quantities of treasure in the form of gold
which they contained. He speaks also of the enormous
monolith which lies near the fortress, and which its
artificers had not been able to carry to the end of its
destination. This stone is stated to be 70 feet long,
3^ thick, and 5 wide, and was said to have been
brought from near Quito, 500 leagues away, carried by
4,0(X) men. The fable of the Indians is that it wept
tears of blood when abandoned. I think that a recent
Peruvian writer has found that this stone was brought
from a quarry very much nearer: and that some of the
monoliths were floated into place before the drying-up
of the lakes there.
Other buildings in the same neighbourhood Zapata
also describes, and speaks of stone lintels 30 feet long,
15 wide, and 6 thick ; and of numerous stone images
of men and women, the former with cups in their hands,
the latter carrying children. He quotes from other writers
who suppose that these remarkable works were made by
.some former unknown race, adding that in his opinion
this view is erroneous; that the absence of arches or
vaulting precludes the probability of their origin being
from nations of the other hemisphere, and that the non-
existence of records of their construction is doubtless
due to the fact that the custodians of the quipos — the
archives and history kept by the system of coloured
and knotted cords — had died before their records could
be perpetuated by the Spaniards. He also instances
224 The Andes and the Amazon
their use of copper dowels and lack of knowlodge of
iron, in support of this. Zapata quotes principally from
Pinelo, Garcilasso, Ulloa, Pomanes, Acosta, Cieza, Avalos,
Herrera, Gamboa, and other Spanish writers, some of
whom, he states, have personally seen the ruins ; and
he gives their words in the original text, adding : " I
have not wished to copy or vary them, because water
is always clearer at its source, and there one should
drink, rather than in the gutters which it enriches."
I have mentioned in a previous chapter the ruins of
Intihuatana, which are about 14 miles from Cuzco, near
the river Vilcanota ; and I will translate from an article
in the Journal of the Geographical Society of Lima,
published in 1904, written by a Peruvian, Senor Oyague,
who visited the ruins recently. He says :
" It is not easy to get there. From the outside of
the village begins a barrier of formidable andenes, reaching
to the summit of the hill ; a vast stairway of more than
forty steps of 4 to 6 feet high, and now covered with
thorny brushwood. From the principal ruins a magnifi-
cent panorama is obtained of the valley, and the place
is essentially a strategic point. Here exists a species
of semicircular tower united by stone outworks to the
other edifices, and which has undoubtedly been the
place where the sentinels lived. Further back in a
small depression are seen the buildings which surmount
Intihuatana.
"This, of great interest archaeologically, is a large
rock, unbroken, square, and in whose centre stands up a
cylindrical column, worked in the rock itself, but now
broken. This stone is enclosed in a circular tower with
a single entrance, and that which causes most surprise is
the finish of the stones and their perfect union, without
any mortar.
" The tower was an astronomical observatory, where
the equinoxes were determined. Around it, over a large
extension of ground, are numbers of halls, corridors, and
remains of habitations, all part of a perfectly conceived
plan — a fortress well defended. The abrupt precipices
which surround it would render surprise impossible, and,
moreover, any weak point is protected by high walls of
worked and polished granite. Upon all the rocks that
The Inca Ruins 225
surround the ridge run roads whose colossal andenes rise
from below, and at certain distances are found doors,
passages, stairs, towers, prisons, and habitations, seemingly
suspended on the highest summits, and in places where
the imagination of the most daring builder of to-day could
scarcely conceive the planting of an edifice. How have
these monoliths been taken up to these situations ? They
have not been manufactured upon the spot, but were
brought from distant quarries.
" Somewhat further on one observes, at a great height,
sepulchres excavated in the rock walls, some open, others
intact. This is the necropolis, where, doubtless, thousands
of the dead repose, having escaped, by reason of their
positions, the avarice of the conquistadores.
" At what date were these remarkable works erected ?
It is difficult to determine, as the old chronicles are silent
in this respect, but it was probably during the reign of
Pachacutec, in the fourteenth century. Marta Capac
(twelfth century) inaugurated the era of the great edifices ;
Huayna Capac (sixteenth century) terminated it.
" We now see what Intihuatana was : a fortress and
astronomical observatory. And, indeed, in the principal
building was enclosed the sacred rock, where the vestiges
of the broken column are still seen, and which is also
described by Garcilaso and other old chroniclers, and was
the venerated place where observations for the determina-
tion of the equinox were taken.
" The rudimentary knowledge of astronomical science
possessed by the Incas was reduced to the determination
of the solstices and the equinoxes. They determined their
year, and divided it into twelve months, beginning at the
December solstice. To determine these epochs they used
stone columns, richly worked and covered with plates of
gold. The priests charged with this sanctuary and office
were accustomed to observe the shadow of the column,
at the approaching day, and which was the centre of
a great circle wherein was inscribed a line from west to
east — which experience had shown them how to place.
By means of the shadow of the column upon this line
they were enabled to announce the proper day, which
was celebrated by great feasts ; and the throne of the
sun was brought and placed upon the column, so that
the sun might ' sit down.' From this is derived the name
of Intihuatana, meaning * the Seat of the Sun.'
"These astronomical pillars, many of which were in
existence both in Peru and Ecuador, were destroyed
226 The Andes and the Amazon
by the Spaniards who considered them useless and
idolatrous."
The writer concludes, deploring the ruin into which
these interesting relics have fallen, and the wanton
destruction which takes place in using the stones for
other purposes; and draws the attention of the Govern-
ment to the necessity for their preservation.
It would require a whole volume to fully describe all
the old ruins of structures of those prehistoric epochs.
Indeed, several volumes have given space to their descrip-
tion, such as the well-known works of Prescott, Markham,
Squires, etc., and, of course, the old Spanish writers, upon
which latter all Inca history is based. Many of these
structures lay too far out of my line of travel to permit
me to observe them, although I may claim, perhaps, to
have travelled more extensively in Peru as a whole than
any other foreigner, as far as leagues covered are concerned ;
and the numerous remains of prehistoric buildings which
I have visited, if secondary to those of Cuzco in importance,
are nevertheless of much interest, and permit a somewhat
comprehensive view of the whole to be formed. In the
following chapter I have described the ruins of Huanco
Viejo, or Old Huanuco — sometimes spelt " Guaneso," for
" G " and " H " in Spanish have almost similar pronuncia-
tion— and also, elsewhere, the Castle of Chavin, and other
structures. These lie to the north-west of Cuzco, in the
Department of Ancachs, about 400 miles away. They
were described in a paper read on my behalf before the
Royal Geographical Society in January, 1905, by Sir
Clements Markham, and which was published in the
Geographical Journal. A portion of this has been repro-
duced in a previous chapter. No account of these ruins
has been previously published, I believe, in any work
in English, or indeed in any other.
The Inca and Quechua people sepultured their dead,
frequently, as mummies. Very extensive cemeteries are
encountered, both in the Coast and the Sierra regions,
and are known as huacas. The mummies were enclosed,
often, in small rooms, or vaults, built of unhewn stone;
The Inca Ruins 227
and I have observed veritable " warrens " of these struc-
tures on the hill-slopes and the valleys. In the valley of
the Rimac, on the line of the Oroya railway, not far
from Lima, there are some extensive cemeteries of this
nature. Search is made for mummies, sometimes, by the
method of driving a thin steel rod into the ground in
spots likely to contain such, when the diminished resist-
ance encountered by the drill shows the presence of the
mummy. Some of these huacas, or burial - places, are
seen strewn with mummy-cloths, bones, skulls, and other
evidences of the desecrating ravages of man, animals,
or the elements.
In the caves in the limestone or quartzite formation of
the Sierra, bones and mummies are also encountered, and
generally these remains are reverenced and feared by the
Cholos of these regions. " Do not enter, Seflor," they have
said to me, when I desired to explore the depths of some
lugubrious grotto. " Some evil befalls those who enter
there," and I have been obliged, sometimes, to go in quite
alone.
Strange and weird are many of the old structures which
the traveller in these almost unknown regions of the Sierra
encounters. Rude towers and habitations, fortresses and
defences of unhewn stone, piled up on the summits of hills,
or commanding the heads and passes of valleys. At night-
fall, on my travels there, I have slept in these old Inca
structures, sheltered to escape the pelting rain and cold
winds of the uplands ; and I have even made use of the
kitchens of the former inhabitants — the mysterious " Gen-
tiles," as they are termed — and my men have cooked our
evening meal there. Starting from amid the mists on grim
escarpments as you round the base of a hill, or stretching
away in a golden haze among great areas of andenes, you
behold therti, uninhabited, solitary, grim. And at night,
as you lie upon your cot, looking at the flickering camp
fire's flames, and listening to the tales and folk-lore of your
men, as in a mixture of Spanish and Quechua they recount
to you strange things, the Andean wind howls mournfully
past and whispers among those old places where man once
228 The Andes and the Amazon
dwelt, inhabited now only by mummies and bones, and
skulls. Ha! stir up the fire, Jose or David or Felice, or
one of you ; roll me another cigarette, and see that the
mules have not strayed away !
There they remain, then, these ruined structures. As
for some of them, it is impossible to conjecture what their
purpose was —
" Temples, baths, or halls ? Pronounce who can,
For all that learning reaped from her research hath been
That these are walls ! "
CHAPTER XXII
THE RUINS OF HUANUCO VIEJO
On 7th February, 1904, I made a deviation of some leagues
from my route to the Marafion, on purpose to examine, as
far as time would permit, a group of extensive ruins of
the Inca period, known as Huanuco Viejo.
The plain upon whose western verge the ruins are
situated is a remarkably level tableland, whose geological
formation appears to be quartzite and limestone con-
glomerate, or compact gravel — or, at any rate, its northern
and eastern edges show as such ; and the hills bounding
those sides are vast cliffs of similar material, which I had
hoped were auriferous deposits. The altitude indicated by
my aneroid was 11,880 feet, and the temperature was not
so cold as to be uncomfortable, even in the tent at night.
Sleep was, however, much disturbed from the necessity
for continual vigilance in order to avoid the mules being
stolen in the night. The plain has a bad reputation as a
resort of cattle-thieves and horse-thieves, and I was after-
wards congratulated upon not having lost any of the
animals by these midnight Indian robbers. My method
was simple. Apart from keeping the arrieros awake, at
any signs of fright upon the part of the mules — for these
generally indicate in an eloquent manner the presence of a
prowling robber — I lifted up a corner of the flap of the tent
nearest my cot, and discharged a couple of revolver shots
into the night. These Indian thieves have a wholesome
dread of a pistol ball, and the method proved effective, both
here and elsewhere.
On the following morning I started out early to examine
the ruins, and found them very extensive. Unfortunately,
the films of my little hand-camera had given out, and it was
229
230 The Andes and the Amazon
not possible to take photographs, but the sketches which
accompany this will give a very fair idea of the archi-
tectural features of the ruins. Dimensions were obtained
by pacing and compass triangulation, and it is not pre-
tended that they are more than approximate except where
exact measurements were made. Some of the sketches
were taken on mule-back, and all were made as faithfully
as circumstances would permit All these were published
in the Royal Geographical Society's Journal for August,
1905, but only a few appear here.
The well-known Peruvian traveller and scientist of last
century — Raimondi — visited these ruins, and in one of
his works gives a brief description and a sketch of them.
This latter, however, is by no means faithful to the original.
My friend. Doctor (of laws) Cisneros, Chief Justice for
the Department of Ancachs, and who was Raimondi's
companion in his travels in 1870, informed me, neverthe-
less, that they took careful measurements of these ruins,
but which do not appear to have been published. In
the work before mentioned Raimondi quotes from a
previous historian (Garcilaso), who states that
" In March, 1533, Hernando Pizarro, the brother of the
Conquistador Francisco, arrived at the city of ' Guaneso *
(or Huanuco). It was a casa real, or royal palace, built of
large stones very skilfully set, and was so important in the
time of the Inca that there dwelt there continually for the
service of the Inca more than 30,000 Indians."
The foregoing quotation I have translated from the Spanish
of Raimondi.
The sketches and descriptions will give an idea of
the extent of the principal or central portion of the city ;
beyond, nothing remains but the foundations of numerous
habitations. About a mile away, however, to the west,
and built upon the limestone hills which rise from, or
rather bound the plain, are the foundations and streets
and walls of what has been an extensive community.
These are described later.
The architectural features which are most noteworthy
are the stone doorways to the palace, and the castle or
I
The Ruins of Huanuco Viejo 231
fortress. I made careful measurements of one of these
doorways, and the illustration shows exactly the style
of architecture. The stones which form this part of the
work are very carefully cut and fitted, and it would seem
that the builders have made up in laborious care and
exactitude what they possibly lacked in skill or appliances.
The stones have been worked, it is presumed, with copper
tools, for the Incas were unacquainted, it is generally
stated, with the use of iron. The joints of the stones
are so closely fitted that a knife-blade cannot be intro-
duced, and no cement or binding material has been used,
apparently. The bedding is not necessarily horizontal,
nor the upright joints vertical, the stones having been
cut to fit each other regardless of uniformity. Some of
these stones are of large size, as the lintels, which are
monoliths of more than 2 metres in length, and of the
whole thickness of the walls. The stones which form the
reveals are often rebated in order to form bond.
The walls generally are about 90 centimetres in
thickness ; the stones appear to have been set in place,
and the next, or following stone, fitted laboriously to its
companion, as previously stated. Bond is formed by
stones which traverse the thickness of the walls. The
carving of the capitals, like most Inca carving, is rude,
and represents either a scroll or a species of lizard or
other animal. I have sometimes thought that the Inca
scroll may have been suggested by the large petrified
ammonites, so common in the limestone formation of the
Andes. I have spoken of these fossils in another part of
this account. Of course, the carving may have another
signification, connected with the marine emblem of the
Incas, as in Cuzco. This is spoken of in a former
chapter.
The faces of the stones still show what are undoubtedly
tool-marks, for the hard silicious limestone of which they
are composed has shown no alteration under the action
of the elements. Rather, it has acquired with age a
beautiful faintish-red tint, and a distinct polish.
I have elsewhere spoken of the ruins of the Castle of
232 The Andes and the Amazon
Chavin, which I also visited for the second time on this
excursion ; and in this connection may be mentioned a
belief or supposition among the natives with regard to
the formation of the stones with which that castle is
built.
They state that these stones have been modelled — not
cut ; that the Incas were acquainted with some herb, an
infusion of which, poured upon stone, caused the latter
to become plastic, when it was easily moulded into any
required shape. It is stated that upon one occasion some
individuals having discovered a subterranean chamber
belonging to an Inca dwelling, accidentally overturned
an earthen vessel which they found there, and which
contained some liquid. The contents falling upon the
floor, caused the stones of the pavement to become soft,
like dough ; and the aforesaid individuals observing this,
endeavoured to save a portion of the liquid, but without
success. They then turned their attention to another
similar vessel which stood near by, also containing a
liquid, and pouring a portion of this upon the stone, they
observed that the latter resumed its usual consistency !
I do not know that there is any foundation for these
suppositions, and only give them for what they are worth.
The stones spoken of are, it must be added, certainly not
formed of artificial material, as terra-cotta or concrete, but
are natural stones.
In the east wall of one of the small chambers or
passages of the palace exist two pairs of holes in the
masonry, 15 centimetres apart, and about the height of a
man from the ground. These, it is stated, were " gallows."
A rope was presumably passed through these holes and
around the neck of the condemned ; the stones upon
which he, or she — for one side was for men and the other
for women offenders — stood, were then removed, and the
latter left hanging by the neck.
The Royal Palace, if such it were — and there is no
doubt that the Inca inhabited the place — is shown in the
sketch. It consists primarily of two halls, each about 75
metres long and 10 wide, followed by two courtyards, to
t^.
V^:-
W'
The Ruins of Huanuco Viejo 283
which access is gained by the portals or stone doorways
shown on the plan. There are six of these doorways,
all beautifully formed of cut stone, and more or less all
alike. As shown in the figures, they are of typical Inca
trapezoidal form, with sloping sides, and very solidly
constructed. Possibly there is a suggestion of something
Egyptian about them.
A remarkable feature about the plan of this edifice is
that of the arrangement of the doors upon a " visual line."
This may possibly have been accidental, or undesigned,
although I have heard it stated that it is the result of
some certain purpose. The observer, standing at the
western side, or even near the fortress, has a clear view
right through the openings, and in like manner from the
eastern extremity — the baths — finds that his line of sight
passes all these apertures and rests upon the wall of the
fortress in the distance. This is made clear upon the
illustrations. Possibly the arrangement was connected
with the sunset, as the "visual line" is nearly east and
west.
Only portions of the masonry are of worked stone ; the
rest are of unshaped, or very slightly shaped, stones, but
are nevertheless skilfully set and bonded. On the western
face of the southernmost of the two halls are nine doors
and window openings, occurring alternately ; and on the
other nine doors and no windows. On the eastern side
are the baths, whose walls are all of carefully cut stone.
These are shown on the sketch. All around these buildings
are the ruins of numerous dwelling-houses, which from
their less careful construction have not withstood, except
in some cases, the destructive action of time. Moreover,
the native shepherds are continually removing the stones
to form corrals. It is not possible to determine exactly of
what the roofs of these buildings were composed. There
are no vestiges of timber remaining, and the construction
is not such as to suggest that they were of stone, dome-
shaped. Probably they were of thatched grass supported
on rafters, and this would seem to be borne out by what
appear to be gable ends, as shown.
234 The Andes and the Amazon
The fortress, or Temple of the Sun, if such it was, is
rectangular in form, very solidly constructed of cut stone
blocks, surmounted by a cornice composed of a fillet and
cavetto, such as are found in Doric and other orders of
architecture. The corners, top stones or capitals, are
carved with the marine scroll or animal, as on the
palace doorways. The building stands parallel with the
others in the centre of a large square, some 300 yards
across, the ground rising slightly on all sides towards
it. It does not appear to have contained any covered
portion, although there are indications of what might
prove to be a subterranean entrance on the east side.
Neither here nor in any other portion of the ruins have
there been any attempts at excavation, notwithstanding
that, as this was one of the seats of the Inca, it is
very possible that treasure lies buried. Some gold
objects, I am informed, of exceedingly fine workman-
ship have been accidentally discovered in times gone
by ; and I should consider it probable that search and
excavation might be repaid, for it is well known that
the Incas always possessed quantities of gold, much of
which was buried on the advent of the Spaniards.
The portion of the city separated from that upon
the plain — or possibly at one time the intervening
space also contained dwellings — is, as previously stated,
situated upon some limestone hills to the west, and
overlooking the fortress and castle. These hills, it may
be noted, are of very marked vertical stratification, and
large quantities of limestone blocks have been removed,
doubtless to build the city below.
This portion of this curious ruined city consists of
a series of streets, if they may be so termed, or
rows of houses where the street or passage was upon
the upper side of each row. Some of the houses are
circular and some distance apart — those of the lower
rows. Next above comes a row of circular houses only
about 2 metres apart ; still higher, square single houses,
followed by several rows of square double houses. They
< =
> 2
The Ruins of Huanuco Viejo 235
are all about the same size — 7 metres in diameter, or
across the square. The walls are built of unsquared
blocks of stone ; the circular houses are true circles ; the
square with quoins at the angles, and with lintels roughly-
shaped over doors and windows. The stones are bedded
in earth or mortar, all placed with care, and the inter-
stices filled with angular fragments of stone driven in.
The walls are about 60 centimetres in thickness. A
small door on the upper side, about 50 centimetres
square only, gives access, and a small window on the
lower, light. Undoubtedly, security against attack or
intrusion was the dominant note of their construction.
I rode along these "streets" on mule-back, but time
did not permit me to count the number of dwellings,
of which there must be several thousands, as the rows
continue for possibly a kilometre or more, around the
hill to the south. There they stand, mute witnesses to
a large population, which lived and moved and had
its being in centuries past, and whose vestiges are now
but—
" Blown about the desert-dust ;
Or sealed within the iron hills ! "
Traversing the city is the " Inca Road." I followed
this road for a short distance, and, in fact, portions of it
still form the means of descent from the plain to the
river Vizcarra, an arm of the Maranon. It passes down
a steep ravine, and is formed of circular steps of unhewn
stones. This descends to the river, near the town of
Aguamiro or La Union, a distance of a few leagues, and
passes the river Vizcarra by a bridge, only a portion of
the original abutments of which remain. To the east
of the ruins runs the river Marafion proper, beyond the
hills shown in the sketch of the baths ; and the Inca
road continues to the river, crossing it at its junction
with Lake Lauricocha — the principal source of the Marafion
— by a well-preserved Inca bridge formed of slabs of stone.
Time would not permit me to dispose of more than
one day and a half upon the ruins, which are worthy of
more study than I was able to give. Possibly I may
286 The Andes and the Amazon
have committed some errors in description ; for example,
what is generally termed the "fortress" may really have
been the "Temple of the Sun," for such is said to have
existed in the city. I was obliged to push on to the
south, to reach a point some 5 leagues away, and
evening was falling when I gave the order to strike
the tent and load the mules.
Very picturesque and impressive was the place as the
long shadows fell across the tableland ; the sun's disc
Hearing the horizon upon the hills, which crown an arm
of the Maranon. The clouds, a scarlet curtain of texture
rare and filmy, strove as if to hide his exit ; and from
below, rather than from above, appeared the shades of
evening. Already far away appeared like dark spots
upon the plain the forms of my mules, the cries of the
impatient artieros lost in the distance, and the only living
beings upon the spot were myself and the mule I bestrode.
Some attraction of contemplation, born of the influence
of the dying day, held me momentarily to the place —
contemplation of those old sad vestiges of a perished
civilisation, for the ruined handiwork of his kind is ever
fraught with serious cogitation to thinking man. That
strange old monarchy, that industrious race, before whose
habitations I stand ! They are gone. What part have
they played in the scheme of a world : they whose only
vestiges are these stones?
The light faded from the western sky, save that pearly
tint of momentary beauty following the after-glow ; and
a single star, dominant of the horizon, gleamed like a
pale jewel against the vault of heaven, whilst the purple
haze below which slowly grew to being, brought silence,
night, and solitude. The breeze whispered among the
deserted halls of the Inca ; the wild oats growing above
the entablature swayed softly, as if they murmured :
" As a flower of the field so he flourishes : for the wind
passes over it and it is gone, and the place thereof shall
know it no more ! "
I
CHAPTER XXIII
THE INCA ROADS
The Empire of the Incas, which was governed from
Cuzco — its Capital — required that means of communica-
tion should be established between its extremities ; and
the roads which united it to Quito, about 500 leagues
to the north-west, were the principal arteries of travel.
There is no doubt that there roads existed, but it is
equally certain that their importance, as regards con-
struction from an engineering point of view, has been
much exaggerated. I should be sorry to dispute their
past importance, or to dissipate pleasing theories and
illusions, but I cannot help thinking that the descriptions
of these roads have often been made by writers who
have not seen them, and who have given rein to their
imagination to a large extent. Some writers do not
hesitate to say that the works are of "such importance
and magnitude as could hardly be accomplished by the
engineer of to-day," or words to that effect. They describe
long and ponderous bridges over rivers, vast open cuttings
through rock, and enormous extensions of paving with
blocks of stone. Where are the ruins of these works?
I will translate from Zapata again. He says :
" Among the most memorable things, and those which
almost exceed the strength and cunning of man, are
two roads which, until to-day, are found in our Peru,
disclosing at certain distances the relics of their grandeur.
One is found near the coast upon the llanos (plains) ; the
other passes the regions of the interior, or sierras. These
were the work of the great Huayna Capac, the twelfth
Inca of Peru, He made subject all the provinces between
Cuzco and Quito ; and as the summits of the hills and
237
238 The Andes and the Amazon
the difficult passes had caused more trouble than the
tribes he had overcome, he desired that they also should
be monuments to his victories. To accomplish this he
levelled mountains, opened the Cordilleran precipices,
diverted rivers, filled up valleys, and overcame all obstacles
that might offer difficulty in the advance. This he accom-
plished for a distance of 500 leagues — some say 700 — in
the term of a few years, and returned to Cuzco, adding
a fresh laurel to his conquests in the invention of
these roads."
Zapata then quotes from Pinelo, who says as to this
work : " With good reason it may be affirmed that it was a
marvel of the orb, worthy of eternal memory," adding that
it was all done in order that the Inca might pass over the
road a single time.
" On the highest summits," continues Zapata, " cutting
off the cones for this purpose, he formed plazas for observa-
tion, to which ascent was gained by stone steps. These
were the lodging-places of the Inca, and he was able to
amuse himself in watching the defiling of the numerous
armies which followed him, and the hills, valleys, and
rivers which spread before his view.
" A few years afterwards Huayna-Capac determined to
visit the kingdom of Quito, and not desiring to pass over
the same road, he ordered another to be made upon the
coast plains. This was equally long, 40 feet wide, and
bounded by walls and palisades. It ran through woods for
great parts ; and in those places where the sand prevented
the erection of walls, stakes were driven in to show the
direction. Also at certain distances large buildings called
tambos were erected. These were houses which offered the
most comfortable accommodation, and some of them were
as rich as the palaces of Cuzco."
Zapata then quotes from a writer — Gautier — as follows :
" Leaving the Romans to Europe, Asia, and Africa,
which are the parts of the world where they have extended
their empire, and passing to America, we find there two
roads which a sovereign of that country ordered to be
made. These roads are in Peru ; they are 500 leagues
long, and go from Cuzco to Quito. They were formerly
planted with trees, and defended at their sides by strong
HH '^
° -^
H i
The Inca Roads 289
walls and masonry, and along their whole extension ran
open conduits. They were 25 paces wide, paved wherever
necessary with stones so prodigious as at no time were
equalled by the Romans. The stones of which they were
formed were ordinarily 10 feet square. All along these
were beautiful castles at distances of a day's journey apart,
and which had been built expressly for the comfort of
travellers."
Zapata does not say if the above writer saw these
matters himself, or whether he is only copying from the
older Spanish chroniclers. The probable truth of the
matter is that these roads were of much less elaborate con-
struction than has been pictured. Those portions which I
have seen were certainly not worthy of the descriptions
lavished upon them. In the first place, the methods of
travel and conveyance known to the Incas did not call
for elaborate structures in these roads, nor uniformity of
grade, level, and alignment. It is to be recollected that
the inhabitants of the country in pre-hispanic times pos-
sessed no four-footed beasts of burden — except the llama ;
no horses, mules or oxen, and consequently no wheeled
vehicles. Everything was packed on men's backs or the
backs of llamas, and the Indian ever prefers to scale a
height and so travel in a direct line rather than to deviate
from his way by following a curving contour of easier grade.
Consequently their roads were more or less straight, and
steep ascents were overcome by steps formed of slabs of
stone, rough from the quarries. I have followed long
stretches of track which have been defined simply by lines
of stones or large pebbles placed at both sides, especially
over sandy areas ; but this called for no particular skill.
Their roads often were obliged to follow along steep
mountain-slopes, and there they were terraced on the lower
sides with rough slabs and small blocks of stone built up as
retaining walls, and put together with some skill, but not
calling for any particular comment. Indeed, these walls
and ways are found on the slopes of every river-valley,
and often in such situations as are now quite inaccessible.
The Indians of that period always seemed to prefer to
240 The Andes and the Amazon
journey along the precipitous hillsides in this way, rather
than to follow the easier floor of the valley. Possibly the
rainfall was heavier at that epoch, and valleys more subject
to floods, although it was probably motived from measures
of protection from enemies. Their roads, therefore, like
their lands — the andenes — and their habitations, were
always built in the most difficult and inaccessible place
the neighbourhood afforded.
There was, then, no necessity for great and levelled
roads, nor for paving them with vast blocks of stone, except
where they crossed the swamps of iS\& punas ; and here there
were used, and indeed are still used, large slabs of stone,
or lozas, taken from the nearest stratified hill. As for the
cutting-off" of the cones of hills to make plazas, or places of
observation, this was undoubtedly done to a large extent ;
and I have examined many such, although they do not
form works of any but a simple nature generally. These
flat places were also used for dances and sacrifices, and are,
indeed, still so used in some parts of the country for the
former purpose. Also they were, and are, used for the
winnowing of chaff" from grain. The women, in order to
perform this, carry the uncleaned grain up in their blankets
and ponchos, and by repeated lifting up and letting fall of
handfuls of it, the strong breeze ever blowing in such
places carries away the chaff".
Bridges they built, which displayed considerable skill,
but which were, of course, inferior to the most common-
place of modern engineering structures of a like nature.
They built stone bridges, employing single long slabs to
span from pier to pier, some of which were of considerable
length. I have described one of this nature in the chapter
upon the Castle of Chavin, where the slabs were 12 to 15
feet in length. Suspension bridges of woven grass ropes
were built over chasms of considerable width.
One of these two famous roads — that of the interior —
undoubtedly followed for a part of its course the portion
of the Marafion near its source, which I have elsewhere
described. Thence, it doubtless continued along that
river, or nearly, to Cajamarca, which itself is situated in
The Inca Roads 241
the valley of the Maranon, far to the north. Some of
the stopping - places or tambos were those ruins also
described, and included Chavin, and Huanuco Viejo.
These were very extensive places, as evidenced by the
large area which the existing ruins cover. Most of the
other tambos were probably of less elaborate description,
and the character of their construction will be seen from
the chapter on the Upper Marafton, which describes some
of the numerous ruins of castles and habitations which I
passed.
On the coast road numerous ruins also exist, some of
which I have described. Most of these were of adobe,
or sun-dried, earthen bricks, and far less lasting and
important than those of the highlands.
I may here remark that whatever may or may not have
been the exact condition of these roads and stopping-
places they certainly embodied great convenience for
travellers of that time. Would that equal facilities
existed now, for the traveller in these regions to-day finds
but little care or comfort, and absolutely none which is
consequent upon any action of the Government, who
make little endeavour to foster means of travel in the
interior. It is often the case that the local authorities
fail entirely to perform the simplest duties of road-
mending and maintenance ; and, indeed, the funds destined
for this purpose are too often misappropriated. Here,
then, are the methods and results born of a developing
democracy contrasted with those of an ancient autocracy.
A favourite type of small bridge which was used in
pre-Columbian times, and which, in fact, is still built in
country places, might be described as a species of canti-
lever, in principle. A point is selected in the stream to
be crossed, where two rocks, one on each side, approach
to form the nearest possible abutments. Upon these is
placed rude masonry of unworked stones to bring the
abutments to a flat surface, and stout poles are laid
thereon, projecting a few feet over the stream, on each
side. Upon these is laid a layer of poles, crosswise, tied
with strips of hide or dried-grass ropes. A further layer
Q
242 The Andes and the Amazon
of poles is now placed, projecting still further over the
stream, and the shore ends of both the first and third
layer are weighted with stones and road material, when
another layer of transverse poles is laid in place. The
span has now been considerably decreased, and the
"girders," or long poles, are laid across, so spanning the
stream. The whole platform is now covered with thinner
poles, brush, and twigs, and a layer of earth over all, and
the structure is complete. The bridge over the Maranon
at Chuquibamba is typical of this method of construction ;
and, in fact, all over the country I have had occasion to
cross such bridges, often in fear that my horse's hoofs
would penetrate the light material and plunge me into
the stream ; often prudently alighting at any signs of
nervousness on the animal's part.
These bridge builders appear to have had no know-
ledge of the principle of the trussed girder ; nothing of this
nature seems to have been evolved, notwithstanding that
long sticks of timber are rarely obtainable in the regions
of the coast and Cordillera, and it might have been
supposed that some form of splicing might have been
evolved. Even to-day the authorities of interior towns
form bridges simply by building up masonry abutments
and laying trunks of the eucalyptus upon them for the
roadway — the largest timber obtainable. I was invited
to attend the ceremony of opening a bridge of this
nature, of considerable span ; and, seeing the dangerous
bending of the poles in the centre, I showed the native
carpenter there how to make an ordinary " Howe " truss
with the same material and a few iron bars and
bolts. This was looked upon as a remarkable piece of
work.
As regards the arch the Quechuas and Aymaras were,
there is no doubt, unacquainted with its principle and
use, although it is stated to have been known to the
Chimus, a people of Peru of the region of Trujillo, who
spoke a different language to the first-mentioned. The
nearest approach to anything embodying the principle
of the arch that I have seen is in the Indian houses
The Inca Roads 243
between Lakes Arapa and Titicaca, described in another
chapter. But these are really domes, not arches, although
a vertical section of a dome may be conceived to be a
kind of arch, sustaining its own weight, wind - pressure,
etc. ; whilst a horizontal section might be looked upon as
a species of horizontal arch, such as embodied in the
principle of the modern stone dam with a curving water-
face, as used for reservoirs.
Writing of the Inca bridges, Zapata says :
"They are, then, bridges of mimbres, which in Peru
are called juncos, which grow very long and flexible, and
resist time, water, and their effects. They wove plaits
of these, which they multiplied until they equalled the
weight of a man. With five of these, which they fastened
to both sides of the rivers, they formed bridges, seeking
for their securing the hardest rocks ; and in the case of
not finding such, they built blocks of stone and lime, not
less firm than the natural rocks. Of the five plaits or
cables three form the roadway, and sticks of wood about
20 inches thick, and of the width of the bridge, which
generally is 2 yards, were placed between. This is then
covered with a weaving of dry branches, which form the
floor. The other two cables are placed at the sides, and
serve as handrails, raised about the height of the body
of a man, on foot. These bridges are so strong that they
sustain beasts of burden loaded with packs. The entrance
is made descending, and the exit by ascending, aided by
the considerable sag, caused, in addition, by the bridge's
weight. And although the cables are well stretched, the
structure, being in the air, swings from one side to the
other with the least movement of the passenger. The
Indians are so expert that they pass beasts of burden
over, galloping ; and many of them, without dismounting,
gallop over at full speed, to the surprise of the Spaniards,
who feared to make the transit of these machines.
" One of the most famous of these bridges is that
over the Apurimac river. Its length is 200 paces, and
it is fastened to a rock on one side, and to a strong wall
on the other. It was built by Malta Capac, and exists
until to-day, the cables being kept in repair. And another
was also built by him over the Desaguadero, which drains
Lake Titicaca, of woven dried grass, the same material
of which the Indians form their rafts on this great lake.
This was 150 paces long and 14 feet wide, and the cables
were renewed every six months."
244 The Andes and the Amazon
The Indians did not only use this kind of bridge,
says Zapata ; and he describes another method of passing
rivers in situations which did not permit of the construc-
tion of the suspension bridges described. Strong beams
or tree-trunks were driven into the banks, and between
these was stretched a woven cable. Upon this worked a
strong wooden ring, known in Quechua as Oroya; and
hanging therefrom was a basket, or car, and the passenger
hauled himself from one side to the other by means of a
cord. The Spaniards were quite unable to improve upon
these bridges, when they came. Two great aqueducts
were built by the Incas, according to Zapata, who quotes
Garcilasso and Pinelo ; one of 150 leagues long and 12 feet
deep, made around deep valleys, and cut in rocky slopes
without the use of iron tools. These were for irrigation
purposes, and there is no doubt that in this science the
Indians of that period were adept.
The Incas used the thermal springs which abound
in the Cordillera, for baths and curative purposes, and
these are still employed by the present inhabitants of
the country.
The Incas and Aymaras, then, possessed primitive
engineering knowledge of no mean order. Their buildings
were well adapted for regions subject to earthquakes,
as the Andes are, for their walls are strong and heavy.
The buildings are, with rare exception, of one storey, and
the roofs were probably of poles and thatch. They cut,
carved, and erected great monoliths ; they adjusted stone
blocks with the greatest nicety ; they excavated and
embanked in rock and earth ; they fashioned stone and
copper tools ; they smelted ores ; built roads and aque-
ducts, and irrigation works ; and made astronomical
observations. All of these matters are of intense interest ;
they show a considerable advance on that road towards
intellect and knowledge whose starting-point is barbarism,
and along which it is the innate attribute and inevitable
tendency of man to press, in whatever climate or hemi-
sphere, towards his destiny and his millenium goal !
CHAPTER XXIV
THE INCA CIVILISATION IN THE AMAZONIAN FORESTS
It is a debated point as to whether the Inca civilisation
and influence extended beyond the uplands of the Andes
eastwardly to the Amazonian region of forests, or " Mon-
tana." It has been stated that such was not the case ;
but recent investigations by some of the Peruvian Govern-
ment engineers and employees, as well as by foreign
travellers in the country, demonstrate that evidences of
Inca influence, and the remains of their handiwork, are
encountered in those regions.
Among these evidences are my own observations, and
I have examined various remains of Inca works in the
upper part of the Montana. The works at the Aporoma
gold mines, and the roads leading thereto, which I have
elsewhere described, have been made, there can be no
doubt, partly in pre-hispanic days. There is also no doubt
that the Spaniards made use of the Inca roads and mines,
transforming the former into mule roads ; and the trail
to Aporoma and other similar trails in that region are
of that type, consisting of steps made of lozas^ or flat
slabs of unhewn stone, evidently formed for traffic by
foot-passengers rather than for beasts of burden.
The great gold mines of these regions, some of which
I have described elsewhere, were undoubtedly one of the
most important sources of Inca wealth and treasure in
gold ; especially those of Aporoma, San Juan del Ore,
and San Gaban, with the other numerous alluvial deposits
in that region.
As I have explained in the chapter upon my expedi-
tion to the Aporoma mines, the name Azangaro is the
245
246 The Andes and the Amazon
corruption of a Quechua word, meaning, "the farthest
away " : supposedly the farthest north-easterly boundary
of the territory dominated by the Incas. But the mines
above-mentioned are much to the north-east of the Cor-
dillera of Azangaro, and the name was probably meant to
indicate the furthest main Andean range, for this Cordillera
of Azangaro, and Anannea forms the main summit of
the Andes, and the divortia aquarum of the Continent,
as shown on the accompanying route-map of my journey.
An account, published by Sefior Rosell, in Lima, in
1899, says :
" In the interior of the Montafia there did not exist
any (Inca) towns or villages of importance, but it is
evident that the country was inhabited, and subject
to the Inca government of Cuzco, Undoubtedly, they
worked gold mines according to the method of that
time, and on account of the Inca Government ; and this
may be taken as proved by the fact that hardly was
the conquest of Peru realised by the Spaniards, when
we learn that one of the Pizarros was the owner of the
San Juan del Oro mine, directing the works and ex-
tracting tremendous profits. This can only be explained
by taking it for granted that the Spaniards found the
mines in working order on their arrival. Pizarro and
his companions, being informed of these riches, were
enabled to adventure on known lands, and not forced to
proceed to discover any unknown country, but to direct
themselves to one of the best possessions of the Inca,
and seize it, dispossessing the primitive owners."
The Pizarros undoubtedly made a rich haul in these
mines, and I am tempted to reflect in passing that their
methods were even more successful than those sometimes
employed by the modern "Pizarros" of European or
North American capitals — the company promoters and
stock gamblers — who at times are enabled to annex large
interests in mines without leaving their office desks !
But, pardon, patient reader, I digress ! let us return to
our Incas,
Cieza de Leon, the Spanish historian, who wrote in
1553, hardly eighteen years after the founding of Lima,
speaks of these mines of Carabaya as having produced
Inca Civilisation in the Amazonian Forests 247
1,700,000 Spanish dollars in gold; and Garcilazo de la
Vega, the historian of the Conquest, also describes them,
showing that they had existed in pre-hispanic days, and
that the colossal works, some of which I have mentioned
(as in Aporoma), were found in existence by the Spaniards,
and made use of by them.
Hydraulic gold mining in these regions, such as I
have seen performed by the Indians, and have described,
is an indigenous industry, and must have been evolved
by reason of its natural environment long before the
advent of a white race. Indeed, the Spaniards learnt
from the Indians, rather than having taught them in
this respect. Of course, these mines are not situated in
the dense tropical forest of the true Montana, but in
the lower foot-hills and valleys of the Andes. Never-
theless, this is the upper edge of the Montafia, and in
some cases at as low an elevation above sea -level as
5,000 feet.
In the chapter treating of the Montana and the
Indians of the Amazonian region, it has been shown
that there was considerable connection with the Incas
by those tribes. In the Archives of the Government deal-
ing with the Department of Loreto, published in 1905 —
which volume was officially presented to me — appears
an interesting report by one of the Engineers of the
Government — Von Hassel — upon his investigation in
the Montafla, made by order of the Departmental
officials, in February, 1905, and which I have quoted at
some length in the chapter upon the " Montana ' The
report gives the result of some ten years' observation,
and I will here translate some extracts dealing with
the indications of Inca influence in the Montana. It
says:
" The principal monuments of the Inca epoch in
the Montana are the following : — Inca roads from
Paucartambo to the Madre de Dios river ; Inca road
from Cuzco to the head-waters of the Manu ; andenes
in the valley of the Yavero; Inca road in the valley
of the Urubamba river in the direction of Tonquini ;
248 The Andes and the Amazon
andenes and other indications in the valley of Timpia,
with the chisellings of the Sun and Moon on a rock
near Pangoa ; Inca roads to the right and left of the
Maranon (lower) ; remains of buildings which contained
copper hatchets in Cumari on the Ucayali river ; the
ruins of Vilcabamba in Intipampa, river Picha."
It seems to be the case, therefore, that the Incas
exercised some considerable influence over these lower
regions, and the point is an important one. Whether
they included them in their dominions or not is doubtful.
It is hardly to be expected that they would have lived
there, the conditions of climate, temperature, topography,
vegetation and every other natural characteristic being
so totally different to those of the highlands where they
had evolved and lived. Even to-day, as I have shown
elsewhere, the Cholo, or even the mestizo of mixed
Spanish and Quechua blood of the highlands, or Sierra,
dislikes to descend to the warmer regions of the Montana,
or even of the Coast. For him they are enervating
and malarious, after the tonic air of the plateaux. Yet
all this must be considered in the light of the accounts
which follow, and of recent investigations and discoveries
in the Montafia.
The keen, cold regions of the Andean plateaux seem
to have been conducive to this isolated civilisation of the
Incas. The harder conditions of the " struggle for life "
encountered there, seem — as ever — to have been more
conducive to arousing and nurturing the spark of intellect
than the degenerative environment of the profuse tropical
regions of the Amazonian forests and plains. Just as the
colder regions of the north of Europe produced a thinking
and an acting race — the highest civilisation of the world,
of Britain and kindred countries — so the Andean plateau,
whose topographical altitude of elevation rendered it in a
sense equivalent to altitude of latitude, produced a think-
ing and acting civilisation on its continent. Nowhere can
a more notable example be found of the effect of topo-
graphical and climatic environment upon man than in the
comparison of the autochthonous race — if such it were — of
Inca Civilisation in the Amazonian Forests 249
the Andes, with those of the Amazonian forests. The
Incas, indeed, developed some points of government and
social economy superior to those existing now in the
hispanic civilisation of Peru, imported from Europe, and
which has principally taken route in the rather enervating
environment of the Pacific coast, as Lima. Possibly if the
people of Lima were to move their city up to this plateau
of the Andes they would acquire a more vigorous and
energetic character. Certain it is that they would lose
their pallor and love of ease, and acquire the ruddy glow
and spirit of activity of the highlander. I commend the
idea to them ! Truly, whether as individuals or as races,
the hardships we are forced to endure furnish that " 'fining
in the crucible" which is the process and method of
advancement.
In the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society
for August, 1905, appears an interesting paper (Baron
Nordenskold), the result of journeys made in 1904 and
the beginning of 1905, and dealing with the Inca civilisa-
tion, especially with regard to its possible former existence
in the Montafia. He says :
"This is, in brief, what I have discovered in the fell
valleys east of the Andes, bearing any close connection
with the civilisation of the Andean fells — more especially
with the builders of the Chulpas (sepulchral grottoes), who
were probably the ancestors of the Aymaras."
He continues, and the paragraph is printed in italics :
" As we have ascertained, the remains of this civilisa-
tion is not met with farther east than the verge of the
primeval or dense tropical forests, with the sole exception
of the valleys of the fell, which afford to man about the
same conditions of life as the lower parts of the Bolivian-
Peruvian elevated plateau round Lake Titicaca."
He also says :
" Further east, towards the interior of the primeval
forests, 1,960 to 2,300 feet above sea-level, I found large
dwelling-places. They prove that the now uninhabited
primeval forests formerly had a numerous population.
These things were absolutely unlike anything discovered
250 The Andes and the Amazon
in the fell valleys, and are derived from a population that
has evidently occupied a higher status than the savages at
present living in the primeval forests at Rio Madidi, Rio
Tambopata, and Rio Inambari. Thus, in the primeval
forests large grinding-stones are found, and masses of
fragments of pottery, furnished with totally different
ornaments from those seen on the pottery from the
Chulpas."
Another passage says :
" In the primeval forests east of Cuzco the Indians of
the fell have not spread. Their territory did not extend
further than 60 miles east of their capital — Cuzco — and
yet they or their cultural influence predominated from
Argentina to Equador."
The account also speaks of a great stone which serves
as a bridge over the stream of Sina, also " several stones
there, ornamented with serpents, while one is adorned with
a fish." Sina is not far from Poto, in the region I have
described from my own visit in another chapter.
Another extract is :
" It would also be of importance to learn in what degree
these Indians of the primeval forests have possessed any
independent civilisation, or how far they have been influ-
enced by that of the fell. In Chaco (Argentina) I found
shells from the Pacific Ocean (Oliva Peruana) in a grave,
which proves that communication for. purposes of barter
existed from the shores of the ocean to the dense tropical
forests of Chaco."
Commenting upon the above extracts, from the point of
view of my own experience, it seems to me that they point
strongly to Inca influence in, and possibly occupation at,
some period of the Montana. The grinding-stone may
very possibly be akin — according to its photo — to the kim-
baletes, or grinding - stones, which are found in hundreds
throughout Peru in proximity to the gold mines of the
Cordillera and the Coast, and which may have been a
native invention, used in pre-hispanic as well as in post-
hispanic days, by the Indians for grinding up gold quartz.
In this connection, however, it is to be recollected that the
Indians were not acquainted, in all probability, with the
Gold and other Objects from slbti rranean Inca Templk : Hlaraz.
P. 'iSX
Inca Civilisation in the Amazonian Forests 251
use of quicksilver in this industry, which might cast a
doubt upon their use of the kimbalete.
As to the sea-shells described above, it is probable that
they were not used only as a medium of barter, but that
they had a religious meaning ; and in this connection I may
draw attention to the shells found near Huaraz, of which I
give an illustration. The adornment or carving spoken
of at Sinca, of a fish, is also significant, recollecting that
the religion and origin of the Incas seems to have been
connected with some marine event or matter. It is here
interesting to compare all this with the chapter dealing
with the Inca civilisation, and the statement contained
therein, by Dr Patron regarding Huirakocha, as well as the
description of the megalithic remains and their origin on
Easter Island. Also the carvings which I have described
and illustrated of Huanuco Viejo, which may possibly be
meant to represent some marine animal ; and the stone
taken from Chavin, for might not the scrolls and carvings
on this stone be considered to represent fishes' or serpents'
heads, and waves, alternately? At any rate, the idea
presents itself to my mind.
Taking all these matters into consideration we see that
the marine emblems of the Incas might reasonably be sup-
posed to have been introduced into the Montana ; and it is
a point which must be insisted upon that the knowledge
of these tropical forests which we have is certainly not yet
sufficient to enable us to state that no ruins of true Inca
buildings exist there. There might be whole ancient cities
buried in the vegetation, still undiscovered : such as no
explorer could expect to find in a few months' travel in a
region covering so vast an area.
I may comment slightly upon the remarks in the
account of Baron Nordenskold, that :
" East of the Cordillera real, in the higher valleys of
the fell, the possibilities of human subsistence are about
the same as on the plateau," and ..." the valleys of the
fell, which afford to man about the same conditions of
life as the lower parts of the Bolivian - Peruvian elevated
plateau around Lake Titicaca."
252 The Andes and the Amazon
It must be recollected that on the eastern slopes of
the Andes there is no large plateau answering to the
elevation of that of the Titicaca basin or tableland ; and
the conditions of human life vary a good deal there and
differ from Titicaca, merging soon into much milder
climates ; whilst at a corresponding altitude to Titicaca
on those slopes, alfalfa and other fodder may be grown.
The Titicaca lake-basin and plateau of Peru and Bolivia
forms a peculiar region, in many respects. It is a
hydrographic entity, there being no outlet to any ocean
from the system constituted by the various lakes — as
Titicaca, Arapa, Poopo (or Aullagas), etc., and the Desa-
guadero river. It is a high, bleak region, more than
12,500 feet above the level of the sea. It produced the
Inca civilisation — Titicaca was its cradle. It also produced
the alpaca and the llama — the latter the hoofed ruminating
quadruped, the small and humpless camel of the Andes,
which is such a factor in the life of the Peruvian Indian,
and which is found nowhere outside of this plateau
except in comparatively near-by regions where it has been
propagated for its useful qualities. Titicaca appears to
be, also, the only tin-bearing region of South America,
principally in Bolivian territory.
Taking into consideration all the available informa-
tion on the subject of the existence of a civilisation in
the Montana it seems evident that any such that existed
or any remnants that still exist, have been connected with
the Titicaca centre — that is, of the Incas. In the Report
to the Peruvian Government, from which I have before
translated, by Von Hassel, made in February, 1905, is
the following :
" Among certain tribes, the contact that existed with the
Inca Empire is apparent, as, for instance, the Machigangas,
Campas, Piros, Conibos, Shipibos, Shetibos, Aguarunas,
and Orejones. This evidence of contact or influence may
be divided into three classes : first, the tribes which were
conquered peoples paying tribute to the great empire
(Inca) ; second, those that were emigrants from the great
empire in post - hispanic days, or after the Spanish
Inca Civilisation in the Amazonian Forests 253
invasion ; third, those that were subjects of the great
empire, iDut remained in the Montana after their con-
quest. The first three tribes named belong to the first
category ; to the second the Machiganga of the Yavero
and Urubamba rivers, and the others to the third.
" In the neighbourhood of Cumaria and Cipria, on the
Upper Ucayali, there are found buried various copper
hatchets similar to those used by the Inca warriors. In
the neighbourhood of Pangoa (as before mentioned) there
is a chiselled rock with an image of the Sun and the
Moon. On celebrating their feasts the Campas Indians
paint these images with the same colours which they use
for their faces.
" All the historians of Peru speak, in their narratives,
of a mysterious country — the great Paititi, citing various
Inca and Spanish expeditions which have sought this
marvellous land. The present generation places these
narratives among the legends in which the history of
Peru is rich, for from first to last no trace of Paititi has
been discovered, notwithstanding the incalculable value
which such might have given of a contact with the Inca
Empire. In one of my expeditions on the Amazon I
visited the great island of Tumpinambaranas, where great
ruins show a civilisation like that of the Incas. The ties
that the inhabitants of this island had with the Sierra
(the uplands of the Andes) is worthy of serious study,
which might possibly throw light, not only upon the
great Paititi, but even upon the origin of the first Inca,
Manco-Capac. The existence and antiquity of this matter
being proved, the supposition might be made that Manco-
Capac was an emigrant from this island, and that he
founded his habitation in the island of Lake Titicaca,
afterwards."
The island of Tumpinambaranas is formed by an arm
of the Madera river with the Amazon, and is 210 miles
long, with an area of 950 square miles. Whilst I give
these opinions for what they may be valued at, they
show how much there still remains to discover and
investigate regarding the Inca civilisation, and how
unwise it is to form a conclusive judgment yet. Here
are these ruins on the Amazon, in the very heart of
South America, on this fluvial island of the Amazon,
nearly 2,000 miles away from Lake Titicaca, the centre of
the Inca civilisation. Have they any connection there-
254 The Andes and the Amazon
with ? The writer previously quoted says, and his views
are the result of much observation :
" A study of these tribes conduces to the theory that
the invasion of the pampas or plains of the Amazon,
after they were transformed from a sea into a habitable
region for human beings, receives its first impulse from
the slopes of the Brazilian Cordillera (Serra), and of the
Cordilleras of Peru, Equador, and Colombia. In subse-
quent epochs there existed various civilisations which
have disappeared, the most modern among them being
that of the Incas in Serra Tumpinambaranas, and the great
Chaco, which had influence in the development of these
tribes, there existing fragments of these civilisations
among them, although they are at present delivered over
to savagery."
Chaco is mentioned in the account previously quoted
of Baron Nordenskold, who says :
"On my former travels in Chaco, in Argentina, I also
found large dwelling-places in the primeval forests beyond
the real Calchaqui territory, in districts at present very
sparsely inhabited. It would be very interesting to
institute researches with a view of ascertaining whether
very large ranges east of the Andes, at present inhabited
by more or less wandering tribes, were not formerly
occupied by a settled population of far higher standing
than that now dwelling there."
Then follows the passage I have previously quoted in
this chapter, regarding the Peruvian Pacific coast sea-
shells found at Chaco.
And here I may close this chapter and subject with a
summary of the ideas expressed regarding the origin of the
Incas, and a comment thereon as proposed in the chapter
on the Inca civilisation. It is by no means uncommon
among the Peruvians of the " Sierra " or uplands to hear
expressed the belief that the Incas and the Cholos might
have had a Mongolian — Japanese or Chinese — origin, as
indeed one theory of this origin sets forth, of a stranded
Chinese vessel on the Peruvian coast in the reign of Kubla
Khan. Is there any actual resemblance between the
present indigenous inhabitants of Peru and a Mongolian
race. I must admit that I have often observed an appear-
Tnca Civilisation in the Amazonian Forests 255
ance in the form of the eye which gave such a resemblance.
There is also the queue, or pigtail, customary among the
Quechua and Aymara Cholos of the uplands ; and lastly,
an abundance of names of places which seem to have,
when properly pronounced, a Chinese sound. Examples
of these are " Puntou," and " Punchao " ^ — villages on the
Upper Marafion ; also " Tonquini " in the Montana, and
many others of which I have lost my notes. It is remark-
able also how easily the Chinamen immigrants assimilate
with the Cholos, as if they were kin in some way. But
these reflections I only give for what they are worth.
As to the marine emblems of the Incas, this furnishes a
strong " clue " whereby to follow their origin, which some
writers aver may yet be traceable through Easter Island,
New Zealand, and to Asia. Again, so far east as the
Amazonian island before described in Brazil, and in places
in Argentina, are evidences which may be threads for
investigation, and the question naturally occurs — if from
the Amazon, which is navigable from the Atlantic, why not
Europe ? And so forth.
There lies, then, this fascinating field for archaeological
investigation. The indications which point the way seem
to have been few, but they may be more plentiful than has
been supposed heretofore. They are largely written in
stone, and stamped in memory and tradition, but it is a
fortunate condition of ethnological research that the farther,
in time, that we recede from the events of history, the
clearer our vision becomes, and the more trustworthy are
the links which complete the chain of evidence.
^ This is also a Quechua word meaning " sun " and "eye."
CHAPTER XXV
THE MONTANA AND THE AMAZON
The Montana ! What a perspective this single word opens
up to the mind of the traveller who understands its signi-
fication ! What a charm, what awe it conveys ; shrouded
in mystery, adventure, silence, romance — the attributes of
the limitless in Nature when sentient man enters !
The word conjures up to my vision those illimitable
valleys of forest-seas ; I can almost hear the patter of rain-
drops on leaves ; can almost smell the odour of foliage, and
see the mist-billows which roll onward and upward before
the rising sun to break and fade against the summits of the
Cordillera. I can feel the hunger, again, of forced marches
on short rations ; the fatigue of long leagues passed over ;
the exhilaration of the morning air as with elastic step I
trod those solitudes ; and the repose of sunset camps far
in the heart of those strange regions. Again I stand upon
some eminence and with shading hand survey those end-
less bosques traversed by endless rivers and scarcely-per-
ceptible trails, before plunging into the leafy depths ; and
again I feel the rapture which the true lover of Nature
experiences when alone with her in her solitudes.
What is the Montana? The word does not itself
convey its meaning. The Montana of South America —
that is, of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil — is
not the region of the mountains, but the region of the
forests. By the Montafta is meant that vast territory to
the east of the Andes, beginning at the line of vegetation
upon their eastern slopes and base, extending throughout
all that enormous region of rivers and forests upon the
great affluents of the Amazon — the Maranon, Huallaga,
256
I ■=
1
The Montana and the Amazon 257
Ucayali, Madre de Dios, and others — and thence right into
the heart of Brazil, and up to the plains of Argentina.
The Andes are left far behind as you penetrate these
forests ; they remain only as a memory in your mind ;
you cannot even see them now ; and in this soft, moist
climate of the tropical Montana it seems impossible that
you had ever battled with icy gales, crossed everlasting
snow-fields, and stopped short for lack of breath and want
of oxygen miles above the level of the sea. You are in
another world.
The Montana is a great and palpable matter, to be
conquered by intrepid man. The attacks upon it have
extended from pre-Columbian days ; they have multiplied
of late years, and the great region is being explored,
traversed, learnt and mapped, although there still remain
some portions which have scarcely yet been trodden by
the foot of civilised man, and some which are still marked
*' unexplored."
The conquest of the Montafta is a great and standing
matter for the Peruvians. The best part of their territory,
perhaps, is contained in these little-known regions, and the
more enterprising of their Governments and Prefects are
constantly sending out expeditions thereto. A pamphlet
recently issued (1905) by the Lima Geographical Society,
and presented to me by its author, Senor Ricardo Rosell, a
Peruvian who has travelled much in his country, contains
in a succinct form the various expeditions from remote
times until the present, which have been made to bring
the Montana under the dominion of knowledge and civilisa-
tion. I will translate some details from this pamphlet :
" As one of the first centres of the hemisphere,
and seat of the power of the Colonial Government,
Peru necessarily enjoyed a vast heritage in the distri-
bution of the Amazonian region, with its enormous
network of tributary rivers. This heritage, however,
is not a gratuitous one ; it carries with it the arduous
mission of profiting by it. The Peruvian Orient, with
its thousands and thousands of square leagues of
territory, full of promise and mysteries, offers a con-
junction of problems, pregnant with obstacles and
R
258 The Andes and the Amazon
sown with dangers. There Nature reigns as absolute
monarch, surrounded by all the barriers of a primitive
world. Impenetrable woods, torrential rains such as
those of the Deluge ; and man, self-styled King of
creation, finds himself there but a weak and impotent
being, scarcely capable of overcoming the difficulties
She opposes to his advance. But the Orient is no
longer an unknown problem; for its development Peru
has done much : has spent great efforts and vast sums."
The first expedition to the region of which any
knowledge exists is given as that of the Inca Sinchi
Roca, successor to Manco Capac, in the year 1136, who
penetrated to the river Caya-huaya, where gold was
found. It is to be recollected that the Inca rigime did
not control these regions, or it is generally so considered.
The tribes under their rule stopped at those of the
Andean plateau, and did not include the savages of the
forests. But I have fully discussed the question of Inca
occupation of and influence in the Montana in a former
chapter.
"In 1300 another of the Incas — Inca Roca — charged
his son with the conquest of Paucartambo, one of the
regions of the Montana, and in 1450 the Inca Tupac
Yupanqui visited the Madre de Dios river. This com-
pletes the absolute knowledge of the operations of the
Incas in the Montafla.
"In 1500 Vicente Pinzon, a Spaniard, leaving the
port of Palos, arrived at the mouth of the Maraflon
(Amazon) upon the coast of Brazil. This afforded the
first notice in Europe of the existence of these great
rivers of South America. In 1535 the Inca Manco
left Cuzco for the Yucay valley to attack the Spanish
Conquistadores and, being defeated, took refuge in the
Montana."
From that date until 1550 some fourteen names of
Spaniards are given, who conducted expeditions to the
forests, attacked Indians, established towns and settle-
ments, and navigated the rivers.
Then, from 1556 to 1822, during the Colonial period,
are given the names of a large number of explorers and
travellers, scientists, filibusters, priests, royal emissaries,
The Montana and the Amazon 259
engineers, buccaneers, and others, with brief accounts of
their exploits in the penetration of virgin forests, naviga-
tion of unknown rivers, conquests of Indians, discoveries
of mines, establishing of missions, making of surveys
and maps, and so forth : nearly three hundred years of
striving, sometimes futile, sometimes fruitful, within this
remarkable land. What a history they tell of struggle,
enterprise, hardship, enthusiasm, faith, wickedness, greed,
avarice, love of Nature and of conquest, sacrifice, toil
and bravery ! Think of what they endured : their setting
forth ; their hunger, thirst, wounds, fatigue ; crowned by
the joy of success, or obliterated by the pall of failure.
Many of them sleep beneath the forest fastnesses they
strove to dominate. All have passed, units of history,
dots and dashes on the scroll of Time !
From 1822 to the present day — the Republican
period — are given more and numerous lists of explorers,
missionaries, merchants, colonisers, and others, who have
carried on the work of conquest. The sword, the cross,
the stake, the book and cassock, the royal mandate, have
been succeeded by the truer implements of civilisation
— the axe, the theodolite, the rifle. The roadmaker, the
Colonist, and the Engineer have ousted the priest and
the filibuster, and now the greed of commerce usurps the
greed of conquest.
It is a dangerous thing to venture forth too lightly
into the Montana, or without due preparation. On one
occasion I was obliged to make forced marches extend-
ing over several days, living upon boiled rice — no other
provisions remaining — and to this day rice is unpalatable
to me. Had I not done this I might have perished of
hunger. During my stay in Arequipa a journey was
made into the Montana of Paucatambo by an ex-Prefect
of the Department of Cuzco — Colonel Fernandez — with
his son, a young boy. They lost their way, and both
perished of hunger and fatigue, as well as several of
their attendants. I saw a portion of the diary they kept,
and which had been completed by one of their servants.
It recorded their struggles day after day to find the
260 The Andes and the Amazon
right way : the hunger they endured ; the thirst — for,
strange as it may seem in so well-watered a region, they
suffered from want of water. This was due to the fact
that the only possible ways sometimes lie along the
ridges ; and whilst water can be heard flowing in the
valleys below, it is impossible to approach it, due to
sheer declivities or impenetrable forest on the verge. At
length both father and son succumbed to exhaustion and
fatigue, and lay down to die, whilst a few survivors
struggled on and reached a settlement.
The feeling which overtakes the traveller who is lost
in a forest, at the moment when he realises it, is hardly
describable. Some men have been known to become insane,
and to lose their power of reflection altogether, dashing
onwards like a frightened horse with no idea save that
of instant escape. I retain vivid recollections of losing
my way in an almost unknown forest, and of experiencing
the exceedingly unpleasant sensation of returning to a
spot which seemed familiar — why? because I had left it
a few hours ago in endeavouring to find the proper way !
But the only method under such circumstances is to
retain one's calmness, and to follow the indication which
due reflection may suggest as advisable. As to walking
in a circle, such as seems to happen at times in such
situations, there is little difficulty in keeping a course
by proper observation of objects before and behind one,
supposing no compass to be at hand or heavenly bodies
observable. Topographical considerations are often useful :
sloping ground means that a rivulet may be encountered
soon, and rivulets lead into streams, which fall into rivers,
and it is seldom that a path or trail of some description
is not encountered near the margin of these.
But it is exceedingly depressing to be lost in a forest.
If there is any choice, it is preferable to be lost in the
mountains. You can, at least, see where you are going,
and ascend points for observation purposes, although the
exertion is, naturally, more fatiguing.
The area contained within the Peruvian Montana
occupies two-thirds of the territory of the Republic, and
The Montana and the Amazon 261
extends from the frontiers of Ecuador and Colombia
in the north to that of Bolivia in the south. Its eastern
limit is the Montana or selvas of Brazil, and its western
the slopes of the Peruvian Andes, up which it reaches
to an elevation — the limit of forest vegetation — of about
ii,0(X) feet. This is equivalent, roughly, to a length of
I, GOO miles, with a width varying from 200 to 700 miles.
Of this region very little — a mere fraction — is under
cultivation, or, indeed, under ownership — except that of
the State, and is scarcely traversed in its more remote
portions except by the various tribes of Indians, and the
india-rubber gatherers on the affluents of the Amazon.
Part of it is, in fact, unexplored and unmapped. It
consists of (i) land broken up by foot-hills and rolling
ground, generally covered with forest ; (2) vast open
plains covered with grass, such as the Sacramento pampa ;
and (3) regions of almost impenetrable forest.
The principal rivers which traverse this region are
all affluents of the Amazon. The Maranon, Huallaga,
Apurimac, Ucayali, and their tributaries are those which
feel the topographical influence of the Andes, flowing
more or less parallel with the chain (although at vast
distances away from it) in a north-westerly direction.
The last-named, for example, is something like 200
miles away, eastwardly, from the axis of the Cordillera ;
yet parallel to it. These four great arteries all fall into
and form the Amazon in Peruvian territory, their common
course then charging to the north-east, or at right angles
to their former direction. The rivers Madre de Dios
or Madera, the Purus, the Yurua, and the Yavari, also
run north-east or normal to the system of the first four
named, and fall into the main Amazonian stream outside
Peruvian territory.
Another series of affluents descends from the north-
west, flowing south-eastwardly, and fall into the main
stream of the Amazon, which is known also at this part of
its course as the Marafion. The principal of these are the
Morona, Pastasa, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo, and Yapura.
All these, with the exception of the two last, join the
262 The Andes and the Amazon
common stream in Peruvian territory ; but part of the
region through which they rise and flow is that under
dispute and arbitration between Ecuador and Peru.
The Amazon and its affluents constitute the largest
river system in the world. The navigable portions of
the whole system are exceedingly extensive, and more
than 20,CXX) miles are in Peruvian territory. This 20,000
miles becomes 10,000 for a portion of the year, in flood
times, for steam launches and canoes.
Beginning with the most westerly of these great
affluents, the Maranon, nearest the Andes, the furthest
navigable point is just below the Pongo de Manseriche,
The word pongo means "rapids," and these remarkable
rapids prevent navigation up the Maranon beyond that
point, except by means of canoes and rafts. These latter
are worthy of special mention, and are spoken of later.
The beginning of steam navigation below the rapids,
known as Port Melendez, near Borja, and also Port Limon,
slightly lower down, is, remarkable as it may seem, only
about 225 miles in a direct line from the Pacific coast,
straight across the Andes as the crow flies. And here
I must speak of the project I have' endeavoured to carry
out for a railway to unite these points — the Pacific Ocean
and the Amazon river — and which will best be described
by extracts from the preliminary report I drew up for the
purpose, which I have previously quoted, and which I here
repeat, as follows :
"A great trans-continental route of travel across
South America will be created by the building of a
railway, uniting a seaport on the Pacific coast of Peru,
with the navigable head-waters of the river Amazon.
It is a fact little grasped by Europeans that the vast
fluvial ways of the Amazon penetrate right through the
great continent of South America up to the foot of the
Andes, and that steam navigation for^. nearly 3,000 miles
can be carried on from the Atlantic Ocean to within some
225 miles of the Pacific. The port which it is proposed
to make the western terminus of the line is Payta, a
fine land-locked harbour in the northern part of Peru.
Leaving this port and going eastwardly, the line will
traverse the flat coast - zone, and reach the Andes —
The Montana and the Amazon 263
ascending which it will cross the summit at an altitude
above sea-level of about 6,600 feet, by means of a pass
which seems almost to have been made by Nature in
order that man might create a way of travel between the
world's greatest ocean and largest river, crossing one of
the greatest mountain ranges on the globe. Descending
thence, the line will run to its eastern terminus where the
Marafion forms the mighty Amazon, near a place called
Port Limon, and where steam navigation begins : so
finishing the line of communication which Nature has
made in her vast natural canal, the Amazon — some 3,000
miles of river navigation from the Atlantic coast"
This is an alluring project — one of the great things in
railway work yet remaining to be done, giving outlet to
the great natural wealth of a virgin continent, and open-
ing up to civilisation those vast and wonderful regions of
which Humboldt spoke long ago, and which continue to
fire the imagination of all subsequent travellers.
CHAPTER XXVI
THE MONTANA AND THE AMAZON — Continued
Continuing the description of Peru's navigable rivers
in the Amazonian basin, a glance at the map will render
clear the whole network or system. The position of the
important river port of Iquitos will also be observed, and
it is here, right in the heart of the continent, that ocean
steamers from Liverpool ^ and Hamburg arrive.
The portions which are navigable of the various rivers
already enumerated, from the farthest point of navigation
inland, for steamers, at all seasons of the year, are
described below. It is to be recollected that some of
these rivers rise and fall considerably, according to season
and rainfall, and that very long stretches in addition are
navigable in rafts, canoes, and small launches above the
points given, for long distances, sometimes divided by
rapids.
The Amazon. — From Iquitos eastwardly to the
Atlantic Ocean steamers ply regularly through Brazil to
the Coast. From Iquitos westwardly or up stream
similar ocean steamers ascend to the confluence of the
Ucayali with the Maranon. The current runs at about
2 or 3 miles an hour. The depth is 4 fathoms minimum.
The Maranon. — Navigable at all seasons for steamers
of 4 to 8 feet draught, as far as Port Melendez, near
Borja, about 480 miles.
The Huallaga. — Navigable at all seasons for steamers
of 4 to 8 feet draught to beyond Yurimaguas, about
150 miles.
The Ucayali and affluents. — The Lower Ucayali is
navigable, as far as the confluence of the Pachitea, for
^ Booth Line steamers.
264
The Montana and the Amazon 265
steamers of 6 feet draught, and for smaller ones to
Port Bermudez, a total distance from Iquitos of about
930 miles. The Pachitea is navigable throughout the
year for launches of not more than 2| feet draught,
and the Palcasu, its head - waters, for those of 3 feet
draught, as far as Port Mayro; whilst the Pichis may
be ascended in flood times by steamers drawing 4 feet
of water, and in the dry season is scarcely navigable.
The Upper Ucayali is navigable from the mouth of
the Pachitea, against a strong current, for launches of
3 feet draught as far as Tambo, and in all seasons.
The Urubamba is navigable for 3-feet draught steamers
for a length of 100 miles. This last point is at a dis-
tance of more than 1,000 miles from Iquitos, including
the windings of the course ; and the whole of the
Ucayali and its tributaries embodies a vast system of
waterways whose importance can only be grasped from
maps or travel.
The Madre de Dios and affluents. — The Madre de
Dios is navigable in flood times throughout its tortuous
course for launches of 4 feet draught, for about 600
miles, against a strong current, and is dangerous in
times of low water from floating timber and shallows.
The Manu is navigable throughout the year for launches
of 3 to 4 feet draught as far as the Surtiteja, and for
3 - feet boats up to Shawinto, and the Tambopata for
similar boats in times of high water, as far as the
confluence of the Huancamayo. Not far from here
is Port Markham, near to which point I arrived in
my expedition, described elsewhere, to Sandia and
Carabaya. Portions of this great river system belong
to Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, respectively.
The Purus. — This beautiful river, as well as its
principal affluents, affords tranquil navigation to its
head - waters for all kinds of craft, from 4 to 8 feet
draught, during flood times, but is more difficult at
low-water seasons on account of shallows. The higher
portion, which belongs to Peru, contains about 950
miles out of its 1,700 miles of navigable water.
266 The Andes and the Amazon
The Yurua. — This magnificent, though tortuous river,
which in its upper part belongs to Peru, affords tranquil
navigation to launches throughout a considerable distance
during times of high water.
The Putumayo, Napo, Tigre, and Morona rivers,
which descend from the region north of the Marafion
and Amazon, are all navigable for considerable distances
— many hundreds of miles — for steam-launches drawing
from 3 to 6 feet of water.
Of course, in the present incomplete state of explora-
tion and knowledge of all this vast system of rivers
and streams, it is only possible to state length and con-
ditions approximately, as regards some of them. The
following list, which includes the foregoing, is the most
complete that has yet been made of these rivers, and
the particulars therein contained are of considerable
geographical importance. The list has been carefully com-
piled in Lima from the latest data obtainable, from the
Lima Geographical Society and other official bodies, by
Senor Alejandro Garland, the Peruvian geographer and
statistician, and sent me for publication.
As previously stated, navigation in certain places on
these rivers depends upon the rise and fall of the water,
due to season ; and a vast difference is brought about
by this, for in flood times the aggregate total length
of navigable course is as much as io,ooo miles for
steamers drawing from 20 to 2 feet of water ; whilst
in the dry season this falls to about 5,800 miles, for
similar craft. The total navigable length for smaller craft,
as canoes and rafts, may be taken at double the above
figures, or say 20,000 miles, in times of flood. Here
is, then, an enormous network of navigable arteries, which
penetrate into the most remote parts of the Peruvian
Montana. These figures are for Peruvian territory alone.
Those rivers, such as the Huallaga, Ucayali, Yavari, and
others, which fall into the Maranon and Amazon on its
southern side are subject to their lowest periods in
August and September; whilst, on the contrary, those
which enter from the north, as the Putumayo, Napo,
The Montana and the Amazon
267
Tigre, etc., are at their lowest periods in February and
March. This compensating condition of these great
affluents tends to preserve a certain equihbrium in the
main stream of the Amazon, The lowest period of the
Maranon is from October to December.
The following is the list of these rivers, with their
navigable lengths in the corresponding periods, and the
draught of steamers or launches which may ply thereon.
This is for Peruvian territory alone : ^
HIGH-WATER PERIOD
For steamers of 20 feet draught
River.
Navigable length
Amazon (Peruvian) . . Total .
422 miles
For steamers of ^ to % feet draught
Maranon, to Port Limon
. 484 miles
Yapura (Peruvian), to Cachuela Cupati
• 124 „
Putumayo (Peruvian), from Cotuhe to Igaraparana 285 „
Yavari, to Galvez ....
• 546 „
Napo, to Aguarico ....
• 558 „
Tigre, to the confluence of the Cunambo-Pintuyacu 415 „
Huallaga, to Yurimaguas .
• 143 »
Lower Ucayali ....
. 868 „
Pachitea .....
217 „
Yurua (Peruvian), from Ipixuma to Amona
273 »
Purus (Peruvian), from Labrea to Catay .
• 955 »
Acre, to Irari ....
• 223 „
Curaray, to Cononaco
285 „
Aguarico .....
• 68 „
Total
5,444 miles
For steamers of 7. to ^ feet draught
River.
Navigable length
Maranon, from Port Limon to the Pongo of
Manseriche ....
74 miles
Putumayo (Peruvian), above Igaraparana
391 »
Igaraparana .....
205 ,,
Mazan .....
25 »
Tamboryacu .....
12 „
Cunambo .....
37 »
Pintuyacu .....
37 »
Corrientes .....
99 »
Carry forward
880 miles
^ It is to be recollected that some of this territory is in dispute with
neighbouring Republics.
268
The Andes and the Amazon
For steafners of 2 to ^ feet draught
—Continued
River. Navigabl
e length
Brought forward . 880 miles
Pucacuro .....
37
H
Pastaza, to Huasaga
124
>»
Morona, to Manhuasisa
310
M
Manhuasisa ....
74
M
Cangayma ....
56
»»
Potro ....
12
n
Apaga ....
12
j>
Cahuapanas ....
19
»
Yavari, from Galvez to Paisandu .
242
»»
Galvez, affluent of the Yavari
31
n
Huallaga, from Yurimaguas to Achinamisj
1
87
j»
Aipena, to Naranja Tambo
. 56
»
Tapiche ....
155
»>
Blanco, affluent of Tapiche
68
>j
Tamaya, from Putaya
99
)>
Abujao ....
6
jj
Aguaitia ....
. 62
j>
Pichis, to Port Bermudez .
• 93
»
Palcazu, to the Pozuzo
. 87
»
Upper Ucayali
310
)»
Urubamba, to the Mishagua
. IDS
»
Tambo ....
105
>j
Perene, to the Pangoa
6
>j
Caspajalf ....
14
1)
Manu ....
93
vt
Madre de Dios, to the Manu
601
)»
Aquiri ....
300
■)•>
Acre, above Irari ....
124
»
Total
4,168 miles
LOW-WATER PERIOD
For steamers of 20 feet draught
Amazon (Peruvian) . . Total
422 miles
For steamers of 6^ to Z feet draught
Maranon, to Port Limon
Yavari, to the Yavari-Mirim
Lower Ucayali, to Contamana
Purus (Peruvian), from Labrea to Cachoreia
Yurua (Peruvian), to the Moa
484 miles
316 „
620 „
174 »
93 ,.
Total
1,687 miles
The Montana and the Amazon
269
For steamers of z to ^ feet draught
River.
Navigab!
e length
Maranon, from Port Limon to Pongo of
Manseriche ....
741
miles
Huallaga, to Achinamisa .
229
,)
Lower Ucayali, from Contamana to Pachitea
248
5>
Upper Ucayali, from Pachitea to Cumaria
186
?»
Pachitea .....
217
>»
Putumayo (Peruvian), to Igaraparana
285
5>
Tapiche ....
155
J>
Potro ....
12
5>
Cahuapanas ....
12
),
Yavari, from Yavari-Mirim to Galvez
229
u
Napo, to Aguarico .
496
ti
Curaray, to Cononaco
285
11
Morona to Rarayacu
. 211
»
Pastaza ....
31
»
Tigre, to the confluence of the Cunambo Pintuyacu 415
J,
Total
3,085
miles
Such are the names and, very briefly, the characteristics
of those main arteries of the Amazon system of rivers
which rise in or enter Peru. It is impossible even to
mention the names of the smaller affluents and feeders
which fall into them. What unknown regions of forests
and hills do they not penetrate.? What a charm there
would be in ascending and exploring them ! What a
vast extent of country they give communication to, from
the Equator down to the thirteenth parallel of south
latitude, and thence eastward via the Brazilian Amazon
for 1,000 leagues to the Atlantic — a system of natural
canals tapping an area — including the whole river-basin
of the Amazon throughout Peru, Brazil, Ecuador, and
Bolivia, of more than one-third the size of all Europe.
Here, truly, is a storehouse of Nature kept in reserve
for mankind's requirements of to-morrow.
Peru is fortunate in her possession of the Montana in
that it embraces the Cabecera de Montana, or the long
region of the foot-hills and slopes of the Andes, which is
not necessarily tropical in character, nor of too hot a
climate. The elevation of this region is from 10,000 or
11,000 feet to about 3,000 feet above sea-level, and
270 The Andes and the Amazon
includes great gold - bearing areas and india - rubber
producing forests. The climate in the upper zone is such
as is found in California or the south of England, except
that the rainfall is heavier.
Down in the " Montana real," or region of true forests
belonging to Peru, and other adjoining countries, the
conditions are different The dense forests are but little
broken by hills, and the only means of travel are by
navigation, and in places by means of the trochas or
cleared trails, made by the rubber-gatherers. As regards
navigation in canoes, a remarkable characteristic of some
of these rivers is that their head-waters approach each
other, being divided only by a flat isthmus of com-
paratively small extent, places which are known as
varaderos. Over these inter-fluvial places canoes and
their contents are hauled (making a portage, as the
land passage of non-navigable stretches is termed in
Canada), and so communication and traffic between one
river system and another is accomplished. One of the
principal of these varaderos is that of Fitzcarrald, between
the river Manu, which is an affluent of the great Madre de
Dios and Madera rivers, and the river Serjali, an affluent
of the Mishagua, which itself is part of the Urubamba,
flowing into the Ucayali river. Between these river
systems and the Amazon into which they fall is enclosed
a vast parallelogram of territory nearly i,ooo miles long
by 500 wide, half of which belongs to Peru ; the varadej-o,
only about 5 miles long, completing the enclosure. Other
varaderos are those joining affluents of the rivers Purus
and Yurua, and others, to affluents of the Ucayali river.
The importance of these to Peru is in the fact that the
last-named river is entirely Peruvian, whilst the Madre de
Dios, Purus, and Yurua are only so in part, their outlet in
the Amazon being in Brazil. These varaderos are most
interesting topographical matters. Canals cut through
them would, in some cases, complete the circuit of
thousands of miles of navigation for canoes, and canoe
traffic is the preferred means of transport of the rubber-
gatherer. Failing this, light tramways across them have
The Montana and the Amazon 271
been proposed by the Peruvian Government. A varadero
or isthmus is, of course, the divortia aquarum of the river
systems which it divides, and it embodies conditions which
naturally can only exist in regiofis of heavy rainfall. The
altitude of the Fitzcarrald isthmus is given as 1,547 f'^^t
above sea-level, notwithstanding its enormous distance
from the Atlantic into which these rivers flow, which it
divides. Valuable discoveries have been made, due to the
efforts of the Lima Geographical Society, regarding these
rivers and varaderos, recently, as to their true course in
Peruvian territory, and position.
These upper regions of the Montana are more interest-
ing and invigorating than the lower, for the forest fast-
nesses are sometimes depressing to those who live there.
The horizon is too limited, and the view unchanging.
The walls of unbroken forest rise on each side of the
river bank and small clearings, and there is little to
disturb the monotony of the scene. Nature is oppressive
here, but it is in the power of man to remedy the condi-
tions, to a certain extent. And the industrial use of the
region will be enormous in the future.
The Indian tribes which inhabit the Montafta are not
always savage or dangerous, and there is no doubt that
tales of their ferocity have been exaggerated. The india-
rubber-bearing regions are being prospected and opened
up a good deal in places, and more exact knowledge
gained of these tribes. An article from a correspondent
of the Comercio, a leading newspaper of Lima, written in
December 1905, from Port Maldonado, a place at the
confluence of the Tambopata river with the Madre de
Dios, says:
" Some comment must be made regarding the fantastic
ideas, not only of vulgar, but of educated persons, regard-
ing this region. On every hand they imagine they see
ferocious Chunchos — their quivers full of poisoned arrows ;
impassable rapids, and the diseases of suffocating and
unhealthy climates ; lack of personal security and of the
necessaries of life. To come to the Montafta is, for such,
the adventure of a madman or desperado. But nothing
can be falser than this pack of conjectures. In the region
272 The Andes and the Amazon
of the Madre de Dios travel is easy by navigation, assisted
by these same 'terrible Chunchos,' who are in reality
good and hospitable ; whilst the climate is healthy, and
entire security is enjoyed."
Nevertheless, in other parts of the region a study of
its past history shows that savage tribes have murdered
explorers and wiped out settlements whenever they were
able to do so. Conditions are, however, different to-day.
It had been my intention to make some expeditions into
these more remote regions, and by careful enquiry at all
available sources in Peru, I found that such could have
been accomplished in safety, employing care and circum-
spection, and by arming the bearers and personnel with
carbines. Gifts of trinkets should be carried for presents
or barter. A good idea of travel of this nature will be
gathered from the translation which I give of a portion of
a journey published in theyiowrwa/of the Lima Geographical
Society. This journey was made by some Peruvians in
1902, and the route followed was that which I have spoken
of previously, for a projected railway from the Pacific Coast
at Payta to the navigable head-waters of the Amazon or
Maranon at Port Limon. Speaking of the Province of
Jaen, upon the river Huancabamba and Upper Marafton,
the narrator, Sefior Muro, says :
" I have known this Province during the last twenty
years, and have visited it many times in the pursuit of
business in quinine, cocoa, tobacco and cattle, and I con-
sider it the richest part of Peru. It possesses five large
valleys ; the rolling hills are covered with rich pasture, and
at one time more than 80,000 head of cattle existed there.
At present all these fertile places are almost uninhabited,
and a profound silence reigns there, causing one to
meditate upon what a change might be brought about by
labour and intelligence. The value of land and property is
very low. I know some haciendas which can maintain
thousands of head of cattle, whose price is only five hundred
sols (;^So). I have seen extensive places of this nature
rented at ;^20 per annum. The lower valleys are generally
flat, and the temperature is hot. The coffee plant grows
to an extraordinary size ; the tobacco of Jaen has a deserved
fame throughout Peru, and yields two crops per annum,
The Montana and the Amazon 273
and as for cocoa, the soil is peculiarly adapted to its culti-
vation. A poor emigrant I knew, who devoted himself
to planting cocoa here possesses now a plantation of
15,000 plants, which yield him a good income. For days
together the traveller journeys over these fertile plains
without seeing any habitation except the occasional hut
of an Indian. These places are adaptable for immigra-
tion, but roads must be constructed first. Divers classes
of timber abound, as also tropical fruits, quinine, medicinal
herbs, vegetable wax and ivory. Some day the world will
be surprised with the mineral wealth of this region, also
such as magnetic iron in great deposits, copper pyrites,
silver, gold, coal, salt, lime, etc.
" From the history of these places it is known that the
Spaniards worked rich gold mines there, but unfortunately
civilisation suffered a blow by reason of the rebellion of
the Indians — the Jibaros and Bracamoros — when the white
population was nearly exterminated.
" Since then little has been done, for the Spaniards,
being exposed to the constant attacks of the warlike
Jibaros, left these rich mines in abandonment, from which
they must shortly awake. The inhabitants of one of these
valleys are principally Mestizos, and are distinguished for
their idleness and vices. Nature has given them such
extraordinary facilities of exuberant resources in their
fertile soil, that, without any effort, they are able to
live and indulge in licence and immorality, principally
drunkenness, dancing and adultery. They are generally
of weak frame, and many idiots and cotosos are found
there. The inhabitants of Jaen, on the contrary, are
distinguished for their hospitality and a certain sense of
honesty which they display."
They continued their journey, fording streams, passing
through cocoa and rice plantations, navigating rapids in
rafts and canoes upon the Utcubamba and Maranon. They
make especial mention of the abundance of india-rubber
trees, and describe some of the Indian inhabitants of the
region, as follows :
" As we descended the river we approached two large
Indian houses surrounded by savages, among them a
grotesquely dressed old man covered with cascabeles
(the tails of rattlesnakes), which had been given him by the
skiringueros, or rubber-gatherers. This was the famous
S
274 The Andes and the Amazon
Curaca Antonio, known for his ferocity and bloody instincts.
He received us courteously, and we entered one of the
dwellings. These are of oval form ; the walls of palm
stems and the roof of palm leaves, beautifully woven.
Inside was a stand of arms, including Winchester rifles,
guns, and lances ; also numerous earthen pots and plates.
Around the walls were arranged the beds, formed of the
elastic stems of cane. Tame monkeys, parrots, dogs, and
hens were there.
" A curaca is the owner of a dwelling, and these are
large, and contain as many as forty persons or more. These
tribes are called Aguarunas, Antipas and Huambisas, living
all along the Alto Maranon in the region between the rapids
and the affluents. Notwithstanding our repeated enquiries
we were not able to find that these Indians know the name
of their nationality. These have been given them by the
whites, or Christians. All these tribes, who live in continual
and sanguinary war among themselves, possess the same
language and customs. They are intelligent, and learn with
facility whatever they are shown. It is probable that they
are descendants of the great nations of the Jibaros or
Bracamoros.
" They have an apparatus for communicating at dis-
tances that might be described as a species of 'wireless
telegraphy.' In all the dwellings there are dry, hollow
trunks of trees, about 2 yards long and \ yard in diameter,
with five holes formed therein, diminishing in size.
By striking this curious instrument with a stick they are
able to communicate to long distances. I witnessed a
conversation sustained between two Indians whose dwell-
ings were situated at least 500 yards apart, with
the Maranon between. On another occasion, two hours
before our arrival at Huaracayo, we heard the well-known
blows which the tunduy, as the instrument is called,
produces. These were repeated from dwelling to dwelling,
and when we arrived there were more than two hundred
Indians awaiting us, who had been informed of our coming
by this means.
"These people greatly fear contagious diseases, and
maintain separate houses like isolation hospitals, to cure
those attacked. They are sanguinary and superstitious,
and also treacherous. The attacks upon their enemies are
well premeditated, and never from the front ; and they
murder all their captives, with the exception of the women,
who are kept as wives. In war time they elect as leader
the cruellest among them, but afterwards each curaca is
The Montana and the Amazon 275
quite independent, and owes no obedience to any one.
They believe in no divinity (on this point see subsequent
chapters, C.R.E.). The only thing they fear is a species of
evil spirit supposed to inhabit the whirlpools. They are
polygamists, and treat their women well. The aspect of
the men is generally good ; often they are of well-developed
chest and correct features. The women, much smaller in
stature, might pass as pretty. These people live by hunting
and fishing, and they till a small patch of land, which the
women sow and reap, with yuca, bananas, mani (pea-nuts),
camote, sugar-cane, etc. The men weave shawls of cotton,
which are used as waist-cloths. The women use a species
of chemise without sleeves, tied round the waist. Their
faces are painted and their teeth stained black."
Another of the party — Briining — says :
** Although these Indians are generally held as
treacherous, I have always heard it said by disinterested
people that the whites are the cause of this, which might
rather be called retaliation for evil acts committed by them.
I have personally seen the bad methods employed by the
caucheros — the rubber-gatherers — against the Indians,"
The writer in the Comercio, before mentioned, of Port
Maldonado on the River Madre de Dios, 800 or more miles
away from the above-described region of the Marafion, to
the south-east, says of the caucheros :
"It looks as though the New Commissioner were
resolved to put an end to the barbarous custom of sending
expeditions, organised by the authorities themselves, or
by the caucheros for the repugnant object of enslaving
the poor Chunchos (the Indians of that region). As
both workmen and women are scarce, and as there is a
great demand for both, armed expeditions are frequently
organised, and fall upon the tribes of Indians, good or
bad, making prisoners in the midst of bloodshed and ex-
termination. Impulsed by the profits of 'sale' of robust
youths and healthy women, they tear sons from mothers
and wives from husbands, without commiseration."
Continuing the account of the Marafion expedition
by Briining, a description of the raft they used in naviga-
tion is given. These primitive craft are largely employed
276 The Andes and the Amazon
in descending the rivers, both for passengers and cattle,
but they are not brought back again up-stream.
" The raft was composed of fourteen trunks of balsa
wood — that which is preferably used for the purpose,
as being very light. These were about lo inches in
diameter and 5 or 6 yards long, forming a raft about 3^
yards wide, by 5|- long, secured together with transverse
trunks, tied with bejucos^ or withes. Near the stern was
formed a platform of cane, the uprights being driven into
the trunks, with a handrail, for the passengers and baggage.
The propellers, one to each rower, are paddles of willow
wood 5^ feet long and 12 inches wide across the blade.
This raft is shown in the accompanying drawing." .
The canoe with which they continued their voyage
was io| metres long and 60 centimetres wide — or
about 34I feet by 2 feet — a "dug-out" of a single piece
of cedar, and which cost them £\^ including the rowers'
salary. This is shown in the sketch, as also the paddles.
They passed the Pongo de Manseriche, or rapids, at
the head of possible steam navigation, arriving at Port
Melendez, and breakfasted the next day on stewed
monkey.
I have translated and given the foregoing extracts as
being reliable, for, although those who undertook the
expedition were not necessarily scientific explorers, still
they were careful observers, and recorded their observa-
tions truthfully.
Anuesha Indian Woman of the Forests.
P. 277.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE MONTA^JA AND THE AMAZON— Continued
This intensely interesting region of the Peruvian Montana
is becoming more known, due largely to the explorations
made recently by Engineers and representatives of the
Government and of the Lima Geographical Society, whose
expenses and salaries are paid, so relieving them of the
strain which sometimes falls to the lot of other travellers.
For expenses are often heavy on expeditions in such
countries, and, personally, I have spent a good deal of
money in these matters, in different parts of Peru.
I have quoted already from the reports of some of
these employe-explorers, which reports have been pre-
sented me officially by the Departments of the Peruvian
Government, on whose behalf they were made. Among
some of the principal of these explorers are Colonel
Portillo, present Minister of Public Works, Senator Zegarra,
Sefior Rosell, and the Engineer, Von Hassel, all of whom I
have the pleasure of knowing. The last-named has made
some considerable study of the aborigines of the region
of the Amazonian forests of Peru, and this embodies the
most recent knowledge of the subject. I have quoted in
the last chapter from the reports of this Engineer, upon
the subject of india-rubber, and the following extracts
are from a report published in February, 1905, in the
official publications. A long list is given of the names
of the different tribes, which it would, however, be tedious
to reproduce here, although, of course, they are of value
ethnologically. In the region north of the Marafion
and Amazon are given the names of 46 tribes ; in the
central region, between latitudes 5° and 11" south, 27
277
278 The Andes and the Amazon
tribes; from latitude ii" south, downwards, 26 tribes;
and tribes of other regions, 15 names. The total
number of the Indians of these tribes is given as i22,ocx)
minimum and i52,ocx) maximum; it not being possible
to give a more approximate estimate in view of the
immense territory covered.
At the beginning of this chapter is the portrait of a
young Indian woman — does not woman of whatever race
or status deserve first place, courteous reader ? She is of
one of the tribes of the central region — the Amueshas —
which has its own language. These Indians use bows and
arrows, and are of a docile nature. Some others shown in
the plates are the Lorenzos of the same region ; the
Campas of the southern region, and the Chunchos and
so-called Cannibals.
" Among the Aguarunas of the Maranon the women
are quite good-looking, with regular features. Here they
build the war-towers for defence, and use the tondoy, or
signalling instrument before described. They believe in
witcheries and are polygamous, are of middle stature and
fight with poisoned arrows. These were the Indians who,
years ago, destroyed the town of Jaen, previously described.
Both men and women wear short, primitive garments.
They believe in a good and an evil spirit ; build houses,
and cultivate the ground. The Amahuachus of the
Ucayali river are of middle stature ; they use bows and
arrows, are hostile to the whites ; cultivate maize, bananas,
etc. ; rarely wear any dress, and in some cases use stone
hatchets still. The Conibos, on the Upper Ucayali, use
bows, arrows, and maces (head - breakers) ; lances for
spearing fish ; are good hunters and fishers ; cultivate
large plantations, and have their own language. They
retain legends, and hold the religious practice of dedicating
to the moon the virginity of the brides in marriage — an
Inca custom. It is to be supposed that this tribe, like the
Shipibos and Shetibos, is of Inca origin, emigrants from
the Inca Empire upon the invasion of the Spaniards.
They are possessed of a certain spirit of rectitude, and are
in continual contact with the whites.
" The Cocamas inhabit the region near the confluence
of the Ucayali with the Maranon. They are much mixed
with the Indians of the Andean uplands, and were in
relations with the Inca Empire. They have their own
The Montana: Cannibals of the Pachitea Kivek.
The Montana : Lorenzo Indians.
The Montana and the Amazon 279
language, and have adopted all the customs of the whites.
The Campas tribe is one of the most numerous of the
Amazonian basin, and due to their customs and assimila-
tions of civilised methods occupies a high place. They
are much subdivided, and occupy an enormous region,
including the left sides of the Urubamba and Ucayali
rivers, and the great pampas of Sacramento, and the
great pajonal or grass - covered plain. They use the
cushina, a species of shirt without sleeves woven from
wild cotton ; bows and arrows ; and cultivate extensive
plantations of maize, yucas, bananas, aji (or Chile pepper),
and potatoes. In general they are of some nobility of
features, and friendly to the whites, and are good rowers,
and easily learn the use of the rifle. They are poly-
gamous, and some of the sub-tribes are anthropophagus,
in the belief that they assume the physical strength
and intellectuality of those they eat. The Lorenzos belong
to this tribe.
" The Huachipairis are a hostile tribe upon the upper
Madre de Dios river. The men are of ferocious aspect,
exaggerated by the custom of perforating the upper lip,
and introducing therein sticks, feathers, and shells. They
cultivate plantations, and use bows and arrows ; generally
naked ; weave cloths and ropes of wild cotton, but are
lazy. They speak a special language, and have resisted
both the Spanish and the Peruvian advance. Many of
them understand the Quechua and Campa languages,
the latter being introduced by the women of that tribe,
which they constantly steal. They believe in witcheries,
but have no fixed religion. They paint their bodies red
and black, and are polygamous.
" The Inje inje, a small tribe of a few hundred members,
live in some of the ravines affluent to the Curaray river,
and are the least known of all. Their main peculiarity is in
their language, which consists of the two words inje-inje
alone, with which they explain everything by means of
different accents and gestures. They plant land ; the
mode of clearing this being by wounding the tree-trunks
with stone hatchets, which then dry up and die. They
are not hostile, but avoid contact with the whites.
"The Machigangas inhabit the region of the upper
Urubamba and the Pachitea rivers. They are low of
stature and with regular features ; not hostile ; planters ;
house-builders, and polygamous. The only marriage
ceremony is that where the bridegroom goes to the
bride's hut and hauls her forth by the hair of her head
280 The Andes and the Amazon
to take her forcibly to his own ! This tribe was in contact
with and dominated by the Incas, and preserve legends
in this respect, one of which is that upon the Spanish
advent thousands of Indians from Cuzco, under the
direction of an Inca prince, immigrated to the Montana.
There exist various stones with chisellings, which they
made in their march along the Urubamba river, and the
Inca fortress of Tonquini, or ' Trunk of the Inca,' as well
as various well-constructed roads in the region inhabited
by these savages, are witnesses that they were allied to the
Incas. They adored, in their manner, the sun and the
moon, and speak the Campa language.
" The Nahumedes are an almost extinct tribe, on the
river of the same name. They are those who attacked the
explorer Orellana, who believed that these savages, with
their chemises or shirts, and long hair, were women-
warriors, or ' Amazons,' and which name was given to the
great river. This must be the explanation of the supposed
existence of women - warriors in these regions, for no
legend or history among the Indians can be found relating
to any Empire of women,
" The Orejones Indians inhabit the region of the river
Napo and its affluents. Their peculiarity is that of making
their ears large ; and some of them have this organ as
long as the face and as wide as the hand. This has been
attributed by some to a supposed Inca custom, and they
hoped in this manner to be considered descendants of the
Imperial families. The Piros reside on the Urubamba
and upper Madre de Dios. They are few in number,
and small-pox has decimated them. According to their
traditions they had relations with the Incas. They believe
in one God, whom they adore and to whom they pray.
" In the Amazonian region of Peru there are tribes which
have their own language, without counting the dialects.
The most primitive is the Inje inje, before mentioned, for,
by means of these two words, varying the pronunciation
and accompanying gestures, they express everything. The
most complete languages are the Campas, Aguarunas,
Antipas, and Muratas. Regarding the matter of numbers,
some tribes can count to five, some to ten, whilst others
only express higher quantities by a movement of the
fingers. As to births among these people, they are realised
with rapidity; the elder women, assisted sometimes by
a man, perform the necessary operations, the patient, among
some tribes, being suspended by cords to a beam in such a
manner that the body is in a vertical position.
The Montana and the Amazon 281
" The Aguarunas, among other curious arts, possess that
of making reduced human heads. The heads are reduced
to about one-fifth of their volume, more or less, by the
following process. The head — cut from the body of some
enemy — is left for some few days upon a pole, and when
half decomposed a vertical cut is made in the cranium, all
the bones being taken out, leaving only the thick skin.
The interior is then carbonised with hot stones and the head
is placed on the smoke of a fire made of certain palm roots,
which smoke having some astringent quality like that of
alum shrinks the head to the desired size. There is a tribe
near Cusicuari, on the river Orinoco, which reduced entire
human bodies in this way. The tribes of the Putumayo
and Yapura rivers smoke-dry and preserve the hands of
their enemies, whilst the Cashibos keep their teeth.
"The tunday exists among the greater part of these
tribes. It is an instrument for communicating among
them, consisting of the trunk of a tree about \\ metres
long, of a species of balsa wood. By means of hot stones
three holes and a vertical groove are made therein ; the
apparatus is hung by means of a cord to a high tree and
tied below to a stick buried in the ground. The blows
given with a club send acoustic waves for 1 5 kilometres or
more, according to the force of the blow. The distances
apart of the holes in the trunk form a species of scale, of
varying notes."
I have spoken in a previous chapter of these signalling
or communicating instruments, and one traveller in those
regions likens them to a species of wireless telegraphy.
The real wireless telegraphy will now, however, supersede
this method of communication of primitive man in the
Montana of Peru, for the Government of that country
has installed the apparatus for this purpose. Overcoming
many difficulties the apparatus has been transported from
Iquitos to Masisea, at the confluence of the Pichis with the
Upper Ucayali river, and has been erected at that point.
From this place communication is now established with
Port Bermudez, the head-waters of navigation on the way
to Lima. This is an enterprising piece of work on the part
of the Government of Peru. Continuing the foregoing
translation :
282 The Andes and the Amazon
" Many of the tribes to the north of the Maranon pre-
pare poisons, which form an article of commerce between
those who use the blow-pipe and the lance. The principal
poison is prepared from a plant, and has the quality of
being fatal to animals in hunting, without being prejudicial
to man in eating the flesh. It is put up in little earthen
jars, and also in hollow canes, by varying tribes. The
poison used by the tribes of the Putumayo and Yapura
rivers, on their lances in war, is made from bodies in a state
of putrefaction.
" All these tribes have in their possession prisoners of
war which they use as slaves, which are, however, treated
with humanity. The adoption of dress among these tribes
is from three causes : morality ; reasons of climate — cold
near the Cordillera ; and as a protection against mosquitoes.
The cuskfna, largely used, is a species of shirt without
sleeves, and is woven of wild cotton and sometimes painted
or stained in lines or figures. Both men and women are
addicted to adornments, such as painting, feathers, and
skins of animals. They make fermented drinks of yuca
and maize, and consume considerable quantities on the eve
of wars, weddings, or other events. They also make an
agreeable drink with bananas.
" Certain stationary tribes of the Madera river received
some culture from the people who inhabited the island
of Tumpinambaranas — the effect of the Spanish and
Portuguese influence is new and easily recognised. The
Amazonian tribes present all stages of culture, from the
Inje inje, of the stone age in their language and imple-
ments, down to that assimilated by the tribes near to
the presence of the white man. Some of the principal
ceremonies of the Indians are those connected with
matrimony. Among the Campas the members of the
tribe, men and women, form a circle, in the centre of
which the two lovers deliver themselves over to those
nuptial embraces which the white races perform in
private. They consume fermented drinks, forcing the
girl to partake thereof; and among some of them the
Inca ceremony of dedicating her to the moon is
observed.
"The chief motive of hostility between the tribes is
the robbery of women ; and the same holds good with
regard to the white rubber - gatherers, or caucheros.
Among certain tribes the influence of contact with the
Inca Empire is plainly to be seen ; the Mojos of the
river Madera were those who were most influenced by
The Montana and the Amazon 288
the expedition of the Inca Yupanqui. Some of these
tribes are rapidly disappearing, due to contagious diseases
— especially small-pox ; wars with other tribes and with the
white man ; alcohol ; fevers due to working as rubber-
gatherers in malarious regions ; slavery, brought about
by the rubber - gatherers ; great mortality among the
children, and the consequences of polygamy, etc.
"As to their religion, their beliefs are a mixture of
witchcraft and superstition. But, with the exception of
the Campas, who worship the sun and moon, as shown
them by the Incas, they believe in a good spirit and a
bad spirit. Among some of them also exists the belief
in transmigration of souls through animals ; and some
also believe in a future life, following the present. As
to the beginning of the world, a legend among them says
that man lived at first in a great subterranean cave, whose
entrance was guarded by a tiger. One day a valiant and
rational man, resolving to give liberty to his kind, fought
and killed the tiger, and the inhabitants of the cave
went forth. As they were all very dirty, they heated
some water in a large vessel in order to wash themselves.
The first lot which performed this operation became
white ; the second — the water being now dirty — were
the Indians, and the third — in still dirtier water — the
negroes. The Great Spirit (God) had amused Himself
in making a great earthen pot which He placed on high,
forming the heavens,"
Such are briefly some of the principal tribes of the
Montana — the infidels, as they are termed. It is seen
that their customs are primitive. Some of them wear
a little clothing; some go naked and unshamed. They
are fighters, fishers, and hunters. They weave and plant,
and, in short, exercise the few arts and crafts of primitive
and undeveloped man. There they live in the shadow
of their everlasting forests, upon their endless rivers and
happy hunting-grounds. There they abide, imperfect
creatures ; offshoots in the plan of Nature's handiwork ;
experiments, perchance, of her evolutive forces. But are
they the primitive elements of man, or are they the
remnants of a past civilisation.? What is their object,
their end? To be exterminated by the rapacity of the
whites — to be assimilated into the bosom of a new
284
The Andes and the Amazon
race ? To give place to the inexorable march of stronger
nations — those whom Fortune has bid cultivate their
mental as well as their physical faculties. None of them
appear to have formed any state of common government ;
they are all composed simply of groups of families. Small
sub -tribes are headed by a curaca, but these have no
cohesion among themselves, and one may be at war
without the others taking part. This division is — as
ever — fatal to their existence as a nation, and permits
the cauchero to more or less work his will ; and this want
of cohesion — as in the history of other races — will doubt-
less be the element conducive to their disappearance.
There is, then, this enormous territory, destined — and
soon — to be overrun by the white man, and taken away
from its present inhabitants. There are these rich and
limitless areas lying fallow for the uses of civilised man-
kind ; the most civilised nations of which, it must be
confessed, have not yet, themselves, found the secret of
fair possession of their own present lands, nor equitable
apportioning thereof for the people which live and move
and have their being thereon !
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE MONTANA AND THE AMAZON. INDIA-RUBBER
What, now, is the stimulus which is disseminating
knowledge of these hitherto little-known regions ? It is
a commercial one. Commerce, the love of gain, has
always been the great explorer, reducing all theory and
illusion to fact and experience. Commerce, the great
buccaneer, has always opened up desert places, and now,
not in search of gold, silks, or spices, but of what ? — india-
rubber. This is the golden fleece of the modern Argonauts
upon these savage rivers ; this is the prize for which men
sell their souls and destroy the souls and bodies of their
fellow-creatures as they did in days gone by for gold ;
for, written largely on the history — and it is only a
history of to-day — of this modest and useful product, is
the Iniquity of business. Cruelty, cheating, oppression,
slavery, and even murder have characterised it, from the
Congo to the Amazon. Evil is being done in order, we
trust, that good may come of it — ever the Jesuitical
characteristic with which Nature seems to work through
man and commerce. But I digress. I have wandered
into the by - paths of abstract fields. Yet let us see what
other observers say : I translate from an official report
made for the Peruvian Department of Loreto.
"The strong endeavours to put into contact these
distant regions with the civilised world, and especially the
industry of obtaining the * black gold,' as the india-rubber
is called, have produced intense upturnings in the savage
tribes, some of which have accepted the civilisation offered
by the caucheros, or rubber-gatherers, others having been
annihilated by them. On the other hand, alcohol, bullets,
and small-pox have worked such devastation among them
285
286 The Andes and the Amazon
that their complete disappearance is a matter of a few
years. Protest must be made against the abuses and
unnecessary destruction of these primitive beings, whom
the avarice of so-called civilised man has placed among
the 'products' of the Amazonian market, for it is well
known that these Indians are quoted there like any
other merchandise. Steps ought to be taken by the
Governments of Peru, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia,
and the other countries bordering on the rivers to protect
these unfortunate beings, who, without any guarantee
from the law, are exposed to the attacks of the whites,
who hunt them like wild beasts, recognising as their only
value that represented by their sale."
There is no doubt that outrages are committed in
these regions, in the extraction of india-rubber, even
taking into account the exaggerated descriptions which
some travellers always give of what they see, and especi-
ally of what they hear in such places as regards the
barbarities committed upon the Indians. I have quoted
in the previous chapter an extract from a Lima newspaper
— the Comercio — where it is stated that the Indians
are captured and sold in much the same way as in the
old slave days. It seems probable that these races will
become much depleted if existing methods are continued,
and the only compensating circumstance from the point
of view of labour is that a new and mixed race may arise,
formed by the admixture of the caucheros and foreigners
with the Indian women. In the meantime humanitarian
sentiment cannot but feel regret at such conditions,
and anger that they should exist, especially within the
territories which style themselves " republics." Of course,
some allowances must be made for these governments.
The rubber regions are far off from centres of authority,
and often difficult of access ; whilst to efficiently police
these vast systems of rivers and forests would heavily
tax the resources of the smaller countries who own
them.
The Lima Geographical Journal of December, 1904,
publishes an article upon the india-rubber resources of
the Amazonian Montana of Peru. It says :
Montana and the Amazon. India-rubber 287
"The two principal rubber -yielding trees of this
region are the Hevea Guyanensis, which has a trunk
50 to 70 feet high, and about 2 to 2|- feet in diameter,
forming an almost cylindrical column crowned with its
branches. The sap is smooth, and of a grey colour.
Then follow the Castilloas, with a trunk about 50 feet
high and 2 to 3 feet in diameter. The Hevea Andenense,
of the first division, is so called because it is found up
the slopes of the Andes to an elevation of 2,000 feet
above sea-level.
"All the eastern part of Peru, from the foot of the
Cordillera and following the Amazon and its affluents,
is the country of the rubber trees. Notwithstanding
the apparent uniformity of the forest it is really divided
into sections by subtle lines — a division in which are com-
prehended the rubber trees, for in the great Amazonian
basin the polar lines which divide the vegetable world
cross. Two groups of trees, apparently of the same
class and family, so separated, differ much in their
respective products, both in quality and quantity. The
want of knowledge of these matters has caused great loss
to capital invested in the industry of rubber extraction,
for a rubber tree of the same family and species varies
much in its product — doubling this at times according
to the zone, whether interior or exterior of the polar
line, in which it is situated. Many enterprises have
failed from this reason : that the production did not
equal the expense, and not necessarily from bad manage-
ment. This fact induced me to make close study,
during ten years of this interesting matter, and adduced
this theory of the polar lines."
I give the above extract and theory for what they are
worth, and there is no doubt that their author gave much
time and observation to the subject. Continuing, this
writer says :
" Three species of trees produce the whole of the
india-rubber exported from Peru. These are the Caucho,
the Orco-shiringa, and the shiringa or jebe fino. Generally
the term ' Caucho ' is used for all classes of rubber, but the
technical definition gives this, as referring only to the
commoner kind, and which is obtained by felling the
tree and running the sap completely out. This is the
principal source of Peruvian rubber at present. The
second — the Orco-shiringa, is superior, and belongs to the
288 The Andes and the Amazon
Heveas. At first sight it does not differ from the best
shiringa, and the sap is obtained like the latter by the
method of tapping into tin cups or tejilinas. The true
difference between the two last is in the superior quality,
elasticity, and colour of the true shiringa. The polar line
of the inferior kind is much more advanced westward than
that of the best. The best shiringa, of course, produces
the rubber which fetches the highest price." (The " weak-
fine " of commerce.)
" The india-rubber trees are not uniform in their occur-
rences in the forests. In some places amid the chaos
of hundreds of different kinds of trees they are more
pronounced than in others ; and the cauchero and
shiringuero seek these favoured spots, their ability or
good fortune in finding them, determining their success,
or otherwise. In an area of lOO yards square there
may be a single rubber tree, or there may be twenty,
thirty, or more.
" The method of the cauchero is as follows : — The
cauchero^ after having ascended the stream in his canoe,
to some virgin region, establishes his habitation on the
bank, and then undertakes successive excursions into the
forest, making provisional camps which serve as centres,
marking in his passage, with his machete, the trees he
encounters, and which signs of possession are religiously
respected by other caucheros. A sufficient exploration
having been made, and trees marked, he proceeds to
the extraction of the sap. If his object is to extract
sernambi of Caucho, he allows the milk to coagulate by
running into small grooves in the earth, where it solidifies
in long strips, which, when rolled up into balls, are known
in the market by that name. If it is desired to obtain
rubber in sheets, the sap is mixed with soap or a certain
kind of earth, and poured into a square mould, where
it solidifies.
"This form of exploitation conduces directly to the
destruction of the trees. Immense regions have already
been devastated, and the day is not far off when this
source of rubber will have disappeared completely. In
the extensive regions of the Madre de Dios river this is
a question of fifteen or twenty years.
" The shiringa trees are worked in a somewhat different
manner, by opening a path in the forest between them,
and portioning out the land to the workers in areas called
estradas — this representing the extension which can be
attended to by one man. This area may contain from 120
Montana and the Amazon. India-rubber 289
to 200 trees. The shiringuero makes incisions in the
trunks of an inch or more in length, from four to ten
in number, according to the size of the tree, and the small
tin cups are hung below. Later in the day — he has begun
at daybreak — he collects the contents of these utensils
in a bucket, and the milk is then coagulated in the
smoke of a fire, where it is converted into balls. An
average calculation for a shiringa tree is about 1 1 lbs.
in six months, and that of the Orco-shiringa 6\ lbs.
of pure rubber. The Caucho gives, according to its
size, as much as 100 lbs., but once only. The amount
which the cauchero obtains in a year varies greatly. At
times he may not cover his expenses ; at others he may
make some profit. In fairly favourable conditions he may
extract 5 to 10 tons ; whilst the shiringuero, attending
to two estradas of lOO to 120 trees, may obtain about
a ton of rubber. During half of the year the latter is
obliged to devote himself to other work, as the shiringa-
bearing ground is then generally flooded.
"It is hardly necessary to enter into details as to the
advantages which would accrue from planting rubber.
From 1,000 to 1,500 trees might occupy the present space
of 15 or 40, whilst the same labour would attend them.
Some planting has been done on the Acre, Purus, Yurua,
and Madera rivers, but only a little, notwithstanding its
vast importance for the future of the region. Much care
must be exercised in the selection of the ground, and
in normal conditions, the tree requires from eight to ten
years before it should be tapped. This industry offers
favourable conditions for the collocation of capital."
The life of the rubber-gatherer is not an easy one.
Accustomed from his youth up to a solitary existence in
these immense forests he relies only upon himself, and
is ever ready to suffer the hardships with which Nature
punishes those who strive to penetrate too deeply into
her workshop. He is a good hunter, and this helps him
in his larder, as well as in protection from the dangers
which assail him from wild beasts. His headquarters are
in Iquitos, and there he returns with his spoils, rests and
amuses himself, makes his purchases of provisions, and so
forth. Again he sallies forth towards the most remote
regions. A steam-launch carries him from Iquitos to
where steam navigation terminates, and with his wife,
T
290 The Andes and the Amazon
children, and belongings, including his rifle, gun, sewing-
machine, and accordion, he enters his canoe. A man in
the prow with a long pole propels the craft up stream,
whilst a man or woman in the stern guides it with a
paddle ; and so he penetrates — content and cheerful, for
he is a born nomad — the most remote region of the vast
Amazonian interior.
Considerable mortality takes place among the shir-
ingueros, especially due to tercianas, or intermittent fever,
zxidpaludismo, or malaria. This is due to their work being,
perforce, carried on in swampy and inundated places —
the habitat of the shiringa, rather than the Caucho tree.
Yellow fever and beri-beri are also suffered from at times,
and all those that remain in these regions of the Montana
acquire a yellow tinge of complexion. But these evils are
largely due to exposure and lack of good food, and are
soon overcome upon a change of climate.
The climate of the Amazonian region is a much
disputed theme. Like all matters of this nature its
characteristics are much exaggerated, some accounts
condemning it utterly, whilst others speak of "eternal
spring." The real facts are that the effects of the climate
there, as in many other places, depend largely upon the
regimen of living observed by the traveller or dweller
there. Small-pox, fevers, and kindred diseases are found
in the highest and coldest tablelands of the Andes, as well
as in the hot valleys, plains, and forests, showing that
diseases are not necessarily due to the place or climate,
but are largely brought about by the methods of the
dwellers there. Of course, the tropical forests are
unhealthy in places, and will remain so until man under-
takes to drain and ventilate them. The most trouble-
some affairs are the intermittent fevers and malaria, but
they are encountered generally in determined places, and
there are vast regions which are free from them. It is
easy to exaggerate, but it must be remembered that the
basin of the Amazon is the most extensive in the world,
and that conditions vary much in its varying regions. In
the Journal of the Lima Geographical Society for 1904
Montana and the Amazon. India-rubber 291
appears an article protesting against a communication
made by the American Minister in Brazil to the
Washington Government, to the effect that every ton of
india-rubber exported from the Amazonian forests costs
two lives ! This was in reference to the climate, rather
than to other matters, and probably referred to the Acre
region. The article says :
"If in reality the climate of the Amazonian valley
were so fatal as to cause the ratio of two deaths per
ton of india-rubber produced, it would result that no
inhabitants could exist in the region, and it would be
very difficult for foreigners to escape with their lives —
foreigners sometimes, who, temperate enough in such
places as Washington or elsewhere, in these regions indulge
their appetites without stint. Statistics will show that the
calculations of the American Minister are the fruit of
fantasy, and more humorous than exact. From the year
1894 to 1 90 1 there were exported nearly 218,000 tons of
india-rubber from the Amazonian region, which would be
equivalent to something less than half a million deaths,
according to the above fantastic calculation, and the
industry of rubber production would become, in such
case, the juggernaut of South America, or the Moloch
of the Amazon !
"The region is, among those found in the tropics,
one of the best on the earth, its climate being infinitely
superior to places in the same latitude, as Sumatra, the
Congo, Zanzibar, etc. ; and, far from being a region of
death, is favourable to the development of European
races. This opinion is corroborated by such travellers
as Darwin, Agazzis, Humboldt, and many others, and
proved by all the meteorological and demographical
statistics and data scientifically obtained at Iquitos,
Manaos, Para, etc., which are all important centres of
population. It is true that the valleys of the Yavari,
Yutahy, Madera and Acre rivers, upon their being
explored, might have been termed 'death valleys,' by
reason of the paludic fevers there, during the four
months of May to August: conditions which have
now greatly changed. Others, as the Ucayali, Maranon,
Huallaga, Morona, Pastaza, Tigre, Napo, Putumayo,
Jurua, Purus, and Madre de Dios are free from these
matters,"
The conditions obtaining in the part of the Amazonian
292 The Andes and the Amazon
basin belonging to Peru are, as has been stated, favour-
able to the industry of rubber-gathering, and something
is already being done in the way of establishing work on
a large scale by foreign companies. The rubber exports
from Iquitos in 1904 were 2,221 tons against 1702 tons
in 1902: this without counting the amounts which were
smuggled out of the country, and which possibly represent
an equal quantity. From ports on the Pacific side of
Peru, as Payta, Callao, and Mollendo, other smaller but
growing shipments were made, it being found in some
cases more advantageous to carry the rubber westward
over the Andes to the Pacific Coast than to take it east-
wards to the Atlantic through Brazil.^
There are several routes by which the Peruvian
rubber forests may be reached from the Pacific Coast.
The most northerly of these is from Paita to the
Maranon ; followed by that from Eten to the Maranon,
Pacasmayo to the Huallaga ; Callao to the Mayro, the
Pichis or the Perene ; Pisco to the Apurimac, and
Mollendo to the Inambari. In all these roads the
Andes have to be surmounted, and in the Callao and
Mollendo routes this is performed by rail. I have
spoken of these railways elsewhere.
The upper edge of the Montana, of which I have
spoken, presents no terrors of climate, fevers, reptiles
wild beasts, or savages, and is a region of immense
interest. It is hard to conceive a more alluring project
than that of the establishing of businesses to work the
resources of gold, india-rubber, timber, etc., in these
vast regions ; and there can be no doubt that the
adventurous spirits of Europe, and the surplus capital
which is ever seeking investment, must sooner or later
grasp the possibilities of the Montana of Peru.
As regards the rubber lands, the Peruvian Govern-
ment is anxious to attract settlers, and to open up the
^ The value of rubber exports from all Peruvian ports has been as
follows : —
1903. 1904 igoS- 1906. 1907 (Estimated).
;^44i.595 ;^67o,i37 ;^9I3.990 ;(^i,ooo,ooo ^f 1,200,000
Montana and the Amazon. India-rubber 298
country ; and with this end offers the land under easy
terms and concessions. The object of this is twofold :
first, to increase the wealth and population of the country
by making use of these regions ; and, secondly, to assure
possession, for there is no stronger proof and safeguard
of ownership of much of the debatable territory of
South America than the existence of colonies formed
of subjects of a foreign nation.
The terms upon which these lands can be acquired
are the following: — (i) Leases of ten years' duration,
and (2) renting of rubber lands. The first prohibits the
cutting down of the trees, and exacts a royalty of
4 per cent, ad valorem of rubber extracted, which is
to be paid at the Custom House. There is no fixed
rent, therefore, to be paid on the land. Under the
second form the estradas, or rubber areas (containing
about 150 trees each), are leased at the rate of about
fivepence each per annum, and an equal sum for each
hectare — or 2\ acres — in addition. Thus, if a survey
of ten estradas shows that they occupy 20 hectares^ the
annual rent would be twelve shillings. These terms, it
will be seen, are by no means onerous. Large areas of
land have already been acquired, and in the register
of concessions of rubber lands figure some hundreds of
individuals and companies whose possessions aggregate
several million acres. There is no doubt that some
of these will begin planting, in view of the possible
exhaustion of the natural trees and the success which
the cultivation of india-rubber is giving in other parts
of the world. The future will doubtless see many
thriving plantations of shiringa where now only the
primitive cauchero plies his precarious occupation, amid
the tangled forests of these untrodden solitudes.
CHAPTER XXIX
THE PERUVIANS
It is time, having followed out our observations of the
physical conditions of Peru, to more fully describe the
human element of the country.
In criticising the character of a people, or in endeavour-
ing to sum up their virtues and their defects, the impartial
critic should have before him the defects, past and present,
of his own country. He will examine under the light
of relativeness, and contrast such conditions with those
which pertain to equivalent epochs in the life of other and
more advanced communities. He will remember that to
endeavour to define or specify national characteristics is to
enter upon one of the most delicate and elusive matters
which presents itself to the observer.
The Spanish-American nations generally have what
might be termed the defects of small communities. They
have also developed the misconception of youthfulness,
which, freed from restraint, has, under the name of liberty,
sometimes entered upon licence. On the other hand, they
possess some qualities which will stand them in good stead
in the future ; and they are free of some defects which are
noticeable in the Anglo-Saxon.
One of the most serious charges which has been brought
against the Spanish-Americans generally, is that their sense
of commercial honour is weak. However impartial the
foreign observer may desire to be, he is obliged to admit
that this charge has some foundation in fact. Whether, if
it were possible to calculate a percentage of persons in
those communities who escape from compliance with their
business obligations, it would be found that it were higher
294
The Peruvians 295
than that, for example, of England, is doubtful. But
probably it would be higher. This failing is one of the
defects which are partly engendered by small communities.
It does not so much exist in larger business centres where
there is the constant friction of frequent, numerous, and
larger operations. Of course, the Spanish-American might
retort that the " Yankee," in years within our memory, was
the most tricky trader that the world has known, and that he
has not altogether lost that reputation. Let us not forget,
also, that in London itself some of the most famous
business scoundrels have flourished, and that even now it is
full of operators of various kinds, whose predatory methods
are simply those of the buccaneers of old, in modern form.
Nevertheless, it is impossible to deny that the standard
of business integrity is stronger with the Anglo-Saxon than
with the Spanish - American. The fame of British fair
dealing is world-wide ; it is bright in the past and the
present, and God grant it may ever remain so in the future.
The North American has partly inherited this British
spirit, but, so far, it is much less developed.
Of course, in Peru, as elsewhere in South America, there
is a class whose principles are as just as those of other
communities. There are as honourable and cultured men
of business, who are superior to these failings, and who are
the first to regret the existence of such in their midst.
Especially is this the case among the older families of the
community.
The Peruvian of the mestizo class, the mixture of
Spanish and Indian, is of a complex character. I have
enjoyed, in the interior of the country, much hospitality in
my travels from this class, which, to a large extent, forms
the society of the smaller towns. There is intelligence and
aptitude for acquiring knowledge with them ; and avidity
for contact with the outside world and for information of
its events. This is sometimes coupled with the most
primitive mode of living, and lack of ideas of comfort,
or refinement in their surroundings. I have held discussions
with such people, for instance, upon the works of Darwin
or other authors with which they were familiar ; but in spite
296 The Andes and the Amazon
of this knowledge they had, I am convinced, not washed
their faces for a week ! I have had the history of England,
or incidents in the Boer War, carefully expounded to me
by men whose collars and other linen had remained un-
changed for a long time ; and I have often admired the
facility of expression on current matters of individuals who
had not shaved themselves for weeks : whose houses were
unswept and dilapidated, with domestic arrangements such
as would be impossible to the poorest persons in England.
These people read their newspapers diligently, and it is
largely from this source that they acquire information, for
books are scarce. The leading newspapers of Peru are good
in tone generally — of a certain order of literary merit, and
they are the greatest educators that the country possesses
at present.
The complex nature of the people of this class goes
further. Sometimes, while showing me every courtesy, and
enlarging upon the importance of the fact that a traveller
should be engaged in scientific examination of the country
and its resources, they have cheated me over the price of hire
or purchase of a horse, and, on some occasions, borrowed
money from me which it is doubtful if they ever intended to
refund. It is at such times that one turns from the easy
veneer of their politeness, and wishes it might be replaced
by more solid characteristics. Of course, it may be urged,
that promiscuous borrowing and chicanery over horse-
dealing and other matters are by no means unknown in
London, or elsewhere, and I can only soften the above
criticisms by admitting the fact.
It must be recollected that these small interior towns
are very much cut off from communication with the outside
world ; the people are poor, and the temptation to make a
little profit out of the occasional traveller is strong. If the
traveller is philosophical he will place the advantages he
receives from these people — who are really under no obliga-
tion to serve him — against the small matters which arouse
his spleen, when he will find that the balance is on his
side. There are rarely public conveniences in these places,
such as hotels, or means of conveyance, and the traveller
The Peruvians 297
must recollect that he is making use of private resources,
without which he would be unable to travel, unless he had
carried everything in the nature of tents, beasts, and
equipment with him.
But, apart from all the allowances which he may make
for these failings, on the part of the inhabitants, it is
strongly borne upon him to ask himself: " Why is it that
the dwellers of this land are so different to the peasantry of
Britain or Europe ? " Why is it that those characteristics
of simple honesty and other pastoral virtues of the country-
side of his own land are so often lacking with these people ?
For these, whether they are of the lower class mestizo^ or
whether they are purely Indians — and the latter form the
bulk of the population — have nothing of rural simplicity in
their constitution. On the contrary, they are exceedingly
vivo — a term which may be translated as sharp, and which
often has a less mild signification. As bargainers they are
extremely shrewd, and, as regards the Indians, the dominant
note of all their dealings is disconfidence — desconfianza.
These unlovable characteristics are due to several
causes. As far as the Indian population is concerned,
they have grounds for their disconfidence. These Indians
have been cheated, oppressed, and deceived, ever since the
first Spaniard set foot in the country ; and in many cases
the Peruvians of the present day have followed very similar
methods with them. They have been made to work, in
earlier days as slaves, when they were held cheaper than
cattle, and later for pay, out of which they are often cheated.
During the frequent revolutions, which in the past century
have succeeded each other in the country, they have been
abused, and their goods taken by the military. Nothing
inspires such fear and disconfidence among them as the
appearance of soldiers. I have sometimes approached
one of these small Indian villages with my men and
pack-mules, when by some reason the inhabitants have
mistakenly supposed that we were militaires. The women
have scudded like rabbits to their burrows, to regain their
dwellings, and the male inhabitants have received me in
sullen silence. This, however, has vanished on finding
298 The Andes and the Amazon
that it was not an officer, but an ingeniero that had arrived ;
and it is very noticeable that a foreigner is treated with
more cordiality than would be accorded to one of their own
countrymen.
The Peruvian of the upper class is well educated and
companionable. Probably he looks on life from a less
serious point of view than the Anglo-Saxon ; he certainly
appears to extract more enjoyment from it. His manners
are often superior to many of the foreigners who visit
Peru, and he, as an American, stands in sharp contrast
with the American of the Northern Continent. The latter
undoubtedly represents energy and enterprise, but the
qualities seem often to require, or acquire, a most un-
sympathetic exterior; and the Americans who are now
entering Peru — and there is a growing influx — do not
generally reflect North American culture. However, this
condition may not be too much criticised ; the two
classes can hardly be compared, for the Peruvian repre-
sents the best of his country, whilst the American in Peru
is only the forerunner of a business element.
The Peruvians are an exceedingly polite people —
too polite in some cases, according to British ideas. In
walking along the streets of Lima, or on any fashionable
promenade, the hat rests hardly a moment upon the head,
as every male acquaintance is saluted by raising it. This
constant hat-raising between men always strikes even
the most cosmopolitan Englishman as troublesome and
effusive, and he objects, as a general rule, to acquire the
custom. Politeness is also greatly governed by class
distinctions, and this is to be observed especially in
walking. The Peruvian does not " keep to the right "
upon the footpath, as generally observed in England,
but it is considered that the more honourable place is the
inside, nearest the wall. Observe a Peruvian gentleman
passing along. He meets an acquaintance who is — in his
opinion — his equal or superior in social or official position.
Behold the polite raising of the hat, and the insistence
that the other pass him on the inside. Sometimes they
will positively dispute as to which shall take the inside.
The Peruvians 299
A little further on he meets some one whom he may or
may not know, but whose dress proclaims them, woman or
man, to be of a lower social status than himself. He
immediately passes him upon the inside. His course,
therefore, along the pavement is a sinuous one, winding in
and out, according to the individuals he meets, and might
almost be described as a curve representing grades of
social standing. This same custom also prevails amongst
ladies, and it is quite painful sometimes to observe two
women passing each other, when both may consider them-
selves entitled to the inside. They glare at, and sometimes
even stop and confront each other for a moment. Having
made this criticism, however, it must be recollected that
such methods are not peculiar to Peru or Spanish
America; they are found in Germany and France ofteni
and even Englishmen are exceedingly touchy upon these
matters on some occasions.
On the other hand, also, Peruvian politeness often
comes from kindness of heart; and they are a charitable
people towards their poor as regards almsgiving, whilst
their bearing towards foreigners is kind and hospitable.
As regards international matters, the Peruvian has not
yet a just sense of proportion. It is hardly to be expected
that he could have this — few Spanish-American countries
have it. The strong sentiment for and adoption of French
ideas and methods, which formerly obtained in Mexico and
similar countries, has been equally marked in Lima, and
has stamped itself strongly upon the community. But
this is rather giving way before what might be termed
the Anglo-Saxon advance.
For a space the model appeared to be the United
States. Every one pointed to the " Yankee," as the
North American is generally termed (not in an offensive
way) ; and American methods and civilisation were often
spoken of as " the first in the world " — the untravelled
American's estimate of his country. It was also hoped
that the United States would intervene in the question of
Tacna and Arica, between Peru and Chile, in favour of
the former. But a natural reaction seems to be taking
800 The Andes and the Amazon
place ; and Peru, in common with other South American
countries, sees that her big neighbour of the Northern
Continent offers nothing superior to the more cultured
nations of Europe, and that her true interests lie in the
cultivation of a world policy, and not a " hemispherical "
one. The Spanish - American youth educated in the
United States is not a happy product. London is the
real home for the cosmopolitan refinement suited to their
character. Also, American capitalists have adopted ex-
ceedingly high-handed methods in control of interests in
Peru, which have opened the eyes of Peruvians to the
necessity for an equal balance of things. Nevertheless,
North American enterprise will be a useful element for
the Peruvians, and they will rightly try to adopt the
methods of earnest work and scientific progress of the
North Americans. But they must refrain from grafting
the evils of that country on to their own stock. The
Spanish-American has inherited a natural refinement of
manner and certain ideals ; it would be a serious error if,
deeming these antiquated, he should strive to adopt the
less pleasing social traits of the American of the United
States ; or the growing evils of that country's social
organisation. The Peruvian loves to be considered a
gentleman — Don Quixote flourishes in Peru — and he will
far more carry out his word as such, than his obligation
as a business man. Appeal to him through this higher
sphere, and all may be well ; treat with him only through
the other, and you will be mistaken if you expect the
same methods as an Englishman would use. Firmness
must be an adjunct of politeness in Spanish America, for
it is to be recollected that the Spanish-American sometimes
shows that " oriental " trait, product of an inferior civil-
isation (whether in nations or individuals), of mistaking
patience and courtesy for pusillanimity, and he has, also,
something of the Oriental's admiration for successful guile,
rather than an abstract love of truth.
But the Peruvian gentleman is certainly hospitable ;
his old-world courtesy is graceful, and his customs and
institutions, even if they are at times a bar to his country's
The Peruvians 301
progress, preserve for him a certain element of refinement
which, once lost, is hard to regain.
The better-class Peruvians are of marked European
physiognomy and stature. Peru, it is to be recollected,
was in South America, as was Mexico in North America,
the chief seat of the Government of Spain in colonial days,
and naturally Spanish culture grew around Lima as a
centre. Indeed, a certain pride of birth is marked among
the upper class in Lima and others of the other principal
cities of Peru : a pride which, whilst maintaining a species
of aristocracy after the European manner, is partly
responsible for the strong distinctions of classes, and the
lack of social development consequent thereon. The
learned professions are much sought after, especially that
of the law, which is often the vehicle to political posts
The cultured Peruvians are scientific, musical, and artistic in
their tastes. They are always picturing and striving after
great ideals, and, as elsewhere commented, this characteristic
may be a valuable element in the future.
The Peruvian woman of the upper class is generally
handsome. It is a matter which the observer cannot fail to
note, that out of the large number of their sex which he
encounters, on the streets or in places of public amusement,
as the plazas, the racecourses, and the promenades, or in
the churches, so large a proportion are attractive in face
and form. This is possibly one of the features engendered
of small communities. It seems to be the result of a sort
of natural selection, many generations of breeding, and
marked regime of refinement of a certain nature. For these
ladies are principally of a leisure class, and the matter of
personal appearance is, at any rate until they reach a certain
age, the most important which enters into their lives. But
their beauty is not either artificial or fragile. The most
expressive eyes and a wealth of splendid hair, a singular
power of expression in the glance and language ; the
full, ripe lips and the elegant figure, sensuous in its curves
and grace of movement, all strongly arrests the visitor's
attention. To the foreigner the women are exceedingly
attractive; and they beam so indulgently upon him that
302 The Andes and the Amazon
really only a heart of marble could fail to be influenced by
their magnetism. Their manners are distinguished, and
they have the reserve and the culture inherited from
Spanish custom ; and they are " womenly " women, such as
make the life of homes. Like all women, and especially
those of America, be it North or South, they are more
refined than their men. Their attractions are — for their
different type — in nothing inferior to the women of North
America, and they are more lovable in that they still
occupy that proper domestic sphere, from which their
Northern sisters seem desirous to emancipate themselves :
and to which the latter will have some day to return !
Notwithstanding their customs of seclusion and their
strict Roman Catholic creeds they cordially welcome the
"heretic" foreigner. I remember those flashing eyes, and
the half-suppressed frankness of their owner's conversation,
and with what satisfaction have I conversed with them in
their expressive language. I have in mind three sisters,
nieces of a past President, whom I knew well. I remember
once telling them that love — for conversation runs largely
on this theme — is only a " secondary passion," coming after
the love of science and nature. How indignant they were —
saying that Englishmen had no hearts, and that they had
heard that they were cruel to their wives ! And then,
when referring to some religious processions that had taken
place, I asked them why they tolerated those "stupid
wooden images " and absurd old customs of the priests,
they pretended not to forgive me. The criticism as to the
wooden images, etc., I had not made in pointless rudeness,
but purposely, for it is sometimes necessary, in order to
know the real sentiment underlying habit and customs, to
probe through the surface of ordinary conventionalities.
As stated elsewhere, anything pertaining to their
Church is much reverenced by the women in Peru.
This sentiment, of course, is not peculiar to Peru — it
is general to all nations ; but there is no doubt that
there it is, as elsewhere, largely due to custom, and
that change may affect it.
Peruvian ladies are, in conversation, bright and
The Peruvians 808
vivacious ; they are often fond of light badinage. But
what is most strongly noted by the Englishman is the
comparative freedom with which they discuss matters
pertaining to the relations between the sexes, such as
would hardly form subjects of conversation in Britain.
It is not to be supposed that this is due to any loose
method of thought, but only from a different point of
view, which sees no wrong in natural matters, such as
false modesty among English people would cause to
avoid. For example, if it is necessary to mention in
conversation that a lady is enceinte, the fact is not covered
up or suppressed. Divorce, or matters relating to the
domestic affairs of their friends, are frankly discussed,
as of ordinary subjects coming under notice. This
partly arises from a less serious view of life than is
held among Englishwomen ; and there is, in spite of
their exacting religious ideals, less real reverence, or
rather more familiarity, touching the Divine Persons of
their creed. For instance, the first ejaculation of surprise
which rises to a Peruvian girl's lips is '^ Jesus I" or ^^ Dios
Mio!" — terms whose equivalent in English are not so
used. It is not meant to be so, but it strikes the
Englishman as irreverent.
To foreign eyes the Peruvian woman, or at any rate
the Limena, is over-dressed. She enhances her charms
by too costly apparel, and appears in the streets, the
restaurants, and the promenades in dresses that in
England would scarcely be found outside a ball-room.
It must be taken into account that the climate of Lima
is very mild ; changes of temperature are very slight
throughout the year; there is no real winter, and rain
is almost unknown. This condition permits a method
of dress which would be impossible elsewhere. Never-
theless, there is no doubt that in common with women
of most races, the women of Lima are often prepared
to sacrifice their health to their vanity ; and even on
chilly or misty evenings these fair butterflies of fashion
will be seen in their light costumes, without outer
wraps : presenting a curious contrast to the husbands,
804 The Andes and the Amazon
brothers, or friends who accompany them — protected
from the misty weather in overcoats, with the collars
turned up !
For a Peruvian girl all roads lead to, and all hours
culminate in, the day she marries. She loves with greater
facility than an English girl — that is, the apparatus of her
heart is earlier and more easily set in motion, and she is
less exigent of real or supposed perfections in the man
who adores her, and whom she accepts. Her charms
and graces — and she has many — are meshes in the subtle
net she ever weaves within her waking hours ; and when
the net has involved the object aimed at, the crisis of
her existence is past. Once she becomes a mother she
seems to lose her love of self-adornment, and rather lets
those charms she formerly possessed lapse into disuse.
She becomes a loving and careful mother, but with
little object in life save the rearing of a more or less
numerous family, and is to English eyes too much of
a slave to its growing exigencies. And as her daughters
grow up she seems purposely to endeavour to form a
background of less interesting contrast against which stand
out the charms of the new generation of sylphs of whose
being she is the author. Indeed, the Spanish-American
lady does not seem to be possessed by the desire to
preserve a perpetual — but artificial — youth, as among the
women of some other nations, but accepts more naturally
the decree of Providence in the necessity for growing old.
She paints and powders less than Spanish-American
women of other countries, but shares the custom of the
race in hygienic matters and seclusion ; and there is no
doubt that the fault of not taking exercise tends towards
an earlier fading, for beyond the limits of the polite
paseos she rarely goes out. The custom of taking
vigorous walks or pursuing out-of-door sports, so much
a part of English life, is unknown to the Peruvian girl,
and beyond the social functions of her circle her
chief distraction and constant daily occupation is the
attending of mass. Whilst it would be unjust to in-
sinuate that this frequent attendance at temple has not
The Peruvians 805
at base a religious motive, nevertheless, there is no doubt
that if all the temples were closed her chief distraction
would be gone.
The girls of Lima are, in spite of their attractions,
too pale. This is due, principally, to the mild and non-
invigorating climate of their city, whose effects they do
not endeavour to combat by more exercise, or more
frequent changes into the splendid and bracing air of the
uplands of the Andes. The women of the towns in these
higher regions are far more robust, and in their faces
glows the healthy tint of wet winds and brusque and
tonic temperatures.
But this paleness is considered a special mark of
beauty, and is really prized. It marks the difference
between the " coast " and the " sierra," for, be it known, the
inhabitants of the capital, and indeed of the coast towns
generally, consider themselves much superior to those
who are of the uplands, and this pallor carries with it a
species of guarantee that its bearer has little of the dis-
dained Indian blood in her composition ! This is the
"colour line" of Spanish America, and it is stronger in
Peru than, for example, in Mexico ; and if the pallor
does not exist by reason of Nature's beneficence, it is often
produced artificially by the use of powder.
This social superiority which the dwellers of the capital
arrogate to themselves over those of the Provinces is
perhaps a quality of all Latin nations, and in Peru has
probably resulted from the adoption of French ideas which
took place in South America during its earlier develop-
ment. It is an "idealist," rather than a "positivist"
sentiment. Every Frenchman is supposed to have come
from Paris.
On one occasion I almost offended a Peruvian lady —
inadvertently, of course — by asking her in conversation
when she intended to return to her native town in the
interior. " Senor, I am a Limefia (a native of Lima)," she
replied haughtily. I had been under the impression that
she had been born in the interior, at a beautifully-situated
little town at the foot of the Andes, and which I had
U
806 The Andes and the Amazon
just visited. But I obtusely refused to understand the
distinction.
To sum her up as a mental impression the Peruvian
woman, or lady — for she is always the latter, as I have
explained elsewhere — forms a gentle and refined picture
which lingers pleasingly in the foreigner's mind. She
deserves the best that heaven may afford her : she is
among the fair ones of all the fair women of the New
World.
CHAPTER XXX
LIMA
There are several cities in South America which have
arrogated to themselves the term of the " Paris of South
America," but I have not heard this claim put forth by
the people of Lima for their city, although doubtless she
is as much deserving of the title as some of the other
cities.
But that idea of centralisation, which would attribute
all the importance of a country to its capital, and which
prevails among Spanish-American nations, is very marked
in Lima. There exists a saying among her inhabitants
to the effect that it were "possible to die of hunger in
Lima; but not to leave it"! And this idea is noticeable
in the characteristics of the Peruvian men. I have some-
times met, in the interior towns, young men from Lima
who had ventured forth on some Government errand.
But alas ! for their peace of mind. They sigh only for
those distant " flesh-pots " ; they are strangers in a strange
land, and only support existence until such time as their
exile may terminate.
Lima is a pleasant and attractive city, handsome in
many respects. There are certain advantages about
communities of this nature whose size is not unwieldy.
For example, you can easily meet all your friends every
day, if you so desire. You have only to enter the clubs
or principal restaurants at certain hours, and there they
are. There is nowhere else for them to go ; and you can
run a man to earth within half an hour, at most, in one
of the usual haunts. Of course there are disadvantages,
such as the fact that in this sort of "large family" to
307
808 The Andes and the Amazon
which society is reduced to in such conditions, everybody
knows everybody else, and jealousies and estrangements
sometimes become strong between rival members of the
community. However, it must be remembered that such
conditions are not unknown in England. The society of
English country towns often leaves a good deal to be
desired from an ideal point of view.
One of the most marked conditions which the
traveller observes among those countries which have
a republican form of government is the fact that true
democratic principles and methods are less in force
than in monarchical countries. The louder and more
peremptory is the cry for " freedom" and for " liberty,
fraternity, and equality," the further are they removed
from the practical exposition of these qualities. Nature
at times seems ironical ; to the too exigent she yields
the semblance, and withholds the fact.
There is nothing about the actual working or condition
of any republic, be it Anglo-Saxon or Latin, which is
in advance, or even at the level of such countries as
Great Britain. The evolution of self-government in
South America seems slow, and Lima has been no
exception to the condition. It is ever the difference
between the ideal and the actual ; the laws are excellent,
but they are not always enforced. In a Commonwealth,
class distinction should tend to fade away ; in no com-
munities of the Old World are these distinctions more
marked than in Peru and her sister republics. The
res -publica (the public things) are not public ; they
have never been so ; they have been arrogated by the
few to their own enjoyment, and are still held in
monopoly. Pride of caste is exceedingly strong, and
brings with it those conditions of contempt of work
and love of luxury which a young community can ill
afford to indulge in. The high silk hat, the fashion-
able black frock-coat, the patent leather shoes, and the
gold - headed cane, are in sharper distinction to the
labourer's apparel and the beggar's rags in these
"republics" than in the monarchies of the Old World.
Lima 809
It always strikes the Englishman that a rigid course
of rough tweed suits, thick-soled boots, and long tramps
over mountain lands would be exceedingly beneficial to
the polite youth of Spanish America! Would it be
possible in an Anglo - Saxon community, that young
men, enjoying health and wealth, should pass their
days in fashionable idleness and their nights at the
billiard and card tables, whilst upon their country's
maps are inscribed the words "unexplored territory"?
And this territory is but three days' journey from the
billiard tables and the fashionable bars !
There are, of course, some among the Peruvians who
possess the true spirit of enterprise and exploration, but
they are few. Some of them have done good geographical
and scientific work. The Geographical Society of Lima
is a most valuable institution, and is carrying on work
of much importance. No mention of Peruvian geography
can be complete without associating the name of the
famous Raimondi, savant, explorer, and geographer of
the last century, who laboured so diligently to map and
explore the country. I have spoken elsewhere of his
work.
Also, the Society of Engineers of Peru is an institution
of the first value. Still more important is the Engineering
School, which is directed by the Government, and which
turns out numbers of young engineers. These, after
having concluded their studies, are appointed by the
Department of Fomento, or Public Works, to investigate
and report upon the mining regions of the interior : so
that an accurate knowledge is now being obtained of
them. The expenses of this body are defrayed by the
taxes paid upon mining property. There is no doubt
that this is a wise institution, and by its means well
educated young men, who generally have no other
resource than those which their work gives them, are
beginning to make known the rich and extensive territory
which is the heritage of their country. The credit of
having set this institution on a firm footing is due to one
of the recent Presidents of Peru, Seiior Romafia, who
810 The Andes and the Amazon
was himself an engineer, educated in England. Other
useful institutions in Lima are the Sociedad Nacional
de Mineria, the Sociedad Nacional de Agricultura, and
the School of Agriculture, which are engaged in foment-
ing these respective industries. There are many other
scientific institutions in Lima relating to the various
professions.
As regards its general aspect, Lima is pleasing and
well ordered. It is built on the usual plan of Spanish-
American capitals, and the buildings are generally of
the type common to these cities. From the plaza run
the main streets, intersected by the cross-streets after
the well-known "gridiron" plan. The blocks so formed
are about lOO metres square. The houses are some-
times of one, generally of two stories in height. Some
are under construction of three stories, but the streets
are not wide ; and such a system, if continued exten-
sively, would shut out the light and air, and spoil the
appearance of the city.
The buildings are generally constructed of brick and
adobe ; upper stories are often of lighter structure of
wooden scantlings filled in with other material. High
buildings are not only unadvisable from an aesthetic point
of view, but dangerous, on account of earthquake shocks,
which must always be reckoned with.
The main plaza is always a pleasant feature of these
cities. It is the pulse of the whole community, in a sense.
One side is occupied by the Cathedral, another by the
National Palace, where State functions are held ; whilst
hotels, clubs, shops, and Municipal buildings, etc., occupy
the remaining portion. The enclosed area is beautifully
planted with flowers and shrubs, and a fountain plays
constantly in the centre. On certain evenings during the
week a band performs. But it is not the fashionable class
who attend. Indeed, no one of the ilite is ever observed
there ; it is a function which, however, gives vast pleasure
to the lower middle class, and to the pueblo or working
class. Here the happy populace promenades, drinking
in the music, the scent of the flowers, and the mild evening
air.
Lima 311
The fashionable promenade of Lima is the new and
handsome /^w^^ or drive of Colon. On Sunday afternoon
a band plays here, and all the youth, beauty, and wealth of
the city attends, some in carriages, some on horseback,
but the greater part on foot.
There is always a certain glamour of historical interest
hanging over the capitals of Spanish America, especi-
ally of such countries as Peru and Mexico, which were
the principal centres of Spanish Government during the
Colonial period. There is something charming and restful
about the old-world houses with their balconies and /a^zVj/
something romantic and interesting in the secluded air
of their barred windows and the quiet streets upon which
they look. They are the antithesis of the manufacturing
towns of other countries — and may they ever remain so !
There is nothing of the rude struggle for life so palpable
elsewhere, especially in North America ; and nothing could
be more removed from the blatant roar, the glare, the
vulgarity of too many of the cities of the United States :
the unlovely necessary condition or phase through which
Anglo-Saxon communities seem bound to pass, and which
they must lose as real civilisation advances.
Lima, and her sister cities of Spanish America, will err
much if they strive to eliminate from their midst their
manners and architecture. These are the gifts of their
progenitors : they are the work of time, and must not
be hastily cast aside for the adoption of other methods
which are assigned by destiny to be the attributes of other
nations.
CHAPTER XXXI
LIMA — Continued
The City of Lima looks well, as from the approaching
steamer's deck the passenger beholds it from afar. It lies
amid its green campiha, or cultivated lands, and the haze
and atmosphere of distance swathes it in that medium
of ethereality, that enchantment, which distance lends.
The steamers which unceasingly ply up and down
the Pacific Coast — their long trajectory from Panama
to Valparaiso, and from Valparaiso to Panama of more
than 3,000 miles — are comfortable. The cabins are all
on deck, for on this calm ocean such a type of steamer
may safely exist. True, advantage is often taken of this
reputation for calmness to load the upper deck with bales
of cotton or other matters, which, did a gale arise, might
cause the steamer to roll. But accidents are remarkably
rare. Indeed, such is the security that there seems to have
been bred a contempt, or rather neglect, of possible danger.
On all the numerous voyages that I have made on these
steamers, extending over several years, up and down the
Pacific Coast, I have never seen drill of any description
practised ; and it is doubtful if, in case of fire or disaster,
the boats would be lowered and manned in time for the
passengers' salvation. Of course, these are coasting
steamers, and are rarely out of sight of land, but, never-
theless, accident might be followed by disaster, and boat
drill, such as takes place on the Royal Mail steamers on
the east coast of South America, should be practised for
the sake of prudence.
The necessity for quarantine, and its regulations on the
Pacific Coast of South America, are exceedingly trouble-
312
Lima 818
some at times to the traveller. Whilst these regulations
are, of course, necessary, they are unfortunately exagger-
ated in a retaliatory manner between the various Republics
of that coast, at whose ports the steamers call. Chile
quarantines vessels coming from Peru ; Peru quarantines
vessels proceeding from Ecuador or Colombia ; and these
all retaliate in kind whenever the opportunity presents,
beyond the real necessities of the case. Now the North
Americans, having obtained possession of Panama and
Colon, make rigorous quarantine exactions against all
these countries, and whilst American sanitary methods
are good, and will have a good effect in South America,
nevertheless the Americans are fond of red tape, and
sometimes of petty officialdom and tyranny in such
matters. However, as regards the Spanish-Americans,
these numerous and prolonged quarantine regulations
have their " useful " side : do they not give employment
and pay, with an easy billet, to a number of doctors and
political adherents? But intending travellers need not
be alarmed at the matters of yellow fever and plague.
These are quite benignant on that coast — especially in
Peru and Chile ; and the remedy is perhaps more trouble-
some than the disease.
The two steamship lines which perform a regular
bi-weekly service from Panama to Valparaiso, calling at
all ports on the coast, including Guayaquil, Payta, Callao,
Mollendo, Iquique, etc., are, as before stated, comfortable
and well-appointed vessels ; and it is a tribute to British
seamanship that all the Captains of this numerous fleet are
Britishers, whether on the Chilian line or the English.
There is not — or was not — a single Captain of South
American, or, indeed, of any other nationality, among
them. There is also a good German line : the " Kosmos."
The methods of debarcation at Callao for Lima, or,
indeed, any of the ports on the coast, are not comfortable
for the passenger. It would have been supposed that the
steamer would dock, at least in the main ports, or that
a launch would come alongside to take the passengers and •
their luggage off. Nothing of the kind. The steamer
■1^
814 The Andes and the Amazon
anchors some way out, and is immediately delivered over
to an army of bandits and buccaneers. That is to say, the
boatmen and baggage men who swarm all over the ship,
and seize passengers and luggage, are the only method of
getting ashore. These good-natured bandits — for they are,
on the one hand, very serviceable fellows — charge what
they like on delivering up the baggage at the hotel ; and if
the passenger is not accustomed to their ways, they will
get a pretty fee out of him. I once protested against this
method to an official of the steamer, when he replied that
he was obliged to permit it, as the steamers were under
some regulation to anchor away from the wharf on
purpose to give these boatmen a living. Personally, I
rather like these picturesque and jovial bandits, but all
are not of that way of thinking — or equally philan-
thropic.
The port of Callao is an important shipping centre, but
not attractive as a town, and the visitor loses no time in
going to Lima — about half an hour distant, inland — by
swift electric car service. The electric system, it may be
mentioned, is worked from a hydro-electric station on the
river Rimac, which descends from the Cordillera of the
Andes. Here electric energy is generated, and several
urban and suburban railways are actuated and supplied
therefrom, as well as the lighting of the city and adjoin-
ing watering - places on the coast. The company which
inaugurated and maintains this enterprise is entirely
Peruvian, no foreign element entering into it, so far,
and is an example of good industrial development in
Lima.
Callao has during its past history been terribly afflicted
by earthquakes and tidal waves, as described in a subse-
quent chapter. In olden times it was often marked as
the prey of foreign adventurers and buccaneers, for it was
the principal port of embarcation for the gold and silver
which came down from the interior, and whence well-laden
galleons and plate-ships turned their prows for Spain, to
fill the coffers of his Catholic Majesty, falling, occasionally
and incidentally, into the maw of Devonshire adventurers,
Lima 315
such as Drake, and others, some of whose exploits I
have transcribed from Spanish chroniclers in the follow-
ing chapter. Plymouth was ever a favourite point of
departure for explorers and hardy adventurers in those
stirring days, and between Plymouth and Spanish
America there is much historic association on such
matters.
Peru is one of the few strongholds of Roman Catholicism
remaining in South America, That is to say, that the
cult of any other religion is illegal, and the Church belong-
ing to the British community in Lima is only supposed
to be allowed to exist by courtesy. It is, of course, never
interfered with. But this toleration is not displayed in
the interior of the country, and a Methodist or Missionary
Society that was established in Cuzco has suffered repeated
attacks from the fanatic clergy, and the people instigated
thereby. There is no doubt that this clergy would, if they
could do so with impunity, destroy by every means in
their power, and with as much cruelty and intolerance, any
rival religion which might be established there, in the
spirit of the dark and bloody Inquisitions of old.
It is the character and principle of the Papist Church
to persecute and destroy ; not to outshine or become
superior to its adversaries. I make this statement
disinterestedly, for I am not pretending to advocate the
advisability of establishing missionary or evangelical
works among the Indians of Peru. It is quite doubtful
if the unlovely attributes which sometimes attend Anglo-
Saxon nonconformity would be desirable for, or could
flourish in that soil. The Indian has had enough of
" religion " during the centuries since he was first perse-
cuted and murdered under the shadow and authority of
the Cross !
The basis of the Roman Catholic religion which has
been instilled into the Indian is sufficient. It has some
good points, but requires purifying from temporal abuses,
when it will serve as well as any other. It is the intel-
lectual and industrial side of life of the unfortunate South
American Indian which must be bettered — his social and
816 The Andes and the Amazon
economic surroundings must be raised, and all else will
follow. The religion of the Incas might have drawn the
Indian on to civilisation ; the religion of Maria and the
priests, if freed from ignorance, abuse, and superstition,
might also have redeemed him when his own natural
faith was ruthlessly torn away ; and to plant Anglo-Saxon
nonconformity upon him now, or any other religion,
would but exaggerate his troubles. His real well-wishers
will strive to raise him socially, and Church missionaries,
if they look to Peru — as, indeed, all South America — as
a field for effort, should study this. Latin nations, it
seems probable, have to pass through a reaction — from
Papistry to materialism, and even atheism. When that
phase is over — and it may be short-lived — then, on the
wave of a new rebound, some chastened and philosophical
Christianity or religion may be offered — such as even now
begins to claim the attention of thinking men of all
nations ; the errors of their own Churches discovered and
denounced.
In Lima the religious or Church feasts are important
ceremonies, and the President, his Cabinet, staff, and the
army, attend them. Picturesque and interesting they
doubtless are, as they deploy in the plaza and fill the
Cathedral. But it occurs to the foreigner who observes
the unlimbered cannons, ammunition carts, and haversacks
at Easter time, to ask, " What is the connection between
mule-batteries and Jesus Christ ? " — not in a flippant, but
a philosophical sense !
These evidences of martial power, and these accoutre-
ments of tyranny are more connected, however, with the
establishing of "liberty" than of religion. Lima is the
capital of the country, and it is, of course, here that the
main struggle for the coveted post of President is waged.
To speak of Lima and Peru is to speak of the whole of
Spanish America, as regards political matter and changes
of Government. The machinery of self-government in
Spanish-American countries is theoretically good. Unfor-
tunately in practice it lends itself to abuse, and is a
standing example of how useless laws are to a community,
Lima 317
when they are not followed out, and how useless is their
action if they are unaccompanied by morality in their
administration. The kindest thing to say about self-
government in these communities is that it has hardly had
time to mature — that it is an excellent plant which strives
to grow, but which is continually being pulled up by the
roots. The race does not appear to be able to govern
itself yet. It was probably too soon released from the
influence of " Authority," or was unfortunate in not having
been developed under a different kind of authority than
that which Spain afforded. The real difficulty is not
hard to see. When in a community all individuals are
theoretically equal, it is naturally hard for some part
of it to have to bow to some other part, which has by
some means attained power of administration over the
whole body. They are in the position of school-boys, or
brothers, domineered over or bullied by their fellows, and
who reserve the opportunity to punch the latters' heads
at the earliest possible moment ! The whole process is
briefly as follows : — A number of politicians and military
men — generally ambitious and unscrupulous people with
nothing to do and a certain income — get together, and
nominate a certain one of their number for President.
He, in return for this, holds out to them the spoils of
various offices. The " election " is held — if the word may
be used in description of the method of bribery, coercion,
and falsifying which takes place. The losing side, knowing
that, had they been able, they would have defrauded,
are perfectly sure that they have been defrauded, and do
all in their power to oust the elected Chief, using arms,
if strong enough.
Supposing, however, that the elected President and his
followers control the army and are able to hold their own,
the Cabinet, formed in many cases of the assisting Generals
or other prominent supporters of the cause, sets itself to
put in motion the machinery of laws and government. If,
now, however illegal the methods by which they may have
come into power, they would confine themselves to really
endeavouring to employ this machinery for the good of the
318 The Andes and the Amazon
community, they would succeed ; peace would be estab-
lished, commerce would prosper, and the country would
develop along natural lines. The names of the President
and his Ministers would grow to be respected, and would
go down to the history of their country as " great patriots "
— a term they are very fond of.
But too often they do not. Not content with what
they may gain by their salaries or legitimate opportunities
in office, they too often employ unjust and illegal means,
and end by misappropriating the funds belonging to the
country or diverting them in a variety of ingenious ways
to their own benefit. Even if they would draw the line
at a moderate amount of abuse, and still carry on the
administration of the country in a broad-minded and
liberal way, all would be well ; but, as a general rule,
they cannot. There does not seem to be much spirit of
political generosity in the Spanish - American character,
and their late opponents, instead of being won over, are
harried and deprived of any opportunity to co-operate,
whilst the adherents of these, or of a former regime, are,
sooner or later, and on various pretexts, kicked out of
any position they might hold — large or petty — and
favourites of the governing power established.
What is the result? Exasperated by this treatment,
the others show their hatred. They organise in protest,
and a revolution is born ; there is a hail of rifle-bullets,
a rain of blood ; public order has turned to public murder ;
perhaps they gain the day. General Blanco^ succeeds
General Rojo.^ Viva General Blanco, the great Patriot!
Down with General Rojo ! Disorder and murder are
again the parents of order and administration, but the
exponents of these, bearing the inevitable stamp of their
progenitors, develop the same features later on, and the
same operation is gone through again and again. Occa-
sionally a Dictator arises, however, who is able to accom-
plish something good, as witness Diaz, of Mexico.
During the last election in Lima I often took my stand
in a balcony overlooking the plaza, to observe the rival
^ White. 2 Red.
Lima 319
bands parading the streets. There was not much disturb-
ance, however — not Hke that on a previous occasion some
ten years ago, when gatling guns were turned on to the
people in the balconies, and dead bodies were extracted
therefrom days afterwards ! For, as I have stated else-
where, greater prudence and peace marks the elections.
From my balcony in the evening I hear the cries of
rival bands of the adherents of one or the other candi-
dates for Presidency. The candidates on this occasion
are respectively Senor Nicholas Pi^rola and Doctor Jose
Pardo ; and feeling about them seemed equal so far. As
I listen : a tumult suddenly sounds above the ordinary
noise of street traffic. " Viva Pardo ! " resounds from the
plaza below. " Viva Pi6rola ! " is immediately and hotly
replied. " Pardo ! Pardo ! Pardo ! " is the deafening
answer, and " Pierola ! Pierola ! Pi^rola ! " is returned with
equal energy. The crowds move on, and their cries
become fainter, but they must have been joined by other
adherents, for a louder and fiercer shout of " Viva Pardo ! "
smites the evening air, and an answering roar of " Viva
Pierola ! " winds over the city and resounds from the
Cathedral fagade. " Pardo ! Pardo ! Pardo ! " again I hear,
and " Bang ! bang ! bang ! " is the reply, for some one
has fired a revolver. But only into the air, and the
rival bands pursue their several ways along the side
streets, from whence comes floating to my balcony the
sound, softened by distance, of " Pardo ! Pardo ! Pardo ! "
and " Pierola ! Pidrola ! Pierola ! " The long and elegant
leaves of the platanos, or banana plants, in the plaza
stir softly in the faint air ; the electric arcs above shed
down their brilliance, paled before the rising moon behind
the grim Cathedral tower ; the figures of saints upon the
parapet gaze stonily down, and the hurrying gendarmes
and mounted soldiers have left to head off a possible
disturbance upon a side street. All is peace below me,
yet from afar, as I listen, again comes a faint sound —
"Viva Pardo!" "Viva Pierola!"
CHAPTER XXXII
LIMA — Continued
Pardo gained the day, and at present fills the Presidential
chair, wisely and judiciously, as was to be expected.
Pierola was also a capable man, and sagely forbore
to vent his disappointment in urging his followers
to revolution. Neither men were militaires, and the
Government is entirely a civil one. But feeling ran
high, as where does it not during election time? As
I was wandering about the city, in pursuance of my
liking to examine things alone, I was suddenly con-
fronted by a band of excited negro women. "Whom
do you viva, Senor?" they demanded. Here was a
dilemma. Personally, I had little choice or selection in
the matter (although I rather preferred Doctor Pardo) —
there was not much difference in the principles of the
two contestants for Presidency, as both were pledged
to civil government. If I had said, "Viva Pardo!"
they might have been on Pierola's side, and discharged
some over - ripe eggs in my direction ; whilst if they
were Pardo's adherents, and I said, " Viva Pierola ! "
the same thing might have happened. So, assuming
a superior air, I said : " Vivan los Ingleses ! " (" Hurrah
for the Englishmen"); and they, seeing, of course, my
nationality, burst into laughter and applause, and made
way for me on the inside of the pavement.
Still further on a similar incident befell me. This
time a group of rough-looking workmen asked, as they
confronted me : " Whom do you viva, Senor ? " To this
I replied gravely : " Viva la paz, caballeros ; Abajo la
revolucion ! " (" Hurrah for peace, gentlemen ; down with
320
The Prhsidknt, Doctor Jose Pardo.
Foface p. 320.
Lima 321
revolution ! ") — a sentiment which found echo in their
breasts, for they cheered as I passed on.
The chief matters which occupy the attention of the
present President and his Cabinet — many of the members
of which are capable men — are principally those relating
to the extension of their railway system, and which is
perhaps the most important of all : those relating to
the improvement of the indigenous race of the country,
and those touching the matters of boundary and frontiers
with their neighbours. Another long-outstanding matter
is that of the settlement of a question with a British
Company which controls the railways of Peru, and which
is known in financial circles as the " Peruvian Corpora-
tion." This Company took over the responsibilities of
Peru's debt some years ago, receiving in return the
administration of the railways and their earnings, with
certain concessions relating to guano, and also lands
in the Montana. The relations between the Peruvian
Government and this Company have been far from
happy, and efforts are continually being made to adjust
them. It is not intended here to form any judgment
on the matter — it is a delicate question, and only its
general circumstances will be stated. The Government,
in the agreement between them and the Company,
agreed to pay the latter a large sum of money per
annum ; whilst the Company, for its part, agreed to
construct a certain number of miles of railway yearly.
Neither has fulfilled its part. The Corporation alleges
bad faith against the Government, and the latter retorts
that the Company has slandered it abroad and pre-
vented foreign enterprise coming to the country. It
was certainly a large amount of money to expect a
poor country like Peru to pay, and probably the original
basis and antecedents of the affair are to blame on
both sides. Be it, however, as it may, the disinterested
Englishman can only regret that so splendid a field
for industrial enterprise as Peru has been neglected,
partly from this cause. The Company might have con-
trolled an Empire, and its riches might have rolled into
X
322 The Andes and the Amazon
their coffers. Even as it is they reap a good return
from the operation of the railways.^
As has been stated, the machinery of self-government
in Peru is good theoretically, but there has not been
time, nor is there always disposition, for it to acquire
stability and progress. Peru embraces a great territory —
several times the size of Great Britain and Ireland. For
its administrative ends it is divided into sections, but
has not been able to obtain or dispose first-class elements
for administrators, especially away from its capital. The
political organisation is composed of three elements :
first, the Legislative power, as embodied in the Senators
and Deputies of the various Provinces or " Departments " ;
secondly, the Executive, as represented by the President
and his Cabinet ; and thirdly, the Judicial, consisting of
the Supreme Court and Judges of First and Second
Instance. There are twenty -one Departments, corre-
sponding to states, or shires in other countries, which
are subdivided into provinces, and again into districts.
The heads of Departments are termed Prefects, those
of Provinces Sub-Prefects, and of Districts Gobernadores.
Of these latter there are about 790 — a formidable number
— and who, although surbordinate to the other powers,
come more into contact with, and are more able to
influence, for good or evil, the population among which
they live than the higher officials. It is these petty
officials — the Gobernadores — whose standing and calibre
must be raised before much improvement can take place
among the Indian population of the country. The
Government should establish a special "School" of
Gobernadores. They might invite young Englishmen
or Germans to fill the posts ! They could offer un-
limited land as recompense, but probably no salary ; and
it is certain that the Peruvian of the better class will
not leave their cities to undertake the work, even if
he were of a character such as to successfully perform
it. The best governing nation in the world is Great
' This question is now under settlement.
Lima 823
Britain, and her Colonial methods should be studied by
the Peruvian Government.
The buildings of Lima are, among the older ones,
picturesque, but the modern structures, like those of
Spanish America generally, run too much to stucco and
plaster. Is it the mark of an evanescent race not to
build solid and enduring structures of stone? Around
Lima are splendid granite quarries : why should they use
adobe and stucco? In the main plaza a grand new
national palace is projected. This will probably be of
the bastard classic style imported from Europe or the
United States. Why should not the Inca order be
adopted ? Those buildings endure for ever, and are in
great part, it seems to me, the result of an adaptation
to environment in architecture — the environment of con-
tinual earthquake shocks ; for the solid blocks and thick
walls of their single-story structures have resisted seismic
disturbances, and seem to have been dictated by a
study of Nature. I make the suggestion in a kind spirit,
and trust to be pardoned by the Peruvians these criticisms
of their own affairs, which have protruded themselves
into these modest chronicles.
One of the conditions which most arrests the foreigner's
attention in Lima is the enormous number of lottery
ticket-sellers. It looks, at first, as if a large part of the
poor population gained their livelihood by this means —
a non-productive occupation which calls to mind the
community spoken of by Dr Johnson which "lived by
taking in each other's washing"! for the buying and
selling of lottery tickets hardly seems conducive to
any measure of production or wealth. At every step
tickets are offered you, not only by the wastrels of the
population, or the old and decrepit, but by able-bodied
people, and scores of young children. They infest the
streets, hotel entrances, shops, and offices, and thrust
their flimsy wares into your face as you pass along,
with their eternal cry of, " Hoy sale la suerte!" (" The lottery
is drawn to-day"); or, "Para la tarde diez mil" ("Ten
thousand pounds this afternoon"), and so forth. What
324 The Andes and the Amazon
miserable commission they gain upon their sales I do
not know, or how they live or clothe themselves. Poorly,
judging by the appearance, for, as to the old men and
women sellers, they seem to be those flotsam and jetsam
which the tide of life has cast, useless for aught else, upon
this final "beach" of occupation. Of this nature was
an individual who almost daily pestered me to purchase
tickets as I left my hotel. I even found him at times at
the entrance of the club, waylaying me with a persistence
worthy of a better occupation. "Do but buy a ticket,
and your fortune is made," he implored ; and really he
seemed more animated by the desire to make my
fortune than of selling his tickets. One day I became
impatient. " Do not trouble me any more," I said, " or I
will hand you over to the police; I never buy lottery
tickets." The poor fellow stopped abruptly, as if hurt.
He was probably a little dazed mentally, and I examined
him by the light of the electric arc which swung above.
An old frock-coat, tightly buttoned about a shirtless
body, and ancient boots upon sockless feet, as evidenced
by the suspicion of human leather protruding from gaping
holes therein. An old man, unshaven and hungry-eyed,
yet with a certain air of reserve or pride about him — a
type of most pathetic poverty. He told me his story.
He had been a Government employe during a past
regime — a Prefect, or Sub-Prefect, quite an important
position — but a change of party had deprived him of
his post ; an ungrateful Government refused him other
employment, and he had drifted to indigence and the
selling of lottery tickets. I had taken him to a restaurant
on a side street to appease the hunger which he said
devoured him, and learnt that his only remaining desire
in life was to present a certain petition to the Govern-
ment about some matter. " But," said the poor old
fellow, " I cannot enter the palace, for the sentinels at
the entrance would not let me pass in these clothes."
It was certainly pathetic. Here was this man, who
had commanded soldiers and policemen formerly, who
had been " one in authority," and at whose word of " Do
Lima 325
this" it had been done, now unable to obtain audience.
I gave him an old shirt, a collar, and a black coat and
hat which I no longer used, and promised to meet him
on the morrow to conduct him past the gendar^nes at
the palace entrance. So it befell. I hardly knew in
the old ex-Prefect the wretched lottery ticket-seller of
yesterday. His figure was upright, he had been shaved
with the few coins I had given him, and was now as
dignified as in prefectural days when he had haughtily
ordered his inferiors, in some interior city. The entrance
to the palace is, of course, free to the public, but in
any case there would now be no need of my accom-
panying him, for he strode towards the entrance with
commanding mien, and — could the poor fellow's cup of
happiness be fuller? — the soldiers on guard at the
portal actually saluted as we passed ! Moreover, the
confidence in himself which he regained from this bore
him on to the interview he desired ; and, as he after-
wards informed me, he positively obtained a small post
in a Custom House, which would keep him in comfort
— a post too insignificant, fortunately, to be marked as
the prey of any more influential political adherent of
the governing power. Truly the way of the discarded
politician is hard, in the free countries of the Americas,
from Tammany to Peru !
I have before described the characteristics of the
Peruvians. They, like all of the Spanish race, are ex-
ceedingly eloquent ; they have great facility of expression
and gesture, and a remarkable flow of words. When a
speech is made, whether it be at a banquet, a political
meeting, or a funeral, the orator performs such an oration
as, translated into English, could only be described as
" magnificent." Such a flow of words, however, is foreign to
Anglo-Saxon customs and ideas, for both our words and
ideas are more brusque, succinct, and to the point than the
Spanish.
I have attended meetings on quite ordinary occa-
sions, when the speakers have gone far back into remote
classical history for similes to illustrate their argument or
326 The Andes and the Amazon
speech. They do not seem satisfied unless they have
invoked old philosophies and ancient truths to support their
contentions; and the flattery or adulation of a friend or
colleague, or the denunciation of an enemy or opponent,
are correspondingly exaggerated. A successful general or
statesman is nothing less than a Caesar, whilst a political
adversary is dyed with all the wickedness of the human
race ! In Spanish a gentleman is always " a perfect gentle-
man " ; knowledge is always " profound knowledge," and so
forth. But I will give some illustrations of this eloquence,
so that I may not seem to be unkind in this criticism. Here
is part of a speech which I will translate from the Comercio,
one of the leading papers of Lima, on the occasion of a
funeral :
" Gentlemen ! A most dolorous duty causes us to
congregate around this frozen trench, too early opened to
receive the mortal remains of an unfortunate companion,
whose existence, although it has been short, passed with
meteoric luminosity, leaving an illustrious and translucent
after-glow. . . . Even as the varied and beautiful lines of
the spectrum through a converging lens are transformed
into a faggot of white light, resplendent, so the details
which in his work he compiled, united, and synthesised,
emerged afterwards from his brain in the beautiful pro-
duction whose merit is sufficient to place his sarcophagus
in the temple of immortality. ... If the disassociation of
the matter which constitutes this scheme of the human
body carries not with it the destruction of personality ; if
an immortal spirit survives, transmigrating or ascending in
infinite spirals to the bosom of the Creator, then thy death
is not death but transformation, a mere change of existence
itself! The chrysalis, it is true, has broken its envelope,
and the mysterious butterfly — the adorable psychic entity,
has flown to happier regions, to merge itself into the Prime
cause. The spirit, spreading like the undulations of the
ocean, or engrossing some hierarchical choir in the serene
region of souls "...
and so forth : words of excellent meaning if embodied as
an essay, but hardly in place before a mixed multitude
at an ordinary funeral.
Here is another, relating to a marriage, which I cut
from the Prensa, a leading paper of Lima, and which is one
of a common form of such insertions.
Lima 327
" Nuptials. The virtuous and angelical Senorita Fulana
has united herself for ever with the perfect gentleman Senor
Sutano. In view of the characteristics of so sympathetic a
couple there must ever shine upon their hearth the star of
felicity, perfumed by the delicious ambient of the pure and
virgin love which dwells in the innocent heart of the
spiritual spouse. May the sun of happiness radiate always
in the blue heaven of this marriage, is the vehement desire
of those who, full of rejoicing with this felicity, sign them-
selves— their friends."
These marriage notices are, really, in most cases,
inserted by the interested parties themselves !
And here is part of an oration composed and read by
one of the prisoners in the Penitentiary, on the occasion
of a visit of the President of the Republic to that
institution :
" Extend, most excellent Sir, your most worthy
attention, and you, venerable representatives and honour-
able magistrates, and all the justice that surrounds you.
Now that the hour has arrived for your Excellency to
visit this lugubrious penal establishment, I will give
expansion to my troubled spirit, to expose the justice of
my plaint, to your Excellency, who comes as a synonym
of goodness, who comes as a redeemer to redeem the
worthy, who comes as an apostle of humanity to console
unfortunate beings such as I. ... I am a victim of
calumny, and therefore my pure conscience gives me
valour to present my plaint before you. I would I had
the eloquence of Esculapius, to address you in learned
phrases. . . . Give your benevolent acceptation of the
fruits of my poor inspiration. ... It would seem that
Phoebus has kindled the Aureola of his torch to send here
more brilliant discs this day, but alas ! it is not continuous ;
a dark and desolate mantle will cover this sepulchre of
vicissitude ..." and so forth.
It is far from my intention to hold up to ridicule this
characteristic of verbosity. I only cite it as a psycho-
logical quality of the race, for it is innate; the poorest
and least educated among them strives for oratorial effect,
as well as the educated and the scientific ; and as I have
remarked elsewhere, this idealist quality may contain some
valuable attribute which in later development shall stand
328 The Andes and the Amazon
them in good stead. At a time when some branches of
the Anglo-Saxon race seem to degenerate into acquiring
mere money-gaining, trust-forming, and usurious customs,
it is not wise to despise anything in other races of an
opposite nature.
The Spanish language, also, it is to be recollected, is
very different from the English, in that the short, succinct
terms we use, from the Saxon, have their equivalent
in Spanish, in long and high-sounding words ; and the
language of even the poorest classes in Spanish America,
when translated into English, is of a calibre such as would
only be employed by an upper class in England or the
United States.
Another trait of the Spanish-American, which to
Anglo-Saxon eyes approaches some^yhat the borderland
of pathos (or bathos), dwells in the striving for the
expression of great ideas regarding liberty, equality, and
the like — grandiloquent theories which they are unable to
consummate. Here, for example, is the title and heading
of a provincial newspaper in Peru :
"LA RAZON (REASON)
LIBERTY, FRATERNITY, EQUALITY, MORALS,
WORK, PROGRESS!"
The small and obscure sheet bearing this title would
probably contain, as principal news, the publication of
some Government edict ; an account of some barbarities
committed by the petty authorities upon the Indians, or
the doings of the most aristocratic family of the place.
The city of Lima enjoys a good climate, as I have
stated, has many points of attraction, and is eminently
cosmopolitan. In Peru, notwithstanding its small popula-
tion, the number of foreigners to be encountered is con-
siderable. Italians predominate, followed more or less in
their order of numbers by Austrians, French, Germans,
Chinamen, British, and Americans.
The Chinamen are principally the remnants and
descendants of those who were brought into the country
Lima 329
years ago to work the sugar-cane plantations. It is very
doubtful whether the Mongolian is a desirable citizen,
for physically he tends towards deterioration. He is
of generally weak frame, and his features are certainly
not stamped with intellectuality. The native Peruvian
generally despises him, and he is described as raquitico
and degenerative. It is also very doubtful if his progeny
survives, for, although he may have one, or several female
companions of the Chola class, who bear children freely,
these latter do not appear to live to attain a ripe age.
The Chinaman is generally a small shopkeeper, or keeps
a small laundry, and at times maintains fondas and
small " hotels " in the interior towns. He is not without
useful qualities, and enterprising to a certain extent, and
soon acquires the language of the country. Indeed, in
some small towns the business of shopkeeping is almost
monopolised by Chinamen, for they appear to work towards
some mutual method, helping newcomers of their own
race to establish themselves. But there is no doubt that
they largely falsify and adulterate the goods they sell,
whenever such is possible. The Chinaman, moreover, is
full of abominable vices, and the country would be better
without him.
The British element in Lima is confined principally to
several large commercial houses, branches of main London
establishments, and their chiefs and employees. There is
no large British Colony, as in Iquique, for example ; and
with the exception of a little desultory mining here and
there, British capital has not yet awakened to the possi-
bilities of Peru as a field for investment. The railways
of the country are worked and controlled by a British
Corporation, and I have spoken of this elsewhere. But if
there are not a great many English people in Lima, the
British name and reputation for fair dealing is respected.
The adjoining Republics of Bolivia and Ecuador are
included in the same British diplomatic representation as
Peru. Relations with Bolivia have only recently been
renewed — about two years ago — for these were summarily
cut off, it will be remembered, many years since, due
330 The Andes and the Amazon
to an incident which took place in that country. The
following relation of this incident is given as I have
heard it ; I do not vouch for the accuracy of its details.
The British Minister in Sucre — the capital of Bolivia
— was on a certain occasion invited, with his wife and
daughters, to dine by the then President of the country.
The President was unmarried, but lived with his mistress,
and due to this fact the Minister attended the banquet
alone, not bringing the ladies of his family. Much
offended at this procedure, the President made it a
cause of quarrel ; violent hands were laid on Her
Majesty's representative, who was subjected to indignities
— tied on a donkey with his face to the tail, and in that
fashion escorted out of the city. When Lord Palmerston
— the then Minister for Foreign Affairs — heard of this
outrage, his anger was intense. " Bolivia ! " he said.
"Where is Bolivia?" And, turning to his secretary, added:
"Bring me a map. We will bombard their capital if
instant reparation is not made ! " The map being duly
brought, he scanned the — to him — unknown continent of
South America, and at length discovered that Bolivia
was on the western side thereof But here was a dilemma.
A British cruiser could hardly reach the capital, for the
simple reason that it was on the other side of the Andes,
a good many thousand feet above the elevation of the
sea, and hundreds of miles inland. "Well," said the
statesman, "we cannot send a cruiser — bring me a pen
and ink ! " And taking the pen, he drew it across Bolivia,
crossing it off the map. " Bolivia no longer exists," he
said ; and from that time until about two years ago
when the present British Minister in Lima re-established
relations, diplomatic intercourse between the two countries
had ceased. But there was a sequel to the crossing-off
of Bolivia. As soon as the doughty President of that
country heard of what had been done, he also called
his secretary. " Bring me a map," he cried. " Where is
Great Britain ? " And having found it, he emptied the
contents of his ink-pot over it. " Great Britain no longer
exists ! " he exclaimed.
CHAPTER XXXIII
PIRATES AND BUCCANEERS; EARTHQUAKES AND
TIDAL WAVES
Callao was ever, in its earlier history, a favourite point
for the operations of old-time buccaneers. From the
moment when the theories and aspirations of Columbus
crystallised to action, and Isabella of Spain pledged her
jewels to give him funds, that vast continent of South
America, and especially the West Coast, was deemed by
the Spaniards their property. But it was also deemed
by British adventurers a fair field for their exploits.
According to the Spaniards, those who set forth from
England's shores towards the Pacific were " pirates and
buccaneers " — or, at least, that is the name by which they
are generally described by Spanish chroniclers. The most
famous of British adventurers in those regions was Drake,
and Drake truly was a thorn in the flesh for the Spaniards
of those days. Zapata, the Peruvian writer, from whom
I have elsewhere quoted, gives a long list of "pirates,
buccaneers, corsairs, and filibusters," as he terms them,
principally British. Of Drake he says :
"In 1567, Francisco Drake, a native of the County of
Devon, England, or as others have it, born on board a
ship, was the first pirate who infested the coast of South
America, commanding the Dragon, which was a ship of
his squadron. Drake again, in 1577, equipped a squadron
of five ships in Plymouth, whence he set forth on 15th
November, pretending that his destination was Alexandria;
but, turning again to the Southern Seas, he entered them
by the Straits of Magellanes. He searched the coasts of
Chile, and near Valdivia captured a ship with 200,000 gold
dollars. Without it being known he arrived at Callao, and
of twelve ships in the bay he captured one laden with
331
332 The Andes and the Amazon
silver, and cut the cables of the others. From here, con-
tinuing his hostilities at Cape San Francisco, he captured
a vessel with 13 boxes of silver and 80 pounds of gold.
With these spoils he sailed as far north as 80 degrees,
when he went to Java. Afterwards, doubling the Cape
of Good Hope, he returned to England, and presented
Queen Elizabeth with 800,000 dollars ; having laughed
at the eleven Spanish ships of war, which, to restrain
these insults, had been equipped in 1580 by Don Francisco
de Toledo, with instructions to wait the pirate at the
mouth of the Straits. In 1595 Drake fitted out another
expedition in England, by order or patronage of Queen
Elizabeth, of 28 ships. With these he returned to the
West Coast, carrying out in all their ports indefensible
cruelties which exceed humanity. He invaded the city
of Rio de la Hacha. With this invasion and that which
was made by the pirates — Bartolome, a Portuguese ; Rec,
a Brazilian ; Francisco Lelonois and John Morgan — the
famous fisheries of the finest pearls of our America were
destroyed. From here Drake went to Portobello, with
the same design that he had formerly had, but without
disembarking he died suddenly, whilst anchored in view
of the plazay
Zapata hardly does Drake justice, but it is not to be
expected that Spanish or South American chroniclers
would do so. He harried their shores continually, and
certainly took away large quantities of gold and silver by
means of his great audacity and bravery. " Impossible,"
said the Viceroy of Lima, Don Francisco de Toledo, when
he heard of the advent of Drake in Callao, " impossible
that there could be a heretic pirate in the Pacific " — that
ocean where until then no English keel had ever violated
the waters. Was not this the sacred region of his most
Catholic Majesty of Spain ! But it was too true. It
was the keel of the daring British Admiral, and, having
got wind of a Spanish barque, laden with gold and silver,
which had just left for Panama, he cut the cables of twelve
vessels in Callao to prevent pursuit, and sailed forth to
overtake the treasure, setting every stitch of canvas on
board the swift Golden Hind — its prow to Panama.
Imagine them bowling along, good reader, over those blue
and placid seas, the faint Andes against the Eastern sky,
Pirates and Buccaneers 333
and the illimitable Pacific on the port side. Admiral and
men strain every effort, and trim their sheets as only
British seamen could. But the wind drops. Are they
discouraged? Out go the boats, and for three days
they towed the vessel, until off Cape Francisco they spied
the fleeing plate-ship, laden with treasure. Like hawks
they must have descended upon it, and, according to the
Spanish chronicles, they " bagged " some ;^900,ckdo.
From where did these great shipments and quantities
of gold come? I have endeavoured to answer this
question in other chapters. They came from the vast
placer and other mines of the interior of Peru, which,
only half- worked, are still — as I have said elsewhere
— awaiting the enterprise of modern miners. I have
sojourned long in those far-off regions,
" Where rivers wander o'er sands of gold."
There on the classic Maraiion, or in the mines of Sandia
or of Cuzco, the midday siesta conjures up to the
imagination the figures of toiling Indians under the lash,
their task-masters ; the helmeted soldiers, the cassocked
priests ; the pack-mules with their packets of golden dust,
dug from the Andean valleys. Away they went across
the bleak puna — the desolate steppes of the Cordillera,
past the regions of eternal snow — " antres vast and deserts
idle " — down to the burning plains of the coast, and thence
on board the ships for Spain, to run, perchance, the
gauntlet of Plymouth "pirates." The yellow metal so
hardly won, too often with blood and cruelty, fell some-
times into the hands of Drake of Tavistock or others ;
and my thoughts rebound from those ancient mines, and
scenes, and ponderings, to far-off Devon, with its green
hills and restful vales, welcoming the wanderer again !
" Let us alone. What pleasure can we have . . .
In always climbing up the climbing wave?
All things have rest, and ripen towards the grave.
Give us long rest, or death, or dreamful ease ! "
But, fortunately, the voice of Nature has no such teaching
as this — at any rate for the Anglo-Saxon mind ; and I
arise from my siesta to see what my Indians are doing,
334 The Andes and the Amazon
and if they have performed their task. Pardon, there-
fore, this digression, good reader.
Drake, after that exploit, found the place too hot for
him, and, hearing about the Spanish ships that were
waiting to receive him at Magellanes, tried to return to
England by the supposed north-west passage. He went
north as far as Oregon — Drake's bay still bears its name on
those shores — much beyond San Francisco in California.
But, seeing that he was getting very far north and
approaching a very cold climate, he changed his course,
and returned to Plymouth by the Indian Ocean and the
Cape, having gone completely round the world. It is a
remarkable thing that the splendid great bay of San
Francisco was not earlier visited or discovered, but, as
all travellers who have seen it can understand, the
narrow, foggy entrance of the "Golden Gate," as it is
termed by the Californians, might easily be passed
without seeing it.
From 1678 onwards, a large number of adventurers
are described by Zapata, as "pirates, filibusters, bandits,
corsairs, and buccaneers" — the greater part of British
nationality — and many others Dutch and French, who
visited those regions with various objects. Many of
them deserved the titles bestowed upon them, for their
object was to sack and destroy coast towns, and obtain
booty of gold and other treasure. Some of them,
however, went on more peaceful errands, and even those
whose errand was the useful one of charting the coast
seem to have shared the same fate as those whose
purpose was robbery. Some of the bolder spirits
entered the Pacific Ocean by crossing the Isthmus of
Panama and stealing or constructing vessels in that
port, but the greater number either went round Cape
Horn or through the Straits of Magellan. Some of
these made for the island of Juan Fernandez — the
abode of " Robinson Crusoe " — which seems to have
been a sort of resting-place before descending upon the
coast towns of what are now Chile, Peru, Ecuador, and
Colombia. A large number of them were undoubtedly
Pirates and Buccaneers 335
repulsed or destroyed by the Spanish authorities of
these towns, or by the Spanish fleets ; but the greater
part seem to have obtained good booty and returned
to England, either running the guantlet of the Spanish
ships awaiting them at Cape Horn, or the Straits, or
going westwardly and round the Cape of Good Hope
for Albion's shores again.
From the day when in 1520 Fernando de Magallanes,
a Portuguese, discovered the Straits which bear his name
(and for which his pilot, Sebastian del Cano, a Spaniard,
was given the arms of a ship upon a globe with the
motto, "Tu solus circumdedisti me") until 1744, Zapata
describes the adventures of more than fifty "pirates"
and expeditions (including the names of Morgan,
Hawkins, and others), the greater part of which were
British, and whose exploits have often been described.
Many of these were fitted out at Plymouth, and Devon-
shire furnished many of the brave fellows of their crews,
and many of these never returned to beautiful Devon
from those interminable seas and sterile shores of the
Pacific. Spanish bullets, ambuscades, fevers, shipwrecks,
scurvy, fatigue, and other kindred attendants of that
historical epoch accounted for many of them. Devon
paid a considerable toll in Spanish America, but the
names of her children are not forgotten, for, below the
epithets of buccaneer and pirate, are also those qualities
of manhood, adventure, and bravery which are the
foundation of the British character, and which have
carried the British name and flag to all quarters of the
globe. All honour to the brave men of Spain who
defended the lands they had discovered and the riches
they had acquired, and all honour to the brave spirits
of Britain who disputed — far from their homes — the
possession of these! Their strivings and warrings are
over — they were the class which generates progress and
which advanced the march of civilisation.
I recollect, early in the year 1906, whilst homewards
bound — I was going over the wonderful defences and
fortress walls of Cartagena in Colombia : walls metres
336 The Andes and the Amazon
in thickness and miles in length, which defend the city
from the sea — a Spanish companion said to me : " These
were made against your countrymen, in the days when
the outlying portions of the Spanish Empire were as
much a part of that Empire as the colonies of Britain
are to her in these years of God ! . . ."
Callao, like other coast places of South America on
the Pacific, has suffered terribly from earthquakes and
tidal waves during its past history. The Pacific Coast,
both of North and South America, is especially subject
to these phenomena, as witness the recent terrible occur-
rences in San Francisco, Mexico, and Valparaiso, the
former and latter places something like 6,000 miles
apart. One of the most disastrous earth movements
and tidal waves which have visited Callao was that of
the 28th and 29th October, 1746.
Various descriptions of this event have been written,
but it will be interesting to describe it here, and I will
translate from the periodical El Callao of that city, from
an account published on 28th October, 1905, the anni-
versary of the catastrophe. It says :
" It was in Lima, on the night of the 28th of October,
1746. The greater part of the inhabitants of the city
had retired, or were just retiring after coming from
church, where they had celebrated the feasts of Saint
Simon and Saint Judas. Only the richest persons, of
noble lineage or title, were exchanging visits at that
hour, accompanied by their escorts of slaves and
attendants. The moon shone radiantly from a clear
sky. The clocks in the church towers had struck half-
past ten, when a sudden and violent shaking of the
earth threw many people out of their bed, amid the
most frightful confusion. Three minutes this violent
shock lasted, and during this brief time Lima was
reduced to ruins, a large number of its inhabitants
being buried among the debris.
" In the imagination of that credulous people this
cataclysm was the day of judgment: that final day which
the Catholic religion expects as a last earthly tribunal,
separating the good from the bad. In the time it takes
to relate it the whole work and construction of 211
years was destroyed. In a city which contained 60,000
Earthquakes and Tidal Waves 337
inhabitants not more than 25 houses remained standing;
and, moreover, the great shock was followed by others —
as many as 200 being counted within the subsequent
twenty-four hours. The Jesuit priest, Pedro Lozano,
witness and survivor of the catastrophe, narrated, a few
days after the event, the following account :
" ' Of the two towers of the Cathedral one fell on to
the domed roof, and the other to the belfry, destroying
the greater part of the edifice, which will have to be
demolished. Almost similar has been the destruction in
the five magnificent churches of the city, as well as in
64 lesser temples, chapels, and monasteries. The fall of
the large buildings consummated the ruin of the smaller,
and filled the streets with wreckage and fragments. In
their excessive terror the inhabitants strove to flee, but
some were buried beneath the ruins of their houses, and
others, as they fled along the streets, were crushed by
the falling walls on every side. The triumphal arch with
the equestrian statue of Philip V. fell, and was broken to
pieces. The same fate befell the Viceroy's palace, and
the Viceroy, Don Jose Manso do Velasco, showed his forti-
tude and wisdom, and took what measures were possible
for the salvation of the inhabitants. The Tribunal of the
Inquisition fell to the ground, as also the Royal University
and the Colleges. Everything, in short'
"The people slept in the squares and gardens, and
monks and nuns wandered about the streets. Of the
twenty-five monks of the monastery of Carmen thirteen
were crushed by the walls. Strange it seems that that
terrible time should have taken place when Catholicism
was in all its splendour, and the faith of the inhabitants of
Lima in its zenith, for the Holy Office of the Inquisition
was operating. Yet no one dared to approach the churches ;
on the contrary, they fled from them, notwithstanding
that all knew that these are the houses of God. Three
days passed, during which 260 shocks were felt, and the
decomposition of dead bodies in the ruins began to
produce an epidemic. No matter where it might be —
streets or squares — trenches were opened to bury the
dead. In spite of this the terrible putrefaction continued,
as there were the remains of more than 3,000 mules and
horses rotting in the ruins, as well as other animals.
The number of persons killed was calculated at five or
six thousand."
It might have been supposed that the catastrophe
Y
338 The Andes and the Amazon
was now at an end, but what happened on the 30th was
full of terrible sensation. Whilst the inhabitants were
still under the impressions of their misfortunes, seeking
fathers, mothers, brothers, or other loved ones, there sud-
denly appeared in the streets of Lima a negro mounted
on horseback, his eyes starting from their sockets, and
shouting in accents of terror : " The sea is coming ! The
sea is coming ! "
" This new alarm gave rise to the most extraordinary
scenes. Every one sought to flee, and crowds hurried
frantically towards the San Cristobal hill, climbing ruins
and fallen walls in their flight ; and terrible it was to see
the people, anguished and terrified — sons carrying sick
parents, and parents their children, in one wild rush where
none looked back !
" * The shocks continued all day,' the account says,
' accompanied by subterranean noises, and the unfortunate
people imagined that the earth uas about to open and
swallow them. Fear and excitement alternated with
public confessions, preachings by the priests, and general
absolutions. Thousands of persons were heard confessing
their crimes and weaknesses, so that God might pardon
them ; and as they were all sinners, none lent ear to the
confessions of others, being too much occupied in recount-
ing their own misdeeds.* "
Famine followed, for the bread shops were in ruins,
and the cargoes of wheat on board the ships at Callao
had been submerged. Curious scenes were witnessed.
A priest went about the city, naked, wounding himself
in penitential frenzy, ashes on his head, and the bit and
bridle of a mule in his mouth, crying : " This is the justice
of the King of Heaven upon sinners ! " and beating himself
with an iron bar until the blood rushed forth.
" In Callao the most awful catastrophe occurred. After
the shock the people endeavoured to rush away from the
city, but the city gates were locked at that hour. Whilst
the inhabitants who had not been destroyed by the falling
walls prayed to God for compassion, they noted a terrible
phenomenon. The sea went out for more than 2 miles
from the shore, forming immense mountains of water that
appeared to reach to the sky. All hope was lost. The
religious and the irreligious asked pardon for their sins.
Earthquakes and Tidal Waves 389
and mercy from heaven. There was no mercy shown
them ! The mountains of water rushed forward with
horrid crash as if the whole universe were advancing to
overwhelm the doomed city : submerged the ships in the
bay, carrying some of them over the walls and towers
that had resisted the earthquake, and covered the whole
city. . . . When the waters retired nought remained
of Callao but the two great doors of the city and a piece
of the wall! ..."
It is stated that the wave reached for 3 miles inland
towards Lima, and that its level was more than 150 feet
above normal sea-level. This I can well believe, in view of
the masses of driftwood which still remain far above high
tide on the Peruvian coast further south, and which I have
elsewhere described, in the account of my journeys there.
Earthquakes have formed a terrible scourge to the
South American coast, ever since earliest history, and
doubtless since the formation of the Andes. These
phenomena are not necessarily due to the action of
volcanoes, but to movements brought about by the release
of strain in the strata of the formation of the land and
the mountains, there can be no doubt. On this coast
exist vast differences of level. The Andes rise to great
altitudes, fronting on the coast, and the ocean extends to
vast depths a short distance out at sea, in some places
there being no anchorage for ships quite close to the
land. This condition of height and depth in juxtaposition
undoubtedly affects the general stability of the region.
I have experienced numerous slight earthquake shocks,
and in one place in the Andes recorded them almost daily
for a period of five months — earth tremors, varying in
intensity. The feeling engendered by a serious earthquake
shock is curious and unpleasant. It is not necessarily only
the fear of being crushed by falling walls or roof, but it
seems to be borne upon the mind for a moment that there
is nothing stable in the universe, and that the world has
nothing save chance to ordain its march — soulless chance,
which may ruthlessly, and at any instant, plunge it into
chaos ! The finite mind of poor man, accustomed ever
to look towards some unknown yet protecting Power, to
340 The Andes and the Amazon
catch some rays of hope and reassurance in his mundial
state, seems to feel this protection withdrawn, or non-
existing, and his heart is seared by the depths of a
momentary despair. Probably this feeling accounts for
the remarkable scenes witnessed during severe earth-
quakes, especially among peoples of a superstitious or
ultra-religious nature, who see in a natural phenomenon
the displeasure of an angry God ! There is, also, what
might be termed the moral effect of earthquakes, which
is undoubtedly strong.
In Caracas some time ago, after a severe shock,
thousands of couples who had been living together, un-
married, went through the marriage ceremony. Somewhat
similar mention was made regarding the San Francisco
and Valparaiso disasters. I have heard of " conscience
money " being returned after an earthquake shock, in
South American cities where I have been. I recollect on
one occasion being at a meeting of the Directors of a
Company in one of these cities. Some of the Directors
were of the " bloated capitalist " species who delight to
form trusts, and one in particular — a man with a large
belly, and consequently rather slow of movement — was
endeavouring to have something agreed to which was
decidedly reprehensible, and against which I had pro-
tested as being unfair to absent parties. We were in the
midst of this discussion, when I felt the well-known quiver
of a coming earthquake shock. My companions felt it
too : it was the day after the news of the San Francisco
devastation had arrived, and the morning papers were full
of the occurrence, A low, rumbling, subterranean noise was
heard, such as often accompanies the phenomenon, and
the windows rattled ominously. The stout capitalist and
the others started swiftly for the door, their faces blanching
with terror, and reached the patio outside ; the physically
developed one having been much impeded by his stomach,
which prevented his quickly getting out of a rather narrow
doorway. The shock was of short duration fortunately,
and my companions returned to find me sitting in my
chair, from which I had not risen. It is useless to rush for
Earthquakes and Tidal Waves 341
the door in such cases, and quite as dangerous. " The
cold - blooded Englishman remained ! " commented my
stout fellow - Director, as he resumed his seat, whilst
another said something about the weather, as if he had
gone outside with the object of observing it. However, to
point the moral : on resuming our discussion it was seen
that the method of procedure before advocated, and which
I had considered unfair, was dropped. " Probably another
course would be more advantageous," they averred.
The Geographical Society of Lima is now correlating
shock occurrences, notices of which are sent telegraphically
to that body in Lima from all places in the interior of
Peru, by official order. An account of these phenomena
since earliest times has been recently published in their
Journal^ and among the earliest spoken of is that of the
earthquake of the 13th May, 1647, in Santiago, Chile, which
caused nearly 2,000 deaths. On the 31st March, 1650, the
strongest earthquake shock ever known in the city of Cuzco
took place. It is stated to have lasted a quarter of an hour,
and was
"so horrible that, in this short time, it threw down all
the convents, churches, and houses. The people rushed
about breathlessly, calling on heaven for pardon and
mercy, beating themselves and confessing their sins ;
horror and fear being caused even in the hardest hearts.
Twenty-four days the disturbance lasted, with frequent
shocks day and night, some as severe as the first one, and
as many as 500 were counted during the month. The
earthquake spread devastation far and wide, according to
this account, and reached as far south as Arequipa, In
the Andes surrounding Cuzco there were great burstings
of volcanoes, opening the earth in places, swallowing up
roads and horsemen, damming up the rivers with mountains
hurled therein, and destroying the bridges over the
Apurimac river.
" So furious was the shock that the Priest of Cucho, on
his return from a confessional, in descending a hill-slope
formed of shale, was overtaken by the top of the mountain,
which descended upon him ; and his clothes having been
caught by a rock he remained suspended for five days over
an abyss, in an inaccessible place where the Indians could
842 The Andes and the Amazon
not possibly succour him. Being a virtuous person, and
a man of letters, he took profit of this time that God gave
him, and, seeing the impossibility of escape, passed the
days in prayer, and at length expired."
The Cathedral was wrecked, and the image of the
Virgin was kept dry from the heavy rains under a tent.
A marvellous occurrence also took place, says the
account.
" An image of the Virgin, painted in oils upon canvas,
that existed near the choir door in the Church of San
Francisco, and before which was sung daily, after vespers,
Tota pulchra est, was broken across the face. A painter,
going some days afterwards to restore it, found it without
sign of damage — the canvas better than before, and the
G^gy so beautiful that there was no necessity for human
hands to touch it !
"On the 31st March, 1683, an Aurora Borealis ap-
peared to the east of Lima, sending forth columns of fire
and sparks, that lasted as long as an Ave Maria. This
meteor caused great fear among the people, who were just
leaving the procession of Our Lord of the Earthquakes.
In Cuzco, on the 2nd of August, 1700, a sharp earthquake
shock was felt ; and after some days there was seen
towards the west a comet of a white colour, extending
from the horizon to the zenith, and which lasted for fifteen
days. In 1707, on the 17th December, there occurred
a formidable earthquake that lasted the space of an
Ave Maria. The dust arising from the ground and fallen
edifices was such that the place remained for hours in
twilight. A house was moved by the earthquake from
one side of a river to another, with its occupants. Some
Indians who had taken refuge in a chapel near the small
village of Chapi-chapi, found the image of the Virgin at
the door of the church, without it having been moved by
any one from its niche. The Indians informed the cura,
who ordered the image to be taken to the village ; but on
raising it, there fell such a tempest of hail as obliged them
to change their intention, and when the image was restored
to its niche, the storm ceased."
A long list of earthquakes and their disastrous effects
follows, hundreds of shocks having been experienced in all
parts of the country, and including that in 1746, already
Earthquakes and Tidal Waves 343
described in Callao, A Dominican priest, Father Alonzo
del Rio, of known virtue, acting under the impulse of a
premonition, an hour before that terrible event went out
into the streets, crucifix in hand, and exhorting the people
to commend themselves to God. He was taken for a
madman ! In the following year, in the month of
February, a notice was posted in the churches, requiring
" All women, of whatever class, to use clothes which
should reach to the feet, so that when they rode on mule-
back their legs could not be seen. Also the arms were
to be covered to the wrists ! "
" On the 20th, the Viceroy (Ecclesiastical as well
as Civil authority) formed a procession, carrying the
wondrous image of the Virgin of the Rosario, and in a
crystal urn the sacred bones of Santa Rosa and San
Francisca Salona, patron saints of Lima."
"From the 28th October, 1756, to the i6th February,
1747, there were counted in Lima 400 earthquake shocks.
After the Callao wave and destruction, among other
incidents, there were observed four persons floating on
a pile of wood, whom it was impossible to approach or
succour, but from the top of the cliff, where their faint
cries reached, the cura absolved and blessed them, when
they perished in view of the multitude."
" In this same catastrophe the coast north and south of
Callao was inundated, and in some places hundreds of
corpses, battered to pieces by the floating wreckage, were
thrown up and left by the retiring tide."
Such, in brief, are extracts from some of these fateful
occurrences. It would be tedious to attempt to enumerate
all the earthquake shocks of Peruvian history, so numerous
have they been. During my stay in Lima I felt, on one
occasion, a severe shock, and a statue of Saint Peter on
the parapet of the Cathedral opposite gave a half- turn
upon its pedestal, and remained reversed. This, of course,
was due to the seismic movement, and was only one of
other occurrences — of falling chimneys and cornices, and
cracking of church towers throughout the city. The pro-
cession of religious persons and priests for the placating
of Divine anger and supposed prevention of earthquakes
is still regularly conducted in Lima.
344 The Andes and the Amazon
There is something pathetic about the description of
these occurrences. The terror of the people ; the interces-
sions for mercy ; the supposed miraculous events ; the fear
of Divine anger ; the implacable and seemingly heartless
acts of Nature, to whose immovable ear are directed the
agonised appeal of thousands of human beings — Nature,
to whom the destruction of her creatures in an earthquake
bears, perhaps, a relation such as the act of a man, who,
thoughtlessly treading upon an ant-hill, strikes, destruc-
tion to its inmates !
But the most remarkable condition relating to
earthquakes and kindred catastrophes is the quickness
with which they are forgotten. The ants, perturbed by
the footstep, feverishly reconstruct their ant-hill ; man,
crushed by falling ruins, builds up his walls and towers
again on the same spot, and in the same manner as
before the cataclysm that destroyed him. Is it constancy
and hope, or unreason and imprudence ? At any rate, it
seems remarkable that he should build the same kind of
structures as those which fell. The chief source of fear
and danger in a earthquake is that of falling buildings ;
yet buildings could be constructed such as would resist
any movement. Nevertheless, in Arequipa, which once
suffered terribly, vaulted roofs are still built. In Valparaiso
and San Francisco the enterprising spirit of the Chilean
and of the American is already raising up their buildings,
but they will differ little from the former type of those
which were destroyed. Lima and her sister - cities of
the Pacific Coast are exposed to the same fate, at any
moment, as has befallen the Chilean and Californian
cities, yet their inhabitants slumber on in blind fatuity,
and take no steps to ensure safety in the construction of
their dwellings.
One moral is impressed upon the traveller by these
occurrences — the fragility of man's structures, the evan-
escence of his riches and his plans, the vanity of his
selfish acts. All, all, go down before the least breath
of Nature ; nothing remains but the memory of good ;
Earthquakes and Tidal Waves 345
nothing is stable save the spirit of rectitude and the
consciousness of Infinity.
" The soul, secured in her existence, smiles . . .
The stars shall fade away, the sun himself
Grow dim with age ! . . .
But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth
Unhurt amid the war of elements,
The wreck of matter, and the crush of worlds ! "
CHAPTER XXXIV
COLONISATION, COMMERCE, RAILWAYS
As has been shown throughout these chapters, one of
the chief requirements for Peru's development is immigra-
tion. The corollary to that statement is : " What has
Peru to offer to immigrants?"
The first requisite is land. Peru is divided, topo-
graphically and climatologically, as has been shown,
into three principal regions : viz., the Pacific coast-zone ;
the Andean slopes and plateau ; and the Montafia, or
region of forests. Is the coast-zone suitable for immigra-
tion? It is to a certain extent. Valuable agricultural
products are grown there, but this must be done by means
of irrigation, it being a rainless region. Of course, the
capacity of a country for absorbing immigrants, especially
such a country as Peru where industries are largely agri-
cultural, depends largely upon the amount of land avail-
able for cultivation. Due to the conditions prevailing on
this coast -zone, the irrigable land is but a fraction of
the total area. That is to say, the waters available (with-
out storage) from the rivers which flow westwardly to the
Pacific Ocean and water this region, give a volume which
could irrigate but a small portion of it. There are,
of course, other methods of irrigation, as artesian wells,
which have given excellent results, so far, in this zone,
as was to have been expected from its formation; and
water-storage in reservoirs, of the superfluous run - off,
from the rivers, as practised in India. In comparison
with the east coast of South America, in similar lati-
tudes, that of Peru is wonderfully temperate and healthy,
from reasons which have been given elsewhere. The
346
Colonisation, Commerce, Railways 347
drawback to the valleys is the paludismo^ or light malaria
which is met with in places; but this is not necessarily-
general nor always serious. This zone — about 1,500 miles
long and 60 to 90 wide — offers, then, conditions which
will support a certain considerable population, which
may cultivate many products, such as cotton, sugar-cane,
ramie, rice, maize, grapes and vines, olives, tobacco,
bananas, and a large variety of other fruits and plants.
Peruvian cotton and sugar-cane are too well known to
require much description. They rank among the best in
the world in quality. Of course, the lands most suitable
for these products near the coast are taken up, but the
intending settler can either rent from the owners, making
payment in a percentage of his crop, or take up virgin
land and institute irrigation works. There are large areas
which can be secured for this latter purpose by Govern-
ment concession.
Coming next to the foot-hills and slopes of the
Andes : these, on the western side, are also in a semi-
rainless region, but bear pasture, due to the heavy mists
which at certain seasons lie there. They, with the great
tablelands or plateaux, support vast herds of sheep
and cattle, llamas, and alpacas, etc. They are generally
covered with prairie grass, and wheat, barley, oats, and
other products have their habitat there, up to certain
elevations. The climate is bracing and healthy, and the
panoramas magnificent, as has been shown in the chapters
upon Peruvian travel. Great areas of land can be acquired,
suitable for cattle ranches. It is upon the slopes of the
Andes that the principal mining regions exist, and these
mines, and the requirements to which they give rise, will
afford employment to large numbers of immigrants, in
other than agricultural pursuits. There is no doubt that
the cattle and wool industries are capable of very great
extension in these regions. The more detailed conditions
will be seen from a perusal of the foregoing chapters of
this book.
The eastern slopes and foot-hills of the Andes are of
a different character to the western, in that they are in
348 The Andes and the Amazon
a region subject to heavy rainfall at certain seasons.
There is a splendid zone of territory here, extending
all along the base of the Andes and bordering on the
rivers which parallel the chain, as the upper portion
of the Maranon, and the southern rivers, before described.
Anything can be grown here, and when the territory has
been rendered accessible by means of railways, it ought
rapidly to become a well-populated region.
We now descend into the Montana, or region of
forests. This has been sufficiently described in the
chapters devoted to it. It is a region of enormous
possibilities, and it is astonishing that in this greedy and
progressive age it still lies fallow. Gold, timber, and
india-rubber are some of its chief products at present,
but it is a territory of the most varied resources, of vast
agricultural possibilities, and has been described by many
travellers. Its varieties of climate and vegetation are
never-ending.
There are, then, three main regions : or it were better
to describe them as five, viz. : — the coast - zone ; the
western Andean slopes and valleys ; the plateau of the
Andes ; the eastern slopes and valleys ; the Montana.
Here is choice of climate, products, topography, and every
other environment that the varying habit or desire of
the European emigrant might dictate. He will not find
ready-made homes; he will have to carve his own way,
and spread his own table in the wilderness ; but he will
find the material at hand. He will find lands untilled,
rivers unfished, forests unaxed, mines unworked — why?
Because the surplus labour and capital of the world has
not yet reached this land ; it lies fallow still.
I will now give some extracts from published descrip-
tions of their country by the Peruvian Government, and
various Peruvian and other writers, relating to immigra-
tion. There is, of course, in some of such descriptions a
tendency to poetical effect, and at times to exaggeration.
The usual phrases of " inexhaustible riches," " eternal
spring," and so forth, are generally found in pamphlets
relating to matters of this nature, but the wise observer
Colonisation, Commerce, Railways 349
knows that the conditions of travel and settlement in
new countries are always hard, although at the same
time he philosophically seeks the compensating advan-
tages which they afford, and forbears to sigh for the
"flesh-pots" — often imaginary — of the land he has left.
The official pamphlet says :
" Comparing the area and population of Peru with that
of some European countries, we have :
Country.
Area in square
Population per
miles.
square mile.
Peru ....
701,600
41
France and Algeria .
391,500
I88-0 (France)
Germany ....
208,800
• 270-0
Spain ....
195,000
97-0
Great Britain and Ireland
121,000
346-0
Italy ....
110,500
294-0
The population of this great territory of Peru is only
about 3,000,000 ; and the above clearly brings out the
fact that Peru contains a vast, sparsely-populated terri-
tory greater than that of any European country except
Russia, and capable of containing many more millions
of inhabitants."
" The population of the coast might be fairly estimated
at 750,000 inhabitants. The white race is the most largely
distributed along the coast, and constitutes the main
element of progress and wealth in the country. The
city of Lima alone contains more than 70,000 foreigners.
The bulk of the Peruvian population — over 2,000,000
of the Indian race — lives in the Sierra (the uplands and
valleys of the Andes), which is the healthiest region in
the world. These natives are strong and frugal, and are
much sought after as mining labourers. They are
descendants of the ancient and noble race of the Incas,
and are of light-coloured skin."
" Notwithstanding its tropical position, the country
is healthy and free from those dangerous diseases which
sometimes prevail in the Torrid Zone. It enjoys every
variety of climate, owing to great differences of elevation.
Along the coast the mean temperature is from 64° to 68°
Fahr. Those who desire cooler, or cold weather, have
only to ascend the slopes of the Andes. On the Sierra
it is as cool as the south of England ; on the coast it is
as warm as the south of France, whilst it is not much
350 The Andes and the Amazon
warmer in the Montafta. On the plateaux it is as cold
as in Scotland. A fair idea of the mean temperature in
each of the three zones of Peru may be gathered from
the following :
Coast. Sierra. MontaHa.
Lima, 66° F. Cajamarca, 52° F. Iquitos, 75° F.
Piura, ^f F. Huaraz, 59° F. Huanuco, 74° F.
Moquegua, 63°. Arequipa, 57° F. Santa Ana, 72' F
" The region of the coast is sunny, and rain seldom
falls. At Lima, and all along the coast, the sun is
tempered by the cool southerly breezes, and the climate
throughout the year is well suited to Europeans. The
sun is rarely hidden by clouds for a single day in the
year. The maximum temperature in Lima in summer
is 78° Fahr., and in winter 59° Fahr. The climate of the
Sierra is exceedingly invigorating ; it is subject in the
higher parts to rain and snow. In the Montana there
are two seasons : dry from May to October, and wet
from November to April. The total annual rainfall is
estimated at about 70 inches. A typical town of the
Montana is Chachapoyas, y,6oo feet above sea-level,
possessing a delightful climate whose temperature ranges
from 40° to 70° Fahr., with a mean of 62° Fahr. Another
similar place is the City of Moyobamba, standing in a
most luxurious situation, at an altitude of 2,700 feet,
with a mean annual temperature of yf Fahr."
" In the industrial establishments on the coast-zone
there is always a demand for good foremen and skilled
employees to direct the work in the fields, and also for
mechanics, sugar-boilers, distillers, carpenters, blacksmiths,
wine-growers, wine-makers, and workmen in general. In
some of the valleys only a portion of the rich land is
under cultivation, and is still available for agricultural
purposes."
"The production of sugar per acre on the coast is
calculated at 700 quintals of cane (ior5 lbs.) and 56
quintals of sugar, as against the highest foreign (Java)
production of 312, and 3r2 quintals of cane and sugar
respectively."
The production of sugar in 1905 was 160,000 tons.
As to cotton, the coast produces (Piura) the remarkable
cotton called vegetable wool, known in Europe as " full
rough" and "moderate rough." This cotton is unique
Colonisation, Commerce, Railways 351
in its class. Other kinds of cotton are grown, as
Sea Island, Peruvian Mitafifi, and the American smooth
variety. All these Peruvian cottons fetch higher prices
than the American cottons. The world's production of
raw cotton cannot cope with the world's demands ; and
it is well to draw attention to the fact that in Peru there
are enormous areas suitable for its cultivation, under
irrigation, such as could supply any deficiency. The
value of the production of cotton and its by-products
in Peru for 1904 was ;^4 15,000.
The Peruvians have recognised the necessity for
scientific advance in the main industries of their soil,
and the School of Agriculture has given good results.
The School of Mining is also a flourishing institution.
The amount of cultivable land in the coast-zone is
governed by the available water supply, as I have
shown. Not so, however, in the Montafta, where other
conditions obtain. From a pamphlet written by a
Peruvian statistician, Sefior Alejandro Garland, upon
the matter of colonisation in the Montana, I translate
the following :
"In the north of Peru, on both sides of the river
Maranon, there are more than 16,000 square leagues of
land for colonisation. Even deducting 50 per cent, of
this amount for forests, rivers, rocks, etc., there remains
8,000 square leagues (72,000 square miles) for cultiva-
tion. There is no exaggeration in valuing at thousands
of millions of dollars the capital these lands would
represent with fifteen years of colonisation and work.
No other territory in South America offers such
facilities as this — the facilities of being in communi-
cation with two oceans, the Pacific and the Atlantic.
The millions of acres in this section of our territory
could form a great centre of colonisation and commerce,
here upon the head-waters of navigation of the Amazon.
The highlands of this region enjoy a temperature similar
to that of the south of France ; whilst the valleys are
hot. The products of both a tropical and a temperate
zone are encounteied together; in the same basket you
may put barley, wheat, oranges, bananas, pineapples,
and even coffee, chocolate, and tobacco. To their riches
are to be added others still greater: in every hill are
352 The Andes and the Amazon
minerals of copper, gold, and silver; and, in short, as
soon as the hand of man shall penetrate there these gifts
of Providence must be utilised, for Providence has pre-
pared there the most beautiful recompenses, such as have
never before satisfied the aspirations of man."
" In this region the best conditions are united for
colonisation by European races. The climate is healthy
and delicious, malaria is unknown, as the altitude neutra-
lises the effects of tropical latitude. These enormous
plains which Peru possesses in her northern region, on
the eastern slopes of the Andes, at 1,500 to 2,000 feet
above sea -level, more or less, are entirely appropriate
for colonisation by European immigrants."
The region above described includes that of which I
have spoken as the *' Upper Montana," and it is certainly
a magnificent territory, almost unknown, so far, to the
outside world. It is towards this region that capitalists
and colonists should direct their attention. They can
reach it either by crossing the Andes from Pacific Coast
ports, or by ascending the Amazon from the Atlantic
coast of Brazil. This splendid region will be opened up
by the railway uniting the port of Payta on the Pacific
Coast with the port of Limon on the Marafion, which I
have advocated elsewhere. The enormous Department of
Loreto, of something like 270,000 square miles in area, is
a possession of which any nation might be proud. The
capital of this Department — Iquitos, river port and town —
must assuredly become a most important commercial and
strategic centre in the future. The line of railway will
give through communication from the Atlantic Ocean via
Para, Manaos, Tabatinga (which latter place is on the
Peruvian frontier), Iquitos, and Port Limon, to the Pacific
Coast at Payta, as elsewhere described. The interesting
pamphlet written by the Peruvian statistician, Sefior
Garland, on this subject, from which I have translated
elsewhere, deals with this project also.
Of course. Agriculture and Mining need not occupy
the attention only of the immigrants into Peruvian
territory. Businesses of all kinds call for capital and
labour. Manufactures will be obliged to expand greatly
Colonisation, Commerce, Railways 353
in the future, and small capitalists could do well in many
of the various branches of manufacturing, of modern
communities ; and such matters are more likely to be
remunerative than the mere shopkeeping which so many
of the foreigners — especially the Italians — pursue in South
American countries.
More capital is the great need of the country. Agri-
cultural and mining enterprise is, at present, stifled for
want of money, as well as want of labour. There are
several banks in the capital, such as the Bank of Peru
and London, the Italian and German Banks, and the
National Banks ; but their powers are not adequate to
the needs of the country, and certainly will not be, in
view of its probable future expansion. A bank which
could lend funds for developing mines ought to give
profitable results.
The following extracts I translate from the account
published from the edition of 12th January, 1906, of the
Comercio, one of the leading newspapers of Lima, reviewing
the state of trade of the Republic of Peru.
"The fiscal wealth of the country has increased in
more than 100 per cent, during the period of peace and
tranquillity which began in 1895. Even better results
have obtained during the past year — 1905 — and this is
largely due to the activity and energy of the present
administration. The best exponent of public wealth —
Commerce — has risen in Peru in value during the past
year, to a figure which it has never before reached — not
even during the famous times of the guano and the
nitrate, which Chile now enjoys, and which gave us the
fictitious prosperity which caused the war. The imports
and exports for 1905 — the latter being slightly greater
than the former — are calculated in ;^ 1 0,000,000 : the
highest figure which the business of the country has ever
reached."
The currency of Peru is established on the gold basis,
and the fact of the British pound sterling being a legal
and current coin is very convenient for foreigners.
The great essential need for the development of the
South American Republics on the Pacific side of the
z
354 The Andes and the Amazon
Continent is, as I have reiterated elsewhere, the con-
struction of railways. Political dissension and questions
of boundary will largely diminish when means of com-
munication between capitals and the outlying parts of
Republics are better established, and when more frequent
travel takes place between neighbouring states. Pro-
nuncianiientos and revolutions have been stifled in
Mexico, as an example, chiefly by the construction of
railway and telegraph lines.
The existing railways of Peru are principally short
lines which run normal to the coast, and die a natural
death on encountering the slopes of the Andes. There
are two exceptions, as has been described elsewhere.
The railway from Mollendo surmounts the Andes and
gives outlet to that vast region of Titicaca, Cuzco, and
part of Bolivia. The Central Railway from Callao and
Lima, constructed at enormous cost amid bribery and
corruption, years ago, surmounts the Andes and taps
important mining and agricultural regions, taking freight
up and down under heavy charges, due largely to heavy
grades and cost of maintenance. But it stops there in
the Andes, although it is projected to continue it onward
and downward again easterly towards the Amazon. The
great Pan-American railway, which would traverse Peru
longitudinally, seems not to emerge yet from the land
of paper or of dreams. It is strange that, notwithstanding
the great undertakings in railway work being carried out
in other continents of the world, in Canada, Africa, etc.,
no great railway spirit or genius arises to link together
the wonderful continent which Columbus found, from end
to end. But it will come.
As regards Peru, she is too poor to undertake very much,
although she is doing what she can in her territory with
several short lines and extensions, one of which goes to
the old Inca capital of Cuzco, and another to the fertile
valleys of Jauja and Huancayo. Longitudinal railways
should be built, one on the plateau and one on the
coast, and those extensions form part of such a system.
Living is dear in the cities of the coast, which depend
Colonisation, Commerce, Railways 855
much for the necessaries of life on the steamers, and
which would be cheapened by railways connecting them
with each other and with agricultural centres, both cis-
Andean and ultra-Andean. This is only a question of
time, when the attention of foreign capitalists may be
turned that way, and, indeed, there are various matters
of this nature pending. For the construction of railways
Peru offers valuable concessions of territory, such as in
any other continent would seem to form sufficient induce-
ment. These lands will, in the future, be as valuable,
or possibly more so, as those which in North America —
Canada — are witnessing such marked changes.
The total length of railways in Peru is about 1,400
miles. Of this the Central takes about 200, and the
Southern or Mollendo — Arequipa, including Puno and
Cuzco — 450 miles, whilst the rest is distributed among
about forty-five other smaller systems. The Peruvian
Corporation, which, as before described, controls the
greater part of these railways, has made marked im-
provements recently ; and due chiefly to the growing
development of the country, the earnings are increasing
considerably. Thus, whilst in 1891, according to the
published figures, the profits were about ;^5 6,000, in
1904 they were ;^220,000; and in 1905 a further marked
increase took place, the earnings being ;^703,900.
As has been intimated elsewhere, there is a long-
standing disagreement between this Company and the
Government of Peru, which it is not within the province
of this book to comment much upon. There is doubtless
something to be said on both sides, but some reflections
may be made. The Company certainly possesses a
magnificent property, and opportunities which are sus-
ceptible of great development and extension, as stated
in another chapter, and they should be generous and
conciliatory. And as regards Peru, it is certainly better
for the country that the railways should be administered
by foreigners and non-officials. Government ownership
of railways would be disastrous ; they would simply and
inevitably develop into political machines, such as is the
856 The Andes and the Amazon
unfortunate fate of government and municipal controlled
enterprises in all American countries — North or South.
The Government will do well to leave railway enterprise
in private hands, and to foster their construction — as
they are at present doing — by judicious subsidies. And
greatly bound up with the matter of railways is that of
immigration and colonisation. Some experiments have
been made with the establishing of foreign colonies in
Peru during the latter half of last century; most of
which have failed. Much literature and theory have
been emitted upon the subject; but no amount of
theoretical examination and discussion will cause im-
migration to flow into a country until a natural pressure
from the emigratory source takes place. This natural
pressure can, of course, be attracted or diverted towards
this or that part of the earth's surface, given conditions
acceptable for the life of Europeans upon the new land.
And if Peru is to become a centre of rest for part of
this pressure — and there is no reason why it should not —
attention must be called towards it, and some railways —
or at least a main railway — made into the territory it is
intended to settle. Evil reputations, also, must be dissi-
pated, both of governments and of territories — that is
to say, of revolutions and lack of security on the one
hand, and of fevers, wild beasts, and other exaggerated
matters on the other. This region of the Amazon has
persistently refused to become colonised, and in the
half-century or more since steam navigation began on
this great river (1853), neither the fact of its natural
resources nor the efforts of the States occupying it have
been sufficient to cause it to become the scene of activity
which has long been predicted for it. Nevertheless, the
existence of these great navigable highways, facilitating
access, is beginning now to cause a marked change and
progress, which will undoubtedly increase day by day,
as the region becomes more known.
It is not too much to predict for Peru in the near future
a great development upon stable lines of her territory
and resources. She yields staple articles for the world's
Colonisation, Commerce, Railways 357
commerce — cotton, copper, wool, sugar, india-rubber, and
a host of other valuable articles — whilst the opportunities
for trade and manufacture are considerable and growing.
Her lands and general attractions are certainly not inferior
— they are in many cases superior — to those of other and
even more remote countries which are now under develop-
ment, and she is inhabited, moreover, by a peaceable people,
"thirsty for progress, extending the hand of welcome to
the foreigner who seeks her shores." Peru in transition
offers a field of operation for the capitalist, the merchant,
the immigrant, the agriculturalist, the miner ; and it seems
probable that the tide of development and prosperity must
sweep that way before long, as it has to such a marked
extent in Mexico, Argentina, and other kindred countries
of the New World.
CHAPTER XXXV
SOUTH AMERICAN RELATIONS
The Peruvians consider that their country is one of those
which will be most benefited by the construction of the
Panama Canal, and there is no doubt that this assumption
is made in reason. The through traffic from Europe and
the New York side of the United States, which will result
with the West Coast of South America if this work is
successfully carried to completion, should cause the rapid
development of the countries of that littoral ; and Peru,
Ecuador, and Colombia, being those nearest to Panama,
will feel the effects earliest. Peru, moreover, possesses
the best harbours, such as Payta — which I have described
elsewhere — Chimbote (a splendid bay), Callao, etc. In the
same way that Chile, the southernmost country of South
America, has benefited most by the steamers from Europe
and North America which pass the Straits of Magellan, or
the Horn, so the northernmost countries will benefit by the
steamers which arrive via Panama. Hitherto they have
been isolated : cut off from European influence by that
narrow topographical barrier of the isthmus of Panama,
which it is expected the North Americans will eliminate.
Indeed, the Americans owe the world something in this
respect in atonement for the machinations which caused
Panama to declare itself a separate community — machina-
tions which, it is considered, emanated from the United
States, taking from the Republic of Colombia her great
and valuable birthright of the Canal site. The affair was
one of expediency, and not of morality, and viewed as
an academic question was un-American, using the word
" American " in its true sense. But the act was partly
358
South American Relations 359
brought on by the mistaken policy of the Colombians
themselves, and they have, moreover, received some
compensation. The subject has now gone down into
history, and if new conditions do not arise all the nations
will be benefited by the building of the Canal. Whether
the North Americans will adopt a cosmopolitan policy,
such as Great Britain's in such matters, only the future
can show. " Quien vive, verd ! "
As shown elsewhere, Peru is demonstrating a wise and
reasonable attitude towards her neighbours as to ques-
tions of boundary ; and this is necessary, for the constant
friction over matters of territorial rights, principally in the
region of the Amazon, has continually disturbed the South
American peace. Peru has had but one friendly neighbour
for some time past — the Pacific Ocean, whose billows wash
her 1,500 miles of coast. Her other neighbours seem, some-
times, to be bent upon enlarging their own borders at her
expense, in view of the fact that she is almost unarmed
and peaceably disposed. Some of them have even accused
her of being the disturbing element ; but this reminds the
foreign observer of the old controversy between the wolf
and the lamb, regarding the turbidity of the stream !
The relations between the various South American
countries are — not unlike those of other continents often —
governed by measures of expediency or self-interest, rather
than justice. The policy of Chile towards Peru, in the
question of Tacna and Arica, partakes of this character ;
and this is unfortunate, for the natural progress and
development of the two countries, rather than clashing,
runs upon parallel lines. In their relations with each other
South American countries should not forget the significance
of the proverb of their race :
" To-day to thee — to-morrow to me ! "
for none know what the future may have in store on that
changeable continent. As to Ecuador, Peru's northern
neighbour, it is commonly stated that she is under the
influence of Chile in regard to the policy of antagonism 10
Peru. Whether or not this is really the case it is difficult
860 The Andes and the Amazon
to say. The Ecuatorians are a people of progressive spirit,
and will probably develop a judicious foreign policy ; and
their boundary question with Peru once settled, there need
be no question between the two countries. Chile is a virile
and aggressive nation, and moreover wants, or will want,
more territory. She cannot expand in her narrow strip
between the Andes and the coast, and when the nitrate of
Tarapaca is exhausted she will look about for fresh fields
for enterprise and revenue. This may be satisfied by her
alliance with, or absorption later of, Bolivia, for the latter
Republic has allied herself with her former antagonist,
Chile, instead of her former ally, Peru. The Argentine
Republic and Chile glare at each other over the dividing
summits of the Andes, maintaining a mutual respect born
of the knowledge of equal strategic strength and balanced
armaments — a factor for peace on the Continent. Peru
has carried on a friendly flirtation with the Argentine,
which also tends towards stability, and offsets the Chilean
antagonism towards Peru. On the Atlantic side, Argentine
and her neighbour Brazil alternately coquette and argue,
each bent on being considered the dominating power.
Peru and Brazil jealously regard each other's boundaries in
the region of the Amazon — Brazil showing a disposition,
as the stronger power, to encroach upon her neighbour,
as also a latent — and sometimes manifest — desire to
restrict navigation on this river as regards Peru.
The development of the Monroe Doctrine, and its
enunciation by statesmen of the United States, has been
received by South American communities with varying
sentiments. " The policy of the big stick," as it has been
termed, has been reviewed, criticised, rejected, accepted,
by turns. They hardly know what to make of it so far.
Some of them pronounce it a menace to their sovereignty
or freedom of action. To the aphorism of " America for
the Americans "—the war-cry of the Doctrine — some of
these states have placed the ironical corollary of " For the
North Americans ! " Peru looks favourably towards the
United States, and somewhat in the spirit of the law-
abiding citizen who beholds with satisfaction the stalwart
South American Relations 361
policeman at the street corner, for Peru has little to fear
and much to gain by North American influence in South
America.
It has been criticised that the Americans of the United
States have arrogated to themselves the general nomen-
clature of " Americans," for the term geographically and
ethnologically belongs, of course, to the Spanish as well
as the Anglo-Saxon people of the New World. North
American representatives — Ministers and Consuls — have,
however, received instructions from Washington to use the
term officially. A North American Minister of Foreign
Affairs (Mr Root) has recently concluded a tour of the whole
of the South American coast on board a United States
warship, visiting all those Republics on both the Atlantic
and the Pacific in the interests of the Monroe Doctrine
and general American affairs. He has, of course, been
well received. There are no people more hospitable and
courteous than the South Americans, and no doubt the
journey will be historic. But it is doubtful if any great
change will take place in the mutual relations of the two
Americas, or that the hegemony of the United States will
be generally accepted as regards South American foreign
policy. The Republic of Argentina is now a rich and
powerful community, and has been so created by the
influence of Europe, and the gold and labour flowing there-
from, and is not likely to adopt any course which might
alienate or offend this. Somewhat similar conditions obtain
in Chile. The Chilians consider themselves the " British of
South America" — a term sometimes varied also as the
" Yankees of South America " ; and the development of the
resources of their country has been largely due to British
gold and enterprise, as, indeed, as concerns the latter, to a
certain extent was their independence as a State. They
are an independent and virile race, and would be offended
at the least suggestion of North American leading-strings.
Considering for a moment the subject of European
Colonies under political possession in South America,
would such be objectionable from an economic point of
view? Certain it is that many of the South American
362 The Andes and the Amazon
States would have been in a different position now had
they been British possessions, although possibly at the
expense of other continents civilised by the British flag
and the development which followed it. What, for
example, would be the loss to humanity in general or
the countries in particular if the great German Colony
in Brazil grew and obtained political control of some
Brazilian territory on the Amazon? Would not the
enterprising German nation pour out her sons and her
treasure from the Fatherland, to spend them on that
fruitful soil ? Undoubtedly ; and a great progressive
community would be formed in those vast regions,
which at present the few million Brazilians can hardly
touch. There could be no loss to mankind in this,
rather a gain; and Germany must have a Colonial
outlet. Would the Brazilians consent to this ; would
they or any other South American nation consent to
yield up part of their inheritance ? It is doubtful ;
although they might consider the sale of some of the
huge areas they are continually taking from each other
in the heart of the continent, and which is only inhabited
at present by hordes of Indians and monkeys. When
and how does the possession of unsettled territory begin ?
By foreign Colonists who settle there, and, later, exact
political rights ? This was how the United States obtained
the huge State of Texas from the Mexicans, as well as
other vast States which constitute a large part of their
vast Empire.
But if the Germans obtained part of South America,
with political control, the Monroe Doctrine would be
violated. Also with regard to German Colonies, the
phenomenon is to be observed that these seem to
flourish best under some other regime than that of the
Fatherland. The " mailed fist " and conscription methods
and sentiments of the authority by which that great
nation allows itself to be dominated does not seem
conducive to the independence of spirit which the
Colonial citizen of an Empire acquires and exacts.
There are several points of view from which the
South American Relations 863
Monroe Doctrine may be considered. It may be thought
of as a protecting agency from the rapine and predatory
nations of Europe bent upon conquest of defenceless
American Republics in the New World ; and it is highly
probable that if it did not exist much territory in
those continents would have passed by conquest into
European possession. Whether both humanity in general
and South America in particular would have benefited
by this is an interesting matter for discussion — probably
they would. Yet certain sentiments of liberty, patriotism,
and Americanism would have been outraged in the
process, and from that point of view the doctrine is
philosophical. None can deny, also, that its original
meaning and enunciation against a wicked " Holy
Alliance " — a wolf in sheep's clothing of fanatical
religious powers — was a measure for the protection of
civilisation, in a sense ; and by Great Britain this doctrine
was invented, and by the Americans defended. As far,
also, as Great Britain is concerned the maintenance of
the Doctrine is of considerable advantage, for by it the
United States protects British America in time of war
against that country's enemies. Any attack on Canada
or other part of the British Empire in the New World
would embroil the United States. The wonderful growth
of Canada itself will soon be a factor in this matter
also, and Canada is becoming an American Power.^
The other point of view for considering the Doctrine
is that of its selfish nature rather than the altruistic
attitude in which it is represented. Its tendency may
be, perhaps, to raise up barriers to intercourse and
commerce between the Old and the New Worlds. Why
should barriers of influence or pretension be raised up
between nations? The present age tends, rather, to
dispel them. Is there, also, anything hypocritical in
the Doctrine in view of the North American's attitude
and action towards other States, as witness Panama, the
Philippines, etc.? Will it be possible, also, for the
United States to take moral charge of the Republics of
^ British- American, that is.
864 The Andes and the Amazon
Central and South America and to arrange matters with
their great European creditors? The future must say,
and it alone will show, whether these States will acquire
stability under this ^gis, or whether they will develop
temerity towards the easy repudiation of their obliga-
tions— a further development of the marked characteristics
which they possess already. Unfortunately the business
and administrative methods of the North Americans are
not such as to warrant their yet taking up the position
of mentor to any one ; probably the responsibility as a
world-power which they are acquiring will bring greater
worthiness among them ; and one thing is certain — the
closer their association with Great Britain, the sooner will
their capacity for righteous administration be developed.
The improved relations between Great Britain and
the United States, which of late years has so fortunately
developed, will, in time, influence Englishmen in South
America. At present British subjects living or engaged
in business in the Spanish-American Republics — and they
are numerous — do not like the North Americans : not
to use a stronger term. This is due to various causes.
The unfortunate methods of the Cleveland Administration
during the Venezuela incident with Great Britain left
a lasting impression on British inhabitants of Spanish
America. They consider that Britain was affronted and
bluffed, and the impression was given to the South
Americans that she feared to hold her own, when in
reality it was a wonderful forbearance she was dis-
playing towards the United States. This resulted in a
loss of prestige for Britain in South America, for the
Spanish-American character does not readily grasp the
sentiment of political generosity, but is prone to applaud
success, in whatever form it be gained. Also, British
traders in South America are generally old-established,
and upright in their methods, and they resent Yankee
shrewdness. Of course, there is a slight admixture of
envy in this, or rather the feeling of regarding the
Americans as interlopers in a field previously their own.
But in general terms, the influence of the United
South American Relations 365
States in South America must make for stability and
order. It can hardly prejudice European affairs — com-
merce cannot be altered or controlled by such matters ;
and, so far, European trade with South America holds its
own. If it loses in the future it will be due to its own
methods, or to the commercial methods of the United
States, if these develop superiority over European
methods.
But, putting aside commerce, the development of Peru
and kindred nations of South America depends largely
upon the immigration of labour from Europe. Labour
from the United States will not go there, and Asiatics
are looked upon with growing disfavour. Italians,
Spaniards, Austrians, and others will continue to enter ;
and in the future this immigration must rapidly increase,
due to the restrictions now being placed upon entry into
the United States. South American countries cannot
yet afford to place restrictions of this nature : they want
population at all hazards, and continue to welcome all
comers to their freer shores. The United States as a
home for the poor and oppressed is rapidly becoming a
closed quantity.
And here may be permitted a momentary digression
upon this point. Has any American country the right
to close its ports to the entry of any individual, saving,
of course, known criminals ? To whom, may it be said,
does America belong? Is it permissible — philosophically
speaking — to weed out the lowest element of immigrating
humanity which arrives on American shores, and retain
only the best element? Is it just or wise? If it were
to continue indefinitely it would be disastrous for the
emigrating nations : to have their dregs thrown back
upon them and to give up the cream of their people.
Of course, the remedy for that lies somewhat in their
own hands — to create conditions which shall keep their
people at home. But it must soon be asked at what
point in its history has a new country — America,
Australia, Africa — the right to place an embargo upon
immigrants from the Old World. I have never forgotten
366 The Andes and the Amazon
a caricature I once saw in a New York comic paper,
when the subject of the restriction of immigration first
arose. Upon the quay of a seaport were pictured four
pot-bellied and prosperous-looking individuals, wearing
enormous watch-chains and sparkling with diamonds —
millionaires, in short. This vanguard of civilisation was
repulsing with outstretched hands the entreaties of boat-
loads of poor and half-starved immigrants from Europe,
that they might be allowed to land. And now comes
the point. Behind the bloated and prosperous individuals
aforesaid appeared respectively the phantom forms of
four wretched immigrants, of hunger - stricken aspect —
the phantoms of the forefathers of the four individuals
who denied admittance to the immigrants of to-day, to
the prosperity which they themselves had enjoyed ! The
picture carries its own moral.
What is to be the future of South America ? Children
of the same race, are they likely to unify and form one
continent and nation, as did the States of North America,
their model? At present there is no tendency to do so.
The present division is more to the liking of the Spanish-
Americans. It gives them opportunity for a multiplication
of Presidential and all other executive and official posts,
of which they are fond. The jealousies and demarcations
between them are as strong as between nations of totally
different races, and it would seem impossible yet that a
common Chief and Capital could be agreed upon. The
territory is too vast, and lacks means of communication.
It takes as long to travel from one part of South America
to another, as to journey from that continent to Europe.
So formidable are the barriers which Nature interposes,
in the form of mountains and forests, that the Pacific
seaports of Peru are in easiest communication with the
Peruvian river ports on the Amazon — as Iquitos — by
going round South America, crossing to Liverpool, and
going back again through Brazil. This is due to a lack of
a trans - continental railway, joining the Pacific Coast with
the river system of the Amazon. Peru jhould construct
this railway ; the lack of it endangers her vast possession
South American Relations 367
on the Amazon. Experience has shown even European
Powers that great territorial possessions without railways
are an element of danger. It is vital for her, both
commercially and strategically, to link her Pacific Coast
with her river Amazon possessions by a line of railway.
If not, the day may arise when neighbours who cast
envious eyes will stretch forth perfidious hands upon
her Orient!
It is doubtful, also, if the day has yet arrived for
these countries to pursue their destiny in common. The
continent and its vast resources, so far scarcely touched,
will be developed more readily by these varying units of
Government, each doing its part, than by one possible
Central Authority. The essential condition is peace
among themselves — both domestic and neighbourly peace
— and then foreign capital and immigrants will natur-
ally flow that way. Fantastic doctrines, also, regarding
sovereignty and the regulation of debt-responsibility must
be avoided. The laws of " mine and thine " cannot be
changed, even in America, be it North or South.
We may, however, as regards unification, indulge our
fancy for a moment in possible combinations of South
American Republics. Let us place together Peru, Chile,
and Bolivia, with a common Capital on the high plateau
of Titicaca. Here, in this keen and rigorous region, the
governing power of a virile and energetic race might
develop. They might acquire something of the spirit — as
regards good government and cohesion — of the old Inca
regime which flourished there. They would control a vast
region of millions of square miles, containing the richest
mineral region, and the most varied topographical and
climatological territory in the world. The spirit of
courtesy end the scientific and literary instincts of the
people of Lima and Peru, would blend with the spirit of
enterprise and daring of the men of Valparaiso and
Santiago de Chile, and with the patience of the Bolivian.
The stars, stripes, eagles, cannons, and other devices of
their various insignia would be blazoned on a common
standard which should wave over a thousand leagues of
368 The Andes and the Amazon
Pacific Coast, dominate the Andes, and bear its influence
into the great regions of the Amazon. It is not an
unnatural picture, and against them would be grouped
Argentina, with Uruguay and Paraguay, Ecuador, Colombia,
and Venezuela, and Brazil.
What a remarkable instance of the present vanity of
true economy in human affairs a South American Republic
presents ! Consider any one of these communities. What
are they? They are small bodies of people with vast
areas of rich territory such as could keep the whole of
their inhabitants in comfort and wealth, if these riches
were exploited in a common -sense manner. Not a
penny need they ask from Europe, did they but use in
a natural way what Nature has given them. Here is
gold for coinage, metals for manufacture, cotton and
wool for clothing, wheat and meat for food, labour and
materials for roads, knowledge for directing their work,
and science and art in their midst ; in short, all the
essentials for a self- centred and self- supporting com-
munity which, it might seem, could carry on its
civilisation and work out its own salvation and destiny
entirely independent from the rest of the world. But
it cannot. To do this its rulers and politicians would
have to be free from the defects of ambition, avarice,
and cruelty, which they display in a degree so marked
in comparison with the rest of the civilised world.
Indeed, to consummate such a condition philosophers
must be presidents, and presidents must be imbued with
philosophy — to paraphrase Plato — a condition which
does not yet arise. What is civilisation? Does it
consist of turning out the greatest number of pieces of
finished manufacture in the shortest possible time at
the least possible cost, and selling the greatest number
to the other nations of the world? Does it consist of
loans abroad, of armies and navies ? No ; though these
seem to be necessary adjuncts to the phases through
which Spanish-American civilisation must pass. Civilisa-
tion might rather be defined as the making use of all
the bounties that Nature has provided to a community,
South American Relations 369
in a philosophical sense, demanding the highest possible
standard of life for the individual citizen, as a unit of
the whole, and providing him the means whereby he
may attain this condition. Civilisation should really
consist in establishing a minimum standard of living
below which none of its citizen units should be per-
mitted to fall, and which should be the basal plane of
higher developments. But none of the nations of the
world carry this out yet ; could it be expected that
South America could do so? Yet it might be more
easily accomplished by the South American Republics
than by any other community in the world, having in
view the small populations there, inhabiting vast and
rich territories. It is a common saying in Peru, for
example, that the country may be likened to a beggar
in rags seated upon a mountain of gold ! In these
countries there is a mine for every inhabitant; a farm
for every child. But alas ! for any birth to mankind of
a new order or method of social economy, in the New
World. Mankind might have hoped for some true and
philosophical application of the gifts of Nature to the
needs of man in the Americas. Far from it. Man's
inhumanity to man is as terrible as heretofore. The
prey of man is man, there : as before Columbus sailed,
or before the Pilgrim Fathers " moored their bark on a
wild New England Coast." President was substituted
for monarch — and so the ruler, divested of the noblesse
oblige which hedged a king, exercised the untrammelled
tyranny and petty faults of the common man. Or so it
has been in Spanish and Portuguese America, whilst in
the Anglo-Saxon Republic of the North more ingenious
weapons have been forged by its inhabitants to oppress
their fellows. We know, we feel, in our optimistic survey
of the world that these are passing phases — evil which
shall give place to good ; but we also feel that an image
has been dashed from its pedestal, and our hearts turn
to old Europe, whence the great civilising streams of life
and thought and action flow,
These civilising streams must more and more become
2 A
370 The Andes and the Amazon
directed to South America in the near future, and a fusion
of races will take place there which may yet develop
principles and methods new and useful to the world at
large — the eloquent and idealistic temperament of the
Spanish-American allied to the spirit of practicability of
the European. For the present the development of this
vast continent lies with the matters of railway building
and immigration. Vigorous trans-continental construc-
tion of lines such as has taken place in the United
States, Canada, Africa, and elsewhere, and a diverting
of the army of emigrants from the Old World to its
great territories, such as in Peru and kindred countries
exist, will cause a change in the regimen of South
America, such as the observer of to-day can hardly
picture.
INDEX
Abancay, 165
Abduction, 104
Abuse of the Indians, 150, 185, 285,
297
Acobambilla, 133
Aconcagua, 178
Acoustics, 59, 194
Acre region, 291
Adobe, 54, 74, 75, 91, 127, 153, 195,
220, 241
Africa, 4
Agazzis, 291
Agriculture, 126, 139, 214, 346-357.
See also " Cultivation"
Aguamiro, 82
Alcaldes, 19
Alcamarini, 122
Alcohol, 21, 118, 122, 128, 139, 151,
169
Alfalfa, 23, III, 132, 252
Alluvial fans, 51
Alpaca, III, 120, 122, 252, 347
Altitudes, 165
Amalgamation, 197, 200, 202
Amazon, 2, 3, 71, 110, 125, 129 166,
245-293. 356, 360
Americans, in, 204, 206, 291, 295,
298, 299, 300, 313, 359-370
Ammonites, 16, 86, 231
Ananea, 121, 246
Ancachs, 89, 178, 221, 226
Andahuaylas, 207
Andaray, 191
Andenes, 78, 140, 224, 240, 247, 248
Andes, i, 3, lo, 69, 78, no, 113,
126, 164, 171, 262, 339
Anthelion, 54
Anthracite, 82, 208
" Anti-Cristo," 158
Antofagasta, 2
Aporoma, 112, 116, 188, 191, 245,
247
Apurimac, 128, 132, 166, 243
Aqueducts, 244
Arapa, Lake, 123, 134, 163, 243, 252
Arbitration of boundaries, 2, 3, 262
Arch, in Inca architecture, 223, 242
Architecture, 54, 91, 127, 153, 210-
236, 310, 323
Area of Peru, 3, 322, 349
Arequipa, 3, 14, 50, 54, 89, 92, no,
153, 162, 165, 166, 191, 344
Argentina, 250, 253, 360
Arica, loi, 299, 359
Aricoma, in, 118, 167, 187
Arrieros, 23, 26, 95, 128, 130, 165
Art, Indian, 56, 60, 220
Arucanian, 95
Asia, 25s
Astronomy, Inca, 224, 233
Atahualpa, 191-193, 215
Atlantic, 4, 164, 176, 262
Aullagas, Lake, 252
Auriferous regions, 24, 76, 1 16, 1 19,
123, 184-191
Australia, 82
Ayacucho, 130, 165, 166
Aymaraes, 191, 197, 242, 255
Aymaras, 59, 123, 149, 249
Azangaro, no, in, 245
Azogue, 202
B
Balsas, 123
Bananas, 347
Banks, 353
Baths, 71, 132, 233, 244
Beliefs, Indian, 275, 283
Beni, river, no
Bible, 94, 104, 213
Bismuth, 72, 207
Bleeding stone, 223
Boas, 121
Bolivia, 2, 13, 44, no, 122, 163, 220,
249, 252, 256, 265, 329, 360
Booth line steamers, 264
Borax, 184, 207
Borja, 262
Bottles, 47, 109
Boundaries, 2, 362
Brazil, 2, 177, 254, 256, 265, 360
Breakwater, 44
Bridges, 220, 240-244, 250
37^
872
Index
British enterprise, 206, 208, 248, 295,
329, 335, 362
Buccaneers, 188, 295, 314, 336, 351
Bufon, 131, 202
CAiLLOMA, 200
Cajamarca, 89, 165, 192, 194, 207,
240
Cajatambo, 200, 208
Calchaqui, 253
California, 186, 270, 334
Callao, 2, no, 126, 162, 165, 166,
313, 314, 331
Camana, 45, 52
Camanchaca, 5
Camarones, 2, 59
Camel of the Andes, 252
Camp, 12, 31, 67, 118, 227
Canada, 363
Cane, 7, 126, 227
Caiiete, 191
Cannibals, 112, 214
Cano, Sebastian, 335
Canoes, 3, 262, 264, 270, 276
Cantilever, 76, 241
Capital, opening for, 209, 289, 356
Caps, Indian, 59
Carabaya, no, 186, 191
Carlos III. of Spain, 212
Carnival, 105, 145
Carpa, Lakes of, 77
Carpenters, Indian, 155
Cartagena, 335
Casapalca, 207
Casma, 90, 220
Castrovirreyna, 130, 200
Cathedral, 91, 132, 135, 155, 337
Cattle, 131, 272, 347
Caucho, see " India-rubber" ^
Caves, 5, 36, 112
Caya-huaya, river, 258
Cedars, 116
Celibacy, 157
Cephalopods, 16
Cerrode Pasco, 13, 135, 165, 200, 205
Chachapoyas, 166
Chaco, 250, 254
Chancaca, 180
Charqui, 150
Chavin, Castle of, 69, 71, 72, 226,
232, 241, 251
Cheapness of living, 102
Chicha, 61, 74
Chiclayo, 165
Child-birth, Indian women, 137, 138,
280
Chile, 2, 47, 95, loi, 126, 178, 220,
299. 313, 359
Chimbote, 2, 71, 88, 90, 176, 207,
220
Chimus, 242
Chinamen, 123, 134, 170, 254, 328
Chinchaicocha, Lake, 163
Chira, 3
Choclococha, 129, 163
Cholos, 7, 74, 84, 91, 137, 172, 179,
254
Chorillos, 191
Chonta, 83, 84, 202
Christ, 56, 57
Chulpas, 248
Chunchos, 112, 271
Chuquibamba, 75, 242
Chuquicara, river, 191
Church, in Peru, 74, 152-159, 315
, ruined, 53, 121, 132, 337
Cinnabar, 10, 84, 127, 131, 202
Cities of the Andes, 89
Civilisation, 368
Claims, mining, 209
Climate, 4, 76, 81, 127, 131, '132,
160, 165, 186, 200, 220, 248, 269,
271, 291, 328, 346-352
Clothing, 138, 143, 169, 275, 277-284
Coal, 13, 15, 82, 130, 134, 184, 207
Coast line, 2, 45, 262
zone, 2, 4, 13, 26, 127, 220,
346-357
Cobalt, 207
Cocaine, Coca, 77, 150, 173, 176, 177
Cocha, 163
Cocoa, 272, 351
Coffee, 272, 351
Cojata, 122
Colluahuasi, 167
Colombia, 2, 252, 256, 313, 358
Colon, 313
Colonial period, 258
Colonisation, 346-357
Columns, 127
Comercio, newspaper, 150, 271, 286
Commerce, 346-357
Congo, 285, 291
Congress of Americanists, 216
Conical houses, 124
Conococha, 87, 90, 163
Copper, 7, 82, 130, 134, 135, 184,
198, 205-209, 352
tools, 218, 224, 231, 248, 253
Cordillera, lo, 13, 89, 164, 171
Coropuna, no, 167
Corrugated iron, 53
Cotabambas, 191
Coto, 72, 273
Cotton, 7, 126, 279-283, 347
Cretaceous, 184, 206
Crevasses, 173
Crosses, 71, 153, 315
Cultivation, 75, ni, 123, 126, 139,
261, 275, 289, 346-357. See also
Agriculture
Cumari, 248
Index
878
Cura, S3, 1 1 8, 156
Curacas, 212
Currency, 353
Cutani, 113
Cuyus-Mancu, 195
Cuzco, 13, no, 165, 191, 194, 207,
215, 219, 222, 237, 247, 250
Dances, 103
Dartmoor, 81, 82
Darwin, 291, 295
Desaguadero, 163, 242, 252
Deserts, 41, 47, 127
Despedida, 109
Destruction of rubber forests, 288
Devonshire, 42, 75, 81, 314, 333, 335
Diaz, President, 318
Disconfidenceof Indians, 25, 29, 147,
297
Discovery of the Amazon, 258
Distances from Lima, 165
Distinguished foreigner, 100
Divortia aguarum, 70, 129, 164, 176,
246, 271
Don Quixote, 48, 59, 300
Drake, 8, 315, 331-335
Dredging, gold, 186, 190
Drunkenness, 21, 61, 92, 118, 128,
135. 145
Earthquakes, 10, 53, 153, 161,
3M, 336-345
Easter Island, 217, 251, 255
Ecuador, 2, 60, 126, 220, 225, 250,
254, 256, 262, 313, 329-359
Egypt, 211, 218, 233
Elections, 316-321
Electricity, 121, 162, 314
Elements, action of, 40, 87, 161
Eloquence, Peruvian, 325-328
Empire, Inca, 215, 218
Engineering reflections, 4 1
school, 309, 351
works, Inca, 140
, native, 140
Engineers, Society of, 309
England and Wales, 3
Enock, 56
Equator , 166
Equipment, 26
Eten, 3, 166
Eucalyptus, 82, 242
Europeans, 1 70. See also ' ' Colonisa-
tion," etc.
Evaporation, 5
Evolution, 159, 210
Faces, painted, 145, 202
Feast-days, 92
Female perfidy, 107
Fernandez, Colonel, 259
Fever, 85, 128, 165, 290-292, 347
Fish, emblem, 217, 250, 251
life, 129
Fitzcarrald, 27 1
" Flea zone," 144
Flora, 81, 133, 179, 351
Flute, hill of the, 147
Fodder, 23, 26
Foreigners, 103, 204, 328-329
Forests, 3, 4, 114, 245-293
Fossils, 16, 86
France, 156, 299, 305
Galena, 199, 200, 207
Galleons, 8, 314
Garcilaso, 193, 194, 212, 224, 230,
247
Generalisation, 19
Gentiles, 72, 79, 147, 227
Geographical continuity, I
Geology, 5, 14, 16, 77, 112, 117, 130,
132, 161, 177, 184-209, 186
Geometrical appearances, 40, 79
Germans, 322, 362
Glaciers, in, 172, 180
Gobernadores , 19, 73, 74, 158, 322
Gold, 7, 10, 31, 76, 112, 118, 130,
184-196, 197-204, 258, 333
Gold-bearing pampas, 186
Government, 151, 158
of Peru, 316-322
Grapes, 347
Graphite, 207
Grinding stones, 250, 251
Guanaco, 122
Guano, 5, 44
Guatemoc, 215
Guayaquil, 313
Guayra, 199
Guinea-pigs, 19
H
Hakluyt series, 196
Halo, 55
Hamburg, 264
Harbours, 2
Hawkins, 335
Heads, reduced human, 281
Hegemony, American. See ' ' Monroe
Doctrine "
Hieroglyphics, 212
Highest inhabited places, 23, 84, 121,
165-170, 205
874
Index
History of gold, 191 -196
Holy Family, 56, 92
Horses, 18, 22
Hospitality, 100, 134, 158
Hotel, 124
Houses, 27, 115, 124, 242, 274
Howe truss, 242
Huacas, 59, 194, 214, 226
Hualgayoc, 200, 208
Huallaga, river, 164, 166, 256, 264
Huallanca, 82, 200, 208
Huallpa, Felipe, 192
Huamachuco, 208
Huancane, 123
Huancavelica, 94, 125, 131, 165, 191,
2(X), 202, 207
Huancayo, 94, 135, 163, 207, 208
Huando, 133
Huantar, 71, 74, 147, 171
Huanuco, 94, t66, 191
, Viejo, 221, 223, 226, 229-236,
241, 251
Huarapasca, 167
Huaraz, 69, 82, 85, 87, 91, 165, 166,
171, 194, 251
Huari, 171, 200, 208
Huari-huari, 113
Huarmarca, 13, 164, 166
Huarochiri, 200, 208
Huascar, 192, 194
Hnascaran, 167, 177-183
Huaylas, 13, 87, 166, 176, 191, 200,
208
Huayllay, 206
Huayna, river, 1 16
Huayna-Capac, 192, 194, 221, 237
Huiracocha. See " Viracocha "
Human tallow, 147
Humay, 128
Humboldt, 131, 202, 262, 291
current, 5
Hydraulic mining, 121, 186, 190, 247
power, 118, 162, 170, 198, 314
Hydrography, 119,. 129, 162, 170,
187, 252. See also " Rivers"
Hygiene, 97, 138
I
ICA, 126, 165, 191, 207
Ice-cap. 5if(! " Snow-cap "
Immigration, 151, 346-357. 3S8-37o
Inambari, river, no, 113, 124
Inca astronomy, 224-226
masonry, 221, 224, 231, 250,
251, 323
Incahuassi, 127
Incas, 78, 86, in, 138, 139, 192,
210-255, 258, 278-283, 349
bridges, 73, 220, 240
carving, 73, 223, 231, 234, 253
cultivation, 78, 214
Incas, descendants, 218, 219
laws, 214, 249
mining, 115, 184, 188, 197,
199, 245-247
monoliths, 73, 222, 223, 225
priests, 59
religion, 86, 194, 195, 214, 316
roads, 70, 115, 237-255
ruins, 34, 69, 72, 77, 79, 119,
127, 147, 220-255
Indians of the forests, 112, 245-293
Sierra, 91, 123, 133, 137.
151
India-rubber, 270, 285-293
cultivation of, 289
exports, 292
forests, destruction of, 288
gatherers, 273 - 275, 282 - 284,
285-293
iniquity of, 275, 282, 285
laws relating to, 293
Iniquity of mining, 204, 209
Inquisition, 315, 338
Intihuatana, 222, 224-226
Intipampa, 248
Iodine, 72
Iquique, 47, 313, 329
Iquitos, 264, 289, 350-352
Iron, 13, 184, 207
Irrigation, 7, 13, 45, 126, 140, 162,
244. 346-357
Islay, 44, 208
Isthmus, ^.fg " Varaderos "
Italy, 156
Izcuchaca, 133, 163
J
Jaguar, 51
Japanese, 254
Jauja, 133, 163
Jeremiah, 93
Juliaca, 121, 124
Junin, 163, 200
Jurassic, 16, 184
K'iMBALETES, 197. 250
Knots, 13, 205
Khubla Khan, 254
Labourers, 349
Lake-basins, 13, 120
Lakes, 70, 77, 82, 87, in, 118, 123,
129, 162, 163, 187
Lam pa, 200
Lampas, 87
Land, available, 272, 347
price of, 272
\ Landing, difficulties of, 44, 314
Index
375
Langui, 163
Latitude and longitude, 2, 136, 167
Lauricocha, 82, 84, 163
Laws, mining, 208
Lead, 72, 82, 184, 198, 207
Lemons, 81
Lignite, 208
Lima, 2, 73, 153, 162, 166, 307-330
Geographical Society, 211, 224,
257, 272, 277, 286, 309
Limbani, 112
Limon, Port, 262, 352
Line of vegetation, 114
Liverpool, 264
Lixiviation, 200
Llamas, in, 120, 122, 239, 252, 347
Lloclias, 51
Loads, pack-mule, 26
Lodes, 198-209
Loja, 13
Loreto, 247, 351
Lost in the forests, 259-260
mountains, 33, 41
Lotteries, 323
Love, 103, 141, 142, 14S, 304
Lucanas, 200
Lupinus, 81, 179
M
Machetes, 112
Madera, river, no, 253
Madidi, river, 250
Madre de Dios, river, no, 188, 247,
257, 258, 265
Magallanes, 335
Magnesia, 207
Maguey, 61
Malta Capac, 243
Maiz, 347
Mama-Huaco, 212
Manaos, 291, 352
Manchester goods, 96
Manco-Capac, 213, 253
Mantaro, river, 132, 163
Manu, river, 247
Maranon, river, 13, 69, 71, 75. 78,
81, 82, 163, 164, 166, 176, 190,
191, 203, 220, 229, 240, 256, 264,
333
Marcapata, river, 191
Marine emblem, 231, 251, 255
Markham, Port, 124, 265
, Sir Clements, 124, 178, 196,
212, 225, 226
Marriage, 142, 278-280
Marta Capac, 225
Masks, Indian, 169
Mataraju, 167
Meat extracts, 63, 64
Mercury, 131, 202
Mestizos, 248, 273-295
Metamorphic rocks, 14, 77, 200
Methodists, 315
Mexico, 34, 61, 71, 99, 144, 202, 206-
215. 299, 305, 318
Mica, 207
Military element, 25, 297
Milk, condensed, 129
Mineral deposits, 3, 13, 15, 76, 130,
184, 273, 347
wealth, 132, 184-209
Mining. See " Mineral wealth "
coal, 134, 207
copper, 130, 134, 13s
gold, n8, 121, 122, 130, 134,
184-204, 246, 273
hydraulic, I2l, 186, 190, 246
Indian, 77, 120, 131, 170, 188,
197. 199, 201, 205
lead. See " Mineral wealth"
quicksilver, 84, 127, 131
silver, 88, 129, 130, 134, 200
Mint, Lima, 190, 191
Miraculous representations, 57, 211-
213. 342
Mirage, 42
Misti, 14, 167
Mists, 5, n, 54, 78, n3, 179, 347
Mollendo, 3, 44, no, 166, 313
Molybdenite, 207
Mongolian, 254
Monkeys, 274
Monroe Doctrine, 360-364
Monson, 77
Montaiia, 3, 77, II2, 124, 156, 166,
171, 191, 245-293, 346-357
Mont Blanc, 176
Moon, emblem, 248, 253
Moquegua, 166, 207
Moraines, 87, I2i, 123, 129, 167, 186
Morgan, 332
Morococha, 206
Mortality, 138, 283
Mosquitoes, 128
Moulding of stones, 222, 232
Mountain climbing, 171-183
sickness. See " SorocAe"
Moyobamba, 166
Mules, 18, 22, 25, 46, 65, 96, 130
Mummies, 112, 227
Music, native, 141, 147, 149
Muro, 272
Mysterious painter, 57
N
Native signalling, 274, 281
Nature and man, 17, 18, 32, 39, 41,
116, 161, 170, 210, 249, 256, 258,
259, 285, 344
Navigation, 3, 123, 166, 356, 360.
See also " Rivers"
Nazca, 191
376
Index
Negroes, 7
Newspapers, 150, 296, 326, 328
New Zealand, 255
Niagara, 55
Nickel, 207
Nitrate fields, 47, 184, 203, 360
Noble metals, 203
No hay zone, 24
Nomenclature, 149
Nordenskold, Baron, 249-251, 254
North America, 153
OcoiJA, 45, 52
Ocros, 191
Olive-trees, 45, 347
Ollantaitambo, 222
Oranges, 81, 351
Orcococha, 129, 163
Orcos, 194
Oregon, 334
Ores, 7, 87, 129, 185-209
Orient, Peruvian, 257
Origin of the Incas, 210-255
Orinoco, 2
Oroya, 14, 134, 166, 207, 244
Otuzco, 191, 208
Output of gold, 191
silver, 200
Ovas, 75
Pacasmayo, 208
Pacchani, 113
Pachacamac, 194, 195, 220
Pachacutec, 221
Pachas, 75, 82
Pacific Ocean, 164, 176
Paititi, 253
Palma Ricardo, 148, 212
Pamparajo, 176
Pampas, river, 129, 163
Panama, 2, 312, 358
hats, 60
Pan-American railway, 69
Pangoa, 248
Pard, 291, 352
Pardo, Doctor Jos^, 319, 320
Pariaca, 75
Parinacochas, Lake, 163
Parrots, 274
Passes, 4, 13, 69, 90, 91, 126, 164,
171-177, 262
Pasto, 13
Pasture, 5, 131
Pataz, 190, 191
Pato canyon, 90
Patron, Pablo, 216, 251
Paucartambo, river, 191, 247, 258
Payta, 2, 164, 166, 262, 313
Peaks, 3, 7, 14, 84, 85, no, iii,
122, 123, 167, 178
Perpetual spring, 166
Peruvian Corporation, 321, 355
Peruvians, 294-330
Petroleum, 207, 208
Phara, 117
Philosophical reflections, 8, 33, 37,
39, 68, 170, 182, 201, 235-236,
246, 282, 284, 285, 345, 368, 369
Picha, river, 248
Pichis road, 3
Pierola, Seiior, 319-320
Pilco-Sifa, 213
Pinelo, 199
Pinzon, Vicente, 258
Pisco, 103, 128, 129, 166, 208,
220
Pistaco, 146
Piura, 164, 165, 220
Pizarro, 185, 192, 215, 230, 246
Plateaux, 120, 124, 129, 160-170
248, 346-357
Plutonic rocks, 14
Plymouth, 315
Poccha, river, 71
Poisoned arrows, 282
Ponchos, 60
Pongo de Manseriche, 262
Poopo, Lake, 163, 252
Population, 91, 140, 185, 349
Portachuelo, 171
Portillo, Colonel, 277
Ports, 2, 44, 262
Portuguese, 197
Poto, 120, 186, 191, 250
Potosi, 199
Pottery, 58
Prairie grass, 61, 131
Precipices, 66
Prefects, 322, 324
Pre-historic ruins, 253, 254. See also
"Inca ruins"
Pre-Inca period, 215-217
Prensa, newspaper, 326
Prescott, 212, 226
President of Peru, 320
Priests, 74, 92, 138, I43> 148, 151,
152-159, 195, 315
Processions, religious, 92
Profiles of the Andes, 166
Provisions, 62, 117
Pucara, in
Pulque, 61
Puli-puli, river, 115
Puma, 150
Punchou, 255
Puno, 186, 188, 200
Puntou, 255
Purus, river, 265
Pyramids, 220
Pyritic smelting, 202
Index
377
Quarantine, 312, 313
Quebradas, 33, 41
Quechuas, 19, 34, 45, 72, 73, 91, iii,
131, 138, 149, 183, 226, 242, 255
Queen Elizabeth, 332
Isabella, 331
Quespisia, 129, 200
Queues, 123, 255
Quicksilver, 13, 131, 184, 191, 197,
202-203, 251
Quillcay, 172
Quinine, 272
Quinua, 191
Quipos, 212, 223
Quispicanchi, 191
Quispijahua, 130
Quito, 192, 223, 237
Race characteristics, i, 14, 12,
132. 173, 206. See also " Per-
uvians "
"Race-suicide," 159
Rafts, 123, 218, 242, 262, 264, 275
Railways, 3, 14, 18, 44, 83, 88, 90,
94, no, 125, 126, 135, 144, 166,
207, 262, 272, 321, 352-357
Rainfall, 4, 114, 126, 160, 163, 172,
240, 264, 270, 348-350
Rainless region, 12, 39, 126
Raleigh, 219
Rameses III., 218
Ramie, 347
Ransom, 191, 193
Rapids, 262
Rate of travel, 97
Rattlesnakes, 273
Raymondi, 84, 131, 178, 183, 202,
230, 309
Reaction, 93
Recuay, 87, 200
Relations, South American, 358-370
K.emedies ioT soroche, 169, 176
Republican period, 258
—- spirit, 308, 316-320
Retiring snow-cap, 70, 167
Retreta, 97
Revolution, 316-320
Revolver, 51, 122, 173
Rice, 347
Rimac, 162, 314
Rivers, 3, 45, 51, 52, 132, 162,
261-293
navigable, 3, 125, 164, 261-276,
291, 356
Roads, 94, III, 126, 132, 13s, 171,
198, 237-224, 245
Robbers, 25, 71, 143, 229
Robinson Crusoe, 36, 334
Romana, Senor, 309
Roman Catholicism, 56, 92, 138, 146,
152-159. 192, 315
Rosell, Ricardo, 257-277
Royal Geographical Society, 82, ixo,
124, 178, 226, 230, 249
Rubber-gatherers, 273, 275, 282, 284,
285-293
Ruskin, 53
Sacramento pampa, 261
Sacsaihuaman, 222
Saddles, 26
Salavery, 3, 166
Salpo, 191, 200
Salt, 130, 184, 207
Sand, action of, 5, 41, 48, 50
Sand-dunes, 6, 49
Sandia, no, 186, 191, 333
San Gaban, 245
Juan del Oro, 245, 246
Marcos, 75
Santa Barbara, 202
Inez, 129, 166
river, 71, 87, 163, 167, 176
Sara-sara, 167
Sarmiento,
Savages, 138, 156, 271, 293
Schools, 351
Scientific institutions, 310
Scorpion, 144
Seals, 6
Sea-shells, 195, 250, 251, 254
Seasons, 266
Sechura, 208
Serenata, 98
Serpent emblem, 250, 251
Serrano s, 165
Sex relations, 103-106, 170, 282
Sheep, III, 120, 131
Shepherds, 86, 128
Shiringa. ^.f^ " india-rubber "
Shooting match, 100
Sicuani, no
Silurian, 16
Silver, 7, 10, 72, 82, 130, 134, 184,
198, 199, 200
Silyapata, 75
Sina, 250
Sinchi Roca, 258
Slavery, 185, 275, 282, 283, 286
Small landholders, 24, 91, 139
Smelting works, 82, 199, 203, 207,
208
Snobbishness, 97
Snow, 4, II, 78, III, 118, 122, 172
blindness, 175, 176
cap, 12, 24, 69, 70, 85, no, in,
126, 135, 163, 166, 176
cornices, 122, 182
378
Index
Snow line, 69, 70, 130, 166, 167, 172,
176-183
Social customs. 5«tf " Peruvians "
Solimana, 167
Solorzano, 194
Sorata, 14, 123, 178
Soroche, 15, 18, 26, 60, 84, 167-170,
176, 179
Soto, Hernando, 192
Spanish cruelty, 116, 185, 188, 193,
215, 297
historians, 224, 246, 247, 33 1
influence, v, vii, xi, 84, 153,
156, 247
period, 130, 132, 150, 184, 192,
197, 210, 226, 258
proverbs, 49, 160, 359
Spinning, 141, 214, 279-283
Springs, 70. 71. 132, 244
Squires, 226
Steamers, 5, 264, 312-314, 358
Stone soup, 64
Stones, 23
Strata, 70, 82, 123. 135
Suchis, river, 123
Sugar, 7, 90, 176, 180, 347, 350
Sulphur, 207, 208
Sumatra, 291
Sun-worship, 86, 195, 214, 233, 234,
248-253
Superstition, 54, 74, 146, 153, 184,
189, 227, 275, 283
Suspension bridges, 61
Swamps, 64, 83, 123, 163
Tacna, ioi, 299, 359
Tambo, 113
Tambopata, 124, 250
Tantamayo, 75, 82
Tarapaca, 47, 167, 199, 203, 360
Tea-time, 61
Temperatures, 116, 118, 121, 130,
172, 349. 350
Temple, Inca, 194, 195, 216
of Viracocha, 216, 220
Tent, 26, 80
Tercianas, 85, 128, 130, 165
Tertiary, 116, 206
Textile fabrics, 59, 60, 138
Thalaba and the sledge, 1 33
Tia-Guanaco, 213, 216
Ticapampa, 87
Tidal waves, 53, 314, 338
Tiles, 53, 75
Timber, 82, 116, 179
Timpia, 248
Tin, 252
Tinned meats, 62
Tirapata, no
Titicaca, Lake, 3, 13, 14, 44, no,
123, 124, 163, 166, 208, 213, 217,
218, 282, 243, 249, 251, 252
Titles, to mines, 209
Tobacco, 272, 347
Toboganning, 175, 183
Tonquini, 247, 255
Topography, 3, 160, 186, 198, 360,
346-357
Transmigration, 283
Transvaal mines, 193
Treasure, 73, 79, 191, 194, 195. 223,
234, 245, 332
Trees, 133
Tribes, Indian, 277-284
Trickery, 29
Triermain, 78
Tropical fruits, 45, 347, 351
Trujillo, 153, 162, 165, 166, 242
Tumbez, 3, 192, 208
Tumpinambaranas, 253, 282
Tunduy, 274, 281
Tupac- Yupanqui, 195, 258
U
UCAYALI, 13, 129, 132, 166, 248, 257
264
Unexplored territory, 257, 309
Universalism, 210
Universalist, 155
Unknown God, the, 195, 196
Urubamba, 163, 247, 265
Valparaiso, 312
Valverde, Vicente, 192-193
Varaderos, 270
Vegetable products, 273
Vegetation, 15, n4
Venezuela, 2, 364
Verbosity, 325-328
Vermilion, 127, 202
Vicuna, 60, 120, 122, 169
Vilafro, 163
Vilcabamba, 248
Vilcanota, 13, in, 222
Vineyards, 128, 347
Viracocha, 195, 216, 220, 251
Virgin Mary, 56, 92
Vizcachas, 120
Vizcarra, river, 82, 235
Volcanoes, 14, 40, 49, 167
Von Hassel, 247, 277
W
War-towers, 278
Washington, 2
Water-fowl, 122
Wattle houses, 45, 51
Index
379
Weapons, Indian, 278-284
Weaving. See " Spinning"
Wild bull, 36
Wine, native, 58, 1 26
Winter, 85
Wireless telegraphy, 274, 281
Wolfram, 207
Women, Indian, 21, 137, 141, 142,
157, 278-284
of Lima, 137, 301-306
Spanish- American, 159
Wool, III, 122, 139, 214, 347
Y
Yanas, 75
Yanashallas, 167
Yauli, 200, 206, 207
Yauyos, 208
Vavarz, 147
Yavero, river, 247
Yungay, 166, 179, igi
Yurua, river, 266
Zanzibar, 291
Zapata, 191 -199, 212, 222, 224, 237-
244, 331
Zegarra, Senator, 277
;^nc, 82, 198, 207
PRINTED at the EDINBURGH PRESS, 9 AND II YOUNG STREET
In Search of El Dorado:
A Wanderer's Experiences.
By ALEXANDER MACDONALD, F.R.G.S.
JVi^A 32 Illustratiom. Large Crown Svo, 5/- nef.
READERS with a taste for adventure will find this book a
storehouse of good things, for in the course of various
mineralogical expeditions the author has roughed it in many remote
quarters of tfie globe, and a large share of strange and thrilling
experiences has fallen to his lot. At the same time he possesses
a literary skill with which few travellers are gifted.
The episodes in his career which the book relates fall under
three heads. In Part I., " The Frozen North," he gives some vivid
sketches of rough and tumble life in the Klondyke region ; Part II.,
"Under the Southern Cross," describes his adventures while pro-
specting for gold in Western Australia ; Part III., " Promiscuous
Wanderings," tells of his experiences in the Queensland Back
Blocks, in the Opal Fields of New South Wales, in British New
Guinea, in the Gum Land of Wangeri, New Zealand, and with the
Pearlers of Western Australia.
" It was with a secret joy that we sat up till the small hours of
the morning to finish Mr. Alexander Macdonald's new book, ' In
Search of El Dorado : A Wanderer's Experiences.' The author's
wanderings have led him all over the world, digging for gold, silver,
opals, and gum. The wonderful characters are vividly drawn, and
his two companions, Mac and Stewart, are men one would like to
shake hands with. . . . We can conscientiously say that we have
had as much pleasure from this book as from the half dozen best
novels of the year." — Bystander.
LONDON: T. FISHER UNWIN.
Medium 8vo, Clotb, 21/' net.
THE SAVAGE CLUB
A Medley of History, Anecdote and
Reminiscence
BY
AARON TVATSCW
With an Original Chapter by Mark Twain.
With a Photogravure Frontispiece, Four Coloured Plates, and
about Sixty other Illustrations.
" We read of so many cordial, clever and clubbable fellows
that we lay Mr. Watson's book down with a sense of having
spent a few hours in jollier company than may easily be
found in any circle nowadays." — Daily News.
" The Savage Club has been happy in so admirable an
historian as Mr. Watson. . . . Publisher, author, and Savage
Club should rest equally content with what has been done.
It is a book to buy and a book to treasure." — Tribune.
" Mr. Aaron Watson is to be congratulated on a book
which people who have not been inside the Savage Club will
appreciate, and which every member of that charmed circle
will assuredly prize." — Standard.
London: T. FISHER UNWIN.
From Carpathian to Pindus:
Pictures of Roumanian Country Life.
By TEREZA STRATILESCO.
JVt^A 2 Maps and many Illustrations. Demy Svo, clofA, 18/- nef.
" Singularly vivid and interesting." — Truth.
"It is primarily a description, and a very pleasant one, of the
Carpathian forests and valleys, and of the kindly, genial, picturesque
peasantry that inhabit them." — Manchester Guardian.
" Miss Stratilesco's fascinating work." — Scotsman.
" A comprehensive book written by one who knows the country
and people intimately." — Daily Graphic.
"The book is very full and useful, amounting to a complete
study from all points of the Roumanian peasant-nation. It is well
illustrated from photographs, and will at once take rank among the
works of reference necessary to the student of European affairs." —
Outlook.
" A book as full of merit as it is of observation. From it we
learn much of a subject that is not only of great interest in itself,
but also one of which comparatively little is known." — Graphic.
LONDON; T. FISHER UNWIN.
Demy 8vo, cloth, 10/6 net.
The Age of the Earth, and
other Geological Studies
By W. J. SOLLAS, LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford.
m
Illustrated.
THIS volume, while written by one of the foremost of
English geologists, will be found interesting and attractive
by the reader who has no special knowledge of the science.
The essay which gives the book its title sets forth the bearing of
the doctrine of evolution on geological speculation, and par-
ticularly on the vexed question of our planet's antiquity. The
subjects of the other studies include the following : The Figure
of the Earth, and the Origin of the Ocean ; Geologies and
Deluges ; the Volcanoes of the Lipari Isles ; the History and
Structure of a Coral Reef ; the Origin and Formation of Flints;
the Evolution of Freshwater Animals ; and the Influence of
Oxford on Geology.
" They range over a great variety of subjects, including many which are
of sufficiently wide interest to bring the geologist into sympathetic touch with
the general reader. What educated man can fail to be interested in such
subjects, for instance, as the age of the earth, the building of coral islands,
the cause of volcanic action, or the Deluge ? Of all these matters the
Professor discourses pleasantly and well, writing with command of much
scientific learning, yet always readably, sometimes with brilliancy of diction,
and occasionally with a touch of humour." — Athenceum.
LONDON ; T. FISHER UNWIN.
/
University of Toronto
Library
DO NOT
REMOVE
THE
CARD
FROM
THIS
POCKET
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11