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FROM-THE- LIBRARYOF
TR1NITYCOLLEGETORDNTO

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NEW TESTAMENT COMMENTARY

FOB

ENGLISH READERS

BY VARIOUS WRITERS

EDITED BY

CHARLES JOHN ELLIGOTT, D.D.

LORD BISHOP OF GLOUCESTER

VOL. ITT.

"every scribe which is instructed unto the kingdom of heaven is like unto a man that is an householder,
which rringeth forth out of his treasure things new and old"

CASSELL and COMPANY, Limited

LONDON, PARIS 8f MELBOURNE

1897

93247

JUt:

374

&bc <Bpistks to tljc (fpijcstans, JJljtlippians,
ano Colossians.

THE RIGHT REV. ALFRED BARRY, D.D.

Cbt (Bpisik to tljc ®ljcssalomans.

THE REV A. J. MASON, M.A, D.D.,

Canon of Canterbury.

Ctjc (Bpistks to (limotljtT anb (tttua.

(Thjc (Epistk of £>t. lames.

THE REV. E. G. PUNCHARD. D.D

ImU Fellow of St. Augustine's College, Canterbury.

%\it Jfirst (Bpistlc of &t. fekr.

11 Y

THE REV. A. J. MASON, MA., D.D.

5TIje .^ccono (Ppistk of SH. fitter.

THE VERY REV. H. D. M. SPENCB. D.D., ™E REV' ALFRED ™"™ER. M.A.. D.D.

Master of University College, Durham.
Dean oj Gloucester.

£ljc (Bpistlc to $!jikmon.

&ljc (Bpistks of j$i. fobtt.

THE RIGHT REV. ALFRED BARRY, D.D. THE VEN. W. M. SINCLAIR, M.A., D.D.,

A rch'icacon 0/ London.

®Ije (Epistle to tljc Hebrews.

THE REV. W. F. MOULTON, D.D.

Cbc (Bpistlc of £>t. Jdtoe.

THE REV. ALFRED PLUMMER, MA.. D.D.

&bc llebclation of ^t. JJoljn.

THE RIGHT REV. W. BOYD CARPENTER, D.D.,

Lord Bishop of Ripon.

CONTENTS.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE EPISTLES OF St. PAUL'S FlRST CAPTIVITY

Introduction to the Epistle to the Ephesians
The Epistle to the Ephesians ....
Introduction to the Epistle to the Philippian>
The Epistle to the Philip pians
Introduction to the Epistle to the Colossians
The Epistle to the Colossians ....

ExiTRSUS TO THE EPISTLE

Introduction to the First Epistle to the Thessalonians
The First Epistle to the Thessalonians
Introduction to the Second Epistle to the Thessaloni
The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians

Excursus to the Epistle

Introduction to the Pastoral Epistles
Introduction to the First Epistle to Timothy

The First Epistle to Timothy

Excursus to the Epistle

Introduction to the Second Epistle to Timothy

The Second Epistle to Timothy

Excursus to the Epistle

Introduction to the Epistle to Titos

The Epistle to Titus .

Introduction to the Epistle to Philemon

The Epistle to Philemon

Introduction to the Epistle to the Hebrews .

The Epistle to the Hebrews

Introduction to the General Epistle of St. James.
The General Epistle of St. James ....
Introduction to the First Epistle General of St. Petei
The First Epistle General of St. Peter
Introduction to the Second Epistle General of St. Peter
The Second Epistle General of St. Peter
Introduction to the First Epistle General of St. John
The First Epistle General of St. John .
Introduction to the Second and Third Epistles of St.
The Second Epistle of St. John ....

The Third Epistle of St. John ....

Introduction to the General Epistle of St. Jude .
The General Epistle of St. Jude ....

Excursus to the Epistle

Introduction to the Revelation

The Revelation ... .

Excursus to the Revelatio:; .....

PAGB

9
15

61
65

91
96

1 20
127
130
149

151
166
173
176
17S
216
217
21S
245
217
249
267
271
277
283
351
355
385
387
437
443
467
'474
495
497
500
505
508
516
523
533

THE EPISTLES OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

EPHESIANS, PHILIPPIANS, AND COLOSSIANS,

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

THE EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL'S FIRST CAPTIVITY.

The Epistles of St. Paul's captivity — to the Ephesians,
Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon — form a distinct
group, distinguished by certain marked characteristics
both of style and subject, in the scries of the writings
of the great Apostle of the Gentiles. Just as, in com-
parison with the Thessalonian Epistles, belonging to the
second missionary journey, the four great Epistles to
the Corinthians, Galatiaiis, and Romans, written at the
close of the third missionary journey, show a " second
manner," with exactly that union of similarity and
diversity which marks a true development of thought
and circumstance — so, in comparison with this latter
group the Epistles, of the Captivity present a " third
manner," itself again markedly distinct from that of
the Pastoral Epistles, of still later date. In those early
days of Christianity events moved fast; under the
living Apostolic inspiration and the rapidity of the
Apostolic mission, successive years marked changes as
great .is would have indicated the lapse of generations
in more ordinary times. When we compare the mar-
vellous growth of the Christian Church in the thirty
years (or thereabouts) of St. Paul's own Apostolate — ■
from a small sect limited to Palestine, hardly as yet
completely distinguished from the Judaic system, to a
community which had its brandies in every province of
the Roman world, and which was obviously advancing
to a world-wide dominion — we may be prepared to find
obvious and important developments, both of teaching
and of circumstance, even in the various periods of his
Apostolic ministry.

I. The Period to which they belong.— In ac-
cordance with the great majority of commentators,
ancient and modern, I take these Epistles to belong to
the Roman captivity, in which the history of the Acts
leaves St. Paul, and to which he was consigned about
the year a.d. 61. It has, indeed, been proposed by
Meyer and other German commentators to refer them
to the Cesarean captivity of Acts xxiv. — xxvi. The
reasons on which this proposal is based may be seen
in Meyer's edition of the " Epistle to the Ephesians "
(Introduction, sect. 2). They prove, however, on ex-
amination, to be not only trivial, even if maintained,
but in themselves uncertain, resting largely on mere
supposition, and certainly incapable of standing against
tlie powerful arguments which may be brought on the
other side. These are of two kinds — general and special.
Of the first kind is the whole style and tone of tho
Epistles, indicating a transition to an entirely different
and most important sphere of missionary labour, such
as could not possibly be found in the comparatively un-
important town of Ctesarea; and, moreover, the obvious
expectation by tho writer (see Phil. ii. 24: Phileni.
verse 22) of a speedy release from captivity, which would
enable him to visit, not Rome and Spain, as was his
intention at the time when ho was taken prisoner at

Jerusalem (Acts xix. 21 ; Rom. xv. 24, 25), but
Macedonia and the Eastern churches, where at the
earlier time he declared that he had " no longer any
place" (Rom. xv. 23; comp. Acts xx. 25). Of the
latter kind are the references found — especially in
the most personal of all the Epistles, the Epistle to
his beloved Church at Philippi — to the manifestation
of his bonds " in the whole Praetorium " (Phil. i. 13) — a
phrase which (in spite of the verbal coincidence with Acts
xxiii. 35) could not well be used of his prison at Ca;sarea ;
to the converts made from " Caesar's household," which
must surely have belonged to Rome (Phil. iv. 22); to
the circumstances of his captivity, which describe with
an almost technical accuracy (see Note on Eph. vi. 20)
the imprisonment at Rome "in his own hired house
with the soldier that kept him," and the freedom which
he then had (Acts xxviii. 16, 30, 31), but which at
Caesarea, especially considering the especial object
contemplated by Felix in prolonging his captivity (Acts
xxiv. 26), was eminently improbable.

In accordance, also, with the general opinion, I
should designate this as St. Paul's " First Roman
Captivity ; " though it will be. perhaps, more appropriate
that the evidence for the common belief that St. Paul
was set at liberty from his captivity, and that, after a
period of freedom, he underwent a second imprisonment,
which was only closed by his death, should be con-
sidered in relation to the Pastoral Epistles. For
with this belief the acceptance of these Epistles as
genuine is closely, if not inseparably, connected. On
the general character and circumstances of both cap-
tivities see Excursus (at the close of the Acts of the
Apostles) on the Later Years of St. PauVs Life.

II. The Genuineness of these Epistles.— On

this point external evidence is strong and unvarying.
It will be sufficient here to notice that all were in-
cluded unhesitatingly in all the catalogues and versions
of St. Paul's Epistles, and placed by Eusebius (as by
others before him) in the list of the New Testament
books " acknowledged by all." More detailed evidence
will be with more advantage given in the Introduction
to each Epistle.

It is true that, as in the case of many other New
Testament books, their genuineness has been challenged,
on supposed internal evidence, even by critics who are
ready to acknowledge the four Epistles of the preced-
ing group. This adverse criticism has been advanced
with different degrees of positiveness against different
Epistles of this group. Thus, the Epistle to the Philip-
pians lias been but little doubted ; and. indeed, the
similarities to St. Paul's eai'lier Epistles, and especially
to the Epistle to the Romans, are so striking that it
requires singular perversity to discover or imagine
dissonance with them, The beautiful little Epistle to
Philemon, again, can hardly be said to have been

INTRODUCTION.

questioned, except in the mere wantonness of arbitrary j
criticism. On the other hand, the two Epistles which
bear most distinctly the peculiar impress of St. Paul's
" later manner "■ — the Epistles to the Ephesians and the
Colossians — have been far more seriously attacked on
that very ground ; the Epistle to the Colossians, more-
over, on the supposition that it involves references to
a Gnosticism of later date; and the Epistle to the
Ephesians, on the supposition — which it might have
been thought that an attentive study of these two
Epistles would have soon shown to be untenable — that
it is a mere copy and expansion of the Epistle to the
Colossians. On the peculiar grounds of scepticism in
each case it will be more convenient to speak in connec-
tion with each Epistle separately ; but on the general
question of the relation of these Epistles to the earlier
group it will be best to dwell hero, not merely with a
view to show the hollowness of this destructive criti-
cism, but with the more important object of sketching
out the main characteristics of this group of Epistles
as a whole.

Now it must be considered exactly what is the nature
of the question. We have not here an anonymous
document, like the Epistle to the Hebrews, as to which
we have to inquire into the degree of its likeness or
unlikeness to St. Paul's acknowledged Epistles. We
have Epistles which not only bear his name, but pre-
sent various indications marking them as his ; and these
Epistles are received as his at a very early date —
alluded to by Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp,
formally included in the Muratorian Canon about the
year 170. Accordingly, they are either his genuine
Epistles, or Epistles written in his name at an early
period by smne adherent of the " Pauline School "
desiring to claim a forged authority from his great
master. Now, in the case of forgery, we should expect
to find substantial inferiority of power and inspiration,
and possibly some discrepance of the inner reality, as
contrasted with the outward form, of doctrine ; but
certainly no marked difference of style, no peculiar
words and phrases previously unknown, no change of
expressions, which had become markedly characteristic
of St. Paul in the acknowledged Epistles of the earlier
group. In the case of genuineness, on the other hand,
we should look for substantial identity of thought and
teaching, coupled with free variation of expression and
style, and with indications of a development of doctrine,
corresponding to progress of time, change of scene and
circumstance, increase of the power of Christianity over
thought and society, as exemplified in the development
of the Christian Church. It is all but impossible for
any careful student to doubt that it is always the latter —
neArer the former — condition which is distinctly realised
in these Epistles. This will be seen clearly on examina-
tion both of their style and of their substance.

III. The Style of the Epistles.— There is un-
questionably a marked difference of style, although in
various degrees — the Philippian Epistle showing such
•difference far less than the Epistles to the Ephesians
and Colossians. Now it is not a little remarkable that
the nature of this acknowledged change of style singu-
larly corresponds with the historical change in St.
Paul's circumstances. When he wrote the former
Epistles lie was in the full tide of his Apostolic work ; at
periods, moreover, of marked excitement and interest-
just after the tumult at Ephesus, or on his circuit through
Macedonia " round about into Ulyricum," or at Corinth
in the very heat of the Judaising controversy. He was
then emphatically the preacher and the church-founder.
His Letters, written in the intervals of his busy work,

would be like fragments of his preaching, marked by
the incisive earnestness, the close argument, the im-
pressive abruptness, of a pleader for God. When he
wrote these later Epistles he was in the enforced in-
activity and the compai-ative rest of imprisonment, and
this imprisonment (as, indeed, we might have expected)
appears to have been to him a time of study, in those
" many writings " which Festus thought at that time
to have "made him mad" (Acts xxvi. 24), with such
" books and parchments " round him as those which he
asked for even in the greater severity of his second im-
prisonment (2 Tim. iv. 13). He is now not so much the
worker as the thinker. The impassioned emphasis of the
preacher might naturally be exchanged for the quiet, de-
liberate teaching of the Christian sage ; sounding the
lowest depths of thought ; wandering, as it might seem,
but with subtle links of. connection, from one idea to
another; rising constantly in secret meditation from
truths embodied in the practical forms of earthly life,
to truths as they exist above in the calm perfection of
heaven. Who can doubt that this is exactly the change
of style which we trace in these Epistles of the Cap-
tivity ? The Epistle to the Philippians has least of it :
for there his remembrance of earlier times would be
strongest, and would tend most to reproduce the earlier
tone of thought. But in the Colossian Epistle, written
to a Church which ho had never seen — knowing it,
indeed, well, but only by hearsay — still more in the
Epistle to the Ephesians, probably an encyclical
letter, certainly approaching more nearly to the nature
of abstract general teaching, this characteristic dif-
ference is most vividly marked.

It manifests itself in the appearance of many words
used in no other Epistles, and these frequently words
compounded with a thoughtful felicity of compressed
meaning. It manifests itself in sentences which, un-
like the terse and often abrupt incisiveness of his
earlier Letters, flow on without grammatical break, some-
times not without grammatical harshness and obscu-
rity, but with an unfailing connection and evolution
of thought, a singular and (so to speak) philosophical
completeness of doctrine, a sustained perfection of
meditative and devotional beauty. It manifests itself,
again, in a constant looking upward to " the heavenly
places " of the Ephesian Epistle ; sometimes, as in the
opening of that Epistle, to the source of all Christian
life in the election of the divine love ; sometimes to the
angelic " principalities and powers," invisibly fighting
for or against that love of God in salvation ; sometimes
to the life of Christians " hid with Christ in God," in
virtue of which we sit with Him in heaven even now ;
most often, perhaps, of all, to Christ in His heavenly
glory, seen now by the eye of faith, ready to reveal
Himself in the Epiphany of the great day. Yet, with
all this difference of style, the detailed links of connec-
tion, both in word and thought, are (as the Notes on the
Epistles will show) simply numberless — mostly showing
similarity, not absolute identity, of expression ; an in-
dependent likeness, not an artificial copyism. Above all,
the general impress of the mind and character of St.
Paul comes out more and more clearly as we pursue
the detailed study of the Epistles. Thus, the charac-
ter which paints itself in the Epistle to the Philip-
pians is obviously the same as that which we know in
the Epistles to the Corinthians, or in that yet earlier
Epistle to the other Macedonian Church at Thessa-
lonica, which presents some striking similarities in
detail. But there is a greater calmness and maturity,
sometimes of peacefulness, sometimes of sadness: it is
the picture of an older man. Again, the notion that
the teaching of the Ephesian or Colossian Epistle

EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL'S FIRST CAPTIVITY.

conld possibly have come from the weaker hand of
a disciple will seem fairly incredible to any who have
ever glanced at the writings of Clement of Rome, of
Ignatius, or of Polycarp. the scholars of St. Paul and
St. John. The inspired hand of the Apostle is trace-
able in every line; the very change of style argues at
once identity and development. It is a strong internal
evidence of the Apostolic authorship ; it is in itself full
of deep interest and significance.

IV. The Substance of the Epistles. — Still
more striking is the corresponding phenomenon in
relation to substance. In the doctrine of these Epistles
there is the same indication of a true development.

v(l) TJie Doctrine of Salvation. — Thus, for example,
it is profoundly instructive to examine the relation of
these Epistles to that primary doctrine of "justifica-
tion by faith " which had been the one all-important sub-
ject of the Galatian and Roman Epistles. It is touched
on here with the same master hand. " By grace are
ye saved through faith ; and that not of yourselves : it
is the gift of God : not of works, lest any man should
boast" (Eph. ii. 8, 9). "That I may be found in Him,
not having mine own righteousness, which is of the Law,
but that which is through the faith of Christ, the
righteousness which is of God by faith " (Phil. hi. 9).
But it is no longer the one subject to which all else
leads up. It is treated as a thing known and ac-
cepted, with a quiet calmness utterly unlike the im-
passioned and exhaustive earnestness of St. Paul's
pleading for it in the crisis of the Judaistic contro-
versy. The emphasis on faith is less vivid and less
constant. " Salvation by grace " takes the place of
" justification by faith," and leads the thoughts on from
the first acceptance in Christ to the continuous work of
grace, of which such acceptance is the first beginning.
The Law, which before its idolaters in Galatia or at
Rome was resolutely thrust down to its right secondary
position, described as the servile " pedagogue to bring
men'' to the truo Teacher, depreciated as the mere
subsidiary guard of the covenant of promise, is now
less often touched upon, and less unreservedly con-
demned. It has obviously lost the dangerous fasci-
nation with which such idolatry invested it. It is only
" as contained in ordinances " that it is now viewed as a
separation between Jew and Gentile, or between man
and God, or considered as cancelled by "nailing it to
tiie cross " of Christ. We feel that St. Paul is already
passing on from the earnest pleading of advocacy of the
freedom of the gospel to the judicial calmness which
was hereafter to tell how " the law is good if a man
use it lawfully ;' (1 Tim. i. 8). Judaism has, in great
measure, at least in the Eastern churches, changed its
character. St. Paul's earnest pleading for Christ as all
in all has similarly changed its direction and its tone.
Against new idolatries it is still necessary to fight
to the death. But the old battle is substantially won ;
on the old field no more is needed than to maintain
the victory.

(2) Tfie Doctrine of the Catholic Church. — Nor is
it less interesting to note how in these Epistles, and
especially in the Epistle to the Ephesians, the promi-
nence of the idea of the Kingdom of God has marvel-
lously increased. The Galatian and Roman Epistles (as
the history of the Reformation of the sixteenth century
showed) are the treasure-house of the truths of per-
sonal Christianity ; for the very thought of justifica-
tion, dominant in them, brings each soul face to face with
its own sin and its own salvation, in that supreme crisis
of life and death in which it is conscious of but two

existences — God and itself. These later Epistles are

equally the storehouse of the less vivid, yet grander,
conception of the Holy Catholic Church. The central
idea is of Christ the Head, and the whole collective
Christianity <>f the Church as His Body. He is con-
ceived not solely or mainly as the Saviour of each
individual soul, but rather as "gathering up" all
humanity, or even all created being, "in Himself." The
two conceptions are, of course, inseparable. In the
earlier Epistles the Church is constantly recognised; in
these the individual relationship to God in Christ is
never for a moment ignored. But the proportion (so
to speak) of the two truths is changed. What is primary
in the one case is secondary in the other.

It is obvious that this is the natural order. The
Christian unity is directly the unity of each soul with
Christ, the Head ; indirectly the unity of the various
members in one Body. When the gospel of salvation
first speaks, it must speak to the individual. When the
grace of Christ draws all men unto Him, each individual
must move along the line of his own spiritual gravita-
tion. But when the truth has been accepted in a faith
necessarily individual; when the Saviour has been found
by each as the Christ who " liveth in mo " — then the
question arises, What are His truth and His grace to
that great human society, to which we are bound by a
network of unseen spiritual ties P The first and proper
answer to that question is the doctrine of the Holy
Catholic Church. There is a second answer, larger, but
less distinct, which goes even beyond this, to contemplate
our Lord as the Head of all created being. The relation,
therefore, of these Epistles to the earlier group is pro-
foundly natural, even on the consideration of the right
and necessary course of idea.

But here, again, it is impossible not to trace in these
Epistles a special appropriateness to this period of St.
Paul's life and work. Of the three great threads of
ancient civilisation — the Hebrew, the Greek, and the
Roman — two had already been laid hold of by Apostolic
hands, and fastened to the cross of Christ. Now, as
"ambassador for Christ," although "in bonds," St.
Paul had been permitted to " see Rome ; " the circum-
stances of his imprisonment had placed him in the
Prmtorium, in the very citadel of the Imperial gran-
deur, and had given him access to " those of Caesar's
household." The Epistles of the former group had
been written from cities where Greek thought reigned _
supreme — from Ephesus, from Philippi, from Corinth.
These later Epistles came from the centre of Imperial
Rome. Now, it is a common-place to remark that the
main element of all Greek thought was the freedom
and sacredness of the individual, whether in the realm
of thought, or of imagination, or of action. But the
mission of the Roman (as Virgil has, with a true
insight, declared in well-known lines) was to teach
the greatness of the community— the family, the state,
the whole race of humanity ; to give laws, which were
to be the basis of the " law of nations ; " to unite all
peoples in one great empire, and, perhaps by an inevit-
able inference, to deify its head. It can hardly be
accidental that, while the former Epistles dealt with
the individual, pointing him to the true freedom and
the true wisdom, which Greek philosophy sought for in
vain, these Epistles should similarly face the great
Roman problem, and sketch out that picture which
was hereafter to be wrought into the chief masterpiece
of Latin theology — the picture of " the city of God."
We note in the Epistle to the Ephesians the emphatic
reference to the three great social relationships, so
jealously and sternly guarded by Roman law— the
relations of parents and children, husbands and wives,
masters and servants — as deriving a higher spiritual

INTRODUCTION.

sacredness, above all law and convention, from the fact
that they are types of the relations of man to God in
the great unity in the Lord Jesus Christ. We read in
the Epistle to the Philippians of the " city in heaven "
— not now the " heavenly Jerusalem " of Jewish aspi-
ration, but simply the city of which all are citizens,
whether " Jew or Greek, barbarian, Scythian, bond or
free." We find, both in the Ephesian and Colossian
Epistles, a constant recurrence to the thought of all as
"one body" or "one temple" in Jesus Christ — supply-
ing that supreme personal relation, which changes the
shadowy dream of a divine republic, where the in-
dividual is lost, to the solid reality of a well-centred
Kingdom of God, preserving at once perfect indi-
viduality and perfect unity. We are reminded at every
step of the " fifth empire " — " a stone cut out without
hands " from the mountain of the Lord, and gro.ving till
it displaced the artificial fabrics of the kingdoms of the
world, and filled the whole earth. We contrast the
inevitable idolatry of the Roman emperor — remembering
that, by a strange irony of circumstance, that em eror
was now a Nero — with the worship of the true Son of
Man and Son of God, of which all such idolatries are
perverted anticipations. I pass over minor points
of coincidence between idea and circumstance — such as
the remarkable metaphor of the Christian armour,
working out a figure previously touched by St. Paul,
with an obvious detailed reference to the armour of
his Roman jailor ; or the adaptation of Stoic ideas and
phrases in the Epistle to the Philippians, bearing (as
Dr. Lightfoot has shown) peculiar resemblances to
the later Stoicism of Seneca, then the leader of
Roman thought. But taking only the main idea
of these Epistles, and comparing it with the main
principle of Roman greatness, it is impossible again
not to be struck with a coincidence — which must
surely bo more than more coincidence — between the
teaching and the circumstances of this period of the
Apostle's life.

(3) The advanced Christology. — There is another
true development, of infinitely greater importance
and deeper interest, in respect of what is called
the " Christology " of these Epistles. At all times the
preaching of Christianity is the preaching of " God in
Christ." But attentive study of the New Testament
shows that gradually, line by line, step by step, the full
truth was revealed as the world was able to bear it —
passing, according to the true order of teaching, from
visible manifestations! to invisible realities — guarding at
every step the supreme truth of the unity of the Godhead,
so jealously cherished by the Jew, so laxly disregarded
in the elastic Polytheisms of the Gentile world. The
manifestation of Christ in the Incarnation, the Atone-
ment, the Resurrection, and Ascension, is, of course,
really one. Yet at different times each of the different
steps of that one manifestation appears to have assumed
greater prominence in Christian teaching ; and it may
be noted, that as, when we dig through the strata of
the earth, we uncover first what is latest, and come
only at last to what is earliest in deposition, so in the
realisation of gospel truth, the order of preaching is the
reverse of the order of actual occurrence of the great
facts of the divine manifestation. First, as is natural,
came the preaching of "Christ risen;" for the Resur-
rection-— the great miracle of miracles — was the seal of
our Lord's Messiahship, declaring Him who was " of
the seed of David according to the flesh " to be " the
Son of God with power." As risen and exalted to the
right hand of God, in fulfilment of oft-repeated ancient
prophecy. Ho was declared to be both " Lord and
Christ." Even clear-sighted heathen ignorance could

declare that the great question between Christian and
unbeliever was then — as, indeed, it is now — " of one
Jesus who was dead, whom Paul affirmed to be alive."
But then, when men were called to receive in the risen
Christ remission of sins, to see in His resurrection the
pledge of a spiritual resurrection for themselves here,
a resurrection of body and spirit in the hereafter, came
the question, How can this be ? To that question the
answer is found in the one truth which St. Paul de-
clared that in his teaching at Corinth, and (we may
add) in his teaching to the Galatiaus and Romans, he
cared to know — the truth of " Jesus Christ, and Him as
crucified." The Resurrection, in itself, was accepted as
known ; to unfold its meaning it was necessary to go
back to the Atonement. Hence the great teaching of
these Epistles is of Christ as the one Mediator be-
tween God and the countless souls which He has made.
That mediation is described sometimes in the phrase
" through Christ," bringing out the access through His
atonement to the Father who sent Him ; sometimes in
the phrase " in Christ," dwelling not so much on our
justification as on our regeneration in Him to the new
life. Perhaps in the great struggle for Justification
by Faith the former idea was the more prominent. In
either phase, however, it is the sole and universal
mediation of Christ which is the one leading conception
of Apostolic teaching. But, again, the question arises,
Who is He who thus is — what surely no merely created
being can claim to be — a mediator between God and all
human souls, in all lands and in all ages of the world ?
To answer that question it was needful to go back once
more to " Christ Incarnate : " i.e., ultimately, to Christ
as He is, not in manifestation, but in His own true
being, before He was pleased to stoop to earth, and
since Ho has ascended again to His own glory in
heaven. It is on this last phase of thought that the
Epistles of the Captivity appear to enter, standing in
this respect parallel with the Epistle to the Hebrews,
leading on to the yet fuller teaching of the Epistles
and Gospel of St. John.

We notice that it is always through the knowledge of
His mediation that they lead us into the region of yet
higher truth. St. Paid, in brief yet exhaustive descrip-
tion of that mediation, tells us of Christ, as One " in
whom we have redemption through His blood, even the
remission of sins." We notice, also, that the phrase
"in Christ," rather than " through Christ," is the domi-
nant note in these Epistles. As we have seen already
in relation to justification and sanctification, so we find
in relation to the objective truths corresponding to
them, that it is not so much on " Christ crucified " as
on " Christ living in us " that he emphatically dwells.
But the especial point of transcendent importance is
that he leads us on from the fact of this mediation to
draw out explicitly what such mediation implies. The
Philippian Epistle, simple and practical as its pvirpose is,
recites, in the great passage of its second chapter (chap,
ii. 5 — 11) the whole creed of our Lord's Nature and
Office — the distinctive creed of Christianity. It marks
the two-fold humility of His mediation for us : first, the
"taking on Him the form of a servant ; " next, the
" humbling Himself to the death of the cross." It
turns next to the corresponding exaltation of His human
nature in the Mediatorial kingdom (described in 1 Cor.
xv. 20 — 28), so that "in the name of Jesus every knee
should bow." But it does more than this. It speaks
of Him as being essentially "'in the form." that is,
in the nature. " of God," in the eternal glory of
which " He stripped Himself" for us; it tells us that
to Him is given " the name which is above every
name " — the awful and incommunicable name of

EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL'S FIRST CAPTIVITY.

Jehovah. In that deeper teaching it tells us, not of His
office, but of Himself; not of His mediation, but of the
divine nature which alone made such mediation possi-
ble. Again, in the Epistle to the Ephesians, starting
from " the redemption in His blood, the remission of
sins," the idea of our Lord's mediation is infinitely en-
larged and exalted in the conception, that " in Him all
things are gathered in one head, both which are in
heaven and which are on earth ; " that " He filleth all in
all ; " " ascending above all heavens," " descending into
the lower ports of the earth," " that He might thus
fill all tilings." That He is, indeed, the Head of tho
Church we are told again and again in various forms of
expression ; but He is more. In Him all created being
is summed up ; He is, in all that relates to it, the
manifestation of God. As in tho unity of the Church,
so iu the wider unity of all creation, we have, co-ordinate
with one another, the " one Spirit," tho " one Lord," the
*' one God and Father of all." But far even beyond this,
the Epistle to the Colossians carries the same higher
teaching. Standing face to face with an incipient Gnos-
ticism, stiffened to some degree into a Jewish typo, but
presenting all the essential features of the Gnostic idea
— of one supreme God and many emanations, all real and
all imperfect, from the divino fulness — St. Paul declares
explicitly ail that the earlier teaching had implied with
■ever increasing1 clearness. Our Lord is not only " the
firstborn of God before all creation," "in whom,"
" through whom," " for whom," " all things in heaven
and earth, visible and invisible, were created," and in
whom " all things consist." In this the Colossian
Epistle would but draw out more forcibly the truth
taught to the Ephesians of His relation to all created
being. But what is He in Himself ? St. Paul answers,
<( the image " — the substantial manifestation — " of tho
invisible God," in whom " all the fulness of the God-
head dwelleth bodily." The parallel is singularly close
with the Epistle to the Hebrews, which, in similar con-
nection with the great mediation of His one priesthood
and one sacrifice, declares Him (chap i. 3) to be " the
brightness of the glory of the Father, and the express
image of His person " (the " substance," or essence, of
the Godhead). There remains little beyond this to
bring us to the full declaration of " the Word " who
"was in the beginning," who " was with God, and was
God." These Epistles of St. Paul correspond, with
marvellous appropriateness, to that intermediate period,
when his great evangelising work was almost done,
and the time Mas coining for the growth of the school
of deep thought on a now acknowledged Christianity,
which was to surround the old age of " St. John the
Divine."

(4) The Condition and Trials of the Church. — The
examination of the substance of the Epistles would
not be complete without some brief reference to the
condition of the Church which they disclose.

In this view, also, we trace the same coincidence with
the natural growth of events. The whole tenor of the
Epistles indicates that the Church had reached a con-
dition in which the consideration, not so much of its
extension, as of its unity, became tho prominent idea.
With but little hyperbole, St. Paul could say that the
gospel had come into "all the world" of tho Roman
empire. His own career of active evangelisation had
been stopped; iu his prison at Rome, the centre of
communication with all nations, he would, no doubt, hear
of tho growth and the trials of other churches, as we
know that he heard of Philippi and Colossa;; ho
looked eagerly, as from a distance, on the building up
of the Temple of God, which was going on by many
hands and under many conditions. Tho one thought

and prayer of his captivity was that it should grow
as one, " fitly framed and joined together," on the one
foundation and in the one corner-stone. To the Philip-
piau Church tho burden of his exhortation is to unity
of spirit. In the Ephesian Epistle tho great central
passage is that which brings out, with all the incisive
emphasis of a creed, the description of the " one
body " and the " one Spirit " ; and the fundamental con-
ception of tho gospel, as the reconciliation of the soul
to God in Jesus Christ, carries with it as a perpetual
undertone, tho union of Jew and Gentile in the covenant
of God. Even in the Colossian Epistle, although there
the main idea of the sole headship of Christ assumes
a more absolute predominance, yet the great anxiety of
St. Paul for Colossa) and its sister churches was that
their hearts might be " knit together in love " and the
" full assurance of the knowledge " of a common gospel.
The whole tenor of these Epistles, standing in contrast
with those of the earlier group, thus corresponds with
the needs of the more advanced period of Church
history.

Nor is this coincidence less evident in relation to the
forms of danger, by which tho progress of the Church
is here seen to be menaced. The old leaven of Judaism
still works in the "so-called circumcision," which
now deserves, in St. Paul's eyes, only the name of
" concision," or self-mutilation. But it has changed its
character. The Pharisaic idolatry of the Law, as a law
by obedience to which man might work out, if not his
own salvation, at least his own perfection, has passed
away in the East, though it lingers in the simple,
unspeculativo Christianity of Macedonia. Perhaps by
tho very extension of the Church tho providence of
God had clenched the victorious argument of St. Paul.
A church truly catholic could hardly rest on a rigid
code of law, or find the spring of a world-wide salvation
anywhere, except in the grace of God accepted by faith.
But now, as the Epistle to the Colossians shows,
Judaism had allied itself with those wild speculations,
weaving the gospel into philosophical or mystic theories
of religion, which arose inevitably, when Christianity,
assuming to be the religion of humanity, naturally came
in contact with tho various philosophies and religions
of all mankind. Dr. Lightfoot has shown, with much
probability, that one form in which it adapted itself
to the new condition of things was the form of the
old Essenic mysticism. The Epistle to the Hebr-ews
suggests that, on the other hand, it had also fixed its
faith on the ritual and sacrifice from which the Esscnes
shrank — doubtless as having in themselves a mystic
efficacy, perhaps as enabling men to enter into the
region of mystic speculation, where they might learn
the secrets hidden from tho mass of Christians, and
revealed only to tho perfect. In both forms it is seen
as gradually dissolving its old rigidity and carnality,
and claiming, in accordance with the spirit of the age, the
title of spirituality and mystic perfection.

Still more is the progress of the times shown in this
very tendency, to which Judaism so strangely and
incongruously allied itself. Gnosticism, in later days,
marked the attempts — sometimes serious, sometimes
fantastic— to weave Christianity into systems designed
to solve tho insoluble problem of the relation of
the infinite God, both in creation and manifestation, to
His finite creatures ; to fix the place to be assigned
to matter and spirit in tho universe; to answer the
question how far evil is necessarily associated with
matter; and in contemplation of the gospel itself,
to determine the relation between the Old and New
Covenant, and to define or explain away the mystery
of tho Incarnation. To what wild developments it

INTRODUCTION.

ran is told in the true, but almost incredible, record
of a subsequent chapter of Church history. But
it showed itself — we may almost say that it could not
but have shown itself — at the close of the Apostolic
age : as soon as the gospel showed itself to be not only
a divine life, but a divine philosophy, to an age
radically sceptical, both in its eagerness of inquiry and
its discontent with all the answers hitherto found. We
find traces of it — easily read by those who have studied
its after-development — in the " endless genealogies,"
the false asceticism, or still falser antinomianism of the
later Epistles of St. Paul and St. John, in the denial
that " Jesus Christ was come in the flesh," and the
idea that "the Resurrection was passed already." In
these Epistles of the Captivity there are similar traces,
but less fully developed, especially in the Colossian
Epistle. The spurious claims to spiritual " perfection ;"
the " deceits by vain words ;" the " systematic plan of
deceit " of a specious antinomianism, for which St. Paul
can hardly find language of adequate condemnation ;
the " philosophy and vain deceit " of the ti*aditions of
men, with its mere " show of wisdom " and its
" intrusion " into the regions of the invisible ; the sup-
posed emanations from the Godhead taking the angelic
forms of " thrones and principalities and powers" —
all these mark the first beginning of that strange
progress which ran its pretentious course in later
times. To this time of St. Paul's history they belong,
and to no other.

Thus, as it seems every way, a careful study of the
style and substance of these Epistles not only confirms
the external testimony which refers them to St. Paul,
but illustrates to us the course of the development of
the gospel, the progress and the trials of the Church.
They light up the historical darkness in which the
abrupt close of the record of the Acts of the Apostles
leaves us ; they are full of those lessons for our own
days in which the close of the Apostolic age is especially
fruitful.

V. The Order of the Epistles. — That the
Epistles to the Ephesians, to the Colossians, and to
Philemon belong to the same time, and were sent by
the same messengers, is tolerably clear. The one
question is, whether the Epistle to the Philippians
precedes or follows them ; and this question can only
be answered by probable conjecture. It is obvious, from
the progress already made (Phil. i. 12 — 18), from the
whole description of the mission and the sickness of
Epaphroditus (Phil. ii. 25—30), from the anticipation
of release (Phil. ii. 24), that some time must have

elapsed between St. Paul's arrival at Rome and the
writing of this Epistle. It has also been noticed, as at
least a remarkable coincidence, that Aristarchus and
St. Luke, who accompanied the Apostle to Rome (Acts
xxvii. 2), are named in the Epistles to the Colossians
and Philemon (Col. iv. 10, 14; Philem. verse 24), and
not in the Epistle to the Philippians. But this last
may be a mere coincidence ; and the fact that the
Philippian Epistle was not written early in the im-
prisonment determines nothing as to its priority or
posteriority to the other Epistles. The only strong
argument on the subject — which has been admirably
worked out by Dr. Lightfoot in his Introduction to tlie
Epistle to the Philippians, sect. ii. — is the remarkable
similarity in word and style between it and the Epistle
to the Romans, its position as a link between the
strong individuality of the earlier teaching and the
characteristic universality of the Epistles to the Ephe-
sians and Colossians, and its dealing with trials and
difficulties more nearly resembling those of an earlier
time. The argument is strong, yet not necessarily
conclusive; for much in all these points depends on
the character, and even the geographical position, of the
Church addressed. To it, however, in the absence of
any solid controverting evidence, we may give consider-
able weight and perhaps incline, without absolute
decision, to place the Philippian Epistle before the
other group in the Epistles of the Captivity.

[In relation to the treatment of the Epistles of the
Captivity, it seems right to acknowledge the deep ob-
ligation of the writer to the Commentaines of Ellicott,
Alford, Wordsworth, Meyer, Harless, and, above all,
to the admirable and exhaustive treatment by Dr.
Lightfoot of the Epistles to the Philippians, Colos-
sians, and Philemon ; to Conybeare and Howson, and
Lewin, for their full and learned summaries of all that,
illustrates the life and, in less degree, the writings of
St. Paul; but perhaps not least to the Homilies of
St. Chrysostom — simply invaluable as a commentary,
venerable in its preservation of ancient tradition, criti-
cally precious as dealing with the Greek as still a living
language, and yet modern in that breadth and simplicity
of treatment, which contrast with the frequent mysti-
cism of great ancient commentators. The writer desires
also to add. that, while he has not generally thought it
desirable to confuse the reader by the enumeration of
various translations and interpretations, he has yet, to
the best of his ability, studied all these carefully, and
has endeavoured to give in the Notes the result, rather
than the process, of such study.]

INTRODUCTION

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

EPHESIANS.

I. The Date and Place of Writing.— This
Epistle, for reasons hereafter to be considered, has few
detailed indications, either of the personal condition of
the writer or of the circumstances of those to whom
it is addressed. But one point is made perfectly clear,
that it was written by St. Paul when he was the "prisoner
of Jesus Christ" (chaps, iii. 1; iv. 1), suffering some
special " tribtdations for them," which he bade them
consider as " their glory " (chap. iii. 13), and being an
" ambassador for Christ in a chain " (chap. vi. 20) — the
word here used being the same as in Acts xxviii. 20, and
being a word almost technically describing the imprison-
ment " with a soldier that kept him " (Acts xxviii. 16).
All these things point unmistakably to what we have
spoken of in the General Introduction as the first Ro-
man captivity. That captivity began about a.d. 61, and
lasted, without change, for at least " two full years."
In the Letter to Philemon, sent by Onesimus, who is
associated with Tychicus, the bearer of this Epistle, in
Col. iv. 7—9, St. Paul prays him to " preparo him a
lodging" against the speedy arrival, which he then
confidently expected. Hence our Epistle must be
placed late in the captivity — not earlier than a.d. 63.

II. The Church to which it is addressed.—

The Epistle has borne from time immemorial the name
of the "Epistlo to the Ephesians." To the Church at
Ephesus most certainly, whether solely or among others,
it is addressed.

Ephesus. — Of St. Paul's preaching at Ephesus we
have a detailed account in the Acts of the Apostles.
At the close of his second missionary circuit he had
touched at Ephesus, and " entered the synagogue " to
" reason with the Jews." In spite of their entreaty, he
could not then remain with them, but left Aquila and
Priscilla there. From them, probably, with the aid of
their convert Apollos, the Christianity of Ephesus
began its actual rise. It is not, indeed, impossible
that there may have been some previous preparation
through the disciples of St. John the Baptist. The
emphatic allusion to him and to the simply preparatory
character of his work in St. Paul's sermon at Antioch
in Pisidia (Acts xiii. 24, 25), seems to point to know-
ledge of him in Asia Minor. Wo know that afterwards
St. Paul found some disciples at Ephesus, baptised only
with St. John's baptism (Acts xix. 3) ; and we note
that Apollos, while "knowing only the baptism of
John," yet still " teaching the things of the Lord,"
found a ready acceptance at Ephesus ("Acts xviii. 24, 25).
But however this may be, the full development of the
Christianity of Ephesus was made under St. Paul's
charge in his third missionary circuit. His first
circuit had been an extension of that Asiatic Gentile
35*

Christianity which began from Antioch ; his second was
notable as the first planting of European Christianity,
having its chief centre at Corinth; now his head-
quarters for the evangelisation of the Roman province
of Asia were fixed for three years at Ephesus, a city
specially fit for the welding together of Asiatic and
European Christianity — for there Greek civilisation met
face to face with Oriental superstition and magical
pretensions, in that which was made by Rome the official
metropolis of pro-consular Asia ; and the strange union
is curiously symbolised by the enshrining in a temple
which was the world-famed masterpiece of Greek art
of an idol — probably, some half-shapeless meteoric stone
— " which fell down from Jupiter." The summary of
his work there — his re-baptism with the miraculous
gifts of the disciples of St. John Baptist ; the " special
miracles " wrought by his hands ; the utter confusion
both of Jewish exorcists and of the professors of
those " curious arts" for which Ephesus was notorious ;
the sudden tumult, so skilfully appeased by the " town
clerk," who must surely have been half a Christian —
make up (in Act's xix.) one of the most vivid scenes in
St. Paul's Apostolic history.

Another — not less striking, and infinitely pathetic —
is drawn in Acts xx. 16 — 38, in the farewell visit
and address of St. Paul to the Ephesian presbyters at
Miletus, indicating, alike by its testimony and by its
warnings, a fully-organised and widely-spread Chris-
tianity—the fruit of his three years' labour. What
had been the extent of the sphere of that labour we
know not. We gather, with some surprise (Col. ii. 1),
that the churches of the valley of the Lycus — Laodicea,
Hierapolis, Colossae— had not been visited by him
personally. Yet. whether by his own presence, or
through such delegates as Epaphras (Col. i. 7), "all
which dwelt in Asia had heard the word of the Lord,
both Jews and Greeks" (Acts xix. 10). They might
well " sorrow " and " weep sore " at the thought that
they should " see his face no more."

Now, in his captivity, certainly to Ephesus, and (as
we shall see hereafter) probably to the other churches
of Asia, he writes this Epistle — itself a representative
Epistle, almost a treatise, bearing to the doctrine of
the Holy Catholic Church a relation not unlike that
which the Epistle to the Romans bears to the funda-
mental truths of personal Christianity.

After this, in the interval between the first and
second captivity, we find (see 1 Tim. i. 1 ; 2 Tim. i. 18)
that St. Paul did revisit Ephesus at least once; that.
in his deep anxiety for its welfare, he placed it under
the quasi-episcopal charge of his f own son Timothy ;"
and that, in his last captivity, be sent Tychicus, the
bearer of this Epistle, to Ephesus again (2 Tim. iv. 12),

EPHESIANS.

perhaps in view of the coming' absence of Timothy in
obedience to the Apostle's summons.

From that time Ephesus passed into the charge of
St. John, as the first of the seven churches of Asia
(Rev. ii. 1), commended for its steadfastness, but yet
rebuked as '•having fallen from its first love." Of
this phase of its Christianity, and its subsequent im-
portance in the future history of the Church, especially
as the scene of the Third great Council and the previous
Latrocinium, it would be out of place here to dwell.

The Churches of Asia. — But while there is no
doubt that the Epistle was addressed to Ephesus, there
seems very strong reason for the opinion, now held by
many commentators, that it was an encyclical letter
to the churches of Asia, of which Ephesus was the
natural head.

The evidence of this opinion may be thus sum-
marised : —

Direct Evidence. — Taking first the direct evidence,
we observe (1) that in the opening salutation, which in
the ordinary reading is addressed to " the saints which
are at Ephesus. being also faithful in Christ Jesus,"
the words " at Ephesus" are omitted in our two oldest
MSS. (the Vatican and the Sinaitic), and in both sup-
plied by a later hand. This omission is exceptional, all
other MSS. and versions inserting the words. But
it agrees with two remarkable ancient testimonies.
Origen, the first great Biblical critic in the early
Church (a.d. 186 — 254), (as appears from a fragment
quoted in Cramer's " Catenae in Pauli Epistolse,"
p. 102, Oxford edition, 1842), noticed that in the
Ephesian Epistle alone there was the " singular inscrip-
tion," " to the saints who are, being also faithful."
Basil of Csesarea (a.d. 329 — 379) expressly says (in his
treatise against Eunomius, Book ii., c. 19), " this reading
was handed down by those who have gone before us,
and we ourselves have found it in the ancient MSS."

Now (2) the effect of this omission is to make the
passage obscure, if not unintelligible; for the only
simple rendering of the Greek would be to " the saints
who are also faithful," and this would give an im-
possible vagueness and generality to the address.
Accordingly, ancient criticism (perhaps derived from
Origen in the first instance) actually faced the difficulty
by giving a mystic sense to the passage. St. Basil, in
the passage above quoted, explains it thus : — " But,
moreover, writing to the Ephesians as to those truly
united by full knowledge to Him who is, he gives them
the peculiar title of the ' saints who are.' " To this
interpretation, also, St. Jerome refers thus (in his
Commentary on Ephesians i. 1) : — " Some, with more
subtlety than is necessary, hold that, according to the
saying to Moses, Thus shalt thou say to the children of
Israel, He who IS hath sent me unto you, those who at
Ephesus are holy and faithful are designated by the
name of essential being, so that from Him who is these
are called They who are;" and adds, with his usual
strong critical good sense, " others more simply hold
that the address is not to Those who are, but to Those
who are at Ephesus." Certainly, nothing could show a
firmer conviction that the omission of the words " at
Ephesus" was necessitated by MS. authority, than
the desperate attempt to meet the difficulty of rendering
by this marvellous interpretation.

But (3) we also find that Marcion the heretic, by
Tertullian's twice-repeated testimony (in his work
against Marcion, Book v., c.c. 11, 1.6), entitled this
Epistle "The Epistle to the Laodiceans." "I omit,"
he says, " here notice of another Epistle, which we hold
to have been written to the Ephesians, but the heretics

to the Laodiceans ; " and he then proceeds to refer to
our Epistle. In another place : — " In the true view of
the Church, we hold that Letter to have been sent to
the Ephesians, not to the Laodiceans; but Marcion has
made it his business to interpolate an address in it, to
show that on this point also he is a most painstaking
critic." Now (as Tertullian adds) the question of the
address was of no doctrinal importance; accordingly,
Marcion could not have been tempted in this respect
to falsify or invent. He gave the address on critical
grounds; and Tertullian says that he " interpolated "
it, presumably where there was a blank. Epiphanius,
also (320? — 402), in his notice of Marcion (adv. Hcer.,
Lib. I., Tom. III., xii.), after quoting "one Lord, one
faith, one baptism," &c, adds: — "For the miserable
Marcion was pleased to quote this testimony, not from
the Epistle to the Ephesians, but from the Epistle to
the Laodiceans, which is not in the Apostle's writings,"
He apparently refers to an apocraphal letter, of which
he says elsewhere that " Marcion received fragments; "
and such a letter is noticed in the Muratorian Canon.
But looking to Tertullian's clear declaration, we may,
perhaps, seo here a confused reminiscence of this same
critical achievement of Marcion. Marcion, no doubt,
was led to it by a consideration of the well-known
passage in the Colossian Epistle (chap. iv. 16) speaking
of the "letter from Laodieea," which he (it would
seem, correctly) identified with our Epistle.

(4) Now, all these things lead plainly to one conclu-
sion— that, while an unvarying tradition declared that
the Letter was " to the Ephesians," yet there was a blank
in the oldest MSS. after the words " which are," gene-
rally filled up (as in most of our later MSS. ) with the
words " in Ephesus ; " but by Marcion, with no MS.
authority, simply on grounds of critical inference, with
the words "in Laodieea." That this insertion of
Marcion, if intended to infer that the Letter was
addressed specially to the Laodicean Church, was
unwarrantable, appears obvious, from the wdiole stream
of ancient tradition assigning the Letter to the Ephe-
sians, and the absence of any vestige of such a reading
in the existing MSS. But if the Epistle were a circular
letter, of which many copies were sent at one time, it
would be at least probable that blanks might be left,
to be filled up in each case with the proper name of
the Church; and this supposition, which has been
adopted by many, would furnish a very simple expla-
nation— indeed, the only simple explanation — of this
perplexing MS. phenomenon.

Indirect Evidence. — This being the state of the case
in relation to direct evidence, we naturally pass on to
consider what may be gathered indirectly, either to
confirm or to confute this supposition, from the Epistle
itself.

Now, the study of the Epistle, as a whole, must surely
convoy to the mind the impression of a certain gene-
rality and abstractness of character. It approaches
closely — at least, as closely as the Epistle to the Romans
— to the character of a treatise, dealing, with a singular
completeness, accuracy, and symmetry of handling,
with a grand spiritual truth — the doctrine of the Holy
Catholic Church. The very opening — strongly remind-
ing us in form, though not in substance, of the opening
of ihe General Epistle of St. Peter to these churches
and other churches of Asia Minor (1 Pet. i. 3 — 7) — is a
complete and exhaustive statement of the mysterious
truth of the election of the whole Church, as gathered up
in Christ and redeemed by Him, in the eternal counsels
of Cod. The celebrated passage (chap. iv. 4 — 6) on the
unity of the Church, while it is full of an almost poetic

EPHESIANS.

beauty, has all the fulness and precision of a creed.
The practical exhortations of the Epistle are drawn,
with a philosophic generality, from the fundamental
conception of religious unity. Nor can wo fail to notice
that tho Epistle is entirely destitute of any reference
■ — such as is invariable in St. Paul's other Epistles —
to the particular condition, blessings, trials, graces, or
defects, of those to whom it is addressed. They are
simply spoken of as "you Gentiles," in contradistinc-
tion to the children of tho old covenant. The sins
against which they are warned are the typical sins
forbidden in the Second Table, or the sins specially rife
in the heat hen society of that time in general.

The comparison in this respect with the Colossian
Epistle is most instructive. Everywhere the Ephesiau
Epistle is general and (so to speak) philosophical in treat-
ment ; while in the parallel passages the other Epistle is
particular and practical. Now it so happens that in the
Epistles of this period we have the Philippian, written
to a Church personally known and. loved, while the
Colossian is addressed to a Church known perhaps well,
but indirectly, and not by personal intercourse. The
former Epistle is pervaded from beginning to end with
the personality of the writer, as f idly as the Corinthian
or Galatian. Epistles themselves. The latter is more
distant and more general, introducing the special
warnings of the second chapter Avith a half -apologetic
reference to the deep anxiety felt " for them, and for
the Laodiceans, and for those who liad not seen his
face in the flesh." The Church of Ephesus must have
been even more intimately known and bound to St.
Paul than the Church at Philippi. How near it lay to
his heart we know by the pathetic beauty and yearning
tenderness of his address to tho elders at Miletus. An
Epistle written to this Church should surely have had
all tho strong personality of the Philippian Epistle ; yet
our Epistle, on the contrary, is infinitely less direct,
personal, special, than the Epistle to the Colossians.
The inference, even from these general considerations,
seems unmistakable — that it was not addressed to any
special Church, but least of all to such a Church as
Ephesus.

But there are also some indications in detail, looking
in the same direction, which are referred to in tho
Notes on the various passages. Such, for example, is
the vagueness which has been noticed in the two passages
(chaps, i. 15 ; iii. 2), " after I heard of your faith in the
Lord Jesus," and " if ye have heard of the dispensation
of the grace of God given me to you-ward." It is true
that the former may be explained of St. Paul's hearing
of them since he had left them ; and, if confirmed by the
parallel case of the Colossians (Col. i. 4), may be neutral-
ised by comparison with Philem. verse 5 (" Hearing of
thy love and faith"-). It is also true that in the latter
case the " if " of the original is not, except in form,
hypothetical, and the verb may be "heard," not "heard
of." But, making all reservation, there still remains
a vagueness, hardly conceivable in reference to such a
Church as Ephesus, especially when we remember how
St. Paul in parallel cases refers to his former preaching.
(See, for example, 1 Cor. ii. 1—4; 2 Cor. i. 12—19;
xi. 6—9; xiii. 2; Gal. iv. 13; Phil. iv. 9; 1 Thess. ii.
1 — 12 ; iii. 4 ; 2 Thess. ii. 5.) Such, again, is the
generality, absolutely without parallel elsewhere, in
tho salutation " which is the token in every Epistle " —
" Grace be to all them who love the Lord Jesus Christ
in sincerity" — compared with the "Grace be with you"
or " with your spirit " of the other Epistles. The con-
clusions, again, of the Ephesian and Colossian Epistles
may be compared. I do not lay stress on the simple

absence of greetings: for it has been shown (by Alfordj,
by comparison with other Epistles, that this argument
is precarious. But it is impossible not to be struck
with the vague generality of the one, as compared with
the fulness of detail and strong personality of the
other. Thoy coincide verbally in the quasi-official
commendation of Tychicus, and in this alone.

These indications maybe thought to be slight, but
they all point one way, and their combined force is
not to be lightly put aside.

The indirect evidence, therefore, appears strongly
to confirm the supposition which alone gives any simple
explanation of the MSS. phenomena. But is there any
trace of such an encyclical letter ? That there was an
" Epistle from Laodicea" to be read by the Colossians,
we know ; and the context shows conclusively that this
was an Epistle'of St. Paul himself. Laodicea was near
Colossae, and evidently in close union with it. The
special warnings of the letter addressed to the Colossian
Church were probably applicable to it also, and
accordingly it was to be read there. But why should
Colossae read the "Epistle from Laodicea?" Had
it dealt with the pecidiar needs of that sister church
this would be inexplicable ; but if it were what our
Epistle is — general in character, and dealing with a
truth not identical with the main truth of the Colossian
Epistle, but supplementary to it — then the direction is
intelligible at once. It is not (it will be observed) an
" Epistle to tho Laodiceans," but an Epistle " coming
from Laodicea," which would be reached from Ephesus
before Colossse, and which, being the larger and more
important town, might naturally be made the recipient
of a letter intended for it and Colossa>, and perhaps
Hierapofis.

It may be asked. If this be so, why have no MSS. any
other address than to the " saints at Ephesus ? " and
why has tradition invariably called this " The Epistle to
the Ephesians," and nothing else ? The answer which
has been often given appears to be entirely sufficient.
Ephesus was, as the metropolis of Asia, the natural
centre of the Apostolic ministry, and the natural leader
of the Asiatic churches : standing, as in the apocalyptic
epistles (Rev. i. 11), at the head of all. There the
Epistle would be first read ; thence it would go out to
the other Asiatic churches; there it would be best
treasured up, and copies of it multiplied; and
through these it would be likely to become known to
the European churches also. It must have been
quoted by some title. What title so natural as "To tho
Ephesians ? " The use of this title evidently preceded
the insertion of the words " in Ephesus " in the text.
This is natural. We remember that no extant MS.,
except tho Yatican and Sinaitic, is earlier than the
beginning of the fifth century. By that time most of
the Asiatic churches had sunk into insignificance.
The tradition already prevalent of the address to tho
Ephesians would naturally express itself by the inser-
tion of the words, without which the context of the
opening passage is hardly intelligible.

This supposition seems also to bo confirmed by
the occasional appropriation to Laodicea. For, though
after a long interval, Laodicea comes next after
Ephesus in importance in Church history. On that
ground St. Paul made it the centre of the churches
of the Lycus valley. On that ground, also, some claim
to the Epistle, as an Epistle to the Laodiceans, may
have survived till the time of Marcion. It is curious
that the Muratorian Canon (a.d. 170?), after noting tho
Epistle to the Ephesians among St. Paul's Epistles,
adds: "There is in circulation also an Epistle to the

EPHESIANS.

Laodiceans . . . forged in the name of Paul, to aid the
heresy of Marcion . . . which cannot be received into
the Catholic Church." Now the Apocryphal Epistle
to the Laodiceans, still extant, is clearly of later date,
made up of quotations or imitations of various passages
of St. Paul's Epistles, and in no way bearing on
Marcionism. It may perhaps be conjectured that
Marcion, not content with altering the title of our
Epistle, tampered with it and mutilated it, as we know
that he did in the case of other New Testament books.
There maybe in the Canon (as afterwards in Epiphanius)
a reference to this corrupted form of our Epistle, as a
separate work ; and this would be a kind of survival of
the designation of it as an Epistle to the Laodiceans.

On all these grounds, therefore, we must hold it at
least highly probable that we have in it an encyclical
letter to Ephesus and the sister churches of Asia.

III. The Genuineness of the Epistle.— External
Evidence. — The external evidence, as has been already
said (see Introduction to the Epistles of the Captivity),
is strong — as strong as for any other of St. Paul's
Epistles.

Among the Apostolic fathers there seem to be un-
questionable allusions to passages in it : as in Clement
of Rome, chap, xlvi., dwelling on " the one God, one
Christ, one spirit of grace . . . one calling" (comp.
Eph. iv. 4 — 6); and in Polycarp, chap, xii., uniting the
two quotations : " Be ye angry and sin not," " Let not
the sun go down upon your wrath " (comp. Eph. iv. 26,
27). In Ignatius (to the Ephesians, chap, xii.) we
have a remarkable reference to the Ephesians as
" fellow-mystics " with St. Paul, sharing the mystery
of the gospel with him (comp. Eph. i. 9 ; hi. 4 — 9 ; vi.
19) ; and he adds of St. Paul that, " in all his letter
he is mindful of you in Christ Jesus." In the " longer
Greek " version of the same Epistle — interpolated at a
later date — there is in chap. vi. a direct quotation, " as
Paul wrote to you — one body and one Spirit " (Eph.
iv. 4—6). and a clear reference to the address (Eph. i.
1) in chap. ix.

Passing on to a later date, we have the Epistle
formally recognised in the Muratorian Canon (a.d. 170),
apparently representing the tradition of the Church
of Rome : quoted repeatedly, and in some cases un-
mistakably, by Irenaeus in the Church of Gaul (about
a.d. 130 — 200) ; quoted also by Clement of Alexandria
(about a.d. 150—210), and Tertullian (a.d. 160—240),
representing the opposite school of Carthage. It is
found in all ancient versions ; and henceforth held with-
out doubt among the acknowledged books in the Church.

Dr. Westcott has also shown (" Canon of the New
Testament," pp. 314, 323. 338) that it is quoted by the
heretical and Gnostic writers — the Ophites, Basilides,
Valontinus. and others. Marcion's recognition and
criticism of it we have already seen.

Internal Evidence. — The doubts of its genuineness
which have been advanced in our own times turn
entirely on internal evidence.

(1) The differences in style and substance between
these Epistles of the Captivity and the earlier Epistles of
St. Paul have been already discussed. I have ventured
to urge that, corresponding as they do to the time and
circumstances of the captivity, marking a true and
natural development of doctrine, abounding in points
both of similarity and independent originality, these
differences are decisive against the idea of imitation,
and strongly confirmatory of Apostolic authorship.
To the Epistle of the Ephesians these remarks bear a
special application, for this Epistle bears most dis-

tinctly of all the marks of St. Paul's later manner. I
may add, also, that in a very special degree the
grandeur and profoundness of treatment, which make
it one of the great typical Epistles of the New Testa-
ment, speak for themselves as to its Apostolic origin.
To lose it would be to leave a strange gap in the de-
velopment of Christian doctrine, and to mar the
harmony of the individual and corporate elements in,
the Scriptural exposition of the concrete Christian life.
To ascribe it to the weaker hand of a mere disciple of
St. Paul might, but for actual experience, have well
been thought impossible.

(2) But this Epistle in particular has been described
as simply an elaborate reproduction of the Colossian
Epistle, and accordingly represented as of doubtful
originality. It is, of course, obvious (as will be shown
in the Introduction to the Epistle to the Colossians)
that there is a very marked similarity, sometimes in
idea, sometimes in actual expression, between the two
Epistles. But the more both are studied, the more it
must be seen that this similarity is exactly such as
belongs to contemporaneousness, and is utterly incom-
patible with dependence of either upon the other.

In the first place, it is found that there are sections of
the Colossian Epistle to which there is nothing to cor-
respond in the Ephesian Epistle, and that these sections
are principal and not subordinate. Such are, for
example, Col. i. 15 — 17 (on the nature of the Lord
Jesus Christ), Col. ii. 8 — 18 (the warning against
mingled Judaism and Gnosticism), and Col. iv. 9 — 17
(the special salutations and cautions). The absence
of these in the one case, and their presence in the
other, are perfectly intelligible on the theory of con-
temporaneousness, entirely inexplicable on the theory
of dependence.

On the other hand, there are sections in the Epis>tle
to the Ephesians of the most emphatic originality, which
have no counterpart in the other Epistle. Such are
the great opening on the " election of God and the
gathering up of all in Christ" (Eph. i. 3 — 14); the
sublime Apostolic prayer in Eph. iii. 14 — 21 ; the cele-
brated and exhaustive passage on the unity of the
Church in God (Eph. iv. 4 — 6) ; the profound com-
parison of marriage to the union of Christ with the
Church in Eph. v. 23 — 33 ; the magnificent description
of the Christian armour (Eph. vi. 13 — 17). To these
the same remark must apply : to suppose these the
work of a copyist appears all but preposterous.

Next, a careful study shows repeatedly and unmis-
takably that these differences are not accidental ; they
arise from a fundamental distinction between the lead-
ing ideas in the two Epistles. The Epistle to the
Ephesians is the exposition of the reality, the blessing.
and the glory, of the Catholic Church as the body
of Christ. The famous image of the spiritual temple
(in which, perhaps, we may trace some recollection of
that magnificent Temple of Artemis, " which all Asia
and the world worshipped") belongs to this Epistle
(chap. ii. 20 — 22), and has no place in the other. The
passage to which all else works up as a climax is
chap. iv. 4 — 6, on the " one Body and the one Spirit."
Even the ordinary moral duties and social relations of
life are treated in chaps, iv. and v. with a characteristic
reference to this great principle of unity with man in
Christ, which is wanting in the parallel passages of the
Colossian Epistle. On the other hand, the Colossian
Epistle, having to deal with an incipient Gnosticism,,
is specially emphatic on the sole headship and the true
Godhead of Christ. Its great teaching is of Him, as-
"the image of the invisible God," " in whom all the

EPHESIANS.

fulness (the pleroma) of the Godhead dwells bodily "
(CoL i. l.">— 17; ii. 3— 8, 10). The passage which
occupies the chief place, corresponding to the great
passage on Unity in the Epliesian Epistle, is that which
dwells on our life as risen with Christ, and hid in
<iod with Him, who Himself "is our life " (Col. hi.
1-4).

But besides this, it will be seen in the Notes on various
passages that, on the one hand, in detailed passages
parallel to each other, the similarity is almost always
aningled with clear and characteristic difference, mark-
ing an independent coincidence ; and on the other, that
identical expressions occur again and again in entirely
different contexts, and in different degrees of promi-
nence. These are exactly the phenomena which wo
may expect when two letters are written at the same
time to churches neither wholly identical nor wholly
dissimilar in character, and under the guidance of
distinct, yet complementary, ideas. They are wholly
incompatible with dependence or deliberate copyism.

On this particular subject, therefore, I cannot but
draw the same conclusion as on the general subject of
the Epistles of the Captivity, viz., that the indirect
evidence which has been thought to weaken, will be,
actually found to confirm the strong external evidence
for the genuineness of the Epistle.

IV. The Contents of the Epistle.— The general
character and substance of the Epistle haAre been
Already glanced at, both in the General Introduction
and in the preceding sections of the Special Intro-
duction, and they will be found to be treated in detail
in the Notes on the chief passages of the Epistle it-
self. Full analyses, moreover, are given in each
chapter.

It will be sufficient here simply to repeat that the
Epistle falls into two great sections : Doctrinal and
Practical. In both the one great subject is the Unity
in Christ, in some sense of all created being, in a
■closer sense of humanity, in the closest and most sacred
sense of the Holy Catholic Church.

In the doctrinal section (chaps, i. 1 — iv. 16), we find
this unity noticed in the first chapter as ordained in
the eternal predestination of God's love, and mani-
fested in the actual communication to His members
of the Resurrection, the Ascension, and glorification of
•Christ, their head. Next it is shown (in chap, ii.) how
the Gentiles are called into this regenerating unity
out of the deadness of their old life ; and thus at once
hrought into the covenant of God, and so united with
His chosen people of Israel, that all alike, as living
stones, are built into the great Temple of God. Then
(in chap, iii.), after an emphatic declaration of the new-
ness of this mystery of grace, and of the special com-
mission for the revelation of it entrusted to St. Paul,
there follows a solemn and fervent Apostolic prayer for
their knowledge of the mystery, not by human wisdom
or thought, but by the indwelling light and grace of
Christ. Finally, the whole is summed up in a
grand passage (chap. iv. 1 — 16), which brings out in
perfect completeness the whole doctrine of this unity
first in its grounds, its means, and its conditions ; next
in its variety of spiritual gifts ; lastly, in the oneness of
the object of all, in the reproduction of the life of
Christ in the individual and the Church.

The practical section (chaps, iv. 17 — vi. 24) opens
with an unique treatment of morality and of human
relationship, as dependent upon the mystei-ious unity
of man with man and of man with God. First
(chaps, iv. 17 — v. 21), that unity is made the basis

of ordinary moral duties towards man, and the safe-
guard against the Besetting sins of heathen society
— bitterness, impurity, and reckless excess. Next
(chaps, v. 22 — vi. 9), it is shown as the secret of
the sacredness of earthly relations of marriage, of
fatherhood, and of mastership. In the first ease
this idea is worked out with a transcendent beauty
and solemnity, which have beyond all else hallowed
Christian marriage ; in the others it is more briefly
touched upon, with a view chiefly to temper and
soften the sternness of a recognised authority. Finally
(chap. vi. 10 — 24), this portion of the Epistle is wound
up by a magnificent and elaborate description of the
full panoply of God; and the Epistle then ends, briefly
and rather vaguely, with commendation of Tychicus
and a general form of salutation.

The general sketch of this wonderful Epistle
will, perhaps, be best explained by the analysis here
subjoined, shortened from the analyses of the various
chapters.

1. Doctrinal Section.

(1) The Introduction (chap, i) :

(a) Salutation (chap. i. 1, 2) ;

(b) Thanksgiving for the election of the whole

Church in God's love, given through
redemption by unity with Christ, shown
in the calling and faith both of Jew
and Gentile (chap. i. 3 — 14) ;

unity with the risen and ascended
Christ, the Head of the ivhole Church
(chap. i. 15—23).

(2) The Call of the Gentiles (chap, ii.) :

(a) Out of the deadness of sin and, power of

Satan into the new life of the risen
Christ, accepted in simple faith, wrought
out in good works (chap. ii. 1 — 10) ;

(b) Out of alienation from the covenant, into

perfect unity with God's chosen people,
all division being broken doivn, and full
access given to the Father ; so that Jeiv
and Gentile alike, built on the one
foundation, grow into the living Temple
of God (chap. ii. 11—22).

(3) Prayer for their Fuller Knowledge

(chap, iii.) :

(a) The mystery of the universal call, new in

revelation, specially intrusted to St. Paul
(chap. iii. 1—13) ;

(b) Prayer for their full knoivledge of it

(though passing knowledge) through the
indwelling of Christ, accepted in faith
and love (chap. iii. 14 — 19) ;

Jesus (chap. iii. 20, 21).

(4) Final Summary of Doctrine (chap, iv.) :

(a) The unity of the Chttrch in one Sjririt,

one Lord, one God and Father of all
(chap. iv. 1 — 6) ;

(b) The diversity of gifts in the glorified Christ

(chap. iv. 7—11) ;

individual and corporate regeneration
(chap. iv. 12—16).

2. Practical Section.

(1) The New Life : learning Christ and growing
wfdo His image (chap. iv. 17—24).

EPHESIANS.

(2) Conquest of Sin :

(a) The conquest of sin in general in virtue of

the sense of unity with man in Christ

(chap. iv. 25—30) ;
(6) Conquest of special besetting sins of malice,

impurity, recklessness of excess (chaps.

iv. 31 ; v. 21).

(3) Begenebation of Social Relations :

(a) The relation of husbands and wives con-

secrated as a type of union of Christ
with His Church (chap. v. 22, 23) j

(b) The relation of parents and children

hallowed as in the Lord (chap. vi.
1—4);

a brotherhood of service to one Master
(chap. vi. 5 — 9).

(4) Final Exhortation:

The armour of God and the fight against
the powers of evil (chap. vi. 10 — 17).

3. Conclusion.

(a) Special desire of their prayers for him in

his captivity (chap. vi. 18 — 20) ;

(b) Commendation of Tychicus (chap. vi.

21, 22) ;

In conclusion I may add that it does not appear
to me fanciful to suppose that the teaching of this
Epistle has as special an applicability to our age
as the teaching of the Galatian ov Roman Epistles
had to the sixteenth century. For in all spheres of
life — the political, the social, and the ecclesiastical
alike — it would seem that our prominent questions are*
not those of individualism, but of socialism in the
true sense of the word. Society is contemplated in
its corporate life ; in its rights over the individual ; in
the great eternal principles which it truly embodies
and partially represents ; and, moreover, this con-
templation has a breadth of scope which refuses to be
confined within the limits of family, or nation, or age.
Humanity itself is considered, both historically and
philosophically, as only the highest element in the
order of the universe, which is itself bound together in
a unity of unbroken connection and continuous develop-
ment. It is asked, What has Christianity to declare as;
a gospel to society at large, and as a key to the
mysterious relation of humanity with creation, and so
with Him who created it ? To that question, perhaps,
the answer is nowhere more truly given than in the
Epistle to the Ephesians. We need a real and living
unity ; but it must be such as will preserve the equally
saci'ed individuality of freedom. This Epistle presents
it to us in its magnificent conception of the unity of al)
with God in the Lord Jesus Christ.

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

EPHESIANS.

CHAPTER I.— d) Paul,, an apostle of
Chap. i. l, 2. Jesus Christ by the will of
Salutation. God, to the saints which
are at Ephesus, and to the faithful in

Christ Jesus : W grace be to you, and
peace, from God our Father, and from
the Lord Jesus Christ. (3; Blessed be
the God and Father of our Lord Jesus

[1. Introduction to the Epistle (chap. i. 1 — 23).

(1) Salutation (verses 1, 2).

(2) Thanksgiving to God for —

(a) The election of the whole Church before the

world began, by the predestinating love of
the Father, to holiness, grace, and glory
(verses 3 — 6);

(b) this election depending on Redemption, in

virtue of unity with Christ as the Head
of all created Being (verses 7 — 10) ;

and faith, first of the Jewish, then of the
Gentile Christians (verses 11 — 14).

(3) PRAYER for their fuller knowledge of the

hope, glory, and spiritual reality of their
inheritance, manifested in the Resurrection,
Ascension, and Royalty of Christ, the Head
of the Church (verses 15—23).]

(1) CD By the will of God.— This phrase nsed in
1 Cor. i. 1 ; 2 Cor. i. 1 ; Col. i. 1 ; 2 Tim. i. 1 (comp. the
equivalent expression of 1 Tim. i. 1), appears to be
St. Paid's ordinary designation of the source of his
apostolic mission and authority; used whenever there
was nothing peculiar in the occasion of the Epistle, or
the circumstances of the Church to which it was ad-
dressed. It may be contrasted, on the one hand,
with the more formal enunciation of his commission,
addressed to the Roman Church (Rom. i. 1 — 5), and
the indignant and emphatic abruptness of the opening of
the Galatiau Epistle — " an apostle not of men, neither
by man. but by Jesus Christ" (Gal. i. 1). On the
other hand, to the Thessalonian churches, in the Epistles
written shortly after their conversion, he uses no de-
scription of himself whatever (1 Thess. i. 1 ; 2 Thess.
i. 1) ; in the Epistles to the Philippians and to Titus
he is simply " the servant of Jesus Christ " (Phil. i.
1; Tit. i. 1); to Philemon (for special reasons) "the
prisoner of Jesus Christ." The phrase in the text
stands midway between the emphasis of the one class
of Epistles and the more familiar simplicity of the other.

To the saints .... and to the faithful in
Christ Jesus— Here, as in Col. i. 2 (" the saints and
faithful brethren ") the same persons are described by
both epithets. They are "saints," as "called" (see
Rom. i. 7; 1 Cor. i. 2) into " the communion of saints"
by the grace of God; they are "faithful." as by their
own act believing in Christ and holding fast that faith

The two epithets are correlative to each other. Without
the call and the grace of God, men cannot believe;
without the energy of faith they cannot bo, in effect as
well as in opportunity, " saints." Both epithets belong
in capacity and profession to all members of the Church
militant ; and St. Paul applies them accordingly to the
whole body of any church which he addresses, without
hesitation or distinction. In living reality they belong
only to the " Invisible Church " of the present, which
shall form the " Church triumphant " of the hereafter.
It has been noted that the use of the word " saints," as
the regular and ordinary name of Christians, is more
especially traceable in the later Epistles of St. Paul.
So in his speech before Agrippa he says, " Many of the
saints did I shut up in prison " (Acts xxvii. 10).
The phrase, " in Christ Jesus," belongs to both the
words "saints" and "faithful;" but it is here more
closely connected with the latter.

Which are at Ephesus.— On these words, omitted
in the oldest MSS., sec the Introduction.

(2) Grace be to you, and peace.— On this, St.
Paul's all but invariable salutation in every Epistle
(found also in the Epistles of St. Peter, 2 John, and
Apocalypse), see Note on Rom. i. 7.

(2 a.) In verses 3 — 6, the first section of the In-
troduction, the Epistle ascends at once into " the
heavenly places," naturally catching therefrom the
tone of adoration and thanksgiving. It dwells on the
election of the children of God by His predestinating
love— an election based on His will, designed for His
glory, and carrying with it the blessings of the Spirit,
through which they become holy and unblamable before
Him. On the whole section comp. Rom. viii. 28 — 30.

(3) It may be noted, as bearing on the question of
the general or special character of this Epistle, that
(with the single exception of the Second Epistle to the
Corinthians, which may be looked upon as virtually
a continuation of the First Epistle) all St. Paul's-
Epistles addressed to particular churches pass at
once from the salutation to refer to the particular
circumstances, gifts, and needs of the Church,
generally in the form of thanksgiving and prayer,
sometimes (as in Gal. i. 6) in rebuke. In St. Peter's
First Epistle, on the other hand, addressed to those
"scattered" through many churches, we have an
opening exactly similar to the opening of this Epistle.

Thanksgiving for Election

EPHESIANS, I.

in Christ

Christ, who hath blessed us with all
Chap. i. 3— G. spiritual blessings in hea-

T>e election venly places1 1
of the whole ,.•. J 1 -
Church ;

Christ
according as he hath

chosen us in him before the founda-
tion of the world, that we should be
holy and without blame before him
in love : <5) having predestinated us

There is, indeed, here a thanksgiving below (verses
15 — 22), but it is entirely general, belonging to the
whole Church.

The God and Father of our Lord Jesus
Christ.— On this phrase (used in Roin. xv. 6 ; 2 Cor.
i. 3 ; xi. 31 ; 1 Pet, i. 3) see Note on Rom. xv. 6.
It is, however, to be noted here, that in the Vatican
MS. the words "and Father" are omitted, and that
the phrase " the God of our Lord Jesus Christ " occurs
below in verse 17.

Blessed be . . • who hath blessed us with all
spiritual blessings. — The frequent phrase " Blessed
be God " (Luke i. 68; Rom. i. 25 ; ix. 5 ; 2 Cor. i. 3 ;
xi. 31 ; 1 Pet. i. 3) is here used with an unique anti-
thesis. We can " bless " God only in thanksgiving of
heart and voice, with which He deigns to be pleased,
as He " rejoices over the works of His hands." God
blesses us in real and life-giving " spiritual blessing,"
i.e., blessing of the gift of the Spirit, for which we can
return nothing except thanksgiving. So in Ps. cxvi.
12, 13, the natural question of the thoughtful soul —
" What shall I render unto the Lord for all His benefits
towards me P " — is answered simply by the words, " I
will receive the cup of salvation, and call on the name
of the Lord."

Who hath blessed us ... in heavenly
places. — It should be, ivho blessed us (once for all), in
the election and predestination spoken of in the next
verse. If this be noted, the sense of the phrase " in
heavenly places " becomes far clearer. It has been
doubted whether we ought to supply the word " places "
or " things " (as in John iii. 12) in rendering this
phrase, which is peculiar to this Epistle, and used in it
no less than five times. In three out of the other four
places (chaps, i. 20 ; ii. 6 ; iii. 10) the local sense is mani-
fest ; in the fourth (chap. vi. 12) and in this it might be
doubtful. But (1) it is altogether unlikely that so
unique a phrase would be used in two different senses ;
(2) the original word for "heavenly" has most pro-
perly and most usually a local meaning ; (3) the trans-
ference of the thoughts to heaven above suits especially
the whole tone of this Epistle and the parallel Epistle
to the Colossians; and (4) the local sense agrees best
with the context here, for the Apostle is speaking of
the election " before the foundation of the world " as
made by the foreknowledge of God in heaven, where
Christ is " in the beginning with God."

It has been noticed here that we have one of those
implicit references to the Holy Trinity — the blessing
from God the Father, in Christ, and by the Spirit —
with which St. Paul's Epistles abound.

In Christ — i.e., in the unity with Christ, which is
"the life eternal," ordained for us iu the foreknow-
ledge of God, and viewed as already existing. (See
the whole of John xvii., especially verses 21 — 24.)

W According as {i.e., inasmuch as) he hath
chosen us in him before the foundation of
the world.— Again it should be, He chose us for Him-
self. The eternal election of God is inseparably con-
nected with the blessing of the Spirit. This passage
stands alone in St. Paul's Epistles in its use of this
word " chosen " in connection with God's eternal pur-
pose, "before the foundation of the world" — a phrase

only applied elsewhere to the eternal communion of
the Son with the Father (John xvii. 24), and to the
foreordaining of His sacrifice in the divine counsels
(1 Pet. i. 20). The word " chosen " itself is used by
our Lord of His choice of the Apostles (John vi. 70 ;
xiii. 18 ; xv. 16 — 19) ; but in one case with the signi-
ficant addition, " one of you is a devil," showing that
the election was not final. It is similarly used in the
Acts (chaps, i. 2, 24; vi. 5; xv. 7, 22, 25) of His choice
or the choice of the Apostles ; and once (chap. xiii. 7)
of the national election of Israel. In 1 Cor. i. 27, 28
(the only other place where it is used by St. Paul), and
in Jas. ii. 5 it refers to choice of men by God's calling in
this world. Clearly in all these cases it is applied to the
election of men to privilege by an act of God's mercy
here. In this passage, on the contrary, the whole
reference is to the election "in Christ," by the fore-
knowledge of God, of those who should hereafter be
made His members. From this examination of Scrip-
tural usage it is clear that the visible election to
privilege is constantly and invariably urged upon men ;
the election in God's eternal counsels only dwelt upon
in passages which (like this or Rom. ix., xi.) have to
ascend in thought to the fountain-head of all being in
God's mysterious will. It will be observed that even
here it clearly refers to all members of the Church,
without distinction.

That we should be holy and without blame
before him.— In these words we have the, object of
the divine election declared, and the co-operation of
the elect implied, by the inseparable connection of
holiness with election. There is an instructive parallel
in Col. i. 22 : — " He hath reconciled you in the body
of His flesh through death, to present you holy and
unblamable, and unreprovable in His sight." The
word " without blame," or " unblamable," is properly
without blemish; and the word "unreprovable"
more nearly corresponds to our idea of one unblam-
able— i.e., one against whom no charge can be
brought. Here God is said to have " chosen " us, in the
other passage to have " presented " us (comp. the
sacrificial use of the word in Rom. xii. 1), in Christ, to
be " holy and without blemish." It seems clear that
the words refer not to justification in Christ, but to
sanctification in Him. They express the positive and
negative aspects of holiness ; the positive in the spirit
of purity, the negative in the absence of spot or
blemish. The key to their interpretation is to be
found in the idea of Rom. viii. 29, "whom He did
foreknow, He did predestinate to be conformed to the
image of His Son." The word " without blame " is
applied to our Lord (in Heb. ix. 14 ; 1 Pet. i. 19) as a
lamb " without blemish." To Him alone it applies
perfectly; to us, in proportion to that conformity to
His image. The words "before Him" refer us to
God's unerring judgment as contrasted with the judg-
ment of men, and even our own judgment on ourselves.
(Comp. 1 Cor. iv. 3, 4 ; 1 John iii. 20, 21.)

In love. — If these words are connected with the
previous verse, they must be taken with " He hath
chosen us," in spite of the awkwardness of the dislo-
cation of order. But it is best to connect them with
the verse following, " Having predestinated us in love."

(5) Having predestinated us unto the adop-

through //>'< A tenement

EPHESIANS, I.

and Gr

unto the adoption of children by Jesus
Christ to himself, according to the good
pleasure of his will, <6> to the praise of
the glory of his grace, wherein he hath
made us accepted in the beloved. W In

whom we have redemption through
his blood, the forgiveness of _

j- j. xi • i. Chap. i. 7—10.
sins, according to the riches a8 , redeemed

of his grace ; (8) wherein through unity

he hath abounded toward ™thChru*f

tion of children by Jesus Christ to himself.—
The idea of Election depends on the anion of the sense
of actual difference between men, as to privilege and
.spiritual life, with the conviction of God's universal
sovereignty. Hence, in all eases, it leads baek to the
idea of Predestination, that is, of the conception of
the divine purpose in the mind of God, before its
realisation in actual fact. On the doctrine of pre-
destination see Rom. ix. It will suffice to note that
here (1) its source is placed in God's love ; (2) its
meritorious cause is the mediation of the Lord Jesus
Christ; (3) its result is adoption, so that He is (see
Rom. viii. 29) ''the firstborn of many brethren," who
are conformed to His image, and redeemed by Him
from bondage to sonship (Gal. iv. 5). (It is clear that
the adoption here is not the final adoption of Rom.
viii. 23; but the present adoption into the Christian
covenant, there called "the firstfruits of the Spirit;")
(4) it is in itself the expression of " the good plea-
sure of His will" on which all ultimately depends;
and (5) its final purpose is to show forth God's glory
in the gift of His grace. In a few words the whole
doctrine is summed up, with that absolute completeness,
so eminently characteristic of this Epistle.

According to the good pleasure of his
will. — In our version, " good pleasure," there is an
ambiguity, reproducing the ambiguity of the original.
The word used may signify (as in Matt. xi. 26; Luke x.
21; Phil. ii. 13) simply God's free will, to which this or
that " seemeth good," or (as in Luke xi. 14; Rom. x. 1;
Phil. i. 15) "His good will towards us." Even the
old Greek interpreters were divided upon it, and either
sense will suit this passage. But the close parallel
in verse 11, "according to the counsel (deliberate
'purpose) of His will," turns the balance in favour of
the former rendering.

(6) To the praise of the glory of his grace.—
That is, for the acknowledgment by all God's creatures
of the gloriousness of His grace; or, in other words,
for the acknowledgment that God's essential glory is
best manifested in His grace — that He " declares His
almighty power most chiefly in showing mercy and
pity." So in Ex. xxxiii. 18, 19, to the request, " Show
me Thy glory," the answer is, " I will make my
goodness to pass before thee . . . and will bo
gracious to whom I will be gracious." (Comp. Ex.
xxxiv. 5 — 7.) He is pleased to consider His glory
best realised in the spectacle of souls redeemed and
regenerate by His grace, and to decree that it should
be thus realised for our sakes. " Wherefore would
He have us praise and glorify Him ? It is that our
love to Him may be kindled more fervently. He
desires not our service, nor our praise, nor anything
else except our salvation " (Chrysostom's First Homily
on the Ephesians).

Wherein he hath made us accepted in the
beloved.— The verb here rendered " made us ac-
cepted," is the same verb used in Luke i. 28 (and
nowhere else in the New Testament), where we trans-
late "highly favoured." Etymologically it means to
'• bestow grace upon ; " the tense here is the past tense,
not the perfect. Hence the meaning is (in connection
with the previous clause), " His grace, which He be-

stowed upon us in the Beloved " — in virtue of our
unity with " His beloved Son, in whom He is well
pleased" (Matt. iii. 17). This special title is given to
our Lord to mark a connection with the " love " de-
clared in the last verse to be the source of God's pre-
destination. It is a love to all mankind, as in God's
foreknowledge already made one with His beloved
Son. (See John xvii. 23, 25, " Thou hast loved them,
as Thou hast loved Me . . . for Thou lovedst Me
before the foundation of the world.")

(2 b.) Verses 7 — 10 form the second section of this
Introduction to the Epistle, linked to the former by
the words, " in the Beloved." From the declaration in
the former section of the source of salvation in God's
love, it leads us on to the mystery of the Mediation of
Jesus Christ, in Whom all Being is gathered up for
redemption.

(") In whom we have redemption through
his blood, the forgiveness of sins.— This pas-
sage is identical in sense and expression with Col. i.
14, except that the word here used for " sins " means,
properly, " separate acts of transgression," while the
word there is the more general word for sin in the
abstract. (In chap. ii. 1, both are used.) In both
passages we have united, as correspondent to each
other, the two expressions under which our Lord
Himself describes His atonement — in Matt. xx. 28, as
the " giving His life a ransom for many," in Matt. xxvi.
28, as " the shedding of His blood for the forgiveness
of sins." These two expressions appear to be com-
plementary to each other, rather than identical. (-1) The
primary idea in " redemption " is deliverance from a
bondage, mostly the bondage of sin itself (see Rom.
viii. 23; Tit. ii. 14; Heb. ix. 15; 1 Pet. i. 18—21);
occasionally (and in this sense with a different Greek
word), the bondage under sentence of punishment for
sin (Gal. iii. 13; iv. 5). Into that bondage man has
plunged himself; God's mercy redeems him from it
at an unspeakable price (John iii. 16; Rom. \ii. 24, 25).
(2) The primary idea in " the forgiveness of sins through
His blood " is propitiation, that is, the offering to God
" a full, perfect, and sufficient sacrifice " for sin, by
One who is the Head and Representative of the human
race (Rom. iii. 25; 1 John ii/2; iv. 10). So St. Paul
interprets our Lord's words by the declaration that
" Christ our Passover is sacrificed for us " (1 Cor. v.
7) ; and it is notable that exactly in His words is the
Atonement designated in the earliest apostolic preaching
(Acts ii. 38; v. 31; x. 43; xiii. 38; xxvi. 18). Hence
the former phrase looks at the Atonement from the side
of God, the latter from the side of man ; both being
wrought by Him who is Son of God and Son of Man at
once. Together they represent the whole truth.

According to the riches of his grace.— As
above, in relation to praise, stress is laid on the
gloriousness of God's grace, so here, in relation to
enjoyment of it, on its overflowing richness. (See
chaps, ii. 7 ; iii. 8, 16 ; and Rom. iii. 24 ; ix. 23.)

(8) Wherein he hath abounded toward us
in all wisdom and prudence.— It should be,
which He made to overflow to us in all wisdom

The Mystery of

EPHESIANS, I.

Unity in Christ,

us in all wisdom and prudence ; (9) having
made known unto us the mystery of his
will, according to his good pleasure
which he hath purposed in himself:

Gr. the heavens.

(10> that in the dispensation of the ful-
ness of times he might gather together
in one all things in Christ, both which
are in heaven,1 and which are on earth •>

and prudence — the word " overflow " having an
emphasis which our word "abound" has lost, and
signifying here that the richness of God's grace not
only tills the soul with the blessing of salvation, but
overflows into the additional gifts of " all wisdom and
prudence " in us, which gifts are here dwelt upon in
anticipation of the declaration of the next verse. Of
these two gifts, wisdom is clearly the higher gift, signi-
fying (as in the Old Testament) the knowledge of the
true end of life, which can only come from some
knowledge of the " wisdom of God," that is, the divine
purpose of His dispensation. (See especially Prov.
viii. 22—31.) Such knowledge is revealed to us through
the " mind of Christ," who is Himself the true wisdom
or " Word of God." (See 1 Cor. i. 24, 30; ii. 6—10, 16.)
Hence wisdom is spoken of in connection with various
other gifts, which are but partial manifestations of it.
Here with "prudence," that is, wisdom in action; in
Col. i. 9, with " intelligence." that is, wisdom in judg-
ment ; in 1 Cor. xii. 8, Col. ii. 3, with " knowledge," that
is, wisdom in perception ; in verse 17 of this chapter,
with " revelation," the means by which wisdom is
gained.

<9) Having made known unto us the mystery
of his will. — In the same connection we read in 1 Cor.
ii. 7, " we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery."
The word " mystery " properly signifies a. thing which
(see chap. iii. 5 ; Col. i. 27) " was hid from all ages, but
is now made manifest." So our Lord evidently uses it
(in Matt. xiii. 11; Mark iv. 11 ; Luke viii. 10). For the
rest, except in four passages of the Apocalypse (Rev.
i. 20 ; x. 7; xvii. 5, 7), it is used by St. Paul alone, and
by him no less than twenty-one times, of which, ten
belong to this Epistle and the parallel Epistle to the
Colossians — always in connection with such words as
"knowledge," "declaration," "dispensation." The
ordinary sense of the word " mystery " — a thing of
which we know that it is, though how it is we know not
— is not implied in the original meaning of the word ;
but it is a natural derivative from it. Reason can
apprehend, when revealed, that which it cannot dis-
cover ; but seldom or never can it comprehend it per-
fectly. In this verse the mystery is declared to be
accordant to the good pleasure of God's will, which (it
is added) " He purposed in Himself." In this seems
to be implied that (see chap. iii. 19) though in some
sense we can know it, yet in its fulness " it passeth
knowledge."

0°) That in the dispensation of the fulness of
times. — The connection marked in our version seems
certainly erroneous. The words should be connected
with the previous verse, and translated thus : which
He purposed in Himself for administration (or dis-
posal) of the fulness of the (appointed) seasons, to
gather, &c. We note (1) that the word " dispensation "
is usually applied to the action of the servants of God,
as " dispensers of His mysteries." (See chap. iii. 2 ;
1 Cor. ix. 17 ; Col. i. 25.) Here, however, and in chap,
iii. 10, it is applied to the disposal of all by God Him-
self, according to " the law which He has set Himself
to do all things by." Next (2) that the word " fulness,"
or completeness, frequently used by St. Paul, is only
found in connection with time in this passage, and in

Gal. iv. 4 (" when the fulness of time was come ").
There, however, the reference is to a point of time,
marking the completion of the preparation for our Lord's
coming ; here, apparently, to a series of " seasons,"
" which the Father hath put in His own power " (Acts
i. 7) for the completion of the acts of the Mediatorial
kingdom described in the words following. (Comp.
Matt. xvi. 3; Luke xxi. 24 ; 1 Thess. v. 1 ; 1 Tim. ii. 6;
iv. 1 ; vi. 15 ; Tit. i. 3.)

That he might gather together in one all
things in Christ. — In these words St. Paul strikes
the great keynote of the whole Epistle, the Unity op
all in Christ. The expression " to gather together
in one " is the same which is used in Rom. xiii. 9 (where
all commandments are said to lie " briefly compre-
hended," or summed up, " in the one saying, Thou
shalt love thy neighbour as thyself "). Here, however,
there is the additional idea that this gathering up is
" for Himself." The full meaning of this expression is
" to gather again under one head " things which had been
originally one, but had since been scpai'ated. The best
comment upon the truth here briefly summed up is
found in the full exposition of the Epistle to the
Colossians (Col. i. 16 — 20), " In Him were all things
created, that are in heaven and that are in earth . . .
all things were created by Him and for Him . . . and
in Him all things consist. It pleased the Father that
in Him should all fulness dwell, and ... by Him
to reconcile all things to Himself . . . whether things
on earth or things in heaven." In Christ, as the Word
of God in the beginning, all created things are con-
sidered as gathered up, through Him actually made,
and in Him continuing to exist. This unity, broken by
sin, under the effect of which " all creation groans "
(Rom. viii. 22), is restored in the Incarnation and Atone-
ment of the Son of God. By this, therefore, all things
are again summed up in Him, and again made one in
Him with the Father. In both passages St. Paul uses
expressions which extend beyond humanity itself —
" things in heaven and things in earth," " things visible
and tilings invisible," "thrones and principalities and
powers." In both he immediately proceeds from the
grand outline of this wider unity, to draw out in detail
the nearer, and to us more comprehensible, unity of all
mankind in Christ. (Comp. Col. i. 18, 21.) So also
writes St. John (John i. 3, 4, 12), passing from the
thought that " all things were made by Him," first to the
declaration, " In Him was life, and the life was the light
of men," and next to the power given to those who be-
lieved on Him to become sons of God. The lesser part
of this truth, setting forth the unity of all mankind, in
the Second Adam, forms the basis of the argument of
1 Cor. xv., that "in Christ all shall be made alive," in
the course of which the existence of the Mediatorial
kingdom of Christ is described, and its continuance till
the final triumph, when it " shall be delivered up to
God, even the Father," " that God may be all in all "
(1 Cor. xv. 24, 28). In virtue of it, those who are His
are partakers of His death and resurrection, His
ascension, even His judgment (chap. ii. 6 ; Matt. xix.
28; Rom vi. 3—10; 1 Cor. vi. 2, 3; Col. iii. 1—3).

(2 c.) Verses 11 — 14 form the third part of the

both of Jews

EPHESIANS, I.

and G cut ilr.:.

even in hiin : W in whom also we have

obtained an inheritance,

Suited "fOike being predestinated ac-

to Jews and cording to the purpose of

Gentiles. h{m who worketh all

things after the counsel of his own will :

P*> that we should be to the praise of
his glory, who first trusted1 in Christ.
(13) jn whom ye also trusted, after that
ye heard the word of truth, the gospel
of your salvation : in whom also after
that ye believed, ye were sealed with

Introduction, applying the general truth of election by
<;ud"> predestination in Christ, first to the original
believers (the .Jews), and then to the subsequent
believers (the Gentiles).

(io, 11) Even in him : in whom also we have
obtained an inheritance. — !We have here (in the
repetition, " even in Him ") an emphatic transition to
the truth most closely concerning the Apostle and his
readers. The word " we " is not here emphatic, and
the statement might be a general statement applicable
to all Christians ; but the succeeding verse seems to
limit it to the original Jewish believers— the true
Israel, who (like the whole of Israel in ancient days)
have become " a people of inheritance " (Deut. iv. 20 ;
ix. 29 ; xxxii. 9), so succeeding to tho privileges (Rom.
xi. 7) which their brethren in blindness rejected. Pos-
sibly this suggests the peculiar word here (and here
only) used, meaning either " we were made partakers
of a lot " in God's kingdom (to which Col. i. 12, " who
lias made us meet for a part of the lot of the saints,"
closely corresponds), or " we were made His lot or
inheritance;" wliieh perhaps suits the Greek better,
certainly accords better with the Old Testament idea,
and gives a more emphatic sense. A third possi-
ble seuse is "were chosen by lot." This is adopted
by the Vulgate, supported by the only use of the word
in the Septuagint (1 Sam. xiv. 41), and explained by
Chrysostom and Augustine as signifying the freedom
of election without human merit, while by the succeed-
ing words it is shown not to be really by chance, but
by God's secret will. But this seems quite foreign to
the genius of the passage.

Being predestinated . . . that we should
be to the praise of his glory.— This is an applica-
tion of the general truth before declared (verses 5, 6)
that the source of election is God's predestination, and
the object of it the manifestation of His glory.

After the counsel of his own will.— The ex-
pression evidently denotes not only the deliberate
exercise of God's will by " determinate counsel and
foreknowledge " (Acts ii. 23), but also the guidance of
that will by wisdom to tho fulfilment of the Law
Eternal of God's righteous dispensation. Hooker, in
a well-known passage (Eccl. Pol. i. 2), quotes it as
excluding the notion of an arbitrary will of God,
" They err, who think that of God's wall there is no
reason except His will."

U2) That we . . . who first trusted in Christ.
— That the reference here is to the first Christians, fix
contradistinction to the Gentiles of the next verse, is
clear. But the meaning of the phrase " who first
hoped " (or, more properly, who have hoped before-
Iniud) is less obvious. Our version seems to interpret
it simply of " believing before " the Gentiles, i.e., of
being the " first believers ; " and this interpretation
may be defended by the analogy of certain cases in
which the same prefix signifying " beforehand " has
this sense {e.g., Acts xx. 5, 13; Rom. hi. 9; xii. 10;
1 Cor. xi. 21). But the more general analogy strongly
supports the other interpretation, " who have hoped in

the Christ before He camo "—that is, who, taught by
prophecy, entering into that vision of a great future
which pervades the older Covenant, looked forward
"to the hope of Israel," and " waited for the consola-
tion of Israel ; " and who accordingly in due time
became, on the Day of Pentecost, the firstfruits of His
salvation.

U3) In whom ye also trusted ... in whom
also- after that ye believed, ye were sealed.—
The insertion of the word "trusted" (suggested by ihr
word "trusted" in the previous verse) is probably
erroneous, nor is it easy to find any good substitute for
it. It is far better to refer the whole to the one verb,
"ye were sealed." The irregularity of construction
(arising from the addition to " hearing " of its proper
accessory of "faith," Rom. x. 17) will surprise no one
who studies St. Paul's Epistles, and especially these
Epistles of his Captivity, remembering that they were
dictated, and in all probability read over again to
the Apostle for addition or correction.

After that ye heard the word of truth, the
gospel of your salvation.— There is a contrast here
between the Jewish believers, looking on in hope and
gladly embracing its fulfilment, and the Gentiles, who
had no such hope, and who therefore waited " for the
word of the truth " (the full truth, not veiled in type or
symbol), the glad tidings of a present salvation." Tho
gTeater emphasis laid on the latter process seems
intended to impress on the Gentiles a sense of tho
simpler and fuller means by which they were led to
Christ,

After that ye believed, ye were sealed with
that holy Spirit of promise.— The order is to be
noted, and compared with the experience of the Day of
Pentecost (Acts ii. 38). First, the light of the gospel
shines before men ; next, by faith they open their eyes
to see it ; then they are sealed by a special gift of the
Holy Spirit. Such faith is, of course, the gift of God
by the Spirit ; but our Lord teaches us (John xvi.
8 — 13) to distinguish between the pleading of the Holy
Spirit with " tho world " " to convince of sin, because
they believe not in Christ," and the special gift of His
presence in the Church and the believing soul " to
guide unto all the truth." This fuller presence is the
seal of the new covenant.

Ye were sealed with that holy Spirit of
promise. — This word •" sealed " is found in exactly
the same connection in 2 Cor. i. 22. The original idea
of this sealing (which, it should be observed, is not of
documents, but of men) is best seen in the " sealing of
the servants of God in their foreheads," in Rev. vii.
3— S. In that passage, and in the passage of Ezekiel
which it recalls (Ezek. ix. 4), the sealing is simply an
outward badge, to bo at once a pledge and means of
safety amidst the destruction coming on the earth. In
like sense, circumcision appears to be called "a seal"
of previously existing righteousness of faith, in Rom.
iv. 11; and the conversion of tho Corinthians "a seal"
of St. Paul's apostleship, in 1 Cor. ix. 2. (Comp. also
John iii. 33 ; Rom. xv. 38 ; 2 Tim. ii. 19.) But the
word is used in a deeper sense whenever it is connected i

St Paul's Thanksgiving

EPHESIANS, I.

and Prayer J or them.

that holy Spirit of promise, (U) which
is the earnest of our inheritance until
the redemption of the purchased pos-
session, unto the praise of his glory.
(is) Wherefore I also, after I heard of

your faith in the Lord Jesus, and
love unto all the saints, chap. i. 15-19.
(16> cease not to give thanks Prayer for full
for you, making mention of this' ^divine
you in my prayers ; (17^ that blessing ;

with the gift of the Holy Spirit. Then it corresponds
to the " circumcision not made with hands " (Rom. ii. 29 ;
Col. ii. 11); it has the character of a sacrament, and is
not a mere badge, but a true means of grace. In this
connection we read first of our Lord, " Him God the
Father sealed " (John vi. 27), with a clear reference to
the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at His baptism
(conip. John i. 33; v. 37; x. 33) ; next of His people (as
here, in chap. iv. 30, and in 2 Cor. i. 22) as being, like
Himself, baptised with the Holy Ghost. In this
passage the very title given to the Spirit is significant.
He is called (in the curious order of the original) "the
Spirit of the Promise, the Holy One." " The promise "
is clearly the promise in the Old Testament (as in
Jer. xxxi. 31 — 34 ; Joel ii. 28—33) of the outpouring of
the Spirit on all God's people in "the latter days/'
The emphatic position of the epithet " Holy One "
seems to point to the effect of His indwelling in the
actual sanctification of the soul thus sealed. Prom this
passage was probably derived the ecclesiastical applica-
tion of the name " seal " to the sacrament of baptism,
which is undoubtedly made the seal of conversion in
Acts ii. 38.

(W) Which is the earnest of our inheritance.
— On the word " earnest" (arrhabon), a precious gift,
as surety for a fuller gift hereafter, see 2 Cor. i. 22.
The word " inheritance " has a correspondent meaning.
It is a present possession (as in Acts vii. 5), which shall
be developed into a more precious future. " We are
very members, incorporate in the mystical body of
Christ, and also heirs through hope of His everlasting
kingdom."

Until the redemption of the purchased pos-
session.—The " redemption " here is the complete and
final salvation from sin and death (as in Rom. viii. 23).
The original word here rendered "purchased possession"
properly means " the act of purchase or acquisition,"
and is so used in 1 Thess. v. 9 ; 2 Thess. ii. 14 ; Heb.
x. 39. But it seems clear that it is here used (in the
sense of our version) with that confusion of idea, com-
mon in English, though rai-e in Greek, under which the
result of an action is understood instead of the action
itself, so that the word " purchases " is used for " things
purchased," ""acquisitions" for "things acquired" and
the like. The transition is marked in relation to this
.same word in Mai. iii. 17 ; 1 Pet. ii. 9, where the Israel-
ites are spoken of as " a people for acquisition," that is,
as a people acquired or purchased.

(3) In verses 15 — 23, this introductory chapter ends
in a prayer for the enlightenment of the readers of this
Epistle, that they may understand all the fulness of the
blessings of the gospel. In accordance with the
heavenward direction of the thought of the whole
Epistle, these blessings are viewed in their future com-
pleteness of glory and power, of which the present
exaltation of the risen Lord to the right hand of God,
as the Lord of all creatures, and the Head of the
Church His body, is the earnest and assurance.

(15) After I heard of your faith in the Lord
Jesus, and love unto all the saints.— These
words have an almost exact parallel in Col. i. 4, ad-

dressed there to a church which St. Paul had not seen,
and have been quoted in support of the belief that this
Epistle cannot have been addressed, properly and
solely, to the well-known Ephesian Church. They are
not, however, decisive, for we have a similar expression
to Philemon (verse 5), St. Paul's own convert.

We may note a distinction between " faith in the
Lord Jesus " and " faith towards the Lord Jesus " (like
" the love towards the saints "). Comp. 2 Tim. i. 13
(" faith and love in Christ Jesus "). " Faith in Christ "
is a faith which, centred in Christ, nevertheless rests
through Him on the Father ; recognising a " life hid
with him in God " (Col. iii. 3) and a sonship of God in
Christ Jesus (Gal. iii. 26). The connection of the two
clauses here shows that such a faith abounds (i.e. over-
flows) unto love, first necessarily to God, so being
made perfect (Gal. v. 6), but next towards all His
childreu. For " this commandment we have from Him,
that he who loveth God, love his brother also " (1 John
iv. 21).

(16) Cease not to give thanks for you, making
mention of you in my prayers.— Almost all St.
Paul's Epistles are introduced by this union of thanks-
giving and prayer, which is, indeed, characteristic of the
right harmonv of all Christian worship. (See Rom. i.
8, 9; Phil. i. 3, 4; Col. i. 3, 4; 1 Thess. i. 2, 3; 2 Tim.
i. 3; Philem. verse 4.) In the Galatian Epistle the
omission of both is characteristic ; in the two Epistles
to the Corinthians thanksgiving alone is explicit,
though prayer may be implied. But the proportion
of the two elements varies. Here the thanksgiving
has already been offered, although in the widest gene-
rality. Accordingly all that follows is prayer. In
the parallel Colossian Epistle (Col. i. 3 — 13), which has
no corresponding preface of thanksgiving, both ele-
ments are co-ordinate, with perhaps a slight predo-
minance of thanksgiving.

(17) The God of our Lord Jesus Christ-
See John xx. 17, " I ascend unto My Father and your
Father ; and to My God and your God." It has been
noted that, while on the cross, our Lord, in the cry,
" My God, why hast Thou forsaken Me ? " adopted
the common human language of the Psalmist, He
here, after His resurrection, distinguished emphati-
cally between His peculiar relation to God the Father
and that relation in which we His members call God
"our Father." St. Paul's usual phrase (see above,
verse 3) is " the God and Father of our Lord Jesus
Christ ; " the phrase here used is unique, probably
substituted for the other on account of the use of the
word "Father" in the next clause. It refers, of
course, entirely to our Lord's nature as the true Son
of Man. In that respect God is in the full sense
(which in us is interrupted by sin) His God, in whom
He lived and had His being. In proportion as we are
conformed to His likeness, " God is our God for ever
and ever."

The Father of glory.— Better, of the glory. This
phrase is again unique. We have, indeed, such phrases
as " Father of Mercies " (2 Cor. i. 3), " Father of
Lights " ( Jas. i. 17) ; and. on the other hand, " the
King of Glory" (Ps. xxviii. 5), " the God of Glory"
(Acts vii. 2), "the Lord of Glory" (1 Cor. ii. 8; Jas.

■2n

Tlie Glory of our Inheritance.

EPHESIANS, I.

The Exaltation oj Christ.

the God of our Lord Jesus Christ, the
Father of glory, may give unto you the
spirit of wisdom and revelation in the
knowledge ] of him : <18^ the eyes of your
understanding being enlightened ; that
ye may know what is the hope of his
calling, and what the riches of the glory
of his inheritance in the saints, (19) and

what is the exceeding greatness of his

power to us-ward who believe, according

to the working of his mighty power,*

(20) wliich he wrought in Christ, when

he raised him from the

dead,

own right hand in the the headship

ia !riv ,'11' rinwifh

heavenly pic

(2i) far

of Christ.

ii. 1). In all these last instances " the glory " seems
certainly to be the Shechinah of God's manifested pre-
sence, and in all eases hut one is ascribed to our Lord.
But "the Father of the glory," seems a phrase different
from all these. I cannot help connecting it with the
missing element in the preceding clause, and believing
(with some old interpreters), in spite of the strange-
ness of expression, that God is here called " the
Father of the glory " of the incarnate Deity in Jesus
Christ (see John i. 14), called in 2 Cor. iv. 6, " the
glory of God in the face (or person) of Jesus Christ."
(See Excursus A to St. John's Gospel: On the Doctrine
of the Word; dealing with the identification of "the
Word " with the Shechinah by the Jewish interpreters).
The prayer which follows connects the knowledge of
the glory of our inheritance with the exaltation of our
Lord in glory.

The knowledge of him.— The word here ren-
dered " knowledge " signifies " perfect and thorough
knowledge ; " and the verb corresponding to it is used
distinctively in this sense in Luke i. 4; 1 Cor. xiii. 12.
It is employed by St. Paul more especially in his later
Epistles (chap. iv. 13; Phil. i. 9; Col. i. 9, 10; ii. 2;
iii. 10), dealing as they do with the deeper things of
God, and assuming more of a contemplative tone. It
is represented here as coming from distinct " revela-
tion."

(is) The eyes of your understanding.— The
true reading is of your heart, for which the words " of
your understanding " have been substituted, so as to
yield a simpler and easier expression. The heart is
similarly spoken of in relation to spiritual perception in
Rom. i. 21 ; 1 Cor. ii. 9 ; iv. 5 ; it signifies the inner
man in his entirety ; and the phrase here used seems to
convey the all-important truth, that for the knowledge
of God all the faculties of understanding, conscience.
and affection must be called into energy by the ajift
of the light of God.

That ye may know.— The knowledge which St.
Paul hero desires for the Ephesians, in accordance with
the whole tone of this Epistle, is a knowledge of heavenly
tilings, only experienced in part upon earth — with an
experience, however, sufficient to be an earnest of the
hereafter. The succession of ideas follows the order of
conversion — first, "calling;"' then acceptance to "in-
heritance; " lastly, " inward working of divine power"
in the accepted. To each the conception of looking
onward is attached; to the "calling" "hope," to the
" inheritance " " glory," to the " power " the exaltation
of Christ (and of us with Him ; see chap. ii. 6) to the
right hand of God.

The hope of his calling.— (See chap. iv. 4.) That
is, probably, " the thing hoped for," because promised.
at our calling (as in Gal. v. 5 ; Col. i. 5 ; Tit. ii. 3 ; Heb.
vi. 18; and perhaps 1 Tim. i. 1), for the other objects
of knowledge with which it is here joined are certainly
Objective or external to ourselves. This hope is of the
perfection of all, which we are called to enjoy really.
but imperfectly, here.

The riches of the glory of his inheritance
in the saints.— Comp. Col. i. 27, "the riches of the
glory of this mystery . . . which is Christ in you, the
hope of glory." The inheritance of God is the unity
with Christ, in which lies the earnest and hope of glory.
"Among the saints" is best connected with the word
" inheritance," showing that our personal inheritance
of Christ gives us a place in the kingdom of heaven
here and hereafter.

(19) According to the working of his mighty
power. — More correctly (see margin), the working of
the might of His strength. The word " power " is a
general word for force, which may be latent, and. in fact,
often describes force which is latent, in contradistinc-
tion to the word here used for working or energy. St.
Paul, therefore, adds that this power of God is not
latent ; it actually works " according to," that is, up to
the full measure of "the might of the strength" of
God — of that strength which is a part of His nature.
The whole phrase forms a glorious climax, in which the
Apostle accumulates words ever stronger and stronger
to approach to the description of the omnipotence of
the Spirit. It is a " force of exceeding greatness ;" it is
an ever energetic force ; its only measure is the im-
measurable might of the divine nature. (Corup. chap,
iii. 7; Phil. iii. 21 ; Col. i. 29; ii. 12.)

(20) Which he wrought in Christ,— The reality
of the work of God upon us is insured by the reality
of that work upon the true Son of Man, whose members
we are, in His resurrection, His ascension, His exalta-
tion over all things at the right hand of God. and His
headship of the Church. It is notable that, while it is
on the spiritual meaning of the resurrection of Christ
that the chief stress is laid in the earlier Epistles (as in
Rom. vi. 4—11; 1 Cor. xv. 12—22,50—57), in these
later Epistles the Apostle passes on beyond this, as
taken for granted (see Col. iii. 1), and dwells on " Christ
in heaven," exalted far above all created things, but yet
vouchsafing to be in a peculiar sense the head and
life of the Church on earth. See, for example, Phil. ii.
9 — 11 ; Col. i. 14—19 ; and compare the pervading con-
ception of the Apocalypse. In this advance of thought
he approaches to the idea of our Lord's own great inter-
cession (John xvii. 5 et seq.), constantly connecting the
unity of His Church in Him with the glory wliich was
His from all eternity, and to which He was to return —
" Now, O Father, glorify Thou Me with Thine own self
with the glory which I had with Thee before the world
was. ... I will that they also whom Thou hast
given Me, be with Me where I am, that they may
behold My glory."

(21) Far above all principality, and power,
and might, and dominion. — The words here used
are intended to include all possible forms of power, cor-
responding to (he exhaustive enumeration in Phil. ii. 10,
"of things in heaven, and things in earth, and tilings
under the earth." The words rendered "principality
and power" (more properly signifying ••government
and the authority committed to it ") are used in Luko

The Headship of Christ

EPHESIANS, I.

over His Church.

above all principality, and power, and
might, and dominion, and every name
that is named, not only in this world,
but also in that which is to come :

(22> and hath put all things under his feet,
and gave him to be the head over all things
to the church, (23^ which is his body,
the fulness of him that nlleth all in all.

xii. 11; xx. 20; Tit. iii. 1, distinctively for earthly
powers ; in 1 Cor. xv. 24, generally for all created powers
whatever. But St. Paul mostly employs this whole
group of words, especially in the Epistles of the Cap-
tivity, with a manifest reference to angelic powers of
good or evil. Thus in Rom. viii. 38 we read, of
" angels, and principalities, and powers " (as in 1 Pot.
iii. 22, " angels, and authorities, and powers") ; in chap,
iii. 10 of this Epistle, of '•principalities and powers in
the heavenly places ;" and in chap. vi. 12, of " wrestling
not against flesh and blood, but against principalities
and powers,"' &c. ; and in Col i. 16, of " things in heaven
and earth, visible and invisible, whether they be thrones,
or dominions, or principalities, or powers." It is likely
that he was induced so to do by the half-Gnostic specu-
lation on the nature and worship of angels, prevalent
in the later Judaism, of which we have a specimen at
Colossse (Col. ii. 18) — in the same spirit which leads the
author of the Epistle to the Hebrews to dwell so em-
phatically (in chaps, i. and ii.) on the infinite superiority
of the Son of God to all angels. We observe that his
references to these orders or aspects of the angelic
hierarchy vary both in fulness and in order. (Comp., for
instance, this passage with Col. i. 16.) Hence we gain
no encouragement for the elaborate speculation in which
men have indulged as to the right succession and relation
of the hosts of heaven. In this passage the names
rather point to different aspects, than to different orders,
of superhuman powTer. The first two words signify
appointed government and the authority which is com-
mitted to it ; the last two the actual force and the moral
force of dignity or lordship in which it is clothed. In
the Colossian passage the words here placed first come
last, though in the same mutual connection, and the
words " dignities or lordships " is connected with the
word " thrones," not here found. His purpose is, indeed,
better served by this comparative vagueness ; for that
purpose is to exalt the majesty of our Lord over all
other, whatever it may be, and whatever name it may
wear.

Not only in this world, but also in that
which is to come.— The word ''world" is here age,
aud the antithesis is exactly that of our Lord's words in
Matt. vii. 32 (see Note there). Manifestly, however, it
here signifies " this life " (or dispensation) and " the
future life," that is, the life on this side, and on the
other side, of the Second Comiug of Christ.

(22) And hath put all things under his feet.—
See 1 Cor. xv. 25 — 28, where St. Paul deals with the
quotation from Ps. viii. 6, in application to our Lord's
Mediatorial kingdom. In this passage these words fill
up the picture of our Lord's transcendent dignity, by the
declaration of the actual subjugation of all the powers
of sin and death, rising up against Him, in the spiritual
war which is to go on till tin; appointed end. They
therefore form a natural link between the description
of His lordship over all created being, and of His
headship over the Church, militant on earth, as well as
triumphant in heaven.

And gave him to be the head over all. things
to the church, which is his body.— This is the
first time that this celebrated phrase is used, describing
Christ as the Head, and viewing the Church as a
whole as His body. It is characteristic that in 1 Cor.

xi. 3, Christ is called " the Head of each man," as " the
man of the woman ;" whereas in this Epistle Christ is
the Head of the whole Church, on occasion of the
same comparison (see v. 23). The consideration of all
Christians as the '• body of Christ " is indeed found in
Bom. xii. 4; 1 Cor. xii. 12 — 27: but it is notable that in
these passages the leading idea is, first, of the indivi-
duality of each member, and then, secondarily, of their
union in one body ; and in 1 Cor. xii. 21, " the head and
the foot," just as much as " the eye and the hand," are
simply looked upon as members. (Comp. also 1 Cor.
vi. 15 ; x. 17.) Here, in accordance with the great doc-
trine of this Epistle — the unity of the whole of humanity
and of the whole Church, ideally co-extensive with
that humanity, with Christ — the metaphor is changed.
The body is looked upon as a whole, Christ as its
Head. The idea is wrought out again and again (see
chaps, iv. 15, 16 ; v. 28 ; Col. i. 18 ; ii. 19) in these
Epistles of the Captivity. It is from these that it has
become a household word in all Christian theology.
With some variation it is expressed also in other meta-
phors— the building and the corner-stone, the bride and

I the bridegroom. But under the title of the " Head "
Christ is looked upon especially in His ruling, guiding,
originating power over the Church. Probably the idea
of His being the seat of its life, though not excluded, is
secondary; whereas in His own figure of the vine and
the branches (John xvi. 6) it is primary.
(23) The fulness of him that nlleth all in all.

I — The word pleroma, " fulness," is used in a definite and
almost technical sense in the Epistles of the Captivity,
and especially in the Epistle to the Colossiaus, having

: clear reference to the speculations as to the Divine
Nature and the emanations from it, already anticipating

| the future Gnosticism. The word itself is derived from

! a verb signifying, first, to " fill; " next (more frequently
in the New Testament), to " fulfil " or complete. It
is found (1) in a physical sense of the "full contents"
of the baskets, in Mark vi. 43, viii. 20 ; and of the earth,
in 1 Cor. x. 26—28 ; and in Matt, ix. 16, Mark ii. 21, it
is applied to the patch of new cloth on an old garment.
It is used next (2) of fulness, in sense of the " complete
tale or number," "of time" and "seasons," in chap,
i. 10, Gal. iv. 4 ; of the JewTs and Gentiles in Rom. xi.
12, 25. In the third place (3) it is applied to the full
essence, including all the attributes, of a thing or
person ; as of the Law (Rom. xiii. 10), and of the bless-
ing of Christ (Rom. xv. 29). Lastly (4), in these
Epistles it is applied, almost technically, to the fulness
of the Divine Nature. Thus, in Col. i. 19 we have, " It
pleased the Father that in Christ all the fulness " — i.e..
all the fulness of the Divine Nature — " should dwell ; "
or (to take an admissible but less probable construction)
" In Him all the fulness is pleased to dwell ; " and
this is explained in chap. ii. 9, " In Him dwelt all tin;
fulness of the Godhead bodily." Similarly, though less
strikingly, we read in this Epistle, that those who are in
Christ are said (in chaps, iii. 19 ; iv. 13) " to be filled
up to all the fulness of God," and "to come to the
measure of the stature of the fulness of Christ, In
which of these last senses is the Church here said to be
the "fulness of Christ?" If in any, probably in the
last of all. As the individual, so the Church, by the
presence "of Him who filleth up all things for Him-

God's Quicken ii/'j of

EPHESIANS, II.

the Spiritually Dead.

CHAPTEE IT.- d) "And you hath he

Chap, ii. i— 7. Chad's quick- quickened, who

! the spiritually w6re dead in tres-

dead by unity with the ..

glorified Christ, jjasses and sms;

(2) wherein in time past ye walked
according to the course of this world,
according to the prince of the power of
the air, the spirit that now worketh

self in all," comes to be " His fulness," the complete
image of Him in al! His glorified humanity. But it
may be questioned whether it is not better to take hero
.:i different sense, corresponding to the "patch" in
Matt. ix. lfi. and signifying the " complement." In the
original Greek of Euclid (in Book i-, Prop. 4), the cog-
nate word, parapleroma, is used of "the complements."
In this compound word the idea is, no doubt, more
unequivocally expressed. But of the simple word here
employed it may be reasonably 'contended that, if one
thing or person alone is contemplated, the pleroma
must be the fulness of the one nature; if, as here, two
are brought in, each will be the "complement" to the
Other -as the patch to the garment, and the garment
to the patch. So here (says Chrysostom) "the com-
plement of the Head is the Body, and the complement
of the Body is the Head." Thus by a daring expres-
sion, St. Paul describes our Lord as conceiving His
glorified humanity incomplete without His Church;
and then, lest this should seem to derogate even for a
moment from His dignity, he adds the strongest de-
claration of His transcendent power, "to fill up for
Himself all things in all," in order to show that we
are infinitely more incomplete without Him than He
without us. This sense, bold as it is, certainly suits ex-
actly the great idea of this Epistle, which differs from the
parallel Colossian Epistle in this — that while both dwell
emphatically on Christ the Head, and the Church as His
Body, there the chief stress is laid on the true Deity of
the Head, here on the glory and privileges of the Body.

II.
[2. The unity of all in Christ (chap. ii. 1—22).
(1) — (a) The Quickening of Men from the
Death op Sin and Bondage of
Satan, bv a personal union with Christ,
making them partakers of His resurrec-
tion, His ascension, His endless glory
(verses 1 — 7).
(b) All this not of themselves, but by the free
grace of God, accepted in faith and wrought
out in good works (verses 8 — 10).
(2) Hence the Drawing of the Gentiles
out of Hopeless and Godless Es-
trangement to—

(a) Nearness to God in Christ (verses 11 — 13) :

(b) Union with Israel in Christ (verses 14 — 18) ;

of His Church (verses 19—22).]

(1 a.) Verses 1 — 7 begin the fuller exposition of the
doctrine implied in tin? thanksgiving and prayer of the
previous chapter; starting from the individual and
personal union of all with Christ, in virtue of which they
partake of His spiritual life, His conquest of death,
and the exaltation of His glorified humanity to heaven.

(*) And you hath he quickened.— And you al*o.
St. Paul here begins the particular application to the
Ephesians, which is the main subject of this chapter,
broken off inverses 3 — 10, and resumed in verse 11.
The words " hath He quickened " (or, properly, did He
quicken) are supplied here from verse 5 — rightly, as

expressing the true sense and tending to greater clear-
ness, but perhaps not necessarily.

Trespasses and sins.— These two words, more
often used separately, are here brought together, to
form a climax. The word rendered '-trespass'' signifies
a "swerving aside and falling"; the word rendered
"sins" is generally used by St. Paul in the singular
to denote "sin" in the abstract, and signifies an
entire " missing of the mark " of life. Hence, even in
the plural.it denotes universal and positive principles
of evil doing, while "trespass" rather points to failure
in visible and special acts of those not necessarily
out of the right way.

(2) The course (or, age) of this world.— Here
again are united the two words often rendered by
"world," the former signifying simply "the age," or
appointed period of this visible universe, the latter its
material and sensuous character. When we are warned
; against the one (as in Rom. xii. 2, " Be not conformed
to this world; " see also 1 Cor. i. 20; ii. 6; 2 Tim. iv.
10). it is against the " vanity " — that is, the transitoriness
and unreality — of the pi'eseut life; when against the
other (see Gal. iv. 3; vi. 14; Col. ii. 8—10), it is
against its "pomp," its carnal, material, unspiritual
splendour. Here the former life of the Ephesians is
described as at once transitory and carnal.

The prince of the power of the air.— The con-
nection of the "world" with the Evil One as its
" prince " is not uncommon in Holy Scripture (see
John xii. 31 ; xiv. 30 ; xvi. 11) ; and the " power " of
this passage is exactly that which Satan claims as
" committed " to him in Luke iv. 32. But the phrase
" the power of tho air"' is unique and difficult. We
note (1) that this phrase signifies not "a power over
the air," but " a power dwelling in the region of the
air." Now, tho word " power " (see Note on chap. i.
21), both in the singular and the plural, is used in this
Epistle, almost technically, of superhuman power.
Here, therefore, tho Evil One is described as " the
prince," or ruler, of such superhuman power — considered
hero collectively as a single power, prevailing over the
world, and working in the children of disobedience — in
the same sense in which he is called the " prince of the
devils." the individual spirits of wickedness (Matt, ix.34;
xii. 24). Next (2), Why is this spoken of as ruling "in
the air"? There may possibly be allusion (as lias been
supposed) to the speculations of Jewish or Gentile
philosophy ; but it seems far more probable that the
" air " is here meant simply to describe a sphere, and
therefore a power, below the heaven and yet above the
earth. The "air" is always opposed to the bright
"ether," or to the spiritual "heaven"; the word and
its derivatives carry with them the ideas of cloudiness,
mist, and even darkness. Hence it is naturally used to
suggest the conception of the evil power, as allowed
invisibly to encompass and move above this world, yet
overruled by the power of the true heaven, which it vainly
strives to overcloud and hide from earth. In chap,
vi. 12 the powers of evil are described with less pre-
cision of imagery, as dwelling "in heavenly places," the
opposition being there only between what is human and
superhuman; yet even there the "darkness" of this
world is referred to, corresponding to the conception of

The Lusts of the Flesh.

EPHESIANS, II.

The Grace of the Spirit.

in the children of disobedience : (3)
among whom also we all had our con-
versation in times past in the lusts of
our flesh, fulfilling the desires1 of the

1 Gr. the Witts.

flesh and of the mind; and were by
nature the children of wrath, even as
others. (*) But God, who is rich in
mercy, for his great love wherewith he

cloudiness and dimness always attaching to "the
ail'."

The spirit that now worketh in the children
of disobedience.— The Greek here shows that the
word "spirit" must be taken in apposition, not to
"prince," as an English reader would naturally sup-
pose, but to " power." As the individual demons when
considered as working on the human spirit are called
spirits — " unclean spirits " in the Gospels, " evil spirits '•'
in Acts xix. 12 (comp. Acts xvi. 16), " deceiving spirits "
in 1 Tim. iv. 1 — so here the collective power of evil,
considered as working in "the children of dis-
obedience," is called " a spirit," like the " spirit of the
world," in 1 Cor. ii. 12, but here even more distinctly
opposed to the " Spirit of God." In reference to this
spiritual power over the soul our Lord's casting out
demons is described (Acts x. 28) as a deliverance of
those who were " oppressed of the devil ; " the apostolic
work of conversion (Acts xxvi. 18) as a turning " from
the power of Satan to God," and excommunication as
" a deliverance to Satan" (1 Cor. v. 5; 1 Tim. i. 20);
and in 2 Thess. ii. 9 exactly the same word for " in-
ward working " is applied to the action of Satan on the
soul. From this half -personal use of the word " spirit "
it is easy to pass to the more abstract sense of an inner
spiritual principle (as in Rom. viii. 15 ; xi. 8 ; 2 Tim. i.
7 ; 1 John iv. 6).

(3) Among whom also we all . . .—Up to this
point St. Paul had addressed himself especially to the
Ephesians as Gentiles : now he extends the description
of alienation to " all," Jews and Gentiles alike, as
formerly reckoned among the children of disobedience.
It is indeed the great object of this chapter to bring
out the equality and unity of both Jews and Gentiles in,
the Church of Christ ; and this troth is naturally in-
troduced by a statement of their former equality in
alienation and sin.

In the lusts of our flesh, fulfilling the desires
of the flesh and of the mind.— The parallelism of
these two clauses illustrates very clearly the extended
sense in which the word " flesh is used by St. Paul,
as may indeed be seen by the catalogue of the works of
the flesh in Gal. v. 19, 20. For here " the flesh," in the
first clause, includes both " the flesh and the mind " (or,
more properly, the thoughts) of the second; that
is, it includes both the appetites and the passions of
our fleshly nature, and also the " thoughts " of the
mind itself, so far as it is devoted to this visible world
of sense, alienated from God, and therefore under the
influence of the powers of evil. In fact, in scriptural
use the sins of " the flesh," " the world," and " the
devil " are not ditferent classes of sins, but different
aspects of sin, and any one of the three great enemies
is made at times to represent all.

And were by nature the children of wrath,
even as others (or rather, the others — that is, the
heathen).— From this passage the phrase "children of
wrath " has passed into Christian theology as an almost
technical description of the unregenerate state. Hence
it needs careful examination. (1) Now the phrase
" children of wrath " (corresponding almost exactly
to " children of a curse," in 2 Pet. ii. 14) seems borrowed
from the Hebrew use in the Old Testament, by which
(as in 1 Sam. xx. 30 ; 2 Sam. xii. 5) a " son of death " is

one under sentence of death, and in Isa. lvii. 4 (the Greek
translation) " children of destruction " are those doomed
to perish. In this sense we have, in John xvii. 12, " the
son of perdition ; " and in Matt, xxiii. 15, " the son of
hell." It differs, therefore, considerably from the
phrase "children of disobedience " (begotten, as it were,
of disobedience) above. But it is notable that the word
for " children " here used is a term expressing endear-
ment and love, and is accordingly properly, and almost
invariably, applied to our relation to God. When,
therefore, it is used as in this passage, or, still more
strikingly, in 1 John iii. 10, " children of the devil "
(comp. John viii. 44), there is clearly an intention to
arrest the attention by a startling and paradoxical ex-
pression. " We were children," not of God, not of His
love, but " of wrath " — that is, His wrath against sin ;
" born (see Gal. iii. 10 — 22 ; iv. 4) under the law," and
therefore " shut up under sin," and " under the curse."
(2) Next, we have the phrase " by nature," which, in
the true reading of the original, is interposed, as a kind
of limitation or definition, between " children " and " of
wrath." In the first instance it was probably suggested
by the reference to Israel, who were by covenant, not
by nature, the chosen people of God. Now the word
"nature," applied to humanity, indicates what is
common to all, as opposed to what is individual, or
what is inborn, as opposed to what is acquired. But
whether it refers to humanity as it was created by God,
or to humanity as it has become by "fault and corruption
of nature," must always be determined by the context.
Here the reference is clearly to the latter. " Nature "
is opposed to " grace " — that is, the nature of man as
alienated from God, to the nature of man as restored to
his original birthright, the " image of God," in Jesus
Christ. (See Rom. v. 12 — 21.) The existence of an
inborn sinfulness needs no revelation to make it
evident to those who have eyes to see. It needs a
revelation — and such a revelation the gospel gives —
to declare to us that it is not man's true nature, and
that what is really original is not sin, but righteous-
ness. (3) The whole passage, therefore, describes the
state of men before their call to union with Christ,
as naturally " under wrath," and is well illustrated by
the full description, in Rom. i. 18, ii. 16, of those on
whom " the wrath of God is revealed." There man's
state is depicted as having still some knowledge of
God (Rom. i. 19 — 21), as having "the work of the law
written on the heart " (Rom. ii. 14, 15), and accord-
ingly as being still under a probation before God
(Rom. ii. 6 — 11). Elsewhere we learn that Christ, "the
Lamb slain from the foundation of the world," died for
all, even "the ungodly" (Rom. v. 6 — 8; Rev. xiii. 1);
and that none are wholly excluded from His atonement
but those who " tread under foot the Son of God, and
count the blood of the covenant an unholy thing " (Heb.
x. 29). Hence that state is not absolutely lost or hope-
less. But yet, "when the comparison, as here, is with
the salvation of the gospel, they are declared "children
of wrath " who are " strangers to the new covenant of
promise," with its two supernatural gifts of justification
by faith and sanctification in the Spirit, and their con-
dition is described, comparatively but not absolutely,
as "having no hope, and without God in the world."
(■0 Rich in mercy.— Not only merciful, but rich

The Quickening and limitation

EPHESIANS, II.

of the Regenerate Soul.

loved us, <5) ""-even when we were dead
in sins, hath quickened us together
with Christ, (by grace ye are saved ;)
^ and hath raised us up together, and
made us sit together in heavenly places

in Christ Jesus : (7) that in the ages to
come he might shew the exceeding
riches of his grace in his kindness
toward us through Christ Jesus. (8j For
by grace are ye saved through faith ;

" in the multitude of mercy," as attaching even to those
dead in sin (see Chrysostom on this passage). The
idea of richness in grace, glory, mercy, is especially
frequent in this Epistle. (See chaps, i. 7, 18 ; ii. 7 ;
hi. 8, 16.)

For his great love.— Again, as in chap. i. 4, stress
is laid on the love of God, before all else, as the one
moving cause of salvation. (Comp. Rom. v. 8, " God
commendeth His love towards us, in that, while we
were yet sinners, Christ died for us.")

(5) Even when we were dead in sins.— These
words should be connected, not with " loved us," but
with "hath quickened," or rather, quickened. He
brought life out of spiritual death.

(5» 6) The thought in these verses follows exactly the
same course as in chap. i. 19, 20. There the type and
earnest of the working of God's mighty power are
placed in the resurrection, the ascension, the glorifica-
tion of Christ Himself in His human nature. Here
what is there implied is worked out — (1) All Christians
are declared to be quickened (or, risen again) to spiritual
life with Christ, according to His promise, " Because I
live, ye shall live also" (John xiv. 19). (See the exact
parallel in Col. ii. 13.) But there is a promise even
beyond this : "lam the life : whosoever liveth and be-
lieveth in Me shall never die " (John xi. 25 ; comp. also
v. 24 ; xvii. 2). Hence, even more emphatically, and in
full accordance with this latter promise, we have in Col.
iii. 4, " Christ who is our life ; " as in 2 Cor. iv. 10, 11,
"The life of Jesus is made manifest in us." What
this " life eternal " is He Himself declares (John xvii.
3) — " to know the only true God and Jesus Christ, whom
He has sent." (2) Next, this partaking of the life of
Christ is brought out in two striking forms — as a par-
taking, not only of His resurrection (as in Rom. vi. 5;
1 Cor. xv. 20 — 22 ; Phil. iii. 11), but also (in a phase
of thought peculiar to these Epistles) of His ascension
" to the heavenly places." This is " in Christ Jesus," in
virtue of a personal and individual union with Christ.
It implies blessings, both present and future, or rather
one blessing, of which we have the earnest now and the
fulness hereafter — for the resurrection and ascension of
Christ are eA*en now the perfection and glorification of
humanity in Him. (3) So far as we are really and vitally
His members, such perfection and glorification are ours
now, by His intercession (that is, His continued media-
tion for us in heaven) and by His indwelling in us by the
Spirit on earth. The proof of partaking His resurrection
is " newness of life," "death unto sin, and new birth unto
righteousness " (Rom. vi. 5 — 11), which is in Col. iii. 12
expressly connected with the entrance upon unity with
Christ in baptism. The proof of having " our life
hid in Christ at the right hand of God," is " the
setting our affection on things above " (Col. iii. 1), by
which " in heart and mind we thither ascend, and with
Him continually dwell." (4) These proofs are seen only
in measure here. Through the change which we call
death, we pass at once to a still higher stage of life,
by fuller union with Christ (2 Cor. v. 6 — 8), and at the
great day we shall have both in perfection — perfect
newness of life in "likeness to Him" (1 John iii. 2),
and perfect glorification in Bim in that communion

with God which is heaven (John xvii. 5, 10, 24). The
one thing which St. Paul does not attribute to us is
that which is His alone — the place " at the right hand
of the Father."

(7) In the ages to come.— Properly, the ages ivhick
are coming on — the ages both of time and of eternity,
looked upon in one great continuity. Here, again, the
manifestation of the riches of God's grace is looked
upon as His special delight, and as His chosen way of
manifesting His own self to His creatures.

In his kindness. — The word "kindness" (pro-
perly, facility, or readiness to serve another) is applied
to that phase of God's mercy in which it shows Him
as "ready to receive, and most willing to pardon."
Thus we find it in Luke vi. 3,5 used for His goodness
" to the unthankful and evil"; in Rom. ii. 4 it is joined
with "long-suffering and patience"; in Rom. xi. 22
opposed to abrupt " severity " ; in Tit. iii. 4, connected
with love to man, "philanthropy''; and it is also used
in similar connections when attributed to man (1 Cor.
xiii. 4; 2 Cor. vi. 6 ; Gal. v. 22 ; Col. iii. 12). Hence in
this passage it is especially appropriate, because so much
stress has been laid on the former sinfulness and god-
lessness of those to whom God's mercy waited to bo
gracious. There is a similar appropriateness in the re-
petition of the name of our Lord " through Christ Jesus,"
for this gentle patience and readiness to receive sinners
was so marked a feature of His ministry that to the
Pharisees it seemed an over-facility, weakly condoning
sin. "Through Him," therefore, the kindness of God
was both shown and given.

(1 6.) Verses 8 — 10 (taking up and working out the
parenthetical "by grace ye are saved " of verse 5) form
an instructive link of connection between these Epistles
and those of the earlier group, especially the Epistles to
the Galatians and Romans. (Comp. Phil. iii. 9.) In both
there is the same doctrine of " Justification by Faith,"
the same denial of the merit of good works, the same
connection of good works with the grace of God in us.
But what is there anxiously and passionately contended
for, is here briefly summarised, and calmly assumed as a
thing known and allowed. Even the technical phrases —
the word "justification," and the declaration of the
nullity of " the Law " — are no longer used.

(8) By grace are ye saved through faith.—
Properly, ye have been saved ; ye were saved at first,
and continue in a state of salvation. In verse 5 this
thought is introduced parenthetically, naturally and
irresistibly suggested by the declaration of the various
steps of regeneration in Christ. St. Paul now returns
to it and works it out. before passing on, in verse 11, to
draw out by " wherefore " the conclusion from verses
1 — 7. Remembering how the Epistles were written
from dictation, we may be inclined to see in this
passage among others, an insertion made by the
Apostle, on a revision of that already written.

The two phrases — " justification by faith " and " sal-
vation by grace " — are popularly identified, and. indeed,
are substantially identical in meaning. But the latter
properly lays stress on a more advanced stage of the

The Root of Faith.

EPHESIANS, II.

The Fruit of Works.

and that not of yourselves : it is
Chap. ii. 8— the gift of God : <9> not

b°' faith°einot °f works' lest an7 man
-claimed ' "by should boast. <10J For we
works. are his workmanship,

created in Christ Jesus unto good

works, which God hath before or-
dained l that we should walk in them.
(ii) Wherefore remember, chap. ii. n— 13.
that ye being in time past The Gentiles
Gentiles in the flesh, who GoYV'jesS
are called Uncircumcision Christ.

process of redemption in Christ. Thus, in Rom. v. 9,
10 (" having been justified," " having been reconciled,"
•"we shall be saved"), salvation is spoken of as
following on the completed act of justification (as
the release of a prisoner on his pronounced pardon) ;
and it is described, here and elsewhere, as a con-
tinuous process — a state continuing till the final
judgment. Hence to lay especial stress on salvation ac-
cords better with the whole idea of this Epistle — the
continuous indwelling in Christ — than to bring out, as
in the Epistle to the Romans, the one complete act of
justification for His sake. It is remarkable that the
expression of the truth corresponds almost verbally
with the words of St. Peter at the Council of Jerusalem
(Acts xv. 11), " We believe that through the grace of
God we shall be (properly, we were) saved," except that
here the original shows that the salvation is looked upon
as a completed act, like justification. It is also to be
noted that the use of tho name " Saviour," applied both
to God and to Christ, belongs entirely to the later
Epistles. It is used once in this Epistle (chap. v. 23)
and once in the Epistle to the Philippians (chap.
iii. 20), but no less than ten times in the Pastoral
Epistles of St. Paul, and five times in the Second
Epistle of St. Peter. Tho phrase in the text is, as
always in this Epistle, theologically exact. Grace is the
moving cause of salvation : faith only the instrument
by which it is laid hold of.

And that not of yourselves: it is the gift
of God. — This attribution of all to the gift of God seems
to cover the whole idea — both the gift of salvation and
the gift of faith to accept it. The former part is en-
forced by the words " not of works," the latter by tho
declaration, " we (and all that is in us) are His
workmanship." The word here rendered "gift" is
peculiar to this passage ; the word employed in Rom. v.
15, 16, vi. 23, for " free gift " {charisma) having been
appropriated (both in the singular and plural) to special
" gifts " of grace.

(9) Not of works, lest any man should boast.
— In this verse we have the echo of the past Judaising
controversy ; it sums up briefly the whole argument of
Rom. iii. 27 — iv. 25. There is a similar reminiscence,
but more distinct and detached, in Phil. iii. 2 — 9.

(10) We are his workmanship.— This verse, on
the contrary, is unique and remarkable, characteristic
of the idea with which this Epistle starts— -the election
and predestination of God, making us what we are —
and applying it very strikingly, not only to the first
regeneration, but even to the good works which follow
it. The word rendered " workmanship " is only used
elsewhere in Rom. i. 20, where it is applied to the
* works " of God in creation. Probably here also it
does not exclude our first creation. We are His wholly
and absolutely. But the next clause shows that St. Paul
refers especially to the " new creation " in Christ Jesus.

Created in Christ Jesus.— This creation, when
spoken of distinctively, is the " new creation " (2 Cor.
v. 17 ; Gal. vi. 15) ; as, indeed, is the case below (verse
15), " to create in Himself . . . one new man." In
this passage, however, St. Paul dwells, not on distinc-

tion from the old creation, but rather on analogy to it;
in both we are simply God's creatures.

Unto good works . — Properly, on the basis
(or, condition) of good works (as in Gal. v. 13 ; 1 These,
iv. 17 ; 2 Tim. ii. 14). The good works, in them-
selves future, being (as the next clause shows) con-
templated as already existent in God's foreknowledge,
and as an inseparable characteristic of the regenerate
life.

Which God hath before ordained that we
should walk in them.— There is, perhaps, in all
Scripture, no stronger expression of the great mystery
of God's predestination ; for it is here declared in re-
ference, not only to the original call and justification
and regeneration of the soul, but also to the actual good
works, in which the free-will and energy of man are
most plainly exercised ; and in which even here we are
said not to be moved, but " to walk " by our own act.
In much the same sense St. Paul, in the Epistle to
tho Philippians (chap. iii. 12, 13), uses the well-
known paradox, " Work out your own salvation . . ,
for it is God that worketh in you, both to will and to do
of His good pleasure." Both truths — God's preordi-
nation and man's responsible freedom — are emphasised.
For the reconcilement of the two we must wait till we
" know even as we are known."

(2 a.) Yerses 11 — 13, resuming the thread of argu-
ment from verse 7, dwell on the drawing of the
Gentiles into a personal unity with God in Christ—
not, however (as before), out of the deadness of sin and
bondage of Satan, but rather out of the condition of
alienation from God, from His covenant and His pro-
mise, in which they stood contrasted with His chosen
people.

(n) Gentiles in the flesh — i.e., not having the
bodily impress of circumcision, sealing the Jewish
covenant.

"Who are called Uncircumcision by that
which is called the Circumcision.— The use of
the phrase "called" — with a touch of the contempt im-
plied in our phrase "the so-called" — simply implies
that now Circumcision and Uncircumcision were mere
names, virtually " nothing." The declaration of the
nullity of circumcision as a religious distinction is often
repeated, yet takes various forms. Thus, in 1 Cor.
vii. 19, it is contrasted with the practical reality of
obedience to God's commandments ; in Gal. v. 6, with
the inner reality of "faith working by love"; in Gal.
vi. 15, with the divine gift of the "new creation*'; in
Col. iii. 11, with the spiritual unity of all in Christ.
(Comp. also the whole argument of Rom. ii. 25 — iv. 12.)

In the flesh made by hands.— St. Paul, however,
not content with this, suggests by the addition of these
last words a contrast between the false or carnal, and
the true or spiritual circumcision, attributing the former
to the unbelieving Jews, the latter to all Christians.
This contrast is expressly announced in the other
Epistles of this period. In Phil. iii. 2, 3, we read,
" Beware of the concision ; for we are the circumcision."

The Gentiles, once Aliens,

EPHESIANS, II.

now made nigh to God.

by that which is called the Circumcision
in the ih'sli made by hands; <12) that at
that time ye were without Christ, being
aliens from the commonwealth of Israel,
and strangers from the covenants of

promise, having no hope, and without
God in the world: (13) but now in Christ
Jesus ye who sometimes were far off
are made nigh by the blood of Christ.
(it) ]?or jie is our peace, who hath made

In Col. ii. 11. still morn distinctly, in significant con-
nection with the appointed moans of entrance into the
Christian covenant, and significant contrast with the
effete Jewish ordinance, " In whom also ye are circum-
cised wit li the circumcision not made witli hands . . .
in the circumcision of Christ ; buried with Him in
baptism, in winch also ye are risen with Him." In
that true circumcision lies the distinction between the
Church, which is the spiritual Israel, and the heathen
world without.

(1-) This verse gives a dark and terrible picture of
the former heathen condition of tho Ephesians, inten-
tionally contrasted in every point with the description
of Christian privilege in verses 19, 20. That condition
is first summed up in one expression. They were
"separate from Christ." Then from this are drawn
two gloomy consequences: first (1), that they had no
part in God's special covenant, "alienated from the
commonwealth of Israel," and so "strangers to the
(often repeated) covenants of the promise" of the
Messiah: next (2), that, thus left in " the world," they
had "no hope" of spiritual life and immortality, and
were " godless" in thought and act. For Christ is at
once the end and substance of the covenant of Israel,
and the Revealer of God, and therefore of spiritual
life in man, to all mankind. To be without Him is to
lose both covenant and light. On (1) it is to be noted
that the word used is not " aliens," but " alienated," im-
plying— what is again and again declared to us — that
the covenant with Israel, as it was held in trust for the
blessing of " all families of the earth," so also was
simply the true? birthright of humanity, from which
mankind had fallen. The first "covenant" in scrip-
ture (Gen. ix. 8—17) is with the whole of the post-
diluvian race, and is expressly connected with the
reality of "the image of God" in man (Gen. ix.
6). The succeeding covenants (as with Abraham,
Moses, and David) all contain a promise concerning
the whole race of man. Hence the Gentiles (as the
utterances of prophecy showed more and more clearly
while the ages rolled on) were exiles from what should
have been their home ; and their call into the Church of
Christ was a restoration of God's wandering children.
In relation to (2) it is impossible not to observe, even in
the highest forms of heathen philosophy, how their
comparative " godlessness "— - the absence of any clear
notion of a real spiritual tie of nature between God and
man — made their "hope" of life and immortality,
though still cherished, shadowy and uncertain, always
stronger in itself than in its grounds. But St. Paul's
description ought to be applied strictly, not to heathen
life in its nobler and purer forms, but to the heathen
life of Asia Minor in his days. What that was in
moral degradation and in loss of all spiritual religion,
ill compensated by the inevitable proneness to various
superstitions, all contemporary literatui'e testifies.
From it came, as the Romans declared, the corruption
which overspread the whole empire, and which St.
Paul describes so terribly in Rom. i. 18 — 33.

(13) This verse speaks of the restoration of the
heathen as taking place, first, "in Christ Jesus" — in
virtue, that is, of union with Him through ail tho acts

of His mediation; and next, "by the blood of Christ" —
that is, through that especial act of mediation, which is
emphatically an atonement for sin — such sin as St.
Paul had been declaring above to be the cause of
spiritual deadness. They had power now " to enter
into the holiest by tho blood of Jesus " (Hcb. x. 19).

(2 b.) Verses 14 — 18 pass on from the description of
the call of the heathen to personal union with God in
Christ, to dwell on tho perfect unity and equality of
Jew and Gentile with each other in Him, aud the access
of both to the Father.

(14) He (Himself) is our peace.— There is clearly
allusion, as to the many promises in the Old Testament
of tho " Prince of Peace " (Isa. ix. 5, 6, et al.), so still
more to the " Peace of Earth " of the angelic song of
Bethlehem, and to tho repeated declarations of our
Lord, such as, " Peace I leave with you : My peace I
give unto you." Here, however, only is our Lord
called not the giver of peace, but the peace itself — His
own nature being the actual tie of unity between God
and mankind, and between man and man. Through
the whole passage thus introduced there runs a
double meaning, a declaration of peace in Christ
between Jew aud Gentile, and between both and God :
though it is not always easy to tell of any particular
expression, whether it belongs to this or that branch of
the meaning, or to both. It is well to compare it with the
obvious parallel in Col. ii. 13, 14, where (in accordance
with the whole genius of that Epistle) there is found
only the latter branch of the meaning, the union of
all with the Head, not the unity of the various members
of the Body.

Who hath made both one, and hath broken
down the middle wall of partition between
us.— In this verso the former subject is begun. The re-
union of Jew and Gentile is described in close connection
with the breaking down of " the middle wall of the
partition " (or, hedge). The words " between us "
are not in tho original, and Chrysostom interprets tho
partition as being, not between Jew and Gentile, but
between both and God. But the former idea seems
at any rate to pi-edominate in this clause. Whether
" the middle wall of the hedge " refers to the wall
separating the court of tho Gentiles from the Temple
proper (Jos. Ant. xv. § 5), and by an inscription de-
nouncing death to any alien who passed it (see LewinV.
St. Paul, vol. ii., p. 133), or to the " hedge " set about
the vineyard of the Lord (Isa. v. 2 ; coir$. Matt. xxii.
33) — to which probably the Jewish doctors alluded when
they called their ceremonial and legal subtleties " tho
hedgo " of the Law — has beeu disputed. It may. however,
be noted that the charge of bringing Trophimus, an
Ephesian, beyond that Temple wall had been the cause;
of St. Paul's apprehension at Jerusalem (Acts xxi. 29),
and nearly of his death. Hence the Asiatic churches
might we'll be familar with its existence. It is also
notable that thia Temple-partition suits perfectly tho
double sense of this passage : for, while it was pri-
marily a separation between Jew and (> entile, it was
also the first of many partitions — of which the " veil

Made one with Israel.

EPHESIANS, II.

Reconciled to God*

both one, and hath broken down the
Chap. ii. 14-18. middle wall of partition

ciliationtoGod. abolished in his flesh the
enmity, even the law of commandments

contained in ordinances ; for to make in
himself of twain one new man, .so
making peace; (16> and that he might
reconcile both unto God in one body by
the cross, having slain the enmity

of the Temple " was the last — cutting all men off from
the immediate presence of God. At our Lord's death
the last of these partitions was rent in twain ; how
much more may that death be described as breaking
down the first !

(15) The connection in the original is doubtful. The
words the " enmity in His flesh " may be in apposition
to the " Avail of partition " in the previous verse ; or, as
in our version, to " the law of commandments." The
general sense, however, is but little affected in either
case.

Having abolished in his flesh the enmity,
even the law of commandments contained in
ordinances. — In this difficult passage it will be well
first to examine the particular expressions. (1) The
word rendered " to abolish " is the word often used by
St. Paul for "to supersede by something better than
itself " — translated " to make void," in Rom. iii. 31 ; to
" bring to nought/' in 1 Cor. i. 28, and (in the passive) " to
fail," '"to vanish away," "to be done away," in 1 Cor.
xiii. 8, 9, 10. Now. of the relation of Christ to the Law,
St. Paul says, in Rom. iii. 31, " Do we make void the
Law ? God forbid ! Yea, we establish the Law." The
Law, therefore, is abolished as a law " in ordinances "
— that is, " in the letter " — and is established in the
spirit. (2) " The law of commandments in ordinances."
The word here rendered " ordinance " (dogma) pro-
perly means "a decree." It is used only in this sense
in the New Testament (see Luke ii. 1 ; Acts xvi. 4 ; xvii.
7 ; Heb. xi. 23) ; and it signifies expressly a law imposed
and accepted, not for its intrinsic righteousness, but on
authority; or, as Butler expresses it (Anal., Part ii.,
chap. 1), not a " moral," but " a positive law." In Col.
ii. 14 (the parallel passage) the word is connected with
a "handwriting" that is a legal "bond"; and the
Colossians are reproved for subjecting themselves to
" ordinances, which are but a shadow of things to come " ;
while " the body," the true substance, " is Christ."
(See verses 16, 17, 20, 21.) (3) Hence the whole
expression describes explicitly what St. Paul always
implies in his proper and distinctive use of the word
" law." It signifies the will of God, as expressed in
formal commandments, and enforced by penalties on
disobedience. The general idea, therefore, of the pas-
sage is simply that which is so often brought out in
the earlier Epistles (see Rom. iii. 21—31 ; vii. 1 — 4 ;
viii. 1—4; Gal. ii. 15 — 21, et al.), but which (as the
Colossian Epistle more plainly shows) now needed to
be enforced under a somewhat different form — viz.,
that Chris*?' " the end of the law," has superseded it
by the free covenant of the Spirit; and that He has
done this for us " in His flesh," especially by His
death and resurrection. (4) But in what sense is this
Law called " the enmity," which (see verse 16) was
" slain " on the Cross ? Probably in the double sense,
which runs through the passage: first, as "an enmity,"
a cause of separation and hostility, between the Gen-
tiles and those Jews whom they called "the enemies
of the human x'ace " ; next, as " an enmity " a cause of
alienation and condemnation, between man and God —
" the commandment which was ordained to life, being
found to be unto death " through the rebellion and sin

of man. The former sense seems to be the leading
sense here, where the idea is of "making both one";
the latter in the next verse, which speaks of " recon-
ciling both to God," all the partitions are broken down,
that all alike may have " access to the Father."
Comp. Col. i. 21, "You, who were enemies in your
mind, He hath reconciled ; '* and Heb. x. 19, " Having
confidence to enter into the holy place by the blood of
Jesus, by a new and living way, which He hath conse-
crated to us, through the veil, that is to say His flesh."

For to make in himself of twain one new
man, so making peace.- In this clause and the
following verse the two senses, hitherto united, are
now distinguished from each other. Here we have the
former sense simply. In the new man "there is
neither Jew nor Gentile," but " Christ is all and in
all" (Col. iii. 12). This phrase, "the new man" (on
which see chap. iv. 24, Col. iii. 10), is peculiar to these
Epistles; corresponding, however, to the "new crea-
ture " of 2 Cor. v. 17, Gal. vi. 15 ; and the " newness
of life " and " spirit " of Rom. vi. 4, vii. 6. Christ
Himself is the " second man, the Lord from Heaven "
(1 Cor. xv. 47). " As we have borne the image of the
first man, of the earth, earthy," and so " in Adam die,"
we now " bear the image of the heavenly," and not
only "shall be made alive," but already "have our life
hid with Christ in God" (Col. iii. 3). He is at once
" the seed of the woman" and the " seed of Abraham ";
in Him, therefore, Jew and Gentile meet in a common
humanity. Just in proportion to spirituality or new-
ness of life is the sense of unity, which makes all
brethren. Hence the new creation " makes peace " —
here probably peace between Jew and Gentile, rather
than peace with God, which belongs to the next verse.

(16) And that he might reconcile both unto
God in one body.— In this verse the latter subject
opens — the reconciliation of all to God. On the re-
conciliation of man to God, see the great passage 2 Cor.
v. 18 — 21. But it should be noted that in the original
the word used here and in Col. i. 20, 21 (and nowhere
else) is a compound signifying not simply to "conciliate/'
but properly to " reconcile," — that is to reunite those
who were originally united, but afterwards separated by
the sin of man. This brings out the profound idea,
which so especially characterises these Epistles, of a
primeval unity of all created being in Christ, marred
and broken by sin, and restored by His manifestation in
human flesh. Note that the passage in the Colossians
(on which see Notes) has a far wider scope than this
passage — " having made peace through the blood of
His cross, by Him to reconcile all things to Himself ; by
Him (I say), whether they be things on earth or things
in heaven." On the other hand, this passage charac-
teristically still lays stress on the idea "in one body" —
that is, as throughout, His mystical body, the Church —
although probably the phrase is suggested here by the
thought of the natural body of the Lord offered on the
cross, which is clearly referred to in Col. i. 21. There
is a similar connection of thought in 1 Cor. x. 16, 17,
" The bread which we break, is it not the communion
of the body of Christ ? For we are all one bread, and
one body."

Having Access by tit" Spirit.

EPHESIANS, II.

Fellow Citizens of the Saints

thereby : l <17) and came and preached
peace to you which were afar off, and
to them that were nigh. <18) For through
him we both have access by one Spirit
unto the Father. (19^ Now therefore ye

are no more strangers and chavAiA9_^
foreigners, but fellow- Built into the
citizens with the saints, ^fgj^0^^
and of the household of the "1S corne?
God: (2°) and are built stone.

By the cross, having slain the enmity
thereby. — In this verse (in accordance with the con-
text) "the enmity," which by His death He " slew," is
the barrier between God and man, created by sin, but
brought out by the Law, as hard and rigid law, "in
ordinances " of which St. Paul does not hesitate to say
that " sin took occasion by it," and " by it slew " man
(Rom. vii. 11). This is illustrated by the cognate,
though different, metaphor of Col. ii. 14, where it is
said of Christ that He " blotted out the handwriting of
ordinances which was against us, which was contrary
unto us, and took it out of the way, nailing it to His
cross." Compare also, in Gal. ii. 19, 20, the connection
of spiritual " death to the Law " with our partaking of
our Lord's crucifixion : " I, through the Law, am dead to
the Law. that I might live unto God. I am crucified
with Christ, nevertheless I live .... by the faith of
the Son of God, who loved me and gave Himself for
me:'' By His death Christ has both redeemed us from
sin, and also " redeemed (properly, bought) us from the
curse of the Law " (Gal. iii. 13).

(J7) And came and preached peace.— The word
"came" certainly carries back our thoughts to our
Lord's own preaching, when, after the Resurrection,
He came " and stood in the midst of them, and said,
Peace be unto you" (Luke xxiv. 36; John xx. 19, 21).
But wo note that at that very time He repeated the
salutation " Peace be unto you," with the expressive
addition, " As my Father hath sent Me, even so send 1
you," and Avith the charge, "Receive ye the Holy
Ghost," for the future mission "to remit or retain
sins." In the same connection we have in John xiv.
25 — 28, the promise of the Comforter, and the words
"Peace I leave with you; My peace I give unto you.
... I go away and come again to you." Hence we
cannot limit His " coming " to the appearance after the
Resurrection. At all times through the witness of the
Holy Spirit, whether with or without the preaching of
His servants (John' xv. 27), He "stands at the door
and knocks " (Rev. iii. 20) with the message of peace.
For since the " peacemakers " are " called the children
of God," He, the Son of God, must be emphatically the
Peacemaker.

To you which were afar off, and to them
that were nigh.— As the enmity was the enmity
with God, so the peace is peace with God j but still
the Apostle, having the idea of reunion between Jew
and Gentile present to his mind, cannot refrain from
bringing out clearly the call of both to one peace, and
therefore to unity with one another. The passage is a
quotation from Isa. lvii. 19.

(18) iror through him we both have access
by one Spirit unto the Father.— In this verse
the two meanings again unite. In the original the order
is emphatic: "Through Him we have the access, both of
us in one Spirit, to the Father." The greater idea of
access to God is still prominent ; but the lesser idea
of union with each other in that access is still traceable
as an undertone. "Access" is properly "the intro-
duction " (used also in chap. iii. 12 ; Rom. v. 2), a tech-
nical word of presentation to a royal presence. So
says Chrysostom, " We came not of ourselves, but He

brought us in." Tbe corresponding vex*b is found in
1 Pet. iii. 18, " Christ also suffered for sins — the just
for the unjust — that He might bring us to God." It
will be noted that we have here one of the implicit de-
clarations of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, so
frequent in this Epistle. The unity of the whole
Church, as united " to the Father," " through the Son,"
and " in the Spirit," is here summed up in one sentence,
but with as much perfection and clearness as even
when it is unfolded in the great passage below (chap.
iv. 4 — 6). The ultimate source of all doctrine on the
subject is necessarily in the words of the Lord Him-
self. (See John xiv. — xvii., especiallv xiv. 6, 16 — 18,
23—25 ; xv. 26 ; xvi. 13—15 ; xvii. 20, 21.) For these
are the " heavenly things " ; and " no man hath ascended
into heaven but He that came down from heaven, even
the Son of Man who is in heaven " (John iii. 12, 13).

(2 c.) Verses 19 — 22 sum up the two-fold idea of
this chapter — union of the Gentiles with God and with
God's chosen people — in the metaphor of the One
Temple, of which Jesus Christ is the chief corner-
stone, and which, both collectively and in the indi-
viduality of each part, grows into a habitation of God.

(19) Strangers and foreigners.— Here the word
rendered " stranger " means properly an alien, or
foreigner ; while the word translated " foreigners "
signifies the resident aliens of an ancient city, who
were but half -aliens, having free intercourse with the
citizens, although no rights of citizenship. The latter
word is used literally iu Acts vii. 6, 29 (there rendered
" sojourner"), and often in the LXX. version ; perhaps
metaphorically in 1 Pet. ii. 11. Such a sojourner,
though in some sense less an absolute alien than the
mere " stranger," was one on whom by daily contrast
the sense of being an alien, excluded from power and
privilege, was more forcibly impressed.

Fellowcitizens with the saints, and of the
household of God. — In sense this double expression
preserves the double idea running through the whole
chapter. The phrase " fellowcitizens of the saints " is
applied to the Gentiles, as now united with the Israel
of God in one " commonwealth." (See above, verse 12.)
" Members of the household of God " refers rather
to the union with God, restored by the blood of Jesus
Christ. (See verse 13.) As to the metaphor, the word
"stranger" — that is, alien — seems to be opposed to
" f ellowcitizen " ; the word "foreigner" — that is, half-
alien — to members of the household : for the resident
aliens stood opposed to the "houses," the families or
clans, of the citizens — the unit in ancient law being
always the family, and not the individual. The Gentiles
were now brought into a " household," and that house-
hold the household of God Himself.

(20—22) Tu these verses there is a sudden change
from a political to a physical metaphor, possibly
suggested by the word " household." The metaphor
itself, of the Church as " a building of God " — fre-
quently used in the New Testament — reaches its full
perfection in this passage. (1) It starts, of course,

Built on one Foundation

EPHESIANS, II.

in one Corner-stone.

upon the foundation of the apostles
and prophets, Jesus Christ himself

being the chief corner stone; <21> in
whom all the building fitly framed to-

from the words of our Lord (Matt. xvi. 18), " On
this rock I will build my Church ; " but in the use of
it sometimes the prominent idea is of the growth by
addition of individual stones, sometimes of the complex
unity of the building as a whole. (2) The former idea
naturally occurs first, connecting itself, indeed, with the
still more personal application of the metaphor to the
" edification " of the individual to be a temple of God
(found, for example, in 1 Thess. v. 11 ; 1 Cor. viii. 1 ;
x. 23 ; xiv. 4 ; 2 Cor. v. 1 ; x. 8). Thus in 1 Cor. iii. 9,
from " ye are God's building," St. Paul passes at once
to the building of individual character on the one
foundation ; in 1 Cor. xiv. 4, 5, 12, 26, the edification of
the Church has reference to the effect of prophecy on
individual souls ; in 1 Pet. ii. 5, the emphasis is still on
the building up of " living stones " upon " a living
stone." (Comp. Acts xx. 32.) (3) In this Epistle the
other idea — the idea of unity — is always prominent,
though not exclusive of the other (as here and in chap,
iv. 12 — 16). But that this conception of unity is less
absolute than that convoyed by the metaphor of the
body will be seen by noting that it differs from it in
three respects ; first, that it carries with it the notion of
a more distinct individuality in each stone ; next, that
it conveys (as in the " grafting in" of Rom. xi. 17) the
idea of continual growth by accretion of individual
souls drawn to Christ ; lastly, that it depicts the Church
as having more completely a distinct, though not a
separate, existence from Him who dwells in it. (On this
last point compare the metaphor of the spouse of Christ
in chap. v. 25 — 33.) Hence it is naturally worked out
with greater completeness in an Epistle which has so
especially for its object the evolution of the doctrine of
" the one Holy Catholic Church."

(20) Built upon the foundation of the apostles
and prophets. — In spite of much ancient and valu-
able authority, it seems impossible to take " the pro-
phets" of this verse to be the prophets of the Old
Testament. The order of the two words and the com-
parison of chaps, iii. 5 and iv. 11, appear to be
decisive — to say nothing of the emphasis on the pre-
sent, in contrast with the past, which runs through the
whole chapter. But it is more difficult to determine in
what sense " the foundation of the apostles and pro-
phets" is used. Of the three possible senses, that (1)
which makes it equivalent to " the foundation on which
apostles and prophets are built," viz., Jesus Christ
Himself, may be dismissed as taking away any special
force from the passage, and as unsuitable to the next
clause. The second (2), "the foundation laid by
apostles and prophets — still, of course, Jesus Christ
Himself — is rather forced, and equally fails to accord
with the next clause, in which our Lord is not the
foundation, but the corner-stone. The most natural
interpretation (3), followed by most ancient authorities,
which makes the apostles and prophets to be themselves
" the foundation," has been put aside by modern com-
mentators in t>he true feeling that ultimately there is
but " one foundation " (1 Cor. iii. 11), and in a con-
sequent reluctance to apply that name to any but Him.
But it is clear that in this passage St. Paul deliberately
varies the metaphor in relation to our Lord, making
Him not the foundation, or both foundation and corner-
stone, but simply the corner-stone, " binding together,"
according to Chrysostom's instructive remark, "both

the walls and the foundations." Hence the word
" foundation " seems to be applied, in a true, although
secondary sense, to the apostles and prophets ; just as
in the celebrated passage (Matt. xvi. 18) our Lord must
be held at any rate to connect St. Peter with the
foundation on which the Church is built ; and as in
Rev. xxi. 14, " the foundations " bear " the names of the
twelve apostles of the Lamb." It is true that in this
last passage we have the plural instead of the singular,
and that the passage itself, is not, as this is, a dogmatic
passage. But these considerations are insufficient to
destroy the analogy. The genius therefore of this pas-
sage itself, supported by the other cognate passages, leads
lis to what may be granted to be an unexpected but a
perfectly intelligible expression. The apostles and pro-
phets are the foundation : yet, of course, oidy as setting
forth in word and grace Him, who is the corner-stone.

Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner
stone.— The metaphor is drawn, of course, from Ps.
cxviii. 22 (applied by our Lord to Himself in Matt.
xxi. 42 ; Mark xii. 10 ; Luke xx. 17 ; and by St. Peter
to Him in Acts iv. 11), or from Isa. xxviii. 16 (quoted
with the other passage in 1 Pet. ii. 6, 7) ; in which
last it may be noted that both the metaphors are united,
and " the tried corner-stone " is also " the sure founda-
tion." In itself it does not convey so obvious an idea
of uniqueness and importance as that suggested by the
"key-stone" of an arch, or the "apex-stone" of a
pyramid; but it appears to mean a massive corner-
stone, in which the two lines of the wall at their
foundation met, by which they were bonded together,
and on the perfect squareness of which the true
direction of the whole walls depended, since the
slightest imperfection in the corner-stone would be
indefinitely multiplied along the courso of the walls.
The doctrine which, if taken alone, it would convey,
is simply the acceptance of our Lord's perfect teaching
and life, as the one determining influenco both of the
teaching and institutions, which are the basis of the
Church, and of the superstructure in the actual life of
the members of the Church itself. By such acceptance
both assume symmetry and " stand four-square to all
the winds that blow." (See Rev. xxi. 16.) That this is
not the whole truth seems to be implied by the varia-
tion from the metaphor in the next verse.

(21) In whom all the building fitly framed
together groweth unto an holy temple in
the Lord. — There is some difficulty about the rendering
" all the building." Generally the best MSS. omit the
article in the original. But the sense seems to demand
the rendering of the text, unless, indeed, we adopt the
only other possible rendering, " in whom every act of
building "■ — that is, every addition to tho building — " is
bonded to the rest, and grows." &c. The clause agrees
substantially, and almost verbally with chap. iv. 16 —
"From whom the whole body, fitly joined (framed}
together and compacted . . . maketh increase of the
body unto the edifying (building tip) of itself." In
this latter passage the leading idea is of the close
union of the body to the head, to which, indeed, the
metaphor more properly applies than to the relation of
the building to the corner-stone. For we note that St.
Paul, apparently finding this relation too slight to
express the full truth of the unity of the Church
with Christ, first speaks of the whole building as com-
pacted together in the corner-stone, and growing —

The Mission of St. Paul

EPHESIANS, III.

to the Gentiles.

gether groweth unto an holy temple in
the Lord : (22) in whom ye also are
builded together for an habitation of
God through the Spirit.

CHAPTER m.— « For this cause I

Paul, the prisoner of ~ ... , .
Jesus Christ for you Uen- The especial
tiles, <2> if ye have heard connnission to

„,.'-.. J .r. , , St. Paul of the

of the dispensation ot the mystery ofjhe

grace of God which is

given me to you-ward

iyster_
ill of the Gen-
tiles.

that is, being1 gradually built up — in that closely com-
pacted union; and next, calls the temple so built up
a "temple holy in the Lord" (i.e., the Lord Jesus
Christ), deriving, therefore, all its sacreduess as a
temple from a pervading unity with Him. The corner-
stone is only a part, though a dominant part, of the
building. Christ not only " keeps all together, whether
you speak of roof, or wall, or any other part what-
soever " (Chrys.), but by contact with Himself makes
the building to be a temple.

(82) in whom ye also are builded together
for an habitation of God through the Spirit.—
This verse seems primarily intended simply to empha-
sise the truth already enunciated (in verse 20), that the
Ephesians themselves are now being made part of the
Church of Christ, " being built up together in Christ."
But it may also illustrate to us the character of the
unity of the Church, as, primarily, a direct individual
unity with Christ — each stone being itself a complete
and living stone — and, secondarily and indirectly, an
unity with others and with tho whole. The Ephesians
are s aid to be, not a part of the habitation of God, but
themselves built into Christ for an habitation of God—
" Christ dwelling in their hearts by faith," and they
"therefore being filled with all the fulness of God"
( chap. iii. 1 7 — 19), The addition of this clause, therefore,
links the teaching of this Epistle with the earlier and
more individual forms of teaching, noted on verse 20.

This verse contains, again, the declaration (as in verso
18) of the union of Christians with each Person of the
Holy Trinity. The soul made one with the Son
becomes a temple for the indAvelling of the Father
in the gift of the Holy Spirit. (See John xiv. 23.)

III.

[3. Prayer for the Further Knowledge of this
Mystery (chap. iii. 1—21).

(1) Prefatory Declaration of the newness of

the revelation of this mystery of tho calling
of the Gentiles, and of the special commis-
sion of it to St. Paul, to be manifested before
men and angels, both by word and by
suffering (verses 1 — 13).

(2) Prayer for their full understanding of this

mystery (although passing knowledge) by the
indwelling of Christ, wrought in them by the
gift of the Spirit, and accepted in faith and
love (verses 14 — 19).

(3) Doxology to the Father through Christ

Jesus for ever and ever (verses 20, 21).]

The chapter is in form a parenthesis of fervent prayer
and thanksgiving between the doctrinal teaching of
chap. ii. and the resumption and summing up of that
teaching in chap. iv. 1 — 13. At the same time it
involves much profound implicit teaching ;u itself.

(1) Verses 1 — 13 contain two subjects closely
blended together. The first (carrying on what is
implied in the contrast drawn out in chap, ii.) is the
absolute newness of this dispensation to the Gentiles —
a mystery hidden from the beginning in God, but now

at last revealed. The second, an emphatic claim for
St. Paul himself, "less than the least" although he is.
of a special apostleship to the Gentiles, proclaiming
this mystery by word and deed.

(!) For this cause . . .—After much discussion of
the construction of this verse, there seems little doubt that
the nominative, " I, Paul," must be carried on beyond
the digression upon tin? mystery of the gospel, and his
part in ministering it, which follows. The only question
which can well be raised is whether the resumption takes
place at verse 13, " I desire that ye faint not ; " or at
verse 14, " I bow my knees ; " and this seems decided
for the latter alternative, both by the emphatic repe-
tition of " for this cause," and by the far greater
weight and finality of the latter sentence.

The prisoner of Jesus Christ.— The phrase
(repeated in chap. iv. 1 ; Philem. verse 9 ; 2 Tim. i. 8) is
dwelt upon with an emphasis, explained by St. Paul's
conviction that "his bonds" tended to " the furtherance
of the gospel " — not merely by exciting a sympathy
which might open the heart to his words, but even more
(see Phil. i. 13, 14) by showing the victorious power of
God's word and grace — which " is not bound " — to
triumph over captivity and the danger of death. The
expression itself is notable. When St. Paul calls him-
self the " prisoner of Jesus Christ," he represents our
Lord's own will, as ordaining his captivity for His own
transcendent purposes of good, making him an " ambas-
sador in chains" (chap. vi. 20), and these " the bonds of
the gospel." (See Philem. verse 13 ; and Acts xxviii. 20,
" For the hope of Israel I am bound in this chain.")
Hence in this passage St. Paul seems to speak of his
captivity as a special proof of the reality of his mission,,
and a new step in its progress ; and appeals to it ac-
cordingly, just as in the final salutation of the
Colossian Epistle, " Remember my bonds." The whole
idea is a striking instance of the spiritual alchemy
of faith, turning all things to good — not unlike the
magnificent passage (in 2 Cor. xi. 23 — 30) of his
" glorying in his infirmities."

For you Gentiles. —This was literally true of the
origin of his captivity, proceeding as it did from the
jealousy of tho Jews, excited by the free admission
of tin; Gentiles to the Church; but the reference is
not to be limited to this. St. Paul regards the captivity
as only one incident in a mission sending him entirely
to ihe Gentiles (Acts xxi. 21; Rom. xi. 13; Gal. ii. 9).
From these words the digression of verses 2 — 13 starts,
bringing out the reality and greatness of that mission.

(2) If ye have heard. — The original word ren-
dered " if " (the same used below, chap. iv. 21, and in
2 Cor. v. 3; Gal. iii. 4; Col. i. 23) conveys, in such
collocation as this, a supposition which is only a sup-
position in form — a half-ironical reference to a thing
not doubtful. The sense is " if (that is)%" or " if, as I
suppose," " ye heard the dispensation," &c. The passage
bears on the question whether the Epistle was an ency-
clical letter, or one addressed to the Ephesian Church.
The argument which has been drawn from it in the
former direction is not so strong as appears in the

The Mystery once hidden,

EPHESIANS, III.

but now revealed

W how that by revelation he made known !
unto me the mystery; (as I wrote afore1 j1 °T'ah
in few words, (4) whereby, when ye read,
3re may understand my knowledge in the
Chap. iii. 5—12. mystery of Christ) <5) which
The mystery in other ages was not

long hidden, -in ,1

mow revealed to made known unto the sons

men and angels, of men, as it is llOW

revealed unto his holy apostles and
IDrophets by the Spirit ; ^ that the
Gentiles should be fellowheirs, and of the
same body, and partakers of his promise
in Christ by the gospel : W whereof I
was made a minister, according to the
gift of the grace of God given unto me
by the effectual working of his power.

English; for the original implies no doubt that the
readers of the Epistle had heard, and the hearing
might have been not about St. Paul, but from St. Paul
himself. Still, there is a vague generality about the
expression, which suits well an address to the Asiatic
churches generally, but could hardly have been used
to a church so well known and beloved as Ephesus,
where "the signs of an Apostle" had been wrought
abundantly.

The dispensation of the grace of God which
is given me to you-ward.— The descriptive clause,
" which is given me to you-ward," is seen in the original
to belong to the word " grace," not (as our version
might suggest) to " dispensation." The grace of God
is spoken of as given to St. Paul, not so much for his
own sake, as for ministration to them of the dispensa-
tion described in the next verse. We find there that
the revelation of salvation to the Gentiles was the " dis-
pensation," that is (much as in chap. i. 10), the peculiar
office in the ministration of the grace of God to the
world, assigned to St. Paul by His wisdom. (Comp.
1 Cor. i. 17 — 24, " God sent me not to baptize, but to
preach the gospel . . . We preach Christ crucified . . .
unto them that are called, both Jews and Greeks, Christ
the power of God and the wisdom of God.")

(3) How that by revelation he made known
unto me the mystery. — The words "by revelation"
are doubly emphatic. By revelation, not by the
wisdom of man (as in 1 Cor. ii. 7 — 16) : for " God hath
revealed them to us by His Spirit." By direct revelation
to St. Paul himself, as in Gal. i. 12, " not of man or by
man, but by revelation of Jesus Christ," and in Rom.
xvi. 25, "according to my gospel, and the preaching of
Jesus Christ, according to the revelation of the
mystery." (See also 2 Cor. xii. 17.) This revelation we
may refer especially to the time when, after his con-
version, he was "in a trance while praying in the
Temple," and " saw Christ Himself," saying unto him,
"Depart, for I will send thee far hence unto the
Gentiles " (Acts xxii. 17 — 21).

As I wrote afore in few words.— The reference
is to the brief notice in chap. i. 10—14, and to the
further explanation in chap. ii. 11 — 22. Hence, in
English, the idea would be more clearly expressed by
"" I have written above." St. Paul refers them back to
these passages as embodying his " understanding," or
conception, of the mystery thus revealed especially to
him. The reference is one of those parenthetical re-
marks, which, to those remembering how St. Paul's
Epistles were dictated, almost irresistibly suggest inser-
tion on the reading over of the Epistle.

(5) "Which in other ages (rather, to other gene-
rations) was not made known unto the sons of
men. — For the general sense comp. Col. i. 27. The i
phrase "the sons of men" (except that it is once I
used in Mark iii. 28) is peculiar to the Old Testament, i
where it is of frequent use in the poetical books, and ;
it is notable that in Ezekiel it is the name by which
the prophet himself is constantly addressed. Hence, j

although it is probably wrong to restrict to the children
of Israel, or to the prophets, words which by their very
nature apply to all mankind, yet the phrase seems to be
used with a suggestion of the contrast between the old
dispensation and the new. (Comp. our Lord's words
in Matt. xi. 11, "Among them that are born of women
there hath not risen a greater than John the Baptist :
notwithstanding he that is least iu the kingdom of
heaven is greater than he.")

As it is now revealed unto his holy apostles
and prophets by the Spirit.— The application of
the epithet "holy" to the Apostles has been thought
strange as coming from one of their number ; and it is
worth notice that this exceptional application is cer-
tainly more appropriate to the comparatively impersonal
style of an encyclical epistle. But the epithet (applied to
the Old Testament prophets in Luke i. 70; Acts iii.
21 ; 2 Pet. iii. 2), like the frequent use of it as the
substantive " saints," in application to all Christians,
refers not to personal character, but to official call and
privilege. In this passage it is clear that it is used
thus, in emphatic contrast with " the sons of men "
above, and in connection with the following words, " in
the Spirit." The contrast here briefly conveyed is
the same which is drawn out in 1 Cor. ii. between the
" wisdom of men," and the " wisdom of God," sancti-
fying, and so enlightening, the Christian soul.

(6) That the Gentiles should be fellowheirs.
— More exactly, are felloiv -heirs, admitted already fully
in God's councils, as partially in actual fact to the
kingdom of God.

And of the same body, and [fellow-'] partakers
of his promise. — These three words (of which the
last two are peculiar to this Epistle) evidently describe
progressive steps in the work of salvation. First comes
the acceptance by God to a share in the inheritance, as
" heirs of God, and joint-heirs with Christ " (Rom. viii.
17) ; next, incorporation into the mystical body of
Christ ; lastly, the actual enjoyment of a share in the
promise — that is, all the spiritual blessings of the
covenant, called " promises " because, though real in
themselves, they are only an earnest of the hereafter.
At every point stress is laid on their fellowship with
Israel in all these gifts. The shoots of the wild olive
(Rom. xi. 17) are first chosen out, then " graffed in," and
lastly " partake with the natural branches of the root
and "fatness of the olive tree."

In Christ by the gospel.— These words should
be joined with all the three preceding. Of all the
privileges of the new life, the being "in Christ" is
the substance, the reception of the gospel iu faith the
instrument.

O) According to the gift of the grace of
God given unto me by the effectual working
of his power.— The words "given by" should be
rendered given according to. The working of God's
power is described, not as the means, but as the
measure of the gift of His grace. In fact, what is a
"gift" in its source, is "effectual working" in its

and proclaimed, both to Men

El-MiESIANS. III.

and to Angels.

(8) Unto me, who am less than the least
of all saints, is this grace given, that I
should preach among the Gentiles the
unsearchable riches of Christ; W and
to make all men see what is the fellow-

ship of the mystery, which from the
beginning of the world hath been hid
in God, who created all things by Jesua
( hrist : ll", to the intent that now unto
the principalities and powers in heavenly

actual nature. On the phrase "effectual working of
power" — a divine force iii the soul, not latent but ener-
getic -see chap. i. V.K In the whole of this passage,
however, the chief emphasis is Laid, not on the spiritual
power, but on the freedom of God's gifl to the Apostle
of this high privilege of preaching the mystery of the
gospel.

(8) Less than the least of all saints.— Compare
with this expression of deep humility the well-known
passages 1 Cor. xr. 9, 10; 2 Cor. xi. 30 ; xii. 9 — 11;
1 Tim. i. 12 — 16. It may be noted that in each ease
his deep sense of unworthiness is brought out by the
thought of God's especial grace and favour to him. \
Thus in 1 Cor. xv. 9, 10. the feeling that he is " the
least of the Apostles, not meet to be called an Apostle,"
ri>es out of the contemplation of the special manifes-
tation of the risen Lord to him as " one born out
of due time ; " in 2 Cor. xi. 30, xii. 9 — 11, " boast-
ing " has been forced upon him, and so, having been
compelled to dwell on the special work done by him,
and the special revelations vouchsafed to him, he
immediately adds, "though I am nothing;" in 1 Tim.
i. 12 — 16, as also here, it is the greatness of his
message of universal salvation which reminds him
that he was " a persecutor and injurious," "the chief
of sinners," and " less than the least of all saints."
Elation in the sense of privilege — " the glorying in that
which we have received," so emphatically rebuked in
1 Cor. iv. 7 — is the temptation of the first superficial
enthusiasm: deep sense of weakness and unworthiness,
the result of second and deeper thought, contrasting
the heavenly treasure with the earthen vessels which
contain it (2 Cor. iv. 7). Possibly there is a " third
thought," deeper still, belonging to the times of highest
spiritual aspiration, which loses all idea of self, even
of weakness and unworthiness, in the thought of " the
strength made perfect in weakness," and the conscious-
ness (as in Phil. iv. 12, 13) that " we can do all things
through Christ that strengthened us." See this last
brought out in peculiar fulness and freedom in 2 Cor.
v. 13 — vi. 10 ; a passage almost unique in its disclosure
of spiritual experience.

The unsearchable riches of Christ.— The word
u unsearchable " properly carries with it the metaphor
(latent in our word " investigate ") of tracking the foot-
steps, but not tracking them completely to their
source or issue — thus gaining an evidence of a living
power, but " not knowing whence it cometh or whither
it goeth." In this proper sense it is used in Kom. xi. 33,
" How unsearchable are His judgments, and His ways
past finding out! " (as also in Job v. 9 ; ix. 10). Here it
is used in a slightly different sense — applied to that
"wealth" or fulness of Christ on which thft Epistle
lays such especial stress, as a wealth of truth which we
can see in part but cannot wholly measure, and a wealth
of grace which we can enjoy but cannot exhaust.

(») To make all men see.— St. Paul speaks here
first of manifestation to all men. The phrase used
in the original is at once stronger and weaker than
our version of it. It is stronger, for the word is, pro-
perly, to enlighten or illuminate — the same word
nsed above (chap. i. 18), " the eyes of your heart being

36 33

enlightened." Strictly, Christ alone is the Light of the
world. " which enlightens every man" (John i. 4. 5, '.':
viii. 2); but, as reflecting Him, He declared His
servants to be the "light of the world." Yet it is
weaker, for while we can enlighten, it is our daily
sorrow that we cannot "make men see." Even He
wept over Jerusalem because His light was, by wilful
blindness, "hidden from their eyes" (Luke xix. 41).
To "open the eyes, and turn men from darkness to
light," although (as in Acts xxvi. 18) attributed in
general terms to the servants of God, because natu-
rally following on their ministry, is properly the work
of the Holy Spirit, even in relation to the words of
our Lord Himself (John xiv. 26).

The feUowship of the mystery.— Both MS.
authority and internal evidence point here to "the
dispensation of the mystery " as the true reading.
Probably here the reference is not to the commission
of the mystery to the Apostle (as in verse 2), but (as
in chap. i. 10) to the law or order which God Himself
has ordained for the manifestation of the truth, both
to men and angels.

Who created all things by Jesus Christ.—
The words " by Jesus Christ " should be omitted, pro-
bably having crept in from a gloss, and not belonging
to the original. The description of God as " He who
created all things," material and spiritual, is here
emphatic — designed to call attention to the dispensation
of the gospel as existing in the primeval purpose of
the Divine Mind (comp. chap. i. 4; 1 Cor. i. 7), hidden
from the beginning of the world (properly, from the
ages) till the time of its revelation was come. The
New Testament constantly dwells on this view of the
Mediation of Christ, as belonging in some form to the
relation of humanity to God in itself, and not merely to
that relation as affected by the Fall ; but nowhere with
greater emphasis than in the profound and universal
teaching of these Epistles.

(10) In this verse St. Paul passes on to consider the
manifestation of God in Christ as brought home not
only to the race of man but to the angels — " the prin-
cipalities and powers in the heavenly places " — who are
described (1 Pet. i. 12) as "desiring to look into" the
consummation of the gospel mysteiy. In the same
sense the Apostles, in their ministration of the gospel,
are said to be a spectacle to angels and to men (1 Cor.
iv. 9) ; and in a magnificent passage in the Epistle to
the Hebrews (Heb. xii. 22), Christians are encouraged
in their warfare by knowing it to go on before "the city
of the living God " and " an innumerable company of
angels." The angels are, therefore, represented to us as
not only ministering in the Church of Christ, but learn -
ing from its existence and fortunes to know more and
more of the wisdom of God. Hence we gain a glimpse
of a more than world-wide purpose in the supreme
manifestation of God's mercy in Christ, fulfilled towards
higher orders of God's rational creatures, aiding even
them in progress towards the knowledge of God in
Jesus Christ, which is life eternal. (There is a notable
passage on a kindred idea in Butler's Analogij, Part i..
c. iii. § 5.) This world, itself a speck in the universe.
may be — perhaps as a scene of exceptional rebellion

Boldness in Faith,

EPHESIANS, III.

and Glory in Tribulation.

places might be known by the church
the manifold wisdom of God, <n) accord-
ing to the eternal purpose which he
purposed in Christ Jesus our Lord:
(12) jn whom we have boldness and access
with confidence by the faith of him.

(13) Wherefore I desire that ye faint
not at my tribulations for chap, iii. is—
you, which is vour glory. !?• . pJfa5;er for

fUi V, ,1 • " tv their full com-

(14) J-or ^hlS cause I D0W

their
prehension of

my knees unto the Father it in Christ,
of our Lord Jesus Christ, W of whom

against God, certainly as a scene of God's infinite
goodness — a lesson to other spheres of being, far beyond
our conception. Possibly this view of angels as our
fellow-learners in the school of Christ may have been
specially dwelt upon in view of the worship of angels
of which we read in Col. ii. 18; but it accords well
with the wide sweep of thought characteristic of this
Epistle, literally " gathering up all things in Christ."

The manifold wisdom.— The word " manifold "
(properly, many-coloured, or wrought in many details)
is used here (and nowhere else) for the wisdom of God,
as " fulfilling itself in many ways " (the " sundry times
and divers manners" of Heb. i. 1). It is manifested,
therefore, in the infinite variety both of the teaching
and the life of the Church — manifold, yet one, as em-
bodying but one life, the life of Jesus Christ.

(11) The eternal purpose.— Properly, the purpose
of the ages ; but the sense clearly is, of the purpose of
God (see chap. i. 11), conceived before the ages of His
dispensation, and fulfilled through them. Hence the
rendering of our version is substantially correct.

Which he purposed.— It should be, which He
wrought, or made, for the word is quite distinct from
the substantive " purpose," and is in itself ambiguous,
capable of meaning either ordained or worked out.
Either sense will suit the passage ; but the latter
perhaps better, since the idea is throughout of the
completion and manifestation of the mystery of God's
purpose in the Lord Jesus Christ.

(12) This verse returns to the idea of chap. ii. 18, as
though St. Paul, after the wide sweep of thought far
beyond the earth in verses 10, 11, desired, as usual, to
bring his readers back to the practical and personal
aspects of their Christianity.

In whom we have {our) boldness and (our)
access with confidence. — "Boldness" is, properly,
boldness of speech (as in chap. vi. 19), though used in
a derivative sense for confidence and frankness gene-
rally. Probably here it is suggested in its original
sense by the reference in the preceding verse to the
charge of proclaiming the mystery of God. and accord-
ingly means that boldness of thought and utterance
before men and angels which Christians, in virtue of
that charge, ought to assume. The -access (see chap,
ii. 18) in confidence " is, on the other hand, that con-
fidence before God, as presented to Him in the Lord
Jesus Christ, which belongs to Christians as no longer
servants but sons. (On this confidence see 2 Cor. iii.
4 — 6.) Both these gifts depend on " faith in Him : " in
the one case, faith in His teaching and grace ; in the other,
faith in His atonement and His gift of the new life.

(13) Wherefore I desire . . .—The verse is "paren-
thetical— a reflection suggested by the greatness of the
trust and the littleness of the minister dwelt upon in
verses 8 — 12, and inserted as a warning to the Ephe-
sians not to be disheartened at the present "tribula-
tion " of his imprisonment, as if it were a failure of his
mission. (See this idea more fully worked out in Phil.
i. 12—29.) " To faint" (as in 2 Cor. iv. 1, 16; Gal. vi.
9; 2 Thess. iii. 13) is "to play the coward," as "think-
ing it (see 1 Pet. iv. 12, 13) a strange thing" that

trouble should fall on him or them. It might well seem
strange, when for four years at least, at Csesarea and
Rome, the marvellous activity of St. Paul's Apostolic
career was apparently cut short.

At my tribulations for you, which is your
glory. — There is a peculiar beauty in the thought
suggested by the words " which is your glory." The
suffering, triumphantly borne and actually turned to
the furtherance of the gospel, is certainly a "glory."
in the proof which it gives of the power of the truth
and the grace of Christ. But the more obvious idea
would have been to comfort the Ephesians by the
declaration that St. Paul's tribulations were to himself
a cause, not of pain, but of joy and glory — as is, in
fact, done in Col. i. 24, and in the celebrated passage,
2 Cor. xi. 23 — 31. Here, however, instead of so doing,
St. Paul pursues the same line of thought as in 1 Cor.
iv. 10 — there half ironically, here seriously — that,
while the suffering falls on himself, the glory passes
to the Church, for which he suffers, and in which he
is content to sink himself. Hence he bids the Ephe-
sians find encouragement and glory for themselves,
instead of a cause for " fainting," in the afflictions
endured on their behalf and overcome in Christ. As
he identifies himself with them, so he would have them
take what might be his glory to be their own.

(2) Verses 14 — 19 contain a pi'ayer, addressed with
special emphasis to the Father of all. that by the
strengthening grace of the Spirit and the indwelling of
Christ, accepted in faith and deepened by love, they
may, first, know the mystery already described in all its
greatness; and. next, learn by experience the unsearch-
able love of Christ, as dwelling in them, and so filling
them up to " the fulness of God."

(ii) Unto the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ.
— The words " o± CM Lord Jesus Christ " appear, by
both external and internal evidence, to be an interpola-
tion— probably from a gloss indicating (in the true
spirit of the Epistle) that the universal Fatherhood here
spoken of is derived from the fatherly relation to Him
in whom "all things are gathered up."

(15) of whom the whole family in heaven and
earth is named.— The original word (patria) here
rendered " family " is literally derived from the word
"father" (pater). It has been proposed to render it
fatherhood, and translate, from ivhom all fatherhood
whatever derives its name — all lower fatherhood being,
in fact, a shadow and derivative from the Fatherhood
of God. The translation is tempting, yielding a grand
sense, and one thoroughly accordant with the treatment
of the earthly relationship below (chap. vi. 1 — 4). But
the usage of the word is clearly against it; and we
must render it every family — that is. every body of
rational beings in earth or heaven united under one
common fatherhood, and bearing the name (as in a
family or clan) of the common ancestor. Such bodies
are certainly the first germs or units of human society;
what their heavenly counterparts may be, who can tell ?
The Apostle looks upon the fathers "whose names they

Prayer that they might knew

EPHESIA^S, III.

what passed knowledge'

the whole family in heaven and earth is
named, {™> that he would grant you,
according to the riches of his glory, to be
strengthened with might by his Spirit
in the inner man ; <-17> that Christ may
dwell in your hearts by faith ; that ye,

being rooted and grounded in love,
(18> may be able to comprehend with
all saints what is the breadth, and
length, and depth, and height ; *19^ and
to know the love of Christ, which passeth
knowledge, that ye might be filled with

delight to bear as the imperfect representatives of
God, and upon the family itself, with its head, as the
fcype in miniature of the whole society of spiritual
beings united in sonship to the Father in heaven.
Hence he declares that it is ultimately from Him
that every family derives the name of patria, and by
that very name bears witness to the Divine Fatherhood,
on which he desires here to lay especial stress.

(16) To be strengthened with might by his
Spirit in the inner man.— From the Father, as the
source of all life and being, St. Paul passes on to the
Spirit, "proceeding from the Father," as the giver of
life to men. His prayer here, as in chap. i. 17, is for
th< gift of the Spirit, but under some difference of
aspect. There the prayer is for illumination, here for
strength to grasp the mystery, to be rooted in love,
and be filled up to the fulness of God. Accordingly,
there the inner man is represented only by the " eyes
of the heart; " here (as in Rom. vii. 22 ; 2 Cor. iv. 16)
we hear of the •"inner man" in his entirety, including
all faculties — intellectual, emotional, moral — which
make up his spiritual nature. And St. Paul empha-
sises this prayer very strikingly by asking that the
gift may be " according to the riches of His glory,"
unlimited as the illimitable glory of the Divine Nature
itself. Moreover, a greater closeness of communion is
clearly indicated here. For light is a gift from without;
Btrength comes from an indwelling power, making itself
perfect in weakness, and continually growing from
grace to grace.

(i") That Christ may dwell in your hearts
by faith. — What that indwelling power is he now
indicates, so passing to another Person of the Holy
Trinity. It is (see Col. i. 27) " Christ in you, the hope
of glory." The indwelling of Christ (as here the con-
struction of the original plainly shows) is not a conse-
quence of the gift of the Spirit; it is identical with it.
for the office of the Holy Spirit is to implant and work
out in us the likeness of Christ. So in John xiv.
16 — 20, in immediate connection with the promise of
the Comforter, we read: " I will not leave you orphaned;
I will come to you." "Ye shall know that ... ye
are in me and I in you." Hence the life in the Spirit
is described as "To me to live is Christ" (Phil. i. 21);
" I live, yet not I, but Christ liveth in me " (Gal. ii. 20).
Faith is simply the condition of that indwelling of
Christ | comp. chap. ii. 8), the opening of the door to Him
that He may enter in.

The prayer is here complete, all that follows being
but consequent from it. In accordance with the uni-
versal law of revelation, all is from the Father, all is
through the Son vouchsafing to tabernacle in our
humanity, all is by the Spirit effecting that indwelling
of Christ in each individual soul.

That ye, being rooted and grounded in love.
— The phrase "ye, being." &c., stands in the original
before the word "that," as a kind of link between the
previous clause and this, which seems to describe the
consequence of the indwelling of Christ — viz., first
love, next comprehension, and finally growth into the
fulness of God.

The expression "rooted and grounded" (i.e., founded)
contains the same mixture of metaphor as in 1 Cor. iii.
9, of the tree and the building — a mixture so natural as
to pass into common usage, t Comp. Col. ii. 7, " rooted
and being built up in Him.") The idea implied in
" rooted " is of the striking down deeper and spreading
wider into the soil; in "founded" of the firm basis on
which ultimately we rest. " In love : " Love is not
itself the root or foundation (for this is Jesus Christ
Himself), but the condition under which growth takes
place. Generally that growth is upward, as in 1 Cor.
viii. 1 : "Knowledge puffeth up, but love buildeth up;"
or, as in chap. iv. 16, where the body is said " to build
itself up in love." Here that growth is downward,
deeper and deeper into the communion with God in
Christ, as " faith is made perfect (or, efficient) by love."
As in relation to man, so also to God, love is at once
the recognition of an existing unity between spirit
and spirit, and a means — probably the only means — of
making that unity energetic and deepening it con-
tinually. Hence love is the first consequence of the
indwelling of Christ in the soul; and by it the sold
becomes rooted and grounded in the unity, given by
that indwelling, with man and God.

<18) May be able to comprehend with all
saints what is the breadth, and length, and
depth, and height.— It has been asked, Of what P
Various answers have been given ; but as St. Paul has
obviously of set purpose omitted all definition, leaving
the phrase incomplete in absolute generality, no answer
can be perfectly satisfactory. The early fathers de-
lighted to refer it to the cross, and to trace in the four
dimensions of the cross a symbol of this four-fold
extension of the love of God in Christ. The clause
following, "to know the love of Christ," though partly
explanatory of this, hardly seems to be identical or
co-extensive with it. The knowledge there described is
a part — perhaps the chief part, but not the whole — of
the comprehension here prayed for. If anything is to
be supplied, it should probably be " of the mystery " —
i.e., of the whole mystery on which St. Paul had been
dwelling, including the predestination, the redemption,
the call and union of Jews and Gentiles. The prayer
is that we may know it every way. in every direction in
which the soul can go forth towards Go 1.

It may be noted that comprehension is placed after
love, just as in Phil. i. 9, "I pray that your love may
abound (that is, overflow) in knowledge and in all
judgment.'' The spiritual order of revelation differs
from that of the " wisdom of the world." It has first
faith, next love, and finally knowledge, because its
object is a person, not an abstract principle. That
knowledge must, even here, "grow from more to
more ; " but St. Paul's prayer can never be perfectly
realised till we "know even as we are known.*'

(19) To know the love of Christ, which
passeth knowledge. — The intentional paradox of
this expression is weakened if (with many interpre-
tations) we suppose that there is opposition in kind
between knowledge referred to in the two clauses: as
if " to know " meant to know by faith and spiritual

Final Doxology.

EPHESLANS, IV.

Exhortation to Unity.

all the fulness of God. (20) Now unto
Chap, iii.20,21. him that is able to do ex-
Doxology. ceeding abundantly above

all that we ask or think, according to
the power that worketh in us, (21) unto
him be glory in the church by Christ

A.D.61.
1 Or, in the Lord.

Jesus throughout all ages, world without
end. Amen.

CHAPTEE IV.— (i) I therefore, the
prisoner of the Lord,1 chap. iv. 1-3. Exhor-
beseech you that ye tation to unity.

experience, while the " knowledge," which the love of
Christ " passes." is mere " human knowledge " — head-
knowledge, and the like. Of such opposition there is
no trace (contrast 1 Cor. ii. 6 — 16). In the original,
the word "to know" is in a tense which expresses cog-
nition in a particular case ; hence the meaning of St.
Paul's prayer seems to be that they may know from
time to time, as each opportunity offers, what must in
its entirety pass all human knowledge, cither to dis-
cover or fully to understand, even when revealing
itself; so that they may always go on from faith to
faith, from knowledge to knowledge, and yet find new
depths still to be fathomed. The " love of Christ '" is
the love which He bears to us, and which is the motive
of His sacrifice for our redemption. It is known only
by those who are rooted in love to Him ; such love
being at once the consequence of the first knowledge
of His love to us (1 John iv. 19) and the condition of
entering more deeply into that knowledge.

That ye might "be filled with (or, rather, up to)
all the fulness of God. — This clause must be taken
as dependent, not merely on the clause immediately
preceding, but on the whole sentence. It describes the
final and glorious consequence of the indwelling of
Christ in the heart, viz., the " being filled" with grace
" up to the fulness of God." The meaning is more
(dearly seen in the fuller expression below (chap. iv. 13) :
"till we all come ... to the measure of the stature of
the fulness of Christ." It is simply perfect conformation
to the image of Him in whom " dwells all the fulness of
the Godhead bodily " (Col. ii. 9), and whose fulness is
therefore the "fulness of God," manifesting all the at-
tributes of the divine nature. The process is described
in 2 Cor. iii. 18, " We all, with open face beholding as
in a glass the glory of the Lord, are changed into the
same image from glory to glory;'* its consummation in
1 John iii. 2. " When He shall appear, we shall be
like Him ; for we shall see Him as He is." (Comp. Phil,
iii. 20, 21.) Here it completes the climax. When Christ
dwells in the heart we have first, love perfecting the
faith which roots the life in Him ; next, a thoughtful
knowledge, entering by degrees into the unsearchable
riches of His love to us ; and, lastly, the filling the
soul, itself weak and empty, up to the perfection of
likeness to Him, so renewing and deepening through
all time and eternity the image of God in our
humanity.

(3) Yerses 20, 21 sum up the whole in a doxology to
God the Father through Christ Jesus. It may be com-
pared with the other more solemn doxologies in the
New Testament : as Rom. xvi. 25 ; 1 Tim. v. 15, 16 ;
Jude, verses 24, 25 ; Rev. i. 6. Each has its distinc-
tive character. Here the prevailing idea of the pre-
ceding chapters is the wonder and the mystery of God's
fore-ordaining love, overflowing in the riches of His
grace to those who are made one with Him and with
each other in Christ Jesus. Hence, God is here de-
scribed as He "who is able to do exceeding abundantly
above all that we ask or think," and to do all " by His
power dwelling " and working in us.

(21) Unto him be glory in the church by (pro-
perly, in) Christ Jesus.— In the parallelism of these
clauses is implied the great idea of the Epistle — the
unity of the Church in Christ. Hence all that is " in
the Church" is "in Christ Jesus." The visible unity
of the Church represents, as it depends on, the invisible
unity with God in Him.

Throughout all ages, world without end.—
The original expression is emphatic and peculiar :
to all the generations of the age of the ages; that is.
in each successive generation of that age (or, <li.</i< illa-
tion) which includes in itself all the ages which we can
reckon or conceive. The conception represents to us
each generation, as adding its own peculiar thanks-
giving to the great chorus of praise which fills eternity.

IVr.

[4. Final Summary of Doctrine (chap. iv. 1 — 16).

(1) The Unity of the Church of Christ

(verses 1 — 6).
(«) Its ground in the unity of the Holy Trinity ;

(b) Its mean* in the one baptism :

hope, one charity.

(2) The Diversity of Gifts and Offices in

the Church through the mediation of her
glorified Lord (verses 7 — 11 .

(3) The Direction of all to one Object —

the individual and corporate growth of all
into the likeness and image of Christ the
Head (verses 12 — 16).]

(1) Yerses 1 — 6, although cast in a hortatory form,
contain the final summary of the great doctrine of the
Epistle — the Unity of the Catholic Church — in
words which have all the glowing freedom of spiritual
enthusiasm, and all the clear-cut precision of a
creed.

Thus (a) the ground of that unity is laid in that spiri-
tual communion of each soul with the " one Spirit." the
" one Lord," and the " one God and Father of all," which
underlies all outward ordinance, and which no power of
man can either give or take away, {b) The means of
entering that unity is the "one baptism." ordained
by Christ Himself, universal in the Christian world,
capable of being ministered (though irregularly) by any
Christian hand, (c) The graces" which in germ are
conditions, and in full growth are effects, of such
unity are the " one hope," the " one faith," the one "bond
of peace " or charity. These last most of all depend
on the " fellow- working " of man — primarily in the soul
receiving them, and secondarily in all who can influence
it for good and for evil.

We have here a perfect and exhaustive exposition of the
unity of the Church, on which depend the other quali-
ties of "Holiness," "Catholicity," and "Apostolicity''
ascribed to it iu the Creed. In other passages the esseut ial
life of the Church is attributed, now to the revelation
of the Father (Matt. xvi. 17, 18). now to the indwelling
presence of the Son (Matt, xxviii. 20). now to the gilt
of the Holy Ghost (Acts ii. 38, 39). Here all are united

Tic- Unity of (he Church.

EPHESIANS, IV. Its Ground. Means, and Condition*.

walk worthy of the vocation where-
with ye are called, <2) with all lowli-
ness and meekness, with longsuffering,
forbearing one another in love; <8>
endeavouring to keep the unity of the

Spirit in the bond of peace. <4> There
is one body, and one Spirit, ()|;|]i iv ^
even as ye are called in The unity of
one hope of your calling; the Church.
(5> one Lord, one faith, one baptism,

in one comprehensive view. The order, however, is
natural, not artificial. The exhortation to peace
naturally leads to the conception of one Body, animated
by the -one Spirit''; next, the remembrance of their
tailing leads to the "one Lord," who called them to
Him m one faith and by one baptism; and all ends in
T'ne contemplation of the " one God and Father." who is
not only above all and through all His creation, but
specially in those who are adopted to a new sonship in
Christ. (See John xiv. 22, 23.) In its completeness
and depth this passage stands alone. It is interesting j
to compare and contrast with it the equally celebrated \
passage occupying the corresponding place in flu; Colos- !
siati Epistle (Col. iii. 1 — i). and to gather from this
the mingled similarity and difference in the main idea
of those two Epistles — the Ephcsian Epistle dwelling
especially on the unity and regeneration of the whole
body, the Colossian Epistle on the sole Headship and
Deity of Christ.

d) Worthy of the vocation wherewith ye
are called. -This " being worthy of the Christian
calling " may obviously show itself in any of the graces
of regenerate humanity, all being features of the image
of Christ. Thus in 1 Pet. i. 15 it expresses itself
in " holiness " (as in the frequent phrase " called
to he saints"); in Phil. i. 27 — 30, in steadfastness
of faith. But in this passage the especial point
which has been dwelt upon in their calling is the
fart that they were aliens, helpless and miserable,
and that they are now united in one body with the
ancient people of God. Hence, naturally, the graces
declared to correspond with their calling, so viewed, are
the graces of humility and gentleness, teaching them to
sink all thought of self in '"the unity of the Spirit."

W With all lowliness and meekness, with
longsuflfering.— See Col. iii. 12, where the same
three qualities are dwelt upon, but there introduced
by "compassion and kindness." They seem to cor-
respond almost exactly to the first, third, and fifth
beatitudes of the Sermon on the Mount, in which the
principle of love is wrought out in various forms (as in :
the other beatitudes the principle of righteousness) : I
" Blessed are the poor in spirit ; " " Blessed are the
meek ;" " Blessed are the merciful." The word "lowli-
ness of mind" is used by St. Paul only in the Epistles
of the Captivity (Phil. ii. 3; Col. ii. 18, 23; iii. 12) and in
the address to the Ephesiau presbyters (Acts xx. 19). It
is. indeed, a word new coined in Christian terminology,
and even the root from which it comes is mostly used by
the heathen moralists in a bad sense (of meanness and
slavishness . of which there is still a trace in Col. ii. 18.
"Meekness" is mostly " gentleness " — -"the meek and
quiet spirit " (1 Pet. iii. 4) — the natural, though not the
invariable, fruit of humility, winning souls by its very
absence of bitter self-assertion, and so " inheriting the
earth." " Longsuffering " is the manifestation of'
such meekness, with something of especial effort and ;
Btruggle, in the bearing of injury.

-• :> Forbearing one another in love . . . .— -
The word rendered "endeavouring" is. in the original,
a word expressing " earnestness " of thought and

exertion to secure a thing not lightly obtained. Bee
2 Tim. iv. 9—21 ; Heb. iv. 11 ; 2 Pet. i. In. It shows
that St. Paul here passes from the negative aspects ot
love, summed up in forbearance, to the more positive
and energetic enthusiasm for unity and peace, l.ove is
in both aspects, the "uniting bond " of peace. In the
parallel passage of Col. iii. 14. it is "put on over" all
else, and is the uniting " bond of perfectness." In the
celebrated thirteenth chapter of the First Epistle to
Corinthians (verses 4 — 7) it is made to include " long-
suffering" and " kindness," and all forms of humility
and gentleness. But, if it be real, it must necessarily
pass into active energy; if it is to win the final
beatitude of "blessing to the peacemakers," it must
"labour for peace." and " follow after the things which
make for peace " (Ps. cxx. 7 ; Rom. xiv. 19).

The unity of the Spirit is certainly the unity
given by the indwelling of the Holy Ghost. This we
cannot create, for it is the gift of God ; but we can
"keep "it: that is, cherish it. guard it. and make it
effectual by love ; and all experience proves that, if we
would so keep it, we need the positive earnestness of
exertion against evils without and within.

(4) There is one body, and one Spirit.— The
words " There is " are not in the original, which starts
with a striking abruption, and with that terse concen-
tration of thought and word which marks out an
embryo creed.

The "one body " is the Body of Christ. " from whom
it is fit!}' framed, joined together, and compacted." so
that in every part "it grows up into Him." But this
communion with God in Christ being "the life eternal."
the Holy Ghost, by making it effectual alike to the
Church and to the individual soul, is the " Lord and
Giver of Life." Hence. His presence is spoken of as
being to the body of Christ what the spirit is to the
natural body — the uniting and vivifying power for all
its members. Under the same idea we have (in 1 Cor.
xii. 13), as a description of the first entrance into the
Church of Christ, " By one Spirit are we all baptised
into one body . . . and have been all made to drink
into one Spirit."

Even as ye are (or rather, were) called in one
hope of your calling.— The connection, though not
at first obvious, is clear on consideration. Since the
grace of the Holy Spirit is not only the " seal " of
regeneration, but also the " earnest " (chap. i. 14) of
future perfection, the mention of the one Spirit
suggests naturally the "hope of our calling" i/.c, the
perfect unity of heaven). In this, in spite of all
natural and spiritual inequalities, and in spite even of
our divisions and strifes upon earth, all Christians are
still actually one. Hence the communion of saints is
perhaps most clearly realised in the times of high
spiritual aspiration, and in the near presence of death.

<5> One Lord, one faith.— From the idea of " the
calling." the Apostle passes naturally to Him Avho calls —
the "one Lord"— and to the method of His calling to
Himself, first, by the " one faith." and then by the " one
baptism " at which profession of that one faith is made.
It is on the indwelling of Christ in each heart by faith
that the spiritual unity of all Christians — primarily with

Variety of Gifts throu<jh the

EPHESIANS, IV.

One Lord Jesus Christ.

(6> one God and Father of all, who is above
all, and through all, and in you all. (7>
But unto every one of us is given
grace according to the measure of the

gift of Christ. <8) Wherefore . ■ ,..

he saith,When he ascended ThePvariety of
up on high, he led capti- gifts and func-
vity1 captive, and gave gifts tlons'

Him, secondarily with one another — depends; and that
spiritual unity is "pat on" in baptism (Gal. iii. 27). in
which we are "buried with Him and risen again " 1C0I.
ii. 12), growing into the likeness of His deatli and
resurrection (Rom. vi. 3, 4, 5). Again we note that,
with but few exceptions, all Christians, even in the
divided condition of the Church, are still united in the
" one baptism ; " and if we look to such expressions of
the one faith as are contained in the baptismal pro-
fession {e.g., of the Apostles' Creed), it is clear that our
divisions, great as they are, turn mainly on the fourth
subsidiary Article on the " Holy Catholic Church." and
not on the three primary Articles of the Father, the
Son, and the Holy Ghost. In these the mass of
Christendom has still one faith.

(6) One God and Father of all.— Necessarily,
through the Son. we pass to the Father (as the Lord
Himself invariably teaches us to do), since He is (to use
the old Greek' expression) "the fount of Deity." He
is said to be the " Father of all." We cannot limit this
universal Fatherhood; although, undoubtedly, the con-
text shows that the immediate reference is to those who
are His children by adoption in Jesus Christ. The
Church is essentially Catholic, inheriting by special
gift what is the birthright of all humanity; inca-
pable of perfection till all be drawn into that closer
sonship. yet having neither right nor desire to deny
that outside her pale at any moment the wider Father-
hood of God extends.

Who is above all, and through all, and in
you all.— The word "you" has little authority; many
MSS. and commentaries have '"us." But the best MSS.
and authorities omit both, as probably early glosses
of explanation which have crept into the text. Accord-
ingly, the word " all ' ' throughout must be taken, as above,
as applying to all God's rational creatures, made in His
image ( and indeed, in a lower sense, even to all His crea-
tures), but especially and properly to the members of
Christ's Church. In the three-fold sentence many
ancient ami modern interpreters trace a reference to the
Holy Trinity. But. strictly speaking, this cannot be, as
the passage expressly points to the Father; although, in
virtue of the eternal unity of the Godhead, it may be true
that in the expression " through all" and " in all" we trace
those manifestations of the Father which are especially
made through the Son and by the Holy Spirit. Hence we
must refer all properly to the ultimate conception of
God the Father ; as " above all " in the sovereignty of
His will, since to work out " His pleasure they are and
were created," and His will becomes to them the " law
eternal ; " as " through all " in the diffusive power of
the forces — physical, moral, and spiritual — by which
the world of nature, still more the world of man. most
of all the society of Christians, are swayed as wholes ;
and " in all " by the indwelling of God in the individual
for creation, sustentation, regeneration, which is the
breath of life — both the physical and spiritual life.
(This individuality, and the especial reference to
Christians, are marked by the very natural gloss " us,"
or " you," in this clause.)

(2) Verses 7 — 11 pass from the unity of the Church
to the diversity of graces and offices in its members,

all being gifts of the ascended Lord, and results of
that universal mediation which fills all things.

(") But unto every one of us is given grace.—
This verse should be rendered, To every one of us
the grace (the one "grace of the Lord Jesus Christ'')
was given — that is, given in the Divine purpose in the
regeneration of the whole body, although it lias to be
received and made our own, separately in each soul, and
gradually in the course of life. It was and is given
" according to the measure of the gift of Christ." (See
below, verses 13 — 16.) In Him it dwells " without
measure " (see John iii. 34) ; He gives it to each ac-
cording to the measure of his capacity to receive it in
faith (called in Rom. xii. 3 the "measure of faith").
Compare with this verse the fuller description of
the differences of " gifts," " ministries," and " opera-
tions " in 1 Cor. xii. 4 — 6, in which passage there is the
same general reference to the Three Persons of the
Holy Trinity ; but the particular reference is there to
the Holy Spirit, while here it is to the Son.

(8) Wherefore he saith.— The reference is to Ps,
lxviii. — a psalm which (as the quotation from Num. x,
35, in the first verse, shows) is a psalm celebrating some
moving of the ark, traditionally (and most probably)
connected with David's bringing up of the ark ( 2 Sam.
vi.) to Mount Zion. The very change from the second
person to the third person shows it to be a free quota-
tion ; and this is made far more evident by the re-
markable variation from the text of the original, which
runs, Thou receivedst gifts in mail — i.e.. probably.
" among men ; " and adds, " even the rebellious, that
the Lord God might dwell among them " — a clause
which (from verses 29 — 31) we may suppose to refer to
the homage of the heathen to the Lord Jehovah.
Now, it has been noted that the word '■ received " is
used constantly for " receiving," or " fetching," for
another (Gen. xv. 9; xviii. 5; xxvii. 13, et al.); and it
appears that the Chaldee Targum actually has here, as a
gloss : " Thou hast given gifts to the sons of men,"' in-
terpreting the words, curiously enough, of Moses as a
mediator between God and man. The psalm also was
recognised as a Messianic psalm, foreshadowing the
dwelling of " God with us " in the universal kingdom
of the true Mediator. St. Paul accordingly uses it
with a bold variation suiting his context. The key to
this use is found in the truth enunciated of our Lord
in Acts ii. 33, that " being by the right hand of God
exalted, and having received of the Father the promise
of the Holy Spirit, He hath shed forth this." Our
Lord, as the Head of humanity, receives only in order
to give. From the means, therefore, the Apostle passes
to the end.

He led captivity captive.— The modern use of
these words as describing our Lord's triumph over the
power of evil, hitherto triumphant over man. and so
giving freedom by leading captive the power of captivity,
although in itself profoundly true, is not supported by
the original, in which it is simply used for "a body
of captives." St. Paul's use of it here is probably
best interpreted by Col. ii. 15, where it is said of
the " principalities and powers " — the powers of sin
and death — that "He made a show of them openly.
38

Ascended into Heaven.

EPHESIANS, IV.

T/ience sending His Ministers.

unto men.'' I!l1 (Now that he ascended,
what is it but that he also descended
first into the lower parts of the earth ?
(lu^ He that descended is the same also

that ascended up far above all heavens,
that he might till » all things.) Pi) And
he gave some, apostles ; * and some,
prophets ; and some, evangelists ; and

triumphing over them in the cross." (See Note on
this passage. I

(9, 10) These verses form a parenthesis, designed to
bring out the pervading idea of this and the parallel
Episth — the Divine humanity of Christ as " filling all
in all" and " gathering all things " into Himself.

(9) The lower parts of the earth.— This may
mean either the regions of the earth, as " lower" than
heaven, or the regions beneath the earth. The reason-
ing of the text ' in itself would be satisfied by the
former. For St. Paul is simply arguing that the use of
the phrase ••ascended" from earth to heaven implies a

{» rev ions corresponding descent, which must be from
leaven to earth ; exactly as in John iii. 13, " No man
hath ascended into heaven, but He that came down from
heaven." But form and usage of the phrase itself seem
to point to the other meaning, which is held by almost
all ancient interpreters and most moderns. It agrees
with the strong expression of "filling all things," in
verse 10. and is possibly suggested by the leading
captive of the powers of hell and death. Though,
perhaps, injurious to the strictness of the antithesis, it
is quite accordant with St. Paul's manner to introduce
thus a fresh idea beyond the simple idea of descent,
which is sufficient for his argument : " He descended —
yea. even to the realms below." For this idea is most
apposite to that frequent reference to spiritual powers
of evil found in this Epistle, and it may be thought to
correspond by antithesis to the "far above all heavens"
of the next verse.

(10» That he might fill all things.— Compare the
description in chap. i. 23 of the Lord as " filling all in
all." In both cases the reference is more particularly to
the gift of the fulness of His grace, flowing from His
glorified humanity to all His members. But the words
are too wide for any limitation. In heaven and earth,
and the realms under the earth, His presence and
sovereignty extends, by whatever means and over
whatever beings He wilis. In Rev. v. 13. accordingly,
we lead the ascription by " every creature in heaven, and
on the earth, and under the earth . . ., of blessing,
honour, glory, and power to . . . the Lamb for ever
and ever."

UV) He gave.— In the original " He " is em-
phatic— He and He alone, as the ascended Head of
humanity. The word "gave," instead of the more
obvious word set, or appointed (used in 1 Cor. xii.
28), is, of course, suggested by verse 8. They who are
ministers of His gifts are themselves gifts from Him
to the Church.

Some, apostles; and some, prophets . . .
— With this passage we must compare 1 Cor.
xii. 28, " God hath set some in the Church, first
apostles, secondarily prophets, thirdly teachers, after
that miracles, then gifts of healings," &c. ; and. perhaps,
Rom. xii. 6 — 8, " Having then gifts . . . whether
prophecy ... or ministry ... or teaching ... or
exhortation . . .," although this last passage is less
formally apposite. In all three cases there is the
same general idea, first of the one body, and then of
the one Spirit, guiding and animating it through
various ministries. The parallel between this
passage and the passage in 1 Cor. is very close; for

in the latter all that follows the words "after that"
may lie put aside, as describing, not special offices or
ministries, but special gifts. We have, therefore, in
both, " first apostles, secondly prophets." Then come,
in the earlier Epistle, " teachers ; " and this class, in our
own later Epistle, is subdivided into " evangelists " and
•' pastors." both being teachers — the one in conversion
of those still aliens from Christ, the other in edifica-
tion of those already brought into His fiock.

Some, apostles.— The name " apostles " is certainly
used here in its technical and restricted sense, as
applying to the Twelve, whom " the Apostle " of God
Himself (Heb. iii. 1) named as His Apostles (Luke vi.
13), and with whom St. Paul claims equality (see
1 Cor. ix. 1; xv. 9 — 11 ; Gal. i. 1) on the ground of his
own special mission and revelation from the same Lord.
It is, indeed, used in a wider sense ; sometimes with
words distinctly implying a derivation and human mis-
sion, as in 2 Cor. viii. 23, "apostles (or, messengers) of
the churches ; " Phil. ii. 25, " Epaphroditus, your
apostle (or, messenger) ; " sometimes without such
qualification, as in 2 Cor. xi. 5, 13; xii. 11, 12; 1 Thess.
ii. 7 ; and, perhaps, Rom. xvi. 7. But such use is rare,
and cannot be applied to a passage like this, which is dis-
tinctive of a special and primary class. In direct charge
from the Lord, universal scope of mission, special in-
spiration and power of miracle, which are " the signs of
an apostle " (2 Cor. xii. 12), the Apostles, properly so
called, stood out in office absolutely unique and supreme.
What was said of the first age of the Church is true
of all ages — " of the rest durst no man join himself
unto them " (Acts v. 13).

Some, prophets.— For the nature and function of
prophecy in the Church, see the detailed treatment of
the subject by St. Paul in 1 Cor. xiv. It is sufficient
here to note (1) that from very early times the "pro-
phets " are mentioned as a separate class (see Acts xi.
27 ; xv. 32 ; xxi. 10), distinguished from teachers
(Acts xiii. 1), and that, in this Epistle especially, they
are spoken of, in connection with the Apostles, as
receiving the revealed mystery of the gospel (chap. iii.
5), and being (or, laying) "the foundation of the
Church ; " (2) that their office, like the Apostolate, is
clearly extraordinary, distinct from the ordinary and
permanent teaching of the evangelists and pastors,
and, probably, best described by the two phrases so
constantly applied to the prophets of the Old Testa-
ment— "the word of the Lord came to me;" "the
Spirit of the Lord was upon me." As all God's extra-
ordinary gifts and workings are closely correlated with
His ordinary laws of operation, so in this case the
apostolic and prophetic offices gradually melt away
into the regular functions of government and teaching,
belonging in all times to the ministry of the Church.

.Some, evangelists; and some, pastors and
teachers.— In these two phrases (corresponding to the
simple word " teachers " in 1 Cor. xii. 28) we find described
the two-fold office of the regular ministry of the Church
—first, to preach the gospel to the heathen or the un-
converted, and next, to fulfil our Lord's pastoral charge
(John xxi. 15 — 17) of feeding and shepherding those
who are already His sheep. It is clear that the same
person may be invested with the two offices, as Timothy,

For perfecting of the Saints.

EPHESIANS, IV

For building up the Church.

Ch ' 12— some> Pastors and teachers ;

16. devoted to (12) for the perfecting of the

^e ,?£e °.bJect saints, for the work of the
of edmcation. • • , n, ,-, j • « •

ministry, tor the edifying

Or, into (hi -nn,t 11.

of the body of Christ: W till we all
come in the unity1 of the faith, and of
the knowledge of the Son of God, unto
a perfect man, unto the measure of the

when in pastoral charge at Ephesus. is bidden " to do
the work of an evangelist" (2 Tim. iv. 5) ; and that in
some degree the two offices must always be united, for
the evangelist, like the apostle, is generally called upon
to organise and " confirm the churches " ( Acts xiv. 22. 23 ;
xv. 41), and the pastor must always find men uncon-
verted, to whom he must be an evangelist. But the
two elements of duty will co-exist in different propor-
tions in different persons. Some were then, and are now,
especially called to be " evangelists " — that is, as is
shown by the career of Philip, to whom the name is
first given (Acts xxi. 8), to be, under the apostolic
guidance, missionaries to the unconverted ; others to be
"pastors and teachers," feeding now with "pure milk
of the word," now with " solid meat " (see 1 Cor. iii. 2,
and Heb. v. 12), those already gathered into the fold,
and exercising over them the pastoral authority solemnly
committed by our Lord to His ministers. Yet both
can discharge only under limitation the functions
which in the Apostles were practically unlimited.

On the question whether this celebrated passage
describes the regular orders or the functions, ordinary
and extraordinary, of the ministry, we may fairly say
that while no doubt the very genius of the passage
points to the latter alternative, yet the ultimate appeal
must be made to history. It is clear, from the nature
of the case, that none could inherit the direct and uni-
versal commission from Christ held by the Apostles ;
it is certain historically that the supernatural gifts of
prophecy and miracle passed away ; it is hardly less in-
disputable that the two functions of evangelism and
pastorate were always shared among the three orders of
bishops, priests, and deacons after the close of the
Apostolic age.

(3) Verses 12 — 16 return from diversity of functions
to singleness of object— viz.. the perfecting individual
souls in the likeness of Christ, and so building up of
the whole Church in unity with Him.

(12> For the perfecting . . .— The parallelism
of the three clauses of our version of this verse does not
exactly correspond to the original, though we notice that
Chrysostom supports it, and therefore evidently saw no-
thing in the Greek to contradict it. The preposition
(eis) used in the two latter clauses (which should be unto
work of ministration, unto edification of the body of
Christ) properly signifies " contact with a thing," and
the preposition (■pros) used in the first clause, " direction
towards a thing." The two are often apparently inter-
changed ; but in close juxtaposition here can hardly be
intended to be identical or exactly parallel; and, if
distinction is to be drawn, the former must signify
immediate consequence, and the other the remoter
object to which such immediate consequence is designed
to minister. The construction would be greatly simpli-
fied, if inversion of the first two clauses could be
allowed. For it would then run, " unto work of minis-
tration with a view to perfecting of saints, unto building
up of the body of Christ ; " and so would plainly
represent the two-fold operation of the ministry : first,
its work in its various offices for the perfecting of
individual souls ; and next, its general direction to the

building up of the whole body. But whether this con-
struction be grammatically possible or not, this appears
to be in any case the general sense of the passage.

The perfecting of the saints.— The word ren-
dered " perfecting " (akin to the " perfection " of 2 Cor.
xiii. 9) is derived from a root which signifies either to
" mend " what is broken (as in Matt. iv. 21 ), or to
" complete " what is unfinished (as in Luke vi. 40 ; Rom.
ix. 22) ; and hence is used spiritually for to " i*estore "
the fallen (Gal. vi. 1), or to "perfect" the imperfect
Christian (Heb. xiii. 21 ; 1 Thess. iii. 10). Both pro-
cesses are necessarily implied in that perfection of the
individual saints here spoken of, and more fully
described in the next verses.

The edifying of the body of Christ.— This is
that part of the work of the ministry (as in preaching
and ministering in public worship) which tells upon the
Church or congregation as a whole. It is here re-
presented as subsequent, perhaps as subordinate, to the
individual pastoral dealing with souls. But each has
his own gift. Some ministries are more blessed to the
individual perfecting of the saints ; others to the build-
ing up of the whole Church.

(13) Till we all come.— The marginal rendering is
correct : till we all arrive at the unity of the faith.
The " one faith " has been spoken of above ; the full
grasp of that faith by each and all is the first object
of all the ministries of the Church, since by it both
the individual perfection and the corporate unity begin
to be secured. Such faith always goes on to knowledge,
that is (as in chap. i. 17) " full knowledge" of Him in
whom we have believed. So in 2 Pet. i. 17, " Add
to your faith virtue" (that is, energy in well-doing),
"and to virtue knowledge." This knowledge (see chap.
iii. 17 — 19) is gained mainly through the love in which
faith is made perfect.

Of the Son of God.— These words should be con-
nected with the word " faith " (as in Gal. ii. 20) as well
as " knowledge." They are probably to be considered
as a distinctive phrase, designating our Lord especially
as glorified and exalted to the right hand of the Father
in " the glory which he had with the Father before the
world was." So in Rom. i. 4, He is " declared to be the
Son of God by the Resurrection ; " and in Heb. iv. 14,
" Jesus the Son of God" is "the High Priest ascended
into the heavens." Compare also our Lord's declaration
that "if any man speaks against the Son of Man it
shall be forgiven him " (Matt. xii. 32) with the declara-
tion of the certain vengeance on him who "treads
under foot the Son of Go J " (Heb. x. 29). Note again, in
St. John's First Epistle, the constant reference to the
belief in and confession of Jesus as " the Son of God "
as the one thing needful (chaps, iv. 15; v. 5, 10 — 12, 20).
For on the belief not only of what He was on earth, but
of what He is in heaven, all distinctive Christianity
depends. If He is only " Son of Man " He cannot be
the universal Saviour.

Unto a perfect (that is, full-grown) man, unto
the measure of the stature of the fulness
of Christ.— In these words are described the second
great object of the ministries of the Church — not
only the production of faith and knowledge of the Son
of God, but the formation of Christ in the soul, as

The Growth into the Iniatje of Christ. EPHESIANS, IV. The Development of the whole Body.

stature1 of the fulness of Christ: W
that we henceforth be no more children,
tossed to and fro, and carried about with
every wind of doctrine, by the sleight of
men, and cunning- craftiness, whereby
they lie in wait to deceive ; (15) but
speaking the truth- in love, may grow

•> Or, being sinnn.

up into him in all things, which is the
head, even Christ : (l6) from whom the
whole body fitly joined together and
compacted by that which every joint
supplieth, according to the effectual
working in the measure of every part,
maketh increase of the body unto the

"dwelling in the heart through faith." This image of
Christ in " fulness " is the absolutely perfect humanity.

showing forth the image of God. Each can partake of
it only up to " the measure " which God gives him.
(See verse 7.) When he so partakes of it to the utmost,
he is " full-grown " (relatively, not absolutely, per-
fect up to the spiritual "stature" assigned to him,
although (as in the body) that stature may vary in
different persons, and in none can perfectly attain
to the whole "fulness" of Christ. The rendering,
••stature" is preferable to age, as suiting better the
context, though both are fully admissible under New
Testament usage. On the word " fulness," see Note
to chap. i. 23.

(ii) That we be no more children. — Here the
process of growth is described negatively; in the
next verse positively. We are to be no more children.
The word used here and in 1 Cor. iii. 1; xiii. 11;
Gal. iv. 1, 3; Heb. v. 13 (often rendered "babes"),
is a word almost always applied in a bad sense, like
our word "childish" — not to the guilelessness, the
trustfulness, or the humility of children, which our
Lord emphatically blessed (Matt, xviii. 2 — 4), but to
their unforeseeing and unthinking impulsiveness. The
distinction is marked in 1 Cor. xiv. 20, " Be not children
in understanding : howbeit, in malice be ye children, but
in understanding be men." Thus, hi 1 Cor. iii. 1, xiii. 11,
Heb. v. 13, it describes crudeness and shallowness of
conception; in Gal. iv. 1,3, incapability of free self-
direction ; here, liability to disturbance and change by
every external impression from without, so as to be
" everything by turns and nothing long."

Tossed to and fro, and carried about with
every wind of doctrine.— The metaphor is of a ship
drifting at the mercy of a storm, tossed by the waves, and
carried round from time to time by every blast. The
word " tossed " is more properly used of the waves (com-
pare Jas. i. 6) themselves, but the following words seem
to show that here it is applied to the ship rising and fall-
ing with them. The word " doctrine," as usual, is a
general word for all deliberate " teaching," whether
acting on the understanding or the heart. It includes,
in fact, all influence consciously exercised to a definite
end.

The metaphor is then dropped, and the evil influences
to which childish instability is a prey are described — first,
as the "sleight," i.e., the sleight of hand of the dice-
thrower, describing quick, sudden deceit of detail;
next (to substitute an accurate translation for the un-
usually paraphrastic rendering of our version), as a
"craftiness devoted to the systematic plan of deceit,"
thus referring to deeper and subtler forms of delusion.
This reference is so definite in the original, that we are
tempted to believe St. Paul to have had in view some
particular scheme of erroneous teaching, which had
already struck root in the soil of Asia Minor. The
Epistle to the Colossians shows that such false teach-
ing had appeared itself at Colossae ; it was, perhaps,
the germ of the more full-grown Gnosticism noted in
the Pastoral Enistles.
36*

(15) But speaking the truth in love.— It has

been doubted whether the words " in love " should not
be connected with " may grow up," &c, exactly as in
verse 16, " maketh increase of the body ... in love."
But both order and sense seem to point to the con-
nection given in our version. The correct rendering
is, being true in love ; including in this the "being
true" to others, by speaking truly and acting honestly
towards them (as in Gal. iv. 16), but including also the
'• being true " absolutely — that is, the loving the truth,
and clinging to it at all costs. The latter element, in-
deed, is the one which stands here more properly in
antithesis to the childish instability described in the
preceding verse ; as it is in itself the more important,
and is, in fact, the only basis for the other.

" To thine own self be true,
And it will follow, as the night the day,
Thou canst not then be false to any man."

This " being true " is expressed in many forms. Some-
times as " being of the truth " (John xviii. 37 ; 1 John
ii. 21 ; iii. 19) ; sometimes as " abiding in the truth "
(John viii. 44), or "having the truth in us " (1 John i. 8);
sometimes as "doing the truth" (John iii. 21), and
"walking in the truth" (2 John, verse 4; 3 John,
verse 4). In all cases it is closely connected with the
idea of unity with Him who is Himself "the Truth"
(John xiv. 6).

With the phrase " being trut in love " we may com-
pare the corresponding phrase of '•loving in truth ... for
the truth's sake, which dwelleth in us "(2 John, verse 1 ;
see also verse 3, and 3 John, verse 1 ). In both we recognise
the harmony of the two great principles of individuality
and unity, on which true humanity, and therefore like-
ness to God, depends. In the contemplation and love
of truth each of us is alone ; even in the speaking and
doing truth towards others we have to consult only God
and our own conscience, which is His voice within. In
love, on the contrary, we deny and sacrifice self, merging
our individual being in humanity or in God. Taking
the first alone, we have a hard, almost stoical, self -con-
centration ; taking the other alone, it may become to-
wards man an idolatry, to which both truth and freedom
are sacrificed, and even towards God may pass into a
mysticism, in which all active energy is lost. Uniting
both, we have the perfect humanity, at once individual
and social, at once free before God and lost in God.
Accordingly, it is thus that we " grow up into Him who
is the Head, even Christ." who, by perfect truth and
perfect love, manifested to us in His humanity all the
fulness of God.

The head, even Christ.— In this name of our
Lord we have the link of connection between the indi-
vidual perfection and corporate unity. He is (as in
1 Cor. xi. 3) the Head of each man. He is also the
Head of the whole Church.

(16) From whom the whole body fitly joined
together and compacted.— The word rendered
" fitly joined together " is the same used in chap. ii. 21,
with more technical accuracy, of a building — " clamped "
or " bonded together." Here the two words are applied

Warning against the old II eatlien Life EPHESIANS, IV.

darkened in Mind and Heart.

edifying of itseli in love." (17) This I say
Chap. iv. 17— therefore, and testify in
Lord, that ye hence-
alk not as other

24. Contrast +Jie
of heathen and r ,,
Christian life, forth

Gentiles Valk, in the vanity of their
mind, (18) having the understanding
darkened, being alienated from the
life of God through the ignorance

to the union of the limbs of the body, as being " jointed,"'
and so " brought into close contact." The latter word
is used in Col. ii. 19.

By that which every joint supplieth.— A para-
phrastic and inaccurate rendering. It should be, by
every contact with the supply (of nutriment) from the
head. The word employed has commonly the meaning
of "joint" (as in the parallel passage, Col. ii. 19), and
is so used by Greek physiologists ; but its original sense
is abstract — the " joining " or " touching " — and this
appears the simplest here. The supply (comp Phil. i.
19, '"the supply of the Spirit") is again almost a
technical word for the abundant outflow of strength
and nervous energy from the head. (The correspond-
ing verb is used in 2 Cor. ix. 10 ; Gal. iii. 5 ; Col. ii. 19 ;
2 Pet. i. 5, 11.) Hence the pln*ase seems to stand in
closer connection with the " maketh increase "below than
the " compacted together " above. The body grows, in
every part of its complex unity, through contact with
the divine supply of grace through the head.

According to the effectual working in the
measure of every part.— In these words is described
the method, as in the preceding word the source, of the
growth. The " effectiveness " of every part " in measure "
(according, that is, to its right capacity and function)
is the condition of corporate growth. Such effectiveness
comes from direct contact with the central energy.

Maketh increase of the body unto the edify-
ing {the building tip) of itself in love.— Here, lastly,
we have the function of the body itself. It is knit
together by its divine organisation; it is sustained by
the supply from the head ; its several parts are kept in
life by that supply ; but it grows as a whole and builds
itself up by the uniting and vivifying power of love,
which is the " bond of perfectness." (Just so St. Paul
says of the individual, in 1 Cor. viii. 1, " Charity
edifieth.") Truth is, no doubt, the basis of unity ; but
love is its vital power, at once keeping together all who
are united, and drawing in those who are as yet
separated.

[5. Practical Exhortation (chap. iv. 17—21).

(1) The New Life ; first, taught in Christ and

learning Christ; and secondly, regenerate
in Him to the image of God (verses 17 — 24).

(2) Hence the Power of Conquest of Sin

generally —
(a) Falsehood (verse 25} ;
(6) Passionate anger (verses 26, 27) ;
(c) Dishonesty (verse 28) ;
{d) Foidness of word (verses 29, 30) ;

(3) Hence its Power against the Special

Besetting Sins of —
(a) Bitterness and malice, unworthy of the

love of Christ (verses 31, 32, and chap.

v. 1, 2);
(6) Fornication and lust, unworthy of the

light of Christ (chap. v. 3—14) ;
(c) Becklessness and drunken excitement (chap.

v. 15—21).]

(1) In verses 17 — 24 we enter on the practical
n of the Epistle, which, indeed, appears to begin

section

in verse 1, but is broken in upon by the magnificent
digression of the doctrinal summary of verses 4 — 16.
It opens with a striking contrast of the past and the
present — the life of the heathen in its " vanity," with
the two-fold result of blindness and callousness of sold ;
and the Christian life, which has in learning Christ
found the secret of regeneration.

(17) This I say therefore.— The phrase " This I
say " seems to be used by St. Paul in returning (so to
speak) from some lofty aspiration or profound reasoning,
in which some might not be able to follow him, to a
solid, practical ground, which all may tread. (See, for
example, 1 Cor. xv. 50.) Here he is not content to use
this phrase simply, but he enforces it by the solemnity
of the adjuration "I testify" (comp. Acts xx. 26;
Gal. v. 3 ), which properly means, " I call God to witness
the truth of what I say " — a phrase found in express
terms in Rom. i. 9 ; 2 Cor. i. 23 ; Phil. i. 8 ; 1 Thess. ii.
5. Nor was even this enough, for he adds " in the
Lord" — that is, in the name, authority, and spirit of
the Lord Jesus Christ Himself. The whole form is
therefore one of peculiar force and solemnity.

The vanity of their mind.— In these words St.
Paul describes the fundamental condition of heathenism.
The " mind," that is (as in Eom. vii. 23, 25), the
" inner man " — the spiritual intuition of invisible prin-
ciples of truth and right, which is the true humanity
— has become " subject to vanity" (Rom. viii. 20), — the
vanity of which the Book of Ecclesiastes so often
speaks. In losing the living conception of a living God,
it has lost also the conception of the true objeet and
perfection of human life ; and so wanders on aimless,
hopeless, reckless, as in a dream. With what absolute
fidelity St. Paul describes the heathen world of his day,
its history and its literature alike testify. Compare with
the whole passage the pictm-e drawn in Rom. i. 21 — 32,
u They became vain in their imaginations, and their
foolish heart was darkened," &c. The difference is
that in the latter passage the prominent idea is mainly
of "judicial blindness," sent by God as a penalty on
wilful apostasy from Him, whereas here St. Paul rather
dwells on self -chosen blindness and hardness of heart

(18) Having the understanding darkened.—
Of this vanity the first result noted is the intellectual.
They are " darkened in the understanding," and so,
" by the ignorance in them alienated from the life
of God." The phrase " the life of God " is unique. It
may. however, be interpreted by a similar phrase, the
" righteousness of God " (Rom. i. 7). i.e., the righteous-
ness given by God. What the life given by God is. we
know by our Lord's own words (John xvii. 3), "This
is the life eternal, to know Thee the only true God, and
Jesus Christ whom Thou has sent." So far as the
understanding is concerned, this alienation signifies
the loss of the central light of Truth in God, and with
it the loss, partial or complete, of the vision of other
truths in their right proportion and harmony.

But the second result is moral. St. Paul attributes
the alienation from God. or (possibly, though less pro-
bably) " the ignorance which is in them," to the hardness
of their heart — for the marginal reading is correct; the
word used signifies, almost teclrnically, " callousness "

The New Life, learning Christ,

EPHESIANS, IV.

and taught in Christ.

that is in them, because of the blind-
ness * of their heart : a (19) who being
past feeling have given themselves
over unto lasciviousness, to work all
uncleanness with greediness. (20) But

ye have not so learned Christ ; (21> if so
be that ye have heard him, and have
been taught by him, as the truth is in
Jesus : <-2) that ye put off concerning
the former conversation the old man.

and insensibility. To make his meaning clearer still
lie adds, "who (or, inasmuch as they) being past
feeding, have given themselves over to lascivionsness."
There is precisely a similar current of thought (noting,
however, the characteristic difference referred to above)
in Rom. i. 24 — 32, where St. Paul draws out, as con-
sequences of the same vanity, first lusts of uncleanness,
next unnatural sin. and at last breaks out into a fearful
enumeration of the signs of the reprobate mind. On
this side, therefore, " the alienation from the life of God "
is the loss of the grace by which He dwells in the soul,
and by indwelling gives it the moral and spiritual life.

(lo^Who being past feeling . . .—We note that
St. Paul, passing lightly over the intellectual loss, dwells
on the moral with intense and terrible emphasis. They
are (he says) " past feeling " ; or, literally, carrying on
the metaphor of callousness, they have lost the capa-
city of pain — the moral pain which is the natural
and healthful consequence of sin against our true
natures. Consequently, losing in this their true hu-
manity, they give themselves over to "lasciviousness."
The word used here (as also in Mark vii. 22 ; Rom. xiii.
13 ; 2 Cor. xii. 21 ; Gal. v. 19) signifies a lust devoid
of all sense of decency, recklessly and grossly animal.
Hence its result is not only to work out uncleanness
of every kind, but to do so " with greediness," with a
reckless delight in foulness for its own sake. The
union of this brutality of sensual sin with intellec-
tual acuteness and aesthetic culture was the most
horrible f eature of that corrupt Greek civilisation,
tainted with Oriental grossness, of which he was
especially writing.

(20) Ye have not so learned Christ.— Better,
ye did not so learn the Christ. To " learn Christ "
is a phrase not used elsewhere ; but easily inter-
preted by the commoner phrase to "know Christ" (see
John xiv. 7, 9; 2 Cor. v. 16; Phil. iii. 10), which is
still nearer to it in the original, for the word used for
"'to know" properly means to perceive or "come to
know." It would seem that the name " the Christ " is
here used emphatically, in distinction from the " Jesus "
of the next verse. "To learn the Christ" is to enter
into the true meaning of His office as the Anointed
Priest, Prophet, and King, or, in one word, as the
Mediator, in whom we as Christians escape from the
guilt and bondage of the sins described above. Such
learning— like the "knowing "of 2 Cor. v. 14 — is not
" after the flesh," by the mere hearing of the ear, but
" after the Spirit," writing Christ upon the heart.

(21> If so be that.— The word is the same which is
used in chap. iii. 2, Col. i. 23, indicating no real donbt,
but only that rhetorical doubt which is strong affirma-
tion.

Ye have heard him . . .— The true rendering
here is, ye heard Him, and were taught in Him. St.
Paul begins with the first means of knowledge, the
" hearing" His voice, directly or through His ministers ;
and then proceeds to describe the fuller and more
systematic process of "being taught." not " by Him "
!as in our version), but " in Him," that is, in that unity
with Him which embraces both teachers and taught as
with an atmosphere of His presence.

As the truth is in Jesus.— Here by the name
" Jesus," the personal and proper name of the Lord. St.
Paul leads us on from the conception of " learning the
Christ." to understand the method of that learning, in
tin; knowledge of the "truth " in the person of Jesus
Himself, who declares Himself to be the Truth (John
xiv. 6). By a loving study and knowledge of His
person, as set forth to us in the gospel, and brought
home to us by His grace, rather than by abstract
musing on the office and attributes of " the Christ," we
come to learn the Christ also. The use of the simple
name Jesus, so common in the GospeLj. is rare indeed
in the Epistles, where we constantly find the fuller
description " Jesus Christ," " the Lord Jesus," " Jesus
the Son of God." Wherever it occurs, it will be
found to be distinctive or emphatic. This distinc-
tiveness is most strikingly evident in Rom. viii. 11 :
" If the Spirit of Him who raised up Jesus from the
dead dwell in you, He that raised up [the] Christ
from the dead shall also quicken your mortal bodies."
The " raising up of Jesus," is the historical resurrection
of Jesus of Nazareth ; the " raising up the Christ "
points to the mysterious effect of that resurrection on
those for whom He is the Mediator. Of the few other
passages in which the simple name occurs, some (as
Rom. iii. 26 ; 2 Cor. iv. 10, 11 ; 1 Thess. i. 10 ; Heb. x.
10) are mere reiterations of the name occurring above
with the due title of honour ; others are quasi-recil als
of a creed declaring the historic Jesus (1 Cor. xii. 3;
1 Thess. iv. 14 ; comp. 2 Cor. xi. 4). In the Epistle to the
Hebrews, where, in accordance with one main purpose
of the Epistle, this usage is least rare (see chaps, ii. 9;
vi. 20 ; vii. 22 ; xii. 2, 24 ; xiii. 12), it will be found that in
all cases, either special stress is laid on the lowly and
suffering humanity of the Lord, or the historic facts
of His ministry on earth are referred to. The modern
familiarity of use of the simple name " Jesus " has
little authority in apostolic usage.

(22—2-i) These verses explain the substance of the teach-
ing of verse 21. The original may be interpreted either
| of the teaching of a fact, " that ye did put off . . .
| and are being renewed," &c., or of a duty, " that ye put
off . . . and be renewed." The latter is, on the whole,
the more probable, although the former would yield a
simpler sense. It is to be noted that the words " put
off" and "put on" in the original denote a distinct
and complete act ; the word " be renewed," a continuous
and still incomplete process. The complete act is
consummated, and the continuous process begun, by
the practical " learning " of Christ — that is, by growth
in spiritual communion with Him.

(22) Concerning the former conversation.—
So far. that is, as concerns the conversation or mode of
life described above (verses 17—19) as the moral con-
dition of heathenism. It is in relation to this, the cor-
ruption of the true humanity, and not in relation to
the true humanity itself, that the " old man" is put off.

The phrase "the old man" (found also in Rom. vi. 6;
Col. iii. 9) is here illustrated by the description follow-
ing : which is being marred in virtue of the lust* <J
deceit. The word rendered " corrupt " expresses not so
much pollution as disintegration and decay, much as in

Warning against Falsehood

EPHESIANS, IV.

and wrathful Anger.

which is corrupt according to the de-
ceitful lusts ; (23) and be renewed in the
spirit of your mind ; (2i) and that ye put
on the new man, which after God is
created in righteousness and true holi-
ness.1 (25) Wherefore putting away lying,

1 Or, holim .-■.< »J

speak every man
neighbour : for

truth with his

we are
members one of another. 3o.aPin

(26) ge ve angry, and
not : let not the sun
down upon your wrath

7. 25—
respect

sill of sins against

go man"

(27> neither give

2 Cor. iv. 16 ; and so carries out the idea implied in
the epithet " old." The unregenerate nature, subject
to " the lusts of deceit " — the lusts, that is, of the
spirit of delusion, blind themselves, and blinding the
soul which yields to them — is gradually sinking into
the spiritual decay which must become spiritual death,
unless by the effort of faith, entering into the com-
munion with Christ, it be, once for all, "put off." The
various qualities of the nature thus stripped off are
variously described : in Rom. xiii. 22, as the " works of
darkness ; in Heb. xii. 1, as simply " encumbrance ; "
in Jas. i. 21, as " filthiness and excess of evil ; " in
1 Pet. ii. 1, as " malice, and craft, and hypocrisies, and
envies." All these are the " lusts of deceit."

(23) And be renewed in the spirit of your
mind. — The word translated " renewed " is not the
same as the word " new " below. It is properly " to
be made young again," and the process of recovery is
described as the natural effect of putting off the
decrepitude of the old man, and the decay engendered
by fleshly lusts. The effect is seen in " the spirit of
the mind" — that is, "in the spiritual nature of the
inner man." The "spirit" of man is the mind or
inner man, considered in its true relation as quickened
and sustained by the Spirit of God. (See Rom. viii., and
especially verse 16.) We note, in Col. ii. 18, the opposite
condition of " the mind of the flesh," in those who do
not "hold the Head." This spirit is spoken of as
regaining its undying youth, as it were, naturally, when
" the muddy vesture of decay" is cast off.

(2i) And that ye put on . . .—But this effect
of " the putting off of the old man " is at once
absorbed in the stronger idea of "putting on the
new man." In the " new man " here is implied not
merely youthfulnoss, but the freshness of a higher
nature (as in chap. ii. 15). To " put on the new
man " is, therefore, to " put on the Lord Jesus
Christ," by that divine process of which we have the
beginning in Gal. iii. 27, the continuation in Rom.
xiii. 14, and the completion in 1 Cor. xv. 53, 54 ; 2 Cor.
v. 3. For He is " the new man," " the second Adam,"
"formed after God, in righteousness and holiness of
the truth."

Holiness (used only here and in Luke i. 75) is
" purity " consecrated to God in His " Holy One " (Acts
ii. 27). It describes the "purity of heart" of which
our Lord Himself speaks as a still higher grace, gifted
with a higher reward, than even " hunger and thirst
after righteousness" (Matt. v. 6, 8). "Righteousness"
is goodness shown to others, to man and to God :
"holiness" is goodness in itself, as it is in "the High
and Holy One who inhabiteth eternity." Stress is laid
upon it here in contrast with the lusts and unclean -
ness described above.

Truth is similarly opposed to the " deceit " of verse
22. Christ is Himself "the Truth," as being the
manifestation of "the fidness of the Godhead." As
the corrupting and beguiling lusts belong to the spirit
of Deceit, so righteousness and holiness to the Truth.

(2) From this general description of the regeneration

of the soul out of the death of sin, in the Lord Jesus
Christ, St. Paul now passes on to deal with special moral
duties (verses 25 — 30) — the casting out of falsehood,
wrath, dishonesty, and impurity, which are the four
typical sins forbidden in the four general Command-
ments of the Second Table — the Ninth, the Sixth, the
Eighth, and the Seventh. But he treats all with a
marked and striking peculiarity of treatment — in relation
to the great principle of unity in Christ, rather than
in relation to a man's own nature or his individual
responsibility to God. In this treatment he shows the
vivid practical application of the characteristic doctrine
of this Epistle.

(25) ;por we are members. — Accordingly the
reason given for "putting away lying" is that "we
are members one of another." Truth is the first con-
dition of the mutual confidence which is the basis of
all unity. Hence it is the first duty of that " mem-
bership one of another," which follows from our being
"one body in Christ" (Rom. xii. 5; 1 Cor. xii. 27).
No doubt it is also the first duty to our own humanity,
and to the God "who hateth a lie." But these views,
though true in themselves, would not be relevant to
St. Paul's great subject here.

(26) Be ye angry, and sin not.— A quotation
from the LXX. version of Ps. iv. 4. Anger itself
is not sin. for our Lord Himself felt it (Mark iii. 5) at
the " hardness of men's hearts ; " and it is again and
again attributed to God Himself, in language no doubt
of human accommodation, but, of course, accommoda-
tion to wdiat is sinless in humanity. In the form of
resentment, and above all of the resentment of righteous
indignation, it performs (as Butler has shown in his
sermon on "Resentment") a stimulating and inspiring
function in the strife against evil. But it is a
dangerous and exceptional weapon : and hence the ex-
hortation "sin not," and the practical enforcement of
that exhortation in the next clause.

Let not the sun go down upon your wrath.—
In this command (for which a Pythagorean parallel may
be found) St. Paul gives a two-fold safeguard against
abuse of even righteous anger. ( 1 ) It is not to be prolonged
beyond the sunset — beyond the sleep which ends the old
day and leads in the freshness of the new, and which
by any godly man must be prepared for in commenda-
tion of himself to God, and in prayer for His forgiveness,
" as we forgive those who trespass against us." (2) It is
not to be brooded over and stimulated ; for the word
" wrath " is properly self -exasperation, being similar
to the " contention " of Acts xv. 30, described as alien
to the spirit of love in 1 Cor. xiii. 5. It is that " nursing
of wrath to keep it warm," which can be checked even by
those who cannot control the first outburst, and which
constantly corrupts righteous indignation into selfish
personal anger, if not into malignity.

(2") Neither give place (I.e., scope) to the devil.
— The name " Devil " is used by St. Paul only in his
later Epistles (see chap. vi. 11 ;"l Tim. iii. 6, 7; vi. 9;
2 Tim. ii. 26 ; Tit. ii. 3) ; in the earlier Epistles (Rom.
xvi. 20 ; 1 Cor. v. 5 ; vii. 5 ; 2 Cor. ii. 11 ; xi. 14 ; xii

Against Dishonest)/ ami Foulness.

EPHESIANS, IV.

Special wara'auj against Malice.

place to the devil. (-8) Let him that stole !
st eal no more : but rather let him labour, |
working with his bands the thing which '
is good, that he may have to give ' to him
that needeth. W Let no corrupt com-
munication proceed out of your mouth,
but that which is good to the use of
edifying,2 that it may minister grace

or, todUtriliittf.

unto the hearers. i:J0) And grieve not
the holy Spirit of God, whereby ye
are sealed unto the day of redemp-
tion. <3n Let all bitterness, and

wrath, and anger, and „ . „,

! ' 1 m i Chap. iv. 31— v.

clamour, and evil speak- 2. Special warn-
ing, be put away from ins against bit-
you, with all malice: terness-

7 ; 1 Tliess. ii. 18 ; 2 Thess. ii. 9) we have the name
" Satan," which is also found, less frequently, in the
later also (1 Tim. i. 20; v. 15). The latter name simply
describes him as " the enemy " ;, the former describes
one method of his enmity (as " the Tempter" another),
for it signifies " one who sets at variance." man with
God. and man with man. Since this fiendish work is

mostly contemplated as wrought by slander, the name

is commonly take

applied to human beings (as in 1 Tim. iii. 11; 2 Tim.

to mean " the slanderer ; " and when

iii. 3; Tit. ii. 3) it seems to convey some such meaning.
But here the original sense suits the distinctive idea of
the passage. In accordance with the general principle
noted above, excess of wrath is forbidden, as giving
opportunity to the enemy, who desires to break up
unity, and " set at variance " those who should be one
in Jesus Christ.

(28) Let him that stole (properly, the stealer)
steal no more . . . .—In this verse St. Paul
treats dishonesty, virtually, although less distinctly,
from the same point of view as before. For he is not
content with forbidding it, or even with forbidding it as
fatal to society ; but he directs that it be superseded by
the opposite spirit of self-sacrifice, working in order to
give to others what is honestly our own. as the fruit of
the labour of " our own hands." In that direction there
is a profound wisdom, in striking at the root of that
exclusive selfishness which so often and so naturally
exhibits itself in dishonesty. But Ave note in it also a
peculiar harmony with the great doctrine of unity ;
for the sense of unity will always exhibit itself in
Avorking Avhat is " good," that is, gracious, for the sake
of " him that needs."

(29) Let no corrupt communication . . .— The
Avord rendered " corrupt," is a strong word, signifying
" rotten " ; used in Matt. vii. 17, 18, and elsewhere in the
literal sense, here alone in the metaphorical. By the
corrupt word, probably, here is meant especially the
foul Avoi-d, Avhich is rotten in itself, and spreads rotten-
ness in others.

The use of edifying.— This is a mistranslation,
by imrersion, of a difficult expression, "the building
up of the need " — that is, the supplying by Suggestion
of good the peculiar " need " or defect of the hearer's
spiritual state. Perhaps, as before, the word " good "
may be taken for gracious and full of sympathy,
noting by the quick insight of love what each man's
need is, and hastening to speak accordingly, so as to
" give grace " or blessing to meet that peculiar need.
The same use of the word " grace " is found in 2 Cor.
i. 15 ("that ye might have a second benefit"). The
same idea is found in 1 Tliess. iii. 10, " to perfect that
which is lacking in your faith."

Here again we have a similar treatment of moral
duty. The corrupt word is foi-bidden, not because it
defiles the speaker's own soid, and is an offence in the
pure eyes of God, but because it is a sin against others,
pulling down instead of building them up, and aggra-

vating, instead of supplying, their moral defects. Like
the falsehood, and wrath, and dishonesty, forbidden
above, it sins against the unity of all in God.

<30) And grieve not the holy Spirit.— This
verse refers to all the practical commands given above.
The four cardinal sins forbidden are regarded as
" grieving the Holy Spirit of God." In that expres-
sion, even more than in the cognate expressions of
"quenching the Spirit" (1 Thess. v. 19), and " resisting
the Holy Ghost" (Acts vii. 51), there is implied a
personal relation to a Divine Person, capable of being
'* grieved " by our transgressions, partly as sins against
His perfect holiness, partly as suicidal rejections of
His unfailing loAre. In the description of this effect
of sin we have the needful complement to the view
hitherto taken of its effect, as marring our unity with
men ; for that unity is always in God. through the Holy
Spirit working out in each soul the image of Christ.
" There is one Body " only because " there is one
Spirit." Sin vexes the one. but grieves the other.

"Whereby ye are sealed.— Properly, in whom ye
were sealed. See the fuller expression of the same
truth in chap. i. 13, 14. and the Notes there. Tlie
reference to it is here emphatic. The " sealing unto the
day of redemption " reminds us of the glorious con-
summation to Avhich Ave are destined, and from Which
every sin is a falling off. The very thought of this
perfection. Avith all its associations of purity and love,
should shame us from sin.

This general exhortation seems fitly to close the warn-
ing against the series of typical sins, which is itself
exhaustive of the general sins against men. In the
passage Avhich folloAA-s (chap. iv. 31 — v. 21) St. Paid does
not indeed traverse ucav ground, but dAA_ells with special
emphasis on some of these sins, Avhich especially beset
the society to which he Avrote, viz. : (in chap. iv. 31 —
v. 2) bitterness, (in chap. v. 3—14) impurity, (in chap,
v. 15 — 21) reckless excess.

(3a) In chap. iv. 31 — v. 2, he deals with malignity,
as utterly unworthy of the love of God manifested to
us in Jesus Christ.

(31) Let all bitterness.— There is a similar enumera-
tion in the parallel passage. Col. iii. 8 ; and in all such
catalogues in St. Paul's Epistles, Avhile it is vain to
seek for formal and elaborate system, there is always
profound method and connection of idea. Here the
first symptom of the temper forbidden is " bitterness,"
or sharjyness — a Avord seldom used, and generally in
half -poetical passages (see Acts A^iii. 23; Kom. iii. 14;
Heb. xii. 15) — that is. an acerbity of temper, ready to
take offence and break out in anger. The next stage is
" Avrath and anger." that is, passionate outburst, and
the deeper anger of which it is at once effect and cause.
(Comp. Rom. ii. 8; Col. iii. 8; Rev. xix. 15.) In these
the smouldering bitterness kindles into flame. The
last stage is " clamour and evil speaking " — " clamour "

The following of God's Love

EPHESIANS, V

and Christ's Self-sacrifice.

I32) and be ye kind one to another,"
tenderhearted, forgiving one another,
even as God for Christ's sake hath
forgiven you.

CHAPTEE V.— W
followers of God, as

Be ye therefore
dear children ;

<2) and walk in love, as Christ also hath
loved us, and hath given himself for us
an offering and a sacrifice to God for a
sweet-smelling savour. & But fornica-
tion, and all uncleanness, or Chap. v. 3—5.

COVetoUSnesS, let it not be Special warn-
, 7 ing against

once named among you, as lusts.

(used in this sense only here) being* the loud fury of
the first burst of wrath, passing into the more deliberate
evil-speaking, as the temper cools down without losing
its settled anger.

With all malice.— All are various exhibitions of
" malice " — that is, evil mindedness or malignity — the
general disposition which is the opposite of goodness,
graciousness, and sympathy. (Comp. Rom. i. 29; 1 Cor.
v. 8 ; xiv. 20; Jas. i. 21 ; 1 Pet. if. 1.) By the law of
human nature they rise out of this temper, and react
upon it so as to intensify its bitterness. Both it gene-
rally, and they in particular, must be resisted and cast
out.

(32) Kind . . . tenderhearted.— " Kindness " is
gentleness in bearing with wrong (Luke vi. 35 ; Rom.
xi. 22 ; Eph. ii. 7 ; 1 Pet. ii. 3). " Tenderheartedness "
(see 1 Pet. iii. 8) is more positive warmth of sympathy
and love. Both issue in free " forgiveness," after the
model of the universal and unfailing forgiveness " of
God in Christ "to us — the only model we dare to follow,
suggested by our Saviour Himself in the Lord's
Prayer, and expressly enjoined in Luke vi. 36. It is a
forgiveness which in us, as in Him, does not imply
condonation of evil, or even the withholding of needful
chastisement, but which absolutely ignores self, con-
quers man's selfish anger, and knows no limit, even
uj) to " seventy times seven."

(1. 2) These verses are an expansion and enforcement
of the last verse of chap. iv. There the forgiveness of
" God in Christ " is set forth in one pregnant phrase.
Here the two parts of this idea are divided; and there
is put before us, first, the free universal love of God
as our Father, and next, the self-sacrificing love of
Christ, as the Sou of God and man.

(!) Followers of God.— The phrase is unique and
very striking ; literally, imitators of God : and the word
" therefore " implies that this imitation of God must be
chiefly in His essential attribute of love. It is instruc-
tive to observe that our Lord's startling command, "Be
ye tlie re fore perfect, as your Father in heaven is
perfect " (Matt. v. 48), is explained both by the context
and the parallel passage in St. Liike (chap. vi. 36) to
mean, " Be ye therefore merciful, as your Father in
heaven is merciful." See in Hooker's Ecc. Pol., i. 5, a
striking passage on the imitation of God as the law of
all moral progress in man. In this idea, indeed, lies
the essential and distinctive principle of a religious
morality as such.

As dear children.— Literally, as children beloved
of Him. The knowledge of the love of God to us is the
first source, as of oul- love to Him (1 John iv. 19). so
also of our love to men as brethren under His
fatherhood (1 John iv. 111. As being His "children."
and therefore partakers of the divine nature (2 Pet. i. 4).
we can imitate Him ; as His " beloved children " Ave
imitate Him most naturally in love, and especially in
that form of love which we call " mercy," and which, as

being ourselves sinners, we especially crave and receive
from Him.

(2) As Christ also hath loved us.— To this idea
of the " imitation of God," essential to all true religion,
St. Paul now adds an exhortation to follow the example
of our Lord Jesus Christ, in that especial exhibition of
love by suffering and self-sacrifice, which is impossible
to the Godhead in itself, but which belongs to the incar-
nate Son of God, and was the ultimate purpose of His
incarnation. There is a similar connection of idea in
John xv. 12, 13, " This is My commandment, That ye love
one another, as I have loved you. Greater love hath no
man than this, that a man lay down his life for his
friends." The imitation of God is in free and natural
beneficence ; the imitation of Christ is in that power of
showing mercy, which is bought by Buffering and
sacrifice. He not only " loved us," but " gave Himself
for us."

An offering and a sacrifice to God.— The
same words, " sacrifice and offering," are found in
close connection in Heb. x. 5, which is a quotation from
Ps. xl. 7. Comparing these with the Hebrew words
which they represent, and looking also to the etymology
of the Greek words themselves, Ave see that the word
" offering" signifies simply a gift offered to God. and
is applied especially, though not exclusiA-ely, to un-
bloody sacrifices ; while the word " sacrifice " distinctly
implies the shedding of blood. Each word, when used
alone, has constantly a more general sense. Tims
" offering " is used in Heb. x. 10, 14, 18, for the sacrifice
on the cross; Avhile " sacrifice," in Acts A'ii. 42. is made
to translate the word commonly rendered as "offering."
But when placed in juxtaposition they must be held
distinctive ; and hence we may conclude that our Lord
made Himself " an offering " in the perfect obedience
of His great humility, "coming to do God's will"
(according to the prophetic anticipation of Ps. xl. 7. 8),
and gave Himself' a " sacrifice," when He completed
that offering by shedding His blood on the cross. Both
are said to be offered " for us," i.e., on our behalf. We
have, therefore, here a complete summary — all the more
striking and characteristic because incidental — of the
doctrine of the Atonement.

For a sweet-smelling savour. — The sense of this
phrase is explained in Phil. iv. 18 by the addition of
the words " a sacrifice acceptable, well-pleasing to
God." It is the translation of an expression, frequent in
the Old Testament (as in Gen. viii. 21 ; Ex. xxix. 18 ; et
al.), signifying " a smell of acquiescence " or " satis-
faction." It describes the atoning sacrifice as already
accepted by God.

(36) Verses 3 — 14 warn, with even greater fulness
and emphasis, against the sins of impurity and lust, as
incompatible with membership of the kingdom of
heaven, as Avorks of darkness, impossible to those who
are children of light.

(3) But fornication, and all uncleanness, or

Warning against uncleanmss,

EPHESIANS, V.

as v;orthy of the Wrath of God.

becometh saints ; (i) neither filthiness,
nor foolish talking, nor jesting, which
are not convenient : but rather
giving of thanks. ^ For this ye
know, that no whoremonger, nor
unclean person, nor covetous man, who
is an idolater, hath any inheritance in

the kingdom of Christ and of God.
(6) Let no man deceive you with vain
words : for because of these
things cometh the wrath 2»J ^^j

of God upon the children darkness, un-

of disobedience.1 W Be £i?jA^ ,:„&*

, ,, „ , , Christian light.

not ye therefore partakers

Covetousness. — " Fornication " is closely joined (as
in 2 Cor. xii. 21 ; Gal. v. 19; Col. iii. 5) with " unclean -
nt'ss." of which general sin it is a flagrant species. It
is distinguished (as also in Col. iii. 5) from "covetous-
ness," or greediness. " Uucleanness " is a sin against
our own body and soul (see 1 Cor. vi. 18) ; " covetous-
ness" (literally, the insatiable desire for more) is a
sin against our neighbour. At the same time, the con-
stant connection of the two words suggests the truth
which is conveyed by the union of the two kinds
of "coveting" in the Tenth Commandment, viz., that
the temper of selfish and unbridled concupiscence has
a two-fold direction — to the covetousness of lust, and to
the •covetousness of avarice — the one perhaps especially
a vice of youth, and the other of old age.

(*) Neither filthiness, nor foolish talking, nor
jesting.— The word " filthiness " (unlike the " filthy
communication " of the parallel passage in Col. iii. 8)
is hi itself a general word. But the connection with
the words following, and the distinction from those
going before, appear to show that St. Paul here uses it
for " filthy talking." He is passing from impurity of
the inward soul to impurity in outward expression.
Of such foul speaking he appears to distinguish two
forms. There is, first of all, " foolish talking," or the
talk of" the fool," in the worst sense in which that word
is used in Scripture (Matt. v. 22; xxiii. 17), as implying
something worse than mere emptiness or blindness —
describing the condition of the soul which has " lost its
savour" (Matt. v. 13), i.e., has ceased to distinguish
what is right or wrong, wise or foolish, noble or base.
There is then " jesting," i.e., properly, the more polished
" versatility," which will find occasion for wit or levity
in anything, however sacred, fearing nothing so much
as to be dull, and mistaking all seriousness and reserve
for dulness. It is notable that in classical Greek the
word is sometimes used in a good sense, as a mean
between " churlishness " and " obsequiousness," but yet
hovers on the border of that condemnation which
Christian gravity here pronounces unhesitatingly. The
former kind of foul talking is coarse and brutal ; the
latter refined and deadly. Of both kinds Greek and
Roman literature furnish specimens only too many
and too striking.

Which are not convenient.— That is, "which
are out of character" in a Christian — a milder repeti-
tion (perhaps suggested by the ambiguous meaning of
" jesting " noted above) of the indignant declaration in
verse 3, that it "becomes not saints that these foul
things should be even named among them." They
pollute the Christian mind and tongue even in con-
demning them.

But rather giving of thanks.— The opposition is
striking. " The foolish talking and jesting " aim at
uiirth and play of mind; St. Paul will not austerely
condemn such light-heartedness, but he finds a whole-
some and spiritual vent for it in the habitual expression
of thankfulness to God, which proceeds from a natural
and childlike cheerfulness. Exactly in the same spirit
below (verses 18—20) he contrasts the excitement of

drunkenness with the being " filled with the Spirit . . .
giving thanks always for all things."

(5) For this ye know.— The true reading of the
original is curiously emphatic. It runs thus: For
this ye know, knowing . . . But, as it uses two
different words, in the former clause properly "ye
know " and the latter " learning to know," the sense
seems to be : " For this ye know, learning it afresh so
as to know it better." Whatever else is doubtful, this
is certain; yet it admits of an ever growing cer-
tainty.

Covetous man, who is an idolater.— Comp.
Col. iii. 5, " Covetousness, which is idolatry." What-
ever becomes the chief object of our desire, so as to
claim our chief fear and love, is, of course, an idol;
for " ye cannot serve God and mammon." Perhaps in
this metaphorical idolatry, as in the literal, there are
two distinct stages, passing, however, by invisible
gradations into each other — first, the resting on some
visible blessing of God, as the one thing in which and
for which we serve Him, and so by degrees losing Him
in His own gifts ; next, the absolute f orgetfulness of
Him, and the setting up, as is inevitable, of some other
object of worship to fill the vacant throne.

Hath any inheritance in the kingdom of
Christ and [of] God.— The phrase " the kingdom of
Christ and God," though probably it does not in
strict technicality declare the identity of " Christ " and
" God," yet implies that the " kingdom of the Christ "
is, as a matter of course, " the kingdom of God," for
" the Christ " is by prophetic definition " Emmanuel,"
i.e., " God with us." The unworthy Christian has
indeed "an inheritance" in it, to his own awful respon-
sibility ; but in the true spiritual sense he is one " who
hath not," "from whom shall be taken that which he
hath " (Matt. xiii. 12).

(6) Let no man deceive you with vain
words. — It seems likely that St. Paul has in view, not
mei-e worldly condonation of evil or low heathen
morality, but some anticipation of that Antinomian
form of Gnosticism which held that the things done in
the body, being evil only by the irresistible, inevitable
gravitation of matter to evil, could not touch the soul.
We know that in the Colossian Church there was an
anticipation of the more ascetic Gnosticism (Col. ii. 21;
comp. also 1 Tim. iv. 1 — 5). As the earlier Judaistic
rigour had assumed this later form, so the earlier Anti-
nomianism (of Rom. vi. 1) may probably have passed
into the more systematic and speculative Antinomianism
of the Gnostic type. (Comp. Phil. iii. 18, 19.) In this
same spirit St. John, himself familiar with the life of
Ephesus, writes earnestly: " Let no man deceive you;
he that doeth righteousness is righteous" (1 John iii.
7). Here the Apostle warns them that it is for these
sins that " the wrath of God is coming on the children of
disobedience," i.e. (see chap. ii. 2), on the heathen ; and
urges the Christians not to fall back, by being " par-
takers with them " both of their sin and their punish-
ment, into the gross heathen darkness out of which
they had been saved.

The constant Antagonism

EPHESIANS, V.

between Darkness

Light.

with them. (8) For ye were sometimes
darkness, but now are ye light in the
Lord : walk as children of light :
(») (for the fruit of the Spirit is in all
goodness and righteousness and truth ;)
(io) proving what is acceptable unto

the Lord. (11) And have no fellowship
with the unfruitful works of darkness,
but rather reprove them. <12) For it
is a shame even to speak of those
things which are done of them in
secret. W But all things that are re-

(8) Ye were sometimes darkness, but now
are ye light in the Lord.— This expression is
unique, and far more emphatic than the more common
phrases of " being," or " walking," " in darkness " and
" in light." (See Rom. ii. 9 ; Gol. i. 2 ; 1 Thess. v. 4 ;
1 John i. 6, 7; ii. 9, 10.) For here the outward ele-
ment of light or darkness is said to pervade the inner
nature of the soul. (1) Christ is the "true Light," the
" Sun of Righteousness" (John i. 4 — 9 ; iii. 19 ; viii. 12 ;
ix. 5 ; xii. 46). His servants are sometimes mere
secondary lights (or " candles ") (Luke xi. 33, 34, 36 ;
John v. 35; 2 Pet. i. 19), kindled from His rays; some-
times, like the moon or planets, they are said, as re-
flecting His light, or as having His light in them (John
xii. 35), to be actually "the light of the world " (Matt.
v. 14), which, however, shines as a mere reflected light,
so that "men glorify" not it, but "the Father which
is in heaven" (Matt. v. 16). They thus become light,
but only " in the Lord : " that is, as being made one with
Him. (2) So, on the other hand, they who walk in dark-
ness are said to be themselves darkness — new sources,
so to speak, of the darkness which hates and quenches
light, both to themselves and to others. " The light "
which is in them " becomes darkness ; " " and how great
is that darkness !" (Matt. vi. 23.) As there is a natural
delight in giving light, so the reprobate state is distin-
guished by a horrible pleasure in spreading the cloud
of delusion, sin, or unbelief, by which to hide God from
man.

Walk as children of light.— -So our Lord
teaches, " While ye have the light, believe in the light,
that ye may become children of light " (John xii. 36 ;
comp. 1 Thess. v. 5). " Children of light " are they who
not only love the light, but also manifest the likeness
of the one true Light, " the Father of Lights " ( Jas.
i. 17), being His children in Jesus Christ.

(9) For the fruit . . .—The true reading is, of the
Light, for which the easier phrase, " the fruit of the
Spirit," has been substituted, to the great detriment of
the force and coherency of the whole passage. Light
has its fruits ; darkness (see verse 11) is " unfruitful."
The metaphor is striking, but literally correct, inas-
much as light is the necessary condition of that vege-
tative life which grows and yields fruit, while darkness
is the destruction, if not of life, at any rate of fruit-
bearing perfection.

Goodness and righteousness and truth.—
These are practical exhibitions of the "being true in
love," described in chap. iv. 15 as the characteristic of
the Christ-like soul. For " goodness " is love in prac-
tical benevolence, forming, in Gal. v. 22, a climax to
" longsuffering " and "kindness," and, in 2 Thess. i.
11, distinguished as practical from the "faith" which
underlies practice. The other two qualities, "righteous-
ness " and " truth " — that is, probably, truthfulness —
are both parts of the great principle of " being true."

do) Proving what is acceptable unto the
Lord.— So in Rom. xii. 2, the "proving what is the
good and acceptable and perfect will of God," is the
fruit of transformation " in the renewing of the
mind." " To prove" is to try in each case, by the full

light of God, what is accordant to His will; it is a
work partly of thought, partly of practical experience ;
and it always implies a searching examination of heart
and action by the touchstone of God's word.

(U) Have no fellowship with the unfruitful
works of darkness.— To "have no fellowship"
with such works is not to refuse to take part in them
(for this surely might be taken for granted), but to keep
no terms with them, to have no sympathy or indulgence
or excuse for them. So the word is used, in Phil. iv.
14, of "communicating with my affliction;" and in
Rev. xviii. 4, of "being partakers with the sins" of
Babylon. It is through such weak or cowardly in-
dulgence, more than the actual love of evil, that sin is
suffered to prevail. Hence St. Paul adds, " rather re-
prove them." Our Lord Himself has declared in all
such cases, " He that is not with Me is against Me."

The unfruitful works of darkness.— St. Paul
has a similar antithesis in the Epistle to the Romans
(chap. vi. 19 — 22). They who are in sin " yield their
members servants to iniquity unto iniquity." Iniquity
has no result but iniquity ; and hence he goes on to
ask, " "What fruit had ye then in those things of which
ye are now ashamed ? •' This weary fruitlessness is at
once the sign and the penalty of sin, so that men have
fancied it to be one chief element of the suffering of the
lost. But they who are in Christ " yield their members
servants to righteousness unto holiness." " They have,"
he says, " their fruit unto holiness " now, and " in the
end the everlasting life," which is everlasting holiness.
Similarly, in Gal. v. 20 — 22, we have " the works of the
flesh," but " the fruit of the Spirit." Rarely, indeed,
does Scripture speak of " evil fruit " (Matt. vii. 17 ; xii.
33). Generally, " to be unfruitful " is an all-sufficient
condemnation. " Every branch that beareth not fruit
he taketh away " (John xv. 2).

Rather reprove them. — In the word " reprove,"
whether in its application to the witness of the Holy
Ghost (John xvi. 8), or to the witness of men (as in
1 Cor. xiv. 24 ; 1 Tim. v. 20 ; Tit. i. 9—13, et al), there
is described a double function — to " convince," if it
may be, the sinner in himself ; to " convict " him, if
the other function fails, before men and angels. Both
these functions St. Paul urges here. It is not enough
to " have no fellowship with them." To this tacit
reproof open reproof in word and deed is to be added ;
only in such reproof it should be remembered that it
would be disgraceful " even to speak " in detail of the
actual " things done in secret."

(12) It is a shame even to speak . . .—Comp.
verse 3. Sin may be plainly indicated, and perhaps
most effectually branded, without polluting the tongue
by describing its actual developments. The need of
St. Paul's caution is only too obvious when we i-ead
some satires and denunciations against sin, or seme
manuals of self-examination.

(is) But all things that are reproved are made
manifest by the light.— This should properly be
rendered, But all things, when reproved, are illuminated
by the light. The translation " are made manifest " is
indeed fully in accordance with the common usage of

Tlie New Life, kindled

EPHESIANS, V.

by the Light of Christ.

proved1 are made manifest by the light: I1 '"'•''' '"'"' ■•'"'■
for whatsoever doth make manifest is I «i«a.6o. 1.
light. P* Wherefore he saith, Awake I »«**

thou that sleepest, and arise from the
dead, and Christ shall give thee light.'
(15> See then that ye walk circumspectly,4

the word. But the whole context shows that St. Paul
is here using it in what is indeed its more proper etymo-
logical sense, for "are illumined." For the mere " being
made manifest " is implied in the " being reproved ; "
whereas he is certainly passing on here to a fresh idea,
and. moreover, to one which will bear the inference of
the last clause of the verse. To "reprove" after the
Christian manner is to bring into the full light of
Christ's truth ; and the effect of this is not merely to
reprove, but to illumine by the inherent power of the
light. Exactly with the same distinction of sense St.
John uses both words (John iii. 20, 21).

For whatsoever doth make manifest is
light. — That this translation (suggested, perhaps, by
the difficulty of the passage when rightly rendered) is
nevertheless certainly wrong, is shown both by the
usage of the original word and by the genius of the
whole context. It should be, for everything which is
illuminated is light. St. Paul here explains still more
clearly what he means by illumination. It implies the
catching the light and reflecting it, so as to become a
new source of light. It must be noted that the subject
of the sentence is not "the works of darkness," but
'• all things " in general. Hence the whole process is
described, with almost scientific accuracy, as three-fold.
First, the things, or persons, are dragged out of dark-
ness into light ; then they are illuminated ; lastly, they
become light in themselves and to others. There are,
no doubt, exceptions to this, the right and normal pro-
cess, in the case of the utterly reprobate, who have lost
all power of reflecting light, and are therefore dark
still in the blaz^ of noon : but the next verse shows that
J3t. Paul is not contemplating these ; and even these
may be beacons of warning to others. The whole
metaphor is more and more striking to us as modern
science enlarges our knowledge of the manifold effects
of light, not only to illuminate, but to change and to
vivify.

(i*J Wherefore he (or. if) saith.— This phrase is
used (as also in Jas. iv. 6) in chap. iv. 8 to introduce
a scriptural quotation ; and the most natural completion
of the elliptical expression is by the supply of the
nominative, " God," or " the scripture," from the ordi-
nary phrase of quotation or citation. But no scriptural
passage can be adduced which, with the fullest allow-
ance for the apostolic freedom of quotation, comes near
enough to be a satisfactory original of this passage.
The nearest is Isa. lx. 1, " Arise, shine ; for thy light is
come, and the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee ; "
and this is certainly very far off indeed. Nor is the
case much helped by blending other passages (as, for
example, Isa. xxvi. 19) with this. Some additional
verbal coincidences may be gained, but at the expense
of still greater diversity from the spirit of the passage
as a whole. Hence we are driven to conclude that the
quotation is not from Holy Scripture. Yet the very
form shows that it is from something well known.
An apocryphal quotation is imagined by some, but with
no knowledge of any quotation at all resembling it.
Others have supposed it a traditional saying of our Lord
(like Acts xx. 35) ; but the form seems decisive against
this. On the whole, it seems most likely that it is from
some well-known Christian hymn. In the original a
rhythmical character, rough, but by no means indistinct,
strikes us at once. The growth of defined and formal

expressions — mostly, it is true, of embryo creeds of
Christian faith, as in 1 Cor. xv. 3, 4; Heb. vi. 1, 2;
1 Tim. iii. 16, in the last of which the acknowledged
difficulty of etymological construction in the true
reading may perhaps be best explained by the suppo-
sition of quotation — is notable in the later Epistles,
and especially in the " faithful sayings " of the Pastoral
Epistles. The use of some liturgical forms is traced
with high probability to a very early date. The em-
bodiment of popular faith in hymns, always natural,
was peculiarly natural as adapted to the imperfect
education of many early converts, and to the practice of
trusting so much to memory, and so comparatively little
to writing. Some such usage certainly appears to bo
referred to in the celebrated letter of Pliny to Trajan,
the first heathen description of Christian worship.

Awake, thou that sleepest, and arise from
the dead.— The word " awake " is used in our version
to render two different words : one which properly
means "to wake," or "be awake," or "watch," as in
1 Cor. xv. 34; 1 Thess. v. 6, 8 ; 2 Tim. iv. 5 ; 1 Pet, i. 12;
iv. 7 ; v. 8) ; the other, as here, which properly means
"Up!" "Rouse thyself!" preparatory to "arising" and
coming forth. The exhortation in both forms is common
enough (see especially the famous passage in Rom.
xiii. 11 — 14) ; but the following words, " Arise from
the dead," are a bold and unique exhortation. Generally
we are said to be raised up from the death of sin by
God, as in Rom. viii. 11, " He that raised up Christ
from the dead shall quicken your mortal bodies ; " or
Rom. vi. 11, " Reckon yourselves to be dead unto sin,
but alive unto God;" or Col. iii. 1, "If ye are risen
in Christ," Here the soul is described as hearing the
Saviour's call, " Come forth," and as itself rising at
that call from the grave. If distinction between the
two clauses is to be drawn, we may be rightly said to
"awake" out of lethargy and carelessness, and to
" arise " out of the deadness of sin.

Christ shall give thee light.— Properly, Christ
shall dawn upon thee. The word is virtually the same
which is used for the literal dawn in Matt, xxviii. 1,
Luke xxiii. 54. The same idea is strikingly enunciated
in 2 Pet. i. 19, where prophecy, looking forward to Christ,
is compared to "a light shining in a dark place," "till
the day dawn, and the Day- star arise in your hearts" —
He. that is, who is " the bright and morning star " (Rev.
xxii. 16). Christ, as the " Day-star," or as the " Sun
of Righteousness," is already risen. The soul needs
only to come out of the darkness of the grave, and the
new rays shine down upon it, till (see verse 7) they
pervade it and transfigure it into light.

(3 c.1 In verses 15 — 21 the Apostle passes from lust
and impurity to the cognate spirit of reckless levity,
and the love of excitement, of which drunkenness is the
commonest expression. He opposes to this the united
forces of soberness and sacred enthusiasm, each tem-
pering and yet strengthening the other.

(15> See then that ye walk (properly, how ye
walk) circumspectly.— The word rendered "circum-
spectly " is properly strictly, or accurately — generally
used of intellectual accuracy or thoroughness (as in
Matt, ii. 8; Luke i. 3; Acts xviii. 25, 28; 1 Thess.
v. 2) ; only here and in Acts xxvi. 5 (" the straitest sect

Warning against Recklessness

EPHESIANS, V.

and Drunken Excitement.

not as fools, but as wise, <16) redeeming
the time, because the days are evil.
(17) Wherefore be ye not unwise, but
understanding: what the will of the Lord

is. (18> And be not drunk with wine,
wherein is excess; but be filled with
the Spirit ; <19^ speaking to yourselves in
psalms and hymns and spiritual songs,

of our x-eligion ") of moral strictness. The idea, there-
fore, is not of looking round watchfully against dangers,
but of " seeing," that is. being careful, " how we walk
strictly ; " of finding out the clear line of right, and
then keeping to it strictly, so as not "to run uncer-
tainly." In the corresponding passage in the Colossian
Epistle (Col. iv. 5) a similar admonition has especial
reference " to those without," and bids us have a reso-
lute unity of aim. a distinct religious profession, amidst
all the bewildering temptations of the world. Here
it is more general ; it bids men not to trust wholly to
general rightness of heart, iu which "the spirit is
willing," but to be watchful over themselves, and to be
a law to themselves, " because the flesh is weak."

Not as fools, but as wise.— This still further
explains the " strictness," for "wisdom" is the practical
knowledge of the true end and purpose of life. (See
above, chap. i. 8.) He who has it not, wliatever his
intellectual and spiritual gifts, is " unwise."

<16) Redeeming the time.— Or rather, the oppor-
tunity, whenever it arises. The meaning of this
phrase (used also in Col. iv. 5) is clearly illustrated by
its use (although in a bad sense) in Dan. ii. 8, " I
know that you would gain the time " — i.e., catch the
opportunity to escape from difficulty. To "redeem"
is "to buy up for oneself" — not having essentially the
idea of ransom or redemption, which attaches to the use
of the word in Gal. iii. 13, iv. 5, oidy from the nature
of the context. As applied to opportunity, it carries
with it the idea, first of making sacrifice for it, then
quickness in seizing it, and sagacity in using it to the
utmost, whether by silence or by speech, by facing or
avoiding danger, by yielding to a crisis (see Rom.
xii. 11) or conquering it. The reason given that "the
days are evil " must be taken in the widest sense, of all
that induces temptation to swerve out of the " strict-
ness " of the right way. The general lesson is that
which is drawn by our Lord in the parable of the
Unjust Steward — to apply the wisdom of the buyers
and sellers of the world to the work of " the children
of light."

(17) Be ye not unwise.— The word here is stronger
than in verse 15 ; it is properly senseless, used of
"the fool" (in Luke xi. 40; xii. 20; 1 Cor. xv. 36;
2 Cor. xi. 16, 19 ; xii. 6, 11). By it St. Paul empha-
sises his previous warning ; then he adds the explana-
tion that to be "wise" is to "understand what the
will of the Lord is " — to know His purpose towards us
and towards the world, and so to know the true purpose
of our life. Hence we are told in Job xxviii. 28, that
" the fear of the Lord is wisdom," or, more precisely,
in Prov. ix. 10, that it is " the beginning of wisdom."

(i8) Be not drunk with wine, wherein is
excess.— From the general idea of reckless levity,
St. Paul passes on to the special sin of drunkenness,
as not (like gluttony) primarily a gratification of the
appetite, but as a reckless pursuit of excitement at all
costs — glorified as an excitement of emotion, and even
of wit and intellect, in such contemporary writers as
Horace, and actually confused, as in the Dionysiac or
Bacchanalian frenzy, with a divine inspiration. How
necessary the admonition was w? see by the directions
as to the choice of clergy in the Pastoral Epistles

(1 Tim. iii. 28 ; Tit. i. 7 ; ii. 3) ; the more necessary,
because (as 1 Tim. v. 23 shows) the right use of wine
was recognised. Hence St. Paul emphatically brands
drunkenness as " excess," a word properly signifying
" recklessness " — " incapable of saving," or denying
itself anything, and naturally passing through this
want of self-restraint into profligacy— rightly trans-
lated " riot " in Tit. i. 6, 1 Pet. iv. 4, as the correspond-
ing adverb is rendered " riotous living " in Luke xv.
13. For drunkenness is at once the effect and cause
of utter recklessness. It is the effect of a self-abandon-
ment, by which the sensual or passionate elements of
the nature are stimulated to frenzy, while the self-
controlling judgment is drugged to sleep. It is the
cause of yet greater recklessness : for as these passions
and appetites become jaded, they need stronger and
stronger stimulants, till the whole nature, bodily and
mental, is lost in delirium or stupor.

But be tilled with the Spirit.— The antithesis is
startling, but profoundly instructive. To the artificial
and degrading excitement of drunkenness St. Paul
boldly opposes the divine enthusiasm of the Spirit, one
form of which was scoffingly compared to it on the Day
of Pentecost (Acts ii. 13). He is not content with
warning us of its ruinous excess, or urging the strictness
of stern self-restraint. Drunkenness comes from an un-
natural craving for excitement, stimulated by unwhole-
some conditions of life, physical and mental. He would
satisfy the craving, so far as it is natural, by a divine
enthusiasm, brighter and stronger than even duty to God
and man, breaking out in thanksgiving, adoi-ation, and
love.

(19) Speaking to yourselves in psalms and
hymns and spiritual songs.— The same words are
found in Col. iii. 16, with a notable difference of appli-
cation. There the idea is of teaching: " teaching and ad-
monishing one another ;" here, simply of a natural vent
for emotion, especially of thanksgiving, although pro-
bably here also " to yourselves " means " to one another."
and refers, perhaps, chiefly to public worship. The
well-known passage iu Pliny, " Carmen dicere inter se
invicem," describes alternate, possibly antiphonal, sing-
ing of such sacred music. Of the various kinds of this
music, the " psalms " and " hymns " are easily distin-
guished. The " psalm," as the word itself implies, is
music with instrumental accompaniment, and can
hardly fail to refer to the Old Testament psalms,
familiar in Jewish worship, and as we know, used in the
first instance we have of apostolic worship (Acts iv. 24).
On their frequent use see 1 Cor. xiv. 26 ; Jas. v. 12.
The "hymn" is purely vocal music, apparently of
the whole company (see Matt. xxvi. 30; Acts xvi. 25),
more especially directed to praise of God, and pro-
bably designating the new utterances of the Christian
Church itself. But the interpretation of the " spiritual
song," or " ode," is more difficult. It is often considered
as inclusive of the other two (as etymologically it
might well be), but the genius of the passage appears
to make it co-ordinate, and so distinct from -them.
From the use of the word " song," or " ode," as applied
to lyric poetry, it may perhaps be conjectured that it
describes more varied and elaborate music, sung by one
person only — a spiritual utterance of one for the whole

Tlie Enthusiasm of Thanksgiving.

EPHESIANS, V.

The Soberness of Self-restraint.

singing- and making melody in your
heart to the Lord ; <*» giving thanks
always for all things unto God and the
Father in the name of our Lord Jesus

Christ ; W submitting yourselves one to
another in the fear of C} y 22—25

God. (22) Wives, submit Duty of "wives

yourselves unto your own and husbands.

congregation. In a passage of Philo (ii. p. 476) — quoted
by Dr. Lightfoot on Col. iii. 16 — on Jewish sacred music,
we read, " He who stands up sings a hymn composed
in praise of God, either having made a new one for him-
self, or usiug an ancient one of the poets of days gone
by." The Christian counterpart of this might well be
the " spiritual song." To some such utterance, under
the name of " psalm," St. Paul seems to allude in
1 Cor. xiv. 26, a passage dealing expressly with special
spiritual gifts. "Each one of you has a psalm."
Evidently it might be strictly a " hymn " or " psalm,"
though in common usage (as here) it would be dis-
tinguished from both.

Singing and making melody in your heart.—
The word rendered " making melody " is the verb
corresponding to the " psalm " above, as singing to the
"song." This clause is not identical but co-ordinate
with the last. That described audible and public
melody ; this, the secret utterance of music in the soul,
whether accompanying the other or distinct from it.

(2°) Giving thanks always for all things.—
This temper of universal and pervading thankfulness
is dwelt upon in the First Epistle to the Thessalonians
(v. 18) as indissolubly united with unceasing joy and
prayer (" Rejoice evermore ; pray without ceasing ; in
everything give thanks.") Since thanksgiving is for
what God has given us, and prayer for what we
still need, both must be united in our imperfect con-
dition here. In Col. iii. 17 it is associated with
action " in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ." Here
it is dealt with alone, as the basis of the praises, public
and private, corporate and individual, described above.
In regard to the former, St. Paul marks thanksgiving as
the fundamental and invariable element of all Christian
worship, clothing itself naturally in all variety of
music ; in regard to the latter, he describes the habitual
spirit of thankfulness, prevailing alike in joy and
sorrow, undisturbed even by penitent sense of sin,
as the inner music of all Christian life.

Unto God and the Father in the name of our
Lord Jesus Christ.— Both these expressions are em-
phatic. To all consciousness of God belong fear and
reverence ; to the belief in Him as " our Father " (see
Rom. viii. 14 — 17; Gal. iv. 4—6) specially belong love
and thanksgiving. But it is " in the name of the Lord
Jesus Christ " — that is, as identified in perfect unity
with Him — that we have the adoption to sonship which
is the ground of such thanksgiving. So also in the
same unity (see John xiv. 13 ; xv. 16 ; xvi. 23, 24) we
have the ground of perfect confidence in prayer.

(21) Submitting yourselves one to another in
the fear of God. — In grammatical construction this
clause is connected with the preceding verses ; in point
of idea it leads on to the next section, which treats of
the three-fold submission of wives to husbands, children
to parents, slaves to masters. There is, however, a
certain connection of idea with the preceding section
also, and especially with the encouragement of a
Christian enthusiasm in the last clause. The strong and
frequent emphasis laid in the New Testament 011 sub-
jection, whether (as in Rom. xiii. 1 — 7; 1 Pet. ii. 13 —
17) to the civil powers, or (as here, in Col. iii. 18 — iv. 1,
and 1 Pet. ii. 18 — iii. 7) to domestic authority, or (as in

1 These, v. 12, 13; 2 Thess. iii. 6, 14, 15) to ecclesias-
tical authority, probably indicates some tendency, in the
first exuberance of Christian liberty and enthusiasm,
to disregard the wholesome restraints, laws, and con-
ventions of outward life. Hence St. Paul's general
caution here, prefatory to the more detailed teaching
of subjection which follows.

[5. Practical Exhortation continued (chaps, v.
22— vi. 9).
(4) The Bearing of the Truth of Unity on
the Three Great Relations of Life.
(a) Between husbands and wives — a relation
which is a type of the unity between
Christ and His Church (verses 22—33).
(&) Between parents and children — a relation
hallowed as existing " in the Lord " (chap,
vi. 1—4).
(c) Between masters and servants — a relation
softened and deepened by common service
to the one Master (chap. vi. 5 — 9).]

(4 a.) In verses 22 — 33 St. Paul passes from warn-
ing against special sins to consider the three great
relations of life, first considered as " subjections," and
so illustrating the general precept of submission in
verse 21, but ultimately viewed in their reciprocity of
mutual obligations and rights. First, accordingly, he
dwells on the relation of marriage, declaring it to be
hallowed as a type of the unity of Christ with His
Church, and hence drawing the inference of the duty
of free obedience in the wife, and of self-sacrificing
love in the husband. This passage may be held to
j contain the complete and normal doctrine of the New
Testament on this great question, written at a time
when Christianity had already begun to exalt and purify
the nuptial tie ; and it is instructive to compare it with
1 Cor vii., written for "the present distress," glanc-
ing not obscurely at marriage with unbelievers, and
adapted to the condition of a proverbially profligate
society, as yet scarcely raised above the low heathen
ideas of marriage.

(22) Wives, submit yourselves unto your own
husbands.— The same exhortation is found in CoL
iii. 18; Tit, ii. 5; 1 Pet, iii. 1—6; and besides
these formal exhortations there is distinct and
emphatic declaration of the "subjection of women" in
1 Cor. xi. 3, 7, 8, 9 ; xiv. 34. 35 ; 1 Tim. ii. 11, 12.
Probably the sense of that fundamental equality in
Christ, in which (see Col. iii. 28) "there is neither
bond nor free, there is neither male nor femcde,''1 while
it was rightly accepted as showing that there is no
spiritual inferiority in woman — such as Oriental theory
asserted, and even Greek and corrupt Roman practice
implied — was perverted to the denial of the greater
natural weakness of woman, from which subordination
comes, and to the foolish and reckless disregard
of all social conventions. St. Paul, as usual, brings out
the simple truth of principle, sanctioning whatever is
fundamental and natural in woman's subordination,
and leaving the artificial enactments of law or
custom to grow by degrees into accordance with it.

Marriage the Type of Unity

EPHESIANS, V.

between Christ and His Church,

husbands, as unto the Lord. <23> For the
husband is the head of the wife, even
as Christ is the head of the church:
and he is the saviour of the body.
(24) Therefore as the church is subject
unto Christ, so let the wives be to their

own husbands in every thing. ^ Hus-
bands, love your wives, chap. v. 26-33.
even as Christ also loved Marriage is a
the church, and gave him- S^AliSS
self for it; <26> that he with His
might sanctify and cleanse Churcil>

The principle of subordination is permanent ; the
special regulations of it in the world or in the Church
must vary as circumstances change.

As unto the Lord. — These words are explained
by the next verse. In Col. iii. 18 we have the less
emphatic phrase, " as it is fittftig in the Lord."

(23) For the husband is the head of the wife,
even as Christ is the head of the church. — It is
instructive to compare this with the partly similar
passage in 1 Cor. xi. 3. There " the head of the woman
is the man," as here; but "the head of every man
(individually) is Christ," considered in His human
nature; and finally, "the Head of Christ," as the
Son of Man, " is God." There, accordingly, " head-
ship " is simple lordship ; the woman is subject to the
man, the man is subject to Christ alone ; Christ as the
Son is subject to the Father. Here, on the other hand,
we note, first, that in accordance with the general idea
of the Epistle, the headship of Christ over the Church
at large takes the place of His headship over the
indi vidual ; next, that from the idea of His headship so
conceived is derived the further idea of a spiritual
unity, involving self-sacrifice in the head, as well as
obedience to the head ; and, lastly, that since the very
idea of unity in Christ is unity with God, there is
nothing to correspond to the third clause in the former
Epistle.

123, 24) And he is the saviour of the body.
Therefore . . .—The words "and" and "is"
are wrongly inserted, and the word "therefore" is
absolutely an error, evading the difficulty of the pas-
sage. It should be, He Himself being the Saviour
of the Body. But . . . This clause, in which the
words "He Himself" are emphatic, notes (as if in
order to guard against too literal acceptation of the
comparison) that " Christ " (and He alone) is not only
Head, but " Saviour of the Body," i.e., " of His body
the Church," not only teaching and ruling it, but by
His unity infusing into it the new life of justification
and sanctification. Here no husband can be like Him,
and therefore none can claim the absolute dependence
of faith which is His of right. Accordingly St. Paul
adds the word " But." Though " this is so," yet " still
let the wives," &c.

As the church is subject unto Christ, so let
the wives be to their own husbands in every
thing. — The subjection of the Church of Christ is a
free subjection, arising out of faith in His absolute
wisdom and goodness, and of love for His unspeakable
love. Hence we gather (1) that the subordination of
the wife is not that of the slave, by compulsion and
fear, but one which arises from and preserves freedom ;
next (2), that it can exist, or at any rate can endure,
only on condition of superior wisdom and goodness and
love in the husband; thirdly (3), that while it is like
the higher subordination in kind, it cannot be equally
perfect in degree — while it is real " in everything," it
can be absolute in nothing. The antitype is, as usual,
greater than the type.

C25) Husbands, love your wives, even as Christ
also loved the church.— The love of Christ for His

Church is such that He counts Himself incomplete
without her (chap. i. 23), and raises her to be one with
Himself ; that He bears with her weakness and frailty ;
that He draws her on by the cords of love ; and that
He gives up Himself for her. Only so far as the
husband shows the like love in perfect sympathy, in
chivalrous forbearance, in abhorrence of tyranny, in
willingness to self-sacrifice, has he any right to claim
lordship.

And gave himself for it. — Here, as before, the
antitype transcends the type. In the character of our
Lord's sacrifice, as an atonement offered "for" the
Church, and in the regenerating and cleansing effect of
that sacrifice (see next verse), none can approach Him.
The husband may be said to give himself for his wife,
but it cannot be in any higher sense than as taking the
chief share of the burden, and if possible the pain, of
life for her. He may follow Christ in love, and in that
alone. Compare St. Paul's words in Col. i. 24, " I fill
up that which is behind of the afflictions of Christ for
His body's sake, which is the Church " (where see
Note).

(25—27) In these verses we trace, under the nuptial
metaphor, a clear description of the three great
stages in salvation — justification in His " giving Him-
self for us, sanctification in the " cleansing by water in
the Word," glorification in the final " presentation " to
Christ in glory. The metaphor is certainly preserved
in the last two clauses, which correspond to the bath of
purification of the bride, and the festal presentation of
her (usually by the friend of the bridegroom. John
iii. 29), in all her beauty and adornment, to her husband
at his own home ; perhaps even in the first also, for the
husband used to give a dowry, which was held in the
rude simplicity of ancient times to purchase his wife,
and here that which Christ gives is the unspeakable
price of His own Self. Throughout, in accordance
with the whole tenor of the Epistle, it is the Church as
a whole, not the individual soul, which is " the Spouse
of Christ."

(26) That he might sanctify and cleanse it . .
— The true rendering is, that He might sanctify it,
having cleansed it in tlie lover of the water in [the'] Word.
The reference in " the laver of the water " to baptism,
is even more unquestionable than in "the laver of regene-
ration" of Tit. iii. 5. Hence we must conclude that the
phrase "in the Word" is in some way connected with that
sacrament. Of the two Greek words translated " word,"
the one here used is that which signifies not " the word "
existing as a definite thought in the mind, but " the
word " as audibly spoken. It has. indeed, in the
original no article, but this is probably because it had
assumed so technical a sense as to resemble a proper
name ; and it is best connected with the phrase " having
cleansed it," thus being co-ordinated, not subordinated,
to the " laver of the water." Accordingly it would
seem to signify all that element of baptism which is "in
word "• — that is, the question of faith, " the answer of a
good conscience " (1 Pet. iii. 21), and, lastly, the solemn
formula of baptism " in the name of the Father, and
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." If we are to single

Hence the Husband's Duty

EPHESIANS, V.

of Love and Self sacrifice.

it with the washing of water by the
word, (-7)that he might present it to him-
self a glorious church, not having spot,
or wrinkle, or any such thing ; but
that it should be holy and without
blemish. (28) So ought men to love
their wives as their own bodies. He

that loveth his wife loveth himself.
(29) For no man ever yet hated his own
flesh ; but nourisheth and cherisheth it,
even as the Lord the church : ^ for we
are members of his body, of his flesh,
and of his bones. <al) For this cause
shall a man leave his father and mother,

out any of these, we must surely (with Chrysostom)
take the last. But it is better to embrace the whole,
and so include the whole spiritual element of baptism,
both the acceptance of faith on the part of man, and the
grace-giving' blessing of God.

To '" sanctify" is here to consecrate to Himself (comp.
John xvii. 17, 19) after purification. In the same con-
nection we have in 1 Cor. vi. 11, "Ye were washed, ye
were sanctified, ye were justified." In virtue of such
consecration the Church visible is " holy " in idea and
in capacity — the Church invisible here (which will be
the Church triumphant hereafter), holy in the actual
purity which becomes a consecrated nature. Of such
consecration baptism is unquestionably the means ; as
we see in command in Matt, xxviii. 19, and in fact in
Acts ii. SS, 41.

(27) That he might present it to himself.—
The original is more emphatic — that He might Himself
present it to Himself. This presentation belonged
usually to the "paranymph," or "friend of the bride-
groom, to whom St. John Baptist compares himself in
John iii. 29 (where see Note) ; St. Paul himself assumes
that office in 2 Cor. xi. 2, "I have espoused (or rather,
betrothed) you to one husband, that I may present
you as a chaste virgin to Christ." Here, however, all
is of Christ. He, as Paranymph, comes down to seek
and to save His Bride ; He, as Bridegroom, receives
her in His heavenly home.

A glorious church, not having spot, or
wrinkle . . .—Properly, {that He might present)
the Church as glorious, not having a spot (i.e., a stain
on its purity), or a wrinkle (i.e., a defect in its beauty
and freshness of life); but that it may be holy (not
merely consecrated to holiness) and without blemish
(as He is without blemish). On these last words see
Note on chap. i. 4. They are most commonly sacri-
ficial, corresponding (see Col. i. 22) to the sacrificial
use of the word " present." Here, however, they are
seen clearly to have reference to the nuptial metaphor
by what goes before.

In all this we have a picture which properly belongs
to the Church in glory, and which is fully drawn out
under the same metaphor as Rev. xix. 7 — 9, xxi. 2, 9, 10;
for only in it can the description be fully realised. In
capacity and promise it belongs to the whole Church
militant; in reality, but in imperfection, to the Church
invisible on earth ; in absolute perfection to the Church
triumphant in heaven.

(28) So ought men to love their wives . . .
— From this glorious digression, applying only to
the divine Antitype, St. Paul comes back to the one
point, in which the type may imitate it — that is, a
deep and unfailing love. " So" refers to the previous
verse, describing the love of Christ, not to the " as "
following ; otherwise the want of connection would be
strangely abrupt. Moreover, from this idea of the
love of Christ as the pattern, the latter part of this
verse and the following verses naturally arise. Christ
loves the Church as His body, a part of Himself.
Hence the idea that the husband is " the head of the

wife " gives place to the absolute identification of
himself with his wife, as " one flesh."

He that loveth his wife loveth himself—
All right " love of our neighbour " is directed to be
given to him " as to ourselves." It is to be of the
same kind as the love of self — that is, first, an instinct
(as of self-preservation) ; and next a rational and
settled principle (as of reasonable self-love, seeking
our own perfection, which is our happiness). Here,
however, this love to our neighbour is actually identi-
fied with self-love. The wife is the husband's very
self ; he can no more fail to love her than to love him-
self, though (again to follow the example of Christ)
he may love her better than himself. We may note
that this identification of husband and wife is the basis
of all ecclesiastical, and, in great degree, of all civil,
law of Christian nations as to marriage.

(29) His own flesh— i.e., as above (verse 28), his
own body. There are two parts of the natural care for
our own bodies ; first, " to nourish " (properly, to rear
them up from childhood, as in chap. vi. 4), and then
" to cherish " (literally, to keep them warm), to provide
all they need for health, and comfort, and life. In all
that corresponds to both, the husband is to show love to
the wife, not only as a self, but as a weaker self, for
whom he is bound to think and to act. It may be
noted in passing that the very comparison accords with
the Christian idea of the body as a part of the true self,
redeemed to be a temple of God ; and is utterly incon-
gruous with the Gnostic conceptions (already beginning
at Colossse, probably not unknown in other Asiatic
churches) of all matter as the source of evil, and of the
body as that for which the spirit should not deign to
care.

(29, 30) Even as the Lord the church : for
we . . . — Again St. Paul escapes from the type to rest
on the Antitype (see verse 32). The idea of the natural
rearing and cherishing the body suggests the thought
of the tender care of Christ, in which He " rears up"
His Church from weak infancy to full maturity in
heaven, and all the while " cherishes it (comp. 1 Thess.
ii. 7. spoken of His servants) as a nurse cherisheth
her children," " carrying it in His bosom " (Isa. xl. 11),
comforting and cheering its childlike weakness. Hence
he goes back again to speak with great and special
emphasis of our unity with Him.

Of his flesh, and of his bones.— Literally, made
out of His flesh and bones — parts, that is, of His
glorified body, having "flesh and bones" (Luke xxiv.
39). The expression is unique, suggested, of course, by
Gen. ii. 23, " This is now bone of my bone, and flesh of
my flesh," but desigued to bring out in a startling
emphasis the true meaning of the familiar phrase, " the
members of His body." "We are grafted into Him.
"What we grow to be is. so to speak, the product of His
divine substance, proceeding from the indwelling life
which gradually forms the organised limbs.

(31) por this cause.— In spite of much authority,
it seems far simpler to consider the words " Even as
the Lord . . . His bones " as parenthetical, and refer

The Submission of the Wife,

EPHESIANS, VI.

The Dtity of Children.

and shall be joined nnto his wife, and
they two shall be one flesh. <32) This is
a great mystery : but I speak concerning
Christ and the church. (33) Nevertheless
let every one of you in particular so
love his wife even as himself; and the
wife see that she reverence her husband.

CHAPTEE VI. — a) Children, obey
your parents in the Lord : Chap. vi. 1—
for this is right <*> Hon- %J£*'£l
our thy father and mother; parents,
which is the first commandment with
promise; W that it may be well with
thee, and thou mayest live long on the

back to verses 28, 29. In exactly the same way our
Lord quotes the same verse of Genesis (chap. ii. 24) to
show the indissoluble character of the man-iage tie.
Here the similarity of connection with that of the
original passage is even stronger. Because a man's
wife is as his own body, " for this cause shall a man,"
&c, To connect these words with those going before
is indeed possible, but somewhat too mystical even for
this passage.

Shall a man leave his father . . .—The relation
of parentage is one of common flesh and blood, and
stands at the head of those natural relations which we
do not make, but into which we are born. The relation
of marriage is the most sacred of all the ties into which
we are not bom, and which we do make for ourselves,
in accordance with a true or supposed harmony of
nature. It becomes, says Holy Scripture, a relation, not
of common flesh and blood, but of ° one flesh." Itself
originally voluntary, it supersedes all natural ties. Our
Lord therefore adds, " They are no more twain, but one
flesh. What God hath joined together let not man put
asunder " (Matt. xix. 6). Hence it strikingly represents
that unity with Christ — voluntarily initiated by Him,
voluntarily accepted by us — which yet so supersedes
all natural ties that it is said to oblige a man to * hate
his father and mother . . . and his own life also"
(Luke xiv. 26).

(32) This is a great mystery.— Rather, This
mystery is a great one. The words apply to the type,
as well as to the Antitype. (1) The indissoluble and
paramount sacredness of marriage, as all history shows,
is "a mystery " — that is (see chap. i. 9), a secret of God's
law, fully revealed in Christ alone. For in heathen, and,
to some extent, even in Jewish thought, marriage was
a contract far less sacred than the indissoluble tie of
blood ; and wherever Christian principle is renounced
or obscured, that ancient idea recurs in modern times.
It may be noted that from the translation here of the
word " mystery," by sacramentum in the Latin versions,
the application of the word " sacrament " to mamage
arose. (2) But the following words, " But I " (the word
" I " being emphatic) " speak concerning Christ and the
Church," show — what indeed the whole passage has
already shown — that St. Paul's chief thought has passed
from the type to the Antitype. He has constantly dwelt
on points which suit only Christ's relation to the Church.
and to that relation he has, by an irresistible gravita-
tion of thought, been brought back again and again.
(3) Yet the two cannot be separate. The type brings
out some features of the Antitype which no other com-
parison makes clear ; and history shows that the sacred-
ness of the type in the Church has depended on this
great passage — bearing, as it does, emphatic witness
against the ascetic tendency to look on marriage as
simply a concession to weakness, and as leading to a
life necessarily lower than the celibate life.

(33) Nevertheless. — Although, i.e., the primary and
perfect application is to Christ alone, let the teach-
ing be so far applied to marriage as that practically
" the husband love his wife as himself," and " the wife

reverence (properly, fear) the husband." This return
to homely, practical duty after high and mysterious
teaching is characteristic of St. Paul. (See, for
example, 1 Cor. xv. 58.)

YI.

(4 b.) In verses 1 — i St. Paul passes from the
detailed exposition of the true relation of husbands
and wives, to deal with the relation of parents and
children, far more cursorily and simply, but under the
light of the same idea. It is to be thought of as exist-
ing " in the Lord," i.e., within the unity binding all to
Christ, in virtue of which the parental authority and
the right freedom of the child are both hallowed,

(!) In the Lord.— The phrase itself, though familiar
in St. Paid's writings generally, is specially frequent in
the Epistles of the Captivity, where it occurs in various
connections no less than twenty-one times. (See, for
example, chaps, ii. 21 ; iii. 11 ; iv. 1, 17 ; v. 8 ; vi. 10,
21.) It is, in fact, a brief indication of their great
subject — unity with and in Christ. Here to " obey in
the Lord " is to obey under the light and grace of that
unity, as already belonging both to parents and children,
and transfiguring all natural relations to a diviner

■*?£.

This is right. — Right, i.e., by fundamental laws of
humanity, recognised in all races and all ages, declared
and sanctioned in God's commandments (verses
2, 3), which are at once both old and new " in the
Lord."

(2) The first commandment with promise.—
It is, indeed, in the Decalogue " the only commandment
with promise " distinctly attached to it. But it is still
the first; the Decalogue being itself the introduction
to the Law, in which similar promises are repeated
again and again.

(3) That it may be well with thee . . .—The
quotation is but slightly varied from Ex. xx. 12;
Deut. v. 16. But by the omission of the limiting
words, " which the Lord thy God hath given thee,"
St. Paul at once generalises the application and deter-
mines it to the earth, and not to " the good land " of
heaven. The words so interpreted are, therefore, a
promise that obedience " in the Lord " to the great
natural law on which society rests, shall bring with it
reward on earth ; just as our Lord tells us of " meekness "
that it shall " inherit the earth " (Matt. v. 5), and St.
Paul of "godliness" that it " has the promise of the life
that now is, as well as of that which is to come " ( 1 Tim.
iv. 8). The A7isible exemplification of this law is,
indeed, as in all other cases, obscured by the disorder
brought in by sin, and, moreover, is affected by the
consideration that this life, being a discipline for
heaven, must present, in the true seuse of the word,
" imperfection " or incompleteness, if viewed alone. But
it is still a natural law, and is still accordingly
fulfilled in actual experience. The promise is not
to us so important as to them of old; but it is ours

i still.

The Duty of Parents.

EPHESIANS, VI.

TJte Duty of Servants.

earth. w And, ye fathers, provoke not
your children to wrath : but bring them

up in the nurture and
Duty' of ser- admonition of the Lord.
vants and mas- (5) Servants, be obedient to

them that are your mas-
ters according to the flesh, with fear and

trembling, in singleness of your heart,
as unto Christ; (6) not with eyeservice, as
menpleasers ; but as the servants of
Christ, doing the will of God from the
heart ; <7> with good will doing service, as
to the Lord, and not to men : W knowing
that whatsoever good thing any man

(•*) Provoke not your children to wrath. — The
word is tlic same as in chap. iv. 26. It denotes the
exasperation produced by arbitrary and unsympathetic
rule.

Nurture and admonition of the Lord.— In
this phrase we have the two elements of education.
"Nurture" is a word signifying generally "the treat-
ment due to a child," but by usage appropriated to
practical training, or teaching by discipline ; while
" admonition " is the " putting children in mind " by
word of instruction. It may be noted that in accordance
with the characteristic sternness of ancient education,
both words have a tinge of severity in them. The
" nurture" of this passage is the same as the "chasten-
ing" of the famous passage in Heb. xii. 4 — 11. (Com-
pare the cognate verb in Luke xxiii. 16 ; 1 Cor. xi. 32;
2 Cor. vi. 9; 1 Tim. i. 20; Rev. iii. 19.) The " admoni-
tion " is used in Tit. iii. 10 for rebuke, and, inasmuch as
it implies warning, is distinguished from teaching in Col.
iii. 16. In this, as in other cases, Christianity gradually
softened this stern authority of the father — so strikingly
exemplified in the old Roman law — by the idea suggested
in the addition of the phrase " of the Lord." The
children belong not to the parent only, but to Christ,
taken into His arms in baptism, and sealed as His
little ones. Hence the " reverence," which Juvenal
enforced in theory as due to children's natxiral purity,
became realised in Christian practice, and gradually
transformed all Christian education to greater gentle-
ness, forbearance, and love.

(4 c.) In verses 5 — 9 the hardest form of subjection,
that of slaves to masters, is dealt with, still under the
same idea that both are " in Christ." The slave is the
servant of Christ in obeying his master, the master is
a fellow- servant with his slave to the same Divine
Lord. We notice on this particular subject a remark-
able emphasis, and a singular closeness of parallelism
between this Epistle and the Epistle to the Colossians ;
probably to be accounted for by the presence of Onesi-
mus with St. Paul at the time, which would naturally
press on him some special consideration of the relation
of Christianity to slavery. Accordingly St. Paul's
general attitude towards slavery will be best considered
in the Epistle to Philemon (which see). Here it will be
sufficient to note that while the institution, unnatural
as it is. is left untouched, the, declaration of a common
fellowship in Christ enunciates a principle absolutely
incompatible with slavery, and destined to destroy it.

(5) Your masters according to the flesh.— This

phrase (used also in Col. iii. 12) at once implies the
necessary limitation of all human slavery. It can sub-
jugate and even kill the body, but it cannot touch
the spirit; and it belongs only to the visible life
of this world, not to the world to come. The slave is
a man in spiritual and immortal being, not a " living
tool " or " chattel," as even philosophy called him.

With fear and trembling. — The phrase is a
favourite one with St. Paul. (See 1 Cor. ii. 3 ; 2 Cor.

vii. 15 ; Phil. ii. 12, in all which cases it is applied to
the condition of man as man under the weight of
solemn responsibility before God.) It recognises the
" spirit of bondage unto fear " (Rom. viii. 15) necessarily
belonging to all who are " under law," i.e., under
obedience to the will of another, as enforced upon them
by compulsion ; and this fear, moreover, is viewed as
showing itself in " trembling" anxiety to obey. So St.
Peter commands (1 Pet. ii. 18), "Servants, be subject
to your masters with all fear, not only to the good and
gentle, but also- to the froward ; " and it is to be noted
that he describes the suffering herein implied as a
fellowship with the sufferings of the Lord Jesus Christ
(verses 21 — 24).

Singleness of your heart, as unto Christ.—
The phrase " singleness of heart," is here used in its
proper sense, from which all others (see Rom. xii. 8;
2 Cor. viii. 2 ; ix. 11, 13) may be derived. It means
having but one aim, and that the one which we profess
to have, with no duplicity of reservation or hypocrisy.
Such singleness of heart cannot be given perfectly to
any merely human service, because no such service has a
right to our whole heart ; hence St. Paul adds, " as unto
Christ," bidding them look on their service as a part
of the service to Him who can claim absolute devotion.

(6) Not with eyeservice, as menpleasers.—
This verse is merely an expansion of the idea of
singleness of heart. The word "eyeservice" (used
here, and in Col. iii. 22) is peculiar to St. Paul, and to
these passages ; the word " menpleasers " is not found
elsewhere in the New Testament, but is used in the
LXX. ; and the antithesis of " pleasing men " and
" pleasing God " is not unfrequent with St. Paul. (See
Gal. i. 10, 11 ; 1 Tliess. ii. 4.) To a slave, looking on
his master's authority as mere power imposed by the
cruel laws of man, this " eyeservice " is found to be an
all but irresistible temptation. It is only when he looks
on himself as "the slave of Christ" — who Himself
" took on Him the form of a slave " (Phil. ii. 7) in order
to work out the will of God in a sinful world, and to
redeem all men from bondage — that he can possibly
serve from the heart.

(?) With good will doing service, as to the
Lord, and not to men.— Here we ascend to a still
higher quality than "singleness of heart." To do
service " with good will," that is, gladly and cheerfully,
" counting it joy to spend and to be spent " in the
service, is really to serve, not as a slave, but as a free-
man. Only so far as in the relation of slaves to
masters there is, or has been, any shadow of the filial
and parental relation, is this possible on merely human
grounds. But St. Paid urges, in 1 Cor. vii. 22, that the
slave " when called in the Lord, becomes the Lord's
freeman," entering a " service which is perfect freedom.''
That conception, logically worked out. has ultimately
destroyed slavery. Meanwhile it gave to the slave in
his slavery — lightened though not yet removed — the
power of sei-vice " with good will, as to the Lord."

(») The same shall he receive of the Lord.—
This verse clenches the previous exhortations by

Duty of Masters.

EPHESIANS, VI.

Final Exhortation.

doeth, the same shall he receive of the
Lord, whether he be bond or free. (9^And,
ye masters, do the same things unto them,
forbearing l threatening- : knowing that I l
your Master also 2 is in heaven ; neither
is there respect of persons with him.

2 Some read, both
i/niir Muster uiul
theirs.

(io) Finally, my brethren, be strong in
the Lord, and in the power

(11)

p , Chap.vi.10— 12.
*■ u^ Exhortation to

his might,
on the whole armour %ht the spi-
of God, that ye may be ritual battle'
able to stand against the wiles of

the inculcation of a sense of responsibility and hope.
The phrase itself is emphatic — not " he shall receive
the reward of his deed," but " he shall receive the
deed itself," considered as a thing still living and
returning on his head, both in the judgments of life
and in what we rightly call the " Last Judgment " of
the Great Day. A slave in the eye of the law had no
rights, and therefore no responsibility or hope. St.
Paul therefore bids him, as a Christian, lift his thoughts
to a region in which xill, bond and free alike, may
hear the blessing, " Well done, good and faithful
servant."

(9) Do the same things unto them— i.e., treat
them as flesh and blood like yourselves, having, as men,
the same claims on you as you on them ; " do unto them
as ye would that they should do unto you." The parallel
passage in the Colossian Epistle (chap. iv. 1) is the best
comment on this, " Give unto your servants what is just
and equal." " To forbear threatening," or, as in the
original, " the threatening," which is so common, is one
example of this sense of sympathy. For threatening
implies at every moment compulsion and coercion from
a position of tyrannical superiority; dealing with the
slave as one who has in him no free energy and no
sense of duty, and who must be driven like a brute-
beast, not led or guided as a man.

Your Master also. — The stronger marginal read-
ing is perhaps better, their Master and yours.

Respect of persons.— In this phrase the word
" person " is used in its original sense (still lingering
in our modern use of "person" and "personal,"
for " body " and " bodily,") of the persona, i.e.,
" the mask " of outward condition, circumstance, and
privilege. In this general sense our Lord (Matt. xxii.
16) is said "to regard not," and (Luke xx. 21) "to
accept not" the person of man, because "He teaches
the way of God in truth." This sense is illustrated
in different forms by the other uses of the word
''respect of persons," and the corresponding verb in
the New Testament. Thus in Acts x. 34, Rom. ii. 11,
it is used of the distinction of privilege between Jew
and Gentile, circumcision and uncircumcision ; in Gal.
ii. 6, of apostolic dignity in the eyes of men; in
Jas. ii. 1, 9, of distinction of social rank; here and in
Col. iii. 25, of the difference between the slave and the
freeman. In the modern sense of " person," as signi-
fying the real man, there is, and must be, "respect of
persons " in all righteous judgment, whether of God

[6. Conclusion (chap. vi. 10—24).

(1) Final Exhortation to put on the whole

armour of God, in order to stand fast in the
struggle, not against flesh and blood, but
against unearthly powers of evil (verses
10—17).

(2) Special Desire of their Prayers, as

for themselves and for all men, so especially
for St. Paul himself (verses 18—20).

(3) Commendation of Tychicus (verses 21, 22).

(4) Closing Salutation (verses 23, 24).]

(1) In verses 10 — 17 St. Paul sums up his practical
exhortation in that magnificent description which has
ever since laid hold of Christian imagination, both in
metaphor and in allegory. He paints the Christian life
as a battle against spiritual powers of evil, waged in
the strength of the Lord, ami in the panoply of God.
We trace the germ of this great passage first in St.
Paul's earliest Epistle (1 Thess. v. 8, 9), and then
in the later Epistle to the Romans (chap. xiii. 12).
In both these cases the image is of soldiers starting
from sleep at day-break to arm for the fray in
the morning light. But it is characteristic of the
more elaborate and thoughtful style of this Epistle,
and of the circumstances under which it was written
(in the watchful presence of the full-armed Roman
" soldiers that kept " St. Paul), that the image there
briefly touched is here worked out in full beauty of
detail.

(io) Finally, my brethren, be strong in
the Lord. — The address " my brethren " appears to
be an interpolation (probably from Phil. iii. 1). Fre-
quent as it is from St. Paul, it is not found either in this
or in the Colossian Epistle.

Be strong.— Properly, be strengthened in the inner
man ; go on from strength to strength (as in Acts ix. 22 ;
2 Tim. ii. 1). So in Phil. iv. 13 Ave have the cog-
nate expression, " Christ that strengthened me," in
whom " I can do all things." The conception is nearly
that of chap. iii. 16 ; except that there the idea is rather
of passive strength and firmness, here of active power
to fight " in the power of God's might," working in us,
because it works in our Master. (Comp. chap. i. 19,
20.) It differs also from that which follows. " Christ
in us " is here our life and indwelling strength ; in
the next verses the likeness of Christ, as manifested
in various graces, is the armour " put on " for the
battle.

(H) Put on the whole armour.— The special
emphasis in this verse is on " the whole armour,"
or "panoply" (a word only used here and in Luke
xi. 22) ; not mainly on its strength or its bright-
ness, as " armour of light " (comp. Rom. xiii. 12),
but on its completeness, providing against all " the
wiles " and " all the fiery darts " of the Evil One,
leaving no one point unguarded by a carelessness which
may be fatal on all. In this it accords well with the
general completeness and harmony of idea so charac-
teristic of this Epistle.

To put on the "armour of God " — given us, that is,
by God — is declared (by comparison of Rom. xiii. 12 and
14) to be to " put on the Lord Jesus Christ." Hence
its completeness corresponds to the divine perfection of
His true humanity. We are "to grow up unto Him
in all things " (chap. iv. 15), to put on His image in
all the harmony of " truth " and " righteousness,"
of "peace" and "faith," to receive and use His
" salvation " and wield the spiritual energy of His
" Word."

The wiles of the devil.— The word " wiles " (used
only here and in chap. iv. 14) is an almost technical

The Spiritual Battle.

EPHESIANS, VI.

The A nnour of God.

the devil. (12) For we wrestle not
against flesh and blood, but against
principalities, against powers, against
the rulers of the darkness of this world,
against spiritual wickedness l in high 2
places. (13) Wherefore take unto you

overeonu all.

I ()r,H-/'|-A(i/.«.;i /•,<«.
•> Or, h< net nly.

the whole armour of God, that ye may
be able to withstand in
the evil day, and hav- ffg^l^:
ing done all,1 to stand, fection of the
""Stand therefore, having armourof God-
your loins girt about with truth,

word for the stratagems of a skilful leader. It is nota- !
ble that these "wiles" are ascribed to the devil, the i
"prince of the evil spirits" directing his hosts against
the army of Christ; the actual "wrestling" of hand-
to-hand struggle is with these evil spirits themselves.
The word "wrestling" is, of course, not used tech-
nically, otherwise the counsel must have been fas in
Heb. xii. 1 to divest oneself of all encumbrance. It
is the personal grapple with the foe. Still it is
possible that there may be some allusion to the
••wrestling with the angel" of Gen. xxxii. 2i — 29,
though with a wholly diverse application.

(i2i por we wrestle.— Properly. For our wrestling
is. That there is a struggle, a " battle of life," must
be assumed at once by all who look at the world as it
is ; the question is whether it is against hYsh and blood,
or against a more unearthly power of evil.

Flesh and blood.— Or rather (as perhaps also in
Heb. ii. 14), blood and fleth. So iu John i. 13, " Not
of blood, nor of the will of the flesh." In Matt. xvi.
17, 1 Cor. xv. 50, we have " flesh and blood." The
sense is clearly, as the comparison of all these
passages shows. " mere human power." Possibly the
word " blood " is here put first to prevent even a
moment's confusion with the idea of wrestling against
" the flesh " as an evil power within ourselves. In
many passages of this Epistle St. Paul had dwelt
on the opposition of the Christian to the heathen
life, and the duty of rebuking and putting to shame
the works of darkness; but here he warns us
that the struggle is not a struggle with the "flesh
and blood " of wicked men — a struggle which
may still admit of some reserve of sympathy — but
a truceless war with the spiritual powers of evil
themselves.

Against principalities, against powers.— See
Note on chap. i. 21.

Against the rulers . . .— " Principalities " and
" powers " describe simply angelic powers, whether of
good or evil. But in the following clauses St. Paul
defines them as powers of evil, and appears to indicate
two different aspects of this evil power. The original
phrase is striking and powerful, "against the world-
rulers of this darkness, against the spiritual powers of
wickedness in the heavenly places."

The rulers of the darkness.— Properly, the
world-rulers of this darkness. This phrase is simply
a poetical expression of the idea conveyed by the
title "the prince of this world." applied to Satan in
John xii. 31 ; xiv. 30 j xvi. 11 (on which see Notes). For
"this darkness" is obviously (as our version renders it,
following an early gloss on the passage) " the darkness
of this present world," as a world overshadowed by
sin, and so kept, wholly or partially, from the light
of God. The title "the prince of "this world," was
applied by the Jews to Satan, especially in reference
to his power over the heathen, as lying outside the
safety of the covenant. St. Paul applies it in a cor-
responding sense here to those outside the wider
covenant of the gospel ; just as in 1 Cor. v. 5, 1 Tim. i.
20, he speaks of excommunication from the Church as

a "delivery to Satan." The spirits of evil are there-
fore spoken of as wielding the power which the
Tempter claims for himself (in Luke iv. 6) over such
souls as are still in darkness and alienation from
God. This is a power real, but limited and
transitory, able only to enslave those who "yield
themselves " to it, and destined to be overcome ;
and it seems to refer especially to the concrete
power of evil, exercised through physical and human
agency.

Spiritual wickedness in high places.— The
" spiritual powers " are not spiritual principles, but
" spiritual hosts " of wickedness ; and tlft phrase " in
the heavenly places," corresponding to " the power of
the air" in chap. ii. 2 (where see Note), stands ob-
viously in antithesis to " the darkness of this world."
The sense, as in all other cases, seems to be local. (See
Note on chap. i. 3.) The spiritual hosts of evil are
described as fighting in the region above the earth.
But the meaning underlying this figure surely points to
the power of evil as directly spiritual, not acting
through physical and human agency, but attacking
the spirit in that higher aspect, in which it contem-
plates heavenly things and ascends to the com-
munion with God. As the former idea corresponds to
the gross work of temptation on the high mountain,
so this to the subtler spiritual temptation on the
pinnacle of the temple.

(13) In the evil day.— Comp. chap. v. 15, " Because
the days are evil." The evil day is any day of which it
may be said in our Lord's words. " This is your hour,
and the power of darkness" (Luke xxii. 53). In this
life all days may be evil, but, except to the reprobate,
none wholly evil ; for out of evil " all things work
together for good."

Having done all, to stand.— The rendering (see
Chrysostom) "having overcome all" is tempting, but
does not accord with St. Paul's use of the original word.
The exhortation is first " to withstand," i.e., to resist
all distinct attacks : then, when in this we have " done
all" that we are from time to time called to do, "to
stand," i.e., to plant our feet firmly on the rock, being
" steadfast and immovable " (1 Cor. xv. 58). The one
conveys the idea of bravery and activity ; the other of
calm, well-balanced steadfastness.

(14—17) ln this magnificent passage, while it would
be unreasonable to look for formal and systematic
exactness, it is clear that (as usual in St. Paul's most
figurative passages) there runs through the whole a dis-
tinct method of idea. Thus (1) the order in which the
armour in enumerated is clearly the order in which the
armour of the Roman soldier was actually put on. It
nearly corresponds with the invariable order in
which Homer describes over and over again the
arming of his heroes. First the belt and the corselet,
which met and together formed the body armour ; then
the sandals ; next the shield, and after this (for the strap
of the great shield could hardly pass over the helmet)
the helmet itself ; then the soldier was armed, and only
had to take up the sword and spear. It is curious to
note that St. Paul omits the spear (the pilum of the

llitjhteousness, Peace, Faith.

EPHESIANS, VI.

The Sword of the Spirit.

and having on the breastplate of
righteousness ; (15) and your feet shod
with the preparation of the gospel of
peace; (16) above all, taking the shield

of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to
quench all the fiery darts of the wicked.
W> And take the helmet of salvation,
and the sword of the Spirit, which is

Roman soldier) — exactly that part of his equipment
which, when on guard within, the soldier would not be
likely to assume. (2) Again, since "to put on the ar-
mour of light " is to " put on the Lord Jesus Christ," it
follows that the various parts of the defensive armour
are the various parts of the image of the Lord Jesus
Christ ; hence they are properly His, and are through
His gift appropriated by us. Thus the " righteous-
ness " is clearly the righteousness of Christ, realised in
us (comp. Phil. iii. 9) ; the sandals, which give firm
footing, are the gospel of our peace in Him ; the salva-
tion is His salvation worked out in us. Only the sword
is in no sense our own : it is the " Word of God "
wielded by us, but in itself " living and powerful and
sharp" (Heb.iv. 12).

(14) Your loins girt about with truth, and
having on the breastplate of righteousness.—
There is here an obvious reference to two passages of
Isaiah (xi. 5 ; lix. 17), " Righteousness shall bo the
girdle of his loins," " He put on righteousness as a
breastplate." Truth and righteousness are virtually
identical, or, at least, inseparable. Hence they are
compared to the strong belt, and the breastplate con-
tinuous with it, forming together the armour of the
body. Perhaps '•truth" is taken as the belt because
it is the one bond both of society and of individual
character. But it is in the two together that men
stand "armed strong in honesty." In 1 Thess. v. 8,
the metaphor is different and perhaps less exact. There
the breastplate is the " breastplate of faith and love"
— that which here is the shield.

(15) Shod with the preparation of the gospel
of peace. — This passage is one which even to the Greek
interpreters (see Chrysostom) was obscure. What is
"the preparation of the gospel of peace" ? (1) It has
seemed to many natural to illustrate this phrase by the
celebrated passage (Isa. Hi. 7 ; Rom. x. 15), " How
beautiful are the feet of them that preach the gospel of
peace"; and to interpret, " shod in (or, for) preparing the
way of the gospel of peace." But this is inappropriate
to the whole context ; for each piece of armour is a
quality, and not a function. (2) Again, the word
rendered " preparation," is found nowhere else in the
New Testament ; in the LXX. we find it used in its most
obvious sense of " preparedness " or " readiness " (as in
Ps. x. 17, " preparedness of heart," and Neh. ii. 3) ;
but this sense will not suit the passage, for " readiness
of the gospel of peace" is hardly intelligible, and
certainly is not a quality of the soul. (3) We come
therefore, at last, to a derivative and improper sense,
which, however, is most frequently used in the LXX.,
viz., " foundation " or " base," as in Dan. xi. 7 ; Ezra
ii. 6, and iii. 3 ; Zech. v. 10 ; Ps. lxxxviii. 14. The con-
text certainly suggests that we should explain the word
here by this last Hellenistic use, as signifying simply
the " footing " or " basis." The caligw, or sandals, of
the Roman soldiers were heavy sandals studded with
hobnails, to give a secure foothold to those who would
stand firm. St. Paul identifies these with the firm
"footing of the gospel of peace." Clearly the word
" peace " is here emphatic. The gospel is looked upon as
the declaration of " peace on earth, goodwill towards
men." The firm stand on this message is the firm

assurance of God's love. In this, and this alone, we
stand. No doubt, this is in some sense faith, but faith
of a wholly different character from the defensive
faith of the next verse.

(16) Above all.— Properly, over all, or besides all
else. The shield here is the large heavy shield
covering the whole body, in which the " fiery darts "
— that is. the arrows, with the points made red hot, or
wrapped in with burning tow (comp.Ps. vii. 14; cxx. 4)
— may fix and burn themselves out without harm. St.
Paul likens it to " faith." This, however, is neither the
" faith in which we stand " (2 Cor. i. 24), nor the ener-
getic faith of Heb. xi. It is the faith cf patience and
endurance, the almost passive faith, trusting in God's
protection and submissive to His will, on which the
darts of temptation, whether from fear, or from lust,
or from doubt, fall harmless. The best commentary
after all, on the words is found in Christian's conflict
with Apollyon iu the Pilgrim's Progress.

(W) And take.— There is a break here. We are
said not to put on, but to '" take " (or rather, receive) —
a word specially appropriate to " salvation."

The helmet of salvation. — The word here (as in
Luke ii. 30 ; iii. b' ; Acts xxviii. 28) rendered " salva-
tion," is not the word commonly so rendered in the
New Testament. It is, indeed, not " salvation " in the
abstract, but a general expression for "that which tends
to salvation." But it occurs in the LXX. version of Isa.
lix. 17, which seems obviously referred to, " He put" a
helmet of salvation upon his head." In 1 Thess. v. 8,
where the breastplate is " of faith and love," the helmet
supplies the third member of the triad of Christian
graces in " the hope of salvation." Here the metaphor
is probably somewhat different. The helmet guarding
the head, the most noble and vital part, is " salvation "
in the concrete — all that is of the Saviour, all that
makes up our "state of salvation" by His atonement
and grace — received in earnest uqw, hoped for in
perfection hereafter.

The sword of the Spirit, which is the word
of God. — In this we pass to the one offensive weapon
of the Christian, " the sword of the Spirit" — i.e.. given
by the Holy Spirit — which, like the helmet, but
unlike the rest of the defensive armour, does not
become a part of himself, but is absolutely of God.
The passage reminds us at once of Heb. iv. 12 : " The
word of God is living and powerful, and sharper
than any two-edged sword." But there <as in 1 Cor.
xiv. 26; 2 Cor. ii. 17; Col. i. 25 ; 2 Tim.ii. 29) the original
word is the larger and deeper word (Logos), signifying
the truth of God in itself, and gradually leading up to
the ultimate sense in which our Lord Himself is the
" Word of God," revealing the Godhead to man.
Accordingly the work of the Word there, is that of the
" engrafted Word," " to divide asunder the soul and
the spirit" within. Here, on the contrary, we have
another expression (Bhema), signifying the Word as
spoken; and St. Peter (in 1 Pet. i. 25) defines it
exactly : " The word of the Lord endureth for ever :
and this is the word which by the gospel is preached
unto you." We cannot, of course, limit it to Holy
Scripture, though we naturally remember that our
Lord used the Scriptures as His only weapon in the

8eque8t far their Prayers.

EPHESIANS, VI.

Commend a t Ion of Tych ic ■ a

the word of God

praying always

ch vi ls_ with all prayer and sup
80. feequea< for plication in the Spirit, and
their prayers. matching thereunto with
all perseverance and supplication for all
saints; (1!" and for me, that utterance
may be given unto me, that I may open
my mouth boldly, to make known the

mystery of the gospel, (20> for which 1
am an ambassador in bonds:1 that
therein - I may speak boldly, as I ought
to speak. {--l> But that ye also may
know my aftairs, and how chap vi 21 22
I do, Tychicus, a beloved Commendation
l>r< »1 her and faithful minis- of Tycaiciu.
ter in the Lord, shall make known to you

Temptation. It is the gospel of Christ, however and
wherever spoken, able to put to shame and to night the
powers of evil.

(2) (18> Praying always with all praver and
supplication. — In this verse the metaphor gives place
to direct exhortation, unless, indeed, in tue word "watch "
there still lingers some reference to the soldier on guard.
"Prayer"' is the general word for "worship," appro-
priated to God alone ; " supplication," used also towards
man. is one element of such worship— the asking what
we need from God. In Phil. iv. 6 we have first the
general word " prayer." and then the two chief elements
of worship, " supplication with thanksgiving." It is by
prayer that all the heavenly armour is put on.

In the Spirit.— That is, " in the Spirit of God " (as
in verso 18). Compare the relation of prayer to the
inspiration of the Holy Ghost in Rom. viii. 26, 27.

And watching thereunto with all persever-
ance.— These words in themselves obviously supply
the other part of our Lord's command, " Watch and
pray," naturally apposite to the consideration of the
Christian warfare. " Perseverance " implies exertion,
holding out against, fatigue and difficulty. The corre-
sponding verb is used in relation to all kinds of
spiritual labour (see Acts ii. 42; vi. 4; viii. 13); but
especially in connection with prayer (Acts i. 14 ; Rom.
xii. 12; Col. iv. 2). Perhaps from this frequent con-
nection St. Paul is induced to add to it " supplication,"
and this time "for all saints," so leading on to his
usual request for the prayers of his brethren. For
this he is willing to sacrifice some part of the perfect
appropriateness of idea ; since the whole picture
hitherto has been of the fight, waged by each for him-
self although side by side with others), in the combined
power of watchfulness aud prayer for God's help.

(is, 19) And supplication for all saints ; and for
me. — It is curious, and probably not accidental, that
the prepositions in these two clauses are different. The
first is properly " touching all saints," and the second
" on behalf of me." Both are often interchanged ; but
there is, perhaps, here a touch of greater earnestness
in the request of their prayers for himself, in especial
reference to the need which is spoken of in the next words.

(19) That utterance may be given me, that I
may open my mouth . . .—This hardly renders
the original ' that word maybe given me in opening
my mouth." The " opening the mouth" — an expression
always used of solemn and deliberate utterance — seems
taken for granted. What the Apostle desires them to
pray for is that " word may be given him " — " the
word of wisdom and the word of knowledge, by the
Spirit" (1 Cor. xii. 8), according to our Lord's
promise (Matt. :■:. 19, 20), " It shall be given you in the
same hour what you shall speak ; for it is not ye
that speak, but the Spirit of your Father that speaketh
in you." Then he adds as a consequence of this— to
'moke known in plainness of speech the mystery of the
gospel. For to make known a mystery in simplicity

ne.ds not only boldness to speak, but also the know-
ledge of the true word of God.
The mystery of the gospel.— The word " g( is

being used emphatically is. of course, the mystery of
the new and universal grace of God to the (ientile-
of which he speaks at large in chap. iii. 1 — 10. This
was "made known to him; " he desires inspiration "to
make it known " to others.

W) In bonds. — Rightly, as in the margin, in a
chain. The word is the same which is used in Acts
xxviii. 20. " For the hope of Israel I am bound in this
chain." It occurs also in Mark v. 4, Luke viii. 29,
where it is distinguished from a "fetter" properly
so called, as binding the feet, and therefore obviously
signifies a " manacle " binding the hand. Both are
included (see Luke viii. 29) in the general word "bonds."
The allusion is undoubtedly to the custom of chaining
the prisoner by the hand to the soldier who kept him.
Thus in Acts xii. 6 we read that Peter " was sleeping
between two soldiers," and therefore " bound with two
manacles;" and in Acts xxi. 33 that a similar pre-
caution was used on the first apprehension of St. Paul.
Here the singular number is probably to be understood
literally. St. Paul was free except for the one chain,
which the soldier was responsible for holding, and
perhaps did not always think it needful to hold. That
chain he seems to speak of as the badge of his am-
bassadorial dignity. To ambassadors, indeed, it belongs
to be safe from imprisonment; but it was his greater
glory to wear the chain for Christ.

That therein . . .—This is simply an enforcement
of the previous phrase, in " plainness of speech." The
same word is used, and with the same signification of
simplicity, as well as boldness, which (St. Paul here
adds) alone befits his office.

(3,4) Verses 21 — 24 form the conclusion of the Epistle.
in commendation of Tychicus' salutation and blessing.
The extreme brevity and generality of this section
here — in contrast with St. Paul's practice in every
other Epistle, except the Second Epistle to the Corin-
thians and the Epistle to the Galatians (both of which
have the abruptness of indignation) and especially
with the parallel Epistle to the Colossians — seem to
bear on the question of the encyclical character of this
Epistle.

(21) That ye also — i.e., ye as well as other?. There
is evidently an allusion to Tychicus' similar mission to
Colossae; aud we may. perhaps, also trace some indi-
cation of a generality of scope in this Epistle.

Tychicus is first mentioned with Trophimus in
Acts xx. 4, as being " of Asia," and accompanying
St. Paul on his last journey from Corinth to Asia.
although he is not, like Trophimus, actually named as
with the Apostle at Jerusalem. It is highly probable
that he was one of the " messengers of the churches "
spoken of in 2 Cor. viii. 18 — 23, as sent to bear the
i alms to Jerusalem. We now find him again with
59

Final Salutation

EPHESIANS, VI.

and Blessing.

all things : (22> whom I have sent unto \
you for the same purpose, that ye might i
know our affairs, and that he might
Chap. vi. 23, comfort your hearts. (*»
24. Concluding Peace be to the brethren,
blessing. and loye with fait} from

i God the Father and the Lord Jesus
! Christ. (24) Grace be with all them that
J love our Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity.1
Amen.

IF Written from Rome unto the Ephesians by
Tychieus.

St. Paul, and made by him the bearer of this Epistle
and the Epistle to the Colossians. Lastly, he is
alluded to as still his companion in the interval' between
the first and second captivity (Tit. iii. 2), and in the
second captivity is despatched once more to Ephesus
(2 Tim. iv. 12). It is evident that he well deserved
the title of a " faithful minister " to the Apostle ; and
we note (in 2 Tim. iv. 11, 12) that the command to
bring Mark, as being "profitable for ministration," is
immediately connected with the remark, " Tychieus
have I sent to Ephesus."

A faithful minister.— The word "minister" is
diaconus ; but there is no reason to think that it is
used technically to describe Tychieus as a deacon. In
the Colossian Epistle the words " and fellowservant ''
are added, showing clearly that the word " minister "
refers only to ministration to St, Paul.

(*2) Whom I have sent unto you.— This verse
corresponds word for word with Col. iv. 8, being a
quasi-official statement of Tychieus' commission. The
words ■"that he might comfort (or, encowrage)
your hearts," although they might apply generally
to all messengers from an Apostle, may probably
be best explained by reference to the tone of the
Epistle to the Philippians — in which St. Paul shows so
much affectionate anxiety lest his converts should be
disheartened by his continued imprisonment — and to the
exhortation in this Epistle not " to faint at his tribu-
lations for them" (chap. iii. 13).

(23) Peace be to the brethren . . .—In the con-
clusion of the Epistle, as at the begiuning, St. Paul
gives the double benediction, " Peace and grace be
with you all." But it is impossible not to notice the
difference between the generality of the terms here
used ("the brethren," and "all who love the Lord
Jesus Christ") and the personal "you" of all the

other Epistles — a difference which would be inexpli-
cable if this Epistle were addressed to the well-known
and loved Church of Ephesus alone.

Peace seems especially dwelt upon in the Epistles of
the Captivity, of which the Epistle to Philippi contains
(in chap. iv. 7) the fullest description of the " peace of
God which passeth all understanding." It is naturally
connected here with love (as in 2 Cor. xiii. 11 ; Col. iii.
15, 16) — a "love with faith." "making perfect" (as in
Gal. v. 6) the faith which St. Paul takes for granted
as being in them. For peace is first with God, in the
thankful receiving of His mercy ; from this naturally
arises " love with faith " towards Him ; and out of this,
again, peace and love towards men, in th" conviction
that, " if God so loved us, we ought also to love one
another" (1 John iv. 11). All these are gifts from
" God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ."

(24) Grace be with all them . . .—The saluta-
tion, " Grace be with yon." in various forms, is, as St.
Paul himself says in 2 Thess. iii. 17, " the token."' or
characteristic signature, in every one of his Epistles,
written with liis own hand. It may be noted that it is
not found in the Epistles of St. James, St. Peter. St.
Jude and St. John, and that it is found in the Epistle
to the Hebrews. Here, however, it is at once general
and conditional, " to all them who love the Lord Jesus
Christ," So in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, " If any man love not
the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be anathema."

In sincerity. — The original is far stronger, " in
incorruptibility," a word usually applied to the im-
mortality of heaven (as in Rom. ii. 7 ; 1 Cor. xv. 42,
50, 53, 54 ; 2 Tim. i. 10) ; only here and in Tit, ii. 7,
applied to human character on earth. Here it evidently
means "with a love immortal and imperishable," in-
capable either of corruption or of decay, a foretaste of
the eternal communion in heaven.

'30

INTRODUCTION

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

PHILIPPIAUS.

I. Time, Place, and Occasion of the Epistle.—
The indications of the time and place of this Epistle are
unusually clear. It is written by St. Paul "in bonds*5
(chap. i. 7 — 13; ; in the Prcetoriwm (chap. i. 13), that is,
under the charge of the Praetorian guard; it semis greet-
ing from the " saints of Csesar's household " ichap.iv. 21) ;
ii expresses an expectation of some crisis in his impri-
sonment (chap. i. 20 — 26), and a confident hope of
re-visiting Philippi (chap. i. 26 ; ii. 2-K All these
indications place it in the Roman imprisonment of St.
Paul — which we know (Acts xxviii. 30) to have lasted
without trial or release for " two whole years," and which
certainly began about a.d. 61. The date of the Epistle
must therefore be fixed about the year a.d. 62 or 63.

Nor is the occasion of the Epistle less obvious. The
Church at Philippi now. as at an earlier time (chap. iv.
10—19), had sent contributions to St. Paul's necessities,
Under the distress and destitution of imprisonment, when
he was unable to maintain himself by the labour of his
own hands, as he had formerly done at Thessaloniea,
Corinth, and Ephesus. Epaphroditus. their messenger,
through his affectionate exertions on St. Paul's behalf,
had fallen into dangerous illness, and on his con-
valescence had been seized with home-sickness, aggra-
vated by the uneasiness of knowing that his danger had
been reported to his friends at home (chap. ii. 25 — 30).
St. Paul, therefore, sent him back with this Letter,
the immediate object of which was to convey his thanks
and blessing for the generosity of the Philippiaus, and
to commend warmly the devotion of Epaphroditus,
which had been in great degree the cause of his illness.

II. The Church to which it was written.—
Of the first preaching at Philippi we have a full and
graphic account in Acts xvi., where a description of
the history and character of the city itself will be found
in the Notes. The preaching began, as usual, from a
Jewish centre, but this was only a proseuche, or oratory
(Acts xvi. 13)— not, as at Thessaloniea, a synagogue
(Acts xvii. 1 ) ; and the whole history shows no indica-
tion of any strong Jewish influence. The first convert
named is Lydia, au Asiatic of Thyatira. not a Jewess,
but " one who worshipped God " — a " proselyte of the
gate." The first opposition came not from the jews, as at
Thessaloniea (Acts xvii. 5. 6, 13), but from the masters
of the "damsel possessed with a spirit of divination,"
simply becanse by the exorcism of the Apostle the
"hope of their gain was gone." The accusation
levelled against St. Paul and his companion was one
which was intimately connected with the peculiar
position of Philippi as a Roman colony — a fragment
'as it were) of the imperial city itself. We note,
indeed, that at this very time (Acts xviii. 2) " Claudius

had commanded all Jews to depart from Rome," and it
is at least probable that this decree of banishment
might extend to the Roman colonies, as distinguished
from the ordinary provincial cities. Accordingly, in
the accusation itself stress was laid on the fact that the
accused were " Jews," and the charge was that they
preached a religio illicita, involving customs which it
was "not lawful for the Philippiaus to i-eceive, being
Romans" (Acts xvi. 21). The Church was therefore,
mainly a Gentile Church — the firstfruits of European
Christianity — and its attachment to the Apostle of the
Gentiles was especially strong and fervent. The Phi-
lippiaus alone, it appears, offered — certainly from them
alone St. Paul consented to receive — those contributions
to his necessities, which elsewhere (see Acts xx. 33 — 35;
2 Cor. xi. 7—12 ; 1 Thess. i. 9; 2 Thess. iii. 8) he thought
it best to refuse for the gospel's sake.

The foundation of the Church had been laid amidst a
persecution, in which the Roman magistrates, with a
characteristic dislike of all foreign superstitions likely to
lead to uproar, and a characteristic disregard of justice
towards two or three obscure Jews, simply played into
the hands of mob violence. The step which St. Paul
afterwards took of asserting his citizenship and forcing
the magistrates to confess their wrong-doing (Acts
xvi. 37, 38) looks like a precaution to render the recur-
rence of arbitrary persecution less likely after his
departure. But we gather from this Epistle (chap. i.
27—30) that the Church had still, like the sister Church
at Thessaloniea (1 Thess. i. 6; ii. 14) and the other
Macedonian churches (2 Cor. viii. 2), to undergo " the
same conflict" of suffering from '"their adversaries,"
'• which they had seen in him." It grew up under the
bracing air of trial, with a peculiar steadfastness, warm*
heartedness, and simplicity, apparently unvexed by the
speculative way wardness of Corinth or the wild heresies
of Ephesus or Colossa?. Again like the Thessalonian
Church, its dangers were mainly practical (see chap,
iii.) ; the Judaising influence was probably foreign
and not very formidable ; the tendencies to Antinomian
profligacy (chap. iii. 17 — 21), to some division by
party spirit (chaps, ii. 1 — 4; iv. 2, 3), to occasional des-
pondency under trial (chap. i. 28), hardly appear to
have affected the Church widely or seriously. In its
condition, accordingly, St. Paul could rejoice almost
without reserve of sorrow or anxiety.

Of St. Paul's subsequent visits to Philippi we have
no full record. We cannot doubt that he visited the city
on his way from Ephesus to Macedonia and Greece, on
the third missionary circuit (Acts xx. 3). The common
tradition, exceedingly probable in itself, dates the
Second Epistle to the Corinthians from Philippi on

PHILIPPIANS.

that occasion. We know (Acts xx. 6 ) that it was from
Philippi that he started, some months after, on his last
journey to Jerusalem. At a period subsequent to this
Epistle, we learn (1 Tim. i. 3) that St. Paul, apparently
after a visit to Ephesus, " went into Macedonia :' after
his first captivity,, and so, no doubt, fulfilled his hope
of re-visiting this well-loved Church. After this we
have no notice of the Church in history till we read of
their kindly reception of Ignatius on his way to martyr-
dom, and study the Epistle of Polycarp to them, written
shortly after, mainly practical and hortatory, and imply-
ing, with but slight reservation, a still strong and vigor-
ous Christianity, and a constant grateful memory of the
great Apostle. (See, for example, chap, i.— " I rejoiced
greatly with you in our Lord Jesus Christ, because ye
have adopted the imitation of true love .... because
the firm root of your faith, celebrated from ancient
times, remains even until now, and bears fruit unto the
Lord Jesus Christ ;" chap. iii. — " Neither I nor any
like me can follow out fully the wisdom of the blessed
and glorious Paul, who, when he came among you, taught
accurately and durably the word of truth.") Ter-
tullian also alludes to it (de Prcescr. xxxvi.) as one
of the churches where the "authentic letters of the
Apostles" — no doubt, this Epistle itself — were read.
Afterwards we have little reference to it in Church
history. Like Colossse, it sank into insignificance.

III. The Genuineness of the Epistle.— External
Evidence. — The evidence for the genuineness of the
Epistle is very strong. In all ancient catalogues, from
the Muratorian Fragment (a.d. 170) downwards, in all
ancient versions, beginning with the Peschito and the
old Latin, it is placed among the undoubted Epistles of
St. Paul. In Christian writings, before the end of
the second century, knowledge of it may be distinctly
traced ; after that time it is quoted continually.

Thus, in the Apostolic Fathers, to say nothing of
slighter indications which have been noted (as by Dr.
Westcott, Canon of the New Testament, chap. i.. and Dr.
Lightfoot, in his Introduction to this Epistle), St. Poly-
carp, in his Epistle to the Philippians (chap, iii.), expressly
declares that St. Paul, " when absent, wrote letters
to them, by searching into which they can still be built
up in the faith,'' and speaks of them as " praised in the
beginning of his Epistle" (chap. xi.). Nor are there
wanting expressions in his letter (such as the "using our
citizenship worthily of Christ," " the enemies of the
cross," the "rejoicing with them in the Lord," the "not
running in vain," &c.) which not obscurely indicate
reference to the text of our Epistle itself. Again, Dr.
Lightfoot quotes from the Testaments of the Twelve
Patriarchs, a Judeeo- Christian work, dating early in
the second century, certain expressions — "the form
of God " and the " fashion of men " (see Phil. ii. 6),
the "luminaries" of heaven (see Phil. ii. 15), and,
above all. the unique phrase " the bowels (heart) of the
Sou of God" (see Phil. i. 8) — which indicate unmis-
takably knowledge of this Epistle.

Perhaps the earliest direct quotation of it is in the
celebrated Epistles of the Churches of Lyons and
Vienne (a.d. 177), on the martyrdoms in the persecution
of Marcus Aurelius (Eusebms, Ecclesiastical History,
v. 2) — where we find the great passage: "He being
in the form of God. thought it not robbery to be
equal with God," &c. Then, as in other eases, the
habit of quotation begins in Irenseus, Clement of
Alexandria, and Tertullian. and continues afterwards
unbroken. Tertullian. as we have already seen, ap-
parently speaks of the Letter as being read as an
Apostolic letter in the Philippian Church ; and in his

controversy with Marcion (v. 20) so quotes it as to
show that it had escaped the destructive criticism and
arbitrary mutilation in which Marcion so constantly
anticipated the critical scepticism of later times.

Internal Evidence. — But. strong as external
evidence is. it is in this case far weaker than the
internal, which may be said to rise almost to demon-
stration. The strong marks of personality which we
trace in every line, the unstudied frequency of histo-
rical allusion and of undesigned coincidences with
historical records, the simple and natural occasion
of writing, in the reception of the offerings and
the illness of Epaphroditus, the absence of all
formal doctrinal or ecclesiastical purpose, the fulness
and warmth of personal affection, — all are unmistak-
able marks of genuineness, all are fairly inconceivable
on the supposition of imitation or forgery. The
character of St. Paul, as unconsciously drawn in it, is
unquestionably the same character which lives and
glows in the Corinthian and Galatian Epistles; and
yet there is in it an indescribable growth into greater
calmness and gentleness, which corresponds remarkably
with advance of age and change of circumstances.
There are also marked similarities, both of style and
expression, with the earlier Epistles, and, above all, with
the Epistle to the Romans, the last of the earlier group,
which will be found noted in detail on the various
passages.* There is also that mingling of identity
and development of idea which is notable in all the
Epistles of the Captivity. But in this case, perhaps,
the similarity is greater, and the diversity less, than
in the other Epistles of the same period.

It is, therefore, not surprising that, even in the freest
speculation of the higher criticism, there are but few
examples of scepticism as to the genuineness of this
Epistle.

IV. The main Substance of the Epistle.—
(1) The Picture of the Writer and the Receivers. — The
first and simplest impression made by this Epistle is
the vivid portraiture which it gives us of St. Paul himself
— especially in the conflict of desire for the death which
is the entrance to the nearer presence of Christ, and for
the longer life, which will enable him to gather a fuller
harvest for Christ — in the striking union of affection
and thankfulness towards the Philippians. with a dig-
nified independence and a tone of plenary authority —
in the sensitiveness to the sorrow and inactivity of
imprisonment, overcome and finally absorbed into an
almost unequalled fulness of joy in the Lord. Side by
side with this, we are next struck with the picture which
it gives ns of the Macedonian Christianity at Philippi —
not unlike that of Thessalonica, though, it would seem,
less chequered by fanaticism or disorder, and certainly
singularly accordant with the Macedonian character, as
it paints itself at once speculatively inferior and
practically superior to the Greek, in the pages of history.
The Philippian Christianity is pre-eminently vigorous,
loyal, and warm-hearted, courageous and patient, little
disturbed either by speculative refinements or speculative
inventions, hardly needing any warning, except against
the self-assertion which is the natural excrescence of
earnestness, or any exhortation, except to a deeper

* Perhaps the most notable are :—

(a) Phil. ii. in, 11, Compared with Pom. xiv. 11.

ib) Phil. iii. lo. 11. compared with Pom. vi. 5.

e/i Phil. iv. 18, compared with Pom. xii. 1.

(c) Phil. iii. .i. ('.. compared with > Cor. xi. 22. Pom. xi. 1. It
may lie noted that in all these cases there is similarity with
ditference the characteristic of independent coincidence, not
ol' imitation.

PHILIPPIANS.

thoughtfulness, which might "overflow into know-
ledge," and prove " the things which are really excel-
lent.'' There is no letter of St. Paul's so absolutely
free from the necessity of rebuke, and, accordingly,
there is none so full of joy, in spite of all the circum-
stances of .suffering and anxiety under which it was
written.

I 2 1 The Condition of the Church at Borne. — The next

freat subject of interest is the light thrown by this
Ipistle on the progress of the Church at Rome during
St. Paul's imprisonment. Of his preaching to the Jews,
the Asiatic Gentiles, and the Greeks, we have plain
historical record in the Acts of the Apostles. That
record fails us at the moment when he reaches the great
centre of heathen civilisation at Rome, simply telling
us that his imprisonment was not allowed to be a hin-
drance to his preaching, first (as always) with the Jews,
then, on their rejection of the gospel, to the Gentiles
who were " willing to hear it." Now, we know by the
history of the Neronian persecution in Tacitus that,
less than ten years after St. Paul's arrival in Rome,
the Christians were already " a vast multitude," not
only in the Eastern home of their religion, but in the
metropolis itself. While we perceive from St. Paul's
Epistle to the Romans that, before that arrival Chris-
tianity was firmly established in Pome, and suspect
that the ignorance of the Jewish leaders concerning
" the sect everywhere spoken against " (Acts xxviii. 22)
was in great degree affected, yet we cannot but see
that these ten years must have been years of rapid pro-
gress, in order to justify, even approximately, the
description of the Roman historian. Naturally, we
conclude that St. Paul's presence, even iu his prison,
must have given the chief new impulse to such progress,
and inquire eagerly for any indications of his actual dis-
charge to the Romans of the debt of gospel preaching
which he had long ago acknowledged as due to them
(Rom. i. 14, 15). To this inquiry almost the only answer
is found in the Epistle to the Philippians.

There we learn that, as we might have expected, St.
Paul's bonds " turned out " to the great " furtherance
of the gospel." Wherever his prison actually was, it
gave him opportunity of influence over the PraBtorian
guards, and all the rest of the world, civilian or
military, who frequented their quarters ; it gave him
access, moreover, to those of Caesar's household — that
large community of the domus Augusta which included
all varieties of occupation, character, and rank. That
the earlier Christianity of Rome was largely under
Jewish influence we learn from the whole argument of
the Epistle to the Romans ; and it has been often re-
marked that the names included in the long list of
salutations in the last chapter show a preponderance of
Greek nationality in the converts themselves. But of
those who came under the spell of St. Paul's presence,
probably comparatively few would be Jews, although
indeed at this time, through the influence of Poppaea,
the Jewish element might be more than usually prominent
in Caesar's household ; and while the greater number of
that household who came in contact with him would be
slaves of various nationalities, still, in the higher officers
and among the Praetorian soldiery, many would be of
true Roman origin. Remembering the friendship of
Seneca for Burrlius. the Praetorian Prefect at the time
of St. Paul's arrival, and the former conduct of Gallio,
Seneca's brother, towards the Apostle at Corinth, many
have delighted to speculate on the probability of some
direct intercourse between the Apostle of the Gentiles and
the philosopher of the later and more religious Stoicism,
who was then the leader of higher Roman thought.

But, however this may be, and whatever may be the
real weight of the apparent similarities to familiar
Stoic phraseology traceable in the Epistle (see chap. iv.
11 — 13, and Notes thereon), those who remember the
eagerness of Roman society at this time for new reli-
gions, new mysteries, and even new superstitions, from
the East, will find no difficulty in believing that one
who was placed, by the circumstance of his imprison-
ment, in the imperial court itself, might easily have
produced a deep impression on men of Roman birth,
perhaps of high Roman rank.

This new Christianity would therefore probably be of a
type, more purely Gentile, less predominantly Oriental,
than the Christianity to which the Epistle to the Romans
was addressed. Of the division between the old and the
new the Epistle shows traces, in the description of those
who preached Christ " of good will " to St. Paul, and
those who preached in " factiousness and vain-glory; "
for it seems clear, from his rejoicing that " every way
Christ was preached," that the division was as yet one
of mere faction and party, not of the contrast of false
with true doctrine, which we know that he treated with
stern, uncompromising severity. (See 2 Cor. xi. 1 — 4;
Gal. i. 6 — 9.) Like all such divisions, it probably marked
and justified itself by some differences in religious
teaching and religious life : but if these existed, they
did not go down to the foundation. The time, indeed,
was not far distant, when the fall of Jerusalem, and
the obvious passing away of the whole Jewish dispen-
sation, struck the final blow to the existence of Judaism
in the Christian Church. In spite, therefore, of this
division, it seems clear that at the time of the Philip*
pian Epistle Christianity had advanced, and was ad-
vancing, with rapid strides. " The city which is in
heaven " Was already beginning to rise from its foun-
dations in the " great Babylon of the Seven Hills," '
now the very type of the kingdom of the earth, des-
tined hereafter to be, even visibly, the metropolis of
Western Christianity.

(3) The main Subjects of the Epistle. — Turning to
the teaching of the Epistle itself, the main interest
centres round the great passage in the second chapter
(ii. 5 — 11), which is the very creed of the Incarnation,
Passion, and Exaltation of our Lord Jesus Christ.
This has been noticed already in the General Introduc-
tion to the Ejnstles of the Captivity, and is dealt with
in detail in the Notes on the passage. Here it need
only be remarked that its advanced Christology is
made the more striking by the occasion of its occur-
rence, which is, in point of form, simply incidental, in
enforcement of the familiar exhortation to follow the
mind of Christ Jesus in humility and self-sacrifice;
and that the singular simplicity and clearness of its
enunciation of truth stand to the profounder and more
mysterious teaching on the same subject in the Epistle
to the Colossians, much as, in later times, the simplicity
of a Western creed stands to the greater subtlety of
an Eastern. Next in interest, though after a long
interval, is the light thrown (in chap, iii.) on the obsti-
nate persistence in Macedonia of the old Judaising
influence, elsewhere decaying or passing into new
forms ; and the appearance both of the pretensions to
perfection (chap. iii. 12 — 16) and of the Antinomian
recklessness (chap. iii. 17 — 21) — sometimes associated
with these pretensions, sometimes in revolt against
them — with which we are but too familiar in subse-
quent Church history.

(4) Analysis of the Epistle. — A full analysis will be
found in each chapter. A shortened general sketch of
these analyses we have subjoined as usual.

PHILTPPIANS.

The First Section (original Letter?).

(1) Introduction.

(a) Salutation (chap. i. 1, 2) ;

\b) Thanksgiving for their "felloiv ship" in the
work of the gospel, specially shown to-
wards himself (chap. i. 3 — 8) ;

(2) Declaration of the Position at Rome.

(a) The progress of the gospel through his bonds,

stimulating preaching of the gospel, partly
in good will, partly in strife, but in any
case a cause of joy (chap. i. 12 — 18);

(b) His own division of feeling, between desire

to depart, and a willingness to remain
for their sakes, which he knows will be
realised (chap. i. 19 — 26).

(3) Exhortation :

(a) To steadfast boldness under persecution,

now present or imminent (chap. i. 27 —
30) _;

(b) To unity of spirit in the humility and self-

sacrifice of " the mind of Christ Jesus "
(chap. ii. 1 — 4).

(4) The Doctrine of Christ.

(a) His humility in the Incarnation: stooping

from the form of God to the form of man
(chap. ii. 5 — 7) ;

(b) His second humility in the Passion (chap. ii.

8);

ii. 9—11).

(5) Original Conclusion of the Epistle.

(a) Final exhortation to obedience, quietness,

purity, joy xvith him in sacrifice (chap,
ii. 12— 18);

(b) Mission and commendation of Timotheus as

St. Paul's forerunner (chap. ii. 19 — 24);

(chap. ii. 25—30) ;

(d) Final "farewell in the Lord " (chap. iii. 1).

2. The Second Section (Postscript?).

(1) Practical Warnings :

(a) Against Judaism, by the example of his oivn

renunciation of all Jeivish privilege

(chap. iii. 2—10) ;
(6) Against claim of perfection, again enforced

by his own example (chap. iii. 11 — 1<5) ;
(c) Against Antinomian profligacy, as unworthy

of the " citizens of heaven " (chap. ii;

17—21).

(2) Exhortations Renewed:

(a) To unity (chap. iv. 1 — 3) ;

(b) To joy, thankfulness, and peace (chap. iv.

4-7);

which he had taught it (chap. iv. 8, 9).

(3) Acknowledgment of Offerings.

(a) Rejoicing in their renewed care for him

(chap. iv. 10—14) ;

(b) Remembrance of their former liberality.

(chap. iv. 15 — 17) ;

(4) Concluding Salutation and Blessing.

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

PHILIPPIANS.

CHAPTER L— d) Paul and Timo-

Chap. i. i, 2. theus, the servants of
Jesus Christ, to all the

Salutation.

I saints in Christ Jesus which are at
Philippi, with the bishops and dea-

c-')

grace be rnito you, and

[1. Introduction (chap. i. 1 — 11).

(1) Salutation (verses 1, 2).

(2) Thanksgiving for their "fellowship in the

gospel," uttered in perfect confidence and
in deep personal affection (verses 3 — 8).

(3) Prayer for their growth in knowledge and

judgment, which may guard them from
" offence," and keep them in the things that
are excellent (verses 9 — 11).]

W Paul and Timotheus, (the) servants of
Jesus Christ.— To the Philippian, as to the Thessa-
lonian Church (see 1 Thess. i. 1; 2 Thess. i. 1), St, Paul
does not think it needful to assert his apostleship ; but
writes, in a tone of affectionate and confident fami-
liarity, as to those whom lie could thoroughly trust,
Here he and Timotheus are simply "servants" (not, as
in our version, "the servants" in any position of special
eminence i "of Jesus Christ" — a title of humility as-
sumed by St. James and St, Jude ( Jas. i. 1 ; Jude, verse
1), but nowhere else by St. Paid without the addition
of some title of apostolic authority. (Comp. Rom, i. 1 ;
Tit. i. 1.) Even in Gal. i. 10 lie declares that he is
" the servant of Christ," chiefly to show that he cannot
and need not " please men." It is to be noted also that
here, as again (with Silas) in the Thessalonian Epistles,
Timotheus is joined with St. Paul almost on a footing
of equality ; whereas in other Epistles (see 2 Cor. i. 1 ;
Col. i. 1 ; Philem. verse 1), he is separated from the
Apostle and distinguished as " Timotheus the brother."
This is probably to be .accounted for partly by the
absence of all necessity for assertion of his own
apostleship, partly also by the fact that (with Silas)
Timotheus was St. Paul's fellow-worker in the conver-
sion of the Macedonian Churches, and accordingly his
chosen messenger to them from time to time (Acts xix.
22; xx. 5).

The saints in Christ Jesus.— The same expres-
sion is used in the salutations which commence other
Epistles of this period (see Eph. i. 1; Col. i. 1): "the
saints and faithful in Christ Jesus."

With the bishops and deacons.— In this pas-
sage the word " bishop " is, for the first time, used as a
fifcle, although in Acts xx. 28 ("over which the Holy
Ghost hath made you overseers ") it is employed as a
description of duty, with a distinct reference to its etymo-
logical meaning and origin. In the Pastoral Epistlrs
we find it similarly used (as 1 Tim. iii. 2; Tit, i. 7).
There is now no question — and but for supposed eccle-
siastical necessities there never could have been any
question — that in Holy Scripture, as also in the First
37 65

Epistle of an Apostolical Father (St. Clement to the
Corinthians, chap, xix.), the two titles of " bishop "
and " presbyter " are applied to the same persons — the
latter, however, being in St. Paul's Epistles the more
frequent and conventional term, while the former
seems almost always used with reference to its actual
meaning. The two titles are of diverse origin. The
"presbyter," or "elder," is a Jewish title, bo directly
descended from the synagogue that the institution of the
presbyterate is not, like that of the diaconate, recorded
as a historical creation in the Church. The title of
" bishop," or " overseer," is of heathen origin, used in
classical Greek for a commissioner from head-quarters,
applied in the LXX. to various secular offices (Z Kings
xi. 19; 2 Chron. xxiv. 12—17; Nch. xi. 9, 14, 22; Isa.
lx. 17). The former is simply a title of dignity, like
the many derivations from the Latin senior which
have passed into modern language. The latter is a title of
official duty. Like the word " pastor " and " apostle."
it belongs properly only to the Lord Jesus Christ, who
is the " Apostle oi God " (Heb. iii. 1), and " the Shep-
herd and Bishop of our souls" (1 Pet. ii. 25); but de-
rivatively to His ministers, as having the oversight of
His Chui'ch. This is directly shown in the application
of the title to the Ephesian presbyters (Acts xx. 28;
see also 1 Pet, v. 1, 2), and the idea of responsible
oversight is brought out clearly in the description of
the office of the "bishop" in 1 Tim. iii. 1 — 7. The in-
different use of the two names is made absolutely clear
in Tit, i. 5 — 7 : " Ordain elders in every city ... if any
be blameless . . . For a bishop must be blameless as a
steward of God." It is only necessary to remark briefly
that this identification of the two titles (of which St,
Clement's Epistle is the last example) in no way
weakens the significance of the undoubted historical
fact of the development of what we call the Episcopate
in the early part of the second century, and the over-
whelming probability of its origination, under tho
sanction of St. John, when the representatives of the
higher order of tho Apostolate passed away.

The name " deacon " is also used for the first time,
unless, indeed, as is probable, it is applied officially to
Phoebe in Rom. xvi. 1. Although the office of the
Seven, in Acts vi. 1 — 7, is undoubtedly the germ of tho
diaconate, and although the cognate words (" ministra-
tion " and " serve ") are used in connection with them
(see verses 1, 2), yet the actual title of deacons is
nowhere given to them.

This mention of the ministers as distinct from
the Church in salutation is unique. It lias been con-
jectured, with great probability, that in the Letter of

Thanksgiving for their

PHILIPPIANS, I.

Fellowship in the Gospel.

peace, from God our Father, and from
the Lord Jesus Christ. (3) I thank my
Chap. i. 3—8. God upon every remem-
Thanksg lying brance l of you, W always

tor their tellow- • J » .*'

ship in the gos- m every prayer ot mine
pel. for you all making re-

quest with joy, ^ for your fellowship
in the gospel from the first day until

1 Or, mention.

3 Or, you hare
me in your

heart.

now; (6) being confident of this very
thing, that he which hath begun a
good work in you will perform it 2
until the day of Jesus Christ. W Even
as it is meet for me to think this
of , you all, because I have you in
my heart ; 3 inasmuch as both in my
bonds, and in the defence and confirma-

fche Philippiau Church, which no doubt accompanied the
mission of alms by Epaphroditus, the presbyters and
deacons were so distinguished ; as in the letter of the
Council at Jerusalem, according to the ordinary reading
of Acts xv. 23 ("the apostles and elders and brethren").
Some ancient authorities held that Epaphroditus was
" the apostle " (or what we should call the bishop) of
the Church at Philippi, and that he is not named here
simply because he was with St. Paul : so that in the
Philippian Church the three orders were already repre-
sented. (But on this see chap. ii. 25.)

(3—8) ln these verses St. Paul strikes that keynote
of joy and confidence, which is dominant throughout
the whole Epistle, and which is singularly remarkable
when we remember that it was written in captivity, in
enforced absence from the familiar and well-loved
scenes of his apostolic labour, and with the knowledge
of faction and jealousy, taking advantage of that
absence. The words " joy " and " rejoice " occur no
less than thirteen times in this short Epistle ; they
express what his own feeling is, and what he desires
that theirs should be.

(3, 4) i thank my God . . .—These verses more
accurately rendered will run thus : I thank my God
upon all my remembrance of you at all times, in every
prayer of mine for you all, uttering that prayer with
joy — i.e., with joyful confidence. The sense, however,
is not materially altered. The emphatic earnestness
of thanksgiving is seen in the reiteration which
runs through the passage, and its absolute universality
of scope is no less clearly marked. The closest parallel
is again in the Epistles to the Thessalonians (see
1 Thess. i. 2 ; 2 Thess. ii. 3), although in every Epistle,
except the Epistle to the Galatians, there is an opening
of thanksgiving.

(5) For your fellowship in the gospel.— More
properly, toivards the gospel, or, as affecting the gospel.
The construction is illustrated by the more limited use
of the same Greek word (as in Rom. xv. 26 ; 2 Cor. ix.
13) in the sense of " contribution " ; in which case the
word " towards " introduces the objects of the alms-
giving there specified. Accordingly St. Paid must be
taken here to mean the fellow-working of the Philippians
in the ministry of the gospel, of which he speaks still
more distinctly in verse 7. That fellow-working had
been shown (see chap. iv. 15) even " in the beginning
of the gospel," by a contribution to St. Paul's needs —
not perhaps his personal needs only — which from them,
and (so far as we know) from them only, he consented
to accept.

(6) That he who hath begun (or rather, who
began) a good work in you will also (see margin)
finish it. — The ground of St. Paul's confidence in
their perseverance is the belief that it was God's grace
which began the good work in them, and that, not being
resisted (as was obvious by their enthusiasm for good),

He would complete what He had begun. In his view,
God's grace is the beginning and the end ; man's co-
operation lies in the intermediate process linking both,
together. This is made still plainer in chap. ii. 12, 13. >

The day of Jesus Christ.— So also in chaps, i. 10,
ii. 16, " the day of Christ;" and inl Cor. i. 8, " the day
of our Lord Jesus Christ ; " in all other Epistles " the day
of our Lord " (as in 1 Cor. v. 5 ; 2 Cor. i. 14 ; 1 Thess.!
v. 2 ; 2 Thess. ii. 2) ; or, still more commonly, both in
Gospels and Epistles, " that day." As is usual in the
Epistles, the day of the Lord is spoken of as if it were
near at hand. St. Paul, in the Second Epistle to the
Thessalonians (chap. ii. 2, et seep), declines to pronounce
that it is near; yet does not say that it is far away, and
only teaches that there is much to be done, even in the
development of Anti-Christian power, before it does
come. It is of course clear that, in respect of the
confidence here expressed, it makes no difference
whether it be near or far away. The reality of the
judgment as final and complete is the one point impor-
tant ; " the times and seasons " matter not to us.

(7) It is meet. — Rather, it is but right, or just ; it
is but your due.

To think this of you all.— Rather, to be in this
mind; to have this feeling on behalf of you all. The
word here rendered " to think " is used with especial
frequency in this Epistle (see chaps, ii. 2, 5 ; iii. 15,
19 ; iv. 2, 10), as also in the Epistle to the Romans
(chaps, viii. 5 ; xi. 20 ; xii. 3, 16 ; xiv. 16 ; xv. 5). It
is variously rendered; but it always refers, not to a
single definite opinion, but to an habitual conviction or
feeling.

I have you in my heart.— This (and not the
marginal reading) is to be taken. The original is,
grammatically speaking, ambiguous, but both the order

and the context are decisive. Compare, for the sense,

. tk
hearts."

2 Cor. iii.

Ye are our epistle, written in our

Both in my bonds, and in the defence and
confirmation of the gospel.— These words are
certainly to be connected, as in our version. St. Paul
unites his bonds with " the defence and confirmation of
the gospel " — that is, with his pleading for it against
objections, and establishment of it by positive teaching
— on the ground stated in verses 12, 13, that these, his
bonds, had tended " to the furtherance of the gospel."
He accepts the help sent him by the Philippians, in
which they had (see* chap. iv. 14) " communicated " (hi
the original the word used is the same as here) " with
his affliction," as a means of fellowship with him in the
whole of this work of evangelisation. It is true that
in verse 30 he speaks of the Philippians as having
themselves to undergo " the same conflict " as his
own ; but the expression " in my bonds, &c," can
hardly be satisfied simply by this kind of fellowship.

Ye all are partakers of my grace.— Here, on
the contrary, the marginal reading is preferable. Ye
are all partakers with me of the grace — i.e., of the

Prayer for their fuMer

PHILIPPIANS, I.

KnoviUd'j'i and S trad fastness.

tion of the gospel, ye all are partakers
of my grace. 1 w For God is my record,
how greatly I long after you all in
the bowels of Jesus Christ. M And this
I pray, that your love may abound yet
more and more in knowledge and in all

Or, n »»'.
Or, try.

■partaker*
1 //)< of grace.
Or,<w5r,

judgment;2 <10> that ye may approve :
things that are excellent;1, chap. i. 9—11.
that ye may be sincere and Prayer for
without offence till the SSnJ^1^

day of Christ; <n) being steadfastness.
filled with the fruits of righteousness,

privilege described in Eph. Hi. 8. "Unto me, who
am loss than the least of all saints, is this grace given,
that I should preach among the Gentiles the unsearch-
able riches of Clmst." See below, verse 29 ; "To you
it is given " — that is (in the original), " given as a
grace" — not only to believe on Him, but also to suffer
for His sake."

(8) Goer is my record.— We have a similar adjura-
tion in Rom. i. 9 ; 2 Cor. i. 23 ; 1 Thess. ii. 5, 10.
These instances show in what sense St. Paul inter-
preted such commands as the "swear not at all"
of Matt. v. 34.

In the bowels of Jesus Christ.— The use of the
word, which we translate (not very happily or correctly)
by " bowels," is common with St. Paul. (See 2 Cor. vi.
12; vii. 15; Col. iii. 12; Philem. verses 7, 12, 20.)
It corresponds to our use of " heart " as the seat of
affection — the word " heart " itself in the New Testa-
ment being employed, in a wider sense, to signify the
whole inner man. (See Eph. i. 18 : " the eyes of your
heart being enlightened," and Note there.) But the
phrase here is striking and even startling. " I long
after you" (says St. Paul) "in the heart of Jesus
Christ." He can say (as in Gal. ii. 20), " I live, yet not
I, but Christ liveth in me." Hence the deep yearning
of love which he feels for them he knows to be an
emanation, faint indeed, but true, from the " heart of
Jesus Christ " dwelling in him.

(9, 10) if we study carefully the opening thanksgivings
and prayers of St. Paul's Epistles, we may note that
he always thanks God for what is strong in the Church
to which he writes, and prays God for the supply of
that in which it is weak. Here he thanks God for the
characteristic enthusiasm and large-heartedness of the
Philippians ; he prays for their advance in knowledge,
perception, judgment — the more intellectual and
thoughtful side of the Christian character — in which
they, and perhaps the Macedonian Churches generally,
were less conspicuous. In the opposite case of the
Corinthian Church (see 1 Cor. i. 4—10), he thanks God
for their richness in all utterance and all knowledge,
but he bids them " wait " for Him who shall " estab-
lish them as blameless," and exhorts them to unity and
humility.

(9—u) In this sentence, the original shows that there
is not the three-fold parallelism which our version would
suggest. St. Paul's immediate prayer is that " their
love may abound in knowledge and all judgment." To
this is subjoined, as an immediate consequence, " the
proving the things that are excellent." The final result
of the knowledge and judgment so applied, is " that
they may be sincere and without offence."

(») That your love may abound more and more
in knowledge. — The original verb here signifies to
" overflow," a sense which our word " abound " properly
lias, but has in general usage partially lost ; and St.
Paul's meaning clearly is that love shall not only
primarily fill the heart, but "overflow" in secondary in-

fluence on the spiritual understanding. (1) The "know-
lodge " here spoken of is the knowledge gradually rising
to perfection, so constantly alluded to in these Epistles.
(See Eph. i. 17, and Note there.) Since it is clearly a
personal knowledge of God in Christ, it maybe gained,
under His inspiration, by one of many processes, by
thought, by practice, by love, by devotion, or, perhaps
more properly, by some or all of tliese combined. Here
St. Paul singles out the way of love — the enthusiasm
of love to God and man which Ik; knew that the
Philippians had — and prays that it may overflow from
the emotional to the intellectual element of their nature.
and become, as we constantly see that it does become
in simple and loving characters, a means of spiritual
insight, in "knowledge and all judgment," or rather,
all perception. (2) The word " perception " properly
applies to the senses, and seems here to signify the
insight which recognises a truth as the eye recognises
an object. In the same sense (Heb. v. 14) Holy Scrip-
ture speaks of those who "by use have their senses
exercised to discern good and evil." In fact, the
" perception " here spoken of differs from knowledge
in dealing not with general principles, but with concrete
examples and questions. (3) Accordingly he connects
with it, as a direct consequence, the power of
"approving" or "testing" the things that are ex-
cellent. Now the word here translated "excellent"
carries with it the idea of distinctive and relative
excellence, conspicuous amidst what is either evil or
defective. To " test " is obviously first to distinguish
what is the best, and then by trial to prove its absolute
goodness. Cleai-ly the process may be applied either
speculatively to truths or practically to duties. In
Rom. ii. 18, where exactly the same phrase is used,
the latter application is made.

(!0) That ye may be sincere and without
offence. — This St. Paul contemplates as the result
of thoughtful and discriminating judgment. The
word "sincere" (used only here and in 2 Pet. i. 3),
and the corresponding substantive. " sincerity "
(1 Cor. v. 8 ; 2 Cor. i. 12 ; ii. 17), although there' is
some uncertainty as to their derivation, undoubtedly
signify purity tested and found clear of all base
admixtures. The word "without offence" is used in
Acts xxiv. 16 (" a conscience void of offence ") for
that which is free from the stumbling of error ; and in
1 Cor. x. 32 (" giving none offence ") for that at which
none will stumble. The latter sense (nearly equivalent
to the " unreprovable '' of Col. i. 22) better suits this
passage. For " sincere " describes the positive aspect
of purity ; " without offence " the more negative aspect,
in which it is found to present no excuse for fault-
finding or scandal. It is, therefore, the " sincerity."
not of unconscious innocence, but of well-tried and
thoughtful purity, proof even against suspicion, which
St. Paul describes as the perfect fruit of love " over-
flowing in knowledge."

(H) The fruits of righteousness is an Old Testa-
ment phrase (see Prov. xi. 30; Amos vi. 12), used also in
Jas. iii. 18; Heb. xii. 11. It may mean (as in these
last two passages) " righteousness as a result," or (in-

The Progress of the Gospel

1 MILilPPIAiN fe, 1. through himself and through others*

which are by Jesus Christ, unto the
glory and praise of God.

DesCTiSiorT^f U2) But 1 would ?e snould
the progress of understand, brethren, that
things which hap-
unto me have fallen

the gospel at ^Jje
"Rome, and his
joy thereat.

1 Or, for Christ.
•1 Or, V cesar'a

court.
3 Or, to a 11 othc rs.

out rather unto the furtherance of
the gospel; <13^ so that my bonds in
Christ l are manifest in all the palace,3
and in all other places ;3 <14> and many of
the brethren in the Lord, waxing confi-
dent by my bonds, are much more bold

the common sense of '' fruit ") the " result of righteous-
ness." As the participle is properly " having been
filled," thus referring, not to the future clay of Christ,
but to the whole time which that day shall complete,
the former sense seems preferable. The righteousness
which is " through Jesus Christ," " not " (as St. Paul
says below, chap. iii. 9) " our own righteousness, which
is of the Law, but that which is through the faith of
Christ, the righteousness which is of God," is clearly
the likeness of Christ, and therefore in itself an all-
sufficient fruit. Filled witli it, we are (see Eph. iii. 19)
" filled with all the fulness of God."

Unto the glory and praise, of God.— (Comp Eph.
i. 6, 12, 14. ) In accordance with our Lord's own teaching :
" Let your light so shine before men, that they may
see your good works, and glorify your Father which is
in heaven." (See also 1 Cor. x. 31.)

[2. Statement of St. Paul's condition at Rome

(verses 12 — 26).

(1) The Rapid Progress of the Gospel

through his bonds, and through the preaching
of others, whether in strife or in goodwill
(verses 12 — 18).

(2) His Rejoicing thereat ; his desire to

depart and be with Christ, and his confidence,
nevertheless, that he will abide in the flesh
and see them again (verses 19 — 26).]

(12—18) ln these verses St. Paul, evidently anxious
that the Philippians should not "faint at his tribu-
lations for them" (comp. Eph. iii. 13), points out that
his imprisonment tended to further the gospel : first,
directly, by the opportunity which it afforded him of
preaching, and next, indirectly, by the stimulus which
it gave to the preaching of others, whether "of envy
and strife " or " of good will."

(is) The things which happened unto me—
viz., since he parted from them (see Acts xx. 6) — his
arrest at Jerusalem, and the long captivity of years,
first at Csesarea, then at Rome. Nothing could have
appeared to be a more fatal blow to the progress of the
gospel ; but St. Paul assures them that "rather" (i.e.,
on the contrary) all these things tended to its further-
ance. He had intended to see Rome (Acts xix. 21 ;
Rom. xv. 23, 24). since his work in Greece and Asia
was now over. He did visit it, although in chains ;
and his acquaintance with the Roman soldiers at
Csesarea probably prepared for him an opening at
Rome, which he could not otherwise have found, even
into Caesar's household.

(13) My bonds in Christ are manifest.— Properly,
My bonds are made manifest as in Christ — i.e.,
my captivity is understood as being a part of my
Christian life and work, and so becomes a starting-
point for the preaching of the gospel. So St. Paul
made it to the Jews (Acts xxviii. 20), " For the hope of
Israel am I bound in this chain." (Comp. Eph. vi. 20,
"I am an ambassador in bonds.")

In all the palace, and in all other places.
— The word "palace" is praetorium. It is elsewhere

used in the New Testament : first, of the palace of
Pilate ; in Matt, xxvii. 27, Mark xv. 16, apparently, of
the soldiers' guardroom, or barrack ; in John xviii. 28,
33, xix. 9, of " the hall of judgment ; " and next in Acts
xxiii. 35, of the " judgment hall of Herod," evidently
forming a part of the palace of Felix. (It may be
noted that coincidence with this last passage is the
chief, and almost the sole, argument for the untenable
idea that this Epistle belongs to the Caesarean and not
the Roman captivity.) Its sense here has been disputed.
It has been variously interpreted as the emperor's
palace, or the praetorian barrack attached to it, or tha
praetorian camp outside the walls. Its original meaning
of " the head-quarters of a general " would lend itself
well enough to any of these, as a derivative sense.
The first or the second sense (which is virtually the
same) is the interpretation of all ancient commentators,
and suits best with the mention of "Caesar's house-
hold " in chap. iv. 22, but not. very well with the his-
torical statement in Acts xxviii. 16 — 30, that St. Paul
dwelt " in his own hired house," " with a soldier that
kept him." The other sense suits better with this
last statement, and also with the delivery of the
prisoner " to the captain of the guard," i.e., literally,
the commander of the camp, or praetorian prefect, and
perhaps with abstract probability in the case of an
obscure Jewish prisoner. But the difficulty is that,
although the word might be applied to any of these
places, yet, as a matter of fact, it is not found to be so
applied. Moreover, we notice here that the words " in
all other places " are an inaccurate rendering of a
phrase really meaning " to all the rest " (see marginal
reading). The connection therefore seems even in
itself to suggest that the " praetorium " may more
properly refer to a body of men than to a place.
Accordingly (following Dr. Lightfoot), since the
word " praetorium " is undoubtedly used for the
"praetorian guard," it seems best to take that sense
here. "My bonds" (says the Apostle) "are known in
all the praetorian regiments " — for the soldiers, no
doubt, guarded him by turns — " and to all the rest of
the world, whether of soldiers or of citizens." This
would leave it an open question where St. Paul was
imprisoned, only telling us that it was under praetorian
surveillance.

(14) And many (properly, the greater number) of
the brethren in the Lord.— The words "in the
Lord " should be connected with " trusting," as in chap.
ii. 24 ; Gal. v. 10 ; 2 Thess. iii. 4. As connected with
the word " brethren," they are unmeaning ; whereas St.
Paul constantly uses them (especially in these Epistles),
generally with a verb or verbal adjective, and always
to convey some distinct idea. That the words " in my
bonds " follow constitutes no difficulty. " In the Lord "
expresses the ground of confidence; "in my bonds'"
simply the occasion and circumstances.

Waxing confident by my bonds.— There is a
two-fold sense here, corresponding to the two-fold
division of preachers made beloAV. Those who preached
Christ "of contention" trusted in St. Paul's captivity
as giving them scope; those who preached "of good

Through different Motives

PHILIPPIANS, I.

Christ is every way preached.

to speak the word without fear. (15> Some I
indeed preach Christ even of envy and
strife ; and some also of good will :
<16> the one preach Christ of contention,
not sincerely, supposing to add affliction
to my bonds : (17) but the other of love,

knowing that I am set for the defence
of the gospel. (18) What then? not-
withstanding, every way, whether in
pretence, or in truth, Christ is preached;
and I therein do rejoice, yea, and will
rejoice. 09) For I know that this shall

will " found in it a striking example of ovil overruled
to good, and so gained from it fresh encouragement.

05) Of envy and strife.— Explained below as of
" contention," or, more properly (as in chap. ii. 3, and
in Rom. ii. 8 ; 2 Cor. xii. 20 ; Gal. v. 20), of factious-
ness, or "party spirit." It seems impossible to doubt
that this refers to the Judaising party, St. Paul's old
antagonists. The whole tenor of the Epistle to the
Romans shows how strong a Judaic element there
was in Roman Christianity. Even in approaching
Rome, we may gather from Acts xxviii. 15, that the
Apostle had felt doubtful of his reception there by the
Church. His formal renunciation of the obstinate
Jews, and proclamation that the Gentiles would hear
what they had rejected, might excite against him not
oidy the unbelieving Jews, but the Jewish and still more
the Judaising Christians. The party " of Cephas" and
tin' party "of Paul" might be placed in strong an-
tagonism more easily than even at Corinth.

(i*>) ]^"0t sincerely. — This version conveys an in-
correct impression. The original is " not purely," i.e.,
not with unmixed and single-minded enthusiasm for
Christ. St. Paul does not impute to them hypocrisy,
but an admixture of partisanship, and therefoi'e of a
narrow-minded hostility to him.

To add affliction.— The true reading, to stir up
affliction, or oppressive severity (properly, pressure, or
galling), perhaps suggests as most probable the mean-
ing (adopted by Chrysostom here) of " stirring " the
minds of St. Paul's jailors to an increased severity,
which might prevent his preaching to all " without
hindrance." The uneasiness of the Government in
relation to the Jewish population at Rome is well
known. The growth of a secret society (for such
■Christianity was held to be) among them might easily
induce greater severity towards a leader of the sect.
(Compare verses 19, 20, in which St. Paul states his
confidence that this malignant policy would be dis-
appointed.)

08) The contrast of this verse with such passages as
.2 Cor. xii. 4— where the Judaisers at Corinth are said to
preach " another Jesus and a different gospel ; " with
Gal. i. 6 — where their gospel is declared to be "a
different gospel," and not merely a variety of the same
(see Note there); and even with the emphatic warning
as to Philippi, in chap. iii. 2 — 16. is singularly instruc-
tive. St. Paul, in the wTords " in pretence " find " in
truth," is speaking of the motives of the preachers, not
of the substance of their preaching. For the latter
he cares much ; for the former nothing. "When (as at
Corinth) the rejection of his personal authority was
bound up with rejection of his apostolic doctrine, ho
rebukes it vehemently ; when (as here) there -was no
such connection, it is to him a very small tiling. But
we may also gather from this that,' whatever might be
the case at Philippi, at Rome St. Paul's Epistle had done
its work, and the battle of principle was won ; even at
Colossae it had wholly changed its character (see Col. ii.
16 — 23). and its old phases had passed away. The
differences between the parties at Rome were no

longer fundamental, although, as so often is the case,
the bitterness of division might remain. " Every way
Christ was preached," and accepted as justifying
through faith. This being so, St. Paul could rejoice.
Even an imperfect Christianity, with something of
narrowness, and perhaps of superstitious formalism,
cleaving to it, was as different from the gross
heathenism which it superseded, as light from dark-
ness.

Yea, and will rejoice.— Properly, I shall rejoice
to the end. The words lead on to the next verse,
which gives the reason of this persistent rejoicing.

(19—21) iu these verses, under the power of that
feeling of joy of which he speaks above, St. Paul
unveils to the Philippians his most sacred aspirations
and convictions, and the division of feeling in his own
soul between longing for rest and consciousness of
work yet to be done. There is a still fuller disclosure
of a similar " spiritual experience " in 2 Cor. iv. 8 ;
v. 15. It is rare in the apostolic writings. St. Paul
seems, in 2 Cor. vi. 11, almost to apologise for disclosing
what is usually kept, in delicacy and reverence, for God
alone.

(M Shall turn to my salvation.— Or, literally,
shall issue in salvation to me. The word " salvation "
does not appear to be used here in its ordinary sense,
that is, of primary or ultimate salvation from sin in
Christ, but in the sense of " safety." The enemies of
the Apostle thought to stir up fresh danger and diffi-
culty for St. Paul; but the attempt (he says) will only
turn out to his safety — a safety which he believes (see
verses 25, 26) will be shown " in life," by his actual
release and return to his beloved churches, but which,
if God so wills it, wTill be at least ecpially manifested
in the " death," which would bring him safe home to
Christ. In either case he will be safe from all the
enmity both of open sin and of malignant jealousy.'

Through your prayer, and the supply of
the Spirit. — This overruling of all enmity to his
safety he hopes for through the intercession of the
Philippian Church (comp. Philem. verse 23), and
the fresh supply of grace which, through such interces-
sion, may be given to him. For the word " supply " in
this sense see Eph. iv. 15 ; and comp. Gal. iii. 5 ; CoL
ii. 19.

The Spirit of Jesus Christ.— Of the application
of this name to the Holy Ghost we have instances in
Rom. viii. 9 ; 2 Cor. iii. 17 ; Gal. iv. 6 ; 1 Pet. i. 11. Of
these the first is the most notable, since in two clauses
of the same sentence we have first " the Spirit of God,"
and then " the Spirit of Christ." He who is " sent by
the Father in the name of the Son " (John xiv. 26), and
whose regeneration of the soul is the working out
the image of Christ in it, may well be called "the
Spirit of Christ." But the name has always some
speciality of emphasis. Thus here, the whole concep-
tion of the passage is of Christ — " to mo to live is
Christ;" hence the use of this special and compara-
tively rare name of the Holy Ghost.

i J!)

St. Paul's Confidence.

PHILIPPIANS, I.

His Desire to Depart.

turn to my salvation through your ]
prayer, and the supply of
25Pofh2 own the Spirit of Jesus Christ,
division of feel- (20) according to my earnest
!fe?iresbfoWdee- expectation and my hope,
part and to that in nothing I shall
continue. be asiiamed, but that with

all' boldness, as always, so now also

Christ shall be magnified in my body,
whether it be by life, or by death.
(2i) j^ to me to live u Christ, and to
die is gain. (22^ But if I live in the
flesh, this is the fruit of my labour : yet
what I shall choose I wot not. (23) For
I am in a strait betwixt two, having a
desire to depart, and to be with Christ ;

(20) My earnest expectation.— The word is only
found here and in Rom. viii. 19 (where see Note). It
implies an intense and almost painful longing for some
crisis, a dulness of suspense lighted up with hope. The
phrase is one of the many indications that the joyful
and confident tone so often noticed in this Epistle
came not from the absence of yearning for the freedom
and activity of apostolic life, but from the victory over
such longings through faith. Whatever the crisis
might be, St. Paul looked eagerly for it.

In nothing I shall be ashamed. —The phrase is
elsewhere used by St. Paul with especial reference to the
shame which comes from hopes disappointed and
professions unfulfilled. (See 2 Cor. vii. 14; ix. 4; x. 8.
Compare also the quotation from Isa. xxviii. 16 in
Rom. ix. 33 ; 1 Pet. ii. 6.) For (he says) " hope (ful-
filled) maketh not ashamed" (Rom. v. 5). So probably
here ; he trusts that in the hour of trial the confidence
which he has felt and professed of being " able to do
all things through Christ who strengtheneth him " (see
chap. iv. 13) may not come to shameful failure, but may
" magnify Christ in all boldness of speech." There is
a subtle touch of true Christian feeling in the fact that,
when he speaks of the chance of failure, he uses the
first person : "I shall be ashamed ; " but when of
triumph, it is " Christ shall be magnified " in me. If
he fails, it must be through his own fault ; if he
triumphs, it will be through his Master's strength.

In my body, whether it be by life, or by
death. — " In my body : " The phrase is, no doubt,
suggested mainly by the idea of death — the death of a
martyr in bodily torture or shame. There is the same
connection of idea in 2 Cor. iv. 10 : " always bearing
about in the body the dying of the Lord Jesus, so that
the life also of Jesus may be made manifest in our
body." But while the word " flesh " is used in the
New Testament in a bad sense, the " body " is always
regarded as that in which we may " glorify God "
(1 Cor. vi. 20) by word and deed. It is not merely a
vesture of the soul, but a part of the true man (1 Thess.
v. 23), having membership of Christ, and being the
temple of the Holy Ghost (1 Cor. vi. 15—19). In
this passage the whole idea is of Christ in him ;
hence his body is spoken of as simply the tabernacle
of the indwelling presence of Christ, and devoted only
to "magnify" Him.

(21) To live is Christ. — This, of course, means " Christ
is my life," yet not in the sense that He is the source
and principle of life in us. but that the whole concrete
state of life is so lived in Him that it becomes a simple
manifestation of His presence. The opposition in the
passage is between the states of living and dying (or
being dead), not between the principles of life and death.
It is, therefore, in some sense distinct from the cognate
passages — Col. iii. 3, 4, " Ye are dead, and your life is
hid with Christ in God. . . . Christ is our life; " and
Gal. ii. 20, " I live, yet not I, but Christ liveth in me."
Those passages set "forth the cause ; this the result.

If Christ be the principle of life in us, then whatever
we think and say and do, exhibiting visibly that inner
life, must be the manifestation of Christ.

To die is gain.— This follows from the other.
Death is a new stage in the progress of union with
Christ. So we read in 2 Cor. v. 6, 7, " Knowing that,
whilst we are at home in the body, Ave are absent from
the Lord ... we are willing rather to be absent from
the body, and to be present with the Lord." " To
depart " (see verse 23) is, in a higher sense than can be
realised here, " to be with Christ."

(22) But if I live in the flesh . . .—The trans-
lation of this Arerse in the Authorised version is in-
accurate, and perhaps a gloss to soften the difficulty
of the original. The exact translation is, But if to
live in the flesh this is to me a fruit of work, and ichat
(or, what also) I shall choose I know not. The con-
struction is clearly broken by emotion or absorption in
thought ; it can only be supplied by conjecture. If (as
in 2 Cor. ii. 2) the word " and," or " also," can be used
to introduce the principal clause ("what then I shall
choose," &c), the construction will be correct, though
harsh. If otherwise, we must suppose either that the
sentence is broken at the word " work," or that the
whole should run, But what if to live in the flesh
is a part of work ? And what I shall choose, I
know not, &c. But though the construction is
obscure, the sense is plain. St. Paul had said, " to
die is gain." But the thought crosses him that to live
still in the flesh, this and this only is [i.e., carries with
it) a fruit of apostolical labour, in souls brought to
Christ or built up in Him. Accordingly what to
choose he knows not. For in such a harvest there is a
gain, which outweighs his own personal gain on the
other side.

I am in a strait betwixt (the) two.— The word
here used signifies " to be hemmed in," or " confined," and
is generally associated with some idea of distress (as in
Luke viii. 45 ; xix. 43), not unfrequently with the
pressure of disease (Matt. iv. 24 ; Luke iv. 38 ; Acts
xxviii. 8). Our Lord uses it of mental distress in
Himself (Luke xii. 50) : "How am I straitened till
it be accomplished ! " Here the sense is clear. St.
Paul's mind is " hemmed in " between two opposing
considerations, till it knows not which way to move,
even in desire.

(23) Having a desire . . .—Properly, having my
own desire for departure. The verb " depart " corre-
sponds exactly to the substantive used in 2 Tim. iv. 6,
" The time of my departure is at hand." It is itself
used only here and in Luke xii. 36, " When he shall
return (break up) from the wedding." The metaphor
is drawn either from '" loosing " from the shore of life,
or (perhaps better) from striking tents and breaking
up a camp. The body (as in 2 Cor. v. 1) is looked
upon as a mere tabernacle. Each day is a march
nearer home, and death is the last striking of the tent
on arrival.

His confidence th«i

PHILIPPIANS, I.

he will continue with th<

which is far better: ^nevertheless to
abide in the flesh is more needful for
you. (25) And having this confidence, I
know that I shall abide and continue
with you all for your furtherance and
joy of faith ; (26) that your rejoicing" may
be more abundant in Jesus Christ for me

by my coming to you again. W) Only
let your conversation be

Chap.

27 —

as it becometh the gospel 30. Exhorta-
of Christ: that whether I *?.on,.to un:

t , flinching and

come and see you, or else joyful stead-
be absent, I may hear of Justness in suf-

your affairs, that ye stand

fering.

To be with Christ. — This is contemplated by St.
Paul as the immediate consequence of death, even
while still '' out of the body," and before the great day.
The state of the faithful departed is usually spoken of
as one of "rest" (1 Cor. xv. 51, 52; 1 Thess. iv. 14 —
16 j Rev. xiv. 13), although not without expectation
and longing for the consummation of all things (Rev.
vi. 10, 11). Such a condition of rest, and suspen-
sion of conscious exercise of spiritual energy, is, in-
deed, that which human reason and analogy would
suggest, so far as they can suggest anything on this
mysterious subject. But such passages as this seem
certainly to imply that this rest is emphatically a "rest
in the Lord," having an inner consciousness of com-
munion with Christ. His " descent unto Hades," not
only brings out the reality of the unseen world of
souls, but also claims it as His. As on earth and in
heaven, so also in the intermediate state, we are " ever
with the Lord ; " and that state, though not yet made
perfect, is spiritually far higher than this earthly life.
The original here is an emphatic double comparative,
"far, far better."

(25) I know.— The word is not to be pressed too far.
It is simply, " I feel certain ; " and it is obvious to
remark that in Acts xx. 25 it is used by St. Paul of a
conviction (that he would " see the face " of the
Ephesians " no more ") which, so far as Ave can follow
out the history, was not verified. The apostolic in-
spiration, like the apostolic power of miracle, was a
gift relative to the apostolic work, not necessarily
extending beyond it.

Abide and continue with you.— The latter
verb is in the original a compound of the former, " I
shall abide," and " shall abide side by side with you."
It was for their sakes that it was needful for him to
live. Hence to the simple idea " I shall abide," it was
natural to add at once the phrase " with you," or
" for you," as explaining the very object of his
abiding in the flesh.

For your furtherance and joy of faith.— In
these words St. Paul's presence with them is spoken
of, first, as in some degree necessary for their spiritual
advance ; next, as being to them a gift of God for
their joy and comfort, even beyond what was actually
necessary. (See the next verse.)

(26) That your rejoicing may be more abun-
dant.—The word translated " rejoicing" is that
favourite word of St. Paul, which signifies a ground of
" boasting," or exultation. It is used both of blessing
beyond strict necessity, and of service beyond legal
duty ; in both of which there is ground for joy and
thankfulness. This is, perhaps, best seen in 1 Cor.
ix. 15 — 18, where he declares that the simple preaching
of the gospel is " nothing to boast of," but that the
preaching it without cost is " the boasting," of which
he says that he would " rather die than that any man
should make it void." (Comp. also the use of the same
word in chap. ii. 16, and in Rom. iv. 2 ; 1 Cor. v. 6 ;
2 Cor. i. 14; v. 12; ix. 3.) Here, therefore, St, Paul
speaks of them as having in him, and in their connection

with him, a cause of boasting, or rejoicing, just as in
2 Cor. i. 14 ("We are your rejoicing', even as ye also
are ours"), and declares that this will become "more
abundant " by his coming to them again.

In Jesus Christ for me.— The original runs. " in
Christ Jesus in me." The parallelism is instructive :
all Christian rejoicing, or confidence, is primarily " in
Christ Jesus," even if it be secondarily " in " His
servants. The suggestion of this idea here softens the
apparent self-consciousness of the previous words.
Comp., in 2 Cor. xi., xii., his declaration of reluctance and
distaste for the " boasting " of his apostolic authority
and work, which was forced upon him.

By my coming to you again.— See in 1 Tim.
i. 3 the evidence of the fulfilment of this confident
expectation.

[3. Exhortation (chaps, i. 27 — ii. 4).

(1) To Steadfastness and Confidence

under Persecution (verses 27 — 30).

(2) To Unity of Spirit, based on humility and

self-forgetfulness (chap. ii. 1 — 4).]

(27—30) ln these verses St. Paul exhorts the Philip-
pians to unanimous boldness and steadfastness, under
some conflict of antagonism or persecution which
threatened them at this time. Of the history of the
Church at Philippi we have no historical record after
the notice of St. Paul's first visit, and of the violence
which he then had to endure (Acts xvi. 12 — 40). But
in 2 Cor. vii. 5, written certainly from Macedonia, pro-
bably from Philippi, towards the close of the third
missionary journey, we find St. Paul saying, " When
we were come to Macedonia our flesh had no rest. . .
"Without were fightings, within were fears." (Comp.
also chap. viii. 2 of the same Epistle.) It would seem,
therefore, that the subsequent history of the Philip-
piau Church corresponded only too well to the circum-
stances under which its Christianity first began.

(27) Let your conversation . . .—The original is
here (as in the famous passage, chap. iii. 20), Use your
citizenship (that is, of the kingdom of heaven) worthily
of the gospel of Christ. The same word is employed
by St. Paul in Acts xxiii. 1 (" I have walked in all
good conscience before God"), with an obvious reference
to his citizenship in the chosen nation of Israel. Its
use in this Epistle is suggestive — both as natural to
one contemplating the great imperial city, and writing
to the people of a Roman colony proud of their full
citizenship, and also as leading on to that great con-
ception of the unity of the Church in earth and in
heaven, which is the main subject of the Ephesian. and
in some degree of the Colossian, Epistle.

In one spirit, with one mind.— Rather, in
one spirit, one soul. Tho phrase " in one spirit " may
refer to the spirit of man, or to the Spirit of God. If
it be intended to be strictly parallel to the "one soul "
(which has no separate preposition in the Greek), the
former sense is manifestly suggested. If, however,
the words " with one soul " be connected, as is not

Exhortation to Fortitude,

PHILIPPIANS, II.

arid to Unity of Spirit.

fast in one spirit, with one mind striv-
ing together for the faith of the gospel ;
<28> and in nothing terrified by your ad-
versaries : which is to them an evident
token of perdition, but to you of salva-
tion, and that of God. (29> For unto you
it is given in the behalf of Christ, not
only to believe on him, but also to suffer

for his sake ; (30) having the same conflict
which ye saw in me, and now hear to be
in me.

CHAPTEE II. — W If chap. ii. 1-4.
there be therefore any con- Exhortation to
solation in Christ, if any i^hmnility^nd
comfort of love, if any sympathy.

unnatural, with "striving together," this suggestion falls
to the ground; and the usage of this Epistle (see
especially chap. ii. 1 — 7), and the other Epistles of the
same period (Eph. ii. 18—22 ; iii. 5 ; v. 18 ; vi. 18 ;
Col. i. 8), certainly favours the latter interpretation.
In either case "the soul" (as in the famous three-fold
division of men's nature in 1 Thess. v. 23) is that
element of humanity which is the seat of emotion and
passion. (Comp. the " one heart and one soul " of
Acts iv. 32.) This element the Christianity of the New
Testament, unlike Stoicism or asceticism, will not crush,
but enlist, as it enlists the body also, in the free service
of God.

Striving together for the faith. —Properly, with
the faith. The faith of the gospel — the power of
Christianity — is personified. The Philippians are to
be combatants on the same side against the same foes
(compare the use of the same word in chap. iv. 3).
The metaphor seems drawn from the games, as is seen
by the use of the simple verb in 2 Tim. ii. 8, " If a
man strive ... he is not crowned, except he strive
lawfully." In the exhortation to stand fast (comp. Eph.
vi. 13, 14) we have the element of passive endurance,
here of active and aggressive energy.

(28) Terrified. — The original word is strong —
starting, or flinching, like a scared animal.

Which (that is, your fearlessness) is . .—This fear-
lessness, in the absence of all earthly means of pro-
tection or victory, is a sign of a divine " strength
made perfect in weakness" (2 Cor. xiii. 9) — not a
complete and infallible sign (for it has often accompanied
mere fanatic delusion), but a sign real as far as it goes,
having its right force in harmony with others. The
effect which it had on the heathen themselves is
shown even by the affected contempt with which the
Stoics spoke of it, as a kind of " madness," a morbid
" habit," a sheer " obstinacy." (See Epictetus, iv. 7 ;
Marc. Aurelins, Med. xi. 3.)

And that of God.— These words apply to the word
"token," and so derivatively both to " perdition " and
" salvation." The sign is of God, because the gift
of spiritual strength is of God, but it may be read by
both sides. Like the pillar of God's presence, it is " a
cloud and darkness " to the one, but " light by night"
to the other.

<-29) ;por (or, because) unto you it is given in the
behalf of Christ.— The force lies, first, in the phrase
" it is given" (rather, it was given, from the beginning)
. — for the original signifies " it was granted as a
privilege " or " favour " (as in Acts xxvii. 24 ; 1 Cor.
, ii. 12 ; Gal. iii. 18) — and next in the words " on behalf
JL Christ." The fearlessness of the Christian is a gift

I 'pi'-lj not an inherent stoic self-sufficiency. It rests
• ii* 31°n tlie sense ^lat ** *s a Privilc»e to suffer

e a V $) iji the cause of truth) yet sti11 more on

(see Acts y.i^ su-fferm~ }sfor no abstract principle,
luVon'behalf of Christ an<* "** Chri9t' (See diap- "'

ilia)

Not only to believe . . .—The original shows
that St. Paul speaks as if he originally intended simply
to say " it is given on behalf of Christ to suffer." But
to show whence the impulse of that brave willingness to
suffer proceeds, he inserts " not only to believe on
Him," and then finishes the sentence, "but on His behalf
to suffer."

(3°) Having the same conflict, which ye saw in
me. — The allusion is, of course, to the lawless scourging
and imprisonment of Acts xvi. 22 — 24. How deeply
this outrage impressed itself on the Apostle's own mind
We see, both by his conduct to the magistrates at the
moment, and also by the allusion in 1 Thess. ii. 2, to the
time, when " we had suffered before and were shame-
fully entreated, as ye know, at Philippi." Here he
uses the remembrance to suggest to the Philippians that
their struggle was only the same which he had borne,
and borne successfully. Similarly in 2 Tim. iii. 10
(going back on the eve of death to the very beginning
of his ministry to the Gentiles) he reminds Timothy of
the persecutions " at Antioch, at Iconium. at Lystra —
what persecutions I endured, but out of them all the
Lord delivered me."

II.

(1—4) In this section the hint given above, in the
allusion to " one spirit " and " one soul," is expanded
into a direct exhortation to unity of spirit, as shown
both by absence of self-assertion and by presence of
a genial sympathy.

(!) If there be therefore any consolation . . .
— In the four-fold division of this verse we trace, first,
a reference to unity with Christ, and to a spiritual
effect following from it ; next, a similar reference to
communion with the Holy Ghost, and a corresponding
spiritual result. (1) " Consolation " is properly en-
couragement— the stirring up of spiritual activity —
ascribed in Acts ix. 31 to the action of the Holy Spirit,
but here viewed as a practical manifestation of the life
flowing from union with Christ. Out of it comes
naturally the " comfort of love," that is, as always, the
deep and thankful sense of comfort in His love, over-
flowing into comfort, lovingly given to our brethren.
On this " encouragement " in Christ, both received and
given out to others, St. Paul dwells at length (2 Cor.
i 3 — 7). (2) Next, he speaks of " communion of the
Spirit" (the very word used in 2 Cor. xiii. 13),
by which, indeed, Ave are brought into that unity
with Christ; and of this, still keeping to the main
idea of love, he makes the manifestation to be in
" bowels and mercies "—that is, both in strong affection,
and in that peculiar form of affection which is directed
towards suffering, viz., compassion or pity. The whole
passage (like chap. iv. 8, 9) is full of a grave and per-
suasive eloquence characteristic of this Epistle. No
absolute distinction is to be drawn between the two
elements of the sentence; but it may be noted that

The Duty of Self-sacrifice.

PHILIPPIANS, II.

The Mind of Christ Jems.

fellowship of the Spirit, if any bowels
and mercies, (a> fulfil ye my joy, that ye
be likeminded, having the same love,
being of one accord, of one mind. (3) Let
nothing be done through strife or vain-
glory; but in lowliness of mind let each
esteem other better than themselves.

W Look not every man on his own things,
but every man also on the Ch u 5 _n
things of others. & Let The two-foM
this mind be in you, which Jmmflitjr and

i • /-« • j t ■ tnecorrespond-

was also in Christ J esue : iny exaltation
(6>who, being in the form °f the Lord

u >n j Tl -i i ••. , Jesus Christ.

of God, thought it not

the " consolation in Christ " is exhibited in the action
which visibly follows His divine example, " the com-
nninion with the Holy Spirit " is shown by the inner
emotion, not seen, but felt.

(-) That ye be likeminded, having the same
love, being of one accord, of one mind. — In this
verse there is again a four-fold division; but of a
different kind. St. Paul begins with the exhortation
not uncommon from him, to be likeminded," that is,
to have true sympathy (as in Rom. xii. 16 ; xv. 5 ; 2 Cor.
xiii. 11; also chap. iii. 16; iv. 2); which he naturally
strengthens by tho addition of "having the same love "
(that is, a mutual love), to show that the sympathy is
to be one not only of mind but of heart. But this
does not satisfy him : he rises to the further exhorta-
tion to perfect " imion of soul " (which is the proper
rendering for ''being of one accord ") in which they
shall not only be likeminded, but (in a phrase
peculiar to this passage) be actually " of one mind,"
living in one another, each sinking his individuality
in the enthusiasm of a common love.

(3) This verse expresses the negative result of this
unity of soul — that nothing will be done in " strife," that
is, factiousness (the word used in chap. i. 17), or
''vainglory ''—nothing, that is, with the desire either
of personal influence or of personal glory. " For," he
adds, " each will esteem other better than himself," or,
rather, will hold that his neighbour is worthy of higher
consideration and a higher place of dignity than
himself (comp. the use of the word in Rom. xiii. 1 ;
1 Pet. ii. 13, of temporal dignity) ; for the idea is of
the ascription to others, not of moral superiority, but
of higher place and honour. Self-assertion will be
entirely overborne. So he teaches us elsewhere that
" charity vauuteth not itself, is not puffed up, doth not
behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own " (1 Cor.
xiii. 4, 5).

<4) Look not every man on his own things.—
This verse similarly describes the positive effect of this
" being of one mind " as consisting in power of under-
standing and sympathy towards " the things of others "
— not merely the interests, but also the ideas and
feelings of others. To " look upon " here is something
more than "to seek" (as in verso 21). It expresses
that insight into the thoughts, hopes, aspirations of
others, which only a self-forgetting love can give, as
well as the care to consider their welfare and happiness.
Tet by the word " also " we see that St. Paul does not,
in tho spirit of some forms of modern transcendentalism,
denounce all self-consciousness and self-love, as in a
bad sense ," selfish." For man is individual as well as
social; he can subordinate "his own things " to " the
things of others," but cannot ignore them.

[4. The Doctrine of the Great Humility of
Christ (verses 5—11).
(1) The Voluntary Humiliation of the
Lord, first in His incarnation, next in His
passion (verses 5 — 8).

37*

(2) The Corresponding Exaltation of His
Humanity, to bear "the Name above every
name," which all creation must adore (verses
9-11).]

(5—8) From a practical introduction, in the familiar
exhortation to follow the example of our Lord, St.
Paul passes on to what is, perhaps, the most complete
and formal statement in all his Epistles of the doctrine
of His " great humility." In this he marks out, first,
the Incarnation, in which, " being in the form of God,
He took on Him the form of a servant,'' assuming a
sinless but finite humanity; and next, the Passion,
which was made needful by the sins of men, and in
which His human nature was humiliated to the shame
and agony of the cross. Inseparable in themselves,
these two great acts of His self -sacrificing love must
be distinguished. Ancient speculation delighted to
suggest that the first might have been, even if
humanity had remained sinless, while the second was
added because of the fall and its consequences. Such
speculations are, indeed, thoroughly precarious and
unsubstantial — for we cannot ask what might have been
in a different dispensation from our own ; and, more-
over, we read of our Lord as " the Lamb slain from
the foundation of the world " (Rev. xiii. 8 ; see also
1 Pet. i. 19) — but they at least point to a true distinc-
tion. As " the Word of God " manifested in the
Incarnation, our Lord is the treasure of all humanity
as such; as the Saviour through death, He is the
especial treasure of us as sinners.

(6) Being in the form of God.— (1) The word
"being" is here the more emphatic of the two words
so translated, which lays stress on the reality of exist-
ence (as in Acts xvi. 20; xvii. 28 ; 1 Cor. xi. 7; Gal. ii.
14). Hence it calls attention to the essential being of
Cln-ist, corresponding to the idea embodied in the name
Jehovah, and thus implying what is more fully expressed
in John i. 1. (2) The word " form " (which, except for a
casual use in Mark xvi. 12, is found only in this passago
of the New Testament) is to be carefully distinguished
from " fashion." There can be no doubt that in classi-
cal Greek it describes the actual specific character,
which (like the structure of a material substance) makes
each being what it is ; and this same idea is always con-
veyed in tho New Testament by the compound words
in which the root " form " is found (Rom. viii. 29 ;
xii. 2 ; 2 Cor. iii. 18; Gal. iv. 19). (3) On the other hand.
the word " fashion," as in 1 Cor. vii. 31 (" the fashion
of this world passeth away "), denotes the mere out-
ward appearance (which we frequently designate as
"form"), as will be seen also in its compounds (2 Cor.
xi. 13, 14 ; 1 Pet. i. 14). The two words are seen in
juxtaposition in Rom. xii. 2; Phil. iii. 21 (where see
Notes). Hence, in this passage the " being in the form
of God," describes our Lord's essential, and therefore
eternal, being in the true nature of God; while the
"taking on Him the form of a servant" similarly

The Humility of the Incarnation.

PHILIPPIANS, II.

T/ie Humility of the Cross.

robbery to be equal with God: (7) but
made himself of no reputation, and
took upon him the form of a ser-
vant, and was made in the like-
ness * of men u <8> and being found in

fashion as a man, he humbled himself,
and became obedient unto death, even
the death of the cross. (9) Where-
fore God also hath highly exalted him.
and given him a name which is above

refers to His voluntary assumption of the true nature
of man.

It should ho noticed that, whereas in St. Paul's
earlier Epistles, in which he cared not " to know any-
thing save Jesus Christ," and " Him as crucified," the
mam idea is always of our Lord as the mediator between
man and God, yet in the later Epistles (as here, and in
Eph. i. 10, 20—23 ; Col. i. 15—19 ; ii. 9—11 ; to which
we may add Heb. i. 2 — 4) stress is laid, sometimes (as in
Eph. i. 10), on His gathering all things in heaven and
earth unto Himself ; sometimes, even more explicitly, on
His partaking of the divine nature, and (as in Col. i. 17)
of His possessing the divine attribute of creation. All
this naturally leads up to the great declaration of His
true and perfect Godhead in John i. 1 — 13.

Thought it not robbery to be equal with
God. — There are two main interpretations of this
passage ; first, the interpretation given in our version,
which makes it simply an explanation and enforcement
of the words "being in the form of God"; secondly,
the translation thought it not a prize to be grasped at
to be equal with God, which begins in it the statement of
our Lord's voluntary self-humiliation, to be completed
in the words, " but emptied Himself of glory." The
former preserves the literal translation of the original
word "' robbery ; " the latter, in accordance with a not
uncommon usage, makes it equivalent to " the thing
snatched at," and if this be allowed, has abundant
examples in other writings to support the meaning
thus given to the whole phrase. Either interpretation
yields good sense and sound doctrine ; neither does
violence to the general context. But the latter is to be
preferred; first (1) because it suits better the idea of
the passage, which is to emphasise the reality of our
Lord's humility, and preserves the opposition implied in
the " but" following; (2) because it has the great pre-
ponderance of the ancient Greek interpreters in its
favour ; (3) because it can, on the whole, appeal more
confidently to ordinary usage of the phrase. The sense
is that, being in the form of God, and therefore having
equality with God, He set no store on that equality, as
a glory to Himself, compared with the power of giving
salvation to all men, which He is pleased to consider a
new joy and glory.

(7) But made himself . . .—This verse needs
more exact translation. It should be, But emptied (or,
stripped) Himself of His glory by having taken on
Him the form of a slave and having been made
(or, born) in likeness of men. The "glory" is the
" glory which He had with the Father before the world
was" (John xvii. 5; conrp. chap. i. 14), clearly corre-
sponding to the Shechinah of the Divine Presence. Of
this He stripped Himself in the Incarnation, taking on
Him the " form (or, nature) of a servant " of God. He
resumed it for a moment in the Transfiguration; He
was crowned with it anew at the Ascension.

Made in the likeness of man.— This clause, at
first sight, seems to weaken the previous clause, for it
does not distinctly express our Lord's true humanity.
But we note that the phrase is " the likeness of men,"
i.e., of men in general, men as they actually are.
Hence the key to the meaning is to be found in such

passages as Rom. viii. 3, God sent His own Son in " the
likeness of sinful flesh ; " or Heb. ii. 17 ; iv. 15, " It
behoved Him to be made like unto His brethren," " in
all points tempted like as we are, yet without sin." It
would have been an infinite humiliation to have
assumed humanity, even in unique and visible glory ;
but our Lord went beyond this, by deigning to seem
like other men in all things, one only of the multitude,
and that, too, in a station, which confused Him with
the commoner types of mankind. The truth of His
humanity is expressed in the phrase " form of a servant; "
its unique and ideal character is glanced at when it is
said to have worn only the " likeness of men."

(8) And being found . . .—This should be, And
after having been found (or, recognised) in fashion as
a man, He [then] humbled Himself, having become
obedient even to death. "After having been found,"
&c, clearly refers to the manifestation of Himself to
the world in all the weakness of humanity : the " out-
ward fashion " was all that men could see ; and in it
they found " no form or comeliness," or " beauty, that
they should desire Him " (Isa. liii. 2, 3). From this
St. Paul proceeds to thfe last act of His self-humiliation
in death : " He became obedient," that is, to God's
will, " even \vp to death." His death is not here
regarded as an atonement, for in that light it could be no
pattern to us ; but as the completion of the obedience
of His life. (See Rom. v. 19.) Of that life as a whole
He said, " I came down from heaven, not to do My own
will, but the will of Him that sent Me " (John vi. 38) ;
and the doing that will (see Heb. x. 9, 10) ended in " the
offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all." In
this light His death is the perfection of the suffering
which, in consequence of the power of sin in the
world, must be faced in doing the will of God (see
2 Tim. iii. 12); in this light we can follow it, and even
" fill up what is lacking of the sufferings of Christ "
(Col. i. 24).

Even the death of the cross.— Properly, and
that too, the death of the cross ; emphasising its
peculiar shame and humiliation as an " accursed "
death. (See Gal. iii. 13.)

(9) Wherefore God also hath highly exalted
him.— The exaltation, like the humiliation, belongs to
Him, as Son of Man ; for He was " lifted up," as on the
cross, so in the Ascension. It raises Him to the throne
of the Mediatorial kingdom, on which He entered by the
Ascension, sitting at the right hand of God till He
has put all enemies under His feet, and then ready " to
deliver up the kingdom to the Father, that God may be
all in all." (See 1 Cor. xv. 24—28.) For it is the " Son
of Man " who " cometh in the clouds of heaven " (Dan.
vii. 13 ; Matt. xxvi. 64), and has " authority to execute
judgment " (John v. 27).

Hath given him a name.— Or, rather, the Name
above every name. " The Name " (for this seems to be
the best reading) is clearly " the Name " of God. It is
properly the name Jehovah, held in the extremest
literal reverence by the Jews, and it came to signify
(almost like " the Word ") the revelation of the presence
of God. See Rev. xix. 12, 13, where " the name which
no man knew but Himself" is the "Word of God.'*

TIip Exaltation to Glory.

PHILIPPIANS, II.

Exhortation to Perseverance.

every name : <10) that at the name of
Jesus every knee should bow, of
things in heaven, and things in earth,
and things under the earth ; (n) and
that every tongue should confess that
Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of
God the Father. {U) Wherefore, my

beloved, as ye have always obeyed, not
as in my presence only, chap.iL12_m
but now much more in my Exhortation to
absence work out your 3*fi**|S£

Own salvation With tear God's grace, in

and trembling. <W For it is earnestness
/-tj l • i 1J.-L- peace, and

Uod which worketh in you purity.

This is, indeed, made clear by the following verse ; for
tile adoration there described is in the original passage
ilsa, xlv. 23; comp. Rom. xiv. 11), claimed as the sole
due of God Himself. The name Jesus, " Jehovah
the Saviour " (like " Jehovah our Righteousness," in
Jer. xxiii. 6), does contain, as an, integral element, the
incommunicable name of God, while the addition
of " Saviour " points to the true humanity. Therefore
in that Name, of Him who is at once God and Man,
" every knee is to bow " with direct worship to Him.

(10> At (properly, in) the name of Jesus every
knee should bow.— This is an instance of the
significant practice, by which passages of the Old
Testament speaking of God are, as a matter of course,
applied in the New to our Lord Jesus Christ. " In the
Name" is the phrase constantly used for wrorship of God.
" I will lift up my hands in Thy Name" (Ps. lxiii. 4).
It denotes worship to Christ, not through Him.

Of things in heaven, and things in earth,
and things under the earth.— For " things " we
may better substitute beings, for the reference is
properly to personal beings ; although in some sense
" All the1 works of the Lord bless the Lord, praise Him
and magnify Him for ever." (Comp. here Rev. v. 13,
•' Every creature which is in heaven, and on the earth,
and under the earth . . . heard I saying, Blessing, and
honour, and glory, and power be unto Him that sitteth
upon the throne, and to the Lamb for ever and ever."
See also Eph. i. 20, 21, and Notes there.)

W) That Jesus Christ is Lord.— The word
" Lord " is the word constantly used in the LXX. to
translate, though inadequately, the name Jehovah.
The context Would suggest that meaning here, for the
worship paid is obviously the worship done to God.
But. though less perfectly, the acknowledgment of
universal lordship and majesty (such as He claimed in
Matt, xxviii. 18 — 20) would satisfy the necessities of
the passage. For. after all, to what created being can
it be due? (On this confession of Jesus as Lord, see
Acts ii. 36 ; Rom. x. 9.)

To the glory of God the Father.— The acknow-
ledgment of the glory of Christ is the acknowledgment
of the glory of the Father, as the Source of Deity,
manifested perfectly in Him. (See John i. 18 ; xiv. 9).
Note in John v. 19 — 30, our Lord's repeated profes-
sion that His work on earth was to manifest the Father ;
in chap. xvii. 4, His declaration that He had so done ;
and in chap. xvii. 24. the truth that His glory is the
glory given of the Father.

[5. Exhortation and Commendation (verses 12—
30).

(1) Exhortation to Work out their Sal-

vation through the inworking of God, and
so to be lights in the world, and the glory of
the Apostle, even in the hour of martyrdom
(verses 12—18).

(2) St. Paul's Intention to send Timothy.

and Hope to come himself shortly
(verses 19—24).

(3) Present Mission of Epaphroditus, now
recovered from his late sickness, and strong
commendation of his zeal (verses 25 — 30).]

(12—18) By the word " wherefore " St. Paul connects
this exhortation with the great passage above. For the
main idea is here of the presence of God in them.
working out glory through a condition of humiliation,
on condition of their fellow- working with Him ; so that
they shall appear as the " sons of God " and as " lights
in the world." In all this there is clearly the imperfect
but true likeness of the indwelling of Godhead in our
Lord's humanity, exalting it through the two-fold
humiliation to the unspeakable glory.

(12) As ye have always obeyed.— It is notable
that this Epistle is the only one which contains no
direct rebuke. The Philippian Church has the glory of
having "always obeyed," not (like the Galatiau Church)
" as in his presence only, but now much more in his
absence." This '• obedience" was to the will of God as
sot forth by him. In referring to it, there is an allusion
to the " obedience " of Christ (in verse 8) ; hence their
obedience includes also that willingness to suffer which
He Himself has shown. (See chap. i. 29, 30.) To
this, perhaps, there is a further allusion in the " fear
and trembling " spoken of below. (See 2 Cor. vii. 1.5 j
Eph. vi. 5.)

Work out your own salvation.— To "work
out " is (as in Eph. vi. 13) to carry out to completion
what is begun. This is the function of man, as
fellow-worker with God, first in his own soul, and then
among his brethren. God is the " beginner and per-
fecter " of every " good work " (see chap. i. 6) ; man's
co-operation is secondary and intermediate.

(13) ppr it is God which worketh in you both
to will and to do. — In this famous paradox St. Paul
calls on men to work by their own will, just because
only God can grant them power both to will and to do.
The origination of all in God, and the free action
(which is in some sense origination) of man, are both
truths recognised by our deepest consciousness, but to
our logic irreconcilable. In one passage only (Rom.
ix. 14—24) does St. Paul touch, and that slightly and
suggestively, on their reconcilement : generally Holy
Scripture — in this confirming human reason — brings
out each vividly and profoundly in turn, and leaves
the problem of their reconcilement untouched. Hero
the paradoxical form of the sentence forces on the mind
the recognition of the co-existence of both. If that
recognition be accepted, the force of the reasoning is
clear. The only encouragement to work, in a being
weak and finite like man, is the conviction that tho
Almighty power is working in him, both as to will and
deed.

The word " worketh in you " is constantly applied to
the divine operation in the soul (see 1 Cor. xii. 6, 11 ; Gal.
ii. 8; Eph. i. 11, 20; ii. 2); rarely, as here (in the word
rendered " to do ") to the action of men. It must neces-
sarily extend to the will as well as the action ; otherwise

"Exhortation to Peace.

PHILIPPIANS, II.

St. PauVs Joy at their Faith.

both, to will and to do of his good
pleasure. <14) Do all things without
murnmrings and disputings : 05) that
ye may be blameless and harmless,1 the
sons of God, without rebuke, in the
midst of a crooked and perverse nation,

among whom ye shine 2 as lights in the
world; ™ holding forth the word of
life; that I may rejoice in the day of
Christ, that I have not run in vain,
neither laboured in vain. 07) Yea, and
if I be offered3 upon the sacrifice and

God would not be sovereign in the inner realm of mind
(as, indeed, Stoic philosophy denied that He was). We
are familiar with the influence of one created will over
another — an influence real, though limited, yet in no
sense compulsive. From this experience we may catch
a faint glimpse of the inner working of the Spirit of
God on the spirit of man. Hence, while we cannot
even conceive the existence of freedom under an un-
bending impersonal law or force, the harmony of our
will with a Supreme Personal Will is mysterious, indeed,
but not inconceivable.

Of his good pleasure.— Literally, on behalf of His
good pleasure ; that is, in harmony with it. On the
double sense of " good pleasure " see Note on Eph. i. 5.
Here, probably, the meaning is His "gracious will"
for our salvation.

(14) Without murmurings and disputings.—
St. Paul seems purposely to leave this precept in per-
fect generality, so as to apply to their relations both
to God and man. We observe, however, that the word
" disputings " is mostly used of objections and cavils in
word (see Matt. xv. 19 ; Luke v. 22 ; vi. 8 ; Rom.
i. 21; xiv. 1); although in Luke ix. 47, xxiv. 38, and
perhaps 1 Tim. ii. 8, it is applied to the inner strife of
the heart. In either case it seems mainly to indicate
intellectual questionings. Similarly, the word "mur-
muring " is used of outward wranglings of discontent
(Matt. xx. 11; Luke v. 30; John vi. 41, 43, 61; vii. 12;
Acts vi. 1; 1 Cor. x. 10; 1 Pet. iv. 9), proceeding not
so much from the mind, as from the heart. The object,
moreover, contemplated in verse 15 is chiefly good
example before men. Hence the primary reference
would seem to be to their relation towards men, in spite
of the close connection with the preceding verse. Nor
can we forget that it is on unity among themselves that
the main stress of the exhortation of this chapter turns.
Of course it is obvious that the disposition rebuked is
sure to show itself in both relations ; and that, if checked
in one, the check will react on the other.

(15) Blameless and harmless.— "Blameless" as to
external law and judgment (as in Luke i. 6 ; 1 Thess.
ii. 10) ; " harmless " in internal purity and simplicity
(as in Matt. x. 16, " harmless as doves ; " and Rom.
xvi. 19).

The sons of God, without rebuke. -The word
" without rebuke " is, according to the best MSS., the
same as that which is used in Eph. i. 4 (where see
Note), and elsewhere, to signify " unblemished." The
whole passage seems certainly a reminiscence of Deut.
xxxii. 5, as it runs in the Greek version, speaking of
the Israelites as " no children of God, full of blemish, a
crooked and perverse generation." The word " crooked"
is similarly applied to the unbelieving Jews by St.
Peter in Acts ii. 40, and the epithet "faithless and
perverse generation " used by our Lord in Matt. xvii.
17; Luke ix. 41.

Lights. — Properly, luminaries ; so used in the Old
Testament, and probably in Rev. xxi. 11. Christians
are as the lesser lights of heaven, dim in comparison
with the Sun of Righteousness, perhaps shining by
His reflected light, and seen only in the night of this

life, till He shall rise on us again in the "day of
Christ " spoken of in the next verse. The word, there-
fore, stands half-way between " light " itself, as in Matt,
v. 14, and the merely artificial " light " (or, candle) of
John v. 35.

06) Holding forth the word of life. — This
translation seems correct, and the reference is to the
comparison above. There may, indeed, be (as has been
supposed) a reference, involving a change of metaphor,
to the holding forth of a torch, for guidance, or for
transmission, as in the celebrated torch race of ancient
times. But this supposed change of metaphor is un-
necessary. The "luminaries" hold forth their light
to men, and that light is the "word of life." Note
the same connection in John i. 4, " In Him was life,
and the life was the light of men."

The word of life.— The phrase " the word of life "
is remarkable. Here it signifies, of course, the gospel
of Christ. But the gradual progress of this expression
should be noted. Of Him His disciples declared that
He " has the words " (i.e., the expressed Avords ; see
Note on Eph. vi. 17) " of eternal life " (John vi. 68) ;
He Himself goes further, and declares that His words
are themselves spirit and life (John vi. 63) ; here the
gospel, as giving that knowledge of God and of Jesus
Christ which is " eternal life " (John xvii. 3), is a
" word of life ; " and all these lead up to the final
declaration that He Himself is "the Word of life"
(1 John i. 1).

Run in vain, neither laboured in vain. —
St. Paul's usual metaphor includes the " race " and the
" struggle " of wrestling or boxing (as in 1 Cor. ix.
24—26 ; 2 Tim. iv. 7). In Gal. ii. 2 he speaks only of
the " running in vain." Here, perhaps, the more
general word " labour " (united in Col. i. 29 with the
word "struggling") may be taken to express at any
rate that element of endurance and watchfulness which
the struggle in the arena represents.

07) If I be offered upon the sacrifice and
service of your faith.— The striking metaphor of
the original is here imperfectly represented. It is, If I
am being poured out — if my life-blood is poured out — ■
over the sacrifice and religious ministration of your
faith. The same word is used in 2 Tim. iv. 6, where
our version has, " I am now ready to be offered." The
allusion is to the practice of pouring out libations or
drink-offerings (usually of wine) over saci-ifices, both
Jewish and heathen. Such libation was held to be a
subsidiary or preparatory element of the sacrifice. In
that light St. Paul regards his own possible martyrdom,
not so much as having a purpose and value in itself,
but rather as conducing to the self-sacrifice of the
Philippians by faith — a sacrifice apparently contem-
plated as likely to be offered in life rather than by
death.

The sacrifice and service of your faith.— The
word here rendered " service," with its kindred words.
properly means any service rendered by an individual for
the community ; and it retains something of this mean-
ing in 2 Cor. ix. 12, where it is applied to the collection
and transmission of alms to Jerusalem (comp. Rom.

Mission of Timotkeus.

PHILIPPIANS, II.

Commendation of Ms Faithfulness.

service of your faith, I joy, and rejoice
with you all. <18) For the same cause
also do ye joy, and rejoice with me.
<1,J) But1 I trust in the Lord Jesus to
send Timotheus shortly unto you, that
I also may be of good comfort, when I
know your state. W For I have no

1 Or, Moreover.

man likeminded,2 who will naturally

care for your state. (21J For nu .. ,n no
,. ,«f ,, . , Chap. 11. 19— 23.

all seek their own, not Mission of
the things which are timothy, as
x rvi • j_> i<>o\ -r> x St. Paul s fore^

JeSUS Christ S. F? But runner, and
ye know the proof of him, commendation
I-i i •,. ,i or him to them.

that, as a son with the

xv. 27 ; and see below, chap. ii. 25, 30), and in Rom.
xiii. 0 and Heb. i. 7. where "the powers that be" and
the angels are respectively called " ministers of God."
But the great preponderance of New Testament usage
appropriates it to priestly service (see Luke i. 23; Rom.
xv. 10; Heb. viii. 2, 0; ix. 21; x. 11), which is obviously
its sense here. The simplest interpretation of the
whole passage would be to consider the Philippiaus
merely as priest*, and to suppose " sacrifice " to describe
the chief function, and "ministration" the general
function, of their priesthood. But the word " sacrifice,"
though it might etymologically mean the act of sacrifice,
has universally in the New Testament the sense, not
of the act, but of the thing sacrificed. Accordingly,
here it would seem that, following afar off the example
of the great high priest, the Christian is described as
at once sacrifice and priest, "offering" (see Rom. xii.
1) "his own body as a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable
to God," and with it the " sacrifice of praise " and the
"sacrifice of doing good and communicating" (Heb.
xiii. 15, 10, and below, chap. iv. 18). This union of
sacrifice and ministration, being the work " of faith,"
is in St. Paul's view the thing really precious ; his own
death the mere preparation for it, in which he rejoices
" to spend and be spent " for them.

I joy, and rejoice with you all.— That is. I joy,
and that in sympathy with you. First, "I joy"
absolutely, in the feeling that " to depart and be with
Christ," following Him in His own way of suffering, is
far better. Next, " I joy in sympathy with you," in
the sense of community of sacrifice, and brotherhood in
suffering, for the sake of the one Lord. The emphasis
laid on the latter clause harmonises with the old
proverb, that sorrow is halved, and joy doubled, when it
is shared with others.

(18) Do ye joy . . .—The Epistle lays great stress
on joy, not only as a privilege, but as a duty, following
from Christian faith and proving its reality. Joy is in
itself natural in the first thoughts of childhood and
youth ; it is apt to be chequered or even destroyed by
the second thoughts of fuller experience of life, as
darkened by suffering, sin. and death ; but in the third
and deepest thoughts of the Christian, recognising
these darker elements of life, but knowing that they
were not in the beginning, and shall not be in the end,
joy comes back, solemnised but deepened into thankful-
ness. A Christianity which has no power to rejoice,
either in flashes of joy amidst tribulation, or, better
still, in the calm steady light of cheerfulness, may be
true, but is imperfect. It has not yet entered into the
promise given by our Lord Himself of the " joy which
no man taketh from us " (John xvi. 22).

(19—24) St. Paul takes occasion of a promise to send
Timothy shortly, to give an emphatic commendation of
him. and adds a hope that he may soon "come to
Philippi himself.

(19) "VVe note that here Timothy is spoken of in
the third person; hence, though lie is joined with St.

Paul in the salutation (see chap. i. 1), the Epistle is the
Apostle's, and his alone. The same is the case in fche
First Epistle to the Thessalonians (comp. chap. i. 1 with
chap. iii. 2, 0).

That I also may be of good comfort.— The
words express somo anxiety, but greater confidence, as
to the news which Timothy on returning was likely to
bring. Wo have instances of a similar but far stronger
anxiety of affection in 2 Cor. ii. 13; vii. 0, 7, and
1 Thess. iii. 1 — 0. In regard to the Philippians it
might exist in detail, but was swallowed up in con-
fidence on all main points.

(20) For I have no man likeminded.— That is,
probably, like-minded with myself. St. Paul calls
Timothy his " genuine (or, true) son in the faith "
(1 Tim. i. 2), a son who in spirit and affection was like
his father. The word " naturally " in this verse is the
same word, and should be translated genuinely,
without either counterfeit or duplicity of aim ; and the
word " care " implies something of the same absorbing
anxiety which is expressed on St. Paul's part in this

(21) For all seek their own, not the things
which are Jesus Christ's.— Compare our Lord's
words. " Ye shall be scattered every man to his own
(things), and shall leave Mo alone " (John xvi. 32). St.
Paul's declaration is startling; for he had certainly
some " brethren with him " (chap. iv. 21). But the
scanty notice of them in the close of this Epistle
contrasts strongly with the detailed and affectionate
mention of his companions by name in Col. iv. 7 —
14 ; Philem. verses 23, 24. It would seem as if at this
time he was either separated accidentally from his
most trusty disciples, or that there had been a tem-
porary falling away from him, in some degree like that
which he describes with so much sadness in 2 Tim. iv.
9, 10, 10. His words need not bo taken as accusing all
of absolute selfishness and unfaithfulness, but they are
nevertheless startling enough.

(22) The proof of him.— The allusion is justified by
their intimate personal knowledge. Timothy was at
Philippi with St. Paul on his first visit (Acts xvi.
12 — 40) ; wo find him sent to Thessalonica shortly after
(1 Thess. iii. 2), and he probably then paid a second visit
to Philippi; from Ephesus (Actsxix. 22) he is sent again
to Macedonia ; and with St. Paul on the way to Jerusalem
he was at Philippi once more (Acts xx. 4 — 0).

As a son with the father.— The original con-
struction is curiously broken here. It runs, As a son to
a father — as though St. Paul was going to speak of
Timothy's dutiful ministration and following of his
example ; but then the sentence changes, in a charac-
teristic humility, and makes Timothy and himself
merely fellow-servants — he served tvith me in the
gospel. If we may judge of Timothy's character
from the general character of St. Paul's directions to
him in the Pastoral Epistles, and especially the signi-
ficant exhortation, " Let no man despise thy youth.
(1 Tim. iv. 12), it would seem to have been gentle
and warm-hearted rather than commanding. Hence,

Mission of Epaphroditus.

PHILIPP1ANS, II.

His Sickness and Recovery.

father, he hath served with me in the
gospel. (23) Him therefore I hope to
send presently, so soon as I shall see
how it will go with me. <24) But I trust
in the Lord that I also myself shall
come shortly. (25) Yet I supposed it
Chap. ii. 25— 30. necessary to send to you
Mission and Epaphroditus, my brother,
commendation j x • • 1 i

of Epaphrodi- and companion in labour,
tus. and fellowsoldier, but your

messenger, and he that ministered to
my wants. <26> For he longed after
you all, and was full of heaviness,
because that ye had heard that he
had been sick. (27) For indeed he
was sick nigh unto death : but God
had mercy on him ; and not on him
only, but on me also, lest I should
have sorrow upon sorrow. <28> I
sent him therefore the more carefully,

perhaps, the necessity for this singularly emphatic
commendation of him. (Comp. 1 Cor. xvi. 10, " If
Timotheus come, see that he be with you without fear.")

(23) How it will go with me.— An explanatory
paraphrase, though probably correct, of the original,
the things concerning me. Probably some crisis in the
imprisonment was at hand, with which the expectation
of release implied in the next verse was connected.

(24) But I trust . . . — Compare Philem. verse 22,
" Prepare me a lodging, for I trust that through your
prayers I shall be given to you," where the expecta-
tion seems even more immediate. The interval
between the Letters is unknown. The received belief
of St. Paul's release, and subsequent re-imprisonment
(resting on unvarying tradition, and on the evidence
of the Pastoral Epistles), supposes this expectation to
have been fulfilled in due time.

In the Lord. — So above, verse 19. The expression,
connected in both cases with matters of practical life
and even of detail, is one which (like " the bowels of
Jesus Christ " in chap. i. 8) belongs to the conscious-
ness of a life so absorbed in Christ, that it cannot
think or live in hope except " in the Lord." But it
carries with it, perhaps, also the idea suggested by St.
James (chap. iv. 15) " If the Lord will, wo shall do this
or that." Just so far as a hope or prayer is really " in
the Lord," it will be accordant with the Divine will,
and will therefore bo realised.

Yerses 25 — 30 contain the immediate mission and
commendation of Epaphroditus, who had been sent
from Philippi with supplies, had fallen sick, and now
in convalescence was longing for home, and fearful lest
the report of his sickness should cause them anxiety.

(25) Epaphroditus.— The name was often shortened
into Epaphras. But it was a common name; hence
any identification with the Epaphras of Col. i. 7 ; iv.
12 ; Philem. verse 23, is, to say the least, extremely
precarious. It is hardly likely that one who was a
native Colossian would be a resident and chosen
messenger of Philippi. The three titles here given
him are closely joined together in the original, and
form a kind of climax — " brother " in a common
Christianity. " fellow- worker " in the service of Christ,
" fellow-soldier " in the " hardness " of daring and
suffering, which the warfare of the Cross implies.
(See 2 Tim. ii. 3, 4.)
'- Your messenger.— The original word is apostle;
and by some interpreters, ancient and modern, it has
been thought that it is intended here to designate the
chief pastor — or, in the modern sense, the bishop — of
the Philippian Church (as probably is the case with the
" angels of the churches in the Apocalypse) ; and
the word " your " is then explained in the same sense
as the words rt of the Gentiles " in Rom. xi. 13. But this
is very unlikely, (1) because there seems to be no

example to confirm the statement that the chief pastor
of a church was ever called its "apostle; " (2) because
the character of the apostolate, being general and
evangelistic, was very different from that of the local
and pastoral episcopate ; (3) because in this passage the
word is inseparably connected with the following " and
minister to my needs," showing the latter phrase to be
explanatory of the previous word; (4) because the
style of commendation in verse 29 is hardly suitable as
applied to one whose office alone should have com-
manded respect. Our version is, therefore, correct in
rendering it " messenger," just as in 2 Cor. viii. 23
('" the messengers of the churches "), where there is a
similar reference to the transmission of alms.

(26) For he longed after you all . . . .—
The two clauses of the verse are distinct from
each other. St. Paul's first reason for sending
Epaphroditus was in itself a sufficient one, that in his
convalescence he yearned for home, and needed a
change thither. The original is strong, because he
was contimially longing (see chap. i. 8 ; iv. 1) for
you all. But besides this he was " full of heaviness."'
or more properly, distressed' and uneasy, because of
the effect which the news of his apparently fatal illness
might cause at home.

(27) God had mercy on him . . . and on me
also. — The passage, over and above its interest as an
example of the strong personal affection which belonged
to St. Paul's nature, and harmonised with his wide scope
of Christian love, is notable as showing clearly that the
Apostle's power of miracle, great as it was, was not his
own, to use at his own will. When it was needed to be
" the sign of an Apostle " (2 Cor. xiii. 12) it was given ;
and at special times, as at Ephesus, it was given in
" special " fulness (Acts xix. 11). As we note, both in
the Old Testament and in the New, special epochs of
miracles in the history of the Church ; so it would
seem there were special occasions on which miracle came
out prominently in the Apostle's preaching. "We may.
perhaps, infer from certain points in the descriptions of
the healing of the cripple at the Beautiful Gate (Acts
iii. 4), and at Lystra (Acts xiv. 8) that some spiritual
intimation warned them when the hour of miracle was
come. But an Apostle could not, as our Lord would
not, work miracles for his own needs. Thus in this
case, deeply as he sorrowed for Epaphroditus, there is
no hint of his exercising that power on his behalf. He
could only pray that God would have mercy on him,
and thank God when that prayer was heard.

Sorrow upon sorrow.— That is, probably, upon
the sorrow of captivity the sorrow of losing one who
had (see verse 30) risked his fife in the ardour of
service to the captive.

(28) I sent him therefore the more carefully —
That is, I was the more earnest and anxious to send
him. In any case the Apostle would have been

^Commendation of his Zeal.

PHILIPPIANS, III.

Conclusion and Resumption.

that, when ye see him again, ye may
rejoice, and that I may be the less
sorrowful. (29) Receive him therefore
in the Lord with all gladness; and
hold such in reputation:1 (30) because
for the, work of Christ he was nigh
unto death, not regarding his life, to

A.I). 64.

1 Or, kf'ttu/ir s'Kii.

supply your lack of service toward
me.

CHAPTEE III. — <*> Finally
brethren, rejoice in the Chap iu t
Lord. To write the same Original con.
things to you, to me indeed clusion-

desirous to express his thanks and send news by
Epaphroditus. But the circumstances of his illness
increased that desire to greater earnestness.

I may be the less sorrowful.— There is a
peculiar pathos in this expression, as contrasted with
tlie completeness of joy described above in verses
17.18. Epaphroditus' recovery and safe return would
take away the "sorrow upon sorrow;" but the old
sorrow of captivity, enforced inactivity, and anxiety
for the condition of the gospel, would remain. The
expression of perfect joy belongs to the " spirit which
was willing" indeed; the hint of an unspoken sorrow
marks the weakness of the flesh.

(30) jfot regarding his life.— According to the true
reading, the sense is "having hazarded his life"; lite-
rally, having gambled with his life, not merely having
staked it, but staked it recklessly. It is possible that (as
Bishop Wordsworth suggests) there may be allusion to
tiie caution money, staked in a cause to show that it was
not frivolous and vexatious, and forfeited in case of
ioss ; and that Epaphroditus, risking his life through
over-exertion in the cause of St. Paul, as a prisoner
awaiting trial, is therefore said to have gambled with
It is life. This would give a special appropriateness
to the allusion. But it is, perhajis, too artificial, and
the figure is in itself intelligible and striking.

To supply your lack of service.— There is not
in the original the touch of reproach which our version
may seem to imply. Epaphroditus' presence and
activity are said to have "filled up the one thing
wanting *' to make the service of the Philippians
effective for its purpose.

III.

6, Original Conclusion of the Epistle (chap,
iii. 1).
'* Finally Brethren, Farewell in the
Lord."]

(!) Finally. — The same word is used in 2 Cor.
xiii. 11; Eph. vi. 10; 2 Thess. iii. 1 (as also in this
Epistle, chap; iv. 8), to usher in the conclusion. Here,
on the contrary, it stands nearly hi the middle of the
Epistle. Moreover, the commendation above of Timothy
and Epaphroditus is exactly that which, according to
St. Paul's custom, would mark the final sentences of
the whole. Again, the words " rejoice in the Lord "
may. according to the common usage of the time
(although certainly that usage is not adopted in other
Letters of St. Paul), not improbably signify farewell in
the Lord; and even if not used in this formal and
conventional sense, yet certainly hold the position of
final good wishes, which that sense implies. The
resumption of them in chap. iv. 4, where the actual
conclusion now begins, is striking. It seems, there-
fore, highly probable, that in this place the Letter
was originally drawing to an end, and that some news
was at that moment brought which induced the
Apostle to add a second part, couched in language
of equal affection, but of greater anxiety and "more

emphatic warning. Of such a break, and resumption
with a far more complete change of style, we have a
notable instance at the beginning of the tenth chapter
of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians ; as also of
the addition of postscript after postscript in the last
chapter of the Epistle to the Romans.

[7. "Words of Warning (chaps, iii. 1— iv. 3).

. (1) Against the Judaisers.

(a) Warning against confidence " in the flesh,'''
illustrated by his own renunciation of all
Jewish privileges and hopes, in oi-der to
have "the righteousness of Christ"
(verses 1 — 9).
(6) Warning against confidence in perfection as
already attained, again illustrated by his
own sense of imperfection and hope of
continual progress (verses 10 — 16)y

(2) Against the Antinomian Party.
Contrast of the sensual and corrupt life of

the flesh with the spirituality and hope
of future perfection which become citizens
of heaven (verses 17 — 21).

(3) Against all tendency to Schism (chap.

iv. 1—3).

To write the same things to you.— These
words may refer to what goes before, in which case the
reference must be to " rejoice in the Lord." Now, it is
true that this is the burden of the Epistle; but this
interpretation suits ill the following words. " for you it
is safe," which obviously refer to some warning against
danger or temptation. Hence it is far better to refer
them to the abrupt and incisive warnings that follow.

These, then, are said to be a repetition; but of
what !J Hardly of the former part of this Epistle, for
it is difficult there to find anything corresponding to
them. If not, then it must be of St. Paul's previous
teaching, by word or by letter. For the use here of
the word " to write," though it suits better the idea of
former communication by writing, cannot exclude oral
teaching. That there was more than one Epistle to
Philippi has been inferred (probably, but not certainly)
from an expression in Polycarp's letter to the Philip-
pians (sect. 3), speaking of " the Epistles " of St. Paul
to them. It is not in itself unlikely that another
Epistle should have been written ; nor have we any
right to argue decisively against it, on the ground that
no such Epistle is found in the canon of Scripture.
But however this may be, it seems natural to refer to
St. Paul's former teaching as a whole. Now, when
St. Paul first preached at Philippi, he had not long
before carried to Antioch the decree of the council
against the contention of " them of the circumcision ; "
and, as it was addressed to the churches " of Syria and
Cilicia," he can hardly have failed to communicate it,
when he passed through both regions " confirming the
churches " (Acts xv. 41). At Thessalonica. not long
after, the jealousy of the Jews at his preaching the
freedom of the gospel drove him from the city (Acts

Warning against Judaism

PHILIPPIANS, III.

by St. Paul's Example.

is not grievous, but for you it is safe.
Chap. iii. 2- (2) Beware of dogs, beware of
11. Warning evil workers, beware of the

against Juda- concisi011. (3) por we are the
ismg seli-con- . . . .

Mence, con- circumcision, which wor-
tvasted with g^p Qoft 'm the spirit, and
the self-aban- ,r. . -~, . * J

donment of rejoice in Christ Jesus,
faitn- and have no confidence in

the flesh. (4) Though I might also
have confidence in the flesh. If any
other man thinketh that he hath
whereof he might trust in the flesh,
I more : (5^ circumcised the eighth
day, of the stock of Israel, of the
tribe of Benjamin, an Hebrew of
the Hebrews ; as touching the law, a

xvii. 5). When he came to Macedonia on his next
journey, the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, written
there and probably at Philippi, marks the first out-
burst of the Judaising controversy ; and when he re-
turned to Philippi, on his way back, he had just
written the Epistles to the Galatians and Romans,
which deal exhaustively with the whole question.
Nothing is more likely than that his teaching at
Philippi had largely dealt with the warning against the
Judaisers. What, then, more natural than to introduce
a new warning on the subject — shown to be necessary
by news received —with the courteous half-apology, M To
write the same things to you, to me is not grievous
(or, tedious) but for you it is safe," making assurance
doubly sure ?

(2) Beware of (the) dogs.— In Rev. xxii. 15 " the
dogs " excluded from the heaA-enly Jerusalem seem to
be those who are impure. In that sense the Jews
applied the word to the heathen, as our Lord, for a
moment appearing to follow the Jewish usage, does to
the Syro-Phcenician woman in Matt. xv. 26. But here
the context appi*opriates the word to the Judaising
party, who claimed special purity, ceremonial and
moral, and who probably were not characterised by
peculiar impurity — such as, indeed, below (verses 17 —
21) would seem rather to attach to the Antinomian
party, probably the extreme on the other side. Chry-
sostom's hint that the Apostle means to retort the
name upon them, as now by their own wilful apostasy
occupying the place outside the spiritual Israel which
once belonged to the despised Gentiles, is probably
right. Yet perhaps there may be some allusion to the
dogs, not as unclean, but as, especially in their half -wild
state in the East, snarling and savage, driving off as
intei'lopers all who approach what they consider their
ground. Nothing could better describe the narrow
Judaising spirit.

Of evil workers.— Comp. 2 Cor. xi. 13, describing
the Judaisers as " deceitful workers." Here the idea
is of their energy in work, but work for evil.

The concision.— By an ironical play upon words
St. Paul declares his refusal to call the circumcision,
on which the Judaisers prided themselves, by that
time-honoured name ; for, " we," he says, " are the true
circumcision," the true Israel of the new covenant.
In Eph. ii. 11 (where see Note) he had denoted it as the
"so-called circumcision in the flesh made by hands."
Here he speaks more strongly, and calls it a " con-
cision," a mere outward mutilation, no longer, as it
had been, a "seal" of the covenant (Rom. iv. 11).
There is a still more startling attack on the advocates
of circumcision in Gal. v. 12 (where see Note).

(3) We are the circumcision.— So in Col. ii. 11, 12,
evidently alluding to baptism as the spiritual circum-
cision, he says, " In whom ye were circumcised with
the circumcision made without hands." Comp. Rom.
ii. 20, " Circumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit,
and not in the letter ; " and passages of a similar

character in the Old Testament, such as Deut. x. 16,
" Circumcise therefore the foreskin of your hearts ; "
chap. xxx. 6, " The Lord God will circumcise thine
heart." Hence the spirit of St. Stephen's reproach,.
" Ye uncircumcised in heart and cars" (Acts vii. 51).

Which worship God in the spirit . . . -The
true reading here is, who worship by the Spirit of
God, the word " worship," or service, being that which
is almost technically applied to the worship of the
Israelites as God's chosen people (Acts xxvi. 7 ;
Rom. ix. 4; Heb. ix. 1, 6), and which, with the
addition of the epithet " reasonable," is claimed for the
Christian devotion to God in Christ (see Rom. xii. 1).
Such "worship by the Spirit of God" St. Paul de-
scribes in detail in Eoin. viii., especially in verses 26, 27.

And. rejoice (or rather, glory) in Christ Jesus. —
Comp. Rom. xv. 17, " I have therefore whereof I
may glory in the Lord Jesus Christ," and the Old
Testament quotation (from Jer. ix. 23, 24) twice applied
to our Lord, " He that glorieth, let him glory in the
Lord " (1 Cor. i. 31 ; 2 Cor. x. 17). In Gal. vi. 14 we
have a still more distinctive expression, " God forbid
that I should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus
Christ." To glory in Christ is something more than
even to believe and to trust in Him; it expresses a deep
sense of privilege, both in present thankfulness and in
future hope.

In the flesh.— The phrase is used here, as not un-
frequently, for the present and visible world, to which
we are linked by our flesh (see John viii. 15, " to judge
after the flesh ; " 2 Cor. v. 16, " to know Christ after
the flesh," &c.) We have an equivalent phrase in an
earlier passage, which is throughout parallel to this
(2 Cor. xi. 18), "Many glory after the flesh." The
particular form of expression is probably suggested
by the constant reference to the circumcision, which
is literally " in the flesh."

(5, 6) The comparison with the celebrated passage in
2 Cor. xi. 18 — 23 is striking, in respect not only of
similarity of substance, but of the change of tone from
the indignant and impassioned abruptness of the earlier
Epistle to the calm impressiveness of this. The first
belongs to the crisis of the struggle, the other to its
close. We have also a parallel, though less complete,
in Rom. xi. 1, " I also am an Isi-aelite, of the stock of
Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin.''

(5> Circumcised the eighth day— i.e., a Jew
born, not a proselyte.

Of the stock of Israel— i.e., emphatically, a true
scion of the covenanted stock, the royal race of the
'• Prince of God."

Of the tribe of Benjamin— i.e., the tribe of the
first king, whose name the Apostle bore; the tribe to
whom belonged the holy city; the one tribe faithful
to the house of Judah in the apostasy of the rest.

An Hebrew of the Hebrews.— Properly. «
Hebrew descended from Hebrews. The Hebrew Jew..

His surrender of all

PHILIPPIANS, III.

fox tin' Righteousness of Faith,

Pharisee; (6) concerning zeal, persecuting
the church ; touching the righteousness
which is in the law, blameless. (7) But
what things were gain to me, those I
counted loss for Christ. (8) Yea doubt-
less, and I count all things but loss for

the excellency of the knowledge of
Christ Jesus my Lord : for whom I
have suffered the loss of all things, and
do count them but dung, that I may
win Christ, W and be found in him, not
having mine own righteousness, which

who retained, wherever born, the old tongue, education,
and customs of his fathers, held himself superior to
the Grecian or Hellenist, who had to assimilate him-
self, as to the language, so to the thoughts and habits,
of the heathen around him. St. Paul united the ad-
vantages both of the true Hebrew, brought up at the
feet of Gamaliel, and of the Hellenist of Tarsus,
familiar with Greek language, literature, and thought.
Compare his own words to his countrymen from the
steps of the Temple as illustrating the whole passage :
" I verily am a Jew, born in Tarsus, a city in Cilicia,
yet brought up in this city at the feet of Gamaliel, and
taught according to the perfect manner of the law of
the fathers, and was zealous before God . . . and I
persecuted this way unto the death" (Acts xxii. 3, 4).

As touching the law, a Pharisee.— Comp.
Acts xxiii. 6, " I am a Pharisee, and the son of
Pharisees;'" and xxvi. 5, "according to the straitest
sect of our religiou I lived a Pharisee." In these
words St. Paul passes from his inherited Judaic
privileges, to the intense Judaism of his own personal
life.

(Q) Concerning zeal, persecuting the church.
— The word " zeal " (as in Acts xxii. 3) is probably used
almost technically to describe his adhesion to the
principles of the " Zealots," who, following the
example of Phinehas, were for " executing judgment "
at once on all heathens as traitors, ready alike to slay or
to be slain for the Law. He shows how in this he
departed from the teaching of Gamaliel, when he was
"exceedingly mad against" the Christians, and "per-
secuted them even unto strange cities."

Touching the righteousness which is in
the law, blameless.— The " righteousness in Law,"
which our Lord called " the righteousness of the scribes
and Pharisees" (Matt. v. 20), is the righteousness accord-
ing to rule, in which a man, like the rich young ruler,
might think himself " blameless," and even hope to go
beyond it in " counsels of perfection " — not the righte-
ousness according to principle, which can never fulfil
or satisfy itself. While St. Paul confined himself to
the lower form of righteousness, he could feel himself
" blameless ; " but when he began to discern this
higher righteousness in- the Law, then he felt the
terrible condemnation of the Law, on which he dwells
so emphatically in Rom. vii. 7—12.

(7) I counted loss . . .—Not merely worthless,
but worse than worthless ; because preventing the sense
of spiritual need and helplessness which should bring
to Christ, and so, while " gaining all the world," tend-
ing to the " loss of his own soul." St. Paul first
applies this declaration to the Jewish privilege and
dignity of which he had spoken. Then, not content
with this, he extends it to " all things " which were his
to sacrifice for Christ.

(8) For the excellency of the knowledge.— The
word " excellency " is here strictly used to indicate (as
in 2 Cor. iii. 9, 10, 11) that the knowledge of Christ so
surpasses all other knowledge, and, indeed, all other
blessings whatever, as to make them less than nothing.
As Chrysostom says here, "When the sun hath

appeared, it is loss to sit by a candle." The light of
the candle in the sunlight actually casts a shadow.
How that knowledge is gained we learn in Eph. iii. 17.
18, " That Christ may dwell in your hearts by faith :
that ye. being rooted and grounded in love, may . . .
know the love of Christ, which passeth knowledge."

Dung.— The word appears to mean " refuse " of any
kind. The sense adopted in our version is common.
Dr. Lightfoot, however, quotes instances of its use for
the fragments from a feast, and remarks on the old
derivation of the word from that which is " thrown to
dogs," which, however etymologically questionable,
shows the idea attached to the word. This use would
suit well enough with the ideas suggested by the retort
of the name "dogs " on the Judaisers.

I suffered the loss of all things.— There seems
to be here a play on words. These things were (he
has said) loss ; he suffered the loss of them : and the
loss of a loss is a " gain."

That I may win (properly, gain) Christ, and
be found in him.— The line of thought in these
two clauses is like that of Gal. iv. 9, " Now that ye
have known God, or rather are known of God." The
first idea suggested by the context is that of " gain-
ing Christ," finding Him and laying hold of Him by
faith ; but this, if taken alone, is unsatisfactory, as
resting too much on the action of man. Hence
St. Paid adds, and " be found (of God) in Him,"
drawn into union with Him by the grace of God, so that
we may "dwell in Him, and He in us," and be "found"
abiding in Him in each day of God's visitation.

(») Wot having mine own righteousness, which
is of the law. — This is not the same as " righteous-
ness in the Law," that is, defined bylaw. It is a righte-
ousness resulting from the works of the Law (Gal. iL
16), earned by an obedience to the Law, which is
" mine own '' — " not of grace, but of debt " (Rom. iv. 4)
— such as St. Paul declares (in Rom. x. 3— -6) to have
been blindly sought by Israel, which he there defines
as " life by doing the things of the Law." We have
here, and in the following words, a remarkable link of
connection with the earlier Epistles of the Judaising
controversy, corresponding to Eph. ii. 8 — 10, but cast
more nearly in the ancient mould. Yet it is, after all,
only the last echo of the old controversy, which we
trace so clearly in the Galatian and Roman Epistles.
The battle is now virtually won, and it only needs to
complete the victory.

But . . . the righteousness which is of God
by {on condition'qf) faith. — This verse is notable, as^
describing the true righteousness ; first imperfectly,
as coming " through faith of Jesus Christ," a descrip-
tion which discloses to us only its means, and not its
origin; next, completely, as "a righteousness coming
from God on the sole condition of faith " — faith being
here viewed not as the means, but as the condition,
of receiving the divine gift (as in Acts iii. 16). It may
be noted that in the Epistle to the Eomans. we have
righteousness " through faith.'' " from faith,*' " of
faith;" for there it was needful to bring out in various
I forms the importance of faith. Here, now that the
81

His Desire to be like Christ,

PHILIPPIANS, III.

and so attain Perfection.

is of the law, but that which is through
the faith of Christ, the righteousness
which is of God by faith : <10^ that I may-
know him, and the power of his resur-
rection, and the fellowship of his suffer-
ings, being made conformable unto his
death ; <n> if by any means I might
attain unto the resurrection of the dead.

W Not as though I had already attained,
either were already perfect : chap iu 12_

but I follow after, if that 16. Disclaimer

I may apprehend that for ^^ftian
which also I am appre- perfection al-
hended of Christ Jesus, ready attained.
(13) Brethren, I count not myself to
have apprehended: but this one thing

urgent necessity has passed, we have the stress laid
simply on the opposition of the gift of God through
Christ to the merit of the works of the Law ; and faith
occupies a less prominent, though not less indispensable,
position. (See Eph. ii. 8 — 10, and Note thereon.)

(10) Inseparably connected with the possession of
this " righteousness of God " is the knowledge of Christ,
or more exactly, the gaining the knowledge of Christ
(see verse 8), by conformity both to His suffering and
death, and also to His resurrection. This " conformity
to the image of Christ " (Rom. viii. 29, 30)- — with which
compare the having " Christ formed within us " of
Gal. iv. 19) — is made by St. Paul the substance of the
gracious predestination of God, preceding the call, the
justification, the glorification, which mark the various
epochs of Christian life.

(10, ll) The order of these verses is notable and
instructive. (1) First comes the knowledge of "the
power of the Resurrection." What this is we see by
examining it as historically the main subject of the
first apostolic preaching. There it is considered, as
in St. Peter's first sermons, as giving the earnest
of " forgiveness," or " blotting out of sins," and the
" gift of the Holy Ghost " (Acts ii. 38 ; iii. 13, 26), or,
as St. Paul expresses it, of "justification from all
things " (Acts xjii. 38, 39). This same idea is wrought
out fully in his Epistles. Thus, for example, without it
(1 Cor. xv. 17) " we are still in our sins." It is the
pledge of our justification (Rom. v. 1), and the means
of our being " alive unto God " (Rom. vi. 11). Hence
" the power," or efficacy, " of His resurrection " is the
justification, and regeneration inseparable from it, which
lie at the entrance of Christian life. (2) Next comes
the " partaking of His sufferings " and " conformity to
His death," which are the " taking up the cross, and
following Him," in the obedience even unto death.
This "fellowship of sufferings," coming partly from
the sin of others, partly from our own, is the constant
theme of the New Testament. (See 1 Pet. iv. 13;
Rom. viii. 17; 2 Cor. i. 5; Col. i. 24; 2 Tim. ii. 11.)
The " conformity to His death " is the completion of
the death unto sin, described as " mortification " of sin
(Col. iii. 5) ; " as bearing about in the body the dying
(or, properly, mortification) of the Lord Jesus"
(2 Cor. iv. 10) ; or more frequently as being " crucified
with Christ," " the world to us and we to the world "
(Gal. ii. 20; v. 24; vi. 14). (3) Lastly comes the
" attainment to the resurrection of the dead," properly,
"the resurrection from the dead," which is (see Luke
xx. 35) the resurrection unto life and the glorification
in Him, so nobly described below (verses 20, 21).
" If we have been planted together in the likeness of
His death, we shall be also in the likeness of His
resurrection" (Rom. vi. 5). For of our resurrection
(see 1 Cor. xv. 12 — 23) His resurrection is not only the
pledge, but the earnest. Note how in 1 Thess. iv.

14 — 18, and 1 Cor. xv. 51 — 57, the whole description
is only of the resurrection unto life, and compare the
first resurrection of Rev. xx. 6. This is the completion
of all ; St. Paul dared not as yet anticipate it with the
confidence which hereafter soothed his dying hour
(2 Tim. iv. 7, 8).

Verses 12 — 16 lead us from the warning against
trust in human merit to deprecate the supposition of
a perfection here attained even in Christ. The tran-
sition is natural. The same spirit which shows itself
undisgnisedly in the one pretension, comes out half-
concealed in the other.

(12) Not as though . . . — The tenses are here varied.
Not as though I ever yet attained, or have been already
made perfect. To " attain," or receive (probably the
prize, see verse 14), is a single act ; " to be perfected "
a continuous process. Clearly St. Paul has no belief,
either in any indefectible grasp of salvation, or in any
attainment of full spiritual perfection on this side of
the grave. We may note our Lord's use of the word " to
be perfected" to signify His death (Luke xiii. 32), and a
similar application of the word to Him in Heb. ii. 10 ;
v. 9; also the use of the words "made perfect" to
signify the condition of the glorified (Heb. xi. 40 ; xii.
23). ,

If that I may apprehend that for which also
I am (rather, was) apprehended of Christ Jesus.—
The metaphor throughout is of the race, in which he, like
an eager runner, stretches out continually to " grasp "
the prize. But (following out the same line of thought
as in verses 7, 8) he is unwilling to lay too much stress
on his own exertions, and so breaks in on the metaphor,
by the remembrance that he himself was once grasped,
at his conversion, by the saving hand of Christ, and so
only put in a condition to grasp the prize. The exact
translation of the words which we render " that for
which," &c, is doubtful. Our version supplies an object
after the verb " apprehend," whereas the cognate verb
" attained " is used absolutely; and the expression as it
here stands is rather eumbrons. Perhaps it would be
simpler to render "inasmuch as" or "seeing that"
(as in Rom. v. 12; 2 Cor. v. 4). The hope to apprehend
rests on the knowledge that he had been apprehended
by One " out of whose hand no man could pluck " him.

(13) I count not myself . . . — The " I " is em-
phatic, evidently in contrast with some of those who
thought themselves "perfect." (See verse 15.) Not
only does St. Paul refuse to count that he has ever yet
" attained; " he will not allow that he is yet in a posi-
tion even to grasp at the prize. (Comp. 1 Cor. ix 27.)

Forgetting those things which are behind . . .
— The precept is absolutely general, applying to past
blessings, past achievements, even past sins. The
ineradicable instinct of hope, which the wisdom of the
world (not unreasonably if this life be all) holds to be a
delusion, or at best a condescension to weakness, is

Perfection not yet readied.

IMIILIPPIANS, III.

Unity oar present Blessing-

I do, forgetting those things which are
behind, and reaching forth unto those
things which are before, (11) I press
toward the mark for the prize of the
high calling of God in Christ Jesus.
(15> Let us therefore, as many as be
perfect, be thus minded : and if in any
thing ye be otherwise minded, God shall
reveal even this unto you. (16) Never-

theless, whereto we have already at-
tained, let us walk by the same; rule, let
us mind the same thing. <17> Brethren,
be followers together of -. ...
me, and mark them which 21. Warning
walk so as ye have us for an gainst Anti-

i Mm /T71 nonnan proni-

ensample. (1S> (For many gacy, unworthy
walk, of whom I have of the citizen-
told you often, and now *»««*«««

sanctioned in the gospel as an anticipation of im-
mortality. Accordingly hope is made a rational
principle, and is always declared to be, not only a
privilege, but a high Christian duty, co-ordinate with
faith and love (as. in 1 Cor. xiii. 13; Eph. iv. 4). St.
Paul does not scruple to say that, if we have it not, for
the next life as well as this, we Christians are "of
all men most miserable " (1 Cor. xv. 19). Hence past
blessing is but an earnest of the future ; past achieve-
ments of good are stepping-stones to greater things ;
past sins are viewed in that true repentance which
differs from remorse — " the sorrow of this world
which worketh death " (2 Cor. vii. 10j — in having a sure
and certain hope of the final conquest of all sin. The
" eternal life " in Christ is a present gift, but one test
of its reality in the present is its possession of the
promise of the future.

(U) The high calling of God.— Properly, the call-
ing which is above — i.e. (much as in Col. iii. 12), "the
heavenly calling/9 — which is " of God," proceeding from
His will, for " whom Ho predestinated, them He also
called" (Rom. viii. 30) ; and is "in Christ Jesus" in
virtue of the unity with Him, in which we are at once
justified and sanctified.

(15) Perfect. — The word is apparently used with a
touch of irony (as perhaps the word "spiritual" in
Gal. vi. 1), in reference to those who hold themselves
" to have already attained, to be already perfect." It-
is, indeed, mostly used of such maturity in faith and
grace as may be. and ought to be. attained here (Matt.
v. 48 ; 1 Cor. ii. 6 ; xiv. 20; Eph. iv. 13 ; Col. i. 28 ; iv.
12 ; Heb. v. 14). But. strictly speaking, this life, as St.
Paid urges in 1 Cor. xiii. 10, 11, is but childhood, prepar-
ing for the full manhood, or "perfection" of the next ;
and his disclaimer of perfection above suggests that this
higher meaning should in this passage be kept in view.
The prospect of being " perfect " in indefectible faith
or grace is the Christian's hope ; the claim to be already
"perfect" is always recurring in various forms — all
natural but unwarrantable anticipations of heaven on
earth. St. Paul, by a striking paradox, bids those who
hold themselves perfect to prove that they are so by a
consciousness of imperfection. If they have it not, he
says, they have something yet to learn. " God will
reveal even this unto them." The conviction of the
Holy Ghost unites inseparably the " conviction of sin "
and the " conviction of righteousness." The " judg-
ment " of absolute decision between them is not yet.

(16) Let us walk . . .—In this verse the last words
appear to be an explanatory gloss. The original runs
ihus: Nevertheless — as to that to which we did attain
— let us walk by the same. The word " walk " is
always used of pursuing a course deliberately chosen.
(See Acts xxi. 24; Rom. iv. 12; Gal. v. 25.) The
nearest parallel (from which the gloss is partly taken)
is Gal. vi. 16, " As many as walk by this rule, peace be
upon them." In this passage there seems to be the

same double reference which has pervaded all St. Paul's
practical teaching. He is anxious for two things — that
they should keep on in one course, and that all should
keep on together. In both senses he addresses the
" perfect ; " he will have them understand that they
have attained only one thing — to be in the right path,
and that it is for them to continue in it; he also
bids them refrain from setting themselves up above
"the imperfect;" for the very fact of division would
mark them as still " carnal," mere " babes in Christ "
(1 Cor. iii. 1—4).

(17—21) ln these verses St. Paul turns from the party
of Pharisaic perfection to the opposite party of Anti-
nomian profligacy, claiming, no doubt, to walk in the
way of Christian liberty which ho preached. The co-
existence of these two parties was, it may be remarked,
a feature of the Gnosticism already beginning to show
itself in the Church. He deals with this perversion
of liberty into licentiousness in exactly the same spirit
as in Rom. vi., but with greater brevity; with less of
argument and more of grave condemnation. It stands,
indeed, he says, self-condemned, by the very fact of
our present citizenship in heaven, and our growth
towards the future perfection of likeness to Christ in
glory.

(17) Followers together of me.— The word is
peculiar. It signifies unite in following me. In ac-
cordance with the genius of the whole Epistle, St. Paul
offers his example as a help not only to rectitude bat
to unity. For the simple phrase " followers of me,"
see 1 Cor. iv. 16 ; xi. 1 ; 1 Thess. i. 6 ; 2 Thess. Hi. 9.
In 1 Cor. xi. 1, a passage dealing with the right re-
straints of Christian liberty, we have the ground on
which the exhortation is based, " Be ye followers of
me. even as I also am of Christ." In that conscious-
ness, knowing the peculiar power of example, both for
teaching and for encouragement, St. Paul will not allow
even humility to prevent his bringing it to bear upon
them. Yet even then we note how gladly he escapes
from " followers of me " to the " having us for an
example."

(18) Even weeping.— The especial sorrow, we can-
not doubt, lay in this, that the Antinomiau profligacy
sheltered itself under his own preaching of liberty and
of the superiority of the Spirit to the Law.

The enemies of the cross of Christ.— Here
again (as in the application of the epithet " dogs " in
verse 2) St. Paul seems to retort on those whom he re-
buked a name which they may probably have given to
their opponents. The Judaising tenets were, indeed,
in a (rue sense, an enmity to that ei'oss, which was "to
the Jews a stumbling-block," because, as St. Paul
shows at large in the Galatian and Roman Epistlrs.
they trenched upon faith in the all-sufficient atonement,
and so (as he expresses it with startling emphasis) made
Cln-ist to " be dead in vain." But the doctrine of the

Warning against Profligacy.

PHILIPPIANS, III.

Our Citizenship of Heaven.

tell you even weeping, that they are the
enemies of the cross of Christ : (19) whose
end is destruction, whose God is their
belly, and whose glory is in their shame,

who mind earthly things.) PW For our
conversation is in heaven ; from whence-
also we look for the Saviour, the Lord
Jesus Christ : <21) who shall change our

Cross has two pai-ts, distinct, yet inseparable. There is
the cross which He alone bore for us, of which it is
our comfort to know that we need only believe in it,
and cannot share it. There is also the cross which we
are "to take up and follow Him" (Matt. x. 38; xvi.
24), in the " fellowship of His sufferings and conformity
to His death," described above (verses 10, 11). St. Paul
unites both in the striking passage which closes his
Galatian Epistle (vi. 14). He says, " God forbid that I
should gloxy, save in the cross of the Lord Jesus
Christ ! " but he adds, " whereby the world is crucified
unto me, and I to the world." Under cover, perhaps,
of absolute acceptance of the one form of this great
doctrine, the Antinomian party, " continuing in sin that
grace might abound," were, in respect of the other,
" enemies of the cross of Christ."

(19) Whose end is destruction . . . .—The
intense severity of this verse is only paralleled by
such passages as 2 Tim. ii. 1 — 5 ; 2 Pet. ii. 12 — 22 j
Jude, verses 4, 8, 12, 13. All express the burning
indignation of a true servant of Christ against those
who " turn the grace of God into lasciviousness," and
''after escaping the pollutions of the world through the
knowledge of the Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, are
again entangled therein and overcome."

Whose God is their belly. —A stronger re-
iteration of Rom. xvi. 18, " They serve not our Lord
Jesus Christ, but their own belly." Note the emphasis
laid on "feasting and rioting" in 2 Pet. ii. 13; Jude,
verse 12.

Whose glory is in their shame.— As the pre-
ceding clause refers chiefly to self-indulgence, so this to
impurity. Comp. Eph. v. 12, " It is a shame even to
speak of those things which are done of them in secret."
" To glory in their shame " — to boast, as a mark of
spirituality, the unbridled license which is to all pure
spirits a shame — is the hopeless condition of the repro-
bate, who " not only do these things, but have pleasure
in those who do them" (Rom. i. 32).

Who mind earthly things.— This last phrase,
which in itself might seem hardly strong enough for a
climax to a passage so terribly emphatic, may perhaps
be designed to bring out by contrast the glorious pas-
sage which follows. But it clearly marks the opposi-
tion between the high pretension to enlightened
spirituality and the gross carnal temper which it
covers, grovelling (so to speak) on earth, incapable of
rising to heaven.

(20) Our conversation.— The original may signify
either " our city " or " our citizenship " is in heaven.
But both the grammatical form and the ordinary usage
of the word (not elsewhere found in the New Testa-
ment) point to the former sense ; which is also far
better accordant with the general wording of the pas-
sage. For the word " is " is the emphatic word, which
signifies " actually exists " ; and the reference to the
appearance of the Lord Jesus Christ is obviously sug-
gested by the thought that with it will also come the
manifestation of the " Jerusalem which is above . . .
the mother of us all " (Gal. iv. 26) ; as in Rev. xxi. 2,
" I saw the holy city, the new Jerusalem, coming down
from heaven." The force of the passage would, how-
ever, in either case be much the same. " Their mind

is on earth; our country is in heaven," and to it our
affections cling, even during our earthly pilgrimage.
It is impossible not to remember the famous words of
Plato of his Divine Republic, " In heaven, perhaps, the
embodiment of it is stored up for any one who wills to
see it, and seeing it, to claim his place therein " (Rep.
ix., p. 592b). But the infinite difference between the
shadowy republic of the philosopher, to which each
has to rise, if he can, by his own spiritual power, aud
the well-centred "kingdom of God," is suggested by
the very words that follow here. The kingdom is real,
because there is a real King, who has given us a place-
there, who will one day be manifested to take us home.
It should be noted that the city is spoken of as ours,
already. As all the citizens of Phifippi, the Roman
colony, were citizens of the far distant imperial city, so
the Philippian Christians even now were citizens of the
better country in heaven. (See Eph. ii. 19.)

We look for. — Properly, we eagerly wait for. The
word is a peculiar and striking expression of longing,
found also in Rom. viii. 19, 23, 25, " The earnest ex-
pectation of the creature waiteth for the manifestation
of the sons of God " (where see Note).

The Saviour.— The title is emphatic in relation to
the hope of perfected salvation which follows. But we
note that the use of the word " Saviour " by St. Paul
is pecidiar to the later Epistles, and especially frequent
in the Pastoral Epistles. It is found also again and
again in the Second Epistle of Peter.

(21)Who shall change . . .—This passage needs
more accurate translation. It should be, who shall
change the fashion of the body of our humiliation, to
be conformed to the body of His glory. (1) On the dif-
ference between "fashion" and " form," see chap. ii. 7, 8.
The contrast here signifies that humiliation is but the
outward fashion or vesture of the body ; the likeness,
to Christ is, and will be seen to be, its essential and
characteristic nature. This " humiliation " marks our
condition in this life, as fallen from our true humanity
under the bondage of sin and death. The body is not
really " vile," though it is fallen and degraded.
(2) " His glory " is His glorified human nature, as it was
after the Resurrection, as it is now in His ascended
majesty, as it shall be seen at His second coming.
What it is and will be we gather from the sublime de-
scriptions of Rev. i. 13 — 16; xix. 12 — 16; xx. 11.
What is here briefly described as change to conformity
with that glory is worked out in 1 Cor. xv. 42 —
44, 53, 54, into the contrast between corruption and
incorruption, dishonour and glory, weakness and power,
the natural (animal) body and the spiritual body. In
2 Cor. iii. 18, iv. 16, we read of the beginning of
glorification in the spirit here; in 2 Cor. iv. 17, 18,
v. 1 — 4, of the completion of " the exceeding weight of
glory " in the hereafter, as glorifying also " our house
which is in heaven. St. John describes that glorifica-
tion with brief emphatic solemnity, " We shall be like
Him, for we shall see Him as He is," and draws out
explicitly the moral which St. Paul here implies.
" Every man that hath this hope purifieth himself,
even as He is pure."

According to the working . . .—Properly, in
virtue of the effectual working of His power to subject

Our Hope of Glory in Christ.

PHILIPPIANS, IV.

Exhortation to Unity.

vile body, that it may be fashioned like
unto his glorious body, according to the
working whereby he is able even to
subdue all things unto himself.

CHAPTER IV.— (" Therefore, my
brethren dearly beloved and longed for,
my joy and crown, so stand fast in the

Lord, my dearly beloved. W I beseech
Euodias, and beseech Syn- .

tyche, that they be of ReJSrld ex-'
the same mind in the hovtation, first,
Lord. W And I intreat toumty-
thee also, true yokefellow, help those
women which laboured with me in the
gospel, with Clement also, and with

nil things to Himself. Comp. Eph. i. 19 ; iii. 7, and
Notes there. Here, as there, St. Paul speaks of His
power as not doi'inant or existing in mere capacity, but
as energetic in working, unhasting and unresting.
Here briefly, as more fully in the celebrated passage of
the First Epistle to the Corinthians (chap. xv. 24 —28)
he describes it as " subduing all things unto Himself,"
till the consummation of this universal conquest in the
Last Judgment and the delivery of " the kingdom to
God, even the Father . . . that God may be all in
all." Of that power the primary exhibition, in which
He is pleased to delight, is in salvation, gradually pre-
paring His own for heaven ; the secondary exhibition,
undertaken under a moral necessity, is in retributive
judgment. It is of the former only that St. Paul
speaks here, as it shall be made perfect in the resur-
rection unto eternal life.

IY.

[8. Conclusion of the Epistle (chap. iv. 1—23).
Final Exhortation —

(a) To unity, with especial mention of Euodia,

Syntyche, and others (verses 1 — 3).

(b) To joy, confident in the power of prayer,

and resting in the peace of God (verses
4—7).

the apostolic model (verses 8 — 9).
Thanks for the Philippian Offerings.

(a) Declaration that he could not claim them

of necessity (verses 10 — 13).

(b) Grateful remembrance of their former libe-

rality (verses 14 — 17).
(e) Blessing on their present sacrifice offered
through him to God (verses 18 — 20).
Greeting and Blessing (verses 21 — 23).]

(!) Therefore. — By this word, just as at the con-
clusion of the description of the " depth of the riches
of the wisdom of God " (in Rom. xi. 33—36), or of the
glorious climax of the doctrine of the resurrection (in
1 Cor. xv. 50 — 57), St. Paul makes the vision of future
glory to be an inspiring force, giving life to the sober,
practical duties of the present time. For the faith,
which ia the root of good works, is not oidy " the
evidence of things not seen," although already existing
as spiritual realities, but also "the substantiation of
things hoped for " (Heb. xi. 1).

Dearly beloved and longed for . . .—The
peculiar affectionateness of this verse is notable. It is
curiously coincident with the words addressed years
before to Thessalonica (1 Thess. ii. 19), "What is our
hope and joy and crown of rejoicing? Are not ye in
the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ . . ? Te are
our glory and our joy." But it has just the addition
natural to the yearnings of captivity : they are " longed
for," and that (see chap. i. 8) " in the heart of Jesus
Christ." The " crown " is here the garland, the sign

of victory in the apostolic race and struggle of which
he had spoken above (chap. iii. 12 — 14). The crown of
glory, of righteousness, and of life, is usually described
as future (see 2 Tim. iv. 8; Jas. i. 12 ; 1 Pet. v. 4;
Rev. ii. 10), and this is the case in the Thessalonian
Epistle. Here, without excluding that completer
sense, the reference is also to the present. The
Philippiaus are St. Paul's crown, as the Corinthians
are his " seal" (1 Cor. ix. 2) — at once the proof of His
apostolic mission and the reward of his apostolic
labour. In both aspects the present is the earnest of
the future.

(2) Euodias.— The name should be Euodia, as is
seen by verse 3. Of Euodia and Syntyche nothing is
known. Many strange attempts have been made to
find symbolism in these names. Evidently they were
women of note, leaders at Philippi, where, we may
remember, the gospel was first preached to women
(Acts xvi. 13), and the church first formed in a
woman's house (Acts xvi. 14, 40). We may note the
many female names — Phoebe, Priscilla, Mary, Tryphena.
Tryphosa, Persis, Julia, the mother of Rufus, the sister
of Nereus — in the long list of greetings to the Church
of Rome (Rom. xvi.).

(3) I intreat. — This rendering is too strong. It is,
I ash, or request. The word means properly, to ask a
question ; secondarily, to make a request on equal
terms, as of right. Hence never used (except, perhaps,
in 1 John v. 16) of prayer from us to God.

True yokefellow.— This obscure phrase has greatly
exercised conjecture. (I) It is curious historically
to note the opinion, as old as Clement of Alexandria,
that St. Paul referred to his own wife; but the
opinion is clearly untenable in the- face of 1 Cor.
vii. 8; ix. 5. (2) The word is never elsewhere applied
by St. Paul to a fellow-Christian, and must denote
some peculiar fellowship. Many guesses as to its mean-
ing have been made. Some refer it to St. Luke, who
seems to be in the history closely connected with
Philippi; others to Lydia, the first-fruits of the
gospel in that city. Perhaps the most likely suppo-
sition is that it may refer to Epaphroditus, the
bearer, perhaps the amanuensis, of the Epistle, who
had certainly come to help St. Paid to bear his
yoke of suffering, and in whose case the sudden
address in the second person would cause no ambi-
guity. (3) But a not improbable conjecture is that
the word is a proper name — "Syzygus" — a name, it
is true, not actually known — and that the word " true "
(properly, genuine) means " Syzygus, rightly so-called."
It is obvious to compare the play on the name " Onesi-
mus," in Philem. verse 11.

Those women . . .—It should be. help them
(Euodia and Syntyche), inasmuch as they laboured
with me. The word " laboured " signifies " joined
with me in my straggle," and probably refers to some-
thing more than ordinary labour, in the critical times
I of suffering at Philippi.
So

Exhortation to Joy.

PHILIPPIANS, IV.

Promise of God's Peace.

other my fellowlabourers, whose names
are in the book of life.
(4) Eejoice in the Lord

Chap. iv. 4 —
7. next, to

joy, resting on alway: and again I say,
the confidence ■„ . % #., T °, J

of prayer and Kejoice. <5> Let your mo-
hope of the deration be known unto all
peace of God; mQ^ The Lord/s at hancL

<6) Be careful for nothing ; but in every
thing by prayer and supplication
with thanksgiving, let your requests
be made known unto God. W And
the peace of God, which passeth all
understanding, shall keep your hearts
and minds through Christ Jesus.

Clement. — From the time of Origen downwards
this Clement has been identified with the famous
Clement, bishop of Rome, and author of the well-
known Epistle to the Church at Corinth, of whom
Irenseus expressly says that he had seen and been in
company with " the blessed Apostles," and who in his
Epistle refers emphatically to the examples both of
St. Peter and St. Paul, as belonging to the times
" very near at h,and; " but dwells especially on St. Paul,
"as seven times a prisoner in chains, exiled, stoned,"
" a herald of the gospel in the East and the West," " a
teacher of righteousness to the whole world," and
one who " penetrated to the farthest border of the
West." (See his Epistle, chap, v.)

The fact that he was at this time working at Philippi
— considering that Philippi, as a Roman colony, was
virtually a part of Rome — is no objection to this iden-
tification ; nor is the chronology decisive against it,
though it Avould make Clement an old man when he
wrote his Epistle. The identification may stand as
not improbable, while the commonness of the name
Clemens makes it far from certain.

"Whose names are in the book of life.—
Eor "the Book of Life," see Dan. xii. 1; Rev. hi.
5 ; xiii. 8 ; xvii. 8 ; xx. 12 ; xxi. 27. From that Book
the name may be blotted out now (Rev. iii. 5 ; coinp.
Ex. xxxii. 33) till the end fixes it for ever. There is (as
has been always noticed) a peculiar beauty in the allu-
.sion here. The Apostle does not mention his fellow-
labourers by name, but it matters not ; the names are
written before God in the Book of Life. If they con-
tinue in His service, those names shall shine out here-
after, when the great names of the earth fade into
nothingness.

(■*— 7> St. Paul returns once more to the exhortation
to joy so characteristic of this Epistle. But it is a joy
in the sense of the Lord's being at hand. Hence it
turns at once to thanksgiving and prayer, and finally is
calmed and deepened into peace.

W Rejoice in the Lord . . . and again I say,
Rejoice.— The original Word is the word always used
in classical Greek (see the corresponding word in Latin)
for " farewell " {i.e., " Joy be with you ! "), and this verse
is obviously a resumption of chap. iii. 1, after the di-
gression of warning. But the emphasis laid on it here,
coupled with the constant references to joy in the
Epistle, show that St. Paxil designed to call attention
to its strict meaning, and to enforce, again and again,
the Christian duty of joy. R is, of course, a " joy in
the Lord :" for only in the Lord is joy possible to any
thoughtful mind or feeling heart in such a world as
this.

(5) Your moderation.— The word here rendered
" moderation," properly denotes a sense of what is
seemly, or equitable, as distinct from what is required
by strict duty or formal law. Such distinction the
world recognises when it speaks of what is enjoined, not
so much by duty as by " good taste, or " right feeling,"

or (with some peculiarity of application) by " chival-
rous " feeling, or the " spirit of a gentleman." Here it
denotes the general sense of what is seemly in a
Christian tone of character: In 2 Cor. x. 1 (where it is
translated " gentleness ") it is ascribed emphatically to
our Lord Himself. But the usage of the New Testament
appropriates it especially to the " sweet reasonableness "
which " gentleness " may well designate. Thus, in
Acts xxiv. 4 it clearly signifies patience, or forbearance ;
in 2 Cor. x. 1 it is associated with meekness; in
1 Tim. iii. 3, Tit. iii. 2, with peaceableness ; in 1 Pet.
ii. 8, with kindness; in Jas. iii. 17 the word "gentle" is
placed between " peaceable " and " easy to be entreated "
(or rather, pers uaded). This spirit is, no doubt, " mode-
ration ; " but it is something more. It may refer here
both to the exhortation to unity in verses 1 — 3, and to
the exhortation to joy immediately preceding. It would
help the one and chasten the other.

The Lord is at hand.— A translation of the Syriac
" Maran-atha " of 1 Cor. xvi. 22 — obviously a Christian
watchword, probably referring to the Second Advent
as near at hand ; although, of course, not excluding the
larger idea of that presence of Christ in His Church
of which that Second Advent is the consummation.

(6) Be careful for nothing. — An exact repetition
of our Lord's command, " Take no thought " (in
Matt. vi. 25, 34). The prohibition is of that painful
anxiety which is inevitable in all who feel themselves
alone in mere self-dependence amidst the difficulties
and dangers of life. It is possible to sink below this
anxiety in mere levity and thoughtlessness ; it is pos-
sible to rise above it by " casting our care on Him who
careth for us," and knowing that we are simply
"fellow-workers with Him" (1 Pet. v. 7 ; 2 Cor. vi. 1).
Hence the Apostle passes on at once to speak of the
trustfulness of prayer.

Prayer and supplication with thanksgiving.
— By " prayer " is meant worship generally, so called
(as in common parlance now) because in this state of
imperfection prayer must be its leading element, as
praise will be in the perfection of the future. (See
Acts ii. 42, where " the prayers " are among the es-
sential marks of church membership.) To this general
word is subjoined the distinction of the two great
elements of worship, "supplication with thanksgiving."
The very expression, however, shows that, though
distinct, they are inseparable. (See Eph. vi. 18, and
Note there.) Both words "prayer" and "supplica-
tion " have the article in the original, and may probably
refer to the recognised worship of the Church.

(7) The peace of God — i.e. (like the " righteous-
ness of God," " the life of God "), the peace which God
gives to every soul which rests on Him in prayer. It
is peace — the sense of unity in the largest sense — the
"peace on earth " proclaimed at our Lord's birth, left
as His last legacy to His disciples, and pronounced at
His first coming back to them from the grave (Luke ii.
14 ; John xiv. 27). Hence it includes peace with God,
peace with men, peace with self. It keeps — that is,
watches over with the watchfulness that "neither

Exhortation to Steadfastness in Good. PHILIPPIANS, IV.

Thanhs for their Offerings.

<8> Finally, brethren, whatsoever things
Chap. iv. 8— are true, whatsoever things
:>. lastly, to are honest,1 whatsoever

stead fast n os."> ,-, • • i ±_

in all the per- things _ are just, whatso-
fect goodness ever things are pure, what-
In-eacLr^o soever things are lovely,
them. whatsoever things are of

good report ; if there be any virtue, and
if there be any praise, think on these
things. (9) Those things, which ye have

2 Or, tt reviied.

both learned, and received, and heard,
and seen in me, do : and the God of
peace shall be with you. (1°) But I re-
joiced in the Lord greatly, chap iv 10_
that now at the last your 14. Thanks
care of me hath nourished JS^S?1 1&
again;3 wherein ye were liberality to-
also careful, but ye lacked him-
opportunity. <n> Not that I speak
in respect of want : for I have learned,

slumbers nor sleeps " — both " the hearts and minds "
(or, more properly, the souls and the thoughts formed
in (hem), guarding oar whole spiritual action, both in its
source and its developments. It is "through Christ
Jesus." for "He is our peace (Eph. ii. 14), as "making all
one," and " reconciling all to God." The comprehensive-
ness and beauty of the passage has naturally made it
(with the characteristic change from the " shall " of
promise to the "may" of benediction) the closing
blessing of our most solemn church service of Holy
Communion " with God and man.

(8, 9) Here, repeating the word " Finally," the Apostle
again draws to a conclusion, in a comprehensive exhor-
tation to stand fast in all that is good on the foundation
which he had laid in the name of Christ. The ex-
hortation is marked by the reiteration of affectionate
earnestness, in which, however, we may (as always)
trace an underlying method. In each pair of epithets
there seems to be reference both to an inner reality and
to the outward development, by which it is at once
manifested and perfected. In both St. Paul would
have them grow up to perfection.

(8) True . . . honest (better, venerable ; see
margin). — Truth is the inherent likeness to God, who
is Truth. "Whatever is true in itself is also " vener-
able"— i.e., as the original word, usually rendered
" grave " (as in 1 Tim. iii. 8, 11 ; Tit. ii. 2) etymo-
logically signifies, it claims a share of the reverence
due primarily to God; it has in it a certain majesty
commanding worship.

Just . . . pure.—" Just " is (as St. Paul's habitual
usage of " justify " shows) righteous in act and word,
as tested by the declared will of man or God. " Pure "
is righteous in essence, in the thought, which cannot be
thus tested — showing itself in what is just and indeed
perfected thereby, but in itself something holier still.

Lovely ... of good report. — Both words are
peculiar to this passage : in both we pass from truth
and righteousness to love. " Lovely " is that which
deserves love. The phrase "of good report" repre-
sents a Greek woi'd which is commonly used for " fair-
sounding," or " auspicious " and " acceptable." It is
therefore the outward expression of what is " lovely,"
winning the acceptance which loveliness deserves.

If there be any virtue, and . . . praise.— Still
there is the same antithesis — "virtue" is the inherent
quality ; " praise " is virtue's duo. But the word
" virtue," so frequent in human morality, is hardly ever
used in Scripture. In fact, the only other case of appli-
cation to man is in 2 Pet. i. 5, where it stands between
"faith" and "knowledge," and seems specially to
signify the energy of practice by whicli faith grows
into knowledge. The reason of this is clear. To the
very name of " virtue " clings the idea of self-reliance —
such self-reliance as the Stoic philosophy (then the only

dominant system of Roman opinion which had any
nobleness in it) made its essential characteristic ; and
that idea is, of course, foreign to the whole conception
of Christian morality. The occurrence, therefore, here
of an appeal to "virtue" and to "praise" seems
strange. We notice, however, that it is introduced by
a new phrase of mere hypothesis (" if there be," &c),
which may be taken to mark it as an outlying conside-
ration, occupying a less firm and important ground.
Probably, therefore, it is an appeal to the lower con-
ceptions of the society, so characteristically Roman,
around them : " Nay, even if there be any truth in the
virtue and praise of mere human morality," &c.

(9) Ye have both learned, and received.— The
reference is here to St. Paul's teaching, which he " de-
livered " to them (see 1 Cor. xv. 1 — 3 ; Gal. i. 12) as a
message, " received " by revelation of God, and which
they " received " accordingly.

Heard, and seen in me.— Here the reference is
to his example, as subsidiary to his teaching and con-
firmatory of its truth.

The G-od of peace. — The inversion (compared with
verse 7) is striking. To have the " peace of God "
with us is much; to have "the God of Peace" Him-
self with us is more. With this promise the Letter
itself ends. What follows is but postscript.

(10—20) These verses form a singularly graceful and
dignified postscript, acknowledging the offerings of the
Philippians sent by Epaphroditus, in a tone mingling
apostolic commendation and blessing with a true
brotherly thankfulness.

(10) Now at the last. — There is in these words an
expression of some hitherto disappointed expectation,
not wholly unlike the stronger expression of wounded
feeling in 2 Tim. iv. 9, 10, 16. At Caesarea St. Paul
would have been necessarily cut off from the European
churches ; at Rome, the metropolis of universal con-
course, he may have expected some earlier communi-
cation. But, fearing to wound the Philippians by even
the semblance of reproof, in their case undeserved, he
adds at once, " In which ye were also careful (before),
but ye lacked opportunity." Epaphroditus would
seem to have arrived early, almost as soon as St.
Paul's arrival at Rome gave them the opportunity
which they previously lacked.

(U) I have learned.— The "I" is here emphatic.
There is evident reference to the habit peculiar to St.
Paul, and made by him his especial " glory " (1 Cor. ix.
14), of refusing that maintenance from the churches
which was his of right. Compare his words to the
Ephesian presbyters, " I have coveted no man's silver,
or gold, or apparel. Yea, ye yourselves know, that these
hands have ministered unto my necessities" (A.cts xx.
33, 34).

His present Contentment.

PHILIPPIANS, IV.

Sis Gratitude j or the past.

in whatsoever state I am, therewith
to be content. <12) I know both how
to be abased, and I know how to
abound : every where and in all
things I am instructed both to be full
and to be hungry, both to abound and
to suffer need. ^) I can do all things
through Christ which strengtheneth
me. W Notwithstanding ye have well

done, that ye did communicate with my
affliction. (15) Now ye Philippians know
also, that in the beginning chap iy l5_
of the gospel, when I de- is. as worthy
parted from Macedonia, £££££5

no church communicated blessed in God's

with me as concerning name- .

giving and receiving, but ye only.
(16) ]ror even in Thessalonica ye sent

Content. — The word (like the corresponding sub-
stantive in 2 Cor. ix. 8 ; 1 Tim. vi. 6) properly means,
self-sufficing. Such self-sufficiency was the especial
characteristic claimed by the Stoics for the ideal wise
man of their philosophy— a characteristic full of noble-
ness, so far as it involved the sitting loose to all the
things of the world, but inhuman in relation to human
affections, and virtually atheistic if it described the
attitude of the soul towards the Supreme Power. Only
in the first relation does St. Paul claim it here. It is
difficult not to suppose that he does so with some
reference to a philosophy so essentially Roman in
practical development.

(!2) Every where and in all things. — The
«riginal has no such distinction of the two words. It
is, in all and everything ; in life as a whole, and in all
its separate incidents.

I am instructed.— The word again is a peculiar
and almost technical word. It is, I have been instructed ;
I have learnt the secret — a phrase properly applied to
men admitted into such mysteries as the Eleusinian,
enshrining a secret unknown except to the initiated;
secondarily, as the context would seem to suggest, to
those who entered the inner circle of an exclusive philo-
sophy, learning there what the common herd could
neither understand nor care for. A Stoic might well
have used these words. There is even a touch of the
Stoical contempt in the word " to be full," which
properly applies to cattle, though frequently used of
men in the New Testament. Perhaps, like all
ascetics, they mostly knew how " to suffer need," better
than how " to abound." But a Marcus Aurelius might
have boldly claimed the knowledge of both.

<13) I can do all things.— Properly, I have strength
in all things, rather (according to the context) to bear
+han to do. But the universal extension of the maxim
beyond the immediate occasion and context is not inad-
missible. It represents the ultimate and ideal conscious-
ness of the Christian. The first thing needful is to
throw off mere self-sufficiency, to know our weakness
and sin, and accept the salvation of God's free grace in
Christ ; the next, to find the " strength made perfect in
weakness," and in that to be strong.

Through Christ which strengtheneth me.—
The word " Christ" is not found in the best MSS. ; it is
a gloss, perhaps suggested by 1 Tim. i. 12, where we have
■exactly the same phrase, " Christ Jesus, our Lord, who
hath enabled me." The same word is used in Eph. vi.
10, "Be strong (strengthened within) in the Lord."
In this sentence we have the world-wide distinction
between the Stoic and the Christian. Each teaches
respect for the higher humanity in the soul ; but to the
one that humanity is our own, to the other it is " the
Christ within," dwelling in the heart, regenerating and
conforming it to Himself. The words of St. Paul are
but a practical corollary to the higher truth (comp. chap,
i. 21) " To me to live is Christ." In this consciousness

alone is any thoughtful teaching of " self-reverence,
self-knowledge, self-distrust," intelligible and coherent.
(14) Ye have well done.— Properly, Ye did well,
in sending the offerings. In this, says St. Paul, they
" did communicate with his affliction," that is (see chap,
i. 7), they made it their own, helping him to bear it, by
sympathy and sacrifice for his sake. The whole is an
illustration of his own words (Acts xx. 35), " It is
blessed to receive " what is lovingly given ; but it is
" rather blessed to give." He had the loAver blessedness,
they the higher ; and he rejoiced that it was so.

(15> Now ye Philippians know also.— Properly,
But ye also yourselves knoic. The mention of the proper
name is always emphatic (comp. 2 Cor. vi. 11); here it
evidently marks the dignity of their exclusive position
of benefaction.

In the beginning of the gospel.— At the be-
ginning (that is) of the gospel to them and their sister
I churches in Macedonia. The time referred to is his
I leaving Macedonia for Athens and Corinth (Acts xvii.
I 14). At Corinth we know that he received offerings
i from Macedonia : " That which was lacking to me the
| brethren who came (when they came) from Mace-
; donia supplied " (2 Cor. xi. 9). His language to the
I Thessalonian Church (1 Thess. ii. 9 ; 2 Thess. iii. 8)
! precludes all idea that any part of this contribution was
' from Thessalonica ; wo learn hero that it was from no
' other Church than Philippi. It is probably to this gift
\ that reference is made ; though it is of course possible
that some contribution may have reached him at the
time of his actual departure in haste after the persecu-
tion at Beroea.

Communicated with me as concerning . . .—
The metaphor here is drawn from commercial trans-
action. Literally the passage runs, had dealings with
me on account of giving and receiving ; " opened (so to
speak) an account with me," not of debit and credit, but
" of free giving and receiving." There is possibly an
allusion (as Chrysostom suggests) to the idea embodied
in 1 Cor. ix. 11, " If we have sown unto you spiritual
things, is it a great matter if we shall reap your carnal
things? " (Comp. Rom. xv. 27.) In the one respect ho
had all to give, and they to receive ; in the other the
relations were reversed. But if there be such allusion,
it is kept in the background. The prominent idea is of
the Philippians, and of them alone, as givers.

(16) Even in Thessalonica.— Not only after he
left Macedonia, but even before that time, when he had
just passed from Philippi to Thessalonica. At Thessa-
lonica, as at Coi-inth— both very rich and luxm-ious com-
munities— he refused maintenance, and lived mainly bj
the labour of his own hands (1 Thess. ii. 9 ; 2 Thess.
iii. 8). But it appears from this passage that even then
he received "once and again" (that is, occasionally,
'•once or twice") some aid from Philippi "to supply his
need " — that is (as in all right exercise of liberality), to*
supplement, and not to s\ipersede, his own resources.

His Blessing and their Bounty.

PHILIPPIANS, IV.

Concluding Salutations.

once and again unto my necessity.
<17) Not because I desire a gift : but I
desire fruit that may abound to your
account. <18) But I have all,1 and
abound: I am full, having received of
Epaphroditus the things which were
sent from you, an odour of a sweet smell,
a sacrifice acceptable, wellpleasing to
God. ^ But my God shall supply all

your need according to his riches in
glory by Christ Jesus. (20> Now unto
God and our Father be glory for ever
and ever. Amen. (21> Salute every
saint in Christ Jesus. The
brethren which are with 23. Concluding
me greet you. ^ All salutations and

the saints salute you, blessing-
chiefly they that are of Caesar's house-

(*7) Fruit that may abound (rather, abounds)
to your account.— The metaphor is still kept, hardly-
disturbed by the introduction of the word "fruit," since
this is so constantly used in the sense of " recompense "
that it readily lends itself to pecuniary associations.
There is, says St. Paul, " the fruit" of reward, which " is
over " as a surplus, or rather a balance, " placed to their
account." Their gift is a token of love and gratitude to
him ; but, as Christian almsgiving, it is something more,
and what that something more is will be seen hereafter,
when all accounts shall be finally taken. The idea is
not unlike that of Prov. xix. 17, " He that hath pity on
the poor lendeth unto the Lord ; and behold, what he
layeth out it shall be paid him again."

(18) I have all, and abound.— The original is
stronger, I have all to the full (as in Matt. vi. 2, 5, 16),
and more than to the full. "I have all, and more than
all, I need." Yet not content with this, he adds, " I
am full," thoroughly complete in all things. The
exuberance of courtesy and gratitude is strongly
marked.

An odour of a sweet smell.— See Eph. v. 2,
and Note there. Here St. Paul adds at once an explana-
tion of the meaning of this metaphorical phrase, in the
words, " a sacrifice acceptable, well-pleasing to God."
Comp. Rom. xii. 2, " a sacrifice holy, acceptable to
God." The word " sacrifice " used in both cases is the
one which properly signifies a "bloody sacrifice," and
in relation to such sacrifices the idea of propitiation
naturally occurs to our minds; since we know that
" without shedding of blood is no remission." But it
is clear that here it belongs to the class of Eucharistic
or free-will offerings ; for it is simply an offering made
freely, in grateful love to God and man ; and exactly in
this sense we find, in Heb. xiii. 16 (in close connection
with " we have an altar "), " To do good, and to com-
municate forget not ; for with such sacrifices God is
well pleased." In the Epistle to the Romans it is, on
the other hand, used for that which the burnt offering
typified — the absolute self- dedication of the sacrificer.
body and soul, to God. (See Note on Rom. xii. 2.) To
1 Pet. ii. 5, where all Christians are called " a holy
priesthood to offer up spiritual sacrifices acceptable to
Gt,d in Jesus Christ," both senses may be fairly applied.
It may be noted that most superstitions in the Church
as to the spiritual value of either of these forms of
sacrifice, have come from confusion between them and
the true or propitiatory sacrifice.

(19) My God. — The expression is emphatic. St.
Paul had accepted the offerings as made, not to himself,
but to the God whose minister he was. Hence he
adds, " my God " — the God, whom ye serve in serving
inc.

All your need. — Properly, every need of yours,
spiritual and temporal.

In glory. — We have already noticed the constant
reference to " glory " in the Epistles of the Captivity.

Where the word relates to God in Himself, His
" glory " is His true nature as manifested to His
creatures; where it refers to man, "glory" is the
perfection of man's nature in the communion with
God in Heaven. Here the latter sense is obviously
to be taken. The " supplying of every need out of the
riches " of God's love can only have its consummation in
the " glory " of the future. That it is " in Christ
Jesus " is a matter of course ; for He is to " change
even our body of humiliation to be fashioned like unto
the body of His glory" (chap. iii. 21).

(2°) Now unto God and our Father . . .—
The doxology of this verse seems suggested by the
very use of "glory" in the previous verse. " Glory"
may be derivatively the privilege of man; but " the
glory" (for the original has the article here) — the
essential and incommunicable glory — must be ascribed
to God alone. Whether we supply here the word " is "
or " be " matters not. His it is ; to Him let it be
ascribed. Such doxologies are common with St. Paul
(see Rom. xvi. 27 ; Gal. i. 5 ; Eph. iii. 21 ; 1 Tim. i. 17;
2 Tim. iv. 18) ; always with the addition of " for ever
and ever," or literally, for the ages of the ages,
throughout every age till time shall be no more ;
always in close connection with some declaration, not
so much of the majesty, as of the wisdom, and still
more the goodness, of the Father.

Verses 21 — 23 contain the salutation and blessing.
The salutation is very brief, as compared, for example,
with the corresponding passage in the Colossian
Epistle (chap. iv. 10 — 15), naming none, either of those
saluted or those joining with St. Paul in the salutation.
The omission in the latter case may perhaps be
accounted for by the words above (chap. ii. 20, 21), in
which, with the single exception of Timotheus, St.
Paul declares dissatisfaction with those near him,
because " all seek their own, and not the things which
are Jesus Christ's.

(21) The brethren, which are with me.— The
list of those who were with St. Paul at one time or
another during his imprisonment may be gathered
from the Epistles to the Colossians (chap. iv. 10 — 15)
and Philemon (verses 23, 24) ; where see Notes. How
many of these where with him at this particular
time we cannot tell. They are distinguished from " all
the saints " — the body of the Church in general.

(22) Of Caesar's household.— The " household of
Caesar " included a multitude of persons of all ages
and ranks and occupations. Dr. Lightfoot, in a very
interesting excm-sus on this verse, remarking that these
Christians of Caesar's household are alluded to as if
well known to the Philippians. has examined the
various names mentioned in Rom. xvi. (three years
before this time), and finds many of them identical
with names actually found in sepulchral inscriptions, as

The Apostles

PHILIPPIANS, IV.

final Blessing..

hold. <23) The grace of our Lord Jesus
Christ be with you all. Amen.

•[ It was written to the Philippians from
Rome by Epaphroditus.

belonging to members of the " domus Augusta," or
imperial household. These were earlier converts;
but, wherever St. Paul's prison was, he can hardly
have failed to gain through the praetorians some com-
munication with the household of the emperor, whose
body-guard they were ; and the allusion here seems to
show that for some reason these Christians of Caesar's
household were in an especial familiarity of 'inter-
course with him. Probably, therefore, he had added
from that household new converts to Christ; and he
mentions this here, as he had before spoken of his
bonds being made manifest in the " prsetorium " (chap.
L 13), in order to show the Philippians that his very

imprisonment had given special opportunity for the
spread of the gospel.

(23) The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be
with you all.— The true reading is, be with your
spirit (as in Gal. vi. 18 ; Philem. verse 25 ; 2 Tim iv.
22). The reading of our version is the more ordinary
form of salutation. In one form or another , it
is "the token in every Epistle" (2 Thess. hi. 17).
The grace given by the Spirit of God is received
in "the spirit" of man, but in order that the
whole man, ''body, soul, and spirit, be preserved
blameless to the coming of the Lord Jesus " (1 Thess.-
v. 23).

INTRODUCTION

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

COLOSSIANS.

I. The Time, Place, and Occasion of Writing.
— There are in this Epistle indications of the time
and place of writing similar to those already noticed
in the Epistles to the Ephcsians and Philippiaus. It
is written in prison : for St. Paid bids the Colossians
"remember his bonds'" (chap. iv. 18). and designates
Aristarchus as bis "fellow-prisoner" (chap. iv. 10).
Like the Epistle to the Ephesians, it is sent by Tychicns,
with precisely the same official commendation of him
as in that Epistle (chap. iv. 7. 8; coinp. Eph. vi. 21,
22) ; but with him is joined Onesimus, the Colossian
slave, the bearer of the Epistle to Philemon. The
persons named in the concluding salutations (chap. iv.
7 — 14) — Aristarchus, Marcus, Epaphras. Luke. Demas,
and '" Jesus, called Justus" — are all, except the last,
named in the corresponding part of the Epistle to
Philemon (verses 23, 24) ; two of them, Aristarchus
and St. Luke, are known to have accompanied the
Apostle on his voyage, as a captive, to Rome (Acts
xxvii. 2) : and another, Tychicns, to have been his com-
panion on the journey to Jerusalem, which preceded
the beginning of that captivity at Cssarea (Acts xx. 4).
A direction is given to forward this Epistle to Laodicea,
and to obtain and read a letter from Laodicea (chap.
iv. 16), which (as will be seen by the Note on the pas-
sage) is, in all probability, our Epistle to the Ephesians
— an Epistle (see the Introduction to it) addressed, in-
deed, primarily to Ephesus, but apparently also an En-
cyclical Letter to the sister Churches of Asia. All these
indications point to one conclusion — not only that the
E] »ist le is one of the Epistles of the Roman captivity
about a.d. 61 — 63), but that it is a twin Epistle wdth
the Epistle to the Ephesians, sent at the same time
and by the same hand, and designed to be interchanged
with it in the Churches of CJolossse and Laodicea.
These indications are confirmed most decisively by the
substance of the Epistle itself, which (as will be seen
below) presents, on the one hand, the most striking
similarities to the Epistle to the Ephesians, and, on the
other, differences almost ecpially striking and charac-
teristic— thus contradicting all theories of derivation of
one from the other, and supporting very strongly the
idea of independent contemporaneousness and coinci-
dence of thought. .

The occasion of writing seems evidently to have been
a visit to the Apostle from Epaphras, the first preacher
* of the gospel at Colossse, and the profound anxiety
caused both to him and to St. Paul (chaps, ii. 1; iv. 12,
13) by the news which he brought of the rise among
the Colossians (and probably the Christians of Laodicea
and Hierapolis also) of a peculiar form of error, half
Jewish, half Gnostic, which threatened to beguile them
from the simplicity of the gospel into certain eurioiis

mazes of speculation as to the Godhead and the out-
growth of various emanations from it : to create a
separation between those who believed themselves
perfect in this higher knowledge and the mass of their
brethren : «nd, above all, to obscure or obliterate the
sole divine mediation of the Lord Jesus Christ, To
warn them against these forms of error— the last
development of the Judaism which had been so for-
midable an enemy in time past, and the first anticipa-
tion of an intellectual and spiritual bewilderment which
was to be still more formidable in the future — St. Paul
writes this Letter. The Colossian Church was indeed
to receive a copy from Laodicea of our Epistle to the
Ephesians; but in an Encyclical Letter this peculiar
form of heresy could not well be touched upon.
Epaphras was for the present to continue at Rome,
and (see Philem. verse 24) to share St. Paul's imprison-
ment. Mark, the nephew of Barnabas, then with St,
Paul, was perhaps coming to Colossal (chap. iv. 10), but
not yet, Accordingly, by Tychicus, the bearer of the
Encyclical Letter, and Onesimus, a fugitive Colossian
slave, whom the Apostle was about to send back to
Philemon, his master, this Letter is despatched. Partly
it repeats and enforces the teaching of the other Epis-
tle, but regards these common truths from a different
point of view, designed tacitly to correct the errors rife
at Colossae ; partly it deals directly with those errors
themselves, imploring the Colossians to break through
the delusions of their new " philosophy and vain deceit,"
and to return to the simplicity of the gospel, in which
they had all been one in the one mediation of the Lord
Jesus Christ.

II. The Church to which it is addressed —

The Church of Colossal unlike the Churches of Ephe-
sus and Philippi, finds no record in the Acts of the
Apostles ; for, although this city is not very far from
Ephesus, we gather that it was not one of the churches
founded or previously visited by St. Paul personally
(chap. ii. 1: comp. chap. i. 4). But it appears, from
what is apparently the true reading of chap. i. 7. that
Epaphras, named as its first evangelist, and still, to
some extent, in charge of it and the neighbouring
Churches of Laodicea and Hiei*apolis (chap. iv. 12. 13).
was not only a fellow-servant, but a representative of
St. Paul in his mission to Colossae. We can, therefore,
hardly be wrong in referring the conversion of the
Colossians to the time of St. Paul's three years' stay at
Ephesus, during which we are expressly told that " all
they which dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord,
both Jews and Greeks " (Acts xix. 10), and supposing
that indirectly through Epaphras the Christianity of
the Colossians was due to the influence of that great

COLOSSIANS.

Apostolic preaching under which " the word of God
grew mightily and prevailed." We find also that St.
Paul had intimate personal acquaintance, and what he
calls emphatically " partnership," with Philemon (see
Philem. verse 17), apparently a leading member of the
Church at Colossse. It is not unlikely that through him j
also the Apostle had been able to influence the founda- [
tion or growth of that Church. These circumstances
-explain the style and tone of this Letter, wliich seems to
stand midway between the personal familiarity and un-
hesitating authority of such Epistles as the Epistles to
the Thessaloniaus, Corinthians, Galatians, and Philip-
pians, addressed to churches founded directly by St.
Paul, and the courteous reserve of the Epistle to the
Romans, addressed to a Church over wliich he could
-claim none of the authority of a founder. This is,
perhaps, especially notable in chap, ii., where St. Paul
prefaces his definite and authoritative denunciation of
the peculiar errors besetting the Colossian Church with
the half-apologetic introduction : " I would that ye
know what great conflict 1 have for you, and for
them at Laodicea, and for as many as have r?ot seen my
face in the flesh."

The position and history of Colossse are admirably
described by Dr. Lightfoot in his Introduction to this
Epistle, sect. 1. It lay in the valley of the Lycus, a
♦tributary of the Mseander, near Laodicea and Hiera-
polis. These two cities stand face to face, about six
miles from each other on opposite sides of the valley,
and ten or twelve miles further up, on the river itself,
lies Colossse, so that any one approaching it from
Ephesus or from the sea-coast would pass by Lao-
dicea. The three cities thus form a group, so that
they might naturally receive the gospel at the same
time, and the Christian communities in them might
easily be under the same general charge. They seem
to have been politically united under the Roman
Government, and to have been distinguished by a
•common trade; like Thyatira, they were known for
their manufacture of dyes, especially purple dyes, and
derived considerable wealth therefrom. Colossse had
been once a place of importance. It is described by
Herodotus (chap. vii. 20) as being, at the time of
Xerxes' invasion of Greece, " a great city of Phrygia,"
the site of which is marked by a subterranean dis-
appearance of the river Lycus ; and by Xenophon (Anab.
i. 2, § 6), about a century later, as " a city great and
prosperous." But at the time at which this Epistle
was written Colossse was of far less note than the
wealthy Laodicea, the metropolis of the district, or
Hierapolis, well known as a place of resort for medici-
nal baths, and consecrated both to the Greek Apollo
and the Phrygian Cybele. In the Apocalyptic letters
to the Seven Churches of Asia it finds no mention,
being probably looked upon as a dependency of the
proud and wealthy Church of Laodicea. After the
Apostolic age, while Laodicea and, in less degree,
Hierapolis are well-known, Colossse sinks into utter
insignificance. It may possibly have been laid in ruins
by one of the earthquakes which are known to have
been common in these regions. Comparatively few
remains of it are now found, and the very orthography
of the name {Colossw, or Colassa?) has, it appears,
been matter of dispute. It is notable that a Church so
much honoured and cared for by St. Paid should have
had hereafter so obscure and so adverse a future.*

* Views of the country near the supposed site of Colossse,
and of the ruins of Laodicea and Hierapolis, are given in
".Lewiu's St. Paul, Vol. II., pp. 357—360.

V2,

III. The Genuineness of the Epistle.— Exter-
nal Evidence. — Speaking generally, the condition of
the external evidence is much the same with this as
with the other two Epistles. It is included unhesi-
tatingly in all canons, from the Muratorian Canon
(a.d. 170?) downwards, and in all versions, beginning
with the Peschito and the Old Latin in the second
century. Quotations or references to it have not, how-
ever, been traced in any of the Apostolic fathers. The
first distinct allusion to it is in Justin Martyr (a.d.
110 — 170?), who. says (Apol. i. 48, ii. 6; Dial. c.
Tryph. c. 100):— "We were taught that Christ is the
first-born of God ; " " We have acknowledged Him as
the first-born of God, and before all creatures ; "
" Through Him God set all things in order." (Comp.
chap. i. 15 — 17.) The next is Theophilus of Antioch,
who died about a.d. 180 1 — " God begat the Word, the
first-born before all creation." After this, in Irenseus,
Clement of Alexandria, and Tertulliau, direct quotation
begins, and continues uninterruptedly in all Christian
writings. (See Westcott, Canon of the New Testament.)
The external evidence is therefore strong. Never until
these later days of arbitrary criticism has the genuine-
ness of the Epistle been questioned.

Internal Evidence. — This Epistle, far more than the
Epistle to the Philippians, perhaps a little less than
the Epistle to the Ephesians, bears traces of what I
have ventured to call St. Paul's "third manner." To
the correspondence of the change, both in style and
substance, traceable in these Epistles, to the alteration
of St. Paul's circumstances, and the natural develop-
ment of the gospel and of the Church, I have already
referred in the General Introduction to the Epistles of
the Captivity, and given reasons for maintaining that
this change, which has been often made an argument
against the genuineness of these Epistles, presents to
us phenomena inexplicable on any supposition of imita-
tion or forgery, but perfectly intelligible if we accept
the Apostolic authorship.

Some critics, however — of whom Dr. Holtzmann (in
his Kritik eZer Epheser- und Kolosser- briefe) may be
taken as the chief representative— insist on tracing
extensive interpolations (almost amounting to a virtual
reconstruction) in what they believe themselves able to
discover as the originals both of this Epistle and the
Epistle to the Ephesians. Except so far as these
hypotheses depend on the supposed traces of a later
Gnosticism in both Epistles, but especially in this (on
which see Excursus at the close of this Epistle), they
seem to resolve themselves into the idea that every pas-
sage bearing strong similarity to the teaching of St. Peter
and St. John must have been altered or interpolated
with a view to accommodation. Without any substantial
historical evidence, ignoring both the probabilities of
tin* case and the indirect evidence of Holy Scripture,
and disregarding the utter absence of any support
whatever in the witness of Christian antiquity, they
assume an absolute antagonism between St. Paul and
the Apostles of the Circumcision, and pronounce every
indication of an underlying unity, and a true develop-
ment of common doctrine, wliich contradicts this
assumption, to be a mark of interpolation or falsification
by a later hand. With the rejection of this arbitrary
assumption, the greater part of the ingeniously-con-
structed fabric of destructive criticism falls to the
ground.

But, indeed, it appears difficult to conceive how any
one attentively studying either of these Epistles, with-
out any preconceived hypothesis, can fail to recognise
the internal consistency and unity — all the more striking

COLOSSIANS.

because indicating a free method, as distinct from a
well-squared artificial system — which runs through the
whole, and makes the theory of interpolation even more
improbahle than the theory of imitation or forgery.
Nothing, for example, is more notable in this Epistle
than the substantial unity, under marked difference of
form, which connects the positive statement of doctrine
in the first chapter (verses 14 — 23) with the polemical
re-statement in the second chapter. In the former
we trace anticipation of the latter, and (so to speak)
preparation for the more explicit development of the
attack on doctrinal error; in the latter, the very repe-
titions, with variations, of passages in the first chapter
are indicative of a free treatment of the truths pre-
viously dealt with by the same hand, and are utterly
unlike the tame reproductions or artificial modifications
of a mero copyist. The remarkable indications, again,
of the co-existence of similarity and distinctness
between this Epistle and the Epistle to the Ephesians
(noticed in the Introduction to that Epistle), as they
preclude the theory of dependence or imitation in
either, so are equally fatal to the idea of an artificial
interpolation and reconstruction by later hands. They
indicate at every point a free, almost unconscious,
coincidence, omitting or preserving the parallelisms of
idea and expression by a kind of natural selection.
They mark a likeness of living organic growths, not of
artificial and heterogeneous fabrics. Nor should we
omit to notice the sustained power of these Epistles,
differing as to the peculiar style of each, but equally
conspicuous in both. The Epistle to the- Ephesians
has about it a certain calm and almost mystic elo-
quence, a beauty of meditative completeness of idea,
unbroken by necessities of special teaching or special
warning, which well suits a general Apostolic message
to Christians as Christians, in which we seem almost
in hear the utterance of an inspired mind, simply con-
templating the divine truth in the knowledge of Jesus
Christ, and speaking out, so far as they can be spoken,
the thoughts which it stiir within — conscious of God
and itself, only half conscious of those to whom the
utterance is addressed. In the Epistle to the Colos-
sians, on the other hand, we find a far greater abrupt-
ness, force, and earnestness. The free course of the
Apostolic thought, which occasionally, perhaps, rises
to an even greater height, is, on the whole, checked
and modified by the constant remembrance of pressing
needs and pressing dangers — accordingly developing
some elements and leaving others comparatively unde-
veloped : and so, while perhaps increasing intensity,
certainly interfering to some extent with the majestic
symmetry of the universal revelation. Each Epistle
has its marked characteristics ; and these, unquestion-
ably, so run through the whole as to destroy even any
show of plausibility in the theory of interpolation.

The supposed anachronisms in the refei'ences to what
afterwards became peculiarities of the Gnostic system
will be treated of in the Excursus (at the close of the
Epistle) on the Relation of the Epistle to Gnosticism.
Hen; it will be sufficient to say that, on more attentive
examinatiou, not only do the supposed objections to
the genuineness of the Epistle disappear, but the phe-
nomena of the " philosophy and vain deceit " touched
upon in this Epistle, when compared with the opinions
either of the past or of the future, accord so remarkably
with the characteristics of the period to which the
Epistle claims to belong, as to add a fresh confirmation
of the conclusions already derived from a consideration
of the external evidence, and by the study of the
coherence and vigour of the Epistle itself.

In this case, therefore, as in the others, we may
unhesitatingly dismiss the questions, which have beta
ingeniously raised, and with undisturbed confidence
draw from the Epistle the rich treasures of Apostolic-
teaching.

IV. The main Substance of the Epistle.— In
considering the substance of the Epistle, we must dis-
tinguish between the large amount of matter common
to it with the Epistle to the Ephesians and the portion
which is peculiar to this Epistle alone.

In regard of the common matter, it may be said
generally that it is found treated with a greater
width of scope and completeness of handling in
the Epistle to the Ephesians. It is best studied
there in the first instance (see, accordingly, the Intro-
Auction and Analysis of that Epistle), and then-
illustrated by comparison and contrast with the corre-
sponding passages in this Epistle. It will be seen (as-
is explained in the Notes on various passages) that
this illustration is at every point full of suggestiveness
and variety. Literal identities are exceedingly rare ; in
almost every set of parallel passages the treatment in
the two Epistles presents some points of characteristic
variety, either in expression or in meaning. Speaking
generally, this variety depends on two causes. The
first turns on the speciality of the Epistle, addressed to
a single Church, thoroughly, though indirectly, known to
St. Paul, and the generality of the other, approaching
nearly to the character of a treatise rather than a letter.
The second and the more important cause of this
variety is the subtle adaptation even of details to the
characteristic doctrines which stand out in the two
Epistles respectively.

This last consideration leads on naturally to the
examination of the portions of the Epistle to which
there is nothing to correspond in the Ephesian Epistle.

(a) We have the passages in the first and last chap-
ters which refer to the foundation of the Colossian
Church by Epaphras, the declaration to them of the
" truth of the gospel," and the practical fruitfulness of
that teaching (chap. i. 6 — 11) ; next, to the deep anxiety-
felt by Epaphras and St. Paul himself for their stead-
fastness in the simple truths of the gospel, against the
speculations of a wild philosophy and the allurements
of a mystic perfection in practice (chaps, i. 23, 24; ii.
1—4, 8—10, 16—23; iv. 12, 13); lastly, the particu-
larity and strong personality of the salutations, direc-
tions, and blessing at the close of this Epistle (chap,
iv. 7 — 18), singularly contrasting with the brief gene-
rality of the other (Eph. vi. 21 — 24). All these cor-
respond to the former of the causes above named.
They mark the difference between a special and an
Encyclical Epistle.

(o) Of infinitely greater moment is the special pro-
minence which is given in this Epistle to the doctrine
of the sole Headship of Christ. The references to the
Church as His body, though not unfrequent, are brief,
secondary, unemphatic ; and thus stand in marked
contrast with the vivid and magnificent descriptions in
the Ephesian Epistle of the predestination and election
of the whole body of the Church in the eternal counsels
" of the heavenly places " (Eph. i. 3 — 14) : of the union
of Jew and Gentile in the divine " commonwealth." all
divisions being broken down which separated each from
the other and both from God (chap. ii. 11 — 18) : of
the great Temple. " built on the foundation of the
apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ being the chief
corner-stone " (chap. ii. 19 — 24) : of the " ono body "
and " the one Spirit," the " one Lord, the one God.

COLOSSIANS.

and Father of all" (chap. iv. 4 — 10). It is especially
notable that to the last-named passage, which is the
climax of the doctrinal teaching of the Ephesian
Epistle, there corresponds in this the equally cele-
brated but wholly different passage (Col. iii. 1 — 4),
which addresses the Colossiansas "risen with Christ,"
having their " life hid with Him in God," looking
for the time " when He who is their life shall appear,
and they with Him in glory." The reason of the dis-
tinction is made clear at once by the indications of the
presence at Colossse of a tendency to vain speculations,
to obsolete Jewish forms, and to half idolatrous super-
stitions, all of which alike prevented them from "holding
the Head," from " being dead with Christ " to the rudi-
ments of the Avorld, from being " risen with Him" to
a communion with heaven (chap ii. 8 — 23). Accordingly,
the sole Headship of Christ is dwelt upon — first
positively, (chap. i. 18—20), next polemically, in warning
against error (chap. ii. 8, 16, 18). Both passages are
peculiar to this Epistle, as compared with the Epistle
to the Ephesians. They deal with a subject on which
the needs of Colossse and its sister Churches forced St.
Paul to lay very special emphasis.

(c) But this emphasis does but bring out with
greater force what may be found elsewhere. The
great characteristic feature of this Epistle is the de-
claration of the nature of Christ in Himself as the
"image of the invisible God ; " "firstborn before all
•creation ; " " by whom," " for whom," " in whom," " all
beings were created in heaven and earth " aud " all
things consist ; " " in whom dwells all the f uluess of
the Godhead bodily " (chaps, i. 15—17, 19 ; ii. 9). In
this the Epistle may be compared with the Epistle to
the Philippians (chap. ii. 6, 7). But the simple decla-
ration there made of Christ as " being in the form of
God " is here worked out into a magnificent elaboration,
ascribing to Him the " fulness of Godhead " and the
essential divine attributes of universal creation. It
may be even more closely compared with the Epistle
to the Hebrews, which not only describes Him as " the
express image of the essence of Godhead," but with an em-
phasis which reminds us of the Judaistic angel-worship
condemned in this Epistle, exalts His absolute superiority
over all who, however glorious, are but creatures of God
and ministering spirits (Heb. i. 1 ; ii. 4). It is evident,
again, that it anticipates, yet with characteristic differ-
ence of expression, the doctrine of the " "Word of God "
taught by St. John, and the ascription to Him of
essential eternity and Godhead, and both of physical
and spiritual creation (John i. 1 — 5, 14). It is this
which gives to our Epistle an unique doctrinal signifi-
cance and value. Called out by one of the changeful
phases of a pretentious, but transitory error, it remains
to us an imperishable treasure. We cannot doubt that
till the end of time it will have fresh force of special
application, as ancient forms of error recur with more
or less of variety of outward aspect, and in their con-
stant changes, developments, aud antagonisms, stand in
significant contrast with the unchanging gospel.

V. Analysis of the Epistle.— To this general de-
scription is subjoined, as before, an analysis of the
Epistle, shortened from the analyses in the various
chapters.

1. Doctrinal Section.

(1) Salutation (chap. i. 1, 2).

(a) Thanksgiving for their faith, love, and hope,
the worthy fruits of the truth of the
gospel taught by Epaphras (chap. i. 3—8) ;

(b) Prayer for their fuller knowledge, fruitfoil-

ness, and patience (chap. i. 9—12).

(2) The Doctrine of Christ (stated posi-

tively),
(a) His mediation in the forgiveness of sins

(chap. i. 13, 14) ;
(6) His divine nature as the image of God and

the Creator of all things (chap. i. 15 — 17) ;

created being (chap. i. 18 — 20) ;

(d) Special application of His mediation to the

Colossians, and declaration of the com-
mission of the preaching of this mystery
to St. Paul himself (chap. i. 21—29).

(3) The Doctrine of Christ (stated polemi-

cally).
(a) Declaration of St. Paul's anxiety for them
that they should remain rooted and stab-
lished in the old truth of the gospel
(chap. ii. 1 — 7) ;
(6) Warning against speculative error, denying
or obscuring the truth —

(a) Of Christ's true Godhead ;

(/3) Of the regeneration of spiritual

circumcision in Him ;
(7) Of His sole atonement and triumph
over the powers of evil (chap. ii.
8—15).

(a) Of trust in obsolete Jewish ordi-
nances and mystic asceticism ;

(0) Of superstitious worship of angels,
trenching on the sole Headship of
Christ (chap. ii. 16—19).

(d) Exhortation to be —

(a) Dead with Christ to the rudiments

of the world ;
(j3) Risen with Christ to the communion

with God in heaven (chaps, ii. 20 —

iii. 4).

2, Practical Section.

(1) General Exhortation —

(a) To mortification of the flesh in all the sins

of the old unregenerate nature (chap. iii.
5—9);

(b) To putting on the new man in all the graces

of the image of Christ, receiving the
peace of God and doing all to His glory
(chap. iii. 10—17).

(2) Special Duties of Human Relation-

ship—
(a) Wives and husbands (chap. iii. 18, 19) ;
(6) Children and parents (chap. iii. 20, 21) ;

(3) Conclusion.

(a) Exhortation to prayer and watchfulness

(chap. iv. 2 — 6);

(b) Mission of Tychicus and Onesimus (chap.

iv. 7—9) ;

(chap. iv. 10 — 14) ;

(d) Charge to exchange Epistles with Laodicea

(chap. iv. 15—17) ;

(e) Final salutation (chap. iv. 18).

VI. Comparison with Epistle to the Ephe-
sians.— To this outline of the Epistle may also be added
a tabular comparison with the Epistle to the Ephesians,
noting the general lines of parallelism and peculiarity.

EPHESIANS AND COLOSSIANS.

[In this Table whatever is common to tho two Epistles is printed in ordinary type, and whatever is

peculiar to each in italics.]

EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS.
1. Doctrinal Section.

1. (a) Salutation (chap. i. 1, 2).

1^6) Doxology ami thanksgiving for the divine

election (chap. i. 3 — 6).
(c) Prayer and thanksgiving for them (chap. i.

15—18).

2. (a) Declaration of the " gathering up of all in

Christ," of His universal mediation for
Jew and Gentile, and His headship over
the Church, which is His Body, " the ful-
ness of Him who filloth all in all " (chap.
i. 7—14, 19—23).

(b) Fuller declaration of the union of Jew and
Gentile in one covenant and temple, on
sole condition of faith in Christ (chap. ii.
1—20).

(o) The commission to St. Paul of the mystery
of the calling in of the Gentiles, once
hidden, now revealed to men and angels
(chap. iii. 1 — 13).

(d) Prayer that they may know that lohich
passeth knowledge, by the indwelling of
Christ, and be filled to the fulness of God
(chap. iii. 14—21).

3. Summary of Doctrine :

(a) The unity of the Church in God;

(b) The diversity of gifts;

rate edification (chap. iv. 1 — 16).

2. Practical Section.

1. (ffl) General exhortation to put off the old man
and put on the new. by learning Christ
and being taught in Christ (chap. iv.
17-24).
{b) Warning against various sins, as breaking
unity with man (chap. iv. 25 — 30).

(c) Special warnings against bitterness, against
impurity and lust, and against reckless
excess and drunkenness (chap. iv. 31 —
v. 21).

2. Human Relationships:

(a) Wives and husbands (chap. v. 22—33).

{The sacredness of marriage as a type of
the union between Christ and the Church.)

(b) Children and parents (chap. vi. 1 — 4).

3. Conclusion.

(a) Exhortation to put on the whole armour of

God (chap. vi. 10—17).

(b) Request for their prayers (chap. vi. 18 — 20).

(d) "Peace be to the brethren/ ' '"Grace be
with all them who love our Lord Jesus
Christ in sincerity" (chap. vi. 23, 24).

EPISTLE TO THK COLOSSIANS.
1. Doctrinal Section.

1, (a) Sanitation (chap. i. 1, 2).

(6) Prayer and thanksgiving for them (chap. i.

3—5, 9—12).
(c) Special reference to the teaching ofEpoph ras

and its effect (chap. i. 6 — 8).
2. (a) Declaration of the universal mediation of

Christ, and His headship over the Church

and over all created being (chap. i. 13,

14, 18—22).

(b) Declaration of the true Godhead and crea-
tive power of Christ (chap. i. 15 — 17).

of the mystery once hidden, now revealed,
"which is Christ in you the hope of
glory " (chap. i. 23 — 29).

(d) Special warnings against peculiar forms

of speculative error and practical super-
stition, drawing them from Christ, and
obscuring His sole mediation and true
Godhead (chap. ii. 1—23).
3. Summary of Doctrine :

The unity of the sold with Christ, in which
it is risen and exalted to heaven in Him
(chap. iii. 1 — 8 ; comp. Eph. ii. 5, 6).

Practical Section.

1. (a) General exhortation to mortify our earthly
members, to put off the old man and put
on the new (chap. iii. 5 — 11).

(b) Warning against various sins, as unworthy
of " the elect of God " (chap. iii. 5, 8, 9,
13-17).

2. Human Relationships:

(a) Wives and husbands (chap. iii. 18, 19).

(&) Children and parents (chap. iii. 20. 21).
(c) Slaves and masters (chap. iii. 22 — iv. 1).
3. Conclusion.

(a) Request for their prayers (chap. iv. 2—6).

(b) Commendation of Tychicus and OnesinvuA

(chap. iv. 7 — 9).
{c) Salutations from the brethren (chap. iv. 10
-14).

(d) Message to Laodicea and ^Lrchippus, and

direction as to the Letter from, Laodicea
(chap. iv. 15—17).

(e) "Remember my bonds. Grace be with you"

(chap. iv. 18).

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

COLOSSIANS.

CHAPTEE I.— (D Paul, an apostle of
Chap. i. 1—2. Jesus Christ by the will
Salutation. Gf God, and Timotheus our
brother, (2) to the saints and faithful
brethren in Christ which are at Co-
losse : Grace be unto you, and peace,
from God our Eather and the Lord
Jesus Christ. (3) We give thanks to

God and the Father of oar Lord Jesus
Christ, praying always for Chap \ 3_g

you, (4J since we heard Thanksgiving

of your faith in Christ *or their1 £aith'

T J -. ~ ., , love, and hope,

Jesus, and ot the love in the truth of
which ye have to all the the gospel,
saints, (5> for the hope which is laid
up for you in heaven, whereof ye

[I. Introduction.

(1) Salutation (verses 1, 2).

(2) Thanksgiving, for their faith and love and

hope, with an emphatic reference to the
" word of the truth of the gospel " as first
preached unto them in all faithfulness by
Epaphras, the fellow- servant and representa-
tive of the Apostle (verses 3 — 8).

(3) Peayek that they may have further know-

ledge, and fruitfulness in good works, being
strengthened to endurance, and encouraged
by the hope of heaven (verses 9 — 12).]

This chapter contains the main substance of the
characteristic doctrine of the Epistle ; to which, how-
ever, St. Paul returns in the next chapter, enforcing
it with special application to the circumstances of
the Colossian church, and special warning against a
peculiar form of half- Judaic and half- Gnostic error.
It should be compared throughout with Eph. i., ii., iii.
On such comparison, we find, on the one hand, a
strong general similarity both of thought and ex-
pression; on the other hand, a marked dift'ei-ence in
the subject to which main prominence is given. The
first glance discovers that both Epistles dwell em-
phatically on Christ the Head, and the unity of all as
one Body in Him. But a more thoughtful consideration
will show that in this Epistle the main stress is on
the headship of Christ ; in the Ephesian Epistle, on the
unity and glory of the Church as His body.

(!) Timotheus our brother.— Except in the
mention of Timotheus (as in the other Epistles of the
captivity; see Phil. i. 1; Philem. verso 1), the salutation
is almost verbally coincident with the opening of the
Epistle to the Ephesians (where see Note). The
mention of Timotheus here, and the omission of his
name there, mark the difference in character between
the two Epistles. In a special Epistle like this
Timotheus would be joined with St, Paul as usual. In
a general Epistle to the churches of Asia, the Apostle
alone could rightly speak.

(2) From God our Father and the Lord Jesus
Christ.— The best MSS. show here, that the salutation
should run simply " from God the Father," thus

varying from St. Paul's otherwise universal phraseology.
Such variation can hardly be accidental. Could it have
been suggested to St. Paul's mind, in connection with his
special desire to emphasize the true Godhead of Christ,
so obvious iu this Epistle, by an instinctive reluctance
to use in this case any phrase, however customary with
him, which might even seem to distinguish His nature
from the Godhead ? It is certainly notable that in the
true reading of chap. ii. 2 Christ is called " the mystery
of God, even the Father " — an unique and remarkable
expression, which marks a preparation for the full under-
standing of the teaching of our Lord, " He that hath
seen Me hath seen the Father " (John xiv. 9).

(3—8) in this expression of St. Paul's thanksgiving
for them there is as usual a peculiar correspondence to
their circumstances. They had been full of faith, love,
and hope, the fruit of a true gospel ^preached by
Epaphras; there was fear now lest they should be
beguiled from it, although that fear was obviously not
yet realised, as had been formerly the case with
the Galatians. Hence St. Paul's emphasis on their
hearing, knowing, and learning the truth, and on the
faithfulness of Epaphras as a minister of Christ.

(3, 4) Comp. Eph. i. 15, 16, where there is an almost
exact verbal coincidence. Whatever may be the force
there of the words " having heard of your faith," clearly
here they harmonise with many indications that the
Colossian Church, though well known to St. Paul, was
not known by personal knowledge.

(5) For the hope which is laid up for you in

heaven. — The union of hope with faith and love is-

natural enough. Compare the fuller expression of

1 Thess. i. 3, " your work of faith, and labour of love,

and patience of hope." But the place assigned to hope

in this passage is notable. " For the hope " is really

"on account of the hope." Hence faith and love

are spoken of, not merely as leading up to hope, but

as being actually kindled by it. Similarly in Eph.

i. 18 we find that, while faith and love are taken for

granted, there is a special prayer that they may be

enlightened "to know the hope of His calling" as the

j one thing yet needful. The prominence given to the

I thought of " the heavenly places " in the Epistles of

Thanksgiving for their Faith.

COLOSSIANS, I.

The Teaching of Epaphras.

heard before in the word of the truth
of the gospel; (6) which is come unto
you, as it is in all the world ; and
bringeth forth fruit, as it doth also in
you, since the day ye heard of it, and

knew the grace of God in truth : <7> as
ye also learned of Epaphras our dear
fellowservant, who is for you a faithful
minister of Christ ; (8) who also declared
unto us your love in the Spirit. W For

the captivity, and therefore to Christ in heaven, even
more than to Christ risen, is evident to any careful
student. Accordingly, the hope, which is the instinct
of perfection iu man, and which becomes realisation
of heaven in the Christian, naturally comes out with
corresponding emphasis.

Ye heard before. — That is, at their first conversion.
There is an implied warning against the new doctrines,
which are more fully noticed in the next chapter.

The truth of the gospel.— This expression (as in
■Gal. ii. 14) is emphatic. It refers to the gospel, not
chiefly as a message of graciousness and mercy, but
rather as a revelation of eternal truths, itself changeless
as the truth it reveals. There is a corresponding
emphasis, but stronger still, in St. John. (See, for ex-
ample, 1 John ii. 27 ; v. 20 ; 2 John 1 — 4 ; 3 John, verses
2, 3.) The gospel was now winning its way to supremacy
over civilised thought. Hence the need of warning
agaiust the sudden growth of wild speculations, con-
trasted with the unchanging simplicity of its main truths.

(6) Which is come unto you . . .—There is
much variety of reading here, but the text followed by
our version is certainly incorrect. The probable
reading is, which is come unto you, just as in all the
'(•oriel it is now bringing forth fruit and growing, as
dso it does in you. In this sentence there are two
lessons implied. First, the universality of the gospel,
in which it stands contrasted, as with all local and
national religions, whether of Judaism or of Paganism,
so also with the secret doctrines of Gnostic speculation,
intelligible only to the initiated few. Next, the test of
its reality both by practical fruit of action, and by the
spiritual growth connected therewith. In relation to
the former, " faith without works " is " dead " ; in
relation to the other it is " imperfect," needing to be
developed into maturity (Jas. ii. 20, 22). Both these
lessons were evidently needed, in consequence of the
appearance at Colossae of the occult mysticism and the
unpractical speculation noted in chap. ii. 8, 10, 18. But
the Church itself was still faithful. Hence the last words,
" as also it does in you," turning back again to Colossse
in particular, are an insertion of kindly courtesy — one
of the insertions of apparent afterthought not un-
frequent in St. Paul's Epistles — intended to show that
the implied warning is by no means a condemnation.

(?) Ye also learned of Epaphras.— Of Epa-
phras we know nothing, except what we gather from
this passage, and from chap. iv. 12 ; Philem. verse 23.
The name is a shortened form of Epaphroditus, but it is
most unlikely that he is the same as the Epaphroditus
of Phil. ii. 25 ; iv. 18. Being, it seems, a native of
Colossae itself, he was apparently its first evangelist,
and is afterwards described as feeling some responsi-
bility for it and its neighbouring cities, Laodicea and
Hioiapolis (chap. iv. 13). His work could not have
been transient, for under him the Colossians are said
not only to have " heard," but also to have " known "
(conic to know perfectly) " the grace of God." St. Paul
here gives emphatic testimony to his faithfulness, and
to his preaching to them " in truth." That he was, then
or afterwards, Bishop of Colossae is probably a mere
guess of tradition. But he may have had some such

charge as that which was afterwards more formally
committed to Timothy at Ephesus, and Titus in Crete.
At this time, however, he remained with St. Paul (chap,
iv. 12, 13), and apparently shared his captivity, for he
is called (in Philem. verse 23) his " fellow -prisoner."

Who is for you a faithful minister of
Christ. — (1) " For you " is, properly, on your behalf.
This has been supposed to mean that Epaphras, like
his Philippian namesake, had been a representative of
the Colossian Church, in ministry to the Apostle ; but
this is hardly compatible with the entire absence of
any personal reference in the sentence. Contrast
Philem. verse 13, " that on thy behalf he might minister
to me." If this reading, therefore, is to stand, " on your
behalf " must be taken to signify generally " for your
benefit," which is doubtless the meaning of our version.
(2) But there is considerable, perhaps preponderating,
MS. authority for the reading '" on our behalf," that is,
in our stead. This makes Epaphras a representative,
perhaps an actual messenger, of St. Paul, for the con-
version of the church at Colossa3; sent probably at the
time when the Apostle had his head-quarters at
Ephesus, and when M all that dwelt in Asia heard the
word of the Lord Jesus " (Acts xix. 10). This inter-
pretation not only gives greater force to this passage,
but explains also the attitude of authority here assumed
by St. Paul toward a church which he had not seen,
differing so markedly from the tone of his Epistle to
the Romans in a like case.

(8) Who also declared unto us.— This refers to
news recently brought by Epaphras to St. Paul at
Rome. He had been a minister in St. Paul's stead ;
he now, like Timothy afterwards, visited him to give
account of his deputed work.

Your love in the Spirit.—" In the Spirit " is " in
the grace of the Holy Ghost " — the Spirit of love. The
love here would seem to be especially love towards St.
Paul, a part of the " love towards all the saints "
ascribed to them above (verse 4).

(9«-l2) From thanksgiving St. Paul passes, as always,
to pray for them. The prayer is for their full and
perfect knowledge of God's will ; but this is emphatic-
ally connected with practical " walking " in that will,
first by fruitfulness in good work, next by showing
themselves strong in Christ to endure sufferings, lastly
by thankful acceptance of God's call to inheritance
among the saints in light. There is a hearty recognition
of the blessing of knowledge (on which the incipient
Gnosticism of the day was so eloquent) ; but it is to be
tried by the three tests of practical goodness, patienee,
and thankful humility.

(9) Do not cease to pray for you.— Comp. Eph.
i. 16. " To pray " (see Eph. vi. 18 ; Phil. iv. 6) is the
general word for " to worship " ; " to desire " indicates
prayer, properly so called, asking from God what is
requisite and necessary for ourselves or for others.

The knowledge of his will.— The " knowledge "
here spoken of is the " full knowledge," to be attained
in measure here, to be made perfect in heaven. See
1 Cor. xiii. 12, " Now I know in part ; but then shall I

Prayer for their fuller Knowledge,

COLQSSIANS, I.

good Works, and Patience.

this cause we also, since the day we

Chap i 9—12 near(^ •£ ^° n0* C^ase to

Prayer for their pray for you, and to de-

ledeie knood Sire that ye mi£nt be nlled
worVs, gand with the knowledge of
patient endur- his will in all wisdom and

(10)

spiritual understanding; ;
that ye might walk worthy of the

Lord unto all pleasing, being fruitful in
every good work, and increasing in the
knowledge of God ; <n) strengthened
with all might, according to his glorious
power, unto all patience and longsuffer-
ing with joy fulness ; <12.) giving thanks
unto the Father, which hath made us
meet to be partakers of the inheritance

know (perfectly) even as I am known." On this word,
especially frequent in the Epistles of the captivity, see
Note on Eph. i. 17. It should be noted that the
knowledge here prayed for is " the knowledge of God's
will," — not speculation as to the nature of God, or as to
emanations from Deity, or even as to the reasons of
God's mysterious counsels, but knowledge of what
actually is His will, both in the dispensation which is to
be accepted in faith, and in the commandments to be
obeyed in love. So St. Paul (in 1 Tim. i. 4, 5) contrasts
with the " fables and endless genealogies " of Gnostic
speculation, " the end of the commandment," " charity
out of a pure heart and a good conscience, and faith
unfeigned."

In all wisdom and spiritual understanding.—
This "knowledge of God's will "is man's " wisdom."
For "wisdom" is the knowledge of the true end of
life ; which is (as the Book of Ecclesiastes so tragically
shows) vainly sought, if contemplated apart from God's
will, but found (see Eccles. xii. 13 ; Job xxviii. 28 ; Prov.
i. 7) in the " fear of the Lord" and the " keeping of
His commandments." (On the relation of the supreme
gift of wisdom to lesser cognate gifts, see Note on
Eph. i. 8.) "Understanding" here is properly the
faculty of spiritual insight or judgment, the specu-
lative exercise of wisdom, as the " prudence " of Eph.
i. 8 is the practical. Hence St. Paul subjoins the
practical element at once in the next verse.

(io) Walk worthy (worthily) of the Lord.—
Here St. Paul begins to dwell on the practical life,
much in the same spirit in which, in Eph. iv. 1, he
returns from the profound thought of chaps, ii. and iii.
to the entreaty " to walk worthy of the vocation with
which they are called." " The Lord " is here, as usual,
the Lord Jesus Christ ; to walk worthy of Him is to
have His life reproduced in us, to follow His example,
to have " the mind of Christ Jesus." The " worthi-
ness " is, of course, relative to our capacity, not absolute.

All pleasing.— The word here used is not found
elsewhere in the New Testament, but is employed in
classic and Hellenistic Greek to mean " a general dis-
position to please " — a constant preference of the will
of others before our own. It is here used with tacit
reference to God, since towards Him alone can it be a
safe guide of action. Otherwise it must have the bad
sense which in general usage was attached to it.
St. Paul emphatically disowns and condemns the
temper of " men-pleasing " (see Gal. i. 10 ; Eph. vi. 6 ;
Col. iii. 22 ; 1 Thess. ii. 4), as incompatible with being
"the servant of Christ." He could, indeed, "be all
things to all men " (1 Cor. ix. 22) ; he could bid each
man "please his neighbour for his edification" (Eom.
xv. 12). But the only "pleasing" to which the whole
life can be conformed is (see 1 Thess. iv.1 1) the con-
sideration "how we ought to walk and to please God."
Only in subordination to this can we safely act on the
desire of "all pleasing " towards men.

Increasing in (or, by) the knowledge of God.—
The context evidently shows that the path towards the

knowledge of God here indicated is not the path of
thoughtful speculation, or of meditative devotion, but
the third path co-ordinate with these — the path of
earnest practice, of which the watchword is, "Do and
thou shalt know."

(ii) His glorious power.— Properly, the strength
of His glory, His glory being His manifestation of
Himself in love to man. (Comp. Eph. iii. 16, " Accord-
ing to the riches of His glory, to be strengthened with
might by His spirit in the inner man.") On this use
of " the glory " of God, frequent in these Epistles, see
Eph. i. 6, 12, 14, and Notes there. The prayer, how-
ever, in the Ephesian Epistle looks to " knowledge of
the love of Christ " as its object ; the prayer here to
power of endurance of trial and suffering.

Patience and longsuffering with joyfulness.
— (1) "Patience " is here " endurance," rather than what
we usually call patience. It is spoken of by St. James
(chap. i. 3) as the result of the bracing effect of trial, and
is illustrated by the typical example of Job ( Jas. v. 11).
Now a glance at the Book of Job will show that, while
in respect of physical trial he is resignation itself
(Job i. 21 ; ii. 10), yet that under the spiritual trial,
which is the great subject of the book, he is the
reverse of what is commonly called patient. He
endures and conquers, but it is not without vehement
passion and spiritual struggles, occasionally verging on
a repining and rebellion, of which he bitterly repents
(xli. 6). (2) To this " patience," therefore, here as else-
where (2 Tim. iii. 10), St. Paul adds " longsuffering "
— a woi'd generally connected (as in 1 Cor. xiii. 4)
with the temper of gentleness and love, and coming
much neai-er to the description of our ordinary idea of
a " patient " temper, which, in its calm sweetness and
gentleness, hardly feels to the utmost such spiritual
trials as vexed the righteous soul of Job. Of such
longsuffering our Lord's bearing of the insults of the
Condemnation and the cruelties of the Passion, when
"He was led as a lamb to the slaughter," is the perfect
type. (3) Yet even then St. Paul is not content without
" joyfulness," in obedience to the command of our
Master (Matt. v. 12), fulfilled in Himself on the cross
(Heb. xii. 2). The ground of such joy, so often shown
in Christian martyrdom, is given by St. Peter (1 Pet. iv.
13), " Rejoice, inasmuch as ye are partakers of Christ's
sufferings, that when His glory shall be revealed, ye
may be glad also with exceeding joy." Of that joy St.
Paul himself was a bright example in his present
captivity. (See Phil. i. 18, 19 ; ii. 17, 18.) The words
therefore form a climax. " Patience " struggles and
endures ; " long-suffering" endures without a struggle ;
" joyfulness " endures and glories in suffering.

(i*) Giving thanks unto the Father.— These
words naturally follow the words " with joyfulness,"
with which, indeed, they may be grammatically con-
nected. But the "thankfulness" here is, as the context
shows, the thankfulness of humility, sensible that from
the Father's love we have received all, and can but

ep.

Salvation from Sin

COLOSSIANS, I.

in Christ the Redeemer.

of the saints in light : <13> who hath
Chap i 13 delivered us from the power
Christ the Re- of darkness, and hath trans-

deemer. Jate(J m }nto the kingdom

(Jr. the Son of hi

of his dear Son : l (U> in whom we have

redemption through his Ch d 15 17

blood, even the forgiveness Christ the true
of sins : <15> who is the image imaee of Go<1-

Which hath made us meet.— The same word is
used in 2 Cor iii. 6, " who hath made us able ministers
of the new covenant," and corresponds to the word
"sufficient" in St. Paul's previous question (2 Cor.
ii. 16), "Who is sufficient for these things?" The
reference is clearly to God's foreknowledge and call
(as in Rom. viii. 29, 30), in virtue of which "we are
more than conquerors," and " cannot be separated from
His love in Jesus Christ our Lord."

To be partakers of the inheritance of the
saints. — Literally, for the part (appointed to us) of the
lot of the saints. (Comp. Eph. i. 11, where, however,
the sense is slightly different). The "lot " (like 'the Old
Testament type of the share in the land of Canaan," the
lot of their inheritance'') is the place assigned to the
saints primarily by the grace of God. It may have, as
in the case of the type, to be fought for ; but it is won
not by our own arm, but by " God's hand and His arm,
and the light of His countenance, because He lias a
favour unto us" (Ps. xliv. 3). Hence, in accordance with
St. Paul's usual teaching (especiaUy emphatic in this
and the Ephesian Epistle), the whole stress is laid on
God's grace, giving us our lot, and " making us meet"
to accept it. ■ *

In light.— Properly, in the light. See Eph. iv. 8 — 14
— a passage dwelling on the idea of the kingdom of
light, almost as strongly and exhaustively as St. John
himself (1 .John i. 5 — 7, et al.). "In the light"
(opposed to " the power of darkness " of the next verse)
is in the light of God's countenance, revealed in the
face of Jesus Christ.

[2. The Doctrine of Christ.

(1) His Salvation and Redemption of us all

(verses 13, 14).

(2) His Nature as the Image or the In-

visible God, the creator and sustainer of all
things heavenly and earthly (verses 15 — 17).

(3) His Headship of the Church (verse 18).

(4) His Mediation, reconciling all to God, first

generally stated, then applied especially to
the Colossians (verses 19 — 23).]

(13—23) in this we have the great characteristic
section of this Epistle, distinguished from corre-
sponding parts of the Epistle to the Ephesians by the
explicit and emphatic stress laid upon the divine
majesty of Christ. It corresponds very closely with
the remarkable passage opening the Epistle to the
Hebrews. In the Epistles of the preceding group,
to the Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans, chief and
almost exclusive prominence is given to the universal
mediation of Christ, as justifying and sanctifying all
the souls of men. In these Epistles (this truth being
accepted) we pass on to that which such universal
mediation necessitates — the conception of Christ as the
Head of all created being, and as the perfect mani-
festation of the Godhead. The former is the key-note
of the Ephesian Epistle ; the latter is dominant here,
although the former remains as an undertone ; as also in
the great passage of the Epistle to the Philippians (chap.
«• 6 — 11), speaking of Him as "in the form of God,"
and having " the Name which is above every name."

The especial reason for St. Paul's emphatic assertion
of the great truth here we see in the next chapter.
But it is clear that it comes naturally in the order
of revelation, leading up to the full doctrine of "the
Word" in St. John. As the spiritual meaning of the
Resurrection, the great subject of the first preaching,
had to be sought in the Atonement, so the inquiry into
the possibility of an universal Atonement led back to
the Incarnation, and to Christ as pre-existent from "the
beginning " in God.

(13, U) "We enter on this great passage, as is natural,
and accordant with St. Paul's universal practice, through
that living and practical truth of our redemption in
Christ Jesus, which in the earlier Epistles he had
taught as the one thing needful (1 Cor. ii. 2).

(13) who hath delivered us from the power
of darkness. — " Delivered " is " rescued," properly
applied to dragging a person out of battle or the jaws
of danger. "The power of darkness" (see Luke xxii.
53) is, of course, the power of evil, permitted (see
Luke iv. 6) to exist, but in itself a usurped tyranny
(as Chrysostom expresses it), not a true " kingdom."
Salvation is, first of all, rescue from the guilt and
bondage of sin, to which man has given occasion by
his own choice, but which, once admitted, he cannot
himself break. It is here described in its first origina-
tion from the love of the Father. " God so loved thf
world, that He gave His only begotten Son."

And hath translated us . . .—The word " trans-
lated " is a word proporly applied to the transplanting
of races, and the settlement of them in a new home.
Salvation, begun by rescue, is completed by the settle-
ment of the rescued captives in the new kingdom of
Christ. The two acts, indeed, are distinct, but in-
separable. Thus baptism is at once "for the remission
of sins " and an " entrance into the kingdom of God."

His dear Son.— The original is far more striking
and beautiful. It is, "The Son of His love," corre-
sponding to "the beloved" of the parallel passage
in the Ephesian Epistle (chap. i. 6\ but perhaps going
beyond it. God is love ; the Son of God is, therefore,
the "Son of His love." partaking of and manifesting
this His essential attribute.

In whom we have . . . — This verse corresponds
verbally with Eph. i. 7, where see Note. From the
love of the Father, the first cause of salvation, we
pass to the efficient cause in the redemption and pro-
pitiation of the Son.

Verses 15 — 17 pass from Christ as our Mediator to
Christ as He is in Himself from all eternity. " the
image of the invisible God." and as He is from the
beginning of time, the creator and sustainer of all
things in heaven and earth. What was before implied
is now explicitly asserted; what was before emphatic-
ally asserted is now taken for granted, and made the
stepping-stone to yet higher and more mysterious
truth.

(is) The image of the invisible God.— This all-
important clause needs the most careful examination.

Christ the Image of God,

COLOSSIANS, 1.

the Creator of all 'Things.

of the invisible God, the firstborn of
every creature : (16) for by him were all
things created, that are in heaven, and

that are in earth, visible and invisible,
whether they be thrones, or dominions,
or principalities, or powers : all things

We note accordingly (1) that the word " image " (like
the word " form," PhiL ii. 6, 7) is used in the New
Testament for real and essential embodiment, as dis-
tinguished from mere likeness. Thus in Heb. x. 1 we
read, " The law, having a shadow of good things to
come, and not the very image of the things ; " we note
also in Rom. i. 23 the distinction between the mere out-
ward " likeness " and the " image" which it represented ;
we find hi 1 Cor. xv. 49 that the "image of the earthy"
and " the image of the heavenly " Adam denote actual
identity of nature with both ; and in 2 Cor. iii. 18 the
actual work of the Spirit in the heart is described as
" changing us from glory to glory " into " the image "
of the glorified Christ. (2) Next we observe that
although, speaking popularly, St. Paul in 1 Cor. xi. 7
calls man " the image and glory of God," yet the
allusion is to Gen. i. 26, 28, where man is said, with
stricter accuracy, to be made "after the image of God "
(as in Eph. iv. 24, " created after God "), and this more
accurate expression is used in chap. iii. 10 of this Epistle,
" renewed after the image of Him that created him."
Who then, or what, is the " image of God," after which
man is created ? St. Paul here emphatically (as in
2 Cor. iv. 4 parenthetically) answers " Christ," as the
Son of God, "first-born before all creation." The
same truth is conveyed in a different form, clearer (if
possible) even than this, in Heb. i. 3, where " the Son "
is said to be not only " the brightness of the glory of
the Father," but "the express image of His Person."
For the word " express image " is character in the ori-
ginal, used here (as when we speak of the alphabetical
"characters") to signify the visible drawn image, and
the word " Person " is substance or essence. (3) It is
not to be forgotten that at this time in the Platonising
Judaism of Philo, " the Word " was called the eternal
"image of God." (See passages quoted in Dr. Light-
foot's note on this passage.) This expression was not
peculiar to him ; it was but a working out of that per-
sonification of the " wisdom of God," of which we have
a magnificent example in Prov. viii. 22 — 30, and of
which we trace the effect in the Alexandrine Book of
"Wisdom" (vii. 25, 26). "Wisdom is the breath of the
power of God, and a pure stream from the glory of the
Most High — the brightness of the everlasting light, the
unspotted mirror of the power of God, and the image
\>i His goodness." It seems to have represented in the
/•Jewish schools the idea complementary to the ordinary
idea of the Messiah in the Jewish world. Just as St.
John took up the vague idea of " the Word," and gave
it a clear divine personality in Christ, so St. Paul seems
to act here in relation to the other phrase, used as a
description of the Word. In Christ he fixes in solid
reality the floating vision of the " image of God."
{4) There is an emphasis on the words " of the invisible
God." Now, since the whole context shows that the
reference is to the eternal pre-existence of Christ,
ancient interpreters (of whom Chrysostom may be
taken as the type) argued that the image of the in-
visible must be also invisible. But this seems opposed
to the whole idea of the word " image," and to its use
in the New Testament and elsewhere. The true key
to this passage is in our Lord's own words in John i. 8,
" No man hath seen God at any time, the only begotten
Son " (here is the remarkable reading, " the only be-
gotten God ''), " who is in the bosom of the Father, He

hath revealed Him." In anticipation of the future
revelation of Godhead, Christ, even as pre-existent, is
called " The image of the invisible God."

The firstborn of every creature (of all crea-
tion).— (1) As to the sense of this clause. The gram-
matical construction here will bear either the rendering
of our version, or the rendering " begotten before all
creation," whence comes the " begotten before all
worlds " of the Nicene creed. But the whole context,
shows that the latter is unquestionably the true render-
ing. For, as has been remarked from ancient times,
He is said to be " begotten " and not " created ; " next,
he is emphatically spoken of below as He " by whom
all things were created," who is "before all things,"
and " in whom all things consist." (2) As to the order
of idea. In Himself He is " the image of God " from
all eternity. From this essential conception, by a natural
contrast, the thought immediately passes on to distinc-
tion from, and priority to, all created being. Exactly
in this same order of idea, we have in Heb. i. 2, 3, " By
whom also He made the worlds . . . upholding all
things by the word of His power ; " and in John i. 3,
" All things were made by Him, and without Him was
not anything made which was made. Here St. Paul
indicates this idea in the words "firstborn before all
creation," and works it out in the verses following.

(3) As to the name "firstborn " itself. It is used of the
Messiah as an almost technical name (derived from
Pss. ii. 7 ; lxxxix. 28), as is shown in Heb. i. 6, " when
He bringeth the first begotten into the world." In
tracing the Messianic line of promise we notice that,
while the Messiah is always true man, "the seed of
Abraham," " the son of David," yet on him are accumu-
lated attributes too high for any created being (as in Isa.
ix. 6). He is declared to be an " Emmanuel " God with
us; and His kingdom a visible manifestation of God.
Hence the idea contained in the word " firstborn " is
not only sovereignty " above all the kings of the
earth" (Ps. lxxxix. 28; comp. Dan. viii. 13, 14), but also
likeness to God and priority to all created being.

(4) As to the union of the two clauses. In the first we
have the declaration of His eternal unity with God —
all that was completely embodied in the declaration of
the "Word who is God," up to which all the higher
Jewish speculations had led; in the second we trace
the distinctness of His Person, as the " begotten
of the Father," the true Messiah of Jewish hopes,
and the subordination of the co-eternal Son to the
Father. The union of the two marks the assertion of
Christian mystery, as against rationalising systems, of
the type of Arianism on one side, of Sabellianism on
the other.

(16) For by him . . . aU things were created by
(through) him, and for (to) him.— Cany ing out the
idea of the preceding clause with accumulated emphasis,
St. Paul speaks of all creation as having taken place " by
Him," " through Him," and " for Him." Now we note
that in Rom. ix. 36, St. Paul, in a burst of adoration,
declares of the Father that " from Him, and through
Him, and to Him are all things ; " and in Heb. ii. 10 the
Father is spoken of as One " by whom are all things,
and for whom are all things" (the word "for whom"
being different from the word so rendered here, but
virtually equivalent to it). Hence we observe that
the Apostle here takes up a phrase belonging only to

Christ the Head of t/ie Church,

COLOSSIANS, I.

Win

Fulness dwells.

were created by him, and for him :
W and he is before all things," and
by him all things consist. (18) And
he is the head of the body, the
church: who is the beginning, the

a 1 Cor. a 6; John

1.3.
1 Or, among all.

firstborn from the dead; that in
all1 things he might have chap. i. 18-
the preeminence. <19> For 20. Christ the

•i 1 j 11 m .1 Head or the

it pleased the lather church and
that in him should all Mediator.

;

Godhead and usually applied to the Father, and dis-
tinctly applies it to Christ, but with the significant
change of " from whom " into " in whom." The usual
language of holy Scripture as to the Father is " from
whom," and as to the Son " through whom," are all
things. Thus we have in Heb. i. 2, " through whom
He made the world ; " and in John i. 3 — 10, " All
things were made " — " the world was made " —
"• through Him." Here, however, St. Paul twice adds
" in whom," just as he had used " in whom " of God in
his sermon at Athens (Acts xvii. 28), probably con-
veying the idea, foreshadowed in the Old Testament
description of the divine " Wisdom," that in His divine
mind lay the germ of the creative design and work,
and indirectly condemning by anticipation the fancy
of incipient Gnosticism, that He was but an inferior
emanation or agent of the Supreme God.

In heaven and . . . earth . . . — Here again there is
a reiteration of earnest emphasis. " All things in heaven
and earth " is the ancient phrase for all creation. Then,
lest this phrase should be restricted to the sublunary
sphere, he adds, " visible and invisible." Lastly, in
accordance with the general tone of these Epistles, and
frith special reference to the worship of angels intro-
duced into Colossse, he dwells, like the author of the
Epistle to the Hebrews, on the superiority of our Lord
to all angelic natures, whether they be " thrones, or
dominions, or principalities, or powers." (Comp. Eph.
i 21 ; Phil. ii. 9, 10.)

Thrones, or dominions . . .—Compare the enu-
meration in Eph. i. 21. The word peculiar to this pas-
sage is " thrones," which in all the various speculations
as to the hierarchy of heaven, naturally represents the
first place of dignity and nearness to the Throne of
God. (Comp. Rev. iv. 4, " Round about the throne
four-and-twenty thrones.") But it seems difficult, if
not impossible, to attach distinctive meanings to those
titles, and trace out their order. If St. Paul alludes
at all to the Rabbinical hierarchies, he (probably with
deliberate intention) takes their titles without attending
to their fanciful orders and meanings. Whatever they
mean, if they mean anything, all are infinitely below
the glory of Christ. (See Note on Eph. i. 21.)

(!7) He is before all things.— The words "He
is " are both emphatic. He, and He only, is ; all else is
created. It is impossible not to refer to the " I am " of
Eternal existence, as claimed by our Lord for Himself.
" Before Abraham was, I am " (John viii. 58 ; comp.
also John i. 15). Hence the word " before" should be
taken, not of supreme dignity, but of pre-existence.

By him all things consist.— That is, hold to-
gether in unity, obeying the primaeval law of their being,
in this clause is attributed to our Lord, not only the
creative act, but also the constant sustaining power, "in
which all lives and moves and has its being," and which,
even less than the creative agency, can be supposed to
be a derivative and finite power, such as that of the
Demiurgus of Gnostic speculation.

(18—20) in these verses St. Paul returns from dwelling
on the eternal nature of the Son of God to describe
Him in His mediatorial office as Son of Man, becoming

101

the " Head " of all humanity, as called into " His Body,
the Church." In this he touches on a doctrine more
fully developed in the Epistle to the Ephesians. (See
Eph. i. 10, 20, 22 ; ii. 19, 21 ; iv. 15, 16.) But still, as
has been already noted, there is in this Epistle more
stress on the supreme dignity of the Head, as in the
other more on the unity, and blessing, and glory of tho
Body. It should be observed that in this, His media-
torial office, there is throughout a mysterious analogy to
His eternal sonship. In both He is " the Head," first,
of universal creation, next, of the new creation in His
Church ; He is " the beginning," in the one case in eter-
nity, in the other in time ; He is "the firstborn," now in
Eternal Sonship, now in the Resurrection making Him
the new life of mankind.

(18) He is the head.—" He " is again emphatic.
" He who is the image of God. He also is the Head."
(On the title itself, see Eph. i. 22.)

The beginning. — Chrysostom reads here a kin-
dred wTord, the first-fruits. The reading is no doubt
a gloss, but an instructive one. It shows that the
reference is to Christ, as being in His humanity " the
first principle " of the new life to us — the " first-
fruits " from the dead (1 Cor. xv. 20,* 23), and " the
bringer of life and immortality to light " (2 Tim. i. 10).

The firstborn from the dead.— The same title
is given to Him in Rev. i. 5. In his sermon at Antioch
in Pisidia (Acts xiii. 33), St. Paul quotes the passage,
" Thou art my Son ; this day have I begotten thee," as
fulfilled in that " He raised up Jesus again." (Comp.
Heb. v. 5.) In Rom. i. 3, he speaks of Christ as
" declared " (or, defined) " to be the Son of God with
power by the resurrection from the dead." The Resur-
rection is (so to speak) His second birth, the beginning
of that exaltation, which is contrasted with His first
birth on earth in great humility, and of His entrance
on the glory of His mediatorial kingdom. (See Eph.
i. 20 — 23, where the staiiing-point of all His exaltation
is again placed in the Resurrection.)

That in all things he might . . .—Literally,
That in all things He might become pre-eminent. The
words "He might become," are opposed to the "He is"
above. They refer to the exaltation of His humanity,
so gloriously described in Phil. ii. 9 — 11. Thus abso-
lutely in His divine nature, relatively to the mediatorial
kingdom in His humanity, He is "the Alpha and
Omega, the beginning and the end, the first and the
last" (Rev. i. 8,11, 17, 18).

(19) por it pleased the Father.— (1) The construc-
tion is doubtful. There is nothing corresponding to
" the Father " in the original. Our rendering involves
the supply of the nominative God, i.e., "the Father,"
or Christ to the verb, so that the sentence may run, the
Father or Christ determined of His good pleasure that,
&c. The supply of the nominative "Christ" is easier
grammatically; but it accords ill with the invariable
reference of all things, both by our Lord Himself and
His Apostles, ultimately to the good pleasure of the
Father. Moreover, the verb is so constantly used of
God that the supply of the nominative " God," though
unexampled, is far from inadmissible. The simplest

The sure Salvation

COLOSSIANS, I.

if Steadfast in the Faith.

fulness dwell; (20) and, having made ,
peace 1 through the blood of his l °T-'
cross, by him to reconcile all things
unto himself; by him, I say, whether
they be' things in earth, or things in
heaven. <2^ And you, that were
Chap. i. 21—23. sometime alienated and

o?ethealc^ios" enemies m Vour mind by
sians in Him, wicked works,2 yet now

hath he reconciled W in the body
of his flesh through death, to pre-
sent you holy and unblameable and
unreproveable in his sight : <2:j) if ye
continue in the faith grounded and
settled, and be not moved away from
the hope of the gospel, which ye have
heard, and which was preached to every
creature which is under heaven : whereof

grammatical construction would, indeed, be to take
" the fulness " as the nominative, and render for in
Him all the fulness {of God) was pleased to dwell.
But the personification of "the fulness," common in
Gnostic speculation, is hardly after the manner of St.
Paul. Perhaps,' on the whole, the rendei-ing of our
version (which is usually adopted) is to he preferred ;
especially as it suits better with the following verse.
(2) The sense is, however, quite clear, and is enforced
by chap. ii. 9, " In Him dwelleth all the fulness
of the Godhead bodily." On the word "fulness"
(pleroma), see Note on Eph. i. 23. The "fulness
of the Godhead " is the essential nature, comprising
all the attributes, of Godhead. The indwelling of
such Deity in the humanity of Christ is the ground
of all His exaltation as the "Head," "the beginning,"
the " firstborn from the dead," and the triumphant
King, on which St. Paul had already dwelt. By
it alone can He be the true Mediator between God and
man.

(20) Having made peace through the blood of
his cross. — On this verse, where St. Paul returns to
the subject of the Atonement, with which he began,
oomp. Eph. ii. 13 — 18, and Notes there. In the
Ephesiau Epistle the treatment of the subject is fuller,
and in one point more comprehensive, viz., in bringing
out emphatically the unity of all, Jews and Gentiles
alike, with one another, as well as their unity with Christ*
But, on the other hand, this passage involves deeper
and more mysterious teaching in this — that it includes
in the reconciliation by the blood of Christ, not merely
all humanity, but " all things, whether things on earth
or things in heaven." This is, indeed, only a fuller
exposition of the truth that '" God was in Christ recon-
ciling the world (the hosmos) to Himself" (2 Cor.
v. 19); and that - the whole creation waiteth," "in
constant expectation," " for the manifestation of the
sons of God." and "shall be delivered from the bondage
of corruption into the glorious liberty of the children
of God " (Rom. viii. 19 — 21). But it is couched in more
distinct and striking terms, opening to us a glimpse
of the infinite scope, not merely of our Lord's Mediator-
ship, but of His Atonement, which, while it almost
bewilders, yet satisfies the thoughtful understanding,
and more than satisfies an adoring faith. As there
seems to be a physical unity in the universe, if we
may believe the guesses of science, so, says Holy
Scripture, there is a moral and spiritual unity also in
Jesus Christ.

Verses 21 — 23 apply this truth of the Mediatorial
work of the Lord Jesus Christ to the especial case of
the Colossians. The subject here touched is more
fully worked out in Eph. ii. 1, 2, 11 — 18 ; the alienation
is there described as not oidy from God, but from
His covenanted people ; the reconciliation is with God
and man in one great unity.

102

(*!•) Alienated. — Not naturally aliens, but estranged.
(See Note on Eph. ii. 12.)

By wicked works.— Properly, in your wicked
vjorks. The enmity of heart is not properly caused
by wicked works, but shown in them, and probably
intensified by reflex action through them.

(22) In the body of his flesh.— There seems to be
some emphasis on the word " flesh : " just as in the
parallel of Eph. ii. 16, the expression is " in one body,"
with a characteristic emphasis on the word " one."
suiting the genius of the passage. The meaning is, of
course, His natural body, as distinguished from His
mystic Body, spoken of above (verse 18). But this is
no sufficient reason for the use of this phrase, for there
could be no confusion between them in this passage.
Hence, without ascribing to the word "flesh" a dis-
tinctly polemical intention, we may not unnaturally
suppose that there was present to St, Paul's mind the
thought of the Gnosticism, which depreciated the body
as evil, and which must have always inclined to the
idea that "Jesus Christ had not come in the flesh"
(1 John iv. 2, 3); and that the presence of this thought
induced some special emphasis in his language.

Holy and unblameable and unreproveable.—
See Note on Eph.'i. 4. The word "to present" is used
both in a sacrificial sense (as in Rom. xii. 1) and in the
sense of introduction and presentation (as of a bride,
see Eph. v. 27). The words, "holy and unblameable,"
i.e., "without blemish," suit the former sense. But
"unreproveable" is incongruous with it, and the
parallel passage (Eph. ii. 18) speaks of "access" or
introduction to the Father.

(23) If.— The word, as in Eph. iii. 2, iv. 21 (where
see Notes), conveys a supposition hardly hypothetical —
" If, as I presume ; " " If, as I trust." St. Paul cannot
refrain from needful warning, but he refuses to antici-
pate failure.

Grounded.— Built on the foundation. Comp.
Eph. ii. 20, "built on the foundation of the Apostles
and Prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the chief
corner-stone."

Settled.— The result of being so grounded. The
word is used in the same sense, but without meta-
phorical association, in 1 Cor. xv. 58, " stedfast, immove-
able," as here " settled and not being moved."

The hope. — See Note on verse 5. Here, as there,
great emphasis is laid on "hope." But here there
may possibly be reference to some ideas (like those
spoken of in 2 Tim. ii. 18) that " the resurrection was
past already," and that the hope of a true resurrection
and a real heaven was either a delusion or a metaphor.

Every creature which is under heaven.—
Comp. our Lord's command, "Preach the gospel to every
creature" (Mark xvi. 15). In idea and capacity the
gospel is literally universal ; although in actual reality
such universality can only be claimed by a natural
hyperbole;

T/f Mission of St. Paul

I Paul am made a minister; <24) who
Chap. i. 24-26. now rejoice in my suffer-
The mission of ings for you, and fill up

SfferS"1' and that which is behind of
preaching, ' to the afflictions of Christ
th* Gentiles. {n mj flegh. for his body's
sake, which is the church : <25) where-
of I am made a minister, according

COLOSSIANS, I.

as Apostle of the Gentiles.

1 Or, fully to

jirntrli tin mini
i if (it'll, Hum. li.

to the dispensation of God which is
given to me for you, to fulfil the word
of God ; l (26> even the mystery which
hath been hid from ages and from gene-
rations, but now is made manifest to his
saints : W to whom God would make
known what is the riches of the glory
of this mystery among the Gentiles ;

[3. The Mission of St. Paul.

As Apostle of the Gentiles, a minister of the
newly revealed mystery of their salvation,
testifying to all alike by suffering and by
preaching, in order " to present all perfect in

Christ Jesus" (verses 24— 29).]

(24—29) Here (as in Eph. iii., in the same connection)
St. Paul dwells on his own mission to set forth the
universal gospel to the Gentiles. In the Ephesian
Epistle this declaration is made a direct introduction
to practical exhortation (camp, chaps, iv., v., vi.) ; here it
leads up to the earnest remonstrance against specula-
tive errors in chap, ii., which precedes a similar prac-
tical exhortation. In both cases he dwells on the com-
mittal to him of a special dispensation; in both ho
rejoices in suffering as a means of spiritual influence ;
in both cases he declares the one object to be the pre-
sentation of each man perfect before Christ.

(24) Who now rejoice.— In the true reading of the
original there is no relative pronoun. The sentence
starts with emphatic abruptness, " Now (at this
moment) I rejoice" (just as in 2 Cor. vii. 9). In all
the three Epistles of the Captivity this same rejoicing
is declared in himself and urged on his brethren.
In Eph. iii. 13, " I desire that ye faint not at my tribu-
lations for you, which is your glory; " in Phil. ii. 11,
" Yea, if I be offered upon the sacrifice and service
of your faith, I joy, and rejoice with you all. For the
same cause do ye also joy, and rejoice with me."
There, as here, the rejoicing is in suffering, not in
itself, not solely because it is borne with and for
Christ, but also because it is for the sake of the Church.
Here, however, this idea is expressed with far greater
emphasis.

Fill up that which is behind of the afflictions
of Christ. — The sense of this passage is at first sight
startling, but it could not have been thought difficult
or doubtful, had not false inferences from it tempted
men to shrink from the obvious meaning. Now, (1)
the " afflictions of Christ" is a phrase not used else-
where ; for " affliction " (properly, hard and galling
pressure) is the ordinary burden of life, and is gener-
ally spoken of only as coming on His servants. But,
like the common phrase "the sufferings of Christ"
(2 Cor. i. 5; Phil. iii. 10; 1 Pet, iv. 15; v. 1), it must
mean the afflictions which He endured. It is true, as
has been thoughtfully suggested (see Chrysos'tom and
others on the passage) that we are to count as His the
afflictions of His Church ; but still, even if we are to
include these indirect afflictions, we cannot possibly
exclude the direct, Next, (2) St. Paul expressly says
(in the full force of the original) that " he fills up
instead " of his Master, what is still left unfinished of
his Master's afflictions. (See the passages quoted by
Bt. Lightfoot in his note on this verse.) He declares,
i.e., that, succeeding to the suffering of Christ, he
carries it out for the sake of His body the Church.

This is, indeed, nothing but a clearer and more striking
expression of the truth conveyed in 2 Cor. i. 5, " The
Bufferings of Christ overflow to us," so that we bear our
part, in addition to the full measure which He bore;
and even in the commoner expression, to be '" partaker
of Christ's sufferings " (Phil. iii. 10 ; 1 Pet. iv. 13),
or '" to drink of His cup and be baptised with His
baptism " (Matt, xx. 22, 23). But, (3) looking to the
meaning and use of the word " afflictions," we note
that " the afflictions of Christ " must be His suffer-
ings on earth considered simply as a part — though
immeasurably the chief part — of the burden of
humanity in a sinful world. They represent, not the
Cross of Atonement, on which He alone could suffer
— and in which any reader of St. Paul must find it
absurd to suppose that he would claim the slightest
sliare — but the Cross of struggle against sin even
to death, which He expressly bade us '"take up if
we would follow Him." This He has still left
" behind ; " this in His strength every one of His
servants bears, partly for himself, partly also for
others. In the former light St. Paul says, " The world
is crucified to me, and I to the world " (Gal. vi. 14) ; in
the latter he claims it as his highest privilege " to fill
up that which is behind of the afflictions of Christ for
His Body which is the Church."

In my flesh for his body's sake.— There is
obviously an antithesis here. St. Paul suffers in his
natural body for the mystical Body of Christ.

(25) Whereof I am made (or, became) a minister.
— Above (in verse 23) St. Paul describes himself as a
" minister of the gospel," here as a " minister (or,
servant) of the Church." Elsewhere he is always the
" minister of God " and " of Christ " ; here of the
Church, as the Body of Christ, and so iudissolubly
united with Christ.

The dispensation of God.— See Eph. iii. 2 — 9,
and Notes there. The reference is to his peculiar
" Apostleship of the Gentiles."

To fulfil. — The marginal reading and reference to
Rom. xv. 19 give the explanation of the word, " fully
to preach the Word of God " — to be a messenger of the
perfect revelation, which had now unfolded what was
previously a hidden '■ mystery."

(26) The mystery.— On the Scriptural sense of the
word '•mystery," and its relation to the modern use of
the word, see Note on Eph. i. 9. In this passage,
perhaps, most of all, it is defined with perfect clear-
ness, as " a secret long hidden, and now revealed."

(27) To whom God would- i.e., God willed. The
expression is emphatic. It was of God's own pleasure,
inscrutable to man. So in Eph. i. 9, wo read " the
mystery of His will." Note also, in Eph. i. 4 — 6, the
repeated reference to the predestination of God in His
love.

The riches of the glory.— See Eph. i. 18 ; iii.
lb' ; and Notes there.

Which is Christ in you.— This mystery specially
committed to St* Paul to declare is. in Eph. iii. 6, defined

His Preaching to them,

COLOSSIANS, II.

and his Striving for them.

which is Christ in you,1 the hope of
glory : (28) whom we preach, warning
every man, and teaching every man in
all wisdom ; that we may present every
man perfect in Christ Jesus : (29J where-
unto I also labour, striving according

2 Or, fear, or, care.

to his working, which worketh in me
mightily.

CHAPTER II.— d) For I would that
ye knew what great conflict- I have
for you, and for them at Laodicea,

thus, " That the Gentiles should be (or, are) fellowheirs,
and of the same body, and partakers of His promise in
Christ by the gospel " ; and the nature of this promise
is explained below, " That Christ .may dwell in your
hearts by faith." Here the nrystery itself is boldly
defined as " Christ in you ; " just as in 1 Tim. hi. 16, 17,
according to one interpretation of that difficult passage,
" the mystery of godliness " is Christ Himself, " who
was manifest," &c. Here we have again a significant
illustration of the difference between the characteristic
ideas of the two Epistles. In the Ephesian Epistle the
unity of all in God's covenant is first put forth, and
then explained as dependent on the indwelling of
Christ in the heart. Here the " Christ in you " is all
in all : the unity of all men in Him is an inference, but
one which the readers of the Epistle are left to draw
for themselves. On the great idea itself, in the purely
individual relation, see Phil. i. 21, and also Gal. ii. 20 ;
in the more general form, see Rom. viii. 10; 2 Cor.
xiii. 5; Gal. iv. 19.

The hope of (the) glory.— So in 1 Tim. i. 1, " The
Lord Jesus Christ, which is our hope." " The glory "
is the glorified state of perfection in heaven, wrapt in
the communion with God, and so "changed from glory
to glory." Again we note (as in verses 5, 23) the
special emphasis laid on the hope of heaven. Christ
is " our hope," as He is " our life," i.e., the ground of
our sure and certain hope of the future, as of our
spiritual life in the present.

(28) "Warning every man, and teaching.— In
" warning " is implied the idea of reproof of folly or
sin. (See 1 Thess. v. 14 ; 2 Thess. iii. 5.) " Teaching "
is simply instruction — including, of course, practical
exhortation — of those already warned.

Perfect.— See Eph. iv. 13 ; Phil. iii. 15, and Notes
there. Here, however, as in 1 Cor. ii. 6, 7, the re-
ference may be to the sense of " perfect " as "initiated
in mystery." St. Paul, in opposition to the exclusive
claim of " perfection " by the speculators in mystic
knowledge (" falsely so called ") would present " every
man," learned or ignorant, " perfect before God." In
this universality of privilege lies the glorious distinc-
tion between the gospel and all schools of philosophy,
whether they reject or assume its name.

(29) Whereunto I also labour.— In this verse St.
Paul passes from the plural to the singular, evidently
in preparation for the strong pei-sonal remonstrance of
chap. ii. 1 — 7.

His working . . .— See Eph. i. 12, and Note
there. Perhaps, as in Gal. ii. 8 (" He that wrought
effectually in Peter to the Apostleship of the Circum-
cision, the same was mighty in me towards the Gen-
tiles"), there is special allusion to the grace given to
him for his Apostleship of the Gentiles.

II.

[4. Special Enforcement of Doctrinal Teach-
ing (chap. ii. 1 — iii. 4).
(1) Exhortation to Stand Fast in the
Faith, dictated by special anxiety for them
and the sister churches, urging them to seek

all wisdom in Christ alone, and to keep to
the old simplicity of the gospel (verses 1 — 7).

(2) Warning against Speculative Errok,.

turning them "to philosophy and A'ain de-
ceit " from Christ,
(a) For in Him dwells all the fulness of the

Godhead.
(I) In Him they have the true spiritual circum-
cision of the New Covenant.
(j) From Him, and from Him alone, can they
receive justification from sin, and the new
life of grace (verses 8 — 15).

(3) Warning against Practical Supersti-

tion.

(a) In relation to obsolete Jewish ordinances

(verses 16 — 17).

(b) In worship of angels, sinning against the

sole Headship of Christ (verses 18, 19).

(4) Declaration of the True Christian

State.

(a) As dead with Christ, and so dead to all the

vain and carnal ordinances, which have a
show of wisdom but no reality (verses
20—23).

(b) As risen with Christ, and so bound to seek

the things above, and have a life hid with
Christ in God (chap. iii. 1 — 4).]

0— 7) In these verses St. Paul declares his deep
anxiety for the Colossians and Laodiceans and others
who had not seen his face, that they might seek, not
the false, but the true knowledge, finding " the mystery
of God " in Christ alone. The reason of that anxiety is
found in the " beguiling and enticing words " of an
incipient Gnosticism. But "though absent in the
body " he rejoices in the steadfastness of their faith,
and only exhorts them to continue in it, deepening and
enlarging it, but never changing its essence.

(!) What great conflict. — The word is here re-
peated from the " striving " of the previous verse,
which is, in the original, the cognate verb. It is the-
sanie word which is used in Phil. i. 30 (" conflict "), in

1 Thess. ii.

contention "), in 1 Tim. vi. 12, 2 Tim.

iv. 7 (" the good fight of faith "). Evidently it de-
scribes the intense earnestness of the whole struggle
against evil which he was undergoing for them ; but
perhaps, looking at chap. iv. 12, we may refer it
especially to " striviug in prayer " for them. It i&
probably dwelt upon here to show why, although un-
known to them personally, he yet writes so urgently to
them.

And for them at Laodicea.— Comp. chap,
iv. 13, " For you, and for them that are in Laodicea,
and for them in Hierapolis." These three cities lay
near together in the valley of Lycus, a tributary of the-
Mseander; probably they were converted at onetime,
and are evidently regarded as forming one Christian
community, for which Epaphras, the evangelist of
Colossse, felt himself responsible. Colossae and Lao-
dicea are actually directed to exchange the apostolic-

His Anxiety for Colossce

COLOSSIANS, II.

and the Sister Churcltes.

and for as many as have not seen my
Chap. ii. 1—4. face in the flesh ; <2> that
St. Paul's anxi- their hearts might be com-

ety for the Co- \, . - , . n » . .

lo3siansandthe iorted, being knit together
sister churches. }n Jove5 an^ unto an riches

of the full assurance of understanding, to

the acknowledgement of the mystery of
God, and of the Father, and of Christ ;
W in whom l are hid all the treasures of
wisdom and knowledge. (4) And this I
say, lest any man should beguile you
with enticing words. (5) For though I

Letters sent to them (see chap. iv. 16, and Note there),
and to read both alike in the churches. (See Dr.
Lightfoot's admirable description of "The Churches
of the Lyons," prefixed to his commentary on this
Epistle.) Of Laodicea, the greatest and richest of the
three cities, we have no further notice in Scripture,
except that stern apocalyptic letter (Rev. iii. 14 — 22),
which has made its name proverbial for spiritual luke-
warmness and presumptuous self-reliance. It has been
noticed that in this Letter our Lord is called " the be-
ginning of the creation of God." (See chap. i. 15 — •
18 of this Epistle.) Of Colossae and Hierapolis we
read only in this Epistle. It is notable (see Dr. Light-
foot's Essay) that while Hierapolis and Laodicea play
a prominent part in the subsequent history of Chris-
tianity in Asia Minor, Colossas never attains import-
ance, and has left but "few and meagre" remains,
compared with the magnificent ruins of the other cities.

As many as have not seen my face.— This
description doubtless indicates Hierapolis; but the
whole context shows that it also includes Colossse. If
the reading taken in chap. i. 7 is correct, Epaphras had
been commissioned by St. Paul, and thus, indirectly,
the Apostle might be held to be the founder of Colossse.
Accordingly this Letter stands, so to speak, midway
between the unreserved familiarity of the Epistles to
Corinth or Philippi, and the more formal reserve of
the Epistle to the Romans.

(2) Comforted— i.e., encouraged, or strengthened,
both to stand fast and to advance in the faith.

Knit together.— The word here used has two
senses ; first, " to bring, or knit, together " (as in verse
19, and Eph. iv. 16) ; next, " to carry with us " in argu-
ment—i.e., to " instruct," or " convince " (as in Acts ix.
22; xvi. 10; 1 Cor. ii. 16). Either would give good
sense here; but the usage in this and the Ephesian
Epistle, and the addition of the words " in love," are
decisive for the former sense.

And unto . . . the full assurance of under-
standing (or, rather, intelligence, as in chap. i. 9). —
The idea of the passage is precisely that of Phil. i. 9,
" I pray that your love may abound (or, overflow) more
and more in knowledge, and in all judgment . (or,
perception)." St. Paul bids them seek the fulness of
intelligence which they were taught to crave for. not
through the rashness of speculation, but through the
insight of love. So in Eph. iii. 17—19 he prays that
" being rooted and grounded in love, they may know
. . . that which passeth knowledge ; " for Christian
knowledge is the knowledge of a personal Saviour, and
in all personal knowledge he knows best who loves best.

The acknowledgement . . .—This clause— which
explains what the "fulness of intelligence" is — is
altogether obscured in our version. It should be ren-
dered, to the full knowledge of the mystery of God,
which is Christ. Above we read (chap. i. 27), "this
mystery, which is Christ in you." There Christ, as
indwelling in man, is the mystery which alone solves
the problem of humanity — what it is, and whither it
tends. Here Christ is the "mystery of God" — i.e.
(according to the Scriptural meaning of the word

38* 105

" mystery "), He in whom the inscrutable nature of God,
rich in the " hidden treasure of wisdom and knowledge,"
is revealed to us. The name again leads up to the
doctrine of " the Word of God."

(3) In whom are hid all the treasures.— The
order of the original is curious : "in whom are all tho
treasures of wisdom and knowledge, as hidden trea,
sures." The word " hidden " (apocryphi) is an almost
technical word for secret teaching given only to the
initiated ; used originally as a term of honour ( as the
participle of the kindred verb is used in 1 Cor. ii. 7, 8,
"the wisdom of God in mystery, even the hidden wisdom
. . . which none of the princes of this world knew "),
afterwards, from the character of these " apocryphal "
books, coming to signify spurious and heretical. St.
Paul evidently takes up here a word, used by the pre-
tenders to a special and abstruse knowledge, and ap-
plies it to the " heavenly things " which He alone knows
"who is in heaven" (John iii. 12, 13). From our full
comprehension they are hidden ; if ever we know them.
it will not be till " we know even as we are known."
But the previous words show that we can have full
practical apprehension of them by our knowledge of
Christ, who knows them — a knowledge begun in faith,
and perfected chiefly in love.

Wisdom and knowledge.— Comp. Rom. xi. 33
and 1 Cor. xii. 8 (" the word of wisdom" ..." the
word of knowledge "). On the true sense of " wisdom "
and its relation to other less perfect gifts, as " prudence,"
"intelligence," "knowledge," see Note on Eph. i. 8.
" Knowledge " is clearly the development of wisdom in
spiritual perception, as " intelligence " in testing and
harmonising such perception, and "prudence" in
making them, so tested, the guide of life. The word
" knoAvledge " (gnosis) was the word which, certainly
afterwards, probably even then, was the watchword of
" Gnosticism " — the unbridled and fantastic spirit of
metaphysical and religious speculation then beginning
to infest all Christian thought. It can hardly be acci-
dental that St. Paul here, as elsewhere, subordinates it
to the higher gift of wisdom.

(4) Beguile you. — " To beguile " here is to reason
into error ; and " enticing words " are words of per-
suasion rather than of reason or revelation. Both
words are used by St. Paul only in this passage. It
would be difficult to describe more accurately the mar-
vellous fabrics of Gnostic speculation, each stejj claiming
to be based on some fancied pi*obability or metaphysical
propriety, but the whole as artificial as the cycles and
epicycles of the old Ptolemaic astronomy. Wo know
these in all the elaborate monstrosity of full growth ;
St. Paul doubtless saw them as yet only in embryo.

(5) Absent in the flesh.— Comp. 1 Cor. v. 3, " 1
as absent in body and present in spirit."

Your order, and the stedfastness.— The word
" order " is used in 1 Cor. xiv. 40 ; the word " stedfast-
ness," or solidity, is not found elsewhere in the New
Testament, though the verb from which it is derived is
found in Acts iii. 7, 16, xvi. 5, and the original adjec-
tive, from which the verb is derived, in 1 Pet. v. 9,
" stedfast in the faith." From the days of the ancient

Exhortation to the Old Faith.

COLOSSIAiNiJv II- Warning against False Philosophy,

be absent in the flesh, yet am I with

Chap ii 5-7 y°U ln tlie SPirlt' W1^

Exhortation to and beholding your order,
keep to the old anci the stedfastness of
taith- your faith in Christ.

W As ye have therefore received Christ
Jesus the Lord, so walk ye in him :
<7^ rooted and built up in him, and
stablished in the faith, as ye have been

taught, abounding therein with thanks-
giving. <8) Beware lest ,any man spoil
you through philosophy Chap i{ 8_
and vain deceit, after the 15. Warning
tradition of men, after the p^iToso^h*

rudiments1 of the world, drawing them

and not after Christ. (9>For *S tfec™ rist
in him dwelleth all the ful- and the new life
ness of the Godhead bodily. in Him-

Greek interpreters downwards, it has been noted that
both words have military associations — the one being
used for discipline generally, and the other for the firm
compact solidity of the phalanx ; and (as in Eph. vi.
11—17) that the use of them may have been suggested
by St. Paul's captivity under military guard. If both
words be referred to their " faith," the Apostle obviously
characterises it as having right " order " (or, harmony)
in its various parts, and a strong " solidity " against all
trials.

(6) As ye have therefore received.— Comp. the
more emphatic language of chap. i. 5 — 7, 23. As in the
case of the Corinthians and Galatians (2 Cor. xi. 4 and Gal.
i. 6), he entreats them not to be turned aside to " another
Jesus," or " another gospel, which is not another."

(") Rooted and built up in him.— There is a
significant change of tense in the original, having been
rooted — i.e. (as in Eph. iii. 17), " rooted and grounded "
in Him once for all, and being built up continually
on that Foundation. (Comp. 1 Cor. iii. 9 — 15.) St. Paul
bids them seek not only the first basis of their faith,
but their continual growth, in Christ alone, by continual
" strengthening in the faith " which rests in Him. We
may remember that in the Gnostic teaching faith was
held good for the beginner or the common herd, ' ' know-
ledge " was the bright particular jewel of those who
went on to perfection.

Abounding (or, overflowing) therein with
thanksgiving.— The metaphor is changed. The cup
of faith, filled to the full, runs over in that thanksgiving
which is the expression both of faith and love.

(8—15) The general exhortation of the previous verses
is now emphasised by a solemn warning against deadly
speculative error. Now, (1) the character of that error
in itself is described with apparently intentional vague-
ness, as "a philosophy of vain deceit," "after tradi-
tion of men," after "the rudiments of this Avorld."
Even its Judaic origin, which is made clear below
(verses 16, 17), is here only hinted at in the significant
allusion to Circumcision, and perhaps in the phrase
" the rudiments of the world," which is also used of the
Judaism of Galatia (Gal. iv. 3, 9). (2) What is brought
out vividly and emphatically is the truth which it con-
tradicts or obscures. First, the full indwelling God-
head of Christ and His headship over all created being ;
and next, as derived from this, our own " spiritual cir-
cumcision in Him, i.e., the true " death unto sin and new
life unto righteousness " in Him who is the One Atone-
ment for all sin, and the One Conqueror of all the
powers of evil. On the relation of the Epistle to
Gnosticism see Excursus A.

(8) Spoil you. — Properly, lead yoii away as a spoil,
triumph over you as a captive, and make you a slave.
Comp. St. Paul's language as to the older Judaism at
Corinth (2 Cor. xi. 20), "Ye suffer, if a man bring yeu
into bondage, if a man devour you, if a man exalt him-
self, if a man smite you on the face."

Philosophy and vain deceit — i.e. (like "the
knowledge falsely so called " of 1 Tim. vi. 20), a philo-
sophy which is inseparably connected with vain deceit.
The warning implied here seems to be two-fold: — (1)
First, against considering Christianity primarily as a
" philosophy," i.e., a search for and knowledge of specu-
lative truth, even the highest. That it involves philo-
sophy is obvious, for it claims to solve for us the great
problem of Being, in Nature, in Man, and in God. St. Paul,
while he depreciates the wisdom of this world, dwells em-
phatically on the gospel as the "wisdom of God." (See
especially 1 Cor. ii. 6 — 16.) In this Epistle in particu-
lar he speaks of " wisdom " again and again (chaps, i.
9, 28 ; ii. 3 ; iii. 16 ; iv. 6) as one great characteristic of
Christian life. Nor is it less clear (as the ancient Greek
commentators here earnestly remind us) that Christianity
finds a place and a blessing for all true philosophy of men,
and makes it, as St. Paul made it at Athens, an intro-
duction to the higher wisdom. But Clmstianity is not
a philosophy, but a life — not a knowledge of abstract
principles, but a personal knowledge of faith and love
of God in Christ. (2) Next, against accepting in philo-
sophy the " vain deceit " of mere speculation and
imagination instead of the modest, laborious investiga-
tion of facts. This is the " knowledge falsely so
called " ; of this it may bo said (as in 1 Cor. viii. 1) that
it " puffs up," and does not " build up." In ancient
and modern times it has always confused brilliant
theory with solid discovery, delighting especially to
dissolve the great facts of the gospel into abstractions,
which may float in its cloudland of imagination.

After the tradition of men.— This is the keynote
of our Lord's condemnation of the old Pharisaic ex-
clusiveness and formalism (Matt. xv. 2, 3, 6 ; Mark vii.
8, 9) ; it is equally the condemnation of the later
Jewish, or half -Jewish, mysticism which St. Paul attacks
here. It is hardly necessary to remark that the Apostle
often claims reverence for "traditions" (1 Cor. xi. 2;
2 Thess. ii. 15; iii. 6; see also 1 Cor. xv. 3; 2 Pet. ii.
21), but they are traditions having their starting point
in direct revelation of God (Gal. i. 12), and, moreover,
traditions freely given to all, as being His. The
" traditions of men " here condemned had their origin
in human speculation, and were secretly transmitted
to the initiated only.

The rudiments of the world.— See Gal. iv. 2,
and Note there. This marks the chief point of contact
with the earlier Judaism, in the stress still laid, perhaps
with less consistency, on matters of ritual, law, ascetic
observance, and the like. These are " of the world," i.e.,
belonging to the visible sphere ; and they are " rudi-
ments," fit only for the elementary education of those
who are as children, and intended simply as preparation
for a higher teaching.

(9) In him dwelleth all the fulness of the God-
head bodily.— Here almost every word is emphatic.
First, " All the fulness of the Godhead " — not a mere
emanation from the Supreme Being. Next, " dwells "

The Ci rev incision icithout Hands.

COLOSSIANS, II.

TJie Resurrection in Baptisml

<10) And ye are complete in him, which is
the head of all principality and power :
<U) in whom also ye are circumcised with
the circumcision made without hands,
in putting off the body of the sins of
the flesh by the circumcision of Christ :

(l2) buried with him in baptism, wherein
also ye are risen with him through the
faith of the operation of God, who hath
raised him from the dead. <13) And you,
being dead in your sins and the un-
circumcision of your flesh, hath he

and remains for ever — not descending on Him for a time
And leaving Him again. Lastly, "bodily," i.e., as incar-
nate in His humanity. The whole is an extension and
■enforcement of chap. i. 19, " God was pleased that in
Him all the fulness should dwell." The horror of all
that was material, as having in it the seed of evil, in-
duced denial either of the reality of our Lord's body,
•or of its inseparable connection with the Godhead ]
in Him. Hence the emphasis here ; as also we find i
i somewhat later) in St. John, " The Word was made
flesh "(John i. 14); "The spirit which confesseth not
that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh ... is the
■spirit of antichrist " (1 John iv. 3).

On the meaning of " fulness " (pleroma), see chap,
i. 10; Eph. i. 3 ; iii. 19; iv. 13. Here it is only neces-
sary to add, that, as in the later Gnosticism, so probably
in its earlier forms, the word was used for the infinite
nature of the Supreme Deity, out of which all the ema-
nations (afterwards called JEons) received in various
degrees of imperfection, according to their capacity.
Probably for that reason St. Paul uses it so emphati-
cally here. In the same spirit, St. John declares (John
i. 16), " Out of His (Christ's) fulness have all we
received." It is not finite, but infinitely perfect ; hence
we all can draw from it, yet leave it unimpaired.

(10) Ye are complete.— Literally, ye have been filled
up in His fulness, as in John i. 16. So St. Paui had
prayed for the Ephesians that they might be " filled
with (or rather, up to) all the fulness of God," and
" grow into the measure of the stature of the fulness
of Christ " (Eph. iii. 19 ; iv. 13). To partake of the
divine pleroma is not the special pi-ivilege of the
initiated ; it belongs to all who are united to the Lord
Jesus Christ.

Principality and power.— See chap. i. 16. His
headship over all angelic natures is dwelt upon (as
in Heb. i. 1 — 14) with obvious reference to the wor-
shipping of angels. They are our fellowservants under
tlw same Head. (See Rev. xxii. 8, 9.)

(U) The circumcision made without hands.—
This abrupt introduction of the idea of circumcision
would be difficult to understand, were it not for the
knowledge of the enforcement of Jewish observance
so strangely mixed with this " philosophy" at Colossse.
(Comp. Eph. ii. 11, "Ye who are called Uncircumcision
by that which is called Circumcision in the flesh made
with hands.") The phrase " made without hands " is
so constantly used of heavenly realities (as in Mark xiv.
58; 2 Cor. v. 1; Heb. ix. 11, 24), as opposed to
earthly symbols, that it comes to have the positive
sense of "spiritual." It is defined below as "the cir-
cumcision of Christ " — that which Christ has given us
in Himself— in contradistinction to the old circumcision
which is now " nothing." (On the treatment of this
subject in the Epistles of this period, comp. with this
passage Eph. ii. 11, 12; Phil. iii. 2, 3, and see Notes
there.)

In putting off the body . . .—The words "of
the sins *' are not found in the best MSS. They are,
no doubt, an explanatory gloss to soften the harshness
of the phrase " the body of the flesh." (1) What " the

body of the flesh " is we see clearly by chap. iii. 9,
'• having put off the old man." It is, like the " body
of sin" (in Rom. vi. 6) and the "body of death" (in
Rom. vii. 24), the body so far as it is, in the bad sense
of the word "flesh," fleshly. The body itself is not
"put off:" for it is not evil; it is a part of the true
man, and becomes the temple of God. It is only so
far as in it the flesh rebels against the spirit, and tha
" old man is gradually corrupted by the lusts of
deceit" (Eph. iv. 22), that it is to be " put off."
(2) But why the "body of the flesh," and not the
" flesh " simply ? The answer is, no doubt, that which
Chrysostom here gives, that the bodily circumcision
was but of one member, in mere symbolism of one
form of purity; the spiritual circumcision is the
putting away of the whole of the power of the flesh,
and that, too, not in symbol, but in reality.

(12) Buried with him in baptism . . .—It is
very interesting to compare this passage with Rom-
vi. 4, " Therefore we are buried with Him in baptism
unto death, that like as Christ was raised from the
dead by the glory of the Father, even so we also should
walk in newness of life." In the former clause both
are identical. In the latter clause this Epistle is
stronger. What in the earlier Epistle is the " likeness
of His Resurrection " is here the participation of it,
" Ye are risen with Him." Similarly, instead of the
simple allusion to " Christ's being raised from the
dead," we have here " through faith in the operation of
God, who raised Him from the dead." Here, as in the
more detailed passage of the Ephesian Epistle (chaps,
i. 19 — 23 ; ii. 5 — 7), the " operation," the energy of
" the mighty power of God," is conceived as actually
working both in the Head and in the Body, so that we
through it partake of the resurrection, the ascension,
and the glorified majesty of Christ. The comparison
shows an instructive development in this Epistle of
the consequences of the unity with Christ.

This passage is also notable for the obvious contrast
of baptism, as a spiritual reality, with circumcision as a
symbolic form. Each is the entrance into a covenant
with God ; but the one into a covenant of " the letter,"
and the other into a covenant of " the spirit." (See the
contrast between the covenants drawn out in 2 Cor.
iii. 6—18; Heb. viii. 6; ix. 28.) In the earlier
Epistles circumcision is contrasted with spiritual
regeneration (Gal. vi. 15), as shown by various signs,
such as " faith working by love " (Rom. iv. 9 — 12 ;
Gal. v. 6), or " keeping the commandments of God "
(1 Cor. vii. 19). ' Here this contrast is still as strong as
ever; but baptism being (as always) looked upon as
the means of such spiritual regeneration, is brought out
emphatically as " the circumcision of the Spirit." As
baptised into Christ, " we are the circumcision, who
worship God in the Spirit " (Phil. iii. 3).

(13) And you . . . — Here, exactly as in Eph.
ii. 1 — 18, there is a remarkable intermixture of the
word " we " and the word " you," the former con-
veying the universal statement of the gospel message
of mercy, the other applying it emphatically to the
Gentiles, as Gentiles. The two passages should be read

The Atonement of Christ.

COLOSSIANS, II.

His Triumph over EviL

quickened together with him, having
forgiven you all trespasses ; (14> blotting
out the handwriting of ordinances that
was against us, which was contrary to us,

and took it out of the way, nailing it to
his cross ; (15) and having spoiled prin-
cipalities and powers, he made a shew
of them openly, triumphing over them

side by side. There is, as always, strong similarity, yet
complete independence. Through the passage of the
Ephesian Epistle there runs a two-fold idea, the recon-
cilement of Jew and Gentile to God, and the union of
both in one Catholic Church. In this Epistle it is
only on the reconcilement to God in Christ that stress
is laid. Even the detailed expressions of the two
passages illustrate each other at once by likeness and
by variety.

Dead in your sins and the uncircumcision of
your flesh.— See Eph. ii. 1, "You who were dead in
trespasses and sins . . . who are called Uncircumcision
by that which is called Circumcision in the flesh." Here
the " deadness " is spoken of, as coming both from the
actual power of '' sins " (transgressions), and from the
alienation from God marked by uncircumcision. In
the other passage the uncircumcision is looked upon
only as a name of reproach.

Hath he quickened. — It is difficult to determine
what is the subject in this sentence. According to all
analogy it should be " God," yet in the latter clauses
(as in verses 14, 15) it must surely be " Christ." Now,
when we turn to the fuller parallel passage, we see an
overt change of subject. It is said (Eph. ii. 5), " God
quickened us together with Christ " ; " God in Christ
forgave us " (Eph. iv. 32) ; but " Christ abolished the
Law," " reconciled us to God on the cross." This sug-
gests a similar change of subject here also, which must
be at the words " and took it away," or (for the tense
here is changed) "and He (Christ) hath taken it away."
This, speaking grammatically, introduces an anomaly ;
but such anomalies are not uncommon in St. Paul,
especially in passages of high spiritual teaching.

Having forgiven you . . . — There is no corre-
sponding clause in the parallel passage ; but in a
different context (corresponding to chap. iii. 13 of this
Epistle) we read, " forgiving one another, even as God
in Christ forgave you " (Eph. iv. 32).

(14) Blotting out the handwriting— i.e., cancel-
ling the bond which stood against us in its ordinances.
The " handwriting " is the bond, exacting payment or
penalty in default. (Comp. Philem. verse 19, " I Paul
have written it with mine own hand ; I will repay it.")
What this bond is we see by Eph. ii. 15, which speaks
of " the law of commandments in ordinances," there
called "the enmity slain by the cross." On the
meaning of " ordinances " see Note on that passage.
The metaphor, however, here is different, and especially
notable as the first anticipation of those many
metaphors of later theology, from Tertullian down-
wards, in which the idea of a debt to God, paid for us
by the blood of Christ, as " a satisfaction," is brought
out. The Law is a bond, " Do this and thou shalt live."
'• The soul that sinneth it shall die." On failure to do our
part it " stands against us." But God for Christ's sake
forgives our transgressions and cancels the bond. It
is a striking metaphor, full of graphic expressiveness ;
it is misleading only when (as in some later theologies)
we hold it to be not only the truth, but the whole
truth, forgetting that legal and forensic metaphors can
but imperfectly represent inner spiritual realities.

And took it.— Properly, and He (Christ) hath taken
it away. The change of tense is significant. The act
of atonement is over ; its effect remains.

Nailing it to his cross.— At this point the idea
of atonement comes in. Hitherto we have heard
simply of free forgiveness and love of God. Now the
bond is viewed, not as cancelled by a simple act of
divine mercy, but as absolutely destroyed by Christ, by
" nailing it to His cross." It has been supposed (as by
Bishop Pearson) that there is allusion to some custom of
cancelling documents by the striking of a nail through
them. But the custom is doubtful, and the supposition
unnecessary. Our Lord " redeemed us from the curse
of the Law," by His death, " being made a curse for
us" (Gal. iii. 13). St. Paul boldly speaks of that curse
as a penalty standing against us, and as nailed to
the cross with Himself, so to be for ever cancelled
in the great declaration, " It is finished." If any
more definite allusion is to be sought for, we might
be inclined to refer to the " title " on the cross,
probably nailed to it. Such title declared the explana-
tion of the sufferer's death. The cancelled curse of the
Law was just such an explanation of the great atoning-
death, and the title, declaring His mediatorial kingdom,
showed the curse cancelled thereby.

(15) Having spoiled principalities and powers
. . . — This verse is one of great difficulty. Not, indeed,
in the main idea. The cross, as usual, is identified with
the triumph over the powers of evil which it won.
The very phrase " made a show," is cognate to tho
words " put Him to open shame " applied to the Cruci-
fixion (Heb. vi. 6). The apparent triumph of the
"power of darkness" over Him was His real and'
glorious triumph over them. The general idea is
familiar to us, telling, as in the noble old hymn Vexilla
Regis—

" How of the Cross He made a throne
On which He reigns, a glorious king."

His forgiveness of the penitent thief was the first act
of His all-saving royalty. Accordingly, taking (as in
2 Cor. ii. 14 — 16) his metaphor from a Roman triumph,
St. Paul represents Him as passing in triumphal majesty
up the sacred way to the eternal gates, with all the-
powers of evil bound as captives behind His chariot
before the eyes of men and angels. It is to be noted
that to this clause, so characteristic of the constant
dwelling on the sole glory of Christ in this Epistle,
there is nothing to correspond in the parallel passage
of the Epistle to the Ephesians, which dwells simply
on Christ as " our peace," and as the head of the
Church.

The difficulty lies in the word here translated
"having spoiled." Now this translation (as old as
St. Jerome s "Vulgate), makes all simple and easy ; but
the original word certainly means "having stripped
Himself" — as in chap. iii. 9, "having put off {stripped
of from, ourselves) the old man." It is a word used
by St. Paul alone in the New Testament, and by him
only in these two passages, the latter of which makes
the sense perfectly clear. Being forced, then, to adopt
this translation, we see that the words admit of two
renderings. (1) First, " having stripped from Himself
the principalities and powers," that is, having stripped
off that condition of the earthly life which gave them a
grasp or occasion against Him. But this, though
adopted by many old Greek commentators (Chry-
sostom among the rest), seems singularly harsh in

Warning against Jewish Forms

COLOSSIANS, II.

and Superstitious Angel-worship.

in it.1 (16> Let no man therefore judge
you in meat, or in drink,2

?7haP' Warning Qr m respectS 0f an holy-

against obso- day, or of the new moon,

J)rdinancesWiSh OI" °f tlie sabbatbL daVs :

<l7> which are a shadow of
things to come ; but the body is of

1 Or, in hiin/trlf.

i 1 >r, judge

IKIIIIItM i/'iii.

■i Or, for ruling

nitd drinking.

:i Or, m port.

5 8r. Iirnuj ii

voluntary i.i

humility.

j Chap. ii. 18.
a 19. Warning

Christ. <18) Let no man beguile you*

of your reward in a

voluntary humility 5

worshipping of angels, in- against super-

truding into those things ^Xp. angel"

which he hath not seen,

vainly puffed up by his fleshly mind,

expression and far-fetched in idea, needing too nvuch
explanation to make it in any sense clear. (2) Next,
" having unclothed Himself, He made a show of
principalities and powers." On the whole this ren-
dering, although not free from difficulty, on account of
the apparent want of connection of the phrase " having
stripped Himself " with the coutext, seems the easiest.
For we note that a cognate word, strictly analogous, is
used thus (without an object following) in 2 Cor. v. 4,
" Not that we desire to unclothe ourselves, but to
clothe ourselves over our earthly vesture." The context
shows that the meaning there is " to put off the
flesh." This is suggested still more naturally in the
passage before us by the preceding phrase, "in the
putting off of the body of the flesh " — a phrase there
used of the flesh as evil, but found in chap. i. 22 of the
natural body of Christ. Accordingly many Latin
fathers (among others Augustine) rendered " stripping
Himself of the flesh," and there is some trace of this
as a reading or a gloss in the Greek of this passage.
Perhaps, however, St. Paul purposely omitted the
object after the verb, iu order to show that it was
by " stripping Himself of all " that He conquered by
becoming a show in absolute humiliation, He made the
powers of evil a show in His triumph.

(ic-19) To the warning against speculative error
succeeds a warning against two practical superstitions.
The first is simply the trust in obsolete Jewish
ordinances (the mere shadow of Christ) with which
we are familiar in the earlier forms of Judaism. But
the second presents much strangeness and novelty. It
is the " worship of angels " in a " voluntary humility,"
inconsistent with the belief in an intimate and direct
union with Christ our Head.

(is) Let no man therefore judge you.— That is,
impose his own laws upon you. See verse 8. (Comp.
Rom. xiv. 3, 10, " Why dost thou judge thy brother ? "
in this same connection.)

In meat, or in drink.— Or rather, in eating and
drinking. We see by the context that the immediate
reference is to the distinctions of meats under the
Jewish law, now done away, because the distinction
of those within and without the covenant was also
done away (Acts x. 11). (Comp. on this subject
the half -ironical description of Heb. ix. 10.) But
a study of Rom. xiv. 2, 20, 21, written before this
Epistle, and 1 Tim. iv. 3, written after it — to say
nothing of the tone of this passage itself, or of the
•known characteristics of the later Gnosticism of the
ascetic type — show that these laws about eating and
drinking were not mere matters of law. but formed
significant parts of a rigid mystic asceticism. Of
such, St. Paul declares indignantly (Rom. xiv. 17),.
•"The kingdom of God is not eating and drinking, but
righteousness and peace and joy in the Holy Ghost."

An holyday (feast), or of the new moon, or
of the sabbath. —Comp. Isa. i. 13, 14, " the new moons
and sabbaths . . . the new moons and the appointed

feasts My soul hateth ; " also Ezek. xiv. 17 ; Hos. ii. 13.
The "feast " would seem to be one of the great festivals ;
the " new moon " the monthly, and the sabbath the
weekly solemnity. With this passage it is natural to
compare the similar passage in Gal. iv. 10, " Ye observe
days and months and times (special seasons) and
years." But there the specially Judaic character is not
so expressly marked ; and, in fact, the passage has a
wider meaning (like Rom. xiv. 56), showing the dif-
ferent position which even Christian festivals held in
Apostolic days. Here it is the Jewish festivals, and they
alone, which are noted. It is obvious that St. Paul
gives no hint of any succession of the Lord's Day to be,
in any strict sense, a "Christian Sabbath." We know,
indeed, that the Jewish Sabbath itself lingered in the
Church, as having a kind of sacredness, kept sometimes
as a fast, sometimes as a festival. But its observance
was not of obligation. No man was to " judge" others
in respect of it.

(!7) Which are a shadow . . . but the body
(the substance) is of Christ. — The spirit of the pas-
sage is precisely that of the argument which runs
through the Epistle to the Hebrews. " The Law had a
shadow of good things to come, not the very image
(or, substance) of the things" (Heb. x. 1). When St.
Paul deals with the legal and coercive aspect of the
Law, he calls it "the schoolmaster to bring us to Christ."
(See Gal. iii. 24, and Note there.) When he turns to
its ritual aspect, he describes it as simply foreshadow-
ing or typifying the substance; and therefore useful
before the revelation of the substance, useless or (if
trusted in) worse than useless, after it. In every way
" Christ is the end of the Law " (Rom. x. 4).

(18) Beguile you of your reward.— The original
is a word used, almost technically, for an unfair judg-
ment in the stadium, robbing the victor of his prize.
The prize here (as in 1 Cor. ix. 24 ; Phil. iii. 14) is the
heavenly reward of the Christian course. In St. Paul's
exhortation there seems to be a reference back to verse
16. There he says, " Let no man arrogate judgment over
you ; " here, " Let no man use that arrogated judgment
so as to cheat you of your prize. There is one Judge,
who has right and who is righteous; look to Him
alone."

In a voluntary humility and worship.— This
rendering seems virtually correct, though other rende rings
are proposed. The original is, willing in humility and
worship, and the phrase "willing in" is often used
in the LXX. for "delighting in." Other translations
are here possible, though not without some harshness.
But the true sense is shown beyond all doubt to be
that given in our version, by the words used below to
describe the same process, " will -worship and humility."

In this passage alone in the New Testament "humi-
lity" is spoken of with something of the condemnation
accorded to it in heathen morality. The reason of this
is obvious and instructive. Humility is a grace, of
which the very essence is unconsciousness, and which,
being itself negative, cannot live, except by resting on
some more positive quality, such as faith or love.

Christ the sole Head.

COLOSSIANS, II.

Death with Christ.

<19> and not holding the Head, from |

which all the body by joints and bands

having nourishment ministered, and 1 0r- «*»«»**■

knit together, increaseth with the in-
crease of God. <2°) Wherefore if ye be
dead with Christ from the rudiments1

Whenever it is consciously cultivated and " delighted
in," it loses all its grace; it becomes either unreal,
"the pride that apes humility," or it turns to abject
slavishness and meanness. Of such depravations
Church history is unhappily full.

Worshipping of angels.— This is closely con-
nected with the '" voluntary humility " above. The link
of connection is supplied by the notice in the ancient
interpreters, of the early growth of that unhappy idea,
which has always lain at the root of saint-worship and
angel- worship in the Church — " that we must be brought
near by angels and not by Christ, for that were too
high a thing for us " (Chrysostom). With this passage it
is obvious to connect the emphasis laid (in Heb. i., ii.)
on the absolute superiority of our Lord to all angels,
who are but " ministering spirits, sent forth to minister
to them who are heirs of salvation ; " and the prohibi-
tion of angel-worship in Rev. xxii. 9, " See thou do it
not ; for I am thy fellow-servant . . . worship God."

It might seem strange that on the rigid monotheism
di Judaism this incongruous creature-worship should
have been engrafted. But here also the link is easily
supplied. The worship of the angels of which the
Essenic system bore traces, was excused on the ground
that the Law had been given through the " ministration
of angels" (see Acts vii. 53; Gal. iii. 19), and that the
tutelary guardianship of angels had been revealed in
the later prophecy. (See Dan. x. 10 — 21.) For this reason
it was held that angels might be worshipped, probably
with the same subtle distinctions between this and that
kind of worship with which we are familiar in the
ordinary pleas for the veneration of saints. It has been
noticed that in the Council of Laodicea, held in the
fourth century, several canons were passed against
Judaising, and that in close connection with these it
was forbidden " to leave the Church of God and go
away to invoke angels " ; and we are told by Theodoret
(in the next century) that " oratories to St. Michael
(the ' prince ' of the Jewish people) were still to be
seen." The "angels " in this half- Jewish system held
the same intermediate position between the Divine and
the human which in the ordinary Gnostic theories was
held by the less personal JEons, or supposed emana-
tions from the Godhead.

Intruding into those things which he hath not
seen. — (1) There is a remarkable division here, both of
MSS. and ancient versions and commentators, as to the
insertion or omission of the negative. But the balance
of MS. authority is against the negative, and certainly
it is easier to suppose it to have been inserted with a
view to make an easier sense, than to have been omitted
if it had been originally there. (2) The general meaning,
however, of the passage is tolerably clear, and, curiously
enough, little affected by either alternative. It cer-
tainly refers to pretensions to supernatural knowledge
by which (just as in 1 Cor. viii. 1) the mind is said to
be " puffed up." We note that, even in true visions of
heavenly things, there was danger lest the mind " should
be exalted above measure " (2 Cor. xii. 7). Now the
knowledge here pretended to is that favourite know-
ledge, claimed by Jewish and Christian mystics, of the
secrets of the heavenly places and especially of the
grades and functions of the hierarchy of heaven. St.
Paul brands it as belonging to the mind, not of the
spirit, but "of the flesh;" for indeed it was really

superstitions, resting not on faith, but on supposed
visions and supernatural manifestations. It " intruded "
(or, according to another rendering, it " took its stand ")
upon the secrets of a region which it said that it " had
seen," but which, in truth, it " had not seen." If we
omit the negative, the Apostle is quoting its claims ; if
we insert it, he is denying their justice.

(19) Not holding the Head.— In this lay the fatal
error. All these speculations and superstitions inter-
fered with the direct hold of the soul on the mediation
of Christ, as the Head, from whom alone, as being " the
image of the invisible God," come all spiritual life
and growth. Therefore they had a practical and
spiritual importance.

Prom which all the body . . .— Comp Eph. iv.
15, 16, and see Note there. The agreement is nearly
verbal, but the characteristic difference of idea,
so often noted, is still traceable. There the body
" maketh increase unto the building up of itself in
love ; " here the increase is simply " the increase of
God " — the increase which God gives, and which grows
into His likeness. In this passage there is also a
greater scientific exactness: the "joints and bands ,y
are the " articulations and ligaments ; " the two func-
tions thereof are the diffusion of nourishment and the
knitting together of organic unity.

(20—23) ln this and the succeeding section, St. Paid,
starting from the idea of union with the Head, draws
out the practical consequences of partaking of the
death of Christ and the resurrection of Christ. In
virtue of the former participation, he exhorts them to
be dead to the law of outward ordinances ; in virtue of
the latter, to have a life hid with Christ in God.

(20) if ye be dead with Christ.— The whole idea
of the death with Christ and resurrection with Him i*
summed up by St. Paid in Rom. vi. 3 — 9, in direct con-
nection (as also here, see verse 12) Avith the entrance
upon Christian life in baptism, " We are buried with
Him by baptism unto death ... we are dead with
Christ ... we are planted together in the likeness of
His death . . . that like as Christ was raised from the-
dead by the glory of the Father, we also should walk
in newness of life . . . planted together in the likeness
of His resurrection . . . alive to God through Jesus
Christ our Lord." The death with Christ is a death
unto " the life of the flesh." But this may be (as in ,
Rom. vi. 1, 2, 6, 7, 11) " the life of sin " ; or it may be
the outward and visible life "of the world." The
latter is the sense to be taken here. This outward life
is under " ordinances " (see verse 1), under the " rudi-
ments of the world" (see verse 8), or, generally, " under
law." Of such a life St. Paul says (in Gal. ii. 19), " 1
through the Law died to the Law, that I might live
unto God." There (Gal. iv. 9), as here, he brands as
unspiritual the subjection to the " weak and beggarly
elements" of mere ordinances. Of course it is clear
that in their place such ordinances have their value, both
as means to an end, and as symbols of an inner reality
of self-devotion. The true teaching as to these is found
in our Lord's declaration to the Pharisees as to spiritual
things and outward ordinances, " These things (the-
spiritual things) ought ye to have done, and not to-
leave the others, (the outward observances) undone '*

The Vanity of mere Ordinances

COLOSSIANS, III.

Pretentious but Unreal

of the world, why, as though living in
the world, are ye subject
£&?£&& *<> ordinances, » (toad,
fteadness in not; taste not; handle
Chrkt to more not (22) which aU are to

Ol'CllIlllIlCGS. . - . _ .

perish with the using) ;
after the commandments and doctrines

of men ? ^ Which things have indeed a
shew of wisdom in will worship, and
humility, and neglecting x of the body ;
not in any honour to the satisfying of
the flesh.

CHAPTER III.— (D If ye then be

(Matt, xxiii. 23). In later times St. Paul declared with
judicial calmness, " The Law is good if a man use it
lawfully" (1 Tim. i. 8). But to exalt these things to
the first place was a fatal superstition, which, both in
its earlier and later phases, he denounces unsparingly.

pi) Touch not; taste not; handle not.— The
first and last of these renderings should be inverted.
There is iu the commands a climax of strictness.
" Handle not " (the unclean thing), " taste it not,"
'• touch it not " with one of your fingers. It will be
noted that all these commands are negative, not positive.
They are marked by the ordinary ascetic preference of
spiritual restraint to spiritual energy.

(22) Which all are to perish with the using.—
It has been doubted whether these words (which are
literally, all which things go to corruption, or destruc-
tion, in the using) are the continuation of the ascetic
ordinance, or the comment of the Apostle. But the
last word— which signifies, not only "using," but
•" using up " — seems to decide for the latter alternative.
The things are things which go to destruction and
are used up. What permanent effect can they leave
behind ? See 1 Cor. viii. 8 (whether the words of St.
Paul, or the words of the Corinthians, accepted as true
by him), " Meat commendeth us not to God : for neither,
if we eat, are we the better ; neither, if we eat not, are
we the worse." It is but an echo of our Lord's own
teaching as to that which goeth into the mouth (Matt.
xv. 16, 17 ; Mark xiii. 18, 19).

After the commandments . . .—See verse 8, and
Note there. There seems to be an allusion to Isa. xxix.
13, quoted by our Lord (Matt. xv. 7, 8 ; Mark vii. 6, 7)
in relation to these ceremonial observances.

(23) Will worship, and humility . . .—It seems
difficult to connect these words with the merely cere-
monial observances immediately above ; and, in fact,
they are almost an exact repetition of the description of
the superstitious worship of the angels given in verse 18.
" Will worship " is, indeed, nearly what we call super-
stition— the constant craving for objects to which we
may find some excuse for paying i-everence. The prefix
applies in sense, though not in grammatical form, to the
" humility " also ; a studied humility being either a pre-
tence or a self-degradation. But in the words " neglect-
ing of the body" (properly, being unsparing of it in
hardship, and generally careless of it) we pass to the
ceremonial ordinances. It is more than likely that
the superstition and false asceticism were connected
together— the latter being the condition of the sup-
posed spiritual insight of the former.

Which things . . . flesh.— This passage is
difficult. (1) Our version translates literally, and would
seem to regard the last words as simply an explanation,
from the point of view of the false teachers, of " neglect-
ing of the body," as " not honouring it for the satis-
faction, or surfeiting of the flesh ; " and we certainly
find that the Jewish ascetics did brand the most neces-
sary satisfaction of appetite as a "surfeiting of the
flesh." But there is a fatal objection to this interpreta-
tion— that, in that case, St. Paul would leave the false

pretension without a word of contradiction, which is
almost incredible. Hence (2) we must regard the " not
in any honour " as antithetical to " the show of wisdom."
The ordinances, says St. Paul, have " a show of wisdom,"
but "are in no honour," i.e., are "of no value." The
common use of the word rendered "honour," for
"price," or "pay" (see Matt, xxvii. 6; Acts vi. 34;
vii. 16; xix. 19; 1 Cor. vi. 20; vii. 23; 1 Tim. v. 17),
would readily lend itself to this sense. The only doubt-
ful point (3) is the interpretation of the last words, " for
the satisfying of the flesh." There seems little doubt
that the phrase is used in a bad sense. Hence we must
dismiss all reference to a right honouring of the body
by innocent satisfaction of its needs. We have there-
fore to choose between two interpretations. Some in-
terpret "of no value against the satisfaction of the
flesh." But, though the Greek will bear this sense, it is
certainly not the common sense of the preposition used ;
and its adoption would expose the whole phrase to the
charge of ambiguity and obscurity. The other inter-
pretation is " of no real value " (tending) " to the satis-
faction of the flesh." This is abrupt, but suits well
the indignant and abrupt terseness of the passage. It
gives (quite after St. Paul's manner) not only a denial
of the "neglecting of the body," but a retort on the
false teachers of the very charge they made against
their opponents. (Comp. the use of the word " dogs,"
in Phil. iii. 2.) It conveys a most important truth.
That " extremes meet " we know well ; and that there
is a satisfaction of the fleshly temper (see above, verse
18) in the attempt over much to curb the flesh, the whole
history of asceticism bears witness. Moreover, this in-
terpretation alone gives a completeness of antithesis.
To " the show of wisdom " it opposes the " no real
value;" to the pretended "neglecting of the body1'
the real " satisfaction of the flesh."

III.

(1— 4) As the partaking of the death of Christ taught
the negative lesson of death to the Law, so the par-
taking of His resurrection teaches the positive lesson
of the spiritual life. We observe that this celebrated
passage occupies a place at the close of the doctrinal
portion of the Epistle, exactly corresponding to the
even greater passage on the unity of the Church in
God in the Epistle to the Ephesians (iv. 1 — 16). It
is unlike that passage, because, summing up the mam
teaching of this Epistle, it dwells simply on the close
personal relation of all souls to God in Jesus Christ.
who is at once " the image of God." and the one Mediator
between God and man. It is like it (and like other
passages of the Epistles of the Captivity) because it
passes on from Christ risen to Christ in heaven : it
takes for granted our being risen with Christ, and
bids us in heart to ascend to heaven now, and look
forward to the bliss of heaven in the hereafter.

0) If ye then be risen (rather, ye rose) with
Christ.— In these words is marked the beginning of
the spiritual life, referred evidently to baptism. (See

Resurrection with Christ.

COLOSSIANS, III.

The Life hid in God.

risen with Christ, seek those things
which are above, where
AppLuottir Christ sitteth on the right
resurrection hand of God. W Set you
rhfhSherU- affection^ on things above,
ritual life. not on things on the

earth. <3) For ye are dead, and your
life is hid with Christ in God.
W When Christ, who is our life, shall
appear, then shall ye also appear with
him in glory. W Mortify therefore
your members which are upon the

chap. ii. 12.) It is a " resurrection with Christ " and
in Christ ; as such it is dwelt upon in detail in Rom. vi.
1—14. We may note that this phrase, implying a
sudden passing from death unto life, accords more
exactly with the idea of adult baptism, accepted in con-
scious faith, and leading at once to a new life ; while
the later phrase, "regeneration" (Tit. iii. 5), which
speaks of the soul as passing, indeed, at once into a
new condition, hut as having only the undeveloped germ
of the new life, corresponds more closely with the
idea of the infant baptism, which gradually superseded
the other. Here this spiritual resurrection is taken for
granted, and the Apostle goes on at once to the next
stage of the spiritual life.

Christ.— The name, four times repeated, has in all
cases the article prefixed to it. Evidently it used
emphatically to refer to our Lord, as our Mediator — our
Prophet, Priest, and King.

Seek those things which are above . . . set
your affection on things above.— Here we have
the spiritual life in its continuance. It is described,
(1) first, as "seeking the things above" — that is,
looking, and so growing, to perfection. This charac-
teristic is dwelt upon with great fulness and beauty
in Phil. iii. 12 — 16. (2) Next, in a still higher strain,
as "setting our affection on the things above," or,
more properly, catching the spirit of the things
above, being " heavenly-minded " already — anticipating
heaven, not only in hope, but in tone and temper,
seeing things as God sees them, and seeing all in
relation to Him. On this we may again compare the
great passage in Phil. iii. 20, 21, on our " citizenship of
heaven." Of such heavenly-mindedncss wo have,
perhaps, the most perfect specimen in the calm and
loving certainty of St. John's Epistles. (3) These two
graces must be united In the one is the secret of
growth, iu the other the present earnest of pei*fection.
Moreover, the higher grace must follow from the
former ; " for, where our treasure is, there will our
heart be also."

Where Christ sitteth on the right hand of
God. — The allusion is emphatic. Heaven is to us, in
itself, a vague expression of unknown bliss. It is
made definite to the Christian by the thought of Christ.
in His glorified humanity, there enthroned in majesty,
" preparing a place for us," and drawing us to be
with Him. (Note a similar emphatic reference in
Phil. iii. 21 ; and comp. Eph. ii. 6, " He raised us up,
and made us to sit in heavenly places in Christ Jesus.")

This glorious idea of Christ in heaven, and heaven in
Christ, runs through the whole book of the Revelation
of St. John, from the opening Epistles to the last vision
of glory.

(3) Ye are dead.— Properly, ye died. See chap. ii.
20, and Note there. The phrase here is to be taken, in
its whole sense, both of " death to sin " and " death to
the visible world."

Your life is hid with Christ in God . . .
Christ who is our life. — In these two phrases, again,
we pass from a lower to a higher expression of the
same truth. (1) First, " our life is hid with Christ in

God." The spiritual life in man is a " hidden life,"
having its source in God ; the full conviction of it, as
distinct from the mere instinctive consciousness of it in
the mind itself, comes only from the belief that it is the
image of God in us, and is sustained by constant com-
munion with Him. If God be our God at all, we must
live ; for " He is not the God of the dead, but of the
living " (Matt. xxii. 32). It is also " hid with Christ."
Our Lord's ascent to His glory in heaven is at once the
pledge and the means of this our spiritual communion
with God. It is " with Him " that we can " in heart
and mind ascend ; " it is " with Him " that we can
" continually dwell." (2) But this is not all. " Christ
is our life " now as well as hereafter. This is simply a
summary of the two truths ; " Christ liveth in me " (see
Gal. ii. 20), as the source of life ; and " To me to live
(the actual condition of life) is Christ " (Phil. i. 21).
It is but a brief expression of faith in the truth which
our Lord Himself declared (John xi. 25)* " I am the
Life ; whoso liveth and belie veth in Me shall never die."
(Comp. John xiv. 6.) Hence our spiritual life is not
only a being "with Christ;" it is also unity with
Christ in the bosom of the Father.

(4) When Christ . . . shall appear, then shall
ye also appear with him in glory.— This describes
the last stage of the spiritual life — the gloiification with
Christ in heaven, manifesting what now is hidden, and
perfecting what exists only in germ. (Comp. 1 John
iii. 1, 2, " Now are we the sons of God, and it doth not
yet appear what we shall be : but we know that, when
He shall appear, we shall be like Him ; for we shall see
Him as He is.") This same conclusion ends the corre-
sponding passage in Phil. iii. 21.

In all these Epistles we note how constant a reference
there is to the " glory of God," and to the share in it
reserved for us. So we also note the especial reference to
the "appearance of Christ" in the Pastoral Epistles (see
1 Tim. vi. 14; 2 Tim. i. 10; iv. 1, 8 ; Tit. ii. 13), and
the constant revelation of it in the Apocalypse.

The whole passage forms a complete and magnificent
picture of the spiritual life in Christ — the means of its
beginning, the signs of its presence, and the hope of its
close. It may be compared with the fuller yet hardly
completer picture of Rom. viii.

[5. Practical Exhortation, General.

(1) Negative. — To Mortify the Old Man,

by fleeing from —
(a) Uncleanness and lust (verses 5 — 7) ;
(6) Wrath and malice (verse 8);
(c) Falsehood (verse 9).

(2) Positive. — To Put on the New Man,

making Christ our " all in all."
(a) In love and peace, as shown in mercijs
humility, patience, and forgiveness
(verses 10 — 15) ;
(fe) In thanksgiving (verse 16) ;
(c) In living to the glory of God (verse 17) ;
(The whole of this section stands in close parallelism,
frequently in verbal coincidence, with Eph. iv. 20 — vi. 9.
There are, however, constantly emerging indications

112

Warning to put off the Old Man

COLOSSIANS, III.

and put on the New.

earth ; fornication, uncleanness, inor-
dinate affection, evil cbn-
Gen&afwa7n9: cupiscence and covetous-
ing against the ness, which, is idolatry :
r!S-enefratelif?" (6) f°r which things' sake

the wrath of God cometh
on the children of disobedience : <7> in the
which ye also walked some time, when
ye lived, in them. (8) But now ye also
put off all these ; anger, wrath, malice,
blasphemy, filthy communication out of

your mouth. <9) Lie not one to another,
seeing that ye have put off the old man
with his deeds ; (10) and have put on the
new man, which is renewed „, ...
in knowledge after the 17. General
image of him that created gj0rijjj^ tof
him: <n> where there is the^new
neither Greek nor Jew, man;' regene-

• rate in Christ,

circumcision nor uncircum-

cision, Barbarian, Scythian, bond nor

free : but Christ is, all, and in all.

of independence of handling. Generally speaking,
the Ephesiau Epistle is fuller and deeper in treatment ;
and, moreover, it constantly brings out, in relation
both to moral duty and to the observation of the rela-
tions of life, the great characteristic doctrine of the
universal unity in Christ. This Epistle, on the other
hand, is briefer and more incisive, and has only slight,
though clear, indications of the idea so powerfully
worked out in the other Epistle.)]

Verses 5 — 9 contain the negative section of St. Paul's
practical appeal, drawing out the consequences of the
" death with Christ," in the mortification of all ten-
dencies to impurity, malice, and falsehood. For these
are the opposites to purity, love, and truth— the three
great attributes of God, and therefore the three chief
graces of man.

(5) Mortify therefore your members which
are upon the earth.— The expression is doubly
unique. It is the only passage where " mortification "
— the killing of anything in us — is enjoined ; and it is
also notable, as not explicitly distinguishing between the
members themselves, and the evil of which they are made
the instruments. The sense is, of course, clear enough.
It corresponds to the " crucifying the flesh " of Gal. v.
24 ; and the idea of evil, mostly expressed plainly in the
word " flesh," is here hinted in the phrase " which are
on the earth," that is, which are busied with earth and
bind us down to the earthly life. The particular word
*' members " is perhaps suggested by our Lord's com-
mand to " cut off the right hand " and M pluck out the
right eye " if they cause us to offend (Matt. v. 29, 30).
But, as a rule, Scripture more clearly marks the distinc-
tion between the members and " the law of sin in the
members " (Rom. vii. 5, 23) ; and we are usually bidden
not to " kill our members," but to turn them
from "instruments of unrighteousness" to be "instru-
ments of righteousness unto God" (Rom. vi. 13). The
fact is that this passage contains only half the truth,
corresponding to the death with Christ, and not the
whole truth, including also the resurrection to the
new life. Accordingly, as the next verse shows, the
members to be mortified are actually identified with
the vices of the old man residing in them.

Fornication, uncleanness . . . covetous-
ness, which is idolatry.— See Eph. v. 3, and Note
there.

Inordinate affection, evil concupiscence.—
These words are not found in the parallel passage.
The word rendered "inordinate affection " is the general
word for " passion " {pathos). It is found united to
" concupiscence " in 1 Thess. iv. 5, " the lust of con-
cupiscence." Both words here are general words,
denoting the condition of soul, of which "fornication"

and " covetousness " are both exemplifications. This is
the condition of unrestrained passion and desire, the
former word implying a passive receptiveness of im-
pression from without, the other the positive energy of
desire to seek gratification. Comp. Gal. v. 24, " the
affections " (passions) and " lusts." Of such a temper
Article IX. of the Church of England declares with
singular accuracy, not that it is sin, but that it has
in itself rationem peccati, that is, the initial principle
of sin.

(?) In the which ye also walked some time,
when ye lived (were living) in them.— The former
condition of heathenism was that in which " they were
living," with contagion of evil on every side. But
St. Paul is not content without noting their own active
participation — " ye walked in them." (Comp. Eph. iv.
17—20.)

(8) Anger, wrath, malice, blasphemy (slander —
see Eph. iv. 31 and Notes there), filthy communica-
tion.—The word is " foul," and the context here seems
to show that it refers to grossness of insult and abuse,
rather than (as in the cognate word of Eph. iv. 4) to
" filthiness."

(9) Lie not one to another.— Comp. Eph. iv. 25,
and note the characteristic insertion there of a clause
to which there is nothing here to correspond, " for we
are members one of another."

Seeing that ye (have) put off the old man.—
Comp. the fuller description of Eph. iv. 22 — 24.

(10—17) Iu these verses we have the corresponding
positive exhortation, connected with the idea of re-
surrection with Christ, tlirough which we put on the
new man, holding Christ to be our all in all. Of the
new nature there are two marks — towards man love in
all its various forms, towards God thanksgiving and
living to His glory.

(10) The new man, which is (being) renewed.
— There are here the same two different words which
are found in the parallel passage. (See Notes on Eph. iv.
22 — 24). " The new man " is here properly the youth-
ful man " which is renewed," that is, to which is given
a nature really fresh and new.

(") Where there is neither . . .—This passage
naturally suggests comparison with Gal. iii. 28. u There
is neither Jew nor Greek; there is neither bond nor
free ; there is neither male nor female : for ye are all one
in Jesus Christ." In comparing the passages (passing
by the insertion here of " circumcision nor uncircum-
cision," which is simply explanatory of "Jew nor
Greek") we notice in this — (1) The insertion of "bar-
barian, Scythian." This insertion is clearly intended
to rebuke that pride of intellect, contemptuous of the
unlearned, which lay at the root of Gnosticism.

The New Life shown in Charity

COLOSSIANS, III.

and in Thankful Devotion.

(12) put on therefore, as the elect of
God, holy and beloved, bowels of mer-
cies, kindness, humbleness of mind,
meekness, longsuffering ; <13> forbear-
ing one another, and forgiving one
another, if any man have a quarrel1
against any: even as Christ forgave
you, so also do ye. <14) And above all

1 Or, complaint

these things put on charity, which is
the bond of perfeetness. <15> And let
the peace of God rule in your hearts,
to the which also ye are called in one
body ; and be ye thankful. <16J Let the
word of Christ dwell in you richly in
all wisdom ; teaching and admonishing
one another in psalms and hymns and

The "barbarian" was simply the foreigner (comp.
1 Cor. xiv. 11) ; the " Scythian " was the savage,
towards whom the contempt implied for the " barbarian "
assumed explicitness, and reached its climax. (2) The
omission of " male nor female." In the Oriental society,
as in Galatia, the dignity of women needed to be asserted
against supposed inferiority. In Greek or Grsecised
society, as at Corinth, Ephesus, and Colossse, the new
" freedom " of the gospel was apt to be abused to license;
hence it was rather the " subjection " of women which
needed to be suggested. (Comp. 1 Cor. xi. 3 — 16;
xiv. 34, 35 ; Eph. v. 22—24; and 1 Tim. ii. 11—15.)
(3) Whereas in the Galatian Epistle the stress is laid on
the unity of all with one another in Christ, here (as usual)
the great truth is that "Christ is all things and in
all." In 1 Cor. xv. 28 we have this phrase applied to
God, in contradistinction to the office of the Son in His
mediatorial kingdom. Here it is in reference to that
kingdom that it is used. In it Christ (see Eph. i. 23)
" fills all in all ; " and by His universal mediation all
" life is hid with Him in God." He is all that can be
needed, and that both "in all things" and "in all
persons." But under both aspects the catholicity of
the gospel is equally brought out ; here by the direct
union of all alike with Christ, there by the resulting
unity of all with one another.

(12) Elect of God.— For the description of the
election here signified see Eph. i. 4, 5, 6. The name is
obviously applied to the whole Church, as " elect to
privilege " ; it is not opposed to '' called " (as in Matt.
xx. 16), but coincident with it, representing, indeed, the
secret act of God's gracious will, which is openly mani-
fested in calling. (Comp. the other instances of the
word in the Epistles, Rom. viii. 33 ; xvi. 13 ; 1 Tim. v.
21 ; 2 Tim. ii. 10 ; Tit. i. 1 ; 1 Pet. i. 1 ; Rev. xvii. 14.)

Holy and beloved. — Of such election there are
here two signs. The elect are "holy," consecrated to
God in thought and life; and "beloved," accepted
and sustained in their consecration by His love. Both
epithets belong to them as conformed to the image
of Christ (Rev. viii. 29); for He is "the Holy One of
God " (Mark i. 24; Luke iv. 34), who " sanctifies Him-
self for us, that we also may be sanctified in truth "
(John xvii. 19); and He is also the "Beloved," the
"Son of God's love" (chap. i. 13; Matt. iii. 17; Eph. i.
16), and we are accepted in Him. The two epithets here
seem intended to prepare for the two-fold exhortation
following. They are "beloved," therefore they should
love one another (verses 12 — 15) ; they are holy, there-
fore they should thank God and live to His glory
(verses 16, 17).

(12, 13) Comp. Eph. iv. 2, 31 ; v. 1, 2. The word
"tenderhearted" in those passages corresponds to
the " bowels (or, heart) of mercies " here ; " kind-
ness " and " forgiveness," " humility," " gentleness,"
"forbearance/' appear in both. But the enumera-
tion here is more exact in order of idea. St. Paul
starts with the natural and universal instinct of com-
passion or sympathy; he next dwells on "kindliness

and lowliness of mind," which are closely akin, since
readiness to oblige others grows naturally out of a self-
neglectful humility ; from these he passes to " gentle-
ness and long-suffering" in case of injury, ready "to
forbear and to forgive ; " lastly, from these particulars
he rises to the general spirit of " love," ruling under
" the peace of God."

(13) Even as Christ forgave you.— The MS. au-
thority is in favour of the word "Lord" instead of
Christ ; but since the name " Lord " is specially applied
to Christ in these Epistles (see, for example, Eph. iv. 5)
there is no real difference. In Eph. iv. 31 we have "God
in Christ forgave1 you," because there the example of
Christ, as Son of Man, is afterwards to be set forth em-
phatically as an example of self-sacrifice (verse 2), and
hence the free mercy of forgiveness is naturally attri-
buted to " God in Christ." Here, in accordance with the
emphatic exaltation of Christ, as all in all, the simpler
phrase " Christ (or, the Lord) forgave you " is em-
ployed.

(14) Above all. — Properly, over all — as a bond or
cincture to keep all together. Love is the general prin-
ciple, harmonising all the special graces named above.

The bond of perfeetness.— The bond of that
harmony of character which is perfection. The phrase
is remarkable, apparently suggested by the claim to
perfection, set up by the Gnostic teachers. They
sought such perfection in knowledge peculiar to the
few ; St. Paul in the love which is possible to all. For
as he elsewhere urges (1 Cor. viii. 1), " Knowledge puffs
up, charity builds up ;" knowledge gains a fancied per-
fection, charity a real perfection.

(15) The peace of God.— The true reading is the
peace of Christ — that which He gives (John xiv. 27),
that which He is (see Eph. ii. 14). The ordinary read-
ing is, no doubt, borrowed from Phil. iv. 7. This verso
forms a link between the preceding exhortation to love
of man, and the following exhortation to a loving and
thankful service of God. The " peace of Christ " is the
sense of unity in Him, with our fellow-men and with
God. We are " called to it in one Body," of which He is
the Head. (Comp. the fuller treatment of this subject
in Eph. ii. 14 — 22; where, in accordance with the
whole character of that Epistle, the unity "in one
Body," here only alluded to, is worked out in vividness
and detail.)

(16) The word of Christ.— Here again the definite
phrase, " the word of Christ," takes the place of the
commoner phrase, " the word of the Lord," " the word
of God." It is to " dwell in their hearts." Hence it
is the engrafted word " (Jas. i. 21)— the truth of Christ
conceived in the heart, striking root into it. and making
it its dwelling-place. It will be observed how all such
phrases prepare for the full conception of Him as Him-
self "the Word of God."

In all wisdom.— The symmetry of the original, " in
all wisdom teaching ... in grace singing," sug-
gests the connection of the words with those following,
not, as in our version, with those going before. The

114

The Three great Social Relations

COLOSSIANS, III.

hallowed in the Lord.

spiritual songs, singing with grace in {
your hearts to the Lord. <17) Arid what-
soever ye do in word or deed, do all in
the name of the Lord Jesus, giving
thanks to God and the Father by
him. (18) Wives, submit yourselves unto
your own husbands, as it is

Duf' of wives fit hl the LOrd* (19) HUS"
and^usbids? bands, love your wives, and

be not bitter against them.

(20) Children, obey your parents in all

... things : for this is well

21. aP Duty "of pleasing unto the Lord.

children and (2i) Fathers, provoke not

your children to anger,

lest they be discouraged. <22> Servants,
obey in aU things your ... ^_

masters according to the ft. l. Duty of
flesh : not with eyeservice, servants and

, r. j • masters.

as menpleasers ; but in

singleness of heart, fearing God :
<23> and whatsoever ye do, do it heartily,
as to the Lord, and not unto men;
(24) knowing that of the Lord ye shall
receive the reward of the inheri-
tance : for ye serve the Lord Christ.
^ But he that doeth wrong shall
receive for the. wrong which he ha^th
done : and there is no respect of
persons.

indwelling Word of God is described as manifesting
itself, first, in the wisdom of mutual teaching, next, in
the grace of hearty thanksgiving.

Teaching and admonishing . . .—Hero again
we have at once general identity and special distinc-
tion between this and the parallel passage in Eph. v.
19, 20. There, as here, we have the '' speaking to one
another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs,"
" the singing in the hearts to the Lord," and the spirit
of " thankfulness." But there the whole is described
as a consequence of " being filled with the Spirit," and,
as an outburst of that spiritual enthusiasm, of which the
spurious excitement of drunkenness is the morbid carica-
ture. Here the thought starts from " the word of Christ
in the soul," realised through the gift of the Spirit by all
our faculties ; and it divides itself accordingly into the
function of teaching, which bears on the mind; ''the
singing in grace " of thankfulness, which comes from
and goes to the heart ; and the " doing all in the name
of Christ," which belongs to the outer sphere of action.

Psalms and hymns.— The ascription to these of
an office of " teaching and admonition " describes what
is their real, though indirect, effect. In the Church, as in
the world, he who " makes a people's songs " really guides
their minds as well as their hearts. For good and for
evil the hymns of the Christian Church have largely
influenced her theology.

f1?) All in the name of the Lord Jesus.—
Comp. here the more general exhortation of 1 Cor. x.
31, " Whether ye eat or drink, or whatever ye do, do
all to the glory of God." This is the first principle
of all godly life. The main object of all life, speculative
or practical, is declared to be, not our own happiness or
perfection, not the good of our fellow-men. but the
" glory of God " — the carrying out of His will, and so
manifesting His moral attributes. We are taught that
if we " seek this first, all the other things shall be added
unto us." But here we have the principle, not only of
godly life, but of Christian life. It does all " in the
name of Christ," that is, as conformed to His image,
and so being His representative ; it looks up thankfully
to God oui4 Father, but it is through Him, " having our
sonship by adoption " through His all-sufficient media-
tion. Its desire is, not only that God may be glorified,
but that " He may be glorified through Jesus Christ"
(1 Pet. iv. 11). Once more we trace here the special
and emphatic purpose of the Epistle.

Chap. iii. 18 — iv. 1 deals with the three great rela-
tions of life — between wives, and husbands, children '■

and parents, servants and master's. In this section wo
have the closest parallelism with the Epistle to the
Ephesians (chaps, v. 22 — vi. 9). But the treatment of
the first relation is far briefer, having nothing to-
correspond to the grand and chai-acteristic comparison!
of marriage to the union between Christ and tho
Church. Even in the second there is somewhat greater
brevity and simplicity. The third is dwelt upon with
marked coincidence of language, and at least equal
emphasis. We can hardly doubt that the presence of
Onesimus, the runaway slave, suggested this peculiai-
emphasis on the right relation between the slave and
his master.

[It will only be necessary to note the few points in
which this section differs notably from the parallel
passage.]

[6. Special Exhortation as to the relations
of life.

(1) The Duty of Wives and Husbands (verses

18, 19).

(2) The Duty of Children and Parents

(verses 20, 21).

(3) The Duty of Slaves and Masters (chaps.

iii. 22— iv. 1).]

<18) As it is fit in the Lord.— For the explanation
of this special fitness " in the Lord," i.e., in virtue of
Christian unity, see the grand description iof Eph. v.
23, 24, 32, 33.

(19) Be not bitter. — Properly, grow not bitter, suffer
not yourselves to be exasperated. The word is used
metaphorically only in this passage, literallv in Rev. viii.
11 ; x. 9, 10.

(21) Provoke not . . . to anger.— This, in the
text followed by our version, is borrowed from Eph. vi. 4.
The true reading is provoke to emulation, as in 2 Cor.
ix. 2. What is forbidden is a constant and restless
stimulation, " spurring the willing horse ; " which will
end in failure and despondency.

(22-25) Compare throughout Eph. vi. 5—9. The only
peculiarity of this passage is the strong emphasis laid
on " the reward of the inheritance." " The reward " is in
the original, a perfect recompense or requital. The " in-
heritance " is exactly that which no slave could receive ;
only a son could be an heir (Gal. iv. 7). Hence the
slave on earth is recognised as a son in heaven. He
" serves the Lord," but his service is the perfect
freedom of sonship.

(25) He that doeth wrong is clearly here the

Exhortation to Prayer

COLOSSIANS, IV.

and Watchfulness.

CHAPTER IV. — (^ Masters, give

unto your servants that which is just

and equal; knowing that ye also have

a Master in heaven. W Continue in

prayer, and watch in the

»&&££ ™™.™th thanks^ing;

tion to prayer (3) withal praying also for
nel WatChtUl" US' that God WOuld °Pen

unto us a door of utter-
ance, to speak the mystery of Christ,
for which I am also in bonds : W that
I may make it manifest, as I ought
to speak. ^ Walk in wisdom toward
them that are without, redeeming the
time. ^ Let your speech he alway
with grace, seasoned with salt, that ye

may know how ye ought to answer every
man. W All my state shall Tychicus
declare unto you, who is
a beloved brother, and a Commendation

faithful minister and fel- of Tychicus and

lowservant in the Lord: 0nesimus-
(8) whom I have sent unto you for the
same purpose, that he might know your
estate, and comfort your hearts ; (9) with
Onesimus, a faithful and beloved
brother, who is one of you. They shall
make known unto you all things which
are done here. <10) Aristarchus my fel-
lowprisoner saluteth you, Chap. iv. 10—
and Marcus, sister's son to J4 Salutation

-^ , ,11. i ironi bt. Paul s

.Barnabas, (touching whom fellow-workers.

master (see Eph. vi. 9), though, of course, the phrase
cannot be limited to him.

IV.

(!) Just and equal.— The word " equal," or, rather,
the substantive so translated, has the sense either of
" equity " or " equality." The former is far commoner
(especially in connection with justice), and probably all
that is intended here. At the same time, the idea run-
ning through the passage is of a common fellow-service to
Christ of all alike, and in chap. iii. 11 we are reminded
that " in Christ Jesus there is neither bond nor free."
Perhaps, therefore, St. Paul desired that his readers
should remember that in some points all are literally
-equal before God.

[7. Conclusion of the Epistle.

(1) Final Exhortation to prayer (especially for
St. Paul himself), and to wisdom towards those
without, both in deed and in word (verses
2—6).

(2) Commendation of Tychicus and Onesimus

(verses 7 — 9).

(3) Salutation from Aristarchus, Marcns, Jus-

tus, Epaphras, Luke, Demas (verses 10 — 14).

(4) Charge to this Church to exchange greetings

and letters with the Laodicean Church, and
special charge to Archippus (verses 15 — 17).

(5) Final Salutation (verse 18).]

(2—4) Comp. the almost exact parallel in Eph. vi.
18 — 20, and see Notes there.

(3) A door of utterance.— Comp. a similar phrase
in 1 Cor. xvi. 9 ; 2 Cor. ii. 12. There, howevei', the
opened door is the door of external opportunity ; here
the " door of utterance " is the removal of all internal
impediments to preaching.

(5) Walk in wisdom . . . redeeming the
time. — In the parallel passage (Eph. v. 15) we have
" walk strictly, not as fools, but as wise," and the
limitation " towards them that are without " is omitted,
although it is added that "the days are evil." The
context, as will be seen by reference, is different, and
the idea also somewhat different. There the " strict-
ness " and " wisdom " are to guard against excess or
recklessness within ; hei-e the " wisdom " is to watch
against external dangers and make full use of external
opportunities.

(6) Seasoned with salt.— It seems impossible not
to trace here a reference to our Lord's words in Mark

ix. 50, " Salt is good : but if the salt have lost his salt-
ness, wherewith will ye season it ? Have salt in
yourselves." There the salt is spoken of as the
preservative from, corruption, and the warning against
"corrupt" words in Eph. iv. 29 has been thought to
point in the same direction. But the context appears
certainly to suggest that the use of the salt is to teach
" how to answer every man," and that this answer (like
the " reason," or defence, of 1 Pet. iii. 15) is to be
given to "those without." Probably, therefore, the
"seasoning with salt" is to provide against insipidity
(thus according to some extent with the classic usage of
the word). Their speech is to be primarily " with grace,''
kindled by the true life of Christian grace in it ; secon-
darily, however, it is to have good sense and point, so
as to be effective for the inquirer or against the
scoffer.

(7, 8) These verses present an almost exact verbal
coincidence with Eph. vi. 21, 22, on which see Notes. In
the verses, however, which follow, the particularity and
detail of this Epistle stand in marked contrast with
the brief generality of Eph. vi. 23, 24. Remembering
that the two Epistles were sent at the same time, and
that Ephesus was a church far better known than
Colossse, we cannot but regard this as supporting the
idea of an encyclical character in our Epistle to the
Ephesians.

(9) Onesimus.— See Philem. verses 10 — 17. The
emphatic reference to him as being " faithful and be-
loved " like Tychicus, and "one of you" like Epaphras,
is a remarkable commentary on St. Paul's exhortation
as to slaves and masters in the preceding chapter.

(10) Aristarchus my fellowprisoner. —Ap-
parently a Jew, one " of the circumcision." But he is
" of Thessalonica," and is first named (in Acts xix. 22)
as dragged with Gaius into the theatre in the tumult at
Ephesus ; thence he accompanied St. Paul (Acts xx. 4),
at any rate as far as Asia, on his journey to Jerusalem.
When, after two years' captivity, the Apostle starts
from Caesarea on liis voyage to Rome, Aristarchus is
again named by St. Luke as " being with us " (Acts
xxvii. 2). From this fact, and from his being called
here " my fellow-prisoner " (a name which there seems
no adequate reason to consider as metaphorical), it would
appear that, whether voluntarily or involuntarily,
Aristarchus really shared his captivity. It is certainly
not a little curious that in the Epistle to Philemon
(verses 23, 24). sent at the same time, it is Epaphras
who is called the fellow-prisoner," while Aristarchus is

116

Salutations from t/ie Brethren,

COLOSSIANS, IV.

specially from Epaphrat.

ye received commandments : if he
come unto you, receive him;) Ctt) and
Jesus, which is called Justus, who are
of the circumcision. These only are my
fellow-workers unto the kingdom of God,
which have been a comfort unto me.
<12) Epaphras, who is one of you, a servant
of Christ, saluteth you, always labour-

1 Or, striving.

2 Or, filled.

ing J fervently for you in prayers, that
ye may stand perfect and complete 2 in
aU the will of God. <l3> For I bear him
record, that he hath a great zeal for
you, and them that are in Laodicea, and
them in Hierapolis. <u) Luke, the be-
loved physician, and Demas, greet you.
<15> Salute the brethren which are in

simply classed among the fellow-labourers." This
variation is interesting to us as one of the characteristic
marks of independence and genuineness in the Epistles ;
but it can only be accounted for by mere conjecture,
such as that of their alternately sharing the Apostle's
captivity.

Marcus, sister's son to Barnabas.— The notices
of John Mark in the New Testament are full of
interest. This is the first notice of him since the day
when St. Paul rejected him from his function of
" ministration," because on the former journey he had
" deserted " them at Perga, and had " not gone with
them to the work " (Acts xv. 38). Then he had gone
with Barnabas to Cyprus, to take part in an easier
work, nearer home and under the kindly guardianship
of his uncle. Now the formal charge to the Colossian
Church to " receive him " — a kind of " letter of com-
mendation" (2 Cor. iii. 1) — evidently shows that
they had known of him as under St. Paul's displeasure,
and were now to learn that he had seen reason to restore
him to his confidence. In the Epistle to Philemon
Mark is named, as of course (verse 24), among his
" fellow-labourers." In St. Paul's last Epistle, written
almost with a dying hand (2 Tim. iv. 11), there is a
touch of peculiar pathos in the charge which he, left
alone in prison with his old companion St. Luke, gives
to Timothy to bring Mark, as now being right service-
able for the " ministration " from which he had once
rejected him. Evidently St. Paul's old rebuke had
done its work, and, if Mark did join him in his last
hours, he probably thanked him for nothing so much
as for the loving sternness of days gone by. Before
this, if (as seems likely) he is the " Marcus, my son "
of 1 Pet. v. 13, he was with St. Peter, and must be
identified with St. Mark the Evangelist, subsequently,
as tradition has it, bishop and martyr at Alexandria.

(U) Jesus, which is called Justus.— The surname
" Justus " is found in Acts i. 23 ; xviii. 7 ; we learn
from tradition that by it, or by its equivalent, St.
James, " the Lord's brother," was known. In this case
it is curious that one who bore our Lord's name should
also have been known by a surname which was His
peculiar title. " the Just One." (See Acts xxii. 14 ; and
comp. Luke xxiii. 47.) Of this Justus there is no other
notice, not even in the Epistle to Philemon, in which
all the other names recur.

Who are of the circumcision. These only
• • .—The juxtaposition of the two notices seems to
indicate— what is in itself likely— that the brethren who
held aloof from St. Paul in " strife and envy," and
whose conduct produced that sense of isolation of
which he speaks so pathetically in Phil. ii. 20, were " of
the circumcision." Out of them, only Aristarchus,
Mark, and Justus were true fellow-workers, and as
such " a comfort " to the Apostolic labourer.

<12) Epaphras.— See Note on chap. i. 7.

Servant of Christ.— A title assumed by St. James
and St. Jade, as well as by St. Paul himself, but given
by him only to Timothy (Phil. i. 1) and to Epaphras

here. Of course, all Christians are " servants of
Christ." But the name, as applied here, is no doubt
distinctive of some peculiar character of service.

Labouring fervently.— Properly, wrestling in
agony of prayer. (See Rom. xv. 30.)

Perfect and complete.— The word here found in
the best MSS. for " complete " is used in Rom.
iv. 21, xiv. 5, for " fully convinced" or "persuaded."
This is probably, though not perhaps necessarily, its
meaning here. In the two epithets — perfect and fully
established in conviction — we may again trace, as
before, reference to the pretensions of the Gnostic
teachers to exclusive perfection in wisdom. St. Paul's
true fellow-worker, like himself, prays that this
perfection may belong to all, and that it may have its
basis not in the secrets of heavenly knowledge, but in
the revealed " will of God."

(13) On the natural union of Laodicea and Hierapolis
with Colossae, partly local and historical, partly, no
doubt, having reference to their conversion by the same
instrumentality (of Epaphras), see Note on chap. ii. 1
and Introduction. Epaphras is said to have great
" zeal " (properly, great labour) of anxiety — finding vent
in the wrestling in prayer noted above — for all three
cities, for which he evidently still felt himself responsible.
In such responsibility, as in the charges of Timothy and
Titus, we see the link between the apostolate of thi9
period and the episcopacy of the future.

(14> Luke, the beloved physician, and Demas. —
Comp. Philem. verso 24. The original is even more
emphatic, " Luke the physician, the beloved one."
Demas, on the contrary, is barely named. It is impos-
sible not to pass on in thought to the last notice of the
two by St. Paul (2 Tim. iv. 10), " Demas hath forsaken
me, having loved this present world .... only Luke
is with me."

On the relation of St. Luke to St. Paul, see Intro-
duction to the Acts. Here we need only remark that
the emphatic mention of him as " the beloved physician"
suggests the idea that it was both as physician and as
friend that St. Luke, now, as in the last captivity, was
with the Apostle. Though the captivity was not, ac-
cording to ancient ideas, severe, it must have told upon
his weak and shattered health.

(15) The brethren which are in Laodicea.—
The comparison of this phrase with the more general
" church of the Laodiceans " below has led to the idea
that some special body of Christians — Dr. Lightfoot
suggests a " family of Colossian Christians " — at
Laodicea is here referred to. But more probably the
whole of the Laodicean Christians are meant in both
passages. In their individual character they are " the
brethren in Laodicea ; " when they are gathered to hear
the Epistles they are the " Church (literally, the
Christian assembly) of Laodicea."

And Nymphas.— There is a curious variety of
reading here. Some MSS. have, as in our version,
" the church in his house ; " some, " in her house ; "
i the best reading seems to be "in their house." The
117

Message to Laodicea.

COLOMBIANS, IV.

The Letter from Laodicea/,

Laodicea, and Nymphas, and the
Chap. iv. 15— church which is in his

Chargt
the Church and

to iiouse. (16>And when this
to Archippus. epistle is read among you,

cause that it be read also in the church
of the Laodiceans; and that ye like-
wise read the epistle from Laodicea,
<17' And say to Archippus, Take heed to

second of these readings would make the name
" Nyinpha," instead of " Nymphas," with which the
form of the original hardly agrees. The last reading
< front which the common reading of our version is pro-
bably a correction) must refer, in the word " their," to
Nymphas and his family. Of Nymphas we know
nothing, except from this passage. He is obviously a
man of importance, a centre of Church life, in the
Christian community at Laodicea.

The church which is in his house.— This
phrase is found elsewhere only as applied to " Aquila
and Priscilla " (Rom. xvi. 5 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 19), and to
Philemon (Philem. verse 2). Of these Aquila and
Priscilla are notable Christian teachers (as of
Apostles, Acts xviii. 26) < and confessors (Rom. xvi. 4) ;
and Philemon is spoken of as a " beloved fellow-
labourer," and one in whom " the saints are refreshed "
(Philem. verses 1, 7). Hence this " church in the house "
is seen to have gathered only round persons of some
mark and leadership. The houses sanctifioti by such
gatherings were the parents of the material churches
of the future.

Since the word " church " means nothing more than
" general assembly," it is obviously capable of definition
only by the context. If undefined it is universal — the
whole Catholic Church of Christ — otherwise it is civic,
as is most common ; or domestic, as here. Since the
units of society were then the family and the city — not
the country, or province — we read not of the church,
but of the " churches " of Achaia, or Galatia, or Mace-
donia. National churches there could not be ; for nations,
as we understand the term, did not exist. Afterwards,
when the Church was fully organised, it is well known
that the ecclesiastical divisions ("parish," "diocese,"
<&c.,) still followed the civil.

(16) When this epistle.— In the implied direction
to read this Epistle in the Church — a direction ex-
pressly given under like circumstances to the Church
at Thessalonica (1 Thess. v. 27) — we discern the method
of first publication of the Apostolic Epistles; in the
direction to interchange Epistles with the Laodicean
Church, we trace the way in which these Epistles became
more widely diffused, and recognised as authoritative in
the Church at large. Thus it was that they were
" canonised," i.e., accepted as a part of the " canon " or
rule of divine truth. The likelihood, or unlikelihood,
of this public reading has an important bearing on the
question of the authenticity of some of the books,
which were placed among the " doubtful " by Eusebius
and other ancient authorities. The fact that other
books (such as our so-called Apocryphal books) were
also publicly read was the cause of their being wrongly
confused with the books of Holy Scripture.

The epistle from Laodicea.— The question,
What was this "Epistle from Laodicea " ? has given birth
to a crowd of conjectures, of which an admirable and
exhaustive examination will be found in Dr. Lightfoot's
Excursus on this verse. But many of these may be at
once dismissed. It seems perfectly clear, from the
obvious parallelism of this Epistle from Laodicea
with the Epistle to the Colossians itself, that it was a
letter not from the Laodicean Church, not from any
other Apostle, or Apostolic writer, but from St. Paul
himself, either written at Laodicea, or (as is more

likely) written to the Laodicean Church, and to be sent
" from Laodicea " to Colossae. Hence the question is
narrowed to a single alternative — (1) Is it an Epistle
which has been lost, or, at any rate, not found in the
canon ? This is, of course, possible ; it cannot be
necessary, as it is certainly difficult, to suppose that all
St. Paul's Epistles have been preserved to us in Holy
Scripture. Now, there is extant an "Epistle to the
Laodiceans," circulated in the West, and known only
in the Latin, although it has been thought to bear
traces of translation from a Greek original. This
letter (for which see Excursus B.) is obviously a
forgery, probably not of early date, being little more
than a tame compilation of phrases from St. Paul's
Epistles. Putting this unhesitatingly aside, we may
suppose the letter to have been lost. But this is a
supposition merely arbitrary, and not to be adopted,
except in default of something which has a better-
claim to attention. (2) Is it some other of St. Paul's
known Epistles P The only letter which is noticed in
our ordinary copies of the Greek Testament as written
from Laodicea is the First Epistle to Timothy ; but
this is put out of the question, both in date and
character ; and, moreover, the very idea of a letter
written from Laodicea at this time is negatived by St.
Paul's declaration (chap. ii. 1) that the Laodiceans
had not seen his face in the flesh. A fourth century
tradition declares our "Epistle to the Hebrews" to
have been written to the Laodiceans ; but (setting
aside all question of the authorship) the whole
character and argument of the Epistle make this
extremely unlikely. Ear the most probable supposition
identifies it with our " Epistle to the Ephesians." Foi
the reasons for supposing this an encyclical letter, see
Introduction to that Epistle. In particular it should
not be forgotten that Marcion expressly calls it an
" Epistle to the Laodiceans." Laodicea lay lower down
the valley, and was the larger town : an encyclical letter
might well be left there to be sent on to Colossae. The
two Epistles, as we have seen, have both strong likeness
and marked distinction. Nothing could be more natural
than that they should be interchanged, according to the
direction of the text.

(1?) Say to Archippus. — Archippus is included in
the salutation of the Epistle to Philemon (verse 1) ap-
parently as a member of his family, and is generally
thought to have been his son. He held a " ministry "
in the Church. The word is the same as the word
" diaconate," but it is obviously used iu a more general
sense, precisely as in the charge to Timothy (2 Tim. iv.
5), " Make full proof of thy ministry ; " and the whole
tone of the passage here suggests that, like Timothy's,
it was a ministry of some prominence in the Church.
Tradition makes him afterwards a bishop of Laodicea ;
it is likely enough that he had that leadership among
the presbyters, from which the episcopate was developed
at tne close of the Apostolic period. Wliether this
was at Colossae — his father's native place — or Laodicea,
cannot be gathered with any certainty from the context.
The exhortation comes in close connection with Lao-
dicea ; yet, on the other hand, it seems strange to send
through one church a message to a chief pastor of
another. In any case this indirect transmission of
a charge is curious, standing in marked contrast with

118

Charge to Archippus.

COLOSSIANS, IV.

Final Salutation.

the ministry" which thou hast received
in the Lord, that thou
Chap. iv._ is. fulfil it. (is) The salutation

Final
tion

saluta

by the hand of me Paul.

Eemember my bonds. Grace be with
you. Amen.

5[ Written from Rome to the Colossians by
Tychicus and Onesimus.

the direct personal addresses of the Philippian Epistle
(Phil. iv. •_'. 3 .

Which thou hast received in the Lord.—
Properly, which thou dost receive. The probability
seems to be that he received it from St. Paul, or
perhaps Epaphras. The phrase is " in the Lord," not
" from the Lord." Contrast Gal. i. 12, " I received it
not from man, neither was I taught but by revelation
of Jesus Christ."

(18) The salutation by the hand of me Paul.—
Comp. 2 Thess. iii. 17, " The salutation by the hand of
me Paul, which is the token in every Epistle." This
invariable autograph salutation was " Grace be with
you " in various forms, from the brevity of the text
here to the fulness of 2 Cor. xiii. 15, which has become
the universal Christian blessing. In different epistles
it is associated with different phrases of blessing; or
charge. Thus we read in 1 Cor. xvi. 22, " If any man

love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be anathema."
In the Epistle to the Galatians the autograph conclusion
is expanded into a long postscript (chap. vi. 11 — 18).
This may have been the case in the cognate conclusion
(chaps, x. — xiii.) of the Second Epistle to the
Corinthians, possibly from the words, " Now I
Paul myself," &c. Here there is the simple and
touching addition —

Remember my bonds.— In what spirit they were
to be remembered we may gather from Eph. iii. 13;
vi. 20; Phil. i. 13; ii. 17. St. Paul evidently does not
disdain to use his captivity as an appeal for sympathy
(see Philem. verse 9) ; but mainly he dwells on it as
a " glory " both to himself and to his converts. In
both these different aspects it may be that he regarded
it himself, according as he looked upon it " after the
flesh " in the natural feeling of humanity, or " after the
spirit," in the higher power of the grace of God.

118

EXCURSUS ON NOTES TO COLOSSIANS.

EXCURSUS A: RELATION OF THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS TO GNOSTICISM.

It is not intended in this Excursus to attempt any
description of the actual historical developments of
those singular phases of opinion, classed roughly under
the name of " Gnosticism " (on which see Nean-
der's Church History, Sect. IV.), or any imitation of
Dr. Lightfoot's exhaustive and scholarly investigation
of the connections in detail, between the form of specu-
lative and practical heresy denounced by St. Paul at
Colossse, and the tenets of the various Gnostic systems.
Por the purposes of this Commentary it will be sufficient
to inquire generally —

(1) What is the fundamental principle of Gnos-
ticism ?

(2) What were the chief problems with which it
dealt ?

(3) How far it could, in its early stages, reasonably
ally itself with the Judaic system ?

(4) What was its early relation to Christianity ?

(1) Gnosticism, as the name implies, is the absolute
devotion to Gnosis, or " knowledge." It is, of course,
obvious that " knowledge," as it is the natui-al delight
of man as man, so also is sanctioned by the Apostles
themselves — by none more emphatically than St. Paul,
and nowhere more emphatically by him than in
the Epistles of the Captivity — as one of the signs and
means of the growth of the spiritual life in the image
of Christ. In every one of the Epistles of this period
St. Paul earnestly desires for his converts progress in
knowledge. (See for example Eph. i. 17 ; Phil. i. 9;
Col. i. 9.) It was, therefore, perfectly in accordance
with Apostolic teaching that Clement of Alexandria
and his school extolled the "true Gnostic," as repre-
senting some of the higher phrases of spiritual life, and
reflecting in some senses, more distinctly than others,
the likeness of the mind of God in Christ Jesus. But
St. Paid, while he thus delights in true knowledge, also
speaks (1 Tim. vi. 20) of a " knowledge falsely so
called," and by this expression appears to brand with
condemnation the spirit of what is commonly called
Gnosticism. Where then lay the distinction between
the false and the true " knowledge ? "

In two points especially. First, Gnosticism exalted
knowledge to an unwarranted supremacy in the Chris-
tian life. It made Christianity a philosophy, rather
than a religion; as if its chief internal effect was
enlightenment of the understanding rather than re-
generation of the life, and its chief desire, in rising above
self, was to discover abstract truths about God and man,
rather than to know God Himself, with " all the heart,
all the soul, and all the strength," as well as " all the
mind." Thus it fatally disturbed the true harmony of
the speculative, the practical, and the devotional
elements of the spiritual life. Energy in practical
service, and love in devotion, it considered as good
enough for the mass of men, but knowledge as the one
mark of " the perfect." Like all philosophies, it was
aristocratic ; for in work and in worship all might take

their place, but only the few thinkers could "burst into
the silent sea " of the higher speculation. There, by
the esoteric doctrine, known only to the initiated, they
believed themselves to be set apart from the ordinary
Christians, for whom the exoteric or popular and im-
perfect teaching might suffice ; and sometimes conceived
that, with the higher mystic knowledge, they might
gain also mysterious powers, and mysterious means of
approach to a divine communion, unknown to others.

Secondly, Gnosticism also departed from the Apos-
tolic teaching in relation to its method of knowledge.
St. Paul describes, in a celebrated passage of the
Epistle to the Ephesians, the process of the true know-
ledge of God. He prays for the Ephesians thus : " that
Christ may dwell in your hearts by faith, that ye,
being rooted and grounded in love, may be able to
comprehend . . . and know the love of Christ which
passeth knowledge, tliat ye might be filled with (or
rather, up to) all -the fulness of God." The order
is here profoundly significant. The knowledge, being a
knowledge of a Personal God, revealed to us in Jesus
Christ, begins in faith — a faith which knows indeed in
whom it believes, but then believes on Him, as having
"the words of eternal life." It is next deepened by
love, called out by the infinite love of God in Christ,
naturally manifesting itself, partly in adoration, partly
in active service, and by both coming to know more and
more what still passes complete knowledge. Finally,
even in its ultimate growth, it is still in some sense the
receiving of a divine light, which pours in, and fills
the soul with the revelation of God. It does not fill
itself, but it " is filled up to all the fulness of God."
Doubtless in all this the energy of the soul itself is im-
plied— first to believe, then to love and to work, lastly
to open itself to the divine truth ! but it is throughout
subordinate. ' If ever St. Paul allows it to be said, " Ye
have known God," he adds the correction at once, " or
rather are known of God." The process of Gnosticism
was fundamentally different. Faith (it thought) was-
well for the vulgar; love, especially as shown in
practice, was all they could hope to add to faith. But
the Gnostic, accepting perhaps the vantage ground of
ordinary gospel truth, took his stand on it, first to gaze,
then to speculate, then to invent, in his own intellectual
strength — now by profound thought, now by wild in-
genuity of fancy, now by supposed mystic visions. As
usual in such cases, he mixed up what he thought he saw
with what he went on to infer by pure speculation, and
turned what were simple speculations, probable or im-
probable, into professed discoveries of truth. Nothing
is more notable in the full-grown Gnostic theories than
the extraordinary luxuriance and arbitrariness of specu-
lations, which, like the cycles and epicycles of the old
Ptolemaic astronomy, stand self-condemned by their
artificial ingenuity.

Now, it is clear that Gnosticism so viewed, although
its full development waited for a later period, belongs in

120

COLOSSl'ANS.

essence to all times. It arose again and again, in con-
nection with Christianity, whenever the gospel had won
its way to a position of such supremacy over actual life
as to challenge speculation. This it had certainly done
at the close of St. Paul's Apostolic career, in all the
civilised world of Asiatic, Greek, and Roman thought ;
but perhaps nowhere more strikingly than in the
provinces of Asia Minor, the ancient home of Greek
speculation, and now the common meeting-ground of
"Western philosophy and Eastern mysticism, and in the
famous city of Alexandria, where Greek and Jewish
ideas had long been inextricably blended together. As
we may trace its modern counterpart in much of the
scientific and metaphysical speculation of our own day,
so also it is but natural that it should emerge even in
the earliest times, when the gospel confronted a highly
cultivated and inquisitive civilisation. "Whatever truth
there may be in the old traditions that Simon Magus
was the first Guostic, it is, at least, clear that the germs
of Gnosticism lay in Ins view of Christianity, recog-
nising in it a mystic power and wisdom greater than
his own, but ignoring its moral and spiritual regeneration
of the soul.

(2) The great subjects of Gnostic speculation, under
all its strange and fantastic varieties, were again the
two great questions which at all times occupy the
human mind. The first is speculative. "What is the
relation between the Infinite and the Finite, the Abso-
lute and the Phenomenal, the First Cause and the
actual Universe !J The second is moral. "What is the
nature and origin of the Evil, both physical and moral,
which forces itself upon our notice, as a disturbing ele-
ment in a world essentially good and beautiful ? and how
can we explain its permitted antagonism to the First
Cause, which is presumably good? To these two
fundamental questions, belonging to all time, were
added two others belonging to the centuries just before
and just after the manifestation of the Lord Jesus
Christ. What place is to be assigned to the Jewish
dispensation in the philosophy of God and Man P
What are the character and significance of the Incar-
nation, which is the central Christian mystery ?

With regard to the first question, Gnosticism uni-
versally accepted the conception of an Eternal God,
sometimes recognised, whether vividly or dimly, as a
Person, sometimes looked on as a mere depth (Bythos)
or abyss of Impersonal Being. But it insisted that,
in respect of the work of Creation of the world and of
humanity, in the government of the world and in the
manifestation of Himself to Man, God was pleased, or
was by His Nature forced, to act through inferior beings,
all receiving of His Pleroma (or, " fulness ") in different
degrees of imperfection, and connected with Him in
different degrees of nearness through "endless gene-
alogies." These emanations might be regarded as per-
sonal, such as the " Angels of God," the " Word of
God," the " Spirit of God " ; they might be half-
personal, like the Moris of later speculation ; they
might be, where Platonism was strong, even the Ideas
or Attributes of God, gathered up in the Logos. But
it was through these emanations that the Supreme God
made and sustained the world, created man as at once
material, animal {psychic), and spiritual, and manifested
Himself to man in different ages.

Next, in relation to the Moral Problem of \the Exis-
tence of Evil, Gnosticism seems to have oscillated
between the idea of a direct Dualism, wherever the
Persian influence predominated, and the conception of
a dead-weight of resistance to the Will of God, where-
ever Monotheistic influence, especially Jewish influence,

drove out the more pronounced conceptions of Dualism.
But almost, if not quite, universally it traced the origin
of evil to matter, conceived probably as eternal, certainly
as independent, if not of the Supreme God, at any rate
of the Creative Emanations, or of the One Being called
the Demiurgus, or " Great Workman," to whom the
Creative was in most cases assigned. Those who were,
or continued to be, " material," enslaved to matter, were
hopelessly evil ; those who were " psychical," having,
that is, the soul of emotion and lower understanding as
distinct from the spirit, were in a condition of imper-
fection, but with hope of rising to spirituality; those-
who were spiritual, and they only, were free from all
evil, capable of communion with the Supreme God.
The first class were the world ; the second the mass-
of the religious ; the last were the possessors of the
higher knowledge. On what should be the end of this
condition of imperfection and conflict, there was division
of opinion. But a consummation either of conquest of
evil, or of absorption into the Divine Pleroma, was
looked for by all. In the meanwhile the Demiurgus,
or the Creative powers of the world, were regarded,
sometimes as rebellious, sometimes as blinded by igno-
rance, sometimes as simply finite and therefore imper-
fect; and to these qualities in them were traced the
sin, the blindness, or the imperfection of the present
dispensation.

From this conception of matter as the source of evil,,
and therefore of the body as the evil element in our
nature, followed two rival and directly antagonistic
conclusions as to the appetites and passions, and the
view which the spiritual man should take of them and
of the objects by which they were satisfied. The nobler
conclusion was, in accordance with the purer Oriental
religions, and the highest Platonic philosophy, that the-
body was simply a hindrance, a prison-house, a dead
weight, a cause of blindness or dimness to the spiritual
eye ; and hence was to be kept under by a rigid asceti-
cism, mortifying all its desires, and preserving the
sph'itual man, as much as possible, from any contact with
the material. The other — perhaps the more common,
certainly the ignobler — conclusion was that the indul-
gence of the body could not pollute any spirit, which was
sustained by the higher knowledge, and, therefore, that
what common opinion held to be " a shame " was to the
spiritual man " a glory," showing that the most sensual
and reckless profligacy was to him a thing absolutely
trivial and indifferent. It is obvious that these two>
rival theories would take up, and invest with a philo-
sophical completeness, the ordinary tendencies repre-
sented by Pharisaism, on the one hand, and by Anti-
nomianism on the other. Possibly by the natural law
of reaction, the two extremes might often meet, in the
same system, and even in the same individual.

A glance at these subjects will again show that
Gnosticism, as in its principles, so in its chief problems,
belongs to all times, and is essentially independent
both of Judaism and Christianity. It was most
natural that the claim of these problems to attention
should assert itself in the later periods of the first
century, even in reaction against the prosaic and prac-
tical systems of Stoicism and Epicureanism, then domi-
nant in ordinary Roman thought, and, however opposed to
each other, at least united in a contemptuous discourage-
ment of all abstract speculation, especially in things
divine. No home could be more congenial to such
inquiries than the classic soil of philosophic speculation
in Ephesus and the other cities of Asia, or the learned
atmosphere of eclecticism which pervaded the Alexan-
drine school.

COLOSSIANS.

(3) But there were, as has been said above, two
questions which presented themselves to the special
forms of Gnosticism dominant at this period, and of
these the first was of the relation of Gnostic theories
to the Old Testament and the Jewish dispensation.

Now, in Judaism there was, on the one hand, much
to attract the Gnostic. In it he found the one great
living system of Monotheism, setting forth the absolute
and infinite Godhead as the Eternal Source of being,
invisible and incomprehensible to man ; so infinitely
above all creatures that His very Name was too sacred
to be pronounced by human lips. In it he also found,
or could easily develop, the doctrine of angelic inter-
vention, in the creation and the guidance of nature, in
the intercourse of God with man, even in the govern-
ment of human history, and the protection both of
individuals and of races. The peculiar privilege of
a chosen people, easily represented as belonging to
them simply through a higher knowledge, and not less
easily transferred as an inheritance to a spiritual Israel
of the enlightened and perfect, supplied the element of
exclusiveness inherent in all Gnostic systems ; and
all the ordinances of ritual, of typical sacrifices, and
ceremonial purity, readily lent themselves to the con-
ception of a certain mystic consecration of the privi-
leged, who might be a " royal priesthood," a prophetic
and saintly order, before God, as distinct from " the
people, who knew not the mystic law," and were
" accursed." Nor would he omit to notice in the
Sapiential books of the Old Testament — such as Job,
Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes — the exaltation of Wisdom,
as distinct from faith and holiness, to a supreme
place ; and he would find that round the memory of
the Wise Man had grown up a whole crowd of legends
of mystic lore, of supernatural insight, and of an equally
supernatural power over the world of angels and of
demons. So far. the Gnostic might find in the Jewish
dispensation, freely handled after the manner of Alex-
andria, much that would give a kind of backbone of
solidity to his vague and artificial speculations.

On the other hand, Gnosticism was repelled from all
that element in the Jewish dispensation which is
ordinarily called the " Theocracy," placing God in
direct relation to the ordinary life of Israel, manifest-
ing Him in the local sanctity of the Tabernacle or the
Temple, honouring Him with physical sacrifice, setting
forth His will in the clear and prosaic ordinances of
the Law, dealing with all the people as a body, and as in
many points equal before Him. For all this placed
the Infinite Godhead in a direct, and, as it seemed to
the Gnostic, an unworthy or an impossible contact, not
only with man, but with that common life, that visible
and tangible sphere of man's being, which he utterly
despised. To some extent it could be got rid of, as at
Alexandria, by allegorical interpretations, and by the
impositions on the most prosaic text of mystic mean-
ings, known only to the initiated, and handed down in
secret "traditions of men." But where these failed,
Gnosticism had a more sweeping remedy. It was to
ascribe the whole system literally to the " disposition of
angels," to attribute all that was carnal in Judaism to
the inferior Demiurgus, perhaps imperfectly minister-
ing the will of the Supreme God, perhaps becoming
himself the God of the Jewish nation and of the Old
Testament; in either case, giving a dispensation fit
only in itself for the lower psychical life, needing to be
sublimed by the spiritual into a hidden wisdom, " a
secret treasure of wisdom and knowledge." Hereafter,
when the Demiurgus came to be considered as antago-
nistic to the spiritual will of the Supreme God, this

conception (as in the hands, for example, of Marcion)
developed into an absolute hatred of Judaism, as a
system entirely carnal, idolatrous, antagonistic to
spiritual truth, and to the gospel so far as it was
■spiritual. But for this, in the first century, the time
was not come. As yet, the growing power of Gnos-
ticism treated Judaism as an ally, though perhaps in
some degree a subject ally, in the victorious advance of
its 'daring speculation.

Now, it has been shown, as with remarkable clearness
by Dr. Lightfoot (in his Introduction to the Colossian
Epistle, § 2), that some such alliance is actually trace-
able in the strange Jewish brotherhood of the Essenes —
marked as it was (by consent of all authorities) by a
rigid asceticism, " forbidding to marry, and commanding
to abstain from meats ; " by a denial of the resurrection
of the body, as being a mere hindrance to the spiritual
condition of the hereafter ; by an abstinence from all
sacrifices, as involving pollution, and perhaps as mere
carnal ordinances ; by mystic speculations as to the
nature of the Godhead, and " the names of the angels,"
and by occasional claim of supernatural powers of
magic ; by the jealous preservation of secret traditions,
and by a careful separation of the initiated from the
mass of their fellow-Israelites.

The chosen home of the Essenes, of whom we have
detailed accounts, was in Palestine, on the borders of
the Dead Sea. But it is hardly likely that so remark-
able a movement should have confined itself to any
single locality. Certainly in Alexandria, in the tenets
of the sect of the Therapeutce-, and in the teaching of
Alexandrian Judaism, there was much of essential
similarity to the Essenic system. Now, in close con-
nection with our Epistle we notice the presence in Asia
Minor of disciples of St. John Baptist, adheiing, in-
deed, to " the way of the Lord." but knowing nothing
of the " baptism of the Lord Jesus " (Acts xix. 1 — 7).
These would come naturally from Palestine, perhaps
from " the wilderness of Judaea," where John had bap-
tised, near the chosen home of Essenism. We find,
moreover, that a great Alexandrian teacher (Apollos),
also "knowing only the baptism of John," had come
down in the early part of the gospel to teach with sin-
gular power at Ephesus. That St. John himself, though
probably quite erroneously, has been claimed as an
Essene is well known. But in any case his ascetic and
salutary life, his stern denunciation of the scribes and
Pharisees, his very baptism of repentance, his declara-
tion of the nullity of mere sonship of Abraham, would
certainly be congenial to the Essene mind. Josephus'
celebrated picture of his Essene teacher (quoted by Dr.
Lightfoot, p. 161), reminds us, again and again, though
with difference, of St. John Baptist himself. Cer-
tainly his disciples, when they had lost their master,
clinging to his name in spite of his own warning
of the transitoriness of his mission, might easily find
in the Essenic system the rallying point which they
needed, in order to preserve their distinctive character.
Nor can we well forget the " vagabond Jews, exorcists,"
seeking to cast out evil spirits by the mere charm of a
sacred Name of One in whom they did not believe, but
a Name which they, like Simon Magus, in Samaria,
recognised as having in it a supernatural power of
miracle ; and the mystic " books " of " curious arts "
burnt publicly at Ephesus. The Essenic ideas might
easily spread beyond the limits of the strict Essenic
brotherhood. H once planted in the prolific soil of
Asia Minor, they could hardly fail to attain a rapid
development.

Now, it is certainly with a form of Judseo-Gnos-

122

COLOSSIANS.

ticism that St. Pawl has to deal in his Colossiau
Epistle, and one, moreover, which hears some marked
similarities to the Essenic type of thought. On the
one hand, lie denounces the enforcement of the Jewish
festivals (chap. ii. 16), and prohahly of the rite of cir-
cumcision (chap. ii. 11): on the other, he warns
against the " traditions of men " (chap. ii. 8), containing'
"a philosophy and vain deceit.'' and alludes signifi-
cantly to '"the treasure, the hidden treasure of wisdom
and knowledge." He describes, again, a " worship of
angels," and an " intrusion into the things not seen," at
least by the ordinary eye (chap. ii. 18, where see Note) ;
and a rigid asceticism going beyond Pharisaic observance
of the Law, and crying out at every point, " Touch not,
taste not, handle not" (chap. ii. 21). Indirectly, but
very emphatically, he protests against exclusive pre-
tensions, and would present "every man as perfect
before Christ " (chap. i. 22, 28). All these features
belong unequivocally to Gnosticism, but to Gnosticism
in its early stages, while still allied to Judaism, before it
had attained to the independent luxuriance of later
days. Nothing, for instance, is more striking than the
reference to angelic natures, " thrones, dominions, prin-
cipalities, and powers," as intervening between man and
God, and the want of any vestige of allusion to the
JEons of the later Gnosticism, even such as may perhaps
be traced in the " oppositions " and " genealogies " of
the Pastoral Epistles (1 Tim. i. 4; vi. 20; Tit. iii. 9).
St. Paul uses the word JEon again and again (see Eph.
1. 21; ii. 2, 7; iii. 9, 11, 21; Phil. iv. 20; Col. i. 26),
but always in its proper sense of " age," without a
shadow of the strange half -personification of the later
Gnostic 'use. Throughout there is a distinct appro-
priateness to the time of the imprisonment at Rome,
and just that union of similarity and dissimilarity
to the later growths of Gnosticism which might be
expected at this early date.

(4) But still more important and interesting is the
question of the relation of Gnosticism to Christianity
indicated by the Colossian Epistle. In the full-grown
development of Gnosticism there were evidently two
phases of this relation. In some cases the Gnostic
theory, as a whole, stands out independent of Christianity,
simply weaving some ideas derived from the gospel
into the complexity of its comprehensive system.
Such seems to have been, for example, the attitude
towards Christianity of Basilides and Valentinus. In
other cases, of which Marcion may be taken as a type,
it identified itself in the main with Christianity, striv-
ing to mould it by free handling to its own purpose, and
appealed to the Christian Scriptures, expurgated and
falsified in its own peculiar sense. Moreover, in the
same advanced stages Christianity was cleaidy distin-
guished by it from Judaism ; '! the Christ " was inde-
pendent of the Demiurgus, the supposed author of the'
Jewish dispensation, and stood in far closer union with
the Supreme Deity. Sometimes, as again notably in
the system of Marcion, Christianity was characterised
in a series of antitheses, as opposed to Judaism, and the
salvation of the Christ was represented as a deliverance
from the power of the God of the Jew. But a glance
at the Epistle to the Colossians will show that of these
things there is as yet no trace. Christianity had
already broken through the narrow limits of Jewish
legalism ; the struggle marked in the Galatian and
Roman Epistles had terminated in the complete victory
of the freedom of the gospel. But, just as the Epistle
to the Hebrews shows that there was still need to assert
the trausitoriness of the Jewish Ritual. Priesthood, and
Sacrifice, so in this Epistle we observe that Jewish

123

mysticism still claimed some dominion over the infant
Church. Not till the hand of Providence had cut the
knot of entanglement by the fall of Jerusalem, and the
various manifestations of the bitter hostility of the Jews
towards Christianity, was the dissociation complete.

In the eyes of Gnostic speculation of the East,
Christianity probably as yet showed itself only as a
sublimated and spiritualised Judaism, still presenting
all the features which had excited sympathy, and simply
crowning the hierarchy of angels by the manifestation
of Him, who was emphatically " the Angel of the
Lord ; " while, on the other hand, it eliminated the
narrowness of legalism, the carnality of ritual, and
the close connection of the divine kingdom with
common-place political and social life, which in Judaism
had been an offence. Hence, in the phase already
described at Colossse, without throwing off its connec-
tion with Judaism, Gnosticism eagerly sought to lay
hold of the new religion, to accept it in all its simplicity
for the vulgar, and to mysticise it for the perfect into a
higher knowledge. The error which vexed the Church
at Colossae appears still to approach it from without,
much as the earlier Judaism had approached the
Churches of Antioch on Galatia. Perhaps St. Paul's
foreboding words at Miletus had been justified by the
rise " among their own selves of men speaking perverse
things to di*aw away disciples after them ; n but the body
of the Church seems still untouched, and is bidden to
beware lest any man should " spoil " them, " judge "
them, or "beguile them of their reward," by drawing
them to this new phase of error.

It has been remarked by Neander that Cerinthus,
born at Alexandria, and certainly in the days of
St. John at Ephesus a propagator of his doctrine in the
Churches of Asia Minor, is the Gnostic, whose system
is a link between Judaism and Gnosticism proper.
Certainly what can be traced as to his speculations
on the function of the Angels, or of one Supreme
Angel, in the Creation of the world and in the giving
of the Mosaic laws, agrees well enough with the indi-
cations of the Colossian heresy. But of the distinctive
points of his treatment of Christ — namely, his con-
ception that the Demiurgus was ignorant of the will of
the Supreme Deity, which was revealed by the Christ j
his distinction between the man Jesus of Nazareth, and
•• the Christ," descending upon Him in the form of the
dove at His baptism, and leaving Him before the Pas-
sion— we find no trace in the Colossian Epistle. The
direct warnings of St. Paul refer only to the errors of
the Judseo-Gnosticism. It is rather by the declaration
of the positive truth of the true Godhead of the Lord
Jesus Christ, His creative function, His infinite exalta-
tion above all principality and power, and above all, the
weighty declaration that in Him " all the fulness of
the Godhead dwells bodily," that, as in a prophetic
jealousy, he guards against the developments of Gnostic
heresy in the future. We trace here a distinction from
the more direct warnings even of the Pastoral Epistles — ■
against the teaching in the Church of " other doctrines,"
of " fables and endless genealogies " of Gnostic emana-
tion ; the explaining away of the future resurrection ;
the "seducing spirits and doctrines of demons" — i.e.,
of beings intermediate between God and man ; which
were united with the asceticism " forbidding to marry,
and commanding to abstain from meats"; " the ques-
tions and strifes of words," and the " oppositions "
(Gnostic antitheses) "of knowledge falsely so called " ;
the apostasy " of all which are in Asia," and the heresy
" eating like a canker " into the very heart of the
Church, which will no longer " endure sound doctrine."

COLOSSIANS.

(1 Tim. i, 3, 4; iv. 1—3; vi. 4, 20; 2 Tim. ii. 17;
iv. 3). There is a still more marked distinction
from the explicit warnings of St. John, protesting
emphatically against the distinctive assertion of
Gnostic heresy, that "Jesus Christ had not come in
the flesh," and dwelling on the Incarnation of " the
"Word of Life," the Son, " to have whom is to have the
Father," in those weighty declarations, every word of
which seems charged with reference to Gnostic error.
Everything shows that the heresy noted at Colossae
belongs to an earlier stage than even the Gnosticism of
Cerinthus. In contemplating it, we see the last expiring
struggle of Judaism, and can just trace, inextricably
entwined with it, the yet deadlier error, which was here-

after to separate from it, and even to trample on it, and
to advance over its dead body to the attack on the
living energy of Christianity.

These considerations may suffice to mai'k with tole-
rable clearness the relation of the Epistle to Gnosticism.
They certainly appear to show how entirely erroneous
and inconsistent with the facts of the case is the idea,
so confidently advanced, that the Epistle indicates a
knowledge of full-grown Gnosticism fatal to its Apos-
tolic origin. But they have far greater value, as.
enabling xis better to understand its deeply interesting
picture of the development, alike of Christian truth,
and of the heresy, destined hereafter to assail or under-
mine it, in the closing years of the ministry of St. Paul.

EXCURSUS B: THE APOCRYPHAL EPISTLE TO THE LAODICEANS.

The translation of this Epistle here given is taken
from the Latin (in which alone it is found), quoted
by Dr. Lightfoot in the Appendix to his edition of
the Epistle to the Colossians, with a conjectural ren-
dering back into the Greek (which he thinks may have
been the original) and two old English versions of
the fifteenth century. He also gives a full description
of the various Latin MSS., from which it appears
that the earliest (the Codex Fuldensis) is a Vulgate
New Testament of a.d. 546, in which the Epistle
occurs between the Epistle to the Colossians and
the First Epistle to Timothy. A glance at it will
show that it is little more than a tame compilation of
phrases, which, however, are taken not from the
Ephesians or Colossians, but mostly from the Philip-
pians, and that it has no bias or evidence of distinctive
purpose whether for good or for evil. It certainly is not
the Epistle spoken of in the Muratorian Fragment, as
" in Marcionis heresim conficta." Its very simplicity
induces a charitable hope that originally it may have
been only "a pious imagination," made without idea
of forgery, which subsequently was accepted as claim-
ing to be a genuine Epistle of St. Paul.

It runs thus : —

" Paul an Apostle, not of men, nor through man. but
through Jesus Christ, to the brethren who are in Lao-
dicea; grace be unto you and peace, from God our
Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.

" I thank Christ in all my supplications that ye are
abiding in Him, and continuing steadfast in His works,
waiting for the promise even unto the Day of Judg-

ment. Neither let the vain words of some who teach
beguile you, that they should tarn you away from the
truth of the gospel, which was preached unto you by
me. And now shall God bring it to pass that they
which are from me be serving to the furtherance of the
truth of the gospel, and doing all goodness in the
works of salvation (and) of eternal life.

" And now my bonds which I suffer in Christ are
manifest; in which I am glad and rejoice; and this
shall turn to my everlasting salvation, which also itself
is wrought by your prayers, and the supply of the Holy
Ghost, whether it be by life or by death. For to me
both to live in Christ and to die is joy ; and His mercy
shall work out the same thing in you, that ye may have
the same love, and be of one mind.

" Therefore, my dearly beloved, as ye heard in my
presence with you. so hold fast and work in the fear of
God, and it shall be to you unto everlasting life. For
it is God which worketh in you. And do without
drawing back, whatsoever ye do.

" Finally, my dearly beloved, rejoice in Christ, and
beware of those who are greedy of filthy lucre. Let all
your petitions be made known unto God, and be stead-
fast in the mind of Christ. Whatsoever things are
sound, and true, and pure, and righteous, and lovely,
do ; and what ye have heard and received keep in your
heart. And peace shall be with you.

"The saints salute you. The grace of the Lord
Jesus be with your spirit. Cause this Epistle to be
read to the Colossians, and that the Letter of the
Colossians be read also to you."

THE EPISTLES OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

THESSALONIANS.

INTRODUCTION

THE FIKST EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

THESSALONIANS.

In the earlier part of the year 52, St. Paul, in the
course of his second journey, arrived at Tliessalonica,
the modern Saloniki — then, as now, one of the largest
and most important cities of the Levant. The wounds
which the converted gaoler of Philippi and St. Lydia
had tended (Acts xvi. 33, 40) can hardly have been
healed, when the Apostles Paul, Silas or Silvanus, and
Timothy,* journeying rapidly through Amphipolis and
Apollonia. came to found their second European Church
(] Thess. ii. 2). The Jews (who to this day form, it is
believed, a moiety of the population of Saloniki) were
massed there in great numbers, and had there " their
synagogue," — a kind of metropolitan church, contrasted
witli the mere chapels or " prayer-houses " of Philippi
and other Macedonian towns. (See Note on Acts xvii.
1.) To this synagogue St. Paul repaired, and for " three
Sabbath-days " reasoned, as usual, with the Jews (1) on
the scriptural necessity for a suffering Messiah ; (2) for
a resurrection of the Messiah ; and (3) on the claim of
Jesus to the Messiahship. We are not informed how
long the missionaries stayed at Tliessalonica : probably
a good deal more than the three weeks during which
the preaching at the synagogue continued.t Their
converts from among the Jews of the synagogue were
few, though the proselytes and the ladies in connection
with it joined them in large numbers.

We can draAV from the Epistles, in connection with
the Acts, a clear picture of the Apostles' manner of
life and preaching at Tliessalonica. They lodged in the
house of a believing Jew of the name of Joshua, or
(in the Graecised form) Jason (Acts xvii. 5 ; Rom. xvi.
21 1. but accepted nothing from him but their lodging.
To none of the Thessalonians would they be indebted
(1 Thess. ii. 9 ; 2 Thess. iii. 8), but maintained them-
selves, partly by the contributions twice forwarded to
them from Philippi (Phil. iv. 16), but chiefly by hard
manna! labour, which occupied not the day only but
extended far into the night to make up for daylight
hours devoted to preaching. They were determined to
be model operatives (2 Thess. iii. 9), and not merely
eloquent preachers. And this was not all ; besides the
work of public preaching and teaching, the Apostles

* Timothy's presence is not mentioned in the Acts, hut
scons implied by chaps, xvi. 3. 4 ; xvii. 14, and made absolutely
certain hy the Kpistle, where the "we" always includes him.
Howson, nevertheless, concludes from Phil. ii. 22 that he had
been left behind at Philippi.

t Several facts indicate this : The good organisation of
the Thessalonian Church (though this might he partly owing
to St. Timothy's subsequent visit) ; the fact that St. Paul had
time to get regular artisan's work: the repeated contributions
from Philippi that reached him there (Phil. iv. 16) ; the way in
which St. Paul speaks of his habitual conduct among them,
and of what he " used to say " (e.g., 1 Thess. ii. 9, 11 ; 2 Thess.
ii. 5).

followed their usual method of dealing individually
with the converts' souls. The Thessalonian Christians —
" every one " in his turn — thus received the encourager
ments and warnings of their ghostly fathers (1 Thess.
ii. 11). If the presbyters whom they left to cai-ry on
this work of admonition (see Notes on 1 Thess. v. 12,
14) continued it with the Apostles' zeal, they might
indeed well be described as " labouring among them. '
The preaching no doubt went on, not only on the
Sabbaths, but on the week-days; for though the Acts
tell us nothing of evangelistic efforts among the
Gentiles, except among the " devout " (i.e., the pro-
selytes), the whole tone of the Epistles proves
that the Thessalonian Church was almost wholly
Gentile. Besides which, the account in the Acts
of the subjects of the three sermons preached on the
three successive Sabbaths does not by any means
include all that we find mentioned as the staple of the
Apostles' preaching there. Thus, it is clear that they
had spoken strongly of the regal aspect of our Lord's
work. The charge on which they were arraigned was
the charge of proclaiming " another king " (or em-
peror, for the word is the same in Greek), " one
Jesus." It was, in fact, the proclamation of what is
specially distinguished as the " gospel of the king-
dom" (Matt. iv. 23; ix. 35; xiii. 19; xxiv. 14; Luke
viii. 1, Greek ; xvi. 16), that is, not only the good news
of Jesus Christ's complete empire over the individual
soul, but the good news that He has organised us all
into a well-disciplined Church (Rev. i. 6, Greek ; comp.
John xi. 52), which was to form an imperium in im-
perio within the Roman dominions. And accordingly
we find the Thessalonians reminded that one of the
best blessings which God had bestowed upon them was
His calling them into " His kingdom " (1 Thess. ii. 12).
and encouraged by the thought of God's counting
them " worthy of the kingdom of God, for which they
suffered" (2 Thess. i. 5). The full development of
this " kingdom," at the King's return, was indeed
very probably the main subject of the preaching. On
this point tho Thessalonians appear to have had the
most accurate information (1 Thess. v. 2). St. Paul
assumes that they thoroughly believed the doctrine
(1 Thess. iv. 14). They not only knew the very form
in which our Lord Himself had taught (see Note on
1 Thess. v. 2) the impossibility of forecasting the date,
but they had been told again and again (2 Thess. ii. 5)
what changes must take place before the Advent of tho
kingdom was to be expected. At every turn in the
Epistle it is mentioned. And the moral laws of the
kingdom of God had been taught in the most explicit
manner (1 Thess. ii. 11), not only with regard to sins
which the Gentile world permitted freely (1 Thess. iy.

THESSALONIANS.

1, 2), but also with regard to strenuous industry
(2 Thess. iii. 6, 10). And as in Galatia (Acts xiv. 22)
so here, the sufferings that fenced the entrance of
that kingdom were fully prophesied (1 Thess. iii. 3, 4).

This teaching, delivered with all the tenderness of a
nursing mother, and all the authority of a father, and
all the devotion of a friend (1 Thess. ii. 7, 8, 11), yet
sternly and unflatteringly (1 Thess. ii. 5), told upon the
Thessalonians with great effect. The Apostles them-
selves were in the most exalted and confident frame of
mind (1 Thess. i. 5), and their hearers, in spite of many
difficulties (1 Thess. i. 6; ii. 2, 14), received with en-
thusiasm the instruction as proceeding from God and
not from man (1 Thess. ii. 13). The difficulties, how-
ever, soon increased. The Jews grew jealous of the
work going on among the Gentiles, especially among
their proselytes (Acts xvii. 5), and. vehemently set
themselves to forbid such preaching (1 Thess. ii. 16).
They stirred up the abandoned Greeks who idled in the
market-place to make a riot against these disturbers of
the world. The Greeks, with the passionate servility
which usually marked what was called under the
empire a free Greek town,* took up eagerly the cry
that to preach Jesus as emperor was treason to
Claudius, and began a prosecution of Jason before the
politarchs. The prosecution only resulted in Jason's
being bound over to keep the peace ; but the irritation
was so great that it was judged expedient for the
Apostles to leave the city and proceed southward.

From Thessalonica St. Paul travelled to Beroea, from
Bercea to Athens, and from Athens to Corinth. But
though he had quitted Thessalonica, he had not for-
gotten his infant Church, and had not intended to be
absent from it long. Twice at least (1 Thess. ii. 18) he
had seriously endeavoured to make his way back, " but
Satan hindered " him. The persecution of the Church
had by no means been appeased (as they had hoped) by
the expulsion (see Note on 1 Thess. ii. 15) of the mis-
sionaries; and St. Paul dreaded lest the temptation
should have been too fiery for Christians so imperfectly
taught and organised (1 Thess. iii. 10). In his extreme
agony of mind for them, unable himself to travel north-
ward, he determined, at the cost of utter loneliness in
a strange and most unsympathising town (Acts xvii. 16 ;
1 Thess. iii. 1), to send St. Timothy to see how they
fared, and to help them. To St. Paul's great relief, the
younger Apostle brought back, on the whole, an ex-
cellent report. True, there were several most grave
faults to be found with the Thessalonian Church, which
will be best understood from the table of the Epistle's
contents, but the practical St. Paul had evidently not
expected even so much progress as had been made,
and was overjoyed (1 Thess. iii. 8). And this Epistle
— the earliest of all that are preserved of its author,
perhaps the earliest book of the New Testament —
contains St. Paul's comments on Timothy's report.

The question now occurs, At what point of the nar-
rative in the Acts is the writing of >this Epistle to be
placed ? "Was it written at Athens, or at Corinth ?
Almost all critics agree that it was written a't Corinth. f

* The city of Thessalonica had been made a libera civitas
because of the support it had given in the civil wars to the
cause of Octavian and Anthony. Such cities were exempt from
the interference of the provincial government, and had their
own forms of administration. Thessalonica had her popular
assembly, and for supreme officers certain magistrates called
politarchs— a name elsewhere unknown. On the testimony
given by this word to the truthfulness of the Acts, see Note on
Acts xvii. 8.

t The subscription at the end of the Epistle has no weight
whatever, not representing even a tradition, but being merely
an uncritical inference from chap. iii. 1. The only way in

The question will be found discussed in the Notes, but
it may be here stated that the difficulty consists in
identifying the return of St. Timothy with his report
(1 Thess. iii. 6), with the coming of Silas and Timotheus
in Acts xviii. 5. The narrative of the Acts seems, at
first sight, to exclude the supposition that Silas or
Timothy had paid a visit to St. Paul between the time
of his leaving Bercea and the time for their rejoining
him at Corinth ; while the words of 1 Thess. iii. 1 — 5
seem as urgently to require that Timothy at all events
should have been with St. Paul at Athens. But on
closer inspection, the Acts prove rather to favour this
supposition ; they tell us that St. Paul sent a peremp-
tory and immediate summons to his two colleagues
whom he had left in Macedonia (xvii. 15), which sum-
mons they probably obeyed, and if so, would no doubt
reach him long before the meeting at Corinth mentioned
in Acts xviii. 5; besides which, the very words,
" while Paul waited for them at Athens," seem to
imply that they came to that city. A few other points
may be mentioned which help to fix the date. On the
one hand, the letter cannot be placed later than the de-
parture from Corinth, for we never read of St. Silas
being with St. Paul after that time. For the same
reason it must have been written some ivhile before the
departure from Corinth, as the Second Epistle (which
equally bears Silvanus' name) was also written thence,
But on the other hand, it must not be placed too early,
For (1) the Thessalonian Church had had time to extend
its missionary zeal over all Macedonia, and indeed over
all Greece ; (2) the Jewish persecutions had had time
to gain crushing force and consistency ; (3) errors and
disorders had had time to spoil the faith and morals of
the community ; (4) at any rate, "a few of tfhe believers
had fallen asleep, which, considering the probable
numbers and nature of the members of that young
Church, requires a probable lapse of some months.

The contents of the Epistle bear every sign of an
early date. None of the great doctrines which are
considered specially Pauline are touched upon in it,
such as " faith," in its special sense, or " justification."
There is no Judaic legalism to oppose, as in Galatians ;
St. Paul " can still point to them " — the churches of
Judaea — " as examples to his converts at Thessalonica "
(chap. ii. 14). There is no Gnosticism to confront, as in
the Epistle to the Colossians or to St. Timothy. Again,
the great prominence given to the doctrine of the
Advent seems an indication of what St. Paul calls
" the beginning of the gospel " (Phil. iv. 15). The
earliest gospel must needs consist in teaching that
Christ was alive from the dead, and giving each
Christian a vital interest in His present life, and this
cannot be effected without much preaching of the
Advent.

It has already been remarked that the Thessalonian
Church consisted almost wholly of Gentiles. This
may be easily seen from the Epistle. There are no
quotations from the Old Testament, nor arguments
founded upon it. The name of Satan (1 Thess. ii. 18)

which any case can be made out for the Athenian date is to
suppose that the past tenses in iii. 1, 2, 5, are what is called in
Greek the epistolary aorist, equivalent to our present, as e.g.,
where St. Jude (verse 3) says. "Igaxe all diligence," "it was
needful," or St. John (1 John ii. 14), " I have written," literally,
I wrote. Thus it would mean that Timothy has just obeyed St.
Paul's hasty summons, and arrived at Athens by way of Thes-
salonica, as (from Beroea) he naturally might. " Being no
longer able to forbear, I am determined to be left at Athens
alone, and I send Timothy ; I send to know your faith, lest
through the tempter's temptation of you our labour should
prove in vain." The following verse will then mean— "Not
that I seriously distrust you ; for the other day when Timotheus
came," &c.

!28

I. THESSALONIANS.

is the only approach to a reference to Scriptural
knowledge. The earliest revelation with which the
Church is supposed to be acquainted, and which
forms the canonical standard of reference, is the tradi-
tion which the Thessalonians have received from their
founders by word of mouth (2 These, ii. 5). The
Thessalonians are never credited with any experience
like " turning from dead works," but, on the contrary,
they had " turned to God from idols " (1 Thess. i. 9).
The fierce and bitter invective against the Jews is far
different in its language from what it would have been
had any large proportion of the Church been but
neophytes from Judaism ; and, indeed, the Jews are
clearly distinguished from " your own countrymen "
(chap. ii. 14). The difficulty with which the young
Church accepted the doctrine of the resurrection also
points in that direction, as well as the dulness of con-
science with regard to the sinfulness of fornication
(chap. iv. 5).

The Epistle, which is entirely practical throughout,
divides itself more clearly into its component sections
than perhaps any other of St. Paul's Epistles. There
are two main portions. The first (chaps, i., ii., iii.)
is narrative and personal, designed to attach the
Thessalonians more closely to the writers' persons by
the tics of common memories, of imparted informa-
tion, and of sympathy over the news which had been
brought from Thessalonica, Attention having been
thus secured, the two remaining chapters are occupied
with instructions upon special points in which the
Church was deficient. The contents (after the saluta-
tion) may be tabulated thus :—

I. The Narrative Portion (chaps, i. 2 — iii. 13).

A. Containing reminiscences of the apostolic

sojourn at Thessalonica (chaps, i. 2 — ii.
16).

(1) Thanksgiving for the display of God's

power and love both in the mis-
sionaries and in the converts (chap.
i. 2—10).

(2) Reminder of the missionaries' conduct

there (chap. ii. 1 — 12).

(3) Acknowledgment of the Thessalonians'

hearty response (chap. ii. 13 — 16).

B. Containing an account of the Apostles'

(especially St. Paul's) anxieties and efforts
for the Thessalonians since they left them
(chaps, ii. 17— iii. 10).

Then follows a prayer for them, which
connects the first portion naturally with
the first subject of instruction in —

II. The Educational Portion (chaps, iv.l — v. 28.)

(1) The necessity of abstaining from fornica-

tion (chap. iv. 1 — 8).

(2) The extension of sober church feonng

(chap. iv. 8—12).

(3) Discussion of certain points connected

with the Advent : —

(a) The respective part therein of the quick
and the dead (chap. iv. 13 — 18).

(6) The uncertainty of its date, and con-
sequent need of vigilance (chap. v.
1-11).

(4) Duty to the Presbyters (chap. v. 11—13),

who are charged to see that orderly
discipline is enforced (chap. v. 14 — 15)

(5) Various spiritual directions, chiefly with

regard to public worship (chap. v. 16—28).
The genuineness of the Epistle can scarcely be said to
have been ever seriously doubted. Though there are
no certain patristic quotations from it, or allusions to
it, earlier than the end of the second century, it has
passed unchallenged (even by Marcion) until the pre-
sent century. Schrader and Baur in this century have
argued against its Pauline authorship, alleging the
absence of " Pauline " theology, contradictions to the
account in Acts, marks of date which they suppose to
be subsequent to the fall of Jerusalem, &c. But the
internal evidence is so convincing that even such a
sceptical critic as M. Renan has no hesitation in ad-
mitting both Epistles to the Thessalonians into his
second class of Epistles, which he calls "Undoubted
Epistles, although some objections have been made
to them," and his words are as follows: — "The
difficulties which certain moderns have raised against
them are but those light suspicions which it is the duty
of criticism to express freely, but without being stopped
by them when there are more powerfid reasons to draw
one on. And these three Epistles {i.e., 1 and 2 Thess.
and Phil.) have a character of authenticity which
overbears every other consideration." The attack upon
the Epistles was renewed in the summer of 1877 by
Holsten, in the German Annual of Protestant Theology,
but the present writer has not seen the critique.

[The principal works which have been made use of
in commenting upon these two Epistles are the Com-
mentaries of Lunemann and his English follower
Ellicott, of Hammond, and of Wordsworth, together
with such works as Kenan's and Howson's accounts of
St. Paul, and MS. notes from lectures of Professor
Lightfoot.]

119

THE FIBST EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

THESSALONIANS.

CHAPTEE I.— (D Paul, and Silvanus,

and Timotheus," unto the

Jalu^onThe ^urch of the Thessalo-

nians which is in God the

Father and in the Lord Jesus Christ :

Grace be unto you, and peace, from God

our Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ.

(2) x/ye give thanks to God always for

A.D. 54.

a 2 Thess. 1. ]

you all, making mention of you in out

prayers ; (3) remembering

without ceasing your work ThTnksgMng

of faith,* and labour of for the success

love, and patience of hope £T{^S~

in our Lord Jesus Christ,

in the sight of God and our Father;

(4) knowing, brethren beloved,1 your

(1) "The founders of the Church of Thessalonica,
who have so recently left it, greet the Church in the
common Father in whom they are united."

Paul, and Silvanus, and Timotheus.— There
was no need to add " Apostle " to the name of Paul, in
writing to a Church with which his relations were so
familiar and so cordial : it is probably omitted for the
same reason in the Epistle to the Philippians and in that
to Philemon. Some see in the omission a mark of the
early date of the letter, before St. Paul had assumed
the title ; others think he omits it in courtesy to his
companions, to whom it could not be given. Both
theories are disproved by chap. ii. 6. Silas takes pre-
cedence of Timothy (comp. Acts xvii. 14, 15 ; xviii. 5 ;
2 Thess. i. 1) as a man of higher standing. (See Acts
xv. 22, and 1 Tim. iv. 12.)

In God. — Other Tliessalonians were " in the world,"
" in darkness," " in their sins." The distinctive mark
of these was that they were re-united to the Father of
all men; and more, re-united in Christ. The words
following "peace" should be struck out, not being
found in the best text.

(2) "We never set ourselves to prayer without re-
membering your faithful activity, loving laboriousness,
cheerful and persevering endurance, and thanking God
for it."

We. — All three are regarded as the writers, and no
doubt the sentiments of all are expressed, though the
letter is St. Paul's own composition. In chap. ii. 18 he
corrects himself for using " we " where it was only true
of himself . It may be noticed that St. Paul never speaks
of himself alone in the plural in any of the other Epistles.

To God. — None of the success is due either to the
preachers or to the converts.

Always. — Not as meaning "without ceasing," but
" on every occasion that reminds us of you ; " the words
"in our prayers" specify the happy occasions.
Christians like best to be remembered then.

For you all. — "There is not one of you that we
know of for whom we cannot give thanks : the whole
church is what it should be."

(3) Faith . . . love . . . hope. — In this first of his
writings, St. Paul has already fixed upon the three great
abiding principles (1 Cor. xiii. 13) of the Christian life,

and the forms in which they mainly exhibit themselves.
The genitive in such phrases as " work of faith," etc., is
almost equivalent to a very emphatic adjective—" faith-
fid activity," i.e., a work characterised by faith and
prompted by faith, such as faith alone could have
enabled you to accomplish; so "labour of love" is
similarly equivalent to " loving labour," laborious toil
undertaken for love's sake, and done in the spirit of
love ; and " patience of hope " to " hopeful endurance of
trials," a steadfast endurance which is grounded upon
and cheered by hope.

In our Lord.— More correctly, of. The words in the
Greek go with all three clauses : He is the object of
the faith and love, as well as of the hope. This " hope
of our Lord " includes, but is not limited to, the hope
of His second Advent.

In the sight of God goes closely with " remem-
bering," and is equivalent to "in prayer."

(4) » The reason why the sight delights us is because
it proves that God loves you, and has set His heart
upon you."

Beloved. — The proper translation is, knowing^
brethren who have been so beloved of God, your
election, as in the margin : the Greek idiom cannot
allow of the Authorised rendering. The tense of the
word " beloved " represents not only God's attitude to
them in the present, but the long continuance of it in
the past, especially as proved by His election of them.
(Comp. Rom. viii. 28, 29, 30, and 2 Thess. ii. 13.)

Election, in the language of (at any rate) St. Paul
and St. Peter, seems primarily to refer to a gracious
admission into religious privileges in this life. Thf-
word implies nothing as to the final condition of the
person thus elected (see 2 Pet. i. 10, and comp. Eph. i.
4 with Eph. v. 5, 6, V). God elects us to become
members of the Holy Church, and all baptised persons
are elect, with heaven in reversion (1 Pet. i. 2 — 5) ; but
they may, according as they please, unsettie their elec
tion, or make it sui-e. St. Paul rejoices, because the
continued possession of spiritual privileges, used oi
abused, is an assurance of God's continued " favour aud
goodness towards us." Of course, however, this obser-
A'ation does not much affect the mysterious doctrine of
predestinstion. The question must still remain why

130

The Apostles remembrance

I. THESSALONIANS, II.

of the Thessalonians.

election of God. <51 For our gospel came
not unto you in word only," but also
in power, and in the Holy Ghost, and
in much assurance ; as ye know what
manner of men we were among you for
your sake. (6) And ye became followers
of us,4 and of the Lord, having received
the word in much affliction, with joy of
the Holy Ghost : c (7) so that ye were
ensamples to all that believe in Mace-
donia and Achaia. (8) For from you
sounded out the word of the Lord not
only in Macedonia and Achaia, but
also in every place your faith to God-

a ICor. t 4; 1. JO.

ward is spread abroad ; so that we
need not to speak any thing. (9> For
they themselves shew of us what
manner of entering in we had unto
you, and how ye turned to God from
idols to serve the living and true
God;'' <10> and to wait for his Son from
a Acts ir. 29. heaven, whom he raised from the dead,
u even Jesus, which delivered us from the
wrath to come.

CHAPTER II.— d) For Chap. ii. 1-12.
yourselves, brethren, know J^f a^^8*^
our entrance in unto you, lonica.

God brings some in this life to the knowledge of His truth,
and others not; but the observation, at any rate, destroys
the notion of an arbitrary damnation and salvation.

(5) " If God had not set His heart upon you, we never
could have been as successful among you as we were."

Our gospel came not unto you.— Or rather, the
glad tidings which we brought did not prove among
you, in its action upon you.

In word only.— Comp. 1 Cor. ii. 4 ; iv. 20. " It did
not consist merely of so much eloquent instruction, but
also we found we were speaking with a conscious power
— indeed with all the force of the Holy Ghost— and
with an overmastering conviction that we were right
and should prevail." That by the " power," " assurance,"
etc., are meant the preachers' own, and not the people's,
is proved by the next clause, "as ye know."

In the Holy Ghost.— The Greek here omits the
definite article. In such cases attention is not so much
called to the Blessed Person Himself, as to the exalted,
inspired enthusiasm with which He fills us. The union
of the divine and human spirit is so close (see 1 Cor.
vi. 17) that it is often hard in the New Testament to
distinguish which is meant.

As ye know sums up with an aj>peal to their
memory i " In fact, you recollect what God made us
like among you."

For your sake gives not their own purpose, but
God's, carrying on the thought of the " election."

(6) And ye became foUowers.— Not so much a
separate reason for believing them elected of God,
because of their receptiveness, but an evidence of the
power given by God to the preachers for the winning of
them. " So much so, that, in spite of persecution, you
became Christians with enthusiasm."

Followers.— Not "disciples," but imitators. The
three points in which the Lord and His Apostles were
imitated are then expressed — (1) meek reception (Ps. xl.
6 ; Isa. 1. 5) ; (2) cost what it might; (3) rejoicing all the
while (Pss. xxii. 22; xlv. 7).

In much affliction. — For examples of troubles in the
early days of the Thessalonian Church, see Acts xvii. 5, 8.

Holy Ghost is used in the same way as it is in
verse 5. " Joy which is the natural outcome of a spirit
united with the Holy Spirit*

(7) " Your zeal was so great and sincere that you, in
your turn, became a model: for even in far-away countries
the tale of your conversion is told with wonder."

Ensamples.— Probably the singular should be read:
the whole church became a model church.

To all that believe — i.e., now ; not to those that
then bolieved ; Philippi was the only such church.

Macedonia and Achaia.— These two provinces
comprised all Roman Greece. The influence of the
Thessalonians spreads far beyond their own country.

<8) For. — "For, in fact," (supporting and exceeding the
statement of verse 7 about Greece) " you form the centre
from which the doctrine of Christ has rung (not rang)
out like a trumpet through those countries ; and even
beyond, your faith is well known." The clauses are not
quite logically balanced.

Your faith does not mean " your creed," but " the
report of your extraordinary faith."

To say anything— i.e., about our success at Thes-
salonica.

(9) They themselves — i.e., the inhabitants of
those countries. " Wherever we go we find our own
story told us."

Shew. — Rather, announce. Both sides of the story
are told : (1) of us — what kind of entry we made among
you, explained in chap. ii. 1 — 12 to mean with "the word
of truth, of meekness, and righteousness " (Ps. xlv. 5) ;
(2) of you — how truly converted you were, as he pro-
ceeds to show further in chaps, ii. 13 — iii. 13.

Living and true God.— In contrast to the lifeless
and false idols. The Thessalonians had been Gentiles.
Perhaps St. Paul was thinking of his own speech on
Mars Hill, which had been recently uttered.

(i°> And to wait.— The idea of the Advent is that
which both here and throughout the Epistle occupies
the foreground in the minds of St. Paul and his
friends. These two infinitives, " to serve " and " to
wait," express not so much the intention of the Thessa-
lonians in turning, as the condition into which they
came by turning.

Whom he raised.^Not only proves His Sonship
(Rom. i. 4), but also gives a kind" of explanation of the
" awaiting Him from heaven.'"

Delivered.— Better, delivereth.

To come. —Better, which is already coming. The
wrath is on its way to the world, to appear with Christ
from heaven (2 Thess. i. 7, 8), and He is dayby day
working to save us from it (Heb. vii. 25).

II.

(!) For yourselves brethren, know. — The
writers' pm*pose is practical, not didactic ; they there-
fore animate their converts with the stirring memories
of their conversion. " We need not go to these foi-cign
witnesses for the tale of how we came to you ; for you
recollect it as if it were yesterday." The " for " (as in

131

His Life and Work

I. THESSALONIANS, II.

while among them.

lib at it was not in vain : <2> but even
after that we had suffered before, and
were shamefully entreated, as ye know,
at Philippi," we were bold in our God
to speak unto you the gospel of God
with much contention. W For our ex-
hortation was not of deceit,6 nor of un-
cleanness, nor in guile : c (4) but as we
were allowed of God to be put in trust
with the gospel/ even so we speak ; not

a Acts 16. 22.

b 2 Cor. fi. 8.
c 2 Cor. 4. 2.

1 Or, lined au-

tliarHii-

f 1 Cor. 9. 1.

0 Acts 13. 18.

il i;iil. •-'. 7; 1 Tim.

Tit.

as pleasing men/ but God, which trieth
our hearts. <5> For neither at any time
used we nattering words, as ye know,
nor a cloke of covetousness ; God is
witness : (6^ nor of men sought we
glory, neither of you, nor yet of others,,
when we might have been burden-
some,x as the apostles of Christ./
(7) But we were gentle among you, even
as a nurse cherisheth her children:^

chap. i. 8) implies "for in fact," "for after all." The
thought of chap. i. 5, 9 is here resumed, but with a
different purpose : there it was to prove that the
work was God's work ; here, " to stir up their pure
minds by way of remembrance."

Not in vain draws a little too much attention to
the result of their coming. It should be, not vain —
i.e., not purposeless and idle. This may be seen from
the contrast drawn in the followiug words.

(2) Even after " what was enough to have scared
others'' (Bengel). Such men were not likely to be
" vain." The marks of their ill-treatment at Philippi
were fresh upon them at Thessalonica (as ye know).
See Acts xvi. and xvii. 1.

In our God. — These words give the ground of their
boldness—'' in reliance on the God whom we felt to be
in union with us."

With much contention. — Rather, in the midst of
much conflict arising from persecution.

(3) " The reason that we were able to endure so much
was our consciousness of the sincerity and purity of our
attention."

Exhortation.— Exhortation is an attempt to make
men take a particular line of action. " Our efforts to
get men to act as we wish," St. Paul says, " do not
spring from a desire to dupe them," etc. It is a
question whether " of deceit " is the right rendering, or
"of error," "all a mistake." If the latter, the argu-
ment would be that of Paley's Evidences, i.e., to
deduce the truth of the revelation from the sufferings
of its prophets. But the points raised in contrast, in
verses 4 — 12, seem to preclude this meaning, which
would be more likely to introduce some substantiation
of the gospel truths, as in 2 Pet. i. 16.

Of uncleanness. — It is possible that the word only
means " with impure (or covetous) motives ; " but it
probably refers to the subtle forms of temptation which
often accompany spiritual work. See, for example, the
Greek of 1 Tim. i. 5 ; also v. 1, 2 ; 2 Tim. iii. 4—7.

In guile. — The preposition is changed; " nor yet by
the use of tricks." Not only were their motives sincere
and pure, but their manner of dealing straightforward.

(*) Were allowed. — Rather, have been, and in
verse 3 is, not "was." St. Paul is arguing from
his habitual practice. " But we speak after the
manner of men who remember that God Himself has
tried them, aud has been satisfied to entrust the gospel
to them, making it our business to please, not men, but
God who thus tries our hearts" (1 Cor. iv. 1, 2). The
word translated " allowed " implies examining and ap-
proving (as in Luke xiv. 19 ; 1 Tim. iii. 10 ; 1 Pet.
i. 7 ; 1 John iv. 1), and is repeated emphatically (trans-
lated " trieth ") : " being examined and approved by
God, we study to please Him who constantly examines
and approves us, not to court those to whom we are

sent." St. Paul expresses here, as elsewhere, a total:
disregard of men's opinions about him (1 Cor. iv. 3 -r
Gal. i. 10).

<5) At any time.— Not only during the stay at
Thessalonica, but neither at Thessalonica nor elsewhere,
as the next verse shows. But as the Thessalonians can
only be appealed to as evidence for their own ex-
perience, the writers therefore call God Himself to-
witness. At the same time, the absence of nattering
words was a thing of which human witnesses could
judge ; the freedom from covetous designs was known
to God alone.

Cloke of covetousness — i.e., some specious pre-
text, under cover of which we might gain a worldly
advantage ; so (though the Greek word is different)
1 Pet. ii. 16, " a cloke of maliciousness."

(6) Glory — i.e., recognition of our. splendid position,
as in the phrase " giving glory to God," i.e., " recog-
nising Him for what He is." John v. 44. (Comp.
John xii. 43 ; Rom. ii. 29 ; 1 Cor. iv. 5.)

Been burdensome.— The marginal reading is on
the whole preferable. The original is, might have been
in weight — i.e., " have dealt heavily with you," in all
the pomp of apostolic dignity, making people acknow-
ledge our " glory." Although, no doubt, one means of
asserting their authority would have been to claim their
maintenance from the Church (comp. 1 Cor. ix. 1 — 6),
more is meant than the mere obtaining of money.

Apostles of Christ.— The title seems here to be
bestowed on St. Silas and St. Timothy just as in Acts
xiv. 14 upon St. Barnabas. As official dignity is here
the point, it cannot simply (according to the etymology
of the word) mean " Christ's missionaries," as we speak
of " the Apostle of England," &c, i.e., the earliest great
preacher of the gospel there. The episcopal office
(which St. Timothy, at any rate, held somewhat later)
may perhaps be here ranked with the apostolate. Thus,
in Gal. i. 19, St. James, the Bishop of Jerusalem, wears-
the title, though it is scarcely probable that he was one of
the Twelve. Andronicus and Junias, in Rom. xvi. 7 ;
Epaphroditus, in Phil. ii. 25 (where it is wrongly trans-
lated " messenger," as also in 2 Cor. viii. 23), are called
Apostles. In 1 Cor. xii. 28, Eph. iv. 11, probably also
in Eph. ii. 20. Rev. ii. 2, the first rank in the threefold
ministry of the Church seems to be meant, for the-
reference is to the orderly Organisation of the Society.
However, in our present passage it may conceivably be
stretched to mean " as an Apostle aud his following.''
The definite article should be struck out.

(?) Among you.— Rather, in the midst of you~
making the gentleness still more marked. " Her," in
the Greek emphatically her own. The contrast is drawn
between the charlatan, licentious, sophistical, fawning,
greedy, vainglorious teachers, to whom Greeks were
well accustomed, and the Apostles, sitting familiarly
like mothers amidst a group of their own children,
folding them for warmth to their bosoms. " Keep a

His Testimony to their Acceptance I. THESSALONIANS, II.

of his Preaching,

<8) so being affectionately desirous of you,
we were willing to have imparted unto
you, not the gospel of God only, but also
our own souls," because ye were dear unto
us. (9> For ye remember, brethren, our
labour and travail : for labouring night
and day, because we would not be
chargeable unto any of you, we preached
unto you the gospel of God. (10) Ye
are witnesses, and God a/so,, how holily
and justly and unblameably we behaved
ourselves among you that believe : (11) as
ye know how we exhorted and com-
forted and charged every one of you, as
a father doth his children,* <12> thttt ye
would walk worthy of God, who hath

called you unto his kingdom and glory.
(18) For this cause also ohap.ii. 18-18.
thank we God without The converts'
ceasing because, when ye S^g^anl
received the wr>rd of God persecution by
which ye heard of us, ye the Jews,
received it not as the word of men, but
as it is in truth, the word of God,
which effectually workethc also in you
that believe. (U) For ye, brethren,
became followers of the churches of
God which in Judsea are in Christ
Jesus : for ye also have suffered like
things of your own countrymen, even as
they have of the Jews : (15) who both
killed the Lord Jesus, and their own

mother's heart for men," was the advice which made
Henri Perreyve's life so winning (Meditations, p. 87).

(8) So means here even so, confirming the simile,
and is not to be taken in the sense of " therefore."

Not the gospel of God only.— The gospel was,
as it were, the milk given to the young converts ; but
Hie nursing mothers were ready to let them draw their
very life away, so dearly did they love them.

(9) For.— As in verse 1, the general principles of the
foregoing verses are supported by facts which the
Thessalonians will remember. If the word attaches
itself to any particular phrase, it is to " impart our own
.souls," " we were ready to die for you ; indeed, you re-
member how we worked ourselves almost to death."

Labour and travail— not mere synonyms here :
the first describes the kind of work ; the second, the
intensity of it : " our manual labour, and how hard
We worked at that."

(W) Ye are witnesses. — Abruptly, without con-
junction, the writers add a summary description of
their conduct at Thessalonica ; before, they had dwelt
on details, now, on the broad characteristics. As in
verse 5, God is appealed to, because the readers
could only judge of the outward propriety of their
teachers' conduct ; and it is a moral law that (as Aris-
totle says) " the righteous man is not he that does acts
■which in themselves are righteous, but he that does
those acts in such a mind as befits i-ighteous men."

Holily, of the inner, " justly," of the outer life.

Among you that believe — where (if anywhere)
•we might have been tempted to be lax or exorbitant.

(u) As (emphatic): "we lived holily— just (in fact) as
jou remember we tried to induce each one of you to live."

Every one. — Now they appeal to the individual
recollection of the Thessalonians. It gives us an inci-
dental glimpse of the apostolic method, — which was,
to deal with individual souls. (Comp. Acts xx. 20, 31 ;
Col. i. 21.) St. Chrysostom exclaims : " Fancy ! not
one in all that multitude passed over ! " The image is
changed from that of motherly tenderness to that of
fatherly direction.

Comforted is here used as almost equivalent to
" exhorted," or, rather, encouraged, when the moral
aspirations wrere beginning to flag.

Charged.— Better, adjured ; so Gal. v. 3.

(12) Hath called. — The right reading is, was calling,
•which has been altered because of the slight theological
difficulty, on the analogy of Gal. i. 6, etc. The call is
not simply a momentary act, but a continual beckoning

133

upwards, until the privileges offered are actually
attained. The Thessalonians at that time, though
already by baptism members of the kingdom (Col. i.
13), were not yet so assured in their new allegiance
as to be certain of reaching the full-developed glory of
that kingdom. Note again the thought of the Advent.

(13) The first part of this chapter draws attention to
the Apostles' part in the conversion of Thessalonica.
From this point (roughly speaking) to the end of chap,
iii., the action of the converts is the chief subject.

This verse differs from the original in several par-
ticulars of more or less importance. Literally trans-
lated, it would run thus : And for this cause we too
thank God unceasingly, that, on receiving a word of
hearing at our lips of God, ye ivelcomed, not a word
of men, but (as it is in truth) a word of God, which
also, etc.

For this cause— viz., because of the labours we
went through to teach you, which we are thankful were
not wasted. We too, as well as you. The two wrords
rendered " received " are not the same ; the first meaning
merely an outward reception, the second the welcome
given. The words " it " and " as " (as the italics show)
do not stand in the Greek. St. Paul is. not expressing
so much his gratitude for the manner in which the
word was greeted, as for the essential character of
what was greeted.

The word of God which ye heard of us.—
The same phi^ase as in Heb. iv. 2, which is there ren-
dered, " the word preached." " The word might have
been, so far as you knew, a mere word svoken by us —
ordinary men — but it was in reality a word of God,
and so you found when you embraced it."

You that believe.— It could have no effect with-
out this condition. (See Heb. iv. 2.)

(H) j?ov ye.—" The effectual power of this word
tipon you is shown in your joining the Church in spite
of such difficulties."

Followers. — Better, imitators. The churches of
Judsea are probably selected for example, not oidy as
being the oldest and best-organised churches, but the
most afflicted, both by want (Acts xi. 29; xxiv. 17 ; Rom.
xv. 26), and (chiefly) by persecution from the " Jews."

Your own countrymen.— See Acts xvii. 8, 9.
It was always the Jewish policy to persecute by means
of others. Evidently the Thessalonian Church is almost
entirely Gentile.

(15) Who both killed.— A tremendous invective
against the Jews, the purpose of which is (1) to show

His Anxiety

I. THESSALONIANS, II.

to Visit them again.

prophets, and have persecuted l us ; and
they please not God, and are contrary to
all men : (lfi> forbidding us to speak to the
Gentiles that they might be saved, to fill
up their sins alway: for the wrath is
come upon them to the uttermost.

<17) But we, brethren, being taken
from you for a short time in presence,
not in heart, a endeavoured the more

* abundantly to see your face with
great desire. <18> Where- Chaps u r/_
fore we would have come iii, 10. Hopes
unto you, even I Paul, fnd .fearf and

J ' . ' longings ior re-

once and again ; but newai of inter-
Satan hindered us. <19> For course-
i what is our hope, or joy, or crown
SOT,***** j of rejoicing?^ Are not even ye in
; cor. 5. 3; coi.; fag presence 0f our Lord Jesus Christ

the deep sympathy of St. Paul with the persecuted
Thessaloniaus, and his indignation against the per-
secutors ; (2) to make them see still more deeply the
value of their faith by the efforts made to keep it
from them. Objection is often made to St. John's
Gospel on the ground that no born Jew could have
written of " the Jews " in the bitter way so common
in that book, or viewed them so completely as a
separate body from himself. This passage, in an
indubitable epistle of "a Hebrew of the Hebrews."
seems a satisfactory answer. The memories of St.
Stephen's speech (Acts vii. 52) seem to be waking in the
mind of him who was once a persecuting Jew himself.

Have persecuted.— Take the marginal version,
" chased " (not " have chased ") " us violently out of
Thessalonica."

They please not God— (though to serve and please
Him was the special purpose for which the nation was
set apart,) " and are at cross purposes with all man-
kind." The historian Tacitus gives, as a characteristic
of the race, " an attitude of hostility and hatred towards
all others." Juvenal makes the same accusation.

(16) Forbidding us to speak to the Gentiles.—
The Apostle indicates the special way in which their
contrariety showed itself.

To fill up. — Literally, unto the filling up. Not
exactly their intention in forbidding, but the end to
which such conduct was steadily (" alway ") tending.
(Again comp. Acts vii. 51, and Matt, xxiii. 32.) St.
Paul seems to mean that there may be a certain sum of
wickedness which God will allow a nation, a church, a
person, to complete, before cutting them off from all
spiritual help ; the Jews were industriously labouring
to complete the sum.

For. — The Greek word is but ; and the point is
this : — " The Jews have been working up to the rounded
>erfection of their sin ; but (they had not much left to
Jo) the wrath burst suddenly upon them to its utter-
most." The word for " is come " (which should be the
simple preterite " came") is the same as that used
in Matt. xii. 28, Luke xi. 20, of a sudden, unexpected
apparition. " The wrath " is the wrath from which
Jesus is delivering us (chap. i. 10), and it had already
come upon the Jews, though its outward manifestation
:<n the destruction of Jerusalem was not to come yet
awhile. The particular moment at which St. Paul
means that the wrath " came " must have been the
moment of their final rejection of the Messiah.

W) But we, brethren. — Now comes a change of
subject : no longer the memories of the time when
St. Paul was among them, but his hopes and fears
about them since he left.

" But while you were being persecuted by these
reprobate Jews, we, who were driven away from you,
were longing to come back to see whether your faith
was such an effectual working faith as to support you
through it all."

Taken from you.— Literally, bereaved from you —
i.e., bereaved by being torn from you ; a return to the
simile of the mother (ii. 7), or father (ii. 11).

The more abundantly.— " So far were we from
the proverb, 'out of sight, out of mind,' that our very
absence gave us a greater yearning after your pre-
sence " (1 Cor. v. 3).

(18) we would.— Not merely a conditional tense, but
" we were ready to come — meant to come."

Even I Paul.- Rather, that is to say, I, Paul, not
as if it were a great thing that one like him should have
such a wish, but showing that Silas and Timothy had
not shared his intention. Why had they not ? The
answer shows the minute truthfulness of the Acts.
Timothy, apparently, did not at first leave Thessalonica
with St. Paid (Acts xvii. 10, where the Greek seems
definitely to exclude him). Both Silas and Timothy
were left at Bercea (Acts xvii. 14). It was during this
period that St. Paul felt so eager a desire to return to
his persecuted children. We cannot tell on what two
definite occasions the desire was almost taking shape -
but possibly his longing may have been stimulated by
seeing his messengers start for the north, first when he-
sent for his two companions (Acts xvii. 15), and
secondly when he despatched Timothy himself to Thes-
salonica (chap. iii. 2).

But Satan hindered.— How, cannot be decided ,-
but St. Paul has no doubt that his disappointment was
a direct manifestation of the work of evil, not a leading
of God to stay where he was. Elsewhere he is quite as
clear that the obstruction of his own plans is owing to
God. (See Acts xvi. 6, 7; 1 Cor. xvi. 12, where the
will spoken of is not Apollos' will, but God's.) The
difficulty is to tell in each case whether God is directly
saving us from a wdrse course, in spite of ourselves, or
permitting a momentary, and yet if rightly used a dis-
ciplinary, triumph of evil.

Satan. — The Thessaloniaus, though originally Gen-
tiles, had doubtless been taught enough at their con-
version to recognise the word. Though it is quite
clear from other passages (e.g., 1 Cor. vii. 5 ; 2 Thess.
ii. 9; 1 Tim. iii. 7) that St, Paul believed in the
existence of personal fallen spirits, it cannot be posi-
tively affirmed that he here means anything more than
a personification of all that is opposed to God — the
hostility of wicked men, &c.

(19) " We were most anxious to come and stablish you.,
for we should lose all our hope and joy and honours if
Christ should come and we should have lost you."

Our hope — i.e., the object on which our hopes are
centered.

Crown of rejoicing.— Or, of boasting ; " crown
that we are proud to wear," like victors in the games.
For the meaning of such phrases, see Note on chap. i. 3.

Even ye — (not necessarily excluding other con-
verts) just you, and others like you.

In the presence.— '"It is the thought of presenting
you to Him that thrills us with hope, joy, pride — the

Tfw, Mission of Timotheus

I. THESSALONIANS, III.

to Comfort them.

at his coming?" (2°) For ye are our
glory and joy.

CHAPTER III.— d) Wherefore when
we could no longer forbear, we thought
it good to be left at Athens alone ;
(2) and sent Timotheus, our brother,
and minister of God, and our fellow-
labourer in the gospel of Christ, to
establish you, and to comfort you con-

cerning your faith: (3) that no man
should be moved by these afflictions :
for yourselves know that we are ap-
pointed thereunto.6 (4) For verily, when
we were with you, we told you before
that we should suffer tribulation ;c even
as it came to pass, and ye know. (5) For
this cause, when I could no longer for-
bear, I sent to know your faith, lest by
some means the tempter d have tempted

thought of wearing such a decoration before Him"
(Comp. 2 Cor. xi. 2.)

ni.

(!) We could no longer forbear. — The Greek
word contains the metaphor of a vessel over-full and
bursting with its contents. " We " must be understood
here by the limitation of chap. ii. 18, and by the direct sin-
gular of verse 5, to mean St. Paul alone, not him and Silas.

To be left at Athens alone.— The difficulty of
interpreting this passage so as to agree with Acts xvii.
15, 16 ; xviii. 5, is not a light one. From those pas-
sages it would appear that immediately upon reaching
A. then s, St. Paul sent word back to Macedonia, by the
friends who had escorted him, that St. Silas and St.
Timothy should join him at once ; but that some delay
took place, and that St. Paul had arrived at Corinth
before his companions reached him; that they conse-
quently never were with him at Athens. In that case,
" to be left alone " must mean, " We resolved not oo
keep with us the brethren who escorted us ;" and the
" sent " of verse 2 will mean that he gave them a
message to Timothy that he should go back to Thessa-
lonica (presumably from Bercea), before joining St. Paul
at Athens ; for the tense of the Greek verb "to be left "
absolutely necessitates an act of parting with some
one : it cannot mean, " We were willing to endure lone-
liness a little longer." But such an interpretation siuts
ill with Acts xvii. 15 ; it is hard to identify an urgent
message to "come with all speed" with a command
to make such a detour. It seems, therefore, most
reasonable to suppose that Silas and Timothy joined
St. Paul forthwith at Athens, and were almost as soon
sent back into Macedonia, — Silas to Beroea or Philippi,
and Timothy to Thessalonica. This would explain St.
Paul's being left alone, an expression which would
hardly have been used had Silas remained with him at
Athens, as some (misled by the word " we ") have sup-
posed : and also it explains how in Acts xviii. 5 both
Timothy and Silas come from Macedonia to Corinth.
The despatching of Silas from Athens is not mentioned
here, simply because it had no particular interest for
the Thessalonians. If the two men did not reach St.
Paul at all during the time he was at Athens, after
receiving so imperative a message, they must have been
very slow, for a week would have allowed ample time
for their journey from Beroea, and Acts xvii. 17, xviii. 1
certainly imply a much longer period of residence there.
"To be left alone " was a great trial to St. Paul's
affectionate nature: such a sacrifice may well impress
the Thessalonians with the strength of his love for
them.

(2) Sent. — It may possibly mean that a message was
despatched to him at Beroea, ordering him to go, but is
far more naturally understood if Timothy were at
A-thens at the time.

And minister . . . — The text here, according to the
judgment of most of the best editors (though Tischen-
dorf in his last edition has modified his opinion), is in-
terpolated, and the verse should run: "our brother,
and God's fellow-worker in the gospel of Christ."
Timothy being a person so well known at Thessalonica,
it is difficult to see why ho should be thus particularised,
unless he was the bearer of the letter, and St. Paul
wished to insist upon their paying him due deference
in spite of his youth.

To establish, perhaps in the sense of perfecting
their organisation.

To comfort is here equivalent to " to encourage."

(8) Moved, or more literally, seduced. Tho very
peculiar word in the original means, in the first in-
stance, the fawning of an animal upon its master: then,
through the intermediate sense of "wheedling," it
comes to me -u the gradual detachment of a person
from his resolution by any insinuating representations,
whether of flattery or (as here) of fear. The next word
should bo in or in the midst of, rather than " by " ,
therefore (though both may be included) their own
"afflictions" are chiefly meant, not St. Paul's.

For yourselves. — " Your previous expectation
that Christianity involved the suffering of persecution
ought to be enough to prevent you now from losing
your faith."

"We are appointed thereunto. — The "we"
means all Christian people: their election into the
Church must needs be an election to suffering (see
marg. refs.). " No cross, no crown."

(4) ;por verily, when . . . — To appreciate the
nature of the argument, see the passages referred to in
the margin.

(5) For this cause.—" Because I knew that tempta-
tion was sure to overtake you, I sent to see whether
our work still lived, and was likely to live, in spite
of it."

To know your faith. — " To ascertain whether you
still believed : " only the form courteously implies that
the faith was certainly there, and St. Paul only sent to
" make assurance doubly sure."

The tempter.— See Matt. iv. 3. The word and the
tense in the Greek imply, not only that it is his charac-
ter to tempt, but that it is his constant occupation.

Have tempted you . . . .—The original implies
no doubt on the writer's part that the Thessalonians
had been tempted ; the only doubt was, how they had
borne it. The striking out of the comma after " tempted
you," and reading the clauses quickly together, will give
a fair notion of the purport. It might be paraphrased,
" Lest, in consequence of the temptations which the
tempter brought against you, our toil should prove in
vain." Tho "temptations" were those of persecution,
and the time at which they befell, the same as in verse
4, " it came to pass."

Return of Timotheus.

I. THESSALONIANS, III.

Joy over their well-being.

you, and our labour be in vain." (6) But
now when Timotheus came from you
unto us/; and brought us good tidings
of your faith and charity, and that ye
have good remembrance of us always,
desiring greatly to see us, as we also
to see you : (7) therefore, brethren, we
were comforted over you in all our
affliction and distress by your faith :
<8) for now we live, if ye stand fast in
the Lord. (9) For what thanks can we
render c to God again for you, for all the

Acts IS. 5.
d Rom. 15. 30, 32.

joy wherewith we joy for your sakes
before our God ; <10> night and day
praying exceedingly that we might see
your face,'' and might perfect that
which is lacking in your faith ?

<U) Now God himself and our Father,
and our Lord Jesus Christ,
direct1 our way unto you. prayeiU'intS
(12) And the Lord make ductory to the
you to increase and abound instruction-
in love one toward another, and toward
all men, even as we do toward you:

(6) " "VVe were in great anxiety, for fear you should
have fallen away, and sent Timothy to see if all was
well ; but now, all anxiety is over."

Timotheus came.— According to the usual inter-
pretation of verses 1, 2, adopted above, this will mean
that Timothy had already returned from his mission
to Thessaloniea, as related in Acts xviii. 5, and the
occasion of this present letter will be St. Paul's relief
at the news brought by him.

Brought us good tidings.— An enthusiastic word,
generally rendered, " preached us the gospel."

Faith and charity. — The first -signifies the con-
fidence in God which enabled them to endure (" that
in all our troubles we may put our whole trust and
confidence in Thy mercy") ; the second, the tenderness
with which they helped one another through.

Good remembrance. — Not merely "clear, vivid
remembrance " (as we say, " to remember well "), but
" a good, kind remembrance," as the explanation in
" desiring," &c, shows. The word " good " bears the
same significance in Matt. xx. 15 ; Rom. v. 7 ; 1 Pet.
ii. 18. If the Thessalonians had been beginning to fall
away, they would not have cared to see their teachers.

(7) In all our affliction and distress.— The
words give no decisive indication whether the distress
came from within or from without, and it is impossible
to specify in what it consisted ; but either way it suits
very well with Acts xviii. 5 — 17 ; 1 Cor. ii. 3.

(s) Now we live, if. — "Now" contrasts the new
life and vigour which the "gospel of their faith and
charity " had infused into the Apostle, with the deadly
sinking he had felt at the thought of their possible
apostacy. At the same time the "if" has the half-
f uture sense, as though St. Paul meant that the con-
tinuance of this " life " was contingent upon their
continued steadfastness. Another interpretation has
been suggested, according to which both the " we " and
"ye" are pei*fectly general, and therefore interchange-
able, and the sense is made to be a vague proposition,
" for standing fast in the Lord is a sine qua non of life "
— life in the theological sense : and pai-ts of Rom. vii.
and viii. are compared. This interpretation, however,
suits the Greek as little as the context.

(9) For what thanks can we render. — An
apology for the enthusiastic expressions used in the
three foregoing verses. " I may call it a gospel, a
balm for all anxieties, a new life, for what mode of
thanksgiving could be deemed extravagant in such a
case of joy?"

Before our God.— As in chap. i. 3, the occasion on
which the joy and thankfulness bursts out is "in
prayer ; " perhaps, in connection with thanksgiving,

especially at.the great Eucharistic Thanksgiving (1 Cor.
xiv. 16), when he " stood before the Lord" in a special
manner (Acts xiii. 2 ; comp. Lev. i. 3, 11 ; iii. 1, et al.).

(10) See your face.— Seeing them by proxy might
satisfy for the while, but not for long. This exceeding
importunate prayer is caused by the feeling that it was
Satan's hindrance (chap. ii. 18), not God's will, which
forbad the meeting. He would not so have prayed to
go into Bithynia (Acts xvi. 7), for the essence of prayer
is to conform the will to God's will.

That which is lacking in your faith.— Bishop
Wordsworth points out the unflattering faithfulness of
St. Paul's dealing with his converts. What the de-
ficiencies were is unknown, but they certainly include
want of knowledge of the state of the dead and con-
cerning the Advent.

(U) God himself and our Father.— Better, our
God and Father Himself. If we are to find any special
person with whom the word " Himself " is intended to
enforce a contrast, the contrast is probably not so
much with the baffled efforts of St. Paul, as with
Satan, who had hindered the journey. But the word is
probably added without such specific reference : " May
God Himself direct us ; for in that case who could
hinder ? "

And our Lord . . . — An important theological pas-
sage. From the use of the singular iu the verb
" direct " (which of course the English cannot express),
some divines argue in favour of the Catholic doctrine
of " homoiision," or substantial unity of the Son with
the Father : it must not, however, be too strongly
pressed, or it might otherwise lead to the false notion
of a personal unity between Them. Nevertheless, we
may admit that the prayer (or, rather, tvish) implies
the equality of the two Persons, and that it would have
been inconceivable for a Catholic Christian to have used
the verb in the plural. (See 2 Thess. ii. 17.)

(12) And the Lord make you. — The word you in
the Greek is emphatic and stands first. The wish in
the previous verse concerned the writers : " But you
(whether we come or not) may the Lord make," &c.
By " the Lord " here St. Paxil seems to mean not
only the Son : the word appears to be an equivalent for
the name of God.

Increase and abound.— These words make the
readers think first of progress and then of the state to
which the progress will bring them — " Multiply you in
love until you have enough and to spare of it " — and the
same progress is expressed by the objects of the swell-
ing charity : " So that you may not only love one another
abundantly, but all mankind " — missionary efforts being
the supreme work of Christian love — " such loving
missionary work " (the writers go on to say) " as ours
among you."

Practical Instruction

I. THESSALONIANS, IV.

on Purity.

^13) to the end he may stablish your I
hearts unblameable in holiness before I
God, even our Father, at the coming of
our Lord Jesus Christ with all his saints."

CHAPTER IV.— 0) Furthermore then
Chap. iv. 1-8. we beseech i you, brethren,
On the duty of and exhort - you by the
chastity. Lord Jesus, that as ye have

c Rom. 12. 2
Bpb.B. 17.

1 Or, request.

2 Or, beseech

d 1 Sam. 21. 5.

I received of us how ye ought to walk*
' and to please God, so ye would abound
more and more. (2) For ye know what
commandments we gave you by the
Lord Jesus. (3) For this is the will of
God,c even your sanctification, that ye
should abstain from fornication : W that
every one of you should know how to
possess his vessel d in sanctification and

(13) To the end. — A beautiful connection of thought.
Perfect and spttled sanctification in the eyes of God is
the object in view, and the means by which it is to be
•attained is growing and overflowing love toward man-
kind. (See Col. iii. 14.) St. Paul is already thinking,
probably, how he shall treat the subject of chastity in
the next chapter. (See Nflte on chap. iv. b'.)

Before God ... at the coming.— The hearts
axe to be unblamably holy before God — not oidy all
through life, but also at the Judgment Day, when Jesus
Christ is to judge us in the Father's presence. Though
He has " committed all judgment unto the Son "
(John v. 22), yet the judgment is His own, and the Son
is the agent by whom He judges, just as He is the
agent by whom He creates (see Acts xvii. 31) :
therefore in that day it is in the Father's sight rather
than in the Son's (though there can be no divergence
between Them) that we are to be able to clear ourselves.

With all his saints— i.e., attended by them :-

'• Thousand, thousand saints attending.
Swell the triumph of His train."

The word, might possibly bo stretched to include the
holy angels (Deut. xxxiii. 2 ; Dan. iv. 13, et al.) ; but
here we may more probably suppose that St. Paul is
anticipating his teaching of chap. iv. 14, and besides,
the Greek seems almost to indicate that these " saints "
are to be assessors in the judgment — an honour to be
given only to holy men. (Comp. Luke xxii. 30 ; John
v. 28 ; 1 Cor. vi. 3, et al.)

IV.

(1) We now approach the practical portion of the
Epistle. The first point on which the Thessalonians
meed instruction is in the matter of social purity (verses
1—8).

Furthermore hardly expresses the original. St.
Paul is not adding a further injunction, for he has as
yet given none. It is literally, For the rest, then ; and
serves to introduce the conclusion of the letter.

Beseech.— The marginal request is better, the word
being one of calm and friendly asking, implying that
the person so addressed will recognise the propriety of
complying.

Exhort is correct, though " encourage " suits the
context a little better, as assuming that they are
already so acting, but not with enough heart.

By 'the Lord.— Better, in the Lord, It is not
an adjuration, as in Rom. xii. 1. but states the authori-
tative ground of his request. " "We encourage you, on
the strength of our union in the Lord Jesus." (Comp.
chap. i. 1.)

How ye ought to walk.— Literally, the how. It
indicates that part of the apostolic tradition was a
systematic moral code, almost as if it were the title of a
".veil-known book. " We gave you the 'How ye ought to
walk, so as to please God.' " The best texts add imme-
diately after, " even as also ye walk."

39* 137

Abound more and more.— Or, still more. " You
did receive of us the rules of a holy life ; you are living
by them, and that to a very large degree ; but we beg
you and encourage you, on the faith of Christians, to be
still more lavish in your self-denial."

(2) For ye know. — He calls on the Thessalonians'
memory to support his statement, " ye received ; " at the
same time awakening their interest to catch the special
point next to come, by laying stress on " what command-
ments."

By the Lord Jesus.— Not as if the Lord were the
person who took the commandments from St. Paul to
the Thessalonians, but the person by means of whose
inspiration St. Paul was enabled to give such com-
mandments.

(3) For. — The word further enforces the appeal to
their memory : " Ye know what commandments . . .
for this (you will recollect) is what God wants;" "a
commandment given through the Lord Jesus," being,
of course, identical with " God's will."

Your sanctification.— In apposition to the word
this. The mere conversion, justification, salvation of
us are not the aim of God : He would have us holy.
The general idea of sanctification passes however here,
as the following clauses show, into the more limited
sense of purification.

Fornication. — The word is often used in late Greek
for any kind of impurity, as, e.g., 1 Cor. v. 1, of incest ;
but here it must be understood in its strict sense. To
the Gentile mind, while the wickedness of adultery or
incest was fully recognised, it was a novelty to be told
that fornication was a " deadly sin ; " hence the strange
connection in which it stands in the Synodal letter to
the Gentile churches (Acts xv. 20, 29 ; xxi. 25). This
consideration also makes it easier to understand how
St. Paul can praise these Gentile Thessalonians so
heartily, although they need earnest correction on this
vital point. It is a true instance of the sacerdotal
metriopcdhy (or, compassionate consideration) towards
the ignorant and deceived. (See Heb. v. 1, 2.)

(4) Should know.— The clause is simply parallel
to the last, and, with it, explains the word " sancti-
fication." The Bulgarian Father, Theophylact, says
pointedly in reference to the word '* to know " or
•' understand," " He indicates that chastity is a matter
that requires self-discipline and study." (Comp. Eph.
v. 17.) ,

To possess his vessel.— The word rendered M to
possess " should rather be translated, to procure, iciit.
gain possession of. The word " vessel" here has been
interpreted in two ways: (1) "his wife;" (2) "his
body." In favour of (1) it is argued that (while
•gaining possession of one's own body" is unintelli-
gible), "acquiring a wife of one's own " is an ordinary
Greek expression ; that in this context, " a vessel."
or " instrument," is an expressive and natural meta-
phor; that the word was familiar to Hebrew speakers
in that sense {e.g., Ahasuerus says of Vashti, in one

Exhortation to lit

I. THESSALONIANS, TV.

in Holiness and Purity.

honour ; <5) not in the lust of con-
cupiscence, even as the Gentiles which
know not God : (6) that no man go
beyond and defraud l his brother in any
matter : 2 because that the Lord is the

1 Or, oppress, or,
overreach.

•J Or, in tit' math r.
:<. I ir, rtjtvttih.

avenger of all- such, as we also have
forewarned you and testified. W For
God hath not called us unto unclean-
ness, but unto holiness. <8) He there-
fore that despiseth,8 despiseth not man,

of the Targnms, " My vessel which I use is neither
Median nor Persian, but Chaldee " ) ; that St. Peter
(1 Pet. iii. 7) uses the word of the wife. But it may be
answered that this interpretation does not suit our
context; first, because it would be laying an emphatic and
binding veto upon celibacy, if "each one" is "to acquire
a wife of his own ; " secondly, because of the verb " to
know," it certainly being no part of a religious man's
duty "to knoiv how to procure a wife;'' thirdly, because
the Greek cannot be translated "a vessel (or wife) of his
own," but " his own vessel " (or wife) — literally, the
vessel of himself — and to speak of ''procuring" the
wife who is already one's own seems unmeaning.
Furthermore, although the quotations from the Targnms
are certainly to the point, that from St. Peter distinctly
points the other way, inasmuch as the wife is called
" the weaker vessel of the two," evidently meaning
that the husband is also " a vessel." Thus we are
driven to suppose that (2) the "vessel" is the man's own
self. This usage also is well supported. In 1 Sam.
xxi. 5, it is used in precisely this sense, and in the same
context, as well as in 1 Pet. iii. 7. The passages, how-
ever, usually quoted in support of this interpretation
from 2 Cor. iv. 7, Philo, Barnabas, Lucretius, &c, do
not seem quite parallel ; for there the word signifies a
" vessel," in the sense of a receptacle for containing
something; here it is rather " an instrument" or "im-
plement " for doing something. Hence it approaches
more nearly to the use in such phrases as Acts ix. 15,
"a vessel of choice," or even (though the Greek word is
different) to Horn. vi. 13. " The vessel of himself "
(the " himself " being in the Greek strongly empha-
sised) means, not " the vessel which is his own," but
" the vessel or instrument which consists of himself."
Thus the body, which of course is chiefly meant here,
is not dissociated from the man's personality, as in
the fanciful Platonism of Philo, but almost identified
with it : the Incarnation has taught us the true dignity
of the body. Thus it becomes easy to understand what
is meant by "knowing how to gain possession of" such
an instrument as the body with its many faculties,
rescuing it from its vile prostitution, and wielding it
wisely for its proper uses. So the same Greek verb
is used, and mistranslated in our version, in Luke
xxi. 19, " In your patience possess ye your souls."

In sanctification and honour.— The circum-
stances in which — almost the means by which — the man
may acquire and keep this skilful power over his instru-
ment : — " in a course of self -purification and of self-re-
'verence." The reverence due to the instrument is
brought out in a passage of St. Peter evidently modelled
upon this (1 Pet. iii. 7). (Comp. also 2 Tim. ii. 21, " an in-
strument for honourable purposes, and to be honourably
treated, consecrated, and handy for its owner's use.")

(5) Not in the lust of concupiscence, for such a
method of using one's faculties, such an attempt to
acquire mastery of vital powers, is really to abandon
them altogether to others. This notion is involved in
the very word here translated " lust," which is more
often rendered " passion," and implies something which
befalls a man, something done to him: "Not in the
helpless passivity of concupiscence " or uncontrolled
desire.

The Gentiles which know not God.— Mind
the punctuation. The readers of the letter were " Gen-
tiles which knew God." Their brother Thessalonians
are held up to them as melancholy examples of men
who are trying in the wrong way to show their power
over themselves. Remark that this is not one of the
crimes which he alleges against Jews.

(6) That no man.— The form of the Greek shows
that this is not exactly parallel with the preceding
clauses, as if it ran, " this is God's will, your sanctifi-
cation, for you to abstain, for you to know how to
possess, for you not to go beyond," &c. It is a final
clause, expressing the purpose of such continence as
has just been described. Men are to be chaste and
self-possessed, not only for their own salvation's sake,
but in justice to their brethren. In chap. iii. 12, 13,
they were to love for the sake of becoming holy ; here
they are to be holy for the sake of charity — a blessed
action and reaction.

Defraud his brother.— The original word implies
a rapacious dishonesty, of which any person is guilty
who gives the rein to his lusts, especially the adulterer.
The substantive formed from it is usually translated
covetousness, and is generally thought to be used in
this special sense in Eph. v. 3 ; Col. iii. 5. When all
men are brethren the sin becomes worse.

In any matter should undoubtedly be in the
matter. St. Paul chooses the phrase for delicacy's sake,
both here and in 2 Cor. vii. 11.

Because that the Lord. — Again an anticipation
of the Advent, for the vengeance meant is that of the
Judgment Day, not the natural retribution which carnal
sin brings with it. The "Lord," therefore, in this context
probably means more particularly the Incarnate Son,
who has a special claim upon men's bodies (1 Cor. vi. 13).

Have forewarned.— Rather, did forewarn. It
was part of the Apostles' original teaching at Thessa-
lonica.

(7) For God. — This gives the reason for stating that
the Lord will take vengeance on such sins ; because they
are not part of the terms on which His Father called us.
It should be " did not call." These verses 7, 8, sum
up the little disquisition, returning to the principle
announced in verse 3.

Unto uncleanness, but unto holiness.— The
preposition translated " unto " has the same force in
Gal. v. 13, "Called unto liberty," and Eph. ii. 10.
" Created unto good works." It implies not so much the
definite end to which we are invited, as the terms on
which the invitation will still stand; for the call is not
yet accomplished. (See Note on chap. ii. 12.) The second
" unto " in the Greek is simply " in," used in the same
sense as in verse 4. Paraphrase, " For God did not call
us on the understanding that we might be unclean, but
by the way of sanctification."

Holiness is a mistranslation for sanctification.
The process, not the quality, is meant.

(8) " So you see that to act contumeliously in the
matter is to act contumeliously not only towards your
neighbour, but towards God Himself, and that, too, after
He has given you a gift which should have preserved
you from these corruptions."

138

Directions concerning

I. THESSALONIANS, 1 V.

Brvthcdy Love.

but God, who hath also given unto us

liis holy Spirit.

But as touching brotherly love
ye need not that I write
unto you : " for ye yourselves
are taught of God * to
love one another. (10^ And

Chap.iv.'.' 12.
On regulating
Christian fel-
low-feeling.

>l,ii 6 45; Mi

indeed ye do it toward all the brethren
which are in all Macedonia : but we
beseecln you, brethren, that ye in-
crease more and more; (11) and that
ye study to be quiet, and to do your
own business, and to work with your
own hands, as we commanded you;c

He . . . that despiseth. — The verb means to treat
as insignificant either persons or thing's. Here the object
is not supplied in the first instance, in order to heighten
the effect of the second clause. If we were to supply
it, it would include all the rights which the unclean
liver spurns, " the commandments which we (mere men
as you thought us) gave you," the "brother" whose
domestic happiness has been invaded, the unfortunate
victim herself, and, finally, the " honour " due to the
sinner's own body. Since it was God who ordered the
relations in which we all stand to one another, contempt
for these relations is contempt for Him.

Who hath also given. — Mistranslated for " who
also gave.'" St. Paul is looking back to the day when
he confirmed them ; for the right reading is not u unto
us," but " unto you," or more correctly " into you " — i.e.,
"to enter into you, and dwell there" (John xiv. 17,
and many other places). The word -holy" in the
original is very emphatically put : " Who also gave
His Spirit — His Holy Spirit — to enter you," thus
bringing out the startling contrast between such foul
lives and the holiness which befitted and was possible
(Rom. vi. 14 ; viii. 3, 4) for men in whom the Holy
Ghost, communicated by the laying on of hands, vouch-
safed to dwell.

W But . . .—This forms the second subject of in-
struction, following naturally on the first. " We are
very glad to hear of so strong a Christian feeling of
brotherhood among you, and think it almost unne-
cessary to say anything more to you about it; still
your charity is hardly catholic enough, nor have you
exercised it with sufficient sobriety and thrift."

Brotherly love.— Not love of men at large, but of
Christians in particidar : in fact, pretty nearly what we
call " Church feeling." It is the natural affection of
those who feel that they are children of the same Father
and the same mother (Gal. iv. 26), members of the same
"' household of faith " (Gal. vi. 10). In itself, it is not
the most exalted of graces, being to some extent the
outcome of community of interests ; therefore St. Peter
exhorts his readers to make it a means of obtaining
the higher grace of charity (1 Pet. i. 22 ; 2 Pet. i. 7).
St. Paul in this place does mean the sentiment rather
than the practice, but has specially in view the exercise
of liberality towards fellow-Christians. The feeling
of community can only be known by acts that prove it.

Ye need, not.— A sweet rhetorical figure, by which
men are encouraged to the performance of a duty in
which they are not perfect, by the praising of their
imperfect attempts : a specimen of that " courtesy "
which is a part of " brotherly love." (See 1 Pet.
iii. 8.) " I " should be we, or any.

Ye yourselves.— It seems as if St. Paul had in-
tended at first to say, '' For ye yourselves know without
any instruction," but suddenly inserts the source of
their knowledge instead : " For ye yourselves are
divinely taught already." This seems more natural
to the context (though grammatically less easy ) than to
understand : " For ye yourselves (as well as we) are
taught of God." (Comp., however, the references.)

God's teaching here comes ( though perhaps other modes
are not excluded) by the direct contact with the in-
dwelling Spirit. (See 1 John ii. 27.)

To love. — In the Greek this is not the simple infini-
tive after " taught ; " it expresses rather the result and
issue of God's teaching: "have been so schooled by
God as to love one another." This love is not actually
contrasted with the " brotherly kindness " above, but
means more.

(10) And indeed ye do it— i.e., " love one another; "
i but the words seem to imply a very practical form of
| love. This fact justifies St. Paul in saying that the
| Thcssalouians were so taught of God.

Toward. — Rather, even unto ; as far as unto. The
! Thessalonians' charity lias travelled already a long
j way from its starting-point at home, extending over all
northern Greece. As Thessalouica had been the centre
< of evangelisation (chap. i. 8), so also of the maintenance
| of the Churches. The words need not necessarily
j ( though they do probably) imply a number of missionary
j stations besides the three places where the Apostles
I had preached.

Increase more and more. — A little too emphatic :
j abound (or, overflow) still more. The words are
; identical with those in verse 1. The brotherly kindness
of the Thessalonians did not spread over a wide enough
area in merely traversing Macedonia, nor was it so unos-
tentatious as true love should be.

W And that ye study to be quiet.— The word

means more than " study ; " " and that ye make it

yottr ambition to keep quiet " — their ambition having

formerly been to make a stir among the Churches. It

is a strong use of the rhetorical figure called oxymoron,

j or combining words of contrary meaning in order to give

force and point to the style. The warnings in this verse

i are not directed against defiance of the law of brotherly

love, but against a thoroughly wrong mode of showing

i that love : the unquietness, meddlesomeness, desultori-

ness with which it was accompanied are not so much

j instances of unkindness to the brotherhood as scandals

I to the heathen. Hence the conjunction at the begin-

i ning of the verse has something of an adversative force :

i " We beg you to ,be even more abundantly liberal,

and (yet) at the same time to agitate for perfect

j calmness about it." It is commonly supposed (but

j proof is impossible) that the unsettlement arose from

belief in the nearness of the Advent.

Do your own business.— Not merely was each

individual to do his own work, but the whole Church

was to refrain from interfering ostentatiously with

| other Churches. In all languages, " to mind one's own

j business" signifies rather the negative idea of ceasing

to meddle than the positive idea of industry.

Work with your own hands. — Apparently the
Thessalonians had been so busy in organising away
from home that they liad had no time to see to their
own industry, and so (see end of next verse) were be-
ginning to fall into difficulties. The words " with
j your own hands " are supposed to indicate that most of

the Thessalonian Christians were of the artisan class.
39

They are not to sorrow

I. THESSALONIANS, IV.

hopelessly for tlie dead.

(12> that ye may walk honestly toward
them that are without,3 and that
Chap.iv. 13-18. ye may ha™ lack of

On the equality nothing . l

of quick and (ia) But I would not

dead at Christ s _ ,.

Coming. have you to be ignorant/'

C El>h. 2. 12.
Or, of no man.

d Rev. 14. 13..

■ Rom. 1. 13; I1.2S;

1 Cor. nil; 12.1;

2 Cor. 1. a.

brethren, concerning >them which are
asleep, that ye sorrow not, even as
others which have no hope.c <14) For
if we believe that Jesus died and rose
again, even so them also which sleep
in Jesus d will God bring with him.

(12> Honestly. — Not in our modern sense of the
word, but " honourably," " creditably."

Toward — i.e., " in reference to," " in your connection
with." The heathen were certain to be watching the
conduct of the members of the new religion, and it
would bring down political suspicion if they were seen
to be acting more like agitators for a secret society
than honest citizens who worked at their handicraft
and calling.

Of nothing. — Right : the marginal version is
hardly consistent with the Greek. Two purposes will
be fulfilled by their industry : (1) to allay heathen sus-
picion ; (2) to be well supplied themselves. It seems
as if they had been reduced to begging of other
Churches in return for their own expensive charities.

(13) But. — We pass to the third clearly-marked
point : the share of the Christian dead in the Coming
of Christ. Possibly an association of ideas may have
caused St. Paul to join these two subjects, of quietude
and the Advent, so closely (see Note on verse 11). " You
need have no distress about your dead : when Christ
comes, they will be there too ; they will come with
Him, and we shall be caught up to meet them."

I would not have you to be ignorant.— The

right reading is we. St. Paul is still speaking in the
name of his companions as well as his own. The
phrase is very weighty, and marks how lamentable such
a piece of ignorance would be. (See references in the
margin.)

Which are asleep.— The best reading is rather,
which fall asleep ; the grief renewed itself over each
successive death-bed. The image of sleep is a mere
metaphor, drawn from the outward phenomena of
death, and is used as an euphemism for death; there-
fore no doctrine can be deduced with precision from
it. It cannot be said (for instance) on the strength of
such passages alone, that only the body sleeps, and not
the soul ; or, again, that the soul sleeps while the body
remains in the grave. That the soul, or at any rate the
spirit, still retains consciousness after dissolution is
clear from other places ; but when the metaphor of
sleep is used, it is used of the whole man {e.g., John
xi. 11, " Lazarus " — not " Lazarus' body " — " sleepeth"),
the explanation being either that stated above — i.e.,
that the word is simply picturesque, describing the
peaceful appearance of the dead — or that the reference
is to rest from labour (Rev. xiv. 13). At the same time,
the metaphor suggests (otherwise it would be mis-
leading, and St. Paul would not have used it) a con-
tinued (even if partly unconscious) existence, and the
possibility of a reawakening. Again, for the same
reason — i.e., because the word is metaphorical, not
doctrinal — it cannot be limited to the Christian dead :
when the writers need to mark specially the departed
Christians they annex qualifying words, as in verse 14.
Of course, on the mention of " the dead," the Thes-
salonians will at once think of their own brethren
departed, so that there is no ambiguity.

That ye sorrow not.— The words express St.
Paul's object in wishing them to know the truth. He

wants them not to sorrow at all over the dead ; sorrow
is only fit for Gentiles who have no hope. He does
not mean that they are not to sorrow to the same degree
as those outside the Church, but that to Christians,
who have a hope, and such a hope, death ought to have
no sorrows. The Office of Burial in the Prayer-book
is as joyous as the Eucharistic Office itself.

Others.— The Greek word is " the others, those who
have no hope," and includes all who were not members
of the Church : " That ye mourn not like the rest,
which have no hope." The having no hope does not
mean that there is no hope for them, but that they aie
not cheered by hope.

(14) ;por if , , , — A reason for thinking that if the
Thessalonians knew and believed the truth, they ought
not to be so miserable. The " if " implies no doubt :
" if we believe (as we do), then," &c. — merely clearing
the ground for a logical deduction. The writer does
not care to prove so well-known a fact as the resur-
rection of Christ ; he only argues from the clear faith
of the Thessalonians with regard to it.

Jesus died and rose again.— Notice the human
name ; for though it is true that as God He raised
Himself (John x. 18), as man He was no less dependent
upon the Father than we are (Acts xvii. 31) : therefore
His resurrection is a real argument for ours. And the
two verbs are put together because of their contrariety
— " really died a human death, and yet rose again."

Even so. — The structure of the clauses is not quite
regular. "We should have expected either the omission
of " we believe that " in the first, or the insertion of it
in the second : it makes the statement of the second,
however, more direct or authoritative.

Which sleep in Jesus. — Rather, tohich were laid
to sleep through Jesus. The meaning of the preposi-
tion, however, is not widely different from "in." The
simpler words in Eev. xiv. 13 mean " dying in full com-
munion still with Him." Our present phrase makes
Him, as it were, the way, or door, by which they
journeyed to death : He surrounded them as they sank
to rest. (Comp. John x. 9.) Additional sweetness
is imparted to the phrase by the use of the metaphor
of sleep ; but it is, perhaps, too much to say, as Dean
Alford does, that " falling asleep " is here contrasted
with " dying," in this sense : — " "Who through the
power of Jesus fell asleep instead of dying " — for the
word is even used of a judicial punishment of death in
1 Cor. xi. 30.

Will God bring with him— i.e., with Jesus. In
the Greek the word God stands in an unemphatic posi-
tion— " Even so will God bring," implying that it was God
also who had raised Jesus from the dead. But St. Paul •
is not content with saying, " Even so will God raise those
who passed through Christ to death. " The thought of
the Advent is so supreme with him that he passes
at once to a moment beyond resurrection. If the ques-
tion be asked from whence God will bring the dead
along with Christ, it must be answered, from Paradise,
and the persons brought must be the disembodied
spirits ; for in verse, 16 this coming of the Lord with
the saints is the signal for the dead — i.e., the bodies — to

The Resurrection,

I. THESSALONIANS, IV.

and Christ's Coming.

(is) For this we say unto you by the
word of the Lord," that we * which are
alive and remain unto the coming of
the Lord shall not prevent them which
are asleep. (16) For the Lord himself
shall descend from heaven with a shout,

d \n- a

I Cor. IS. '
e Matt. 25. i

with the voice of the archangel, and
with the trump of God : 6 and the dead
in Christ shall rise first : <17) then we
which are alive and remain shall be
caught up d together with them in the
clouds, to meet the Lord' in the air:

rise. It must be owned, however, that this manner of
speaking is unusual. Jesus is no longer in Paradise,
for the spirits to be brought thence with Him ; and
one would have expected something more like " bring-
ing up " (Heb. xiii. 20), as it is always considered a
ilcxc.rnt into "'hell" or Paradise. Because of this
difficulty (which however is more in form than reality),
some take the words to mean, " God will lead them by
the sune path with Christ " — i.e., will make their whole
career (including resurrection) conform with His, com-
paring the same verb in Bom. viii. 14 ; Heb. ii. 10.

(is) By the word of the Lord. — Literally, in. A
most direct claim to plenary inspiration (see references).
It does not mean "According to certain words which
Christ spoke," nor yet " By means of a revelation from
the Lord to me." but '' By way o/a divine revelation : "
'• I tell you this as a message straight from God."
In what way apostles and prophets became conscious
of supernatural inspiration we cannot tell ; but else-
where also St. Paul speaks of possessing the conscious-
ness sometimes and not at others. (See 1 Cor. vii.
10, 12, 25, 40.) He means this declaration here to
hold good of the details, which are such as no one
would invent and teach with such solemnity ; at the
same time it must be remembered, with regard to the
details, that it is the very idiom of prophecy (which
St. Paul here uses) to express by material imagery
spiritual facts.

We which are alive and remain.— Literally,
We, (that is) the quick, those who are left over. There
is not the least necessity for supposing from these
words that St. Paul confidently expected the Advent
before his death. Veiy likely he did, but it cannot be
proved from this passage. Had the "we" stood alone,
without the explanatory participles, it might have
amounted to a proof, but not so now. His converts
are strongly under the impression that they will be alive
at the Coming, and that it will be the worse for the
departed : therefore, St. Paul (becoming all things to
all men) identifies himself with them — assumes that
it will be as they expected — and proves the more
vividly the fallacy of the Thessalonians' fears. It
would have been impossible, on the contrary, for St.
Paul to have said " we which are dead " without
definitely abandoning the hope of seeing the Return.
Besides which. St. Paul is only picturing to imagination
the scene of the Advent ; and for any man it is far
easier to imagine himself among the quick than among
the dead at that moment.

Shall not prevent — i.e., " be before," " get the
start of." If it were not for these words, we might
have fancied that the Thessalonians had not been
taught to believe in a resurrection at all ; which would
have been a strange departure from the usual apostolic
gospel (1 Cor. xv. 1, et seq.). We here learn what was
the exact nature of the Thessalonians' anxiety concerning
the dead. They were full of excited hopes of the coining
of that kingdom which had formed so prominent a part
of the Apostles' preaching there (Acts xvii. 7) ; and were
afraid that the highest glories in that kingdom would
be engrossed by those who were alive to receive them ;

and that the dead, not being to rise till afterwards,
wotdd have less blessed privileges. This would make
them not only sorry for their dead friends, but also
reluctant to die themselves. The negative in this clause
is very emphatic in the Greek, and throws all its force
upon the verb : " We shall certainly not get the start of
them that sleep ; " i.e., " if anything, we shall be
behind them; they will rise first."1

(i<>) For. — A justification of the statement that we
shall certainly not prevent the dead ; therefore, the
words as far as " trump of God " are logically paren-
thetical ; and the proof only begins at " They shall rise
first : then we shall be caught up."

With a shout.— The Greek word means a shord of
command or encouragement, such as a captain gives to
his soldiers, or a boatswain to his crew. It is not
necessary to inquire what the command may be, or to
ivho7ti issued, inasmuch as the word does not always
imply any particular orders ; nor who is represented as
uttering it : the intention is only to convey the notion
of the stirring noise, in the midst of which (for the
original has " in," not " with ") the Lord will descend.
It is, however, somewhat particularised by what follows :
two notes amid those sounds of mystery strike the ear
— the archangel's voice, and the trump of God. Pro-
bably, therefore, the "shout of command" is uttered
by the " leader of the angels;" and the trump (called
" the trump of God " because used for God's purposes)
is blown to summon the mustering hosts. In favour of
supposing the Lord Himself to utter the cry, may be
adduced John v. 25 ; but, on the other hand, it suits
the dignity of the scene better to imagine the loud
sound to come rather from one of the heralds of the
great army. The preposition "in" is more effective
than " with : " it calls attention to the long blast.
(Comp. Ex. xix. 19.)

Shall rise first.— Not as meaning " shall be the
first to rise," as contrasted with non-members of the
Church who aro to rise later ; though that is a scrip-
tural thought (Rev. xx. 5, 6), the Greek here refuses
to be so explained. Rather, "the first thing will be
the rising of the dead in Christ," contrasted with what
follows — " then, and not till then, shall we be caught up."
The same order is carefully observed in 1 Cor. xv. 52.

(17) Shall be caught up. — '" Our Assumption," as
Bishop Ellicott well calls it. The spiritualising of our
natural bodies without death, as described in 1 Cor. xv.
50, et seq., will enable us to be "caught up" equally
well with, and in company with (both of which thoughts
are included in " together with "), the resurgent dead.
" Clouds " and " air " will be support enough for ma-
terial so immaterial. Theodoret says, " He showeth
the greatness of the honour : as the Master Himself
was taken up upon a shining cloud, so also they that
have believed in Him." The absolute equality, then, of
quick and dead is proved.

To meet the Lord in the air.— St. Chrysostom
says : " When the King cometh into a city, they that
are honourable proceed forth to meet him, but the
guilty await their judge within." „The phrase " in the
air " certainly does not mean " heaven." The word " air "

The Suddenness of

I. THESSALONIANS, V.

the Day of the Lord.

and so shall we ever be with the Lord.
(is) Wherefore comfort2 one another
with these words.

CHAPTEE V.— W But of the times

•Chap v l - 11 an(^ ^ne seasons/' brethren,

On the date of ye have no need that I

the Advent and write unto you b (2) For
its practical , , J _ ,,

yourselves know perfectly

r Joel •_'. 1. 1
•I Watt. -.'4. 48;

Luke 12. ;m ;

:.' Pet. 8. 10;

Ilev. ::. .'i ; id.

e. lO/.ck. 13. 10.

A.D. M.

Dun. i 21 ; Acta

cli. 4. <).
/ Rom. 13. 11,

<i eh. i. a.

h Luke 16. 8;
■liilin 13. :«>;
Bph r>. Si

that the day of the Lord so cometh e as
a thief in the night/ <3) For when they
shall say, Peace ' and safety ; then-
sudden destruction cometh upon them,
as travail upon a woman with child;
and they shall not escape. ^ But ye,
brethren, are not in darkness, that that
day/ should overtake you as a thief.
(5> Ye are all 9 the children of light/' and

in itself properly signifies the lower, denser, grosser
.atmosphere, in which the powers of darkness reign
(Eph. ii. 2) ; but here it is only used in contrast with
the ground, and means "on the way from Heaven
whence He conies," of course not to dwell there, but
to accompany Him to His Judgment-seat on the earth.

And so. — Now that St. Paul has settled the ques-
tion of disparity between the dead and the living, he
does not think it necessary to describe what is imme-
diately to follow ; that, the Thessalonians were sure to
know (see Hob. vi. 2): it only remains to say that having
once rejoined the Lord, they would never be parted
from Him.

(is) Comfort one another.— Here is a balm for
the " sorrow " of verse 13. Bather, " in these words "
than " with ;" " Repeat these very words to one another,
and yon will find the comfort." What bereaved Christian
has not found this true ?

(!) But of the times.— The fourth subject of in-
struction ; the bearing of the doctrine of the Advent
upon the Christian's own life. " Times and seasons "
is a Hebraism, and in the original, the second word, not
the first, is the more explicit : we should say, " About
day and hour." The plural seems to mean the different
periods at which men might conceive the Advent likely
to come.

Ye have no need. — The next verse shows that this
paragraph is not so much intended for an answer to a
false theory about the time of the Advent, as practically
to cure the restlessness common at Thessalouica.

(2) Know perfectly.— Or, accurately. There is
something of an oxymoron (see Note on chap. iv. 11)
here. " 1 need not tell you about the time, for you
know to a nicety— not the hour of Christ's coming, but
— the utter uncertainty respecting it." The word
shows at the same time with what scrupulous care St.
Paul had instructed them on this topic.

The day of the Lord.— Here " the Lord " (as
usual in the New Testament) means Jesus Christ ; and
this day can mean nothing else than the great .day of His
return to judgment. The expression is taken from the
Old Testament, where, of course, it does not primarily
mean what we call " the Day of Judgment." but the
set time which God has fixed for any great visitation.
Thus in Joel ii. 1, et seq., it means the time appointed for
the plague of locusts ; in Ezek. xiii. 5, generally, any
day when God visits His people ; in Joel iii. 14, the fixed
time for vengeance to be taken upon the heathen for
persecuting the Church ; which, in Isa. ii. 12 (a passage
largely influenced by recollections of Joel), seems to
widen into a general day of judgment for mankind.

Cometh. — Not merely, will come ; it is an absolute
certainty that the time is on its way to come. (See Note
on chap. i. 10.)

As a thief in the night— i.e. unexpectedly
(Matt. xxiv. 43), and under cover of darkness. The

frequency of the simile (see references) throws light on
the words " know perfectly," making it apparent that
it was the ordinary formula in which the doctrine was
universally taught by the Apostles.

(8) They. — Quite vague and general, like the French
on. The plural is so used frequently in St. Luke (xii. 11 ,
20, margin ; xvi. 9, probably ; xxiii. 29, 30, 31). Of
course, however, no Christian could say so. for they
are ever on the watch, so that " they " will mean v the
world." The word "for" at the beginning of the verse
should (according to the best MSS.) be struck out — the
abruptness helps to enforce the lesson.

Peace and safety. — Carrying on the thought
suggested by the word " night ; they are taking their
repose in security, without dreaming of any interrup-
tion to their slumbers. Is it possible that there may
here be a faint recollection of the parable related in
Matt. xxv. 1—13?

Destruction cometh upon them.— Literally,
stands over them ; or takes its stand over them ; presents
itself. The present tense is used for the sake of a more
vivid effect. The extreme similarity of this passage to
Luke xxi. 34 (with other indications) inclines Bishop
Wordsworth to think that the Thessalonians had the
Gospel of St. Luke to refer to.

As travail. — A common Oriental simile to express
not only suddenness, but horror also. Theodoret fairly
says, " The woman with child knows that she has the
child to bear, but knows not the exact time for her
pangs ; so we also know that the Lord of all will
appear, but the moment itself we have by no means
been explicitly taught." The comment, however,
hardly suits this passage, as the persons on whom the
destruction will thus burst are not persons who live in
any expectation of such a judgment.

(4) But ye. — " Though the world (which lieth in
darkness) may be sui-prised at the coming of the Day,
you, members of the Church, living in the light, cannot
be surprised." The words " in darkness " seem to be
suggested by the mention of " night " in verse 2 ; and
the chief thought (as the succeeding verses show) is
that of supineness, inattention, torpor, not so much
either ignorance or sin.

That day. — Literally, the day : so that it does not
mean the Judgment Day simply as a point of time, but
brings out its characteristic of being a day indeed.
(Comp. 1 Cor. iii. 13.)

As a thief.— There is another reading which has two
of the best MSS. and he Coptic version in its favour,
and the judgment of Lachmann and Dr. Lightfoot, " As
thieves." But not only is the evidence from the MSS.
strongly in favour of the Received text, but the whole
context shows that St. Paul was not thinking of the
day as catching them at evil practices, but as catching
them in inadvertence.

(5) Ye are all.— St. Paul recognises no exceptions,
no inner distinctions, among the members of the Church :
all stand alike so far as grace, privileges, and duti«*s

Instructions as to

I. THESSALONIANS, V.

Watchfulness and Sobriety.

the children of the day : we are not of
the night, nor of darkness. W Therefore
let us not sleep, as do others ; but let
'us watch and be sober." (7) For they
that sleep sleep in the night ; and they
that be drunken are drunken in the
night. (8) But let us, who are of the

day, be sober, putting on the breastplate
of faith and love; and for an helmet,*
the hope of salvation. <9> For God
hath not appointed us to wrath,c but to
obtain salvation d by our Lord Jesus
Christ, <10) who died for us, that,
whether we wake or sleep," we should

are concerned. The following exhortation shows that it

was a matter of each man's free will whether he would
.sustain his character as a " child of light " or not.

Children of light. — The expression is an enthu-
siastic Hebrew poetical turn for intimate vital con-
nection with anything; thus, e.g., "children of this
world" (Luke xvi. 8; xx. i U ) = '• mere products of this
Age," with a family likeness for other worldly people ;
- the son of peace" (Luke x. 6) = a person with whom
peace h&S a natural affinity, to whom the " peace " pro-
nounced will cleave naturally. So "children of the
light " are persons to whom darkness is an alien thing,
whose natures have a kinship, an intuitive responsive-
ness for whatever may be called " light." To such
persona the "light," the "day," can never come as an
unwelcome, startling apparition.

We. — Notice St. Paul's courtesy again : he suddenly
includes himself in his exhortation.

0») Let us not sleep. -The metaphor here expresses
not so much actual sin (Eph. v. 14) as carelessness in
spiritual and moral things. " Let us not say, ' Peace
and safety,' and resign ourselves to indifference about
Christ's coming." St. Paul (as always) indicates that it
was possible for " children of light " to be converted
back into " children of darkness."

Others.— Rather, the rest, as in chap. iv. 13 : so
also Rom. xi. 7 ; Eph. ii. 3.

Watch and be sober.— The comparison of night
now suggests to the writer another thought besides
that of sloth, namely, that of dissipation. Christians
are not to turn day into night by debauchery any more
than by sleep.

(7) They that sleep . . . .—As the connection of
sleep with night has already been sufficiently worked
out, and is not touched upon again in verse 8. the first
elause seems only to be inserted for the sake of bringing
out the second, and to justify the sudden introduction
of the words, " and be sober." It may thus be para-
phrased : " I say, ' and be sober too,' for as they that
sleep sleep in the night, so they that be drunken are
drunken in the night." It is implied that the streets
even of heathen Thessalonica were seldom affronted
with the common English spectacle of drunken men by
daylight; while among the Jews it was proof positive
of sobriety to say, " It is but the third hour of the day "
(Acts ii. 15). In St. Cyprian's time, Christians were
known from other men because their breath smelt of
wine in the early morning through attending the Blessed
Sacrament (Epistle lxiii. 15) : no heathens would have
touched wine by that time.

<8) Putting on.— A curiously abrupt transition,
suggested by the sober vigilance just advocated. The
Christian must be careful to watch, not only because
the Lord is coming back at some unexpected hour, but
also because there are enemies all round. He is not
oidy the porter, sitting up to let his Lord in at any
hour when He may return from the wedding (Mark
xiii. 34; Luke xii. 36), but the soldier standing sentry,
liable to be surprised by the foe.

Breastplate of faith and love.— We have not to

143

do with the Christian soldier as aggressive and going
forth to conquer, which idea is developed in Eton. vi.
11 et seq., but only as defensive, and protected in In-east
and head against sudden blows. The three " theological
virtues " are the Christian's defence. (Comp. chap. i. 3 ;
1 Cor. xiii. 13.) The " breastplate," is a cuirass fitting
close to the body, and in Ephesians this cuirass is com-
posed of righteousness, while faith becomes the shield,
and love disappears from the panoply. The "faith"
here is a general trust in God's presence and goodness ;
the " love " is the love both of God and men. Perhaps
it is unnecessary to inquire particularly why faith and
love are represented as covering the body, and hope as
covering the head. It seems far-fetched to consider the
first two as keeping the heart, i.e., the affections, from
injury ; the third as preserving the brain, i.e., keeping
us from miscalculating the dangers and so falling into
despair. In the passage of Isaiah which St. Paul here
imitates, the " helmet of salvation " appears to mean
little more than a helmet which secures safety ; but as
one of the chief benefits which such armour confers is
the confident hope of coming off unhurt, St. Paul fairly
describes that hope itself as being a protection. In
the forefront of the lost (Rev. xxi. 8) stand those who
have had no " hope " or " trust."

(9) For. — This is not the reason for being watchful,
but for being hopeful of salvation. The image of
the soldier is abandoned as suddenly as it was intro-
duced.

Hath not appointed.— Rather, did not appoint,
referring to some mysterious moment of God's eternal
counsels, when He fixed His predestination of us —
whether the moment of creative thought, or of sending
the gospel to us. The " wrath " is that which is to
come upon the " children of wrath " at the Second
Advent, as in chaps, i. 10 ; ii. 16. (Comp. 1 Pet. ii. 8.)
We may well be confident then, for we ourselves are the
only persons that can defeat God's predestinations.

To obtain salvation.— More than " obtain ; " the
Greek means " acquire " by one's own efforts ; " earn and
make our own ; " being the same word as is used in 1 Tim.
iii. 13 and Acts xx. 28 in the verb ; and in the substantive
in Eph. i. 14 (where it is translated " purchased pos-
session"); 2 Thess. ii. 14; Heb. x. 39 (translated
"saving'); and 1 Pet. ii. 9, where see Note. It
will be seen that God does not predestinate men to
" salvation " without laborious acquisition on their
part, but predestinates them to occupy a position in
which they will be able to " work out their own salva-
tion " by placing them "under grace" in the Church.
The very same word is used of the Christian's way of
securing salvation, and of Christ's way of securing it for
him (see references) ; both are "purchasing," " earning."
But mark that the Christian can only so purchase salva-
tion " through our Lord Jesus Christ : " apart from
Him a man can do nothing to redeem himself, but
through union with Him the believer can pay the
whole price of his salvation (see e.g. John xv. 5).

(10) Who died for us.— Not a' mere pious recollec-
tion of a fact which has nothing to do with the context,

They are to esteem those

I. THESSALONIANS, V.

who labour among them.

live together with him. (ll> Wherefore
comfort1 yourselves together, and edify
one another, even as also ye do.
Chap. v. 12—15. (12) And we beseech you,
Exhortation to brethren, to know " them

discipline and ^^ ^^ , ^

c Heb. U 17.

unity.

you,

and are over youc in the Lord, and
admonish you ; (1;^ and to esteem them
very highly in love for their work's
sake. And be at peace among your-
selves. (14) Now we exhort2 your
brethren, warn them that are unruly,3

but an account of the way by which Christ made it
possible for us to set about earning salvation. What a
blessed privilege a Christian's life of labour must be,
if it alone— to say nothing of the " salvation " at the
end — cost such a price !

"Whether we wake or sleep.— The mention of
Christ's death at once brings back the recollection of
the Advent and the questions concerning the dead in
their relation to it. The words " wake or sleep " seem
distinctly suggested by the metaphor used from verse
2 to verse 8, being different in the Greek from the
terms used in chap, iv., but abruptly take a much altered
meaning. They here, no doubt, signify " life and
death : " — ■■" Let us arm ourselves with a bravo hope
of our salvation, for it will be against God's will if we
should perish : He means us to save ourselves by union
with Him who put an end to death for us by dying,
and made all who wait for His coming to live, whether
they be in the world's sense dead or alive."

We should live.— In sharp contrast with " who
died for us." Christ's dying destroyed the power of
death (Heb. ii. 14); henceforth it is only a matter of
being awake or asleep ; those who sleep quite as truly
live, and live with Him, as we who wake (see Luke xx.
38 ; and compare the more developed passage in Rom.
xiv. 8). The word " together " (as the Greek clearly
shows) must be separated from the " with ; " rather,
" we should live with Him together," i.e., we quick, and
our brethren the dead ; for St. Paul has entirely reverted
from the effect of the Advent-doctrine upon Christian
life to the subject of the last chapter — the equality of
the two classes at Christ's coming. Bengel, thinking
that St. Paul is still applying himself to the discussion
of the date of the Advent (which in fact was scarcely
raised), tries to make out the meaning, " That we should
there and then live with Him."

(11) Comfort.— Rightly translated. St. Paul is here
catching up once more the thought of chap. iv. 18. They
are to comfort one another about their communion with
the dead who live in Christ ; but perhaps the word also
involves the comfort to be imparted by the thought
of predestination to earn salvation. The command to
"Edify one another" certainly refers to the instruc-
tion given in verses 1 — 10 : " Build one another up " in
these settled purposes of holy living. This metaphor
of building is one which St. Paul uses frequently in his
later writings, and which St. Peter (who uses the
same) may have adopted from his brother Apostle.
St. Paul considers not only the whole Catholic Church
to be a great Temple of the Spirit, the stones of which
are individual souls (1 Pet. ii. 5; 1 Cor. iii. 16), but each
believer is a temple too, complete in himself, or, rather,
in continual process of completion (1 Cor. vi. 19).

(12) "W*e now come to minor details of instruction,
no doubt suggested by observation of manifest defects
in the Thessalonian Church. These details show us
still further the mixture of restless ungoverned zeal
with gloomy forebodings and discontents.

To know them which labour.— A command to
enter into the spirit of ecclesiastical discipline. The
persons meant are not simply the hard-working laity,

contrasted with the idlers of chap. iv. 11 and 2 Thess.
iii. 11, but those who performed the laborious office of
the priesthood, as the words subsequent show. And
" knowing " them is hardly to be limited either to the
sense of " recognising their position," i.e., " not ignoring
them," or, on the other hand, to the sense of " being on
terms of familiar intercourse with them." The Greek
word indicates appreciation ; they are bidden to acquaint
themselves thoroughly with the presbyter and his work,,
and to endeavour to understand his teaching, and to
value his example. The logical connection of this verse
with the preceding is that of course the main endeavours
to " edify " the brethren were made by the presbytery ;
and the command to edify involves the command to
accept edification.

Are over you in the Lord. — This is the primi-
tive idea of the priest in the Church : he is not a member
of a sacerdotal caste, ministering to an outer world, but
a superior officer in a spiritual society consisting of
nothing but priests (Rev. i. 6, where the right reading
is, "Made us a kingdom of priests"). It is specially
interesting to notice how much power is given to the
presbytery in this earliest writing of the New Testament,
and how carefully St. Paul seems to have organised hi&
churches, and that at the very foundation of them.
It is only " in the Lord " that the presbytery are over
men, that is, in spiritual matters.

Admonish you. — The presbytery are not only
organisers, managers of the corporate affairs of their
Church, but also spiritual guides to give practical advice
to individual Christians. These are the two senses in
which they are " over you."

(13) Very highly in love.— The original here is-
difficult ; but it seems best, with most good commen-
tators, ancient and modern, to construe " in love " with
" esteem," and to make " very highly " (a very enthusi-
astic word in the Greek) an expletive attached to " in
love," implying " hold in a most extraordinary degree
of love." The bond which binds the Christian com-
munity to their directors is not to be one of " recogni-
tion " and obedience only (verse 12), but of holy affection
above all.

For their work's sake. — Our love is to be paid
them not for any social or intellectual qualities they
may have in themselves ; it is the work which they have
to do that should attract our sympathy. The original
seems to mean that we are to love them, not only be-
cause they do such work, but also "for the sake of their
work," i.e., to help it forward.

Be at peace among yourselves. — Discipline to<
be observed towards equals, as well as superiors.

(14) Now we exhort you, brethren.— Rather
and than now. The writers turn to the presbytery, and
explain their duty in the administration of discipline to»
the flock. The flock will be more apt to receive the
discipline when they see with what apostolic authority
their pastors are armed. Several special parts of the-
clerical office are then enumerated.

"Warn.— The same Greek word as " admonish " in
verse 12, and selected for that very reason. The
" unruly" or " disorderly" are those who infringe good

Final Precepts to

I. THESSALONIANS, V.

the Thessalonians.

comfort the feebleminded, support the
weak, be patient toward all men. <15) See
that none render evil for evil" unto
any man; but ever follow that which
is good, both among yourselves, and to
all men.

a Kom. 1-'.
1 ivt. 8.9.
c Phil. 4.
Bpb. ;.. 1
d eh. i. 8.

(16) Rejoice evermore.4 <17> Pray with-
out ceasing. (18) In every _. ,- ~
,,. . ?, , . r. ,,.J Chap. v. 16— 22.
thing give thanks:^ for this Exhortations

is the will of God in Christ^ to use the Spirit

Jesus concerning you. ang

W Quench not the Spirit/ <2°) Despise

discipline— said of soldiers who leave their ranks : hero
notably of those mentioned in 2 These, iii. 11.

Feebleminded. — Or, fainthearted, pusillanimous.
Such persons, e.g., as were overburdened with sorrow
for the dead, or afraid of the persecutions, or the like.

Support the weak.— Or, keep hold of them, to
help them on. The " weak " are not quite the same as
the " feebleminded," but rather (judging from Rom.
xiv. 1 et seq.) those who have not attained that robust
common-sense and breadth of conscience which discri-
minates between truths and superstitions, necessities
and expediencies ; or who are not yet ripe enough
Christians to be sure of standing in persecution.

Patient toward all men.— Church officers are
not to bo rendered impatient by the defects, errors,
weakness, stupidity, unbelief of any one, catholic,
heretic, or heathen.

<15) See that.— The exhortation is given to those who
have the authority to oversee the Church (Acts xix. 28 ;
1 Pet, v. 2).

None render evil for evil. — Like the prohibition
of fornication, abstinence from revenge is practically a
new thought for Greeks, among whom feuds were fre-
quent and undying. (Comp. Rom. i. 31 ; Tit. iii. 3.)

That which is good— i.e., that which is kind.
(See Note on chap. iii. 6.) This duty is to be " followed,"
i.e.. made an object to be pursued eagerly, "toward all
men." There is not one standard of morals towards the
brethren and another towards the world.

(16) Rejoice evermore.— The remaining commands
are more simply spiritual, and hardly form part of
the same paragraph as verses 12 — 15, which related
to discipline ; though from verses 19 et seq. we see
that St. Paul was still addressing the Church in its
corporate capacity, not only the individual members.
The Christian who remains in sadness and depression
really breaks a commandment : in some direction or
other he mistrusts God— His power, providence, for-
giveness. The command is specially good for a
persecuted Church like that of Thessalonica (Matt.
v. 10—12).

07) Pray without ceasing. — Theophylact well
says, " This shows the way to ' rejoice always ' — to wit.
incessant prayer and eucharist, for he that has accus-
tomed himself to hold converse with God, and to give
thanks to Him over everything that happens as hap-
pening' well, will evidently have unbroken joy." Though
a man cannot be incessantly praying in words, the mind
may be held continuously in an attitude of prayer, even
in sleep (Cant. v. 2).

<!8) In every thing give thanks. — To the
Christian who really trusts his Father's providence, and
believes that his prayers are heard, every moment's
occurrence will be just that which he has prayed for —
the fulfilment of our Father's will. It is for this reason
that thanksgiving is so inseparably joined with prayer.
(See Phil. iv. 6 ; Col. iv. 2.)

This is the will of God — i.e., that you should
be always full of thanksgiving. This clause hardly en-
forces thanksgiving as a duty, " Give thanks always,
for you recognise the duty of doing God's will, and

145

this is His will ; " but rather encourages the Thessa-
lonians to see that thankfulness is always p>ossible.
" Give thanks always, for God has no wish to give you
cause for sorrow : His will towards you is to fill you
with thankfulness." "Towards you" seems here a
more exact rendering than " concerning you."

In Christ Jesus.— This kind and loving will
of God for our good was most abundantly manifested
in the life and death and resurrection of Christ Jesus,
and even to this day it is chiefly manifested in what
Christ Jesus still is for us (e.g. Heb. vi. 19, 20).

<19) Quench not the Spirit. —The mention of
prayer and thanksgiving (eucharistia), by which public
as well as private worship is intended, leads St. Paul on to
the mention of other parts of the service. The gloom and
depression to which an antidote is administered in verses
16 — 18 had been such as almost to extinguish that fire
of enthusiasm which ought to have burst out in prayers,
praises, thanksgivings, and '• prophecies." The " Spirit "
here must not be taken too sharply to mean the Person
of the Holy Ghost : the Person of the Holy Ghost may
be grieved (Eph. iv. 30), expelled (Ps. li. 11), neglected
(1 Tim. iv. 14), but (though His working on the indi-
vidual may be stopped) He can never be extinguished.
The word here again (as in chap. i. 5) is in that interme-
diate sense which expresses the effect of the Holy Ghost's
personal wTorking upon our spirits. He kindles in us a
fire (Matt. iii. 11), that is, a consuming ardour and
enthusiasm, of love to God and man ; which ardour
may be damped, quenched, by not giving it free air and
play. Gloom (verso 16), neglect of prayer (verse 17)
which is the very feeding of the flame, discontentment
with the answer which God chooses to give to prayer
(verse 18), will in the end reduce us to the condition in
which we were before we were confirmed (Rom. viii. 9).
Comp. Ecce Homo, p. 257 (3rd ed.) : — " The Apostles in
like manner became sensible that their inspiration was
liable to intermissions. They regard it as possible to
grieve the Divinity who resided within them, and even
to quench His influence. But neither they nor Christ
even for a moment suppose that, if He should take His
flight, it is possible to do without Him . . . Christianity
is an enthusiasm, or it is nothing."

(20) Despise not prophesyings.— The highest out-
ward or charismatic manifestation of this inward fire
was the gift of "prophecy" (1 Cor. xii. 28; xiv. 1,
5. 39), which was an inspired and inspiring preaching.
The despondency of the Thessalonians led them
not only to quench the fervour of the Holy Ghost in
their own bosoms, but to turn a cold and disparaging
ear to the sanguine " prophets " who preached to them,
the effect of which insensibility was to " quench the
Spirit " by degrees in the prophets also. It is because
of this double effect of gloominess, inward upon them-
selves, and outward upon others, that the command,
" Quench not," occurs between the exhortation to thanks-
giving and the warning not to despise prophecy. This
seems to be the most natural way of accounting for the
present warning, but there are two other main interpre-
tations : — (1) It is said that what tempted the Thessa-
lonians to disparage prophecy was their fascination for

Final Precepts.

I. THESSALONIANS, V.

Concluding Prayer.

not prophesymgs." <21> Prove all things ; *
hold fast that which is good. <22> Abstain
from all appearance of evil.

Cor. 14. 1, &c.

(Jor. 14. 10 :
John 4. I.
c Hcli. l& 20.

W And the very God of chap v 23_24

JjeacC sanctify you wholly; Prayer and as-
and I pray God your whole surance-

the more showy gift of tongues. It is true that such
was the case at Corinth, and not unnaturally so ; and
at first sight it seems as if, in 1 Cor. xiv. 1, " spiritual
gifts '" were contrasted with " prophecy " as two separate
classes, thus giving some ground for Bishop Words-
worth's interpretation of our present passage — viz., that
verse 19 refers to the gifts of tongues, miracles, &c, in
something of the same contrast with " prophecy " in
verse 20 as may be found in 1 Cor. xiv. 39. But, on the
other hand, it seems more likely that in 1 Cor. xiv. 1
prophecy is not contrasted with the spiritual gifts there
specified as a separate class, but selected from among
them : M It is all very well to covet spiritual gifts
as a whole, but it would be better to aim more
particularly at that one — prophecy — which is the
greatest : " just so here, " Do not quench the Spirit,
in whatever direction it may blaze up ; but especially
do not disparage preaching.1' Besides, there is nothing
to prove that the Thessaloniaus were dazzled by
the more brilliant gifts: and it accords better with
the context to suppose that the fault to be corrected
in them was not a light sensationalism, but a tendency
to damp all ardour alike. (2) Others suppose that the
Thessaloniaus had had experience of persons who had
abused the gift of prophecy, and therefore were disposed
to suspect and dislike prophecy altogether. This view
gains support from 2 Thess. ii. 2, and also from the
command in verse 21 to test, and retain only what stood
the test. There is no particular ground for contradicting
this view ; but it is unnecessary, and does not carry on
the thought so connectedly.

(21) Prove all things.— The right reading inserts a
" but " : — " I bid you pay all reverence to the cheering
utterances of your prophets (comp. Acts xv. 32) ; but
take care ! put everything to the test." That the
warning was needed, or woidd be needed soon, is shown
by 2 Thess. ii. 2. It is couched in general terms (all
things), but, of course, has special reference to all
things purporting to be manifestations of the Spirit.
And how were these revelations to be tested ? If they
were not in accordance (1) with the original tradition
(2 Thess. ii. 2), (2) with the supernatural inspirations
of the other prophets who sat as judges (1 Cor. xiv. 29),
(3) with enlightened common sense (1 John iv. 1), they
could not be "good." The word "good" here is not
vague and general good in the moral sense — not the
same Greek word as in verse 15 — but "good" in the
sense of "genuine," " answering to the proper concep-
tion of what it purports to be." The same word is
used in the same sense in John x. 11.

(22) Abstain from all appearance of evil.—
This translation cannot stand. Possibly it might be
rendered "every form of evil," but the most natural
version would be, " Hold yourselves aloof from every
evil kind " — i.e., evil kind of whatever you may be
testing. The word " evil " is here used in the moral
sense, and does not constitute an exact antithesis to the
"good" of the preceding verse.

(23) And. — The logic of such an expression as, " Do
this, and may you be happy," lies in the writer's own
connection with both the command and the prayer : " I
bid you abstain from every evil kind of thing, and I
pray that God Himself may enable you to keep the com-
mandment."

The very God of peace.— In more usual English.

" the God of peace Himself :" the contrast is between
the futile efforts after holiness of which they in them-
selves were capable, and the almighty power of sai'cti-
ficatiou exercised by God. This sanctification (which is
the special work of the Third Person) is here ascribed
to the First Person of the Holy Trinity, from whom the
Holy Ghost proceeds. He is called (as in Heb. xiii. 20)
the " God of peace," not in reference to any dissensions
between the Thessalonians (verse 13), but because of
the peace which His sanctification brings into the soul,
so that it fears neither temptation's power nor perse-
cution's rage. (Comp. the Second Collect for Evensong).

Sanctify you wholly. — Rather, sanctify you
whole. The idea is rather that of leaving no part
unsanctified, than that of doing the work completely so
far as it goes : thus it serves to introduce the next
sentence, which explains it.

And I pray God.— If there were need of any in-
sertion, it should have been " We pray God :" Silas and
Timothy are never forgotten throughout.

Spirit and soul and body.— This is St. Paul's
fullest and most scientific psychology, not merely a
rhetorical piling up of words without any particular
meaning being assigned to them. Elsewhere, he merely
divides man according to popular language, into two
parts, visible and invisible, " body and spirit " (1 Cor.
vi. 20 ; vii. 34, et al.) ; the division into " body and soul "
he never uses. (Comp. Note on 1 Cor. ii. 14.) The
" spirit " (pneuma) is the part by which we apprehend
realities intuitively — i.e.. without reasoning upon {hem j
with it we touch, see, serve, worship God (John iv.
23, 24; Rom. i. 9; 1 Cor. vi. 17; Rev. i. 10, et al);
it is the very inmost consciousness of the man (see,
e.g., 1 Cor. ii. 11) ; it is the part of him which survives
death (Heb. xii. 23 ; 1 Pet. iii. 19 ; comp. Luke xxiii.
46; Acts vii. 59). The "soul " (psyche) includes the
intellect, the affections, and the will : and it is of the
very essence of the gospel to force sharply upon men
the distinction between it and the spirit (Heb. iv. 12).
Low-living men may have soul (i.e., intellect, affection,
will) in abundance, but their spirit falls into complete
abeyance (Jude, 19) ; the soul belongs altogether to the
lower nature, so that when St. Paul uses the two-fold
division, " body and spirit," the soul is reckoned (not,
probably, as Bishop Ellicott says on our present passage,
as part of the spirit, but) as part of the body ; and
when St. Paul describes the " works of the flesh," he
includes among them such distinctly scraZ-sins as " here-
sies " (Gal. v. 20). Sanctification preserves all these
three divisions entire, and in their due relation to each
other ; without sanctification, the spirit might be over-
whelmed by the other parts gaining the predominance,
which would, of course, eventually be the rain both of
" soul and body in hell " (Matt. x. 28. N.B.. that our
Lord says nothing of the destruction of the " spirit "
in hell : the question is whether He there definitely
meant to exclude " spirit," or used " soul " popularly
as including it). "Where the New Testament writers
acquired such a psychology cannot be determined, but
it was probably derived from experimental knowledge
of life, not from books, and all experience confirms its
accuracy. Modern science tends more and more to
show that " soul" is a function of " body."

Unto the coming. — A mistranslation for "at
the coming," caused by the slight difficulty in under-

Assurance of Comfort.

1. THESSALONIANS, V.

Conclusion.

spirit and soul and body be preserved |
blameless" unto the coming of our Lord
Jesus Christ. W) Faithful* is he that
calleth you, who also will do it.
,, 25-28 <2,) Brethren, pray for us.

Conclusion. (2C) Greet all the brethren

tIicms. :i :;.
<; Rom. 16. 16

i Cor. 16. so

•2 Oor. 18. 12

I 1VI.5. II.

1 Or, adjure.

with an holy kiss/ <27) I charge l you by
the Lord that this epistle be read unto all
the holy brethren. W The grace of our
Lord Jesus Christ be with you. Amen.

% The first epistle unto the Thessalonians was
written from Athens.

standing the true version. The idea is not so much
that of their preservation from sin during the interval,
but rather the writers hasten in eager anticipation to
the Coming itself, and hopo that the Thessalonians at
the Coming will be found to have been preserved.
" Blameless " should have been " blamelessly."

(**) Faithful is he. — A reason for hoping confidently
that they will be blamelessly preserved. God would
forfeit His character for keeping His promise, if He
" called," and did not enable men to obey the call. Of
course He can only '"do it" in case they continue
willing to have it done. On the present tense, see Note
on chap. ii. 12.

(25) Pray for us.— Taken in conjunction with what
follows, this probably is a petition for remembrance in
blic service.

the great publ

(26) Greet a
from the

the brethren. — It is concluded
manner in which some are told to greet all,
instead of all being told to greet one another (as in the
parallel passages), that the " brethren " to whom the
letter was sent specially were the priesthood of Thes-
salonica (comp. the next verse). If so, the "holy kiss"
had hardly become the fixed Church ceremony which it
afterwards was, for the practice (according to the Apos-
tolical Constitutions) was for the Church members to
pass the kiss from one to another, men kissing men,
and women kissing women, not for all the people to be
kissed in turn by the priest. This kiss, however, is no
doubt intended by St. Paul to be given at a solemn
assembly of the Church, i.e., at the Holy Communion,
which was the only fixed meeting of the Primitive
Church. In the time of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, the

kiss was given just beforo the Sursum Corda. It was
not till the thirteenth century that the kissing of the
Pax was substituted in the Western Church for the
kissing of the brethren. This kiss was to differ from
the ordinary Greek salutation, by being distinctly a
holy kiss, i.e., a ceremonial, religious kiss.

(w) I charge you. — Adjure is much nearer the
original word, which is as solemn as can be. What is the
cause of such awful solemnity ? The question has never
been very satisfactorily answered. It certainly seems
as if the contempt of discipline and pai'tial alienation of
clergy and laity implied in verses 12, 13, might suggest
to St. Paul a doubt whether his Epistle would reach all
the Thessalonian Christians. At any rate, the adjura-
tion marks his sense of the extreme importance of the
letter ; and perhaps the fact that this was his first
pastoral letter may have made him more anxious to
ensure its reception and success. It amounts to a claim
to inspiration. (Comp. chap. iv. 15.) The emphasis seems
to rest on the word " all " (" holy " is an interpolation).
The reading is of course a public reading in the cele-
bration of the Communion, at which we know from
several early Fathers that the writings of the Apostles
were read aloud. (Comp. Col. iv. 16 ; 2 Pet. iii. 15,
16.) Baur thought the adjuration a mark of a
foi'ger, who wished to gain authority for his cento :
Bishop Wordsworth well points out, on the contrary,
what a splendid guarantee for the genuineness and
integrity of the Epistles this constant recitation con-
stituted.

(28) The grace. — St. Paul's autograph to conclude
the letter. (See 2 Thess. iii. 17, 18.)

147

INTRODUCTION

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

THESSALONIANS.

We may confidently assert that this Epistle was
written by St. Paul from Corinth during his residence
there of a year-and-a-half, within a few months of the
First Epistle : that is, in the year 53. Not only are all
its main features so like those of the First as to suggest
a very close connection in time, but it is despatched by
the same apostolic group — Paul, Silvanus, and Timo-
theus ; and, as we have remarked in the Introduction
to the First Epistle, we have no reason to believe that
Silvanus was in St. Paid's company later than the
departure from Corinth in 54. It suits well with this
date that the Apostle is in fear of certain " monstrous
and depraved persons" (chap. iii. 2), who may well be
the Jews who brought him before Gallic

The circumstances which called forth the Letter were
as follows. Since the First Epistle had been despatched
St. Paul had been able to receive fresh tidings of the
state of the Thessalonian Church, concerning which he
was naturally anxious, as it was so young when he had
been forced to leave it to itself and to God. The
tidings were both good and bad. On the one hand,
there was marked progress in some of the points which
had before caused solicitude. St. Paul uses enthu-
siastic language (chap. i. 3) of the advance made in
faith (comp. 1 Thess. iii. 10), and in individual brotherly
charity (comp. 1 Thess. iv. 10), and also of their stead-
fastness in persecutions which were still afflicting them
(chap. i. 4) — persecutions in which, apparently, both Jews
and Gentiles joined. (See Note on chap. i. 8.) We
may also gather, from the silence of the present Letter,
that St. Paul's instruct ions on the state of the departed
faithful had taken good effect : this being, perhaps, the
special increase in faith mentioned above. We find,
moreover, that there is no further need of warnings
on the subject of purity or of submission to eccle-
siastical authority. On the other hand, there were
three great faults to find.

(1) The tendency to disorders and idleness, which
had been censured both directly and indirectly in the
former letter, had become stronger instead of receding.
Some considerable number of the little Church had
become mere " busybodies " — had left off work, expect-
ing maintenance at the public expense of the com-
munity while they indulged themselves, probably, in
what seemed more religious pursuits.

(2) We can trace more clearly in this Epistle than in
the former the doctrinal ground on which such disorders
were justified by those who were guilty of them. They
had been " shaken from their reason." and were still " in
trepidation " (chap, ii, 2), from a belief that " the day of

the Lord " was already upon them. Panic and exulta-
tion alike had the effect of making the Thessalonians
think it not worth while to attend to the things of a
doomed world.

(3) This belief had been, if not created, yet con-
firmed by some audacious forgeries and fictions (chap,
ii. 2). Even in the First Epistle St. Paul gives signs
of uneasiness, as though he were not sure of the honesty
of some of his correspondents in their use of his name
and writings (1 Thess. v. 27). Now it is clear that, in
more than one way, persons (who might be only half
conscious of their fraud) had attempted to impose on
their brethren. They had pretended to a direct inspi-
ration or angelic visitation, which had revealed to
them the immediate nearness of the Advent. They
had misrepresented the oral teaching given by St. Paul
during his stay at Thessalonica. They had, pei-haps,
wrested the words of his First Epistle, which had
certainly given a colourable pretext for what they now
taught. More probably still, from the precaution given
in chap. iii. 17, they had actually written a letter, or
letters, purporting to be from the Apostle, in which the
doctrine was definitely taught.

To all these three faults the writer opposes the
authority of what they knew to have genuinely pro-
ceeded from himself. He has nothing to unsay. They
are to "hold fast the traditions" (chap. ii. 15) which,
written or unwritten, were his. (1) He reminds them
not only of his example (as in the First Letter), but of
his teaching levelled at their dissipated religiousness :
" Withdraw yourselves from every brother that walketh
disoi-derly, and not after the tradition which they re-
ceived of us " (chap. iii. 6) ; " Even when we were with
you, this we commanded you, that if any has no mind
to work, neither let him eat " (chap. iii. 10). (2) He
recalls the very definite instructions which showed
that the end was not by-and-by. The Roman empire
was still standing, and therefore the Man of Sin could
not be revealed as yet, and therefore Christ could not
be on the point of coming. " Remember ye not, that.
when I was yet with you, I told you these things P ''
(chap. ii. 5.) (3) He enforces, against their forgeries,
his present Letter, even at the risk of provoking an
open rebellion : "If any man obey not our word by
this Epistle, note that man, and have no fellowship with
him" (chap. iii. 14).

The style of the Epistle (except in the studied
obscurity of the prophetic passage) is clear and easy,
like that of the First; and the structure is also very
simple, as will be seen from the following analysis.

119

II. THESSALONIANS.

and marked by the same characteristic feature as the
First : i.e., the prayer which leads on from one section of
the Letter to another : —

I. The Salutation (chap. i. 1, 2).
II. The Retrospective Portion (chap. i. 3 — 12).

(a) Thanksgiving for progress made

(chap. i. 3, 4).

(b) Hopes thus afforded against the Ad-

vent Day (chap. i. 5 — 10).

state (chap. i. 11, 12).
III. The Instructive and Hortatory Portion
(chaps, ii. 1 — iii. 18).

(1) On the date of the Advent.

(a) Caution against believing the Advent
close at hand (chap. ii. 1 — 3).

(6) What must happen first (chap. ii.
3—10).

11, 12).

(d) Thanksgiving that the Thessalonians'

fate is so different (chap. ii. 13, 14).

(e) Exhortation and prayer (chap. ii.

15—17).

(2) On the necessity of work.

(a) Request for prayers for himself,
which skilfully serves to predispose
the readers to obey the ensuing
commands (chap. iii. 1 — 4).

(&) Prayer for the same purpose (chap,
iii. 5).

excommunicate the refractory (chap,
iii. 6—15).

(d) Prayer for tranquillity (chap. iii. 16).

(e) Final benediction, with attention

drawn to the autograph (chap. iii.
17, 18).
The genuineness of this Letter, like that of the First,
is practically uncontro verted. We seem to have very

early testimony to its use — St. Polycarp appearing in
two places to quote it, though anonymously, according
to his custom ; and St. Justiu, speaking of the Man of
Sin in a manner which might indeed be explained by
saying that that doctrine was common to the Catholic
Church not special to St. Paul, but which is more simply
referred to this Epistle. The objections of a few modern
scholars (Baur, Schrader, &c.) are chiefly drawn from
the prophecy in chap, ii., from supposed contradictions
between this Epistle and the First — especially in regard
to the date of the Advent; from fancied allusions to
the persecution of Nero ; from a mistaken notion that
the doctrine of an Antichrist (which was in reality pre-
Christian) was only invented by the Montanists.

Doubts have been entertained by a few critics, who
acknowledged the genuineness of both, which of these
Letters is the earlier in date. Ewald, the greatest of
these critics, placed the Second Epistle first. It was,
he thought, placed second in the Canon because, as a
rule, the shorter letters in the Canon follow the longer.
The arguments, however, which he adduces are scarcely
worth considering, in face of the fact that in 2 Thess.
ii. 15 we have an allusion to a former Epistle. All the
historical portion of the First Epistle (especially
1 Thess. ii. 17 ; iii. 11) bears evident tokens of being
the earliest communication that had passed between
St. Paul and his spiritual children since he had left
them.

[In preparing the following Notes the chief books
consulted have been those already mentioned in 1 Thes-
salonians : — the patristic commentaries, especially St.
Chrysostom ; Hammond, Liinemann, Ellicott, and
others; and the posthumous edition (which appeared
too late for use in annotating the First Epistle) by the
Presbyterian Professor Eadie. His notes are, however,
little but a reproduction of Bishop Ellicott's, without
their concentration. In the Excursus on the Man of
Sin, I have stated my obligations to Dr. Pusey's
Lectures on Daniel^}

150

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

THESSALONIANS.

CHAPTER I.— (W Paul, and Silvanus,
Ohap. i. l, 2. and Timotheus;," unto the
The salutation, church of the Thessalonians
in God our Father and the Lord Jesus
Christ : <2) grace unto you, and peace,
from God our Father and. the Lord
Jesus Christ.

(3) We are bound to thank God al-
ways4 for you, brethren, as it is meet,

because that your faith groweth ex-
ceedingly, and the charity chap. i. 3, 4.

Of every one of you all Thanksgiving

toward each other abound- fromg°°Thessa-
eth ; (4) so that we ourselves lonica.
glory in you in the churches of God
for your patience and faith in all your
persecutions and tribulations that ye
endure : (5) which is a manifest token

(!) Paul, and Silvanus, and Timotheus.— The

company which despatched the First Epistle is not yet
broken up. This proves that the Second Epistle was
written before the end of the second missionary
journey, for after that time we do not read of Silvanus
being in the company of St. Paul. The salutation is
precisely the same as in the First Epistle, save for the
last clause of verse 2, which is wrongly added in that
place, but stands rightly here.

(») We are bound to thank God always for
you, brethren. — The thanksgiving is regarded as a
positive debt incurred, which it would be a dishonesty
not to pay.

Because. — This assigns the reason for saying that
it was " meet," and does not merely follow after " thank
God :" in which case, the words " as it is meet " would
have been rather weak, as containing no more than is
involved in " we are bound." The best paraphrase
would be : " We feel the obligation to give thanks for
you ; and, in point of fact, it is but meet that we
slbould, because," &c.

Groweth exceedingly.— An enthusiastic word in
the original : " is out-growing all bounds." It is a
metaphor from vegetable or animal growth. This was
one of the very points about which St. Paul was
anxious the last time that he had written : then there
were deficiencies in their faith (1 Thess. iii. 10).

Charity. — Here, too, St. Paul remembers what he
had said to them in the last Epistle, in which he had
devoted a whole section to the love of the brethren
" toward each other." " Of every one of you all " is a
very noticeable expression, as showing the individual
solicitude of the Apostles for their converts. Just as
the apostolic instructions were given to each Christian
privately (1 Thess. ii. 11), so news has been brought
how each several Christian is progressing. The differ-
ences which had called forth such passages as 1 Thess.
iii. 12. iv 6 — 10, v. 12 — 14, had apparently all ceased,
and mutual love was multiplying.

(*) So that we ourselves.— Why was it less likely
that St. Paul and his companions should thus glory in
them than other friends did, or perhaps than the
Thessalonians themselves P Possibly, because it seemed

almost like self-pi-aise to praise their own converts ,
but much more probably, because the writers had before
felt and expressed misgivings on the point : this suits
the thought of verse 3 better.

Glory in you in the churches of God.— Not
only in thanksgiving to God (though, perhaps, out-
bursts of praise in the public services of "the
churches " may be included), but also in talking to
other men, at Corinth and elsewhere : so, in return,
St. Paul " boasted " to the Thessalonians about the
Corinthians (2 Cor. ix. 2).

Your patience and faith.— It was well proved
that St. Paul had no more cause for misgiving, and
that the tempter's tempting by persecution had not
made the apostolic labours to be in vain. (See 1 Thess.
iii. 5.) " Patience," in the New Testament, does not
mean a meek submissiveness, but a heroic endurance.
The " faith " here becomes almost equivalent to " hope,"
except that it introduces the ground of such hope: viz.,
confidence in the living God ; it also includes the notion
of faithfulness.

Persecutions and tribulations.— Tho difference
between the two words is, that while " tribulation " is
quite general, and implies no personal enmities, "per-
secution " means that a certain set of persons were
organising active measures for the annoyance of the
Church. Such persecution they were still " enduring "
when the Letter was written.

(5) Which is . . .—In the fervid eloquence of the
original these connecting words are omitted, and the
clause added in a kind of apposition to the words "in
all your persecutions ; " the effect is the same as when
we in English put a dash: " which ye endure — a mani-
fest token," &c. The indication of God's righteous
judgment consisted not so much in the vitality and
growth of the Thessalonians' faith and love as in the
very fact of their being persecuted ; such persecution
was an actual indication how the fair judgment of God
would go in the last day. No undue stress is to be laid
upon the epithet " righteous," as if it were " a token of
the righteousness of God's judgment;" the point is only
to indicate already ichat a fair judge was likely to
decide.

151

Encouragement to the Believers II. THESSALOrsTA.NS, I.

under Persecutions.

of the righteous judgment of God,
*:hap. i. 5—io. that ye may be counted
Encourage- worthy of the kingdom of
Sunder per- G°d," for which ye also
secution by suffer: <6) seeing it is a
Sming^retri- righteous thing with God
bution. to recompense tribulation

to them that trouble you ; W and to you

[ who are troubled rest with us, when the
; Lord Jesus shall be revealed from
1 5j3?£S£ heaven with his mighty angels,1 <8> in
*?orTy™hiina. \ flaming fire taking2 vengeance on them
I that know not God, and that obey not
6Rom.io.ifl7: the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ:4
<9) who shall be punished with everlast-
ing destruction from the presence of the

That ye may be counted worthy.— This ex-
presses the result, not of the future judgment of God,
but of the patient sufferings which reveal what that
judgment will be. The " counting worthy " (or rather,
perhaps, the " declaring worthy ") is, in fact, the
" judgment " or sentence itself. " You suffer in such a
manner that we can forecast the fair verdict of God : viz.,
so as to be then declared (Ihe Greek tense points to a
distinct moment of forming the estimate) fit to receive
God's kingdom." The word " counted worthy " has in
this place nothing to do with the theological question of
merit.

The kingdom of God.— Which had formed a
prominent feature of the first preaching at Thessalonica.
{See Introduction to the First Epistle to the Thessa-
lonians.). Are the Thessalonian Christians, then, not
yet in the kingdom of God ? Yes ; but only as its
subjects : hereafter they are to be counted worthy not
of admission into it, but of it itself— i.e., to inherit it,
to become kings of it. (Comp. the parallel argument
in 2 Tim. ii. 12.)

For which ye also suffer.— St. Paul is very fond
of this 4i also " in relative clauses ; it tightens the
coupling between the relative and antecedent clauses,
and so brings out more clearly the vital connection
between suffering and reigning. They suffer " for the
kingdom," not merely for the sake of winning it, but on
its behalf, in defence of it, in consequence of being its
citizens, to extend its dominion.

(6) Seeing it is.— Literally, if so be it is fair : a
form very common in St. Paul, when he wishes to
argue from some fact which he knows his readers will
recognise (e.g., Rom. viii. 9). " Your persecution is a
clear indication what God's fair verdict will be— that
He will pronounce you fit — unless indeed you deny
(as you will not) that it is fair to recompense the
persecutors with tribulation and the persecuted with
rest." The context shows that St. Paul does not mean
that all suffering deserves a requital with bliss, but he
does put it as a matter of common fairness that when
men have suffered for the kingdom's sake God should
so reward them hereafter.

With God. — Such a system of requital commends
itself as fair to men ; is it likely to seem less fair in the
eyes of God ? Holy Scripture always sets forth the
power of the human conscience to recognise God's
principles of action : whatever is righteous for men is
so for God, and vice versa.

(") Rest with US.— Why " with us " ? It shows
•sympathy in their present trials, for it implies that the
writers themselves had earned or were earning (see
Acts xviii. 12) that rest by the like trials. The word
"" rest " (or relaxation) is the opposite of the " strain "
at which the persecution kept them. Such " rest " is
not to be expected in its fulness till the judgment day.

From heaven.— St. Paul seems to delight in call-
ing attention to the quarter from which "the Lord
Jesus " (the human name, to show His sympathy with
trouble) will appear. (See 1 Thess. i. 10 ; iv. 16.)

With his mighty angels.— Literally, with the
angels of His power — i.e., the angels to whom His power
is intrusted and by whom it is administered. The
angels do not attend merely for pomp, but to execute
God's purposes. (See Matt. xiii. 41, 49; xxiv. 31.)

(8) In flaming fire. — Most critics agree to change
the punctuation here, by omitting the comma after
" angels " and inserting it after " fire." The flaming fire
here is not the instrument of the vengeance — i.e., hell-
fire — but the common pictorial attribute of the Divine
Presence (Ex. iii. 2 ; xix. 18 ; Dan. vii. 9).

Taking vengeance.— The expression in the original
is one which is said to be found nowhere else in Greek
literature, save in Ezek. xxv. 14 (though in Hebrew
there is an almost exact equivalent in Num. xxxi. 3),
so that it is difficult to assign the correct meaning. It
certainly does not mean " taking vengeance " in the
sense of "taking His revenge," as though our Lord
had conceived a personal grudge and were wreaking it.
What it does mean would seem to be " assigning re-
tribution : " appointing, that is, to each man what
satisfaction of justice he must make. The very word
for " vengeance " can only mean vengeance exacted on
some one else's behalf. (Comp. 1 Thess. iv. 6, and
Ps. lxxix. 10.)

On them that know not God.— According to the
Greek, the word " them " should be repeated also in the
next clause. The effect will then be to mark off the
culprits into two classes: " them that know not," and
" them that obey not." A comparison of Eph iv. 17, 18,
1 Thess. iv. 5, shows that by the first class are meant
Gentiles; a comparison of Horn. x. 16, 21 (and many
other passages) will show disobedience to be the charac-
teristic of the Jews. The Greek negative particle here
is one which shows that the ignorance of the one set and
the disobedience of the other were just the points for
which they were to be punished : therefore, of course,
only those Gentiles whose ignorance was voluntary,
who chose (Rom. i. 28) to be Gentiles when they
might have been joined to the true God, are objects of
wrath. Here, as the context shows, St. Paul is think-
ing chiefly of those Gentiles and Jews who actually
persecuted the truth.

Obey not the gospel.— A noteworthy phrase ; see
the reference. The gospel, the " glad tidings," contains
not only a statement of facts, but also a call to obey a
law which is the outcome of the facts. Even the accept-
ance of evangelical promises requires a submission.
(Comp. Luke xxiv. 47; Acts xi. 18; Rev. xxii. 3.)
It is here called specially the gospel '"of our Lord
Jesus Christ," because the sin of the Jews (who con-
stitute this class of sinners) consisted precisely in the
wilful rejection of Jesus as the Christ.

(9) Punished with everlasting destruction
specifies the " vengeance " to be taken. But the word
" destruction " does not stand absolutely and alone as a
synonym for "annihilation." This passage, in itself,
gives us no reason to suppose that the lost will be
" destroyed " in the ordinary sense of the word. They

The Vengeance of the Lord

II. THESSALONIANS, I.

at His Glorioits Appearing.

Lord," and from the glory of his power ;
<10> when he shall come to be glorified
in his saints, and to be admired in all
them that believe (because onr testimony
among you was believed) in that day.
(ii) "Wherefore also we pray always for
you, that our God would count1 you
worthy of this calling, and fulfil all the

good pleasure of his goodness, and
the work of faith with chap. i. 11, 12.
power : <12> that the name Prayer serving
of our Lord Jesus Christ practical^pVr^
may be glorified in you, tion.
and ye in him, according to the
grace of our God and the Lord Jesus
Christ.

are to be " destroyed from the presence of the Lord,
and from the glory of His power " — i.e., cut off from it
for ever. The " presence " — or, more literally here, " the
face — of the Lord," as well as " the glory of His power,"
is a metaphor from the courts of Oriental kings, where
oidy honoured courtiers are admitted to spend their
time hi the immediate and familiar presence of the
sovereign. Familiar contact with Christ hereafter,
which will be accorded to all the saved, was God's
ideal intention for the lost as well, therefore it is a
positive '• destruction " to be banished from it. But to
the Jews, who looked for a Messiah who should keep
regal state, the punishment was peculiarly appropriate.
The word is used besides in 1 Cor. v. 5 ; 1 Thess. v. 3 ;

1 Tim. vi. 9. As for the word rendered " everlasting "
(or eternal, for it is the same which is used, e.g.,
Heb. vi. 2), it would certainly convey to St. Paul's
readers the notion of incessant duration in time ; it is,
of course, only an adaptation to human language to
speak of time at all in such a case, as we cannot tell
what may take the place of time in the next dispensa-
tion ; however, so far as the actual words go, there is
nothing in these passages (Matt, xviii. 8; xxv. 41, 46;
Mark iii. 29; Heb. vi. 2; Jude, verse 7) to suggest
any future alteration in the state of the lost. In this,
as in some other doctrines, there seem to be two distinct
sets of passages, the logical reconciliation of which in
our present state seems almost impossible!

(10) When he shall come.— Not simply a repetition
of the temporal date which was mentioned in verse 7 —
" when the Lord," &c. — but an introduction of the contrast
which will be presented " in that day " by the spectacle
of the glory of the saints. Thus the penalty of verse 9
is made to appear greater, while at the same time the
leaders' minds are turned back to a more wholesome
subject for meditation.

To be glorified in his saints.— This is not
exactly the purpose, but the effect of His coming. A
comparison of John xiii. 31, 32: xiv. 13; xvii. 10;

2 Thess. i. 12 ; shows that the saints are the objects on
which and by which the glorious perfection of Christ is
exhibited : to see what the saints will be exalted to " in
that day " will make all observers acknowledge, not the
holiness or greatness of the men, but the divine power of
Him who was able so to exalt them. As the persecutors
were divided into two classes to be punished, so the
saved are described under two aspects : in contrast with
u them that know not God " they are " saints," i.e., fully
■consecrated to God ; in contrast with " them that obey
not the gospel" they are "they that believed" (for the
past tense is the better reading), i.e., accepted the gospel.
As the profane Gentiles, looking on the saints, recognise
the " glory " of the God whom they knew not, so the dis-
obedient Jews, seeing the faithful, are aptly filled with
"wonder" (Acts xiii. 41), before they perish, at the
glory to be attained by obedience to the law of suffering.

Because our testimony.— Introduced to show
why the writers had said specially "in all them that
believed " (the past tense is employed because it looks

back from the Judgment Day to the moment when
the gospel was offered and the divergence between
believers and unbelievers began) ; the reason was.
because among " all them that believed " the Thessa-
lonians would be found included.

In that day. — Added at the end to make the readers
look once more (as it were) upon the wonderful sight
on which the writer's prophetic eyes were raptly fixed.

(H) Wherefore.— Literally, whereunto — i.e., to their
being found among the blessed. The " also " serves to
emphasise the "pray": we do not content ourselves
with merely hoping, but we direct actual prayer to that
end. The word " whereunto " seems grammatically to
depend upon the word "calling" — "of the calling
whereunto, we pray also for you always, that our God
would count you worthy."

Count you worthy of this calling.— The word
"this" would, perhaps, have been better left out; the
" calling " of which St. Paul is thinking is the calling
" in that day," such as is expressed in Matt. xxv. 34,
and the act is the same as that of verse 5. But had
they not been called to glory already ? Yes (1 Thess.
iv. 7), and had obeyed the call; and God was still
calling them hourly (see Notes on 1 Thess. ii. 12 ; v. 24) ;
but that was no security that they would remain worthy
of that last decisive call. " Many are called, but few
chosen." In the original there is some emphasis laid
on the pronoxtn : " count you."

Fulfil all the good pleasure of his goodness.
— Bather, fulfil every purpose of goodness; or, "every-
thing which beneficence deems good." Most modern
commentators take the " goodness " to be the goodness
of the Thessalonians themselves, thus making the clause
logically antecedent to the foregoing : " May count you
worthy of His calling, and (for that purpose) fulfil
every good moral aspiration you may entertain." But
this seems unnecessary. The " beneficence " is used
absolutely, in almost a personified sense ; it is, of course,
in reality, God's beneficence, but is spoken of as bene-
ficence in the abstract. Thus the clause preserves its
natural place as an explanation of the preceding : " May
finally call you, and there accomplish upon your persons
all that beneficence can devise."

And the work of faith with power.— This work,
too, is God's work, not the work of the Thessalonians.
It is used in the same sense as a like phrase in Cowper's
well-known hymn —

" Thou shalt see My glory soon,
When the work of grace is done."

It means, not " perfect your faithful activity," as in
1 Thess. i. 3, but " bring to its mighty consummation
the work that faith was able to effect in you." Faith,
therefore, is here opposed as much to sight as to un-
belief. The "beneficence" and the "power" thus
exerted upon (rather than through) the Thessalonians,
produces upon all spectators of the judgment, both
angels and men, the effect described in the next verse.
(12) That the name . . .—This verse gathers up

Caution against False Teaching II. THESSALONIANS, II.

as to the Second Advent,

CHAPTEE II.— W Now we beseech
Chap. ii. I. 2. y°u>. brethren, by the
Caution against coming of our Lord Jesus
SSSS: Christ, and by our gather-

ing the nearness ing together Unto him,"

of the Advent. (2) that ye be not soon
shaken in mind, or be troubled,

neither by spirit, nor by word, nor
by letter as from us, as that the day
of Christ is at hand. <3> Let no man
deceive you by any means:* chap i{ 3_5
for that day shall not come, The Antichrist
except there come a falling mustcomefirst.
away first/ and that man of sin be

what has been said in verses 8 — 10. Seeing the favours
bestowed upon the Christians in the last day, all, the
lost as well as the saved, will be forced to acknowledge
the glory (i.e., the divine perfection) of the Jesus whose
Christship had been rejected, and the glory (i.e., the true
dignity) of the Christians who had been despised for
their allegiance to Him. It stands to reason that
Christians must share Christ's "glory" (i.e., full recog-
nition ; comp. Note on 1 Thess. ii. 6) in that day, for
when the lost recognise what He is, it is ipso facto
a recognition that they were right and wise to follow
Him. The words "according to the grace" belong
only to " and ye in Him : " it is the gracious will (for
" grace " here has hardly its strict theological sense) of
God, in which Christ concurs, that we should be thus
" glorified in Him."

II.

The first chapter had encouraged the Thessalonians
under persecution by the thought of the reality of
the Advent. The author has not in the least changed
his opinion about the Advent since writing the First
Epistle. It is still a matter of most practical comfort :
" a very present help." But now, in clear tones, he
warns the Thessalonians against supposing that the
"end" was " by-and-by " (Luke xxi. 9). He had, in
fact, taught them so from the outset, and had even
then pointed out to them a sign, unaccomplished as
yet. which they must see accomplished before the
Advent should come.

(!) Brethren. — The Apostles have won a hearing for
the true Advent doctrine by their sympathetic treat-
ment of it in the former chapter ; now they soften their
correction of the false doctrine by using tender names.

By the coming. —Literally, for the sake of the
coming, just as in English we adjure persons to do a
thing " for God's sake." It is a stronger form of ad-
juration than the simple " by," inasmuch as it implies
that the thing or person adjured by will suffer if the
action be left unperformed. The Coming of Christ and
the meeting with the beloved dead would not be
so bright, so perfect, perhaps so soon, if the Thessa-
lonians allowed themselves to be misled with regard to it.

Our gathering together.— The peculiar Greek
word is the same as that used in Heb. x. 25 of the
assembling to the Lord's Supper, and nowhere else,
so that some have interpreted it in the same sense here.
In verb form it is thus used in 1 Thess. iv. 17. The
close connection between the two "gatherings together"
may be seen in 1 Cor. xi. 26. The " our " means the
meeting of the dead and the quick together.

'2) Not soon shaken.— The meaning would be
clearer if we inserted " so " before " soon," for it does
not mean vaguely that they were for the future not to
be lightly shaken, but (as in Gal. i. 6) that they had
already been shaken, and that in an unconscionably
short time since their first teaching on the subject.

In mind. — In the original it is, from your mind ;
from your reason.

Be troubled.— The tense of the verb " be troubled "
differs in the Greek from that of " be shaken " ; for
the " driving out of their wits " is regarded as a single
act ; the " agitation," or being troubled, as a chronic
condition, into which there was fear of their falling.
This shaking and trouble probably brought about the
disorders spoken of in chap. iii. The instruments by
which men had partly driven the Thessalonians out of
their wits already were three : — (1) " Through spirit,"
i.e., by pretended manifestations of the Holy Spirit's
power, whether through false signs or. more probably,
through " prophesyings." (See 1 Thess. v. 20 — 22,
where the fear of some abuse of prophecy is clearly
marked already.) (2) " Through word," i.e., word of
mouth, as opposed to the written letter next mentioned.
Most modern commentators seem rightly to take the
words " as from us " with this clause as well as with
the next ; some persons misrepresented what they had
heard the Apostles say on the topic, or pretended to
have been intrusted with a message from them.
(3) " Through letter ■ " apparently forged letters, pur-
porting to be from (or, literally, through) St. Paul, had
been circulated. (See Note on chap. iii. 17. ) " Word "
and " letter " occur again in verse 15 as his ordinary
means of teaching.

As that the day of Christ is at hand-
le., "to the effect that it is," — giving the contents
of the pretended revelation ; for " as that " follows
grammatically upon " spirit, word, letter," not upon
" shaken, troubled." The word for " is at hand *
implies a very close proximity indeed, the participle, in
fact (like our word " instant"), being used for " present,"
e.g., Gal. i. 4. Probably the form which the false
doctrine at Thessalonica was beginning to take was
that the day of the Lord had already set in, thus con-
fusing the whole idea of a personal, visible Advent, just
as, at a later period, Hymenseus and Philetus confused
the true doctrine of resurrection by affirming that it
was already past (2 Tim. ii. 18). St. Paul not only
denies vigorously that the day is come, but proceeds
in the next verse to show, that the signs of its approach
are not yet exhibited. The best reading gives "the
day of the Lord" not "of Christ." (See Note oh
1 Thess. v. 2.)

(3) Let no man ... by any means.—" What-
ever device they may adopt — spirit, letter, or what not —
they are deceivers or deceived; do not be duped by
them." The form of warning is a mark of St. Paul's
style. (Comp. 1 Cor. iii. 18 ; Eph. v. 6.)

For . . . except. — The words between are rightly
supplied in our version. Probably, St. Paul's first
intention was to turn verse 5 differently, as, for
instance : " For, except that Man of Sin, &c, ye re-
member that I told you the day would not come." The
length of the sentence made him break off (as he often
does) without regard for grammatical completeness.

A falling away.— A great change in the purpose
of the sentence will be felt directly "the" is substituted
for " a." Only one insignificant MS. omits the definite
article; the same article in our version is vigorously

which la not to he till after

II. THESSALONIANS, II.

the Coming of Antichrist,

revealed, the son of perdition ;a W who
opposeth and exalteth himself above

all that is called God,* or that is wor-
shipped; so that he as God sitteth in

rendered "that " before "man of sin." In both cases
tin' purpose is by no means to utter a new, strange
prophecy, or to add to the knowledge of the readers,
but to remind them of careful teaching given during
the first few weeks after their conversion. " That
falling away " must undoubtedly imply that the persons
so apostatising had formerly held (or, perhaps, still
professed to hold) the Christian faith : men cannot fall
from ground which they never occupied. This vast and
dreadful Apostasy (see Luke xviii. 8), so clearly and
prominently taught of to the ancient Church, and so
mysterious to us, is further defined by the following
words, as the Apocalypse or Manifestation of the Man
of Sin. Of this revelation of Antichrist the same word
(apocalypsis) is used which is often used of Christ, as.
e.g., chap. i. 7 ; Luke xvii. 30 ; and thrice in St. Peter ;
so that we may expect to recognise him when he comes
as clearly as we shall recognise Christ. The concep-
tion of the Antichrist is not merely that of an opponent
of the Christ, but of a rival Christ : there is a hideous
parallelism between the two.

That man of sin. — It is not absolutely certain from
the Greek, but the context makes it tolerably clear that
tlie "Man of Sin" is the head and centre of the
Apostasy itself, and does not form a separate move-
ment from it. The " Man of Sin," then, will have at
one time formed (or will still profess to form) part of
the Christian Church, and the Apostasy will culminate
in him. Thus, for instance, the requirements of the
passage would not be fulfilled by (with Hammond)
interpreting the Apostasy to mean the early Gnostic
movement, followed up by the independent appearance
of Nero as the Man of Sin. The phrase, " the Man of
Sin." might, perhaps, be only a poetical personification
of a movement, or of a class of men, or of a succession
of men (as, e.g., Ps. lxxxix. 22 ; Rev. ii. 20 ; xvii. 3) ;
but the analogy of the parallel passages in Dan. viii.
and xi. leads rather to the supposition that St. Paul
looked for the coming of some actual individual man
who should be the impersonation of the movement of
Apostasy. The genitive (see Note on 1 Thess. i. 3 ) is
like a forcible epithet : " A man so wicked that, bad as
other men are. wickedness should be his mark by which
he is distinguished from all others ; a man who belongs
to sin, in whom the ideal of sin has become realised and
incarnate." What kind of sin will be most prominent
in him is not expressed in the word itself; but the
context points clearly to that which is, in fact, the
crowning sin — spiritual pride and rebellious arrogancy
(Eph. vi. 12).

The son of perdition.— The phrase which is used,
in John xvii. 12, of the false Apostle ; it suits well with
the description of the Man of Sin, who, like Judas, will
have "fallen away" from high Christian privileges:
according to one popular interpretation, like Judas,
from the privileges of the Apostolate itself. The expres-
sion signifies one who belongs by natural ties to per-
dition— who from his very birth chooses evil, and in
such a sense may be said to be born to be lost (Matt.
xxvi. 24; 2 Pet. ii. 12). Both his malignity and his
doom are thus implied in it.

(*) Who opposeth and exalteth himself.— The
original continues a quasi- substantival form : — " the
opposer and exalter of himself " — well-known descrip-
tions (doubtless) of the Antichrist ; several of the
details are drawn directly from the description of

Antiochus in Dan. xi. Being merely descriptive epi-
thets, we are not at liberty to press the present tense,
and say that the Man of Sin was already thus acting at
the time St. Paul wrote. The word for " the opposer,"
or "adversary," is a pretty close rendering of the
name " Satan," and passed, in ecclesiastical Greek into
a synonym for it. The acts here attributed to the
Man of Sin are peculiarly Satanic. (Comp. Isa. xiv.
12 — 14 ; 2 Tim. iii. 6.) Of course, however, we must
not confound Satan himself with his human minister.

Above all that is called God.— The translation
here is not quite exact. The word "above" in the
original is compounded with " exalteth " ; it should
be, and super-exalteth, or exhalteth himself above
measure (2 Cor. xii. 7, where the same compound is
used) against every God so called. Probably the
clause "against every God" is to be taken only with
" super-exalteth " ; the description " who opposeth "
stands absolutely : it is one characteristic of the
Man of Sin to be always in opposition, and to have
concord with no one. "Every God so called" in-
cludes the false gods with the true God (comp. 1 Cor.
viii. 5) : true or false, it matters not to jealous Anti-
christ, who would have nothing worshipped but him-
self. This explains the addition of the little clause,
"or that is worshipped." Many things received
religious homage from men without being called
gods ; and the original word (sebasma) may per-
haps be designed to hint at one such worship, viz..
the worship of the Augustus {Sebastos). It would
be far-fetched, however, to see in this a direct pro-
phecy of conflict between Antichrist and the Civil
PoAver ; although it must be admitted that even the
word " gods " is sometimes used of secular rulers (e.g.,
Ps. lxxxii. 1 — 6 ; John x. 34), in which sense some take
it here.

So that he as God.— The words " as God " are
not part of the original text, and should be struck out.
In several other points, however, our version does not
bring out the profanity of the act as clearly as the
Greek. Literally it would be, "so as to seat himself
in the shrine of God, showing himself off that he is
God." The " himself " brings out the spontaneous arro-
gancy of the deed ; the Man of Sin does not merely
yield to servile flatterers. The " sitting " is not in the
tense of habitual custom, but indicates one expressive act
of taking possession. The " in " (literally, into) brings
out the idea of actual intrusion; while the word for
" temple " is not the general name for the whole group
of buildings with their courts, but the sacred house
itself : it is the word which would describe the Holy
aud Holy of Holies (see Matt, xxiii. 35 ; xxvii. 5, 51 ;
Acts xvii. 4) of the Jewish temple ; and probably it is
the Mercy Seat that supplies the image to St. Paul's
mind (Ps. xcix. 1).

The temple of God.— Though the image is drawn
from the Jewish temple, we may say with some confi-
dence that St. Paul did not expect the Antichrist as a
prose fact to take his seat in that edifice., Neither is
the metaphor to be pressed into a mere synonym of
" the Church" (1 Cor. iii. 17). The words, so far. need not
necessarily mean that the Man of Sin will make special
claims upon the Christian community as such. Rather,
the whole phrase, " taking his seat in the temple of
God," is a poetical or prophetical description of nsurp-
i ing divine prerogatives generally : not the prerogatives

Why Antichrist

II. THESSALONIANS, II.

is not yet revealed.

the temple of God, shewing himself that
he is God.0 (5J Remember ye not, that,
when I was yet with you, I told you
these things i (6) And now ye know
what withholdeth1 that he might be

revealed in his time. W For the
mystery of iniquity doth ChaP. ii. 6, 7.
already work : only he Before Anti-
whc now letteth will let, Zt'trnZZ'-
until he be taken out pire must go.

of the true God alone, but whatever prerogatives have
been offered to anything " called God." Though the
prophecy might be fulfilled without any symbolical
act (e.g., of assuming any material throne), yet the spon-
ianeousness (" himself ") and the openness (" showing
himself ") seem so essentially parts of the prophecy as
of necessity to imply that the Man of Sin will make
formal claim to occupy that central seat in men's
minds and aspirations which is acknowledged to be due
to God alone. The formal making of this claim seems
to be identical with the apocalypse of the Man of Sin,
the act by which he is manifested or revealed.

Shewing himself. — Or, thus showing himself off.
It does not mean that he makes any attempt to prove
that he is God ; the word only carries on the pictorial
representation of the Man of Sin enthroning himself
upon the Mercy Seat, and by that act of session parading
his pretended divinity. As has been said, the perform-
ance of a typical act is not of vital consequence to the
accomplishment of the prophecy (as, e.g., Zech. ix. 9
might have been truly accomplished without the literal
riding of Matt. xxi. 7), though there are few great
movements which do not express themselves in outward
typical acts ; but these words show that (unless St.
Paul was mistaken) an explicit claim will be made for
submission, like that of creature to Creator. Even if
the " Man of Sin " only signifies a tendency, not a per-
son, yet this " exhibition of himself as God " woidd
hardly be satisfied by a social concession, however wide-
spread, to a general spirit of (say) fleshly luxury or
atheistic intellectualism, without the claims of these
ideals being eo nomine put forward and consciously
admitted. But it is hard to believe that anything
avowedly atheistic would be spoken of as explicitly
claiming or receiving divine honours. It seems, there-
fore, most probable that the great Apostasy will not be-
come avowedly atheistic, but will be an apostasy (so to
speak) within the Church, and that the Man of Sin, who
heads that Apostasy, will make especial claim upon the
Christian Church to accord consciously the very honours
which she pays to the Irving God.

(5) Remember ye not. — A rebuke of the same
character as Rom. vi. 3 ; 1 Cor. vi. 19, and, like those,
levelled at ignorance of what in apostolic days were
thought the six fundamental points of Christian teach-
ing (Heb. v. 12 ; vi. 1, 2). The doctrine of Antichrist
would naturally form pari of the course on resurrection
and judgment. This explains how the doctrine was
enforced (1) so early in the education of the Christian
churches : "while I was yet with you " (see Introduction
to the First Epistle to Thessalonians) ; and (2) so
emphatically and repeatedly : " my habit was to tell
you these things " — for the word translated "told " is
in the imperfect tense, which means more than a single
action. Notice that in St. Paul's eager personal
recollection of thus teaching, he for once (and no-
where else) forgets Silas and Timothy: not "we,"
but "I." Imagine a forger who shoidd forge with
such subtlety ! Mark also how erroneous is the
opinion that St. Paul in this Epistle recedes from his
former teaching about the Advent and its date.

(6) And now ye know.— Not "now, because of

what I have just said," for nothing has yet been said in
the Letter from which the Thessalonians could gather
what withheld the premature manifestation of the Man
of Sin. The word "now" is not used exactly in a
temporal sense, but as introducing another item. " You
remember about Antichrist and his characteristics :
very good ; and now, what keeps Antichrist back ?
You know that too." Knowing not only that Anti-
christ's apocalypse must precede Christ's, but also that
Antichrist could not reveal himself yet, because the
way was blocked by something still (as they saw) un-
removed, the Thessalonians were absurd in acting as if
the day of the Lord was come.

What withholdeth.— Rather, that which with-
holdeth : they did not merely know it as a dogma, but
as a familiar object. " You ai*e perfectly acquainted
with the thing which acts as a check upon the Man of
Sin." Unlike the Man of Sin himself, who was a dim
figure in the mysterious future, the Obstacle was present
and tangible. They may have forgotten what the thing
is, but St. Paul stirs their memory by telling them that
they well know the thing itself. It must needs be a
marked and mighty power which can prevent the develop-
ment of the great Antichrist. At the same time, St.
Paul's doctrine is that this marked power is destined
by-and-by to be removed (verse 7). Possibly, then,
St. Paul may shrink from naming it in writing, not
only because he wishes to exercise the Thessalonians'
memories, but also for fear the power should discover
and disapprove of his prophecies. For the question
what the withholding power is, see the Excursus on
the Interpretation of the Prophecy.

That he might ... in his time.— Or, with a
view to his being revealed at his proper moment. Not
that the withholding power is conscious of such desire,
but God's design is to use that power for the purpose.

(7) For. — Logically, the " for " belongs to the clause
" he that letteth ;" thus : " For, although the mystery is
already at work, the wicked one will not be revealed
until he that now withholds shall disappear."

The mystery of iniquity doth already work.
— Both " mystery " and " iniquity " have the article in
the Greek, perhaps (as in verse 3) because the phrase
was well known to the Thessalonians. Lawlessness
is a more literal rendering than " iniquity"; the same
word in 1 John iii. 4 is rendered " the transgression of
the law." The word " mystery " in Greek does not
necessarily involve any notion of mysteriousness in our
modern sense. It means a secret (which may be, in its
own nature, quite simple) known to the initiated, but
incapable of being known until it is divulged. Here
the whole emphasis is thrown, by a very peculiar order
of the Greek words, upon the word "mystery." It
may be paraphrased thus : — " For as a secret, into
which the world is not yet initiated, that lawlessness is
already at work." Thus the word " mystery " stands
in sharp contrast with the word " revealed " in verses
6, 8 : the time for publishing, openly avowing, the secret
is not yet come. To whom, then, is the mystery of
that lawlessness now known? Not to all those who
are contributing to its ultimate manifestation, for most
of them are deceived by it (verse 10), and, while sharers

His Destruction declared.

II. THESSALONIANS, II.

His Evil Work.

of the way. <8) And then shall that
Wicked be revealed, whom the Lord
shall consume with the spirit of his
mouth," and shall destroy with the
brightness of his coming : (9' even him,

! whose coming is after the working of
; Satan with all power and chap. ii. 9—12.
! signs and lying wonders, Terrors of the
i (1°J and with all deceivable- falTe^hru^
i ness of unrighteousness in tians.

in the Apostasy, still believe themselves members of
the Church. The mystery is known to God, and (1)
to enlightened Christians like St. Paul; (2) to Satan
and a few Satanic men who avow to themselves their
real object in joining the movement. Though the
mystery is said to work (the verb expresses an inward
activity, e.g., 1 Thess. ii. 13, Rom. vii. 5, like that
of leaven on the lump), it is not a personal thing, not
(like " Man of Sin," " that which withholdeth,") a covert.
description of any person or set of persons; it is solely
the unavowed design which is gradually gaining influence
over men's hearts : it is the same movement as the
" falling away " of verse 3. In several places {e.g.,
2 Pet. ii. 1 et seq. ; Jude, verso 18 et seq.) the coarser
side of the " falling away " is spoken of, but here the
" lawlessness " seems not so much to mean ordinary
antinomianism as insubordination to God — -rebellion.

Only he . . . . — More correctly, Only [it cannot
be revealed] until he that now withholdeth disappear
from the midst. The English version has obscured the
meaning by putting " letteth," although the word is
precisely the same as in verse 6 — the only difference
being that there it was neuter"; "the thing which with-
holdeth ; " while here it is masculine : " he." Evidently
to St. Paul's mind there was a great obstructive power,
which was gathered up in, and wielded by, the person
so described : " he that withholdeth." How this poten-
tate would " disappear out of our midst " St. Paul gives
no hint ; but obviously not by death : for, unless the
power itself was to disappear with him, his successor
would equally be " he that now withholdeth." We may
therefore say that the prophecy would be satisfied if
" he that withholdeth " proved to be a whole succession
of persons ; we have hardly the same right to say so of
the " Lawless One."

(8) And then. — Then at length, when the obstructor
is gone, two things shall happen : (1) the Lawless One
shall be revealed, and (2) then the Lord will come and
destroy him. The purpose with which St. Paul began
this chapter was to show relatively the date of our Lord's
Advent ; but he is now so engrossed in describing the
events which must precede it, that when he does men-
tion the Advent again he does so in a parenthetical
relative clause.

That Wicked— Or, the Lawless One. The English
version has again obscured the passage by not keeping
the same word as in verse 7. The general tendency to
" lawlessness " or " rebellion " will be brought to a head
in the person of " the Lawless One" or " the " Rebel,"
just as the " obstruction " is impersonated in " the
Obstructor." The publication of the " secret of rebel-
liousness" will be effected by the manifesto of the Rebel-
in-chief. Of course, this Rebel is the same person with
the Man of Sin, the change of title being due to the
particularising of his sin by the word " lawlessness "
in verse 7 ; the specification of the time is the only
additional intelligence ; all the emphasis of the sentence,
therefore, rests on " And then."

The Lord. — The best text adds the name Jesus,
which serves more clearly to contrast Him with His
rival. The word " whom " might be more pointedly
paraphrased by " and him."

With the spirit of his mouth.— St. Paul is
quoting roughly from Isa. xi. 4 (comp. Job iv. 9 ; Ps.
xviii. 15; Wisd. xi. 20: "might have fallen down with
one blast, . . . scattered abroad through the breath of
Thy power ") ; and therefore we are to understand it to
signify the perfect ease with which Christ will destroy
Antichrist. Even when the phrase is used of speech
(as it may perhaps be here), the absence of labour is
the point to be noticed {e.g., Ps. xxxiii. 6).

With the brightness of his coming.— Rather,
with the appearing of His presence. Here, again, it is
the mere fact of the true Christ's showing Himself, which
will reduce to nothingness (such is the meaning of the
Greek for " destroy ") the false Christ. When they
shall stand face to face there will be no possibility of
delusion any more

(9) Even him, whose coming.— The - even him "
does not stand bathe Greek ; and " whose " might, again.
be rendered by for hie own, or perhaps " though his
own." The purpose of the verses following is not
merely to describe Antichrist more fully, but to com-
pare word for word his coming with that which will
annihilate him. Again is used of Antichrist a peculiar
word consecrated to the Christ : " coming " (literally
presence), being the word used in verse 8, as well as
verse 1, and often. In spite of the sham being Avell
got up, it will be seen to be a sham.

Is . . . with all power.—" Is : " St. Paul sees the
future as present. The predicate is not " after tho
working," but " in all power," &c. The advent of
Antichrist will be in {i.e., surrounded with, accompanied
by) all kinds of miracles. " according to the working of
Satan : " i.e., not only wrought by Satan, but up to the
full capacity of Satan to work them. The word
"'lying" (literally, of falsehood) should go with all
three names, " all counterfeit power and signs and
wonders." The three words are piled up to heighten
the terror of the description ; if you press them they
mean that there will bo a display of power, to attest
Antichrist's doctrine (signs), and to keep men spell-
bound in admiration of him (wonders). Antichrist, like
Christ (1 Tim. vi. 15), has one to support him — Satan,
instead of God; he, like Christ (Luke xxi. 25), will
have his miracles — but miracles of trickei*y, not of
truth.

(10) And with all deceivableness.— " Deceiv-
ableness " does, not mean " readiness to be deceived,"
but, according to old English usage, has an active mean-
ing ; the words include and expand the list just given r
" in all sham power and signs and wonders, and, in fact,.
in every iniquitous fraud."

In them that perish.— Rather, for them. These
are not the persons who exercise the fraud, but the
objects of it. The word depends not only on " deceiv-
ableness," but on the whole sentence : " his coming (for
them) is," &c. St. Paul adds the words as a consola-
tion to "them that are saved" : it will not be possible
to seduce the elect (Mark xiii. 22). " They that
perish" (1 Cor. i. 18; 2 Cor. ii. 15; iv. 3: comp. also-
Acts ii. 47) is a phrase which contains no reference
whatever to the doctrine of predestination, but merely
describes the class; the men who let themselves be

137

Judgment on

II. THESSALONIANS, II.

false Christians.

them, that perish ; because they received
not the love of the truth, that they
might be saved. (U> And for this cause
God shall send them strong delusion,
that they should believe a lie : (12J that
they all might be damned who believed
not the truth, but had pleasure in un-
righteousness.

(13> But we are bound to give thanks

alway to God for you,"

brethren beloved of the g^1^

Lord/' because God hath sented by the

from the beginning chosen tepyaSitat- of

, to , . o. . Ihessalonian

you to Salvation through Church ; exhor-

sanctification of the Spirit tati?n > Para"
and belief of the truth

gogic prayer.

thus duped are, as a plain matter of fact, in course of
perishing.

Because. — Here does come in the question of God's
decree. The phrase rendered " because " means " in
requital of the fact that," which at once implies that
their being duped by Antichrist's coming is a judicial
visitation. (See next verse.) " They did not receive,"
i.e., it was offered them, and they refused it ; not, as
Calvinism would teach, because it was not given them.
The grace of love of the truth is offered us along with
every new presentment of truth ; if we are too indolent
to examine whether it be truth, we are rejecting the
love of the truth. This is a worse thing than not
accepting the truth itself : if they had only aspired to
know what was the truth they would have been saved,
even if, in fact, they had been in error.

(H) And for this cause— i.e., because they did
not care whether things were true or not. This verse
is not a mere repetition of verses 9 and 10. There we
were told of external dangers which would attend Anti-
christ's coming for them that perish : because they had
not cared for truth, therefore the presence of the Man
of Sin, which could not even imperil the truth-lovers,
would for them be full of special marvels and frauds
by which they might be misled. Here is set forth the
effect upon their own selves of refusing to accept God's
gift of love of truth : God takes from them (by His
natural law) their power of discerning the true from
the false, and thus (as it were) actually deceives
them. Every wilful sin does this double mischief : it
strengthens the power of the temptation without; it
weakens the power to resist within. For an illustra-
tion, see 2 Ohron. xviii. 7, 22 : Ahab cares only for the
pleasant, not the true, and the Lord requites him by
sending forth a lying spirit to entice him.

Shall send.— The Greek has sendeth : so " is " in
verse 9 : St. Paul sees it all going on before his eyes.
" A strong delusion " should be "an effectual inward
working of error " — no longer a mere indifference to truth,
but a real influence of error upon their hearts. This
inward work of error is sent " with a view to their
believing the lie " (the Greek has the definite article) —
the lie (that is) which Antichrist would have them
believe. A terrible combination when God and Satan
are agreed to deceive a man ! Yet what an encourage-
ment to see God using Satan for His own purposes.

(12) That they all.— This is God's purpose in mak-
ing them believe the lie — " in order that, one and all,
they might be judged." He who desireth not the death
of a sinner, now is said actually to lay plans with the
intention of judging him : such are the bold self-con-
tradictions of the Bible ! It must not. however, be for-
gotten for a moment that God did not begin to will
the sinner's judgment till after He had offered him
freely the love of His own blessed truth, and had been
rejected. When once the sinner is incurable, the only
way to vindicate truth and righteousness is by hasten-
ing on his condemnation, whatever that condemnation
may mean.

Who believed not the truth . . . .—Once
more the offence for which they are condemned is
insisted upon. Theirs is no fancy sin. What God wanted
them to believe was not some fantastical dogma, some
fiction between which and the fictions of the Man
of Sin there was nothing morally to choose, but the
inviolable truth by which God Himself is bound.
But had pleasure in the unrighteousness (so runs the
Greek): i.e., consciously gave their moral consent to
the unrighteousness of verse 10, the unrighteousness
which sought to impose itself upon them, and which
they would never have been led into had they loved
the truth.

(13) But we are bound.— This may be called a
recurrence to the subject dropped at chap. i. 3. The
pronoun is somewhat emphatic. It might have seemed
more natural to have sharpened the contrast between
the Thessalonian Christians and the unhappy people
just mentioned by beginning " But you." It is, how-
ever, part of St. Paul's delicacy of sympathy to describe
rather the effect upon himself and his two companions
of observing that contrast. He sets himself to work
the contrast out.

Beloved of the Lord. — Precisely the same phrase
as in 1 Thess. i. 4, except for the substitution of " the
Lord " for " God," which shows the concurrence of the
Eternal Son in His Father's predestinations. As in
the former passage, the tense (" who have been loved ")
makes the reader think of the everlasting duration of
that love (Jer. xxxi. 3), and is again connected with the
mystery of election.

" O love, who ere life's earliest dawn
On me thy choice hast gently laid."

Hath . . . chosen.— The Greek tense should be
rendered by chose, referring to the definite moment (so
to speak) in the divine counsels when the choice was
fixed. This moment is defined as " from the beginning."
i.e., from the eternity preceding the origin of time,
called by the same name in Gen. i. 1. John i. 1, and
1 John i. 1. It does not simply mean " from the out-
set," i.e., from the moment of first thinking at all
about you. The identical phrase is said not to occur
again in St. Paul. It may be noticed that there is a
striking various-reading in some of the MSS., involving
the change of only one letter, which would give us
(instead of " chose you from the beginning ") " chose
you as firstfruits." Comp. Jas. i. 18 ; but the reading
in the text is better supported.

To salvation. — This "salvation" is in contrast
with the "destruction " (chap. i. 9), "perdition" (chap.
ii. 3), or " perishing " (chap. ii. 10), all of which repre-
sent the same word in the Greek. Out of the wreck
of a world, God had from eternity chosen these Thes-
salonians to come off safely.

Through sanctiflcation of the Spirit and
belief of the truth.— This again teaches us the
apostolic idea of election. It is not an absolute irrever-
sible predestination to a particular state of happiness

Exhortet.'toii to standfast in

II. THESSALONIANS, II. the Doctrine delivered to them.

(U) whereunto he called you by our
gospel, to the obtaining of the glory
of our Lord Jesus Christ." <15) There-

j fore, brethren, stand fast, and hold the
! traditions which ye have been taught,
\ whether by word, or our epistle.

on which the elect is to enter after death. The " sal-
vation " is present, begun in this life (Eph. ii. 5, 8),
and carried on along fixed lines, namely, " m sanctifiea-
tion of spirit and belief of truth " (such is the literal
rendering). The preposition " in " has here the same
force as in 1 Thess. iv. 4, 7, namely, " by way of," " by
a course of." If, therefore, God chose the Thessa-
lonian Christians to salvation by a course of sanetifica-
tion and belief, one thing, at any rate, is clear: that if
any of them should leave that course, and fall into the
errors and sins denounced in the foregoing verses, then,
in the Apostle's mind, they would have forfeited their
salvation, in spite of God's choice of them. Conse-
quently, we are forced to one of two theories : either
that tlic man has no free will at all, the moral character
of his actions depending as entirely upon God as his
final destiny ; or else, that the man is free, and that
God singles him out to enjoy special opportunities of
sanctification and of correct belief, which the man may
accept or reject as he pleases. The first of these
theories lies open to the question, why, if God is
responsible for the moral character of the actions of His

laborious course of "earning" or "purchasing" it
during this life. The word is the same as that used in
1 Thess. v. 9, where see Note.

(is) Therefore, brethren, stand fast.— Such an
exhortation is, in itself, conclusive against a theory of
irreversible predestination. " Because God chose you
from eternity, and called you in time, therefore stand
your ground." If it were impossible fo^ them to quit
their ground, it would be needless to exhort them to
maintain it. If it were possible for them to quit their
ground, and yet be as well off after all, it would be
needless also. At the same time, the " therefore "
draws a conclusion, not from verse 14 alone, but sums
up the whole disquisition of the chapter : " Now that
you are reminded of the true Advent doctrine."

Hold the traditions. — The very same word as
in Mark vii. 3, 4, 8, " holding the tradition of the
elders ; " also in the same metaphorical sense in Col. ii.
19 ; Rev. ii. 13. The action expressed is a vigorous and
pertinacious grasp, as (for instance) of the lame man
clutching the Apostles in Acts iii. 11. St. Chrysostom
remarks : " It is plain from hence that they used not to

elect and for their belief, He does not sanctify them at I deliver all their tradition by letter, but much without

once and completely, and mako each one infallible in
doctrine ; but, in any case, lax morality or creed is as
incompatible with the hope of a Calvinist as with that
of an orthodox Christian. " Sanctification of spirit "
seems to mean " spiritual sanctification :" an inward
process, not merely outward change of conduct. This
is, of course, wrought by the action of the Holy Spirit
upon our spirits ; but the omission of the definite article
in the Greek is difficult to explain if the " spirit " men-
tioned be other than the spirit acted upon. " Belief of
truth " is opposed to " believing the lie," of verse 11 :
acceptation of facts as they are, especially the deep
facts of revelation, is always the great means of
sanctification in Holy Scripture (John xvii. 17).

(14) Whereunto.— From the neuter gender of the
relative in the Greek we see that the antecedent in
St. Paul's mind is not exactly " belief of truth," nor

writing besides, and that both are equally worthy of
belief. Therefore, let us consider the Church's tradition
worthy of belief. It is tradition : ask no further ques-
tions." What were these " traditions " which it was so
essential to keep ? The context shows that the par-
ticular traditions which were most consciously in
St. Paul's mind at the moment, were his eschatological
teachings, given to them while he was among them — the
lore of which he has been briefly reminding them in this
chapter (verses 5, 6) : for the exhortation is practically
a resumption of that given in verses 2, 3. " Instead of
being seduced by the forgers of prophecies or of com-
munications from us, remember the careful instructions
we gave you once for all." At the same time, he speaks
generally, and we must not limit his words to that par-
ticular tradition. Whatever can be traced to apostolic
origin is of the essence of the faith. They are to " hold

exactly " sanctification of spirit," nor yet exactly i tenaciously " all his traditions, and these would include

" f e which is ! instructions doctrinal (as 1 Cor. xv. 3 ; Jude, A'erse 3),

salvation, " but the general state of li
compounded of these three notions — "to which thing
He called you." The election or choice takes place in
eternity (verse 13) ; the call at that point of time when
the men first hear the gospel. (See Rom. viii. 30.)

By our gospel — i.e., of course, " by our bringing
you the happy message" — the historical delivery of the
message is dwelt on rather than its contents.

To the obtaining of the glory of our Lord.—
Almost all the ancient commentators render it, "for
obtaining of glory to our Lord ; " and St. Chrysostom
says, beautifully : " No small thing this either, if Christ
esteems our salvation His glory. It is, indeed, a glory
to the lover of men tliat the number of those who are
being saved should be large." But this version is not
so easy grammatically as our own, nor does it suit so
well with the context. St. Paul is encouraging his
readers with the same thought of their destiny which
he has put forward in chap. i. 11, 12 — the identity of
the joy of the Redeemer and the redeemed (Matt,
xxv. 23). It is well to be observed that God did not
call them straight " to the glory of our Lord," but " to the
obtaining "of the same. This "obtaining" does not
mean an otiose receiving of glory in the last day, but a

| ceremonial (1 Cor. xi. 2, 23), and moral (chap. iii. 6 ;
2 Pet. ii. 21). As a matter of controversy, it is not
so remarkable that he should exhort his converts to
I cling to his own oral teaching ("whether by word "■) as
I that he should at so early a period call their special
| attention to what was gradually to supplant (at least, in
| doctrinal matters) all independent unwritten tradition
— the Holy Scripture (" our Epistle "). St. Paid can
speak on occasion as contemptuously of the " traditions
of men " as our Lord did (Col. ii. 8). Of course, it
depends entirely on the individual character of any
tradition whether, and to what extent, it is to be " held "
or condemned as " human." In the Church no mutually
contradictory traditions can be held together ; and
therefore any tradition " by word " which is in disagree-
ment with the written tradition (i.e., Scripture) stands
necessarily condemned.

By word, or our epistle.— The if our " belongs to
both : " whether by word or epistle of ours." Unless
St. Paul had written than some other letter, now lost,
this proves that the " First " Epistle was in reality the
earlier written. " Have been taught " should be " were
taught " — the historic tense. '

159

He Commends them to Christ. Ii". THESSALONIANS, III.

Request for Prayer.

(is) Now our Lord Jesus Christ himself,
and God, even our Father, which hath
loved us, and hath given us everlasting
consolation and good hope through
grace, (17) comfort your hearts, and
stablish you in every good word and
work.

CHAPTER III.— (D Finally, brethren,
pray for us, that the word Chap
of the Lord may have free
course,1 and be glorified,
even as it is with you : (2^ and that
we may be delivered from unreasonable3
and wicked men : for all men have not

iii. i—
Request for
prayer.

(16) Now. — Better, And, connecting closely the prayer
with the exhortation, just as in 1 Thess. v. 23.
" Again," says St. Chrysostom, " prayer after advice :
this is to help in earnest." The word " Himself," as in
the passage cited, contrasts the Almighty power of our
Lord with the partial instructions and feeble help which
even Apostles could give, and with the impotence of the
Thessalouian Christians to stand firm in their own
strength.

Our Lord Jesns Christ himself, and G-od, even
our Father.— The order of mention is unusual. (See,
however, 2 Cor. xiii. 3.) It is not designedly meant to
show the equality of the Blessed Persons, which is done
only incidentally by the fact that the same aspiration
is directed to both. Probably, in fact, the names are
arranged to form a climax : St. Paul having spoken first
of the Person whose work on the heart is the more
immediate, and then jealously watching lest he should
in any way make the Eternal Father seem less deeply
interested in our welfare than the Son is. All primitive
devotion and doctrine are markedly opposed to the
tendency to rest in the Mediator without a real lively
faith in the Father who sent Him.

"Which hath loved us. — Love to us is specially (so
fearfully wrong is much of the popular language about
the Atonement) the characteristic of the Father. (See,
for instance, John iii. 16; xvii. 23; 2 Cor. xiii. 3;
Eph. ii. 4 ; 1 John iv. 10. ) It is in the thought of this
tender love of God to us that the writer adds im-
mediately the endearing title " Our Father." This love
seems to be mentioned here as being the ground on
which the writer rests his hope for the fulfilment of his
prayer. It should literally be translated, ivhich loved
us, and gave — the moment being apparently (as in
John iii. 16) the moment of providing the Atonement
for our sins.

Everlasting consolation. — This means " an ever
present source of comfort," of which no persecution
can rob us. This giving of comfort is the proof or
explanation of the statement that He " loved us," and
refers to the same act. Our unfailing comfort lies in
the thought of God's love exemplified in the Incarna-
tion of His Son.

Good hope through grace.— These words must
be closely joined. God gave us not only a consolation
under present trials, but a sweet prospect in the future ;
but this sweet prospect belongs to us only " in grace "
(the literal version). All our hope is based on the con-
tinuance of the spiritual strength imparted by the
Father through the Son and the Spirit. The qualify-
ing words " in grace " are added to " hope " in just the
same way as the words "in sanctification " are added to
'' salvation " in verse 13.

(17) Comfort your hearts . . . — " Comfort," in
reference to the " unending comfort " of verse 16 ;
and ' : stablish," in reference to the " good hope in
grace." The "heart" needs comfort as the seat of
emotions. " In every good word and work " (it
should be, work and ivord) means in the mainte-
nance of every good doctrine (as opposed to the false

teaching which had got abroad about the Advent, and
to the lies of the Apostasy), and in the performance
of every good practice (as opposed to the lawlessness
of the Apostasy, and to the disorderly conduct of which
the next chapter treats : for here, as in 1 Thess. iii. 13,
the prayer forms an introduction of the next subject).
The singular number of the verbs " comfort " and
" stablish " (which, of course, does not appear in the
English), may perhaps be explained as in 1 Thess. iii. 12,
where see Note, though it is not necessary so to under-
stand it, inasmuch as the intervening relative (in the
Greek, participial) clauses have turned the whole
attention to the Father, who may be considered ex-
clusively as the grammatical subject of the verbs. It
would, however, have been painful to orthodox ears,
however justifiable doctrinally, to have used a plural
verb. It is by these little incidental touches, still more
than by express doctrinal statements, that we learn
what was the real belief of the Apostles concerning the
Divinity of Christ ; and we may say the same with
regard to many other great doctrines.

III.

(i) Finally.— The practical portion is introduced in
the same manner as in the First Epistle (chap. iv. 1),
" for the rest," " as to what I have yet to say."

Pray for us.— St. Chrysostom remarks : " Himself
had prayed for them; now ho asks them to pray
for him." How much of a Christian teacher's
power, inci*easing as time goes on, comes from the
accumulation of intercession from his spiritual children !
St. Paul leaves people praying for him everywhere
(Rom. xv. 30; 2 Cor. i. 11 ; Eph. vi. 18, 19; Col. iv. 3;
1 Thess. v. 25 ; comp. Heb. xiii. 18). In all these cases
the request is for active help in his work of evan-
gelising : " not that he may fall into no danger," saye
St. Chrysostom, " for that he was appointed unto."
(Comp. 2 Tim. ii. 9.) " That " stands for " in order
that,'" and does not introduce merely the subject of the
prayer.

May have free course. — Quite literally, as in
the margin, may run along. Speed and security are
contained in this idea : no hesitation about the next
turn, no anxious picking of the way, and no opposi-
tion from devils and bad men. Bengel compares Ps.
exlvii. 15.

And be glorified.— The word does not mean
merely "obtain applause," "win distinction," as a
successful runner ; it always implies the recognition or
acknowledgment of inherent admirable qualities. (See
Notes on chap. i. 12 ; 1 Thess. ii. 6.)

Even as it is with you. — Such praise would flush
the Thessalonians to pray for him with greater fervour
and assurance. " With you " means, in the Greek, " in
your direction," " on turning to you : " people had only
to look at Thessalonica, and they were forced to re-
cognise the character of the gospel.

(-) And that we may be delivered.— Compare
Rom. xv. 31. This clause is an amplification of the
word " may run along : " the impediments to the

160

Tlie Lord is Faithful.

II. THESSALONIANS, III.

The Apostle's Confidence.

faith. <3> But the Lord is faithful,"
who shall stablish you, and keep you
from evil. W And we have confidence
in the Lord touching you,6 that ye
both do and will do the things

which we command you. (5) And the
Lord direct your hearts chap. iii. 4, 5.

into the love Of God, and Expression of
. , ,-, .. ... confidence, and

into the patient waiting preparatory
for Christ.1 prayer.

gospel progress were (except that all were overruled
for good) such persecutions as these. St. Paul gives
thanks for such deliverances in 2 Cor. i. 10; 2 Tim. iii.
11 ; iv. 17. Perhaps (as St. Chrysostom suggests) one
reason for here inviting their prayers for himself was
to nerve the Thcssaloniaus by the sense that they were
not the only people in the world in danger.

From unreasonable and wicked men.— The
curious word rendered " unreasonable " is rendered
"amiss" in Luke xxiii. 41, "wickedness" in Acts
xxv. 5, " harm " in Acts xxviii. 6, occurring nowhere
-else in the New Testament. It properly means some-
thing "misplaced " hence "extravagant," "monstrous."
Thus tho dying robber says that our Lord had done
"' nothing so monstrous" as to deserve crucifixion; Festus
ironically invites the priests to a serious journey to
St. Paul's trial, " if there be something so monstrous in
him ; " the Maltese bai'barians " saw that nothing so
monstrous happened to him after all." So St. Paul
wishes the Thessalonians to pray for his deliverance
•" from these monstrous and depraved people." Ho is
•evidently meaning some particular foes whom he fears,
for the original has the definite article. Who, then, are
*' these monstrous persons ?" If we turn to Acts xviii.
■6, 9, 12, and observe the circumstances in which the
letter was written, wo can hardly doubt that they are
the unbelieving Jews of Corinth. From these Jews
he was, though narrowly, delivered. It was, perhaps,
in direct answer to the prayers for which St. Paul here
asks that he received the vision and assurances of our
Lord, and that Gallio was moved to quash so abruptly
the proceedings of the Jews.

For all men have not faith.— This clause gives
the reason for the alarm implied in the last clause :
" Do not be surprised at my needing help against bad
men; for you know that it is not every one that
believes." There is something a little scornful and
embittered in the expression (recalling the invective
against the same people in 1 Thess. ii. 15, 16), for it
suggests the thought that nothing better was to be
■expected from such a set of unconverted Jews. Tacitly,
also, the unbelieving Corinthians ai*e contrasted with
the Thessalonians who had so readily embraced the
truth. It may, however, be doubted whether this
sentence is not an instance of a common Hebrew idiom,
occurring more than twenty times in the Greek Testa-
ment, by which the combination of " all " and " not "
amounts to "not any." Thus, "all flesh shall not be
justified," in Rom. iii. 20, is rendered " no flesh shall
be justified ;" " they are not all of us." in 1 John ii. 19,
means " not one of them is of us." So here it may be,
" for there is not one of them that believes ; " and so
also, again speaking of the Jews, in Rom. x. 16, " they
did not all obey" may mean " none of them obeyed " — a
rhetorical exaggeration, which tho writer proceeds to
justify by the exhaustive question from Isaiah.

(3) But the Lord is faithful.— It must not be
thought from this that the word " faith " in the previous
verse meant " fidelity." St. Paul, after his favourite
manner, is playing upon two meanings of the word :
" But whether men have faith or not, the Lord is faith-
ful." There is the same play of words in Rom. iii. 3.

40 l

" The Lord " seems here to be used, as was said on
1 Thess. iii. 12, without distinct inference to one Person
of the Holy Trinity rather than another. This cha-
racteristic of God is named because God stands pledged
to all who believe in Him.

Who shall stablish you.— How soon St. Paul
reverts from his own needs to theirs ! He does not
continue, as we should expect, with " who will preserve
us."

Keep you from evil.— Rather (probably), from the
Evil One, as in the Lord's Prayer. Possibly, the word
is used not without a reference to the word rendered
" wicked " in verse 2, with which in the Greek it is
identical.

W. We have confidence in the Lord touching
you. — Rather, We rely upon you in the Lord : the
clause forms the counterpart to the last verse. St.
Chrysostom's whole comment is worth transcription:—-
" God, saith he, is faithful, and having promised to
save, save He assuredly will, but as He promised.
And how did He promise ? If we would be agreeable,
and would hear Him ; not unconditionally, nor while
we remain inactive like stocks and stones. Yet, well
has he added his, ' We rely in the Lord : ' that is, ' We
trust to His love of men.' Once more he takes them
down, ascribing the whole matter to that quarter ; for
had he said ' We trust to you,' it would have been a
great compliment indeed, but would not have taught
them to ascribe all to God ; and had he said ' We rely
on the Lord that He will keep you,' without adding
'upon you,' and 'that ye both do and will do what
things we command,' he would have made them less
active by casting the whole upon the power of God."
(See the passage of Galatians referred to in the margin.)

Both do and will do.— The emphasis of the sen-
tence is on the future tense, the commendation of the
present being only intended to do away the re-
buke which might have been conveyed by the future
alone. How careful St. Paul is not to wouiul suscepti-
bilities, though ho never "pleases men"! (See, for
instance, Notes on 1 Thess. iv. 1, 9, 10 ; v. 11.) This
expression of confidence is a happy rhetorical means
of preparing readers for the commands which are to
follow.

(5) The Lord.— See Note on verse 3. The Person
of the Blessed Trinity to whom this guidance im-
mediately belongs is the Holy Ghost. So far, the
Greek expositors are right who are agreed to consider
this a proof of the Holy Ghost's divinity. Their right
conclusion is, however, drawn from wrong premisses,
for the name is not here to bo taken as consciously
intending Him. The ground for their supposition is
that the names "God" and -Christ" occur imme-
diately after, and not (as we might expect) " His " or
" for Him." But in 1 Thess. iii. 12, 13, there occurs
precisely the same arrangement of the three words: tho
Greek equivalent for the sacred Hebrew Name standing
first, and then, for clearness' sake, being explained by
the personal titles, " God our Father,'' " our Lord Jesus
Christ,"

Direct your hearts into the love of God.—
This prayer in itself implies that they had not yet

Special Directions against

II. THESSALONIANS, III.

Disturbers and Idlers.

W Now we command you, brethren,
Chap. iii. 6—16. in the name of our Lord
Instructions jesus Christ, that ye with-

how to deal -, i x>

with idlers and draw yourselves from every
agitators. brother that walketh dis-

orderly, and not after the tradition
which he received of us. ^> For
yourselves know how ye ought "
to follow us : b for we behaved
not ourselves disorderly among; you ; -

reached the point which St. Paul would have them
reach, and were perhaps not taking the directest course.
The same word is used in Luke i. 79 ; 1 Thess. iii. 11.
The " love of God " here meant is that practical love
which consists in keeping the commandments (John
xiv. 21), as may be seen from the context : — " I am
sure that the Lord will strengthen you, and that you
are doing and will continue to do as you are bidden :
may God help you to the obedience of true love, and to
such perseverance in obedience as was shown by Christ ;
and it is in this hope that we bid you take steps to
repress the disorders which are prevalent among you."

The patient -waiting for Christ. — This rendering
is so beautiful in itself, and so well in keeping with the
leading thoughts of these two Epistles, that it is painful
to be forced to reject it. But the only rendering which
is possible is, Christ's patience ; and the simplest
meaning of that phrase is "the endurance which
characterises Christ," the genitive being, as in 1 Thess.
i. 3, almost a descriptive adjective, " Christ-like,"
" Christian endurance." This " patience " includes
both the thought of bearing up under their present
persecutions and also the thought of " patient con-
tinuance in well doing," as opposed to the fitful rest-
lessness which had begun to prey upon the Thessalonian
Church.

(6) "We command you. — The practical conclusion
of the letter. These words take up the expression in
verse 4, " Ye will do the things which (at any time)
we command you: now the thing which we command
you is this."

In the name of our Lord.— To do anything in a
person's name seems to mean, in the first instance, the
actual pronouncing of the name in the performance of
the action — to do it name on lip, just as to " come in a
rod" (1 Cor. iv. 21) literally means rod in hand. Thus,
miracles are commonly said to be pei'formed " in
the name of the Lord," viz., with the audible repetition
of His name (for instance, Matt. vii. 22, Mark xvi. 17 ;
Luke x. 17) ; and for examples of the way in which the
name was literally so used, we may refer to Acts iii. 6 ;
ix. 34; xix. 13 — in the last case the name being
employed as a mere incantation or charm. See also
Phil. ii. 10, where, as the adoration paid to Jesus Him-
self is the point, the phrase must mean, " mentioning
the name of Jesus, every knee shall bow." From this
mention of the name in performing an action, our
phrase assumes, at any rate, two distinct meanings :
(1) As in Col. iii. 17, it implies an invocation or at-
testation of the person named, or a recognition of his
presence and interest in the matter, in which sense it
has passed into the common language of Christianity,
into legal formulas, &c. (2) Here, and usually, it
means a claim to the authority of the person named
■ — to act officially as his representative with full
powers. (See Notes on John xiv. 13, 26.) Thus the
prophets spoke "in the name of the Lord " — i.e., as His
authoritative exponents (Jas. v. 10) ; St. Paul com-
mands (Acts xvi. 18), and retains a man's sins
(1 Cor. iv. 5) " in the name of the Lord " — i.e., as His
official spokesman or ambassador ; the priests are to
administer the unction of the sick with like authority

(Jas. v. 14, 15). So here, the Thessalonians are not to
think that in disobeying St. Paul's injunctions they
are rebelling against a mere human authority ; Christ
Himself speaks to them through St. Paul's lips. Yet,
commanding with all this tremendous authority, they
are still but " brethren " (Matt, xxiii. 8).

Withdraw yourselves. -The striking word here
used is (in its simple form) only found besides in 2 Cor.
viii. 20 : " avoiding this." In a still more striking com-
pound, it occurs in Acts xx. 20, 27 ; Gal. ii. 12 ; Heb.
x. 38. It is a metaphor from the language of strategy :
a cautious general shrinking from an encounter and
timidly drawing off under cover. Perhaps we might
illustrate it by the familiar English "fight shy of every
brother." A social excommunication rather than eccle-
siastical seems chiefly meant, though the latter might
perhaps be involved.

From every brother — i.e., every Christian. It
was impossible to be so strict about the outside world.
(Comp. 1 Cor. v. 10, 11.) The man still remains a,
"brother" (verse 15).

Disorderly. — The word is rendered " unruly " in
1 Thess. v. 14, and is possibly suggested by the
military metaphor above. It means properly " out of
rank." The kind of irregularity which is meant is
made clear by verses 10, 11. The worthy Bengel
quaintly makes this an opportunity for denouncing the
Mendicant Orders : " An order of mendicants, then, is-
not an order; if the Thessalonians had bound them-
selves to it by a vow, what would St. Paul have said ? ""

The tradition.— See Note on chap. ii. 15. The
word must imply systematic and definite teaching ; and
we see here again that a clear code of ethics was part
of the apostolic catechism. (See Note on 1 Thess. iv. I.)

He received. — The best rendering is, ivhich they
received — i.e., all the brethren who walked disorderly.
The word " receive " is the regular correlative to
"tradition" or "deliver." (See, e.g., Mark A-ii. 4;
1 Cor. xi. 23; Gal. i. 9; Col. ii. 6.)

(7) For justifies the assertion that they had received
a better teaching. (Comp. 1 Thess. ii. 1 ; iv. 9; v. 2.)

To follow us. — The word, of course, means "to
imitate"; and the rather compressed expression seems to*
stand for something fuller, such as, " Yourselves know
how you ought to live, for you have but to imitate us :
you recollect not only a tradition, but an example."
This is better than (with St. Chrysostom) to make the
whole " tradition " consist of example without precept,
however such an interpretation might simplify the logic.

For ''or because).- — Historical justification of the
statement that their example was a trustworthy model,
in this particular, at any rate : see the same use of " for '"
in 1 Thess. ii. 9, " for labouring," &c. ; iv. 3. It is
perhaps simpler, however, to translate the word " that,"
instead of " for " : " You know perfectly how to live —
how to imitate our example — that we never," &c. Then
follows a description of the Apostles' conduct at
Thessalonica similar to that in the First Epistle, thus
giving us a clearer understanding why they dwelt so
long and so passionately upon the topic there — namely,
in order by force of tacit contrast to shame the dis-
orderly brethren into imitation.

The Apostle's Eaxqmple

II. THESSALONIANS, III.

and dm ct Comniandt,

(8) neither did we eat any man's bread [
for nought; but wrought with labour
and travail night and day, that we
might not be chargeable to any of
you : a (9' not because we have not
power,* but to make ourselves an

| ensample unto you to follow us.

i (io) Yor even when we were with
you, this we commanded you, that ii
any would not work, neither should he
eat. <u^ For we hear that there are
some which walk among you disorderly,

(8) Neither.— They might have thought it possible
to live on others without incurring so serious a charge
as •• disorderliness."

Eat any man's bread.— Still more literally, eat
bread from any man — i.e., "from any man's table."
St. Paul always becomes picturesque and vivid in a
passage of this kind, and generally Hebraistic ("eat
bread." 2 Sam. ix. 7, and often). "For nought" is
literally at a gift. There is a flavour of scorn in St.
Paul's disclaimer of such a parasite's life.

Wrought.— In the original it is the participle,
" working," which better suits the rapid flow of the
sentences. The order also is slightly more forcible :
" We ate bread from no man's table at a gift, but in toil
and travail, all night and day labouring that we," &c.
To "be chargeable" means more than "to make you
pay": it contains the notion of burdensome expense.

(9) Power. — Rather, authority, which is power phis
legitimacy. How jealously St. Paul guards the rights
of the Apostolate ! not for himself, but for the brethren
of the Lord and Cephas (1 Cor. ix. 5), perhaps for
Silas and Timothy (1 Thess. ii. 6, Note), and for
futurity. The unbounded claims of spiritual father-
hood seem copied from the Roman law of patria potestas.
iComp. Philem. verses 8, 19.)

To make. — Literally, in order that vie might give.
It was not without thought and design that they had
adopted the plan.

An ensample.— The same word as in 1 Thess. i. 7.
Literally, a model. The argument is a strong a fortiori.
Whatever reason these Thessaloniaus might have for
giving up work, St. Paul had the same, and more. He
looked for the Advent, as they did ; he spent his time
in going about among the brethren, as they did ; and
over and above, he had the apostolic right to main-
tenance, which they had not. Why should not he have
left off work, if they could justify themselves in so
doing p If he thought right to work, a fortiori, it
must be their duty to work too.

(10) For even.— The sequence of thought is a little
difficult, but it seems best to regard this " for " as con-
necting its sentence, not with verse 9, but rather with
verse 0. It does not give the reason why St. Paul and
his companions worked : " because we strictly enjoined
you to work, and therefore could not be idle ourselves."
Rather, it justifies the reiteration of the command:
" We do not hesitate to command you now to repress
this disorderly conduct, so contrary to the example set

}rou ; for, in fact, when we were with you we used to
ay down this law." So Theodoret takes it : " It is no
new thing that we write to you."

We commanded.— The tense in the original is
that of constant re-assertion, which brings out once more
the thorough grounding which the Apostles gave at
once to their converts. (See Note on verse 6 : " the
tradition;" also the Note on chap. ii. 5.) The same
definite precept is referred to in 1 Thess. iv. 11.

If any would not work.— The word "would"
stands for "is not willing," "refuses." To any weak-
ness or incapacity for work, except in himself, St.
Paul would be very tender; the vice consists in the

defective will. The canon (in the original) is laid down
in the pointed form of some old Roman law like those of
the Twelve Tables : " If any man choose not to work,
neither let him eat." It does not mean, " let him leave
rif eating," putting it to the man's own conscience to
see the necessary connection between the two things
(Gen. hi. 19); but. " let him not be fed." The Thessa-
lonians are not to be misled into a false charity : giving
food in Christ's name to persons who are capable of
working and able to get work, and are too indolent to
do so. The support which is here forbidden to be
given to these disorderly persons might come either
direct from the private liberality of individuals, or
from some collected church fund administered by the
deacons. It does not S3em at all impossible that this
Thessalonian Church, which St. Paul himself declares
to have taken the churches of Judaea for a model
(1 Thess. ii. 14), may have copied its model in adopt-
ing some form of communism, or, at any rate, some
extensive use of the agaph which we see to have been
in use at Corinth, established by the Apostle at the very
time of writing this Letter (1 Cor. xi. 21). Such a sup-
position would give much more point to St. Paul's canon,
as well as to other phrases in both these Epistles, and
would enable us to understand better how this discipline
could be actively enforced. That the ordinary agapi
was a matter of considerable importance to the poorer
classes is evident from 1 Cor. xi. 22.

(n) For we hear.— Explaining how St. Paul came
to speak upon the topic at all. Hitherto he has only
been giving directions, without saying why. News had
been brought back, no doubt, by the bearers of the
First Epistle.

Walk among you disorderly.— A verbal re-
petition of verse 6. It is not quite the same as " some
among you which walk disorderly," for the words
" among you " represent the vague and various directions
taken by those aimless feet, going about from house to
house, workshop to workshop.

Working not at all, but are busybodies.—

This is what the disorderliness consists in, as we should

have seen from verse 10. There is a scornful play of

words here in the Greek which is lost sight of in the

English: the word for "busybodies" being merely

a compound form of the word " working." Quite

literally, the compound means " working enough and to

spare," "being overbusy," "overdoing;" then, as a

man cannot possibly overdo what it is his own duty to

do, it comes to signify (1) doing useless thing3, things

which concern no one, and might as well be left alone :

as, for instance, magic, which is described by this word

i in Acts xix. 19 ; or natural science, which is so described

i in the Athenians' accusation of Socrates ! (2) Meddling

! with matters which do not concern the doer, but d >

| concern other people : so used in 1 Tim. v. 13. Prof.

j Lightfoot suggests (On a Fresh Revision, p. 59 ; comp.

j p. xviii., 2nd ed.) that the play can be kept up

! through the words "business" and " busy": we might

perhaps say. "not being business men, but busybodies."

But which of the two notions mentioned above is to be

considered most prominent here we cannot tell for

The Idler and Busybody

II. THESSALONIANS, III.

to be put to sluime,

working not at all, but are busybodies.
(12) Now them that are such we com-
mand and exhort by our Lord Jesus
Christ, that with quietness they work,
and eat their own bread. (13) But ye,

brethren, be not weary1 in well doing'.
W And if any man obey not our word2
by this epistle, note that man, and have
no company with him, that he may be
ashamed. <15) Yet count him not as an

certain, (a) The Thessalonians do not seem to have
been much carried away by the first class of danger —
idle speculations, such as those of the Colossian or
Ephosian Churches. Yet we cannot altogether exclude
this meaning here. St. Paul's readers had been over-
busy in theorising about the position of the departed at
Christ's coming (1 Thess. iv. 15, Note), and had been
so eager over their idle doctrines of the Advent as to
falsify, if not actually to forge, communications from
St. Paul (chap. ii. 2). Such false inquisitiveness and
gossiping discussions might well be described by the
Greek word with which wo are dealing. (6) Every-
thing, however, points to a more practical form of the
same disposition to mask idleness under cloak of work ;
feverish excitement, which leads men to meddle and
Interfere with others, perhaps to spend time in " re-
ligious " work which ought not to have been spared from
every-day duties. (See 1 Thess. iv. 11, 12, and Notes.)
There is nothing to show definitely how this busy idle-
ness arose, but it may very probably be the shaken
and troubled condition of mind spoken of in chap,
ii. 2.

(12) We command.— The fourth time the severe
word is used in this very chapter. Perhaps " we order"
might convey the meaning still more sharply. But im-
mediately, lest severity provoke rebellion, he adds, " and
we beseech," alleging also the grounds on which he
rests his appeal : " in our Lord " — i.e., " on the strength
of our union in the Body of Christ." (Comp. 1 Thess.
iv. 1.)

That with quietness they work.— The opposites
of bustling, and of idleness.

Eat their own bread. — Not other people's. This
passage tempts us to take the marginal version in
1 Thess. iv. 12: "have need of no man." The phrase
is not fatal to the idea of there being a communism
established. The bread would still be " their own "
— i.e., they woidd have a right to it, supposing it had
been earned for the community by hard work :
otherwise, communism or no communism, the bread
was stolen. The commentators aptly compare a rab-
binical saying : " When a man eats his own bread he is
composed and tranquil in mind ; but if he be eating the
bread of his parents or children, much more that of
strangers, his mind is less tranquil."

(!3) But ye, brethren.— The last verse was ad-
dressed to all those whoso consciences would prick
them on hearing it read at the Eucharist. Now the
writer turns to the orderly brethren, as quite a distinct
class. The rhetorical effect of this quick apostrophe
woidd be the same as in the well-known story of
Napoleon addressing the rioters, and requesting the
gentlemen to separate themselves from the canaille.
The distinction is so invidious that every one would
hasten to join the ranks of the respectable.

Be not weary in well doing.— This is an ex-
hortation to " the patience of Christ." for which the
Apostle had prayed. The phrase takes for granted that
they had been hitherto engaged in " well doing " — i.e.,
in acting honourably, " walking honestly towards them
that are without" (1 Thess. iv. 12); and St. Paul is
anxious to preserve them from " fainting " (as the word

is translated in Gal. vi. 9), and so slipping into the like
idleness and bringing scandal upon the Church.

(14> And if any man.— An appeal to the right-
minded, not only to persevere themselves, but to join
with the overseers of their Church in enforcing dis-
cipline, as in 1 Thess. v. 12 — 15.

By this epistle. — Rightly rendered. The marginal
version, " by an Epistle," is impossible, for in the Greek
the definite article appears. It might, if the context
suited, be attached to the following clause, instead of
the foregoing, and translated, " by means of the Epistle
signify that man," meaning "in your answer." But
there is nothing to show that St. Paul was expecting any
answer ; and, for another thing, he has given them full
directions for dealing with the case themselves, so that
it would be superfluous to send the particulars to St.
Paul. For several other weighty reasons it is best to
attach the words to the hypothetical clause ; and the
sense will be, " There can be no excuse now. It was
possible to forget or misinterpret our verbal tradition,
painstaking and definite though it was ; possible also to
ignore the example which we set ; but now you have it
in black and white, and the man who does not submit to
our directions in this form must be visited severely."
There are at least three places besides this in St. Paul's
writings where " the Epistle " stands absolutely for " the
present Epistle," viz., Rom. xvi. 22 ; Col. iv. 16 ; 1 Thess.
v. 27 ; possibly a fourth might be added, 1 Cor. v. 9 ;
only once in a very clear context it refers to a former
Letter (2 Cor. vii. 8).

Note that man.— The reflexive voice of the verb
implies mutual warning against him : " Agree to set a
mark upon him, to make a marked man of him." The
notion is that of making him easily recognisable, so that
no Christian should " have company " with him un-
awares. (Comp. Gen. iv. 15.) The word and the thought
in Rom. xvi. 17 are slightly different. The best text
goes on abruptly, without conjunction : " Note that
man ; have no company with him." This social extru-
sion from good men's conversation, not to speak of the
Sacraments, would, to a Christian in a heathen city, be
indeed a delivering to Satan, a thrusting into outer
darkness.

That he may be ashamed— i.e., put to shame.
Comp. 1 Cor. vi. 5 ; xv. 34 j Tit. ii. 8 ; and (for the end
to be served by this shame) the first clause of the Com-
mination of Sinners.

(15) Yet.— The original is simply And, which is much
more beautiful, implying that this very withdrawal from
brotherly intercourse was an act of brothei'ly kindness.

An enemy.— In the private, not the public, sense.
" Do not think of him as one with whom you must be
at feud, to be thwarted and humbled on every occasion."
St. Chrysostom exclaims, " How soon the father's heart
breaks down ! "

Admonish him as a brother.— How was this to
be done without " having company" with him? Per-
haps the presbyters, to whom the work of " admonish-
ing," or "warning," specially belonged (see 1 TIipss. v.
12, 14), were to Visit them in private with that object.
Or possibly, the admonition was to consist in the act of
I separation, and not in verbal reproof at all.
61

and to be admonished.

II. THESSALONIANS, III. Salutation and Conclusion.

enemy, but admonish him as a brother.
(16) Now the Lord of peace himself give
you peace always by all means. The
Lord be with you all.

<17> The salutation of Paul with
mine own hand, which is the token in

every epistle : so I write, chap. iii. 17,

(18) '^q grace 0f our Lord 18- . Caution
Jesus Christ be with you JS^and vale-
all. Amen. diction.

*[ The second epistle to tho Tliessalonians was
written from Athens.

(16) Now. — Rather, And, or But. The prayer is
joined to tho exhortations, as in chap. ii. 16 and else-
where, and of course bears upon the subject of
them.

The Lord of peace.— We had "the God of
peace " at the close of the last Epistle (v. 23, where see
the Note). Tho " peace " prayed for here has perhaps
a more immediate reference to external matters than in
the parallel passage. St. Chrysostom suggests the dan-
ger of quarrels breaking out owing to the administra-
tion of the prescribed discipline. And the conduct of
these restless busybodies was in itself destructive of peace,
both for their own souls and for the community. But
the words " by all means," or, more literally, in every
shape and form, show that the Apostle is extending his
glance over all the subjects mentioned in the Epistle
now finished : " Peace all throughout in every form,"
through all persecutions and from all persecutions ;
through the terrors of the reign of Antichrist and
through the Judgment Day ; peace among themselves,
in their own hearts, with God.

The Lord be with you all.— Another way of
expressing the prayer for peace ; for where He enters
He says, " Peace be unto you." The word " all " is
strongly emphasised, catching up the " always " and
'"in all forms." St. Paul has spoken with strong
censure of some ; but he wishes to show that ho bears
no ill-will to any ; and to leave off by blessing all, as
he began by giving thanks for all (chap. i. 3).

(17) The salutation.— At this point St. Paul takes
the pen out of his secretary's hand, and adds the closing
words himself. The actual salutation does not begin
until the benediction of the 18th verse, to which this
17th is intended to attract attention.

Which.— Namely, the autograph addition of a
salutation, or valedictory prayer, not the special words
in which it was couched.

The token. — Rather, a token — a mark, that is, by
which to tell an authentic Epistle of his from those
forged letters with which false brethren had troubled
the Thessalonian Church (chap. ii. 2). At first sight,
it seems to us too audacious for any one to have con-
ceived the thought of writing a letter under the name of
St. Paul; but, on the other hand, we must recollect
several points. (1) St. Paul's genuine First Epistle, in
spite of its claim to inspiration (iv. 15), could not yet
have acquired in tho eyes of the Tliessalonians the
sanctity it wears for us ; they had no notion of such a
tiling as Holy Scriptures, and, even if they had, St.
Paul was a familiar figure, a mechanic who had just
left them, not yet invested with the heroic halo.
(2) Such literary forgeries were not uncommon in that
ago, and scarcely considered reprehensible, unless they
were framed to inculcate with authority some heretical
teaching. Apocryphal Gospels soon after abounded.
under false titles, and works fathered upon St. Clement

and other great Church teachers. (3) There need not.
always have been a direct intention to deceive the
readers as to the authorship, but the renowned name
acted as a tempting advertisement for the work, and
the theories thus shot forth hit their mark ; whether
the real authorship were discovered or not mattered
little in comparison. Such points must be borne in
mind before we accept as genuine any of the early
Christian writings.

In every epistle.— That is, naturally, "in every
Epistle which I write." It cannot be narrowly re-
stricted to mean, " in every Epistle wdiich I shall for the
future write to you Tliessalonians," though that is, of
course, the practical significance. Nor does it imply a
formed design of writing other Epistles toother churches.
It seems necessary to suppose that St. Paul had already
made a practice of concluding Letters with his auto-
graph, though only one Letter of his is now extant of
an earlier date than our present Epistle. There is
no reason whatever to suppose that all the Letters ever
written by St. Paul have been preserved to us (see
Dr. Lightfoot's Philippians, p. 136, et seq.), any more
than all the sayings and acts of Jesus Christ (John xxi.
25); and even when he wrote his First Epistle to Thes-
salonica he had seen the necessity of giving careful
directions about his Letters (1 Thess. v. 27), and of
rousing his correspondents to a reasonable scepticism
{ibid. v. 21). The same solicitude re-appears in 1 Cor.
xvi. 21 ; Gal. vi. 11. And the rule which St. Paul had
already made he always observed, so far as wo can test ;
for all his extant Epistles, as Bishop Wordsworth
points out on 1 Thess. v. 28, contain his " salutation "
at the end.

So I write. — " Such is my handwriting." It need
not mean that tho Tliessalonians hitherto were un-
acquainted with his hand ; he only calls their attention
closely to it. The great bold handwriting (comp. Gal.
vi. 11) would not easily be mistaken.

(18) The grace.— This is his "salutation." The
Greek secular salutation, at greeting and parting alike,
was cliaire (literally, rejoice) ; so St. Paul, alike si
beginning and ending, uses a word of kindred origm
charts ("grace"). Observe the word "all" again, as
in verse 16. St. Chrysostom's beautiful comment may
wrell be given : " What ho calls his ' salutation ' is the
prayer, showing that the whole business they were then
about was spiritual; and even when he must give a
salutation, there must go some benefit along with it,
and it must be a prayer, not a mere symbol of f riendship.
'Twas with this ho would begin, and with this he would
end, fencing round that which he said with mighty
walls on either side ; and safe were the foundations he
laid, and safe the conclusion that he laid thereon.
' Grace to you,' ho cries, ' and peace ' ; and once more,
[' Peace always ' and] ' tho grace of our Lord Jesus
Christ be with you all. — Amen.' "

165

EXCURSUS ON NOTES TO II. THESSALOFIANS.

EXCURSUS ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PROPHECY, 2 THESS. n. 3—12.

In order to deal fairly with this difficult passage, it
will bo necessary sternly to exclude from our view all
other passages of the New Testament which speak of a
final manifestation of evil, and, reviewing the words
simply as they stand, to consider what St. Paul himself
meant when he so assiduously (verse 5, Note) taught the
Thessalonian Church on the subject, and what the
Thessalonian Church was likely to gather from his
Letter. For though such a passage as Heb. vi. 2 shows
that the whole Apostolic Church was definitely at one
in the eschatological instruction given to its converts at
a very early stage of their Christian life ; and though
the language of 1 Tim. iv. 1 ; Jas. v. 3 — 7 ; 2 Pet. iii.
1, 2 ; 1 John ii. 18 ; iv. 3 ; Jude, verse 17 (not to men-
tion the Apocalypse) — passages representing the most
different schools of thought in the early Church — fully
bring out this agreement, so that Christians may fairly
"use those passages to explain each other, yet, on the
other hand, we need to put ourselves in the position of
the young Church of Thessalonica, which was expected
by St. Paul to make out the significant hints of his
Letter with no other help than the recollection of his
oral teaching and the observation of events. We,
therefore, ought to be able in like manner to catch the
same significant hints by a like knowledge of the then
history of the world, and of the sources from which
St. Paul was likely to draw his doctrine of the " Last
Things."

I. Sources of the Apostolic Doctrine of the
Last Things.— The prophecy of St. Paul does not
appear to be — at least, exclusively — -the result of a
direct internal revelation of the Spirit. Such direct
revelations were, when necessary, made to him, and we
have seen him claim that kind of inspiration in 1 Thess.
iv. 15. But God's ordinary way of making prophets
seems to be different. He gives to those who are
willing to see an extraordinary insight into the things
which lie before the most oi-dinary eyes; He throws
light upon the meaning of occurrences, or of words,
which are familiar to every one externally (see Maurice's
Prophets and Kings, pp. 141 — 145). Even for doctrines
like those of the true divinity or the true humanity of
our Lord, or of the indwelling of the Spirit, or the
Church's mission, the Apostles do not rest solely on
direct revelation made to their own consciences, but
rather dwell on the significance of historical facts {e.g.,
Rom. i. 4; 2 Pet. i. 17), or, still more frequently and
strongly, on the interpretation of Old Testament Scrip-
tures (e.0., Heb. i. 8 ; ii. 12, 13 ; 2 Pet. i. 19). If, there-
fore, we can find material in the Old Testament which,
taken in conjunction with our Lord's own words, could
have supplied St. Paul — or rather, the catholic consent
of the early Church — with the doctrine of the Last
Things as we find it stated in the apostolic writings,
we shall be justified in using those Old Testament
materials in the explanation of the New.

II. The Book of Daniel.— Such materials we

16G

find, not only in the general threatenings of Joal,
Zechariah (chap, xiv.), and Malachi, but most clear and
definite in the Book of Daniel. Into the question of
the date of that book it is not necessary here to
inquire. It suffices for the present purpose to know
that it was much older than St. Paul's time, and was
accepted as prophetic in the ordinary sense. In fact,
there was, probably, no other book of the Old Testa-
ment which received so much attention among the Jews
in the apostolic age (Westcott, in Smith's Diet. Bible,
Art. "Daniel "). It was regarded with full reverence
as an inspired revelation ; and our Lord Himself
(according to Matt. xxiv. 15 and Mai-k xiii. 14) either
drew from it (humanly speaking) His own doctrine of
the Last Things, or at least used it emphatically for His
disciples' benefit as a corroboration. The taste for
apocalyptic literature was at this time very strong, and
the prophecies of Dauiel attracted especial attention,
inasmuch as the simplest interpretation of some of the
most explicit of them pointed unmistakably to the
time then present. Tacitus {Hist. v. 13). and Suetonius
{Vesp. chap. 4), as is wrell known, speak of the certainty
felt through the whole East, about that time,
that universal empire was on the point of passing into
the hands of men of Jewish origin. This belief, says
Tacitus, was " contained in the antient literature of the
priests " — i.e., in the Scriptures, kept and expounded by
them ; and there can be no doubt that first and fore-
most of those Scriptures (for this purpose) stood the
Book of Daniel. For every reason, then, we may well
try to find what a believing Jew of the apostolic age
would make out of the visions of Daniel, in order to
throw light on this passage of St. Paul.

III. The Five Monarchies.— Now, in the Book
of Daniel there are four main predictions of wdiat was
then the future history of the world. These predictions
are contained in chaps, ii., vii., viii., and xi. The first
two visions, vouchsafed to Nebuchadnezzar and to
Daniel respectively, both describe Five Monarchies,
which were successively to arise and flourish in the
world. Amidst a good deal which is matter of contro-
versy, three facts remain agreed upon by all : first, that
the Five Monarchies of the one vision are intended to
correspond to the Five Monarchies of the other, each
to each ; secondly, that the earliest of these five repre-
sents the Babylonian empire, then standing, with
Nebuchadnezzar at its head; thirdly, that the last of
the series portrays the establishment of the Theocracy
in its full development— that is. the "Kingdom of God"
(which had been the main subject of St. Paul's preach-
ing at Thessalonica), or the visible government of the
world by the Christ.

IV. The Fourth Monarchy.— But the question
which most directly concerns us now is how to identify
the Fourth of these monarchies. In Nebuchadnezzar's
vision it was to be "in the days of these kings" — i.e.,
the kings of the Fourth Monarchy, while the Fourth

II. THESSALONIANS.

Monarchy was still standing — that the Kingdom of
Heaven "was to come (Dan. ii. 44). In Daniel's vision
(his Fourth Monarchy (or rather, its continuation and
development) was to exist side by side with the saints
of the Most High, and between them and one outgrowth
of the Fourth Monarchy a struggle was to take place
before the final establishment of the Kingdom of the
Saints (chap. vii. 25). What, then, was this Fourth
Monarchy intended by the Seer (or by "the Spirit of
the Christ," 1 Pet. i. 11) to represent ? Or, to be still
more practical, What was in St. Paul's own day, among
his own countrymen, the received interpretation of this
part of Daniel's prophecy ? The question is not hard
to answer. With irrefragable clearness Dr. Pusey has
proved, in the second of his Lectures on Daniel the
Prophet, the plausibility and minuteness with which
the words concerning the Second and Third Monarchies
may respectively be applied to the Medo-Persian and
the Macedonian empires ; and if even this point be
established, there can be no hesitation in naming the
Fourth. It can only be the empire of Rome. But
Dr. Pusey shows, with the same force, how applicable the
description itself is to the Roman empire. Whether,
however, this interpretation has any ground in the
original intention of the Prophet, or of Him who, we
believe, spoke by him, is for our present purpose a
matter of secondary importance. We have already
mentioned an unimpeachable piece of evidence furnished
by two great Roman historians. It was in their days a
** long-established and uniform belief," entertained not in
Judeea only, but " in the whole of the East," and drawn
from the Jewish literature, that a great Jewish empire
was destined to appear. But that is not all. Such a
belief might have been drawn from Numbers or Isaiah.
But Suetonius adds. Eo tempore, " at that time ;"
Tacitus adds, Eo ipso tempore, "at that very time."
From what Jewish literature could the date have been
made out, except from the calculation of the Seventy
Weeks in Daniel ? And as the same prophecy spoke
of a world-wide empire, in the days of whose Icings
this new Jewish power was to arise, that same " long-
established and uniform belief " must have recognised
in the Roman empire the Fourth Monarchy which was
to be shattered by it. Hence, doubtless, the hopeful-
ness with which insurgent leaders one after another
rose in rebellion against the Roman arms. It was not
only that they themselves were the Lord's own people.
Was not this vast system, " dreadful and terrible, and
«trong exceedingly," definitely doomed in Scripture to
utter extinction before their arms ? But we have, besides,
a less indirect testimony than the foregoing. The Jew
Josephus (Ant. x. 11, §*7) speaks at length of the pro-
phecies of Daniel, and how he himself was watching
their gradual verification. After mentioning the prophecy
about Antiochus Epiphanes and its complete fulfilment,
ho adds : "In the very same manner Daniel also wrote
concerning the empire of the Romans, and that our
country should be made desolate by them." He then
passes on to speak of the comfort afforded by seeing so
plainly the Providence of God, with true Jewish irony
not disclosing that his comfort lay in the promised
revenge upon Rome as well as upon Antiochus. In
another place (Ant. x. 10. § 4) he is recording the vision
in the second chapter of Daniel, and after describing
the universal dominion of the Iron Kingdom, he pro-
ceeds : " Daniel also declared the meaning of the Stone
to the king, but this I do not think proper to relate, as
I have undertaken to describe things past and present,
not tilings that are future. Yet if any one be so very
desirous of knowing truth as not to waive such curious

167

points, and cannot refrain his desire to understand the
uncertain future. and whether1 or no it will come to pass,
let him give heed to read the Book of Daniel, which ho
will find among the Holy Scriptures." No doubt can
be entertained that this writer understood the Fourth
Monarchy to be the Roman empire, and did not wish
to be suspected of encouraging sedition by speaking
openly of its predicted downfall. This, then, was the
common interpretation which St. Paul must have learned
from a child: "that Daniel's Fourth Monarchy, which
was to break up before the Kingdom of God, was the
Roman empire.

V. The Fifth Monarchy.— We may then assume
that St. Paid believed Daniel to foretell the coming of
the Kingdom of God in the days of the kings of tho
Roman empire. In one sense, indeed, the prophecy
was already fulfilled. Tho Kingdom was ah*eady come.
Heralded by the Baptist (Matt. iii. 2, et seq.), and ex-
pounded by our Lord (Matt. ix. 35, et seq.), it had been
established by the Resurrection, the Ascension, and the
Mission of the Holy Ghost, while the Roman empire
actually stood (Ps. ii. ; comp. Acts iv. 25 ; v. 31 ; xiii.
33). St. John regards the world as aheady virtually
subdued in his own lifetime (1 John v. 4, Note). But
the Church as at present constituted does not answer
completely to Daniel's prophecy of the Kingdom of
the Saints. To the Christian there are two comings
of the Kingdom, not only one. In the Prophets the
two arc fused into one. We may almost say the same
of the words of Christ Himself. Even the apostolic
writers do not separate the two so sharply as God has
historicallv taught subsequent ages of the Church to
separate them. The early Church lived in a daily ex-
pectation of the return of Christ. For them, therefore,
there was no difficulty in interpreting Daniel's pro-
phecies as applying at the same moment to the First
and Second Advent. It would not be unfair, therefore,
to assume that St. Paul expected the Second Advent to
take place, as the First had done, "in the days of these
kings " of the Fourth or Roman Monarchy.

VI. What withholdeth.— Turning now to the state-
ment of St. Paul, we see that he is cautioning the
Thessalonians not to expect the Second Coining of
Christ immediately, because, as they can see, a certain
great power is still in the world, which (as they have
been carefully taught) must be removed before the way
for Christ's return is open. This great power — with the
aspect of which his readers are perfectly familiar,
though they may have forgotten its significance (" Ye
know that which withholdeth ") — is summed up in a
person who wields it. This person is " he which with-
holdeth." His removal " out of the midst " is still a matter
of futurity, yet assuredly destined to take place; and the
date, though unknown to men, is fixed. The great
opponent, who cannot develop so long as " he that with-
holdeth" remains, is to be revealed "in his time" — i.e.,
at the time which Divine Providence has assigned to
him. It seems impossible to doubt that this great
opponent is the same as the " Little Horn " of Daniel
(whose " time " is very definitely marked out in Dan.
vii. 25), and that the power which withholds his de-
velopment is the Fourth Monarchy of Daniel, and,
therefore, the Roman empire. A few considerations
will make the latter point clearer : —

(1) There was only one power in the world at that
time, represented by a single person, in " the midst,"
before all eyes, of sufficient importance to restrain the
development of Antichrist. It was the Roman empire
and the Roman emperor.

(2) The word rendered "withholdeth," or "letteth,"

II. THESSALONIANS.

does not necessarily imply that the obstruction actively,
consciously, or designedly obstructs the way. His
presence in the midst is quite sufficient for the require-
ments of the word. Indeed, it would, perhaps, not be
necessary that Antichrist's delay should even be
directly caused by the obstruction ; St. Paul might
only mean that in prophecy the one thing was destined
to come first, and that, therefore, so long as the first
thing existed, it (in a manner) kept the second back.
Now if Antichrist be the Little Horn of Daniel, and
the obstruction the Fourth Monarchy, wo get exactly
what wo want ; for (unless the prophecy is to be falsi-
fied) before the Little Horn can spring up the Fourth
Monarchy must have so totally changed its appearance
as to have passed into ton simultaneous kingdoms :
therefore, so long as the solid empire stood it was a
sign that Antichrist must wait.

(3) Notice the extreme reserve with which St. Paul
begins to speak on the subject. He does not teach, but
prefers appealing to their memory of words already
spoken : " Remember ye not ? " His clauses become
intricate and ungrainmatical — in strange contrast with
the simple structure which characterises these two
Epistles. He names nothing, oidy hints. Nor can we
account for this sudden ambiguity by saying that St.
Paid is adopting the prophetic style ; for his purpose is
entirely practical, and he wishes not to awe his readers,
but to recall to them plain facts which they knew and
ignored. Now recollect the similar reticence of Josephus
in speaking of the destiny of the Roman empire when
it comes in contact with the Messianic Kingdom, and it
will be felt almost impossible to doubt the truth of St.
Chrysostom's shrewd observations: "A man may
naturally seek to know what ' that which letteth ' is ;
and after that, what possible reason St. Paul had for
putting it so indistinctly. What, then, is ' that which
letteth' — i.e., hindereth — him from being revealed?
Some say the grace of the Spirit, others the Roman
empire. Among the latter I class myself. Why so ?
Because, had ho meant to say ' the Spirit,' he would
not have said it indistinctly, but straight out; that now
he is restrained by the grace of the Spirit, i.e., the
supernatural gifts [presumably that of discerning of
spirits in particular ; cornp. 1 Johniv. 1 — 3]. Otherwise.
Antichrist ought to have presented himself ere now, if
lie were to present himself at the failure of those gifts ;
for, as a matter of fact, they have long failed. But
seeing that he says this of the Roman empire, he
naturally put it enigmatically and very obscurely, for
he had no wish to subject himself to unnecessary
hostilities and unprofitable perils. For had he said
that shortly after the Roman empire would be dis-
solved, they would soon have transfixed him for a mis-
creant, and all the believers with him, as living and
fighting for this end." Was it not, indeed, for ex-
pounding this very prophecy that he had fled for his
life from Thessalonica ? " These all do contrary to the
decrees of Cajsar, saying that there is another emperor,
Jesus." Does not the history give startling point to his
question, " Remember ye not that when I was with
you I told you these things " ?

VII. The Man of Sin.— We have stated our
belief that " the Man of Sin " is not only to be identified
with Daniel's "Little Horn," but that St. Paul con-
sciously drew the doctrine from that passage. But it
may be objected that some of the words in which St.
Paul most narrowly describes him are taken, not from
the description of the Little Horn in chap, vii., but
from that of the Little Horn of chap. viii. 5, which
represents quite a different person, viz., Antiochus

Epiphanes* It might be thought, therefore, that St.
Paul was only borrowing Daniel's language, and not
adopting his prophecy. The answer is, that even those
prophecies of Antiochus in many points do not suit
Antiochus at all ; and not only so, but the Jewish ex-
positors themselves held that Antiochus had not ex-
hausted the meaning of the prophecy. They them-
selves applied it to some Antichrist, whoso coming
should precede, and be defeated by the Christ's. Even
in St. Jerome's time, " From this place onwards" (he is.
commenting on Dan. xi. 36) " the Jews think that Anti-
christ is spoken of. that, after the little help (verse 34)
of Julian, a king shall arise who shall do according to-
his own will, and lift himself up against all which is-
called God, and speak great things against the God of
gods, so that he shall sit in the Temple of God and
make himself god. and his will be performed, until the
wrath of God be fulfilled : for in him shall the end be.
Which we, too, understand of Antichrist." Thus,,
according to the current explanation of the Jews,
Antiochus was looked upon as a type of the Antichrist^
whom they expected to arise (in fulfilment of Dan.
vii. 8) at the overthrow of the Roman empire, whose
coming was to precede the Christ's. The only change
made by the Christian Church is to apply to the Second
Advent a prophecy which the Jews applied to the one
Advent which they recognised. It is impossible not to-
do so when, in Dan. xii. 2, we have the Resurrection
made to follow close upon the development of this-
Antiochus-Antichrist. So far, then, as St. Paul's-
date is concerned, the doctrine is drawn from chaps, ii.
and vii. ; traits of character are added (in accordance
with Jewish interpretation ) from chaps, viii. and xi.

VIII. St. Paul's probable Personal Expecta-
tion.— Dr. Lightfoot argues, with great probability
(Smith's Diet. Bible, Art. "II. Thessalonians "), that, as
a personal matter, St. Paul expected to witness in his
own day the development of the Antichrist (whose
" secret Avorking " was already visible to him), and that
he saw in the Jews the makings of the foe to bo
revealed. Theirs was the apostasy — professing to-
cleave to God and to Moses, but " departing from the-
living God, through an evil heart of unbelief," and
" making the word of God to be of none effect through
their traditions." Theirs was the lawlessness— setting
the will of God at naught in the self-willed assertion of
their privilege as the chosen people, and using the most
unscrupulous means of checking those who preached the
more liberal gospel of St. Paul. And if to St. Paul
the final Antichrist was represented by the Jews, the-
Roman Government, which had so often befriended
him, might well be called the withholder or restrainer.
If such was the personal expectation of St. Paul, it was,
indeed, literally frustrated ; but if the Judaic spirit, of
exclusive arrogance, carnal reliance on spiritual pro-
mises, innovating tradition, should pass into the
Christian Church, and there develop largely, St. Paul's
expectation would not be so far wrong.

IX. The Development of the Horns.— The
question naturally arises whether the prophecy has not
been falsified. The Roman empire has disappeared,
and Antichrist is not yet revealed. We do not need
to answer with some interpreters that Roman law still
rules the world. A closer observation of the two
passages of Daniel already mentioned would in itself
suggest the true answer. In Nebuchadnezzar's vision,
indeed, the Roman empire simply comes into collision

* See Dan. viii. 11, 12, 23—25, and more particularly chap, xi,
36, 37.

16P

II. THESSALONIANS.

witli the Catholic Church, and falls before it. There is
no hint of a protracted struggle between them. The
long duration of the Roman empire is perhaps sug-
gested by the words, "Thou wast gazing until that a
stone " (Dan. ii. 34) ; tlie division into the Eastern and
Western empires may be symbolised by the two legs of
the colossal figure; the ten toes may bear the same
interpretation as the ten horns of the later vision : these
points, however, are not the most obvious or prominent
points of the dream. But in Daniel's vision all is quite
different. There, the final triumph of the Church is
won only after a long struggle, and that struggle is not
with the Roman empire itself. Though the Beast
which symbolises the Roman empire is said to con-
tinue throughout (Dan. vii. 11), it is only in the same
sense, apparently, as the three other Beasts are said
to have their lives prolonged (verse 12). The empire
itself has altogether changed its form, and developed
into ten kingdoms, among which, yet after which
(verses 8, 24), an eleventh has arisen, dissimilar from the
other kingdoms, and uprooting some of them. With
this power it is that the struggle which ends in the
Church's final victory takes place, and not with the old
imperial power of Rome. If, therefore, the dream'of
Nebuchadnezzar may be said to have been fulfilled in
the first coming of Christ, in the clays of the Roman
emperors, the vision of Daniel must wait for its ful-
filment until the Roman empire has passed away into
an even more different form than it has at present
reached.

X. Characteristics of Antichrist.— (1) He is a
human being. The title " Man of Sin " excludes Satan,
as Chrysostom remarks : Satan acts through the man
(1 Thess. ii. 9) to the full extent of his power — " enters
into him," as he entered into an earlier " Son of
Perdition" — but does not destx-oy his humanity.

(2) He is a single person. This, too, is involved in
the phrase " Man of Sin," especially when followed by
the " Son of Perdition." It is not to be denied that
poetically the first title, at any rate, might be a personi-
fication of a movement, or (as the " kings " in Daniel
mean " kingdoms ") the title of a wicked power, the
head of which might even be more innocent than his
subjects. But not only is it simpler to understand the
phrases themselves (especially the second) of a single
person, but the sharp dramatic contrast between the
Christ and the Antichrist seems to require a personal
exhibition of evil. The Antichrist is to have a coming
(verse 9) and a manifestation (verse 3), so as to be
instantly recognised, and will display himself by
significant acts (verse 4), which all require a person.
Besides, the types of him — Antiochus, Caligula, Nero,
&c. — could hardly be said, according to Scriptural
analogy, to be " fulfilled " in a mere headless move-
ment. The application of the name " Man of Sin " to
any succession of men (as, for instance, all the Popes of
Rome) is peremptorily forbidden by the fact that the
detection and destruction of the Man of Sin by the
Advent of Christ follows immediately upon his manifes-
tation of himself.

(3) This person, though single, heads a movement.
He is the captain of " the Apostasy." Ho has a largo
and devoted following (verse 10). Indeed, though his
dominion is " diverse " from other kingdoms, yet ho is
almost called a king in Dan. vii. 24 : the word, how-
ever, is (perhaps) carefully avoided. The diversity
between his monarchy and theirs might, for instance,
consist in its not being, like theirs, territorial or
dynastic; it might be a spiritual or an intellectual
dominion, interpenetrating the territorial kingdoms.

40*

169

(4) The movement of Antichrist is not atheistic. Tho
Man of Sin super-exalts himself, indeed, against every
God, true or false, but it is not by denial of the Divine
existence. On the contrary, he claims himself to be
the true God, and exacts the homage due to flu; true
God; thereby acknowledging tho existence and work-
ing of God, which he avers to have become his own.

(5) The antichristian movement does not even break
openly with the Catholic Church. It is an "apostasy,"
indeed, but tho same Greek word is used in Heb. iii. 12,
and in 1 Tim. iv. 1, in neither of which cases will it suit
the context to understand the word of an outward
leaving of the Chi*istian Church. The persons must at
any rate have been Christians, or they could not be
apostates. And the apostasy is all the more terrible if,
while tho forms of the Church are kept to, there is a
departure from the inward spirit. And in this case
several points seem to indicate an apostasy within the
Church. In the first place, as we have seen above, the
movement is distinctly not an atheistic movement, like
the German Socialism. Then, the act of session in tho
'• Temple of God " cannot mean anything else than an
attempt to exact divine homage from the Christian
Church, which, of course, could only be hoped for through
adopting Christian forms. The account of the Satanic
miracles which tho Man of Sin will work in attestation
of his claim shows that the persons wrho follow him
are duped into believing that ho actually is the Lord.
An atheistic materialism would denymiracles altogether.
Noav we may venture to say that, even if St. Paul had
not (as Bishop Wordsworth supposes) St. Luke's
Gospel in his hands, yet he was familiar with the
eschatological discourses of our Lord contained in the
Synoptic Gospels. In these (which so frequently use the
language of the Book of Daniel) our Lord holds up as
the greatest terror of the last days, the constant danger,
waiting even upon the " elect," of being seduced into
mistaking certain pretenders for Himself. An Anti-
christ (in its full meaning) expresses more than an
opponent of Christ; like the compound Anti-Pope, it
implies a rival claimant to the honours which he him-
self acknowledges to be due only to Jesus Christ.
Antichrist pretends to be actually Jesus. Such preten-
sions would, of course, be meaningless and ridiculous to
all except believers in Jesus Christ and His Church.
(See Matt. xxiv. 4, 5, 10—12, 23, 26, and the parallel
passages in Mark and Luke.) The same would even
appear, on close inspection, to be the teaching of the
Book of Daniel itself. The Church is "given into
his hand " (chap. vii. 25), a much more powerful expres-
sion, supposing the Church to be constitutionally bound
to him, and not accidentally subject as to a Decius or &
Galerius.

(6) Daniel's Antichrist is characterised by ecclesiastical
innovation. " He shall wear out the saints of the Most
High, and think to change times and laws" (Dan. vii.
25) — not to stamp Christianity out altogether, but arbi-
trarily to alter tho Church's worship (see Pusey, p. 81)
and traditional constitution. The same departure from
primitive tradition characterises him in chap. xi. 37 :
" Neither shall he regard the God of his fathers : a God
whom his fathers knew not shall he honour." The
constant interpretation of " new gods " among tho
primitive Fathers is " new doctrines " : for, as a matter
of fact, whatever materially alters our conception of
God may be said to make us worship a different Being :
the God of the extreme Calvinist, for instance, who
creates millions of immortal beings for the express
purpose of being glorified by their endless pains, can
hardly be called the same as the Father of our Lord

IT. THESSALONIANS.

Jesus Christ. And this arbitrary innovation is, in
fact, the very feature which St. Paul selects. It
is the "lawlessness" or "rebellion" which marks both
his movement (2 Thess. ii. 7) and himself (ib. verse
8) — which lawlessness, or self-will, is perfectly com-

f>atible with exaggerated external reverence for
aws and discipline, as is proved by Dr. Lightfoot,
who thinks that St. Paul had the Jews specially in
mind (Smith's Bible Diet., Art. " II. Thessalonians ").
Other more obvious kinds of " sin " can hardly be said
to characterise the Man of Sin ; for (not to mention
1 Tim. iv. 1. which refers expressly to Daniel) in Dan.
xi. 37 he is given an ascetic character. This spirit of
innovation within the Church, implying as it does that
his fiat is as good as God's, which finally leads him to
claim divine honours from the Church, is his charac-
teristic sin.

(7) It may be added that the teaching of the Apoca-
lypse is evidently drawn from Daniel, thereby corrobo-
rating our belief that St. Paul's is also, and that
such an interpretation as is here suggested has
almost the catholic consent of the early Pathers, who
almost all teach that the fall of the Roman empire will
usher in the Antichrist, and that the Antichrist will be
professedly Christian. Their testimony is valuable,
inasmuch as some of them seem not merely to be offer-
ing an exegesis of particular texts of Scripture, but
recording a primitive tradition coeval with the New
Testament.

XI. Identification of the Man of Sin.— It is
not solely a Protestant interpretation, but one which
indirectly derives more or less support from several
eminent names in past ages in communion with the
Roman See (for instance, St. Gregory the Great, and
Robert Grosseteste), that the final Antichrist will be a
Bishop of Rome. And the present writer does not
hesitate to assert his conviction that no other interpre-
tation will so well suit all the requirements of the case.
This is by no means the same as the vulgar doctrine that
■the Pope— i.e., any and every Pope — is the Man of Sin.

The Man of Sin has not yet made his appearance. But
the diversity and yet resemblance between his kingdom
and the kingdoms of the world ; the firm hand over the
Church; the claims made upon her homage; the un-
recognised movement of rebellion against God while
still He is outwardly acknowledged (the " mystery of
lawlessness ") ; the restless innovation upon the Church's
apostolic traditions ; the uncompromising self-assertion :
all these are traits which seem to indicate a future
Roman pontiff, more clearly than any other power which
we could at present point to, — and this, without having
recourse to those more superficial coincidences which
may be found in the Notes of Bishop Wordsworth's
Greek Testament, or Dr. Eadie's Commentary on these
Epistles. To those who are familiar with the way in
which modern Roman dogmas have been formed —
exaggerations, at first condemned, becoming more and
I more popular, till they acquired the consistency of
general tradition, and were then stamped with authori-
tative sanction — and who now watch the same process
at work in the popular theology of Italy and Prance,
there would be nothing surprising in the literal
fulfilment of the prophecies of Antichrist in some
future Pope. Already one Divine attribute has been
definitely claimed by and conceded to the occupant of
the Roman See, in defiance of primitive tradition, and
yet so plausibly as to suggest rather an implicit faith in
God than an explicit denial of Him. Comparisons
ex aequo between the Life and Passion of our Lord and
that of Pius the Ninth formed a large proportion of
the spiritual diet of foreign Papists towards the close of
the last pontificate. Even eminent prelates of the
Roman obedience are reported not to have scrupled
already to use of the Papacy such phrases as " Third
Incarnation of the Deity " ; and it would be only follow-
ing analogies of " development," if, in process of time,
these last exaggerations also should be formulated
into dogma, as has been the case with the dogma of
Infallibility, and some Pope to come shoiild in some
way claim to be actually identified with Jesus Christ.

170

THE PASTORAL EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL.

'" In the ' Acts of the Apostles ' Luke relates to Theophilus events of which
lie was an eye-witness, ...... but [omits] the journey of

Paul from Rome to Spain.

" An Epistle to Titus, and two to Timothy, which, though written only from
personal feeling and affection, are still hallowed in the respect of the Catholic
Church, and in the arrangement of ecclesiastical discipline."

{From the Muratorian Fragment on the Canon discovered in the
Ambrosian Library at Milan, and supposed to have been
written not later than a.d. 170.)

171

THE PASTORAL EPISTLES OP ST. PAUL.

i'. Their Nature.— The two Letters of St, Paul
to Timothy and the one Letter to Titus, usually known
as the Pastoral Epistles, differ from the other Epistles
of the Apostle, being addressed to individuals, and not
to churches. [There is another private Epistle of St.
Paul, addressed to one Philemon, consisting only of a
few lines, exclusively confined to the relations which
should subsist between a Christian master and a
Christian slave.]

These divinely inspired compositions were written
for the guidance of two younger men, disciples and
intimate friends of the elder Apostle. To these,
Timothy and Titus, St. Paul had entrusted the govern-
ment and supervision of two important churches —
Ephesus and Crete. Of one of these churches, that of
Ephesus. St. Paul was probably the founder, and from
his long residence in the city, we may reasonably
■conclude that the Ephesian congregations had been
built up mainly under his teaching and influence ; the
circumstances of the church of Crete will be discussed
more particularly in the brief special Introduction to
the Epistle to Titus. Over the Ephesian community,
•especially dear to St. Paul from his close and
intimate relation with Ephesus, the Apostle placed the
<lisciple he knew and perhaps loved the best, the pupil
whom he had personally trained from early youth. Of
all St. Paul's friends there was none so close to him as
the one he had for so many years watched over and
educated in the faith as his own adopted son. The two
Letters to Timothy contain the master's last charge,
his dying wishes to the son of his love, who knew so
well his mind, his every thought and aspiration. We
may well conceive that almost every thought in
these Letters, every charge, every exhortation, was a
reminiscence of some bit of public teaching well known
to Timothy, of some solemn conversation between the
•master and the pupil, of some grave council in which
St. Paul and lxis trusted pupil and friend had shared.
The two Letters were the old master's last words, and
-as the master wrote, or, more probably, dictated them,
he was conscious of this, and strove to compress into
the necessary short compass of a brief Epistle a
summary of what he had already put forth as his
teaching on the question of church doctrine, church
order, and church life. This is the. reason why the
charges concerning the life to be led are so repeated,
but at ^ the same time so brief; why the directions
respecting church order are so concise; why the
doctrinal statements are simply urged, and never, as
was his old custom in some Epistles, argued out and
discussed. " We see here," as one has eloquently
described it, " rather the succession of brilliant sparks
than the steady flame ; burning words indeed, and deep
pathos, but not the flower of his firmness, as in his
discipline of the Galatians — not the noon of his bright
warm eloquence, as in the inimitable psalm of love "
(1 Cor. xiii.).

Many of the more doctrinal statements in these

17;

Pastoral Epistles are something more than " memories"
of past conversations, past deliberations — more than
reminders of former teaching — they are evidently
current and well-known sayings among the Christians
of the years a.d. 65 — 67. Now they are a well-loved
hue or lines of a hymn to the Father, as in the First
Epistle, chap. vi. 15, 16 ; now a verse from a metrical
creed sung by these believers of the first days, as in
chap. iii. 16 of the same Epistle, where the principal
events of the divine and human life of Christ, so far as
that life was connected with man, are set forth ; or,
they are evidently well-known sayings which had
become watchwords of the rapidly growing Church of
Christ, introduced by the striking formula " faithful
is the saying." There are no less than five of these in
the Pastoral Epistles. All these are woven into tho
tapestry of the writings, and contain many a word, many
an expression not found in any other of the known
Epistles of St. Paul ; and it is to the presence of these
evident quotations from hymn, or creed, or sacred
utterances of the faith, that these last Letters of St.
Paul owe many of those peculiarities of thought aud of
expression which have suggested to the critical minds
of so many scholars of our own thougthful age the
question — were these Epistles really the work of tho
great Apostle of the Gentiles ?

II. Their Authenticity. — For seventeen centuries
the Pastoral Epistles were believed to have been written
by St. Paul, and in all the churches were received among
the divinely inspired Scriptures of the New Testament,
Only in this present century, for certain reasons specified
below, has their authenticity been called in question
by a school of German criticism.

From the very earliest times wo find constant refer-
ences to these Pastoral Letters of St. Paul. Although
there are no exact quotations in those few fragments
we possess of the writings of men contemporary with
or immediately succeeding the Apostles, still the lan-
guage of Clement of Rome, Polycarp of Smyrna, and
Ignatius of Antioch (all three liviiig and writing in tho
first century), seems to show their familiarity with the
language and thought of these Epistles.

Unquestioned references to one or other of these
Letters are found in Irenseus (second century), Ter-
tullian (second century), Clement of Alexandria (second
century), Theophilus of Antioch (second century).
Eusebius (a.d. 320) without question includes tlw»
three Epistles in his catalogue, among the universally
confessed canonical writings. In addition to this, i*.
the famous Fragment on the Canon of Scripture edited
by Muratori, generally ascribed to the latter half of
the second century, we find these "three" classed
among the Epistles of St. Paul.

They are also contained in the Peschito-Syriac version
of the New Testament, which was made in the second
century. There never, indeed, seems to have been the
slightest doubt in the early Christian Church that the

THE PASTORAL EPISTLES OF ST. PAUL.

Pastoral Epistles were canonical, and written by St.
Paul. The only doubter, in fact, seems to have been
the famous Gnostic heretic Marcion (second century),
who for doctrinal reasons omitted these writings from
his canon. But Marcion arbitrarily made up his own
volume of Scripture, excluding what was distinctly
adverse to his peculiar system. He admitted into his
"canon" only ten of St. Paul's Epistles and a mutilated
Gospel of St. Luke, omitting all the rest of the New
Testament writings.

We possess a continuous chain of historical evi-
dence for the authenticity of these writings from the
earliest times. We can, then, aver that from the very
days of the Apostles down to the beginning of this
century, the two Epistles to Timothy and the one to
Titus were received in all the churches as undoubted
writings of St. Paul, and were reverenced as Holy
Scripture. The school of critics to which allusion has
been made above has sought to undermine this testi-
mony, stretching over one thousand seven hundred
years, by arguments drawn from the contents of these
three Epistles.

The following are the main points they have en-
deavoured to establish : —

(1) A number of words and phrases are found in
these Letters which never occur in any other of St.
Paul's writings.

(2) An ecclesiastical organisation of a period long
subsequent to St. Paul's time apparently existed when
these Pastoral Epistles were written.

(3) Heresies of a date later than the period included
in the lifetime of St. Paul are combated in the three
Letters.

(4)*In the lifetime of the Apostle no period can be
found which would suit the circumstances under which
it is evident these Letters were composed.

We will reply to these arguments very briefly : —

(1) As regards the unusual words and phrases, it
must be borne in mind that the Epistles or groups of
Epistles of St. Paul were composed under very different
circumstances, and for varied purposes, and with long
intervals of time between the several writings. To a
certain extent, in each Epistle or group of Epistles we
should expect to find its own peculiar vocabulary : and
this we find, for the number of verbal peculiai-ities in
the group of Letters we are now considering does not
appear to be greater than that existing in other un-
doubted Letters of the Apostle. Prof. Van Oosterzee,
of Utrecht (Die Pastor albriefe, 3rd edit. 1874), com-
putes the number of these peculiar words in the three
Epistles at one hundred and eighty-eight, while in the
Epistles to the Philippians, Ephesians, and Colossians
he reckons one hundred and ninety-four of these verbal
peculiarities not elsewhere found.

But while verbal peculiarities in this group of
Epistles do not appear more numerous than in other
special groups of writings by the same hand, there are
peculiar circumstances connected with these Letters to
Timothy and Titus, which would of themselves fairly
have explained a much greater divergence from the
customary style and usual expressions tban we actually
find.

Here, and here only — with the exception of the little
Letter to Philemon — is he writing to dear friends, not
to churches. The official character of the communica-
tion is in great measure here lost sight of. The chief
pastor is addressed, rather than the flock ; and the
chief pastor in each case is the pupil and intimate asso-
ciate of the writer. Surely different expressions might
be reasonably looked for in such Letters as these.

Again, we might fairly expect that in this last period)
of the Apostle's long life his theological vocabulary
would have become materially enlarged. This would
account for his use of certain new words when he
wished to express or reiterate perhaps old thoughts.

It should be remembered, too, that he was in these
Epistles combating new forms of heresy which were
rapidly developing themselves in the various growing
Christian communities. What more likely than that
the old master, the wise and divinely inspired teacher,
should have appropriated some of the favourite sayings
of his opponents, the false teachers of Ephesus and the
Asian cities — should have "borrowed" from these un-
happy men their own words, thus rescuing them from
the perversions which false philosophy had begun to>
make of them ?

We have already, in the first section of this short
Introduction, suggested a probable explanation of the
repeated use of the formulary " faithful is the saying,"
and of other divine sayings which had apparently
grown into customary use in the Church.

On the otlier hand, would not a forger who was-
desirous to introduce for a particular purpose a writing,,
or writings, into the Church, under the venerated name-
of St. Paul, have been specially careful not to introduce
into his composition any word or expression foreign to-
the Apostle's most common and best known termi-
nology ?

(2) The ecclesiastical organisation to which reference1
is made in these Pastoral Epistles is, after all, of the
simplest description. The forms of the government of
the Jewish synagogue, only slightly modified to suit
the exigencies of the mixed Jewish and Gentile congre-
gations of Christians, are evidently all that existed at
the time when St. Paul wrote to Timothy and Titus.

The only marked innovation is that provision which
was being made in all the churches for women's work
— a provision rendered necessary from the new position
which women, under the teaching of our Lord and His-
disciples, were henceforth to occupy in the work and
life of the world. (This great and important question'
is treated of at some length in the commentary on the
Pastoral Epistles which follows.) And even of this*
female organisation we see the germs in such notices as
in Acts vi. 1 ; ix. 36 — 41 ; xxi. 9 ; and in the life and
work of one like Lydia (Acts xvi. 14), or Priscilla.
(Acts xviii. 2 and 26), &c.

The presbyterate, not merely in name, but also in:
the matter of the functions assigned to the office, was-
clearly adopted from the synagogue, of course with,
such changes and modifications as the new and growing
society required.

The diaconate also, in some way, appears to have
been derived from Jewish precedents. The very name,
" Levites," by which these inferior ministers of the
Church were often called, points to the origin of the-
" order." Thus Jerome (Ep. 27) distinguishes them
from the presbyters, speaking of the deacons as " the
countless number of Levites." So, too, Salvias, a.d.
450, writes of the deacons, calling them "Levites."
Frequently in the Councils the term " Levite " is used
as the peculiar title of the deacon.

But the diaconate — which, although probably origi-
nally a copy of a Jewish order of ministers in the
public services connected with worship and religious
instruction, still may be looked on as an order especially
belonging to the Christian Church — existed long before
" the last days " of St. Paul. Indeed, it is traceable
back to the very first years of the existence of the little-
i Jerusalem community of believers in Josus of Nazareth.
74

THE PASTORAL EPISTLES OF ST. PAIL.

See Acts vi. 2 — 6, where the famous Seven are ap-
pointed by the Twelve Apostles — diaconein trapezais,
•• to serve tables."

The functions of the " deacons of Ephesus " alluded
to by St. Paul were certainly not very different from
the duties apparently performed by the "Seven" of
Acts vi. See, especially verses 3, 8, 9, 10, where these
solemnly ordained ones assisted the Apostle in alms-
giving, in the general regulation of the Church's
charities, and also appear to have preached and taught
publicly.

But there is one argument for the extreme antiquity
of these Epistles derived exclusively from internal
evidence supplied by the Epistles themselves.

At the very commencement of the second century
it is an acknowledged fact that the episcopal office was
firmly and widely established. But these Letters were
written before any sign of episcopal government had
appeared in Gentile Christendom. In the Pastoral
Epistles the Greek words rendered " bishop" and " pres-
byter" (episcopos, presby teres) are applied indifferently
to the same person. (See Note on 1 Tim. iii. 1.)

Too great stress can hardly be laid on the vast
difference which existed between the ecclesiastical
organisation presented in the Pastoral Epistles and that
revealed to us in the Letters of Ignatius, written at the
very commencement of the second century, even if we
only admit as genuine the shorter form of the ver-
sion cf the Ignatian Epistles, or the still briefer
recension of the three Syriac Letters edited by Dr.
Cureton.

No candid critic would surely suggest for so vast a
development in ecclesiastical organisation a less period
than thirty to forty years, placing the Ignatian Epistles
in the early part of the second centxiry. This would
give as the date of the so-called Pastoral Letters, the
last year of St. Paul's life.

(3 j Heresies of a later date appear to be combated
in these writings. But the false teachers referred to
here were evidently Judaistic in their teaching (see for
instance 1 Tim. \ 7; iv. 3; Titus i. 10—14; iii. 9),
while the Gnostic teachers of the next century were
strongly antft-Judaistic. This state of things was no
doubt brought about by the destruction of Jerusalem
and the Temple, and the total ruin of the Jewish
national system, in the year of our Lord 70.

In these Epistles we have allusion to schools of
heresies widely differing from those which opposed the
Catholic Church in the second century. Here we find the
seeds, but only the seeds, of the famous Gnostic teaching.
Dean Alford (Prolegomena to the Pastoral Epistles)
has well, though roughly, painted the development of
heresy in the early days of Christianity. In the first
years, the principal enemies within the church were
"Judaising Christians," these are alluded to in St.
Paul's earlier Epistles. " The false teachers against
whom Timothy and Titus were warned seemed to hold
a posit ion intermediate to the Apostle's former Judaising.
adversaries and the subsequent Gnostic heretics."

The general characteristics of the heresies spoken
of in the Pastoral Epistles would certainly not appear

to belong to a period subsequent to the fall of
Jerusalem (A.D. 70).

(4) As regards the last objection, — to the critics who
seriously propose to throw doubt on the authenticity of
these Epistles, alleging that it is impossible to assign
during the lifetime of St. Paul, as related in the Acts,
a period which would suit the peculiar circumstances
under which it was evident that these writings were
composed, we reply that St. Paul lived and worked
after the captivity related in the last chapter of the
Acts ; for the unanimous testimony of the primitive
Church tells us that the appeal of St. Paul to Caesar
(Acts xxv. 11) terminated successfully, that after the
imprisonment related in the last chapter of the Acts,
he was liberated a.d. 63, and that he spent some time
(a.d. 63 to a.d. 65 — 66) in freedom before he was again
arrested and condemned.

The principal evidences for this are found in the
Epistle of Clement, Bishop of Rome, the disciple of
St. Paxil (Phil. iv. 3), to the Boinans, written in the last
year of the first century. " He, Paul, had gone to the
extremity of the west before his martyrdom." In a
Roman writer the " extremity of the west " could only
signify " Spain," and we know in that portion of
his life related in the Acts he had never journeyed
further west than Italy. In the fragments of the
Canon called Muratori's, written about a.d. 170, we
read in the account of the Acts of the Apostles, " Luke
relates to Theophilus events of which he was an eye-
witness, as also in a sepai'ate place [Luke xxii. 31 — 33]
he evidently declares the martyrdom of Peter, but
[omits] the journey of St. Paid to Spain." Eusebius
(H. E. ii. 22— a.d. 320) writes, "After defending himself
successfully it is currently reported that the Apostle
again went forth to proclaim the gospel, and afterwards
came to Rome a second time, and was martyred under
Nero."

St. Chrysostom (a.d. 398) mentions as an undoubted
historical fact, " that St. Paul after his residence in
Rome departed to Spain." St. Jerome (a.d. 390) also
relates, " that St. Paul was dismissed by Nero that he
might preach Christ's gospel in the West."

Thus in the Catholic Church in the East and West
during the three hundred years which succeeded the
death of St. Paul, a unanimous tradition was current
that the great Apostle's labours were continued for a
period extending over two or three years after his libe-
ration from that Roman imprisonment related in Acts
xxviii. During this renewed season of activity, probably
in the last year or fifteen months, the Epistles to
Timothy and Titus were written.

The last of the three Letters, the Second Epistle to
Timothy, was no doubt written within a few weeks at
most of the glorious end. We see, then, that internal
evidence, when carefully sifted, instead of contra-
dicting, supports, with a weighty mass of independent
testimony, the unanimous tradition of the ancient
Church which, with one voice, proceeding from the East
as well as from the West, pronounced the Pastoral
Epistles canonical, receiving them as the word of the
Holy Spirit communicated through the Apostle Paul.

INTRODUCTION

THE FIRST EPISTLE OP PAUL THE APOSTLE TO

TIMOTHY.

I. Timothy. — Timothy was a native of the province
of Lycaonia in Asia Minor — most probably of Lystra,
a, small town some thirty miles to the south of
Iconium, the modern Konieh. His father was a
pagan, but his mother and grandmother, Lois and
Eunice, were Jewesses, evidently devout and earnest in
the practice of the religion of their forefathers. They
became Christians, apparently, at the time of St. Paul's
first visit to Asia Minor in company with Barnabas
(a.d. 46), (Acts xiv. ; 2 Tim. i. 5 ; iii. 15).

From Lois and Eunice Timothy no doubt learned
the rudiments of the faith of the Lord Jesus. Some
five years later, in company with Silas (a.d. 51), St.
Paul paid a second visit to Asia Minor. Moved pro-
bably by the devotion and earnestness of the young son
of Eunice, and seeing in him the promise of a loving
and heroic life, St. Paul took Timothy in the place of •
Mark, whose heart had failed him in the presence of
so many difficulties and dangers. From this time
(a.d. 51) Timothy's life was closely associated wrth
that of his master.

He was with the Gentile Apostle in Macedonia and
Corinth (a.d. 52 — 53), (Acts xvii. 14; xviii. 5; 1 Thess.
i. 1) ; with him at Ephesus, whence he was sent on a
special mission to Corinth (a.d. 55 — 56), (1 Cor. iv. 17;
xvi. 10) ; with him when he wrote from Macedonia the
Second Corinthian Letter (2 Cor. i. 1) ; with him at
Corinth when he wrote to the Roman Church (a.d.
57), (Rom. xvi. 21) ; with him when he was returning
to Asia, where he was arrested prior to the long
captivity at Csesarea and Rome (a.d. 57 — 58), (Acts
xx. 4). We find him again specially mentioned as the
Apostle's companion during that long Roman im-
prisonment (a.d. 61 — 63). (See the Epistles written
at that period — Col. i. 1 ; Philem. verse 1 ; Phil. i. 1.)

After the Apostle's release from his first great
captivity (a.d. 63), (see General Introduction to the
Pastoral Epistles), Timothy, still St. Paul's companion
(1 Tim. i. 3), was left in charge of the Ephesian Church
(probably about A.D. 64). While fulfilling this work
he received the two Epistles of St. Paul (a.d. 64 — 65)
which bear his name. In the Epistle to the Hebrews
(xiii. 23) Timothy is alluded to as having been im-
prisoned and again liberated. This solitary notice,
however, throws but little light on the life of the

Apostle's famous disciple, except that it seems to tell us
that the pupil's life was full of hardship and danger, as
was the master's, and that the younger man had well
learned the lesson of St. Paul, who bade him with his
dying breath (2 Tim. ii. 3) " endure hardness as a good
soldier of Jesus Christ."

Nicephorus and the ancient martyrologies tell us
that Timothy died by martyrdom under the Emperor
Domitian some time before a.d. 96. Baronius, however,
puts his martyr death a little later — a.d. 109 — when
the Emperor Trajan was reigning.

The accompanying table will assist the reader in
following the life of Timothy : —

Roman

A.D.

Emperor

Reigning.

Claudius.

First meeting between Paul and
Timothy, still a child, at Lystra
— probably in the house of Eu-

nice and Lois.

Paul and Silas take Timothy with
them from Lystra.

Timothy accompanies Paul in his
journey through Macedonia.

Timothy is with Paul at Corinth.

54—56

Nero.

Timothy is with Paul at Ephesus.

Timothy is with Paul at Corinth.
. Paul writes Epistle to Romans.

Timothy is with Paul in the jour-
ney from Corinth to Asia.

62—63

Timothy is with Paul during the
Roman imprisonment.

Paul leaves Timothy at Ephesus.
Timothy receives the two Epistles

65—66

from Paul.

Not later than
96

J- Domitian.

Alleged martyrdom of Timothy.

Or, according

)

to Baronius,

VTrajan.

Alleged martyrdom.

109

II. Date of the Epistle.— The First Epistle to
Timothy was written apparently in the year 65 — 66,
while the Apostle was passing through Macedonia,
after a probable journey into Spain and a return
to Ephesus, at which city he had left Timothy in charge
of the church.

176

I. TIMOTHY.

III. General Contents of the Epistle.— No
systematic arrangement is followed in this Epistle.
Its contents may be roughly divided into six general
divisions, coinciding with the six chapters : —

1. — St. Paid reminds Timothy of his especial com-
mission at Ephesns — the repression of a school of
false teachers which threatened to subvert the
church.

This leads to a brief review of the Apostle's
own past history (chap. i.).

2. — The second division is occupied with directions
respecting the public worship of Christians, and
the parts which each sex should take in public
prayer (chap.- ii.).

3. — Treats of the office-bearers in the church — bishops
(or, elders), deacons, and deaconesses (chap. iii.).

4. — Again St. Paul i*efers to Timothy's commission in
respect to false teachers. He dwells upon the
deceptive teaching of asceticism, showing the
dangers which accompanied such doctrine. The
practical godly life of Timothy and his staff
would, after all, be the best antidote to the
poison disseminated by these unreal, untrue men
'chap. iv.).

5. — Treats (a) of the behaviour of the church officials
to the flock of Christ; (6) of the public charities
of the Church in connection with destitute and
helpless women; (c) of a certain order of pres-
byteral or elder widows, which, in connection
with these charities, might be developed in such

a Christian community as Ephesus ; (d) rules for
Timothy, as chief presbyter, respecting ordina-
tion and selection of colleagues in the ministry,
&c. (chap. v.).
6. — A few plain comments on the great social question
of slavery. How Christian slaves were to behave
in their condition. The false teachers must be
sternly combated in their teaching on this point.
Timothy is warned with solemn earnestness against
covetousuess. This, St. Paul argues, was the root
of all false teaching (chap. vi.).

One golden thread seems to run through this, and, it
may be said, through the other two Pastoral Letters.
St. Paul's earnestness in these last days of his life
seems rather to expend itself in exhortations to Chris-
tian men and women to live a good, pure, self-denying
life. Doctrine, in these last words of the noble, gene-
rous toiler for the Lord, retreats a little into the back-
ground. It is true that he reiterates in several places
the grounds of a Christian's belief — that he rehearses
in plain and evidently well-known phrases the great
articles of the Christian faith ; but his last words
dwell rather on life than on theology. The errors of
the false teachers whose deadly influence Timothy was
to counteract belonged rather to an evil life than to a
false belief. The pure and saintly conduct, the pattern
home life — these things, Timothy and his colleagues
must remember, were the surest antidote against the
poisonous teaching and the selfish practice of the
enemies of the Lord Jesus.

377

THE FIEST EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO

TIMOTHY.

CHAPTEE L— (D Paul, an apostle of
Chap. i. l, 2. Jesus Christ by the com-
The salutation, mandment of God our
Saviour, and Lord Jesus Christ, which
is our hope ; <2> unto Timothy, my own
son in the faith : Grace, mercy, and
peace, from God our Father and Jesus

Christ our Lord. W As I besought thee
to abide still at Ephesus, Cha . "
when I went into Mace- Timothy is
donia, that thou mightest urged to re-
charge some that they Ktrante doc-
teach no other doctrine, trines.
W neither give heed to fables and end-

(!) Paul, an apostle of Jesus Christ.— The
letter to Timothy, though addressed to a very dear
and intimate friend, was sent with a two-fold purpose.
It was an affectionate reminder from his old master,
" Paul the Aged," to his disciple to be steadfast in the
midst of the many perils to which one in the position of
Timothy would be exposed in the city of Ephesus; but
it was also an official command to resist a powerful
school of false teaching which had arisen in the midst
of that Ephesian Church over which Timothy was then
presiding. So St. Paul prefaces his letter by desig-
nating himself an Apostle according to the command-
ment of God. The commandment especially referred
to is to be found in Acts xiii. 2 : Separate me Bar-
nabas and Saul for the work whereunto I have called
them.

God our Saviour. — This designation is peculiar
to the Pastoral Epistles, but frequently occurs in the
Septuagint. It is fitly ascribed to the first Person of
the blessed Trinity in reference to His redeeming love
in Christ.

Lord Jesus Christ, which is our hope.— The
words " which is," printed in italics in the English
version, are better left out : Jesus Christ, our hope.
As St. Paul felt the end of his course approaching, he
loved to dwell on the thought of Jesus — to whom,
during so many weary years, he had longed to depart
and be with — as his hope, his one glorious hope. The
same expression is found in the Epistles of Ignatius.

<2) My own son in the faith.— Timothy was St.
Paul's very own son. No fleshly relationship existed
between the two, but a closer and far dearer connection.
St. Paul had taken him while yet a very young man
to be his companion and fellow-labourer (Acts xvi. 3).
He told the Philippian Church he had no one like-
minded (with Timothy) who would care for their affairs.
He wrote to the Corinthians how Timothy was his
beloved and faithful son in the Lord, who would put
them in remembrance of his ways in Christ.

Mercy. — Between the usual salutation "grace and
peace," in these Pastoral Epistles, he introduces
"mercy." The nearness of death, the weakness of
old age, the dangers, ever increasing, which crowded
round Paul, seem to have called forth" from him deeper
expressions of love and tender pity. Jesus Christ, his
" hope," burned before him, a guiding star ever brighter

and clearer ; and the " mercy " of God, which the old
man felt he had obtained, he longed to share with
others.

(3) That thou mightest charge some.— Some
time after the first imprisonment at Rome, and con-
sequently beyond the period included by St. Luke in
the Acts, St. Paul must have left Timothy behind at
Ephesus while he pursued his journey towards Mace-
donia, and given him the solemn charge here referred
to. The false teachers who are disturbing the Church
at Ephesus are not named. There is, perhaps, a ring
of contempt in the expression " some," but it seems
more probable that the names were designedly omitted
in this letter, which was intended to be a public docu-
ment. The chief superintendent of the Ephesian com-
munity, doubtless, knew too well who were the mistaken
men referred to.

That they teach no other doctrine.—" Other "
— i.e., other than the truth. When the Apostle and
his disciple Timothy re-visited Ephesus, after the long
Csesarean and Roman imprisonment, they found the
Church there distracted with questions raised by Jewish
teachers. The curious and hair-splitting interpreta-
tion of the Mosaic law, the teaching concerning the
tithing of mint and anise and cummin, which in the
days of Jesus of Nazareth had paralysed all real
spiritual life in Jerusalem, had found its way during
the Apostle's long enforced absence into the restless,
ever- changing congregations at Ephesus.

Dangerous controversies, disputings concerning old
prophecies, mingled with modern traditions, occupied
the attention of many of the Christian teachers. They
preferred to talk about theology rather than try to
live the life which men like St. Paul had told them
that followers of Jesus must live if they would be His
servants indeed.

Unless these deadening influences were removed, the
faith of the Ephesian Church threatened to become
utterly impractical. The doctrine these restless men
were teaching, and which St. Paul so bitterly condemns,
seems to have been no settled form of heresy, but
a profitless teaching, arising mainly, if not entirely,
from Jewish sources.

(4) Neither give heed to fables.— These fables
wgre, no doubt, purely Rabbinical. It was said in the
Jewish schools that an oral Law had been given on

Teachers of Strange Doctrines

I. TIMOTHY, I.

to be Repressed.

less genealogies, which minister ques-
tions, rather than godly edifying which
is in faith : so do. (5) Now the end of

the commandment is charity out of a
pure heart, and of a good conscience,
and of faith unfeigned : <6) from which

Sinai, and that this Law, a succession of teachers, from
the time of Moses, had handed down. This " Law that
is upon the lip," as it was termed, was further illustrated
and enlarged by the sayings and comments of the more
famous Jewish Rabbis, and in the time of our Lord
constituted a supplement to the written Law in the
Pentateuch. For centuries this supplementary code
was preserved by memory or in secret rolls, and doubt-
less was constantly receiving additions. It contained,
along with many wild and improbable legendary Ins-
lories, some wise teachings. This strange collection of
tradition and comment was committed to writing in the
second century by Rabbi Jehuda, under the general
name of the Mishna, or repetition (of the Law). Round
this compilation a complement of discussions (the
Gemara) was gradually formed, and was completed at
Babylon somewhere about the end of the fifth century of
our era. These works — the Mishna and the Gemara,
together with a second Gemara, formed somewhat earlier
in Palestine — are generally known as the Talmud. The
influence of some of these traditions is alluded to by
our Lord (Matt. xv. 3).

Endless genealogies.— Genealogies in their proper
sense, as found in the Book of the Pentateuch, and to
which wild allegorical interpretations had been assigned.
Such purely fanciful meanings had been already de-
veloped by Philo, whose religious writings were
becoming at this time known and popular in many of
the Jewish schools. Such teaching, if allowed in the
Christian churches, St. Paul saw would effectually
put a stop to the growth of Gentile Christendom, It
would inculcate an undue and exaggerated, and, for the
ordinary Gentile convert, an impossible reverence for
Jewish forms and ceremonies; it would separate the
Jewish and Gentile converts into two classes — placing
the favoured Jew in an altogether different position
from the outcast Gentile.

In the Gentile churches founded by the Apostles,
for some years a life and death struggle went on be-
tween the pupils of St. Paul and his fellow Apostles
and the disciples of the Rabbinical schools. In these
earnest warnings of his Pastoral Epistles the great
Apostle of Gentile Christianity shows us, how clearly
he foresaw that if these Jewish fables and the com-
ments of the older Jewish teachers were allowed to
enter into the training of the new-formed congregations,
the Church of Christ would shrink, in no long space of
time, into the narrow and exclusive limits of a Jewish
sect. " Judaism," writes the anonymous author of
Paul of Tarsus, "was the cradle of " Christianity, and
Judaism very nearly became its grave."

Which minister questions.— Disputings, ques-
tions of mere controversy, inquiries, which could not
possibly have any bearing on practical life.

Rather than godly edifying which is in
faith. — The rendering of the reading in the more
ancient authorities would be : rather than the dis-
pensation of God which is in faith ; or, in other
words, the introduction into Church teaching of these
Jewish myths — these traditions of the elders, these
fanciful genealogies — would be much more likely to
produce bitter and profitless controversy than to
minister to God's scheme of salvation, designed by
God, and proclaimed by His Apostles.

So do.— The Apostle, in verse 3, begins this sentence

of earnest exhortation, but in his fervour forgets to
conclude it. The closing words would naturally come in
here : " For remember how I besought thee when I left
thee behind at Ephesus, when I went on to Macedonia,
to discourage and firmly repress all vain teaching, which
only leads to useless controversy, so I do now ; " or, so I
repeat to you now. (This is better and moi*e forcible
than the words supplied in the English version : " so
do.")

(5) Now the end.— The Greek word should bo
translated But the end. Though Timothy must resist,
and oppose these false teachers with all courage and
firmness, still he must not forget what was the real end,
the aim, the purpose of all Christian teaching, which,
the Apostle reminds him, is Love.

Of the commandment. — There is no reference
here to the famous commandments of the Law of
Moses. M Commandment " may be paraphrased in
this place by " practical teaching."

With the false teachers' sickly " fables," which only
led to disputing, St. Paul contrasts that " healthy
practical teaching," the end and aim of which was
love, or charity.

Charity. — That love, or broad, comprehensive
charity, towards men, so nobly described in 1 Cor.
xiii.

Out of a pure heart, and of a good con-
science, and of faith unfeigned.— This broad, all-
embracing love, or charity, emanates only from "a pure
heart : " i.e., a heart free from selfish desires and evil
passions. The " pure iu heart " alone, said the Lord,
in the sermon on the mount (Matt. v. 8), shall enjoy
the beatific vision of God.

And of a good conscience.— This "charity"
must also spring from a conscience unburthened of its
load of guilt, from a conscience sprinkled with the
precious blood, and so reconciled to God.

And of faith unfeigned.— And, lastly, the root of
this " charity " — the end and aim of the practical teaching
of the gospel preached by the Apostles — must be sought
in "a faith unfeigned," in a faith that consists in
something more than in a few high-sounding words,
which lay claim to a sure confidence that is not felt.
The " unfeigned faith " of St. Paul is a faith rich in
works rather than in words.

Without this faith, so real that its fruits are ever
manifest, there can be no good conscience ; without
this conscience, washed by the precious blood, there can
be no pure heart.

The error of the teachers of whom Timothy was
warned, we see from the next verse, consisted not so
much in false doctrines as in an utter neglect of incul-
cating the necessity of a pure, self-denying life. They
preferred curious questions and speculative inquiries to
the grave, simple gospel teaching which led men to live
an earnest, loving life.

(6) Prom which some having swerved have
turned aside. — This sentence is rendered more accu-
rately : From which some, having gone wide in aim,
have turned themselves aside. These words seem to
tell us that these teachers had once been in the right
direction, but had not kept in it; indeed, from the
whole tenor of St. Paul's directions to Timothy it is
clear that these persons not only had been, but were
still, reckoned among the Christian congregations of

The Ileal Purpose

I. TIMOTHY, I.

of "the Law " of Moses.

some having swerved l have turned aside
unto vain jangling ; W desiring to be
teachers of the law; understanding
neither what they say, nor whereof they
affirm . (s> But we know that the law
is good, if a man use it lawfully;

1 Or, notaiiiiiiuj at.

(°> knowing this, that the law is not
made for a righteous man, but for the
lawless and disobedient, for the ungodly
and for sinners, for unholy and profane,
for murderers of fathers and murderers
of mothers, for manslayers, ^ for

the Ephesian Church. The presiding presbyter ap-
pointed by St. Paul could have exercised no possible
authority over any not reckoned in the Church's jjale.

Unto vain jangling.— These men, having missed
the true aim of the commandment, have now turned
themselves to vain, empty talking, which could lead to
nothing except wranglings and angry disputations.

(") Desiring to be teachers of the law.—
" Desiring," though they really were not. They coveted
the respect and influence which was ever paid to the
acknowledged teachers of the Law of Moses ; but these
men utterly failed to understand the real spiritual
meaning of that Law which they pretended to teach.
Similar pretenders in a neighbouring Church, some
years later, received from another Apostle — St. John— a
•stern rebuke for such pretensions. " I know," wrote
St. John to the Christians of Smyrna, " the blasphemy
of them which say they are Jews, and are not, but are
the synagogue of Satan " (Rev. ii. 9).

Understanding neither what they say, nor
whereof they affirm.— A wise teacher must under-
stand what he teaches, and must, at the same time, be
clear in his own mind that what he teaches is true.

The false teachers are here charged (1) with not
understanding the wild fables and teaditions upon
which their teaching was based, and (2) with not com-
prehending the things whereof they make their as-
sertions : that is, they had no real belief in those great
truths which really underlie that Law with which they
"were meddling.

(8) But we know. — Better, Now we know : a strong
■expression of his knowledge, learned in the school of
the Holy Ghost. He spoke with the conscious autho-
rity of an Apostle, confident of the truth of what he
preached and taught.

That the law is good, if a man use it law-
fully.—" The Law is good," St. Paul declared with
apostolic authoritative knowledge, " should a man — i.e.,
a teacher of the Law — make use of it lawfully ; if he
should use it so as to make men conscious of their sins,
conscious that of themselves they deserve no mercy,
only punishment." To press this sorrowful knowledge
was the Law's true work upon men. It was never
intended to supply materials for casuistry and idle,
profitless arguments. It was never meant as a system
out of which man might draw material for self-decep-
tion. It was never meant as a system through which a
man might imagine that by a compliance, more or less
rigid, with its outer ritual he was satisfying all the
higher requirements of justice and truth.

(9) Knowing this.— The teacher of the Law, being
aware; of this great truth, now to be detailed — viz. : —

That the law is not made for a righteous
man. — The stern Mosaic Law was enacted centuries
before the Messiah Jesus had given to men His new
Law. The Law of Moses was not. then, enacted for a
" righteous man " — that is, for a Christian in the true
sense of the word, who has sought and found justi-
fication by faith in Jesus, and who, sanctified by the
Holy Ghost, is living a new life. In other words, the
" teacher," Paul says, must teach the flock of Ephesus

(1) the true use of the prohibitions of the Law, viz.,
that they served to convince a man of his hopeless
condition; they showed him he was a slave to sin,
from which wretched bondage, the Law, which made
hire, bitterly conscious of his condition, gave him no
assistance to free himself j (2) the " teacher " was to
press home to the people that the Law, good though it
was, if used as a means to open men's eyes to see their
true condition, was not made for them if they were
reckoned among the righteous — that is, if they had
found acceptance in the Redeemer. In the case of
these justified and sanctified ones the moi-al law was
Written in their hearts and was embodied in their lives.

But for the lawless.— Now the Law was not
made for the holy and humble men of heart, whom St.
Paul trusted formed the main body of the congregation
of believers in Ephesus, and in every city where men
and women were found who called on the name of the
Lord Jesus, and who struggled to follow their dear
Master's footsteps. It was made centuries before Jesus
of Nazareth walked on earth, as a great protest against
the every-day vices which dishonoured Israel in common
with the rest of mankind. The terrible enumeration
of sins and sinners in these 9th and 10th verses, whilo
following the order of the ancient Tables of Sinai, seems
to allude pointedly to the vices especially prevalent in
that day in the great centres of the Roman empire.

And disobedient. — More accurately rendered,
unruly, or insubordinate.

For the ungodly and for sinners. — These four
terms with which the Apostle opens his sad list of
those for whom the Law was enacted, generally denote
those who care nothing for human law, and who despise
all obedience; who to their careless neglect for all
constituted authorities, unite irreligion and contempt
for all sacred things.

For unholy and profane. — The persons desig-
nated in these terms are those wanting in inner purity
— men who scoff at holiness of life and character in its
deepest sense. These six classes may be assumed in
general terms to include the prohibitions of the first
four Commandments (the First Table, as it is termed),
where sins against God are especially dwelt upon.
The sins against man, which form the subject of the
prohibitions of the Second Table (Commandments Five
to Ten), are included in the following enumeration of
wrong-doers.

For murderers of fathers and murderers of
mothers. — The original Greek expressions here re-
quire the milder rendering, smiters of fathers and
smiters of mothers, and refer to persons of various ages
who refuse all reverence, even all kindly treatment, to
their parents. The words of the Fifth Commandment
exactly explain this unnatural conduct.

(10) For menstealers. — After enumerating the
transgressors of the Sixth and Seventh Commandments
against murder and adultery. St. Paul speaks of a class
well known in the Roman world of his day — perhaps
the worst class of offenders against the Eighth Com-
mandment— the '" slave-dealers."

For liars, for perjured persons.— In these

St. Paul' 8 Thanks for

I. TIMOTHY, I.

his own Conversion,

whoremongers, for them that defile
themselves with mankind, for men-
stealers, for liars, for perjured persons,
and if there be any other thing that is
contrary to sound doctrine ; <u) ac-
cording to the glorious gospel of the
blessed God, which was committed to

my trust. <12> And I thank Christ Jesus
our Lord, who hath enabled chap. i. 12—20.
me, for that he counted me f'ml\ ■ thanks

faithful, put ting me into the conversion and

ministry ; (13> who was be- commission,
fore a blasphemer, and a persecutor, and
injurious: but I obtained mercy, because

inclusive terms St. Paul apparently reckons all who
break the solemn Ninth charge given on Sinai, which
forbade false witness against a neighbour. Among the
sins which especially excite the hot wrath of the first
inspired teachers of Christianity, " want of truth "
appears singularly prominent. One after the other of
the Apostles, in different language, express their deep
abhorrence of this too common sin, which, in St. John's
fervid words, will suffice to exclude from the city of
the blessed (Rev. xxii. 15).

And if there be any other thing that is
contrary to sound doctrine. — In this broad and
general summary, with which St. Paul concludes his
dreadful catalogue, the prohibition of the Tenth Com-
mandment against " covetousness " is doubtless in-
cluded. Iu the words "sound doctrine" — an expres-
sion peculiar to this group of Epistles — a sharp
contrast is suggested to the "sickly and unhealthy"
teaching of the false teachers, with their foolish legends
and allegories — a teaching which suggested controversy
and useless disputes, and had no practical influence at
all upon life.

(n) According to the glorious gospel. — All
that St. Paul had been saying concerning the Law — its
true work and its only work— -was no mere arbitrary
conception of his own ; it was simply a repetition of
the teaching of the gospel which his Master had in-
trusted to him, the gospel which taught so clearly that
the Law was for the condemnation of sinners— that it
was for those alone who do not accept the easy yoke
and the light burden of the Lord Jesus.

Of the blessed God. — The whole sentence is more
accurately translated, ficcording to the gospel of the
glory of the blessed God. (Comp. 2 Cor. iv. 4.) " The
glory of the blessed God," whether as shown in the
sufferings of Christ or in the riches of His great
mercy, is that which ^s contained in and revealed by
the gospel ; in other words, the " contents " of the
gospel is the glory and majesty of God. God is called
here " blessed," not only on accotint of His eternal
and changeless perfection, but also on account of His
blessed gift of forgiveness, offered to all sinners who
accept His gospel of love.

Which was committed to my trust. — This
precious deposit, this " trust." the gospel of the glory
of God, was perhaps, in St. Paul's eyes, his truest title
to honour. When we inquire more closely what was
exactly meant by " the gospel committed to his trust,"
something more definite seems to be required than the
general answer that he was a minister of the Church,
intrusted with the proclamation of his Master's blessed
message. If this were all, St. Paul's loved title to
honour would have been by no means peculiar to him,
but would have been shared by many another in that
great company of prophets, teachers, and evangelists
of the Church of the first days. St. Paul rather seems
to have gloried in some peculiar and most precious
trust. Was it not possibly in that Gospel of "Luke,"
which some of the most venerated of the fathers tell
us St. Paul was accustomed to mention as the Gospel

1S1

written by him ? (Irenseus, Origen, Jerome.) It was,
perhaps, this blessed privilege of having been judged
worthy to compile, under the direction of the Holy
Ghost — or, at all events, largely to furnish materials
for — one of the precious records of his adorable
Master's earthly life and work and suffering which St.
Paul loved to tell of as his proudest title to honour.

To his own disciples — as well as to those who dis-
puted his apostolic authority — he would now and again
refer to this, the highest of all honours bestowed on
him by his Master ; but there the boasting of the holy
and humble man of God ended. Though the blessed
evangelist St. Paul knew his work was for all the ages,
the true humility of the noble servant of Jesus appears
in the substitution of " Luke " for " St. Paul " — the
scribe's name in place of that of the real author.

(l-) And I thank Christ Jesus our Lord, who
hath enabled me. — Better rendered, who hath given
me strengtlt within. The ancient authorities here are
divided ; the majority omit the first word of the verse,
the connecting "and." With or without this word,
the sense is much the same ; for on the words, " the
gospel . . . committed to my trust," the Apostle
pauses, overwhelmed with the flood of grateful memories
which such a thought let loose. " How I thank God,"
wrote St. Paul, " who hath strengthened me within, with
this power to bear witness to my Master ! — me of all
persons, who was once a blasphemer of His royal name I
What an example I — your teacher, the founder of this
Church of Ephesus — am of the transforming grace of
the gospel — of its sweet, mighty power to forgive
sins." It was the thought of the great love, passing
understanding, of the tender, pitiful mercy which suf-
fered so wondrous a trust to bo committed to the charge
of such a sinner, that called forth the ejaculation of
deej) thankfulness we read in the twelfth and following
verses.

If we ask more pai-ticularly respecting the exact way
in which Jesus Christ "enabled," or "strengthened St.
Paul within," we must think of his strange power of
winning men to his Master's side ; Ave must remember
his miraculous gifts over disease and even death ; and.
last, but not least, that strength of endurance, that
brave, sweet patience which made his life of suffering
borne for Christ so beautiful, so touching, an example
for men.

For that he counted me faithful.— The All-
seeing, knowing from the beginning that St. Paul would
continue steadfast and true, selected him as " His chosen
vessel" to bear His name and the glad news of His
salvation into many lands.

It is observable, however, that this very faithfulness >,
this unflinching steadfastness, which seems to have
been the reason why the Lord chose him for his great
work, St. Paul, in a well-knowm and remarkable pas
sage, refers to as a gift of grace which he had ob-
tained in mercy of the Lord (1 Cor. vii. 25).

(13) Who was before a blasphemer, and a per-
secutor, and injurious. — In these words of bitter
self-accusation, St. Paul sums up the characteristic

The Work of Christ Jesus for

I. TIMOTHY, I.

Sinners, of whom Paul was Chief

I did it ignorantly in unbelief. (u> And
the grace of our Lord was exceeding
abundant with, faith and love which is

in Christ Jesus. <15> This is a faithful
saying, and worthy of all acceptation,
that Christ Jesus came into the world

features of his brilliant career as a young Pharisee
leader, as a popular Jewish patriot. The object of his
intense hatred and of his burning antagonism during
these never-to-be-forgotten days was that very Lord,
from whom later he had received such unspeakable
gifts. He knew ho had been " a blasphemer " of that
dear Master in the truest sense of the terrible word,
since, as it has been well said, that : " He who had seen
Stephen die for Christ, and after this did not cease to

i>ant like a wild beast for the blood of the Church, must
lave known that he had not been guilty of simply
reviling men but of blaspheming God." And " a
persecutor," for, to quote his own words at Jerusalem
(Acts xxii. 4) : "I persecuted this way unto the death,
binding and delivering into prisons both men and
women." (Comp., too, Acts xxv. 11 : "I compelled
them to blaspheme.") And " injurious " (or, more ac-
curately rendered, a doer of outrage), as he must well
have remembered the events referred to in the history
of the Acts (ix. 1) in the words : " Saul, yet breath-
ing out threatenings and slaughter against the disciples
of the Lord."

But I obtained mercy.— The Apostle, his heart
overflowing with love and gratitude, contrasts his
Master's mercy with his own want of it ; the " mercy"
shown to him consisting in something very different to
simple forgiveness of a great wrong. In St. Paul's
case the pardon was crowned by many a noble gift be-
stowed by that pitiful King whom ho had so cruelly
wronged.

Because I did it ignorantly in unbelief.—
This is one of the passages which throws a gleam of
light on some of the hard questions which perplex us
when we meditate on the principles of the final judg-
ment. Yery little is told us as to the doom of those
who have not heard, or else have failed to understand,
the message of Christ. Still, from even such scanty
teaching as is contained in the words we are now con-
sidering, and in such passages as Matt. xii. 31, 32 ;
Luke xxiii. 34, we gather that there is an igno-
rance which at least greatly modifies the guilt of un-
belief ; we learn at least this much — such a sinner is
not out of the pale of the operation of divine mercy.
But in spite of these hints — for they are little more —
of the almost limitless area of the divine mercy,
great care must be taken not to press overmuch these
blessed intimations of the possibility of a mercy far
more extended than the usual interpretation of the
inspired utterances would lead us to expect ; for, after
all, the words and teaching of the merciful Redeemer
Himself (Luke xii. 48) seem to point to a mitigation
of punishment, rather than to a complete forgiveness, of
sins committed under circumstances of perhaps partial
ignorance. "He that knew not, and did commit
things worthy of stripes, shall be beaten with few
stripes."

(14) And the grace of our Lord was exceeding
abundant. — The thought of his Master's great love to
one who once reviled Him so bitterly, and who had
spent his strength in trying to undo His servants' work,
seems to have pressed with overwhelming force on St.
Paul, who struggled to find words which should express
how deeply he felt the loving tenderness which had
transformed the cruel persecutor into the favoured
Apostle. The Greek word translated " was exceeding

182

abundant" is very rare, and possesses a superlativo
force.

With faith and love.— He sums up the divine
mercy showed to him in the three words : grace, faith,
and love. Grace, the unspeakable gift of God to him j
faith and love, the results of the exceeding abundant
gift of grace.

Faith: not merely a childlike trust in, Christ, but a
belief which accepted Christ as the hope of an other-
wise hopeless world ; and love, which includes love to
man as well as love to God, a strange contrast to his
former cruelty and hatred; for, instead of blaspheming,
now he believed on Him whom he once reviled, and
instead of persecuting the followers of Jesus, now, in
his great love for them, he spent himself. Then, over-
whelmed with joy and thankfulness that he, the enemy
of God, had obtained the mercy and love of God, and
conscious, from his own sweet and bitter experiences,
what that mercy of God bestowed on a sinner signified,
he gave utterance to one of those bright Avatclnvords
of the faith, with which the Christians of the first days
used to comfort and encourage one another, and which,
perhaps, better than any other words, gave expression
to the burning thoughts which rose up from his grate-
ful heart.

(15) This is a faithful saying, and worthy of
all acceptation. — This striking formula in the New
Testament, found only in the Pastoral Epistles, here and
in chap. iii. 1 ; iv. 9 ; 2 Tim. ii. 11 ; Titus iii. 8 ; and the
somewhat similar expression, "these sayings [words']
are faithful and true," Rev. xxi. 5 ; xxii. 6, were
formulas expressing weighty and memorable truths,
well known and often repeated by the brotherhood of
Christians in the first ages of the faith. They were, no
doubt, rehearsed constantly in the assemblies, till they
became well-known watchwords in the various churches
scattered over the Mediterranean-washed provinces
of the Roman empire; and in these "sayings" we
see, perhaps, the germs of the great creeds of
Christianity. [1 Tim. iii. 1, perhaps, as usually under-
stood, hardly falls under this category of " watchwords
of the faith," unless St. Chrysostom's interpretation of
the text be followed, which refers " the faithful saying "
to the solemn truths which immediately preceded it in
chap, ii.]

That Christ Jesus came into the world.—
This is an unmistakable allusion to the pre-existence of
Christ. He came into the world, leaving the glory
which he had with the Father before the world was (see
John xvi. 28; xvii. 5; Eph. i. 3, 4). And the purpose
for which he came into the world is stated distinctly in
the next sentence.

To save sinners. — There are no details given
respecting this salvation. The "sinners" here men-
tioned is a broad, inclusive term. It includes, besides
Jews, the outcasts of the Gentiles without hope and
without God — all the lost, irrespective of race or
time. In the Lord's own blessed words : " The Son of
Man was come to seek and to save that which was
lost " (Luke xix. 10).

Of whom I am chief.— The intense humility of
the strange, beautiful character of the Gentile Apostle
prompted this bitter expression. St. Paul, it has been
well said, knew his own sins by experience, and every
other man's per speculationem. In another place a

Doxology addressed

I. TIMOTHY, I.

to Trinity.

to save sinners ; of whom I am chief.
<Ui) Howbeit for this cause I obtained
mercy, that in me first Jesus Christ
tnight shew forth all longsuffering, for
a pattern to them which should here-
after believe on him to life everlasting.

(17> Now unto the ' King eternal, im-
mortal, invisible, the only wise God, be
honour and glory for ever and ever.
Amen. (1S> This charge I commit unto
thee, son Timothy, according to the
prophecies which went before on thee,

Similar fooling leads him to style himself as " less than
the least of all saints ;' (Eph. iii. 8). He had been in
time past so bitter an enemy of the Lord that no
preaching of the disciples was effectual to work his con-
version. In his case, to overcome his intense hatred of
the Name, it needed a special appearance of the Risen
One.

(16> Howbeit for this cause I obtained mercy.
— In spite of this deep consciousness of his guilt, faith
and confidence in his own salvation seem never to have
wavered. He speaks of this with all certainty, and pro-
ceeds to tell us with great clearness why Christ saved
him. the chief of sinners.

That in me first Jesus Christ might shew
forth all longsuffering. — If Christ could show merey
to him, surely in after times the greatest of sinners need
never doubt the Redeemer's power and will to save.
St. Paul's conversion foretold many a patient waiting
on the part of the Lord, much long-suffering, which
would never hurry to punish His enemies, but which
would tarry long, in the hope of the sinner repenting
while it was yet time.

For a pattern to them which should hereafter
believe on him.— Men were to learn that such con-
versions as his were to be looked forward to as no
uncommon occurrences — conversion of blasphemers, of
persecutors, whom the Lord would tarry long for, till
they, too, coming to the knowledge of the truth, should
acknowledge Him. Thus to all sinners was St. Paul
a pattern — an example of the Lord's long-suffering, of
His patient waiting. His gracious Master had dealt
with him like a king, who, when judging the case of a
rebel city, pardons the chief rebel. If God would
redeem Saul the persecutor, none need despair of
finding mercy.

To life everlasting.— And the goal — which lay
before these poor redeemed sinners, who, like St. Paul,
in faith and loving trust in Jesus had found peace
and acceptance — was eternal fife.

(!7) Now unto the King.— The wonderful chain of
thoughts (verses 12 — 16) which so welj. illustrate the
great assertion of verse 15 — " that Jesus Christ came
into the world to save sinners " — St. Paul closes with
a noble ascription of praise and thankfulness to the
great God.

This doxology is addressed to no one Person of the
ever blessed Trinity, but is — as has been said with
great truth — " a grand testimony to the monotheism of
St. Paul : the Godhead, the Trinity of his worship, is a
sublime unity. To this Eternal. Incorruptible One be
glory and honour unto the ages of the ages. Amen."

Eternal. —More accurately rendered, (to the King)
of the ages. The King of the Ages is the sovereign
dispenser and disposer of the ages of the world.
There is no reference at all here to the Gnostic
aeons.

Immortal (or incorruptible). — This epithet and the
following one — " invisible " — are connected with " God,"
not, with the preceding clause, " to the King of the
Ages." God is immortal, in contrast with the beings
of earth, and —

183

Invisible, in contrast with the visible creation.

The only wise God.— The only God, the most
ancient authorities omitting " wise." " Only," as in
chap. vi. 15 : " the blessed and only potentate." M The
only God," a contrast to the multitude of created
spirits, angels, principalities, powers, &c. (See 1 Cor.
viii. 5, 6.)

For ever and ever. — Literally, to the ages of the
ages, to all eternity — a Hebraistic expression for a
duration of time superlatively (infinitely) long.

(18) This charge I commit unto thee, son
Timothy.— The nature of the eharge which he com-
mitted to Timothy must be gathered from the solemn
words and thoughts of the foregoing passage— verses
15, 16. The sum of it was that men should put their
whole trust in Him who came into the world to save
sinners, and who alone was able to lead them into ever-
lasting life. There is something very solemn in St.
Paul's pressing home this charge to Timothy, and in-
voking the memory of the prophecies which went before
on him. The charge was the last precious heritage, the
pi'iceless treasure which the old master, feeling that for
him the end was not far distant, would leave to his
favourite disciple — his own dear son in the faith.
Anxious above measure for the loved group of Asian
churches, of which Ephesus was the centre, foreseeing
that the present perils and dangers from within and
without would rapidly close round the congregations,
and placing his greatest earthly hope on the steadfast-
ness and knowledge of his own dear disciple whom lie
had left there as a shepherd to the sheep, he charges
his son Timothy, by the memory of those strange pro-
phetic utterances which, years before, had been made
over him (Acts xvii. 1, 2) in Lystra or Derbe, and which,
perhaps, liad first induced him to choose the young son
of Eunice as his friend and companion, to hold fast
the blessed doctrine which taught men to put their
whole trust in Jesus Christ.

According to the prophecies which went
before on thee. — These prophetic utterances seem to
have been not unfrequent in the days of the Apostles,
and were among the precious gifts which enriched and
encouraged the Church of the first days. We read of
them at Jerusalem (Acts xi. 27, 28), at Antioch (Acts
xiii. 1, 2), at Corinth (1 Cor. xiv.), at Csesarea (Acts
xxi. 8—10).

In the case of Timothy they appear to have been far-
seeing glances into the life and the work and the
teaching of the future Christian leader; here the last
named — the doctrine and teaching— is especially re-
ferred to. The prophecies in question were uttered, no
doubt, over him at his ordination, and, possibly, some of
them at his baptism.

That thou by them mightest war a good
warfare. — Better rendered, that thou in them, &c.
St. Paul committed the sacred charge to Timothy con-
cerning the faith in full confidence that, in accordance
with those well-remembered glorious predictions which
had been made foretelling his future zeal and success
in the promulgation of the gospel, tliat in these —
accoutred in these as his spiritual protection and

Of some, who have made

I. TIMOTHY, II.

Shipwreck concerning FaitJu

that thou by them mightest war a good
warfare ; <1S)) holding faith, and a good
conscience ; which some having put
away concerning faith have made ship-
wreck : (20) of whom is Hymenseus and
Alexander : whom I have delivered unto

A.D. 65.
Or, desire.

Satan, that they may learn not to
blaspheme.

CHAPTER II.— W I exhort1 there-
fore, that, first of all, supplications,
prayers, intercessions, and giving of

armour — Timothy would wage his warfare against sin
and evil.

St. Paul's words in this verse may be thus para-
phrased : I give this charge to you, son Timothy, in
accordance with those well-remembered predictions
respecting your future steadfastness in doctrine and
in life. I remind you now of them. Do not disap-
point these grand hopes — these prophecies of your
future — but bear them ever in your mind. Equip
yourself in them as your spiritual armour, and so
armed, fight your Master's fight against sin and evil
— eine gute Ritterschaft, according to Luther.

The war imagery here used St. Paul employs again
and again : the good warfare. (Comp. chap. vi. 12.)
To the old, tried Apostle a Christian's life is a warfare
in the truest sense of the word : to every believer it
is a weary, painful campaign. In the case of the
professed teachers a sleepless vigilance was especially
demanded.

(19) Holding faith, and a good conscience.—
Again, as in verse 5, the Apostle joins " faith " and
" the conscience undefiled." In the mind of St. Paul,
"want of faith" was no mere refusal to accept a
definite religious dogma, but was ever closely con-
nected with impurity and the love of sin. If a man
dares to do wilful violence to his better nature he must
not presume to dream of faith saving him. The
thought expressed by another inspired teacher seems
to run constantly in the mind of St. Paul : " The devils
also believe and tremble."

Which some. — " Some." A quiet reference here
is made to those false teachers who seem to have been
doing such evil work at Ephesus among the Christian
believers, and against whom Timothy is so urgently
warned to be on his guard in the 6th and following
verses of the chapter.

Having put away.— The simile in St. Paul's mind
is a nautical one. The " good conscience " represents the
ballast, or cargo, of the ship. , When this is put away —
tossed overboard — the vessel becomes unmanageable
and is tossed about, the plaything of the waves, and in
the end is wrecked.

(20) of whom is Hymenseus and Alexander.—
Here the Apostle names two, as examples of the utter
shipwreck of all true faith — persons evidently well
known to Timothy and the members of the Church at
Ephesus. Hymenaeus is probably identical with the
heretic of that name, charged, in the Second Epistle
to Timothy, with teaching that the resurrection was
already passed, thus undermining the great hope which
Christian faith so firmly laid hold of. In the second
letter to the Presbyter presiding over the Ephesian
congregations the fundamental error was specified on
account of which this Hymenseus was excommunicated.

Alexander. — It would be unsafe positively to
identify this person with the personal adversary of St.
Paul alluded to in the Second Epistle, iv. 14, there
spoken of as " Alexander the coppersmith," or with
the Alexander mentioned in Acts xix. 33. The name
was a very common one. Of the Alexander of Acts
xix. 33 we know nothing; from the circumstances in

connection with which he is there mentioned, which
took place some ten years before this Epistle was
written, he seems to have been a Jew.

Whom I have delivered unto Satan.— In this
fearful formula the offender is delivered over to Satan,
the evil one. It is a solemn excommunication or expul-
sion from the Church, accompanied with the inflic-
tion of bodily disease or death. In ordinary cases, tho
offender was quietly expelled from the Christian
society. But an Apostle, and only an Apostle, seems to
have possessed the awful powers of inflicting bodily
suffering in the forms of disease and death. Certain
special instances of the exercise of these tremendous
powers are recorded in the eases of Ananias a«d Sapphira,
Elymas, the incestuous person at Corinth, and the men
here alluded to. The fear of Simon Magus, related in
Acts viii. 24, seems to have been aroused by his evident
expectation that this well-known apostolic power would
be put in force in his case. It is, however, noticeable
that this punishment was not necessarily, in the case
of disease, an irrevocable sentence. The tnio end and
purpose of this, as of all divine punishments, was not
revenge for the sin, but the ultimate recovery of the
sinner.

II.

(!) I exhort therefore.— Now Timothy was to
begin to carry out his master St. Paul's great charge —
the charge which bade him teach all men to put their
entire, their perfect, trust in the Saviour of sinners — by
instructing the Church of Ephesus, in the first place, to
pray constantly for all sorts and conditions of men.
The detailed injunctions how the charge was to be
carried out are introduced by the Greek particle oun,
translated in our version by " therefore ; " it may be
paraphrased thus : " In pursuance of my great charge,
1 proceed by special details ; in the first place, let prayers
for oil be offered by the congregation."

Supplications, prayers, intercessions, and
giving of thanks.— Many attempts, some of them
not very happy ones, have been made by grammarians
and commentators to distinguish between these terms,
each of which denotes prayer. On the whole, it may
be assumed that the Greek word translated " supplica-
tions" signifies a request for particular benefits, and
is a special form of the more general word rendered
"prayers," Tho third expression in the English
version translated " intercessions " suggests a closer
and more intimate communion with God on the part of
the one praying. It speaks of drawing near God, of
entering into free, familiar speech with Him. The
Greek word suggests prayer in its most individual,
urgent form. The fourth term, "giving of thanks,"
expresses that which ought never to be absent from any
of our devotions, gratitude for past mercies. Arch-
bishop Trench remarks how this peculiar form of
prayer will subsist in heaven when, in the very
nature of things, all other forms of prayer will have
ceased in the entire fruition of the things prayed for,
for then only will the redeemed know how much they
owe to their Lord. The word eiicharist is derived from

Concerning

I. TIMOTHY, II.

Public Prayer.

thanks, be made for all men ; <2> for

Chap. ii. 1—8. kings, and for all that are

General toec- in authority;1 that we may
tion respecting . J » /

public prayer, lead a quiet and peaceable

1 Or, eminent place .

life in all godliness and honesty. <3> For
this is good and acceptable in the sight
of God our Saviour; (4) who will have
all men to be saved, and to come unto

the Greek word used in this place — eucharistia — for
in the Holy Communion the Church embodies its
highest act of thanksgiving for the highest benefits
received.

For all men. — Professor Reynolds well com-
ments on the hardness of the task set us here — "It is
difficult for us always to love all men, to think of all
men as equally dear to God, or to regard all men as
equally capable of being blessed. Timothy, after read-
ing this letter, probably walked along the marble
colonnade of the great temple of Artemis, or heard the
hum of some twenty thousand Asiatic Greeks crowded
in tho vast theatre to witness the gladiatorial fight, or
encountered a procession of Bacchantes, or turned into
the synagogue on the side of the Coresias and saw the
averted looks, and felt the bitter hatred of some old
friends. We, with some knowledge of the modern
world, have to look into the ' hells ' upon earth ; to
survey the gold-fields and battle-fields; the African
slave-hunts; the throngs and saloons of Pekin, Cal-
cutta, and Paris ; the monasteries of Tibet ; and make
prayers, petitions, intercessions, and thanksgivings, too,
on behalf of all men. In the beginning of the Gospel,
Timothy received this quiet injunction from the Apostle
Paul. Now the once whispered word peals like the
voice of many waters and mighty thunderings over the
whole Church of God."

(2) For kings, and for all that are in authority.
— Without any special reference to the Roman empe-
rors, the expression simply directs that prayer should be
offered in all Christian congregations for the supreme
authorities of the Roman empire, and especially of
that particular province in which the church, where the
prayer was offered, happened to be situate. Josephus
especially mentions how a refusal on the part of the
Jews to pray for Roman magistrates led to the great
war with the empire which ended in their destruction
as a separate nation.

A well-known passage in the Apology of Tertullian,
written about a century and a quarter after St. Paul
sent his first letter to Timothy, shows how well and
carefully this charge of the great teacher, written to the
Church in Ephesus, was kept in distant Carthage : — "We
Christians .... do intercede for all the emperors
that their lives may be prolonged, their government be
secured to them, that their families maybe preserved in
safety, their senates faithful to them, their armies
brave, their people honest, and that the whole empire
may be at peace, and for whatever other things are
desired by the people or the Caesar."

Eai'ly in the second century, Polycarp of Smyrna
bears similar testimony to this practice in the early
Church of praying publicly for their heathen rulers : —
"Pray for all the saints; pray, too, for all kings and
powers and rulers, and for your persecutors, and those
that hate you, and for your cruel enemies."

That we may lead a quiet and peaceable
life. — What now is the special object of this prayer
for those in high authority and power? First, that
through their wise rule the Christians might enjoy
peace : and, second, that the temper of tho people who
prayed thus for the ruling powers might be so affected
by the constant repetition of such prayers : that all

thoughts of revolt and resistance would be gradually
stamped out.

St. Paid knew whom he was addressing. The Chris-
tian congregations of his age were largely made up
of Jews. An intense longing to throw off the yoke of
Rome pervaded the whole nation. The terrible events
of the year 70 (only four or five years at most from
the time of writing this Epistle) show how deep-seated
was their hatred of the stranger. No Christian, how-
ever, was implicated in that fatal rebellion ; so thoroughly
had the teaching of St. Paul and his fellow Apostles
done its work among the Jewish followers of tho
Crucified.

In all godliness and honesty.— The word
rendered " honesty " is better translated gravity, or
decorum. Theso words are only used by St. Paul in
his Pastoral Epistles, where "godliness" occurs nine
times, and "gravity" three times. The sphere, so to
speak, in which St. Paul's ideal Christian must walk
during his quiet, unobtrusive pilgrimage, was reverence
and decorum.

(3) For this is good and acceptable.— That
prayer be offered for all sorts and conditions of men
is good and acceptable before God.

In the sight of God our Saviour.— Here, as in
chap. i. 1, this title of "Saviour" is given to the
Father, and is in this place singularly applicable, as it
immediately precedes the famous statement of tho next
verse, respecting the boundless mercy of the Eternal.

(4) Who will have all men to be saved, and
to come unto the knowledge of the truth.—
Here St. Paul gives some explanation of his exhorta-
tion, that " the congregation should pray for all men."
Our prayers after all — for those far off, as well as for
those near — will be in strict harmony with the will of
God. " Imitate God," writes St. Chrysostom ; " if He
wills that all men should be saved, it is surely natural
that prayer should be offered for all ; if He willed that
all should be saved, do thou will it now; and if in
earnest thou wiliest it, then pray."

One or two points must ever be held in mind when
this great statement of St, Paul's is used as a proof
of " Universal Redemption." We must remember the
position it occupies in flie argument, it being only in-
troduced as a reason for the exhortation to pray for all.
Then the words must be looked at very carefully. God's
will is not to save (sosai) all — if that had been His
sovereign will He would have saved all ; but His will
is that all should be saved — all should come to the
knowledge of the truth; not to the knowledge of the
mere theoretical, but of the practical and saving truth
as revealed in the gospel. " In other words, through
the sacrifice and the death of Christ all are rendered
capable of salvation [salvabiles) ; ihat some are indis-
putably not saved, is not due to any outward circum-
scription or inefficacy of the divine will, but to man's
rejection of the special means of salvation which God
has been pleased to appoint, and to which it is His
divine will that man's salvation should be limited.
Redemption is universal, yet conditional — all may
be saved, yet all will not be saved, because all will
not conform to God's appointed condition." — Bishop
Ellicott.

185

Why Prayer must

the knowledge of the truth. ^ For
there is one God, and one mediator
between God and men, the man Christ
Jesus ; ('5^ who gave himself a ransom
for all, to be testified1 in due time.

X TIMOTHY, II.

be made for all.

W Whereunto I am ordained a preacher,
and an apostle, (I speak the truth in
Christ, and lie not ;) a teacher of the
Gentiles in faith and verity. *8> I will
therefore that men pray every where,

(5) For there is one God, and one mediator
between God and men, the man Christ Jesus.

— " For." This gives the reason why it is good and well-
pleasing in the sight of God that Christians should
pray for all — for there is one Saviour, God the Father,
who wills that all should be saved, and there is one
Mediator, Christ Jesus, who has given Himself as ran-
som for all. Surely then, to lis who call ourselves by
the name of Christ, the fate of the heathen who as yet
know not Christ cannot be a matter of indifference.
We must in our praise and prayer include these
strangers whom the Father wills should come to Him,
for whose sake the Son has given his life.

The man Christ Jesus. — St. Paul with special em-
phasis speaks of the " one Mediator between God and
man " as " the man Christ Jesus/' no doubt wishing to
bring into prominence the true humanity of the Lord.
It is also a silent refutation of the docetic errors of some
of the false teachers, of whose doctrines Timothy was
to beware. These would have persuaded men that the
Christ Jesus who was nailed to the cross was no man,
but simply a phantom.

The human nature of Christ is also specially men-
tioned because in this state He performed His office as
Mediator. In the statement of the next verse we find
another reason for St. Paul's allusion here to the fact
of the Mediator being a man. The Messiah must have
taken the human nature upon Him before He could
have suffered that death which was the ransom of all.
Again, the human nature of the Mediator is brought
forward to show that the mediatorial office extended
over the whole human race — a grand thought, expressed
in the following words — " who gave Himself a ransom
for all."

(6> Who gave himself a ransom for aU.—
The declaration (of verse 5) that there was one God for
fallen man would have been scarcely a joyful proclama-
tion had it not been immediately followed by the
announcement that between that one God and sinning
man there was a mediator. Now (in verse 6) we have
in a few words the inspired description of the manner
in which the Mediator performed His office and work ;
of His own free sovereign will ; He yielded up Himself
to death as the price of the redemption of all man-
kind— His life in exchange for their forfeited lives.

St. Paul's teaching here is Arery definite, and is utterly
irreconcilable with much of the popular (so-called)
theology of the day, which rejects this great Christian
doctrine, so clearly taught here by St. Paul, of a
" satisfactio vicaria." This teaching asserts, that
without pleading the death of Christ, we may, if we
please, approach and find access to the Father, and
such teaching as this passage shows is irreconcilable
with gospel truth.

To be testified in due time.— Better rendered,
"* witness of which was to be borne in its own times.
The meaning of the words is, " Jesus Christ in the
eternal counsels, gave Himself to death as the price of
the redemption of fallen man ; at the appointed and
fitting season He endured this death — this death was
the witness to the truth of the tremendous offering
made in the counsels of the eternal and ever-blessed

Trinity. So St. Chrysostom, who asserts that "the
witness to be borne " was given in the death and suf-
fering of the Lord.

Co Whereunto I am ordained a preacher, and
an apostle . . . — Whereunto, or "for which witness."
To announce which witness — the witness being the
suffering and the death of Christ — St. Paul was
ordained an Apostle — the reference being entirely to
what preceded.

I speak the truth . . . and lie not.— The warmth
with which St. Paul here asserted his divinely conferred
commission as preacher and Apostle, was not called
out by any desire on his part to seize an occasion
of asserting in the presence of his enemies, the false
heretical teachers of Ephesus, his especial rank and
prerogatives as an Apostle chosen and commissioned by
the Most High. These fiery and earnest words had no
private reference to him, St. Paul, or to his especial
claims to be heard, but were uttered solely in view of the
surpassing magnitude of the message with which he was
charged — solely to bear a weighty and imposing testi-
mony to the truth of his assertion, which so many were
ready and eager to dispute — the assertion that the
gospel of Jesus Christ was a message of glad tidings,
was an offer of salvation, not to a people, but to a
world.

A teacher of the Gentiles. — This specifies
more clearly the especial duties of his apostleship, not
perhaps without some reference to the peculiar fitness
which marked him out as the declarer of the divine will
in respect to this gracious offer of redemption to the isles
of the scattered countless Gentiles.

In faith and verity. — Better rendered, in faith
and tridh. These wrords specify the sphere in which
the Apostle performed his great mission. The first,
" in faith," refers to St. Paul's own personal faith in
Jesus — the grand motive power of his life and work ;
the second, " in truth," refers to the truth of Chris-
tianity—to the wTell-known facts of the gospel story. Or,
in other words, St. Paul carried on his ceaseless labours,
within gathering fresh and ever fresh strength from
the exhaustless spring of his own loving, mighty faith
in Jesus, and without appealing to the generally well-
known incidents of the life. <leath, and resurrection of
Jesus, the truth of which all might test. In those
days there were even many eye-witnesses of the Passion
still living.

<8) I will therefore. — The Apostle here again
turns to the subject of " public prayer," now giving
directions respecting the persons who should offer their
prayers, and also telling them how these public requests
to God should be made. " I will therefore " expresses
on St. Paul's part no mere wish or desire, but it is the
expression of his solemn apostolical authority. It might
be rendered, I desire therefore.

That men pray every where . . . — Better ren-
dered, in every place. The greater liberty which
women, under the teaching of Christ, had enjoyed ; the
new position they occupied in the Christian common-
wealth ; the distinguished services many of them had
been permitted to accomplish in the Master's service —
in such instances as the Marys, Dorcas, Priscilla, Lydia,

Thr Men are to Pray in Public.

I. TIMOTHY. II.

Tin Womsn are to Preserve Siley

lifting- up holy hands, without wrath and
Chap. ii. 8-15. doubting. <9> In like man-
Of the pari to ner also, that women adorn
^s^publlc themselves in modest ap-
prayer. parel, with shamefacedness

and sobriety; not with broided1 hair, or

gold, or pearls, or, costly array ; <10> but
(which becometh women professing god-
liness) with good works. n) Let the
woman learn in silence with all subjec-
tion. W But I suffer not a woman to
teach, nor to usurp authority over the

and others — had no doubt contributed to a certain self-
assertion on the part of female converts in the Ephesian
congregations, which threatened grave disorders in the
conduct of divine worship. St. Paul, in his directions re-
specting divine service in the Christian assemblies, fol-
lows the custom here of the Jewish synagogue, where
women were forbidden to speak. Men, said St. Paul,
in every place where a congregation in the name of
Christ was gathered together; were to bo the offerers
of prayer. The word *' everywhere " seems a memory
of the Lord's words to the woman of Samaria,
"Believe me, the hour cometh when ye shall neither
in this mountain, nor yet at Jerusalem, worship the
Father."

Lifting up holy hands.— It was the Jewish
practice, not only in taking a solemn oath — or in bless-
ing— but also in prayer, to lift up the hands — Compare
Psalm xxviii. 2 ; lxiii. 4. This seems to have been ge-
nerally adopted by the early Christians as the attitude
in prayer. See Clem. Rom., To the Corinthians, chap,
xxix. "Holy hands;" see Psalm xxiv. 4; xxvi. b' ;
if holy " — that is, unstained with wanton sins.

Without wrath and doubting.— Here allusion
is doubtless made to religious disputes and contentions
among the believers themselves — " doubting " is better
translated by disputing. These angry feelings can have
no place in the heart of one who really prays, whether
in public or in private.

(9) In like manner also, that women.— The
Apostle continues his official injunctions in reference to
public prayer. " Likewise," he goes on to say, " I desire
that women, when they pray" — women also in the con-
gregation had their duties as well as the men — while
the latter were directed to conduct and lead the public
prayer, the women who worshipped with them were
enjoined, as their part of the solemn service, to be
present, adorned with neatness of apparel and modesty
of demeanoui-, and the holy reputation of kind deeds.

Adorn themselves in modest apparel.— This
direction to Christian women was not intended to apply
to their ordinary dress in the world, but simply ex-
plained to the sisters of the Ephesian flock that their
place in public worship was one of quiet attention —
that their reverence and adoration must be shown not
by thrusting themselves forward with a view to public
teaching or public praying, but by being present and
taking part silently — avoiding especially in these ser-
vices anything like a conspicuous dress or showy orna-
ments— anything, in fact, which would be likely to
arouse attention, or distract the thoughts of others.

With shamefacedness and sobriety.— These
expressions denote the inward feelings with which the
Apostle desires the devout Christian women to come to
divine service ; the first signifies " the innate shrinking
from anything unbecoming." The second, sobriety,
includes the idea of self-restraint — the conquest over
"11 wanton thought and desire.

Not with brbided hair.— Comp. 1 Pet, iii. 3;
Isa. iii. 24. "Broided:" the modern form is "braided."
Some modern editions give " broidered," apparently by
mistake.

Or gold.— Probably, the " gold

be twined among the plaits of the hai
lil '

187

supposed to
These ela-
borate adornments, so likely to catch the eye at divine
worship, were quite inconsistent with Christian simpli-
city, besides being calculated to distract the attention of
their fellow worshippers, male as well as female. On this
question of seemly, quiet apparel, in an assembly gath-
ered for divine worship, see the difficult verse, 1 Cor.
xi. 10, where another and a still graver reason for
modest demeanour and apparel of women is alleged —
" because of the angels."

Pearls, or costly array.— Ear-rings, necklaces,
bracelets, are included here; these costly ornaments
were worn by the ladies of the luxurious age in which
St. Paul lived, in great profusion.

(10) But (which becometh women professing
godliness) with good works. — That is to say.
'• Let them adorn themselves in that which is befitting
women who profess godliness— viz., in good works." The
Apostle, still speaking of women's true part in pub-
lic divine service — urges that their works should be in
accord with their words of prayer — tells them that a
woman's truest and most beautiful ornament Consisted
in those tender works of mercy and pity — her peculiar
province — in other words, that they, like Dorcas of
Joppa, whoso praise is in the Book of Life, " should be
full of good works and alms deeds " (Acts ix. 36).

(ii) Let the woman learn in silence.— The
thought of public ministration is still in. the Apostle's
mind, when he gives this injunction. The very ques-
tioning on difficult points is forbidden them at the public
assembly (1 Corinth, xiv. 3o). So averse was St. Paul
to anything which might mar the quiet solemnity of
these meetings for prayer and praise and authoritative
instruction.

This prohibition to speak publicly in assemblies for
prayer and praise in the case of Christian women, was
renewed in the North African Church, at the Council
of Carthage, held a.d. 398. The same Council, how-
ever, specially permitted women to teach those of their
own sex in private ; indeed, the power to teach " ignorant
and rustic women " was required as one qualification
in deaconesses. The employment of deaconesses as
private instructors seems to have been the custom
generally in the Eastern Churches.

(12> But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to
usurp authority over the man, but to be in
silence. — The whole purpose of these weighty admo-
nitions of the great founder of the Gentile Churches
relegates Christian women to their own legitimate sphere
of action and influence — the quiet of their own homes.
St. Paul caught well the spirit of his Master here. He
raised once and for ever the women of Christ out of the
position of degradation and intellectual inferiority they
had occupied in the various pagan systems of the East
and West, and taught with all the weight of an Apostle —
of an accredited teacher of divine wisdom — that woman
was a fellow-heir with man of the glories of the kingdom.
— where sex would exist no longer; but while teaching
this great and elevating truth, St. Paul shows what is
the only proper sphere in which woman should work, and

The Reason for the

I. TIMOTHY, III.

Subordination of Women.

man, but to be in silence. (13) For Adam
was first formed, then Eve. <14) And
Adam was not deceived, but the woman
being deceived was in the transgression.
^ Notwithstanding she shall be saved

in childbearing, if they continue in
faith and charity and holiness with
sobriety.

CHAPTEE III.— (i) This

a true

in which she should exercise her influence and power ;
while man's work and duties lay in the busy world
without, woman's work was exclusively confined to the
quiet stillness of home. The Apostle then proceeds to
ground these injunctions respecting the duties in public
and private of the two sexes upon the original order of
creation, and upon the circumstances which attended
the fall.

U8) For Adam was first formed, then Eve.—
The Holy Spirit seems often (comp. especially Gal. iii.
16 and following verses, and iv. 22 and following
verses, and 1 Cor. x. 1 — 10) to have moved St. Paul
to weave into the tapestry of his arguments and ex-
hortations to the different churches, facts and principles
drawn from Old Testament history. His early training
in the great Rabbinical schools of Jerusalem had well
supplied him with a vast store of this Old Testament
learning.

The argument here based on priority of creation is
much assisted by the additional statement of 1 Cor.
xi. 9, " neither was the man created for the woman, but
the woman for the man." This teaching of St. Paul's
respecting the public position of woman as regards man,
in which he shows that she is to hold a subordinate
place — is based upon no arbitrary human speculation,
but upon God's original order in creation — that divine
order which first created man, and after man's creation,
formed woman as his helpmeet.

(i*) And Adam was not deceived. — Priority in
creation was the ground alleged by St. Paul as the reason
why the woman was never to exercise authority over
man, the eldest born of God. " Adam was not
deceived ; " the Apostle now refers to the general basis
of his direction respecting the exclusion of women
from all public praying and teaching contained in
verses 9 — 12. The argument here is a singular one —
Adam and Eve both sinned, but Adam was not
deceived. He sinned, quite aware all the while of the
magnitude of the sin he was voluntarily committing.
Eve, on the other hand, was completely, thoroughly
deceived (the preposition with which the Greek verb
is compounded here conveying the idea of thorough-
ness)— she succumbed to the serpent's deceit. Both
were involved in the sin, but only one (Eve) allowed
herself to be deluded. So Bengel, " Deceptio indicat
minus robur in intellectu, atque hie nervus est cur
mulieri nan liceat docere." Prof. Reynolds thus com-
ments on the argument of the Apostle : — " This may
sound to our ears a far-fetched argument, when used
to discountenance female usurpation of intellectual
supremacy. It was, howeArer, a method current at
the time to look for and find in the Scriptures
the concrete expressions of almost all philosophical
judgments. At the present day, we could hardly find
a more vivid illustration of the essential difference
between the masculine and feminine nature. If there
be this distinction between the sexes, that distinction
still furnishes the basis of an argument and a reason
for the advice here rendered. The catastrophe of
Eden is the beacon for all generations when the sexes
repeat the folly of Eve and Adam, and exchange their
distinctive position and functions."

188

(is) Notwithstanding she shall be saved in
childbearing. — The last words are more accurately
and forcibly rendered — through the childbearing. With
that tender and winning courtesy to which, no doubt,
humanly speaking, the great missionary owes so much
of his vast influence over human hearts, St. Paul, now
anxious lest he had wounded with his severe words and
stern precepts his Ephesian sisters in Christ, closes
his charge to women with a few touching words, bright
with the glorious promise they contained. Though
their life duties must be different from those of men — yet
for them, too, as for men, there was one glorious goal;
but for them — the women of Christ — the only road to the
goal was the faithful, true carrying out of the quiet home
duties he had just sketched out for them. In other
words, women will win the great salvation ; but if they
would win it, they must fulfil their destiny ; they must
acquiesce in all the conditions of a woman's life — in
the forefront of which St. Paul places the all-important
functions and duties of a mother.

This is apparently the obvious meaning of the
Apostle's words — all this lies on the surface — but
beneath all this the reverent reader can hardly fail to
see another and deeper reference (the presence of the
article, "through the childbearing," gives us the clue)
— "she shall be saved by the childbearing " (the Incar-
nation) by the relation in which woman stood to the
Messiah, in consequence of the primal prophecy that
her seed (not man's) should bruise the serpent's head
(Gen. iii. 15), the peculiar function of her sex, from its
relation to her Saviour, "shall be the medium of her
salvation." (See Bishop Ellieott, in loco.)

If they continue in faith and charity and
holiness with sobriety.— But let no one think that
the true saintly woman, painted with such matchless
skill by St. Paul, satisfies the conditions of her life by
merely fulfilling the duties of a mother.

She must besides, if she would win her crown, hold
fast to the Master's well-known teaching, which enjoins
on all His own disciples, men as well as women, faith
and love, holiness and modesty. The last word, "mo-
desty," or discretion, or sobriety (all poor renderings of
the Greek sophrosune, which includes, besides, the idea
of a fight with and a victory over self), brings back the
thoughts to the beautiful Pauline conception of a true
woman, who wins her sweet and weighty power in the
world by self-effacement.

III.

(i) This is a true saying.— There is no reason
why the rendering of this formula adopted in chap,
i. 15, " faithful is this saying," should be altered here.
The " faithful saying " here refers to the wish for high
and arduous work in the Church of Christ, and declares
such a wish to be a noble one; for the office in question
was a beautiful one, and honourable, and in those days
meant stern and ceaseless work, grave and constant
danger. It was no doubt one of the well-known sayings
among the brethren of the first days, and not impro-
bably, with the other " faithful sayings " of this group
of Epistles, formed a part of their liturgy, and was woven
into some of their special prayers offered in public

Qualifications necessary

I. TIMOTHY, III.

for a Presbyter,.

Chap. iii. 1 — 13. The saying, If a man

qualifications of bishops desire the office
or presbyters (elders) 1 r. -, . , ,

-7), and of deacons 8 of a bishop, he

—13). desireth a good

I work. <2) A bishop then must be

I blameless, the husband of one wife,

i or, modest vigilant, sober, of good behaviour,1

given to hospitality, apt to teach;

Perhaps this "faithful saying" was a portion of a
prayer offered not (infrequently in the public assembly,
asking that volunteers might be moved by the Holy
Ghost to present themselves for the then dangerous
office of ordained ministers of the Word.

'" Well might a man desire the office of chief pastor;
it was indeed a good work ; " but, in the first place,
such a dignity could only be held by one possessing
many qualities, then and there enumerated.

If a man desire the office of a bishop. — More
accurately rendered, If a man seeketh. In tin? Pastoral
Epistles the Greek words rendered " bishop " and
"presbyter" or elder (episcopos, presbuteros), are ap-
plied indifferently to the same person, for up to this
period (a.d. 65 — 6) no necessity had arisen in the consti-
tution of the Church for the appointment of a special
order of superintending presbyters. The numbers of the
members of the brotherhood) though every year showing
a vast increase, were still, compai'atively speaking,
.small. St. Peter, St. Paul, St. James and St. John,
and certainly the majority of the apostolic college,
were still living; while, till a.d. 70, the Jerusalem
congregation still acted as the central authority of the
Church, and grave questions continued to be referred
to the Fathers resident there.

Early in the second century, however, there is not a
shadow of doubt that the episcopal office, as we under-
stand it. was widely established. During the last thirty
years, then, of the first century, this great change in
Church organisation must have been effected — that
is, during the life-time of St. John. How this was
brought about is admirably stated by Professor Rothe,
of Heidelberg, as quoted by Canon Lightfoot in his
dissertation on the Christian ministry (Commentary
on the Epistle to the Philippians). who, without
accepting all the details suggested, still in the main
agrees with the famous Heidelberg professor in his
theory respecting the very early establishment of epis-
copacy in the Catholic Church. After painting the
distractions and growing dissensions of the Church,
occasioned by the jealousies between the Jewish and
Gentile brethren, and the menacing apparition of the
Gnostic heresy, Rothe states how, in the face of this
great emergency, St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. James were
carried away by death almost at the same time ; while,
with the overthrow of Jerusalem very shortly after,
the visible centre of the Church was removed, the key-
stone of the fabric was withdrawn, and the whole edifice
was threatened with ruin. There was a crying need for
some organisation which should cement together the
diverse elements of Christian society, and preserve it
from disintegration. Out of this need the Catholic
Church in its episcopal character arose. From notices
in Eusebius, Irenseus, and Clement of Rome, Rothe
(quoted by Lightfoot) concludes "that, immediately
after the fall of Jerusalem, a council of the surviving
Apostles and first teachers of the gospel was held to
deliberate on the ci'isis, and to frame measures for the
well-being of the Church. The centre of the system
thus organised was episcopacy, which at once secured
the compact and harmonious working of each individual
congregation, and. as the link of communication be-
tween the separate brotherhoods, formed the whole

189

into one undivided Catholic Church. Recommended
by this high authority, the new constitution was im-
mediately and generally adopted."

He desireth a good work.— The office of a pres-
byter of the Church in the days of St. Paul was a difficult
and dangerous post. It involved much labour ; it was
full of risk ; it meant a hard and severe life ; yet. from
the Christian's standpoint, it was a work, if faithfully
performed, of all toils the most beautiful, the most
honourable, the most noble. " Neyotium non otium"
comments Bengel, in his usual pithy, untranslatable
way.

(2) A bishop then must be blameless. — Now
follow the various social and moral characteristics of
the appointed and recognised officers of the Christian
Church — the presbyters or bishops, and the junior
ministers, the deacons. The second chapter had treated
of the duties of congregations collectively in the matter
of public prayer ; the third chapter speaks of the
special character and qualities necessary for the rulera
of these congregations. These "elders" must, in the
first place, be men whose character .is unimpeachable — ■
men who stand high in public estimation, known for
their pure life and spotless integrity. Not only must
believers reverence the character of the superintending
and riding elders of their community, but even those
outside the brotherhood of Christ must respect the life
and conversation of these prominent and conspicuous
members of a society which, from the nature of things,
woidd be sure to provoke distrust and jealousy.

The husband of one wife.— The general opinion
of the most ancient writers — the decisions of Church
councils when the question seems to have been placed
•before them — the custom of the great Greek Church,
which, while permitting a single nuptial, still regarded
the repetition of the marriage relation as a disqualifica-
tion for the higher grade of the episcopate — tell us in
general terms that the opinion of the Church from the
earliest times interprets this saying of St. Paul as a
declaration against second marriages in the case of
those seeking the office of presbyter or deacon. Tho
Greek Church evidently accepts this interpretation,
though it relaxes the rule in the case of the inferior
orders.

There seems, however, good reason for doubting the
accuracy of this popular interpretation, which appears,
by thus casting a reproach upon second marriages,
to urge a spirit of asceticism on all Christian society,
very foreign to St. Paul's usual teaching, which was
content with gently inculcating a higher and a purer life
as alone in accordance with the mind of his pitiful and
loving Master. It was only by slow degrees that he
hoped to raise the tone of society and public opinion in
this world.

Inspired Christian teaching was careful not to dis-
tract the everyday life of men and women by insisting
on sudden and violent changes. The behaviour of the
great Christian teachers in the matter of that terrible
and universal practice of slavery should be especially
noted.

When we ask. What then did St. Paul mean by these
words? we must picture to ourselves the state of
society in the empire at the time when the Apostle

Q tta It fictitious necessary

I. TIMOTHY, III.

for a Presbj/ten

W not given to wine,1 no striker, not ] °r- -Vo* ready to

O 7 5 </mirrd,<tn<t offer

greedy of filthy lucre; but patient, %%*> """"**
not a brawler, not covetous ; (4) one that

ruleth well his own house, having his
children in subjection with all gravity ;
W (for if a man know not how to rule

wrote to Timothy. An inundation of Eastern luxury
and Eastern morals had submerged all the old Roman
habits of austere simplicity. TI13 long civil war and
the subsequent license of the empire had degraded the
character of the people. The period when St. Paul wrote
was especially marked by an extreme depravity. A
great and general indisposition towards marriage at all,
and the orderly restraints of home and family life, had
become so marked a feature in Roman society, that we
find Augustus positively enacting laws against celibacy.
Another cause which helped to undermine the stability
of homo life and those family ties which ought to be
deemed so sacred, was the ease and frequency of
divorce, which Seneca, who may bo considered almost
as the contemporary of St. Paul, alludes to as incidents
no longer looked upon as shameful in Rome. He even,
in his indignation at the laxity of the morals of his day,
cites cases of women who reckoned their years rather by
their husbands than by the consuls. Martial writes of
a woman who had arrived at her tenth husband.
Juvenal speaks of one who, in five years, had had eight
husbands. Among the Jews we know polygamy was
then prevalent. St. Paul, fully conscious of this low
and debased moral tone which then pervaded all society
in the empire, in these few words condemned all illicit
relations between the sexes, and directed that in choos-
ing persons to fill holy offices in the congregations of
Christians, those should be selected who had married
and remained faithful to the wife of their choice,
whose life and practice would thus serve as an example
to the flock, and to whose homes men might point as
the pattern which Jesus loved, while the heathen world
around them would see that the hated and despised
Christians not only loved and honoured, but lived that
pure home life their own great moralists pressed so I
earnestly upon them, but in vain. This direction, which
requires that those to be selected to fill holy offices
should be known for their purity in their family rela- 1
tious, of course does not exclude — should any such offer
themselves — those men who, while contracting no I
marriage ties, still were known to lead upright, moral
lives.

Vigilant. — The Greek word here is more accurately I
rendered sober. The presbyter or elder should be sober- 1
minded, self-restrained, temperate (not merely in wine,
but in all things).

Sober. — Better rendered, discreet.

Of good behaviour. — Rather, orderly. This word
refers to outward conduct, to behaviour in public.

The Christian office-bearer must not only be wise
and self -restrained in himself, but his outward bearing
must in all respects correspond to his inner life.

Given to hospitality. — In the early days of
Christianity, when Christians travelling from one place
to another, were in the habit, when it was possible, of
resorting to the houses" of their brethren in the faith, to
avoid consorting with idolaters in the public inns. It
was of no slight importance that the presiding elders in
a congregation should be men who loved to entertain
strangers and others, from whom nothing could be
expected in return.

Apt to teach. — The elder should possess some-
thing more than a willingness, or glad readiness, to
teach the less instructed the mysteries of the faith.
He ought also to have the far rarer qualification of a

190

power to impart knowledge to others. Zeal is not by
any means the only, or even the principal, qualification
to be sought for in a minister of the Word.

(3) Not given to wine. — Drunkenness is scarcely
alluded to here. It is rather a warning against choos-
ing for the sacred office one given to frequenting noisy
banquets, where wild and imprudent words are often
spoken.

No striker. —Probably something more than merely
brawling and fighting may here be included. Not only
must the pattern minister of the Lord never smite
his brother believer, but he must also never wound
his soul with cutting, unkind words.

Wot greedy of filthy lucre.— The Greek word
thus translated does not occur in the older MSS. in this
place.

But patient. — God's minister must be considerate
toward the prejudices of others, forbearing, and gentle.

Not a brawler. — Better rendered, not contentious.
He must not be easily vexed ; but must exercise a steady
command over his temper, avoiding all wordy strife. .

Not covetous. — Literally, not a lover of money.
The disinterested minister, who cares nothing for
money for money's sake, would ever stand out in all
societies a strangely attractive figure.

(4) One that ruleth well" his own house.—
Paul here again turns to the vein of thought first
struck in verse 2 : The life of the officer in the Church
of God must be a pattern life for those without, as well as
for those within the Church's fold, to copy and imitate.
He must be pre-eminent in nobility of life and aims ;
but the life and the aims must belong to ordinary every-
day life. His high standard must be no inimitable one ;
the example must be one that all honest men may
follow and copy, if they will. So, first of all (verse 2),
the Apostle places among the qualities necessary for a
governing elder in the Church, the pure home life of
the husband ; then, after enumerating other points to be
sought for in the character of one chosen to rule in the
congregation, Paul comes back to this central idea,
the home life of the Church official; that home life
must present the spectacle of a well-ordered household.
This will be at least a good test of a man's fitness to
rule the large family gathered together in the form of
a congregation, if his own home is gently yet firmly
ruled ; the wife, a pattern Christian lady ; the children
growing up in the nurture and admonition of the
Lord.

Having his children in subjection with all
gravity.— The Greek word rendered "gravity" oc-
curs in chap. ii. 2, where it is translated in the autho-
rised version, not very happily, by " honesty." The
word employed in the original Greek denotes that
decorum, that propriety of demeanour, which belongs
especially to the pure and chaste, and seems to urge
that a peculiar reverence and an especial decorum shall
be aimed at in all relations with the young. Maxima
debetur pueris reverentia. The child life in the families
of these ministers of Christ's religion must, too, be an
example to countless other homes.

(5) For if a man know not how to rule his
own house, how shall he take care of the
church of God?— The well-ordered household, the
decent, modest behaviour, the reverent, affectionate
relations between parents and children, between the

Qualifications necessary

I. TIMOTHY, III.

for a Deacort.

his own house, how shall he take care
of the church of God?) (6) not a
novice,1 lest being lifted up with pride
he fall into the condemnation of the
devil. (7) Moreover he must have a

I good report of them which are without ;
lest he fall into reproach and the snare

, TitowL of the devil. ^ Likewise must the

deacons be grave, not doubletongued,
not given to much wine, not greedy of

master and the dependents — these things are to bo
the test of a man's fitness for holding high office in the
public community of believers, for, as Theodoret
observes, if ii man cannot rule decorously a small
community (such as a family), how shall he be judged
a fit person to be entrusted with administration
in a broader sphere — with duties which have to do with
divine things?

(<>) Not a novice.— In the Church of Ephesus, which,
when Paul wrote these charges to Timothy, had been
established some years, the chief pastor would have for
the church office an ample choice of disciples of some
considerable standing and experience. The word
" novice " here refers rather to want of experience
and standing in the Christian brotherhood than to
" youth." Timothy himself, to whom St. Paul was
writing, and whom the Apostle had placed over this
church, was at the time, comparatively speaking, still
a man young in years, although old in trials and
in Christian experiences.

Lest being lifted up with pride he fall into
the condemnation of the devil. — The Greek word
rendered here "being lifted up," would be more happily
Englished by being clouded or deluded. It marks the
pride or vanity engendered by the finding himself in a
position of authority for which no previous training and
experience had fitted him. Such a " novice " would be
in imminent danger of falling into the judgment passed
by God upon the devil, whose fall was owing to the same
blinding effect of pride.

(7) Moreover he must have a good report of
them which are without.— The man to be chosen
as a responsible office-bearer in the Church, shoidd be
one possessing a stainless reputation for integrity and
honour with the world outside the Church's pale ; he
should be one regarded by the world at large as having
led a self-restrained, decorous life — a life free from
those disorders and licentious practices which worldly
men, even while themselves indulging in them, are the
first to condemn in others.

Lest he fall into reproach and the snare of
the devil. — For such a one, bringing with him into
the new society his unhappy reputation, earned in the
old thoughtless days — if placed in the new society in
a prominent position of authority — would draw down
upon himself and the brotherhood over whom he pre-
sided many a reproach, many a sneer. Those who
once knew him among other associations living a very
different life, would bo only too ready to attack the
blameless character of the congregation, through the
stained and scarred reputation of their minister. The
temptation to fall away and deny his Lord in such
a ease, would be overwhelming. The man might be
in earnest, might be wishful to lead a new and better
life, but the risk that one with such connections,
with such memories of old days, would of necessity
run. must be very great. Weakened and disheartened,
such a presbyter would be likely to fall an easy prey
into some snare skilfully laid by the Enemy, and. by
his fall, cause a terrible and damaging injury to the
Church of Christ. For these weighty reasons St. Paul
charged Timothy to be very watchful when he chose

his presiding elders, to elect only those who, in the dis-
solute society of Ephesus, had known how. even
in old days, to preserve their good name stainless,
their character unscarred.

The snare of the devil.— The teaching here of St.
Paul respecting the Evil One is deserving of a special
comment. What he says in verses 6, 7 is simply
introduced as part of the main argument, which relates
exclusively to the care to be exercised in the selection
of fit persons for the sacred offices in the congre-
gations. It is evidently not introduced as a special
teaching on this mysterious subject. No dispntings
on this point as yet had been originated at this early
period in Christian history. It lays down, however,
certain broad principles which must have been the;
ground-work of St. Paul's belief in this now disputed
cpiestion ; and receiving as we do St. Paul's words
in this and in his other epistles as an authoritative
declaration of the mind and will of the Holy Spirit,
it seems that these broad principles should have all
weight whenever the doctrine respecting the Spirit
of Evil is discussed. The lines here sketched are
as follows : (1) The personality of the Evil One is
distinctly affirmed. (2j This unhappy being has fallen
and has been condemned, and is now able to lay snares
for and to tempt men. (3) An overweening pride
seems to have been the cause which led to this once
mighty one's fall. ' (4) All idea of dualism — the old
Persian belief adopted in the Manichsean heresy, and in
so many other false creeds, that of two principles eternally
opposed to one another — presiding respectively over
the realms of light and darkness — is distinctly here
repudiated by Paul, who in the course of his argument
casually introduces the Evil One — the Enemy of man,
as one who at some remote period rebelled, was
crushed, and condemned, but, to whom, in the supremo
Providence of God, some terrible power over man was left.

(8) Likewise must the deacons. — We possess
scattered and at the same time casual notices of this
lower order of deacons dating from the very first days
of the faith. The order clearly sprang out of the
needs of the rapidly increasing church. Some two
years after the Ascension (A.D. 34 — 35) the seven
deacons were appointed to assist the Apostles as almo-
ners of the brethren ; as the Church's life developed,
the functions of these primitive subordinate ecclesias-
tical officers were enlarged. The history of the career
of Stephen and Philip supply ample evidence of this.
Out of his first apostolic appointment in the year 34 —
35, no doubt, was developed that great inferior order in
the Church, respecting which these definite rules and
authoritative regulations were laid down by the Apostlo
Paul in his instructions to Timothy in the matter of
church government and order. These primitive
deacons were evidently assistants to and probably in
many cases supplied the place of the presbyters. The
great similai-ity of the directions of St. Paul respecting
the cpialifications to be looked for in both, implies this ;
still their original employment as administrators of the
Church's funds and distribution of her alms remained
to thcjn. We can trace the existence of the order
through and beyond the Apostle's time : —

191

Qualifications of

I. TIMOTHY, III.

Deaconesses.

filthy lucre ; (9) holding the mystery of
the faith in a pure conscience. (10) And
let these also first be proved ; then let

them use the office of a deacon, being-
found blameless. M> Even so must their
wives be grave, not slanderers, sober,

Jerusalem

. A.D. 34 — 35. Original foundation of

order by the Apostles

at Jerusalem. Acts iv.

1—6.

Corinth

. a.d. 55. 1 Cor. xii. 28.

Home

„ 58 — 9. Rom. xii. 7.

Philippi

. „ 63. Phil. i. 1.

Ephesus

. „ 66. 1 Tim. iii. 8, 13.

Asia Minor .

. „ 63—69 1 Pet. iv. 11.

„ 138 — 40 Justin Martyr. Apology,

i. 65, "Those with

us who are called

deacons," andApology,

i. 67.

Corinth. — Deacons apparently alluded to under avn-
Kfyets — " helps " (1 Cor. xii. 28). See also verse 5 of

same chapter: 8iaipe<reis Hhzkoviwv.

Rome.— efr"€ SiaKoviav, iv rij Sicucovlq. Reference lost
in English translation, "or ministry, (let us wait) on
our ministering" (Rom. xii. 7).

Asia Minor. — el ns diaKove?. Reference lost in Eng-
lish translation, " if any man minister " (1 Pet. iv. 11).

Thus in the first half of the second century we find
the order regularly and apparently universally esta-
blished, constituting an acknowledged part of the
Christian system of ecclesiastical government. The
scattered notices of the diaconate in the New Testa-
ment, dating almost from the Ascension — over a period
exceeding thirty years — show us how, out of the needs
of the Church, arose this subordinate order, which was
rapidly developed as the Catholic Church increased.
The differences between the deacon of the Pastoral
Epistles, and the deacon of the writings of Justin
Martyr, are exactly what we should expect would result
from the seventy years of gradual but progressive
organisation under men like St. John and his disciples
and the immediate successors of the Apostles.

Be grave. — St. Paul again repeats the need for this
feature of character being found in the lower order of
ecclesiastical officers. The reverent decorum, the quiet
gravity, which never interferes with the innocent, child-
like happiness (see Note on verse 4), is especially to be
looked for in a deacon, who ought to show an example
of every-day Christian life.

Not doubletongued.— Bengel well paraphrases
it, ad alios alia loauentes. The deacon would have
in his duties connected with the administration of the
Church's alms, and also in his more directly spiritual
work, much opportunity of meeting with and talking
to the various families of the flock of his Master. He
must be watchful, in these visits, of his words, not
suiting them to the occasion, and then unsaying in one
house what he had affirmed in another. Such a grave
fault — not an uncommon one — would, in the long run,
deeply injure his influence abroad, and would inflict a
deadly wound on his own spiritual life.

Not given to much wine.— The professed
minister — the advocate for the cause of the poor and
needy — must show an example of the strictest sobriety,
must be pointed at as one caring little for the pleasures
of the table. How well and nobly the young lieutenant
of St. Paul aimed at showing in himself a self-denying
example to the flock, we see from chap. v. 23. when the
old master deemed it requisite to warn his earnest,

182

brave disciple from an asceticism which was positively
weakening his power of work and endurance.

Not greedy of filthy lucre.— Those entrusted
with the care of the Church's alms surely must be
especially careful of their reputation in the matter of
covetousness — among the "chosen" of Timothy there
must be no Judas.

(9) Holding the mystery of the faith in a
pure conscience.— The thought again comes to
the surface — mere orthodoxy without the Christ-life
was an empty, useless characteristic feature in any
one; but here the man of God, writing to his dear
son these solemn warnings respecting fit and proper
persons to be chosen for their Master's work, has
besides in these words another end in view. He had
been dwelling with great earnestness on the outward
characteristics which a deacon of the Church should
possess — the high and stainless name — the generous
respect which his old way of living had won for
him among unbelievers as well as with believers ;
but, in addition to these things, it was absolutely
necessary for one occupying such a post to know
something of the deeper spiritual life — he must hold
the mystery of the faith. Now what does St. Paul
mean by the mystery ? He speaks of it as " a treasure "
which must be held in the casket of a pure couscience.
This mystery was what was sometimes hidden, but
which was now revealed by the advent of St. Paul's
Master, and comprehended the truths of the redemp-
tion, the atonement, and mighty cleansing powers of
the precious blood of Christ. These — the master-
truths of Christianity— must the appointed teacher
firmly grasp ; and the true deacon, whose office it was
rather to administer than to preach to the people, must
also be especially careful to show that he lived the life
he professed to teach; or, in St. Paul's own simile,
must preserve the casket in which the precious mystery
was shrined, holy and undefiled before men — he must
hold the mystery of the faith in a pure conscience.

(10) And let these also first be proved.— No
formal investigation, either in public before the congre-
gation.or in private before Timothy and his fellow pres-
byters, is here referred to. What is most probably the
meaning of the word is — the deacon should for a time
perform many of the various duties on probation, to
test his fitness before he Avas formally set apart for the
holy office. So much of the work belonging to these
officials of the early Church necessarily partook of a
partially secular character, that such a trial of their
fitness could well be made.

Then let them use the office of a deacon-
Better rendered, let them serve as deacons, if, after the
trial, inquiry, and period of probation, they be found
blameless.

(ii) Even so must their wives . . . — The position
of this solitary charge, respecting deacons' wives, in
the midst of regulations concerning " deacons," is, of
itself, almost decisive against the translation of the
English version, adopted also by Luther and mauy
others. The question naturally occurs — why are
deacon's wives especially referred to, while nothing has
been said respecting the wives of presbyters P Then,
again, why should the choice of Timothy in the matter
of his selection of a deacon be hampered with any
special requirements in the wife of the candidate for

Further Qualifications

I. TIMOTHY, III.

necessary for a Deacon.

faithful in all things. <12> Let the I

deacons be the husbands of one wife,

ruling their children and their own

houses well. (13) For they that have j

used 1 the office of a deacon well purchase ) 0r. »»*»««»•«*•

to themselves a good degree, and great

boldness in the faith which is in Christ i

! Jesus. <14> These things write I unto

thee, hoping to come unto Chap. ill. H—

thee shortly : ^ but if I J& Yhat lt
i ^i i -i j. Church really

tarry long, that thou mayest is.

I know how thou oughtest to behave thy-

! self in the house of God, which is the

i church of the living God, the pillar

the holy office? The literal translation of the Greek
words would be, Women in like manner must. &c.
These women, St. Chrysostom and most of the ancient
expositors affirm, were deaconesses.

It is certain that there were women holding a kind
of official position as deaconesses in the early Chui'ch ;
nor is it probable that these deaconesses were, as a
class, confined to the restriction of age referred to in
the direction respecting a band of widows devoted to
\vorks of mercy (chap v. 9, 10). These widows seemed
to have been in the first instance a class or order
apart from the ordinary deaconesses.

Phebe of Cenchrea (Rom. xvi. L), Euodias, and
Syntyche (Phil. iv. 2), probably the organisation
alluded to (Acts ix. 36 — 41) as existing at Joppa, of
which Dorcas was the chief, may be cited as in-
stances from the New Testament of the employment
of these women-servants of the Church. In the next
century the Proconsul Pliny, in his famous letter to the
Emperor Trajan, distinctly alludes to these Christian
deaconesses, in the words, " ancilloe qua* ministrce
dicebantur ." " In the Western Church," says Professor
Reynolds, " the order did not cease to exist until the
fifth century, and was continued in the Greek Church
till the twelfth. The deaconess vanished into the
cloister until partially revived in comparatively modern
times."

Be grave. — The same word is used as in the -case
of the deacons. These deaconesses, too, must, with
their modest behaviour, with their sweet, decorous
gravity, as it has been well said, " inspire reverence
having the halo of purity and sanctity about them."

Not slanderers. — A woman's most ready weapon
is ever her tongue. She is, with all her noble, generous
qualities, often quick-tempered, passionate, impulsive,
jealous, and this weapon, always ready for attack or
defence, is too often unsheathed. The professed ser-
vant of the Lord must show a high example to her
sisters in self-control.

Sober. — Should be abstemious, even self-denying in
the pleasures of the table.

Faithful in all things.— These deaconesses, from
their position, would become the depositaries of many
a househould secret; to those confiding in them in
moments of trouble they must be true; scrupulously
honest also in their distribution of alms ; faithful, too,
in the holy instruction they would be often called on
to give in the course of their ministrations.

99) Let the deacons be the husbands of one
wife.— Here the exact same qualification is to be
sought for as in the higher grade of presbyter. The
same orderly and decorous household is required now
in the case of the deacon, as was to be looked for as
qualification for the presiding elder. St. Paul knew
well that in the wise yet tender father, Timothy would
find the firm yet generous distributor of the Church's
alms, the loving and devoted friend of the poor sick.

(13) por they that have used the office of a
deacon well.— Better rendered, for tJiey that have
served well as deacons. It was with good reason that

41 193

the Apostle laid great stress on the many and varied
nullifications necessary for one undertaking the duties
of a deacon of the Church — for very great indeed *ras
the reward reserved for the true, loyal deacon when
his work was over and done (and if for the man
who had performed well his work in the lower effiee,
ci fortiori for the one who should faithfully fulfil the
yet higher duties of an elder or overseer in the
Church).

Purchase to themselves a good degree.—
Some scholars have suggested as a better rendering.
'• are acquiring (or gaining) to themselves a good stand-
ing. The old translation perliaps is best. Alford writes
strikingly on the change of tense: "They that have
used are acquiring or purchasing." The Apostle having
begun by placing himself at the great day of retribu-
tion, now shifts the scene and deals with their present
conduct "Those who shall then be found to have
served well, &c. ... are now, &c."

The " good degree "' they are now purchasing by
earnest, patient work may refer to advancement to the
higher ministries of the Church, but, more probably,
has reference to their future position in the blessed lift*
to come. This is one of the passages not unfrequent
in St. Paul's Epistles, where degrees of glory among
the redeemed are clearly spoken of. The plain words
of St. Paul and his Master teach the people of God
that although the great act of redemption alone belongs
to Christ, that through His merits only men obtain
salvation, still His own, will in a great measure deter-
mine, by their works and days on earth, the position
they will occupy in His kingdom.

And great boldness.— The true and faithful dea-
cons not only will in the life to come win the
great reward, but here the result of their loyal, earnest
service would be, that before men they would do their
work with serene, fearless confidence, and would at the
same time be encouraged to approach that heavenly
Father at all times with the loving trustfulness of
children.

In the faith which is in Christ Jesus.- Faith
was the foundation of the "great boldness," and the,
faith rested on Jesus Christ.

(14> These things write I unto thee.— " These
things " probably referred only to the directions
respecting the special qualification to be sought for in
candidates for the office of the overseers (presbyters!
and deacons.

Hoping to come unto thee shortly.— The par-
ticiple here has a concessive form, " though I hope," etc.
" I write these special urgent directions to you, though
my hope is that I shall be with you sooner than sueli
detailed instructions presuppose."

(is) But if I tarry long.— St. Paul felt that dangers
were pressing closer and closer— that the hoped-for visit
to his loved church at Ephesus might not, probably neves
would be, accomplished; so these foregoing solemn
directions respecting the choico of colleagues in the
ministry had been written to Timothy, that, in the even'
of St. Paul never coming to him again, men (especially

What is the

I. TIMOTHY, ill.

Mystery of Godliness.

and ground1 of the truth. <16^ And with-
out controversy great is the mystery of
godliness : God was manifest in the flesh,

! justified in the Spirit, seen of angels,
I preached unto the Gentiles, believed
I on in the world, received up into glory.

the ministers of God) should know how to conduct
themselves in the congregation.

That thou mayest know how thou oughtest
to behave thyself. — The words refer here not to
Timothy alone, but rather to Timothy and his colleagues
in their church work, concerning whom such particular
directions had just been given, and should be rendered,
how men ought to behave themselves.

In the house of God. — The image is from the
Old Testament, where " the house of God " denotes, in
the first place, the Temple of Jerusalem, and, in the
second, the covenant-people. It is here used for the
congregation of believers among whom God dwells
— the true and enduring Church of living souls. Of
this great spiritual temple, the corner-stone of which
is Christ, the Jerusalem house on Mount Zion, with
its marvellous work and its gorgeous and elaborate
symbolism, was the poor, perishable, hand -wrought
model.

Which is the church of the living God.— The
house of God is here plainly defined to be the " Church "
for, congregation) " of the living God," who was working
in its midst actively and personally, in strong contrast
to that well-known graven image of the Diana of
Ephesus, throned in that fair temple which glittered in
its white and lifeless beauty over the roofs of the city
where Timothy's charge lay.

The pillar and ground of the truth. — The
imagery is here changed, and the "house of God" which
the Apostle had just defined to be the Church, or con-
gregation, belonging to the living God, and in the midst
of which He was pleased to dwell, is now defined to be
" the pillar and ground " (or, basis) "of the truth.'' In
the first picture , the Church is painted by St. Paul as a vast
congregation, with the living God dwelling in its midst :
in the second, the same Church is painted as a massive
pillar, holding up and displaying before men and angels
the truth— the saving truth of the gospel. In the first
picture, the thought of a great company gathered to-
gether for God to dwell among is prominent : in the
second, the thought of the great redemption-truth alone
comes to the front, and the Church of God is no longer
viewed as a company of separate individuals, but as
one massive foundation-pillar, supporting and displaying
the glories of redemption.

This peculiar aspect of the Church, " the support and
pillar of the truth," was dwelt upon probably by the
Apostle as " defining — with indirect allusion to nascent
and developing heresies— the true note, office, and vo-
cation of the Church. . . . Were there no Church,
there would be no witness, no guardian of archives, no
basis, nothing whereon acknowledged truth could rest "
(Ellicott).

(16) And without controversy great is the
mystery of godliness. — " And is not simply copu-
lative, but heightens the force of the predication, Yes.
confessedly great is the mystel•y,, (Ellicott) — for the
glorious truth which the Church of God pillar-like
upholds, is none other than that stupendous mystery, in
other ages not made known, but then revealed— the
mystery of Christ, in all His loving manifestations and
glorious triumph. Yes, confessedly great— so great
that the massive grandeur of the pillar is only in pro-
portion to the truth it supports.

God was manifest in the flesh.— Here, in the

most ancient authorities, the word " God " does not
occur. We must, then, literally translate the Greek of
the most famous and trustworthy MSS. as follows :
He who was manifested in the flesh. In the later MSS.,
and in the great majority of the fathers who cite the
passage, we certainly find Theos ("God"), as in the
Received text. The substitution can be traced to no
special doctrinal prejudice, but is owing, probably, to a
well-meant correction of early scribes. At first sight,
Theos (" God") would be a reading easier to understand,
and grammatically more exact ; and in the original
copies, the great similitude between 0C (" God") — the
contracted form in which 0EOC was written — and the
relative OC (" He who "), would be likely to suggest to
an officious scribe the very trifling alteration necessary
for the easier and apparently more accurate word.
Recent investigations have shown, however, beyond
controversy that the oldest MSS., with scarcely an ex-
ception, contain the more difficult reading, OC (" He
who "). The Greek pronoun thus rendered is simply a
relative to an omitted but easily-inferred antecedent —
viz., Christ. Possibly the difficulty in the construction
is due to the fact of the whole verse being a fragment
of an ancient Christian hymn, embodying a confession
of faith, well known to, and perhaps often sung by, the
faithful among the congregations of such cities as
Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome — a confession embodying
the grand facts of the Incarnation and the Resurrection,
the preaching of the cross to, and its reception by, the
Gentile world, and the present session of Christ in
glory. In the original Greek the rhythmical, as well
as the antithetical character, of the clauses is very
striking. In the English translation they can hardly
be reproduced : —

" Who was manifested in the flesh,

justified in the Spirit,

seen of angels,

was preached among the Gentiles,

believed on in the world,

taken up into glory."

Fragments of similar hymns to Christ are found in
2 Tim. ii. 11. and perhaps also in Eph. v. 14.

Manifest in the flesh. — When the Son of God
came forth from the Father " He was manifested in
the flesh ; " or, in other divine words, " the Word was
made flesh and dwelt among us, and we beheld His
glory, the glory as of the only-begotten of the Father"
(John i. 14. Comp. also 2 Tim. i. 10). The men
and women of the first days of Christianity who re-
peated or sang such words as these, must have accepted
aud firmly believed the dogma of the pre-existent
glory of Christ.

Justified in the Spirit.— The truth of Jesus Christ's
own assertion respecting Himself, which seemed to be
contradicted by His mortal liability to bodily weakness,
and pain and suffering, and last of all to death, in
the end was triumphantly vindicated or justified. Or.
in other words, the claims of Jesus Christ to Divinity,
put forth during His life of humiliation, were shown to
be true. It was by His resurrection from the dead that
Christ's lofty claims to the Godhead were justified.
The Spirit, to which reference is here made, was the
higher principle of spiritual life within Him — not itself
the Divinity, but intimately united and associated with
it. In the power of this Spirit, which he had within
himself, He did take His life which He had laid down.

Tht misleading Asceticism

I. TIMOTHY, IV.

of the False Teachers.

CHAPTER IV.—'1' Now the Spirit
speaketh expressly, that in the latter
times some shall depart from the

faith, giving heed to Chap, i v. l— 5. Evil

spflnrino- oriiritfl and attempts of false

secmcing spirits, *»<* teachers to teach a

doctrines OI devils; useless asceticism.

did re-unite His soul unto His body from wliicli He
separated it when He gave up the ghost, and so did
quicken and revive Himself, and thus publicly proclaimed
His divine nature, His awful dignity. (Comp. Pearson,
Oh the Creed, Art. Y.)

Seen of angels . . . — It lias been suggested that
"angels" mean here nothing more than His Apostles
and His own chosen messengers, hy whom Jesus Christ
Was seen after His claims to Supreme power had been
justified in the Spirit which had raised Him from the
dead. These saw Him first, and after tliat carried the
glad message to the distant isles of the Gentiles. But in
^pite of the ingenuity of such an exposition, the plain,
obvious meaning of the word '"angels" must be main-
tained, for the invariable meaning of angelos in the
New Testament (perhaps with the exception of the
earlier chapters of the Apocalypse) is never " apostle,"
but " angel." He was " seen of angels " — that is,
Jesus Christ, after His resurrection and return to the
throne at the Father's right hand, was, in His glorified
humanity, visible to angels, who before had never
looked on God. (Comp. Eph. iii. 10 ; Heb. i. 6 ; 1 Pet.
i. 12 — each of which passages bears in some way on this
mysterious subject.) Theodoret and St. Chrysostom
have similarly commented on this statement respecting
the angels' share in the beatific vision.

Preached unto the Gentiles.— The angels now
for the first time saw, and gazed on, and rejoiced in.
the vision of the Godhead manifested in the glorified
.humanity of the Son ; and what the angels gained in
the beatific vision, the nations of the world obtained
through the preaching of the gospel — viz., the know-
ledge of the endless love and the surpassing glory of
Christ. This line of the ancient Christian hymn tells
us that this early confession of faith was peculiarly the
outcome of the Pauline churches ; for in enumerating
the six glories of the Redeemer-God it tells us one of
these glories consisted in the preaching of His gospel to
those peoples who had hitherto sat in darkness and in
the shadow of death. It was the splendid fulfilment
•of the Isaiah prophecy respecting the coming Messiah.
" It is a light thing that thou shouldest be my servant to
raise up the tribes of Jacob, and to restore the pre-
served of Israel : I will also give thee for a light to
the Gentiles " (Isa. xlix. 6).

Believed on in the world.— Different from Bud-
dhism or even from Mahommedanism, Christianity has
found acceptance among widely different nationalities.
The religion of the Crucified alone among religions
has a fair claim to the title of a world-religion. Its
cradle was in the East, but it rapidly found a ready
acceptance in the West, and in the present day it may
be said not only to exist, but to exercise a vast and ever
increasing influence in all the four quarters of the
globe.

Received up into glory. — More accurately,

d up in glory. These words refer evidently

to tin- historical ascent of Christ into heaven — they de-

elare the belief of these early churches in the fact of

the Ascension as related in St. Luke's Gospel.

This fragment of the triumph-song of the early
churches embraces the leading facts of the Messianic
story :

(1) The Incarnation of the Son of God.

/2) The justification in His Resurrection of the lofty

claims advanced by Him during the days of His humi-
liation.

(3) The Epiphany of the glorified Humanity ot
Christ.

(a) To angels in the beatific vision.

(6) To men in the preaching of the cross.

(4) The glorious results of the great sacrifice already
visible in those first suffering, struggling days of the
Church.

(5) The return to heaven, and the session in power
at the right hand of God — closing the first part of the
blessed resurrection mystery, and beginning the glo-
rious reign of Christ over men from His throne in
heaven.

IV.

(i) Now the Spirit speaketh expressly.—
Rather, But the Spirit. But (de) in very strong contrast
to the sublime mystery of Redemption St. Paul has been
speaking of as the glorious treasure contained in the
Church of which Timothy and his colleagues were
ministers ; but in spite of that sublime truth which
should occupy the thoughts and fill the hearts of Chris-
tians, men will busy themselves with other and very
different things ; with a spurious mock devotion, dream-
ing that God's mercy and love were to be purchased by
mere abstinence from certain meats, or by an unnatural
renunciation of the home and family life. The " words
of the Spirit '5 here allude to a mysterious power, to a
divine gift, traces of which occur again and again in
the New Testament pages. Among the supernatural
signs which were vouchsafed to the first generation of
believers, and with very rare exceptions only to the first-
generation — to men and women, many, if not most, of
whom had seen Jesus, aud had had personal contact
with Him — must be reckoned those mysterious intima-
tions of the will of the Holy Spirit which guided and
encouraged the Church of the first days. That intima-
tion came in varied forms : to the Twelve in the form of
fiery tongues (Acts ii. 1 — 12); to a more numerous
company (Acts iv. 31) ; t > Peter on the occasion of the
conversion of Cornelius (Acts x. 10 — 16, 19, 20): to St.
Paul on three occasions in the course of his second mis-
sionary journey (Acts xvi. 6,7, 9, 10); through the
medium of the prophet Agabus (Acts xxi. 11). St. Paul
alludes to many such voices of the Spirit, and heavenly
intimations, when speaking to the elders of Miletus
(Acts xx. 23). One of these special revelations, made
to himself, he here quotes.

In the latter times.— All those ages are here
referred to which succeed the coming of the Lord. In
these Paul lived, and we are still watching the slow and
solemn march past of these latter ages. The errors
foreseen then, have more or less affected the internal
government of the Church during the eighteen hundred
years which have passed since St. Paid's words were
written. In no age, perhaps, have they been more
ostentatiously thrust forward than in our owu.

Some shall depart from the faith. — " By
denying what is true, by adding what is false," says
Bengel.

Giving heed to seducing spirits. -This ex-
pression must not be watered down by explanations
which understand this expression as referring to falsi-
teachers. The " seducing spirits" are none other than

Everything created

I. TIMOTHY, IV.

by God is qood.

<2> speaking lies in hypocrisy ; having
their conscience seared with a hot iron ;
<3) forbidding to marry, and commanding
to abstain from meats, which God hath

created to be received with thanksgiving
of them which believe and know the
truth. W For every creature of God i*
good, and nothing to be refused, if it be

evil powers and spirits subject to Satan, and which are
permitted to influence and to work in human hearts.
(See Epli. ii. 2, vi. 12— passages in which these
spiritual communities of wickedness and their powers
over men are again alluded to by St. Paul.)

Doctrines of devils.— Doctrines and thoughts
taught by, suggested by, evil spirits. The personality
of these unhappy beings is clearly taught by St. Paul.
Of their influence in the heathen world and their
antagonism to Christ and His followers, see 1 Cor.
x. 20,21.

W Speaking lies in hypocrisy.— The Greek
words here should be translated, through the hypo-
crisy of men that speak lies. The lies that these men
utter, refer to their teaching that it was pleasing to the
eye of the All-seeing Creator for men and women to
avoid certain meats, and to abstain from marriage.
Their hypocrisy consisted in their assumption of a
mask of holiness, which holiness they considered was
derived from their false asceticism and their abstinence
from things which the Apostle proceeded to show were
lawful.

Having their conscience seared with a hot
iron.— Better rendered, Branded in their own con-
science as with a hot iron. The image is drawn from
the practice of branding slaves and certain criminals on
their forehead with a mark. *' Qua nota turpitudinis
non inusta tua vita est f " (Cic. Cat. i. 6.) These men
tried to teach the efficacy of a substitution of certain
counsels of perfection in place of a faithful loving life.
They based their teaching on wild Oriental specula-
tions about the evil nature of all matter. They were
often themselves evil-livers, who, conscious of their
own stained, scarred lives, strove with a show of out-
ward sanctity and hypocritical self-denial to beguile
and to lead astray others, and in the end to make them
as vile as themselves.

(3) Forbidding to marry.— This strange and un-
natural " counsel of perfection," St. Paul, thinking and
writing in the Spirit, looked forward to as a perilous
delusion which would, as time went on, grow into the
impious dogma of certain of the great Gnostic schools.
This teaching was probably, even in those early days,
creeping into the churches. The Jewish sects of
Essenes and Therapeutae had already taught that
" abstinence from marriage " was meritorious. Men
belonging to these sects doubtless were to be found
in every populous centre where Jews congregated, and
it was always in these centres of Judaism that Chris-
tianity at first found a home. St. Paul, however, saw no
reason to dwell on this point at any length ; the gross
absurdity of such a " counsel " as a rule of life was
too apparent ; it was a plain contradiction of the order
of Divine Providence. But the next question which
presented itself in the teaching of these false ascetics,
as we shall see, required more careful handling.

And commanding to abstain from meats.—
Once more we must look to those famous Jewish
religious communities of Egypt (the Essenes and
Therapeutse), the precursors of the great monastic
systems of Christianity, as the home whence these per-
verted ascetic tendencies issued. These precepts too.
like- the counsel respecting marriage, were adopted in

after years by several of the principal Gnostic sects ;
and it was especially those times St. Paul looked on to.
although, no doubt, the seeds of their false asceticism
had already been sown broadcast in the principal
Christian congregations.

It has been asked why, in these solemn warnings
against a false asceticism which St. Paul foresaw might
and would be substituted for a really earnest God-
fearing life, the question of celibacy was dismissed with,
one short sentence, while the apparently less-important-
question of abstaining from particular kinds of food
was discussed with some detail. The reason is easily
discoverable. The counsel to abstain from marriage
was a strange and unnatural suggestion, one contrary
to the plain scheme of creation. Any teaching which
taught that the celibate's life was a life peculiarly
pleasing to God would, at the same time, throw a slur
upon all home and family life, and the Apostle felt that,
men's ordinary common sense would soon relegate any
such strange teaching to obscurity ; but with the ques-
tion of abstaining from meats — that was connected
with the precepts of the Mosaic law, which dealt at
some length (probably from reasons connected with the
public health) with these restrictions in the matter of
meats.

These false teachers, while they urged such absti-
nence as a likely way to win God's favour, would
probably base, or at all events support, their arguments
by reference to certain portions of the Mosaic law,
rightly understood or wrongly understood.

These points, then, might have risen into the dignity
of a controverted question between the (Pauline) Gentile
and the Jewish congregations. So St. Paul at once
removed it to a higher platform. All food was from
the hand of one Maker — nothing, then, coidd really Ik-
considered common or unclean without throwing a
slur upon the All-Creator.

Which God hath created to be received
with thanksgiving. — God's primeval intention is?
thus sharply contrasted with men's arbitrary restric-
tions. This divine intention is repeated with still
greater emphasis in verse 4.

Of them which believe and know the
truth.— The true " Gnostics," in St. Paul's eyes, were
not those self-sufficient men who were out of their
own corrupt imagination devising these strange and
unnatural methods of pleasing God, but those holy,
humble men of heart who believed on His crucified
Son, and knew the truth of the glorious gospel.

W For every creature of God is good.— Tc,
teach that anything created was unclean would be an
insult to the Creator. The very fact of its being His
creation is enough. If made by God, then it must be-
good.

And nothing to be refused, if it be received
with thanksgiving.— Every kind of food and drink
may become hateful in the eyes of the all-pure God
if misused, if partaken of without any sense of grati-
tude to the Divine giveri But nothing which can be-
made use of as food ought to be regarded as unclean
or as polluted; every kind of food is intended for man.
the only condition being that whatever is partaken of
should be gratefully received by him as a gift.

Hoio Timothy was to counteract

I. TIMOTHY, IV.

sickly Erroneous Teaching,

received with thanksgiving : <5) for it is
sanctified by the word of God and prayer.
»°> If thou put the brethren in remem-
brance of these things, thou shalt
be a good .minister of Jesus Christ,
nourished up in the words of faith and

of good doctrine, whereunto thou hast
attained. M But refuse chap iv g_16
profane and old wives' Timothy is to
fables, and exercise thyself J^^S*.
rather unto godliness. (8) For ing a practical
bodily exercise profiteth godly life.

w Tor it is sanctified by the word of God and
prayer. — Not only are all created things to be con-
sidered -pure, and not lightly to be put aside ; but in
Ihe sight of God " every creature " is holy when re-
ceived as His gift with thanksgiving and with prayer —
such thanksgiving-prayer containing thoughts in exact
accordance with the Spirit of God revealed in Scripture.
Thus all food is sanctified, not only, or even chiefly, by
the common formula of a Christian grace before meat.
This too often degenerates into a mere form of words
— into lip-service of the most heartless form — and is too
often looked upon as a. kind of religious charm. The
sanctification referred to by St. Paul belongs to no one
prayer or grace, but to the constant liabit of referring
everything to God as the giver of all — to the perpetual
" office" of a devout heart which, taking everything as
& gift from God, the lover and the friend of man,
thanks God from the heart continually.

One, if not the oldest, form of a Christian grace
before meat is the one found in the Apostolic Constitu-
tions. It is very simple and beautiful, and perhaps not
too long for daily use. It runs as follows : " Blessed be
Thou, O Lord, ;who nourisheth men from very youth
*up, who givest meat to all flesh ; fill our hearts with joy
and gladness, so that we, always enjoying a sufficiency,
may abound unto every good work in Christ Jesus
our Lord, through whom be ascribed to Thee glory,
(honour, and power unto the ages. Amen."

<6> If thou put the brethren in remembrance
Of these things.— The " things " of which he was to
put the brethren in mind were those practices connected
with that foolish, false asceticism alluded to inverses
3 — 5. Not a few, probably, in tliat Ephesian flock
Jiad been won over by the persuasive words of the false
teachers to attribute a peculiar virtue to such practices
— practices which, if persevered in, St. Paul well knew
would tend to set up for imitation in the Church an
unreal, unhealthy standard of life.

Thou shalt be a good minister of Jesus
Christ. — A high title to honour, this, "a good minister
of Jesus Christ," and one Timothy would well earn if
he woidd set himself in all earnestness to oppose and
discredit the sickly teaching of the Ascetic school.

He would by such opposition, indeed, earn the
V title to honour," for St. Paul well* knew how great
was the danger of a comparatively young and ardent
<lisciple like Timothy being attracted by such mistaken
teachings of perfection. But "the good minister of
Jesus Christ " must teach " a life " which may be led
by all, not by a select few merely, of the believers
on his Master. Asceticism is too often a winning and
attractive school of teaching to ministers, as, at a com-
paratively easy price, they win a great, but at the same
time thoroughly unhealthy, power over the souls of men
and women who practise these austerities, which tend
necessarily to remove them out of the stream of active life.

Nourished up in the words of faith and
of good doctrine.— The Greek present participle
rendered here " nourished up in," marks a continuous
and permanent process of self -education. It might be
translated " ever training thyself " — a wise and never-

to-be-forgotten precept of St. Paul's, this reminder to
his own dear son in the faith, Timothy — and through
Timothy to all Christian ministers of every age — never
to relax their efforts for self -improvement. The educa-
tion of the good minister of Jesus Christ is never to be
considered finished. He — the teacher of others— must
ever be striving himself after a higher and a yet higher
knowledge in things spiritual.

Whereunto thou hast attained. — More accu-
rately translated, which thou hast closely followed.
In the teaching respecting faith and practice which
Timothy, as a disciple, has diligently followed out step
by step — in that teaching he is to study to advance yet
farther, so as to gain deeper and ever deeper knowledge
of the mysteries of the kingdom.

(7) But refuse profane and old wives' fables.
— Here Timothy — who has been previously (see verses
1—6) warned against a false asceticism, against putting
an unnatural interpretation on the words of Christ,
against sympathising with a teaching which would unfit
men and women for practical every-day life — 4s now
urged to guard himself against the temptation to give
himself up to the favourite and apparently enticing study
of the sayings of the famous Jewish Rabbis, in which
every book, almost every word — in many cases the let-
ters of the Hebrew Scriptures — were subjected to a keen
but profitless investigation. In such study the spirit of
the holy writers was too often lost, and only a dry and
barren formalism— commands respecting the tithing of
mints and anise, and cummin — remained, while the
weightier matters of the law — judgment, justice, and
truth — were carefully sifted out. Round the grand old
Jewish history all kind of mythical legends grew up,
till for a Jewish student of the Rabbinical schools the
separation of the true from the false became in many
cases impossible — through all this elaborate and careful
but almost profitless study. The minister of Christ
was to avoid these strange and unusual interpretations,
this vast fantastic collection of legends, partly true and
partly false. He was to regard them as merely profane
and old wives' fables, as being perfectly useless and even
harmful in their bearing on practical every-day life.

And exercise thyself rather unto godliness.
— Instead of these weary profitless efforts— the painful,
useless asceticism on the one hand, and the endless and
barren Rabbinic studies of the Law on the other —
Timothy, as a good minister of Jesus Christ, was to
bestow all his pains and labour to promote an active,
healthy, practical piety among the congregation of
believers, as we have seen in verse 6, in the words,
" ever training thyself." To lead such a life required
ceaseless pains and efforts, for true godliness is ever a
progressive state. Surely exercising himself unto godli-
ness would be a task hard enough to satisfy the most
ardent, the most enthusiastic soul! The "godliness,"
or " piety," here alluded to, as the end toward which
Timothy was to direct all his efforts, was that practical
piety which influences for good, which leavens with a
holy leaven all classes of society, all life, of the slave as
well as of the patrician.

(8) For bodily exercise profiteth little.—

197

He is to teach

I. TIMOTHY, IV.

a Practical Godly Life.

little : l but godliness is profitable
unto all things, having promise of
the life that now is, and of that
which is to come. (0) This is a faith-
ful saying and worthy of all accepta-

me\ tion. (10> For therefore we both labour
and suffer reproach, because we trust
in the living God, who is the Saviour
of all men, specially of those that
believe. (^ These things command

More accurately rendered, bodily exercise is profitable
for little. St. Paul here, no doubt, was thinking of
those bodily austerities alluded to in verse 3. The
stern repression of all human passions and desires, the
abstinence from all compliance with the natural im-
pulses of the flesh — such an unnatural warfare, such
an exercise, such a training of the body, no doubt in
many cases would lead, in many cases certainly has led,
the individual to a higher spiritual state. Such a total
surrender for the one who so exercises himself is, no
doubt, in a certain sense, " profitable." But then it
must be remembered that this kind of victory over the
flesh, in very many instances, leads to an unnatural
state of mind ; for the rigid ascetic has removed him-
self from the platform on which ordinary men and
women move. His thoughts have ceased to be their
thoughts, his ways are no longer their ways. For
practical everyday life such an influence, always limited,
is at times positively harmful, as its tendency is to de-
preciate that home-life and family-life, to raise and
elevate which is the true object of Christian teaching.
Still, the Apostle, while remembering, and in his teach-
ing ever carrying out, the spirit of the Lord's solemn
prayer to the Father, *' I pray, not that thou shouldest
take them out of the world, but that thou shouldest
keep them from the evil," refrains from an entire con-
demnation of a life which received, on more than one
occasion, from the lips of the Sinless One a guarded
commendation (Matt. xvii. 21 ; xix. 12).

St. Paul, in his divine ly- taught wisdom, recognises
that such an austere and severe example and life, though
by no means the ideal life of a Christian teacher, yet in
the great world workshop of the Master might receive
a blessing as " profitable for little."

But godliness is profitable unto all things.
— Better, for all things. But while this " bodily
exercise." this austere subduing of the flesh, can
only weigh with a narrow and circumscribed group,
St. Paul points out that the influence of " godliness
is world-wide ; " a godliness, not merely an inward
holiness, but an operative, active piety, which, springing
from an intense love for Christ, manifests itself in
love for His creatures. This godliness transfigures,
and illumines with its divine radiance all busy, active
life — every condition, every rank, all ages. That surely
is what the good minister of Jesus Christ must aim at !

Having promise of the life that now is,
and of that which is to come. — For this
godliness, which may and ought to enter into all states,
all ages of life, promises the greatest happiness to those
who struggle after it. It promises " life " — that is, the
highest blessedness which the creature can enjoy in this
world — as well as the rich prospect of the endless
life with God in the world to come ; whereas a false
asceticism crushes out all the joy and gladness of this
present life, and is an unreal preparation for that
which is future.

(9) This is a faithful saying and worthy of all
acceptation.— Again we have the striking formula
which always calls attention to some great truth which,
in the Church of the first days, had already obtained
among the congregations a broad, if not a universal

currency, as one of the great watchwords of the faith.
Now we find one of these taken apparently from a
Christian hymn, now from one of the public prayers
or thanksgivings. The " faithful saying," in this in-
stance, was that " godliness," that is, " active, living
piety," is profitable for all things, seeing it has the promise
of the life that now is and of that which is to come.

(io) por therefore we both labour and suf-
fer reproach.— And for this end — to obtain this
glorious promise, this highest blessedness here, that
endless life with God hereafter, to win this glorious
promise — we Christian missionaries and teachers cai*e
for no toil, however painful — shrink from no shame,
however agonising.

Because we trust in the living God. —
More accurately translated, because we have our hope
in the living God. And this is why we toil and endure
shame. We know that the promise made will be ful-
filled, because the God on whom — as on a sure founda-
tion— our hopes rest, is a living God. " Living," in
strong contrast to those diimb and lifeless idols shrined
in the well-known Ephesian temples.

Who is the Saviour of all men, specially
of those that believe.— These words, like the
assertion of chap. ii. 4, have been often pressed into the
service of that school of kindly, but mistaken, inter-
preters, who ignore, or explain away, the plain doctrine
of Holy Scripture which tells us there are those
whose destruction from the presence of the Lord shall
be everlasting, whose portion shall be the " second
death " (2 Thess. i. 9 ; Rev. xxi. 8). These iuterpretertv
prefer to substitute in place of this terrible, but
repeated declaration, their own perilous theories of
universalism. Here the gracious words seem to affix a
seal to the statement immediately preceding, which
speaks of '"the hope in the living God" as the source
of all the labour and brave patience of the Lord's true
servants. The living God is also a loving God, the-
Saviour of all, if they would receive Him, and. un-
doubtedly, the Redeemer of those who accept His love-
and are faithful to His holy cause.

It must be borne in mind that there were many
Hebrews still in every Christian congregation, many
in every church, who still clung with passionate zeal
to the old loved Hebrew thought, that Messiah's work
of salvation was limited to the chosen race. This and
similar sayings were specially meant to set aside for
ever these narrow and selfish conceptions of the
Redeemer's will; were intended to show these
exclusive children of Israel that Christ's work would
stretch over a greater and a grander platform than
ever Israel coidd fill ; were designed to tell out to all
the churches how indeed "it was a light thing that
thou shouldest be my servant to raise up the tribes of
Jacob, and to restore the preserved of Israel." Still.
with all these guarded considerations, which serve to
warn us from entertaining any hopes of a universal re-
demption, such a saying as this seems to point to the
blessed Atonement mystery as performing a work whose
consequences reach far beyond the limits of human
thought, or even of sober speculation.

(n) These things command and teaeh.—

Timothy U himself to set the

I. TIMOTHY, IV.

Example to the Congregations.

•and teach. (12) Let no man despise
thy youth ; but be thou an example
of the believers, in word, in con-
versation, in charity, in spirit, in

faith, in purity. <1:J) Till I come, give
attendance to reading", to exhortation,
to doctrine. W Neglect not the gift
that is in thee, which was given thee

"These things" — i.e., the real meaning of '•god-
liness," that practical everyday piety which, in
contradistinction to the severe and strained asceticism
of a limited and narrow section of society, should enter
into all homes and influence all lives without
distinction of class or race, age or sex. " These
things " in the Church of Ephesus must form a part
of the public commands and charges to the congre-
gations, must likewise enter into private Christian
teaching.

(12> Let no man despise thy youth.— If Timothy
desired that his teaching should be listened to with
respectful earnest attention, if he hoped to use a holy in-
fluence over the flock, let him be very careful that his
comparative youth prove no stumbling-block. To Paul
the aged, his son in the faith seemed still youthful —
at this time Timothy could not have been more than
forty years of age. The old master would have his
young disciple supply the want of years by a gravity of
life ; he would have him, while fearless, at the same time
modest and free from all that pretentious assumption,
unhappily so often seen when the comparatively young
are placed in positions of dignity and authority. Paul
proceeds further to explain his solemn warning by in-
stancing the especial points in which Timothy was to
be a pattern to the other believers. These gentle words
of warning, such notices as we find in chap. v. 23
and in 1 Cor. xvi. 10, 11, seem to point to the fact of
there being nothing winning in the personal appearance
of Timothy, but rather the contrary. It is deserv-
ing of comment that among the more famous of
the early Christian leaders, beauty of face and form
appears to have been the exception rather than the
rule. This was, of course, utterly different from the old
Grecian idea of gods and heroes. It was no doubt part
of the counsel of God that this world-religion should
owe nothing to the ordinary conditions of human
success. The teaching was novel and opposed to the
maxims which guided and influenced the old world.
The noblest ideals proposed for Christian imitation
were strange and hitherto unheard of. The very fore-
most preachers of the faith of Christ, as in the case
of Timothy, seem to have owed nothing to those
personal gifts so highly prized among Pagan nations.
So the appearance of St. Paul, the greatest of the
early Christian leaders, seems to have been mean and
insignificant, " ein amies durres Mdnnlein" as Luther
has it. The blessed Pounder of the religion is
described by Tertullian, who lived in the same century
with those who must have conversed with Christ's
disciples, as " having no human beauty, much less any
celestial splendour." Clement of Alexandria, Justin
Martyr, and other very early writers, join in the
same testimony. It is, however, only fair to say that
on this point the view of Origen appears to have been
different. The Messianic prophecies evidently looked
forward to this as the will of the Most High. (See
Ps. xxii. 6, 7, 15, 17 ; Isa. lii. 14 ; liii. 2—4.)

In word. — This refers to the public utterances
in teaching and exhortation, but more particularly to
the words used by Timothy in social intercourse.
These, in such a life as that of the young presiding
elder of the Ephesian Church, must have been of the

deepest importance. The tone of his conversation was
no doubt imitated by many, it would influence for good
or evil the whole Christian society of that great centre.
The words of men placed in such a position should ever
be true and generous, helpful and encouraging, and,
above all, free from slander, from all low and pitiful
conceptions of others.

In conversation. — This rendering might mislead
— the Greek word signifies rather " manner of life," or
" conduct."

In charity. — Better rendered, in love. This and
the following " in faith," comprehend the great graces
in that inner Christian life of which the " words of
the mouth," and "conduct," are the outward mani-
festations. He was to be the example to the flock in
"love " to his neighbours, and in " faith " towards God.

The words " in spirit," which in the English version
occur between " in charity," and " in faith," are found
in none of the older authorities.

In purity.— Chastity of mind as well as body is
here signified. The ruler of a church — among whose
members evidently a school of teaching existed in which
a life of stem asceticism was urged on the Christian
believer as the only acceptable or even possible way of
life for the servant of Christ — must be above all things
watchful lest he should seem to set a careless example
in the matter of morality.

(13) Till I come, give attendance to reading.
— The words evidently imply a hope, perhaps even an
expectation, on the part of St. Paul, that he would
one day be enabled once more to visit the Church of
Ephesus ; but so long as that absence lasted, Timothy
was to attend carefully to three special points in the
public ministry in which he was, in the Apostle's
absence, the chief officer.

The "reading" was that public reading of Scrip-
ture in the congregation — a practice borrowed from the
synagogue service, when publicly the Law and the
Prophets were read to the people assembled. (See Luke
iv. 16; Acts xiii. 15.) In these early Christian assem-
blies, about the year 66 — 67, the question arises, Were
any Scriptures read in public besides the books of the
Old Testament ? No certain reply can be given : it is,
however, probable, even at this very early date, that
one at least of the older Gospels (probably St. Mark)
was already known and used in the Christian churches,
and read along with the Scriptures of the old covenant.
That the reading of the " Gospels " very soon became
a part of the regular service in the congregations of
Christians is evident from the words of Justin Martyr.
Apologia, i. 67, written in the first half of the first
century.

To exhortation, to doctrine.— These both most
probably refer to the public ministry in the congrega-
tion. The first, " exhortation." particularly applies to
the feelings. The reading of the Scriptures must be fol-
lowed by an earnest practical application of their teach-
ing to the affairs of that life in the midst of which the
Christian listener was living. The word " doctrine '*
suggest -.s a public teaching directed rather to the under'
standing of the hearers. The idea of exposition, or
even of dogmatic teaching, seems here included.

(14) Neglect not the gift that is in thee, which

199

His Profiting is

L TIMOTHY, V.

to appear to aU.

by prophecy, with the laying- on of the
hands of the presbytery. (15> Meditate
upon these things ; give thyself wholly
to them ; that thy profiting may appear
to all.1 <16> Take heed unto thyself, and

1 Or, in all tit tog*.
A.D. 65.

unto the doctrine ; continue in them :
for in doing this thou shalt both save
thyself, and them that hear thee.

CHAPTEE V.— CD Eebuke not an

was given thee by prophecy. — Here the Apostle
reminds his representative in the Ephesian congregation
of his special gift of teaching and exhortation — that
divine gift which had been conferred on Timothy at his
solemn ordination long ago, when the young son of
Eunice was designated for the post which John Mark
had once held with the Apostle. It was in many
respects a similar office, that which Timothy held about
St. Paul, to that which in old days Elisha had held with
Elijah ; and, as in the case of the Hebrew prophet of
the old dispensation, so here, the choice of St. Paul had
been divinely guided. The very titles of the old cove-
nant dispensation seem to have been revived in this
instance of the divine selection of Timothy; for in
chap. vi. 11 the older Apostle addresses his representa-
tive at Ephesus with the old prophetic title when he
writes : " Thou, 0 man of (rod.flee these things." Now
he solemnly calls attention to that strange, miraculous
•'grace" which some inspired prophet at his ordina-
tion declared was to be conferred on Timothy. The
•'gift" was said to be conferred, as to its certainty in
the divine counsels, by such prophecy — the Holy Spirit,
by the mouth of one or more of His prophets, declaring
His will and intention to confer this special grace on
the young companion of St. Paul.

"With the laying on of the hands.— This was a
symbolic action— the outward sign of an inward com-
munication of the Holy Spirit for some spiritual office
or undertaking — and was derived from the old solemn
Hebrew custom. (See Num. viii. 10 in the case of the
consecration of the Levites, and Num. xxvii. 18, Deut.
xxxiv. 9 in the ceremony of the dedication of Joshua.)

Of the presbytery.— The brotherhood of presbyters
connected with the place where the ordination of
Timothy took place is here alluded to. There appears
to have been such a body of elders in each particular
city or district. The presbytery in this instance would
seem in all probability to have belonged to the district
of Lystra, Timothy's native city; but an old eccle-
siastical tradition speaks of Ephesus as the place of
this ordination.

(15) Meditate upon these things.— Better ren-
dered, be diligent in these things. With these words St.
Paul closes this division of his solemn directions to his
chosen disciple and representative at Ephesus. He must
dwell on these things and must be diligent in their
practice : he must show himself active and industrious
as a public teacher, and must also order his life so as
to be an example to his fellow-bejievers.

Give thyself wholly to them ; that thy pro-
fiting may appear to all.— More accurately ren-
dered, thy advance (or. thy progress) may he manifest
to all. To these points — his public teaching and his
public example — he must give ceaseless attention, that
the Christian brotherhood of the Church over which
he presided should be enabled constantly to see what
progress their chief pastor was making in Christian
experience and life. The word we have translated
" advance " or " progress " reminds Christian ministers
and teachers of St. Paul's grave words to Timothy —
and, through Timothy, to all occupying any position
of authority in the congregations — that there must be

no standing still, no resting content with knowledge
already acquired, no being satisfied with the present
spiritual life; there must be a restless striving after
the acquirement of new stores of knowledge, ever deeper
and more accurate; there must be a ceaseless endeavour
to attain to a higher eminence in the spiritual life ; and,
if the minister or teacher would be successful, the result
of these efforts must be manifest to the brethren with
whom his lot was cast.

(16) Take heed unto thyself, and unto the
doctrine ; continue in them.— Thy teaching is a
more accurate rendering of the original Greek word than
" the doctrine." The Apostle in these words sums up the
two chief pastoral requisites, and then points out the
mighty consequences which will result from faithfully
carrying them out. The minister of Christ must keep
his attention fixed on his own demeanour and conduct,
and at the same time give equally careful heed to the
quality and character of his teaching. This teaching
must be true and manly, and, above all, it must be
faithful in doctrine j and he himself must exemplify it
in word and deed. Without true and efficient teaching,
the pure and upright life of the Christian pastor will
fail to win souls for his Master ; and, on the other hand,
the most efficient instniction will be of no avail unless
the life corresponds to the words publicly uttered.

For in doing this thou shalt both save thy-
self, and them that hear thee. — "Thou shalt
save" — that is, in the great day of judgment; for only
one meaning, and that the highest, must be given to
" thou shalt save." Eternal happiness for pastor and
flock is the double reward offered to the faithful
servant of the Lord. In striving to save others, the
minister is really caring for his own salvation.

(i) Rebuke not an elder, but intreat him as
a father.— Two-thirds of St. Paul's first Letter to
Timothy have been taken up with directions, warnings,
and exhortations respecting the public duties connected
with the office of superintending presbyter, or bishop,
of a church like that of Ephesus ; from these directions
in connection with the public teaching and the official
life in the church, the Apostle passes on to speak of
the private relations which one in Timothy's position
ought to maintain with individual members of the
congregation. And, first, he warns him against a
misplaced zeal, which might urge him to unbefitting
behaviour towards those older than himself. The
enthusiastic and ardent young servant of Christ would
see with sorrow and dismay the shortcomings of many
an elder member of his flock, and, forgetting to make
wise allowance for previous training, thought, and
habits, would be likely, unwisely, and possibly unfairly,
to find fault. Let him, in the cases of his elders — for
the reference is rather to age than to office, as is clear
from the reminder of verse 2, addressed to the " elder
women " — instead of open rebuke, use respectful and
affectionate entreaties, after the manner of a son, not of
an official.

The younger men as brethren.— And as re-
gards the younger Christians of Ephesus, let them not

200

Of the Relations of a Presbyter

I. TIMOTHY, Y

Members of his Flock.

eider,

but intreat him as a father ;
. 1—2. and the younger men

Chap

Directions re- as brethren ; <2) the elder
metering the ■ women as mothers; the
affairs cf the younger as sisters, with

general ^Z *& P^ty. <3> Honour

proofs were to widows that are widows

1„A,,~,1 Ti„ + jf any

indeed. ^ But

widow have children or nephews, let
them learn first to shew chap. v. 3—8.
piety1 at home, and to Of *he *•*"
requite their parents: for to" chriE
that is good and acceptable widows,
before God. <5) Now she that is a
widow indeed, and desolate, trusteth in
God, and continueth in supplications and

be alienated by an assumption of dignity on the part
of the chief presbyter of the Church. Let his relations
with these younger members of the family of Christ be
rather those of a brother and a friend than of a superior
in rank and dignity. ,

(-) The elder "women as mothers.— The same
watchful care against all assumption of superiority
must also be exercised in his dealings with the Chris-
tian matrons of Ephesus.

The younger as sisters, with all purity.— In
the case of the younger women, St. Paul adds to his
directions respecting brotherly and sisterly regard a
grave word, urging upon Timothy, and all official teachers
like Timothy, to add to this self-denying, loving friend-
ship a ceaseless watchfulness in all their conversation,
■so as not to afford any ground for suspicion ; for, above
all things, the recognised teacher of Christianity must
be pure. No one can read and forget the quaint words
of advice of St. Jerome : " Omnes puellas et virgines
Christi, aut cequaliter ignora aut cequaliter dilige."

( !» Honour widows that are widows indeed.
— The mention of the relations of a pastor to the
female members of the flock suggests another train of
thought. Christianity had, during the thirty years of
its history, developed a perfectly new existence for
women who professed the faith of Jesus of Nazareth.
In the Master's new and strange (new and strange to
the civilised world of that day) command — that the
poor, the needy, and the sick should be succoured, that
the helpless should be helped, and the comfortless
comforted — a blessed calling was invented, so to speak,
for Christian women. Their secluded and, in many
respects, degraded life in the old world was. in great
measure, owing to the fact that till Christ taught the
universal duty of charity, women had no recognised
public occupation in the world. The charge of the
Founder of the new religion provided an endless variety
of blessed, happiness-giving work for women of all
ages and. rank.

The novel prominence, however, of females in such
great centres as Ephesus not only necessitated some
organisation which should administer the alms, and
generally watch over and direct the self-sacrificing
labours of the female portion of the community, but
also required special vigilance, on the part of the chief
pastor and his assistant presbyters and deacons, to
prevent the charities of the Church being misused.
The widow — the desolate and destitute, the mourning
widow indeed, she who is in every sense a widow and
lias no one to whom to look for aid — she always has a
claim on the Church. Not merely is she to be honoured
by a simple exhibition of respect, but she is to be assisted
and supported out of the alms of the faithful.

(±) But if any widow have children or
nephews, let them learn first to shew piety
at home, and to requite their parents (or,
nepheivs). — The Greek word here should be rendered
grandchildren; the original meaning of "nephew"
{iiepotes) has disappeared. Here a warning against

41* 201

allowing the Church to be burdened with a burden
which others ought to bear is given, in the form of a
pressing reminder to the children or grandchildren of
the destitute and desolate widow. It is a solemn and
imperative duty for the children to afford all needful
succour — a duty not to be evaded by any bearing the
Christian name.

For that is good and acceptable before God.
— An especial blessing is promised to those who really
carry out this too often forgotten duty. (See Eph. vi.
2, 3 ; and, also comp. Mark vii. 10, 11.)

(5) Now she that is a widow indeed, and
desolate. — St. Paul, after mentioning this exception to
the fit objects of the Church's charity and protection,
again returns to this special class of helpless ones: "the
widows indeed" — a class, no doubt, in those days of
selfish luxury and of extreme misery and hopelessness,
often utterly neglected, and not unfrequently left to
starve and to perish in want and misery.

It has been asked why, in these official dh'ections to
Timothy, the question of relief of poor Christian widows
comes so prominently forward. We find also that, in
the first years which succeeded the Ascension, many
widows in Jerusalem seemed to have been dependent
on the Church for sustenance (Acts vi. 1). Now we
should expect to find in the Church of Christ the same
loving care which was taken in the old days, when
Israel was a great nation, of these solitary and unhappy
women. (Comp. Deut. xxiv. 17, where we find special
laws respecting the garments of widows never to be
taken in pledge. See, too, such passages as Ex. xxii. 22;
Deut. xxvii. 19; Isa. i. 17; Jer. vii. 6; also Isa. x. 2;
Mai. iii. 5. ) Still, this hardly accounts for the statement
of Acts vi. 1 and these lengthened directions to Timothy.
it is more than probable that there were, especially in
these Eastern cities, a very large class of these desolate
and unprotected women. The practice of polygamy is
accountable for this, in the first instance ; and the rigid
morality of the Christian teaching would place a bar to
the female convert from heathenism relapsing into a
life where moral restraints were utterly disregarded.
The charities of the early Church, especially in Oriental
cities, were, without doubt, heavily burdened with this
grave and increasing charge — provision for these poor
desolate women ; and it was to relieve the congregations
in some degree that St. Paul wrote these elaborate
instructions to Timothy, warning him, as the chief
minister of the Ephesian Church, against an indiscrimi-
nate charity, and at the same time providing him with
a system of severe restraints to be imposed upon the
assisted women.

Still, the chief pastor in Ephesus must remember
that among the women of his flock there were some
widows indeed, with neither children nor grandchildren
to assist them, without friends even to cheer their
desolate, widowed life. To find out and to succour
these poor, sad-hearted, friendless beings, St. Paul re-
minds Timothy, was oue of the duties of a Christian
miuister.

Of administering the Church's Alms

I. TIMOTHY, Y.

The Case of Christian Widows

prayers night and day. <6> But she
that liveth in pleasure1 is dead while
she liveth. <7) And these things give in
charge, that they may be blameless.

Or. kindred.

(8) But if any provide not for his own,
and specially for those of his ow .
house,- he hath denied the faith, and is
worse than an infidel. <9> Let not a

Trusteth in God.— These, without love of child or
friend, cast themselves on the support of the everlasting
arms. The language here used by St. Paul pictures,
evidently, some loving and trustful character then living,
of whom he was thinking while writing the Letter to
Timothy. " She hath trusted and still trusts in God ;
she continues in prayer night and day."

And continueth in supplications and. prayers
night and day.— Like Anna, the daughter of Pha-
nuel (Luke ii. 36, 37), whom some suppose St. Paul took
as the model and example for these Christian widows.
The meaning of these words, descriptive of a holy life,
is not that the earnest and pious bereaved woman
should pass her days and nights in the unrelieved
monotony of constantly repeated prayers. Such a life,
unpractical and useless, would never commend itself to
one like St. Paul ; the words simply describe the deso-
late one casting all her care on the Lord, and telling
Him, as her only friend, of all her thoughts and
actions, her words and her works.

(6) But she that liveth in pleasure is dead
while she liveth.— This is a thoroughly Pauline
thought, set forth in other language in the Roman
Epistle, chap. viii. 13 : " For if ye live after the flesh
ye shall die." The word in the Greek rendered " she
that liveth in pleasure " is very remarkable, and in the
New Testament is found only in one other place
(Jas. v. 5). The widow-woman who could so forget
her sorrow and her duty is spoken of as a living corpse,
and is sharply contrasted with her far happier sister,
who, dead to the pleasures of the flesh, living a life of
prayer and of self-denial, in the true sense of the word,
may be spoken of as living. A very different estimate
of life was held by the greatest of Greek poets, who
writes thus of men giving up pleasures : " I do not
consider that such a one lives, but I regard him as
a living corpse " (Antigone of Sophocles, 1166 — 7,
Dindorf). Comp., too, Rev. iii. 1.

(?) And these things give in charge.— That is
to say, the duties of widows, as set forth in verse 5,
together with his (St. Paul's) estimate of the gay and
frivolous character painted in verse 6.

That they may be blameless;— That, whether
seeking support from the public alms of the Christian
community or not, the widows of the congregation
should struggle after an irreproachable self-denying
life, and show before men publicly ivhose servants they
indeed were. In these words there seems a hint that the
former life of many of these women-converts to Chris-
tianity had been very different to the life loved of Christ,
and that in their new profession as Christians there was
urgent need of watchfulness on their part not to give
any occasion to slanderous tongues.

(8) But if any provide not for his own.— This
repeated warning was necessary in the now rapidly
widening circle of believers. Then, in those early days,
as now, men and women were attempting to persuade
themselves that the hopes arid promises of Christians
could be attained and won by a mere profession of
faith, by an assent to the historical truths, by a barren
reception of the doctrine of the atonement, without any
practice of stern self-denial, apart from any loving
consideration for others ; there were evidently in that

great Church of Ephesus, which St, Paul knew so welt
not a few professed believers in the Crucified who.
while possessed themselves of a competence, perhaps
even of wealth, could calmly look on while their re-
lations and friends languished in the deepest poverty.

And specially for those of his own house.—
The circle of those for whose support and sustenance »
Christian was responsible is here enlarged : not merely
is the fairly prosperous man who professes to love
Christ, bound to do his best for his nearest relations,
such as his mother and grandmother, but St. Paul says
" he must assist those of his own house," in which term
relatives who are much more distant are included, and
even dependents connected with the family who had
fallen into poverty and distress.

He hath denied the faith.— Faith, considered
as a rule of life, is practically denied by one who
neglects these kindly duties and responsibilities, for
" faith worketh by love " (Gal. v. 6). Faith here is con-
sidered by St. Paul, not as mere belief in the doctrine,
or even in a person, but as a rule of life.

And is worse than an infidel.— The rules even
of the nobler Pagan moralists forbid such heartless
selfishness. For a Christian, then, deliberately to
neglect such plain duties would bring shame and dis-
grace on the religion of the loving Christ, and, not-
withstanding the name he bore, and the company in
which he was enrolled, such a denier of the faith would
be really worse than a heathen.

<9) Let not a widow be taken into the number
under threescore years old.— The question re-
specting the assistance to be afforded to the poor and
destitute widows of the great Asian Church reminded
St. Paul of an organisation, consisting of widowed
women, which had grown out of the needs of Christi-
anity. He would lay down some special rules here to be
observed by his friend and disciple. What, now, is this
organisation commended to Timothy in these special
directions ? Here, and here only in the New Testa-
ment, do we find it alluded to; but the instructions in
this passage are so definite, so precise, that it is im-
possible not to assume in the days of Timothy and
of Paul, in some, if not in all the great churches,
the existence of an official band of workers, consisting
of widows, most carefully selected from the congrega-
tion of believers, of a somewhat advanced age, and
specially distinguished for devotion — possessing, each
of these, a high and stainless reputation — they were an
official band of workers, a distinct order, so to speak ;
for these widows, formally entered on the Church's
list, could not possibly represent those poor and deso-
late widows, friendless and destitute, spoken of above.
The minimum age of sixty years would also exclude
many; and the advice of St. Paul to the younger ones
to marry again could never have been addressed to
women wanting even many years of the requisite
" sixty." Were these poor souls to be formally shut out
from receiving the Church's alms? Again, those or.
the list could never be the same persons whom we hear
of as deaconesses (Rom. xvi. 1, and in the Christian
literature of the second century). The active duties of
the office would have been utterly incompatible with the
age of sixty, the minimum age at which these were to be

The Order of

I. TIMOTHY, V.

Presbyteral Wi<l<i<>

■ Chap. v. 9—15. widow be taken1 into the
Directions re- number under threescore
T vS&tfS* years old, having been the
widows. wife of one man, (1°) well

reported of for good works ; if she have
brought up children, if she have lodged
strangers, if she have washed the saints'
feet, if she have relieved the afflicted, if

entered on the list. We then conclude these " widows "
were a distinct and most honourable order, whose
duties, presbyteral rather than diaconic, apparently
consisted in the exercise of superintendence over, and
-in the ministry of counsel and consolation to, the
younger women. — That they sat unveiled in the as-
semblies in a separate place by the presbyters; that
they received a special ordination by laying on of
hands ; that they wore a peculiar dress— were distinc-
tions probably belonging to a later age.

Having been the wife of one man.— Of the
conditions of enrolment in this " order," the first— that
of age— has been alluded to ; the second — " having
been the wife of one man " — must not be understood in
the strictly literal sense of the words. It is inconceiv-
able that the hope of forming one of the highly
honoured band of presbyteral women depended on
the chance of the husband living until the wife had
reached the age of sixty years. Had he died in her
youth, or comparative youth, the Apostle's will was that
the widow should marry again. (See verse 14, where
St. Paul writes, "I will that the younger women
marry," &c.)

The right interpretation of the words is found in some
such paraphrase as, " If in her married life she had been
found faithful and true." The fatal facility of divorce
and the lax state of morality in Pagan society, espe-
cially in the Greek and Asiac cities, must be taken into
account when we seek to illustrate and explain these
directions respecting early Christian foundations.

While unhesitatingly adopting the above interpreta-
tion of the words " wife of one man," as faithfully
representing the mind of St. Paid, who was legislating
here, it must be remembered, for the masses of believers
whose lot was cast in the busy world (see his direct
command in verse 14 of this chapter, where the family
life is pressed on the younger widow, and not the higher
life of solitude and self-denial), still those expositors
who adopt the stricter and sterner interpretation of
" wife of one man " — viz., " a woman that has had only
one husband " — have, it must be granted, a strong
argument in their favour from the known honour the
univirce obtained in the Roman world. So Dido, in
JEn. iv. 28, says—

"Ille meos, primus qui me sibijunxit, amores
Abstulit, ille habeat secum, servctque sepulchre"

Compare, too, the examples of the wives of Lucan,
Drusus, and Pompey, who, on the death of their hus-
bands, devoted the remainder of their lives to retire-
ment and to the memory of the dead. The title
univirce graved on certain Roman tombs shows how
this devotion was practised and esteemed. " To love
a wife when living is a pleasure, to love her when (lend
is an act of religion," wrote Statins —

"Uxorem vivam amarc voluptas
Defunctam religio."

— Statius, Sylv. v., in Procvmio.

And see, for other instances, Lecky, Hist . of European
Morals, chap. v.

But it seems highly improbable that the delicate and
touching feeling, which had taken root certainly in some
(alas ! in only a small number) of the nobler Roman

minds, influenced St. Paul, who, under the direction of
the Holy Spirit, was laying down rules for a great and
world-wide society, which was to include the many, not
the few, chosen souls — was legislating for the masse-,
to whom such an expressed wisli would indeed be "a
counsel of perfection " rarely to be carried out; and so.
without hesitation, Ave adopt the more practical inter-
pretation given above.

(io) Well reported of for good works.— Not
only must men have no evil to say of her, but she must
be well known for her good works, for her kindly
willingness to help the weary and heavy-laden ones of
the world.

If she have brought up children.— This title to
honour must be understood quite in a general sense.
It must not, of course, be supposed that St. Paul deemed
it necessary to exclude from the order of presbyteral
widows the childless mothers. Only the candidate
for admission must be well known as one who loves
children, and would be ready and willing gladly to dis-
charge any public duties to the little orphan ones of
the flock who might be intrusted to her care.

If she have lodged strangers— If, even inr<
comparatively humble state, she have been always mind-
ful of the sacred rites of hospitality, a virtue perhaps
even more valued in the East than in the more reserved
Western countries. In the early days of the new fail h
the readiness to entertain and welcome Christian
strangers seems to have been an especial characteristic
of believers in Jesus of Nazareth.

If she have washed the saints' feet.— Not per-
haps to be understood literally, though the act of the
Lord on the night before the Cross had invested this
act of common hospitality with a peculiar halo of love
and devotion. The woman who was to be admitted into
the fellowship of this honoured order must be well
known as one who had never shrunk from any act of
devoted love, however painful or seemingly degrading.
If she have relieved the afflicted. —Not merely,
or even chiefly, by alms, but by all kindly and sisterly
encouragement : ever ready to mourn with those that
mourn, deeming none too low or too degraded for her
friendship, none out of the reach of her sisterly help
and counsel.

If she have diligently followed every good
•work.— This sums up the beautiful character to l)e
sought for in the candidates for membership in this
chosen woman's band. She must be known not merely
as a mother and a wife, who had well and faithfully per-
formed the womanly duties of her home life, but men
must speak of her as one who had diligently and
lovingly sought out the rough places of the world, and
I who, with a brave and patient self-denial, with as wee 5
| and touching self-forgetfulness, had set herself to per-
I form those kind, good actions the Master loves so well.
In the Shepherd of Hennas, written about A.D. 150,
some eighty years after St. Paul wrote this letter to
I Timothy, we have probably an example of one of these
, honoured widows in the person of Grapte, whose task
i it was to teach the widows and orphans of the Roman
Church the meaning of certain prophecies. The author-
' ship of the Shepherd has also been ascribed to the
1 Hennas mentioned in Rom. xvi. 14. It belongs, how-

Dangers and Faults

I. TIMOTHY, V.

to be Guarded against.

she have diligently followed every good
work. (n> But the younger widows
refuse: for when they have begun to
wax wanton against Christ, they will
marry; <12> having damnation, because

they have cast oft' their first faith.
<13) And withal they learn to be idle,
wandering about from house to house ;
and not only idle, but tattlers also and
busybodies, speaking things which they

ever, more probably to the middle of the second cen-
tury, as stated above.

The criticism which dwells on this celebrated pas-
sage, containing St. Paul's rules for admission into the
order of presbyteral widows, and which finds in it
subject matter belonging to a date later than the, age
of St. Paul and Timothy, forgets that, dating from the
days when Jesus of Nazareth walked on earth, women
had been enrolling. themselves among His foremost fol-
lowers, and had been sharing in the toils and enter-
prises of His most zealous . disciples. We find the
Marys and other holy women associated with " His
own " in the days of the earthly ministry j they were
foremost in the work done to the person of the sacred
dead. We hear of them after the Resurrection repeatedly
iu the Jerusalem Church of the first days. It was
the neglect of some of the Hebrew widows which led to
the foundation of the deacon's order. Dorcas, before
ten years of the Church's life had passed, appears to
have presided over a charitable company of women at
Lydda. Dorcas, no doubt, was but one out of many
doing, in different centres, a similar work. Priscilla, the
wife of Aquila* the wandering tent-maker of Pontus,
early in St. Paul's career evidently took a leading part
in organising congregations of Christians. Lydia, the
purple seller of Thyatira, was prominent in developing
the Philippian Church. Phebe, under the title of the
Deaconess of Cenchrea, was the official bearer of St.
Paul's famous letter to the Roman Church. This pas-
sage, dwelling on the growing organisation for women's
work at Ephesus, tells us more, certainly, than the
scattered incidental allusions of the Acts and earlier
Epistles. But the words of St. Paid speak oidy of the
natural results and development of a great movement,
which, dating from the earthly days of the ministry of
Christ, was destined to give women a new position
among the workers of the world.

The Ephesian organisation here regulated by the
Apostle is nothing more than we should expect to find
after thirty or thirty-two years of female effort in the
Master's cause.

(U) But the younger widows refuse. — The
younger women — younger used in a general sense —
must positively be excluded from, and held ineligible
for. this presbyteral order.

This direction by no means shuts them out from
participation in the alms of the Church, if they were in
need and destitute ; but it wisely excluded the younger
women from a position and from duties which they
might in their first days of grief and desolation covet,
but of which, as time passed on — as experience had
shown St. Paul — they not unfrequently wearied. Those
who had put their hands to the plough and afterwards
looked back, he proceeds to tell us, would be a
hindrance to the Church's work, and in some cases
might prove a subject of scandal and reproach.

For when they have begun to wax wanton
against Christ. — The Apostle was looking on to the
time when, the first fervour excited by grief and sorrow
being past, these younger sisters in many instances
would begin again to long after their old pursuits and
pleasures. The Greek word rendered " wax wanton "

204

suggests especially the idea of restiveness. They will
lose — to use Jerome's well-known expression — their
love for their own proper Bridegroom — Christ.

They will marry.— The sight of domestic happi-
ness enjoyed by other women will affect them.
They, too, will long in their poor hearts for home joys ;
they will weary for the prattle of their own little
children.

How much untold misery would have been avoided —
how many;wasted lives would, have been saved for good
and useful service, had Churchmen in later times only
obeyed the words and carried out the thoughts of Paul,
and persistently refused, as did St. Paul and Timothy,
to receive the proffered services of women still too
young in years for such devoted work, but who, through
a temporary pressure of sorrow, dreamed for a moment
they would be able to carry out their purpose of a life-
long renunciation of the world, its excitement and its

joys.

St. Paul, writing under the inspiration of the Holy
Spirit, saw how too often such renunciation, made
under peculiar pressure of circumstances, undertaken
with the hot fervour of youth, in later days would
become. weary and distasteful.

(12) Having damnation.— Judgment not neces-
sarily " damnation." The Greek word hrima is often
thus unhappily translated. The context of the passage
must in all cases decide the nature of the '< judgment,"
whether favourable or the contrary. Here it signifies
that those who in after days give up a work which for
their Master's sake they had undertaken, expose them-
selves to a searching judgment, Avhich will thoroughly
sift the reasons that induced them to forsake the
begun toil, and that, if the reasons be not satisfactory,
will be unfavourable, and will surely involve con-
demnation.

Because they have cast off their first
faith. — Though, probably, no vows respecting marriage
were required from those widows who devoted themselves
to the Lord's service, yet virtually such a solemn
enrolment partook of the nature of a life-long engage-
ment—an engagement which, if they married again,
must necessarily be given up.

Such a going back, such a giving up the higher and
the more devoted life — the life of self-sacrifice, of self-
abnegation — for the ordinary joys and cares of domestic
life, for the useful but still every-day pursuits of
ordinary men and women — such a going back, would
be indeed a casting off their first faith, and such an
example of backsliding could not fail to harm the
cause of Christ.

(!3) And withal they learn to be idle, wan-
dering about from house to house. The first
fervour of their devotion and renunciation of self will
have cooled, their very occupation will become a snare
to them — the going about to the various dwellings for
the object of consoling, instructing, assisting, would give
them, now that their minds were no longer exclusively
turned to religious thoughts, and their hearts were no
more alone filled by Jesus, many an opportunity of
wasting precious hours, of indulging in frivolous, if not
in harmful, conversation ; and this the Apostle seems to

Directions respecting Ydungt r

I. TIMOTHY, V.

Widows of Presbyters.

ought, not. (U) I will therefore that the
younger women marry, bear children,
guide the house, give none occasion to
the adversary to speak reproachfully.1
(16) For some are already turned aside

-,, ,„ after Satan. 1(i> If any

Ohap. v. 16. J

The destitute man or woman that be-
widows. lieveth have widows, let

them relieve them, and let not
the church be charged; that it
may relieve them that are widows
indeed. (17> Let the chap.v. 17— 18.

elders that rule well be Special re-
, , ., n -1 -i 1 wards to cer-

counted worthy 01 double tain Presby-
honour, especially they tew.
who labour in the word and doctrine.

have feared would be the result of these' visits, and
the fruit of their work, if the younger sisters were
enrolled in the official list, for he speaks of such
becoming " not only idle, but tattlers also and busy-
bodies, speaking things which they ought not."

(**) I will therefore that the younger women
marry, bear children, guide the house. r- Here
the Apostle deliberately expresses his will that in these
Christian communities the younger widows should not,
in the first fervour of their zeal, when borne, down by
sorrow, attempt anything, like an ascetic life, which they
would probably tire of after a season; they would thus,
in the long run, instead of benefiting, positively injure
the <ause of Christ. St. Paul's practical mind, guided
by the Spirit of God, has left us no impossible rules
of perfection, no exaggerated praises of asceticism, of
lofty self-denial, no passionate exhortiugs to a life made
up entirely of self-sacrifice and of self- surrender,

He knew the ordinary man or woman was incapable
of such exalted heroism, and therefore was top wise,. too
loving, even to recommend a life which few could live.
It was not that the Master, Christ, and the,, greatest
of his servants, St.. Paul, did' not, themselves prize and
admire the higher ideal and the nobler, life — for was
it not their own? Did not one.. attain to, it, and the
other die in his hero-efforts, to. reach, it.?,-; But Master
and scholar in their gospel of the world have left com-
mands that all, not the few, can obey — have enjoined
a life which all, not the few, may live. , ,,■

Give none occasion to the adversary to speak
reproachfully .—The reference here is not to . the
devil — as would at first appear probable from the direct
reference in the next, verse— but tOjthe enemy of Christ
— the sneering worldly man, who, jealous of a faith
which he declines to receive, and envious of a life in
which he will not share, is always on the look-out to
discover flaws and failings in the. avowed. professors of
a religion which he hates. (Comp. Tit. ii; 8.)

<15) For some are already turned aside.— It
was the backsliding of those '■', nameless " ones, probably,
which had been the immediate, occasion of these direc-
tions to Timothy. Although these unhappy sisters had
worked such great mischief to the cause of Christ.
still St. Paul, with his tender grace and love, forbore to
mention any by name. They had undertaken a task
too severe for them to carry out, and had miserably
failed. He spares these poor erring sisters, but directs
the chief pastor of the Church at Ephesus, how to
guard against such fatal results for the future.

After Satan.— They had swerved from the nai-row,
thorny road of self-denial which they had chosen for
themselves, and perhaps dreading, after their public pro-
fession, to form afresh any legal marriage ties, had
followed that dowmvard path of sensuality. which surely
lends to Satan.

(lfi) If any man or woman that belie veth have
widows, let them relieve them.— This is not what.
at first sight, it appears to be — a mere repetition of the

injunction of verses 4and 8. There the duties enjoined
wore what may be termed filial ; the love, respect, and
kindness to the aged was especially pressed on the
younger, on the children and grandchildren of the
desolate, on the master of the house or family to which
the aged widow belonged. Here the reference belongs
exclusively to the younger widows, who (see Note above)
were, no doubt, very numerous in a great Asian Church
like Ephesus; for the future of these women, often
still young and totally unprovided for, St. Paul was
veryi anxious. Until a new home was found for such,
of course the Church 1 cared for them, but this heavy-
burden on the Church's alms must be lightened as
much as possible, lit was the plain duty of "relatives
to care for. these in their hour of destitution and sor-
row. The Church would have many a one, still com-
paratively speaking young, utterly dependent on its
.scanty, funds — friendless as well as homeless.

It has been asked : How is it that, considering the
• prominence: here given to: the questions (a) of the sup-
, pout -of Christian widows, (6) of the rules respecting;
presbyteral widows,; who evidently occupied a position
of dignity and importance in the Church of the first
days,; no other mention of this class in the community
(with the exception of . Acts vi. 1 and ix. 39) appears in
the whole. New Testament.

This has been pressed as one of the arguments point-
ing to. a much later date for the writing of the Epistle;
but the question is, after all, readily and conclusively
answered. With the! exception of the short Epistle to
Titus,-, the/subject of the internal organisation of a
church is nowhere handled. There is no room or place
for such a mention in any of the more exclusively
doctrinal or apologetic Epistles. In the broad field of
ecclesiastical history occupied by the Acts, the two
casual allusions above referred to, in the Churches of
Jerusalem and Lydda, tell us of the existence of and the
care for these widows in the communities of Christians,
even iii the earliest years of the Church's existence.

(17) Let the elders that rule well be counted
worthy of double honour, especially they who
labour, in the word and doctrine. — More accurately
rendered, " Let the elders 1 presbyters) who rule well."
The consideration of the position and qualifications of
certain ruling elder. women {the pre^bytera! widows)
reminded St. Paul of certain points to be impressed on
Timothy connected with' the rank and honour due to
the 'more distinguished presbyters associated with him
in the Ephesian congregations.

Attention should be directed here to the vast powers
intrusted to the " presiding presbyter" of such a
Church as Ephesus (to use the title of Bishop in the
ecclesiastical sense would be as yet an anachronism. It
probably was. however, of general use within thirty years
from the date of the Epistle, certainly before the close
of the century). In addition to the general office of
supervisor,- one in the position of Timothy evidently
had the distribution of the several grades of honour.-;

IVielr Reward. Concerniw/

I. TIMOTHY, V.

Accusations against them.

(is) For the scripture saith, Thou shalt
not muzzle the ox that treadeth out the
com." And, The labourer is worthy of
his reward.4 (19) Against an elder re-
Chap f 19— ceiye n0* an accusation,
20.' Of accused but before1 two or three
Presbyters. witnesses. <20) Them that

b Matt. 10. 10.

Or, under.

Or, without pre-

sin rebuke before all, that others also

may fear, (*W I charge thee before God,

and the Lord Jesus Christ,

and the elect angels, that

thou observe these things

without preferring one

before another,2 doing nothing by par-

Chap, v. 21-25.
Solemn charge
and special
warnings.

and remuneration among the presbyteral order (verses
17 and 21). To him, as presiding elder, belonged the
functions of supreme judge in all matters ecclesiastical
and moral, relating to the varied officials of both sexes
connected with the Church. The right of ordination
which, when the Apostles and the first generation of
believers had passed away, became the exclusive work
of the bishop, is here (see verse 22) specially intrusted
by an Apostle to Timothy, the chief presbyter and apos-
tolic representative in the Church of Ephesus, in the
words : " Lay hands suddenly on no man."

The elders (presbyters) to whom Timothy was to
accord some special honour, were those who, in the
congregations and Christian schools of so great a city
as Ephesus, in addition to their many duties connected
with organisation and administration, were distinguish-
ing themselves in a marked manner by their preaching
and teaching.

Among the devoted and earnest presbyters in these
Asian churches, some there were, doubtless, who possessed
the special gift of teaching, either in the class-room or
the preacher's chair. Those who, possessing, well and
faithfully exercised these invaluable gifts were to be in
some way preferred by the chief minister. The " double
honour " (time) is a broad inclusive term, and seems
to comprehend rank and position as well as remunera-
tion— victu et reverentid, as Melancthon paraphrases
the words " double honour." Timothy is here directed
to confer on the more distinguished of the order of pres-
byters, official rank and precedence, as the reward of
faithful and successful work.

(18> For the scripture saith, Thou shalt not
muzzle the ox that treadeth out the corn.—
The quotation is from Deut. xxv. 4.

The idea in the Apostle's mind, when he quoted the
words of Moses, was : If, in the well-known and loved
law of Israel, there was a special reminder to God's
people that the very animals that laboured for them
were not to be prevented from enjoying the fruits of
their labours, surely men who with zeal and earnest-
ness devoted themselves as God's servants to their
fellows, should be treated with all liberality, and even
dignified with especial respect and honour.

And, The labourer is worthy of his reward.—
It is possible, though hardly likely, that St. Paul,
quoting here a well-known saying of the Lord (see
St. Luke x. 7), combines a quotation from a Gospel with
a quotation from the Book of Deuteronomy, introducing
both with the words " For the Scripture saith " — Scrip-
ture (graphe) being always applied by St. Paid to the
writings of the Old Testament. It is best and safest
to understand these words as simply quoted by St. Paul,
as one of the well-remembered precious declarations of
the Lord Jesus.

(!9) Against an elder receive not an accusa-
tion, but before two or three witnesses.— By
the " elder " here we must understand a presbyter —
the ordained minister of the Church. St. Paul has
been directing his son in the faith, and successor in the
government of the chief Asian Church, carefully to

watch for, and to reward by dignity and honour, the
services of the more zealous and distinguished pres-
byters. He now tells him that the other matters,
besides zeal and successful service among the Church's
professed officers, will come before him when he stands
at the helm of the Church. Charges — owing, possibly,
to jealousy, party feeling, suspected doctrinal error —
will not unfrequently be brought against a presbyter.
Such an accusation is only to be received by Timothy
when the evidence is perfectly clear. Every possible
precaution against simply vexatious charges brought
against one occupying the hard and difficult position of
a presbyter, must be taken by the presiding minister.
The reference is to Deut. xvii. 6.

(20) Them that sin rebuke before all, that
others also may fear.— The Apostle here, apparently,
is still referring exclusively to that order of presbyters
whose more meritorious members he had directed
Timothy to honour with a special honour, and towards
whose accused members he instructed him how to act.
He now passes to the question how to deal with these
responsible officers of the Church when they were
proved to be notoriously sinning. While, on the one
hand, the earnest and devoted men were to be honoured
with "a double honour" — while every possible legal
precaution was to be taken in the case of those being
accused — on the other hand, when proved to be men
continuing in sin and error, their punishment must be
as marked as in the other case was the reward. The
errors and sins of teachers of the faith are far more
dangerous than in those who make up the rank and file
of congregations, and require a more severe and more
public punishment.

It is not improbable that St. Paul was especially allud-
ing here to false teaching — to errors of doctrine on the
part of some of the Ephesian presbyters. He seems,
in his parting address at Miletus to the elders (pres-
byters) of this very Ephesian Church, to have foreseen
such a grievous falling away in the future among their
company — " Also of your own selves shall men arise,
speaking perverse things, to draw away disciples after
them " (Acts xx. 30). Compare also the Epistle to this
same Church of Ephesus (Rev. ii. 4 — 5). As the sin,
whatever has been its nature, has been committed by
men intrusted with a responsible and public charge, so
the rebuke and punishment must also be in public, that
the warning may then spread over the whole of the
various congregations composing the Church, and thus
" others also may fear."

(21) I charge thee before God, and the Lord
Jesus Christ.— More accurately, as well as more
forcibly rendered, " I solemnly charge thee." " Lord "
must be omitted before Jesus Christ, the older
authorities not containing the word. The sense
of the passage remains the same. Very solemnly is
Timothy adjured to carry out the varied duties of
his great charge, the government of the Church of
Ephesus, impartially — doing nothing hastily, ever
watchful of himself. St. Paul has just pressed upon
him how needful it was to exercise care in the case of an

206

fecial Warnings and Directions

I. TIMOTHY, V.

addressed to Timothy.

tiality. (22) Lay hands suddenly on no
man, neither be partaker of other men's

I sins : keep thyself pure. (23> Drink no
I longer water, but use a little wine for

accused presbyter. Ho must listen to no charge except
several competent witnesses were produced to support
(he accusation. Ho now reminds Timothy — the chief
pretbyter — of the ever present unseen witnesses of
his conduct (see Heb. xii. 1). In that awful presence
— in sight of the throne of God, with Messiah on the
right hand, and the angels, the chosen attendants and
ministers of God, gathering round about the throne —
would Timothy guide and rule the congregations of
Christians in that famous Eastern city.

The Church of Ephesus had been built up and
onsolidated by the personal presence and influence of
St. Paul, resident there some three years ; and at the
time when St. Paul wrote to Timothy it was second in
numbers and in influence to none of the early groups
<>f congregations (except, perhaps, to the Christian
communities of Syrian Antioch). Placed by an
Apostle as the first head of such a community,
intrusted with one of the greatest and most important
charges in Christendom, Timothy indeed needed to bo
watchful. Well might St. Paul remind him of the
tremendous witnesses who would be present in his hour
of trial.

And the elect angels.— St. Paul had been speaking
at the internal organisation of the church on earth, and
had been dwelling, first, on rank and order among
women, and secondly, among men, especially direct-
ing that a special position of honour should be
given to the more distinguished and zealous of the
presbyteral order. The term " elect " here given to
-certain of those blessed spirits— in whose sight, as they
-;tood and ministered before the throne of God,
Timothy would rule over the charge committed to
him — would seem to imply that, as on earth, so in heaven
ire there degrees in rank and variety in occupation.
These holy ones are probably termed "elect," as
especially selected by the Eternal as His messengers to
the human race, as was Gabriel, who stands in the
presence of God. (See Luke i. 19.) St. Paul loves to
refer to the ranks and degrees of the host of heaven.
(See Rom. viii. 38; Eph. i. 21 ; Col. i. 16.) But it is
possible that these "elect angels" were those blessed
spirits who " kept their first estate," and had not fallen.
■(See 2 Pet. ii. 4, and Jude, verse 6.)

That thou observe these things.— The "things"
Timothy was to observe, as ever in the presence of
so august a company of witnesses, were the varied
points touched upon in the preceding verses, relat-
ing to the internal organisation of the church over
which he was presiding, especially bearing in mind (for
St. Paul again refers to this point) his words which
bore upon judgment of presbyters — the men whose
lives and conversation were to be an example to the
■flock.

Without preferring one before another.—
More literally, without prejudice. Ho who presides
over a great Christian community must be above all
party feeling. That unhappy divisions existed in the
Churches, even in the lifetime of the Apostles, we
have ample evidence, not only iu the inspired writings.
but also in the fragments we possess of the earliest
Christian literature.

Doing nothing by partiality. -Although these
reminding words, and those immediately preceding.
were written with especial reference to the judicial
inquiry Timothy would be constrained to hold' in the

event of any presbyter being formally accused either of
a moral offence or of grave doctrinal error in his
teaching, yet they must be understood in a far broader
sense. The presiding elder in Ephesus must never for-
get that he bears rule, not only over one school of
Christian thought, but over all men who acknowledged
Jesus as Messiah aud Redeemer.

(22) Lay hands suddenly on no man.— This
command refers primarily to the solemn laying on of
hands at the ordination of presbyters and deacons.
It no doubt also includes the " laying on of hands "
customary, apparently, even in the Apostolic age, on
the absolution of penitents and their re-admission to
church fellowship.

Neither be partaker of other men's sins.—
By thus negligently admitting into the ministry unfit
persons — by carelessly and without due caution re-
admitting persons to a church fellowship, which by
their evil life they had forfeited — Timothy would
iucur a grave responsibility, would in fact " be a
partaker" in the sins and errors committed by those
men, some of whom he had carelessly placed in im-
portant positions in the church, others of whom he
had l-estored to comnrunion before they had given
sufficient evidence of their repentance. To limit, how-
ever, the reference of the command of St. Paul here
to the laying on of hands in the ordination of pres-
byters and deacons, woidd imply a greater corruption
in the church at that early date than is credible.
Surely the number of " unfit " persons seeking the
high and holy, but difficult and dangerous, posts of
officers in a proscribed and hated community, would
hardly by themselves have warranted such grave
warning words as " Lay hands suddenly on no man,
neither be partaker of other men's sins."

Keep thyself pure.— The word " pure " here has
a broad and inclusive signification. It, of course,
denotes the urgent necessity of one holding Timothy's
high and responsible office being pure and chaste in
word and deed and thought ; but here it also presses
on the chief presbyter of Ephesus the imperative
necessity of keeping himself, by ceaseless watchfulness,
pure from all reproach in the matter of selecting candi-
dates for the ministry, or in the restoring of the lapsed
sinners to church fellowship.

(23) Drink no longer water, but use a little
wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often
infirmities.— Those who argue that this Epistle was
the artificial composition of an age subsequent to St.
Paul's, and was written in great measure to support the
hierarchical development, which, they say, showed itself
only in the century after St. Paul's death, have no little
difficulty in accounting for the presence of such a com.
mand as this. It can, in fact, only be explained on
the supposition that the letter was, in truth, written by
St. Paid to Timothy in all freedom and in all love : by
the older and more experienced, to the younger and
comparatively untried man : by the master to the
pupil: by an old and trusted friend, accustomed to
speak his whole mind, to one his inferior in years, in
rank, in knowledge. No ecclesiastical forger of the
second or third century would have dreamed, or, had
he dreamed, would have dared to weave into the com-
plicated tapestry of such an Epistle such a charge as
'" Drink no longer water, but use a little wine — con-
sidering thine often infirmities."

207

He is enjoined

I. TIMOTHY, VI.

to exercise Discretion,

thy stomach's sake and thine often
infirmities. (2i) Some men's sins are
open beforehand, going before to
judgment ; and some men they
follow after. (25) Likewise also the
good works of some are manifest

beforehand ; and they that are other-
wise cannot be hid.

CHAPTEE VI.— d) Let as many
servants as are under the yoke count
their own masters worthy of all

The reminder was, no doubt, suggested by St. Paul's
own words, with which lie closed his solemn direc-
tion respecting Timothy's dealings with the accused
tjresbyters, and the care to be used in the laying on of
lands : " Keep thyself pure." That Timothy possessed
— as did his master Paul — a feeble body, is clear from
the words "thine often infirmities." He was. above all
things, considering his great position in that growing
church, to remember "to keep himself pure,'''' but not
on that account to observe ascetical abstinence, and so
to weaken uselessly the frail, perishable, perhaps ever-
dying body, in which lie must work that great work
committed to him in the master's church. Absti-
nence from wine was a well-known characteristic
feature of the Essene and other Jewish ascetic sects.
We know there Was frequent intercommunion between
Alexandria and Ephesus (see Acts xviii. it); and it has
even been conjectured that Apollos, who taught publicly
at Ephesus, was himself a famous Essene teacher.
The practice of these grave and ascetic Jews, many of
whom became Christians, no doubt affected not a little
the habits and tone of thought of the Ephesian con-
gregations. Hence the necessity of St. Paul's warning
against allowing the bodily power to be weakened
through abstinence and extreme asceticism.

(24) Some men's sins are open beforehand,
going before to judgment ; and some men they
follow after.— The preceding verse was parenthetic,
and suggested by his fears lest the effect of his direc-
tion to his son in the faith to keep himself .pure might
lead Timothy to the practice of a useless and unhealthy
asceticism. St. Paul now returns and closes the subject
on which he had been instructing his representative
at Ephesus. He tells him, in his choice of men to fill
the public positions in the Church of God — in his
public inquiries into their conduct and teaching — in
his inquiries respecting sinners, who, having forfeited
their position as members of the community, were
seeking re-admission into church fellowship, not to
forget there were two classes of sins : the one class
public and open, heralds, so to speak, of the judgment
to follow. In the case of men sinning thus, the church's
chief pastor would have no difficulty in determining
upon his course of action. But there was another class
of sins — silent and, as far as public and general know-
ledge went, unknown — only published after judgment
had been given. To rightly estimate such characters
Avill require much care and penetration, and this will
be part of Timothy's work. The judgment (krisis) here
mentioned is that of Timothy as shown in the careful
selection of candidates for ordination — in determining
what sinners are fit for restoration to church fellow-
ship— in pronouncing sentence in the matter of accused
presbyters.

(25> Likewise also the good works of some
are manifest beforehand; and they that are
otherwise cannot be hid.— In his difficult post
Timothy might fear lest, especially in his selection of
men for the Lord's service, true nobility of character
might not unfrequently escape his notice and be over-
looked, and that thus the best and truest might never

208

be enrolled on the register of church officers. St. Paid
bids him take courage in the thought that in many a
case self-sacrifice, . generosity, stern principle, will be
sufficiently manifest to guide him in his choice of fit
persons for the holy calling; and in those rarer cases
where the higher and sweeter virtues are hidden, he
may be sure that in God's good season these too will
become known to him, in ample time for him to call
them also into his Master's service.

VI.

(!) Let as many servants as are under the
yoke count their own masters worthy of all
honour. — From questions connected with the presby-
ters and others among the recognised ministers and
officials of the church, i St. Paul passes on to consider
certain difficulties connected with a large and important
section of the congregations to whom these presbyters
were in the habit of ministering — the Christian slaves.

It was perhaps the most perplexing of all the ques-
tions Christianity had to .face — this. one of slavery. It
entered into all grades and ranks. It was common to all
peoples and nations. The very fabric of society seemed
knit and bound together by this . miserable institution.
War and commerce were equally responsible ;for slavery
in the Old World. To attempt to uproot it — to preach
against it — to represent it in public teaching as hateful
to God, shameful to man — would have, been to preach
and to teach rebellion and revolution in its darkest
and most violent form. It was indeed the curse of the
world; but the Master and His chosen servants took
their own course and their own time to clear it away.
Jesus Christ and His disciples, such as St. Paul aud St_
John, left society as they found it, uprooting no ancient
landmarks, alarming no ancient prejudices, content to-
live in the world as it was, and to do its work as they
found it— trusting, by a new and lovely example,
slowly and surely to raise men to a higher level, know-
ing well that at last, by force of unselfishness, loving self-
denial, brave patience, the old, curses — such as slavery —
would be driven from the world. . Surely the result, so
far, has not disappointed the hopes of the first teachers
of Christianity.

This curse at least is disappearing fast from the face
of the globe. St. Paul here is addressing, in the first
place. Christian slaves of a Pagan master. Let these,,
if they love the Lord and would do honour to His holy-
teaching, in their relations to their earthly masters not
presume upon their new knowledge, that with the
Master in Heaven "there was no respect of persons;"
that " in Jesus Christ there was neither bond nor free,
for all were one in Christ." Let these not dream for
an instant that Christianity was to interfere with the
existing social relations, and to put master and slave
on an equality on earth. Let these, by their conduct to
unbelieving masters, paying them all loving respect
and honour, show how the new religion was teaching
them to live.

That the name of God and his doctrine be
not blasphemed.— There would indeed bo a grave
danger of this, if the many Christian slaves, instead of

Instructions connected

I. TIMOTHY, VI.

with Christian Slaved.

honour, that the name of God and his
. ,__0 doctrine be not blasphemed.
Tea&Jg to be (f And they that have be-
addresaed to Heving masters, let them
not despise them, because
they are brethren ; but rather do them
service, because they are faithful1 and
beloved, partakers of the benefit. These

Or, believing.
2 Or, a fool.
a or, *iek.

thing's teach and exhort. W If any
man teach otherwise, and . _r

consent not to wholesome Opposing doc-
words, even the words of trines held by
our Lord Jesus Christ, and
to the doctrine which is according to
godliness ; (4) he is proud,- knowing
nothing, but doting3 about questions

showing increased zeal for their masters' service,
should, as the result of the teaching of the new society
they had joined, become morose, impatient of servi-
tude, rebellious. Very soon in Pagan society would
the name of that Redeemer they professed to love, and
the beautiful doctrines He had preached, be evil spoken
of, if the teaching were for one moment suspected of
inculcating discontent or suggesting rebellion. An act,
or course of acting, on the part of professed servants of
God which gives occasion to the enemies of the Lord
to blaspheme, is ever reckoned in Holy Scripture as a
sin of the deepest dye. Compare Nathan's words to
King David (2 Sam. xii. 14) and St. Paul's reproach
to the Jews (Rom. ii. 24).

(8) And they that have believing masters, let
them not despise them, because they are
brethren. — Thisbeingin servitude to Christian masters,
of course, in the days of St. Paul would happen less fre-
quently. Let those Christian slaves who have the good
fortune to serve " believing masters '" allow no such
thoughts as, " Shall I remain my brother's slave ? " take
root in the ' breast and poison the life-work. Let
them not presume on the common brotherhood of men
in Christ, on their being fellow-heirs of heaven, and on
this account deem their earthly masters their equals, and
so refuse them the customary respect and attention.
Let them remember that, though in heaven there would
be no respect of persons, on earth the old class differ-
ences were not removed.

But rather do them service, because they are
faithful and beloved, partakers of the benefit.
■ — The Greek here is better translated thus : but the
rather serve them, because believing and beloved are
they who are partakers of their good service. Let
these slaves of Christians rather (or, the more) serve
their masters zealously and loyally, because the masters
who will profit by their true faithful service are them-
selves believers in Jesus, the beloved of God. This
thought should never be absent from the heart of a
Christian slave to a Christian master. " Every good
piece of work I do will be a kindness shown to one
who loves my Lord."

(3) If any man teach otherwise.— Without con-
fining the reference strictly to what had just been
taught respecting the duty of Christian slaves, there is
little doubt but that some influential teaching, contrary
to St. Paul's, on the subject of the behaviour and dis-
position of that unhappy class was in the Apostle's mind
when he wrote the terrible denunciation contained in
these three verses against the false teachers of Ephesus.
Schismatic and heretical preachers and writers in all
ages have sadly hindered the progress of true religion ;
but in the days of St. Paul, when the foundation-
stones of the faith were being so painfully laid, there
seems to have been a life-and-death contest between
the teachers of the true and the false. In this passage
St. Paul lays bare the secret springs of much of this
anti-Christian doctrine. There is little doubt but that
at Ephesus there existed then a school, professedly

209

Christian, which taught the slave who had accepted the
yoke of Christ to rebel against the yoke of any earthly
lord. Hence the indignation of St. Paul. "If any man
teach otherwise," different to my interpretation of the
rule of Christ, which bids us bear all with brave
patience, with loyal fortitude.

And consent not to wholesome words, even
the words of our Lord Jesus Christ.— The
Apostle, no doubt, was referring to well-known sayings of
the Redeemer, such as " Render unto Caesar the things
that are Caesar's," or "Blessed are the meek, for they
shall inherit the earth," or " If any man will follow me,
let him take up his cross daily, and follow me ; " " But I
say unto you, resist not evil," " Love your enemies, pray
for them which despitefullyuse you." It was upon such
sublime sayings as these — no doubt, current watchwords
in all the churches— it was upon the spirit of the Sermon
on the Mount that St. Paul based his teaching and
grounded his advice to the slaves in the flock of Christ.
But the false teachers, who would be Timothy's bitterest
and most determined foes at Ephesus, would not con-
sent to these " wholesome words," though they were the
words of the Lord Jesus Christ.

To the doctrine which is according to godli-
ness.— These self-willed men. in consenting not to the
•sublime words of Christ, at the same time refused h>
acquiesce in the doctrine which insisted upon a hory
life : for Christian truth is inseparable from purity,
single-heartedness, self -forgetf ulness, brave-patience .

(*) He is proud.— St. Paul, with righteous anger,
flames out against these perverse men, who, Using tn*e
name of Christ, ' substitute their short-sighted views
of life for His, throw doubt and discredit ' upon the
teaching of His chosen Apostles and servants, stir up
discord, excite party spirit, barring, often hopelessly,
the onWard march of Christianity. ' The true Christian
teaching is healthy, practical, capable 6f being carried
out by all orders in the state, by every age or sex, by
bond and free. The spurious Christian maxims of
these men deal with subtle, useless, unpractical ques-
tions, which have no influence on ordinary life, and
only tend to stir up strife and useless inquiry, and to
make men discontented and rebellious. These unhappy
men he first characterises as " proud ■ " literally, blindJd
with pride.

Knowing nothing. — Better rendered, yet without
knowing anything ; having no real conception of the
office and work of Christ in the world.

But doting about questions.— While so ignorant
of the higher and more practical points of Christian
theology, the false teacher is " mad upon " curious and
debatable questions, such as the nature of the ever-
blessed Trinity ; God's purposes respecting those men
who know not, have not even heard of the Redeemer ;
and the like — problems never to be solved by us while
on earth — questions, the profitless debating of which
has rent asunder whole churches, and individually has
broken up old friendships, and sown the seeds of bittei
irreconcilable hatred.

Opposing JJoctrines held

I. TIMOTHY, VI.

by the False Teachers.

and strifes of words, whereof eorneth
envy, strife, railings, evil surmisings,
(r,) perverse disjmtings of men of cor-
rupt minds,1 and destitute of the truth,
supposing that gain is godliness : from
such withdraw thyself. ^ But godli-

ness with contentment is rn . „

, . n\ ~c\ Chap- vi. 6—

great gam. W For we 12. Warnings
brought nothing into this against coyet-
n j • , • , . ousness. The

world, and it 18 certain true teachers
we can carry nothing out. to flee covet-
<8) And having food and ousness-

And strifes of words.— Verbal disputes, barren and
idle controversies about words rather than things; such
wild war as also has raged, not only in the days of
Timothy and of St. Paul, but all through the Christian
.ages, on such words as Predestination, Election, Faith,
Inspiration, Person. Regeneration, &c.

St. Paul was writing, then, in the spirit of the living
God, and was warning no solitary pastor and friend at
Ephesus of the weeds then springing up in that fair,
newly-planted vineyard of Ids, but was addressing the
Master's servants in many vineyards and of many
ages ; was telling them what would meet them, what
would mar and spoil their work, and in not a few cases
would break their hearts with sorrow.

<5) Perverse disputings.— The older authorities
read here a word which should be rendered " lasting or
obstinate conflicts." These words close the long
catalogue of the fruits of the teaching of the false
masters of the new faith, and point out that the dis-
putes engendered by these useless and unhappy con-
troversies would be no mere temporary difficulties, but
would indefinitely prolong their weary story.

Of men of corrupt minds. -More accurately
rendered, corrupted in their mind. From their mind,
over which corruption had spread, arose those mists
which (verse 4) had clouded their sight with pride.
The language used seems to imply that for these un-
happy men a time had existed when corruption had not
done its fatal work.

Destitute of the truth.— More literally, deprived
«f the truth. The truth was taken away from them:
this was the immediate consequence of the corruption
which had spread over their minds.

Supposing that gain is godliness.— Here the
translation of the Greek words must run thus, suppos-
ing that godliness is a source of gain. The article
before the word signifying godliness recpiires this ren-
dering of the sentence. (See Tit. i. 11.) St. Paul, here
adding his command to Timothy to have no dealings
with these men, dismisses the subject with these few
scathing words of scorn aud contempt. One can imagine
with what feelings of holy anger one like the noble
chivalrous St. Paul would regard the conduct of men
who looked upon the profession of the religion of the
Crucified as a source of gain. This was by far the gravest
of his public charges against these teachers of a strange
and novel Christianity. We read elsewhere (1 Cor. iii.
12 — 15) men might go wrong in doctrine, might even
teach an unpi-actical, useless religion, if only they were
trying their poor best to build on the one foundation —
Christ. Their faulty work would perish, but they would
assuredly find mercy if only they were in earnest, if
only they were real. But these, St. Paul tells Timothy
and his church, were not in earnest ; these were unreal.
Their religion — they traded upon it. Their teaching —
they taught oidy to win gold. There was another
school of teaching — he had just been dwelling on it —
the teaching which told men, even slaves, simply,
lovingly to" do their duty as though ever in the
presence of tho Lord, without any restless longing for
change. Tin's teaching would win souls to Christ, but

it woidd never win gold, or popular applause, or gain, as
the world counts gain.

From such withdraw thyself.— Most, though
not all, the ancient authorities omit these words.

(6) But godliness with contentment is great
gain. — Here the Apostle changes the subject of his
letter somewhat abruptly. The monstrous thought
that these wordly men dare to trade upon his dear
Master's religion, dare to make out of his holy doctrine
a gain — the hateful word suggests to him another
danger, to which many in a congregation drawn from
the population of a wealthy commercial city like
Ephesus were hourly exposed. This is an admirable
instance of the sudden change we often notice in the
subject matter in the midst of St. Paid's Epistles,
of what has been aptly termed " going off at a
word." The reasoning in the writer's mind was,
probably — " these false men suppose godliness will be
turned into gain." Yes, though they were terribly
mistaken, still there is a sense in which their miserable
notion is true. True godliness is ever accompanied with
perfect contentment. In this sense, godliness does bring
along with it great gain to its possessor. " The heart,"
says Wiesinger, "amid every outward want, is then
only truly rich when it not only wants nothing which
it has not, but has that which raises it above what it
has not."

C) For we brought nothing into this world,
and it is certain we can carry nothing out.—
(Comp. Job i. 21.) Every earthly possession is only
meant for this life — for the period between the hour of
birth and the hour of death ; we entered this world
with nothing, we shall leave the world again with
nothing. If we could take anything with us when
death parts soul and body there would at once be an
end to the " contentment " (of verse 6), for the future
then would in some way be dependent on the present.
This sentence is quoted by Polycarp, in his letter to
the Philippians, written early in the second century.
Such a reference shows that this Epistle was known
and treasured in the Christian Church even at that
early date.

(8) And having food and raiment let us he
therewith content. — The Greek word rendered
" let us be content " is better translated, we shall
have a sufficiency. The argument will run thus : " All
earthly possessions are only for this life ; here, if we
have the wherewithal to clothe us and to nourish us, we
shall have enough ; " if we have more than this, St. Paul
goes on to show, Ave shall be in danger of falling into
temptation.

There is no contradiction between this reading and
that contained in this same Epistle (chap. iv. 1 — 5).
There the Apostle is warning the Church against a
false, unreal asceticism, which was teaching men to look
npon the rich gifts of this world, its beauties and its
delights, as of themselves sinful, forgetting that these
fair things were God's creatures, and were given for
man's use and enjoyment. Here the same great teacher
is pressing home the truth that the highest good on
earth was that godliness which is ever accompanied

210

Warning against

I. TIMOTHY, VI.

Covetousness.

raiment let us be therewith content, j
<•) But they that will be rich fall into !IOr>
temptation and a snare, and into many I
foolish and hurtful lusts, which drown |
men in destruction and perdition. <10> For j
the love of money is the root of all i

evil : which while some coveted after,
they have erred1 from the faith, and
pierced themselves through with many
sorrows. (1!) But thou, O man of God,
flee these things ; and follow after
righteousness, godliness, faith, love,

with perfect contentment, which neither rejects nor
deems evil the fair things of this life, but which, at
the same time, never covets them, never longs for them.
It was one thing to be rich, it was another to wish to
be rich ; in God's providence a man might be rich with-
out sin, but the coveting, the longing for wealth, at
once exposed him to many a grave danger both to body
and soul.

0) But they that will be rich— Here St. Paul
guards against the danger of his words being then or
at any futuro time misinterpreted by any dreamy, un-
practical school of asceticism, supposing that voluntary
poverty was a state of life peculiarly pleasing to the
Most High — the strange mistake upon which the great
Mendicant orders were organised in the Middle Ages.
Those who exposed themselves to the winning temptations
and deadly sins he was about to speak of were not " the
rich," but those who longingly plan to be rich.

Fall into temptation.— Those longing to be rich
will fall into the temptation to increase their worldly
goods, even at the sacrifice of principle. Some un-
lawful method of gratifying their passion for gain will
present itself; conscientious scruples will be thrown
to the winds, and they who wish to l)e rich will fall into
the temptation. We pray so often His prayer, " Lead
us not into temptation." In the same hour we long —
perhaps even with the same breath we pray — that our
worldly means may be increased, our position bettered,
little thinking that the longing for an increase of riches
and position will lead us into the most dangerous of all
temptations !

And a snare. — A very tangle, as it has been
well called, of conflicting motives — each fresh gratifi-
cation of the ruling passion, perhaps excused under the
plausible names of industry, home claims, praiseworthy
and healthy enterprise, entangling the unhappy soul
more completely.

And into many foolish and hurtful lusts.—
The lusts or desires into which those who long to be rich
fall, are well named " foolish," because in so many in-
stances they are passionate desires for things utterly
undesirable, the possession of which can afford neither
pleasure nor advantage — such, for instance, is the love of
hoarding wealth, so common to those men who have
longed for and obtained riches; and " hurtful" often to
the body as well as to the soul do these rich find their
" longings," when gratified.

Which drown men in . . .—Better rendered,
which plunge men into . . .

Destruction and perdition. — " Destruction "
refers rather to wreck and ruin of the body, whilst
•• perdition" belongs rather to that more awful ruin of
the eternal soul. The gratification of desires, whether
these desires are centred in the lower animal passions
of the table, or in the pursuit of yet baser and more
-elfish passions still, invariably leads to the destruction
of the poor frail human body first. This premature
breaking up of the earthly tabernacle is the herald and
precursor of the final perdition of the immortal soul.

no) For the love of money is the root of all
evil. — Some would water down this strong expression

by translating the Greek words by " a root of all evil,"
instead of "the root," making this alteration on the
ground of the article not being •prefixed to the Greek
word rendered "root." This change, however, gram-
matically' is unnecessary, as the article disappears
before the predicate, in accordance with the well-known
role respecting subject and predicate.

St. Paul had just written (verse 9) of men being
plunged into destruction and perdition— t lie awful con-
sequence of yielding to those lusts into which the fatal
love of riches had guided them; he now sums up the
teaching contained in these words by pithily remarking,
" Yes. for the love of money is the root of all evil."
meaning thereby, not that every evil necessarily mud
come from " love of money," but that there is no
conceivable evil which can happen to the sons and
daughters of men which may not spring from covetous*
ness — a love of gold and wealth.

Which while some coveted after.— There is a
slight irregularity in the image here, but the sense of
the expression is perfectly clear. It is, of course, not the
" love of money," strictly speaking, which " some have
coveted after," but the money itself. The thought in the
writer's mind probably was— The man coveting gold
longs for opportunities in which his covetousness (love
of money) may find a field for exercise. Such inaccura-
cies in language are not uncommon in St. Paul's writings,
as, for instance, Rom. viii. 24, where he writes of " hope
that is seen."

They have erred from the faith.— Better ren-
dered, they have wandered aivay from the faith. This
vivid picture of some who had, for sake of a little gold,
given up their first love — their faith — was evidently
drawn by St. Paul from life. There were some in that
well-known congregation at Ephesus, once faithful, now
wanderers from the flock, over whom St. Paul mourned.

And pierced themselves through with many
sorrows. — The language and the thoughts of Ps.
xvi. 4 were in St. Paul's mind when he wrote these
words — " Their sorrows shall be multiplied that hasten
after another (god)." The " many sorrows " here are,
no doubt, the " gnawings of conscience," which must
ever and anon harass and perplex the man or woman
who, for covetousness' sake, has deserted the old paths,
and has wandered away from the old loved communion
of Christ.

The imagery used in this tenth verse seems to be
that of a man who wanders from the straight, direct
path of life, to gather some poisonous, fair-seeming
root growing at a distance from the right road on
which he was travelling. He wanders away and plucks
it ; and now that he has it in his hands he finds himself
pierced and wounded with its unsuspected thorns.

(U) But thou, O man of God, flee these
things.— A commentator always speaks with great
caution when he approaches in these inspired writings
anything of the nature of a direct personal reference.
The writers and actors in the New Testament history we
have so long surrounded with a halo of reverence, that
we are tempted often to forget that they were but men.
exposed to temptations like us, and not uufrequently

Encouragement

I. TIMOTHY, VI.

to Earnestness,

patience, meekness. (12) Fight the good
tight of faith, lay hold on eternal life,
whereunto thou art also called, and

hast professed a good profession before
many witnesses. *13) I give thee charge
in the sight of God, who quickeneth

succumbing to them. We owe them, indeed, a deep
debt of reverence for their faithful, gallant witness
— for their splendid service in laying so well the
early storeys of the great Christian Temple ; but we
lose somewhat of the reality of the Apostolic story
when in the saint we forget the man. After the very
solemn, the intensely earnest warning against covetous-
ness — that fatal love of gain and gold which seems to
have been the mainspring of the life of those false
teachers who were engaged in marring the noble work St.
Paul had done for his Master at Ephesus — after these
weighty words, the fact of St. Paul turning to Timothy,
and, with the grand old covenant title Timothy knew
so well, personally addressing his loved friend with
"'But thou, O man of God, flee these things," leads us
irresistibly to the conclusion that the old Apostle was
dreading for his young and comparatively untried dis-
ciple the corrupting danger of the wealth of the city in
which he held so great a charge ; so he warns Timothy,
and, through Timothy, God's servants of all grades
and powers in different ages, of the soul-destroying
dangers of covetousness — " Flee these things." A glance
at Timothy's present life will show how possible it was.
even for a loved pupil of St. Paul — even for one of whom
he once wrote, "I have no man likeminded ; " and,
again, " Ye know the proof of him, that, as a son Avith
the father, he hath served with me in the gospel " (Phil,
ii. 20 — 22) — to need so grave a reminder. Since those
days, when these words were written to the Philippians,
some six years had passed. His was no longer the old
harassed life of danger and hazard to which, as the
companion of the missionary St. Paul, he was constantly
exposed. He now filled the position of an honoured
teacher and leader in a rich and organised church ;
many and grievous were the temptations to which, in
such a station, he would be exposed.

Gold and popularity, gain and ease, were to be won
with the sacrifice of apparently so little, but with this
sacrifice Timothy would cease to be the " man of God."
To maintain that St. Paul was aware of any weakness
already shown by his disciple and friend would, of
course, be a baseless assertion ; but that the older man
dreaded for the younger these dangerous influences is
clear. The term " man of God " was the common Old
Testament name for '•divine messengers." but under
the new covenant the name seems extended to all just
men faithful to the Lord Jesus. (See 2 Tim. iii. 17.)
The solemn warning, then, through Timothy comes to
each of His servants, " Flee thou from covetousness."

And follow after righteousness.— " The evil
must be overcome with good " (Rom. xii. 21). The " man
of God," tossing' away from him all covetous longings,
must press after "righteousness • " here used in a general
sense, signifying " the inner life shaped after the Law
of God."

Faith, love. — The two characteristic virtues of
Christianity. The one may be termed the hand that
lays hold of God's mercy ; and the other the mainspring
of the Christian's life.

Patience. — That bravo patience which, for Christ's
dear sake, with a smile can bear up against all
sufferings.

Meekness. — The German " sanftmuth " — the meek-
ness of heart and feeling with which a Christian acts
towards his enemies. His conduct who '' when he was

reviled, reviled not again " best exemplifies tins-
virtue.

(12) Fight the good fight of faith, lay hold
on eternal life.— Then, again, with the old stirring
metaphor of the Olympic contests for a prize (1 Cor.
ix. 24 ; Phil. iii. 13, 14) — the metaphor St. Paul loved so
well, and which Timothy must have heard so often
from his old master's lips as he p reached and taught —
he bids the "'man of God," rising above the pitiful
struggles for things perishable and useless, fight the
noble fight of faith ; bids him strive to lay hold of the
real prize — life eternal. The emphasis rests here
mainly on the words " the good fight " and " eternal
life." These things are -placed in strong contrast
with "the struggle of the covetous" and its "miserable,
perishable crown." " The good fight," more closely
considered, is the contest and struggle which the
Christian has to maintain against the world, the flesh,
and the devil. It is styled the "good fight of faith,"
partly because the contest is waged' on behalf of, for
the sake of, the faith, but still more because from
faith it derives its strength and draws its courage.
"Eternal life "is the prize the " man of God" must
ever have before his eyes. It is the crown of life which
the Judge of quick and dead will give to the "faithful
unto death." (See Jas. i. 12; Rev. ii. 10.)

Whereunto thou art also called. — The " calling "
here refers both to the inner and outward call to the
Master's work. The inner call is the persuasion in the
heart that the one vocation to which the life must be
dedicated was the ministry of the word; and the out-
ward call is the summons by St. Paid, ratified by the
church in the persons of the presbytei-s of Lystra.

And hast professed a good profession before
many witnesses. — More accurately translated, aoid
thou confessedst the good confession . . . . These
words Simply add to the foregoing clause another
ground of exhortation: "Thou wast called to eternal
life, and thou madest the good confession." When —
has been asked — was this good confession mader
Several epochs in the life of Timothy have been sug-
gested. Were it not for the difficulty of fixing a date
for so terrible an experience in Timothy's, compai-a-
tively speaking, short life, it would appear most pro-
bable that the confession was made on the' occasion of
some persecution or bitter trial to which he had been
exposed. On the whole, however, it appears safer to
refer " the good confession " to the time of his ordina-
tion. In this case the many witnesses would refer t<>
the presbyters and others who were present at the
solemn rite.

(13) i give thee charge in the sight of God.—
Better rendered, I charge thee in the sight of God. If
possible, with increased earnestness and a yet deeper
solemnity as the letter draws to an end does St. Paul
charge that young disciple — from whom he hoped. so
much, and yet for whom he feared so anxiously — to keep
the commandment and doctrine of his Master spotless;
and, so far as in him lay, to preserve that doctrine
unchanged and unalloyed till the coming again of
the blessed Master. So he charges him as in the
tremendous presence of God.

Who quickeneth all things.— The older autho-
rities adopt here a reading which implies, who keepest
alive, or preservest, all tilings. The Preserver rather

212

Final Charge to Timothy to keep

I. TIMOTHY, VI.

the Commandment pure.

all things, and before Christ Jesus,
ehap.vi.i3— 16. who before Pontius Pilate
Charge to pre- witnessed a . good confes-
Sine of G Jesus sion ; 1 M that thou keep
pme. th it commandment without

spot, unrebukeable, until the appearing
of our Lord Jesus Christ : <15) which in

his times he shall shew, who is the
blessed and only Potentate, the King
of kings, and Lord of lords ; (16) who
only hath immortality, dwelling in the
light which no man can approach unto ;
whom no man hath seen, nor can see :
to whom be honour and power ever-

than the Creator is here brought into prominence.
Timothy is exhorted to fight his good fight, over
mindful that he is in the presence of that great Being
who could and would — even if Timothy's faithfulness
should lead him to danger and to death — still preserve
him. on earth or in Paradise.

And before Christ Jesu3, who before Pontius
Pilate witnessed a good confession. — Better
rendered, who before Pontius Pilate bore witness to
the good confession. The good confession which (verse
12) Timothy confessed before many witnesses, Jesus
Christ, in the presence of Pilate, had already borne
witness to. In other words, Jesus Christ, before
Pontius Pilate, bore witness by His own solemn words,
that He was the Messiah — the long-looked-for King of
Israel. If the preposition which we have, with the
majority of expositors, construed " before " (Pontius
Pilate) have here its local meaning, the "witness" must
be limited to the scene in the Judgment Hall — to the
interview between the prisoner Jesus and the Roman
governor.

Although this meaning here seems the most accurate,
it is possible to understand this preposition in a tem-
poral, not in a local, signification; — under (that is, in
the days of) Pontius Pilate — then the " witness " was
borne by the Redeemer to the fact of His being
" Messiah : " first, by His own solemn words ; secondly,
by His voluntary death. The confession was that " He,
Jesus, was a King, though not of this world." (See
Matt, xxvii. 11 ; John xviii. 36, 37, where the noble
confession is detailed.) He bore His witness with a
terrible death awaiting Him. It was, in some respects,
a model confession for all martyrs, in so far as it was
a bold confession of the truth with the sentence of
death before His eyes.

(14> That thou keep this commandment with-
out spot, unrebukeable.— Here St, Paul specifies
what was the charge he was commending in such
earnest, solemn language to his disciple and repre-
sentative at Ephesus. It was that he should keep the
commandment without spot, unrebukeable. The com-
mandment was the teaching of Jesus Christ, the gospel
message, that was to be proclaimed in all its fulness ;
and that this might be done effectually it was needful
that the life of its preacher should be without flaw —
blameless; in other words, it was absolutely requisite
that the chief pastor in Ephesus should live the life he
preached. There were those (the false teachers of
whom he had been speaking, well known to Timothy)
whose lives had dishonoured the glorious command-
ment they professed to love and teach.

Until the appearing of our Lord Jesus
Christ.— The speedy return of the Lord in glory was,
no doubt, looked for in the Church of the first days. The
expressions of 1 Thess. iv. 15 — 18 evidently were written
at a time when the second advent of Messiah was
looked on as probably near at hand. By slow degrees —
as one great teacher of the first days after the other
fell asleep in Jesus, and the first generation of believers
was rapidly passing away, and no fresh sign of tJie

coining in glory was manifested — the strong expressions
used in the first fervour which succeeded the Pentecost
morning began to be qualified, as in this Epistle,
written far on in St. Paul's fife, by words which seemed
to say to Timothy : " Keep the Master's commandment
pure and blameless till the hour of that glorious
Epiphany which your eyes will possibly behold."

(15) Which in his times he shall shew.— More
accurately rendered, which in his own seasons. Here
the language of fervid expectation is qualified by words
which imply that in St. Paul's mind then there was no
certainty about the period of the " coming of the Lord.''
It depended on the unknown and mysterious counsels
of the Most High. The impression left upon our minds
by the words of this and the preceding verse is that St.
Paul had given up all hope of living himself to see the
dawn of that awful day, but he deemed it more than
probable that his son. in the faith would live to witness
it. Hence his words to him : " Keep the command-
ment without spot until the Epiphany of our Lord
Jesus Christ."

Who is the blessed and only Potentate.—
The stately and rhythmical doxology with which the
solemn charge to Timothy is closed was not improbably
taken from a hymn loved by the Ephesian Christians.
and often sung in their churches; the words, then, were,
likely enough, familiar to Timothy and his people,
though now receiving a new and deeper meaning than
before. Well might Timothy, as example to the flock
of Ephesus, keep "the commandment without spot, un-
rebukeable"— fearlessly, even though danger and death
were presented before him as the sure reward of his
faithfulness — for He who in His own times should
reveal (show) the Lord Jesus returning to earth in
glory, was inconceivably greater and grander than any
earthly potentate, king, or lord, before whose little
throne Timothy might have to stand and be judged for
his faithfulness to the " only Potentate, the King of
kings, and Lord of lords."

Of the first of these sublime titles, God is termed
" the blessed," or the happy, because He is the source
of all blessedness and happiness ; and the " only
Potentate," in solemn assertion that the Christian's
God was One, and that to none save to Him could this
appellation " only Potentate " be applied. Possibly
already in Ephesus the teachers of Gnosticism had
begun their unhappy work — with their fables of the
mighty aeons, and their strange Eastern conception of
one God the source of good, and another the source of
evil.

The King of kings, and Lord of lords.— God
is king over those men style kings, and lord over all
men call lords here.

(16) Who only hath immortality.— The holy
angels — the souls of men — are immortal. "But one
alone, ' God,' can be said to have immortality," because
He, unlike other immortal beings who enjoy their im-
mortality through the will of another, derives it from
His own essence.

Dwelling in the light which no man car.

313

The Rich to be Reminded

I. TIMOTHY, VI.

of the Claims upon tliet

lasting. Amen. <17) Charge them that
Chap. vi. 17— are rich in this world, that
19. The re- they be not highminded,

unnder to the J , ± ° , •

rich of Ephe- nor trust m uncertain
sus. riches,1 but in the living

God, who giveth us richly all things to

enjoy ; <1S> that they do good, that
they be rich in good works, ready to
distribute, willing3 to communicate;
<19> laying up in store for themselves a
good foundation against the time to
come, that they may lay hold on eternal

approach unto.— This should be rendered, dwelling
in light unapproachable. The Eternal is here pictured
as dwelling in an atmosphere of light too glorious for
any created beings (not only men) to approach. (See
Ps. civ. 2, where the Eternal is addressed as covering
himself with light as with a garment ; see too Daniel
ii. 22, where light is spoken of as dwelling with God.)
The symbolism of the old covenant teaches the same
truth, the unapproachable glories in which God dwells ;
for instance, the guarding of the bounds of Sinai in
the giving of the Law ; the covering of the faces
of the Seraphim hi the year that King Uzziah
died, when Isaiah saw the divine vision ; the veiled
darkness of the Holy of holies in the Tabernacle and
the Temple, where ever and anon the visible glory
dwelt,

Whom no man hath seen, nor can see. -The
Old Testament teaches the same mysterious truth —
" For there shall no man see me, and live " (Ex. xxxiii.
20, and also Deut. iv. 12). John i. 18 repeats this in
very plain words—" No man hath seen God at any
time." The Greek word here includes all created
beings. The English translation, "no man," utterly
fails to reproduce the meaning of the original. (See
also 1 John iv. 12.)

These last words seem to preclude the interpretation
which applies the foregoing description to the Son.
We have above referred this glorious doxology to the
Father, as the one who, in His own times, should reveal
the Lord Jesus returning to judgment.

It is, however, very noteworthy that the loftiest, the
sublimest, epithets the inspired pen of Paul could frame
to dignify his description of the First Person of the
ever-blessed Trinity, God the Father, are used again
of the Son. " The Lamb shall overcome them : for he
is Lord of lords, and King of ftm</s" (Rev. xvii. 14<
and xix. 16 ; and see too Rev. i. 5).

(17) Charge them that are rich.— Paul had traced
up the error of the false teachers — against whose work
and influence he had so earnestly warned Timothy — to
covetousness, to an unholy love of money; he then
spoke of this unhappy covetousness— this greed of
gain, this wish to be rich — as the root of every evil.
From this fatal snare he warned the " man of God " to
flee, bidding him take courage in the high service to
which he was dedicated, and to be fearless of all con-
sequences, for he served the King of kings. But in the
congregations of Ephesus there were many, owing to
birth or to other circumstances, already rich and
powerful, already in the possession of gold and rank, in
varied degrees. Before closing the letter to the chief
pastor, Timothy, he must add a word of encouragement
and al&o of special warning to these. Above all things
he would have no mistake as to his meaning: the wish
to be rich was a sure root of error and of evil, but the
being rich was a very different thing ; this class was
surrounded, indeed, with special perils, but still, even
" as rich " they might serve God faithfully. So in his
charge to them he commands them not to strip them-
selves of their wealth, but to use it wisely, generously.

In this world.— The Greek word rendered •• world "

signifies, in its literal sense, age, and includes the
period which closes with the second coming of the
Lord. Now, as St. Paul had just made a reference to
the probable speedy coming of the Lord in judgment in
Timothy's lifetime, the words " the rich in this world "
have a special signification. Very fleeting indeed will
be those riches of which their possessors were so
foolishly proud [be not high-minded, St, Paul urges] ;
these riches were a possession always terminable with
life — possibly, let them bear in mind, much sooner.

Nor trust in uncertain riches.— The literal
translation of the Greek here is more forcible — "nor
trust in the uncertainty of riches." Uncertainty— for
(1) the very duration of fife, even for a day, is un-
certain ; and (2) the numberless accidents of life — in
war, for instance, and commerce — are perpetually re-
minding us of the shifting nature of these earthly
possessions.

But in the living God, who giveth us richly-
all things to enjoy.— The Greek word rendered
"living" does not occur in the more ancient authorities.
Its removal from the text in nowise alters the sense of
the passage. The rich should set their affections and
place their trust, not in these uncertain riches, but in
God, the bestower of them, who wills, too. that His
creatures should find pleasure in these His gifts — given
to us to enjoy.

This is another of the many sayings of the old man
St, Paul, in which he urges on the people of God, that
their kind Master in heaven not only allows men
reasonable pleasures and gratifications, but even Him-
self abundantly provides such for them.

(!8) That they do good, that they be rich in
good works. — These words — coming directly after the
statement that the good and pleasant things of this
world, which are possessed in so large a share by the
"rich," are, after all, the gifts of God. who means them
for our enjoyment — these words seem to point to the
highest enjoyment procurable by these "rich" — the
luxury of doing good, of helping others to be happy
the only enjoyment that never fails, never disappoints.

Ready to distribute, willing to communicate.
— In distinguishing between these words, which are
nearly synonymous, the first points rather to the hand
which generously gives, and the second to the heart
which lovingly sympathises.

The first obeys willingly the Master's charge — " Give
to him that asketh ; ;' the second follows that loving
command which bids His own to rejoice with those that
rejoice, and to mourn with those that mourn.

t19) Laying up in store for themselves a good
foundation against the time to come. — This is a
concise expression, which might have been more fully
worded thus — Laying up in store for themselves a
wealth of good ivories as a foundation, &c. (Comp.
our Lord's words in Luke xvi. 9. where the same
truth is taught, and a similar promise made.)

Here a simple command, in complete accordance with
the teaching of Christ, is given, and a definite conse-
quence is attached to the obeying the command. If the
"rich" — the word " rich," we must remember, is a

Last Commands.

I. TIMOTHY, VI.

Salutati

life. f-M 0 Timothy, keep that which
Chap. vi. 20, is committed to thy trust,
Commands "to avoiding profane and vain
Timothy, babblings, and oppositions

of science falsely so called : (21> which

some professing have erred concen
the faith. Grace be with thee. Amen.

% The first to Timothy was written from
Laodicea, which is the chiefest city of Phrygia
Pacatiana.

broad term, and in St. Paul's mind would comprehend
many a one who would hesitate to apply the term in
its strict sense to himself — if the " rich," or the com-
paratively rich, are really generous and kind with their
wealth— and of this God alone can be judge — then
with these perishable, fleeting riches they are laying the
foundation of an everlasting habitation on the other
side the veil. Bengel cpiaintly, expresses the truth,
slightly changing the metaphor — " Mercator, naufragio
salvus, thesauros domum prcemisaos invenit."

That they may lay hold on eternal life.—
The older authorities here, instead of " eternal,"
read truly. The sentence will then read thus.
that they may lay hold on that xchich is truly life —
that is, may lay hold on that which in truth deserves
the name " life," because the fear of death will no
longer cast its gloomy shadow over it. This "laying
hold on eternal life" is the end the wise rich Christian
proposes to himself, when he orders his earthly life
and administers his earthly goods, and St. Paul has just
showed Timothy how this " end " is to be reached by
such a man.

Such plain statements in the Book of Life as the
foregoing by no means weaken the divine truth so
often repeated, that men are saved only by the blood
of Christ, with which they must sprinkle their sin-
scarred souls. Poor men and rich men alike may try ;
they will find, with all their brave struggles, that of
themselves they will never win salvation, they cannot
redeem their souls.

But such plain statements as we have here, and in
Luke xvi. 9, tell us, if we really are " of Christ's."
sprinkled with His precious blood, then we must try
with heart and soul, with hand and brain, to follow out
such charges as we have just been discussing.

(80) o Timothy, keep that which is committed
to thy trust.— More literally and better rendered,
0 Timothy, keep the trust committed to thee. It is a
beautiful thought which sees in these few earnest closing
words the very handwriting of the worn and aged
Apostle St. Paul, The Epistle, no doubt dictated by
file old man. was in the handwriting of some friend of
St. Paul and the Church, who acted as his scribe; but,
as seems to have been sometimes his habit (see especially
the closing words of the Galatian Letter), the last plead-
ing reminder was added by the hand of the Apostle
himself. - O Timothy" — he writes now no longer ad-
dressing church or pastor, but his own favourite friend
and pupil, the loved heir of his God-inspired traditions
and maxims, which so faithfully represented the doctrine
and teaching of Jesus of Nazareth — " O Timothy, keep
i he sacred trust committed to thy charge."

This " sacred trust," so solemnly committed as the
parting charge to Timothy, was " the doctrine delivered
by St. Paul to him to preach." the central point of
which, we know from the Apostle's other writings, was
the teaching respecting the atonement and the precious
blood of Christ. There is a beautiful, though somewhat
lengthened, paraphrase of the ••Trust" in the Com-
n to) tit or van of Vincentius Lirinensis, composed about

A.D. 430. "What is meant." he asks, "by'fcecp tr.
trust?' The disciple of St. Paul must keep the
sound doctrine of his master safe from robbers and foe-..
. . . . What is meant by ' the trust ! ' Something
intrusted to you to keep — not a possession you have
discovered for yourself; something you have received
from another — not what you have thought out for your-
self. . . of this ' trust,' remember, you are nothing
but the guardian. . . . What, then, is the meaning-
of ' keep the trust 1 ' It is surely nothing else than.
' guard the treasure of the Catholic faith.' . . . Gold
have you received; see that you hand gold on to others."

"Is there, then," asks this same wise writer "to
lie no progress, no development in religious teaching P
Yes," he answers; "there should be a real progivs^
a marked development, but it must partake of the
nature of a progress, not of a change. . . . Let
religion in the soul follow the example of the growth
of the various members which compose the body, and
which, as years roll on, become ever stronger and mom
perfect, but which, notwithstanding their growth and
developed beauty, always remain the same."

Avoiding profane and vain babblings.— The
Apostle has before in this Epistle warned Timothy
against these useless, profitless discussions. Anything
like theological controversy and discussion seems to
have been distasteful to St. Paul, as tending to aug-
ment dissension and hatred, and to exalt into an undue
prominence mere words and phrases.

Oppositions of science falsely so called.—
Rather, of knowledge falsely so called. These " oppo-
sitions " have been supposed by some to be a special
allusion to some of the Gnostic theories of the oppo-
sition between the Law and the Gospel, of which
peculiar school, later, Marcion was the great teacher. It
is hardly likely that any definite Gnostic teaching had as
yet been heard in Ephesus, but there is little doubt that
the seeds of much of the Gnosticism of the next century
were — when St. Paul wrote to Timothy — being then
sown in some of the Jewish schools of Ephesus and the
neighbouring cities. (Comp. the allusions to these
Jewish and cabalistic schools in St. Paul's letter to the
Colossian Church. ) The " oppositions " hero may be un-
derstood as referring generally to the theories of the
false teachers, who were undermining the doctrine of
St. Paul as taught by Timothy.

(21> Which some professing have erred con-
cerning the faith.— In this most probably wild and
visionary "knowledge" the false teachers and their
hearers sought salvation and a rule of life, and
miserably failed in their efforts. The result with them
was, that they lost all hold on the great doctrine of
Faith in a crucified Saviour.

Grace be with thee.— The ancient authorities are
almost equally divided between " with thee " and " with
you," the congregation. The public nature of so mawj
of the directions and instructions contained in this
Epistle account for the absence of those private greet-
ings which we find in the Second Epistle of St. Paul to
Timothy.

215

EXCURSUS ON NOTES TO I. TIMOTHY.

ON A SUGGESTED INTERPRETATION OF CHAPTER v. 25.

It has been suggested, with considerable ingenuity,
that verse 25 belongs to, and is an introduction of, a
new division of the Epistle, where the Apostle gives
Timothy instructions respecting certain teachings to be
addressed to different ranks in the Christian society of
Ephesus. The connection with verse 24 then would be
— as it is in the case of sins, so, too, it is in the case of
good works. These, latter are not always on the surface
distinguishable. Some, of course, are manifest, but
there is many a noble life the secrets of which will
only come to light at the last day—" they cannot be
-id '' then. And this is too often the case with that
unhappy class (the slaves), "those under the yoke," of
whom the Apostle was about to speak (chap. vi. 1, 2).
It is possible that St. Paul meant here to turn Timothy's
attention especially to those in slavery, that he might
diligently search out the noblest and most devoted,
and ordain (see verse 22) them to perforin sacred duties,
so that each class — the slaves as well as the rich and
well-born — should possess representatives among the
ordained ministers. This is at least possible when we
consider the vast number of slaves — not a few of them,
too, possessing high culture — in the world known bv
St. Paul and Timothy.

In connection with, but not necessarily linked with,

this thought is an interpretation of the general subject
matter of the sixth chapter, which views the whole as
instructions to the three broad divisions into which
Christian society of the first century may be said to
have been roughly divided : —

(1) Slaves. . , Chaps, v. 25 —vi. 1—3. In-

structions respecting slaves,
who possessed nothing of
their own.
Chap. vi. 4, 5. The allusion to
the false teachers, whose
teaching respecting slavery
was very different from his.

(2) Middle Class. Chap. vi. 6—16. St. Paul intro-

duces the warning against
covetousness and the wish to
be rich, the special danger of
the middle class — the free,
but who were the reverse of
wealthy — to which order
Timothy belonged. Then
followed

(3) The Rich . Chap.A-i.17— 19. Special instruc-

tions to the rich and the
highly born.

216

INTRODUCTION

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO

TIMOTHY.

I. Contents of the Epistle.— Like the First
Epistle, the Second Letter presents no, regular plan.

1. — It commences with .expression of deep love to
Timothy (chap. i. 1 — 5);

2. — And then passes on to exhortation to a fearless and
faithful discharge of his duties (chap. i. 6 — 14).

3.— These exhortations are interrupted by the Apostle's
m«mory of many faithless ones, and of one faithful
friend (chap. i. 15—18).

4. — The Apostle renews his exhortations to Timothy to
a brave endurance, even if suffering come on him.
He tells his disciple Timothy what has Served
him, Paul, to endure to the end. Then he renews
his pleading, that Timothy should be cai*eful in
guarding against a religion of mere words — in-
stancing what such a teaching might end in

(chap.ii. 1—26). ;.;

5. — Again St. Paul interrupts his exhortation by
writing down his sad forebodings of evil times
(chap. iii. 1 — 9).

6. — Then he encourages his disciple by recoiinting his
own suffering and deliverances. Timothy too
must suffer, only let him remain steadfast in the
faith (chap. iii. 10—17).

7. — The Apostle closes with a solemn command that
his disciple should teach earnestly, for he, the
old master, was at the end of his course. He
would, if possible, see his dear friend once more,
so he prays him to .come speedily, well nigh all
having deserted him. He ends with a touching
reminiscence of his first trial in the Roman court
of justice, and with a few greetings (chap. iv.

This Second Epistle to Timothy has been well
termed the " will or testament " of the master,
addressed to his favourite disciple, and containing his
last wishes, written as it was under ' the shadow of
approaching death. It is full of light and shade ; the
tone of the exhortation, the warning' and the encourage-
ment constantly changing. Now the words are sad with
a strange parting solemnity, now bright with the
glorious sunshine of the Apostle's immortal hopes.
Yet in every line of this most touching of all the
Pauline writings we cannot fail to perceive something
of the gloom which, owing to desertion of so many
friends, had saddened that gallant, loving heart of
St. Paul.

He was well-nigh quite alone, almost friendless in
the midst of mortal foes, an old man, worn out with toil,
weakened by illness and privation, expecting a death
of agony ; and yet in spite of his surroundings, in spite
of his own seeming failure, in spite of his own baffled
hopes, he writes to his best-loved disciple in sure con-
fidence, that he, Timothy, will war the same warfare as
his master Paul had warred; that he, Timothy,
though by nature perhaps timid and shrinking, will,
undeterred by dangers, sufferings, and the sad prospect
of a painful death, bravely carry on the work he has
seen his master do, and for the sake of which he has
seen his master die. He writes to him in sure con-
fidence that the teaching respecting the mystery of
the atoning blood, the doctrine of Christ, and the
life lived by Christ, the sum of the sacred deposit of
the Catholic Faith committed to his charge, would be
preserved intact and safe by him. and by him then
handed down, when his life-work was done, to other
faithful hands.

The Epistle, thoiigh ringing with a ring of hope, yet
paints the future of the Church in sombre colours.
The enemies would increase, and the love of many
would wax cold, and in coming years the man of God
would be exposed to persecution, hatred, and to cruel
suffering : and yet though all this is found in this
strangely touching little writing, no one who has read
these dying words of St. Paul can lay the Letter down
without a prayer of thanksgiving for this Epistle of
immortal hope.

LT. Date of the Epistle.— The Second Epistle to
Timothy was written by St. Paul from Rome during
his second imprisonment in that city, about the year
a.d. 66. We may suppose that shortly after the writing
of the First Epistle to Timothy the Apostle had been
arrested at Nicopolis, " the city of victory," in Epirus
(see Titus iii. 12), probably on the capital charge of being
connected with the burning of Rome (a.d. 64), and
after a short delay had been conveyed to Italy. The
words of chap. iv. 16, refer to the first hearing of his
cause, either by Nero himself, or, more probably, by the
infamous Tigellinus, the Praetorian Prefect. It was
no doubt shortly after this first hearing, that St. Paul,
feeling that the end for him was at hand, wrote this
Second Epistle to Timothy. The exact date of the
martyr's passing to his rest is unknown. The last hour
probably came before he looked for it, for, notwithstand-
ing the urgent summons, no tradition speaks of Timothy
again looking on the face of his beloved master.

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO

TIMOTHY.

CHAPTEE I.— (D Paul, an apostle of
Cha i l 2 St ^esus Christ by the will of
Paul's address God, according to the pro-

ThnSetingt° mise °f life wnich is in

Christ Jesns, ^ to Timothy,
my dearly beloved son: Grace, mercy,
and peace, from God the Father and

Christ Jesus our Lord.

whom I serve from my „

forefathers with pure con- 5. *&is trust

science, that without ceas- j* Timothy's

ing I have remembrance of

thee in my prayers night and day;

W greatly desiring to see thee, being

3> I thank God,

(i) Paul, an apostle of Jesus Christ by the
will of God. — As in the Epistles to the Corinthians,
the Ephesians, and Colossians, he ascribes his apostle-
ship to the sovereign will and election of God. Apart
from any merit or work of his own, God chose him
for the office. He neither aspired to it nor wished
for it. The reference to the Almighty will in this
Epistle is singularly in harmony with the spirit of calm
resignation which breathes through it. It was that
sovereign will which chose him as an Apostle, which
guided him all through that eventful life of his, and
which brought him to the prison of the Caesar, where,
face to face with death, he wrote this last letter to his
friend and disciple Timothy.

According to the promise of life which is in
Christ Jesus.— The Greek word rendered "accord-
ing to" should here be translated "for the\ promise
of life." This preposition here denotes the object or
intention of his appointment as apostle, which was to
make known, to publish abroad, the promise of eternal
life. Almost the first words of an Epistle, written evi-
dently under the expectation of death, dwell upon the
promise of life — the life which knows no ending — the
life in Christ. The central point of all Evangelical
preaching was the true, blessed life eternal, that life
which, in the person of the Redeemer, was revealed
to man, and which, through the Redeemer, is offered to
the sinner.

(2) To Timothy, my dearly beloved son.—
More accurately, (my) beloved son. The words used in
the address of the First Epistle were " my own son "
(yvr)(r(ci) reKvco). The change in the words was probably
owing to St. Paul's feeling that, in spite of his earnest
request for Timothy to come to him with all speed, these
lines were in reality his farewell to his trusted friend
and more than son, hence the loving word.

Graco, mercy, and peace . . .—See Notes on
1 Tim. i. 2.

<3) I thank God.— The exact reference of these
words of thankfulness on the part of St. Paul has
been the subject of much argument. Although the
sense is a little obscured by the long parenthesis which
intervenes, it seems clear that St. Paul's expression of
Thankfulness was for his remembrance of the unf eigned
iaith of Timothy and Lois and Eunice (see verse 5).
The whole passage might be written thus, '; I thank

God, whom I serve with the devotion of my forefathers
with a pure conscience (as it happens that I have thee
uppermost in my thought and prayers night and
day, longing to see thee, being mindful of thy tears, in
order that I may be filled with joy), when I call to
remembrance the unfeigned faith which is in thee,
which dwelt first in thy grandmother Lois and thy
mother Eunice," &c.

Whom I serve from my forefathers.— That
is, with the devotion and love I have inherited as a
sacred family tradition. St. Paul was here referring, not
to the great forefathers of the Jewish race — Abraham.
Isaac, and the patriarchs — but to the members of his own
family, who, he states, were religious, faithful persons.
Yan Oosterzee strangely coucludes : " Dass Paulus diese
historische kontinuitat der wahren Gottesverehrung
in seinem geschlecht urn so holier schatzt, da er selbst
stirbt, ohne kinder zu hinterlassen V

With pure conscience. — Literally, in pure con-
science. The spiritual sphere in which St. Paul, as a Jew
first, then as a Christian, served God. (See Notes on
1 Tim. i. 5.)

That without ceasing I have remembrance
Of thee. — Better rendered, as unceasing is the remem-
brance which . . . This long parenthetical sentence
leads up to the point for which St. Paul was so deeply
thankful to God ; namely, the true faith of Timothy him-
self. These unstudied words tell us something of the
inner life of such a one as St. Paul, how ceaselessly,
unweariedly he prayed, night as well as day. The object,
too, of those constant prayers of St. Paul was not St. Paul
but Timothy.

(*) Greatly desiring to see thee.— In view
of that violent death which, at this time a close prisoner,
he saw was imminent, the memory, too, of the tears of
his friend made him long yet more earnestly to see him
once again on earth.

Being mindful of thy tears.— Shed probably
by Timothy when his aged master had last taken
leave of him. It is likely that the clouds of danger
which were gathering tlnckly round St. Paul towards
the close of his career had oppressed the brave-hearted
Apostle with a foreboding of coming evil, and had in-
vested the last parting with Timothy with circumstances
of unusual solemnity. St. Paul had affected others
besides Timothy with the same great love, so that tears

Timothy is urged to

IT. TIMOTHY, I.

Courage end Endurance,,

mindful of thy tears, that 1 maybe filled
with joy ; (5) when I call to remembrance
the unfeigned faith that is in thee, which
dwelt first in thy grandmother Lois,
and thy mother Eunice ; and I am per-
suaded that in thee also. (6) Wherefore

j I put thee in remembrance that thou

stir up the gift of God, ^,
1 • 1 • ±\ i, n. Chun. i. 6 -lft

which is in thee by the ue \irgea him-
; putting on of my hands, to rekindle that
j <7> For God hath not given taith'
' us the spirit of fear; but of power, and of

were shed by strong men when he bade them farewell.
(See the account of the leave-taking of the Ephesian
elders at Miletus, Acts xx. 37. 38 — " And they all
wept sore, and fell on Paul's neck, and kissed him,
sorrowing most of all for the words which he spake,
that they should see his face no more.")

There is no necessity for Hofmann's singular, but
rather far-fetched, theory here that the tears were
simply an expression for Timothy's intense sorrow at
hearing of the Apostle's arrest and close imprisonment,
whicli sorrow St. Paul was made acquainted with in a
letter. The tears, according to Hofmann. were those
" welche Timotheus brieflich geweint hat."

That I may be filled with joy. When he
meets Timothy again.

(5) When I call to remembrance the unfeigned
faith that is in thee.— It is for the "unfeigned
faith" whicli he was confident dwelt still in his dearest
and best-loved companion, whom he had intrusted
with the care of the Ephesian church, that he thanked
God. (See verse 3.)

It is more than probable that some special instance of
this unfeigned faith on the part of the chief pastor of
Ephesus had come to the Apostle's knowledge, and
cheered that great loving heart of his while he languished
in prison.

Which dwelt first in thy grandmother Lois,
and thy mother Eunice . . .—We know, in the
course of his second missionary journey (Acts xvi. 1—3)
St. Paul was brought into contact with this pious
family at Lystra. It has been suggested that Lois,
Eunice, and Timothy were kinsfolk of St. Paul, hence
his intimacy with the family, and his knowledge of
their faith; hence, too, perhaps, his devoted and un-
broken friendship for Timothy. We are told (Acts
xvi. 1) that this Eunice was a Jewess, married to a
Greek. Lystra is no great distance from Tarsus —
whence St. Paul came. The supposition is just pos-
sible ; but it is only an ingenious thought, there being
no data to support it. Of the names — Lois is the
same with the more familiar Lais ; Eunice is an equi-
valent of the Latin Victoria.

(6) Wherefore I put thee in remembrance —
Wherefore {seeing that I am so thoroughly persuaded
°f thy faith) I am determined to put thee in, remem-
brance ... It seems, from the general tenor of the
Epistle, that Timothy was deeply cast down by the
imprisonment of St. Paul. Timothy, as well as the
martyr himself, was conscious that the end of that
great and glorious career of his old master was at last
come ; and the heart of the younger man sank— as well
it might — under the prospect of having to fight the
Lord's battle at Ephesus— that famous centre of Greek
culture and of Oriental luxury — against enemies without
and enemies within, alone, and without the help of the
great genius, the master mind, and the indomitable
courage of the man who for a quarter of a century had
been the guiding spirit of Gentile Christianity, and his
dear and intimate friend. So St. Paul now. persuaded
that faith burned in his disciple's heart with the old
steady flame, but knowing, too, that he was dispirited

and heavy-hearted, was minded, if possible, to cheer up
the fainting heart, and to inspire it with fresh courage
to fight the Master's fight when he (St. Paul) had left
the scene.

That thou stir up the gift of God, which
is in thee by the putting on of my hands. -
The Greek word rendered " stir up " literally means
to kindle up, to fan into flame. Chrysostom brings
home the great lesson taught by this word, which belongs
to all Christ's people alike, when he quotes 1 Thess. v.
19, '.' Quench not the Spirit ; " for it is in our power both
to quench this Spirit and also to fan it into flame. The
" gift of God " hero alluded to is that special gift of
the Spirit conferred on Timothy at his ordination, and
whicli included, in his case, powers necessary for the
performance of the many and important duties to-
which he was in the providence of God called, especially
those gifts of ruling and teaching which are necessary
for the chief pastor's office. This " gift of God " was
conferred through the medium of the hands laid on
Timothy's head at his ordination at Lystra. In this
act the presbytery at Lystra were joined with the
Apostle. (See 1 Tim. iv. 14.) We know that St, Paul
frequently uses for his illustrations of Christian life
scenes well known among the Greek heathen nations of
the Old World, such as the Greek athletic games. Is-
it not possible (the suggestion is Wordsworth's) that
the Apostle while here charging Timothy to take care-
that the sacred fire of the Holy Ghost did not languish
in his heart, while urging him to watch the flame, to.
keep it burning brightly, to fan the flame if burning
dimly — is it not possible that St. Paul had in mind
the solemn words of the Roman law, li Let them,
watch the eternal flame of the public hearth"? (Cicero.
de Legibus, xi. 8.) The failure of the flame was re-
garded as an omen of dire misfortune, and the
watchers, if they neglected the duty, were punished
with the severest penalties.

(?) For God hath not given us the spirit of
fear. — Or better, perhaps, the spirit of cowardice —
that cowardice which manifests itself by a timidity and
shrinking in the daily difficulties which the Christian
meets with in the warfare for the kingdom of God.
(Comp. John xiv. 27, and Rev. xxi. 8.) " Hath not given
us." in this particular case, refers to the time when
Timothy and St, Paul were admitted into the ministry.
The Holy Spirit is no Spirit, be it remembered, which
works cowardice in men. But the reference is also a fat-
broader one than merely to the Holy Spirit conferred
on ministers of the Lord at ordination. It is a grave
reminder to Christians of every age and degree that all
cowardice, all dread of danger, all shrinking from
doing one's duty for fear of man's displeasure, proceeds
not from the Spirit of God.

But of power, and of love, and of a sound
mind. — Instead of rendering the Greek word by " a
sound mind," it were better to substitute the trans-
lation, self-control. The Holy Spirit works, in those
to whom it is given, power, or strength, to fight the
fight of God. power, not only patiently to endure, but
also to strike good blows for Christ — the power, for

He is to remember what

II. TIMOTHY, I.

God has worked for His

love, and of a sound mind, (8) Be not.
thou therefore ashamed of the testimony
of our Lord, nor of me his prisoner :
but be thou partaker of the afflictions
of the gospel according to the power of
God; W who hath saved us, and called
us with an holy calling, not according

to our works, but according to his own
purpose and grace, which was given us
in Christ Jesus before the world began,
(10) but is now made manifest by the
appearing of our Saviour Jesus Christ,
who hath abolished death, and hath
brought life and immortality to light

instance, of steadfastness in resisting temptation, the
strong will which guides other weaker ones; along the
narrow way " of love." It works, too, in those , to
whom God gives the blessed gift, that strange, sweet
love for others which leads to noble deeds of , self-
surrender— that love which never shrinks from a
saci-ifice which may benefit the friend or even the
neighbour. And lastly, the Spirit works in us "self-
control "— selbst-beherrschung — that power which, in
the man or woman living in and mixing with the
world, and exposed to its varied temptations and
pleasures, is able to regulate and to keep in a wise sub-
jection, passions, desires, impulses.

(8) Be not thou therefore ashamed of the
testimony of our Lord.— Seeing, then— remember-
ing, then, that God gave you and me (notice the
beautiful courtesy of the old martyr waiting for death,
death the human guerdon of his fearless life, coupling.
as he has been doing, his sorrow-stricken, dispirited
friend with himself, whom no danger, no failure had
ever affected) — remembering, then, the spirit of power,
love, and self-control given to us, do not thou be
ashamed of the testimony of the Lord. This " testi-
mony" of which Timothy was not to be ashamed, of
course includes the sufferings and the shame of Christ.
In these, before mocking, scornful men, must Timothy,
as an example to the flock, rather glory; but "the testi-
mony " signifies much more than what relates only to
the Passion story. The Christian, instead of being
ashamed of his " profession," must before the world
show fearlessly that its hopes and its promises are his
most precious treasure.

Nor of me his prisoner.— Nor must Timothy
either then, or in days to come, be afraid of confessing
before men that he had been the disciple and friend
of the prisoner St. Paul, who had paid so dearly for
the courage of his opinions. Nor Timothy, nor any
Christian must shrink from openly espousing the un-
popular cause of the Crucified, or from publicly declar-
ing their sympathy with its hated martyrs.

But be thou partaker of the afflictions . of
the gospel. — More accurately rendered, but rather
suffer afflictions for the gospel. But, on the contrary,
instead of injuring the good cause by faint-hearted con-
duct, should Timothy rather be ready to suffer, if need
be, with St. Paul, ready to bear some shame with him,
ready to incur, perhaps, sore danger for the gospel's
sake ; and then St. Paul, emphasising his words, and
strengthening with a new strength his argument and
his exhortation, adds, " in accordance with the power of
God " — yes, join with me in suffering, if needs be, for
the gospel. Mighty and pitiful was God's power
towards us ; great, surely, in proportion should be our
readiness to suffer in return, if He asks this — as He is
now doing from you and me— at our hands.

According to the power of God.— What power
of God ? has been asked. Not according to the power
we get from God, but according to the power which
God has displayed towards us in our calling and in our
marvellous salvation. In other words, God, with great

power, has succoured us ; surely we may be confident
that He will never leave us, never desert us, but in the
hour of (jur sorest trouble incurred for Him will help us,
and will bring us safely through it. So Chrysostbm, who,
while asserting that suffering will be borne, but not in
our strength but in God's, says, " Consider how thou
hast, been saved, and how thou hast been called ; " infer-
ring that He who has done so great things for man, in
his calling and in his salvation, will never let him want
for strength.

(9) Whp hath saved us.— St. , Paul now specifies
the manner in which the power of God has been dis-
played towards us. ,. This is an inclusive word, and
comprehends all God's dealings with us in respect to
our redemption. (S^e, Notes on Titus iii. 5.) Again, as
so frequently in these Pastoral Epistles, is the First
Person of the blessed Trinity referred to as the Saviour.

Us. — Paul and Timothy, and all who believe on the
name of the Lord Jesus, are included under " us."

And called us with an holy calling.— This
explains the means by which God was pleased to save
St. Paid and Timothy. He called them. He— God the
Father, to whom the act of calling is regularly ascribed
(Gal. i. 6) ; and the calling is said to be " holy," because
it is a summons to share in the blessed communion
of Christ (1 Cor. i. 9). There is an inner as well
as an outer calling; the "outer" comes through the
preaching of the word, the pinner by means of the
voice of the Holy Ghost in the heart.

Not according to our works, but according
to his own purpose and grace.— We are told in
the next clause that " the grace " was given before the
world began ;, therefore" our w;orks." could have had
nothing to do with the divine purpose which was re-
solved on by God. As Chrysostom observes, " No one
counselling with Himr but of His own purpose, the pur-
pose originating in His own goodness." Calvin pithily
remarks, "If God chose us before the creation of the
world. He could not have considered the question of
our works, wliich could have had no existence at a
period when we ourselves were not." , " But according
to " (in pursuance of) " His own purposes," with
emphasis on " own "—that purpose which was prompted
by nothing outward, but which arose solely out of
the divine goodwill, or goodness, or love. (See Eph.
i. 11.) The "grace" here is almost equivalent to the
"mercy "of Tit. iii. 5, "according to His mercy He
saved us."

Which was given us in Christ Jesus before
the world began. — This grace was given," not
" destined," to us. It was given to us, in the person of
Jesus Christ, before time was, and when our Hedeemer,
in the fulness of time, appeared, then was it made
manifest. " Before the world began " — quite literally,
" before eternal times ;" the meaning here is " from
all eternity," before times marked by the lapse of un-
numbered ages.

(io) But is now made manifest. — The grace,
a gift given to us in Christ from all eternity, but
hidden during unnumbered ages, till the fulness of

Paul is not ashamed of the

II. TIMOTHY, L

Cause for which he is suffering.

through the gospel : (11) whereunto I am
Chap. i. 11, 12. appointed a preacher, and
The Apostle an apostle, and a teacher
Christ's herald. of the Gentiles. <12> For

the which cause I also suffer these
things: nevertheless I am not ashamed:
for I know whom I have believed,1 and
am persuaded that he is able to keep

time — the appointed time — arrived ; the " now," when
it was made manifest.

By the appearing of our Saviour Jesus
Christ.— The simple act of the Incarnation by no
means covers the "appearing." The "appearing"
(Epiphany) here includes not only the birth, but the
whole manifestation of Christ on earth, including the
Pas-sion and the Resurrection.

Who hath abolished death,— More accurately,
when he abolished, or, made of none effect. The Greek
word thus rendered, signifies that by the action of
the Lord, death was rendered inoperative, compara-
tively harmless — its sting was removed. The " death "
thus made of none effect has a far more extended
meaning than that separation of soul and body we are
in the habit of calling death. It signifies that awful
punishment of sin which is best described as the exact
opposite to " eternal life." The death we are acquainted
with by sad experience here is only the forerunner of
the death eternal. Already to the believers in Jesus
this death of the body counts for nothing ; the time will
come when it will even exist no more.

And hath brought life and immortality to
light through the gospel.— The Greek word ren-
dered "immortality" is more accurately translated by
incorruption. " Life " here is that true life, in its highest
and completest sense, which includes the most perfect
hapx>iness — a happiness a foretaste of which is enjoyed
on this side the grave ; over it (this bliss) death now has
no power — indeed, death is the gate, so to speak, through
which we pass to its complete enjoyment. St. Paul says
Christ " brought to light " life and incorruption, not
only from having imparted to His own these glorious
ami divine attributes, but chiefly because He has
displayed (or manifested) the life and incorruptiou in
His own resurrection body before our very eyes. When
St. Paul wrote to Timothy, we must remember, many
an eye-witness of the resurrection glories still walked on
earth ; with these must St. Paul, and Timothy too, often
have conversed. Thus it can, with all literal truth, be
predicated of Jesus Christ that He brought life and in-
corruption out of that darkness in which, as far as men
were concerned, these things lay, into the clear and
bright light of day. And as the hearers of Christ and
the eye-witnesses of His resurrection were, when we
consider this great mass of mankind, comparatively few,
the medium by which these glorious troths were made
known to men was the preaching of the gospel, in which
gospel the Holy Ghost had enshrined both the words
and the story of Christ.

On the Greek text of this grand verse Ellicott
observes that it is remarkable that "Death," being
then a known and ruling power, has in the original
the article, while " Life " and " Incorruption," being
then only recently revealed and, unknown powers, save
to few. are written without the article.

<n) Whereunto I am appointed a preacher
• • • • — Whereunto — that is, to preach the gospel
referred to in the previous verse. (On these titles see
1 Tim. i. 12; ii. 7.) In all his deep humiliation, a soli-
tary prisoner awaiting death, deserted by his friends,
St. Paul, with solemn emphasis, rehearses the titles
of dignity which, by his Master's appointment, he

possessed in the Christian Church. The poor prisoner,
waiting his summons to a painful death, wished his
last charge to go forth with all the authority of an
Apostle, adding, however, in the next verse, that his
present sufferings were entailed on him, owing to this
very position in the Christian community to which
his Master had called him.

(12) For the which cause I also suffer these
things. — Because he had been the teacher and
apostle, had all these sufferings— the prison, the
chains, the solitude, the hate of so many — come upon
him. There was no need to refer to them more particu-
larly. Timothy knew well what he was then under-
going. The reason of the Apostle's touching at all
upon himself and his fortunes will appear in the next
clause, when, from the depths, as it would seem, of
human misfortune, he triumphantly rehearses his
sure grounds of confidence. Timothy was dispirited,
cast down, sorrowful. He need not be. When tempted
to, despair, let him think of his old master and friend,
Paxil the Apostle, who rejoiced in the midst of the
greatest sufferings; knowing that these were the sure
earthly guerdon of the most devoted work, but that
there was One, in whom he believed, able and, at the
same time, willing to save him for yet higher and
grander things.

Nevertheless I am not ashamed. — Not
ashamed of the suffering I am now enduring for
the cause of the Lord. He then, by showing the
grounds of his joyful hope, proceeds to show how men
can rise to the same lofty heights of independence
to which he had risen, whence they can look down with
indifference on all human opinion and human reward
and regard.

For I know whom I have believed.— Better
rendered, ivhom I have trusted; yea, and still trust.
" Whom " here refers to God the Father.

That which I have committed unto him.—
More exactly, my deposit. Considerable diversity of
opinion has existed among commentators of all ages as
to the exact meaning which should be assigned to the
words " my deposit." Let us glance back at what has
gone before. St. Paul, the forsaken prisoner, looking for
death, has been bidding his younger comrade never to
let his heart sink or his spirit grow faint when on-
coming dangers threaten to crush him ; for, he says,
you know me and my seemingly ruined fortunes and
blasted hopes. Friendless and alone, you know, I am
awaiting death (chap. iv. 6); and yet, in spite of all
this crushing weight of sorrow, which has come on me
because I am a Christian, yet am I not ashamed, for I
know whom I have trusted — I know His sovereign
power to whom I have committed " my deposit." He.
I know, can keep it safd against that day. St, Paul
had intrusted his deathless soul to the keeping of hi>
Heavenly Father, and having done this, serene and
joyful he waited for the end. His disciple Timothy
must do the same.

"That which I have committed unto Him, myde*
posit." signified a most precious treasure committed by
St. Paul to his God. The language and imagery was
probably taken by the Apostle from one of those
Hebrew Psalms he knew so well (Ps. xxxi. 5> — " Into thy

He exhorts Timothy

II. TIMOTHY, I.

to be steadfast.

that which I have committed unto him
13 14 against that day. (13) Hold

Ohap. -.

Hold fast sound fast

doctrine.

the form of sound
words, which thou hast

hand I commend my spirit," rendered in the LXX.
version (Ps. xxx. 5), " I will commit" {parathtsomui).
In Josephus, a writer of the same age, the soul is
especially termed a parakatatheke — deposit. The
passage is one in which he is speaking against suicide
(B. J. iii. 8, 5). Philo. also, who may almost be termed a
contemporary of St. Paul, uses the very same expression,
and also calls the soul " a deposit " (p. 499, ed. Richter).
Both passages are quoted at length by Alford, who,
however, conies to a slightly different conclusion.

Against that day. — The day of the coming of
Christ—" that day when I (the Lord of Hosts) make
up my jewels." He will keep my soul — " my deposit "
— safe against that day when the crown of life will be
given to all that love His appearing.

(*3) Hold fast the form of sound words, which
thou hast heard of me. — It was not sufficient for
Timothy to renew his fainting courage and to brace
himself up for fresh efforts; he must do something
more — in his teaching he must never let those solemn
formularies he had once received from him be changed.
Perhaps in the heart of St. Paul lurked some dread
that the new glosses and specious explanations which
the school of false teachers, so often referred to in these
Pastoral Epistles, chose to add to the great doctrines
of Christianity would be more likely to be listened to
by Timothy when the hand of his old master was cold
and the heart had ceased to beat ; so he urged upon
him to hold fast those inspired formularies he had heard
from St. Paul's lips— such, for instance, as those "faithful
sayings " which come before us so often in these Epistles
to Timothy and Titus.

In faith and love which is in Christ Jesus.
— Timothy, in days to come, must mould and shape his
teaching after the pattern of the teaching of his master
St. Paul, and he must do it in that faith and love which
alone comes from a life passed in communion with
Christ,

The very frequent reference to the " sound, healthy
words " in these Epistles by St. Paul, and from which
lie urges his disciples and successors never to depart,
indicate to us the deep importance St. Paul and the first
generation of believers attached to the very words and
expressions used by the apostles and those who had
been with the Lord.

False doctrines so easily might creep in, and loose
forms of expression respecting great truths were an
ever-present danger ; a lax life, too, St. Paul knew, was
the almost invariable accompaniment of false doctrine,
hence these repeated exhortations of his to these repre-
sentative teachers, Timothy and Titus, of the second
generation of Christians, to hold fast the form of sound,
healthy words — such words as these had again and
again been heard from the lips of apostles and hearers
of the Lord — " words which thou hast heard of me,"
St. Paul.

(i+) That good thing which was committed
unto thee. — "The good thing committed unto thee,"
or the deposit, differs from the " deposit " of verse
12, inasmuch as the " deposit " of verse 12 was some-
thing committed by St, Paul to God; while, on the
other hand, in verse 14 a trust committed by God to
Timothy is spoken of. But the Apostle, remembering

heard of me, in faith and love which is in
Christ Jesus. <14^ That good thing which
was committed unto thee keep by the
Holy Ghost which dwelleth in us. <15) This

the solemn meaning of the word in the first instance,
uses it with especial emphasis on this second occasion.
Yes, he seems to say, God will keep the most precious
deposit you or I shall intrust to Him — our soul — safe
against that day ; do thou, in thy turn, keep safe, un-
harmed, the deposit He, through me, has intrusted to
thee. In what God's deposit with men like Timothy
and St. Paul consisted has been discussed in the Note to
1 Tim. vi. 20. " The treasure of the Catholic faith "—
that was to be kept unchanged, unalloyed. The epithet
"good," which is here applied to this most sacred
trust, we find joined to "the doctrine" ("the good
doctrine," 1 Tim. iv. 6), and to " the fight " (" the good
fight," 1 Tim. vi. 12).

Keep by the Holy G-host which dwelleth in
us.— But this glorious deposit of the Catholic faith
must be preserved, let Timothy and others holding a
like position with Timothy mark well, by no human
agencies. He indicates here the only means that must
be employed to preserve this sacred charge safe and
pure, when he bids us keep the deposit by the Holy
Ghost — the Holy Ghost which, St, Paul adds, dwells
in us.

It Avould seem that the Apostle here was warning
Timothy, as the representative Christian teacher, that
the sacred deposit of the Catholic, faith was to be pre-
served by no weak compliance with the scruples of
false teachers or of doubting men, by no timid accom-
modation, by no yielding a little here and a little there
to prejudice or vanity. By no such or any other short-
sighted human arts of defence was the deposit of faith
to be guarded. But the Holy Ghost will keep His
own, and will show His faithful teachers in every age
how to hand down the lamp of holy Catholic doctrine
still burning brightly, with flame undimmed, to their
successors in the race of life.

(tf) This thou knowest, that all they which
are in Asia be turned away from me.— This
sad desertion of friends is well known to thee. Instead
of being dispirited by it, and by my arrest and close
imprisonment, rather shouldest thou be stimulated to
fresh and renewed exertions for the cause for which I
suffer this desertion, these bonds.

AU they which are in Asia.— It has been
maintained by many, even by great Greek expositors
such as Chrysostom, that "they which are in Asia"
refers to certain Asiatic Christians who happened to
be in Rome at the time of the Apostle's arrest and
imprisonment. Others have even suggested that
these Asiatics had gone to Rome for the purpose of
bearing witness in St. Paul's favour, and finding that
St. Paul's position was one of extreme danger,
terrified for themselves — like others once before had
been in the Christian story — lest they too should be
involved in a like condemnation, forsook him and fled.
But the simple and more obvious meaning is here to
be preferred, and we assume as certain that the for-
saking, the giving up St. Paul, took place in Asia
itself. Large numbers of Christians, if not whole
churches, repudiated their connection with the great
father of Gentile Christianity, and possibly disobeyed
some of his teaching. "What, in fact, absolutely took
place in Asia while St. Paul lay bound, waiting for

222

Paul'i

Deserted State

II. TIMOTHY, I.

as far as Men are concerned.

thou

knowest, that all they
are in Asia be

which
turned

Many have del away from me ; of whom
sex-ted me j one are Phygellus and Her mo-
has stood firm. geneg> {16) The Lord giye

mercy unto the house of Onesiphorus ;
for he oft refreshed me, and was not

ashamed of my chain : <17> but, when he
! was in Eome, he sought me out very
diligently, and found me. <18) The Lord
grant unto him that he may find mercy
of the Lord in that day : and in how
many things he ministered unto me at
Ephesus, thou knowest very well.

death in Rome, had been often threatened in Corinth
and in other centres. Party feeling ran high in those
days, we know; and one of the most sorrowful trials
the great-hearted St. Paul had to endure in the agony
of his last witnessing for his Lord, was the knowledge
that his name and teaching no longer was held in honour
in some of those Asian churches so dear to him. The
geographical term Asia is rather vague. It may — and
indeed, strictly speaking, does— include Mysia, Phrygia,
Lydia, Caria; but such a wide-spread defection from
Pauline teaching seems improbable, and there is no
tradition that anything of the kind ever took place. St.
Paul probably wrote the term more in the old Homeric
sense, and meant the district in the neighbourhood of the
river Cayster ;

" In Asian meadow by Cayster's streams."

-Iliad ii. 461.

Of whom are Phygellus and Hermogenes.—

These names would at once suggest to Timothy the
men and the congregations of "Asia" to whom St. Paul
was alluding — names well known, doubtless, then,
and especially to persons in the position of Timothy ;
but no tradition has been preserved which throws any
light on the lives and actions of these traitorous friends
of St, Paul.

(io) The Lord give mercy unto the house of
Onesiphorus.— In striking contrast to those false
friends who turned away from him was one, also well
known to Timothy, probably an Ephesian merchant.
Onesiphorus, to whose house the Apostle prays the
Lord to give mercy, had, early in this last imprisonment
of St. Paul, arrived in Rome on matters connected
probably with business. There he heard of the arrest
of that great master whom he had known well in Asia,
and sought him out. in his prison. There is but. little
doubt that when St. Paul wrote this Epistle Onesi-
phorus' death must have recently taken place, both
from the terms of this verse— where mercy is prayed,
not for him, but for his house — and also from the ex-
pression '• in that day," used in verse 18. There is
something strangely touching in this loving memory of
"one" who, in his trouble, did not forsake him, but
whose devotion was rather increased by his danger, and
this one faithful friend would never be able again to
show his love to the prisoner, for God had called him
home.

For he oft refreshed me, and was not
ashamed of my chain.— "He oft refreshed me"
does not imply that he ministered only to the Apostle's
bodily needs when he was in prison, though the word, no
doubt, includes this. But "he refreshed" him by fre-
quent visits, by, no doubt, much anxious forethought in
the matter of St. Paul's deliverance from prison and
bonds, by a noble disregard of the personal danger
which he incurred by his open intimacy with a prisoner
charged, as St. Paul must have been, with treason
against the empire. " He was not ashamed of my
chain." (See Acts xxviii. 20. where ''the chain" of
another captivity is mentioned.)

0?) But, when he was in Rome, he sought me

out very diligently, and found me.— But, on the
contrary, instead of fear — far from being ashamed — he.
when he arrived in Rome, sought me out. This must
have been a much more rigorous captivity than the one
alluded to in the last chapter of the Acts when St. Paul
dwelt in his own hired house with the soldier who
guarded him. Now he was rigidly imprisoned, and the
very place of his captivity was not, apparently, easily
found.

(18) The Lord grant unto him that he may
find mercy of the Lord in that day . . .— Tho
Greek should be rendered here, favour of the Lord, in-
stead of by "mercy of the Lord." Some commentators,
who have found a difficulty in this unusual repeti-
tion of " the Lord," explain it thus i The expression,
"the Lord grant," had become among Christians so
completely " a forcnulary," that the second use of the
word " Lord " was not noticed; and the prayer is thus
simply equivalent to " O that he may find mercy of the
Lord." It seems, however, better to keep to the strict
literal meaning, and to understand the first " Lord," in
the sense in which the term is always found in the
Epistles of St. Paul, as a title of Christ ; and the second
" Lord" as used of the Father, to whom here (as in
Rom. ii. 5, 16 ; Heb. xii. 23), judgment at the last day
is ascribed.

In that day.— The Apostle can never repay now
— not even with thanks — the kindness his dead friend
showed him in his hour of need ; so he prays that the
Judge of quick and dead may remember it in the awful
day of judgment. It is worthy of note how St. Paul's
thoughts here pass over the interval between death and
judgment. It was on that day when the great white
throne would be set up that he thought of the good deeds
done in the body being recompensed by the righteous
Judge. No doubt the expectation of the early Chris-
tians— in which expectation certainly St. Paul shared —
cf the speedy coming of the Lord influenced all think-
ing and speaking of the intermediate state of the sou!
between death and judgment, and almost seems to have
effaced the waiting time from their minds.

And in how many things he ministered unto
me at Ephesus, thou knowest very well. — These
services rendered to St. Paul at Ephesus are placed side
by side with those things he had done for him at Rome,
but as they are mentioned after, they perhaps refer to
kind offices undertaken for the prisoner by Onesiphorus
after his return from Rome to Ephesus. These things
Timothy, the presiding pastor at Ephesus, would, of
course, know in their detail better than St. Paul. The
Greek word SnjKoviqffev, rendered "he ministered.'* has
given rise to the suggestion that Onesiphorus was a
deacon at Ephesus. Although this is possible, still
such an inference from one rather general expression
is precarious.

This passage is famous from its being generally
quoted among the very rare statements of the New
Testament which seem to bear upon the question of the
Romish doctrine of praying for the dead.

It may be well very briefly to touch on two point-

Timothy is to hand on to others the II. TIMOTHY, II. same Tradition of the Catholic Faith,

CHAPTER II. — d) Thou therefore,
Chap. ii. l, 2. my son, be strong in

toimb?y string the SraCe that is in

and earnest. Christ Jesus. (2) And the

i thing's that thou hast heard of me
many witnesses, the same

°T'bv- among1

commit thou to faithful men, who
shall be able to teach others also.

which suggest themselves as to the bearing of this
passage on the doctrine in question. (1) Although we
here, in common with Roman Catholic interpreters and
the majority of the later expositors of the Reformed
Church, assume that Onesiphorus was dead when St.
Paul Avrote to Timothy, and that the words used had
reference to St. Paul's dead friend, still it must be re-
membered that others, well worthy of being heard,
writing many centuries before any doctrinal controversy
on this subject arose, have held quite another opinion.
Theodoret and Chrysostom (quoted by Alford) under-
stood that Onesiphorus was with St. Paul at this time.
(2) The prayer, whether it be taken as a prayer or an
ejaculation, is simply the expression of an earnest desire,
on the part of St. Paul, that the kind act of the dead
— assuming, contrary to the opinion of the above quoted
Fathers, that he was dead — Onesiphorus towards himself
may be remembered on that day when the books are
opened before the Judge of quick and dead. It, indeed,
only asks — looking fairly at the context — that an act of
unrequited and devoted love shown in this life may
be remembered in the final judgment. Without touching
upon the controversy itself, it seems only just to point
out the extreme precariousness of pressing this text —
the only one in the New Testament really touching on
this subject, and as to the interpretation of which ex-
positors, as we have seen, are by no means in agreement
—in support of a controverted doctrine.

II.

(!) Thou therefore, my son, be strong in the
grace that is in Christ Jesus.— St. Paul, after the
reference to the faithless Asiatics and the true loyal
Onesiphorus, with which he interrupted his exhortation,
turns again to Timothy. Thou therefore (own), my son,
considering what has taken place, be strong. It is as
though he said, Imitate the one loyal follower, and make
up to me for the faithless conduct of so many false
friends. " Thou, then, be strong," but not as men
understand strength or firmness ; but do thou be strong
" in the grace that is in Christ Jesus" — that is, be
strong in the power of that inward sanctification which
enables a man to will and to do according to what God
has commanded, in the power of that inward sancti-
fication which alone proceeds from Christ, and which
will never be wanting to any one who is in Christ ; in
other words, " Be strong in the Lord, and in the power
of His might" (Eph. vi. 10).

(2) And the things that thou hast heard of
me.— These " things " have been often understood as
referring to the few great fundamental truths rehearsed
by the Apostle, in the presence of the elders of the
congregation, on the occasion of Timothy's solemn
ordination. "The things," then, would have been
something of the nature of what is contained in a creed
or profession of faith. But it is better to give to " the
things " which Timothy had heard of St. Paul, and
which he was to deliver to other faithful men in his
turn, a much broader reference, and to understand
them as comprehending far more than the narrow
limits of a profession of faith could possibly contain.
"The things" were, no doubt, the sum of St. Paul's
teaching, the general conception of Paidine theology,
which Timothv, so long the Apostle's intimate and

confidential friend and disciple, was to give out to
another generation of believex*s. It was, in fact, the
" Gospel of St. Luke " — " my Gospel," as we love to
think St. Paul termed that matchless summary of the
life and teaching of the Blessed. It was the theology
shrined in such Epistles as those once written to tin
Romans or Ephesians in past years. These " things "
again and again, in crowded congregations, before
Jewish and Christian elders, before assemblies com-
posed of idolaters, had Timothy heard that master of
his, with his winning, pleading voice, tell out among
"many witnesses." Those "things" Timothy, in his.
turn, the voice of St. Paul the Aged being hushed,
was now to commit to others.

Among many witnesses.— These, according to
the above interpretation, included Pagans and Jews, the
rich and poor, the untaught sinners of the Gentiles and
the skilled rabbi trained in the schools of Jerusalem and
Alexandria.

The same commit thou to faithful men.— Not
to men merely who were " believers " in Jesus Christ.
This, of coitrse, was intended, but the "faithful men"
here denoted loyal, trusty souls — men who, under no
temptation, would betray the charge committed to
them.

Who shall be able to teach others also.— Not
only must the. Christian teachers to whom Timothy is
to give the commission of teaching, be trustworthy
men, they must also possess knowledge and the power
of communicating knowledge to others. Although the
divine help was to be prayed for and expected in this
and all other sacred works, yet it is noticeable how
St. Paul directs that no ordinary human means of
securing success must be neglected. St. Paul's last
charge in these Pastoral Letters of his, directed that
only those "shall be selected as teachers of religion
whose earthly gifts were such as fitted them for the
discharge of their duties. While there is nothing in this
passage to support the theory of an authoritative oral
teaching, existing from the days of the Apostles, in the
Church — the words of St. Paul here point to the duty of
the Christian soldier, not only himself to keep unchanged
and safe the treasure of the Catholic faith as taught by
the Apostle, but to hand down the same unimpaired
and safe to other hands.

The great Christian truths were never allowed to be
recklessly handled. There was a school, so to speak,
of Christian ! theology in the time of St. Paul. His
dying charge directed his best beloved disciple to make
careful provision for the choice and training of teachers
in the congregation. Men able as well as willing,
gifted as well as zealous, should be the objects of hi-
choice. :

Some have imagined that these directions respecting
the handing down the lamp of Christian truth to other*
were given to Timothy with a view to his leaving
Ephesus— the appointed scene of his labours — for
Rome, to join' the imprisoned Apostle (chap. iv. 9), n\
which event men able as well as devoted should be left
in this great centre to cany on the work of Timothy
and of St. Paul. But it is far better to understand
St. Paul's charge as given to Timothy, a representa-
tive leader of the Church of Christ, and to understand
the Apostle's words as addressed to the Church of all

224

Timothy is to endure Hardship

II. TIMOTHY, II.

as a Good Soldie

W Thou therefore endure hardness, as
Chap. ii. 3—6. a good soldier of Jesus

He is to be Christ. W No

ready also to ,, ,

suffer for the warreth entanc

gospel's sake. self "\vitll the

man that
leth him-
affairs of

this life; that he may please him
who hath chosen him to be a
soldier. <5> And if a man also strive for
masteries, yet is he not crowned, except
he strive lawfully. (6) The husbandman

times. The runners in the Christian race must take
good care before they fall out of the course that their

torches, still burning, be handed on to the athletes who
take their plain'.

(3) Thou therefore endure hardness.— Tho
older authorities do not contain the Greek word ren-
dered "thou therefore." The word translated "en-
dure hardness " in the older authorities is compounded
with a preposition, and is better and more literally
rendered, take tiiy share in suffering. But Timothy
must remember, if he obeys St. Paul's voice, and with
steady earnestness follows St. Paul's tracks, the very
same sufferings which have been the master's guerdon
Avill be the lot of tho loyal disciple. So St. Paul adds,
" Take thy share of suffering'," or, " Suffer hardship
with me." Timothy must bo prepared for this. He
must look on himself as one of the pioneers of the
army of the great King, as a tried veteran, as a good
soldier of Jesus Christ, prepared for the dangers and
trials which in those days awaited such a calling.
Then, under three different pictures, the Apostle paints
the duties and rewards of a Christian's life.

(*) No man that warreth . . .—Better rendered,
while engaged on military service, or serving as a
soldier. The first picture is suggested by the last
simile (in verse 3). It was one very familiar to tho
numerous peoples dwelling under the shadow of the
Roman power, this picture of the soldier concerned
only in the military affairs of the great empire — the
legionary wrapped up in his service, with no thought
or care outside the profession of which he was so
proud. None of these sworn legionaries have aught to
do with buying or selling, with the Forum, or any of
tho many employments of civil life. So should it
be with the earnest and faithful Christian ; paramount
and above any earthly considerations ever must rank
his Master's sendee, his Master's commands.

The soldier of Christ should never allow himself to
be entangled in any earthly business which would
interfere with his duty to his own General. But while
this general reference to all members of the Church lies
on the outside, beneath the surface a solemn injunction
may surely be read, addressed to Timothy and to others
like him in after times specially engaged in the ministry
of the Word and in matters connected with the govern-
ment of the Church of Christ. And so the Catholic
Church has generally understood this direction to
Timothy as warning her ministers from engaging in
secular pursuits, either connected with business or
pleasure.

That he may please him who hath chosen
him to be a soldier.— More accurately rendered,
who enrolled him as a soldier. Only those soldiers
who with heart and soul devote themselves to their
military work win the heart of their commander. The
question has been asked. What of St. Paid's own
example and that of other of the early Christian
teachers, such as AquilaP did not they, at all events
from time to time, pursue a secular calling— that of
tent-makers ? Tho reply here is not a difficult one.
The Jewish life in those days contemplated and even
desired that its rabbis and teachers should be

225

acquainted with, and even, if necessary, practise some
handicraft. The well-known Hebrew saying, " He that,
teacheth not his son a trade teacheth him to be a
thief," is a proof of this. In the case of these early
teachers, this occasional practice of an industry or a
trade brought them more directly into contact with
their Jewish brethren. It was thus among the -Jewish
people that the Hebrew rabbi often passed impercep-
tibly into a Christian teacher. It must also be borne in
mind that in St. Paul's case, and also in the case of the
presbyters of the first and second age, especially
if missionaries, it was impossible always to ensure
subsistence, unless by some exertions of their own they
maintained themselves. It was, too, most desirable
that these pioneers of Christianity should ever be above
all reproach of covetousness, or even of the suspicion
that they wished for any earthly thing from their
converts. That howevei-, it was not intended that any
such combination of work — at once for the Church and
for the world — should be the rule of ecclesiastical order
in coming days, the positive and very plain directions
of 1 Cox-, ix. 1 — 15 are decisive, and incapable of being
misunderstood.

(5) And. if a man also strive for masteries.—
More accurately translated, again, if a man strive in
the games. Another picture is drawn, and the picture
is, as before, a well-known one to all the dwellers in tho
great cities of the empire. An athlete is chosen to
represent the professed servant of Christ, one of those
who. after long and careful training, contends in the
public games, then so popular, so entirely a part of the
life of every city — in the games of wrestling or running,
or in the chariot-racing, or in the hand-to-hand con-
tests. Again, this one — as in the case of the soldier
— if he aspired to victory and success, must " endure
hardness."

Except he strive lawfully.— " Lawfully " — i.e.
according to the prescribed conditions of tho contest.
He must, of course, submit himself to the strict rules
of the theatre where the games are held, and (for this
is also included in the " lawfully ") must besides — if he
hopes for a prize — go through all the long and severe
training and discipline necessary before engaging in
such 'a contest. Galen uses the same pln-ase, in the
sense of complying with the recognised rules of
training as regarding diet.

(6) The husbandman that laboureth must be
first partaker of the fruits.— Again the picture is
painted from every-day life. " The husbandman that
laboureth " — with an emphasis upon " that laboureth " —
is the successful tiller of the ground; "the labouring
husbandman " it is, for whom the earth brings forth her
increase. It is the enduring, patient, self-sacrificing
toil that is rewarded in the affairs of common life — the
man that " endures hardness." whether as a soldier, or
athlete, or tiller of the ground, wins the reward; and
as in the world, so in religion. Further on in the
Epistle the Apostle speaks of his having won the crown
of righteousness. He had endured hardness of every
conceivable kind ; every affliction for the Lord's sake
he had endured save death, and that he was expecting,
and knew it could not long tarry. The teaching of

St. Paul repeats what gives

II. TIMOTHY, II.

him Courage to Endure.

that laboureth must be first partaker of
the fruits.1 (7) Consider what I say;
and the Lord give thee understanding
in all things. (8) Eenieniber that Jesus

I Christ of the seed of David
J^gffi was raised from the dead $£& nervS
w^oeiy^i according to my gospel : St. Paul to en-
W wherein I suffer trouble, dure'

St. Paul iu tins triple picture is — not every soldier
wins its commander's applause, but only the veteran
who devotes himself heart and soul to his profession ;
not every athlete wins the crown or prize, but only he
who trains with anxious, painful care ; not every tiller
of the ground gathers the earth's fruits, but only the
patient toiler. So must it be in religious life. It is
not enough to say we are Christians, or even to wish to
be of the brotherhood of Christ. Men must really
live the life they say they love.

0) Consider what I say ; and the Lord give
thee understanding in all things.— The older
authorities read here will give ; also instead of
" and the Lord," the translation should be, for the
Lord. Thus the sentence should run: for the Lord
ivill give thee understanding in all things. Some
difficulty has been found in explaining exactly why,
when we look at the foregoing words, Timothy should
be so specially charged to consider St. Paul's words
here, and why the declaration respecting " understand-
ing in all things " was made in this particular place.
' iheophylact suggested because the preceding exhorta-
1 ions were in the form of metaphors, " he spake all
things in an enigmatical form : " but surely these
metaphors were the reverse of obscure, and did not
seem to need for their comprehension any special
enlightenment ; if then we refer the words of this
verse exclusively to what precedes, it will be best
to understand the charge of St. Paul, " Consider
what I say," &c, as directing Timothy's attention
to the personal application of each of the pictures,
or metaphors. It seems, however, that the words
V Consider," &c, while referring to what he had said,
belong also to the far weightier words he was about to
write in the next sentence (verse 8). He is in this
chapter exhorting Timothy to be strong in the faith in
the face of many troubles. He has instanced to him
earthly examples to show how success, even here,
depends on enduring perseverance, and is now passing
on to set bef oi-e him other and far higher induce-
ments for him "to be strong;" and between the
first set of arguments and the second he bids him
*' Consider what I say " (part has been said, but yet
other and deeper things are to follow). God will
give him power to grasp their meaning in all their
depth.

W Remember that Jesus Christ of the seed
of David was raised from the dead.— More accu-
rately rendered, Remember Jesus Christ . . . as raised
(or, as one raised). The words of the Greek original,
" of the seed of David," come after, not before, " was
raised from the dead." The translation should run
thus : Remember Jesus Christ as one raised from the
dead, born of the seed of David. Timothy was to
remember, was ever to bear in mind, two great facts.
They were to be the foundation stones of his whole life's
work. Remembering these in the hour of his greatest
trouble, he was never to be cast down, but ever to take
fresh courage. And the two facts he was to remember
were : that Jesus Christ, for whose sake he suffered —
like him, Timothy, or like St. Paul — was born of flesh
and blood, and yet He had risen from the dead. Surely,
in the hour of his weakness, such a thought would be

sufficient to inspire him with comfort and courage.
Two facts, then, are to be ever in Timothy's mind :
the Resurrection and the Incarnation of his Lord.
The thought of the first mentioned, "the Resurrection,"
would always be reminding him of his Master's victory
over death and of His present glory. The thought of
the second mentioned, " born of the seed of David," " the
Incarnation," would ever be whispering to him, "Yes,
and the l-isen and glorified One sprang, too, like himself,
from mortal flesh and blood." The reason of the " In-
carnation" being expressed in this special manner, "born
of the seed of David," was to include another truth.
The "risen One "was not only born of flesh and blood,
but "belonged to the very race specified in those
prophets so revered by Timothy and the chosen people
as the race from which should spring the Messiah:
" Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will
raise unto David a righteous Branch, and a King
shall reign and prosper, and shall execute judgment
and justice in the earth . . . and this is His name
whereby He shall be called, THE LORD OUR
RIGHTEOUSNESS" (Jer. xxiii. 5,6). To_ raise the
fainting heart of his much-tried disciple in this hour of
discouragement, to supply a ground of confidence to yet
unborn Christians, who in their day would be tried as
Timothy wTas then, was the Apostle's first purpose
when he pressed these thoughts on his son in the faith ;
but in the background, no doubt, there lay another
purpose. These great comforting truths were to be
maintained and taught in the presence of those false
teachers who wrere ever ready to explain away or even
to deny, then as now, the beginning and the end of the
Son of God's life and ministry on earth — His Incar-
nation and His Resurrection.

According to my gospel.— This formula, for so
it may be considered, occurs frequently in St. Paul's
Epistles (Rom. ii. 16, and again xvi. 25, and in other
places), and, with very slight variations, in 1 Tim. i. 11
and 1 Cor. xv. 1. Jerome's remark, " As often as St.
Paul in his Epistles writes ' according to my Gospel,' he
refers to the volume of Luke," although received with
reserve by many expositors, considering the weighty
traditional evidence we possess of St. Luke's Gospel
being in reality written by St. Paul, appears on the
whole substantially correct.

(9) Wherein I suffer trouble.— Here St. Paul bids
Timothy take courage, by thinking of the brave, patient
example he was setting him in his Roman prison, un-
daunted and full of hope. " Wherein I suffer : " in
which, that is, discharging my office as a preacher of the
gospel, I suffer trouble.

As an evil doer. — Better rendered, as a malefactor :
the same word used in St. Luke's Gospel for the two
thieves crucified with Jesus Christ (Luke xxiii. 32,
33, 39).

Even unto bonds ; but the word of God is not
bound.— A prisoner in chains and, as he tells us
further on in the Epistle, expecting death, and yet he still
could write and pray and speak from his narrow prison.
Surely his disciple, still free, ought to work on with
undiminished spirit and zeal. Though St. Paul was in
bonds, his sufferings and imprisonment had in no way
weakened the power of the gospel.

ZjTa repeats to Timothy (me of the mom II. TIMOTHY, II.

stirring Watchwords of the Faith.

as an evil doer, even unto bonds ; but
the word of God is not bound. (10) There-
fore I endure all things for the elect's
gates, that they may also obtain the

salvation which is in Christ Jesus with
eternal glory. (11) It is a faithful saying,
For if we be dead with him, we shall
also live with him : (12) if we suffer, we

(io) Therefore I endure all things for the
elect's sakes.— Better rendered, For this cause I
endure, &e. — that is, I endure all things in order that
the " word of God," which, unlike its preacher, I have
just declared to he confined by no bonds — in order that
that " word" may be widely spread and disseminated :
for tins reason do I, as a faithful soldier at my post,
bear up with quiet, patient courage against suffering;
and I do it for the elect's sakes, that is, for those whom,
iu His infinite mercy, God has been pleased to
choose as His people, for those who, in His un-
fathomable love, are yet to be brought into the one
fold. And this brave and steadfast endurance on
the part of St. Paul contributed to the furtherance of
God's projects for gathering these elect in this wise —
(1) His endurance, his patient, gallant witness in suffer-
ing, would serve as an example to many, not oidy to
the generation then living, but to countless men and
women yet unborn ; and (2) his faithful, true preaching,
mow that his voice was hushed, in such writings as this
Epistle to Timothy, would help, through the ages to
come, to draw countless others, in accordance with the
divine counsels, into fellowship with Christ. The
question has been often asked, whether those "elect"
for whom the Apostle endured these things were, when
he wrote these words, believers. This point has already
been touched upon ; it may, however, be here answered,
with some certainty, that the " elect " here spoken of
include both believers and unbelievers. The first — the
believer — would in all ages be built up by the contempla-
tion of the steadfastness under suffering of St. Paul ; the
second — the unbeliever — would be won to the faith by
the divinely-inspired arguments and exhortations which
the brave old man ceaselessly spoke or wrote down in
prison just as when free. How could one like St. Paul,
who was conscious that he himself had won the " salva-
tion," not patiently endure all things, if such an
endurance could help the elect to obtain that salvation
which delivered those who obtained it from the misery
of sin and death, and which besides — O blessed thought!
— had the sure prospect of eternal glory ?

(ii) For if we be dead with him, we shall
also live with him.— The last sentence ended with
the words " eternal glory " — the goal, the end of
the salvation which is in Christ. This it is which
the Apostle will help others to win, regardless
of any suffering it may cost him ; then, with his mind
full of the thoughts of the " eternal glory," once more
he addressed himself to Timothy. " Faithful is the
saying, namely, if we be dead with him," &c. It was as
though he said, " Do you not remember that well-known
watchword of our own faith, so often repeated among
us in our solemn assemblies when the brotherhood
meet together? " Many have supposed, from the rhyth-
mical character of the clauses of verses 11, 12, 13, that
this ''saying" was taken from some most ancient
Christian hymns, composed and used in the very
earliest days of the faith ; but whether or no this be the
case, there is high probability that the words formed
part of a liturgy in common use in the days of Timothy.
If not as a hymn — which seems, on the whole, the most
likely supposition — we can well conceive them as part of
the tapestry of a primitive Christian liturgy, woven in

like the introductory sentences in our morning and
evening prayer, or like the " comfortable words " of
the Communion Service. The expression " If we be
dead with Him " — more accurately, If we died icith
Him — is well explained by 1 Cor. xv. 31 : "I die daily."
The Apostle died when he embraced the lot of daily
death. The meaning is still further illustrated in
2 Cor. iv. 10, where we read how St. Paul and his com-
panions were " always bearing about in the body the
dying of the Lord Jesus." " He and his faithful com-
panions (was Timothy, to whom he was then writing, to
be ranked in this blessed company ? ) had given them.
selves up to a life that involved exposure to sufferings,
bitter enmity, cruel persecutions, even death ; but if we
be thus dead with Him, what matters it ? How can we
fear even that last agony man can inflict on us — physical
death P — -for death with Him involves, surely, life with
Him too : that life endless, fadeless, full of glory, we
know He is now enjoying, in the possession of which I,
Paul, and some of us have even seen Him, face to face,
eye to eye. In that life of His we shall share ; we shall
be partakers in this life of His there, hnt only if we have
shared in the life of suffering which was His life here"
(12) If we suffer, we shall also reign with him.
— And the faithful saying went on with this stirring
declaration. How, it seems to ask, can a believer in
Christ shrink from suffering, when he knows what to
him will be the glorious consequences of this present
suffering ? The word rendered " suffer " would be better
translated, if we endure — that is, if we bravely bear
up against sufferings for His sake, and, all the while
work on with hand and brain for Him and for our
brother as best we can. If we do this in this life, we
shall, in the life to come, reign with Him — more than
merely live with Him, as the last verse told us : we
shall even " be kings with Him." (See Rom. v. 17 ; viii.
17; and Rev. i. 6, where Jesus Clmst is especially
spoken of as having made us " kings.") The promise
thus woven into the faithful saying, and repeated in
these several passages, of the " reign of the saints in
Christ," gives us a strangely glorious hope — a marvel-
lous onlook, concerning the active and personal work
i which Christ's redeemed will be intrusted with in the
ages of eternity.

If we deny him, he also will deny us.— But
there is another side to the words of the Blessed.
While to the faithful and the believer He will grant
to sit down with Him on His throne, the faithless and
unbeliever will have no share in the glories of the
life to come. These grave warnings arc apparently
addressed rather to unfaithful members of the outward
and visible Church, than to the Pagan world who have
never known Christ. The words, " He also will deny
us," imply something of a recognition on the part of
us who are denied by Him — something of an expecta-
tion on our part that He would recognise us as friends.
They are evidently an echo of the Lord's own sad reply
to those many who will say to Him in that day,
" Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in Thy name P
. . . and then will I profess unto them. I never knew
you : depart from Me, ye that work iniquity."
(Matt. vii. 22, 23. See too Matt, x. 33 aud Mark
viii. 38.)

Disputes about " Terms'' and

II. TIMOTHY, II.

mere Words are to be avoided.

shall also reign with him : if we deny
him, he also will deny us : (13) if we be-
lieve not, yet he abideth faithful : he
cannot deny himself. (U) Of these things
put them in remembrance, charging
them before the Lord that they strive
not about words to no profit, hut to the

subverting of the hearers. (15> Study
to shew thyself approved ch ..
unto God, a workman that is Charged to
needeth not to be ashamed, a£>id disputes
rightly dividing the word words. "The
of truth. W But shun results of such
profane and vain babblings : vam pursmts-

(13) If we believe not. — Better rendered, if we
are faithless — that is, untrue to the vows of our Chris-
tian profession. The faithlessness implies more than
mere unbelief in any of the fundamental doctrines of
the faith, such as the Resurrection of the Lord or His
divinity.

Yet he abideth faithful: he cannot deny
himself. — Those who have understood these words as
containing soothing', comforting voices for the sinner,
for the faithless Christian who has left his first love,
are gravely mistaken. The passage is one of distinct
severity — may even be termed one of the sternest in
the Book of Life ; for it tells how it is impossible even
for the pitiful Redeemer to forgive in the future life.
" He cannot deny Himself "—cannot treat the faithless
as though he were faithful — cannot act as though
faithfulness and faithlessness were one and the same,
thing. The Christian teacher, such as Timothy, and
the members of his Hock likewise, must remember that,
sure and certain as are the promises of glory and hap-
piness to those who love the Lord and try to live His
life, so surely will fall the chastisement on all who are
faithless and untrue.

With the solemn words of this " faithful saying" St.
Paul closes this, the second division of his Epistle-
fellowship in the sufferings of Christ here, on this side
the grave, and fellowship in the glory of Christ there,
on the other side the grave — the one side was the sure
consequence of the other ; the one could not exist
without the other.

M) Of these things put them in remem-
brance.— A new division of the Epistle begins with
this 14th verse. St. Paul has been urging Timothy to
be strong in endurance, to bear trouble and suffering
with brave patience. He now proceeds to chai'ge him
respecting the special work he has to do ; and, first he
deals with his duties as a teacher of truth brought face
to face with teachers of error. He prefaces his direc-
tions by bidding him, in the forefront of his teaching,
" put them " (that is, those over whom he was placed :
the members of his Ephesian flock) " in remembrance
of these things " — namely, of those great and solemn
truths set forth in verses 11 — 13, and which may be
briefly summed up in the words : " Fellowship with
Christ in suffering will be succeeded by fellowship
with Christ in glory." Surely such lofty, soul-inspiring
thoughts as these will form the best safeguard against
the pitiful controversies and disputes about words,
which were occupying the thoughts and wasting the
lives of so many in Ephesus called by the name of Christ.

Charging them before the Lord.— Better
rendered, solemnly charging them before the Lord . . .
In all Timothy's solemn addresses to his flock he is,
St. Paul reminds him. charging his people " before the
Lord" — a very earnest, solemn thought for every
public teacher, and one calculated now, as then, to
deepen the life of one appointed to such an office.
There was a grave danger that such empty, profitless
disputes about words and expressions, which, we know,
occupied the attention of many of the Ephesian so-

called Christian teachers, would end in distracting the
minds of the members of the several congregations,
who would naturally take their tone, in matters con-
nected with religious life, from their teacher; and thus
words would soon come to be substituted for acts in the
lives of those men and women called by the name of
Christ in Ephesus. (See 1 Tim. vi. 4, where these
" strifes of words " are , mentioned among the special
characteristics of the false teachers.)

But to the subverting of the hearers.— Not
only are such arguments and disputes useless and pro-
fitless, but they are positively mischievous. In the
long history of Christianity, St. Paul's repeated warning
respecting the danger of these disputes about theo-
logical terms and expressions has been sadly verified.
Such contentions serve only to unsettle the mind, only
to shake true faith, only to distract the one who gives
himself up to this fatal pursuit, from real, earnest,
patient woi-k for Christ.

(is) Study to shew thyself approved unto
God, a workman that needeth not to be
ashamed.— Timothy, and those in the position of
Timothy, were to show themselves approved unto God,
by turning others, over whom they possessed influence,
from the pursuit of vain and unprofitable things.
Then their work would be the work of workmen tested
by trial, and would be found to have stood the test.
(Comp. here 1 Cor. iii. 10 — 15, where the final testing of
the work done by God's workmen, such as Timothy, is
spoken of in very clear, heart-searching language.) His
own words in the First Epistle to the Corinthians were
evidently in St. Paul's mind when he wrote down this
direction to Timothy.

Rightly dividing the word of truth.— Better
rendered rightly laying out the word of truth. The
Greek word translated in the English version " rightly
dividing,'" literally signifies " cutting a straight line."
It seems most correct to regard it as a metaphor
from laying out a road (see Prov. iii. 6, in the
LXX. rendering, where the word is so used), " or
drawing a furrow, the merit of which consists in the
straightness with which the work of cutting, or laying
out, is performed. The word of truth is, as it were, a
road which is to be laid out straightly and truly." So
Ellicott. To affirm (see Alford and Huther-Meyer) that
the notion of " cutting " had been gradually lost, and
that the word already in the time of St. Paid signified
simply " to manago rightly," " to treat truthfully with-
out falsifying," and that the exact opposite is to corrupt
or adulterate the Word of God (2 Cor. ii. 17), seems
premature. (Comp. Eur. Rhesus, 422, ed. Dindorf.)

In the third century, Clement of Alexandria [Stro-
mata, vii.), for instance, certainly uses the word in a
sense in which the idea of " cutting " has been lost,,
when he writes orthotomia (a substantive) as an equiva-
lent for orthodoxia — orthodoxy. It is not improbable
that the use of the word here by St. Paul gave the
word a fresh starting-point, and that gradually the
original meaning passed out of sight.

(16) But shun profane and vain babblings.—

228

The Danger of

II. TIMOTHY, II.

such Word-disputes.

for they will increase unto more ungod- |
liness. (17) And their word will eat as J
doth a canker1 : of whom is HymensBUS
and Philetus ; (18) who concerning the
truth have erred, saying that the resur-
rection is past already ; and overthrow

the faith of some. <19> Nevertheless the
foundation of God standeth
sure,2 having this seal, The ££aP£h "v19;
Lord knoweth them that God under the
are his. And, Let every figure of a
one that nameth the name foundatlon-

But, in strong contrast to the conduct just urged,
•on the workman of God. do thou avoid (or, withdraw
thyself from,) vain babblings. The word rendered
41 shun " is a strong one, and signifies literally, to
make a circuit so as to avoid; or, as Alford para-
phrases it,. ''the meaning seems to come from a number
of persons falling back from an object of fear or
loathing, and standing at a distance round it." The
word is used in Titus iii. 9. On the words "profane,"
" vain-babblings," see 1 Tim. vi. 20.

For they will increase unto more ungodli-
ness.— Better translated, for they will advance unto
. . . Tho tendency of these useless discussions and
idle disputes is to lead men into vain and profitless
speculations, which end too often — as in the case, cited
below, of Hymenaeus and Philetus — in the most fatal
doctrinal error. The close connection between grave
fundamental errors in doctrine and a lax and purely
selfish life is constantly alluded to by St. Paul.

(17> And their word will eat as doth a
canker. — Better rendered, as in the margin of the
English translation, as doth a gangrene, the usual
rendering of the various English versions. " Cancer,"
Avhich is adopted also by Luther — krebs — fails to ex-
press the terrible and deathly nature of the "word" of
these false teachers. The life of the sufferer afflicted
with cancer may be prolonged for many years ; a few
hours, however, is sufficient to put a term to the life
of the patient attacked with " gangrene," unless the
limb affected be at once cut away. To translate this
Greek word here by "cancer" is to water down the
original, in which St. Paul expresses his dread of the
fatal Influence of the words of those teachers on the
lives of many of the flock of Christ. Perhaps Jerome's
words, '• a perverse doctrine, beginning with one, at the
■commencement scarcely finds two or three listeners;
but little by little the cancer creeps through the body "
{Jerome, in Epist. ad Gal.), has suggested the rendering
of the English Version.

Of whom is Hymenaeus and Philetus.—
Of these false teachers nothing is known beyond the
mention, in the First Epistle to Timothy, of Hymenaeus,
who, regardless of the severe action which had been
taken against him (1 Tim. i. 20), was apparently still
•continuing in his error. Vitringa thinks they were
Jews, and probably Samaritans. Their names are simply
given as examples of the teachers of error to whom
St. Paul was referring — famous leaders, no doubt, in their
cheerless school of doctrine.

(18) who concerning the truth have erred.
— Or, have erred, or, more literally, have missed their
aim. (Sec Note on 1 Tim. vi. 21. )

The resurrection of the body, grounded upon the
Lord's own words (John v. 28, 29), was one of the
Articles of the Christian faith Upon which St. Paul
especially loved to dwell. (See. for instance, his words
before Felix — Acts xxiv. 15.) With this "resurrection
of the body " St. Paul, prompted by the Holy Ghost,
taught men that the future state of rewards and' punish-
ments was intimately bound up: the soul will be I
clothed with a body of glory or with a body of shame, (

according to the deeds done in the flesh. This doctrine
appears, in very early times, to have been cmestioned
by some in the Christian community. Then, as now, was
the thought repugnant to the shrinking soul of man,
— that the body in which he then lived and sinned
would rise again.

Elaborated, but still scarcely disguised, tho same
denial of a bodily resurrection was a characteristic of
the more important of the widely-spread Gnostic systems
of the second and third centuries.

These early Christian f ollowers of men like Hymenaeus
and Philetus had much in common with the ascetic
Jewish sects of Essenes and Therapeutae, and especially
with tho famous Sadducean school, which attracted then
so many cultured and wealthy Jews. They opposed,
to use Van Oosterzee's words, " their own sickly
idealism to St. Paul's strong and healthy realism."
Death and resurrection, with these early opponents
of St. Paul, were terms which had only a spiritual
meaning and application. As Waterland puts it, " They
allegorised away the doctrine, and turned all into
figures and metaphors."

Another consideration must not be lost sight of when
we are considering the reasons for St. Paul's fiery indig-
nation with this unhappy school of dreamcrss In
attacking, with their thinly-veiled scepticism, the great
doctrine of the resurrection of the body, in pushing
aside the glorious hope, they touched with their impious
hands the corner-stone of all Christian belief — the
resurrection in the body of the Redeemer. This Re-
surrection was indeed past already.

(19) Nevertheless the foundation of God
standeth sure.— Better rendered, Nevertheless God's
firm foundation standeth. Nevertheless, that is to
say, though some may be shaken in faith by the
unhappy teaching above referred to, yet assuredly
God's firm foundation stands unshaken. " The firm
foundation laid by God " is the Church of Christ,
which is here termed a foundation laid by God,
because it. the Church of Christ, is the ground-
storey of the glorious Temple of the future. In other
words, the Church of Christ is here considered as the
foundation of a far grander building, which, in tho
fulness of time, will rest upon its massive work (see
Eph. ii. 19 — 21); and this ground-storey, the corner-
stone of which is Christ, " standeth " age after age, in
spite of any efforts which may be made to destroy or
even to shake it. The term " foundation," here used
for the Church of God on earth, is remarkable, and
points to a great truth ; that, after all. this life is but a
beginning, and that " His Church" here is but a foun-
dation— is only the first and early storey of that glorious
Church the Divine Architect has planned, and will
complete in heaven.

Having this seal.— It was a custom, which dates
back from the very earliest times, to inscribe upon
a building or a monument an inscription which told of
its origin and purpose. In some cases, as in the oldest
monuments of Egypt, the engraved writing told the
name of the royal or priestly builder

14, we read how in the wall

■229

in Bev. xxi.

City of God there

The Church Militant under the

II. TIMOTHY, II.

Figure of a Massive Foundation.

of Christ depart from iniquity. <20) But !
G] •■ 20 m a grea^ nouse there are

Good men and not only vessels of gold i
; to- and 0f silver, but also of;
wood and of earth ; and !

gether.

some to honour, and some to dishonour.
W If a man therefore purge himself
from these, he shall be a .. Q,2r

vessel unto honour, sane- The^work of a
tified, and meet for the good man.

were twelve foundations, and on them were engraved
the names of the Twelve Apostles of the Lamb. On
this "foundation storey," of which St. Paul was now
speaking, was carved a legible inscription in two sen-
tences— the one told of comfort and hope, reminding
men God would ever know " His own ;" the other told
of duty, reminding men that " God's own " had no
share in unrighteousness. It is called " a seal " here
instead of an inscription, for a seal best conveys the
idea of the solemn binding character of the writing.

The Jew was especially accustomed to see the words
and promises of his God written or graven on his door-
posts and on his gates. (See Dent. vi. 9 ; xi. 20.
See, too, the words of Job xix. 24, where he would
have his most solemn declaration of faith graven or
sealed on a rock for ever.)

The Lord knoweth them that are his.— This
was the first sentence of the inscription graven on the
foundation-storey. The words were probably a me-
mory of Num. xvi. 5 ; but the thought here goes far
deeper. God's own people, as they read the words
graven on the foundation " with an iron pen and with
load for ever," are ever reminded of their deepest,
highest, truest comfort. " The Lord Tenoweth them that
are His." The words may be paraphrased : " He knows
His own because He loves them ; " never will He cease to
know them, but will keep them for ever and for ever.
Compare, too, the words of the Good Shepherd (John x.
14, 27—29).

And, Let every one that nameth the name of
Christ depart from iniquity.— The thought and
the words are from the Old Testament. The thought
is expressed in a wider and more general form in Isa.
lii. 11 : " Depart ye, depart ye, go ye out from thence,
touch no unclean thing ... Be ye clean, that bear
the vessels of the Lord ; " and for the words " nameth
the name of the Lord," see Isaiah xxvi. 13. " Naming
the name of Jesus " must be understood in the sense
of the last clause of 1 Cor. xii. 3 ; in other words, this
sentence of the inscription signifies that no man con-
fessing with the heart that Jesus is Lord can commit
iniquity deliberately— the two things are utterly incom-
patible. " Iniquity" here includes the teaching of those
false men above alluded to, as their teaching led away
from the truth, and resulted in a lax and evil way of life.

(20) But in a great house there are not only
vessels of gold and of silver.— The Apostle goes
on with the same thought of the '' Church of God
on earth," but he changes the imagery. He has
been speaking of this Church as the "foundation-
storey that cannot be moved" of a still more glorious
edifice. He now, as it were, answers a question
which would naturally occur to Timothy and to many
a devout reader or hearer of the Epistle when they
came to this part of the argument. Hoav comes it, then,
one would ask, that in this visible Church on earth are
so many unworthy members ? How is it that in this
changeless, abiding foundation of the great Temple of
the future, against which all earthly storms may beat,
and yet never shake its massive storeys, so many useless
crumbling stones are taken for the building ?

In a great house, argues St. Paul — still thinking of

the Church, but changing the foundation image for
that of a great house— are always found two distinct
kinds of vessels— the precious and enduring, and also
the comparatively valueless and lasting for but a littlo
while ; the first kind are destined for honour, the
second for dishonour. In St. Paul's mind, when he
wrote these words, the natural sequel to his far-reach-
ing and suggestive comparison of the "foundation"
(verse 19) were 'the words of his Master, who had
once compared His Church to a drag-net of wide sweep,
! including in its take something of every kind out of the
vast sea- world. The " net " — His Church — was to gather
and to hold in its meshes its great take — the good and
the bad, the useful and the useless — till the end of the
world. So St. Paul writes how in a great house there
must be these varieties of vessels — some for honour,
others for dishonour. By these vessels the genuine
and spurious members of the Church are represented
as forming two distinet classes; and in these classes
different degrees of honour and dishonour besides exist
— the vessels of gold and silver, the vessels of wood
and of earth. To Timothy these comparisons would at
once suggest the true and false teachers in his Church
at Ephesus ; but the reference is a far broader one, and
includes all members of the Church of Christ. The
enduring nature of the metals gold and silver are
contrasted with the perishable nature of the other
materials, wood and earth. The former will remain
a part of the Church for ever; the latter will only
endure until the end of the world.

(21) If a man therefore purge himself from
these. — Again the reference is general, but there was
a special thought for Timothy when St. Paul wrote
this. If he would separate from all that was evil in
his Church at Ephesus, then would he indeed be one of
those golden vessels unto honour. The image of the
great house, and its many and Aaried vessels, though
still not quite lost sight of, is passing out of sight.
This verse changes into a note of direct exhortation.
The good and faithful must separate themselves from
the evil and faithless. The thought of those deniers of
the resurrection of the body was uppermost in St.
Paul's mind. There must, as it has been well said, be
no communion on the part of God's servants with im-
pugners of fundamentals. It was imperatively neces-
sary for Timothy — and, by implication, for all members
of Christ's Church — if they aimed at becoming vessels
for honour in the great Temple, to break off from all
Church fellowship, from all intimate friendship, with
those above referred to under the image of wooden or
earthen vessels.

He shall be a vessel unto honour.— Chrysos-
tom's note upon these words is somewhat remarkable,
He points out the possibility of the vessel for dishonour
becoming a vessel for honour, and the reverse ; and
refers to St. Paul, once an earthen vessel, who became
a vessel of gold, and to the traitor Judas, who, on the
other hand, from being a vessel of gold became an
earthen vessel.

Meet for the master's use.— Or, iisefid for the
master (of th? house). " Useful," as the next sentence
shows us, through those good works by means of which

230

The Work of tlte

II. TIMOTHY, IE.

Servant of the Lord,

master's use, and prepared unto every
good work. W Flee also youthful lusts:
but follow righteousness, faith, charity,
peace, with them that call on the Lord
out of a pure heart. (2:i) But foolish and
unlearned questions avoid, knowing that

I 1 Or, forbearing.

they do gender strifes. W And the
servant of the Lord must not strive ;
but be gentle unto all men, apt to
teach, patient,1 <25) in meekness in-
structing those that oppose them-
selves; if God peradventure will give

others' needs are ministered to, and the salvation of
others is furthered, and the glory of God is increased.
Prepared unto every good work.—" Prepared "

— 1li.i1 is. ready to take advantage of any opportunity
which may offer itself to do a generous, noble action.
So, too, Chrysostom, who would have the " vessel unto
honour " ready for every emergency which would enhance
the glory of the Lord — ready even for death, or (any
painful) witness.

C-2) Flee also youthful lusts.— But he who would
inde.'d become a "vessel for honour" in that great
house of God must do more than merely separate him-
self from all outward communion and friendship with
men who, by their teaching and in their lives, did dis-
honour to the Master's religion, There was an inner
work to be accomplished, as well as an outer and more
public protest to be made. He must fight with and
conquer those lusts, passions, and desires which are
more peculiarly tempting to those who are still in the
meridian of life. That Timothy was not now in early
manhood has been already shown. He was at this
time, probably, between thirty and forty years of age.
These youthful lusts are by no means to. be limited to
those varied and fatal excesses summed up in the
Seventh Commandment. A victory over these, of
course, is imperatively necessary for one who would
be " of use " in the house of his God : but such a
one must train himself to subdue other and far
more subtle lusts than are included in these. He must
be watchful and stamp down all covet ousness, whether
of rank or gold ; all longing for empty shows ; all pride,
conceit, readiness to take offence; all the kindred
forms of love of self.

But follow righteousness, faith, charity.—
See Note on 1 Tim. vi. 11, where the same charge
occurs.

Peace.— This last, "peace," must be joined with
the words immediately following : " with them that
call on the Lord," &c. The " peace " here signifies
absence of contention: it is well paraphrased by. "that
spiritual concord which unites together all who call
upon and who love their Lord," Theodoret thus draws
a distinction between "love" and "peace": — "It is
possible to love all, and this the gospel law enjoins us
in the words, ' Love your enemies : ' but to be at peace
with all is not possible." The words " out of a pure
heart" contrast those holy and humble men of heart
who serve God without any ulterior motive, with those
false teachers who dare to make their religion a gain, a
source of profit.

(28) But foolish and unlearned questions
p.void.— The Greek word translated "unlearned" is
better rendered ignorant. These " questions " which,
as we have seen above, the false teachers, with whom
Timothy was so much thrown, loved to put forward for
discussion, could hardly be termed " unlearned " — much
useless learning being often thrown away in these dis-
puting of the schools — but were rather "pointless,"
"stupid," as well as foolish. The nature of these ques-
tions of controversy has been discussed above.

Knowing that they do gender strifes.— Know-

ing— as thou dost — from sad and frequent experience,
what conflicts, heart-burnings, estrangements, these
abstract questions between rival teachers and rival sects
engendered.

$*) And the servant of the Lord must not
strive. —Although these directions and commandments
in all cases belong to God's servants of every degree and
calling, yet some of them, as we should expect from the
nature of the Epistle, peculiarly apply to Timothy and
those like Timothy specially devoted to the ministry of
the Word. And so here everything which is likely to
be the cause of strife, heart-burning, or hot words, is,
St. Paul urges, singularly out of place in the life of
a servant of that Lord who fulfilled to the letter that
Isaiah prophecy of Messiah, " He shall not strive, nor
cry ; neither shall any man hear His voice in the streets."
(See Matt. xii. 19—20.)

But be gentle unto all men.— Quiet and kind,
not only to those belonging to the brotherhood of
Christ, but, as is expressly mentioned, to all. It is
noteworthy how, in these Pastoral Epistles — which con-
tain, so to speak, the last general directions to believers
in Jesus as to life as well as doctrine of perhaps the
greatest of the inspired teachers — so many careful
suggestions are given for the guidance of Christians in
all their relations with the great heathen world. Con-
ciliation may be termed the key-note of these directions.
St. Paul would press upon Timothy and his successors
the great truth that it was the Master's Avill that the
unnumbered peoples who sit in darkness and in the
shadow of death should learn, by slow though sure
degrees, how lovely and desirable a thing it was to bo a
Christian ; should come at length to see clearly that
Christ, was, after all, the only lover and real friend of
man.

Apt to teach, patient.— The Greek word is better
rendered by the forbearing of the margin than by
"patient." Patient of wrong, however, best gives the
full force of the original. This is what the servant,
of God should really aim at being : the teacher rather
than the controversialist — rather the patient endurer of
wrong than the fomenter of dissensions and wordy
strifes.

(-5) In meekness instructing those that
oppose themselves. — By " those that oppose them-
selves," St. Paul alludes scarcely so much to those
leading teachers of false doctrine as to those led away
by them. In Titus iii. 10 we read how these pronounced
heretics — no doubt the teachers and leaders of the
school — were, after a first and second admonition, to bo
shunned, were to be left to themselves. These, how-
ever, were evidently to be dealt with in a different
manner. Their treatment was to be a gentle one.
Nothing is here said respecting a first and second
admonition only; no hint is given that these are to be
shunned. They are clearly not the same as those
referred to in Titus iii. 10. or above in verse 21 of this
chapter, where, again, separation is definitely urged.

If God peradventure will give them repen-
tance.—The Greek original here also carries out what
was said in the Note on the last clause, and may bo

The Vices of

II. TIMOTHY, III.

the Last Day 8.

them repentance to the acknowledg-
ing of the truth; (26) and that they
may recover1 themselves out of the
snare of the devil, who are taken cap-
tive - by him at his will.

■_> (Jr. tak, a ali re.

CHAPTER III.— (D This know also,
that in the last days peril- chap. iii. 1—9.
ous times shall come. MFor The vices of the
men shall be lovers of their last days'
own selves, covetous, boasters, proud,

rendered literally, if perchance at any time God might
grant to them . . . This suggests a hope at least
that at some time or other God's grace would work
in these "opposing" members of the congregation a
change. The " repentance " here signifies an abandon-
ment on the part of those erring Christians of that
wrong course on which they had entered, and a return
to the true Church of God and to the full knowledge
of the gospel truth.

(26) That they may recover themselves.— The
literal meaning of the Greek word rendered " that they
may recover themselves " is, that they may awake from
drunkenness. The English version, however, gives the
meaning with great exactness. Those taken in the
snare of the devil are represented as not only captives
in the snare of the devil, but as also helplessly wrapped
in slumber.

The deadly peril of all " captives of sin " is here well
painted. These unhappy ones, before they can free
themselves from the toils of the evil one. must awake
from the deep slumber in which they are wrapped : in
other words, must first be conscious of their awful
danger.

Who are taken captive toy him at his will.—
These words have been variously interpreted by com-
mentators. The meaning that, on the whole, seems
most satisfactory, represents the captive to sin waking
up from his deathly slumber and escaping the toils of
the evil one, for the purpose of carrying out for the
future the will of God. The rendering of the whole
verso would be as follows : " And that they may recover
themselves out of the snare of the devil — being held
captive by him — to do His (God's) will."

It must be remembered that the first pronoun in this
sentence, "being held captive by him," referred here to
the devil, and the second pronoun in the sentence, " to
do His will," referred here to God, are represented in
the Greek by two distinct words : the first by avrov, the
second by tneivov.

III.

(!) This know also.— Better rendered, But know
this. The Apostle had warned Timothy (chap. ii.
3 — 13) not to allow fear of oncoming peril and
trouble to paralyse his efforts in the Master's
cause, for the Lord's true servant should never lose
heart, and then had proceeded (chap. ii. 14 — 26) to
detail how these efforts of his were to be directed,
showing him how his teaching should stand in contrast
with that of the false teachers. St. Paul now (chap,
iii. 1), having told him that although there was no
reason to fear, yet warns him that grave dangers to the
Church would surely arise, and that God's servants,
like Timothy, must be prepared to combat.

In the last days. — The majority of commentators
have referred "the last days." here spoken of to the
period immediately preceding the second coming of the
Lord — a day and an hour somewhere in the future
but hidden, not merely from all men, but from the
angels, and even from the Son (Mark xiii. 32).

It seems, however, more in accordance with such
passages as 1 John ii. 18 : " Little children, it is the

last time " — where the present, and not an uncertain
future is alluded to — to understand " the last days " as
that period, probably of very long duration, extending
from the days of the first coming of Messiah — in
which time St. Paul lived — to the second coming of
Christ in judgment. The Jewish Rabbis of the days
of St. Paul were in the habit of speaking of two great
periods of the world's history — "this age," and "the age
to come." The former of these, "this age," including all
periods up to Messiah's advent ; the latter, " the age to
come," including all periods subsequent to the appear-
ance of Messiah. We find the same idea embodied
later in the Talmud (treatise " Sanhedrim ") 6,000 years
are mentioned as the duration of the world, 2,000 years,
waste or chaos, 2,000 years under the law, 2,000 years
the days of Messiah." This last pei-iod, " the days of
Messiah," are often alluded to by the Hebrew prophets
under the expression, " in the last days " — literally, in
the end of days. (See Isa. ii. 2; Hos. iii. 5 ; Mic. iv. 1.)
The words of verse 5, " from such turn away," would
require certainly a strained interpretation if we are to
suppose that the " last days " referred to a time im-
mediately preceding the end, or, in other words, the
last period of the Christian era. The sad catalogue
of vices is, alas, one with which all ages of the Church
of Christ has been too well acquainted. Tho Christian
teacher has no need to look forward to a future time of
deeper iniquity, when in the Church of the living God
will be found those who will deserve the dreary titles
of this passage. The Church of his own age will
supply him with examples of many such, for " In a
great house . . . are there not only vessels of gold
and silver, but also of wood, and earth, and some to
hoiiour and some to dishonour."

(2) For men shall toe lovers of their own
selves. — Hofmann and others have attempted to portion
out these vices into groups. But any such effort seems
artificial. A certain connection seems to exist in some
part; but when pressed to preserve tho groups, a
strained meaning has to be given to some of the terms.
It seems, therefore, best simply to understand the
catalogue as representing the various more prominent
vices which appeared on the surface of Christian
society, and threatened the very existence of tho
Church, even in those early times when Timothy ruled
over the congregations of Christians at Ephesus.
Hofmann, however, divides the catalogue contained in
verses 2 — & into three groups, consisting of five, six,
and seven terms, respectively.

Lovers of their own selves.— Selfishness well
heads the dreary list. It is the true root of all sin.

Covetous.— More accurately rendered, lovers of
money. This '" love of money " has been happily termed
" the daughter of selfishness."

Boasters. — Those who arrogate to themselves honour
which does not fairly belong to them.

Proud.— These are they who contemptuously look
down on others beneath them, either in social position
or wealth, or perhaps in natural gifts. The Latin,
ostentatio, represents the vice which affects the first of
these classes — " the boasters ; " and superbia, that which
affects the second class—" the proud."

The Sin and Error prevalent

II. TIMOTHY, III.

in this Last Aye.

blasphemers, disobedient to parents,
unthankful, unholy, <;5) without natural
affection, trueebreakers, false accusers,1
incontinent, tierce, despisers of those
that are good, W traitors, heady, high-

1 Or, make-bates.

minded, lovers of pleasures more than
lovers of God ; (5) having a form of god-
liness, but denying the power thereof:
from such turn away. W For of this
sort are they which creep into houses,

Blasphemers.— The two vices just mentioned refer

id man's conduct to his brother man; this alludes to
his behaviour towards" his God. The pride with which
he looks down on his fellows develops itself into in-
solence in thought, if not in word, towards his God:
and this is termed blasphemy.

Disobedient to parents.— The blasphemer of the
Father which is in heaven is only too likely to train
up little ones who, in their turn, will display a dis-
obedience and disrespect of their earthly parents. The
home life of the man who chooses not to know God
in his heart will too easily reflect his evil thoughts
and senseless pride.

Unthankful.— Or. ungrateful. The children who
begin life with disobedience to their parents, with rare
exceptions, are ungrateful to all others who may show
them kindness in their life journey.

Unholy. — Unholy through their want of inward
purity. (See 1 Tim. i. 9.)

(;!) "Without natural affection.— Careless and re-
gardless of the welfare of those connected witli them
By ties of blood.

Trueebreakers.— Better rendered, implacable.

False-accusers. — Or, slanderers. (See 1 Tim. iii.
11.)

Incontinent.— Having no control over the passions.

Fierce. — Inhuman, savage, or merciless.

Despisers of those that are good.— Better
rendered, no lovers of good — that is, hostile to every
good thought and Avork.

(i) Traitors.— Or. betrayers, probably, as it has
been suggested, of their Christian brethren. (Comp.
Luke vi. 16, where this epithet is used of Judas
Iscariot, •'which also was the traitor; " and also Acts
vii. 52, where Stephen, in his Saidiedrin speech, uses
this term " betrayers " of the Jews, " of whom— the Just
One — ye have been now the betrayers." In these days
of Timothy, and for many a long year, to inform against
ihe believers in Jesus of Nazareth, to give information
of their places of meeting in times of persecution, was
often a profitable though a despicable work.

Heady. — Better rendered, headstrong in words, or
thoughts, or actions.

Highminded.— Better translated, blinded by pride.
(See 1 Tim. iii. 6.)

Lovers of pleasures more than lovers of
God. — Men who Avould make any sacrifice to procure a
fleeting pleasure, and who would give nothing up in
order to do honour to the eternal but invisible God.
Need the ministers of the Lord tarry for the last
period preceding the return of Messiah for judgment —
when a still more awful iniquity shall reign — for
examples of these shoi't -sighted mortals ? The sorrow-
ful catalogue began with " love of self," that unhappy
vice which excludes all love for others; it closes with
that " love of pleasure"' which shuts out all love of God.

(5) Having a form of godliness, but denying
the power thereof. — Keeping up a show of observ-
ing the outward forms of religion, but renouncing its
power and its influence over the heart and the life;
showing openly that they neither acknowledged its guid-
ance or wished to do so. These, by claiming the title
42* -1

of Christians, wearing before men the uniform of
Christ, but by their lives dishonouring His name, did
the gravest injury to the holy Christian cause. Another
dreary catalogue of vices St. Paul gives in the Epistle to
the Romans (Rom. i. 29, and following verses); but in
that passage he paints the sins of Paganism. Here he
describes the characteristics of a new Paganism, which
went under the name of Christianity.

From such turn away. — These, daring to as-
sume the sacred name, no doubt with the thought of
claiming its glorious promises, without one effort to
please the Master or to do honour to His name — these
were to be openly shunned by such as Timothy. No
half measures were to be adopted towards these, who
tried to deceive their neighbours and possibly deceived
themselves. The Pagan was to be courteously entreated,
for in God's good time the glory of the Lord might
shine, too, on those now sitting in darkness and in the
shadow of death. The heretic, seduced by false men
from the school of the Apostles, where the life as well
as the doctrine of Jesus was taught, was to be gently
instructed. Perhaps God would lead him once more
home. But these, who, while pretending to belong to
Jesus, lived the degraded life of the heathen, were to be
shunned. No communion, no friendly intercourse was
possible between the hypocrite and the Christian.

The command here is so definite — " from these turn
away'' — that any theory which would relegate the vices
just enumerated to a distant future would recpiire. as
above stated, that a strained and unnatural meaning
should be given to this positive direction to Timothy.
The plain and obvious signification of the passage is :
men committing the sins alluded to lived then in the
Church over which Timothy presided ; they were to be
avoided by the chief presbyter and his brethren.

(•) For of this sort are they which creep into
houses, and lead captive silly women.— The
corrupting influence of these hypocritical professors of
the religion of Jesus must have been already great, and
the danger to all real vital godliness in Ephesus immi-
nent, for Paul here specifies one of the most — perhaps
the most — successful work of these toilers for Satan :
the power they were acquiring over women. As we shall
see, these unhappy men busied themselves in securing
populai-ity among the female portion of the flock in the
Ephesian Church, and the way by which they won their
popularity was by supplying anodynes for the guilty
consciences of these women, laden, we are told, with sins.
The expression, " which creep into houses," although
perfectly natural, and one which, even in these Western
countries, could be used with propriety to express the
method in which these deceiving and perverting men
make their way into households, yet. when we remember
the comparative state of seclusion in which women
usually lived and still live in Eastern lands, the words
used by Paul acquire an increased force. Special fraud
and deceit was needful for these false teachers to creep
into the women's apartments in Asia. The Greek
word translated " lead captive " is a peculiar one,
and is only found in comparatively later Greek.
It is supposed to be a word of Alexandrian or Mace-
donian origiu. It here represents these women as wholly

Influence of False Teachers

II. TIMOTHY, III.

and lead captive silly women laden with
sins, led away with divers lusts, <7) ever
learning-, and never able to come to the

| knowledge of the truth. <8> Now as
j Jannes and Jambres withstood Moses,
; so do these also resist the truth : men

under the influence of these bad men. to the utter de-
struction of all true, healthy, home life. The Greek
word translated "silly women," in the Vulgate " ruulier-
culas," is simply a diminutive, expressing contempt.
There is no doubt but that the older Heresiarchs
made great use of women in the propagation of
their new and strange systems. They worked more
easily, perhaps, on the impulsive and emotional female
mind ; but what has never sufficiently been taken into
account is the reaction which was then taking place among
women, so long relegated to an inferior and subordinate
position, and now, by the teaching of Christ and His
Apostles, raised to a position of equality with men as
regards the hope of future glory. In many instances,
in the first ages of Christianity, there is no doubt,
but that they misunderstood their position; they
claimed wTork they coidd never do, and aimed after
an influence they could never exercise, and thus, no
doubt, in these first feverish years many a woman fell
a comparatively easy prey to these proselytisers, who,
laying claim to a higher and deeper wisdom, proposed
now to lead some into the knowledge of profound and
hidden mysteries, now offered ease of conscience to others
if they would but follow them. Irenaeus, in the second ,
century, speaks of the special power which the Yalen-
tinian Gnostic Marcus had acquired over women; and
Epiphanius, in the same century, also refers to the
Gnostics' deceitful influence with the female sex.
Jerome, in an interesting though rhetorical passage
(Epist. ad Ctesiphontem), cites a number of instances in
which a woman shared in the baleful influence exercised
by the leading masters of heresy in doctrine and laxity
of life.

Simon Magus, he tells us, was accompanied by
the wicked Helen. Nicolas, of Antioch, a teacher of
immorality, gathered round him what Jerome calls
choros fcemineos. Montanus is associated with the
well-known names of Maximilla and Prisca. Donatus
is coupled with Lucilla. Marcion, Arius, Priscillian,
and other Heresiarchs. famous in the annals of the early
churches, he speaks of as intimately associated with or
supported by female influence.

Laden with sins, led away with divers lusts.
— This gives us some insight into the som*ce of the
power which these false teachers acquired over those
women of Ephesus who in name were Christians.
They had accepted the faith of Christ, but were unable
to live His life; over their passions and lusts had these
no mastery. " Laden with sins," and " led away with
divers lusts," these weak women fell an easy prey to men
who procured them, by means of their lying doctrines,
a false peace. By their words they seemed to have
lulled the consciences of their female listeners to sleep.
They showed them, no doubt, how in their school they
might still be Christians and yet indulge their divers
lusts.

(') Ever learning, and never able to come to
the knowledge of the truth.— A morbid love of
novelty, and a hope to penetrate into mysteries not
revealed to God's true teachers, spurred these female
learners on; but " to the full knowledge of the truth"
— for this is the more accurate rendering of the Greek
word— they never reached, for by their evil life their j
heart was hardened. That some of these false teachers
laid claim to occult arts, to a knowledge of magic and

234

sorcery, is clear from the statement contained in the
next verse, where certain sorcerers of the time of Moses
are compared to them.

(8) Now as Jannes and Jambres withstood
Moses.— To one brought up, like Timothy, by
a pious Jewish mother, and who from a child knew
the Holy Scriptures and all the history and ancient
traditions connected with the early history of the
people, such a compai'ison would be very striking.
No child of Israel could hear the name of Mosesr
the loved hero of the chosen people, unmoved ; and
to be told that these false teachers of Ephesus
stood in the same relation to him and the Church
of Christ as, in old days — in the never-to-be-for-
gotten Egyptian episode — those famous magicians
Jannes and Jambres stood to Moses, would throw for
Timothy a new light on all the words and works of
these wicked and ambitious men. We can well imagine
the comparison being repeated in many an assembly of
the faithful, long after the great Apostle's death : how
St. Paul had likened these early Heresiarchs to those
evil men who before Pharaoh had dared to resist God
and His servant Moses. These magicians, also termed
wise men and sorcerers (Ex. vii. 11 — 22) at the court
of Pharaoh, appear as the enemies of Moses. The
names " Jannes " and " Jambres," though not given in
the sacred text, are preserved in the oral tradition of
Israel. The names are found in the Targum of
Jonathan on Ex. vii. 11; xxii. 22. These traditions
relate how these men were sons of Balaam, and in the
first instance were the instructors of Moses, though
subsequently his enemies and opponents. One legend
mentions them as perishing in the catastrophe when the
waves of the Red Sea overwhelmed the armies of Egypt ;
anftther tradition speaks of their having met their
death in the slaughter after the worship of the golden
calf, the making of which they advised. It was their
prophetic words, so say these legendary histories, which,
foretelling the birth of Moses, induced Pharaoh to give
this order for the destruction of the Jewish children.
The later Jews distorted the names into John and
Ambrose.

So do these also resist the truth.— The point of
comparison between the depraved teachers of Ephesus
and these Egyptian sorcerers consisted in a persistent and
deadly enmity to the truth, which existed in both cases.
The life of the prophet Balaam, the traditionary father
of this Jannes and Jambres, supplies a vivid illustration
of this malignant and persistent hatred of what ie
known and felt to be true. That these Ephesian heretics
in like manner availed themselves, or pretended to avail
themselves of occult power is just probable, though in
the comparison this point is of but little moment.
We know, however, that the claim at least to possess
mysterious and unearthly powers was often made by
covetous and worldly men in these times : as, for in-
stance, by Simon Magus (Acts viii. 9 — 24), by Elymas
the sorcerer, the false prophet and Jew in Cyprus
(Acts xiii. 6 — 12). See also the episode of Acts xix. 18-
— 20, when "many which used curious arts came to
Paul and his companions, and confessed and shewed
their deeds."

Men of corrupt minds.— Literally, corrupted in
their minds. Timothy might possibly have been
induced to regard these evil men, though erring in.

Fake Teac/dna trill not ml rum-,'

li. TIMOTHY, III.

beyond a certain point.

of corrupt minds, reprobate l concerning
the faith. W But they shall proceed no
further: for their folly shall be manifest
unto all men, as their's also was. Q-O) But

1 Or, of no jiidg-

i„, hI.
■J I H , fhim Host
biiii ./ ildiijint
follower of.

thou hast fully known2 my doctrine, man-
ner of life, purpose, faith, Chap m 10_
longsuffering, charity, pa- 12. St. Paul's

tience,

(»)

persecutions,

12.

faith and trials.

some particulars, as still of the flock of Christ, to
which they belonged nominally ; hut he was now
instructed that they were simply enemies to -the
truth: that it was vain to hope that they would
ever come to a knowledge of the truth, for their " mind,"
the human spirit, the medium of communication
with the Holy Spirit of God, was corrupted. There
was no common ground of faith, save in the bare name
of Christian, between Timothy and these men, for
they, in tlie matter of faith, had been tried and found
wanting.

('') But they shall proceed no further.— After
that St. Paul, with no gentle hand, had torn aside the
veil which was hiding apparently from Timothy the
real state of his great charge at Ephesus, and had
pointed out what fearful ravages among his flock had
been committed by these ambitious and evil men, the
Apostle proceeds to comfort his friend and disciple
with the assurance that, great though the mischief
already accomplished was, still it should proceed no
further. To human eyes, such a state of things as here
pictured by the Apostle would appear desperate. It
would seem as though a deadly and incurable cancer
was eating away the whole life of the community ; but
Timothy need not despair : the evil would only be
allowed to advance to a certain point; and since St.
Paul thus wrote, the same prophecy, not only in Ephesus
hut in a thousand churches, has been fulfilled to the
very letter. Still, the same old foes under new faces
make havoc of the Church. But they never seem to
advance beyond a certain point, and after all these
centuries the Church is still full of faith and life,
bright, too, in spite of discouragements, in spite of the
perpetual presence of these treacherous, deceitful men,
with promise for the future.

For their folly shall be manifest.— Men and
women would be led away for a season by the plausible
words of such deceivers, but one school of error after
another would fall into disrepute, then into neglect,
then into the silent darkness of utter oblivion (the
event in numberless instances has shown the truth of
this prophecy) ; and Timothy might take comfort, by
considering what Holy Scripture had placed on record
respecting the Egyptian sorcerers, whose folly was
manifest unto all men (Ex. viii. 18, 19 ; ix. 11). Their
folly was yet more manifest when men considered their
latter end. (See Note above on Jannes and Jambres,
verse 8.)

(10> But thou hast fully known my doctrine.
— Literally, But thou wert a follower of my doctrine ;
thou followedst as a disciple, and thus hast fully
known. The Greek word translated " fully known "
(see 1 Tim. iv. 6) denotes a diligently tracing out step
by step. See Luke i. 3, where the same word is
rendered, in the English version : " having had perfect
understanding," having traced up to their source all the
events relating to the foundation of Christianity. Here
St. Paul recalls to Timothy's mind what had been his —
St. Paul's — life, and words, and works. No one knew the
history of this life like Timothy, the pupil and the friend,
who had been long trained to assist in carrying on his
teacher's work after St. Paul was removed. And this
appeal to Timothy's recollection of the past has two
dist inct purposes : (1) It was to contrast that life of

23i

St. Paul's, with which the disciple was so well ac-
quaint ed, willi the lives of those false men, of whom
Timothy was warned so earnestly, who were poisoning
the stream of Christianity at Ephesus; and (-1) the
memory of the master was to serve as a spur to the
diseiple, the heroic faith of the old man was to act as
an incentive to the young teacher to suffer bravely in
his turn.

With this pattern of steady faith and heroic work
before his eyes, Timothy would never be able to endure
the wretched mock Christianity these new teachers
were labouring to introduce into the communities of
the believers of Asia; he would at once separate him-
self and his from these evil influences.

My doctrine. — Or, teaching, in which the leading
of a. pure self-denying life was inseparably bound up
with a belief in the great Christian doctrines. " This
hast thou, my pupil from boyhood, known in all its
details. Thou hast known how I taught others."

Manner of life.— " And also how I lived myself:"
"my ways which be in Christ," as he once before
phrased it (1 Cor. iv. 17), "my conduct."

Purpose.—" My purpose — from which you know I
never swerved — -of remaining true to the Gospel of my
Lord and to my great life's mission to the Gentiles."
(See Acts ii. 23. where the word is used in respect to
others' purpose.)

Faith.— Possibly, trust in God, but better, St. Paul's
faith or belief in the fundamental doctrines of
Christianity.

Longsuffering. — Towards his many bitter adver-
saries, especially those among his own countrymen.
In spite of all that long, unwearied, sleepless persecu-
tion, which he, the former Pharisee leader, endured at the
hands of the Jews, he loved Israel to the end, with a
love intense as it was changeless, loved them even to
be willing for their sake to give up his eternal hopes.
(See Rom. ix. 3.)

Charity. — My love, which (in his own sunny words)
beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all
things — the love which never faileth. (See 1 Cor. xiii. )

Patience.— That characteristic virtue of St. Paul,
that '" brave patience " which hopefully endured oppo-
sition to his favourite schemes, which cheerfully bore
the most painful suffering when it came as a con-
sequence of work in his Master's cause. This con-
cluding word led naturally on to the brief catalogue of
persecutions of the next verse.

(ii) Persecutions, afflictions.— St. Paul adds to
" persecutions " " afflictions " — for not merely were his
plans thwarted, his hopes baffled, his friends alienated,
through the persistent enmity of his opponents,
but bodily suffering was inflicted on him — stoning,
scourging, lonj;- and weary periods of imprisonment,
were among the repeated sufferings he endured for
his Master's sake. The question has been asked
why. out of the pages of the closely written diary of
his life's experiences, does St. Paul select the events
which took place at Antioch, Iconium, and LystraP
Was there anything special in what he endured in these
places!"1 The most satisfactory answer seems to be that,
with regard to the general reader or hearer of this
Epistle, what happened in these places, years before,
were good examples of what had often taken place

Appeal to Timothy's

II. TIMOTHY, III.

Knowledge of St. Paul.

afflictions, which came unto me at An-
tioch, at Iconium, at Lystra ; what per-
secutions I endured : but out of them all
the Lord delivered me. (12) Yea, and all
that will live godly in Christ Jesus shall
suffer persecution. 03) But evil men and
seducers shall wax worse and worse,

deceiving, and being deceived. <14> But
continue thou in the things
which thou hast learned £hap> Thnotfe
and hast been assured of, encouraged to
knowing of whom thou hast be 8teadfast-
learned them ; 05) and that from a child
thou hast known the holy scriptures,

since. These were among the first cities in which St.
Paul preached in the course of his missionary journeys.
But a deeper reason existed for the choice of these
places in his case to whom the Epistle was originally
addressed. What happened on that first journey would
never be forgotten by Timothy : some of the incidents
were among his first experiences with St. Paul of the
work — others had taken place just before St. Paul took
him as his friend and associate, and, no doubt, had
been often discussed in Timothy's hearing in those
anxious never-to-be-forgotten hours which preceded
his choice of the calling of a missionary. Hearing of
these very deeds of endurance done for the crucified
Master, perhaps, not a little contributed to Timothy's
resolve to emulate these acts, and to join himself
closely to the heroic missionary teacher. Certainly, the
memory of what happened then St. Paul knew would
possess a strong and weighty influence with his disciple,
even though the events themselves were only such as had
been repeated often since in his long life's experience.
(For details respecting what took place at Antioch, &c,
see Acts xiii., xiv.)

What persecutions I endured.— Some commen-
tators understand these words as an exclamation :
'• What persecution I endured ! " It is, however, better
simply to translate the Greek, Such persecutions as
I endured ; in other words, Thou hast been a witness of
my sufferings, such [sufferings] as I endured at Antioch,
Iconinm, and Lystra, such persecutions as I endured,
but out of them, &c. Chrysostom remarks how both
these clauses supply encouragement to the harassed
servant of God. The first, that St. Paul displayed a
noble readiness to endure persecution ; the second,
that God never left him alone. It was as though lie
said to Timothy, "surely no danger, no trouble, however
great, need appal you. You know what I have gone
through, yet in all God was with me and has kept me
safe. Be sure He will be with you too."

(12) Yea, and all that will live godly.— But
St. Paul would not allow it to be thought for a moment
that in the fact of his enduring persecution and suffer-
ing there was anything remarkable or singular ; so he
adds the words of this verse, which repeat in a pecu-
liarly solemn way the great Christian truth that eternal
glory was only to be reached by man through an avenue
of sufferings. " No cross, no crown," is one of the
watchwords of the faith. To the statement, " all that
will live godly," it is noticeable that the Apostle adds
" in Christ Jesus : " thus telling us there can be no true
piety except in communion with Him. So Bengel :
" Extra Jesum Christum nulla pietas." And piety, adds
St. Paul, will ever suffer persecution; for the world is
at enmity with the kingdom of God. " Because ye are
not of the world . . . therefore the world hateth you "
(John xv. 19 ; so, too, Matt, x. 22, 38, 39).

(13) But evil men and seducers shall wax
worse and worse. — This verse ic closely connected
with the following (verse 14), to which, indeed, it serves
as an introduction. Verse 14 takes up again the exhor-
tation to Timothy begun inverse 10: "But thou hast

fully known my doctrine," &e. Verse 14 takes up the
thought: "Continue thou in the things which thou hast
learned and been assured of, knowing of wdiom thou
hast learned them." Here, in verse 13, these evil men
and seducers (or better, perhaps, deceivers) are spoken
of as advancing towards the worse. History has borne
witness to the accuracy of these prophetic words. The
false teachers known to St. Paul and Timothy de-
veloped into the leaders of the various wild and specu-
lative Gnostic sects, whose connection with Christianity
consisted alone in the name ; and each succeeding ago
has witnessed a development in opposition to the truth
as it is in Jesus. In this allusion to the gradual
development of hostility to the truth it will hardly
be out of place to instance the eighteenth Christian
century, when opposition to the teaching of Jesus
had reached such a pitch that, with the approval or
even the applause of thousands, the most brilliant
writer in Europe wrote of Christ and His religion in
the well-known words, " Ecrasez l'infame ! " while it
was reserved for our own century — the nineteenth —
to witness the rare, though we believe ephemeral
popularity, among so-called Christian peoples of a work
which, writh honeyed phrases, and in romantic, graceful
language, paints the Redeemer of man in the strange
and apparently contradictory characters of a loving
enthusiast and of a conscious impostor !

(**) But continue thou in the things which
thou hast learned. — But Timothy, on the other
hand, was to continue in the things he had learned.
Evil teaching would become worse ; the opposition to
truth would, as the ages rolled on, become more in-
tense ; but Timothy and his successors must remember
that there was to be no development in the funda-
mental doctrines of his most holy faith. He had (verse
10) fully known St. Paul's doctrine — that doctrine
which St. Paul had received directly from the Holy
Spirit of God..

Knowing of whom thou hast learned them.
— There is some doubt whether the Greek word ren-
dered "whom" is in the singular or plural, the
older authorities being nearly equally balanced. The
reading here of the singular has been adopted with
the Syriac versions, Chrysostom, Augustine, and the
Vulgate. The reference then is to St. Paul. If
the plural, were adopted, then the reference would
probably be to St. Paul and Barnabas, or to some
other distinguished teacher. Some commentators be-
lieve that Lois and Eunice are here alluded to. the
pious mother and grandmother of Timothy. This, how-
ever, seems unlikely : for such a reminiscence, although
a touching memory and one likely to appeal to his
affection, would hardly be of that weighty and impor-
tant character as to warrant its introduction into this
solemn exhortation; besides, any reference to home
and family reminiscences would be included in the next
verse : " From a child thou hast known," &c.

(is) And that from a child thou hast known
the holy scriptures.— The Greek words translated
" from a child " should be rendered, from a very child,

The Tr?>" Use of Holy Scripture

II. TIMOTHY, III.

to the Man of God.

which are able to make thee wise unto I
salvation through faith which is in J
Christ Jesus. <1(jJ All scripture is given
by inspiration of God, and is profitable
for doctrine, for reproof, for correction,

or, perfteUd.

for instruction in righteousness :
W> that the man of God Cha) ...
may be perfect, throughly AU Pkn^wl?dge
furnished1 unto all good must be drawn
works. fromScnptnre.

as tlic word denotes that Timothy's instruction in flic
Holy Scriptures began at a very early and tender ago.

The holy scriptures.— Literally, the sacred writ-
nigs. The Scriptures of the Old Testament aro here
exclusively meant. The expression " writings " for tho
Scriptures is not found elsewhere in the New Testament ;
it is, however, used by Joscphus.

Two powerful arguments have been here used by the
Apostle to induce Timothy to remain steadfast to the
great doctrines of faith, and neither to take anything
from them or to add anything to them. The first
presses upon him the source whence he had learned
them. He, better than any one, knew who and what
St. Paul was, and the position he held with his brother
Apostles, as out? who had been in direct communication
with the Lord Himjself; and the second reminded
him of his own early training, under his pious mother.
He appealed, as it were, to Timothy's own deep know-
ledge of those Old Testament Scriptures. St. Paul's
disciple would know that the great Christian doctrines
respecting the Messiah were all based strictly on these
Old Testament writings. Timothy had a double reason
for keeping to the old paths pointed out by the first
generation of teachers. He knew the authority of the
master who instructed him ; and then, from his own
early and thorough knowledge of the Scriptures of the
Jews, lie was able to test thoroughly Whether or no his
master's teaching was in accordance with those sacred
documents.

Which are able to make thee wise unto
salvation.— The present participle rendered by "which
are able " is noticeable, being here used to express
the ever-present power of tho Scriptures on the
human heart. The Holy Scriptures had not completed
their work on Timothy when, in his boyhood, lie
first mastered their contents. It was still going on.
" Wise unto salvation " marks the glorious end and
destination of the true wisdom which is gained by a
study of these sacred books. Other wisdom has a
different goal. In some cases it leads to power, fame,
wealth: but this wisdom leads oidy to one goal — salva-
tion. The last clause — "through faith which is in
Christ Jesus " — points out the only way to use these
Scriptures of the old covenant so as to attain through
them the goal of all true wisdom — " eternal salvation.''
They must be read and studied in the light of faith
in Jesus Christ, " Those (Old Testament) Scriptures,
he (St. Paul) grant eth, were able to make him wise
Unto salvation." but, he addeth. "through the faith
which is in Christ " (Hooker, Ecc. Polity, i. 14, 4).
Faith in Jesus must be the torch by the light of which
these ancient prophecies and types mast be read.

(16> All scripture is given by inspiration of
God. — Although this rendering is grammatically pos-
sible, the more strictly accurate translation, and the one
adopted by nearly all the oldest and most trustworthy
versions (for example, the Syriac and the Vulgate), and
by a great many of the principal expositors in all ages
(for instance, by such teachers as Origen. Theodoret,
Grotius, Luther, Meyer, Ellicott, and Alford i. runs as
follows : *• Every scripture inspired by God is also pro-
fitable for doctrine, for reproof," &c.

The rendering followed by the English version, and
which is certainly grammatically possible, by making
"all Scripture" the subject, and "given by inspiration
of God" the predicate, declares positively the inspiration
of all the Old Testament Scriptures, for this is what the
Apostle must have referred to, if we understand this
verse as we have it rendered in the; English version
above. The New Testament at this period was cer-
tainly not all written ; for instance, St. John's Gospel,
St. John's Epistlos, the Epistle to the Hebrews, and the
Apocalypse, with several of the Catholic Epistles, pro-
bably were composed at a later date than that assigned
to this letter to Timothy. St. Paul, massing together
an evidently well-known number of writings under the
term iru(xa ypa<pri, spoke of tho Jewish Scriptures, the
" canon " of which was then determined.

But such a declaration of the inspiration of these
writings to Timothy and to those associated with him
would seem unnecessary and uncalled for. Timothy
and the trained Jew of the first century would never
dream of doubting the divine origin of their most
prized and sacred writings. There is nothing in the
verses immediately preceding which would call out
such a statement. It seems, therefore, on exe»etical. as
well as on grammatical, considerations best to follow the
interpretation of those ancient and A'euerable witnesses,
the Syriac and Latin (Jerome's) versions, and to under-
stand St. Paul's words here, as asserting that every
inspired writing (this, it should be observed, does not
exclude those recent sacred compositions which—Gospels
or Epistles — he had seen or written himself, and the
divine origin of which he well knew) is profitable for
doctrine, &c. Thus ho exhorted Timothy to show
himself a contrast to the false teachers — ever shifting
their ground and waxing worse and worse — by keeping
steadily to the old teaching of doctrine and of life.
He was not to change, not to advance, but was to re-
member that every inspired Scripture was profitable
for doctrine and for life. It was by these writings,
St. Paul would remind him, that he must test his
teaching. On the way in which " inspiration of God "
was understood in the Church of the first days, see
Excursus at the end of this Epistle.

Inspiration of God. — This thought, perhaps,
rather than these words, is admirably paraphrased by
St. Peter : " Holy men of God spake as they were
moved by the Holy Ghost " (2 Pet, i. 21). Tho various
uses of Holy Scripture in the training, of the man of
God are set forth in the enumeration which closes this
verse. These sacred writings must, in all ages, St. Paul
would urge, be the hand-book of the Christian teacher.
Erom it he must prove the doctrines he professes:
hence, too, he must draw his reproofs for the ignorant
and erring. It must be the one source whence he
derives those instructions which teach the Christian
how to grow in grace.

(!7) That the man of God may be perfect,
throughly furnished unto all good works.—
The " man of God " here is no official designation,
but simply designates the Christian generally, win*
is striving, with his Master's help, to live a life pleas-
ing to God; and the "good works" have no special

237

A Solemn Charge

II. TIMOTHY, IV.

to Teach with Earnestness.

CHAPTEE IV. — d) I charge thee
Chap. iv. 1-4. therefore before God, and
2&5S «£ t^Lord Jesus Christ, who
nestness. shall judge the quick and

j the dead at his appearing and his
| kingdom; &> preach the word; he

instant in season, out of season ;

reprove, rebuke, exhort with all long-

reference to the labours of Timothy and his brother
presbyters, but include all those generous and self-
sacrificing acts to which, in these Epistles, so many
references have been made.

It was in the Holy Scriptures that the true servant of
the Lord, the man of God, would find defined with
clearness and precision the nature of those works the
Holy Spirit was pleased to call " good."

IV.

(!) I charge thee therefore before God, and
the Lord Jesus Christ. — The parchment, or papyrus,
in the prison room of St. Paul on which, probably,
Luke (verse 11), the faithful friend, was writing to the
Apostle's dictation, was nearly filled up. What has still
to be said to the chief presbyter of the Church of
Ephesus must be brief. But St. Paul would have the
last words introduced by a most impressive preface. So
before he sums up his directions and exhortations, he
appeals to him in these stately and solemn words. The
Greek word rendered " I charge (thee)," is more accu-
rately translated by, I solemnly charge (thee), before
those divine witnesses, the Eternal Father and the
Blessed Son, present with me in this prison of mine in
Rome, present equally with you in study-chamber or
church in Asia.

"Who shall judge the quick and the dead.—
These words must have sounded with strange power in
the ears of men like Timothy, and must have impi-essed
them with an intense feeling of responsibility. The
Apostle in his divine wisdom was charging these
teachers of the Church to be faithful and zealous in
their work, by the thought, which must be ever present,
that they — either alive on the day of the Coming of the
Lord, or, if they had tasted death already, raised from
the dead incorruptible (comp. 1 Thess. iv. 17) — must
stand before the Judge and give an account of their
stewardship ; on that awful morning must every man
and woman render up, before the Judge who knows all
and sees all, a strict account of the deeds done in the
body. The looking forward to the judgment morning
must surely be a spur to any faint-hearted, dispirited
servant of the Lord disposed to temporise, or reluctant
to face the dangers which threaten a faithful discharge
of duties.

At his appearing and his kingdom.— The
older authorities here — instead of the preposition
" at " — read " and.'" The rendering then would be :
" I charge thee in the sight of God and Jesus Christ,
who will judge quick and dead (I charge thee) by His
appearing (epiphany) and by His kingdom," the con-
struction in Greek being the usual accusative of adjura-
tion, as in Mark v. 7 ; Acts xix. 13. So, too, Deut.
iv. 26 (LXX.): "I solemnly charge you to-day by
heaven and earth." The passage, by this restoration
of the ancient, and, at first sight, more difficult reading,
gains, as we shall see, immeasurably in strength and
power. " By his appealing," or by His manifestation
or epiphany, refers, of course, to the Lord's coming a
second time to judge the earth in the glory of the Father j
with His angels. (Matt. xvi. 27 ; 1 Thess. iv. 16, 17.) |
" And by His kingdom : " His kingdom, that kingdom j
is here meant which, in the words of the Nicene Creed, I

238

"shall have no end." This glorious sovereignty of
Christ is to succeed what Pearson (Creed, Article VI.,
p. 529, Chevallier's edit.) calls " the modificated eter-
nity of His mediatorship," which will end when all His
enemies shall have been subdued, and He shall have
delivered up the kingdom to God, even the Father.
The " kingdom " here spoken of is to commence at
Christ's glorious epiphany or manifestation, when
" the kingdoms of the world are become the kingdoms
of our Lord, and of His Christ ; and He shall reign for
ever and ever " (Rev. xi. 15). Timothy was conjured
by the " appearing " of Christy when he would have to
stand before Him and be judged ; he was conjured, too,
by "His kingdom," in which glorious state Timothy
hoped to share, for was it not promised that His own
should reign with Him ? (chap. ii. 12.) There seems in
this solemn ringing adjuration something which re-
minds us of " a faithful saying." The germs at least
of one of the ancient creeds are apparent here, where
allusion is made to God (the Father) and to Jesus
Christ, the judge of quick and dead, to His coming
again with glory and then to His kingdom.

(2) Preach the word.— The language of the
original here is abrupt and emphatic, written evidently
under strong emotion and with intense earnestness.
St. Paul charged his friend and successor with awful
solemnity, as we have seen, " preach," or proclaim,
loudly and publicly, as a herald would announce the
accession of his king. The exact opposite to what
St. Paul would urge on Timothy is described by Isa.
(lvi. 10), when he speaks of God's watchmen as " dumb
dogs, who cannot bark, sleeping, lying down, loving to
slumber."

Be instant in season, out of season.— Some
difference exists between commentators respecting the
exact meaning to be given to the Greek word translated
" be instant." Some would give it the sense of
drawing nigh to, and as it is not specified in the
text to whom Timothy should draw nigh, they supply
from the context "' the brethren," those to whom the
word is preached : " draw near to Christian assemblies."
It seems. howeA'er, best to understand this rather diffi-
cult word as an injunction to Timothy to be earnest
and urgent generally in the whole work of his ministry :
" Press on, in season, out of season."

In season, out of season. — In other words, "For
thy work, set apart no definite and fixed hours, no
appointed times. Thy work must be done at all hours,
at all times. Thy work has to be done not only when
thou art in church, not merely in times of security and
peace, but it must be carried on, in the midst of dangers,
even if thou art a prisouer and in chains, even if death
threaten thee."

So Chrysostom — who also uses St. Paul's words here
as an urgent call to ministers to labour on in spite of
discouragement and apparent failure— telling them in
his own bright, eloquent way. how fountains still flow
on, though no one goes to them to draw water, and
rivers still run on, though no one drinks at them.

Augustine asks and answers the question to whom
"in season" and to whom "out of season" refers:
" in season " to those willing, " out of season " to tha
unwilling. This, however, only touches a portion of

There are many who will not

II. TIMOTHY, IV.

Listen to the Truth.

suffering and doctrine. (3) For the time
will come when they will not endure
sound doctrine ; but after their own lusts
shall they heap to themselves teachers,
having itching ears ; <4) and they shall

turn away their ears from the tjruth,
and shall be turned unto fables. W But
watch thou in all things, chap. iv. 5—8.
endure afflictions, do the The , Apostle

, „ ' -.. now at tlir end

work of an evangelist, 0f his course.

the thought of St, Paul, who urges on God's true ser-
\, -nits a restless, sleepless earnestness, which struggles
•on with the Master's work in spite of bodily weakness
,:m(l discouragement, in face of dangers and the bitterest
-opposition.

Reprove. — Not merely those erring in doctrine, but
generally those who are blameworthy : " Was tadelns-
werth is't "

Rebuke.— A sharper and more severe word than
the preceding. It is used by St. Jude, verse 9, in his
report of the words addressed by St. Michael to the
de\ il : " The Lord rebuke thee." It frequently occurs
in the Gospels. (See, for instance, Matt. xvii. 18, "And
Jesus rebuked the devil.")

Exhort. — Not only is he to remember ceaselessly to
watch over the flock, and to reprove and rebuke the
•erring and sinners, but also with no less diligence to
speak comfortable words of encouragement and hope to
all. especially the dispirited and sad-hearted.

With all longsuffering and doctrine. — The
word translated " doctrine " signifies, rather, teaching.
He must reprove, rebuke, exhort, with all gentleness
and patience ; and in all this he must take care that
"teaching " — the teaching which is right, and true, and
full of hope — accompanies his rebuke and his words of
comfort.

(3) For the time will come when they will
not endure sound doctrine.— Timothy must bear
in mind that things in the Church of Christ on earth
will not change for the better. The great drag-net of
the Church, in its wide sweep, would keep drawing
into its meshes something of every kind. Errors now
just apparent, he must remember, would attain more
formidable dimensions. The thirst for novelties in
doctrine, the desire for a teaching which, while offering
peace to a troubled conscience, would yet allow the old
self-indulgent life to go on as before, would increase.
In full view of this development of error, in sure
expectation of a future full of anxious care, Timothy
iiud his brother teachers must indeed be wakeful,
watchful, and earnest in their preaching and ministra-
tions. And the thought that more and ever more of
the so-called Christians would dislike the preaching of
the " sound doctrine," as taught by the Apostle, the
very knowledge of this growing unpopularity, must
serve as an incentive to greater labour, more interest,
and more loving activity on the part of Timothy and
his companions.

But after their own lusts shall they heap to
themselves teachers.—" Their own lusts : " this ex-
pression gives us some insight into the reason which led
to this future apostasy of so many, concerning which
St. Paul warned Timothy. "Their own lusts." which,
at all risks, they would gratify, would serve to alienate
them from that severe and strictly moral school of
Apostolic teaching, in which the sternest morality was
bound up with purity of doctrine, to which school St.
Paul's pupils — men like Timothy and the presbyters of
Ephesus — belonged. These worldly ones to whom St.
Paul referred, reluctant to part with the hope Chris-
tianity taught, and unwilling to live the life which St.
Paul and Timothy insisted upon as necessary to be

lived by all those who would share in that glorious
hope, sought out for themselves more indulgent teachers,
who would natter and gratify their hearers with
novelties in doctrine, and would, at the same time, lay
comparatively little stress on the pure and saintly life.

(*) And they shall turn away their ears from
the truth. — This was the punishment of those who
would only listen to what Avas pleasing to them, and
which flattered instead of reproved their way of life.
They became involved in the many various errors in
doctrine which were then taught in the schools of the
heretics, and they ended by turning away from every
Christian truth. On the "fables" which they substi-
tuted for those great and eternal truths, see 1 Tim. i. 4.

(5) But watch thou in all things.—" But do
thou," continued St. Paul, "do thou be watchful." The
Greek word translated " watch thou," signifies lite-
rally, be sober. It has been well paraphrased, " Keep
thy coolness and presence of mind, that thou be not
entrapped into forgetfulness, but as one ever wakeful
and ready, be on the watch." The word, as it were,
sums up all those last directions of St. Paul, from
chap. ii. 14, in which St. Paul charged Timothy to
abstain from vain arguments and confine himself to
the simple word of truth, to avoid discussions which
would be likely to lead to strife, and to be patient and
gentle with all — to separate himself from merely
nominal Christians, and to keep steadily to the old
paths in which the Apostles had walked. He was to
be ever watchful in all these things.

Endure afflictions. — And in his watch must
Timothy be ready to suffer. He would remember what
had been said before respecting a true Christian suffer-
ing (chap. ii. 3 — 12), and what was the high reward
purposed for such brave endurance. He would re-
member, too, the hard and faithful life of his master,
St. Paul (chap. iii. 10—12).

Do the work of an evangelist.— The "evan-
gelists " of the early Church seem to have been
preachers of the Gospel : in the first place, assistants to
the Apostles and missionaries under their direction.
The especial functions of a preacher and public teacher
seem always to have been allotted to Timothy, and, no
doubt, a peculiar persuasive power of oratory was one
of the chief gifts conferred on this eminent follower of
St. Paul. In the midst of the many grave and absorb-
ing duties of his charge of the Ephesian Church, he
must be mindful not to neglect this great power which
he possessed. It is here especially termed " the work
of an evangelist," to remind him that to perform
rightly this duty, needed zeal, close work, much study,
thought, and prayer; and it was by worthily performing
the duties of an evangelist that the many who were
turning from the truth to fables, would be best won
back, by hearing the great facts of the Gospel placed
side by side with the fables of the false teachers.

Make full proof of thy ministry.— In other
words. " Fully carry out the many duties imposed upon
thee by thy great office." The office of Timothy, it
should be remembered, in Ephesus. included far more
than merely those of a preacher or evangelist. He was
the presiding presbyter of the Church, to whom its

I, Paul, am now at

n. TIMOTHY, IV.

the End of my Course.

make full proof of l thy ministry.
(6) ]?or j am now ready to be offered,
and the time of my departure is at
hand. (7> I have fought a good fight, I
have finished my course, I have kept
the faith : <8> henceforth there is laid up

for me a crown of righteousness;,
which the Lord, the righteous judge,
shall give me at that day : and not
to me only, but unto all Chap. iv. 9_13.

them also that love his Timothy was to

appearing. « Do thy come quickly.

government was intrusted : in fact, the many-sided life
of St. Paul was now to be lived by Timothy.

(6) For I am now ready to "be offered.— What,
in the Philippiau Epistle (chap. ii. 17), was alluded to
as a contingency likely enough to happen here is spoken
of as something Which was then absolutely taking
place. In his first imprisonment at Rome St. Paul
looked on to a martyr's death as probable. In his
second captivity at Rome he writes of the martyrdom
as already beginning. The more accurate, as well as
the more forcible, translation would be, For I am
already being offered. The Greek word rendered " I
am being offered," points to the drink offering of
wine which, among the Jews, accompanied the sacri-
fice. Among the heathen this wine was commonly
poured upon the burning victims — the allusion here is
to St. Paul's bloody death. So convinced was he that
the dread moment for him was at hand, that as he
thus speaks ho feels as though it was even then taking
place, and sees — in his present suffering, in his harsh
treatment — the beginning of that martyrdom in which
his life-blood would be poured out. But he would not I
allow Timothy or the many Christians who revered
and loved him to be dismayed by his sufferings or
shocked at his painful death. He would show them,
by his calm, triumphant language, that to him death
was no teiTor, but only the appointed passage to glory.
So he speaks of his life-blood being shed, under the
well-known peaceful image of the wine poured out
over the sacrifice, the drink offering, the sweet savour
unto the Lord. (See Num. xv. 1—10 ; compare John
xii. 24, where the Master of St. Paul, too, speaks of
His approaching death of agony and shame also under
a quiet, homely imaged

And the time of my departure is at hand.—
" My departure :" that is, " from life." from this world
to another. The moment of my death, so long looked
for, is now close at hand, is all but here. The Greek
word rendered " departure," among other meanings,
signifies the raising of the ship's anchor and the
loosing of the cables by which the vessel was hin-
dered from proceeding on her destined voyage.

W) I have fought a good fight.— More accurately.
more foi-cibly rendered, ilie good fight. St. Paul changes
the metaphor, and adopts his old favourite one, so familiar
to all Gentile readers, of the athlete contending in the
games. First, he speaks generally of the combatant,
the charioteer, and the runner. " I have fought the good
fight," leaving it undetermined what description of strife
or contest was referred to. The tense of the Greek
verb — the perfect — "I have fought," is remarkable. The
struggle had been bravely sustained in the past, and
was now being equally bravely sustained to the end.
His claim to the crown (verse 8) was established.

I have finished my course.— Or " race," for here
the image of the stadium, the Olympic race-course, was
occupying the Apostle's thoughts. Again the perfect
is used: "I have finished my course." How, asks,
Chrysostom, " had he finished his course ?" and answers
rather rhetorically by replying that he had made the
circuit of the world. The question is better answered

240

in St. Paul's own words (Acts xx. 24), where he ex-
plains " his course," which he would finish with joy. as
the ministry which he had received of the Lord Jesus.

I have kept the faith.— Here, again, the metaphor
is changed, and St. Paul looks back on his lived life as on
one long, painful struggle to guard the treasure of -the
Catholic faith inviolate and untarnished (see 1 Tim. vi.
20). And now the struggle was over, and he handed
on the sacred deposit, safe. It is well to compare this
passage with the words of the same Apostle in the
Epistle to the Philippians (chap. iii. 12, and following
verses). The same metaphors were in the Apostle's
mind on both occasions; but in the first instance (in the
Philippiau Epistle) they were used by the anxious, care-
worn servant of the Lord, hoping and, at the same time,
fearing what the future had in store for him and his-
Church ; in the second (in the Epistle to Timothy) they
were the expression of the triumphant conviction of the
dying follower of Christ, who had so followed his loved
Master in life, that he now shrank not from following
the same Master in death.

(g) A crown of righteousness.— More accurately
rendered, the crown of righteousness. St. Paul, after
speaking calmly of death, the bitterness of which lie was
already tasting, looks on beyond death, and speaks of the
crown which awaited him. The crown was the victory
prize which the " good fight " of verse 7 had won. It
is called " the crown of righteousness," it being the
crown to which righteousness can lay claim — that is,,
the crown awarded to righteousness.

Which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall
give me. — As a righteous judge will the Lord award
him the crown, recognising him as one who had the
prim of victory. Not improbably, the expression " the
righteous judge " was written in strong contrast to.
that unrighteous judge who had condemned Paul. and.
in accordance with whose unjust sentence he would
presently suffer a painful death.

At that day.— This is the third time the words-
" that day " are used in this Epistle (see chap. i. 12 — 18).
The day of judgment is, of course, signified, the day
when the Lord shall come again with glory.

And not to me only, but unto all them also
that love his appearing.— Then St. Paul, instead of
concluding this section of his letter with the glorious-
words telling of his serene courage and of his confi-
dence in a crowned and immortal life, adds a gentle
reminder to Timothy : he, too, with any ethers who
really look for the Second Coining of the Lord, might
win the same glorious crown — the sure guerdon of
righteousness. The Apostle specifies here exactly the
persons for whom "the crown" was reserved — those
who in this life have indeed longed for the appear-
ance of the Lord in judgment. None here could in
Aery truth desire " His appearing," save His own,
who love Him and struggle to live His life.
Calvin well remarks: "(St. Paul) excludes from the
number of the faithful those to whom Christ's coining
is a source of terror."

(9) Do thy diligence to come shortly.— Such
a request as this would — had we no other arguments

Timothy is urged to come quickly,

II. TIMOTHY, IV. for many have Deserted the Apostle.

diligence to come shortly unto me :
<u,) for Demas hath forsaken me, having
loved this present world, and is
departed unto Thessalonica ; Crescens

to Galatia, Titus unto Dalmatia.
(n> Only Luke is with me. Take
Mark, and bring him with thee : for
he is profitable to me for the ministry.

— tell us that no forger ever wrote this Epistle. "Who I
would ever have dreamed of putting into the letter such
a request as this, after those solemn expressions of the
last few verses, In which the Apostle spoke of himself as
even then tasting the bitterness of death ? He had been
writing as though the martyr's deatli was so imminent
thai the preparations were already being made for it.
This request to Timothy to come to him, after he had
written such thoughts down, is at fii-st sight strange,
and one certainly which no forger would have appended
to the writing. But though the forger would never have
thought of such a summons, St. Paul might. He still
lived, and the thought of life and the hope of life
even in that brave Christ-loving heart still burned ; after
all. the martyrdom which seemed so close at hand
might be delayed. Days, months, might drag on their
slow, weary length, and still find the old man languish-
ing and solitary in his chains in that dreary prison.
He longed to see some of his faithful 'companions once
more, and for the last time to bid them with his own
mouth to he faithful and brave. So, as it were, hoping
against hope, he dictates on the last pages of the
letter, " Do thy diligence," or better, " earnestly en-
deavour to come shortly to me." His loving wish to
see Timothy again appears from the words of chap. i. 4 :
■" greatly desiring to see thee ; " and again from chap. iv.
21. "Do thy diligence to come before winter." And
some have seen in the expresssion, " being mindful of thy
rears," in chap. i. i (to which we have given, however, a
different interpretation), a reciprocal anxiety on the part
of Timothy to see and speak again with his old master.
But St. Paul, though he begged him to hasten his journey
as much as possihle, and still, though all seemed so
dai'k around him, hoped to see him again, framed the
charge of the last letter in sucli a way that Timothy, if
when he reached Borne, should find that all was over,
might know what were his master's last wishes and
directions. On the natural human longing for sympathy
in the supreme hour, compare our blessed Lord's words
to Peter, James, and John (Matt: xxvi. 38) : "My soul is
exceeding sorrowful unto death: tarry ye here, and
watch with Me."

(U» For Demas hath forsaken me.— This once
faithful companion of St. Paul had been with him
during the first imprisonment of the Apostle at Rome
(Col. iv. 14 ; Philem. verse 24) ; but now, terrified by the
greater severity and the threatened fatal ending of the
second imprisonment, had forsaken his old master.

Having loved this present world.— Chrysostom
paraphrases as follows: "Having loved ease and safety,
chose rather to live daintily at home than to suffer
affliction, than to endure hardship, with me, and with
me to bear these present dangers." The tradition,
however, which relates that he became in after days
an idol priest at Thessalonica is baseless. Demas is
a shorter form, probably, for the well-known and now
common Grecian name of Demetrius.

The present world (aiona): that is, the present
(evil) course of things.

Is departed unto Thessalonica.— From Chrysos-
toin's words above quoted. Thessalonica was apparently
the "' home" of Demas. It lias been supposed, however,
by some, that Thessalonica was chosen by Demas as his
abode when ho left St. Paul because it was a great mer-

241

cantile centre, and his business connections were there,
and he preferred them, the rich and prosperous friends,
to St. Paul, the condemned and dying prisoner. Thessa>
lonica was, at this time, one of the great cities of the
empire. It was the most populous of the Macedonian
cities, and had been chosen to be the metropolis of that
great province. Before the founding of Constantinople^
it was evidently the capital of Greece and Illyricum. as
well as of Macedonia. It was famous throughout the
Middle Ages, and is celebrated by the early German
poets under the abbreviated name of " Salneck," which
has become the Saloniki of the Levant of our days. It
is singular that the name of its patron saint, " Deme-
trius," martyred about a.d. 290 (identified above
with Demas), whose local glory (comp. Conybeare and
Howson's St. Paul, chap, ix.) has even eclipsed that of
St. Paul, the founder of the Church, should be identi-
cal with that of the " forsaker " of St. Paul.

Crescens to Galatia. — Nothing is known of
this friend of St. Paul. One tradition speaks of him
as a preacher in Galatia, and another of his having
founded the Church of Vienne in Gaul. There is a
curious variation in some of the older authorities here,
"Gallia" being read instead of Galatia. Whether
Crescens, on his leaving St. Paul, went to Galatia or
Gaul is, therefore, uncertain.

Titus unto Dalmatia. — Dalmatia was a province
of Roman Illyricum, lying along the Adriatic. Nothing
is known respecting this journey of Titus. It was, most
probably, made with the Apostle's sanction.

(n) Only Luke is with me.— The "writer" of
the Third Gospel, the Gospel which, as has been stated
above, was very possibly the work of St. Paid — "my
Gospel." Luke, " the beloved physician " of Col. iv. 14,
of all St. Paul's companions, seems to have been most
closely associated with the Apostle. Most likely this,
close intimacy and long-continued association was owing
to the Apostle's weak and infirm health — to that dying-
body — the noble Paul ever bore about with him. Luke
was with St. Paul, wo know, in his second missionaiy
journey, and again in Iris third missionary journey ; he
accompanied him to Asia, and then to Jerusalem;
was with him during the captivity time of Csesarea,
and subsequently of Rome, the first time St. Paul was
imprisoned in the capital (Acts xviii.). After St. Paul's
deatli, Epiphanius speaks of him as preaching chiefly
in Gaul; a very general tradition includes him among the
martyrs of the first age of the Church. The name is
probably a contraction of Lucauus. (See Introduction
to the Acts of the Apostles.)

Take Mark, and bring him with thee : for he
is profitable to me for the ministry.—" But
Paul thought not good to take him with them, who
departed from them . . . and went not with them to
the work " (Acts xv. 38). There is something strangely
touching in this message of the aged master to Timothy
to bring with him on that last solemn journey one whom,
some quarter of a century before, St. Paul had judged
so severely, and on whose account he had separated from
his old loved friend. Barnabas the Apostle. Since that
hour when the young missionary's heart had failed him
in Pamphylia, Mark had, by steady, earnest work, won
hack his place in St. Paul's heart. Barnabas, we know,
when his brother Apostle rejected him, took him with

Timothy is to bring a Cloke

II. TIMOTHY, IV.

and some Books icith him.

<I2> And Tychicus have I sent to
Epliesus. (13> The cloke that I left at
Troas with Carpus, when thou comest,
bring1 ivith thee, and the books, but espe-

cially the parchments. (U> Alexander the
coppersmith did me much chap, iv.14-18.
evil: the Lord reward him The Apostle's
according to his works: ™*fc trial

him to Cyprus. After some twelve years, we find him,
daring the first imprisonment, with St. Paul at Rome
(Col. iv. 10 ; Philom. verse 24). He is mentioned (1 Pet.
v. 13) by the endearing term of " my son," and the unani-
mous traditions of the ancient Christian writers represent
him as the secretary or amanuensis of St. Peter. It was
his office to commit to writing the orally delivered in-
structions and narrations of his master. These, in some
revised and arranged form, probably under the
direction of Peter himself, were given to the Church
under the title of St. Mark's Gospel. A later and
uncertain tradition says he subsequently became
first Bishop of Alexandria, and there suffered
martyrdom.

For he is profitable to me for the ministry.—
Profitable, according to the suggestion of Grotius,
owing to Mark's knowledge of the Latin tongue.
This is possible; but it is more likely that he was
profitable or serviceable as an assistant who was
well acquainted with the details of St. Paul's many-
sided work.

(12) And Tychicus have I sent to Ephesus —
Instead of "and," the Greek particle here should be
rendered " but Tychicus." " This ' but ' appears to refer
to a suppressed thought, suggested by the concluding
portion of the last (11th) verse : bring Mark. I need one
who is profitable (or serviceable) for the ministry. I had
one in Tychicus, but he is gone" (Ellicott). Neither
the period of Tychicus' journey nor its object is alluded
to here. It probably took place some time, how-
ever, befoi'e the sending of this Epistle to Timothy.
Tychicus was evidently one of the trusted companions
of St. Paul. He had been with him, we know, on his
third missionary journey, and had, during St. Paul's first
Roman imprisonment, some six or seven years before,
been charged with a mission by his master to Ephesus.
In Eph. vi. 21 he is called a beloved brother and a
faithful minister in the Lord. (See, too, Col. iv. 7,
where he is spoken of in similar terms.) On the city
of Ephesus, see Note on 1 Tim. i. 3. It lias been, with
considerable probability, suggested that Tychicus had
been the bearer of the first Epistle to Timothy. Be-
tween the writing of these two letters, we know, no
great interval could have elapsed.

fiS) The cloke that I left at Troas— The ap-
parently trivial nature of this request in an Epistle
containing such weighty matter, and also the fact of
such a wish on the part of one expecting death being
made at all, is at first a little puzzling. To explain this
seemingly strange request, some have wished to under-
stand by "the cloke" some garment St. Paul was in
the habit of wearing when performing certain sacred
functions : in other words, as a vestment ; but such
a supposition would be in the highest degree pre-
carious, for nowhere in the New Testament is the
slightest hint given us that any such vestment was ever
used in the primitive Christian Church. It is much
better to understand the words as simply requesting
Timothy, on his way, to bring with him a thick cloak,
or mantle, which St. Paul had left with a certain Carpus
at Troas. Probably, when he left it, it was summer,
and he was disinclined to burden himself in his hurried
journey with any superfluous things. Winter was now
coming on, and the poor aged prisoner in the cold damp

prison, with few friends and scant resources, remem-
bered and wished for his cloak. It is just such a
request which the master would make of his disciple,
who. knowing well the old man's frail, shattered health,
would never be surprised at such a request even in an
Epistle so solemn. Then too St. Paul, by his very
wish here expressed, to see Timothy, as above discussed,
hopes against hope that still a little while for work in
the coming winter months was still before him, though
he felt death was for him very near; no forger of
the Epistle had dreamed of putting down such a
request.

And the books.— The books were, most likely, a
few choice works, some bearing on Jewish sacred
history, partly exegetical and explanatory of the
mysterious senses veiled under the letter of the law
and the prophets, and partly historical. Others were
probably heathen writings, of which we know, from his
many references in his Epistles, St. Paul was a diligent
student. These few choice books, it has been suggested,
with high probability, St. Paul " had made a shift to
get and preserve," and these, if God spared his life yet
a few short months, he w7ould have with him for re-
ference in his prison room.

But especially the parchments.— These precious
papers, above all, would St. Paul have with him. These
were, most likely, common-place books, in which the
Apostle — evidently always a diligent student had
written what he had observed as worthy of especial
notice in the reading of either of the Scriptures of the
Old Testament, or the other books bearing on Jewish
or Pagan literature and history. These precious notes
were probably the result of many years' reading and
study. He would have them with him as long as life
remained to him. (Compare on this strange but
interesting verse Bp. Bull's learned and exhaustive
sermon: Works, vol. i. p. 240, Oxford Edition, 1846.)
Erasmus remarks on this request of St. Paul : " Behold
the Axwstle's goods or movables : a poor cloke to keep
him from the weather, and a few books ! "

A suggestion has been made that the words trans-
lated •"Much learning doth make thee mad" (Acts
xxvi. 24) should be rendered, Thy many rolls of parch-
ment are turning thy brain, and that these rolls of
parchment referred to by Festus as the companions of
St. Paul's captivity at Caesarea were identical with
those parchments left with Carpus. The Greek words,
however, are not the same in the two passages. Of
this Carpus nothing is known.

(W) Alexander the coppersmith did me mtich
evil. — Most probably, the same Alexander, mentioned
in the First Epistle (1 Tim. i. 20) "as delivered to Satan."
and not improbably identical with the Alexander " the
Jew " put forward by the Jews in the Ephesian tumult
(Acts xix. 33, 34).

It has been suggested that this Alexander, an influen-
tial Ephesian Jew, had done much injury to the cause
of the Christians generally, and to St. Paul personally,
with the imperial authorities at Rome.

The Lord reward him according to his
works. — The older authorities read. " shall reward
him . . ." The works referred to were the bitter
injuries he had done to the cause of Christ, rather than
to the Apostle himself.

St. Paid before

II. TIMOTHY, IV

the Soman Judge.

(is) 0f w]10m be thou ware also ; for he
hath greatly withstood our words.1 (16) At
my first answer no man stood with me,
but all men forsook me: I pray God that
it may not be laid to their charge.

Or, oar preach-

<17> Notwithstanding the Lord stood with
me, and strengthened me ; that by me
the preaching might be fully known,
and tJtat all the Gentiles might hear :
and I was delivered out of the mouth of

(is) Of whom be thou ware also.— This Alex-
ander was evidently then at Ephesus. That he had
been at Rome, and had given evidence against St. Paul,
and had argued against the defence of the Apostle, is
probable. " Our words " some understand as especially
referring to St. Paul's defence before the imperial
tribunal. If we identify him with the Alexander of
Aeis xix. 33, 34, then he was a Jew, one of those bitter,
life-long antagonists of the Gentile Apostle who crossed
iiis path at every step, and not improbably brought
about, in the (>nd, his death. It is an interesting
suggestion which refers the connection between St.
Paul and Alexander back to those days when Saul
and Alexander were both reckoned as belonging to
the strictest Pharisee party, determined foes to the
" Nazarenes." Saul — if we adopt this supposition —
became the Apostle St. Paul of the Gentiles; Alexander
remained a fanatic Jew — hence the enmity.

(i°) At my first answer no man stood with
me . . .—And then, after the mention of what his
enemy had done out of hatred to the cause of Christ,
flic old man passed on to speak of the conduct
of his own familiar friends at that great public trial
before — most probably — the city preefect : Prsefectus
Urbi, a nominee of the Emperor Nero. No one friend
stood by him; no "advocate" pleaded his cause; no
"procurator"' (an official who performed the functions
of the attorney in an English court) helped him in
arranging and sifting the evidence; no " patronus " of
any noble or powerful house gave him his countenance
and support. The position of a well-known Christian
leader accused in the year 66-67 was a critical one, and
the friend who dared to stand by him would himself
be in great danger. After the great fire of Rome, in
A.D. 64, the Christians were looked upon as the enemies
of the state, and were charged as the authors of that
terrible disaster. Nero, to avert suspicion from him-
self, allowed the Christians to be accused and con-
demned as incendiaries. A great persecution, in which,
as Tacitus tells, a very great multitude of the followers
of Jesus perished, was the immediate result of the
hateful charge. It is most probable that St. Paul, as
a famous Nazarene leader, was eventually arrested as
implicated in this crime, and brought to Rome. His
implacable enemies among the Jews might well have,
been the agents who brought this about, and Alexander
of the last verse was possibly principally concerned in
this matter. But St. Paul, conscious of his own great
peril, knew well that to stand by him now. implicated
as he was in this net-work of false accusations, would
be a service of the greatest danger ; so he pleads for
them, these weak, unnerved friends of his, who. through
no ill-will to the cause, but solely from timidity, had
deserted him, remembering, no doubt, his own Master,
wlio. too, in His hour of deadly peril, had been forsaken.
(See John xvi. 32, "Behold the hour cometh, yea is
now come, that ye shall be scattered every man to his
own. and ye shall leave Me alone.") But like his own
Master, who proceeded to say. *' Yet I am not alone,
because the Father is with Me," so St. Paul went on to
tell Timothy neither was he alone, for One greater than
any friend on earth stood by him.

(J7) Notwithstanding the Lord stood with
me, and strengthened me. -Though men deserted
him, yet One — even his Lord (Christ), who could do
more for him than any friend, or advocate, or protector
of earth — stood by him, and strengthened him by
giving him courage and readiness.

That by me the preaching might be fully
known. — More accurately rendered, might be fully
performed : " impleatur," as the Vulgate gives it. The
strength and courage which the felt presence of his
Lord gave him, enabled him on that occasion, when
alone, friendless, accused of a hateful crime before the
highest earthly tribunal in the capital city of the
world, to plead not only for himself but for that great
cause with which he was identified. He spoke possibly
for the last time publicly [we know nothing of the final
trial, when lie was condemned] the glad tidings of
which he was the chosen herald to the Gentile world.
It is probable that this great trial took place in the
Forum, in one of the Pauline Basilicas — so called after
L. iEmilius Paulus. It is certain it was in the pre-
sence of a crowded audience. St. Paul evidently
intimates this when he tells us how he spoke " that all
the Gentiles might hear." This was apparently the
culminating point of St. Paul's labours — the last
stone of the laborious edifice of his life's work. Had
the courage of the Apostle of the Gentiles failed him
on this most momentous occasion, the spirit of the
sorely-tried Church of Rome had surely sunk, and
that marvellous and rapid progress of the gospel
in the West — which, in a little more than a hundred
years, would make its influence felt in well-nigh every
city and village of the empire — had been arrested.

And that all the Gentiles might hear.— Here
alluding primarily to the crowded audience which had
listened on this solemn occasion to St. Paul's Apologia
pro Christo ; but there is another and deeper reference
to those uncounted peoples in the isles of the Gentiles.
who, by St. Paul's work and words, would come to the
saving knowledge of the truth as it is in Jesus.

And I was delivered out of the mouth of
the lion. — Expositors have, in all ages, dwelt much
on the question, " Who was to be understood under
the figure of the lion?" The fathers mostly believe
the Emperor Nero was here alluded to. Others have
suggested that St. Paul was referring to the "lions"
of the amphitheatre, from whom, at all events for the
time, he had been delivered. It is, however, best to
understand the expression as a figurative expression for
extreme clanger. His Master on that dread occasion
stood by him, and gave him strength and wisdom over
man to speak the words of life, and delivered him for
the moment out of the imminent peril threatening
him. allowing him. not only to speak his Master's words
there, but also thus to write this solemn farewell
charge to Timothy and the Church. That such figu-
rative language was not unusual, compare the Ep'utle
of Ignatius to the Romans, ii. 8, in which writing the
prisoner describes his journey from Syria to Rome as
one long " fight with wild beasts," and speaks of him-
self as "bound to ten leopards," thus designating his
soldier guards.

243

Last Greetings.

II. TIMOTHY, IV.

Conclusion,

the lion. <18> And the Lord shall deliver
me from every evil work, and will pre-
serve me unto his heavenly kingdom :
to whom be glory for ever and ever.
Amen. (19> Salute Prisca and Aquila,
Chap. iv. 19— and the household of One-
22. Greetings, siphorus. <20> Erastus abode
at Corinth: but Trophimus have I left
at Miletum sick. <21^ Do thy diligence

to come before winter. Eubulus greet-
eth thee, and Pudens, and Linus, and
Claudia, and all the brethren. (22> The
Lord Jesus Christ be with thy spirit.
Grace be with you. Amen.

% The second epistle unto Timotheus, ordained
the first bishop of the church of the Ephesians,
was written from Rome, when Paul was brought
before Nero the second time.

(18) And the Lord shall deliver me from
every evil work . . .—Many commentators have
explained these words as the expression of St. Paul's
confidence that the Lord not oidy had, in the late trial,
strengthened His servant, and given him courage to
endure, but that He would watch over him in the
future which still lay before him, and would pre-
serve him from every danger of faint-heartedness, from
every risk of doing dishonour to his Master ; but such
an interpretation seems foreign to the spirit in which
St. Paul was writing to Timothy. In the whole Epistle
there is not one note of fear — nothing which should
lead us to suspect that the martyr Apostle was fearful
for himself. It reads — does this last letter of the great
Gentile teacher — in many places like a triumphant
song of death. It, therefore, appears unnatural to in-
troduce into the closing words of the Epistle the
thought of the Lord's help in the event of the Apostle's
losing heart. Ear better is it to supply after " every
evil work " the words " of tlie enemies," and to under-
stand the delivei'ance which the Lord will accomplish
for him, not as a deliverance from any shrinking or
timidity unworthy of an apostle of the Lord, not even
as a deliverance from the martyr-death, which he
knew lay before him, but that through this very death,
the Lord Jesus would deliver him from all weari-
ness and toil, and would bring him safe into His
heavenly kingdom. (See Ps. xxiii. 4.) St. Paul before
(Phil. i. 23 had expressed a longing to come to Christ
through death. He then bursts into an ascription of
praise to that Lord Jesus Christ whom he had loved so
long and so well, and who, in all his troubles and per-
plexities, had never left him friendless. For a similar
ascription of glory to the Second Person of the ever-
blessed Trinity, see Heb. xiii. 21. (Comp. also Rom.
ix. 5.)

(19) Salute Prisca and Aquila. — These were
two of St. Paul's earliest friends after he had begun
his great work for his Master. Originally of Pontus,
they had taken up their abode at Rome, where Aquila
exercised his trade of a tent-maker.

Driven out of Rome by the decree of Claudius, which
banished the Jews from the capital, they came to
Corinth, where St. Paul became acquainted with them.
But they were evidently Christians when St. Paul first
met them, about A.D. 51-2. We hear of them in com-
pany with St. Paul at Corinth, about a.d. 52-3 (Acts
xviii. 2); at Ephesus, about a.d. 55 (1 Cor. xvi. 19);
and in the year a.d. 58 St. Paul sends greetings to
them at Rome (Rom. xvi. 3).

They were, evidently, among the many active and
zealous teachers of the first days of the faith. That
they possessed great ability as well as zeal is evident
from the fact that it was from them that the eloquent
and trained Alexandrian master, Apollos, learnt to be a
Christian (Afits xviii. 26). In this place, and in several
other passages, Prisca (or Priscilla) is named before

her husband, Aquila. This would seem to hint that in
this case the woman was the principal worker of the
two in the cause of Christ. She, in fact, was one of
that band of devoted holy women which the preaching
of Christ and His disciples had called into existence :
a representative of the great class of noble female
workers which had no existence before Christ told the
world what was the true position of women — until the-
same divine Master taught them that they, too, as well
as men, had a work to work for Him here.

And tlie household of Onesiphorus. — St.
Paul may have been aware that Onesiphorus was
absent then from Ephesus ; but this peculiar greeting,
taken together with the words of chap. i. 16, leads us
irresistibly to the conclusion that this friend of St.
Paul's was dead when the Epistle was written. (See
Notes on chap. i. 16.)

(29) Erastus abode at Corinth.— Better rendered,
remained at Corinth. An Erastus is mentioned in
Rom. xvi. 23, the "chamberlain" of Corinth, one of
the Christian congregation of that city. This man
was probably identical with him.

Another " Erastus " appears among those who minis-
tered to St. Paul at Ephesus (Acts xix. 22). Him St.
Paul sent on missionary work into Macedonia. There
were, therefore, among St. Paul's friends two men of
this name : the one a resident official personage at
Corinth ; the other one of that band who journeyed
hither and thither for the propagation of the faith.

But Trophimus have I left at Miletum
sick. — Trophimus, a Gentile Christian, who was with
St. Paul on his third missionary journey, and whom the
Apostle was accused of taking into the Temple at Jeru-
salem. It was this accusation on the part of the Jews-
which led to St. Paul's arrest which preceded his first
long imprisonment. The event here alluded to must
have taken place some time after the Apostle's release
from the first imprisonment, A.D. 63, and, probably, in
the course of his last journey, shortly before his second
arrest and imprisonment at Rome, about A.D. 66.

Miletus (not " Miletum "), a seaport of Caria, about
thirty miles from Ephesus, once a city of great renown,
whence, it is said, eighty colonies had proceeded ; but in
the days of St. Paul its glories were already on tho
wane. It is now famous only for its vast ruined
theatre. (See Acts xx. 15.)

It has been suggested that this mention of Trophimus
was intended to clear him of any neglect. " Erastus,"
wrote the Apostle, "remained at Corinth; but Tro-
phimus' reason for not coming to Rome was his sick-
ness."

(21) Do thy diligence to come before winter.
Probably this was added to hasten his coming. If he
delayed, the season of the year would put off, perhaps
hinder altogether, his voyage.

Eubulus greeteth th.ee.— Of this Eubulus nothing;
is known.

II. TIMOTHY, IV.

And Pudens, and Linus, and Claudia.— Of
these, Linus was, no doubt, the first of the long line of
Bishops of Rninc. The date of his consecration corre-
sponds with the year of St. Paul's martyrdom, A. I), titi.
We know, from this greeting, he was one of the few
"faithful " to his old master.

It is, perhaps, fair to assume, though of course
there is no certainty of this, that the consecration of
Linus to the government of the Roman Church as its

first Bishop was one of the dying acts done by the
Apostle Paul.

Some commentators identify the other two witli
"Pudens and Claudia" mentioned by Martial {Epi>
grams, iv. 13 ; xi. 54.). Pudens was the son of a Roman
senator; to Claudia, Martial gives the name of Rufina,
and states she was a Briton. The dates of the Epi-
grams in question would agree with the identification.
It is, however, only a supposition.

EXCURSUS ON NOTES TO II. TIMOTHY.

ON THE WAT IN WHICH "INSPIRATION OF GOD" [2 Tim. iii.
IN THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH.

16] WAS UNDERSTOOD

ROM E. - Clement
Bishop of Rome, A. d
70-96.

Ad Cor. Ep.

"See and ask for the old paths, where is the good way,

The question of " inspiration " is one that in the pre-
sent (lay often is the subject of debate. In the hot
and often angry controversies on tliis subject among
us, it will be useful and interesting to see what were the
opinions held by those learned and devoted men living,
many of then), in the times immediately succeeding the
first age of the Faith, when those walked on earth who
had seen and conversed with the Lord Jesus. We will
give the words of a few of the more distinguished of
the early fathers of the Faith, selecting them from
different centres of Christianity.

Our quotations begin from the very days of the
Apostles. Clement, mentioned by
St. Paul (Phil. iv. 3), who, as history
tells us, was the second Bishop of
Rome, exhorts his readers "to look carefully into the
Scriptures, which are the true ut-
terances of the Holy Spirit ; " and
in another place in the same writing he expressly refers
to a well-known New Testament Epistle thus : — " Take
. up the Epistle of the blessed Paul

Ad Lor. Ep. !. h. t]le Apostle> w}lat di(1 ]le write tQ

3rou in the beginning j that is, in the first days of the
preaching] of the gospel ? In truth, divinely inspired
\_-m>fvna.TiKa>s, divlndus inspiratus~\, he wrote to you
Corinthians about himself, and Cephas, and Apollos, be-
cause just then factions [party spirit] existed among you."
Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, a disciple of St. John,
in the one letter we possess of his,
tells us "that neither he nor any
like him is able to attain perfectly
to the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul, who,
Ep. to Philippians, when he was with you, before the
caP- iu- men who were then living taught

the word of truth perfectly and surely."

" Let us love the prophets " (of the Old Testament),
vSyuia.— Ignatius of wrote Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch,
Antiuch, a.d. 1U7. the pupil of St. Johu, to the con-
gregations of Philadelphia, "because they proclaimed
Ep. to Philad., cap. the gospel, and believed in Christ,
v- and waited for His coming, and

through their faith in Him were saved." "These
En. to Magn., cap. most divine prophets lived according
Vlli- to Jesus Christ." he writes to the

Church of Magnesia, " being inspired by His grace."
Ep. to Romans, cap. Again : " I do not command you
u ■ [Romans] like Peter and Paul : they

were Apostles ; lama condemned man."

and walk therein, and ye shall And rest for your souls.'

— Jcr. v

Asia Minor. Poly
carp of Smyrna, a.d,
108.

245

Barnabas (probably not the friend of St. Paul, but a
Egypt.— Barnabas teacher of Alexandria who lived
of Alexandria, pro- some seventy or eighty years after
bably a.d. 110-160. gt paurs martyrdom), in his well-
known letter, speaks there of the inspiration of the Old
Testament writings. Writing of Ps. xvii. 45, "The
Ep. Barnabas, ix. Jfrd »«h in the prophet ; " and of
Ps. xxxm. 13, "The Spirit of the
Lord prophesieth ; " and in another place ho tells us
Ep. Barnabas, x. how " the prophets received their
and v- gift from Christ and spoke of Him ; "

also that " Moses spake in the Spirit."

This writer, several of whose works we still possess,

Rome & Ephesus. was a scholar and thinker of no

Justin Martyr, a.d. mean order. He wrote within half

"°-150- a century of St. John's death. Ho

in several places gives us his view of the inspiration

of the divine writings. Referring to the Old Testa-

Cohortatio ad Gen- inent, he speaks of the history which

tiles, 12. Moses wrote by divine inspiration,

Apologia, i. 11. while the Holy Spirit of Prophecy

taught us through the instrumentality of Moses. Of

David and of Isaiah he writes in similar terms

Apologia, i. 11, &c. ; (propheta Isaias divinitus afflatus

i. 10 ; i. 35. a spiritu prophetico). His view, of

the prophetic office is remarkable. "We must not

.,..„. suppose," he writes, "that the ox-

Apolor/ia, l. 36. er . » ,, ' » .i

pressions go forth from the men

who are inspired, but from the divine word which

moves them." Speaking of the writers of the Old

Testament, he calls them "holy men who required

Cohortatio ad Gen- »o eloquence, no skill iu argmnen-

tiles, 8. tative speaking, but who only needed

to present themselves pure for the Divine Spirit to act

upon, in order that the divine plectrum [an instrument,

usually of gold or ivoiy, used for striking the lyre],

coming down from heaven, acting on just men as a

plectrum on a lyre or harp, might reveal to us the

knowledge of divine and heavenly things."

This Athenian philosopher, who, while studying the

Athens. — Athena- Holy Scriptures with a vieW of

ironis, a.i>. 160— 180. refuting Christianity, was converted

by the Aery writings he was endeavouring to bring into

disrepute, writes (using the same strange, powerful

metaphor which we found in the above quotation from

Justin): "The prophets, while entranced ... by the

influence of the Divine Spirit, they

gave utterance to what was wrought

Leg. pro Christ.

II. TIMOTHY.

in them — the Spirit using thorn as instruments us a,
flote-plaver might blow a flute."

This famous writer and bishop of the early Church
L y o n s. — Iremeus, was connected in his early years
a.d. 180. with Polyearp. the pupil of St. John.

He (to choose one out of many passages of his
writings on this subject) thus writes of the Apostles : —

Contra Hcer. hi. 1. " Aftfr 1that «« Lo^ ™SG ^
the dead, and they [the Apostles]
were clothed with the power of the Spirit from on
high, they were filled with a perfect knowledge of all
things." '• The Apostles, being the disciples of truth,

Contra Hcer. in. 5. ** bey°nd all falsehood, though
they speak according to the capacity
of their hearers, talking blindly with the blind."

In another passage this Bishop of Lyons of the

Contra Hcer. ii. 28. f C01ld centu7 *> ]\S US' " ^ Scrip-
tures are perfect, inasmuch as they
were uttered by the Word of God and His Spirit."

Tertullian, perhaps the ablest — and, had it not been
North Africa: *°r hjs unhappy choice in later
Carthage.— Tertul- Me ot a wild and perverted form
lian. a.d. 200. 0f Christianity, the greatest- of

the Latin fathers, calls the Holy Scriptures the

Apologia.***. "voices °f God" ^?es Rei}- in

another place he writes that "the

four Gospels are built on the certain basis of apostolical
authority, and so are inspired in a far different sense
from the writings of the spiritual Christian. All the
faithful, it is true, have the Spirit of God; but all are
not Apostles."

Clement of Alexandria was master of the catechetical
Egypt: Alexan- scno°l of the most learned city of
dri a.— Clement, the world at the end of the second
master of the Cate- century, only 100 years after the
Alexandria, a.d. 199 death oi bt. John; and taught in
—200. his famous school — as did well-nigh

all the early fathers of Christianity — the doctrine of
the plenary inspiration of Scripture. "It was by the
p , ■ n masters of Israel," wrote Clement,

'• that God led men properly to the
Messiah — speaking to them in the Law, the Psalms,
and the Prophets. . . The word of God, disregarding
Protr i 5 *ne l^eless instruments, the lyre

and the harp, reduces to harmony
. . . man, and through that many-voiced instrument
makes melody to God, and says to man, ' Thou art my
harp, my flute, my temple : my harp, from the har-
mony [of many notes] ; my flute, from the Spirit that
breatheth through thee ; my temple, from the word
that dwelleth in thee.' Truly of man the Lord wrought
a glorious living instrument, after the fashion of His
own image — one which might give every harmony of
God tuneful and holy."

Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus (one of the suburban dis-
Rome. - - Hippolytus tricts of Rome), a most learned and
of Portus, a.d. 218. distinguished writer of the Italian
Church of the early part of the third century, a pupil
of Ireneeus of Lyons, in one of his treatises preserved
to us, expresses himself very clearly and with singular
force on this subject. Speaking of the Jewish prophets,
he writes, " These blessed men . . . spake not only of
Dc Antichristo, 2. 5? P^st, but also of the present and

future, that they might be shown to
be heralds of things to come, not for a time merely, but
for all generations. . . . For these fathers, having
been perfected by the Spirit of Prophecy, and worthily
honoured by the Word Himself, were brought to an
inner harmony like instruments ; and having the Word
within them to strike the notes, by Him they were

moved, and announced that which God wrote. For
they did not speak of their own power, be well assured,
nor proclaim that which they wished themselves, but
first they were rightly endowed with wisdom by the
Word, and afterwards well foretanght of the future
by visions, and then, when thus assured, spake that
which was revealed to them by God."

The Church, while condemning the errors into which
Alexandria. — Ori- the great-hearted Origen fell, still
gen, a.d. 230. reads in every age with reverence

and admiration his marvellous and brilliant teaching.
It will be well to close this short paper on a great
subject with two or three extracts from this famous
Alexandrian master, on the subject of inspiration :
Be Principils, lib. i. ''Th% Holy Spirit inspired each of
Procemium, 4. the S^lts' P">phets -.f 11(1 Apostles

. . . Ihe same bpirit was present
in those of old times as in those who were inspired
at the coming of Christ." "Christ, the Word of

DePrinciniis i God' W&S in M°SeS aml thfl P*0"

T. . .' ' ' phets, and by His Spirit they spake

Proannum.i. f i v -, i, ,. • L „ . J . L .

and did all things. Again, m

his work against Celsus, he writes the following
wise and beautiful words: — "The true God acted
Contr.Cdsum,xiiA. °» the prophets to enlighten and
strengthen them, and not to cloud
or to confuse their natural powers . . . . for tho
divine messengers, by the contact of the Holy Spirit
with their soul, so to speak, gained a deeper and
a clearer intuition of spiritual trulh, and they then
became more perfect men as well as wise seers." In
one of his homilies Origen does not hesitate even

Hom.inJer.xxLi. to, ■»? that ''thTere is n?thing»
whether m the Law or in the

Prophets, in the Evangelists or in the Apostles, which

does not descend from the fulness of the divine majesty."

This gifted teacher's noble words on the way in which

these God-inspired writings should be read deserve to

be graven on the heart of every Christian believer :

tx^y, .•„ cv. ~\ "We must read them with pure

110 III. Ill CjX. XI. n „ t j j

hearts, tor no one can listen to
the word of God . . . unless he be holy in body
and spirit : ... no one can enter into this feast
with soiled garments. He who is a student of God's

. ■ . „ oracles must place himself under

Horn, in Gen. xL 3. the teaellinff ^ G(?d. such „ ono

must seek their meaning by inquiry, discussion.

examination, and, which is greatest, by prayer

Prayer is the most necessary qualification for the

understanding of divine things If, then,

Ji. _ ,„ we read the Bible with patience,

prayer, and taith ; it we ever strive
after a more perfect knowledge, and yet remain content
in some things to know only in part — -even as pro-
phets and apostles, saints and angels, attain not to
an understanding of all things — our patience will
be rewarded, our prayer answered, and our faith in-
creased. So let us not be weary in reading the Scrip-
tures which we do not understand,
but let it be unto us according to
our faith, by which we believe that all Scripture, beingin-
spiredby God,is2}rofitable''' (Origen, quoted by Westcott).

[For many other early patristic references on this
subject of the teaching of the Church of the first days
on the subject of the " Inspiration of the Scriptures,'
see the exhaustive paper of the Regius Professor of
Divinity (Cambridge), Canon Westcott. in his Intro-
duction to the Study of the Gospels, Appendix C, pp. 383
—423, upon which this short Excurst>s is mainly based.]

Horn, in Jos. xx.

INTRODUCTION

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL TO

TITUS

I. Titus.— Among the early Christian leaders of the
school of Paul, Titus, to whom one of the three Pastoral
Epistles of the Gentile Apostle was addressed, must
have occupied a prominent position. For some unknown
reason his name never occurs in the Acts (save.
perhaps, in the doubtful reference, Acts xviii. 7, on
which see below); but from a few scattered notices in
the Epistles of St. Paid we are able to gather some
notion of the work and influence of this distinguished
and able teacher of the first days.

The silence of St. Luke in the Acts with reference
to one who evidently played so important a part in the
days when the foundations of the Christian Church
were being laid, has been the subject of much inquiry.
Attempts have been made, but with little success, to
identify Titus with oue or other of the characters pro-
minent in the Acts story — with Luke himself, for
instance, or Silvanus (Silas). The only possible identi-
fication, however, is with the "Justus "of Acts xviii. 7,
to which name, in some of the older authorities, the
name " Titus " is prefixed. The circumstances, as far
as we know them, connected with Justus would fit in
with this identification. This Justus was. like Titus,
closely connected with Corinth ; and. like Titus too,
was an uncircumcised Gentile, attending the Jewish
services as a proselyte of the gate. That these two
were identical is possible, but nothing more.

Titus was of Gentile parentage, and probably a tiative
of Antioch — the great centre of that early Gentile
Christianity of which St. Paul was the first teacher.
and, under the Holy Ghost, the founder. Some time
before a.d. 50 — 51 the master and scholar had come
together. In that year he accompanied Barnabas and
St, Paul to the council of Apostles and elders which
was convened at Jerusalem to consider the question of
the general obligations of the Mosaic law. The result
was the drawing up of the charter of Gentile freedom
from all the restraints of the Jewish law. (See Acts xv.;
Gal. ii. 1—3.) From this time (a.d. 50—51) the glad
tidings that Christ was indeed a Light to the Gentiles
(Isa. xlix. 6) spread through Asia, North Africa, and
Europe with a strange and marvellous rapidity. There
is no doubt, from the scattered notices in the Epistles
of St. Paul, that Titus was one of the most active
agents in the promulgation of the gospel story among
the peoples that had hitherto sat in darkness and in the
shadow of death.

The following table will give some idea of
connection with St. Paul : —

?itua?

Datf ! Emperor

DATF- of Hum.:.

Before Claudius.

A.D. 50—51

50—51

54—55 I Nero.

65— GO
66-07

Titus meets with and is instructed
by St. Paul at Antioch in the faith.
(Comp. Tit. i. 4 : " My own son in
the faith.")

Titus accompanies St. Paul and Bar-
nabas to the council of Apostles
and elders at Jerusalem (Acts xv. ;
Gal. ii. 1).

Probably with St. Paul during part
of his second missionary journey.
He is evidently well known to the
Galatians, from the familiar refer-
ence to him in the Epistle to that
Church. Perhaps he is alluded to
in Gal. iii. 5.

With St. Paul at Ephesus. Thence
sent on a special mission to Corinth,
probably bearer of the First Epistle
to the Corinthians (2 Cor. xii. 18).

With St. Paul in Macedonia (2 Cor.
vii. 0 — 15), and perhaps with St.
Paul at Corinth, if identical with
Justus, according to the reading of
some of the older authorities.

Titus is superintending presbyter in
Crete.

At Rome with St. Paul ; thence-
sent to Dalmatia (2 Tim. iv. 10).

[Tradition speaks of Titus as return-
ing from Dalmatia to Crete, where
he died in extreme old age, as Arch-
bishop of Gortyna.]

247

Titus, as we have seen, was a Gentile — was the one-
chosen by the great Apostle in very early days as the
example of Christian freedom from Jewish rites and
customs. At first the pupil, then the friend of St.
Paul, we find him, in the brief notices in the Epistles,
evidently occupying a position quite independent of. and
in no wise subject to, his old master. He is St. Paul's
" brother," " companion," " fellow-labourer " (2 Cor.
viii. 22, 23); St. Paul's trusted and honoured friend.
His missions of investigation and love, his arrange-
ments for the famous collection for the poor saints at
Jerusalem, were apparently undertaken spontaneously,.

TITUS.

Tatlier than by the direction of a superior and elder
officer of the Church. (See, for instance, 2 Cor. viii.
6, 16. 17.) Now the Acts is confessedly a very early
writing, and must have been put forth not later than
a.d. 62 — 63 ; would it not be very probable that, in
such a work, so prominent a Gentile, who had publicly,
with St. Paul's consent, held himself free from all
Jewish restraints, and by his prominent example
preached the perfect equality of the Gentiles in the
kingdom of God — would it not be very probable that
in the Acts the name and work of such a person would
be omitted? The fierce hostility of a large section of the
Jewish race to St. Paul on account of this very teach-
ing of equality is well known ■ it probably compassed in
the end his death. The gentle, loving spirit of St.
Luke while telling the story of the foundation of the
Christian Church with scrupulous accuracy, would be
likely to avoid such passages of the early history which
would tend to alienate any. (He never, for instance,
hints at such scenes as the Galatiau Epistle, chap, ii.,
relates so graphically.) This same spirit, which ever
sought to win rather than to alienate, induced him,
perhaps, to avoid the mention of the famous Gentile
leader Titus at a period when the fierce hostility of the
Christians of the Circumcision was endeavouring to
compass the fall of St. Paul and the disruption of the
school of Gentile Christianity.

The Holy Spirit loves to work, we know, by purely
Iranian instruments — now by the tender conciliatory
pen of a Luke — now by the fiery zeal of a Paul, which
refuses to recognise danger, or to acknowledge the
possibility of failure.

Later on the appointment, of the brilliant and suc-
cessful Gentile organiser to the chief superintendence
of the churches of Crete was one of singular fitness.
"There was," as it has been well said, "a strange
blending of races and religions " in the island which
boasted the possession of the birthplace of Zeus
(Jupiter), and rejoiced in the vile mysteries practised
in the worship of Dionysus (Bacchus). There were
many Jews we know at Crete, but the Gentile popula-
tion, of course, far outnumbered them. The congre-
gation seem to have been numerous and full of life, but
disorganised and troubled with disorder, misrule, and
even dishonoured with many an excess utterly at
variance with their Christian profession. Who so fitted
to restore order and to enforce a sterner rule in such
communities as the friend of St. Paul, who had
worked already so great a woi-k among the turbulent and
licentious Christians of Corinth, and had persuaded by
his marvellous skill so many Gentile congregations
to unite in helping with a generous liberality the
pressing needs of their proud and haughty Jewish

brethren who disdained them? (See the Note on
chap. i. 4.)

After the year A.D. 65 — 66 the story of Titus is un.
certain. We know he rejoined the Apostle at Rome,
and left him again for Dalmatia (2 Tim. iv. 10).

Then traditionary recollections which lingered in
Crete tell us how he returned from Dalmatia to the
island, where he worked long and presided over the
churches, and died at an advanced age. The church
of Megalo-Castron, in the north of the island, was
dedicated to him. In the Middle Ages, his name was
still revered, and his memory honoured. The name of
Titus was the watchword of the Cretans when they
fought against the Venetians, who came under the
standard of St. Mark. The Venetians themselves,
when here, seem to have transferred to him part of that
respect which elsewhere would probably have been
manifested for St. Mark alone. During the celebration
of several great festivals of the Church the response of
the Latin clergy of Crete, after the prayer for the Doge
of Venice, was, Sancte Marce tu nos adjuva ; but after
that for the Duke of Candia, Sancte Tite tu nos
adjuva (Pashley's Travels in Crete, quoted by Cony-
beare and Howson, St. Paul),

II. Contents of the Epistle.— After a formal
salutation and greeting St. Paul reminds Titus of his
special work in Crete, viz., that the government of the
various churches must be properly organised — a body of
elders, or presbyters, must be ordained and set over the
congregation. The qualifications of these officers are
then detailed. They are for the most part of a moral
nature, but these elders must also possess the power
necessary for teaching and influencing such a people as
were the Cretans (chap. i. 1 — 16). St. Paul passes on to
the special kind of instruction Titus and the elders must
impart to men and women of varied ages, sexes, and
ranks in the Cretan churches — to aged men, to aged
women, to the young of both sexes, to slaves — and then
pi'oceeds to show the reason why such instruction must
be given. God's grace, he says, has appeared in the
work of redemption, bringing salvation to all — old or
young, free or slaves (chap. ii. 1 — 15). St. Paul now
points out to Titus how the Christian community must
conduct themselves towards the heathen world. There
must be no thought of rebellion among the worshippers
of the Lord Jesus. Again he enforces these solemn
admonitions by an appeal to the loftiest Christian truths.
He closes his Letter by reminding his friend that
this practical teaching, based on gospel truth, must
be the standard of instruction; no time must be wasted
on useless theological questions. A few personal
requests are added (chap. iii. 1 — 15).

24S

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL TO

TITUS.

CHAPTER L— (D Paul, a servant of
Ch ' 1—4 Grod, and an apostle of
Apostolic ad- Jesus Christ, according to
dress and bless- the faith of God's elect,

and the acknowledging" of i
the truth which is after godliness; (2) in

hope of eternal life, which God, that
cannot lie, promised before the world
began ; <3) but hath in due times mani-
fested his word through preaching, which
is committed unto me according to the
commandment of God our Saviour;

(D Paxil, a servant of God, and an apostle of
Jesus Christ. — The titles here assumed by St. Paul in
his introductory greeting are in some respects slightly
different to any of his usual designations. In the other
two so-called Pastoral Epistles addressed to Timothy,
St. Paul simply styles himself " an Apostle of Jesus
Christ." Possibly, the longer and more formal title is
here adopted because his relations were hardly ever of
so intimate a character with Titus as with Timothy;
the hitter would seem to have held the position of St.
Paul's adopted son. (See Note below on verse 4, " To
Titus.")

According to the faith of God's elect.— The
English version here entirely fails to give the mean-
ing of the Greek preposition. The rendering should
be, "for (the furtherance of) the faith," or, in other
words, " the object of my (Paul's) apostleship was,
that through my instrumentality the chosen of God
should believe." The whole question respecting these
" elect," or " chosen of God," is surrounded with deep
mystery ; three or four guiding thoughts may, however,
be safely laid down. (1) In the visible world such
an apparently arbitrary election to special privileges,
fortune, happiness, utterly irrespective, in the first
instance, of individual merit, does exist. This is clear
to all of us. (2) In grace we are distinctly told re-
peatedly that a similar election exists, and our own
observation certainly coincides here with revelation.
(3) Such election in no case seemingly affects our
position here as free agents; surrounded with the most
precious privileges, gifted with much knowledge, it is
possible, as we. alas, too often see, deliberately to refuse
the good and to choose the evil. (4) All such allusions
to the " elect " as, for instance, the one here before us,
are intended, not as a stumbling-block for the believer,
but as a comfort for the faithful, struggling man of
God, for it tells him how the Eternal " before the ages"
had chosen him to be His servant.

And the acknowledging of the truth which
is after godliness.— More accurately rendered, and
the full knowledge of the truth which is designed for
godliness, or, which leadeth to godliness. Here the
further purpose of St. Paul's apostleship is specified.
St. Paul was appointed an Apostle that through him the
elect of God might believe and heed " the truth ;' — that
truth, the knowledge of which produces as its fruit in
the individual a holy, useful life.

(2) In hope of eternal life.— Better translated.
reding on the hope of eternal life. The connection of

219

the preceding clauses with these words has been well
summed up ; " The Apostle's calling had for its object
the faith of the elect and the knowledge of the truth ;
and the basis on which all this rested was the hope of
eternal life."

Which God, that cannot lie.— Possibly, this
singular and strong expression was chosen with reference
to the peculiar vice of the Cretans, over whose Church
Titus Avas then presiding. (See verse 12 : " One of
themselves, even a prophet of their own, said, The
Cretians are alway liars.")

Promised before the world began.— More ac-
curately rendered, from eternal ages. (See 2 Tim. i. 9.)
The promise of eternal life was the result of a divine
purpose fixed from eternity.

(3) But hath in due times.— Or better, but hath
in his own seasons — that is, in the fitting seasons, those
fixed by Him for the manifestation.

Manifested his word. — That is, His gospel. (See
Bom. xvi. 25.)

Through preaching.— Or, in the preaching. Paul
does not shrink from calling his preaching the vehicle
in which the Word or the gospel of God was to be
publicly manifested, because ho was conscious that
he was divinely instructed in the secrets of the eternal
counsels.

"Which is committed unto me.— Literally, with
which I was entrusted.

According to the commandment of God our
Saviour.— The commandment came to St. Paul direct
from God ; we have several intimations of this. Amongst
others, on the Damascus road, when the Lord appeared
to him ; in the Temple at Jerusalem ; in the ship,
during the memorable voyage which ended with ship-
wreck; in the visions mentioned in 2 Cor. xii. 1 — 9.
St. Paul dwells with emphasis on the thought that he ivas
entrusted with the preaching of the gospel according to
the commandment of God. The work was not under-
taken by him, from any will or wish of his own. " God
our Saviour" in this place, as in 1 Tim. i. 1, must be
understood as " God the Father." The First Person
of the blessed Trinity fitly possesses the title of " our
Saviour," because through the death of His dear Son
He redeemed us from death and made us heirs of
eternal life. The Second Person of tho Trinity is like-
wise a possessor of the title, because He shed His
blood as the price, of our redemption. The epithet of
''Saviour" — the title just given to the Father, in the
very next verse ascribed to the " Son " — is one of the

Opening Greetings

TITUS, I.

to Titus.

W to Titus, mine own son after the
common faith: Grace, mercy, and peace,

from God the Father and the Lord Jesus
Christ our Saviour. (5) For this cause

many indications we possess of St. Paul's belief that the
Son was equal to the Father as touching His Godhead.

(4) To Titus. — We know comparatively little of
Titus' earlier career. In the Acts he, singularly
enough, is never mentioned; for what knowledge of
him we possess we are entirely dependent upon a few
casual allusions to him in the Epistles. This presbyter,
in charge of the Cretan Church, was a Greek, the
son of Gentile parents, and uncircumcised. It has
been suggested, but upon very slight grounds, that his
family was resident at Antioch in Syria. He owed his
conversion to Christianity to St. Paul, with whom ever
after he seems to have been connected by ties of in-
timate friendship, though he was by no means the
Apostle's constant companion, as was Timothy, or Silas,
or Luke. He was with St. Paul and Barnabas when
they went up together to Jerusalem to plead for Gentile
liberty ; but in no other of the journeys of St. Paul is
he directly mentioned as one of the companions of the
Apostle. Only during the Apostle's long residence at
Ephesus (nearly three years) Titus appears to have been,
for at least part of the time, closely associated with
St. Paul, and his confidant in his complicated relations
with foreign churches. It is clear that during this long
Ephesian residence he was drawn into close and intimate
friendship with St. Paul, who then had opportunity of
becoming acquainted with Titus' varied powers and
evident skill in administration and in dealing with men
and women.

From the several casual notices in the Second Corin-
thian Epistle, we gather considerable insight into the
character and powers of the Gentile convert. The
Church of Corinth was perhaps the largest and most
wealthy of all the churches founded by St. Paul. It
was soon, however, rent asunder by party divisions, and
was ever distracted and disturbed by moral disorders
among its members. Yet, in spite of this, the great
Greek congregation of believers was full of life
and zeal and earnestness, ready evidently to make the
greatest sacrifices for its Master's cause. Delegated
apparently by St. Paul to restore order and to intro-
duce a severer discipline in this great and turbulent
Christian centre — the example for good or for evil
to so many smaller and less important churches —
Titus seems to have fulfilled with rare tact, and with
admirable prudence and wisdom, his difficult mission.
Amongst other works, he apparently completed the
collection St. Paul had set on foot in the various Gentile
churches for the poor Jewish Christians at Jerusalem.
His services, assisting materially to bring this famous
work of charity to a successful issue, seem not to have
been the least among his titles to St. Paul's friendship
and high esteem. The great importance and difficult
nature of this collection for the poor saints at Jerusa-
lem are little understood or thought of now. Three
weighty points connected with it deserve mention, as
Titus' special task it probably was to complete and bring
it to a successful issue. (1) It seems to have been the
first public relief fund ever collected to help a foreign
and a strange race — the first of a long line of gallant
acts of self-sacrifice men have made for men for Christ's
sake ; but when Titus, at St. Paul's bidding, took
charge of it. it was a thing unheard of in the Pagan
world. Hence the many obstacles which appear to have
cropped up so perpetually during t lie collection. (2) It
was the right hand of fellowship offered by Gentile

250

to Jew. It was the welding together, by an unprece-
dented act of kindness, of the two opposing and hostile
elements of Christendom into one Church. (3) It was
the silent yet eloquent protest of St. Paul and his school
against the attempted communism of the Church of the
very first days — that fatal misunderstanding of some
of the Master's words which had brought ruin and
poverty on the Jerusalem Christians. Titus acted as
St. Paul's commissioner in the matter — which he evi-
dently successfully completed. We know nothing of
his work and employment from this period, a.d. 57, until
the date of this Epistle, a.d. 65—66, early Christian
history being silent respecting him. In these nine years
of restless activity and burning zeal on the part of the
Christian leaders, Titus, no doubt, did his part without
falling short of his early promise ; as we find him
again, in the last years of his old master, occupying in
the Christian community a post so high and responsible
as that of chief presbyter of the churches of the
wealthy and populous island of Crete.

Mine own son. — Alluding, no doubt, to the relation
between them in religion. St. Paul converted Titus to
the faith, and ever after Titus stood to St. Paul in the
position of a son in the faith, without being to him
what Timothy was for so long a time — his constant
companion. Titus still evidently (see preceding Note)
filled with St. Paul the position of one of his most
trusty disciples, of one who knew the inmost thoughts
of his master. The tone of the Epistle to Titus is
somewhat different from St. Paul's Letter to Timothy.
There was evidently a greater intimacy between St.
Paul and Timothy than between the Apostle and
Titus.

Grace, mercy, and peace . . .—Many of the older
authorities omit " mercy." (See Notes on 1 Tim. i. 2.)

Our Saviour.— This expression is a rare one. We
find it only in these Pastoral Letters. (See Note above
on St. Paul's using it also of the " Father.")

(5> For this cause left I thee in Crete.— The
" cause " is discussed below. Crete— over whose Chris-
tian population Titus had been placed by St. Paul — was
a well-known large and populous island in the Mediter-
ranean. It lies geographically further south than any
of the European islands, and, roughly speaking, almost
at an equal distance from each of the three Old World
continents— Europe. Asia, Africa. We identify it with
the Caphtor of the Old Testament (Dent, ii. 23;
Jer. xlvii. 4 ; Amos ix. 7). In modern times it is
known by us as Candia. Very early it was the scene of
an advanced civilisation. In the Odyssey it is mentioned
as possessing ninety cities; in the Iliad as many as one
hundred. Metellus added it, B.C. 69, to the Roman
dominion. In the days of Augustus it was united into
one province with Cyrene. It abounded with Jews of
wealth and influence ; this we learn from the testimony
of Philo and of Joseplms. It probably received the
gospel from some of those of " Crete " who we are ex-
pressly told were present when the Spirit was poured
on the Apostles on the first Pentecost after the Resur-
rection (Acts ii. 11). The apparently flourishing state
of Christianity on the island at this time was in great
measure, no doubt, owing to the residence and labours
among them of the Apostle St. Paul, whose woi-k
appears to have been mainly directed to preaching the
gospel and to increasing the number of the converts,
which, from the wording of verse 5, was evidently

Purpose for which Titus was left

TITUS, I.

in Crete — to ordain Elders*

left I thee in Crete, that thou shouldest

Chap. i. 5—9. se* *n or&ev *ne things
The duties of that are wanting,1 and or-

SSt-VS dai* fldfrs in.eveiT ?%>

church. as I had appointed thee:

1 Or, left timlimi:

<6) if any be blameless, the husband
of one wife, having faithful children,
not accused of riot, or unruly. {-7) For
a bishop must be blameless, as the
steward of God ; not selfwilled, not

very great, elders (presbyters) being required in every
city.

The task of organising the Church had been left for
a season. "We are ignorant of the circumstance which
summoned the old Apostle from the scene of what
seems to have been most successful labours. He left
behind him one of the ablest of his disciples, Titus — a
tried and well-known Christian leader of the second
half of the first century — to organist" the church life
and to regulate the teaching of the powerful and nu-
merous Christian community of Crete.

The Epistle addressed to Titus contains the formal.
credentials of his high office, stamping all his acts
with the great name and authority of St. Paul; hence
the careful and elaborate phraseology of the first four
verses. Though addressed to one, they would have to
be referred to and read often among the elders {pres-
byters) and deacons in the various churches. St. Paul
wrote the Letter, we are told, when on his way to Nicop-
olis to winter ; Ave believe, soon after his arrival there
he was arrested and sent to Rome to die. The date of
ibis Letter, then, would be a.d. 65 or 66, and was proba-
bly written from some place in Asia Minor — perhaps
Ephesus.

That thou shouldest set in order the things
that are wanting. — These words explain the
" cause " of Titus' appointment in Crete. The " things
that are wanting " were what St. Paul meant, no doubt,
to have done himself, but was prevented by being
hurried away — for him the end was nigh at hand. These
" tilings " were want of church officials, lack of church
government, want of cohesion between the churches of
the island — in a word, there was plenty of Christian
life, but no Christian organisation as yet in Crete. It
was rather a number of Christian brotherhoods than
one.

And ordain elders in every city.— The num-
ber of presbyters in each town or city is not specified,
but is left to Titus' judgment. We know that in some
churches there were certaiidy several of these presbyters
(see Acts xiv. 23; xv. 22). The words " in every city"
point to the wide extension of Christianity at that early
period in Crete.

As I had appointed thee.— Or better, as I gave
thee directions. These presbyters were to be most
carefully selected, according to the special instructions
Tit ns must remember St. Paul giving him in this im-
portant matter on some previous occasion. The more
urgent of these qualifications for the presbyteral rank
the Apostle now repeats for Titus' guidance.

(«) If any be blameless.— The candidate for the
holy office must have naught laid to his charge ; he must
be of such a character that no one could bring a rea-
sonable accusation against him. Blameless must be his
life, spotless his name. As it lias been well said. " the
office of presbyter must never be allowed to cover or
condone damaged reputations."

The husband of one wife.— See Notes on 1 Tim.
iii. 2.

Having faithful children.— Better, believing
children. In searching out these presbyters, whose
charge would involve so many and such responsible

duties, Titus must look for men of ripe age. There
were even grave objections to the appointment of the-
comparatively young to this office. We have seen how
anxious St. Paul was for Timothy, his well-known and
trusted friend, on account of his want of years. Timothy
must have been at least approaching forty years of age
when St. Paul warned him so earnestly of his behaviour
and his life, " Let no man despise thy youth." These
presiding Cretan elders should be married men, with
children already, so to speak, grown up.

These requirements evidently show that Christianity
had been established in Crete for a very considerable
period. We must remember some thirty-three years had
passed since that memorable Pentecost feast of Jeru-
salem, when "Cretes" were among the hearers of those
marvellous utterances of the Spirit. Besides the
children of the candidates for the presbyter's office
being professing Christians, they must also be free
from all suspicion of profligacy.

Not accused of riot. — More accurately rendered*
dissohdeness . The Greek word here rendered " riot "
implies a self-indulgent or even a reckless expendi-
ture. Such careless selfishness well-nigh always ends
in profligacy. In the case of men whose duties in-
cluded the superintendence of the Church's funds, it
was imperatively necessary that their homes and families
should be free from all suspicion of anything like that
reckless waste or extravagance which in so many cases-
imperceptibly passes into dissoluteness and profligacy.

Or unruly. — That is, disobedient to their parents.
If the presbyter was incapable of teaching his own
children obedience and order, what hope was there that
his influence would be of any value with his flock ?
All these early instructions to the master-builders
whose task it was to lay the early storeys of the
Christian Temple are very decisive as to the state of
St. Paul's mind ; and we must not forget whence St.
Paul directly drew his wisdom. The Apostles of the
Lord never seem to have thought of the Christian
priesthood of the future developing into a caste or
order. Anything more diametrically opposed to the
mediaeval notion of church government than the Pastoral
Epistles can hardly be imagined. The writer of the
Epistles to Timothy and to Titus never dreamed of
building up a priestly order with views, thoughts,
hopes, and joys differing from those of the ordinary
worker of the world. St. Paul's presbyters were to be
chosen, among other qualities, for the white and blame-
less lives of their families. The presbyter's home in
Crete and Ephesus must supply a fair pattern for the
many other Christian homes in that luxurious, disso-
lute age in which Titus lived.

(7) For a bishop must be blameless.— There
is no doubt that the " bishop " here must be identified
with the presbyter of verse 6. In the Pastoral
Epistles written befwcen A.D. 63—67 these terms
are clearly applied indifferently to the same person.
The title presbyter refers to the gravity and dignity of
the office; the title bishwp suggests rather the duties
which belong to an elder of the church. On the
question of bishops, and their position in the early
Church, see Note on 1 Tim. iii. 1. where the grounds.

251

The Qualifications

TITUS, I.

of Elders.

soon angry, not given to wine," no striker,
not given to filthy lucre ; (8J but a lover
of hospitality, a lover of good men,1
sober, just, holy, temperate; <9) holding

a 1 Tim. a. 3.

fast the faithful word as he hath been
taught,- that he may be able by sound
doctrine both to exhort and to convince
the gainsayers. <10) For there are many

for assuming that the episcopal order was formally
introduced into church government before the end of
this century, and during the lifetime of St. John, are
discussed. The Christian bishop, within a quarter of a
century after the death of St. Paul, assumed many of
the functions and generally discharged the duties of
government which were exercised by the Apostles
during their lifetime. The presbyter — then writes St.
Paul — seeing he is appointed an overseer or bishop (the
use of the latter term bishop in the ecclesiastical sense
is, however, premature), as God's steward, as a respon-
sible administrator of the House, that is, of the Church
of the Living God, ought indeed be blameless.

Not selfwilled.— Ho should not be one of those
self-loving men who seeks to gratify his own personal
ends in the first place, and in consequence is usually
regardless of others.

Not soon angry.— Not soon provoked, or not
irascible. He should not be one ever ready with an
angry, hasty word, remembering always his Master,
* who when He was reviled, reviled not again."

Not given to wine. — While the presbyter is not
to be chosen on account of any stern austerities or rigid
asceticism he may have practised, he must be known as
one " temperate," moderate, self-denying.

No striker. — Not a brawler. No man of God —
.above all things, no one holding office in the church —
should ever, even under sore provocation, so far forget11
himself as to raise his hand against his fellow.

Not given to filthy lucre.- -The presbyter
of the House of God must bo above all dreaming of
mean and paltry gains. He who is to administer the
alms devoted to God must surely do it with clean
hands. There is, too, another and a deeper meaning in
the words. The presbyter whose mind is at all devoted
to the amassing of gold is too preoccupied to be able
to fix his thoughts upon those high things of God
committed to his charge, among which one of his most
important duties is to instruct the flock.

(8) But a lover of hospitality.— It has been
suggested that this hospitality would be especially
.shown in the early centuries of Christianity, when
Christians travelling from one place to another were
received kindly and forwarded on their journey by their
brethren; but the direction of St. Paul has that broader
signification, so beautifully worded in the Epistle to
the Hebrews, where we are told not to be forgetful to
entertain strangers, for thereby some have entertained
angels unawares (Heb. xiii. 2).

A lover of good men. — Although this ren-
dering is possible, still it is better to understand the
Greek word here as alluding to a virtue differing
from the '•hospitality" just mentioned. "A lover
of good " or benevolence generally ; the appellation
points here to that large heart which finds room for
sympathy with all that is good and noble and generous.

Sober.— Better rendered, self-restrained. In this
expressive woi-d (sophrona) mastery of self is especially
implied — that self-command which wisely regulates
pleasures and passions.

Just.— Or, righteous. The man who is just (dikaios)
is one who tries strictly to perform his duties towards
men — tlie duties which integrity and justice seem

imperatively to ask from him in his relations with his
neighbour.

Holy. — The man who is holy studies to be true and
faithful in his relations to God, which duties with us
largely consist in keeping pure our bodies, the temple
of the Holy Spirit. While the " just " man struggles
after uprightness before men, the " holy " man aims at
a holy purity before God.

Temperate. — This virtue is not to be understood
in the usual and more limited sense which has been
already specified in " not given to wine " of the
preceding verse, but signifies the being temperate —
moderate in all things. The model presbyter, the ruler
of a congregation of Christians, not only must be able
to control his tongue, his eyes, his hands, but must
show a just and wise moderation even in pressing things
which of themselves are excellent. To do his Master's
work efficiently, he must bo able at all times to
command himself — to perform that most difficult of all
tasks, the tempering zeal with discretion.

(9) Holding fast the faithful word as he
hath been taught.-— More literally, according to the
teaching ; but the English version gives the sense clearly
and exactly. The elder must, St. Paul says, hold fast
the faithful word or saying ; or, in other words, must
steadily adhere to that Christian doctrine taught by St.
Paul and his brother Apostles. So St. Paul pressed
on Timothy, the chief presbyter of Ephesus, " to hold
the pattern of sound words which thou heardest from
me " (2 Tim. i. 13) ; and again, " But continue thou
in the things which thou hast learned, and hast been
assured of, knowing of whom thou hast learned
them" (2 Tim. iii. 14). Here "the faithful saying,"
that formulary so common in the Epistles to Timothy
and to Titus, and which we have generally explained
as including the great Christian watchwords of the
faith, echoes probably of sayings of Christ, taken up
and expanded by His chosen servants, and then adopted
in the various churches and woven into the tapestry of
the earliest liturgies — now, possibly, after a form like
the " comfortable words" of our Communion Service,
now into a creed, now into a hymn, but in one shape or
other thoroughly well known and loved in the different
congregations — -here the faithful word or saying seems
to include all the faithful sayings, and denotes generally
the teaching of St. Paid and the Apostles.

To exhort and to convince the gainsayers.
— Two special purposes are specified for which the
"sound doctrine" which the elder will acquire by
steadfast application may be used. The first, with the
sound, healthy teaching — sound, healthy, practical, com-
pared with that sickly, morbid, and unpractical teaching
of those gainsayers of whom he is going to speak— he
is to exhort the adversaries ; secondly, with the same
true words he is to confide their arguments. Chrysostom
well remarks " that he who knows not how to contend
with adversaries, and is not able to demolish their
arguments, is far from the teacher's chair."

ao) For there are many unruly and vain
talkers and deceivers.— Nominally in the con-
gregations of Christians, but in reality refusing all
obedience, acting for themselves, factious, insubordinate.
Titus would, alas, discover many such; these often

2.52

Picture of the

TITUS, I.

Cretan Character,

unruly and vain talkers and deceivers,
Chap i 10—16 specially they of the rircum-
The Cretan cha- cision: (X1^ whose mouths
1';u't,'r- must be stopped, who sub-

vert whole houses, teaching things which
they ought not, for filthy lucre's sake.

(12) One of themselves, even a prophet of
their own, said, The Cretians are alway
liars, evil beasts, slow bellies. (13) This
witness is true. Wherefore rebuke them
sharply, that they may be sound in the
faith; (w) not giving heed to Jewish

would 1)0 found to bo possessed of the gift of fluent and
deceptive speech, and would deceive many. Professor
Reynolds characterises such restless, uneasy spirits as
loquacious, restless talkers, "who must say something,
and who have broken the peace of many a home and
shattered the prosperity of many a church; the multi-
tude of teachers who have nothing true to say is the
curse of the kingdom of God."

Specially they of the circumcision.— Here
St. Paul points out to Titus ivhere lie must look for the
origin of this hostility. These unhappy men evidently
did not belong to the stern and rigid Jewish party
who hated with a bitter hate all the followers of the
Nazarene, but were of the number of those sleepless
opponents of St. Paul and his school — the Judaising
Christians.

(u) Whose mouths must be stopped, who
subvert whole houses.— The translation should
run here, seeing they subvert, &c. There was, indeed.
grave cause why these men should be put to silence;
the mischief they were doing in Crete to the Christian
cause was incalculable. It was no longer individuals
that their poisonous teaching affected, but they were
undermining the faith of whole families. For an
example how Titus and his presbyters were to stop the
mouths of these teachers of what was false, compare
Matt. xxii. 34 — 46, where the Lord, by His wise, power-
ful, yet gentle words, first put the Sadducees to silence,
and then so answered the Pharisees that "neither
durst any man from that day forth ask Him any more
questions."

Teaching things which they ought not, for
filthy lucre's sake.— Here St. Paul g'jes to the root
of the evil, when he shows what was the end and aim of
these " teachers' " life. It was a mean and sordid
ambition, after all — merely base gain. When this is
the main object of a religious teacher's life, his teaching
naturally accommodates itself to men's tastes. He
forgets the Divine Giver of his commission, and in his
thirst for the popularity which brings with it gold, his
true work, as the faithful watchman of the house of
Israel, is forgotten and ignored.

(1^) One of themselves, even a prophet of
their own, said.— St. Paul had spoken (verses 10,
11) in the severest terms of certain influential members
of the Cretan Church ; he had even alluded to their
disastrous teaching ruining whole families, evidently
implying that he had perceived among the Cretans a
readiness to welcome a teaching which countenanced
a laxer moral tone, the invariable result of perverted
doctrine; and now he supports his own condemning
words by a reference to a well-known Cretan poet— to
one who, according to tradition, was even honoured
by them as a god. The verso quoted is an hexameter,
written by the famous Epimenides, of Gnossus. in
Crete. He flourished some 600 years- B.C.. anil is said
to have lived to the strange age of 150 years or more.
He appears to have deserved the title of prophet in its
fullest sense — Plato speaking of him as a ''divine
man." and Cicero coupling him with the Erythaean
Sibyl. The first three words were well known, and

even used by Callimachus in his hymn to Zeus,
" Cretans always liars." St. Paul's knowledge of tho
poem where the verse occurs is one of the several
instances which we meet with in his writings indicating
his familiarity with profane literature. The quotation,
occurring as it does in the midst of an inspired writing,
was the occasion of Calvin's wise, brave words, which
style those who decline to avail themselves of the
learning and research of profane writers as super-
stitious. Nothing wise and learned, he says, should be
rejected, even though it proceed " ah impiis."

The Cretians are alway liars.— This terrible
estimate of the national Cretan character is amply
borne out by the testimony of many profane writers,
such as Callimachus, Plato, Polybius, Ovid, &c. The
very word " to Cretize " (kretizein), or to play the
part of a Cretan, was invented as a word synonymous
with "to deceive," "to utter a lie;" just as corinthiazein,
" to play the part of a Corinthian," signified to commit
a still darker moral offence. Some writers suggest
that this despicable vice of lying was received as a
bequest from the early Phoenician colonists.

Evil beasts. — These words refer to their wild, fierce
nature, their ferocity, their love of cruelty.

Slow bellies.— Rather, idle bellies. These terms
paint with sharp accuracy another of the evil charac-
teristics of the Cretan peoples — their dull gluttony, their
slothful sensuality. The words are used especially of
those who, by indulging their bodily appetites, become
corpulent and indolent.

(13) This witness is true.— St. Paul emphatically
here endorses the very severe judgment which their own
great prophet-poet had written 071 the national Cretan
character. He (St. Paul) had lived long enough in their
midst to be able to bear his grave testimony to the
truth of Epimenides' words. He had witnessed tho
sad havoc in Christian life which their evil national
propensities had caused.

Wherefore rebuke them sharply, that they
may be sound in the faith.— Some render, where-
fore confute, that is to say, set them right, sharply
(apotomos). The substantive apotomia, translated in
the English version " severity," is used in the passage
about the " wild olive tree " (Rom. xi. 22). As a
surgeon's knife cuts away the diseased and mortifying
flesh, so must the words and discipline of Titus,,
the Apostle's representative in Crete, sharply rebuke,
and, if need be, punish the sinning members of
the congregation. Not merely the false teachers —
the deceivers — are referred to here, but also the
deceived, those whole households mentioned in verse
11; and the object of this severity in words and
acts was that the lapsed, the doctrinally and morally
sick, among the Cretan Christians, should be restored
to health again ; and tin* sound state of faith and
practice would, St. Paul proceeded to show, consist in
" the rejection of Jewish fables and the commandments
of these men."

(1*) Not giving heed to Jewish fables —
Such as we now find embodied in the Talmud. (See
Note on 1 Tim. i. 4.) The oral law and traditional

'Charges for the Aged

TITUS, IT

of both Sexes.

fables, and commandments of men, that
turn from the truth. <15) Unto the pure
all things are pure : but unto them that
are defiled and unbelieving is nothing
pure ; but even their mind and conscience
is defiled. (16) They profess that they

I know God ; but in works they deny him,
I being abominable, and disobedient, and

maa'1'1 °nada , unto every good work reprobate.1

CHAPTEE II.-

the things which

-W But speak thou
become sound doc-

interpretations and glosses liad, to a great measure,
obscured the original simple text. The Israelite of the
time of St. Paul, trained iu the stricter Jewish schools,
was taught that the way to wiu the approval of the
Most High was through the observance of countless
ceremonies and the practice of an elaborate ritual.

And commandments of men.— The nature of
these commandments we gather from the words of
the next (the 15th) verse. They seem to have been
on the subject of abstinence from meats and from
other things created by God for the use and enjoy-
ment of man. The directions of St. Paul here are,
in spirit, in exact accordance with the Lord's teaching
at Jerusalem, related in Matt. xv. 1 — 9. St. Paul's
dread of this kind of asceticism and of the peculiar
school of teaching, then so popular among the Jews,
which enjoined an elaborate system of ritual and
observance, which pronounced meritorious in the sight
of the Eternal the practice of rites and ceremonies
minute and trifling, was grounded upon a fear — too
often, alas, verified — lest with the observance of the
ritual, and the careful practice of the ceremonies and
rites, the moral law should be lost sight of. With this
school a holy life consisted rather in observing care-
fully a ritual, than in living justly, nobly, generously.

(is) Unto the pure all* things are pure.— The
spirit of this famous saying of St. Paul, occurring almost
in the same language in the Roman Letter (chap. xiv.
20), was the groundwork of much of the Gentile Apostle's
teaching. The words of the Lord Jesus above referred
to (Matt. xv. 2 and 11) contain the same grand
truth. "All things" include much besides mere food
— in a word, include all acts connected with every- day
life which in themselves are neither right nor wrong,
neither good nor evil, but which derive their colouring
of good or evil solely from the doer of the act. Bengel
well sums this up in his " omnia externa eis, qui intus
sunt mundi, munda sunt."

But unto them that are defiled and un-
believing is nothing pure. — Here, as so often in
these Pastoral Epistles, the last utterance, so to speak,
of that grand life of St. Paul's, purity and sound doctrine
are inseparable. Here "the defiled," "the polluted,"'
we are told, are the unbelieving; and to these, the
Apostle says, nothing is pure. Yet there is nothing in
God's creation impure or evil — the evil and impurity
are in the mind and heart of men; these may, and often
do, defile and make impure the choicest gifts of God's
creation. One word is still left to be said on the teaching
of this memorable verse. Who arc the pure to whom
all things are pure? Only those in this world who
have sought cleansing by faith in the precious blood of
Christ.

But even their mind and conscience is de-
filed.—Here St. Paid defines exactly the sphere over
which the moral defilement of these hapless ones, who
belong to the Christian company, alas, only in name,
extends — the mind and conscience. The first of these —
the mind— is the willing as well as the thinking part of
man, as it has been well defined the human spirit
(pneuma) in one of its aspects, not simply quatenus

cogitat et intelligit, but also quatenus vult. Defilement
of this mind (nous) means that the thoughts, wishes,
purposes, activities, are all stained and debased. The
second of these — the conscience (suneidesis) — is the
moral consciousness within, that which is ever bringing
up the memory of the past, with its omissions and com-
missions, its errors, its cruel, heartless unkindness, its
selfish disregard of others. When this is defiled, then
this last safeguard of the soul is broken down. The
man and woman of the defiled conscience is self-satisfied,
hard, impenitent to the last.

(16) They profess that they know God; but
in -works they deny him. — These bitter foes to
the truth, Titus must remember, will present them-
selves under the guise of friends. They will rank
themselves in the Christian company openly, with their
lips confessing God, but in their way of life, in their
acts, practically denying the very things they were so
careful to affirm with their lips ; in other words, taking
back, withdrawing, the solemn declaration of faith they
had been making.

Being abominable. — This is the only place where
this strong expression is used in the New Testament.
It signifies that the life and actions of these men,
avIio professed to be His servants, had made them hate-
ful in the sight of God.

And disobedient. — Rebellious and opposed to all
law and order would Titus find them.

And unto every good work reprobate.—
As a consequence of their hypocritical, selfish, defiled
life, these men, when any good and noble work had to
be done, were simply useless, worthless; and to teachers
of this kind were many of the Cretan believers content
to go for instruction in Christian doctrine and practice.

II.
(i) But speak thou the things which become
sound doctrine.— To introduce a regular organisation
and the principle of a central church government
into the numerous but scattered Christian congrega-
tions in Crete was Titus' first work. The second and
equally weighty mission the Apostle Paul charged him
to execute was the refutation of a school of professed
Christian teachers, who were promulgating doctrines
at variance with the teaching of St. Paul and his
brother Apostles, and were also, by their example and
lives, fatally lowering the tone of Christian life. It was
to the latter point — the evil moral influence of these
teachers — that the attention of Titus was especially
directed. False doctrinal teaching was bringing forth
already its sure fruit, in the form of a life utterly unlike
the pattern life of the Master. In contrast to this
erroneous and misleading teaching, Titus is directed to
exhort the varied ages, the different sexes, the bond and
the free, to live lives which will bring no dishonour
upon their Christian profession. The strictly practical
nature of these charges is remarkable. Before touching
upon doctrine, he presses home to these various ages
and ranks the necessity of a quiet, useful life. The
"sound doctrine" by which Titus was bidden to regulate
his teaching is an expression peculiar to these Pastoral

The Aged Wom&n are to

TITUS, II.

Exhort tlie Younger.

trine : (2) that the aged men be sober,1
~, .. , E grave, temperate, sound in

Chap. n. 1—5. ^ .,, '. , *..

Cha rgea to pri- faith, m charity, in patience.

rate members (3) T^e ^ women like-

ol the Church; . ,-, P ,7 j • i i

wise, that they be m beha-

[: I'ij'i'Zly ,co-\ yi°llv as becometh holiness,2 not false

:,,",",■''',„« ke- 1 accusers,3 not given to much wine,

**"• j teachers of good things ; (4> that they

i or, wiie. may teach the young women to be sober,4

; to love their husbands, to love their

Epistles (see Note on 1 Tim. i. 10), and stands in clear
contrast to the sickly, unhealthy teaching, fanciful and
false, of the misleading teachers of Crete.

(-) That the aged men.— Not presbyters, or elders,
in an official sense, but simply the " old men " in the
congregations,

Be sober.— In a more extended sense than the bare
literal meaning of the word would give. Let the elder
men be "thoughtful," in contrast with the thought-
lessness of careless youth.

Grave.— And quietly earnest, in contrast with all
passion and undue excitability.

Temperate. — Discreet, or self-restrained, would be a
better rendering for the Greek word.

Sound in faith, in charity, in patience.—
Here Paul the aged sums up for the aged men of
Crete in these three words, so well known by all his
devoted hearers then, by all the devout students of his
theology in subsequent ages, the great principles out
of which the true saint life springs — faith, love,
patience. In the famous Pauline trilogy of virtues,
in this place, " patience " takes the place of hope,
because this brave patience, this enduring fortitude,
especially becomes the old man waiting for death.
In respect to these " three" they must be healthy, sound.
The faith must not be adulterated with superstitions —
the love must be chivalrous, not sentimental. It must
be no partisan feeling, but a tender affection, broad and
inclusive, as was St. Paul's and his Master Christ's. The
patience must be no mere tame acquiescence in what
seems to be the inevitable, but must be brave, enduring,
suffering — if suffering comes — for the Lord's sake with
a smile on the lips. " Not without reason," writes
Calvin, " does St. Paul include in these three the sum
of Christian perfections." It is with "faith " that we
worship God — no prayer, no work of piety, can be
severed from " faith." " Love" spreads its wings over
all our duties to our neighbour; and "patience" must
ever go hand in hand with both " faith " and " love."
Without " patience " could " faith " hardly endure ; and
the affronts and unkindnesses of the world would,
without this high virtue of patience, soon deaden and
even destroy " love."

(3) The aged women likewise.— St. Paul, faithful
to what had now become one of the guiding principles of
Christianity, the equal position of women in the city
of God, fellow-heirs with men in the citizenship of
the city which hath foundations, proceeds to remind
the elder Women of Crete of their own high duties
in the company of believers. They now — the women —
must remember that the position which Christ and
His disciples had claimed for them in the world was
not without its grave responsibilities. These aged
women of tho flock, like the elders just exhorted, had
also much to do for Christ.

That they be in behaviour as becometh holi-
ness.— That is, that they should show themselves as
it becometh holiness ; or. more literally, in demeanour
reverend. The Greek word rendered " in behaviour,"
or " in demeanour," includes dress, appearance, con-
versation, manner ; includes an outward deportment
dependent on something more interna".. The elder

Christian woman in her whole bearing should exhibit
a certain dignity of sacred demeanour; there should lie
something in her general appearance, in her dress,
in her speech, in her every-day behaviour, which the
younger and more thoughtless sister could respect and
reverence— an ideal she might hope one day, if the
Master spared her so long, herself to reach. For an
admirable gloss on these words, see 1 Tim. ii. 9, 10.

Not false accusers.— Or better, perhaps, not
slanderers. St. Paul knew well how easily old age yields
itself to this temptation. Old age is at times intolerant.
censorious, even bitter, forgetful especially of the days
of youth ; but Christ's aged saints must use their voice
for better things than these.

Not given to much wine.— This warning was
probably called for, owing to the evil habits and
customs of the Cretans.

Teachers of good things.— Or. teachers of what
is good. Beza's rendering, " mistresses of honour "
{honestatis magistral), is singular and expressive. This
does not mean that these aged women should occupy
the place of public instructresses, but that they should,
by here and there speaking a kind warning word, and.
better still, by the golden silence of a useful honoured
life, teach their younger sisters lessons of truth and
faith and love.

(4) That they may teach the young women
to be sober. — Better rendered, simply, that they may
teach (or school) the young women, omitting the words
"to be sober." In Ephesus the representative of the
Apostle was directed himself to exhort the younger
women ; veiy likely the same charge being given here to
the aged women of the congregations was owing to the
state of the Cretan Christian, which called not only for
more practical and homely, but also for more individual,
exhortations. So here this special work was left for
the elder women among the faithful to carry out. Such
a reformation, not only in the discipline of the Church,
but also in the individual life and conversation, as St.
Paul desired to see in Crete, would never be brought
about by a sermon, or even by many sermons, however elo-
quent and earnest, from Titus. It would be a matter
requiring long time and patience, and would, as observed
above, rather follow as the result of patient individual
effort and holy example.

To love their husbands, to love their
children. — There was evidently in Crete a feverish
longing for excitement, for novelty in religious teaching :
hence the demand for, and conseepxent supply of. the
"fables" and "commandments of men" spoken of in
chap. i. 14. Women as well as men preferred rather
to do something for religion and for God, and thus to
wipe out past transgressions, and perhaps to purchase
the liberty of future licence. They preferred the rigid
and often difficult observance of the elaborate ritual. " the
tithing of the mint, and anise, and cummin," to quietly
and reverently " doing their Father's business." St.
Paul's method of correcting this false and unhealthy view
of religion was to recall women as well as men to the
steady, faithful performance of those quiet every-day
duties to which God had, in His providence, called
them. The first duty of these younger women, St. Paul

Advice to Young Women

TITUS, II.

and to Young Men.

children, (5) to be discreet, chaste, keepers
at home, good, obedient to their own
husbands, that the word of God be not
blasphemed. (G) Young' men likewise
exhort to be sober minded.1 W In all

1 Or, discreet.

things shewing thyself a pattern of good
works : in doctrine shew- chap, ii. 6—8.
ing uncorruptness, gravity, to young men.
sincerity, (8^ sound speech, that cannot
be condemned; that he that is of the

tells Titus, and which he would have their elder sisters
impress on them, was the great home duty of loving their
husbands and children. While St. Paul would never
have the women of Christ forget their new and precious
privileges in the present, their glorious hopes in the
future, yet here on earth he would never let them de-
sert, or even for a moment forget, their first and chief est
duties. Their work, let them remember, lay not abroad
ill the busy world. Their first duty was to make home
life beautiful by the love of husband and child — that-
great love which ever teaches forgetfulness of self.

(5) To be discreet.— See Note in verse 2 of this
chapter.

Chaste. — Not only in act, but also in look, in speech,
in thought, even in dress.

Keepers at home.— The older authorities here, in-

belongs especially to Titus. Among them, in respect
to age, he still must be reckoned ; as regai'ded their
peculiar temptations, none could be found so fit as the
still young Christian disciple of St. Paul (he was
probably about forty years of age when he was placed
over the Cretan Church) to set out vividly before them
both the peril and the only means of guarding against
it. Brought up in a Pagan home, not improbably
in the luxurious and wicked Syrian Antioch, drawn
to the Master's side in the fresh dawn of manhood,
tried in many a difficult task and found faithful, the
words of Titus, exhorting the youth of Crete to be
sober-minded, or self-restrained, would be likely to
have great weight. In this word, which urged self-
restraint, a young man's duty is briefly comprehended.
No task, the wise Chrysostoni tells us, is after all so

tead of "keepers at home" (domumcustodientes,domus hard and difficult for youth, as obtaining the mastery

euram habentes), read workers at home; the Greek
word is not found elsewhere. The sense of the passage
is. however, little changed by the alteration. The
meaning is clear, " Domi mansit lanam fecit." Home
duties, cares, pleasures, sacrifices of self — these God-
appointed duties ought to fill the mind and the heart of
the young wife. There should be no desire, no attempt,
to go round to the other houses, and so contracting
idle, gossiping habits. Hofmann thus sums up these
directions to the young Christian women of Crete,
" Gute Hausfrauen will der Apostel haben."

Good. — Gracious, kind, thoughtful to others, espe-
cially to inferiors.

Obedient to their own husbands. — More ac-
curately, submitting themselves to their own husbands.
Women who really love their Master Christ should take
care that, as far as in them lay, the law of subordination
in the family to its rightful head should be strictly
carried out. In a Church like that of Crete, made out
of divided houses often, where the Christian wife was
married to a Pagan husband, such a charge as this was
especially needful.

That the word of God be not blasphemed.
— These words refer to all the exhortations from verse
2 onwards, but more particularly to those clauses en-
forcing home duties immediately preceding. There was,
of course, the fear that wives, carried away by religious
fervour, might neglect the plainer every-day duties for
the seemingly loftier and more self-denying occupations
included under the head of religious works. Such
failure in every-day tasks would, of course, be bitterly
charged on the religion of Christ, and the gospel would
run the danger of being evil-spoken of, even in other
than purely Pagan circles. But the reference extends
over a broader area than that occupied by Christian
mistresses of households. All, of every rank and age,
who think they love the Lord Jesus should remember
that the " enemy " is ever watching their words and
works ; never should they who wear the colours of the
great King forget the charge of the King's son, " Let
your light so shine before men that they may see your
good works, and glorify your Father which is in
heaven."

(°) Young men likewise exhort to be sober
minded.— The task of influencing the youug men

over oneself in the matter of harmful pleasures. The
Apostle gives but few special directions here for his
disciple's guidance, for he is going to tell him how he
will best win these young men to the side of Christ.
It will be, he proceeds to show him, most effectually
done by the sight of the example of his own manly,
self-restrained religious life.

(7) In all things shewing thyself a pattern
of good works.— Hei-e St. Paul shows Titus that his
especial work is the instruction of no one peculiar class
or order, or age or sex, but that he is so to fashion his
whole life that it may afford a "pattern" to all — men
and women, bond as well as free; in all things a ceaseless
activity was prescribed to the superintending presbyter
in Crete. In everything that was earnest and true,
Titus ought to be the one showing an example to the
rest ; in peaceful, quiet days, as in times of danger and
threatening, he must set the pattern— now of useful
labour and toil — now of brave, patient endurance for the
Lord's sake.

In doctrine shewing uncorruptness, gravity,
sincerity.— The older authorities omit " sincerity."
Neither of the terms " uncorruptness " and "gravity"
refers to the subject- matter of the "doctrine" or
"teaching," but to the bearing and behaviour of the
" teacher." While he occupies the place of a teacher,
Titus must show in his life and conversation " un-
corruptness " — apthoria, the word found in the older
authorities, the meaning of which differs very slightly
from the word adiapthoria, found in the received
text. He must, in all those points of his life which
are connected with his teaching, show a purity (chastity)
and freedom from all interested motives ; he must bo
above seeking for popular applause ; but besides this
" uncorruptness," in everything touching public instruc-
tion he must aim at a certain "gravity." not only
in his public delivery of sermons and lectures, but
also in his general private intercourse with his flock.
He must, in a word, never forget he is the chief
teacher in the Church of Crete of his Master's
religion.

(«) Sound speech, that cannot be con-
demned.—The substance of Titus' teaching, whether
in the more private intercourse with individuals or
in his preaching in the Christian gatherings, must

Advice to l» given

TITUS, EL

to Christian Slam

contrary part may be ashamed, having

no evil thing to say of you. (l" Exhort

.. n ;.- servants to be obedient

Chap. 11. 9, 10. ,, .

t.. christian unto their own masters,
slaves, and to please them well in

all things; not answering again;1 <10>not

•_' or, th.it hrimji-tli
sulnitm
in, a. lin.Hi i'i'

purloining, but shewing all good fidelity;

that they may adorn the doctrine of

God our Saviour in all things. *u) For

the grace of God that

bringeth salvation

appeared to all men,2 these charges

i Chap. ii. 11—
hath is. Reason f0r

be healthy, practical, manly, in contrast to the sickly,
morbid, fanciful instruction the false teachers of Crete
were in the habit of giving. His words, too, must be
well weighed and thoughtful, as well as earnest and
impassioned ; they must be such as would expose him
neither to contempt nor to the charge of presumption.
Between the lines of the exhortation of the 7th and 8th
verses we can read the anxiety of the Apostle that his
representative in Crete should take all possible care
that the matter of his teaching and preaching was
studied and prepared with all the attention and thoughtso
important a duty demanded. He should remember, too.
that the words as well as the works of the Christian
teacher will be subject to a sharp and often hostile
criticism. These warnings and reminders of St. Paul,
it should be borne in mind, belong to all ages of the
faith.

That be that is of the contrary part may be
ashamed, having no evil thing to say of you.—
The older authorities, with one exception, read " of us,"
instead of " of you." If Titus fairly carries out the
exhortation of the last two verses, then the enemy,
either the false teacher or the Pagan opponent of Chris-
tianity, confounded by the pure, self-sacrificing, earnest
life, overcome by the well-weighed, thoughtful utter-
ance of great truths, by the impassioned exhortation to
men and women to lead noble, honest lives, will surely
be ashamed of his bitter opposition, when he finds
neither in the life nor in the teaching anything which he
can fairly criticise as " bad." As the better supported
reading, " of us,"' associates St. Paul and others with
Titus, the evil thing which might have been said of
Titus in reality would be spoken against St. Paul and
the elder Apostles.

(9) Exhort servants to be obedient unto their
own masters. — The accurate translation here is
bond servants. The words in this and the following
perse, it must be remembered, are addressed to " slaves."
With some special reference to the peculiar circum-
stances of the Church in Crete, St. Paul had been
giving general directions to his representative (verses
•1—8 ) respecting instruction and advice he considered it

turbed. St. Paul knew it was a hard matter to persuade
the bondman, fellow-heir of heaven with the freeman,
to acquiesce patiently in his present condition of misery
and servitude. Hence these repeated charges to this
class. These poor sufferers were to obey cheerfully,
readily, as the next clause told them.

And to please them well in all things ; not
answering again.— The last words are better
translated not gainsaying ; the Vulgate has contra-
dicentes. It signifies that they should obey cheerfully.
willingly, without sullenness ; not thwarting or setting
themselves against their masters' plans or desires or
orders ; and the Apostle, in verse 10, gives them a
noble inducement for this brave, sweet patience he
would have so earnestly pressed upon them. Such con-
duct on their part, he tells them, would serve greatly to
help the Master's cause; it would prepossess many
hostile minds in favour of a religion which could so
powerfully influence even the slave. Chrysostom com-
ments thus : " Greeks form their estimate of doctrines
not from the doctrine itself, but from the actions and
the life " (of those who profess the doctrine).

(10) Not purloining, but shewing all good
fidelity. — It must be remembered that many of the
slaves in the Roman empire were employed in other
duties besides those connected with the house or on the
farm. Some were entrusted with shops, and these
being left often quite to themselves, of course great
opportunities for dishonesty and fraud were constantly
present. Others received an elaborate training, and
as artists, or even physicians, worked in part for their
masters. A slave in the days of St. Paul had a hundred
ways of showing to his owner this true and genuine
fidelity, opposed to mere assumed surface obedience and
service.

That they may adorn the doctrine of God
our Saviour in all things.— A slave cheerfully
accepting his hard yoke, and striving with hand and
brain to please and advance the interest of his earthly
master only for the dear love of Christ, must have been
in those days of cynical seZ/-love a silent, yet a most
powerful preacher of a gospel which could so mould

expedient should be given to the varied orders and ages | and elevate a character so degraded. Calvin remarks

of professing Christians in the island. These directions
were arranged with respect to " age" and " sex." He
now turns to the question of the instruction of another
large class, among whom were to be found many
Christians — " the slaves." These he masses together
under one head. Not improbably these " words" to be
addressed particularly to slaves were called out by some
particular instances of insubordination and of im-
patience under their unhappy condition among the
Cretan slaves. Indeed, the repeated warnings to this
unfortunate and oppressed class (see Eph. vi. 5 ; Col.
iii. 22; 1 Tim. vi. 1) tell us that among the difficulties
which Christianity had to surmount in its early years
was the hard task of persuading "the slave" that the
divine Master who promised him a home, if he were
faithful and true, among the many mansions of His
Father, meant nut that the existing relations of society
should be then changed, or its complex framework dis-

43 257

that it is indeed noteworthy how God deigns to receive
an adornment from skives, whose condition was so mean
and abject that scarcely were they considered to rank
among men at all ; " they were ranked as ' possessions,'
just like cattle or horses." Professor Reynolds very
happily remarks here : "' This teaching of St. Paul is
in harmony with the words of the Lord Jesus — out
of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou per-
fected praise. God gets His highest praise from the
lips of little children. His robes of glory from the
faithfulness, honour, and simplicity of born slaves."

(ii) For the grace of God that bringeth sal-
vation hath appeared to all men.— More accu-
rately translated, JFbr the grace of God hath appeared.
bringing salvation to all men. "For" gives the
ground, the base upon which the practical exhortations
to freemen as well as to bond-servants, contained in
verses 1 — 10, rest. These words might be paraphrased

T!i<i Teaching of the Grace of God.

TITUS, II.

Our future Hope.

<12> teaching ns that, denying ungodliness
and worldly lusts, we. should live soberly,
righteously, and godly, in this present

world ; <13> looking for that blessed hope,
and the glorious appearing of the great
God and our Saviour Jesus Christ :

thus : " Yes, exhort all classes and orders, every age of
life, each sex, bond as well as free, to struggle after
pure, good, righteous lives, for I tell you, in very truth,
like a sun on a darkened world has the grace of God
arisen with salvation in its beams." Compare the
grand Isaiah passage, '"Arise, shine; for thy light is
come, and the glory of the Lord is risen upon thee "
(Isa. lx. 1) ; and also the words of Malachi (iv. 2),
"Unto you that fear my name shall the Sun of
righteousness arise with healing in his wings." (See,
too, Isa. ix. 2.) The thought of these passages was
not improbably in St. Paul's view while he wrote the
words to Titus telling him to exhort his flock, for
God's grace had appeared to all men. The Greek
word translated " appeared " occurs in Luke i. 79 and
Acts xxvii. 20 — both writings closely connected with
St. Paul, if not in great part written by him— and
in each of these passages it is used to express the
shining of the sun. The "grace of God" here spoken
of is that divine favour to and love for men upon which
the whole work of redemption was based, the object of
which redemption was the ultimate restoration of man.
The epiphany, or manifestation of this grace to the
world, commenced with the incarnation of our Lord;
but the reference here must not be limited to that or to
any one event in the blessed Life. The expression
" bringing salvation to all men " is another of those
hard sayings which have been pressed into the service
of that kindly but erring school of expositors which
shuts its eyes to the contemplation of the many un-
mistakable sayings which warn the impenitent and
hardened sinner of the sad doom of eternal death.
The "grace" alone brings salvation to all men— in
other words, it is that grace of God whereby alone it is
possible for mankind to be saved. The expression by
no means asserts that all men will be saved by it, but
that it is the only means by which salvation is possible.

(12) Teaching us.— Literally, disciplining ns ; edu-
cating ns by life's sad experiences. God's grace is in
truth a stern discipline of self-denial and training for
higher things.

Denying ungodliness and worldly lusts.—
More accurately, to the intent that, having denied,
&c. The object of the loving discipline of our
Father in heaven is that we, having done with those
things in life which are offensive or dishonourable to
God, having put aside as worthless all inordinate
desires for the things of this world — all those things
which exclusively belong to this life and have nothing
to do with the life to come — having denied all this, that
we should live as righteous men the remainder of our
lives here.

We should live soberly, righteously, and
godly. — In these three terms the blessed life our Lord
would have His own to lead on earth is summed up —
to ourselves, to our neighbour, and to our God. The
first, " soberly," to ourselves — wisely and temperately,
keeping ever a mastery over our passions ; the second,
"righteously" — justly and honourably, having due
regard to our duty towards our neighbour ; the third,
" godly " — piously, ever remembering to live as in the
presence of the Eternal.

In this present world.— Or, in the present course
of tilings. The Apostle adds these words to his sum-
mary of the life Christians should lead, to remind them.

that the present world was but a transitory, passing
scene after all, and that there was another and a ■
different " course of things " at hand ; and this leads
him on to another point. The manifestation of the
" grace of God," in the first coming of the Lord in h n m i-
liation (verse 11), teaches us to live our lives in ex-
pectation of the second manifestation of His glory in
His second coming in power (verse 13). We must — in
this great passage contained in verses 11 to 14 — bear in
mind that there is a two-fold epiphany spoken of : the
one, the manifestation of the " grace of God " — that is
past (it was the first coining and the earthly life of
Christ) ; the other, the manifestation of the " glory of
God " — that is to come. It will be shown in the second
advent when the Lord comes in glory with His holy
angels ; and the first epiphany (manifestation) in
humiliation is an ever-present reminder to us to live in
continued expectation of the second in glory.

(13) Looking for that blessed hope, and the
glorious appearing. — The Greek should here be
rendered, looking for the blessed hope and manifesta-
tion of the glory. And that holy life, just urged on the
believer, of cpiiet self-restraint, of love to others, of
piety towards God, must be lit up by a blessed hope,
by a hope which is far more than a hope ; that holy life
of the faithful must be a continued waiting for a
blessed hope — " the hope laid up for us in heaven "
(Col. i. 5). It may be asked, What is this hope P We
answer, it is " the hope of glory " which we shall share
with the Son of God, when we behold Him as He is.
So for us the hope of glory is intimately bound up
with the second coming of the Lord. Then the life of
the lover of the Lord must be one continued looking
for, waiting for, the coming of the Lord in glory — must
be a looking for that hour when we shall see in all His
divine majesty, Him who redeemed us. In that life
and light, in that majesty and glory, His own will
share.

Of the great God and our Saviour Jesus
Christ. — The translation here should run, of our great
God and Saviour Jesus Christ. From the English
version, it would seem that Paul's idea was that the
Christian should live waiting for the glorious appearing
of the great God, accompanied with our Lord Jesut-
Christ. The rendering we have adopted, on what
seems conclusive grounds, speaks of a Christian life, as
a life ever looking for the glorious appearing of our
great God and Saviour Jesus Christ.

In this sublime passage the glory of the only
begotten Son alone finds mention. Taken thus, it is a
studied declaration of the divinity of the Eternal Son,
who is here styled " our great God and Saviour."
Reasoning merely on grammatical principles, either
translation would be possible, only even then there is
a presumption in favour of the translation we have
adopted. (See Ellicott's Note on this verse.) But other
considerations are by no means so nearly equally
balanced. The word "manifestation" {epiphany)-,
the central thought of the sentence, is employed by
St. Paid in his Epistles five times, and in every one
of them to describe the manifestation of Christ, and
in four of them to designate the future manifestation
of His coming in glory, as here. The term epiphany
is never applied to the Father.

Again, the whole of the context of the passage

Titus himself is earnestly

'u) who gave himself for us, that he
might redeem us from all iniquity, and
purify unto himself a peculiar people,
zealous of srood works. P*> These thines

TITUS, III. Existed by St. Paul

speak, and exhort, and rebuke with all
1 authority. Let no man despise thee.

CHAPTER III.— <l> Put them in mind

specially relates t<> the "Sou of God." The introduc-
tion of the epiphany "of the Father" would be a
thought not merely strange to the whole New Testa-
ment, but would bring quite a new idea into this
statement, which sets forth so sublimely the epiphany
of Christ as the ground of the Christian's hope — an
idea, too. no sooner suggested than dropped, for the
passage goes on to speak only of the Son. Perhaps,
however, the weightiest argument that can be adduced
is the consensus of the Greek orthodox fathers, who,
with scarcely an exception, concur in the interpretation
which understands the expression "of our great God"
as used of Jesus Christ. To select two examples out
of the long chain of fathers reaching from the
.apostolic age who have thus understood this text :
" St. Paul here calls Christ the great God, and thus
rebukes the heretical blasphemy which denies His
Godhead" (Theodoret). "What can those persons
say," asks Chrysostom. referring to this passage, " who
allege that the Sou is inferior to the Father!1'" (See
Wordsworth's Note here.)

(14) Who gave himself for us.— (See Gal. i. 4;
Eph. v. 26.) These words take up the thought ex-
pressed in the term "Saviour" of the last verse.
" Himself," His whole self, as has been well said,
" the greatest gift ever given ; " " for us," that is, on
our behalf.

That he might redeem us from all iniquity.—
That He for us might pay a ransom, the ransom being
His precious blood. Our Saviour, by the payment of
this tremendous ransom — O deepest and most un-
fathomable of all mysteries! — released lis from every-
thing which is opposed to God's blessed will. Here the
mighty ransom is spoken of as freeing us from the
bondage of lawlessness ; elsewhere in the divine books
the same ransom is described as delivering us from the
penalties of this same breaking the divine law — " alles
was der ordnung Gottes widerstreitet " (Hofmann,
Commentary on Titus).

And purify unto himself a peculiar people.—
The expression " a peculiar people " is taken from the
LXX. translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, where
the words occur several times (see Ex. xix. 5 ; Dent,
xiv. '1 ) ; the idea is also purely an Old Testament one.
Just as Jehovah wished to establish a people which
should belong to Him (" peculiarly His." " His very
own"), submitting to His laws, in contrast to the rest
of mankind, lawless, idolatrous — so Jesus would set
apart and purify for Himself a people, which for His
sake should devote itself to God. in contrast to the
rest of humanity sunk in selfish sins. As Israel of old
lived under the constant impression that they would
again behold the visible glory of the Eternal, so His
people now should live as men waiting for a second
manifestation of His glory.

Zealous of good works.— The man who hopes to
Bee the epiphany of Jesus his Lord and Love in glory
will struggle zealously with hand and brain to live his
life in such a manner that he may meet his Lord, when
He comes in glory, with joy. It was a people com-
posed of such "zealots" of goodness, of men longing
for His sake to do their utmost for His cause, that our
great God and Saviour wished to purify unto Himself.

(15) These things speak, and exhort, and re-
buke With all authority.— These words are the
conclusion of this part of the Letter of St. Paul to
Titus. Anew division of the Epistle begins immediately
after this verse with the third chapter. He is to speak
the words — many of them sharp and bitter — told him
j by St. Paul; he is to remember now to exhort, now to
| rebuke, and all this " with authority," as chief pastor of
the flock of Crete formally commissioned and appointed.
Let no man despise thee.— " Speak," wrote the
; brave-hearted old man Paul, "speak with decision, and
| rebuke and punish if need be with vigour, remembering
i the dark character of the people with whom you have
: to do." And perhaps in the background of this stirring
admonition of the aged master to his disciple, placed
in so difficult aud responsible a position, there is the
anxious warning again : Yes, but show all diligence too
in your own words and doings, so that every word
of thine may have its full weight, that noue may
despise thee on account of thine own life.

III.

0) Put them in mind to be subject to
principalities and powers. — Very careful and
searching have been the Apostle's charges to Titus
respecting the teachers of the Church, their doctrine
and their life ; very particular have been his directions,
his warnings, and exhortations to men and women of
different ages on the subject of their home life. But,
with the exception of a slight digression in the case of
a slave to a Pagan master, his words had been written
1 with a reference generally to Christian life among
Christians. But there was then a great life outside
the little Christian world ; how were the people of
, Christ to regulate their behaviour in their dealings
with the vast Pagan world outside ? St. Paul goes to
the root of the matter at once when he says, "Put
them in mind," &c. "Very needful in Crete was such a
reminder respecting obedience. The island had. when
St. Paul wrote to Titus, been some century and a
quarter under Roman rule. Their previous govern-
ment had been democratic; and historians, like Polybius,
who have written of Crete, have dwelt particularly on
the turbulent and factious spirit which animated their
people; added to which, the many Jews who we know
formed a very large part of the Christian Church there,
always impatient of a foreign yoke, would in such
an atmosphero of excitement be especially eager to
assert then: right to be free from the hated rule of
Rome.

The Greek words translated "principalities aud
powers" are better rendered here by" rulers and autho-
rities." as the word " principalities *' is used occasionally
in the English version for an " order of angels." The
terms include all constituted governors and officials,
Roman and otherwise, in the island.

To obey magistrates. — Taken absolutely, to obey
the temporal power. Our Lord's words were the model
for all teaching in this division of Christian ethics.
One great teacher after the other, in the same spirit,
in varied language, urges upon the people of Christ,
a reverence and submission to all legally constituted
authority in the state. This devoted Christian loyalty,

The Attitude of Christians to

TITUS, III.

tlwir J'cijan Felloio-cilizeyv

to be subject to principalities and
Chap. iii. 1-7. powers,toobeymagistrates |
The attitude of to be ready to every good
Christians to- WOrk, <2) to speak evil of
wards Pagans. . 1 i ^

no man, to be no brawlers,

but gentle, shewing all meekness unto

all men. W> For we ourselves also were
sometimes foolish, disobedient, deceived,
serving divers lusts and pleasures, living
in malice and envy, hateful, and hating
one another. W But after that the
kindness and love 1 of God our Saviour

no bitter opposition in after years to their tenets
Could chill, no cruel persecution of individuals lessen.
Augustine, writes Professor Reynolds, could boast
that when Julian asked Christians to sacrifice and
offer incense to the gods they, at all hazards, sternly
refused ; but when he summoned them to fight for the
empire they rushed to the front. " They distinguished
between their Eternal Lord and their earthly ruler, and
yet they yielded obedience to their earthly ruler for the
sake of their [Eternal Lord." Least of any should we
expect St. Paul to write such words, so loyal and faith-
ful to Rome. He had found, indeed, little cause in his
chequered, troubled life to be grateful personally to the
Empire ; with ears too ready had Rome ever listened to
the cruel " informations " laid against him by his im-
placable Jewish enemies; she had imprisoned him,
fettered him, hindered his work, and threatened his life;
and when he was writing these deathless words of his,
urging upon his devoted Hock a loyalty changeless and
true, for him the supreme vengeance of Rome was close
at hand.

To be ready to every good work. — Ready
cheerfully to aid all lawful authority, municipal and
otherwise, in their public works undertaken for city or
state. The flock of Titus must remember that the
true Christian ought to be known as a good citizen and
a devoted patriot.

(2) To speak evil of no man.— These com-
mands of St. Paul to the Church of Crete breathe
throughout the spirit of Christ, who "'when He was
reviled, reviled not again ; " who said " Love your
enemies, do good to them that hate you, and pray for
them which despitefully use you and persecute you."
The Christian in the days of St. Paul, and for " many
days" after St. Paul had borne that gallant witness of
his outside the gates of Rome, would indeed often be
called in sad earnestness to put in practice these charges
of the Apostle. In days of persecution, in times of
suspicion, when the Christian profession exposed men
to hatred and to sore danger, when all men spoke evil
of them, these words of St. Paul were remembered and
acted upon, and not only in Crete.

To be no brawlers, but gentle, shewing all
meekness unto all men. — Or better, not con-
tention s, but, &c. These characteristics were not commc m
Virtues in Crete, then the resort and mart of so many
different nationalities. Its singular situation in the
Mediterranean, midway between Europe. Africa, and
Asia, has been noticed, as have been the dispositions
and vices of the inhabitants. Surely. St. Paul urges.
the professed followers of the Crucified among the
Cretans should aim at a nobler standard of life than
was common among these rough and often selfish
traders. These things charged here by St. Paul were
new virtues to men. They are held up to admiration
by no heathen moralists. The meekness signifies
kindly forbearance. This Christian feeling, which
looks lovingly on all soi-ts and conditions of men,
on the stranger and the outcast, even on the vilest
sinner, is especially enjoined here. It is the same
sweet spirit of love which desires, in 1 Tim. ii. 1,

that prayer and supplication be made in the public
Christian assembly for all men.

(3) For we ourselves also were sometimes
foolish, disobedient, deceived.— Better rendered.
For we ivere once ourselves foolish, disobedient, going
astray. Surely, the Apostle argues. Christians can never
refuse obedience to one in authority, or decline to bt
meek, courteous, kind, and forbearing to their neighbours,
because, forsooth, they deem the magistrate in authority
or their neighbours idolaters, and therefore outside the
pale of God's mercy and their courtesy; for remember,
writes St. Paid, we were once (not so long ago) our-
selves in their condition. We once needed mercy our-
selves. This strong appeal to Christians, by the
memory of their past, by the memory of what they
once 'were, must have gone home to one like Titus,
himself of a Gentile family, and most probably nurtured
in idolatry. It would, no doubt, be repeated with
strange, touching earnestness, would this argument of
St. Paul by Titus when he spoke to the assembly of the
Cretan Christians. We were once ourselves "foolish,"
that is, without understanding what was true ; and
"disobedient." that is. unwilling, indisposed, to do
what was right ; " deceived." or rather going astray

\ mantes), wandering away from the narrow road
which leads to life.

Serving divers lusts and pleasures. This
is the service we served in the old past days of our
sin and shame, while we were "disobedient" to what
was right and pure. We were obedient to, we were
" serving " as slaves, many an impure lust, many
a wrongful pleasure — for the lusts and pleasures to
which St. Paul referred were those of the people with
whom for the moment the Apostle was classing himself.
The pleasures of these partly Greek, partly Asiatic-
peoples consisted, indeed, in the wanton satisfaction of
the lusts of the flesh; their shameless revellings were
scarcely covered with their thin and flimsy veil of
beauty and false refinement.

Living in malice and envy, hateful, and
hating one another.— These pleasure-loving, lust-
indulging ones envied each one his neighbour the good
things he possessed ; and thus we — for we. remember,
were once of this number — once spent our lives in this
atmosphere of hate, hating others with a jealous dislike,
hated ourselves for the same reasons. Shall Ave then —
once like them — now refuse all sympathy to these poor
souls still left in ignorance and sin 'i

(4) But after that the kindness and love of
God our Saviour toward man appeared.—
Another thought now wells up in the Apostle's mind.
We of ourselves should never have become changed
men, had not the kindness of God and His divine love
for men shown itself. We. indeed, have no ground for
self-exaltation, no excuse for haughty treatment of
others, either in thought or action ; for if Ave now live
other and purer lives than they live, our change to
better and higher things was owing to no desert or
merit of ours, but solely to the mercy and the love of
God. The changed life is here solely attributed to the-
manifestation to man of the kindness and love of God

Reason glvt n

TITUS, III.

for this Attitude,

toward man appeared, ':,) not by works
of righteousness which we have clone,
but according to his mercy he saved us,

by the washing of regeneration, and
renewing of the Holy Ghost ; ,(i) which
he shed on us abundantly1 through

tmr Saviour. Here Go<l our Saviour, as in 1 Tim. i. 1,
and in several other passages iii the Pastoral Epistles,
must be understood as "God the Father;" the " kind-
ness " differs from the " love towards man."' The
first signifies generally that divine, measureless, all-
comprehensive love which we know is the glorious
attribute of God. The second expression tells of the
special love which the Almighty has for man, and
which lias been so marvellously shown in the sacrifice
and deatli of the Son of God for us. The two
words -the measureless, divine love which embraces
all creation, and the special love of God for man —
taken together, make up the one idea expressed by the
" grace that bringeth salvation," of chap. ii. 11 of this
Epistle. In the rare word philanthropic', the "love of
God toward man.*' a quiet but very solemn reminder
is given to those ■•Christians"* who would have no
dealings with their less pure heathen neighbours. The
word applied here to God tells them to love men. even
the enemies of their holy religion ; they are to obey
the heathen magistrate, and to think kindly of and
to act courteously towards their heathen neighbour,
because God has loved men — all men. Here are they
to lie imitators of the divine pity, copyists of the
divine love.

W Not by works of righteousness.— This by
no means asserts that such works ever had been done,
anil then produced, as it were, before the bar of God,
and weighed and found insufficient; but it simply
maintains that to win salvation such must be done.
Sad experience, more forcibly than any theological
assertion, has demonstrated to us all the utter impos-
sibility of any of us, even the holiest, ever, even for
one day, doing the works of a purely righteous man.

But according to his mercy.— As there was
nothing in us which called for such a salvation, as
there were no acts of ours which deserved reward.
His gift of salvation, which includes (verse 7) eternal
life, was owing entirely to His divine love which saw
and pitied our misery, our endless suffering. Out of
this hopeless state the eternal pity lifted us. and put
us into a state of salvation. The next clause specifies
the outward and visible sign of the salvation our loving
God was pleased to ordain in His Church, namely,
" baptism ; " but here great care must be taken properly
to understand what St. Paul meant by this baptism, to
which lie attributed so great power. In St. Paul's
mind it was no mere observance, but was a sacrament,
in which all that was inward properly and completely
accompanied all that was outward. In another place
the Apostle has grandly paraphrased his words here. In
the Galatian Letter (chap. iii. 27) he writes how "that
as many as were baptised into Christ have put on
Christ,'' that is, have entered into vital union with
Him — a blessed state, which most surely leads to life
eternal, if the baptised only remain faithful.

By the washing of regeneration, and re-
newing Of the Holy Ghost.— Seeing, then, that
God has saved us by His own act, independently of
any work of ours, we ask. How has He effected this ?
The words we are here considering give the answer to
the question. The Greek should be rendered. " by the
laver of regeneration."' &c. Then, by means of the
laver of regeneration, &c, has God put us into a state

of salvation. In other words. He has effected this by
means of '•baptism** (for the laver here can only
signify the baptismal font, and is called the laver of
regeneration because it is the vessel consecrated to the
use of that sacrament), whereby, in its completeness
as a sacrament, the new life in Christ is conveyed.
Baptism, then, is the means through which we receive
the saving grace of Christ; in its laver we are born
again to a new life, in it we receive strength through
the Holy Ghost constantly to renew and to develop this
new life, for it is not only the laver of regeneration hut
also of renovation by the Holy Spirit. But baptism is
here understood inallits completion — theoutward visible
sign accompanied with the inward spiritual grace. In
the case of one wdio is come to years of understanding

king baptism, repentance and faith in the promises

of inf
wdio have also from the very earliest times been, through

of God are absolutely required. In the case

•ocl are absolutely required. In tlie case ot infants,
have also from the very earliest ti
this same laver, enrolled in the communion of Christians,
the same profession is required, only they make it by
their sureties, and directly that they have come to years
of discretion they solemnly and publicly assent to what
had been already affirmed in their name. Thus, by means
of the laver of regeneration. &c., or. in other words,
by baptism in all its completion — the outward act being
accompanied with the inward faith — He saved us. that
is, put us into a state of salvation. Of the difference
between "regeneration"' and ''renovation." the first.
" regeneration," is well explained in the words of the
collect for Christmas Day. which speaks of the " re.-
generated " as " made God's children by adoption and
grace." The second, '' renovation," the same collect
goes on to speak of. when it prays that " the regene-
rated " " may daily be renewed by the Holy Spirit."
The first, " regeneration," is spoken of by St. John in
his words, " Ye must be born again" (John iii. 7); the
second is alluded to by St. Paul when he wrote, " the
inward man is renewed day by day " (2 Cor. iv. 16).

(6) "Which he shed on us abundantly through
Jesus Christ our Saviour.— In other words,
which— namely, the Holy Ghost— the Father poured
abundantly on us through Jesus Christ our Saviour.
The argument continues thus : He (God) saved us first
by the laver of regeneration and of renewal of the
Holy Ghost, which God — he proceeds to say— shed (or
poured out) abundantly on us. and this constant re-
newal of the Holy Ghost poured out on the heart of
each individual believer was owing to the mediation of
Jesus Christ, without whose blessed atonement this
effusion of the Holy Spirit never had taken place. ' In
this verse the several operations of each of the Persons
of the blessed Trinity are clearly set forth.

It is the Father who is ever pouring out upon us the
Holy Ghost. It is owing to the Son's atonement and
intercession that this blessed outpouring takes place at
all. It is the Holy Ghost poured out on us abundantly
who builds us up in the new life, and trains us for the
glories of eternity. Here the " Son " is given the same
title of " Saviour,"' which, in the preceding verse (5),
was applied to the " Father." The appellation belongs
to both the First and Second Persons of the "blessed
Trinity, inasmuch as the Father may be said to have
been the architect of our salvation, while the Son was
its builder.

261

The [i must live Good Lives

TITUS, III.

and avoid Vain Questions

Jesus Christ our Saviour ; (7^ that being
justified by his grace, we should be j
made heirs according to the hope of j
eternal life. <8' This is a
faithful saying, and these j
things I will that thou !

Chap, iii . 8-
Good work;
joined.

■11.

affirm constantly, that they which have
believed in God might be careful to main-
tain good works. These things are good
and profitable unto men. (9) But avoid
foolish questions, and genealogies, and.
contentions, and strivings about the

(') That being justified by his grace, we
should be made heirs according to the hope of
eternal life. — Here appears the glorious design of
God's salvation. "We were in a hopeless and lost state,
from which God's love for man saved us by the laver
of regeneration and renovation ; and this was the end
for which He saved us — that we should be heirs of
eternal life. " Being justified." that is. freed from the
future punishment and consequences of sin, and re-
ceived into the favour and friendship of God, which
favour and friendship had been, through sin. forfeited.
" By His grace," by the favour and kindness of God the
Father are we restored to His love and friendship.
"Heirs," see Rom. viii. 17. where this thought of our
heirship of heaven is enlarged. " According to the hope
of eternal life;" this life eternal is still for us in the
future, though ever present in respect of hope ; children
of God we indeed are, and sharers in many a good
gift of our Father, but eternal life, that glorious in-
heritance, is still in the far future, and as yet can only
be enjoyed by us in hope, but it is a sure hope —
eternal life — the hope of which is the mainspring of
all Christian work and activity — though it includes it.
of course, is something far more than merely endless
existence. A veil, impenetrable to mortal eye. hangs
between us and the many mansions of the Father's
house. " It doth not yet appear what we shall be ;" we
only know that then, we. in company with an innumer-
able host of blessed beings, shall share in the beatific
vision ; we only know that then " we shall ever be with
the Lord ;" and that with this thought and with these
words are we to comfort one another. (See 1 Thess.
iv. 17, 18.)

(8) This is a faithful saying.— Then St. Paul,
having, in those few but sublime words we have been
considering, painted our present happy state — nappy
even on earth, where the glorious promised inheritance
was still only a hope — and having shown how that this
blessedness was the result of no efforts of our own. but
that we owe it solely to the tender love and to the
divine pity of God for man — cries out. Yes, " faithful
is this saying !"

And these things I will that thou affirm con-
stantly.— I will that ever and again, in the con-
gregation, these words of mine, woven into the tapestry
of creed, or hymn of thanksgiving or supplication, be
repeated by the faithful believers in the Lord, to re-
mind them, not only of the glorious hope of eternal life,
but also to bring Him to their remembrance to whom
they owe this glorious heritage ; and as they repeat or
hear the words telling them of the wondrous mercy
showed to them for no merit or desert of their own.
they will the more willingly think kindly of. and act
loyally with, other men still living in that deep and
loathsome darkness where they once dwelt, until God,
in His pity, delivered them. Hearing this " faithful
saying," thought the old man St. Paul, my children in
Christ will surely be disposed to be more loyal subjects,
more faithful citizens, more loving neighbours, though
their civil magistrates, their fellow-citizens, their neigh-
bours, be still idolaters, living without God in the

world. And there was yet another reason for the
constant repetition of this " faithful saying : " men
would see that they owed all their glorious Christian
privileges, their present peace, their future hope, to
God's free grace — that they had done nothing to deserve
all this. Surely such a thought would spur them on
to noble deeds, if it were only to show they were not
wholly ungrateful. So he writes, Yes, affirm con-
stantly this faithful saying.

That they which have believed in God might
be careful to maintain good works.— But not
only would St. Paul have them show their gratitude for
the great mercy they had received, but he is specially
anxious that they who by God's grace had been led
into the Christian company should now not only
quietly and unobtrusively take their part in good
works, but should ever be careful to be forward in all.
such things ; he would have Christians conspicuous in
their generous zeal to forward all good and useful
undertakings. " Good works " here by no means is con-
fined to works of mercy and charity, though, of course,
they include such, still they possess in this passage a
far more comprehensive signification. All useful and
beneficent undertakings, public as well as private, are
reckoned among these " good works." As was observed
before, St. Paul's ideal Christian must be a generous,
public-spirited man. In the eyes of this great teacher
the cloistered ascetic would have found but little favour ;
his hero, while ever the devoted, self-sacrificing lover
of the Lord, must be known among his fellow-citizens
"as careful to maintain good works."

These things are "good and profitable unto
men. — The accurate translation of the Greek here
would be. These are the things which are good and pro-
fitable unto men; but the older authorities omit the
article, ta, before hala. The rendering, then (omitting
the article), as given in the English version, would be
correct : " These things " — that is, this practical every-
day teaching, which bids Christians distinguish them-
selves among their fellow-citizens and countrymen in-
all generous and useful enterprises— in all good things,
whether public or private — these things, says the
Apostle, are good and profitable unto men; in sharp
contrast to the unpractical and useless points insisted
upon in the false teaching, apparently too common in
the Cretan Church, and against which Titus is earnestly
warned in the next (9th) verse.

(9) But avoid foolish questions, and gene-
alogies.— The "questions" and "genealogies" have'
been discussed above (1 Tim. i. 4). The Apostle cha-
racterises them as " foolish." because they were of an
utterly unpractical nature, and consumed time and
powers which were needed for other and better things.
The " contentions " were disputes and wranglings which
arose out of arguments advanced by different teachers
upon the " questions" and "genealogies." The " striv-
ings about the law " were, most probably, arguments
suggested by disputed and intricate points connected
with the law of Moses. In the Talmud we possess _un-
numbered instances of all these strange and curious
inquiries about which men then gravely disputed and

262

j/o/r tltoae that Separated

TITUS, III.

themselves are to be treated.

law ; for tliey are unprofitable and vain.
\ man that is an heretici after the
first and second admonition reject;
(11) knowing- that he that is such is sub-
verted, and sinneth, being condemned
of himself. (Ia> When I shall send

Artemas unto thee, or Tychicus, be
diligent to come unto me

to Nicopolis : for I have de- S^VI"- 12n
. r, ,. ... 15. Titus will

termined there to winter, be summoned
<13) Bring Zenas the lawyer ^f\ to the
and Apollos on their journey pos

wrangled, but none of which could in any way teach
men how to make life more beautiful and loving, more
like that fair pattern which Sf. Paul's Master loved.
St. Paid, well versed — thanks to his early and elaborate
training — in all this tiseless, curious lore, once and for
all would expel from orthodox Christian teaching every-
thing which seemed to bear upon this favourite Jewish
theology — so called. It had, cancer- like, eaten the life
out of Judaism ; it should not, if he could prevent it,
poison in like manner the young life of Christianity.

fr10) A man that is an heretick.— The Greek
word translated "heretick" in the New Testament
occurs here only. The term "heresies" occurs twice
(1 Cor. xi. 19; Gal. v. 20). In neither, however, of
these passages does the word signify there a funda-
mental or doctrinal error. This sense belongs to a
us.".>\' of later times. From the meaning of the word
u heresy " in these passages of St. Paul, we are able to
deduce the signification of the term "heretic" here.
The '■ heretic " of the Church in Crete appears to have
been a man who, dissatisfied with the organisation and
discipline introduced by Titus into the Christian com-
munity— not improbably considering himself in some
way slighted — withdrew himself from the common body,
and gathering round him other discontented spirits,
established what might be termed a rival Church in
Crete. Although at first, perhaps, no marked erroneous
teaching forms part of the practice of such schismatics,
still the tendency in such small rival communities is
ever more and more to distinguish between their teach-
ing and that of the larger body from whom they, in the
first instance, cut themselves adrift.

After the first and second admonition reject.
— The Greek word rendered " reject " would be more
accurately translated shim, or avoid. There was, no
doubt, some self-willed factious party-leader in Crete
well known to St. Paul to whom he referred here; but
partly out of a loving hope that Titus would win him
to his side, partly from the knowledge that this Letter
was a public instruction to many a Church besides that
of Crete, the disturber remained nameless. He was
to be exhorted once, twice, and then if he remained
contumacious he was to be left simply alone to his own
devices. The community over which Titus presided in
the place of Paul no longer were to know the obstinate
heretic as a brother.

(U) Knowing that he that is such is subverted,
and sinneth, being condemned of himself.—
Better rendered, is perverted and sinneth, being self-
condemned. Inasmuch as thou knowest, seeing that
thy reproofs and warnings have been of none effect,
that he is " thoroughly perverted " the expression is a
very strong one. and signifies literally hath been turned
inside out. The same verb is used in the LXX.
translation of Dent, xxxii. 20, the " very froivard
generation" of the English version — having been
warned once and again, he is without the excuse of
ignorance, but sins on in the full consciousness of his
wilful and seditious life. His perverse conduct in
stirring up party-feeling in the Church publicly con-
victs him of doing the very wrong which in general he

2C3

professes to condemn. With these words the public or
official portion of the Letter to the presiding presbyter
in Crete closes. Paul had begun with directions how
the church life of the island — up to this period ap-
parently devoid of organisation — was to be arranged ;
he concludes with instructions how to deal with any
who presumed to set themselves in opposition to his
plans for the government of the community. The
central portion of the letter is occupied in discussing
how Christian doctrine is to influence the lives of those
accepting it. and especially it treats of the conduct of
Christians towards the Pagan world, with whom they
will necessarily be brought in contact.

(!-) When I shall send Artemas unto thee, or
Tychicus, be diligent to come unto me.— But
Titus is here reminded — perhaps with some reference
to the question of the treatment of the factious or
heretic persons just alluded to — that he is only the
temporary rider of the Cretan Church, on a special
commission of the great missionary Apostle. Not im-
probably one of these two was intended to supply the
place of Titus when this favourite and trusted assis-
tant of St. Paid was recalled to his master's side. Of
Artemas nothing certainly is known. Tradition, how-
ever, makes him subsequently Bishop of Lystra.
Tychicus is mentioned in five of the New Testament
writings— in Acts xx. 4 ; Col. iv. 7 ; 2 Tim. iv. 12 ;
and here. He seems to have been one of the most
esteemed of St. Paul's friends. He speaks of him as a
beloved brother, a faithful minister and fellow-servant
in the Lord; and the importance of the missions with
which he was entrusted by his master to distant
churches shows us how high this disciple stood in the
opinion of St. Paul.

To Nicopolis : for I have determined there
to winter. — There are several cities bearing this name
— in Cilicia, in Thrace, and in Epirus ; and considerable
doubt prevails as to which the Apostle has been re-
ferring. On the whole, the Nicopolis in Epirus seems
the most likely spot for the Apostle to have fixed on.
This city was built by Augustus after the battle of
Actium. whence it derived its name, " the City of
Victory."

(13) Bring Zenas the lawyer.— A name contracted,
as it seems, from Zenodorus. The term " lawyer "
might possibly indicate that this friend <>f Paul's was
a Roman jurist, but it is more likely that the law in
which he was an expert was that of Moses. Hippo-
lytns numbers him among the seventy disciples, and
relates how in after years he was Bishop of Diospolis.
He is never mentioned by name in the New Testament,
except in this place.

And Apollos. — This famous teacher appears often
in the New Testament records, in the Acts and several
of the Epistles. A distinguished Alexandrian scholar
and a disciple of John the Baptist, he was converted to
Christianity by the agency of the devoted Priscilla and
Aquila. the tent-makers. He became the friend and in-
timate associate of St. Paul, and might, had he chosen,
have rivalled or even superseded St. Paul in his supreme
authority over the churches planted along the Mediter-

Final Injunction to the People of

TITUS, III.

Christ to be zealous in Good Works.

diligently, that nothing he wanting unto
them. (14^ And let our's also learn to
maintain good works ] for necessary
uses, that they he not unfruitful. <15) All
that are with me salute thee. Greet

them that love us in the faith. Grace
be with you all. Amen.

IF It was written to Titus, ordained the first
bishop of the church of the Cretians, from Nico-
polis of Macedonia.

ranean sea-board. But Apollos seems resolutely to
have declined any such rivalry, and to have lived ever
as the loyal and devoted friend of the great Apostle ;
who, however, always seems to have treated the learned
and eloquent Alexandrian as an equal power in the
Church of Christ, classing Apollos with St. Peter and
himself. Luther's well-known suggestion that Apollos
was the unknown writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews
— " auctor Epistolse ad Hebrseos . . . ut ego arbritror
Apollo" — the authorship (though not the canonicity) of
Which has been a disputed point as far back as 'the days
of Origen, in the first half of the third century — has
been adopted, though, of course, with much reserve, by
many. Attention has been called to the somewhat re-
markable fact that the names of these three friends of
St. Paul, who were classed among his most faitliful
adherents in this almost the last Epistle he wrote, were
derived from three of the most famous heathen deities —
Zenas from Zeus ; Artemas from Artemis, the famous
tutelary goddess of Ephesus; Apollos from the well-
known sun-god.

(i*) And let our's also learn to maintain good
works for necessary uses.—" Ours," that is, those
who with St. Paul and Titus in Crete called upon the
name of Jesus. A last reminder to the brethren, whom
with a loving thought he calls " ours," constantly to
practise good and beneficent works. In the expression
" let ours also learn," it would seem as though St. Paul
would have Christians trained to the wise and thoughtful
performance of works of mercy and charity.

It was with such injunctions as these that men like
St. Paul and St. James laid the foundation storeys of
those great Christian works of charity — all undreamed

of before the Resurrection morning — but which have
been for eighteen centuries in all lands, the glory of
the religion of Jesus — one grand result of the Master's
presence with us on earth, which even His bitterest
enemies admire with a grudging admiration.

In the short compass of these Pastoral Epistles, in all
only thirteen chapters, we have no less than eight special
reminders to be earnest and zealous in good works.
There was evidently a dread in St. Paul's mind that
some of those who professed a love of Jesus, and said
that they longed after the great salvation, would content
themselves with a dreamy acquiescence in the great
truths, while the life remained unaltered. It is note-
worthy that these Epistles, containing so many urgent
exhortations to work for Christ, were St. Paul's last
inspired utterances. The passages in question are
chaps, i. 16; ii. 7, 14; iii. 14; 1 Tim. ii. 10; v. 10;
vi. 18; 2 Tim. ii. 21.

(15) All that are with me salute thee.— It is un-
certain where Paul was when he wrote this letter.
" All that are with me " include those with him,
journeying in his company. They are not named,
because the individuals composing the immediate fol-
lowing of St. Paul would be likely to be well known to
Titus.

Greet them that love us in the faith.— An in-
clusive greeting, embracing each member of the Cretan
Church whose love to him (St. Paul) was based upon
the common faith in the Lord Jesus. Greet all who
love me, as the earnest preacher of their faith and
mine.

Amen. — The greater number of the ancient autho-
rities omit "Amen."

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL TO

PHILEMON.

43"

INTRODUCTION

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL TO

PHILEMON.

I. The Date, Place, and Occasion of the
Epistle.— These are all perfectly clear. The Epistle
is of the same date as the Epistle to the Colossians,
sent by Onesinms. who was one of the bearers of that
Epistle (Col. iv. 9 ) ; dwelling emphatically on St. Paul's
imprisonment (verses 1. 9), looking forward confidently
to a speedy release and a return to Asia (verse 22).
Even the salutations, with one exception, are the same
in both (verses 23, 24, comp. with Col. iv. 10 — 14). It
is written to intercede with Philemon for Onesimns.
his slave — formerly " unprofitable," a runaway, and
probably a thief, but now converted to a new life by
St. Paul at Rome, and after his conversion becoming
at once " profitable " to St. Paul for ministration in his
captivity, and likely to he profitable also to his old
master, to whom, accordingly, St. Paul sends him back,
with this letter of intercession.

II. The Persons to whom it is addressed.—
All we know of Philemon is gathered from this Epistle.
It is nowhere actually said lie was a Colossian ; but this
is inferred from the fact that Oiiesimus, his slave, is
described as of Colossse (Col. iv. 9). It is clear that he
was St. Paul's convert; but, as the Apostle had not
visited Colossae (Col. ii. 1), we may probably conjecture
that he had been brought under his influence during
his long stay at Ephesus. Possibly, like Epaphras
(Col. i. 7), he had been, under St. Paul's auspices, an
evangelist of his native place. For he is evidently a
man of mark; "the Church" gathers "in his house;"
he is able, by his love, "to refresh the hearts of the
saints," probably by temporal as well as spiritual gifts;
to him St. Paul entrusts the charge of preparing a
lodging for his hoped-for visit, and describes that visit
as " being granted," " through his prayers," to him and
his. We note also that the Apostle treats him as
almost an equal — as a " brother " (not " a son "), as " a
fellow-labourer," and as a "partner."

This last phrase— used distinctively, and without any
words of limitation to some particular work — is unicpie.
It occurs in close connection with the promise on St.
Paul's part to take upon himself the pecuniary respon-
sibility of any default of Oiiesimus — a promise empha-
sised by the writing of a bond of obligation in legal
form. Accordingly, it has been supposed that Philemon
was St. Paul's partner in the "tent-making" by which
he maintained himself with Aquila and Priscilla — first,
certainly, at Corinth (Acts xviii. 3), and afterwards,
as it appears (Acts xx. 35), at Ephesus; that he may
have still had. in his hands some of the money earned
by that common labour, and that from this St. Paul
offers to discharge the obligation taken upon himself
for Oiiesimus. The supposition is ingenious, and cer-

tainly quite possible ; but it revolts against all our con-
ceptions of St. Paul's character to suppose that he would
work beyond what was actually necessary for main-
tenance, so as to accumulate money, and keep a regular
debtor and creditor account with Philemon. Nor is it
easy to see why, if this was so, he should have so
urgently needed in prison the supplies sent from
Philippi (Phil. iv. 10—13). Accordingly, it seems
better to refer the " partnership " or " communion "
I see verse 6 of the Epistle | principally, if not exclu-
sively, to some united work of evangelisation or bene-
ficence (possibly devised during the common labour at
Ephesus) for the Churches of Asia, and especially for
the Church of Colossa?. Ecclesiastical tradition, as
usual, makes Philemon the Bishop of Colossae in the
hereafter.

Of Apphia we know nothing, except that tradition.
and the style in which the Epistle mentions her, both
support the idea that she was Philemon's wife.
Archippus, a minister of the Church, either of Colossa-
or Laodieea (see Note on Col. iv. 7), is on the same
ground supposed to have been his son. The tone of
the whole Epistle gives the impression of some wealth
and dignity in the family, nobly used for the relief of
necessity and the knitting closer of the bonds of
Christian unity.

III. The Genuineness of the Epistle.— It is
notable that, unlike the other two personal Epistles —
the Second and the Third of St. John, if. indeed, the
Second be really personal — this Epistle found its place
in all catalogues, from the Muratorian Canon down-
wards, and in all the ancient versions. We might have
supposed that, in respect of such reception, it would have
suffered from the improbability of any public reading
in the Church, from the want of adaptability to theo-
logical or ecclesiastical uses, and from the idea which
seems to have prevailed — which is noticed by St. Chry-
sostom on the Epistle, and which St. Jerome in his
preface to the Epistle (vol. vii., p. 742, ed. Vallarsii.
1737) refutes with his usual strong sense and trench-
ancy — that the occasion and the substance of the Epistle
were too low for the Apostolic inspiration. " They will
have it," St. Jerome says, " either that the Epist le which
is addressed to Philemon is not St. Paul's, or that,
even if it be his. it has nothing in it tending to our
edification ; and that by many of the ancients it was re-
jected, since it was written for the purpose merely of
commendation, not of instruction." But this kind of
criticism did not prevail against the common acceptance
of its authenticity. Even Marcion did not tamper with
it. as Tertullian (adv. Marc. v. 42) and St. Jerome ex-
pressly declare. Origen, the great critic of the East,

PHILEMOK

as St. Jerome of the West, quotes it without hesitation.
In the Church generally it remained unshaken as oue

of the Epistles accepted by all.

In the larger criticism of modern times the very
reasons which induced doubt in the fourth and fifth
centuries will be accepted as the strongest internal
evidence of its genuineness. The utter improbability
of the forging of such an Epistle, which admits of no
controversial or directly theological use, the exquisite
beauty and naturalness of the whole- style, eA'en the
vivid picture which it gives of an ancient Christian
camily— all have been felt to preclude any except the
most wanton scepticism as to its genuineness. It is
hard to conceive how any one can read it without feeling
that we have in it a picture of the Apostle of the
Gentiles, which we could ill afford to lose, but which
no hand, except his own. would have ever ventured to
paint.

IV. The Substance of the Epistle.— The great
interest of this Epistle is two-fold — (1) in its personal
relation to St. Paul's life and character, and (2) in the
light which it throws on the attitude of the gospel
towards slavery.

(1) It is the only strictly private Letter of St. Paul
— the one survivor, we may suppose, of very many-
preserved to us in the Canon of Holy Scripture. For
all the other Epistles are either Letters to the Churches,
or Pastoral Epistles of authoritative direction. Accord-
ingly it exhibits the Apostle in a new light. He throws
off. as far as possible, his Apostolic dignity, and his
fatherly authority over his converts. He speaks simply
as Christian to Christian. He speaks, therefore, with
that peculiar grace of humility and courtesy, which has.
under the reign of Christianity, developed the spirit of
chivalry, and what is called " the character of a gentle-
man"— certainly very little known in the old Greek and
Roman civilisations — while yet in its graceful flexibility
and vivacity it stands contrasted with the more impas-
sive Oriental stateliness. It has been customary and
natural to compare with it a celebrated letter of the
younger Pliny on a like occasion CEp. ix. 21. quoted in
Dr. Lightfoot's Introduction). But in Pliny himself
there was a tone of feeling differing very much from the
more ancient Roman character, approaching more nearl\
to the modern type. It would be curious to inquire,
whether in this tone of character, as in the actual
tenets of the later Stoicism, there might not be some
unknown and indirect influence of the Christianity,
which as yet would have been probably despised. Nor
will the comparison for a moment place even the highly
accomplished and cultivated Roman on a level with the
Jewish tentmaker of Tarsus.

There is to us a vivid interest in the glimpse thus
given into the private and personal life of St. Paul. "We
note, for example, the difference of tone — the greater
pathos and the less unqualified rejoicing — in which he
speaks of his captivity. "We observe the gladness with
which, when he rightly may. he throws off the isolation
of authority, and descends into the familiarity of equal
intercourse, lingering with an obvious delight in the
very word " brother." which breathes the very spirit of
freedom and equality. "We see how, under the Apostolic
mission, as under the Apostolic inspiration, free play of
personal character and of familiar companionship could
still live and flourish. "We seem to know St. Paul better,
even as an Apostle, because we are allowed to see him
when he chooses not to be an Apostle, but a "partner,"
and, moreover. " such an one as Paul the aged, and the
prisoner of Jesus Christ." But, even beyond this, we

may fairly draw from this Epistle a priceless lesson,
as to the place which true courtesy and delicacy
occupy in Christian character, and especially as to their
entire compatibility with high Apostolic enthusiasm,
with a keen insight into realities as distinct from forms,
and with the greatest possible plainness of speech in
due season. "We feel, as we read, how little it accords
with the idea that Christian men and Christian
ministers " have nothing to do with being gentlemen."
"We understand how true courtesy, as distinct from
artificial and technical culture of manners, is the
natural outgrowth of the " lowliness of mind " in
which -i each esteems other better than himself," and
of the sympathy of love which " looks not only upon
our own things," but, even in greater degree, " upon
the things of others."

(2) But of far greater interest still is the illustration
of the attitude assumed in the New Testament, and in
the early Church, towards the monstrous institution of
slavery.

How deeply that institution of slavery was en-
grained in all the history of antiquity, both Eastern
and "Western, we know well. Nor will this surprise any
one" who remembers that inequality — physical, mental,
and spiritual — is, quite as truly as equality, the law of
human life. Service and lordship, in some sense, there
must always be; and it is absurd to deny that this law
is, because we wish that it were not. or perhaps think
that it ought not to be. But equality is the law of the
primary qualities and rights of human nature ; inequality
only of the secondary qualities and rights. If this
relation be reversed in practice, we pass from what is
natural to that which, however frequent, is yet fatally
unnatural. Slavery is just such a reversal. Because
one race is stronger, abler, more commanding, moi'e
civilised than another, this is made a ground for crush-
ing out. in the weaker race, all the essential attributes
of humanity. Primarily by the unnatural agency of
war. secondarily by systematised organisation in peace,
the slave is made to cease to be a man : he is treated
simply as a brute beast of somewhat higher organisation
and usefulness than his fellows, or even " as a living
chattel or machine" — having no rights whatever, except
those which humanity may teach towards the lower crea-
tures, or expediency enforce in relation to the machinery
of the prosperity and progress of the master. Since, in
some sense, freedom of action and cultivation bring
out natural inequalities more and more strikingly,
slavery, in the absence of some counterbalancing power,
rather advanced than receded with the progress of
heathen civilisation. Under the Roman empire, depend-
ing mainly on organised force rather than on intellectual
cultivation, it presented this characteristic and intole-
rable incongruity, that it held in bondage men at least
as noble in race as their conquerors, men even more
highly cultivated, and heirs of more ancient civilisa-
tions.

That the Old Testament should recognise the exist-
ence of slavery, especially in inferior and degraded
races, was only to be expected. That slavery under
the patriarchal simplicity should have been lighter than
under the higher civilisation of the nation of Israel,
though at first sight startling, is yet, on more careful
thought, seen to be natural. That the Mosaic law
should attempt only to mitigate the irresponsible
despotism of the master, and that in this respect it
should make a marked distinction between the Israelite
and the foreigner, is thoroughly accordant with our
Lord's declaration, that it was made '* for the hardness
of men's hearts." and with the exclusiveness of privilege

2G8

PHILEMON.

which it claimed in all things for the chosen race.
Slavery, accordingly, continued in the Jewish people,

though — thanks to those mitigations of the Law. to
llic protest against Oppression and cruelty so familiar to
us in prophecy, and to the very influence of a spiritual re-
ligion, wherever this was really accepted — it was actually
very far milder than under Greece or Rome. Still
it did exist. Nor will this surprise those who have duly
weighed — what advocates and opponents of slavery, in
dealing with the Old Testament, have constantly failed
to weigh — the essentially imperfect and preparatory
character of the Jewish covenant.

But what line would Christianity take P Nothing,
of course, could be clearer than that it was radically
opposed in principle to the whole conception and prac-
tice of slavery. For it brought out the fundamental
equality or brotherhood of all, in the regenerate human
nature, in which "there was neither Jew nor Greek,
barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free." It devoted itself
with a very special earnestness to redress all existing
inequalities, by exalting the humble, by glorifying weak-
ness, by restraining the self-assertion of strength. Above
all, it consecrated that brotherhood in Jesus Christ ;
its whole conception of the spiritual life consisted in
the union of each individual soul with God in Christ,
so giving to individuality a sacredness utterly incompa-
tible with the very possibility of absolute despotism of
one Christian man over another. But of carrying out the
principle there were two ways. One was, so to speak,
" of law," embodying it at once in a declaration of
freedom, abrogating all slavery within the Christian
Church, protesting against it, as against all moral evils,
in the world at large. The other was "of the Spirit,"
proclaiming the great truth of brotherhood in Christ
and souship of God, and then leaving it gradually to
mould to itself all institutions of society, and to eradi-
cate whatever in them was against God's fundamental
law. reasserted in the word of Jesus Christ. Now of
these two ways it is not hard to see that to adopt the
former way would have been to revolutionise suddenly
the whole of society, to preach (though unwillingly) a
servile war. and to arm all existing governments by the
very instinct of self-preservation against the infant
Church, which, even as it was. excited their suspicion and
alarm. Independently of all thought of consequences.
we could not but anticipate that by its very nature
Christianity would take the way of the Spirit, rather
than the Law. But there can be no doubt that,
historically, this was the way which it did take without
hesitation or reserve. The principle laid down broadly
by St. Paul (1 Cor. vii. 20 — 24) was that " every man
should abide" in the outward condition "in which he
was called," only " with God," in the new spiritual
unity with God sealed to him in the blood of Jesus
Christ. He applied that principle to the cases of cir-
cumcision and nncircumcision, marriage and celibacy;
he did not shrink from applying it for the Christian
community to the case of submission to "the powers
that be." even to death, and for the individual to the
crucial and extreme case of slavery and freedom. How-
ever we may interpret his words in 1 Cor. vii. 21 (where
see .Vote), they clearly imply that to one who is at once
"the Lord's freeman"' and "Christ's slave " the out-
ward condition matters comparatively little. It may
be that in this case, as in the case of marriage, St. Paul
was partly influenced by the consideration that "the
time was short." Yet his teaching really depended, not
on this expectation, but on the fundamental principle
ami method of Christianity. The declaration. " Not
now a slave but a brother," a " brother beloved," and

2GS

" a brother beloved in the Lord," brought the forces of
human duty and human affection, under the inspiration
of religious faith, to bear on the prison-house of slavery.
Deeply founded as its walls were, and cemented by the
use of centuries, they could not but fall under the com-
bined attack of these three irresistible powers.

Meanwhile the gospel set itself to two immediate
works. First, to raise the self-respect of the slave, to
comfort his sorrow, to nerve him to bear the hardships
of his cruel lot. This it did sometimes by glorifying
suffering, in the bold declaration to the slave that his
suffering, whatever it was, was a brotherhood in the
suffering of the Lord Jesus Christ, who Himself " took
upon Him the form of a slave," and " suffering for us
left an ensample," in which even the helpless and
despised slave could "follow His steps" (1 Pet. ii.
18 — 25). Sometimes, on the other hand, by setting
forth to him the spiritual freedom, which no " master
after the flesh " could take away, and by declaring that
all service was ultimately a service to the Lord, to be
rendered not only " from the heart," but " of good
will," and rewarded here and hereafter with the
heavenly prize (Eph. vi. 5 — 8; Col. iii. 22—25). Under
both these convictions it taught the slave still to be
patient under "' subjection," till the end should come.
Next, Christianity turned to the masters. It bade
them remember their responsibility to the same Master
in heaven, under whom their slaves served, and who
would certainly make, in His strict retribution, no
" respect of persons ; " it claimed that they should " do
the same things " to their slaves, recognising a mutual
duty, and giving them all that was " just and equal,"
due to the indefeasible rights of humanity ; above all
that they should recognise in them a common brother-
hood in Christ.

Now this is precisely the line which St. Paul
pursues in respect of Onesimus. He, the runaway
slave of Philemon, apparently an idler and a thief, had
made his way to Rome. " the sink," as its writers
bitterly complained, " of the civilised world." There
St. Paul had somehow found him, and had regenerated
the true humanity which had been degraded in him.
He had found him a dear son ; he had felt the comfort
of his affectionate ministration. How deeply this
had impressed on his mind the whole question of slaves
and masters we see by the strong emphasis, marked by
almost verbal coincidence, with which, in the Ephesian
and Colossian Epistles, he dwells on the subject gene-
rally. But. coming to the particular case, he bids One-
simus acknowledge the mastership of Philemon, and go
back to submit to him. and to offer atonement for his
past misdeeds and flight. He will not even interpose
by authority, or, by keeping Onesimus at Rome, put
any constraint on Philemon's freedom to use his legal
power. But he shows, by his own example, that the
slave is to be treated as a son. He sends him back, not
as a slave, but as " a brother beloved in the Lord." He
" knew that Philemon would do even more than he
said." He may have looked forward in prophetic fore-
sight to the time when the whole Christian community,
like Philemon, should draw the inference, unspoken but
irresistible, and set absolutely free those who were not
slaves, but brethren.

That expectation has been realised. It is remarkable
that from very early days the iron cruelty of this Roman
slave law began 1 ogive way. We may allow much in this
respect to the growing dominion of universal law, and
to the influence of the nobler philosophies; but we may
be permitted to doubt whether ♦ lie unacknowledged prin-

>les of Christianity were not already leavening public

PHILEMON

opinion, and beginning to make the change even in law.
which was afterwards seen in the codes of Christian em*
perors. But one thing is certain historically, that in
the abolition, certainly of ancient serfship in Europe,
and perhaps of modern serfship in Russia, in the pro-
hibition of the slave trade, in the great sacrifices for
emancipation made by England in the last generation,
and the United States of America in this, it was Chris-
tianity, and not simple philanthropy, which actually
did the beneficent work The battle was the battle of

humanity; hut it was fought under the banner of the
Cross. Even while we wonder that the victory should
have been so long in coming, we must confess that
it has been won; and against all forms of mitigated
slavery in modern society, experience certainly warns us
to trust, not to the sense of common interest, the con-
viction of mutual duty, or even the enthusiasm of
philanthropy, hut to the faith which recognises in the
poorest and the weakest, even in the idler and the
sinner, " a brother beloved in the Lord."

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL TO

PHILEMON.

(1) PAUL, a prisoner of Jesus Christ/
and Timothy our brother,
s-ihiit-xtion- 3 un^° Philemon our dearly
beloved, and fellowla-
bourer, M and to our beloved Apphia,
and Archippus our fellowsoldier, and to
the church in thy house : (3) grace to

i you, and peace, from God our Father
and the Lord Jesus Christ. (i) I thank
my God, making mention Versos 4 — 7.
of thee always in my g3$j£ft
prayers, w hearing of thy love and for
love and faith, which thou t}n\ comfort

, . t , i xt derived -there-

hast toward the Lord from.

[This Epistle divides itself naturally into —

(1) Salutation to Philemon and lus house

(verses 1 — 3).

(2) Thanksgiving for their faith and love (verses

4-7).

(3) Intercession for Onesimus, as now the

Apostle's "son" in the faith, and "the
brother!" not slave, of his master Philemon,
with promise to make good any defaidt of
his in times past (verses 8 — 20).

(4) Conclusion, expressing St. Paul's confidence

in Philemon, his hope of visiting them, and
final salutation (verses 21 — 25).]

(!) A prisoner of Jesus Christ. -It is interesting
to note the substitution of the name " prisoner,"
appealing to sympathy, for the usual title of " Apostle,"
embodying a claim to authority. In the other Epistles
of this period (see Eph. iii. 1—13 ; iv. 1 ; vi. 20 ; Phil,
i. 12 — 20; Col. iv. 18) the Apostle's captivity is dwelt
upon mainly as a ground of glory and thankfulness,
only secondarily as a cause for sympathy. Here, on
the contrary, in this personal Epistle, and in accord-
ance with St. Paul's courteous determination " not to
command, but for love's sake to entreat." the latter
aspect assumes an almost exclusive prominence.

Timothy.— Comp. Phil. i. 1; Col. i. 1. Here, as in
the other Epistles, the salutation includes Timothy, as
desiring to imply in him, St. Paul's "own son in the
faith." a closeness of connection and sympathy with
the Apostle not found in others. But in all cases, and
especially in this, the Letter is emphatically the Letter
of St. Paul alone.

Philemon.— See Introduction.

(2) Apphia. — The name is usually taken to be the
Roman name Appia. But the occurrence of such a
name in a Grceeo-Asiatic family, though of course
possible, is perhaps improbable; and Dr. Lightfoot has
shown that it occurs in the form Apphia in many
Phrygian inscriptions, and may therefore be naturally
supposed to be a native name. There seems little
doubt that Apphia was Philemon's wife, like himself
'• the beloved." though not the <; fellow-labourer " or
'• partner " of St. Paul.

Archippus our fellowsoldier.— From this men-
tion of Archippus we may certainly conclude that he

was a member of Philemon's family ; the ordinary con-
jecture makes him his son. The name "'fellow-soldier,"
applied elsewhere only to Epaphroditus (Phil. ii. 25),
as the name " soldier of Jesus Christ " to Timothy
(2 Tim. ii. 3), appears to denote ministerial office in
Archippus, which agrees with the charge to him in
Col. iv. 18 to " take heed to his ministry and fulfil it."
Church in thy house. — See Note on Col. iv. 15.
The specially domestic and personal character of the
Epistle need not induce any limitation of the phrase to
Philemon's own family. As the joining of Timothy's
name in giving the salutation did not prevent the Letter
from being St. Paul's only, so the joining the Church
in the house in the receiving of the salutation docs not
prevent its being addressed only to Philemon and his
family, who were, like himself, interested in Onesimus.

(4) I thank my God . . .—Note the almost exact
verbal coincidence with the salutations in Eph. i. 15,
16 ; Phil. i. 3, 4 ; Col. i. 3, 4, with, however, the natural
distinction that this is briefer and simpler in style.

(5) Thy love and faith, which thou hast
toward the Lord Jesus, and toward all saints.
— This description of a faith directed not only to the
Lord Jesus, but to all the saints, has perplexed com-
mentators, and called out various explanations. (1) One
is that " faith " here (as in Rom. iii. 3 ; Gal. v. 22) is
simply fidelity ; but this can hardly be accepted as an
explanation of so well-known and almost technical a
phrase as '* faith toward the Lord Jesus Christ."

(2) Another, noting the distinction in the original
between the two prepositions here— the former (jjvos)
signifying direction towards, and the latter (eis) actual
contact with, its object — explains the phrase as signi-
fying '" the faith which has as its object the Lord Jesus
Christ, but which shows itself practically towards all
saints." But this, even if the word "hast" will bear
this gloss, seems too artificial for such a Letter as this.

(3) The comparison with the contemporaneous Letter
to the Colossians — where we read, " your faith in the
Lord Jesus, and your love toward all the saints "
(Col. i. 4) — seems to clear up the matter. We have
here an equivalent phrase, in which, however (by what
the grammarians called cliiasmus), the extremes and
means correspond to each other. The idea which runs
through the Letter is Philemon's " love to the Baints."
In writing of that love St. Paul cannot refrain from

Joy in Philemon's love.

PHILEMON.

Entreaty to him for love's sake.

Jesus, and toward all saints ; (6) that
the communication of thy faith may
become effectual by the acknowledg-
ing of every good thing which is
in you in Christ Jesus. Wt For we have
great joy and consolation in thy love,
because the bowels of the saints are

I refreshed by thee, brother. (8) Where-
fore, though I might be Verses 8_14

much bold ill Christ to en- Intercession for
join thee that which is con- Onesimua.
venient, (9) yet for love's sake I rather
beseech thee, being such an one as Paul
the aged, and now also a prisoner of

referring it to its true origin — the faith towards the Lord
Jesus Christ. Hence the broken phrase. The sense
seems therefore to be that which in some MSS. has been
brought out by a natural correction, "thy faith towards
the Lord Jesus, and thy love to all the saints."

(6) That the communication of thy faith . . .
—The general idea of St. Paul's prayer for Philemon
is clear — that his "faith may become effectual," i.e.,
energetic and perfected, " in full knowledge." This is
exactly the prayer which, in different forms and degrees
of emphasis, opens all the Epistles of the Captivity.
(See Eph. i. 17 ; Phil. i. 9 ; Col. i. 9.) It describes the
true order of Christian life, so fully and beautifully
drawn out in Eph. iii. 17 — 19, beginning in faith,
deepened by love, and so growing to knowledge.

But it may be asked, " Why the communication of
thy faith ? " (1) The phrase is unicpie, but the word
rendered " communication " is the well-known word
generally rendered " communion," or "fellowship,"
except where (as in Rom. xv. 26 ; 2 Cor. viii. 4 ; ix. 13 ;
Heb. xiii. 16) it is used technically and derivatively of
" the communication " of almsgiving. The phrase,
therefore, should probably be rendered the " communion
of thy faith," i.e., " thy fellowship in faith." (2) But,
again, the question arises, "With whom is this fellow-
ship ? With God or man ? " The answer probably is,
"With both." Perhaps for growth in divine know-
ledge the communion need only be with God. But we
observe that the knowledge is not merely " of every
good thing," i.e., of all that is of God, but of " every
good thing which is in you (or, better, in us) to-
wards Christ Jesus." It is, therefore, the knowledge
of good — that is, of God's gift — as dwelling in man by
the unity which binds all to Christ Jesus. (3) Now
for knowledge of this, fellowship with man is needed,
as well as fellowship with God. The soul which dwells
alone with God, even in the holiest seclusion, knows
what is good in the abstract, but not what is good in
man in the concrete reality. But Philemon's house
was a centre of Christian life. St. Paid might, there-
fore, well speak of this his two-fold " fellowship in
faith," and pray that it might grow into full knowledge
at once of God and of man as in Him. (4) That all
such growth must be "towards Christ Jesus," dependent
on unity with Him and serving to deepen such unity, is
the characteristic doctrine of all this group of Epistles,
especially of the Colossian-Epistle, of which Oneshnus
was one of the bearers.

(") The bowels of the saints are refreshed by
thee. — The same idea is here carried on. St. Paul
declares his special joy to have been that " the bowels
(i.e., the hearts) of the saints, have been refreshed
through thee." The word " refresh " is the very word
used by our Lord in His gracious promise : " Come unto
me all ye that travail and are heavy laden, and I will
refresh you " (Matt. xi. 28"). It is ultimately in Him
that the hearts of the saints are refreshed. But in this
case it was through the instrumentality of Philemon, by
" the communion of faith," to which his active love was
the means of welcoming them, and in which they had

fellowship in Christ, both with the Father and with
His children. (Comp. 1 John i. 3.) St. Paul uses the
word " refresh " not unfrequently to express the relief
and rest given by Christian fellowship on earth. (See
below, verse 20; and comp. 1 Cor. xvi. 18; 2 Cor.
vii. 13.) We find it in the Apocalypse applied to the
rest with Christ in heaven (Rev. vi. 11 ; xiv. 13).

Brother. — The name is given to Philemon here and
in verse 20 with a marked emphasis of affection,
evidently implying some special intimacy of friendship,
not apparently at Colossse (for see Col. ii. 1) ; but per-
haps at Ephesus, during St. Paul's long stay there.
Probably Philemon (whose son Archippus is supposed
to have been) was St. Paul's equal in age, and although
actually his convert is not addressed (as usual) as his
"son in the faith." In this place, moreover, the title
"brother" has a peculiar appropriateness : for the Apostle
has been speaking of the love of Philemon, which made
him a brother indeed to all in the family of Christ.

(8—20) Here St. Paul enters on the main subject ot
his Letter — the recommendation to Philemon of his
runaway slave, Onesimus. All thoughtfid readers of the
Epistle must recognise in this a peculiar courtesy and deli-
cacy of tone, through which an affectionate earnestness
shows itself, and an authoi'ity all the greater because it
is not asserted in command. The substance is equally
notable in its bearing on slavery. Onesimus is doubly
welcomed into the Christian family. He is St. Paul's
son in the faith : he is to Philemon a brother beloved
in the Lord. In that recognition is the truth to which,
both in theory and in practice, we may look as being
the destruction of slavery.

(8, 9) Wherefore ... for love's sake . . .—Still
the same idea runs on. Philemon's love, shown in
Christian fellowship, is in the Apostle's mind; "there-
fore," he adds, "for love's sake" — speaking in the
spirit of love, to which he knew there would be a ready
response — he will not command, as an Apostle, what is
" convenient," i.e., seemly, in a Christian (comp. Eph. v.
14; Col. iii. 18), but will " entreat " as a brother.

<°) Paul the aged, and now also a prisoner
of Jesus Christ.— At this time St. Paul must have
been between fifty and sixty, and after a life of un-
exampled labour and suffering he might well call him-
self " aged," not, perhaps, in comparison with Philemon,
but in relation to his need of ministry from his " son "
Onesimus. It has been suggested by Dr. Lightfoot
that we should read here (by a slight change, or without
any change, in the original), the ambassador, and also
the prisoner, of Jesus Christ. The parallel with Eph.
vi. 20 — "for which I am an ambassador in bonds" — and,
indeed, with the tone in which St. Paul in the other
Epistles speaks of his captivity as his glory, is tempt-
ing. But the change seems to take much from the
peculiar beauty and pathos of the passage ; which from
its appeal to love, rather than to authority, suits especi-
ally with the thought, not of the glory of ambassador-
ship for Christ, but of the weakness of au old age
suffering in chains.

Commendation of Onesimus.

PHILEMON.

Intercession for him.

Jesus Christ. (10) I beseech thee for my
son Onesimus, whom I have begotten in
my bonds : ,n) which in time past was
to thee unprofitable, but now profitable
to thee and to me : <12> whom I have
sent again : thou therefore receive him,
that is, mine own bowels : {V^ whom I
would have retained with me, that in
thy stead he might have ministered unto
me in the bonds of the gospel : <14) but
without thy mind would I do nothing ;

(10) My son. — Properly, my own child, whom I
have beyotteu in my bonds, Onesimus. The name is
withheld, till Philemon's interest is doubly engaged,
for one who is the Apostle's " own child " (a name of
endearment given elsewhere only to Timothy and Titus),
and for one who was begotten under the hardships and
hindrances of imprisonment. At last the name is
given, and even then comes, in the same breath, the
declaration of the change in him from past nselessness
to present usefulness, both to the Apostle and to his
former master.

Onesimus. — Of Onesimus we know absolutely
nothing, except what we read here and in Col. iv. 9.
Tradition, of course, is busy with his name, and makes
him Bishop of Bercea, in Macedonia, or identifies him
with the Onesimus. Bishop of Ephesus, mentioned in
the Ignatian Epistle to the Ephesians (chap. i. 2 — 6).
The name was a common one. especially among slaves.

(11) In time past . . . unprofitable, but now
profitable. — The name Onesimus means " useful," or
•• profitable/' though derived from a different root
from the words here used. It is hardly possible not to
see in this passage a play on words, though (curiously
enough) this is not noticed by the old Greek commen-
tators. St. Paul seems to say. " He belied his name in
days past; he will more than deserve it now."

To thee and to me. — St. Paul says " to thee," for
he was sending back Onesimus. He adds " to me," in
affectionate notice of his kindly ministrations already
rendered to his spiritual father.

(!-) Thou therefore receive him. — The word
" receive " is not in the best MSS. It is supplied here
from verse 17 (apparently rightly in respect of sense)
to fill up a broken construction in the original.

Mine own bowels — i.e., my own heart, dear to
me as my own soul. There is, indeed, an usage of the
word which applies it to children as begotten of our own
hody. But this is hardly St. Paul's usage (see 2 Cor.
vi. 12; Phil. i. 8; ii. 1 ; Col. iii. 12; and verses 7 and
20 of this Epistle), though it suits very well with the
phrase " whom I have begotten " above.

(i:5) Whom I would have retained. — In the
original we have here a graceful distinction in two
points between the two clauses. The verb in the first
clause is " to wish ; :' in the second " to will." The tense
in the first clause is the imperfect : ' ' I was wishing,"
or "prepared to wish" (just as in Acts xxv. 22; and,
in the case of a cognate verb, Rom. ix. 3), implying,
perhaps, a suppressed condition ■ in the second it is the
past definite : " I willed," or " determined " finally.

In thy stead.— Here, again, there is a certain deli-
cacy of suggestion. A slave was his master's property ;
be could act only on his master's behalf and by his
consent. St. Paul is sure that Philemon's love for him
would have gladly given that consent, and so made
Onesimus an instrument of willing service to St. Paul.

that thy benefit should not be as it were
of necessity, but willingly. CW For
perhaps he therefore de- Verses 15 20i
parted for a season, that £™yer that

f, , i , . . Philemon will

thou shouldest receive accept him for
him for ever ; (16) not now S*- Paul's sake,
as a servant, but above a servant, a
brother beloved, specially to me, but
how much more unto thee, both in
the flesh, and in the Lord? W If
thou count me therefore a partner,

(l*) That thy benefit should not be . . .— The
benefit derived from the service of Onesimus St. Paul
acknowledges as coming from Philemon, because given
with his consent. He will not keep Onesimus and ask
that consent by* letter, lest it should be "as it were of
necessity:" i.e., lest it should wear even the semblance
of constraint.

<15) For perhaps he therefore departed (or,
was parted).— This is a further reason for sending
Onesimus back. St. Paul now touches on Onesimus'
" being parted " from Philemon, using a phrase not
only (as has been noted) euphemistic, but also one which
suggested that his running away was, however un-
consciously, overruled by a higher hand. God, in His
wisdom, "parted" him from Philemou " for a season,
that he might receive him for ever." The phrase
"for ever" is the word always used for "eternal."
The contrast with " for a season " might be satisfied
here by the merely relative sense of "perpetual" or
" life -long service;" but. considering that the phrase
is us,ed in direct reference to the brotherhood of the
Communion of Saints, it is better to take it in its
absolute sense, of fellowship in the life eternal.

(16) Not now as a servant, but ... a brother
beloved ... in the Lord. — In these words we have
at last the principle which is absolutely destructive of
the condition of slavery — a condition which is the
exaggeration of natural inferiority to the effacement of
the deeper natural equality. (1) The slave — the "living
chattel" of inhuman laws and philosophies — is first "a
brother," united to his master by natural ties of ulti-
mate equality, having, therefore, both duties and rights.
(2) But he is also a " brother beloved." These natural
ties are not only strengthened by duty, but made living
ties by the love which delights indeed to respect the
rights of others, but is not content without willingness
to sacrifice even our own rights to them. (8) Above all,
this is " in the Lord." The slave is bought by Christ's
blood, made a son of God, and therefore a brother to
all who are members of the family of God. To reject and
to outrage him is a rejection and outrage towards Christ.
Compare St. Peter's striking comparison of the suffer-
ings of the slave to the passion of the Divine Sufferer
(1 Pet, ii. 18—24). They suffer with Him, and He
suffers in them. It has been proved historically that
only by the aid of this last and highest conception has
the brotherhood of love — too slowly, indeed, but yet
surely — assumed reality. (See Introduction.)

Specially to me, but how much more unto
thee ?— St. Paul first emphasises his own love for
Onesimus. which, indeed, breathes in every line of the
Epistle ; but then goes on to infer in Philemon a yet
greater affection— a natural love towards the nursling
of his house, a spiritual love towards the brother " in
the Lord," lost and found again.

(!") A partner.— The title is peculiar. In the singular
3

Suretyship for Oneshnus.

PHILEMON

Confidence In Philemon.

receive him as myself. (18) If he hath
wronged thee, or oweth thee ought, put
that on mine account; (19) I Paul have
written it with mine own hand, I will
repay it : albeit I do not say to thee
how thou owest unto me even thine
own self besides. <20) Yea, brother, let
me have joy of thee in the Lord : re-
Verses 21-25. fresn mJ bowels in the
Salutation anci Lord. (21) Having confi-
conciusion. dence 'm tliy obedience I I

wrote unto thee, knowing that thou wilt j

also do more than I say. <22) But withal
prepare me also a lodging : for I trust
that through your prayers I shall be
given unto you. W There salute thee
Epaphras, my fellowprisoner in Christ
Jesus; (24) Marcus, Aristarchus, Demas,
Lucas, my fellowlabourers. <25) The
grace of our Lord Jesus Christ be with
your spirit. Amen.

IF Written from Rome to Philemon, by One-
simus a servant.

number (in which it is naturally more distinctive) and
in absolute use, unconnected with explanatory words
(such as we read in 1 Pet. v. 1), it is nowhere else
found, except in 2 Cor. viii. 23. where Titus is called
St. Paul's " partner and f ellowhelper ; " and even there
the context defines the partnership as relating to the
collection and ministration of alms: Here it can hardly
refer to general Christian fellowship, which would re-
quire some such words as " in Christ," or " in the
Spirit." and would not fully justify the strong personal
appeal of the passage. It must indicate some peculiar
bond of fellowship between St. Paul and Philemon.
Philemon was his convert (see verse 19) ; yet we notice
that he writes to him not as a son. but as a brother.
Evidently he was a leader in the Church at Colossa:.
Tradition, as usual, makes him its bishop. He must have
'been St. Paul's partner in some common work or special
communion of familiarity. (See Introduction, sect. 2.)

(is) If he hath wronged thee.— Properly. If he
wronged thee, evidently referring to the time of One-
simus' escape. " If he oweth thee ought " is similarly,
in all probability, an allusion to some theft at the same
time, couched in a hypothetical form, but implying no
doubt as to the fact.

. Put that on mine account.— Comp. a similar
commercial metaphor in Phil. iv. 15 — 17. and see Note
there. It is strangely out of character with the whole
tone of the Apostolic life to imagine (as some com-
mentators have done) a regular debtor and creditor
account between Philemon and St. Paul.

(19) I Paul have written it with mine own
hand. — St. Paul actually introduces here a regular
bond couched in legal form, written (as. perhaps, the
whole Letter was written) with his own hand. In so
doing he still continues the idea of the preceding
verse; but the following words show that, though
willing to stand to his bond, he knew Philemon too
well to suppose that he would accept it.

It is clear from this passage that the Apostle had
money which he could rightly call his own. At Ephe-
sus, where lie probably first knew Philemon, it would
probably be earned in the work with Aquila and Pris-
cilla, as at Corinth, and it is possible that some of it
might still remain. In Rome now, it could hardly be
from any other source than the offerings from the Church
at Philippi. They were given him freely; he might
fairly spend them on his own " son in the faith."

Albeit I do not say to thee . . .—Literally.
not to say to thee. Here St. Paul escapes from the
business-like promise of the last vei-se to the freer
atmosphere of spiritual relations. He knew that this
promise it was right for him to offer, but wrong for
Philemon to accept. Philemon owed his own self — his
new self in Christ — to the Apostle. In that was a debt

which he cotdd not repay, but would rejoice even in
this smaller matter to acknowledge.

(20) Let me have joy of thee.— Properly, may

1 have pleasure, or profit, from thee : a phrase used
especially of the mingled pleasure and help derived
from children. (See Dr. Lightfoot's Note on this
passage.) The word " I " is emphatic. St. Paul puts
himself forward to plead for Onesimus, what he him-
self could not plead. Nor can it be accidental that
the word " profit " is the root of the name Onesimus.
St. Paul says, in effect, " May I find thee (as I have
found him) a true Onesimus."

Verses 21 — 25 contain the conclusion of the Epistle
— hope to visit Philemon soon, salutation, and blessing.

(21) Confidence in thy obedience.— It is curious
to notice how. in this conclusion, St. Paul seems to
glide, as it were insensibly, out of the tone of entreaty
as to an equal, into the authority of a superior. The
word " obedience " is found in 2 Cor. vii. 15, there in
connection with " fear and trembling." He preferred
to appeal to Philemon's love; he knew that in any case
he could rely on his deference.

Do more than I say. — This can hardly refer to
anything except the manumission of Onesimus, and
possibly his being sent back again to St. Paul. Exactly
in this way Christianity was to work out the release of
the slave — not by command, but by free and natural
inference from its emphatic declaration of his true
brotherhood in Christ.

(22) A lodging.— The word often signifies " hospita-
lity " generally, which Philemon might naturally offer
in his own house, but which St. Paul would not suggest
or ask.

I shall be given unto you. — Literally, as a
favour from supreme authority. Comp. the technical
and forensic use of the word in Acts iii. 14; xxv. 11 :
for good in one case, in the other for evil. If he was
so " granted," it woidd be by Caesar instrumentally, by
God's overruling will ultimately. The passage, like
Phil. ii. 24, but even more definitely, expresses St.
Paul's expectation of a release which might enable him
to visit the East again. It is curious that there is no
similar allusion in the Colossian Epistle, sent with this.

(23) ]y/[y fellowprisoner. — Comp. Col. iv. 10, and
see Note there. The salutations here correspond
exactly in substance (though moi-e condensed in style)
with that passage, except that ". Jesus, called Justus "
(probably unknown to Philemon) is here omitted.

(25) The grace . . . — This form of St. Paul's usual
blessing is found also in Gal. vi. 18; Phil. iv. 23;

2 Tim. iv. 22. We notice by the word " your " that, like
the opening salutation, it is addressed to all Philemon's
family and " the church in his house."

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

HEBREWS.

INTRODUCTION

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

HEBREWS.

As the Epistle to the Hebrews is presented to the
reader in our English Bibles, various questions which
beset many other books of the New Testament appear

to hare HO place. It is entitled " The Epistle of Paul
the Apostle to the Hebrews '* ; and from the subscrip-
tion we learn thai it was written in Italy and sent to its
readers by the hand of Timothy. It is hardly neces-
sary to say that, whether these statements have or have
not a foundation in fact, they are wholly destitute of
authority here ; for no ancient manuscript adds to the
Epistle anything beyond the simple words " To the
Hebrews," and even this insei'iption can scarcely have
been affixed by the writer himself. Within the few
pages at our disposal we can do little more than present
a summary of the ancient evidence on the points in
question and the chief results of modern investigation.

I. Ancient Testimonies. Canonieityv— That
the Epistle was known and read before the close of the
first century is beyond doubt. The earliest Christian
writing beyond the limits of the New Testament is the
Epistle addressed to the Church of Corinth (about
A.D. 95), by Clement, writing in the name of the Roman
Church. This Letter contains no express quotation from
any Book of the New Testament, and one only (the
First Epistle of St. Paul to the same Church) is men-
tioned by name. In several places, however, words from
some of St. Paul's Epistles are interwoven with the
text without formal introduction. In exactly the same
manner, but to a greater extent, does Clement make
use of the Epistle to the Hebrews, as the following
quotation (from chap, xxxvi. ) will show : " Through Him
the Lord willed that we should taste the immortal know-
ledge ; who. being the bi'ightness (or. effulgence] of His
majesty, is so much greater than angels as He hath
inherited a more excellent name. For it is thus written :
He who maketh His angels winds (or, spirits), and His
ministers a flame of fire. But in regard to His Son
thus said the Lord ; Thou art My Son, I have this day
begotten Thee. Ask of Me. and 1 Mill give Thee
nations as Thine inheritance, and as Thy possession the
ends of the earth. And again He saith unto Him : Sit
at My right hand, until I have made Thine enemies a
footstool of Thy feet,"

This passage does not stand alone ; but of itself it is
sufficient to prove that the Epistle was well known to
the Roman Church at this early date. The traces of
the Epistle in the second century are clear, but not
numerous until we reach its closing years. Quotations
present themselves in the Homily which is commons-
called Clement's Second Epistle, written at Corinth or
Rome about A.D. 140; in writings of Justin Martyr
(a.d. 145), Pinytus of Crete (A.D. 170). Theophilus.
Bishop of Antioch (A.D. 180). It is also important to
note that the Epistle was one of the twenty-two books
included in the Syriac version of the New Testament.

the date of which is probably not later thai?. \.V. 15'.'.
That Marcion should have rejected the Epistle, and that
it is passed over in the Muratorian Fragment i probably
written at Rome about a.d. 170) are points of little
consequence ; for Marcion is known to have rejected
whatever conflicted with bis system of doctrine, and the
Latin document has not come down to us complete.

One testimony belonging to the close of the
second or the beginning of the third century is of great
interest and importance. It is found in one of the
works of Clement, who succeeded Pantsenus as head of
the catechetical school of Alexandria, about a.d. 190.
The work itself survives in fragments only ; but the
following passage is preserved by Eusebius {Eccles.
History, vi. 14) : " And in his Outlines to speak
generally, he (Clement) has given brief expositions
of all canonical Scripture, not even passing by the dis-
puted books — I mean the Epistle of Jude and the rest
of the Catholic Epistles, the Epistle of Barnabas and the
so-called Apocalypse of Peter. And moreover, he says
that the Epistle to the Hebrews was Paul's, but had
been written to the Hebrews in the Hebrew language,
and that Luke, having with great care translated it,
published it for the Greeks; hence this Epistle and the
Acts are found to have the same colouring of style and
diction. He remarks that the Epistle does not begin
with 'Paul an Apostle.' and with reason; for (he says),
writing to Hebrews, men who had become prejudiced
against him and were suspicious of him. he acted very
wisely in not repelling them at the outset by giving Im-
mune. Then a little below he adds : And as the blessed
presbyter before now used to say. since the Lord, as
Apostle of the Almighty, was sent to Hebrews, Paid
through modesty, as having been sent to Gentiles, does
not inscribe himself Apostle of Hebrews, because of
the honour belonging to the Lord, and also because he
went beyond his hounds in addressing Hebrews also,
when he was herald and Apostle of Gentiles."

"We can hardly doubt that by "the blessed presbyter "
is meant Pantsenus, whom Clement held in the highest
esteem. ••Thus" (as Dr. Westcott observes) "the
tradition is carried up almost to the Apostolic age.'*
It will be seen that with a strong affirmation of the
Pauline authorship of the Epistle is joined a distinct
recognition of its unlikeness to the other writinge of
the Apostle. Of much greater importance is the
testimony of Crigen. Many passages from his writings
might be" quoted in which lie speaks of the Epistle as
St. Paul's, and many more in which he appeals to it as
to other portions of the New Testament, without any
reference to authorship. In one of his latest works,
however, Homilies on the Hcbreirs (written between
A.D. 245 and 253). we have the complete expression of
his views. The Homilies are not preserved to us. hut
the passage is given by Eusebius in his Eccles. History
vi. 25), and is as follows: "That the style of the

HEBREWS.

Epistle which bears the superscription To the Hcbreus
does not exhibit the Apostle's plainness in speech
(though he confessed himself to he plain in his speech,
that is, in his diction), but that the Epistle is more
Grecian in its composition, every one who knows how
to judge of differences of diction would acknowledge.
And again, that the thoughts of the Epistle are wonder-
ful, and not inferior to the acknowledged writings of
the Apostle, this, too, every one who gives attention to
the reading of the Apostle's words would allow to be
true." To this, after other remarks, he adds : " But if
I were to give my own opinion, I should say that the
thoughts belong to the Apostle, but the diction and
the composition to some one who wrote from memory
the Apostle's teaching, and who, as it were, commented
on that which had been said by his teacher. If then
any church holds this Epistle to be Paul's, let it be
approved even for this. For not without reason have
the men of olden time handed it down as Paul's. But
as to the question who wrote the Epistle, the truth is
known by God (only) ; but the account which has
reached us is a statement by some that Clement who
became Bishop of Rome was the writer, by others that
it was Luke, who wrote the Gospel and the Acts."

The influence of Origen would naturally be great hi
removing doubts as to the acceptance of the Epistle.
Whilst the more thoughtful would learn froin him to
distinguish between directly apostolic authorship and
canonicity, the effect of his opinion and example on the
many would be to strengthen the belief that the Epistle
should be accounted St. Paul's. From this time
onwards the Church of Alexandria, as represented by
a succession of writers, seems to have held the Pauline
authorship as a matter free from doubt.

It is otherwise with the Latin writers of North
Africa. Tertullian (about a.d. 200), indeed, once
quotes some verses of chapter vi., but assigns them to
the Epistle of Barnabas to the Hebreios ; an Epistle
which, he says, deserves more respect than the Shepherd
of Hennas, as being written by a man who learnt from
Apostles and taught with Apostles. No other certain
quotation from the Epistle presents itself in Latin
writers for many ye»s. At the close of the third
century it would seem, as far as' we may judge from
extant Christian literature, that the Epistle was known
and received by the Churches of Alexandria, Syria,
Rome, and Asia Minor, and that in Alexandria and
Syria it was regarded as a work of St. Paul. Writing
before a.d. 326, Eusebius expressly mentions the
Church of Rome as rejecting the Pauline authorship of
the Epistle. It is not necessary to give any express
quotations from writers of the fourth century. By
this time the doubts respecting the Epistle are confined
to the Western Churches : in Syria, Palestine, Asia
Minor, Alexandria, Constantinople, the Pauline author-
ship appears to have been universally admitted. The
influence of Jerome and Augustine ultimately prevailed
in the West : neither of these eminent Fathers appears
really to have regarded the Epistle as St. Paul's, but
they agree in the expression of a strong conviction of
its canonical authority.

The object of this summary of ancient evidence has
been to show Iioav the Epistle won its way to universal
acknowledgment as a part of sacred Scripture, and at
the same time to present the chief testimonies of the
early Church on the other important questions which
concern the Book. It cannot be thought surprising
that for a time many should evince hesitation in regard
to such a document as this — anonymous, peculiar in
character, and addressed to a special and limited circle

of readers. The doubts have in later times had little
power. Their effect may, for the most part, be traced
in a varying estimate of the importance of the Book
as compared with the undoubted writings of St. Paul.

II. Authorship. — In regard to the authorship of
the Epistle, the most important ancient testimonies
have been cited already ; and in thein Ave find more or
less clearly stated almost all the possible solutions of
the problem. The character of the Epistle is beyond
all question Paul-like (if we may so speak, to avoid
the ambiguity of "Pauline"), if then it is not to be
ascribed directly to St. Paul, we must suppose either
(1) that it is a translation from a Hebrew original
written by him ; or (2) that, whilst the substance of the
Epistle is his, the diction and style belong to one of his
companions, who, for some unexplained cause, put the
Apostle's thoughts into form ; or (3) that the Epistle
was written by a friend or disciple of St. Paul. Each
of the four hypotheses may, as we have said, claim the
evidence of early writers ; but it is a matter of extreme
difficulty rightly to estimate the value of this evidence.
That the Epistle was directly written by St. Paul is an
opinion of which we have no distinct evidence earlier
than the third century. Even then the language used
on the subject is not perfectly clear; for Origen's
example proves that the quotation of the Epistle under
St. Paul's name may mean nothing more than a recog-
nition that its substance and teaching are his. If
Origen had influence in producing the later consensus
of opinion as to the authorship, that opinion may fairly
be judged of (td a considerable extent) by reference to
Origen's own explanation of the sense in which he
ascribed the Epistle to St. Paul. At all events, his
plain statement of the case as it presented itself in his
day seems distinctly to prove that there existed no
such clear and authoritative tradition in favour of the
Pauline authorship as might claim our submission, upon
the ordinary principles of literary criticism. To in-
ternal evidence Origen makes appeal : to the same test
of internal evidence we believe the case must now bo
brought. Similar observations apply to the other hypo-
theses. Each of these appears earlier in existing docu-
ments than that of which we have been speaking. The
opinion expressed by Clement, that the Greek Epistle is
a translation, was probably derived by him from Pan-
taenus : the traditions mentioned by Origen cannot be
of later date ; and Tertullian's reference to Barnabas
carries back the last hypothesis to the close- of the second
century. But again it is impossible to say whether the
ancient testimonies present independent evidence, or
are no more than conjectures to explain the patent facts.
At all events, the variance in the traditions may leave
our judgment free, especially as we can plainly perceive
in what way the traditions might very possibly arise.

If we now proceed to test each of the hypotheses
that have been mentioned by the testimony which the
Epistle gives respecting itself, the first question to be
decided is, Have we the Epistle in its original form ?
If the opinion quoted by Clement is correct — that the
Greek document before us is a translation — our right to
argue from its characteristics will be materially affect ed.
This opinion has not lacked advocates, and has been re-
cently maintained in an able but very disappointing
work by Dr. Biesenthal. We have no space here for
the discussion of such a question, and can only express
in a word or two the results to which the evidence
before us leads. We do not hesitate to say that the
hypothesis appears absolutely untenable : for one
difficulty which it removes, it introduces many more.

HEBREWS.

Dr. BiesenthaTs cwn treatment of various passages is
sufficient to show that those who regard the Epistle as
translated from a Hebrew original must necessarily
regard it as a translation that is often inaccurate, and
needs the correction of the commentator. Pew will be
prepared to surrender the Epistle to such treatment ,
unless under constraint of argument immeasurably
stronger than any yet adduced.

Our inquiry therefore is limited to the Greek Epistle
as it stands. The questions at issue are very simple.
What is there, either in the substance or in the diction
of the Epistle, that may lead us to ascribe it to St.
Paul !J What peculiarities of thought or language
separate it from his writings ? In its general arrange-
ment and plan the Epistle to the Hebrews cannot but
remind its of St. Paul. It is true there is no opening
salutation, or direct address, such as is found in all
St. Paul's Epistles. These Epistles, however, differ
greatly amongst themselves in this respect. Thus, in
writing to the Galatians, the Apostle is impatient of
anything that may detain him from the great topics on
which he is to speak; and it is possible to imagine
reasons which might lead him to avoid all mention of
the Church addressed, aud even to keep back his own
name. But, waiving this, we recognise at ouce the
familiar plan : first the discussion of dogmatic truth ;
then the earnest exhortation based on the doctrine thus
presented ; and, lastly, the salutations, interwoven with
personal notices, with doxology aud prayer. The main
outlines of theological teaching are in close accord with
St. Paul's Epistles : chaps, ii. and v.. for example, as
strikingly recall Phil. ii. as does chap. xiii. the closing
chapter in the Epistle to the Romans. Other points of
special resemblance will easily suggest themselves, such
as the relation of the writer to those whom he addresses
(chap. xiii. 18, 19, &c.), the mode in which he refers to
Timothy (verse 23), his Pauline illustrations (see Notes
on chaps, v. 12, 13 ; xii. 1 — 4), his choice of Old Testa-
ment passages. Under the last head may be specially
mentioned the quotation of Ps. viii. (1 Cor. xv. 25 —
28) and Deut. xxxiii. 30 (Rom. xii. 19); see the Notes on
chaps, ii. 6; x. 30. It is not necessary to go into
further detail in proof of a position allowed by all, that
(as has been already said) the Epistle, whether by St.
Paul or not, is Paul-like in the general character of its
teaching and in many of its special features.

It is of much greater moment to examine those
passages of the Epistle and those peculiarities of
teaching or language which have been adduced as in-
consistent with the Pauline authorship. Resemblance
may be accounted for more readily than points of dif-
ference ; for a disciple of St. Paul would hardly fail to
exhibit many of the traits characteristic of such a
master. Here, it will be seen, the distinction between
style and subject matter must be carefully observed.
If this Epistle could be proved to differ in diction only
from the acknowledged writings of St. Paul, some
theory of mediate authorship (similar to that mentioned
by Origen) would be very possible ; if the discordances
lie deeper, no such theory can be maintained.

When an argument must rest on characteristics of
Greek diction and style, it is very probable that dif-
ferent conclusions may be reached by different readers.
This question, again, cannot be examined here in any
detail. The writer can only state the impression made
upon his own mind by the original text, and especially
by the careful study pursued for the purpose of this
Commentary. From point to point the general likeness
of the Epistle to St. Paul's writings came out more and
more plainly : on the other hand arose a continually

279

increasing wonder that the Greek sentences and
periods should ever have been attributed to that

Apostle's hand. We have before us Epistles belonging
to every period during the last thirteen or fourteen
years of St. Paul's life, written under widely different
circumstances,— some during the enforced leisure of
imprisonment, others amid active labour. We can
trace differences of style resulting both from the time
of writing and from the circumstances which called
forth the Epistles; but these differences lie within
a comparatively narrow compass. At whatever date
St. Paul might be supposed to have written this Epistle,
we can compare it with some other of his writings
belonging nearly to the same period ; aud the differences
of language and style presented by the two documents
are, we are persuaded, far greater than those presented
by the most dissimilar of the thirteen Epistles. Stress
has been laid on the unique character of this Epistle, as
the only one addressed to Hebrews by the Apostle of
the Gentiles : but it has been well asked why St. Paul
should adopt a more finished Greek style in addressing
Jews than when writing to the Greeks of Corinth. For
ourselves we must express our decided conviction that;
whatever may be the relation of the Epistle to St. Paul,
the composition of the Greek was certainly not his.

The remaining points of difference which (it is
alleged) separate this Epistle from St. Paul's writings
may be ranged under the following heads : — (1) state-
ments of fact which we caimot suppose to have pro-
ceeded from the Apostle ; (2) divergence in doctrinal
view ; (3) peculiarities in the use of the Old Testament;
(4) the use made of Alexandrian writers.

(1) The most important passage is chap. ii. 3 : " which
(salvation) at the first began to be spoken by the Lord.
and was confirmed unto us by them that heard." In
these words the writer appears distinctly to sever him-
self from those who had directly received the word
from the Lord. It is urged that he is here associating
himself with his readers, as when in chap. iv. 1 he
writes " Let us therefore fear ; " see also chaps, x. 24,
25, 26 ; xii. 1, et al. We will not venture to say that an
Apostle could not have thus written ; but, bearing in
mind the necessity which lay upon St. Paul to defend
his apostolic position, and the claim which he con-
sistently makes to have received his teaching by direct
revelation (Gal. i. 1, 11, 12, et al.), we must hold it
extremely improbable that he should use words that
might even appear to represent him as only a disciple
of the Apostles. On the other passages which have
been brought into this controversy a very different
judgment must be passed. It is alleged that in the
description of the Temple furniture (chap, ix.) the
writer falls into mistakes, asserting that the altar of
incense (or, the golden censer) was placed in the Holy
of Holies, that the ark contained the pot of manna and
Aaron's rod, and that even in his own day the Most
Holy .Place into which the high priest entered year by
year still contained the cherubim and the ark of the
covenant. If the writer has indeed fallen into these
mistakes we may safely say that he is not St. Paid.
But. as the Notes on chap. ix. 2 — 6 will show, we hold
that there is no real reason for impugning the accuracy
of his words. No part of his description relates to the
Temple services or furniture : he is occupied throughout
with the injunctions of the Mosaic law and the arrange-
ments of the Tabernacle. Even the association of the
altar of incense with the Most Holy Place may be very
easily explained. If the view we have taken is correct.
this argument against the Pauline authorship must fall
to the grouud. It is not necessary, therefore, to do

HEBREWS.

more than mention the ingenious attempt of Wieseler to

show that in the descriptions of chap. ix. the writer had
in mind, not the Tabernacle or the Temple of Jerusalem,
hut the temple built by Onias at Leontopolis in Lower
Egypt (about b.c. 170).

(2) The alleged differences of doctrinal statement
are of three kinds. Of St. Paul's favourite topics some
are absent from this Epistle, some are treated in a
different manner : and, again, certain themes here
brought into prominence are not noticed in the Epistles
of St. Paul. Thus we find only one passage in this
Epistle in which the Resurrection of our Lord, ever a
prominent topic with St. Paul, is mentioned (see
chap. xiii. 20) ; the law, faith, righteousness, are looked
at from a different point of view ; the prominence here
given to the High-priesthood of Jesus is foreign to
St. Paul's Epistles. It would require a volume duly
to examine the various particulars adduced under this
head ; for the real question is not whether the teaching
is opposed to St. Paul's, but whether the various themes
are treated in the manner characteristic of th'e Apostle.
We do not believe that the most careful examination
will detect any real discord between the dogmatic
teaching of this Epistle and that of St. Paul ; but the
peculiarities in selection of topics and in mode of
treatment are sufficient (even when all allowance has
been made for the special position and aim of the
Epistle) to suggest that, if St. Paul " laid the founda-
tion," it is another who " buildeth thereon." "according
to the grace of God which is given unto " him (1 Cor.
iii. 10). The resemblances in teaching may show the
presence of the Apostle, but the new colouring and
arrangement prove that he is present only in the person
of a disciple on whom his master's mantle has fallen.
and who is taught by the same Spirit.

(3) A similar conclusion is suggested by a review of
the arguments that are founded on the difference in the
use of the Old Testament. It need hardly be said that
in the Epistle before us this subject is of the greatest
consequence, for "the whole argument of the Epistle
depends on the reality of the spiritual meaning of the
Old Testament." But the essential principle involved
is found as truly in St. Paul (see 1 Cor. x. ; 2 Cor. iii. ;
Gal. iv. ; Eph. v.. et ah). The New Testament is not
divided against itself in its recognition of the Old. As
lias been truly said,* " The authority of Christ Himself
encourages us to search for a deep and spiritual
meaning under the ordinary words of Scripture, which,
however, cannot be gained by any arbitrary allegorising,
but only by following out patiently the course of God's
dealings with man." But again when we come to
details we find marks of divergence from St. Paul. In
the Epistle to the Hebrews the word of Scripture is
almost always quoted as the direct utterance of God
(" He saith," " He hath said "), whereas St. Paul
commonly uses the formula "It is written" or "The
Scripture saith." The latter mode of introduction,
which occurs about thirty times in the Pauline Epistles,
is not once used in this ; and, on the other hand, such
examples as Eph. iv. 8 are very rare in St. Paul. The
quotations in this Epistle, again, are commonly taken
directly from the LXX., even when it differs from the
Hebrew ; and for the most part agree with that textwhich
is preserved to us in the Alexandrian manuscript : St.
Paul shows more acquaintance with the Hebrew. In
each of these arguments (the former especially) there is
force. The latter, however, has been pressed unduly ;
for an examination of the quotations, as they stand in

the best text of the Epistle, will show not a lew
departures from the Greek version, and there are not
wanting tokens of the writer's acquaintance either with
the Hebrew original or with a more accurate translation
of some passages than the LXX. affords.

(4) One distinguishing peculiarity of this Epistle is
found in the many remarkable coincidences both of
thought and of expression with the writings of Philo
of Alexandria. One or two examples are quoted in the
notes; but nothing short of a collection of all the
points of similarity, as presented in the Greek text,
will show this characteristic of the Epistle in its proper
light. Both St. Paul and St. John exhibit acquaintance
with the Alexandrian philosophy, but it has left
comparatively slight traces in their writings. The
resemblance in language in many passages of this
Epistle is all the more remarkable because of the
fundamental differences in doctrine between the
Christian teacher and the Alexandrian philosopher.
Another point of interest can only be briefly mentioned,
— the many words and phrases common to this Epistle
and the Book of Wisdom. The reader is referred to

the remarkably interesting papers by Professor

•, on " The Writings
of Apollos."

Pluinptre in vol. i. of The Expositor.

Westcott, Introduction to the Gospels, p. 412.

280

On a review of the whole case, there is only one
conclusion that appears possible — that the Epistle was
written by one who had stood in a close relation with
St. Paul.' but not by St. Paul himself. It will be
readily understood that the arguments given above are
not adduced as being of equal weight : some are only
confirmatory, and might not have very much force if
they stood alone; but all point with more or less
distinctness to the conclusion which lias been stated.
Farther than this we cannot go with certainty; and it
is perhaps wisest to rest satisfied with this negative
result. If we turn to the positive side, we have little
to guide our judgment. Three names only seem to
be mentioned by early writers — those of Barnabas.
Clement of Rome, and St. Luke. The Epistle is quoted
by Tertullian, as we have seen, as a work of Barnabas ;
and two later Latin writers, Philastrius and Jerome,
mention the same tradition. In one passage Jerome
says that very many (perhaps meaning many of the
Greek ecclesiastical writers) assign the Epistle to Bar-
nabas or Clement ; in another he mentions Tertullian
alone as an authority for this, and seems to attach no
special importance to the opinion. It would seem that
the tradition was very limited : it is especially note-
worthy that the name of Barnabas is not found in the
passages quoted from Origen. We know too little of
Barnabas to judge for ourselves of the intrinsic proba-
bility of the hypothesis : the so-called internal argu-
ments which have been adduced by some are of no
worth. The Epistle which bears the name of Barnabas
belongs, in all probability, to the beginning of the
second century, and has no connection with the com-
panion of St. Paul. That Epistle, therefore (which
presents a remarkable contrast to the teaching of the
Epistle to the Hebrews; see Westcott On the Canon.
pp. 43 — 45) yields no evidence in the present inquiry.

In regard to Clement we can speak with more con-
fidence, as we possess one Epistle which is certainly
from his hand. That document contains passages
belonging to our Epistle, but they are no doubt quota-
tions from it. and the general style and character of
Clement's Letter forbid us to ascribe the two works to
thi' same writer. Much more favour, has in recent
times been shown to the other tradition which Origen
■ecords— that the Epistle was written by^ St. Luke.

HEBREWS.

The resemblances of language between this Epistle and
St. Luke's writings are numerous and striking; I mt

with all this there is great dissimilarity of style. The
difference between a Letter such as I his and historical or
biographical memoirs must indeed be taken into account;

hut even when allowance has been made for this, it is
difficult to receive the writer of the Acts as the author
of our Epistle. Another consideration also is of weight.
We can hardly doubt thai we have before us here the
work of a Jew; but St. Paul's words in Col. iv. 11,
14. imply that St. Luke was of Gentile birth.

The subject is not one for confident assertion; but
we strongly doubt whether the Epistle can be ascribed
to any of those suggested by ancient writers. One
other hypothesis must be mentioned, which has com-
manded the adhesion of many of the ablest writers of
recent times. Luther was the first to express (in his
nentary on Genesis) an opinion that the Epistle to
the Hebrews was the work of Apollos. Some will
maintain that conjecture is inadmissible, but certainly
all the conditions of the problem appear to be satisfied
by this conjecture. The record of St. Luke in Acts
xviii. 24 — 28, xix. 1. supplemented by St. Paul's refer-
ences in 1 Corinthians, might seem to have been
expressly designed to show the special fitness of Apollos
for writing such an Epistle as this. Our limits will
not allow us to enter into further detail, but the reader
will find all the particulars admirably stated in the Notes
on the verses in the Acts. If it be not unbecoming to
go beyond the words of Origen on such a subject as
this, and to favour an hypothesis for which, no express
evidence can be adduced from ancient times, we can
have no hesitation in joining these who hold that it is
'he Jew of Alexandria, '•mighty in the Scriptures,"
'• fervent in spirit," the honoured associate of St. Paul,
who here carries on the work which he began in Achaia,
when "hi' mightily convinced the Jews, showing by
the Scriptures that Jesus was Christ."

III. Readers. — The inquiry as to the original
readers of the Epistle is even more difficult. It may
be assumed with confidence that the present title of
tiie Epistle is not that which it originally bore. There
has sometimes been a disposition to deny the propriety
of the name Epistle ; and it has been thought that the
peculiarity of the opening verses, containing, as they
do. neither address nor author's name, may be most
easily explained on the supposition that the work is a
homily or general treatise. But a very slight exami-
nation will prove that such a theory has no foundation.
The closing verses show that a particular community
is directly addressed, a community well known to the
writer, whose affection the writer knew himself to
possess, though some individuals may have distrusted
him and misjudged his acts and motives. He complains
of their declension in Christian knowledge, and points
out its cause (chap, v.); thaukftilly recognises then-
generous love to the brethren (chaps, vi.. x.) ; and urges
them to be true to their own past history (chap. x.).
He cannot but have known that the trials and neces-
sities of many other communities were very similar;
but, like St. Paul, he addresses the wider only through
the narrower circle. The immediate impulse was given
by the news he had received respecting brethren for
whom he himself had laboured, and over whose welfare
he was bound diligently to watch. The Epistle needed
no express inscription to make tHe first readers under-
stand from whom it came and to whom it was sent;
and it is not impossible that (as Ewald suggests, the
Watchfulness of enemies may have rendered some eou-

281

cealmeni a matter of prudence. The absence of the
writer's name has been considered confirmatory of the
belief that Apollos wrote tin; Epistle. In one church.
as we know, rival factions had arisen, some saying. " I
am of Paul." others " 1 am of Apollos;" and the inci-
dent recorded in 1 Cor. xvi. 12 seems to point to the
regret of Apollos that his name should have been so
used. Such a feeling may have continued to op crate.
and have led to this partial withdrawal of himself from
view. (See Alford's Ok. Test. vol. iv. pp. 60, 61.)

It is very plain that the Epistle is addressed to
Jewish Christians, and its present name was probably
given when the Epistle had passed into more general
use, in order to make its destination clear. In the
New Testamont the name Hebrew is strictly opposed
to Hellenist or Grecian Jew (Acts vi. 1). and denotes
one who adhered to the Hebrew language and usages;
there would therefore be some inconsistency between
the name and the language of the Epistle, if the title
proceeded from the writer himself. Again we are in
the main thrown back on internal evidence ; but in this
case the materials before us arc; very scanty, when
doubtful or irrelevant passages have been set aside.
One verse of the Epistle, and one only, contains any
note of place : " They of Italy salute you " (chap. xiii.
24). Unfortunately these words admit of two opposite
interpretations. Either the author is himself in Italy,
and sends to the Hebrew Christians whom he addresses
the salutations of an Italian church ; or, writing to
Italy, he transmits the message which those " of Italy "
who are now with him send to their fellow-Christians
at home. Between these two interpretations it seems
impossible to decide with any confidence ; though, in
itself, the latter might be the more probable. Perhaps
the only other indication that Ave possess is the mani-
fest destination of the Epistle for a community of
Jewish Christians, exposed to peculiar danger from the
solicitations and the persecutions of the unbelieving
Jews. Such a community would most naturally be
found in Palestine, and accordingly the prevalent
opinion has been that the Epistle was first sent to
Jerusalem, or to some neighbouring town. The words
of chap. ii. 3 are perhaps less suitable to Jerusalem—
a city in which there would still be living many who
had heard the word from the Lord Himself. In chap,
vi. 10 the writer speaks of a ministration to the saints
which at once recalls the efforts of St. Paul and others
to send help to the Christians of Jerusalem, who were
oppressed by poverty. This passage may imply that
the readers of the Epistle had engaged in that par-
ticular labour of love, but it cannot be proved that the
meaning is not perfectly general. The language of
chap. x. 32 — 34 decides nothing, if the first member of
verse 33 be understood figuratively (see Note) ; verse
34, which has been urged in regard to the question of
authorship, loses all such significance when the true
reading is restored. From chap. xii. 4 has usually been
drawn the inference that no members of the Church
had suffered martyrdom : even here, however, it is im-
probable that any such allusion is intended (see Note).
On the whole, it is difficult to resist the impression that
the writer addresses some Church in Palestine, though
Jerusalem itself may be excluded by cinq), ii. 3. The
readers seem to have lived under the shadow of
Jewish power and influence, where opposition to Chris-
tianity was most bitter, the temptation to unfaithful-
ness greatest, the abjuration required of the apostate
most complete. The exhortation of chap. xiii. 13. the
warning of chap. x. 25, the remarkable appropriation
of Old Testament promises and threateniugs which we

HEBEEWS.

find in chap. x. 27, 28, 30, would fall with wonderful
force on the ears of men in whose very presence the
spirit of Judaism was exerting all its power. That
there are still difficulties must be felt by all. We
should not have expected that a Letter addressed to
such a Church would be written in Greek, or that the
writer's appeal would be to the Greek translation of the
Old Testament ; but the phenomena which other books
of the New Testament display forbid us to regard
these difficulties as decisive. It is not possible here to
enumerate the other opinions which have been main-
tained. The reader will find an able argument in
favour of Rome in Alford's Prolegomena to Gk. Test.,
vol. iv. : others have argued the claims of Alexandria.*

IV. Date. — There is very little to guide us as to
the time when the Epistle was written. The present
tenses of chap. ix. 2 — 9 are often understood as imply-
ing that the Temple service still continued ; but there
is strong reason for explaining the verses otherwise (see
Notes). On the other hand, the general complexion of
the Epistle is such as to convince us that it was written
before the destruction of Jerusalem. Of the imprison-
ment of Timothy (chap. xiii. 23) we know nothing from
any other source. It has often been supposed that he
shared St. Paul's imprisonment in Rome (see the Intro-
duction to 2 Timothy). The date of the martyrdom of
St. Paul is, however, uncertain ; and it does not seem
possible to say more than that our Epistle was probably
written some three or four years before Jerusalem fell — •
in other words, about A.D. 00.

V. Object and Contents.— The discussion of the
very important external questions which connect them-
selves with this Epistle has left us but little space for
a notice of its internal character. In the Notes, how-
ever, on account of the peculiar difficulties which this
Epistle presents, we have sacrificed all other considera-
tions to the desire of exhibiting, as exactly as possible,
the connection and course of thought. It is, therefore,
less necessary to attempt a complete analysis here.
The Christians addressed were in imminent danger of
apostasy. The danger was occasioned partly by seduc-
tions from without, partly by weakness within. Even
when the fabric of Jewish power was falling, the
influence of its past history, its glorious treasure of
promise, its unique associations, retained a wonderful
power. As we look back on the years preceding the
fall of Jerusalem the case of the people may seem to
us hopeless ; but the confidence of the nation, was
unbroken, and even at that period we note outbursts of
national pride and enthusiastic hope. Bitter hate and
contempt for Christianity on the one hand, and the
attraction of their ancestral worship and ritual on the
other, had apparently won a victory over the constancy
of some Christians belonging to this Hebrew com-
munity. Where open opposition had not prevailed, the
tone of Christian faith had been lowered. The special
temptation of these Christians seems to have been
towards a loss of interest in the higher Christian truths,
and a union of elementary Christian teaching with that
to which they had been accustomed as Jews. The
arguments of the first and other chapters show that
they held the foundation truths ; the expostulation of
the fifth and sixth chapters proves that the full signifi-

* Prof. Plumptre's hypothesis that those addressed are
Christian ascetics of tor connected with) Alexandria is worked
out hy him in a very interesting manner (see /•>/««. i. 42S y.Vi),
but does not appear to suit the facts of the Epistle as well as
the view defended above.

cance of the doctrine they held was not understood,,
and that the doctrine was near to losing its power. In
no Epistle, perhaps, do we find a more carefully sus-
tained argument ; of none can be said as truly that the.
whole Epistle is a "word of exhortation."

The design of the writer is to show the superiority of
Christianity to Judaism. He in whom God has in these
last days revealed Himself to man is His Son. to whom
the Scriptures themselves bear witness as exalted above
the highest of created beings, the angels, who are but
ministers of God (chap. i.). The law was given through
angels : salvation has now come through the Son, who,
though Lord of the world to come, the Heir and Ful-
filler of God's highest promises to man, submitted to
suffering and death — not of necessity, but that Ho
might by His atonement deliver man from sin and
death, and might become a true High Priest for man
(chap. ii.). As the faithful Apostle and High Priest
He is exalted above God's most favoured servants upon
earth, even above Moses (chap. iii. 1 — 0).

This is the first division of the argument, designed
to establish the supremacy of the revelation given
through the Son of God, and to remove "the offence of
the cross." Next follows a powerful section of exhor-
tation and warning. Do not imitate the unfaithfulness
through which Israel failed to enter into the true rest
of God (chaps, iii. 7 — iv. 10).

The second portion of the Epistle (extending to'
chap. x. 18) is occupied with the Priesthood of Christ.
Once oidy is the current of the argument interrupted.
After the first introduction of a prophecy which will
form the theme of later chapters, the writer pauses to
bring into relief the carelessness which his readers have
shown, and the peril they have incurred ; the result is
to give most powerful effect to the argument for which
he is preparing them (chap. v. 11 — vi. 20). Jesus made
perfect through suffering (chap. v. 1 — 10) has been de-
clared by God High Priest after the order of Melchi-
zedek; by this declaration the Aaronic priesthood is
abolished, giving place to a priesthood which abides
continually, through which all that the former priest-
hood sought in vain to attain is made sure to man for
ever (chap. vii.). This High Priest, seated at God's,
right hand, is Minister in the heavenly sanctuary,
Mediator of the New Covenant (chap, viii.); and in Him
all the types of the first covenant are fulfilled, for by
His one offering of Himself He has put away sin. and
established the new covenant in which sin is pardoned
and man sanctified (chaps, ix., x. 1 — 18).

The remainder of the Epistle is in the main directly
hortatory. These being our privileges, let us not by
unfaithfulness fall short of them, for terrible is the
doom of the; unfaithful, and glorious the reward of Faith
(chap. x. 19 — 39), which from the beginning has led
God's servants on to victory, and of which Jesus is the
Author and the Perfecter (chaps, xi. — xii. 4). Chapters
xii. and xiii. continue the exhortations of the earlier
chapters, but in a higher strain.

We cannot conceive of any argument by which the
end contemplated could be more effectually accom-
plished, and men more powerfully turned from "the
offence of the cross " to glorying in Christ Jesus. The
value which the Epistle has for us and the extent of it»
influence on our theology it would be hard to over-
estimate. Its peculiar importance lies in the exposi-
tion which it gives of the earlier revelation, showing
the meaning of the types and arrangements of the
former dispensation, and their perfect fulfilment in our
Lord, and in its witness to the power and abiding
significance of the divine word.

282

THE EPISTLE OF PAUL THE APOSTLE TO THE

HEBREWS.

Chap. i. 1-14 He in CHAPTER L—
whom God has now (D God, who at sundry
Bpoken to man is Son , . , . ,. •

of God, exalted above times and in divers
all angels. manners spake in

I time past unto the fathers by the

j prophets, (2) hath in these last days

spoken unto us by his Son, whom he

hath appointed heir of all things, by

(1—14) He in whom God lias at last revealed Himself
to man is Son oi' God, exalted above all angels.

(!) God, who at sundry times . . . .—The
rine arrangement of the words in the Authorised
Version faiis.it must be confessed, to convey the em-
phasis which is designed in the original. The writer's
object is to place the former revelation over against
that which lias now been given; and the remarkable
words with which the chapter opens (and which might
not inaptly serve as the motto of the whole Epistle)
strike the first note of contrast. If we may imitate the
artistic arrangement of the Greek, the verse will run
thus. "In many portions and in many ways God having
of old spoken unto the fathers in the prophets." To
the fathers of the Jewish people (comp. Rom. ix. 5)
God's word was given part by part, and in divers
manners. It came in the revelations of the patriarchal
age. in the successive portions of Holy "Writ :
various truths were successively unveiled through the
varying ministry of law, and of prophecy, and of
promise ever growing clearer through the teaching of
experience and histoiy. At one time the word came in
direct precept, at another in typical ordinance or act, at
another in parable or psalm. The word thus dealt out
in fragments and variously imparted was God's word,
for the revealing Spirit of God was "in the prophets'*
<;2 Cor. xiii. 3). We must not unduly limit the applica-
tion of '• prophet " ; besides those to whom the name is
directly given, there were many who were representa-
tives of (rod to His people, and interpreters of His
will. (Comp. Num. xi. 26, 29; Ps. cv. 15.)

(2) Hath in these last days . . .—Better, at
the end of these days spake unto us in a Son. The
thought common to the two verses is " God hath spoken
to man" ; in all other respects the past and the present
stand contrasted. The manifold successive partial
disclosures of God's will have given place to one reve-
lation, complete and final; for He who spake in the
prophets hath now spoken "in a Son." The whole
stress Hos on these last words. The rendering "a
Son " may at first cause surprise, but it is absolutely
seeded; not, "Who is the Revealer ? " but, '-What
is He !J " is the question answered in these words.
The writer does not speak of a Son in the sense
of one out of many ; the very contrast with the
prophets (who in the lower sense were amongst God's
son:-,) would be sufficient to prove this, but the
words which follow, and the whole contents of this
chapter, are designed to show the supreme dignity of

Him who is God's latest Representative on earth. The
prophet's commission extended no farther than the
special message of his words and life; "a Sou" spoke
with His Father's authority, with complete knowledge
of His will and purpose. It is impossible to read these
first lines (in which the whole argument of the Epistle
is enfolded) without recalling the prologue of the fourth.
Gospel. The name " Word " is not mentioned here,
and the highest level of St. John's teaching is not
reached ; but the idea which " the Word " expresses,
and the thought of the Only Begotten as declaring and
interpreting the Father (John i. 18 ; also John xiv. 10,
24) are present throughout. There is something unusual
in the words, " at the end of these days." St. Peter
speaks of the manifestation of Christ "at the end of
the times" (1 Pet. i. 20) ; and both in the Old Testa-
ment and in the New we not unfrequently read "at the
end (or. in the last) of the days." (See 2 Pet. iii. 3;
Jude, verse 18; Num. xxiv. 14; Dan. x. 14, &c.) The
peculiarity of the expression here lies in " these days."
The ages preceding and following the appearance of
Messiah are in Jewish writers known as " this world"
(or, age) and the " coming world " (or, age) ; the " days
of Messiah " seem to have been classed sometimes with
the former, sometimes with the latter period ; but " the
end of these days" would be understood by every Jewish
reader to denote the time of His appearing.

Whom he hath appointed.— Better, u-hom He
appointed: in the divine counsels He was constituted
" Heir of all things." The clauses which follow de-
scribe the successive steps in the accomplishment of
this purpose. The words have often been understood
as referring to the Son's essential Lordship : as Eternal
Son He is and must lie Heir of all. But this explana-
tion is less consistent with the word " appointed." with
the strict significance of " Heir." and with the develop-
ment of the thought in the following verses; and it is-
on all grounds more probable that in these words is
expressed the great theme of the Epistle, the consum-
mation of all things in the Christ.

By whom.— Rather, through lohom. So in John i.
3 we read that all things came' into being through the
Word: and in Col. i. 16, " All things have been created
through Him." In this manner Philo repeatedly
describes the creative work of the Logos. Here, how-
ever. " this mediatorial function has entirely changed
its character. To the Alexandrian Jew it was the work
of a passive tool or instrument ; but to the Christian
Apostle it represented a co-operating agent" (Liglitfoot
on Col. i. 16).

The Son's essential Dignity.

HEBREWS, I.

whom also he made the worlds ; (3) who
being the brightness n of his glory, and
the express image of his person, and
upholding all things by the word of his
power, when he had by himself purged
our sins, sat down on the right hand of

His Exaltation above Angels.

the Majesty on high ; M* being made so
much better than the angels, as he hath
by inheritance obtained a more excellent
name than they. W For unto which of
the angels said he at any time, Thou
art my Son, this day have I begotten

The worlds. — A word of very common occur-
rence in the New Testament as a designation of time
occurs in two passages of tins Epistle (here and in
chap. xi. 3) where the context shows more than '' age "
to be intended. Under time is included the work that
is done in time, so that " the ages " here must be
(to quote Delitzsch's words) " the immeasurable content
of immeasurable time." "Also " may seem an unneces-
sary addition, but (almost in the sense accordingly) it
points to creation as the first step towards the fulfil-
ment of the design expressed in the preceding clause.

(•'*) Who being the brightness . . .—Who being
the effulgence of His glory and the exact image of His
Substance. The first figure is familiar to us in the
words of the Nicene Creed (themselves derived from
this verse and a commentary upon it), " God of God,
Light of Light, Very God of Very God." Again
striking parallels to the language present themselves in
Pliilo, who speaks of the spirit breathed into man at his
creation as an " effulgence of the Blessed and Thrice-
blessed Nature " ; and in the well-known passage of the
Book of Wisdom, " She (Wisdom) is the effulgence of
the everlasting light, the unspotted mirror of the power
of God, and the image of His goodness " (Wisd. vii.
26). In the Old Testament the token of the divine
presence is the Shechinah. the " cloud of glory " (called
"the glory" in Rom. ix. 4; comp. chap. ix. 5 in this
Epistle) ; here it is the divine nature itself that is
denoted by the "glory." Of the relation between this
word and that which follows (" substance ") it is
difficult to speak, as the conceptions necessarily tran-
scend human language ; but we may perhaps say (re-
membering that all such terms are but figurative) that
the latter word is internal and the former external,— the
latter the essence in itself, the former its manifestation.
Thus the " Son " in His relation to " God " is repre-
sented here by light beaming forth from light, and by
exact impress — the perfect image produced by stamp or
•seal. These designations, relating to the essential
nature of the Son, have no limitation to time ; the par-
ticiple " being " must be understood (comp. Phil. ii. 6 ;
John i. 1) of eternal, continuous existence. The word
"person" is an unfortunate mistranslation in this
place. Most of the earlier English versions have " sub-
stance," person being first introduced in the Genevan
Testament in deference to Beza.

By the word.— The thought seems suggested by
Gen. i. (Ps. xxxiii. 9) ; the spoken word was the ex-
pression of His power. What is said above of " being"
applies to " upholding," except that the latter implies a
previous creative act.

"When he had by himself purged our sins.—
The older MSS. Omit " by Himself " and " our," so
that the words must be rendered, when He had made
purification of sins. At first the change may seem a
loss ; but it is easily seen that the simpler statement is
more majestic, and also more suitable in this place ;
the more complete explanation of the truth belongs to
-a later stage (chap. ix.). To "make purification of
sins" is an unusual phrase (comp. Matt. viii. 3, " his
leprosy was cleansed"), meaning, to make purification

by the removal of sins (John i. 29 ; 1 John iii. 5 ; 2 Pet.
i. 9).

Sat down on the right hand of the Majesty
on high.— See chap. viii. 1 ; xii. 2 ; Matt. xxvi. 64 ;
Mark xiv. 62; also verse 13, and chap. x. 12. This
figure, which we meet with more than twenty times in
the New Testament, is throughout derived from the
first words of Ps. ex., which are descriptive of the
exaltation of the Messiah. Jehovah's investiture of
the Son of Man with unlimited dominion (Dan. vii. 14)
and.supreme dignity (Eph. i. 20, 21) ; the Saviour's rest
after the accomplishment of His work on earth (chap.
viii. 1) ; His waiting for the complete and final subjec-
tion of His enemies, are the ideas signified. On the
Psalm see below (verse 13).

(*) Being made. —Better, having become. These
words must be closely joined with the last clause of
verse 3 : they speak, not of the glory which was ever
His, but of that which became His after He had " made
purification of sins."

Better. — That is. greater. We may discern a two-
fold reason for the comparison; having become
•• greater than the angels,'1 our Lord is exalted above
the highest of created beings (see Eph. i. 21; Phil. ii.
9), and above those through whom God had in former
time declared His law (chap. ii. 2).

Name. — The verses which follow show that we are
to understand by this all the dignity and glory con-
tained in the name Son of God. Not that this name
first belonged to Him as exalted Mediator ; but the
glory which "became" His (verses 3, 4) is propor-
tionate to and consonant with the name which is His
by essential right (verse 2).

That this name and dignity belong to Jesus Christ
(as yet unnamed, but confessedly the subject of the
preceding verses) is now to be established by the testi-
mony of Scripture. Two important questions have
been asked : — (1) Does the writer adduce these quota-
tions as strictly demonstrative? (2) If so. on what
assumption does their relevancy rest !J It is evident
that the whole argument is addressed to men
who believed that the Christ had appeared in the
person of Jesus. Of the passages here cited some
were already, by universal consent, applied to the
Messiah. As to the others, it was sufficient if the
trained and thoughtful reader could recognise the
accuracy of such an application when once suggested.
That in no case is there mere " accommodation " or
illustration will, it is hoped, be made clear. On the
other hand, the writer's object is less to convince his
readers of some new truth than to draw attention to
what the well-known passages really contain and
express.

(5) For unto which of the angels ....•—
" God has spoken of the Messiah as His Son. a title
which no angel ever receives from Him." That the
appellation " sons of God " may be used in an inferior
sense, and that thus angels may be so designated (Job
i. 6 ; xxxviii. 7), does not affect this argument ; for
J every reader must perceive that in these quotations
" Son " is used of One, and in a sense that is unique.

284

Lit «ir A ngels worship

HEBREWS, I.

the Firstborn of God.

thee? And again, I will be to hiin a
Father, and he shall be to me a Soni*
(,i' And again, when he bringeth in the

firstbegotten into the world, he saith.
And let all the angels of God worship

him. (;) And of the angels he saith.

The two quotations are taken from Ps. ii. 7 and 2 Sain,
vii. 14. It seeing probable that the second Psalm was
written by David during the troublous times of 2 Sam.
viii.— x.. in the fresh recollection of the promises of
which we read in 2 Sam. vii. In the midst of the
rebellious conspiracies of kings and nations is heard
.lehovah's word, "Yet have I set my King upon my holy
hill of Zion" (Ps. ii. 6). In verso 7 the Anointed
King declares the divine decree, "The Lord hath said
unto me, Thou art my Son; this day have I begotten
Thee;" and the following verses describe the kingly
dominion of the Son. The clearest comments on verse
7 are supplied by 2 Sam. vii. 12 — 14. and especially by
Ps. lxxxix. Verse 27 of the last-named Psalm, "I
will make him my firstborn, higher than the kings of
the earth." shows plainly that in their first meaning —
that which relates to the royal rule of David or David's
son— the words "I have this day begotten thee" signify
■"I have this day established thee as my chosen king,
and thus constituted thee my son ; " for to the first-
born belongs natural, though derived, rule over the
kingdom of his father. At what period the people in
general, guided by prophetic teaching and the discipline
of history (see below), learnt in how secondary a sense
such words could be used of any human king, we do
not know: but Ave have clear evidence, both from the
New Testament [chap. v. 5; Acts iv. 25 — 27; xiii. 33;
Rev. ii. 27) and from Jewish tradition, that the second
Psalm was understood to be a distinct prophecy of the
Messiah; indeed, this very name "Messiah" and flip
appellation " Son of God " (see John i. 34, 49) may be
traced to this Psalm. The declarations of verses 6, 7,
are typical of the enthronement of the Messiah. St.
Paul (Acta xiii. So) refers the words here quoted to the
period of the Resurrection. With this the language
used above (verse 4t perfectly agrees. As, however,
in that verse the exaltation of the Christ is declared to
correspond to that essential dignity which lay in the
name Son. a name which in this very context bears its
highest sense ' verses 1 — 3), we are constrained to regard
the "day" of the Resurrection as itself typical, and
to believe that " this day* also pointed to the " eternal
Now " — to what Origen (on John i. 1 ) speaks of as
"the day which is co-extensive with the unbegotten
and everlasting life of God."

The second passage, which seems to have been the
basis of the words we have just considered, occurs in
the course of the divine promise that David's seed shall
be established in his kingdom, and that David's throne
shall be established for ever: the seed of David shall
be received as God's Son. With the words here quoted
are closely joined others which plainly prove that verse
14 is not a simple and direct prophecy of Christ, but in
the first instance belonged to an earthly ruler. Through
the teaching of successive disappointments, each "son
of David " failing to realise the hopes excited by the
promise, the nation was led to look to the future King.
and at once to remove from the prophecy the purely
earthly limitations and to discern a higher meaning in
the promise of divine sonship.

(8) And again. -There seems little doubt that the
true translation is. And when He again leadeth (literally.
shall hare led) the Firstborn into the world He suifh.
The position of "again " (in the Greek) shows that it
does not indicate a new step in the argument, but must

be joined with " leadeth." The speaker (" He saith "
is God, speaking in the word of Scripture; m this
Epistle quotations from the Old Testament are usually
thus introduced. The quotation involves some diffi-
culty. It cannot be directly taken from Ps. jccvii. 7.
•■ worship Him. all His angels ; " for the citations from
the Greek Bible in this Epistle are usually so exact that
we cannot believe the writer would have 80 altered th-
form of the sentence now before us. In Dent, xxxii.
43, however, we find words identical with those of the
text in most copies of the LXX. ; but there i-
nothing answering to them in the Hebrew, and
there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the
clause has dropped out of the Hebrew text. There
are similarities (both of subject and of diction)
between the Psalm and the last section of the Song of
Moses, which make it easy to see how tin; words could
find their way into the Song. The Psalm belongs
to a cycle (Pss. xciii., xcv. — xcix.) whose theme is
the triumphant announcement of the coming of God's
kingdom, by which was denoted (as the readers of
the Epistle knew) the kingdom of Christ. In the
divine plan the predicted Theophany was coincident
with the fulfilment of the Messianic hope. In both
Psalm and Song we read of the judgment exercised
and the vengeance inflicted by the enthroned King.
(Comp. Ps. ii. 9.) This agreement in torn1 and sub-
ject renders less important the question whether the
Hebrew original of the Song really contained the words.
The thought was familiar from Scripture, and in this
very connection. When the Messiah, reigning as the
Firstborn of God (see verse 5), shall appear for judg-
ment— that is. when God leadeth a second time His
Firstborn into "the world of men " (see chap. ii. 5). that
He may receive fidl possession of His inheritance — He
saith, And let all angels of God worship Him. The
word here rendered " leadeth in" is in frequent use for
the introduction of Israel (typically God's " firstborn."
Ex. iv. 22) into the land of Canaan. It should,
perhaps, be noted that, though in Ps. xcvii. 7 "angels"
may not be perfectly exact as a rendering of the Hebrew
Elohim. the verse so distinctly expresses the homage done.
to the King by superhuman powers, that its fitness for
the argument here is obvious.

(") Spirits.— Better, winds. It is very difficult to
assign any clear meaning to the ordinary rendering. —
unless, indeed, we were to adopt the very strange
opinion of many of the earlier commentators, that the
stress is laid on " maketh " in the sense of " createth."
The parallelism in these two lines of Hebrew poetry
is complete, "angels" answering to "ministers,"
" winds " to "a flame of fire." The meaning appears to
be that God. employing His messengers for His varied
purposes, sends them forth in what manner He may
please, clothing them with the appearance of the resist-
less wind or the devouring fire. (We may contrast
1 Kings xix. 11, 12.) The force of the passage lies in
the vividness with which it presents the thought of the
Most High served by angels who " at His bidding
speed,',9 untiring as the wind, subtle as the fire. We
feel much more distinctly than we can put into words
the infinite contrast between such ministers and the
Son seated at the right hand of God. The quotation is
taken from Ps. civ. 4. without any variation in the
Greek. Whether this translation faithfully represents

The Everlasting

HEBREWS, I.

Kingdom of the /Son.

Who nniketh his angels spirits, and his
ministers a flame of fire. ^ Bnt unto
the Son he saith. Thy throne, O God,
is for ever and ever : a sceptre of
righteousness 1 is the sceptre of thy
kingdom. (!,J Thou hast loved ri^hteous-

(ir. riijlttnr.-v, or,
.-! /''i i'/tltm *s.

a Ps. ha. :»:..

ness, and hated iniquity; therefore God,
even thy God, hath anointed thee with
the oil of gladness above thy fellows.
<10) And, Thou, Lord, in the beginning
hast laid the foundation of the earth f
and the heavens are the works of thine

the original is a question that has been warmly dis-
cussed. Not that there is any doubt that such a
rendering of the Hebrew is in itself natural ; but it is
often alleged that the context requires an inversion of
the Avords, Who maketh winds His messengers, flaming
fire His ministers. The point cannot be examined here;
we will only express a decided opinion that the trans-
lation defended above not only expresses the meaning
of the Hebrew, but perfectly accords with the context
of the Psalm.

(8) Unto.— Rather, of. The connection with verse 7
is so close ( " Whereas of the angels He saith ... of
the Son He saith"), that we must not vary the rendering
•of the preposition. The passage which follows is taken
from Ps. xlv. 6, 7. As the words stand in the ordinary
Greek text, they agree exactly with the LXX. ; but
certain alterations of reading are required by the
best evidence. After the words •'for ever and ever"
and must be restored, and in the following clause the
and a must change places. The latter change is of
moment only as it affects the former. Were the words
in all other respects cited with perfect exactness, the
introduction of and would probably indicate that the
writer intended to split up the quotation into two
parts, each significant for his purpose. (Comp.
chap. ii. 13.) As, however, we note other minor
changes, the insertion of the connecting word is pro-
bably accidental. A third reading is of much greater
importance. At the close of the verse the two oldest
of our Greek MSS. agree in reading " His kingdom : "
to this we will return afterwards.

We have every reason to believe that the ap-
plication of Ps. xlv. which is here made Avas fully
received by the ancient JeAvs ; thus in the Targum on
the Psalm verse 7 is taken as a direct address to the
King Messiah. Hence the x'eaders of this Epistle
would at once recognise the argument Avhich the words
contain. It is strongly maintained by some that the
Psalm (like Ps. ex., see below, on verse 13) is altogether
prophetic, the promised Messiah alone being in the
Psalmist's thought. There appear to be insuperable
objections to this A'ieAV, from particular expressions
used (in the later verses especially), and from the
general structure and colouring of the Psalm. It is
in every way more probable that the second Psalm (see
Note on Arerse 5), rather than Ps. ex., represents the
class to Avhich Ps. xlv. belongs. Originally writing in
celebration of the marriage of a king of David's line
{Ave know not whom, but many of the arguments urged
against the possible reference to Solomon haA-e no great
Avoight), the inspired Psalmist uses Avords Avhich bear
their full meaning only Avhen applied to that Son of
David of Avhose kingdom there shall be no end. The
promises made to David (2 Sam. A^i.) are before
the Avriter's mind in the first verses of the Psalm.
The king appointed by God is His representative to
God's people ; his cause is that of truth and righteous-
ness ; his dominion Avill continually adA^ance. It is at
this moment that. Avith the promise of a divine son-
ship (Ps. ii.) in his thought, he suddenly addresses the
king as Elohim (verse 7). a divine king avIio receives

from God the reward of righteousness (verse 8). There
are in the Old Testament examples of the use of Elohim
which diminish the difficulty of its application to an
earthly king (such as Ps. Ixxxii. 1 ; xcv. 3; 1 Sam. xxviii.
13 ; Ex. vii. 1) ; but it must still be acknoAvledged
that the passage stands alone. This difficulty, hoAV-
ever, relates only to the primary application. As the
higher and true reference of theAvords became revealed,
all earthly limitations disappeared; the Christian readers
of the Psalm recognised in the Messiah of whom it
speaks a King aat1io is God.

The reading "His kingdom" has seemed to require
a different rendering of the Avords in the first part
of the verse : God is Thy throne for ever and ever.
This rendering, hoAvever, will suit either reading of
the Greek, and is ecpially admissible as a rendering
of the HebreAV. Nor is it really inconsistent with
the position in Avhich the verse here stands: in con-
trast with the ministry of angels is set, on this
view, not indeed a direct address to the Son as God,
but the sovereign rule which the Son receiAres from
God. The objections raised against it are : (1) such an
expression as " God is Thy throne " is contrary to the
analogy of Scripture language; (2) the ordinary ren-
dering has the support of almost all ancient authority,
Jewish Avriters and ancient versions being apparently
united in its favour. The former argument is not very
strong in face of Ps. xc. 1, and similar passages ; but
the latter is so Aveighty that Ave hesitate to accept the
change, helpful as it would be in making clear the
original and typical reference of verse 7. It should be
said that the reading " His kingdom " is not inconsis-
tent Avith the ordinary translation of the preceding
Avords; for a sudden transition from "Thy throne. ()
God" to "His kingdom" is in full accordance with
the usage of Hebrew poetry. (See Pss. xliii. 4; lxvii.
5, 6 ; civ. 4 — 6, etal.) There are other renderings which
would require discussion if we Avere concerned with the
HebreAV text of the Psalm : the tAvo given above are
the only possible translations of the Greek.

A sceptre . . . — Rather, the sceptre of uprightness
is a sceptre of Thy (or, His) kingdom. Righteousness
itself (so to speak, the very ideal of righteous govern-
ment) bears sAvay in Thy kingdom.

(9) The King by divine election has been exalted by
divine reAvard. (Comp. chap. ii. 9. and Phil. ii. 9. 10.)

Therefore God.— It is possible, but not probable,
that the Avords. both here and in the Psalm, should be ren-
dered, Therefore, 0 God, Thy God hath anointed Thee.

Thy fellows. — In the first application, probably,
these Avords point to other earthly kings. (Comp. Ps.
lxxxix. 27.) Hence Eph. i. 21 will be the best com-
mentary upon them in their higher meaning.

<10) And. — Verses 10 — 12 are by this word linked
AA-ith verse 8. as presenting the second part of the con-
trast betAveen angels and the Son. As there we read
of a diA-ine sovereignty, so here of the Avork of creation,
the poAver to change all created things, the divine attri-
bute of changeless existence. This quotation from Ps.
cii. 25 — 27 agrees almost exactly Avith the text of the
LXX. as Ave" have it in the Alexandrian MS., except

His Unchangeable ness.

HEBREWS, II.

The Ministry of Angels,

hands: <") they shall perish;- but thou

remainestj and they all shall wax old

as doth a garment; l1-1 and as a vesture

Shalt thou fold them up, and they shall

be changed : but thou art the same,

and thy years shall not fail. {U> But

to which of the angels said he at any

time, Sit on my right hand, until I |

make thine enemies thy footstool?* b^t ]lr- 1; M'"t

W> Are they not all ministering spirits, ' viamvSLt

sent forth to minister for them who
shall be heirs of salvation ?

CHAPTEE II. — W Therefore we
ought to give the more _, ..
earnest heed to the things Pen? ofdisobe-
which we have heard, lest dience to His
at any time we should let wor '
them slip.1 (2) For if the word spoken by
angels was stedfast, and every transgres-

that the words "as a garment " (not found in the Psalm)
must here (verse 12) be added, according to our best
ant&orities. The only point of any difficulty in these
verses is that the writer discovers a testimony to the
supremacy of the Son in words which, as they stand
in the Psalm, would appear to be directly addressed
to God as Creator. If, however, the Psalm be examined,
it will be found (see verses 13 — 16) to contain the ex-
pression of hopes which ill reality wei'e inseparably
united with the fulfilment of the Messianic promise.
" The Lord shall appear to build up Zion : " this is the
Psalmist's theme, and it is to the same Lord that he
addresses the words which are quoted here. As in
Jesus the Christian Jew saw Him who fulfilled all these
promises of God to His people, the application of the
words of adoration to the same Lord would at once
be recognised as true.

(11) And they all . . .—Both the earth and the
heavens : see Isa. xxxiv. 4. " The heavens shall be rolled
together as a scroll;" and Isa. Ii. 6, "The earth shall
wax old like a garment.''

(12) And as a vesture . . .—Rather (see verse 10),
And as a mantle shalt Thou roll them, up ; as a gar-
ment shall they also be changed. The course of thought
is easily traced: as the garment which has grown old is
rolled up and changed, so the former heavens and earth
shall give place to the new heavens and the new earth.

<i3) But to which of the angels.— The final
appeal is made to that Psalm which more fre-
quently than any other is quoted in reference to
Christ, and which we have already seen to be the
Bource of all the New Testament references to the
Saviour's session at the right hand of God. It is not
necessary to say much here respecting Ps. ex., to which
so many allusions will be made in the course of this
Epistle. That it was regularly understood by the Jews
of our Lord's time to be a Messianic Psalm is clear
both from Matt. xxii. 43, 44, and from the independent
notices which we possess. Most probably, it stands
alone amongst the Psalms as being simply prophetic:
the words of verse 1 have never been addressed either
to angels or to an earthly king. On the special words
of the quotation see verse 3.

Said he at any time.— Better, hath He ever said.

Until I make . . .—Literally, until I shall have
made Thine enemies a footstool of Thy feet.

(i+) Are they not all ministering spirits? —
In this verse and the preceding is repeated the con-
trast of verses 7 — 9. in reversed order. The words
•ministering spirits" at once recall the "ministers"
and '" winds " (expressed in Greek and Hebrew by the
same word as " spirits " spoken of in verse 7. In the
LXX. this word " minister *' is usually applied to those
who stood before God in His earthly sanctuary : so here
it is fitly used of the nobler offices of the unseen world.
To the English reader it may seem that those who in

287

verse 7 are God's ministers are here represented as
servants of man. It is not really so, for the words
properly mean, . . . sent forth (that is, continually
sent forth) to do service (to God), /or the sake of them
who are to inherit salvation. " Inherit " is a prelude
of chap. ii. 10. The last word, "salvation." expresses
the divine purpose indicated by all the prophecies
that have passed under review. The chapter has been
occupied with promises of the Christ : the last word
brings before us Jesus, the Saviour.

II.

(l— i) These verses must be closely joined with the
first chapter. Before advancing to the next step in
his argument, the writer pauses to enforce the duty
which results from what has been already established.
But (as in chap. iv. 14 — 16) the exhortation does not
interrupt the thought, but rather serves as a connecting
link. (See Note on verse 5.)

(!) Therefore we ought to give the more
earnest heed to the things which we have
heard. — Better, to the things heard ; for this expression
contains the complement of the thought of chap. i. 1.
Both " speak " and " hear " are words which carry
weighty emphasis in this Epistle. (See chap. i. 1; ii. 2;
xii. 25 ; iii. 5, 7 ; iv. 2, et at.) Because of the supreme
dignity of Him in whom at the last God speaks, men
are bound to give the more earnest heed to the words
spoken, whether heard by them from the Lord Himseli
or (as in this case, verse 3) from His servants.

Lest at any time we should let them slip.—
This translation (first introduced by the Genevan
Bible of 1560) substantially gives the sense, but inverts
the figure presented in the Greek. The words must bo
rendered, lest possibly we drift away (Wielif, "lest
perauenture we fleten awey "). It is the man that is in
danger of being carried along by the current : miles/
the mind be held closely to the words that God has
spoken, it must drift away from them, and from the
salvation which they promise. There seems no founda-
tion for the rendering of the margin, first given in the
Genevan Testament of 1557.

(2) The word spoken by angels.— Or rather.
through angels (comp. chap. i. 2) : the word was God's,
but angels were the medium through which it was
given to men. In accordance with the tone of the
whole passage (in which the thought is not the reward
of obedience, but the peril of neglect of duty), "the
word" must denote divine commands delivered by
angels, and — as the close parallel presented by chap. x.
28, 29, seems to prove — especially the commands of the
Mosaic law. Hence this verse must be joined to the
other passages Acts vii. 53; Gal. iii. 19; comp. also
Acts vii. 38) which bring into relief the ministration of
angels in the giving of the Law; and the nature of &e

Peril of Disobedience

HEBBEWS, II.

to the Word of Chr,

sion and disobedience received a just
recompence of reward ; ^ how shall we
escape, if we neglect so great salvation ;
which at the first began to be spoken
by the Lord, and was* confirmed unto
us by them that heard him ; W God

Or, distribiiVniis.

also bearing them, witness, both with
signs and wonders, and with divers
miracles, and gifts x of the Holy Ghost,
according to his own will '?

(5) ]ror imto the angels hath he not
put in subjection the world to come.,

argument of this Epistle gives special importance to
the subject here. The ouly passage in the Pentateuch
which can be quoted in illustration is Deut. xxxiii. 2 :
" The Lord came from Sinai .... He came from amid
myriads of holy ones." The Greek version (introducing
a double rendering of the Hebrew) adds, " at His right
hand were angels with Him ; " and two of the Targums
likewise speak of the " myriads of holy angels." Ps.
lxviii. 17 is difficult and obscure, but very possibly
agrees with the passage just quoted in referring to
angels as the attendants of Jehovah on the mount.
Nowhere in the Old Testament is the thought carried
beyond this point ; but there ai*e a few passages in
Jewish writers which clearly show that such a minis-
tration of angels as is here spoken of was a tenet of
Jewish belief in the apostolic age. Philo, after
saying that the angels have their name from reporting
the commands of the Father to His children, and the
wants of the children to the Father, adds : " We are
unable to contain His exceeding and unalloyed benefits,
if He Himself proffers them to us without employing
others as His ministers." Much more important are
the words of Josephus (Ant. xv. 5, § 3), who introduces
Herod as reminding the Jews that the noblest of the
ordinances and the holiest of the things contained
in the laws had been learnt by them from God through
angels. Jewish writers quoted by Wetstein speak of
the ••angels of service" whom Moses had known from
the time of the giving of the law; and, moreover, of
the angel who. when Moses had through terror for-
gotten all that he had been taught during the forty days,
delivered the law to him again. Such speculations are
of interest as showing the place which this tenet held
in Jewish doctrine and belief. Here and in Gal. iii. 19
(see Note there; this mediation of angels is adduced as
a mark of the inferiority of the law ; in Acts vii. 53,
where no such comparison is made, the contrast
implied is between angels and men as givers of a law.

Was stedfast. — Rather, proved steadfast or sure ;
evidence of this was given by the pnnishment which
overtook the transgressor, whether inflicted by the
direct visitation of God or by human hands faithfully
executing the divine will. Of the two words well
rendered transgression and disobedience, the one points
especially to the infraction of a positive precept, the
other is more general : the former relates more
commonly to " thou shalt not ; " the latter rather
to " thou shalt." The two words are here united,
that every violation of the command may be in-
cluded. The use of reward in a neutral or unfavour-
able sense (2 Pet. ii. 13; Ps. xciv. 2, et al.) is not
uncommon in our older writers. (Comp. " the reward
of a villain," in Shakespeare.)

(3) How shall we escape P— In a different context
these words might naturally mean, " How shall we,
transgressors of the law. escape from the penalty it
threatens, if Ave neglect the one means of deliverance
now offered us ? " (Comp. Gal. iii. 13 ; iv. 5.) Here,
however, are placed in contrast the command and
threatening which came through angels and the salva-
tion " spoken through the Lord " ; while the one

"word"' is thus wholly unlike the other in substance
and in form of proclamation, each is a lav:, in that
neglect is visited with penalty. On the intrinsic great-
ness of the salvation the writer does not dwell ; it is
implied in the unique dignity and commission of Him
through wdiom it was given.

Which at the first began to be spoken.—
Better, which having at the first been spoken through
the Lord, was made sure unto us by them that heard.
" Through the Lord " (comp. chap. i. 2) was spoken this
word of God which brought salvation. In two other
passages Jesus receives the name "our Lord" (chap.
vii. 14; xiii. 20), but nowhere else in this Epistle
(unless perhaps in chap. xii. 14) is He spoken of as
'• the Lord " ; the dignity of the title here heightens the
contrast. " By them that heard " the word from Him,
the writer says, it " was made sure " (not confirmed, as
if stronger attestation were the meaning intended)
"Unto us." It is evident that the writer here classes
himself with those who had not immediately heard the
word from Jesus. Such language as this stands in
striking contrast with St. Paul's claim, repeatedly
maintained, to have received his doctrine directly from
the Lord Himself (Gal. i. 12; 1 Cor. ix. 1, et al).

W God also bearing them witness.— That is„
bearing witness with them to the truth they preached.
Mark xvi. 20 is a striking parallel ; see also Acts iv. 30.
The divine attestation was given by miracles and by
"gifts" (literally, dish-ibid ions, as in the margin:
see 1 Cor. xii. 11) " of the Holy Ghost." We have here,
as in Acts ii. 22 and 2 Cor. xii. 12 (see the Notes), the
full threefold description of miracles, as " signs " and
"wonders" and "powers"; as wonderful works that
are wrought by divine power, and are thus signs of the
divine presence and symbols of a corresponding spiritual
work. The words here used are illustrated especially
by 2 Cor. xii. 12, in its reference to miracles as attest-
ing the apostolic preaching. But yet " greater works '
(John xiv. 12) were wrought by the messengers of
Christ, in that through them were bestowed the gifts
of the Spirit. The last words. " according to His
will," bring us back to the first words of the section
(chap. i. 1); as it is God who speaks to men in His
Son, it is He who works with those who proclaim the
word that they have heard, attesting their message by
gifts according to His will.

(5-18) It was needful that Jesus, as Author of salva-
tion to man, should in all points be made like to those
whom He saves, and in their likeness suffer and die ;
thus He becomes for them a merciful and faithful High
Priest.

(5) For. — There is a Aery clear connection between
this verse and chap. i. 14. " Angels are but ministering
spirits, serving God in the cause of those who shall
inherit salvation; for not to angels is the world to coin.'
made subject." But the connection with verses 2. :>. is
equally important : " the salvation that is now given has
been proclaimed not by angels but by the Lord, and it
is God Himself who works with the messengers of the

288

The Promise of Dominion

HEBEEWS, II.

fulfilled to Man. in Christ.

whereof we speak. <6) But one in a cer-
Chap. ii. 5-18. "fain place testified, say-
The Bufferings Lag, What is man, that
of Jesus were thou art min(lful 0f him?
necessary, that . , a ., !

He might be- or the son of man, that

come for man thou Visitest him?" ,7)
Author of Sal- mi , , , . ,., ,,

ration, a true Thou madest him a little
High Priest. lower than1 the angels;
thou crownedst him with glory and

i Or, i
) Or, I

honour, and didst set him over the
works of thy hands: (8) thou hast put
all things in subjection under his
feet. For in that he put all in sub-
jection under him, he left nothing that
is not put under him. But now we
see not yet all things put under him.
W But we see Jesus, who was made a
little lower than the angels for2 the

Lord }for not unto angels," &c. The word "salvation"
hind* together lliis section and the first. (See chap,
i. 14; ii. 2; ii. 10.)

Hath he not put in subjection.— Better, did He
subject ; for the reference is to the passage quoted in
the following verses, which is already in the writer's
thought. " He : " God, speaking in the prophetic
Scripture.

The world to come. — The same expression occurs
in the English version of chap. vi. 5, hut in the Greek
'"world" is represented by entirely different words.
Here, as in chap. i. 6, the meaning is " inhabited earth,"
" world of man " j there, the word properly relates to
time, "age." Is "the world to come''' still future, or
is it here looked at from the Old Testament point of
view P (See chap. i. 2.) The following verses (espe-
cially verse 9) make it clear that the period referred to
is that which succeeds the exaltation of Christ. We
ourselves cannot but markedly distinguish the present
stage of Messiah's kingdom from the future; but in
the perspective of prophecy the two were blended.
The thought of this kingdom amongst men has been
present from the first verses of the Epistle onwards ;
hence, "'whereof we speak."

<6) But one in a certain place.— Better, some-
where. The expression is perfectly indefinite (comp.
chap. iv. 4). As a l'ule, the words of Scripture are in
this Epistle quoted as God's own utterances ; and
though the nature of the quotation (which is an address
to God) made this impossible here, the writer seems
gladly to avoid the mention of the human prophet,
perhaps as distracting the thought from the divine
pi-ophecy. This studious indefiuiteness in citation is
common iu Philo, and sometimes occurs where he
cannot possibly have been in doubt as to the source
of his quotation.

Testified. — That is, in Biblical visage, solemnly
declared : the words are no light exclamation of wonder.
The quotation which follows (from Ps. viii. 4 — 6) agrees
verbally with the LXX. version. The only point of
doubt is whether the last clause of verse 7 was included
in the quotation, as in some very good ancient authori-
ties it is absent from the text. The weight of external
evidence is certainly in its favour; but it is easier to see
how a scribe may have introduced the clause through
his familiarity with the Psalm than to explain its omis-
sion if it stood in the original text of this Epistle. The
Greek translation here faithfully represents the Hebi*ew,
except in one point. For " a little lower than the
angels," the Hebrew text has " a little less than God."
The change (which is similar to that noticed in chap. i.
6) was probably introduced by the translators on a
principle which we may often trace in their work — a
wish to tone down expressions relating to the Deity
which seemed strong or bold. In quoting the passage
the writer does not depart from the rendering
most familiar to the readers of the Greek Bible;

289

but. though the clause in its altered form accords
well with what had preceded the quotation, and, so
to speak, more completely interweaves the words of
the Psalm with the context in which they are here
placed, yet no stress is laid on "angels." The
argument of this section would not be affected
materially if the true rendering of the Hebrew were
restored. The eighth Psalm is an expression of amaze-
ment that God, who has "set His glory upon the
heavens," should deign to remember man. Not only is
He " mindful of man," but He has made him but
" little less than God," " crowned him with honour,"
given him " dominion over " all His works. The origi-
nal blessing pronounced on man (Gen. i. 28) is clearly in
the Psalmist's thought, and suggests his words. The
language which here precedes (verse 5) and follows
(verso 8) shows that the last clause (" thou didst sub-
ject all things under his feet ") bears the stress of the
quotation. (That the same words are the groundwork
of 1 Cor. xv. 24 — 28 is one of the most intei-esting
coincidences between this Epistle and St. Paul.) It is
easy to see, therefore, for what purpose these verses are
here adduced. Not to angels is " the world to come "
subjected : in the Scripture there are found words de-
claring that a divine decree has subjected all things to
man. How the thought is combined with the argu-
ment of the whole passage will be seen in A-erse 9. A
question at once arises : Bid the meaning here assigned
to the Psalm exist in David's thought P If not, on what
principle does this application rest ? David had in
mind the words of the primal blessing, and probably
did not himself think of more than those words seemed to
imply. But the complete meaning of God's words can
be learnt only when they are fulfilled in history. To
Him who speaks in Scripture the material dominion was
the symbol of a higher and a universal rule, to be ful-
filled in the Son of Man when the fulness of time
should come. The Psalm is not directly Messianic, — it
relates to man; but it is through the Man Christ
Jesus that it receives its complete fulfilment for man-
kind.

(8) Thou hast put . . .—There is in the Greek a
studious repetition of the leading word, which should
not be lost in translation : " Thou didst subject all
things under his feet. For in subjecting all things to
him, He left nothing unsubjected to him. But now we
see not yet all things subjected to him."

For in that . . .—The assertion of verse 5 is
established by this Scripture; for if God has thus
declared all things subject to man, there is nothing
that did not fall under his rule. " Did not," in the
divine purpose ; but this purpose is not yet fulfilled in
regard to the race of man.

(9) But we see Jesus . . .—Rather, But we see
Him who has been made a little lower than angels,
Jesus, because of the suffering of death crowned with
glory and honour. There is One in whom the divine

Jesus crowned with Glory

HEBREWS, IT.

as Captain of our Salvation,

suffering of death, crowned with glory
and honour; that he by the grace of
God should taste death for every man.
(io) Yov it became him, for whom are all
things, and by whom are all things, in

bringing many sons unto glory, to make
the captain of their salvation perfect
through sufferings. W For both he
that sanctifieth and they who are sanc-
tified are all of one : for which cause he

purpose is fulfilled in all its parts. He was made a
little (the rendering of the margin, "a little while.'" is
much less probable) lower than angels, and He is crowned
with glory. In one point we note an apparent departure
from the sense of the Psalm, since words (" a little
lower ") which there denote dignity hei'e denote
humiliation. This difference is not essential ; in each
case it is the position of man that is signified, and our
Lord's assumption of human nature must in any case
be spoken of as a descent to a lower sphere. There is
peculiar fitness in the use of the human name, Jesus.
for Him in whom the Psalmist's words concerning
man are literally fulfilled. It is noteworthy that we
do not read, " We see all things put in subjection
unto Jesus " — this would conflict with the truth stated
in chap. x. 13 : other words of the Psalm are sub-
stituted, which do not imply that the complete actual
subjection is already accomplished. This exaltation of
One is not a substitute for, but involves (Rom. viii.
17, 29, et al), and renders possible, the exaltation of the
many. This is clear from the " not yet " of verse 8 ;
and the same truth is brought out in a different form
at the close of this verse. In the midst of this appli-
cation of the words of Scripture to Jesus, the writer
introduces his first reference to His death. The offence
of the cross (Gal. v. 11) was an ever-active force among
Jews ; this is present to the writer's mind throughout
the Epistle. The words thus suddenly brought in here,
reminding us that the exaltation of Christ was a
reward for His obedience unto death (another echo of
St. Paul — Phil. ii. 9, 10 ; see also chap. xii. 2), prepare
for the more detailed teaching of the following verses —
10, 14, 15, 17.

There is an apparent difficulty in the position of the
last clause of the verse, " that He should taste death
for every man." We cannot doubt that these words
depend on those which immediately precede; and yet how
can it be said that Jesus has been crowned with glory
in order that He may " taste death for every man " ?
Almost all difficulty is removed if we consider that
(to use Dean Alford's words) " it is on the triumphant
issue of His sufferings that their efficacy depends." But
it is impossible for the Christian to separate, even in
thought, the one from the other — the sufferings from the
certain triumph. We might, perhaps, say that it is only
by a misuse of human analogies that we separate them
even in time : in the Gospel of St. John, at all events (if
not in this very Epistle— see verse 14), we are taught
that in His crucifixion Jesus is exalted. This clause,
then, brings us back to the thought of the glory reserved
for man : through death the fulfilment of God's purpose
might seem to be frustrated; through the death of
Jesus on behalf of every man (1 Pet. iii. 18) it is ful-
filled. The outline presented here is filled up in later
chapters ; there we shall read that man's inheritance
was forfeited through sin, and that only through the
virtue of a death which made atonement for sin is the
promise again made sure (chap. ix. 15, 16, 28). To " taste
death " is a familiar Hebraism. If it has any special
significance here, it would seem less natural to see
(with Chrysostom) a reference to the short duration of
our Saviour's death, than to understand the words as

pointing to the actual taste of all the bitterness of
death. (Comp. chap. vi. 4, 5.)

One various reading it is impossible to pass by,
though it is preserved in but two of our Greek MSS..
and these of no early date. For "by the grace of God "
many (apparently most) copies of the Epistle that were
known to Origen read " apart from God." This read-
ing was followed by others of the Fathers, and found
its way into some manuscripts of early versions. The
Nestorians gladly accepted words which to them seemed
to teach that in suffering the man Jesus was apart
from God. Origen and others understood the words
differently, as meaning, taste death for every being
except God. (Comp. 1 Cor. xv. 27.) A reading so
widely known, which in later times has beeti favoured
by as eminent a critic as Bengel, demanded notice,
though it is almost certainly incorrect. No interpreta-
tion which the words admit yields a probable sense ;
on the other hand, the reference to " the grace of God "
is full of significance. (See verses 4 and 10.)

(10) For. — What seemed to Jews incredible, that the
Christ should die, was ordained " by the grace of God."
For thus to make sufferings the path to His kingdom
was worthy of God, for whose glory and through whose
power all things exist ; who as Creator commands all
agencies, and who cannot but do that which will sub-
serve His glory. If the means at which men Avondered
were chosen by God, no one may doubt their supreme
fitness for the end. In what this fitness consisted the
following words partially explain.

In bringing. — It is doubtful whether the Greek
word should not be rendered, having brought. With
this translation we must certainly explain the words
on the same principle as the past tenses of verses 7
and 8. As in the divine counsels all things were
subjected to man, with the same propriety it may be
said that God had brought many sons to glory when
the Saviour suffered and died.

Many sons.— The new thought here introduced
is of great importance in the argument. The divine
purpose is to bring many sons (comp. chap. i. 14) unto
glory — the glory already spoken of as reserved for
man — through His Son, who has Himself received this
glory that He may make it theirs.

Captain. —This word occurs in three other, places.
In Acts v. 31 it bears its original meaning, " Leader "
(" a Leader and a Saviour ") ; in chap. xii. 2 and Acts iii.
15 the idea of "leading the way" has passed into that
of origination. In the present case, also. Author is the
best rendering; but in a context which so distinctly
presents our Lord as taking on Himself the conditions
of man's lot, and so passing into the glory which He
wins for man, the primary thought of leading must
not be entirely set aside. It is as the Author of sal-
vation that He is made perfect through sufferings.
Three aspects of this truth are presented in the Epistle.
By His suffering unto death He "bare the sins of
many" (verse 9, chap. ix. 28); He offered the sacrifice
of a perfect obedience (chap. v. 8); He was enabled to
be a perfect representative of man. This last thought
pervades the remaining verses of the chapter.

(ii) For both he that sanctifieth . . .The

Jesus made UTce unto Men,

HKBUKWS, II.

whom He ovms as Brethren,

is not ashamed to call them brethren,
a-] saying, I will declare thy name unto
my brethren, in the midst of the church
will I sing praise unto thee. (1:}) And
again, I will put my trust in him." And
again, Behold I and the children which

God hath given me. b WJ Forasmuch
then as the children are partakers of
flesh and blood, he also himself likewise
took part of the same; that through
death he might destroy him that had
the power of death, that is, the devil ;

special meaning of " sanctify " in this Epistle (chaps.
ix. 13 ; x. 10, Ik 29 : xiii. 1-) seems to be, bringing into
fellowship icith God, the Holy One. '• They who are
sanctified " — literally, are being sanctified (comp. Acts
ii. 47: 1 Cor. i. 18) — are those whom the Captain of
their salvation, in fulfilment of the Father's purpose
vrse 10), is leading unto glory. The thoughts of the
last verse, therefore, are repeated here, with a change
of figure ; and again (as in verse 9) we note the brief
reference to a subject which will be prominent in later
chapters; see especially chap. xiii. 12.

Are all of one.— Of one Father. This is the con-
necting link between verse 11 and verse 10. which
speaks of the " many sons " and their Saviour. Though
His sonship is unique and infinitely exalted, He is not
ashamed to own them as brethren.

02)i wiil declare thy name . . . .—The
quotation is taken (with very slight variation) from
the 22nd verse of Ps. xxii. — a Psalm remarkable
for its close connection with the narratives of the
Passion of our Lord. Whether the inscription which
speaks of David as author is correct, or whether (from
the difficulty of discovering any period in David's
history to which the expressions used can apply) we
consider the Psalm to have been written after the
Captivity, there' can be no doubt of its Messianic
character. Some would class this Psalm with Ps. ex.
(see Note on chap. i. 13), as simply and directly pro-
phetic, having no historic foreground ; but the language
of some of the verses is so definite and peculiar that
we must certainly regard it as descriptive of actual
experience, and must rather regard the Psalm (comp.
el lap. i. 8, 9) as typically prophetic of Christ. Each
division of this verse is in point as a quotation. (1) Those
to whom the Messiah will declare God's name He speaks
of as " brethren ; " (2) not alone, but in the " church "
(or rather, in a congregation of God's people ; see Ps.
xxii. 22) will He sing the praise of God. The latter
thought — community with men, as attested by a like
relation to God — is brought out with still greater pro-
minence in verse 13.

(13) I will put my trust in him . . . Behold I
and the children . . . — Of the two passages cited
in this verse, the latter is certainly from Isa. viii. 18 ;
and though the former might be derived from 2 Sam.
xxii. 3 or Isa. xii. 2, yet, as the words are also found in the
same chapter of Isaiah (viii. 17), we may with certainty
consider this the source of the quotation. That the sec-
tion of Isaiah's prophecies to which chap. viii. belongs is
directly Messianic, is a fact that must be kept in mind ;
but the stress of the quotation cannot be laid on this. The
prophet, as the representative of God to the people, has
given utterance to the divine message : in these words,
however, "I will put my trust" (better, "I will have my
trust," for continuous confidence is what the words
denote) " in Him." he retires into the same position
with the people whom he has addressed ; their relation
towards God's word and the hope it Inspires must be his
also. This two-fold position of the prophet symbolised
the two-fold nature of Him of whom every prophet
was a type. (In Isa. viii. 17. the Authorised version.

"I will look for Him,"" is nearer to the strict meaning
of the original; but the difference is of little moment.)

The second passage is free from difficulty up to a
certain point. In Isa. vii. and viii. we not only read of
the word of God sent by Isaiah, but also find his sons
associated with him in his message to the people. The
warning of judgment and the promise are, so to speak,
held up before the people inscribed in the symbolic
names borne by the sous. Maher-shalal-hash-baz ("Speed
the spoil, hastens the prey ") and Shear- jashub (" A
remnant shall return; " see Isa. vii. 3; x. 21), and by
Isaiah himself (" Salvation of Jehovah "). " Behold I,
he says, " and the children whoni the Lord hath given
me, are for signs and for wonders in Israel from the
Lord of hosts." By God's own appointment, the
children whom God gave him, though themselves no
prophets, were joined with himself in the relation of
prophets to the people, and were representatives of
those whom God, who " hideth His face from the
house of Jacob" (Isa. viii. 17), will save. As in the
former passage Isaiah is taken as representing Christ.
so here those who, being of the same blood, are joined
with him in his work and in the promise of salvation,
represent those whom the Son calls " brethren." The
difficulty is that, whereas the original passage speaks
of '" the children " of the prophet, the meaning here
must be children of God, given by Him to the Son.
But no type can answer in every respect to that which
it represents. The association of Jesus with His
people contains throe elements of thought — His essen-
tial superiority, His sharing the same nature with His
people, His brotherhood with them. The first two
thoughts are truly represented in this Old Testament
figure ; the last no figure could at the same time set forth.
And though verses 12 and 13 are directly connected
with the word " brethren," yet, as the next verse shows,
the most important constituent of the thought is com-
munity of nature. It should be observed that in these
two verses the citations are not so distinctly adduced
by wray of proof as are those of the first chapter.

(14) Forasmuch then . . .—The two members of
this verse directly recall the thoughts of verses 10
and 9. (1) It was the will of God that salvation should
be won by the Son for sons ; (2) this salvation could
only be won by means of death.

The Children.— Said with reference to verse 13.

Flesh and blood.— Literally, blood and flesh, the
familiar order of the words being departed from here
and in Eph. vi. 12. This designation of human nature
on its material side is found four times in the New
Testament, and is extremely common in Jewish writers.

The emphasis of the following statement is note-
worthy : " He Himself also in like manner took part of
the same things." His assumption of our nature had
for its object suffering and death.

Destroy him. — Rather, bring him to nought; annul
his power. The comment on these words will bo
found in chap. ix. 15. 2ti; for it was as the lord of sin,
which was the cause (Rom. v. 12) and the sting (1 Cor.
xv. 5H) of death, that the devil held dominion over
death (or, as the words might mean, wielded the power

The Merciful aicl

HEBREWS, II.

Faithful High Priest.

(15> and deliver them who through fear
of death were all their lifetime subject
to bondage. (16) For verily he took not
on him the nature of angels ; but he
took on him the seed of Abraham.1
(17) Wherefore in all things it behoved
him to be made like unto his brethren,

fir. he lnMli not

la, III of mull's,
I, III ,,l tin „-, ,,l 1,1

Ahruhiiiii hi' tak-
eth hold.

that he might be a merciful and faithful
high priest in things pertaining to God,
to make reconciliation for the sins of
the people. <18> For in that he him-
self hath suffered being tempted,
he is able to succour them that are
tempted.

possessed by death). (Comp. 2 Tim. i. 10 ; 1 John iii.
8 ; also Rev. i. 18.) Combined with this is the thought
which runs through this chapter — the assimilation of
the Redeemer to the redeeiued in the conditions of His
earthly life. By meeting death Himself, He vanquishes
and destroys death for them.

(15> Deliver them who through fear of death
. . . .—This verse brings into relief the former
misery and the present freedom. We may well
suppose these words to have been prompted by
the intense sympathy of the writer with the perse-
cuted and tempted Christians whom he addresses.
He writes throughout as one who never forgets their
need of sympathetic help, and who knows well the
power of the motives, the allurements and the threats,
employed to lead them into apostasy. The crushing
power of the " fear of death " over those who had not
grasped the truth that, in Christ, life and immortality
are brought to light, perhaps no thought of ours can
reach.

(16) He took not on him the nature of
angels.— The rendering of the margin approaches very
nearly the true meaning of the verse ; whereas the text
(in which the Authorised version differs from all our
earlier translations) introduces confusion into the argu-
ment. Having spoken in verse 14 of our Lord's
assumption of human nature, the writer in these words
assigns the reason : " For surely it is not of angels that
He taketh hold, but He taketh hold of the seed of
Abraham." Though the words "take hold," which
occur twice in the verse, probably cannot directly signify
"help " (as is often maintained), they distinctly suggest
laying hold for the sake of giving help ; and a beautiful
illustration may be found in some of the Gospel
narratives of our Lord's woi'ks of healing ( Mark viii. 23 ;
Luke xiv. 4). It is probable that the language used
here is derived from the Old Testament. In chap,
viii. 9, a cpiotation from Jer. xxxi., we read, " In the day
when I took them by the hand to lead them out of the
land of Egypt." Isa. xli. 8, 9, however, is perhaps a
still closer parallel (for the word used in the Greek
version is very similar, and no doubt expresses the
same meaning) : " Thou Israel, my servant. Jacob whom
I have chosen, the seed of Abraham my friend ; thou of
whom I have taken hold from the ends of the earth."
If the writer had these verses in his thought, it is
hardly necessary to inquire why he chooses the
expression " seed of Abraham," instead of one of
(apparently) wider meaning, such as verses 7, 8, might
seem to require. But even apart from this passage
of Isaiah, and the natural fitness of such a phrase in
words addressed to Jews, we may doubt if any other
language would have been equally expressive. For as
to the means, it was by becoming a child of Abraham
that the Saviour " took hold of " our race to raise it
up : and as to the purpose. St. Paul teaches us that
" the seed of Abraham " includes all who inherit
Abraham's faith.

(17) Wherefore. —Since it is " the seed of Abraham,"
His brethren, that He would help.

292

In all things.— These words must be taken with
" made like." In all respects (the single exception does
not come into notice here, see chap. iv. 15) He must be
made like to " the brethren " (a reference to verse 12) :
like them, He must be liable to, and must suffer,
temptation, sorrow, pain, death.

That he might be.— Rather, that He might prove,.
or become (the words imply what is more fully
expressed in chap. v. 8), a compassionate and faithful
High Priest. The high priest was the representative of
men to God ; without such likeness (see chap. v. 1, 2)
He could be no true High Priest for man. The order
of the Greek words throws an emphasis on " com-
passionate " which is in full harmony with what we
have seen to be the pervading tone of the chapter.
One who has not so understood the infirmities of his
brethren as to be " compassionate," cannot be their
" faithful " representative before God. But the word
" faithful " is still more closely connected with the
following words. If through the power of sympathy
which the Saviour has gained " by sufferings " He
becomes " compassionate " as our High Priest, it is
through " the suffering of death " (verse 9) that He
proves Himself " the faithful High Priest in things
pertaining to God, to make reconciliation (or rather,
propitiation) for the sins of the people." The word
" high priest," hei'eafter to be so prominent in the Epistle.
is brought in somewhat suddenly, but several expres-
sions in this chapter (see also chap. i. 3) have prepared
for and led up to the crowning thought here brought
before us. The characteristic function of the high
priest was his presentation of the sacrifice on the Day
of Atonement, that expiation might be made for the
sins of the whole people, that the displeasure of God
might not rest on the nation on account of sin. (Comp.
verse 11.) The words rendered " propitiate " and " pro-
pitiation " are not of frequent occurrence in the New
Testament (Luke xviii. 13 ; 1 John ii. 2 ; iv. 10 — see
also Rom. iii. 25). but are very often found in the
LXX. The subject receives its full treatment in
chaps, ix. and x.

(18) For. — The necessity of being "in all things
made like to His brethren" has been shown from the
nature of the case ; it is now illustrated from the
result. The " brethren " and the " people " of verse 17
are here "the tempted." Tln*ough the temptations
arose those sins of the people for which He makes pro-
pitiation. In His having been tempted lies His special
ability to help the tempted, by His sympathy, by His
knowledge of the help that is needed, by the position
of High Priest which He has gained through suffering.
It is difficult to decide between two translations of the
first words of the verse : (1) " In that He Himself."
(2) " Wherein He Himself hath suffered being
tempted." The former is simpler, but, perhaps, less
natural as a rendering of the Greek. The latter may
indeed at first seem to set a bound to our Lord's ability
to help, but with the recollection of. the infinitude
of His life (comp. John xxi. 25) all such limitation
disappears.

Apostle and High Priest

HEBREWS, III.

Receives Higher Glory than Moses,

CHAPTER III.— W Wherefore, holy
Chap. iii. 1—6. brethren, partakers of the

Vii"'udepriStr heavenly calling, consider
who, as the the Apostle and High
ov!"ihtul GSr" Pr^es* °f our profession,
house, is °ex- Christ Jesus; W who was
alted above faithful to him that ap-
Moses, the ser- . , n n , . /

vant. pointed * him, as also

1 Hi-, uiti'ti. 1 Sam.

Moses was faithful in all his house.
(3) For this man was counted worthy of
more glory than Moses, inasmuch as he
who hath builded the house hath more
honour than the house. w For every
house is builded by some man ; but hv
that built all things is God. (5> And
Moses verily was faithful in all his

III.

(iii. l— iv. 13) Having, therefore, this High Priest over
the house of God — a faithful Sou exalted above Moses
the faithful servant — let us by faithfulness make sure
our calling to be God's sons; that we may not, like
those who through their disobedience in the wilderness
provoked the Lord, be excluded from the promised rest.

0) Wherefore.— The address which here begins (the
first direct address in the Epistle) bears the same relation
to all that has preceded, as chap. ii. 1 — 4 bears to the
first, chapter. In particular, the contents of the second
chapter are gathered up in this verse, almost every word
of which recalls some previous statement or result.

Holy brethren. — United in one brotherhood in
virtue of a common sonship (chap. ii. 10) and of a
common brotherhood (chap. ii. 11) with Jesus, Him
" that sanctifieth " (chap. ii. 11).

Partakers.— Through Him who "took part" of our
earthly nature (chap. ii. 14) we are partakers of a
■• heavenly calling " (chap. ii. 10) as God's sons.

The Apostle and High Priest of our profes-
sion, Christ Jesus.— The best MSS. omit "Christ";
and it is impossible not to feel how fitly the personal
name " Jesus " is used after the later verses of chap. ii.
Here only is the name Apostle directly given to our
Lord ; but the thought is present in chap. ii. 3, and in
the many passages in which Jesus designates Himself
as the Sent of God, using the word from which Apostle
is derived (John iii. 17; v. 36, et al. ; especially John
xvii. 18 ; xx. 21). There is very little difference between
Apostle and Prophet, thus applied ; but the one brings
into relief the mission, the other the office and position.
Each presents a thought complementary of that con-
tained in high priest : " as Apostle Jesus pleads the
cause of God with us j as High Priest He pleads our
cause with God " (Bengel). The next verse renders it
probable that the two terms contain a reference to the
special mission of Moses and the priesthood of Aaron;
our Christian confession looks to One mediator.

(2) Who was. — Rather, a$ being ; or that He was.
Not merely, fix your thought on Jesus; but also (and
especially), think of Him as faithful to God (chap. ii. 17).

Appointed him. — Literally, made Him, an expres-
sion which some ancient (Ambrose and other Latin
fathers.— apparently also Athanasius) and many modern
writers have understood as relating to the creation of
the human nature of our Lord. It is probable, how-
ever, that 1 Sam. xii. 6 is in the writer's mind. " It is
the Lord that made Moses and Aaron, and that brought
your fathers up out of the land of Egypt." As there
Samuel speaks of the raising up of Moses and Aaron,
constituted by God deliverers of the people; so here
our thought must rest on Him who constituted Jesus
■" Apostle and High Priest."

As also Moses.— These words, which give the key
to the following verses, are quoted from Num. xii. 7.
where Moses is placed in contrast with prophets in

293

Israel to whom the Lord will make Himself known
by vision or dream. " My servant Moses is not so,
who is faithful in all mine house. With him will I speak
mouth to mouth." The " house "or household is God's
people Israel. To others will God reveal Himself in
various ways in regard to the many parts of the house,
the many concerns of the household. Throughout the
whole house Moses was the recipient of the divine com*
mauds, and was faithful — " faithful " (as one of the Tar-
gums paraphrases), " as chief of the chiefs of my court."

(3> For this man was counted.— Rather, For He
hath been accounted, by God, who hath crowned Him
with glory and honour (chap. ii. 0). In this reward lies
contained the proof that He was faithful. This 'is
probably the connection of thought ; others join this
verse with the first : " Consider Him . . . for He hath
received higher glory than Moses."

Inasmuch as. — That is, in p>roportion as : the
glory attained by Jesus exceeds the glory of Moses, as
the honour due to the builder of the house exceeds that
possessed by the house itself. It is not said that Jesus
is the Builder; but the relation in which He stands to
the Builder of the house is compared with that of
Moses to the house. (See verses 5, 6.) " Builded " is
not a happy word here (especially if we consider the
sense in which " house " is used), but it is not easy to
find a suitable rendering. The meaning is, He who
prepared or formed the house, with all its necessary
parts and arrangements.

<4> For every house is builded by some
man. — Rather, by some one : the thought of the house
leads at once to the thought of the builder of it. The
meaning of the several parts of this verse is very
simple ; but it is not easy to follow the reasoning witK
certainty. The second clause seems to be a condensed
expression of this thought : " But He that built this
house is He that built all things, God." "Moses is
possessed of lesser glory than the Apostle of our con-
fession, as the house stands below its maker in honour.
For this house, like every other, has its maker : — it is
He who made all things, even God.

(5) As a servant. — What was before implied is now
clearly expressed. Verse 3 associated Moses with the
house, Jesus with Him who builded it ; of what nature
this relation was. is stated in this verse and the next.
Moses was "in God's house;" however exalted his posi-
tion, he was in the house as a servant. The Greek
word used here does not occur elsewhere in the New
Testament, but is taken from the LXX. version of
Num. xii. 7. There is nothing special in the Hebrew
word in that place, but the translators seem to have felt
that '•bond-servant" was less suitable in such a context
than "attendant" or '•minister." The object of his
service was that he might bear " testimony of the
things that should hereafter be spoken." Are we to
understand by these the divine commands that would
from time to time be given to Moses ? If so, then the
statement " Moses was faithful "' must be regarded as a
pure cpiotation, equivalent to " Moses was at that time

The Son, Faithful over God's House.

HEBREWS, III

Be ye Faithful .

house, as a servant, for a testimony of
those things which were to be spoken
after ; <6) but Christ as a son over his
own house ; whose house are we, if we
hold fast the confidence and the rejoic-
ing of the hope firm unto the end.
w Wherefore (as the Holy Ghost

saith, To day if ye will cha ; iU. 7_
j hear his voice,3 (8) harden iv. 13. Let ug
I not your hearts as in the SLflSSEfi
1 provocation, m the day of fail of the pro-
j temptation in the wilder- Sf^IsrS

ness : {J> when your lathers was excluded
j tempted me, proved me, from Gods rest.

declared faithful." This does not seem probable. If,
however, the words of Num. xii. 7 are taken as
descriptive of the whole life of Moses, his " witness "
must relate to the things spoken " in these last days ; "
of these, by his writings, his acts, his life, Moses bore
constant witness. (See verse 2 ; chaps, viii. 5 ; ix. 19 ; xi.
26 ; John v. 46, et al.) The latter interpretation is
confirmed by verse 6, in which the name given to our
Lord is not Jesus, as in verse 1, but Christ.

(6) But Christ as a son over his own house.—
Rather, over His house. Throughout this passage
(verses 2, 5, 6) " His house " must be taken in the
sense of the quotation, as the house of God. Whereas
Moses was faithful as a servant in this house of God,
Christ was faithful as a son set over His Father's
house. The antithesis is complete ; the one is a servant
for witness, the other a Son having a natural right to
rule. The concluding words in verse 5 haA*e no formal
answer here, but the contrast is not the less distinctly
expressed. The name Christ (which here occurs for
the first time) is in this Epistle never a mere name : it
contains implicitly the thought that all that to which
Moses bore witness has reached its fulfilment now.
Christ has come : God's house, formerly typified by
Tsrael, is now manifested as it really is, containing all
" sons " whom God leads to glory (chap. ii. 10). The
terms applied by constant usage to the one nation are
thus successively enlarged : the " seed of Abraham "
(chap. ii. 16), " the people " (chap. ii. 17), the " house of
God " (see chap. x. 21).

If we hold fast the confidence. — Better, If we
hold the boldness and the glorying of our hope firm
unto the end. Faithful to his practical purpose, the
writer adds to the words "whose house are we "the
indispensable condition. The " house " exists (" arc
we "), to it belong all who possess the Christian
" hope ; " but for assured and final appropriation of the
promise there must be steadfastness " unto the end."
This exhortation differs from that in chap. ii. 1 — 4, in
that it more distinctly implies that those who are ad-
dressed have a possession which they may lose. The
Christian " hope," that aspect of faith which is turned
towards the future, is naturally often in the writer's
thoughts. The words associated are very striking :
hope gives us boldness (see 2 Cor. iii. 12), and of
this hope we make our boast. " Boldness " is spoken
of again (in chaps, iv. 16 ; x. 19, 35) : properly meaning
" freedom of speech," it denotes the confident, bold
feelings and demeanour which connect themselves with
the free utterance of thought.

(') Wherefore. — Since without steadfastness all
will be lost. "With the words introducing the quotation
compare chaps, ix. 8 ; x. 15.

Whether the marks of parenthesis here introduced in
our ordinary Bibles (not inserted by the translators of
1611) express the true connection of the verses is a
question very hard to decide, and One that does not
admit of full discussion here. It is very possible that
the writer (like St. Paul in Rom. xv. 3. 21 ; 1 Cor. i.
31) may have merged his own exhortation in that

which the quotation supplies (verse 8) ; and the objec-
tion that verse 12 would naturally in that case have
been introduced by some connective word is shown to
be groundless by such passages as chaps, viii. 13 ;
x. 23; xii. 7, 25. On the other hand, if we connect
•'Wherefore," in this verse, with " Take heed " in verse
12. we have greater regularity of structure — a strong
argument in this Epistle. It seems unlikely, more-
over, that the writer (whose tenderness of tone and
sympathy are so manifest in his words of warning)
would at this stage adopt as his own the stringent and
general exhortation, " harden not your hearts : " the
spirit of verse 12 (" lest haply there shall he in any one
of you ") is altogether different. On the whole, there-
fore, it seems best to consider verses 7 (" To-day . . .")
to 11 (". . . my rest ") as a pure quotation, enforcing
the warning that follows.

Psalm xcv., the latter part of which (verses 7 — 11) is
here cited, is in the LXX. ascribed to David, but is pro-
bably of later date. (As to chap. iv. 7, see the Note.)
In most important respects the words of the quotation
agree with the Greek version, and with the Hebrew
text. The chief exceptions will be noted as they occur.

To day if ye will hear his voice. — Rather,
To-day if ye shall hear (literally, shall have heard) His
voice. The Greek will not allow the sense in which
the words are naturally taken by the English reader,
"if ye are willing to hear." The meaning of the
Hebrew words is either — (1) " To-day, oh that ye would
hearken to (that is, obey) His voice ! " or, (2) " To-day
if ye hearken to His voice." The " voice " is that
which speaks in the following verses. As the words
stand before us. the Psalmist does not formally com-
plete the sentence here commenced (" if ye shall hear
. . . "). He introduces the divine words of warning,
but adds none in his own person. The entreaty
" Harden not your hearts " is at once the utterance of
the divine voice and the expression of his own urgent
prayer. Other passages in which the hardening of the
heart is spoken of as the work of man himself are
Ex. ix. 34 ; 1 Sam. vi. 6 ; Prov. xxviii. 14.

(8) In the day of temptation.— Better, like the
day of the temptation. As in the LXX., so here, two
words which in the Hebrew are proper names ("as at
Meribah, and as in the day of Massah ") are trans-
lated according to their intrinsic meaning. (For the
former see Ex. xvii. 7 ; Num. xx. 13 ; and for the
latter Ex. xvii. 7.) We may believe that these places
are here chosen for reference partly on account of their
significant names; but it is noteworthy that the re-
bellions recorded in the names belonged to the beginning
and to the close of the years of wandering.

(») According to our best MSS. this verse will run
thus: Where (or, wherewith) your fathers tempted by
trial, and saw My works forty years. The meaning of
the Hebrew (with which the LXX. very nearly agrees)
is : " Where your fathers tempted Me. proved Me : also
saw My work." The change of reading is more in-
teresting than important, as the sense is not material!?
different. Both here and in the original passage it

Take heed, lest any of you

HEBREWS, in.

bt Hardened through Unbelief.

and saw my works forty years.
1"» Wherefore I was grieved with that
generation, and said, They do alway
err in their heart; and they have not
known my ways. (11) So I sware in
my wrath, They shall not enter1 into
my rest.) <12^ Take heed, brethren, lest
there be in any of you an evil heart of
unbelief, in departing- from the living
God. W But exhort one another daily,

while it is called To day ; lest any of
you be hardened through the deceit-
fulness of sin. (u> For we are made
partakers of Christ, if we hold the be-
ginning of our confidence stedfast unto
v they shaii] the end ; <15» while it is said, To day if
ye will hear his voice, harden not your
hearts, as in the provocation. (16> For
some, when they had heard, did pro-
voke : howbeit not all that came out

seems probable that the " work," or "works," should be
understood of the divine judgments which the dis-
obedient people "saw" and bore during forty years.
In the Psalm (and apparently in verse 17 of this
chapter) the mention of the forty years connects itself
with the words which follow; but here with the pro-
vocations of the people and their punishment. It is
held by many that in this period of forty years is con-
tained a reference to the time that intervened between
our Saviour's earthly ministry and the destruction of ;
Jerusalem; and a Jewish tradition is quoted which j
assigns to " the days of Messiah " a duration of forty
y ars.

(to) i was grieved with that generation.—
Rather, I was angry with this generation. The Hebrew
i* very strong : " I loathed a (whole) generation." The
first word, " Wherefore," is not found iu the Psalm,
but is added to make the connection more distinct.

And they have not known my ways.— Better,
yet they took not knowledge of My ways. Although
throughout the forty years He had shown to them
their disobedience and His displeasure, yet the warning
and discipline were fruitless. They gained no know-
ledge of His ways. It is very important to observe
this explicit reference to the close, as well as the be-
ginning of the forty years. (See verse 8.)

<n) So.— Rather, as (chap. iv. 3). It is with these
as it was with their fathers, the generations that came
out of Egypt, unto whom God sware, " They shall not
enter into My rest" (Num. xiv. 21 — 24). The form
in which these words appear below (chap. iv. 3, 5) in
the Authorised version, " If they shall enter into my
rest," is an imitation of the original construction.
See Num. xiv. 23, where " they shall not see " is, as
the margin shows, expressed in Hebrew by "if they
(shall) see " the land.

Into my rest. — Into the land where Jehovah shall
'"ive rest to His people and shall dwell with them.
(See Deut. xii. 9; 1 Kings A'iii. 56; Ps. exxxii. 14;
Isa. lxvi. 1 ; 1 Chron. vi. 31 ; 2 Chron. vi. 41.)

(12) Lest there be in any of you.— Better, lest
haply there shall be in any one of you. (See above, on
verse 7.)

In departing. — Better, in falling aivay from a
Living God. The heart of unbelief will manifest its
evil in apostasy. The Greek word apistia stands in
direct contrast to "faithful" (2)istos), verse 2, and
combines the ideas of " unbelief " and " faithlessness."
He whose words they have heard is a living God, ever
watchful in warning and entreaty (verse 8), but also
in the sure punishment of the faithless (verse 11;
chap. x. 31).

(i:i) While it is called To day.— Literally, as
long as the " to-day" is called (to you), lest any one of
you be hardened by deceit of sin. As long as they
heard the word of God speaking in the Scripture,

" To-day if ye shall hear," so long is the way of obedi-
ence open to them. Sin is here personified as the
Deceiver (Rom. vii. 11), alluring from God by tin'
offer of " pleasui*es" (chap. xi. 25), or persuading that
forbearance and " respite " (Ex. viii. 15 ; Eccles. viii.
11) imply the absence of a Living God.

(14) For.— Take heed (verse 12) lest there be any-
thing that may lead astray, for we have become partakers
of the Christ if (and only if) we hold the beginning of
oxir confidence firm unto the end. In verse 6, since
Israel had been spoken of as God's house, the Christian
hope finds expression in " whose house are we." Here
the comparison with Israel journeying to the land of
promise suggests another figui-e. and all blessing is
summed up in becoming "partakers of the Christ,"
foretold and expected as the Fulfiller of all promises.
Two different words iu the two verses are rendered
" confidence " hi the Authorised version. The former,
as we have seen (verse 6), is " boldness ; " the latter
(here used) is applied to men who make a firm stand
when attacked, who stand firmly under pressure. In
the first energy of the new life such firm constancy
had been shown by them (chap. x. 32 — 34) ; but would
it be maintained " unto the end " ?

(15) If ye will hear. — Rather, as before (verse 7),
if ye shall hear. The true connection of this verse is
not easily decided. By many it is held that the words
should be joined with what follows, and commence a
new paragraph ; but this does not seem probable.
Either verse 14 is parenthetical, so that this verse
emphasises the reference to "to-day" in verse 13; or the
thought of the writer is that we must " hold fast the
beginning of our confidence " in the presence of this
divine warning — whilst day by day these words aro
addressed to us anew.

(16) For.— The connecting link is the thought of
" the provocation." A slight change in the accentuation
of the first Greek word effects a complete change in the
sense : For who when they had heard did provoke ? Nay,
ivas it not all thai came out of Egypt through Moses 1
Those who were disobedient were the people whom God,
through Moses, had but now delivered from bondage !
The two exceptions (Num. xiv. 30) are left out of
account in the presence of the multitude of rebels.
There can be little doubt that the above translation
(now generally received) presents the true meaning of
the verse. It will be remembered that the oldest MSS.
give no evidence on such points as accentuation, and
therefore leave our judgment free. In modern times
Bengel was the first to point out the true form of the
Greek word; but one of the ancient versions (the
Peschito-Syriac). and at least three of the Greek Fathers,
are found to give the same interpretation. It will be
seen at once that, with this arrangement of the words,
the present verse is similar in structure to the two
following.

The Disobedient People

HEBREWS, IV.

entered not into God's Rest.

of Egypt by Moses. <17) But with
whom was he grieved forty years? was
it not with them that had sinned,
whose carcases fell in the wilderness?
(l8) And to whom sware he that they
should not enter into his rest, but to
them that believed not? (19) So we see
that they could not enter in because of
unbelief.

Or. the word of

CHAPTER IV.— (D Let us therefore
fear, lest, a promise being left us of
entering into his rest, any of you should
seem to come short of it. W Tor unto
us was the gospel preached, as well as
unto them : but the word preached l
did not profit them, not being mixed
with faith in • them that heard it.
(3) For we which have believed do enter

(17) But. — Better, And toith whom ivas He angry
forty years ?

Whose carcases.— Literally, limbs. The word is
taken from the Greek version of Num. xiv. 29 ; and
soems intended to convey the thought of bodies falling
limb from limb in the wilderness.

(18) That believed not.— Rather, that disobeyed.
Every part of the solemn sentences of the Psalm is
applied to the reader's conscience, that the effect of the
whole warning may be deepened : the nature of the
transgression is thus brought out with the strongest
emphasis. Those with whom God was angry had

{>rovoked God (verse 16), had sinned (verse 17), had
>een disobedient, had refused to believe His word
(verse 19). The action of the Israelites (Num. xiv.)
involved at once disobedience to God's command that
they should advance to the conquest of the land, and
want of faith in the promise which made victory sure.

<19) So we see.— Rather, And we see. It is not the
general conclusion that is here expressed; but, as in
verse 18 we read of the oath of exclusion, this verse
records the fact, and also states the cause under an
aspect which is most suitable for the exhortation which
is in the writer's thought. There is force in " could
not enter " : — not only disobedience, but cowardice and
weakness, sprang from " unbelief."

IV.

This chapter is manifestly a continuation of the last,
mid should not have been detached from it. As with
the exhortation of chap. hi. 12, 13, are interwoven some
of the early words of the quotation from Ps. xcv., so
here the later thoughts of the same passage are taken
up and applied.

(!) Let us therefore fear.— The emphasis rests
upon " fear," not upon " us." It is noteworthy that
(he writer begins with " Let us," though about to write
"lest any of you ; " he will have gained his object if he
brings his readers to share his fear.

Lest, a promise being left \is.— Rather, lest
haply, a promise being (still) left. No word must be
inserted here that can diminish the generality of the
words; in the sequel the statement will be repeated
with all possible clearness. Here it is simply said that
such a promise remains unexhausted, waiting for com-
plete fulfilment. No Hebrew Christian would doubt
this. As in chap, i., the winter's aim is not to establish
a truth absolutely new, but to show that in this and in
that Scripture a received truth lies contained. Most of
our earlier versions (following Luther and Erasmus)
give to this clause a different turn, which cannot be
correct : " Lest any of you by forsaking the promise of
entering in His rest."

Any of you should seem to come short of
it. — Rather, any one of yon should be accounted to
have come short of it. The difficulty here lies iu the

words rendered " seem " or "be accounted." It appears
impossible that the meaning can be " should even
seem," or " should think himself," or " should show
himself," to have failed. It may be that the writer
avoids positive and direct language in speaking of what
lies beyond mortal ken, and therefore reverently says
'• should seem to have come short of it." It is more
probable that he is influenced by the figure contained
in the next word, the falling short of a mark ; and is
thus led to refer to the judge who witnesses and de-
clares the failure, — " Lest any one ... be held (or, be
adjudged) to have come short of " the promise.

(2) For unto us was.— Rather, for we have had
glad tidings preached unto us, even as they hud. The
object of these words is to support verse 1, " a promise
being left." How fitly the good news of the promise
might, alike in their case and in ours, be designated by
the same word as the " gospel," will afterwards appear.

The word preached.— Literally, the word of
hearing, i.e., the word which was heard (1 Thess. ii.
13). But this does not mean the word heard by them.
As in Isa. liii. 1 (where the same word is found in the
Greek version) the meaning is " our message," "that
which we have heard from God." so here the words
signify what was heard by those who declared the pro-
mise to the people, especially the message which Moses
received from God.

Not being mixed with faith.— A change of read-
ing in the Greek, which rests on the strongest authority,
compels us to connect these words, not with the message,
but with the people ; " since they had not been united
(literally, mingled) by faith with them that heard."
That the word of Moses and those associated with him
in declaring God's promise (perhaps Aaron, Joshua,
Caleb) might benefit the people, speakers and hearers
must be united by the bond of faith. Here the margin
of the Authorised version preserves the true text, fol-
lowing the Vulgate and the earliest of the printed Greek
Testaments (the Complutensian).

(3) For we which have believed.— The emphasis
is two-fold, resting both on "believed" and on "wo
enter." The former looks back to verse 2, " by
faith" — ufor it is we who believed that enter." . . .
The latter looks forward to the remainder of the verse,
the purport of which is that the rest exists, and that
" entering into the rest " may still be spoken of.

As I have sworn . . . — Rather (as above), as I
sware in My wrath, They shall not enter into My rest.
(See chap. iii. 11.) If in the Scripture (Ps. xcv. 8) God
warns men of a later age not to imitate the guilt of
those whom He excluded from His rest, it follows | see
below on verse 10) that the time for entering into the
rest of God was not then past and gone.

Although the works were finished from the
foundation of the world.— And therefore the rest
into which God will enter with His redeemed people is
not that which succeeded the works of creation. This

A Sabbath-rest remains

HEBKEWS, IV.

for the People of God,

into rest, as he said, As I have sworn in
my wrath, if they shall enter into my
n »t : although the works were finished
from the foundation of the world. <4) For
be spake in a certain place of the seventh
day on this wise, And God did rest the
seventh day from all his works. (5^ And
in this place again, If they shall enter
into my rest. (6) Seeing therefore it re-
maineth that some must enter therein,
and they to whom it was first preached 1

entered not in because of unbelief;
(7) again, he limiteth a certain day,
saying in David, To day, after so long
a time ; as it is said, To day if ye
will hear his voice, harden not your
hearts. (8^ For if Jesus 3 had given
them rest, then would he not afterward
have spoken of another day. W There
remaineth therefore a rest3 to the people
of God. (10> For he that is entered into
his rest, he also hath ceased from his

caution is added because the words used by the Psalmist
(Ps. xcv. 11) are derived from Gen. ii. 2, 3 ; though the
same words are used, yet, we are reminded, the thought
is widely different. The next two verses simply expand
and support the thought contained in this : " For
whereas we read in one Scripture that God ' rested '
on the seventh day, another records His sentence on
tin- disobedient people, ' They shall not enter into My
rest." ,;

(4) ip0r he spake in a certain place. — Better,
For he hath spoken somewhere, another example
of indefmiteness of citation. (See Note oil chap,
ii. 6.)

(6) The substance of the preceding verses may be
thus expressed : There is a rest of God, into which
some are to entor with God, — a rest not yet entered at
the time of the wandering in the wilderness, and there-
fore not that which followed the work of creation, — a
rest from which some were excluded because of
unbelief. These five particulars are repeated in
substance in the present verse : " Seeing, therefore,
it is (still) left that some should enter in, and they to
whom formerly glad tidings were declared entered not
in because of disobedience, He again," &c. " Dis-
obedience " — though verse 2 speaks of unbelief as the
cause : see Note on chap. iii. 18. In John iii. 36, the
transition from " believeth " to '•obeyeth" is equally
striking.

W> Again, he limiteth.- Better, He again marketh
out (or, defineth). The next step taken (see the last
Note) is to point out that, long after the occupation of
Canaan, the Psalmist — God speaking in the Psalm —
says - To-day," in pleading with Israel. The implied
meaning is as if He said. " Harden not your hearts to-
day, lest I swear unto you also. Ye shall not enter into
My rest."

In David.— Probably this is equivalent to saying,
In tite Book of Psalms. In the LXX., however, Ps. xcv.
is ascribed to David.

After so long a time.— The period intervening
between the divine sentence on the rebels in the wilder-
ness (Num. xiv.) and the time of the Psalmist.

As it is said.— The best MSS. read, as it hath been
before said.

W For, had the promise been fulfilled in Joshua's
conquest, the Psalm (God in the Psalm) would not be
speaking of another day, sayirig " To-day " (verse 7).
(In one other place in the New Testament the Greek
form of the name of Joshua is preserved. See the
Note on Acts vii. 45.)

(») There remaineth therefore.— Or, therefore
there is (still) left : the word is the same as in verse 6.
It is tacitly assumed that no subsequent fulfilment has
altered the relation of the promise. Few things in the
Epistle are more striking than the constant presenta-

44* 29

tion of the thought that Scripture language is per-
manent and at all times present. The implied promise,
therefore, repeated whenever the " to-day " is heard,
must have its fulfilment. The rescued people of Israel
did indeed find a rest in Canaan : the true redeemed
" people of God " shall rest with God.

A rest. — As the margin points out, the word is
suddenly changed. As the rest promised to God's
people is a rest with God. it is to them " a sabbath-
rest." So one of the treatises of the Mislma speaks of
Ps. xcii. as a " Psalm for the time to come, for the day
which is all Sabbath, the rest belonging to the life
eternal."

(10) Into his rest. — That is, into God's rest.

Hath ceased.— Rather, hath rested from his works
as God did from His own (works). This verse is added
to explain and justify the reference to a" sabbath " in
verse 9. Man's sabbath-rest begins when he enters
into God's rest (Gen. ii. 2) ; as that was the goal of the
creative work, so to the people of God this rest is the
goal of their life of " works."

As the whole argument is reviewed, the question
may naturally be asked, To what extent is this wide
meaning present in the Psalm itself ? Where must
the line be drawn between the direct teaching of the
words and the application here made ? The apparent
expansion of the meaning of the Psalm relates to
verse 11 alone. There, in the first instance, an historical
fact is mentioned — the exclusion of the rebels from
the promised land. But though the mention of the
oath of God is derived from Num. xiv. 28 — 30, the
language of the historian is significantly changed ; for
"ye shall not come into the land." we read, "they shall
not enter into My rest." True, the land could be
spoken of as their " rest and inheritance " (Deut. xii. 9) ;
but the language which the Psalmist chooses is at all
events susceptible of a much higher and wider
meaning, and (as some ©f the passages quoted in the
Note on chap. iii. 11 serve to prove) may have been
used in this extended sense long before the Psalmist's
age. That verse 8. when placed by the side of verse 11,
shows the higher meaning of the words to have been in
the Psalmist's thought, and implies that the offer of
admission to the rest of God was still made, it seems
unreasonable to doubt. As the people learnt through
ages of experience and training (see chap. i. 5) to
discern the deeper and more spiritual meaning that
lav in the promises of the King and the Son of David, so
was it with other promises which at first might seem
to have no more than a temporal significance. If these
considerations are well founded, it follows that we have
no right to look on the argument of this section as an
' accommodation " or a mere application of Scripture :
the Christian preacher does but fill up the outline
which the prophet had drawn.

The Living Power

HEBREWS, IV.

of the Word of God

own works, as God did from his. <n) Let i
us labour therefore to enter into that
rest, lest any man fall after the same
example of unbelief.1 ^ For the word
of God is quick, and powerful, and
sharper than any twoedged sword,
piercing even to the dividing asunder
of soul and spirit, and of the joints

Or, iltiiibulit

and marrow, and is a discerner of the
thoughts and intents of the heart.
(13) Either is there any creature that is
not manifest in his sight : but all things
are naked and opened unto the eyes of
him with whom we have to do.

{U) Seeing then that we have a great
high priest, that is passed into the

(H) Labour. — Rather, give diligence, strive earnestly.
It is the necessity of watchful and constant faithfulness
that is enforced. Hence the words that follow : " Lest
any one fall into (or, after) the same example of dis-
obedience " (verse 6 ; chap. iii. 18).

(12) As in chap. iii. 12 the warning against the " evil
heart of unbelief " is solemnly enforced by the mention
of the " Living God," so here, in pointing to the peril
of disobedience, it is to the living power of the word of
God that the writer makes appeal. But in what sense ?
Does he bring before us again the word of Scripture,
or the divine Word Himself? Outside the writings
of St. John there is no passage in the New Testament
in which the word of God is as clearly invested with
personal attributes as here. The word is " cpiick" (that
is, living), " powerful " (or, active — mighty in operation,
as most of our versions render the word), " able to
discern the thoughts of the heart." Philo, whose
writings are pervaded by the doctrine of the divine
Word (see the Note appended to St. John's Gospel in
Vol. I. of this Commentary, p. 553), in certain passages
makes use of expressions so remarkably resembling
some that are before us in this verse that we cannot
suppose the coincidence accidental. Thus, in an alle-
gorical explanation of Gen. xv. 10, he speaks of the
sacred and divine Word as cutting through all things,
dividing all perceptible objects, and penetrating even
to those called indivisible, separating the different
parts of the soid. But though these and the many
other resemblances that are adduced may prove the
writer's familiarity with the Alexandrian philosophy,
they are wholly insufficient to show an adoption of
Philo's doctrinal system (if system it could be called)
in regard to the divine Word, or to rale the interpreta-
tion of the single passage in this Epistle in which an
allusion to that system could be traced. Nor is the
first-mentioned argument conclusive. There certainly
is personification here, and in pari the language used
would, if it stood alone, even suggest the presence
of a divine Person ; but it is not easy to believe that in
the New Testament the words " sharper than a two-
edged sword " would be directly applied to the Son of
God. In this Epistle, moreover (and even in this con-
text, verse 2), reference is repeatedly made to the word
of God in revelation, without a trace of any other
meaning. The key to the language of this verse, so
far as it is exceptional, is found in that characteristic of
the Epistle to which reference has been already made
— the habitual thought of Scripture as a direct divine
utterance. The transition from such a conception to
those of this verse was very easy; and we need not
feel surprise if with expressions which are naturally
applied to the utterance are joined others which lead
the thought to God as Speaker. It is, therefore, the
whole word of God that is brought before us — mainly
the word of threatening and judgment, but also (eomp.
verse 2 and the last member of this verse) the word of
promise.

298

Piercing even to the dividing asunder . . .—
Rather, and piercing even to the dividing of soul and
spirit, both joints and marrow. For the comparison of
God's word to a sword see Isa. xlix. 2 ; Eph. vi. 17 ;
(Rev. i. 16) ; comp. also Wisd. xviii. 15, 16, " Thine
Almighty word leapt down from heaven out of Thy
royal throne . . . and brought Thine unfeigned com-
mandment as a sharp sword, and standing up filled all
things with death." The keen two-edged sword pene-
trates even to dividing soul and spirit (not soul front
spirit), with unfailing stroke severing bone from bone
and piercing the very marrow. The latter words, by
a very natural metaphor, are transferred from the
material frame to the soul and spirit.

And is a discerner . . .—Is quick to discern, able
to judge, the thoughts (reflections, conceptions, intents)
of the heart. Man's word may be lifeless, without
power to discriminate, to adapt itself to a changed state
or varying circumstances, to enforce itself : the Spirit
of God is never absent from His word.

(13> In his sight.— Still the proper subject is " the
word of God " ; but, as explained above, it has assumed
the meaning, God speaking and present in His word.
Touched by this word, every creature " returns of force
to its own likeness " — shows itself as it is.

Opened. — Better, exposed, laid bare. The Greek
word is peculiar (literally meaning, to take by the neck),
and it seems impossible to determine with certainty the
exact metaphor which it here presents. It is usually
applied to a wrestler who by dragging back the neck
overthrows his adversary : and " prostrate " has been
suggested as the meaning here. Another explana-
tion refers the word to the drawing back of a
criminal's head, so as to expose his face to public gaze ;
but, though we read of such a custom in Latin authors,
we have no proof that the Greek word was used in this
sense. There seems no good reason for supposing any
allusion to a sacrificial victim with head thrown back
(slain, or ready to be slain).

Unto the eyes of him . . .—Rather, unto His
eyes : with Whom (or, and toith Him) we have to do.
The last solemn words recall the connection of the
whole passage. No thought of unbelief or disobedience
escapes His eye : the first beginnings of apostasy are
manifest before Him.

Verses 14 — 16 are the link connecting all the pre-
ceding part of the Epistle with the next great section,
chaps, v. — x. 18. Following the example of Luther,
Tyndale and Coverdale begin the fifth chapter here;
but the connection of the three verses with what pre-
cedes is too close to justify this.

(I4) All the chief points of the earlier chapters are
brought together in this verse and the next : — the High
Priest (chaps, ii. 17; iii. 1); His exaltation (chaps, i. 3,
4. 13; ii. .9); His divine Sonship (chaps, i. ; iii. 6);
His compassion towards the brethren whose lot He
came to share (chap. ii. 11 — 18).

Havhuj sitch a High Priest,

HEBREWS, V.

let us cdme to the Throne "/'Grace.

neavens, Jesus the Son of God, let us
hold fast our profession.

Chap. iv. 14-
16. Having a

(is) For we have not an
icitui EQgh high priest which cannot be
through 6 Him touched with the feeling- of
draw nigh to our infirmities ; but was in
all points tempted like as
we are, yet without sin. ,16) Let us there-
fore come boldly unto the throne of
grace, that we may obtain mercy, and
find grace to help in time of need.

CHAPTEE V. — '1) For every high
priest taken from among ,
men is ordained for men io. The idea
in things m-rtaininq to of Eififr-SSS8*?

n j It! j. -6 xr ho«d fulfilled

God, that he may otter in Christ, per-
both gifts and sacrifices fected through
for sins: <* who can have £S£t X
compassion on1 the igno- God High
rant, and on them that are Priest for eTer'
out of the way ; for that he himself also
is compassed with infirmity. (:J) And

That is passed into the heavens.— Rather, that
hath passed through Hie heavens. As the high priest
passed through the Holy Place to enter the Holy of
Holies, Jesus "ascended up far above all heavens,"
•ind sat at the right hand of God. This thought is
developed in chaps, viii. — x.

Our profession.— See chap. iii. 1.

(15) "We cannot but note again how the power of the
exhortation (especially to those immediately addressed)
lay in the combination of the two thoughts — the greatness
and the tender compassion of the High Priest of our
confession. The two axe united in the words of verse
16, "the throne of grace." (Comp. chap. viii. 1.) The
beautiful rendering, " touched with the feeling of our
infirmities/' is due to the Genevan Testament of
1567.

Eut was in aU points * . .—Better, but One that
hath in all points been tempted in Wee manner, apart
from am. These words show the nature and the limits
of this sympathy of Ghrist. He suffers with His people.
not merely showing compassion to those who are suffer-
ing and tempted, but taking to Himself a joint feeling
of their weaknesses. He can do this because He has
passed through trial, has Himself been tempted. In
speaking of "weaknesses" the writer uses a word ap-
plicable both to the people and to their Lord, who was
•• crucified through weakness " (2 Cor. xiii. 4). Its
meaning must not be limited to the region of pain and
bodily suffering : whatever belongs to the necessary
limitations of that human nature which He assumed is
included. As He learned His obedience from sufferings
(chap. v. 8), He gained His knowledge of the help we
need in that "Himself took our weaknesses" (Matt,
viii. 17 ), and was Himself tempted in like manner, save
that in Him sin had no place (chap. vii. 26). These
last words supply the limit to the thought of weakness
and temptation as applied to our High Priest. Not
only was the temptation fruitless in leading to sin (this
is implied here, but only as a part or a result of another
truth), but in the widest sense He could say, "The
prince of this world Cometh and hath nothing in Me"
(John xiv. 30). "Was tempted in all points in like
manner," are words which must not be over-pressed;
bnt the essential principles of temptation may be traced
in those with which Jesus was assailed. ( Comp. John
xxi. 25.

<16) Obtain mercy.— The real meaning is, receive
compassion (chap. ii. 17) in our weakness and trials.
The thought of obtaining mercy for guilt is not
in these words, taken by themselves; but "grace"
meets every need. If the last verse brought evi-
dence that our High Priest has perfect knowledge
of the help required, this gives the assurance that
the help shall be given as needed, and in the time of

need.

With this chapter begins the longest and most impor-
tant division of the Epistle, extending (with one break,
chaps, v. 11 — vi. 20) as far as chap. x. 18. The general
subject is the nature of the High Priesthood of our
Lord.

Verses 1 — 10 link themselves with the last words of
the fourth chapter. The thoughts which have been briefly
expressed in verses 14, 15, and on which verse 16 rests,
are resumed, and in this section fully developed. Hence
chap. iv. 16 is connected both with what precedes (by
" therefore ") and with the present chapter (by " For") :
" For as every human high priest shares the nature of
those on behalf of whom he appears before God. and
thus can be compassionate towards them, and, more-
over, can only receive his appointment from God ; so
Christ is God-appointed, He has learnt His obedieuce
through sufferings, and, thus made perfect, is declared
by God High Priest for ever."

(1) Taken. — Rather, being taken, since he is taken,
from among men.

Gifts and sacrifices.— The former is in itself
perfectly general ; but when thus contrasted with
" sacrifices " it denotes the " unbloody offerings " of the
Law. On the Day of Atonement (which, as we shall
see, is almost always in the writer's thoughts as he
refers to the functions of the high priest) the "offer-
ings " would consist of the incense and of the " meat-
offerings " connected with the burnt-sacrifices for the
day. On that day all offerings, as well as all sacrifices,
had relation to " sins."

(2) who can have compassion.— Rather, as one
ivho can deal gently with (or, more strictly, feci gently
towards) the ignorant and erring, because . . . Either
apathy or undue severity in regard to transgression
would disqualify this representative of men to God.
It cannot be said that sin is mildly designated here,
since the words so closely resemble those which occur
in chap. iii. 10; still the language is so chosen as to
exclude sinning <; with a high hand."

(3) To be closely joined with verse 2 : " Is compassed
with infirmity, and by reason thereof is bound . . ."
The law of the Day of Atonement required a sin-offer-
ing of a bullock and a burnt-offering of a ram for the
high priest himself, and for the congregation a sin-
offering of two he-goats and a burnt -offering of a
rain. Over his own sin-offering the high prjett
made confession of sins, first for himself and his
household, then for the priests; over the goat sent
into the wilderness the sins of the people were
confessed.

Christ learned His Obedience

HEBEEWS, V.

by tlie Things which He Suffered V

by reason hereof lie ought, as for
the people, so also for himself, to
offer for sins. (i} And no man taketh
this honour unto himself, but he that
is called of God, as ivas Aaron. (5) So
also Christ glorified not himself to be
made an high priest ; but he that said
unto him, Thou art my Son, to day
have I begotten thee. (6) As he saitli
also in another place, Thou art a priest

I Or. fir hi< I'iti'i.

for ever after the order of Melchisedec
W Who in the days of his flesh, when he
had offered up prayers and supplications
with strong crying and tears unto him
that was able to save him from death,
and was heard in that he feared ; 1
(S) though he were a Son, yet learned
he obedience by the things which he
suffered ; W and being made perfect, he
became the author of eternal salvation

(i) But he that is called.— The true reading
requires, when he is called. " Not unto himself doth
cany man take the honour, but when . . ."

(5) Christ.— Better, the Christ. (See chap. iii. 14.)
It is important to note that in passages of the Penta-
teuch where the high priest receives a special designa-
tion (usually "the priest" is sufficiently distinctive)
his title is almost always " the anointed priest." Hence
in the one designation, " the Christ." are united
the two testimonies of Scripture which follow. He is
the Anointed King (Ps. ii. 7), addressed by Jehovah
as His Son (see Notes on chap. i. 2, 4, 5) ; by the same

and it would be very difficult to find any other word
which should be suitable to this relation and yet contain
no implication of sin to be acknowledged with humility
and shame. The object of the " prayers and supplica-
tions "thus heard and answered is implied in the words
"unto Him that was able to save Him out of death."
Not " from death : " the Greek words may have that
meaning, but it is not their most natural sense, as a
comparison of other passages would show. The prayer.
we are persuaded, was not that death might be averted,
but that there might be granted deliverance out of
death. This prayer was answered : His death was the

Jehovah He is addressed as Priest for ever after the f beginning of His glory (chap. ii. 9). It may indeed he

order of one who was both priest and king (Ps. ex. 4).

(6) Thou* art a priest for ever . . .—On Ps. ex.
see the Note on chap. i. 13. The fourth verse, here
quoted, is the kernel of the Psalm, and supplies the
theme for a large portion of this Epistle, especially chap,
vii. As the promise of 2 Sam. via. was the prelude to
the revelation of the second Psalm, the divine declara-
tion recorded in Ex. xix. 6 may have prepared the way
for the promise of Ps. ex. 4. The king of Israel was
the type of the Son of David ; and in the consecrated
people, who, had they been faithful, would have re-
mained the representatives of all nations before God,
was dimly foreshadowed the Anointed Priest.

(7. 8) Who in the days of his flesh . . .—It will
be observed that, of the two essential conditions men-
tioned in verse 2 and verse 4. the latter is first taken up
in its application to Christ (verses 5, 6). This verse and
the next correspond to the general thought of verses 1 .
2. so far as it is applicable to '"Him who knew no sin."

The following rendering will, it is believed, best show
the meaning of these two important verses, and the
connection of the several parts : Who, in the days of
His flesh, having with a strong cry and tears offered up
prayers and supplications unto Him that was able to save
Him out of death, and having been heard for His reve-
rent fear, though He teas a son, yet learned obedience by
the things ivhich He suffered. The most noticeable
change of rendering occurs at the close of the seventh
verse ; here the interpretation given by all the Greek
Fathers, followed in most of our English versions (and
in the margin of the Authorised itself), certainly
deserves the preference over that which, through the
influence of Calvin and Beza, found its way into the
Genevan Testament, and hence into the Bishops' Bible
and the translation of 1611. The word rendered
" reverent fear " occurs in but one other place in the
New Testament (chap. xii. 28) ; but the kindred verb
and adjective are found in chap. xi. 7 ; Luke ii. 25 ;
Acts ii. 5; viii. 2. It properly denotes, not terror, but a
cautious foreseeing fear, opposed alike to rashness and
to cowardice : the adjective, which is always rendered
" devout," is fully explained in the Notes on Acts ii. 5.
No word could be more suitable where the relation of
the Son of Man to His " God and Father " is expressed ;

asked, Could such a prayer be offered by One who
knew " the glory that should follow " His sufferings r

] In a matter so far beyond our reasoning it is most
reverent to point to the mystery of another prayer
(Matt. xxvi. 39) offered by Him who had often taught

I His disciples that He must be put to death (Matt. xvi.

' 21). Mark the striking correspondence between the
petition thus understood and St. Peter's quotation of

■ Ps. xvi. 10 (Acts ii. 24). Some of the expressions in
this verse would lead us to believe that the writer's
thought is resting on the Agony in the Garden ; but the

| " strong cry " brings before us the Crucifixion (Matt,
xxvii. 46, 50), and the words of Ps. xxii. 1 lie very
near the thought of this verse. It does not seem

j necessary to decide — we may doubt whether it is
possible, and whether both should not be included. The

! opening words, " in the days of His flesh " (comp. chap.

' ii. 14; John i. 14; 1 Pet. iii. 18). would certainly seem
to favour this latter view. The word "offered" must

1 not be lightly passed over. Of frequent occurrence in
this Epistle, in every case except one (which is not at
all in point) it has a sacrificial sense ; it seems certain,
therefore, that these prayers — a token of His suffering.

! an example of His reverent fear — are included in the
sacrifice which comprised His whole life and death.

(8) Though he were a Son.- These words may
j be connected with what precedes (implying that He

was heard for His reverent fear, not because, in the pre-
I eminent sense. He was God's Son) ; but they are still
| more closely joined with the following sentence.
" Though He was a Son, He learnt His obedience by the
things which He suffered." " The disposition of
obedience Jesus possessed before He suffered, but the
proof that this disposition existed must be shown in
deed ; this progress from the disposition to the deed of
obedience is a practical learning of the virtue of obe-
dience " (Liinemann). The suffering recorded in verse 7
is regarded as the culmination of His life of suffering.

(9) And being . . .—Rather, and having been made
perfect. This was the mode in which He who " glorified
Him to be made High Priest " (verse 5) led Him into
the possession of this office. The thought of this verse
and the last is closely analogous to chap. ii. 9, 10 (see
Notes), and to Phil. ii. 6 — 13. The transition from the

Be ye tio longer Babes,

HEBREWS, VI.

but go on unto full groufth,

Unto all them that obey him; (10) called
of God an high priest after the order of
Melchised ec.

{U> Of whom Ave have many things

Chap. v. 11 -vi. to Sa.V- ;1,1(1 ll:ll'd to De

8. Complaint of uttered, seeing ye are dull
^htaSSS Of hearing. M> For when
earnest warn- for the time ye ought
mg' to be teachers, ye have

need that one teach you again which
be the first principles of the oracles
of God ; and are become such as
have need of milk, and not of strong

I Or. tin „■:,,;! ,,,

tin liiiiiiininii i>t

Christ.

meat. 0$ For every one thai usrtli
milk is unskilful1 in the word of
righteousness : for he is a babe.
{U> But strong meat belongeth to them
that are of full age,2 even those who
by reason of use3 have their senses
exercised to discern both good and
evil.

CHAPTEE VI.— (« Therefore leaving
the principles of the doctrine of Christ,4
let us go on unto perfection ; not laying
again the foundation of repentance from

bo rendered by all who seek from Him salvation,
strikingly recalls verses 8 and 12 of the last-named
chapter. He presents to all the model of the obedience
to l)o rendered to Him, and through Him to the Father.
" Eternal " salvation, — for He is a priest "for ever "
(verse 6). On the connection of "salvation" with His
priesthood, see the Note on chap. vii. 25.

(1°) Called.— Rather, addressed. Tlio divine words
no. -Thou art a priest for ever." In the quotation
from the Psalm, ••priest" is now altered into ''High
Priest." The purport remains the same; or, rather, it
is by this change of word that the meaning of the
Psalm is fidly expressed. This repetition of the words
of verse 6 at the close of the paragraph is singularly
impressive.

At this point the course of the argument is inter-
rupted by a long digression (chaps, v. 11 — vi. 20), to
which the writer is led by reflection on the inability of
his readers to receive the teaching which befits their
Christian standing. If. however, we remember the
practical aim that is predominant in the Epistle, we
hardly call this a digression, so powerfully is every
tion of it made subservient to one areat rmrnose.

porti

one great purpose.

(ID Of whom.— Or, of which (subject), "Christ
made High Priest after the order of Melchizedek."

Hard to be uttered.— Rather, hard of interpre-
tation, seeing ye have become sluggish in hearing. Then-
faculty of '•hearing" had once been acute, and then
few words and little explanation, even on such a sub-
ject as this, would have sufficed ; now there lias come
upon them a lack of interest, and with this a want of
power.

<!-» For the time.— Taking into account the time
that had elapsed since they became Christians.

Ye have need.— Literally, ye hare need that some
one teach you again the rudiments of the beginning of
Hie oracles of (rod (Acts vii. 38; Bom. iii. 2; 1 Pet. iv.
11). These first rudiments, which they need to learn
again (but which he himself is not about to teach), it
may seem natural to identify with what the writer in
chap. vi. 1 calls " the doctrine of the first principles
of Christ." If, however. We examine the usage of the
New Testament, of Philo. and of other writers, we
shall find good reason for regarding " the oracles of
God" as synonymous with the Scriptures of the Old
Testament. (See verse 13.)

Of strong meat.— Better, of solid food. (See
1 Cor. iii. 2j

<13-) The change of expression from having need of

milk to partaking of milk (that is. making it the sole
food) is significant. Those who are addressed had lost
interest in the deeper truths of Christianity, those truths
which alone expressed and explained its proper nature.
Their temptation apparently was towards mingling a
rudimentary Christian doctrine with the teaching of
the synagogue. Yielding to this they would lose all
real knowledge of the very elements of Christian truth,
and with this all true knowledge of the Old Testament
itself. The connection between this verse and the
last may probably be, Ye have come to need milk, for
— making it by choice your sole food — ye stand self-
confessed as babes.

Unskilful.— Rather, ivithotd experience. The "word
of righteousness " evidently must signify complete,
propeidy-developed Christian teaching. The only ques-
tion is, Why is this particular designation chosen ? In
the Epistle to the Romans such a description would
be natural (see especially Rom. i. 17; ix. 31); hut
" righteousness " is not the direct and manifest subject
of this Epistle. Still, the expressions of which the writer
makes use in chaps, x. 38 and xi. 7, together with the
general similarity between his teaching and St. Paul's,
go very far towards explaining his choice of this special
expression as descriptive of the religion of Christ. In
like manner another phrase, " law of liberty," is charac-
teristic of St. James.

(1*) Strong meat.—" Solid food belongs to full-
grown men." If they occupied themselves with the
rudiments alone, their spiritual senses could not be
trained by use (or. habit) in distinguishing between
good and evil, truth and falsehood, in the various
systems of teaching which men offered as the doctrine
of Christ.

VI.

(i) Therefore. — Since " for the time ye ought to
be teachers," but have so perilously sunk down into the
lower state of Christian knowledge and experience.

The principles of the doctrine.— Rather, the
doctrine of the first principles. The margin gives the
literal meaning of the Greek, the word of the beginning.
Comp. chap. v. 12, " the rudiments of the first principles
of the oracles of God."

Let US go on. — Better, let us press onward* unto
perfection. There is an vu-goncy in the words which is
missed by the ordinary rendering. The word "per-
fection" (ieleiotes) answers to that rendered "full
grown " (teleios) in the preceding verse, and expresses
maturity, fulness of growth There the cunt fast in
with " babes," and the whole context relates to Christian
instruction— tin1 elementary and the complete. Tho

301

The Doctrine of the

I IK HUE WS, VI.

First Principles of Christ.

dead works, and of faith toward God,
W of the doctrine of baptisms, and of

laying on of hands, and of resurrection
of the dead, and of eternal judgment.

closeness of the connection would seem to show that
the same meaning must he intended here also : " Let
us — I, as your teacher, leading you on with me — press
on to maturity of Christian knowledge." But if what
precedes makes this reference clear, the following
verses show not less clearly that teaching and learning
are not alone in the writer's thoughts. The relation
hetween verses 3 and 4 proves that, as is natural, he
assumes a necessary union between learning and prac-
tice : indeed, the connection between immaturity of
apprehension of Christian truth and the danger of
apostasy is a thought present throughout the Epistle.
Hence, though the direct meaning of " leaving the
doctrine of the beginning" is ceasing to speak of
elementary truths, there is included the further thought
of passing away from that region of spiritual life to
which those must belong who choose the "milk"' of the
Christian word as their sole sustenance.

Not laying again the foundation.— Better, a
foundation . There can be no doubt that the particulars
which follow are intended to illustrate the nature of
the elementary teaching which will not be taken up in
this Epistle. It will be observed (1) that there is no
disparagement of these subjects of teaching. They
belong to the foundation; but neither teachers nor
learners must occupy themselves with laying a founda-
tion again and again. (2) That the subjects here
specified are not in themselves distinctively Christian.
One and all they belonged to the ancient faith, though
each one became more or less completely transformed
when Jesus was received as the Messiah. Hence these
were literally first principles to the Hebrew Christian. —
amongst the truths first taught and most readily
received. We have many indications, both within and
without the pages of the New Testament, that the
tendency of Jewish converts was to rest satisfied with
this class of truths.

Repentance from dead works.— Of " dead
works " we read again in chap. ix. 14, " shall purge our
conscience from dead works to serve the living God "
(see Note). The meaning cannot be " works that bring
death," as some have supposed ; rather, works in which
there is no principle of life, wrought by those who are
"alienated from the life of Cod" (Eph. iv. 18), in
whom there is not the spirit of " life in Christ Jesus."
The law, indeed, promised that the man who should do
" its statutes and judgments " should find life in them
(Lev. xviii. 5, quoted in Gal. iii. 12) ; but even these
works are '" dead." for no man can show more than
partial obedience, and the law exacts the whole, The
first step toward Christianity involved the acknowledg-
ment of this truth, and the separation by repentance
from all " dead works." On the importance assigned
to repentance in the Jewish creed little need be said.
The teaching of the prophets (Ezek. xviii., et ah ) is faith-
fully reflected in the sayings preserved in the Talmud :
" The perfection of wisdom is repentance ; " " Kepent-
ance obtains a respite until the Bay of Atonement
completes the atonement ; " " Without repentance the
world could not stand."

Faith toward God.— Rather, faith upon God.
(Comp. Acts xvi. 31; Rom. iv. 5.) The Hebrew doctrine
of faith connected itself closely with a cardinal passage
of prophecy (Habak. ii. 4). "the just shall live by his
faith ; " and there is a Jewish saying that on this one
precept rest " all the six hundred and thirteen com-

mandments of the Law." (See the Note on chap. x. 38,
and the Excursus on Rom. i. 17, Yol. II., p. 274.)
This faith became new and living when the Jew be-
lieved in God through Jeeus the Christ (John xiv. 1;
1 Pet. i. 21). It is hardly necessary to say that it is of
repentance and faith as a foundation, not as belonging
to later Christian experience, that the writer speaks.

(2) Of the doctrine of baptisms.— The meaning
of these words has been much controverted. The order
of the Greek has been thought to require the rendering
baptisms of doctrine (or, teaching); and it has been
believed that the writer in this manner seeks to charac-
terise Christian baptism as contrasted with the Jewish
lustrations. Matt, xxviii. 19. " baptising them . . .
teaching them," is often quoted in favour of this
view. The whole question of baptism amongst the
Jews of the Apostolic age is full of difficulty, since the
first references to the rite in connection with proselytes
belong to a much later date. But, waiving this, we
must surely regard it as most unlikely that the baptism
specifically Christian would be marked as " baptism of
teaching''' Teaching would rather be the point of re-
semblance than the point of contrast between the
Jewish and the Christian rite. We must, therefore,
adhere to the ordinary view. The word doctrine, or
teaching, seems to be introduced in order to avoid the
ambiguity which would lie in the words, " a foundation
of repentance, faith, baptism," &c. ; not a doctrine, but
the repetition of a rite might seem to be intended.
But what are we to understand by teaching regarding
baptisms ! Both the word itself and the use of the
plural are remarkable. The word (which is not the
ordinary term baptisma. but baptismus) occurs in
chap. ix. 10, Mark vii. 4, in the plural, and in Col.
ii. 12 in the singular; in the last of these passages
it denotes Christian baptism, but in the others the
ceremonial washings of the Jews. We must not
forget the importance which of right belonged to
these washings in the Levitical law, as one of the
appointed modes of removing that uncleanness which
excluded from every sacred place. The baptism of
John attached itself to passages in the Scriptures in
which this symbol was taken up by the prophets with
profound spiritual application (Ezek. xxxvi.. et ah). Both
John's baptism and that of Christ, therefore, would,
from the Hebrew point of view, be " washings" ; and
the teaching which every new convert must receive
would include instruction on the symbolical purifica-
tions of the Old Covenant and the New. (See the very
interesting Notes in Yol. II. on Acts xviii. 24, 25 ;
xix. 4.)

And of laying on of hands.— This ceremony is
repeatedly mentioned in the Old Testament, and also in
the New. Besides the sacrificial use of the symbol . we
find imposition of hands connected with blessing i Gen.
xlviii. 14; Matt. xix. 13. et ah); with works of healing
(2 Kings v. 11 ; Mark viii. 23 ; xvi. 18. et ah) ; with ordi-
nation (Num. xxvii. 18; Dent, xxxiv. 9; 1 Tim. iv. 14.
et ah); and with the gift of the Holy Spirit (Acts viii.
17; xix. 6). In every case the figure denotes either a
transfer, or the communication of a gift from (or,
through the medium of) the person who lays his hands
upon another. Neither transfer of guilt, nor blessing,
nor miracle can be in point here ; nor is it conceivable
that ordination could be referred to in such a context.
As the passages quoted from the Acts of the Apostle.-*

302

The Blessing of the Light

HEBREWS, VI.

The Rejection of the Light.

''• Ami this will we do, if God permit.

For it la impossible for those \v1k»

were once enlightened, and have tasted

of the heavenly gift, and were made

partakers of the Holy Ghost, (5) and
luive tasted the good word of God, and
the powers of the world to come, ";) if
they shall fall away, to renew them

agree with this in closely connecting the rite with bap-
tism, we can have little doubt that the meaning in all is
substantially the same. The believers in Samaria had
been baptised by Philip ; when Peter and John came,
they -prayed for them that they might receive the
Holy Ghost ; then laid they their hands on them, and
they received the Holy Ghost." In the second case,
which in other respects is similar (whether Paid himself
baptised, or not, we are not informed), there is reference
to the special gifts of the Holy Ghost which were
bestowed ! " they spake with toughes and prophesied."
There seems no reason for believing that there was a
designed connection between the imposition of hands
and the bestowal of miraculous powers ; such imposition
was rather the recognised symbol of the gift of the Holy
Spirit to those who were baptised in the name of the
Lord Jesus, in whatever manner the Spirit might be
pleased to work in those who received His influence.
The early Church naturally retained the rite, making
it the complement or adjunct of baptism ; whilst the
one symbolised the putting away of sin, the other was
the emblem of the reception of new spiritual life.
Historical testimonies extend as far back as Tertullian
I A.J). 200) : ■• Then the hand is laid on. calling for and
inviting the Holy Spirit." To trace the relation between
this imposition of hands and the later practice of con-
firmation would lead us beyond our limits.

The two points which remain do not require an ex-
tended notice. We know (Acts xxiii. 8) that, though
the Sadducees denied that there was any resurrection of
the dead land the Alexandrian philosophy seems to
have held only the immortality of the soul), yet by the
most influential amongst Jewish teachers this doctrine
was held and enforced, as indeed it was plainly taught
in their Scriptures (Dan. xii. 2). On the nature and
extent of the resurrection — whether it would be uni-
versal, and whether it would precede or follow the
Messianic age — varying opinions prevailed. Nor were
the Pharisees less clear in their teaching of a future
'• judgment," the reward of which should be " eternal "
bliss for the godly, punishment for the sinners in Israel
and for Israel's enemies. These doctrines, then, would
place no obstacles in the way of a convert to the
Christian faith. Instead of vagueness and discordant
opinion he now received a clear statement of truth : the
Messiah, Jesus, in whom he has placed his trust, will
judge the world; and of this God has given a pledge
'in that He hath raised Him from the dead" (Acts
xvii. 31 ). It is noteworthy that, of the four particulars
which are mentioned after repentance and faith, two
relate to the commencement and two to " the last
things" of the Christian life.

(3) And this will we do, if God permit.—
There may be some with whom it will be impossible
for him thus to press on to maturity of teaching and of
Christian experience. There is a case excepted by God
Himself from all efforts of the Christian teacher ; in
this ease, though nothing can avail except the laying of
a new foundation of repentance, God has appointed no
agencies by which such foundation can be laid.

(4) For it is impossible for those . . .—The
connection of thought has been already explained (verse
3); the general meaning will be examined below (verse 6).
It will be seen that the greater part of this long sentence

is dependent on the word '• renew " in verse <>, *• It is
impossible to renew again unto repentance those who
were once." &C.

Those who were once enlightened. — This
metaphor is introduced again in chap. x. 32; neither
there nor here does the context contain any notice or
expansion of the figure. In that passage, however, it
is applied generally to all who are addressed, and in-
cludes everything that was involved in the reception of
the Christian faith. This inclusive application of the
term (familiar from prophecy, from our Lord's own
; words, from Apostolic usage ; see Acts xxvi. 18 ; Eph.
i. 18; 1 Pet. ii. 9) throws light on the construction of
the verse before us. As the words stand in the Autho-
rised version, " eulightened " is but the first term of
a series ; but it is far more probable that the clauses
which follow should be regarded as explanatory of the
enlightenment itself: "... those who were once
enlightened, having both tasted . . . and been made
partakers . . . and tasted . . ."
Tasted of the heavenly gift.— On the first word,
j see the Note on chap. ii. 9. From the clear pai'allelism
i which exists between these verses and chap. ii. 3 — 5 we
: may infer that the " salvation " offered in the gospel
(chap. ii. 3) is intended by this " gift." It is a gift
which belongs to heaven (comp. chap. i. 14), bestowed
by Him from whom has come the " heavenly calling "
(chaps, iii. 1 ; ii. 10). The following words at once
recall chap. ii. 4. " gifts {distributions) of the Holy
Ghost."

(5) Tasted the good word of God.— There is a
change of construction in the Greek which suggests
that the worths rather mean, tasted that God's word is
good. — tasted the excellence of God's word, and of the
powers, &c. God's word was " spoken through the
Lord " (chap. ii. 3) ; the Hebrew Christians had heard
and received this word, and had proved for themselves
its excellence. (Comp. 1 Pet. ii. 3.)

Powers of the world to come.— Literally,
poicers of a coining (or, future) age. As has been
before remarked, the last word is different from that
which we find in chap. ii. 5, the one relating to time,
the other to the world as inhabited by man. Perhaps
we may say that this is the only difference ; the same
future is contemplated in both places, namely, the age
of the Messianic reign. We have seen (see chap. i. 2)
that in the earliest days of the Church little account
was taken of the period separating the pre-Christian
age from that of the full manifestation of the kingdom
of God ; the " powers " received from God by those
who believed (chap. ii. 4i belonged to no earthly state,
but were as truly anticipations of a future age of glory
as was the "heavenly gift" an anticipation of the
" heavenly fatherland " (chap. xi. 16).

(6> If they shall fall away. -Rather, and [then)
fell away. There is no doubt that the ordinary trans-
lation is altogether incorrect, the Greek admitting of
one rendering only. At the same time, the suspicion
sometimes expressed that this is one of the (very few)
instances in which our translators have been misled by
dogmatic bias seems altogether unfounded. On tracing
back the translation we find it due, not to the Genevan
versions, in which the influence of Calvin and Beza is
predominant, but to Erasmus. Luther, and Tynd.ile.

3fl3

■Miserable State of Apostates.

HEBREWS, VI.

We hope better things of you.

again unto repentance ; seeing they
crucify to themselves the Son of God
afresh, and put Mm to an open shame.
(7) j^r the earth which drinketh in the
rain that cometh oft upon it, and bring-
eth forth herbs meet for them by1 whom
it is dressed, receiveth blessing from
God : (8) but that which beareth thorns

and briars is rejected, and is nigh unto
cursing ; whose end is to be burned.
W But, beloved, we are persuaded
I be*ter things of you, and chap vi 9_12
things that accompany His hope of
salvation, though we thus better things-
speak. (10) For God is not unrighteous to
forget your work and labour of love,

The contrast with the preceding description is pre-
sented in the fewest possible words. The successive
clauses have shown that all the marks of the divine
working in and with His word (chap. ii. 4) have been
found in these men, who, notwithstanding. " fell away."

To renew them again.— A second time to make
" the old " into a " new man." In this place "renew "
is distinctly used in reference to the action of man.
Similarly, by the side of 1 Pet. i. 3, " God . . . who
hath begotten us," we may set St. Paul's words to the
Corinthians, " In Christ Jesus I have begotten you; " so
also St. Paul can say, " Let us cleanse ourselves from
all filthiness of the flesh and spirit ; " and St. James
can speak of a man's saving a soul from death. In
these and the many other examples of a similar kind
there is no thought of human power acting by itself,
but of the human appropriation of divine power, in
accordance with the laws of the kingdom of God. The
verse before us is often read as an assertion that men
who have thus fallen cannot be renewed ; and therefore
it is the more necessary to lay stress on the simple
meaning of the words, as relating neither to the
absolute power of God, nor to the efforts of the
Christian teacher in unassisted human strength, but to
the economy of God's spiritual kingdom, in which
Christ's servants achieve every great result by claiming
and obtaining the " fellow-working " of their Lord.

Seeing they crucify. — The apostasy was indicated
by a single word; these added clauses describe the
depth of the fall, whilst they explain the futility of all
effort towards recovei-ing the fallen. Both the writer
and his readers knew well what was involved in " falling
away " in such a case as this. To go back to Judaism
implied an acceptance of all that Jews had said and
done against the Son of God, a return to the bitter
hate cherished by the falling nation against the
Crucified, a repetition in spirit of all that Pharisees
had done, and without the palliation of ignorance ; for
the highest evidence for Christianity — that of true and
deep Christian experience — had been given to them.
Again, the words used clearly describe a continuing
state. Not the punishment for a past act, but the
hopelessness of an existing state, is brought before us
here. It is therefore of those who, with a distinct
conviction of the divine mission of Jesus, have delibe-
rately joined His foes, unite in denouncing Him as a
"deceiver" (Matt, xxvii. 63), rejoice in His shame,
and thus ''for themselves crucify a second time the
Son of God," that the writer says, " It is impossible to
renew them again unto repentance."

That this impossibility relates to the action of man
is shown very clearly by the writer's words in verse 3,
" This will we do if God permit ; . . . . for it is im-
possible." He is ready to lead his readers on with
him — unless, indeed, he is addressing any whom no
man can thus lead. In that case the means which God
has appointed have no application ; such wilful and
persistent hardening of heart must be left with Him.

The perplexity and trouble of mind to which these

verses have given rise will furnish an apology for the
length of these remarks. It is a true Christian instinct
that has protested against the misuse of this passage
by men who have doubted whether those who, after
receiving the knowledge of the truth, fall under temp-
tation, can again receive forgiveness ; but the difficulty
has been met by hazardous expedients. Some have
denied that verses 4 and 5 necessarily describe
real Christian experience. By others it has been held
that " impossible " was not intended to express more
than the great difficulty of the attempt ; others, again,
have believed that in verse 6 the writer brings before
us a supposed case only, one that cannot really occur.
The passage, together with chap. x. 26 — 29, Matt. xii.
32, 1 John v. 16 (see the Notes), occupied an important
place in early controversies, as those of the Moutanists
and Novatians, who refused absolution to those who,
after baptism — or, in the language of the early Church,
after "illumination" (verse 4) — fell into heinous sin.

(7) For the earth.— Rather, For land which has
drunk in. Land which not only l'eceives but also
drinks in abundance of rain (Deut. xi. 11), in such a
climate as is here thought of, must either " bring forth
herbage " or be condemned as irretrievably barren.

By whom it is dressed.— Rather, for whom It is
also tilled. This clause is added to show that nothing
is wanting on the part of the owner or of the tillers of
the land.

Receiveth blessing from God.— Receives as a
reward a share in the blessing which God pronounces
on the fruitful earth, resulting in increased fertility
(Gen. xxvii. 27 ; xlix. 25 ; Deut. xxxiii. 13). In the
application of the parable, God is the owner of the
land, men the tillers ; men also are '* God's field "
(1 Cor. iii. 9), who bring forth fruit unto God.

(8) But that which beareth.— Rather, But if it
bear thorns and briars it is rejected. We are told that
the presence of briars (i.e., caltrops) is a sure evidence
of a poor soil, on which labour will be wasted. The
words are partially a quotation from Gen. iii. 18. The
change of translation here is important ; if that very
land, which has drunk in the abundant rain and has
received careful culture still prove unfruitful, it is
rejected. Man can do no more ; and the curse of
God is " near " ; its end is " for burning." The
explanation of the last words is probably found in
Deut. xxix. 23, which speaks of the land of Sodom
which God overthrew, which " is brimstone and salt
and burning." The connection between these two
verses and the preceding passages is obvious. In the
case of the apostates there described, man is helpless ;
God's curse is near. But. as Chrysostom says, in this
very word there is mercy ; " the end " is not yet come.

(9) Better things. — Literally, the better things ;
that is. the alternative spoken of in verse 7. He has not
written in despair, but for warning only; believing that
to them belongs, not the state which is " nigh unto a
curse," but that which borders on salvation (chap. v. 9).

(10) In expressing the ground of his hope he does

Be Faithful and Patient

HEBKEWS, VI.

that ye may Inherit tfie P

-which ye have shewed toward his natoe,
in that ye have ministered to the saints,
and do minister. ,n) And we desire that
every one of yon do shew the same
diligence to the full assurance of hope
unto the end : ^ that ye be not sloth-
ful, but followers of them who through
faith and patience inherit the promises.
chap. vi. 13— (13) For when God made
20. Encourage- promise to Abraham, De-
mise'and oath cause he could swear by
of God. no greater, he sware by

himself, {U> saying, Surely blessing I will

(Jr. interim*' <l
himself by on
oath.

bless thee, and multiplying I will multi-
ply thee. WAnd so, after he had patiently
| endured, he obtained the promise. {lr>> For
j men verily swear by the greater : and an
I oath for confirmation is to them an end
j of all strife. (17) Wherein God, willing
more abundantly to shew unto the heirs
of promise the immutability of his coun-
sel, confirmed it by an oath : l W that by
two immutable things, in which it was
impossible for God to lie, we might have
a strong consolation, who have fled for
refuge to lay hold upon the hope set

not directly say. " For I have heard of your fruitful-
ness ; '' he implies this, and then, in accordance with
the parable of verse 7. he declares that God will surely
bestow the promised reward. Herein lies his hope.
Man's work cannot in itself merit reward from God,
hut (1 John i. 9) the righteous God cannot neglect His
own promise and law that such works shall receive
reward.

Your work and labour of love.— The best MSS.
omit "labour"; so that the words run thus: to forget
your work, and the love which ye showed toward His
name. The "fruit" consisted in brotherly love, but it
was ottered unto God (verse 7) ; the bond of brotherhood
was the joint relation to " His name" (chap. ii. 10). With
the last words compare Rom. xv. 26, 31.

in) Full assurance.— Rather, fulness (full pro-
ductiveness) of hope (chap. x. 22). His desire is that
the zeal which they have manifested in works of love
may be directed toward the attainment of the full
harvest of Christian hope — maybe shown until the very
end (chap. iii. 6, 14).

U2) That ye be not slothful.— Rather, that ye
become not sluggish. The same word is used as in
<diap. v. 11, there applied to apprehension of truth,
here to the Christian hope and life ; if the truth be not
welcomed, there will be no vigour in the life.

Followers.— Better, mutators. (Comp. chap. xiii. 7 ;
1 Cor. xi. 1. et al.). They are not the first to whom
*• hope " has been given, and who have needed zeal that
they might not fail of their hope. As in chap. xi. the
writer appeals to precursors of faith, so here of hope ;
to men who. having lived in hope, passed to the actual
possession of the promised blessings by means of faith
(which accepted and clung to the promise) and patience.
The last word is not that which occurs in the similar
exhortation in chap. x. 36. That is a brave endurance ;
this is the word usually rendered " long-suffering,"
which here and in Jas. v. 7 signifies patient waiting.

(13) The connection seems to be this : " You, like
them, have promises — promises to which God has given
all possible certainty ; you. like them, can attain the
fulfilment only through faith and patient waiting."

For when God made promise.— It is better to
follow the words literally. For when to Abraham God
had made promise. Abraham is chosen for special
mention as the most illustrious example of those who
" inherit the promises " (comp. John viii. 58) ; also
because (1) the assurance given to him was confirmed
by oath ; and (2) in it lay included the promise of the
Christ. The promises made to Abraham were essen-
tially one. with various parts progressively fulfilled. It
seems likely that, though the next verse is quoted from

Gen. xxii. 17, the writer also has in mind (" had
promised ") Gen. xii. 3. and especially Gen. xv.

(«) Saying.— The words of the oath itself. "By
myself have I sworn, saith the Lord" (Gen. xxii. 16),
are not repeated, because they are almost identical with
the writer's own words introducing the citation
(verse 13). It will be observed that one change is
made — in the last word; for in Genesis we read. " 1 will
multiply thy seed." The alteration may be made for
brevity, as the quotation is abridged ; but it will be
seen that the effect of it is to direct greater attention
to the first words, and to fix the thought on the
blessing promised to Abraham himself.

(15> And so, after he had patiently endured.—
Better, and thus (thus being in possession of the
promise and the oath of God), having patiently waited
(verse 12) he obtained the promise — the promised gift.
Though some portions of the promise received a partial
accomplishment during Abraham's life, it is not this that
the writer has in view. (See verse 12, and chap. xi. 13.)

(16) And an oath for confirmation. — Rather, and »
of every dispute intheir case the oath is art end (is final)
to settle the matter.

f1") Wherein.— Since this is the case.

Of promise.— Rather, of the promise. The promise
made to Abraham was substantially and l-eally (see
verse 13) that which embraced all Messianic hope ; of
this promise not Abraham's sons only, but all " they
which are of faith " (Gal. iii. 7, 29), Abraham's spiritual
seed, are the heirs. In an Epistle so distinctly Paulino
there can be no doubt as to this interpretation.

Confirmed it by an oath.— Literally, mediated
with an oath. When a man confirms a promise or decla-
ration to another by solemn appeal to God. between the
two God is Mediator. Condescending to man's weak-
ness, that the certainty may be " more abundant." God
thus confirms His word, at once the Promiser and the
Mediator : God the Promiser (if we may so speak)
makes appeal to God the Hearer and Witness of the
oath. We cannot doubt, as we read this whole passage,
that there is a special reason for the emphasis thus laid
on God's oath to Abraham. The writer dwells on this
confirmation of the divine word of promise, not merely
because it is the first recorded in sacred history, but
because he has in thought the declaration of Ps. ex. 4.
To this as yet he makes no reference ; though he has
quoted from the verse repeatedly, it has been with-
out mention of tin? divine oath : Imt throughout the
section before us he is preparing the way for his later
argument in chap. vii. 21.

(18) Two immutable things.— The promise and
the oath.

305

Jlopr. the Anchor of the Soul.

HEBEEWS, VII.

Metcftizedek.

before us : (19) which hope we have as an
anchor of the soul, both sure and sted-
fast, and which entereth into that within
the veil; W> whither the forerunner is
for us entered, even Jesus, made an
high priest for ever after the order of
Melchisedec.

CHAPTEE VII.— <*> For this Mel-
chisedec, king of Salem, priest of the

most high God, who met Abraham re-
turning from the slaughter
of the kings, and blessed ^J^hS

him ; (2) to whom also Priest after the

Abraham gave a tenth jft&g, Mel"
part of all; first being
by interpretation King of right-
eousness, and after that also King
of Salem, which is, King of peace ;
<3) without father, without mother,

Consolation. — Rather, encouragement. For us,
rather than for Abraham alone, was the encouragement
designed; for us, who (as men in danger of their lives
flee to the sanctuary) " fled for refuge to lay hold upon
the hope set before us " in the promise. Up to this
point we read of what God has done; here of what
must be done by man. The laying Jiold expresses the
" faith," and implies the "patient waiting " (verse 12);
by it Ave become true " heirs of the promise " (verse 17).

(19) Which hope we have as an anchor of
the soul. — A beautiful image, introduced for a moment
only to set forth the security of the soul, though tossed
by the waves of trouble. This symbol of hope, so
familiar to us in Christian art, is not mentioned in the
Old Testament, but is found in Greek proverbial say-
ings, and (it is said) appears on ancient coins.

Both sure and stedfast.— These words and the
following may, indeed, form part of the figure; but
more probably relate to the hope itself —a hope unfail-
ing, firm, which entereth where no human sight can
follow, even into the Most Holy Place, into heaven itself.
The hope becomes personified, that the reader's thought
may be led to Him who is Himself our hope.

(20) Whither the forerunner.— Rather, Whither,
as forerunner, Jesus entered for us, having become High
Priest after the order of Melchizedek for ever. The
Jewish high priest entered the Holiest Place by himself
— a representative but not a leader. Jesus has entered
the true sanctuary (chap. ix. 24) that He may give His
people entrance there (chap. x. 19; John xiv. 2, 3).
With this renewed mention of the great high-priestly
act (chap. iv. 14), the writer returns to the words of
Scripture on which ho was about to dwell (chap. v. 10).
when the painful thought of the unpreparedness of his
readers for higher Christian teaching forced itself upon
his mind. In this verse the order of the words taken
from the Psalm is changed ; in the last words " for
ever " is declared with unequalled impressiveness the
permanence of our Christian hope.

VII.

Jesus the High Priest after the Order of
Melchizedek.

(D For this Melchisedec— The sentence is con-
pleted in the last words of verse 3, . . . " abideth a
priest continually;" the connection with the last chapter,
therefore, is very clear. Of Melchizedek we know
nothing beyond what we learn from the brief narra-
tive of Gen. xiv. A Jewish legend, preserved in the
later Targums on the Pentateuch, but not in the
Targum of Onkelos. identifies him with the patriarch
Shem ; and many conjectures of a later date (stimulated
by the remarkable language of these verses) have been
far wilder in their extravagance. It may be that the
result of these speculations lias been to invest this
chapter with a mystery which does not belong to it.
The object of the writer is, in reality, very simple — to

deal with the question. "What is the import of the divine
utterance that David's Lord is a " Priest for ever after
the order of Melchizedek " !J Not to take up the history
of Melchizedek and allegorise each part, but to point-
out the full meaning of the comparison made in the
prophecy, which declares the priesthood of the future
King to be " after the order of Melchizedek — i.e., to
be such as the priesthood of Melchizedek typically
set forth. The first part of this sentence (verses 1 and
2, as far as " . . . tenth part of all") enumerates the
known facts of the history of Melchizedek ; the follow-
ing clauses are occupied with the interpretation of the
history, and with inferences from it. Of the facts
recorded in Genesis none are passed over, except the gift
of bread and wine ; the blessing also is mentioned in
general terms only. Th» language of the LXX. is, as
a rule, closely followed throughout.

King of Salem.— Jewish tradition affirms strongly
that this Salem occupied the site on which Jerusalem
afterwards stood ; and certainly Salem is a poetic
name of Jerusalem (Ps. lxxvi. 2). This tradition,
found in Josephus and in the earliest of the Targums,
agrees well with the circumstances of the narrative as
far as we can follow them, and seems to deserve accept-
ance. Jerome maintained that Salem was situated near
Scythopolis, where in his day were pointed out ruins of
'• Melchizedek's palace." Another tradition (probably
of Samaritan origin) makes Mount Gerizim the place of
meeting, in which case the city of Melchizedek would
probably be near Shechem.

The most high God.— A title characteristic of the
narrative (Gen. xiv. 18 — 20. 22). Melchizedek is the
first who in Scripture is spoken of as priest, and the
name is given without explanation. As in the earliest
times this office was held by the head of a family ( Job
i.). it is not remarkable to find a union of regal and
sacerdotal functions in the same man.

Returning from the slaughter.— Rather, from
the smiting, or defeat. According to the narrative in
Genesis the meeting took place " after Abraham had
returned" from the defeat of the king; but probably
the meaning does not differ from that here given.

{-) Gave a tenth part.— Literally, divided a tenth.
This point is fully treated of in verses 4 — 9.

King of righteousness.— Josephus notes the
significance of this name : "The first founder of
Jerusalem was a chief of the Canaanites, who in our
tongue is called Righteous King ; for indeed such he
was." Philo also interprets King of Salem as ''King
of Peace." The special interest of these titles for the
writer lies in the application to Jesus the Messiah.
(See chap. i. 8, 9 ; Isa, ix. 6. 7 ; xxxii. 1 ; Jer. xxiii.
5, 6; Zech. ix. 9 ; Eph. ii. 14.) On this, as obvious to
every Christian reader, he does not farther dwell.

(8) Without father, without mother, without
descent. — The last words. " without descent " (or
rather, without genealogy), throw light on the meauiug

To Melchizedek

eebrews, vrr

A hnilm 111 game TU.in >,.

without descent,1 having neither begin-
ning of days, nor end of life; but made
like unto the Son of God; abideth a
priest continually. w Now consider
how great this man was, unto whom
even the patriarch Abraham gave the
tenth of the spoils. NO And verily they
that are of the sons of Levi, who receive
the office of the priesthood, have a com-
mandment to take tithes of the people

i !r, without i" di-

al those which precede. Not because we find no
mention of the parents of Melchizedek is he thus
spoken of as fatherless and motherless, but because he
is suddenly introduced as priest, without any token
whatever that he held the office by right of genealogy,
the only claim familiar to Hebrew readers. It is not
necessary to adduce proof of the care with which
inquiry was made into the parentage of the Jewish
priests (Neh. vii. 64) : in their marriages they were
BUbjeci to strict restraints (Lev. xxi. 13, 14); their
statement of pedigree (in which was given the name
not of father only, but also of every mother) must be
complete, ascending to Aaron, and containing no doubt-
ful link. He who is a priest " like Melchizedek " holds
a priesthood that rests on no such rights or claims.
The words that follow are of similar character. No
commencement and no close of priestly position or
function are recorded in the sacred history. As the
Scripture is silent as to his reception of the office, so
also as to any transmission of it to another. In these
respects "made like (as a divinely ordained type)
unto the Son of God." he bears perpetually the
character of priest.

There have from the first been many who have been
dissatisfied with such an explanation of these remark-
able words, and have understood them to ascribe to Mel-
chizedek a mysterious and superhuman existence and
character. It has been maintained that he was the
Son of .God Himself, or the Holy Spirit, — an angel or
a Power of God. The last tenet was the distinguishing
mark of a sect bearing the name of Melchizedekians in
the third century. The feeling that the most startling
of the expressions here used must surely be intended
to point to more than the silence of Scripture on certain
points, is not at all unnatural; but perhaps it is not too
much to say that every such difficulty is removed by the
consideration that here the writer is simply analysing the
thought of the inspired Psalmist. Such an oracle as that
of Ps. ex. 4 must yield up to him its full significance.
The divine words are not to be measured by the mean-
ing which man may at first assign to them. The true
import of the prophecy which declared that the future
priesthood would bear the likeness of Melchizedek's
can only be known when all the characteristics of that
priesthood have been traced. The narrative of Genesis
was the basis of the prophecy; all that the history
presented was taken up in the Psalm.

(4) How great this man was.— Better, is .- the
greatness abides, set forth in the words of Scripture.
In the rest of the verse (where the best MSS. omit
the word " even ") it is well to follow the literal render-
ing, unto whom Abraham gave a tenth out of the chief
spoils — (Abraham) the patriarch. " He gave him
tithes of all " (Gen. xiv. 20), but the tenth was selected
from the choicest part of the spoils. ''Patriarch " is a
word used in the LXX. (in Chronicles only) for the

according to the law, that is, of their
brethren, though they come out of the
loins of Abraham : (6) but he Avhose
descent3 is not counted from them re-
ceived tithes of Abraham, and blessed
him that had the promises. <7' And
without all contradiction the less is
blessed of the better. <8) And here men
that die receive tithes ; but there he
receiveth them, of whom it is witnessed

head of a family or chief of a clan. In the New
Testament it is used of David in Acts ii. 29. and twice
in Acts vii. of Jacob's sons.

The next verse deals with the same subject, but
under a new aspect. Here the thought is, Melchizedek
received tithes even from Abraham the patriarch ; there.
He has been thus honoured, though no enactment of
law invested him with superior rights.

(5) They that are of the sons.— Rather, those of
the sons of Levi that receive, &c. There is an apparent
difficulty here. The priests, it is urged, did not receive
tithes from the people ; the tithe was paid to the Levites.
and but the tenth part of this tithe fell to the lot of the
priests. Two considerations seem entirely to remove
this difficulty. (1) The question is not one of emolu-
ment, but of position. The authority to exact tithes
was in strictness vested in the priests, the supreme
guardians of the laws relating to all religious duties and
observances, and the Levites were but their assistants.
That the priests received for their own use but a part
of the tribute paid by the nation is a matter of no
moment here. (2) The Levites themselves paid tithes
to the priests, who therefore stood alone in receiving
tithes but paying none. It is the positive ordinance of
the law, and nothing but this, that raises brethren
above brethren, and gives to the priest this claim upon
men who would otherwise be on an equality with him-
self through common descent from Abraham.

(6) "Whose descent. — Better, uhose gcnealogij
(verse 3).

Received tithes.— Rather, hath taken tithes of
Abraham, and hath blessed him that hath the promises.
In Melchizedek we see a man who. though no law gave
him pre-eminence, takes tithes of Abraham, and there-
fore appears in Scripture as holding a position of
inherent and acknowledged superiority. This supe-
riority is not dwelt upon, for the same thought will be
presented still more strikingly in connection with the
blessing (verse 8). "Hath taken tithes," "hath
blessed : " here, as in many other passages, the writer
refers to facts recorded in Scripture not as belonging
to the past, but as they now stand before us in the
unchanging and ever present word of God.

("> And without all contradiction.— Better, but
without any dispute. Two parts of the argument are
specified in this verse and verse <>. Melchizedek has
blessed Abraham ; but certainly (in every such act of
blessing as is here contemplated) it is the less that is
blessed by the greater. The conclusion, that Melchizedek
in this act appears as Abraham's superior, it did not
seem necessary to express.

(8> "Here," under the Levitieal economy, dying men
receive the various tithes. Men enter by birth into a
state with Which this right is associated, and by death
again pass out of it. Xo special significance1, therefore,
attaches to the men themselves. " There." in the history

307

The Priesthood changed.

HEBREWS, VII.

Another Priest.

that lie liveth. <9) And as I may so
say, Levi also, who receiveth tithes,
payed tithes in Abraham. ,10> For he
was yet in the loins of his father, when
Melchisedec met him. <n) If therefore
perfection were by the Levitical priest-
hood, (for under it the people received
the law,) what further need was there
that another priest should rise after the
order of Melchisedec, and not be called
after the order of Aaron? <12) For the
priesthood being- changed, there is made

of necessity a change also of the law.
{m For he of whom these things are
spoken pertaineth to another tribe, of
which no man gave attendance at the
altar. (14^ For it is evident that our
Lord sprang out of Juda ; of which
tribe Moses spake nothing concerning
priesthood. (15) And it is yet far more
evident : for that after the similitude
of Melchisedec there ariseth another
priest, (16) who is made, not after the
law of a carnal commandment, but after

now considered, one (receives tithes) of whom the
Scripture simply witnesses that he lives. The narrative
of Genesis gives no other basis for his priesthood than
the mere fact of his life. What he holds, he holds by
personal right.

(&) And as I may so say. — Or, so to speak .- an
apologetic mode of introducing an expression which
might seem strange. In the thought itself there is no
real difficulty, if we are careful to take into account the
principle which prevailed throughout, that pre-eminence
depended upon descent alone. Had Judah possessed
an inherent superiority over his brother Levi, the
descendants of Judah (in such a system as is here
before us) might have claimed the like pre-eminence
over the descendants of Levi. " Through Abraham
<>ven Levi, who receiveth tithes, hath payed tithes."
The descendants of Abraham cannot but occupy a lower
position iu presence of one who appears as Abraham's
superior.

Ui) The connection of thought maybe given thus : —
It has been shown that the position of Melchizedek
towards Abraham involves of necessity his superiority
to Abraham, to Levi also and his descendants, so that
'* the order of Melchizedek " is altogether different
from, and higher than, " the order of Aaron." This
being so. how could this other priesthood take the place
of the Levitical if this latter had answered its full
purpose ?

Perfection.— Literally, the making perfect — the full
accomplishment of the essential aim of priesthood, in
bringing men " near to God."

Received. — The better reading is hath received. —
The object of this parenthesis is to point out the
intimate relation between the Law and the priesthood :
" I speak of the Levitical priesthood, for it is on the
basis of this that the Law given to the people rests."

Another priest.— That is (as the Greek implies),
a priest of a different hind ( verses 13, 15 ). The cpiestion
is equivalent to a strong denial : there could be no such
need.

(12) This verse connects itself with the parenthesis in
Verse 11. *' For if the priesthood is changed there
takes place also of necessity a change of law." It is
no light matter to speak of the order of Aaron as set
aside : this carries with it a change of law.

*13) Iu verse 11 the " other priest " is spoken of as
not connected with Aaron ; verse 12 is interposed to
show the serious significance of such a fact : here the
assertion of verse 11 is substantiated— not, however,
from the words of the Psalm, but from their fulfilment
in Jesus.

Pertaineth.— Literally, hath partaken of .- the same
word is used in chap. ii. 14, " He also .... took part
of the same."

Another tribe, of which no man gave . . .—

Better, a different tribe, from lohich no man hath
given attendance at the altar. In comparison with
Levi every tribe was not merely "another." but
essentially, in regard to the subject before us, " a
different tribe."

(M.) Evident.— That is to say, manifest before the
eyes of all.

Sprang.— Better, hath arisen otit of Judah. In
every other place in the New Testament this word is
applied to the rising of the sun, the light, the day-star
(2 Pet. i. 19), or the clouds (Luke xii. 54); and in the
prophecies of Num. xxiv. 17 and Mai. iv. 2 the same
word is used. On the other hand, the word also
denotes the springing up of plants ( Isa. xliv. 4 ; Ezek.
xvii. 6), and a word closely connected with it occurs
in the LXX. in the Messianic prophecy of "the
Branch" (Jer. xxiii. 5; Zech. iii. 8). The latter
meaning seems much more suitable here.

(15, 16) And it is.— That which is " yet far more
evident " is the proposition of the preceding verses, viz..
the failure of the Levitical priesthood to bring " per.
fection " (verse 11), a failure placed beyond doubt by
the change of priesthood (verses 13. 14). " And what
we are speaking of is yet more abundantly evident if
after the likeness of Melchizedek there ariseth a
different priest, who hath been made (priest) not
according to a law of a carnal commandment, but
according to power of indissoluble life." Hitherto, in
verses 12 — 14, the thought has rested on what is
given up. — viz., the priesthood of Aaron, set aside by the
words of prophecy ( Ps. ex. 4) ; and so far as these three
A'erses are concerned, nothing more might be intended
than the transference of the priesthood to another line
of men. Far more striking will the proof appear,
when we look on the other side, and observe what is
brought in — a priesthood like Melchizedck's. resting
not on mere positive enactment, but assumed by
inherent power, by right of " life " (verse 8).

(16) A carnal commandment.— Literally (accord-
ing to the true reading of the Greek), a commandment of
flesh : one that is limited to the sphere of man's nature
of flesh. As such, it is bound up with distinctions of
race and tribe and family; it is limited by human
infirmity and the changes wrought by sickness and
death ; what it accomplishes is the purifying of the
flesh; in its own nature it is temporary, and may lie
set aside. (See chap. ix. 10, 13.) In contrast to the
enactment is placed an essential right, possessed by
Him of whom Melchizedek was the type : in contrast
to all that is temporary and limited is placed an indis-
soluble life. Because 'He lives — in virtue of what He
is — He is Priest : in virtue of an endless life He is
priest for ever.

The Better Hope.

HEBREWS, VII.

The Oath of tlve Lord.

the power of an endless life. <17) For he
testitieth, Thou art a priest for ever
after the order of Melchisedec. (ls> For
there is verily a disannulling of the
commandment going before for the
weakness and unprofitableness thereof.
(19) For the law made nothing perfect,
but the bringing in1 of a better hope

2 Or. Without oatll

sirnininj Hi

•I Pa, no. i.

1 Of, hid il Was

tlir In-iiiijiuij in.

did; by the which, we draw nigh ante
God. {2n> And inasmuch as not without
an oath he was made pried : <21) (for
those priests were made without an
but this with an oath by him
that said unto him, The Lord aware and
will not repent, Thou art a priest for ever
after the order of Melchisedec : ") <22) by

(tf) For he testifleth.— A slight change of Beading
makes the sense clearer: •'For witness is borne to
him " — as to this " power " of indissoluble life — in the
words of the propheey itself.

(is, 19) The intimate connection between these two
verses is obscured by the ordinary translation. They
point out with greater fulness and clearness what is
involved in the statement J verse 16. " For there is
an annulling of a preceding commandment, because of
its weakness and unprofitableness (for the Law made
nothing perfect), and a bringing in thereupon of a
better nope, by which we draw nigh unto God." (It
must be borne in mind throughout that by the " com-
mandment " is meant the ordinance which created the
Levitk-nl priesthood, not the Law in general.) That
Jesus was not made Priest according to a law of a
carnal commandment (verse 16) involves the annulling
of that commandment ; in His becoming Priest
according to a power of indissoluble life is involved the
introduction of a better hope. This is the general
meaning, but each division of the thought is expanded.
The appointment of a different priest by the very
authority on which the former commandment rested.
tiie divine decree, showed that commandment to be of
force no longer : as we lurre already seen (verse 11), this
is because the commandment is weak and unprofitable
— because the priesthood it creates cannot attain the
end of its institution, which is to bring men into
fellowship with God. The parenthesis. " for the Law-
made nothing perfect." points out that the weakness
just spoken of corresponds to that imperfection which
confessedly belongs to the earlier dispensation : even
the Jew (who would havo accounted a change of priestly
line impossible) expected perfection only when Messiah
should have appeared. When the earlier command-
ment is annulled, in its place there is brought in a
better hope. The " better hope " stands connected
witli the " better covenant " (verse 22) and the " better
promises " (chap. viii. 6). "And by this (better hope)
we draw nigh unto God." The end of the priesthood
therefore is attained. (See verse 11.) In the Law (Lev.
x. 3) the priests are " those who come nigh unto God,"
that is, in the service of the sanctuary : with a nobler
meaning this name shall now belong to all God's
people.

(20) This and the next two verses constitute one
sentence, the third verse answering to the first, and
verse 21 being parenthetical. Hitherto no reference
has been made to the remarkable opening of Ps.
ex. 4, so often quoted : these three verses are occupied
with the thought of the oath — or rather (for a very
uncommon word is used, one that answers well to the
importance of the thought) the " swearing of an oath."
This is a further illustration of the words of verse 15,
"a different priest."

He was made priest.— Some supplement is needed
to give clearness to the English sentence ; but one of i
general meaning, such as " all this was done." will besl I
answer the purpose.

309

(21) For those priests.— Rather, For they indeed
have been made priests without an oath.

By him that said unto him.- -Better, by (or.
through) Hun that saith of Him. The last five words
of the verse are absent from the best authorities : they
were not needed for this part of the argument, and are
therefore omitted from the cpiotation. All that has
been said in chap vi. (verses 13 — 18) on confirmation
by oath must be brought in here (see Notes on chap,
vi. 16, 17): the words of the Psalm are really words of
promise, and the " more abundant encouragement " is
given us by means' of the oath that shall never be
reversed.

(22) By so much was Jesus made. —Better, by
so much also hath Jesus become surety of a better cove-
nant. The form of the sentence recalls chap. i. 4. As
the priest whose appointment is confirmed by the oath
of God is raised above all former priests, in the same
proportion is the covenant of which Jesus is surety
higher. better, than the former covenant. For the "better
hope " of verse 19 we now read " better covenant " ;
the new idea is not different in substance, but is more
definite and clear. The very promise of the " other
priest " brought with it a " better hope " ; the recollec-
tion of the divine oath is fitly succeeded by the mention
of a " covenant."

This is the first occurrence in this Epistle of a very
interesting word (diatheke-) which hereafter will occupy
an important place in the argument. Throughout the
Greek translation of the Old Testament it is used to
represent a Hebrew word which is (more than 200
times) rightly rendered covenant in our version; and.
like the Hebrew word, it is applied both to mutual
agreements between man and man, and to "covenants"
or engagements into which God enters in regard to
man. In classical writers diatheke commonly denotes
a testament ; and hence in the old Latin translation of
the Scriptures testamentum became the common ren-
dering of the word. As, however, this rendering is
very often found where it is impossible to think of such
a meaning as ivill (for example, in Ps. lxxxiii. 5, where
no one will suppose the Psalmist to say that the
enemies of God " have arranged a testament against
Him "), it is plain that the Latin testamentum was used
with an extended meaning, answering to the wide
application of the Greek word. St. Paul's designation
of the Jewish Scriptures as " the Old Covenant "
( 2 Cor. iii. 14 ) thus became familiarly known as The
Old Testament. In the New Testament the Authorised
version more commonly presents the better rendering ;
but, through the influence of the Latin, testament is re-
tained in several places — viz., in the various accounts of
the institution of the Lord's Supper ; in 2 Cor. iii. 6.
14 ; in Rev. xi. 19 (" the ark of His testament," a very
strange translation); in the present verse; and especially
in the very important passage, chap. ix. 15 — 20. There
is a very general agreement of opinion that " covenant "
must lie the true meaning in all passages of the New
Testament except the one last mentioned ; and even in

TJm Priest who ever lives,

HEBREWS, VII.

who Solves to the Uttermost?

so much was Jesus made a surety
of a better testament. ''-';J) And they
truly were many priests, because they
were not suffered to continue by reason
of death : <24) but this man, because he
continueth ever, hath an unchangeable
priesthood.1 (25) Wherefore he is able
also to save them to the uttermost ~

l i)i', which )»'-■
not from otu

•j Or. eoermore.

that come unto God by him, seeing- he
ever liveth to make intercession for
them. W For such an high priest be-
came us, who is holy, harmless, unde-
hled, separate from sinners, and made
higher than the heavens ; (27) who need-
eth not daily, as those high priests, to
offer up sacrifice, first for his own sins,

that place there are strong reasons for retaining the
same rendering. (See the Note on chap ix. 15.) In this
verse, at all events, we cannot doubt that the writer is
thinking of a covenant. ( See chap. viii. 6, 8. ) Here only
is Jesus spoken of as Surety, elsewhere as Mediator
(chaps, viii. 6; ix. 15; xii. 24). As through the Son of
Man the covenant becomes established, so in Him it
remains secure ; the words addressed by God to Him
as Priest and King contain tin; pledge of its validity
and permanence.

(2:J) Were many priests. — Rather, have been
made priests many [i.e., in large numbers), because by
death they were prevented from continuing . (Comp.
verse 8. where the thought is somewhat similar.)

(34) But this man.— Better, But He, because He
remaineth for ever, hath His priesthood inviolable (or,
unchangeable). The former ordinance related to a race,
and the individuals were ever passing away ; since His
life is '"indissoluble" (verse 16), none can trespass on
His right and invade His priesthood. The rendering
of the margin, " that passeth not from one to another,"
expresses nearly the same thought; but it is very
doubtful whether the Greek will bear this meaning.

(25) Wherefore.— Since His priesthood is inviolable,
His power of saving is complete. The association of
the thought of " salvation " with the priesthood recalls
chap. v. 9, 10 ; as indeed several points in the later
verses of this chapter show that the writer's thought is
resting on the first section of chap. v. In His suppli-
cation unto God, " who was able to save Him out of
death," He was heard ; this was the type — and more
than the type (see the Note on chap. v. 7) — of the
eternal salvation of which He. when made perfect,
becomes the Author. The connecting link between the
priestly office and " salvation " appears, therefore, to be
the prevalent intercession of which this verse speaks —
an intercession which implies all that has preceded in
His priestly ministration. (See chap. ix. 12, 24.)

That come unto God by him.— Better, that
approach through Him to God. See chap. x. 19 — 22,
where full expression is given to the thought here briefly
indicated. He leads and represents His people, and is
the medium of their approach to God.

To make intercession for them.— The word
occurs in Rom. viii. 34 in reference to Christ ; in Rom.
viii. 27 it is applied to the intercession of the Holy
Spirit. The thought meets us in chap. ix. 24 ; John xiv.
16; 1 John ii. 2. With the high priest's confession
of the sins of the people on the Day of Atonement was
.•joined fervent intercession on their behalf ; this inter-
cession was also symbolised in the offering of the
incense.

Verses 26 — 28 look back on all that has preceded,
since the beginning of the fifth chapter, and prepare
the way for the snbsecpient sections. The type
afforded by Melchizedek has yielded its lessons, and.
to this there is no further reference. The mention of
the high priest (chap. vi. 20, taking up chap. v. 10) is

resumed. The unique special teaching of Ps. ex. 4 was
far from bringing out the full significance of the priest-
hood of Jesus ; for the sacred history does not connect
Melchizedek with any of the most prominent high-
priestly functions, or with any temple or place of
ministration. The abrogation of the Lcvitical priest-
hood and the infinite elevation of the " other Priest "
above those of the order of Aaron have been so clearly
set forth that it is possible henceforth to concentrate
attention on the types and lessons furnished by the
Jewish ritual itself. Hence there is the closest connec-
tion (as has been already mentioned) between these
vevses and chap. v. 1 — 5.

(26) por such an high priest.— Better, For such
a one also became us as (our) High Priest. Such a
priest as has been portrayed was the High Priest that
befitted us — no one less exalted could have met our
necessities. The added words carry the description
farther still. The thought of high priest immediately
brings to mind thg animal Day of Atonement,- to which
belonged the characteristic ministration of the high
priest. As we read the following words we cannot
doubt their direct reference to the ceremonial obser-
vances of that day.

Holy. — Not the word of chap. iii. 1, but a word
seldom used in the New Testament (except in quota-
tions), though of frequent occurrence in the LXX.
(as in Deut. xxxiii. 8; Pss. iv. 3; xvi. 10; exxxii. 9,
16): the idea contained is that of holy purity. The
next word may denote either freedom from malice or
evil, or freedom from guile (Rom. xvi. 18) ; the former
meaning is more likely here. The three words, denoting
personal purity and innocence and freedom from all
pollution of sin, present the idea of which the ceremonial
purity of the high priest was the type. Seven days
before the Day of Atonement the high priest left his
house and took up his abode in the Temple, that, thus
separated from men and things unclean, he might
when the day arrived be found free from all defilement ;
five washings and ten purifications were required of him
on the day itself.

Separate from sinners.— These words may be
understood in two ways — as connecting themselves
either with what goes before or with the following
words. If they extend the idea expressed by " unde-
nted," they point to the perfect sinlessness of our
Lord, who lived amongst sinners and yet was ever
separated from their sin — not needing external separa-
tion to preserve Him from pollution. If this member
is to be joined with the following, it points to the
complete severance which now exists : our exalted Lord
is for ever removed from a life in the midst of trans-
gressors. The latter view receives some support from
chap. ix. 28, but is on other grounds less probable.
With the concluding words comp. chaps, iv. 14; viii. 1 ;
Eph. iv. 10.

(27) This verse carries on the description, presenting
what follows from this purity and sinlessness.

The Son

HEBEEWS, VI II.

perfected for em

and then for the people's : for this he
did once, when he offered up himself.
<-s) For the law maketh men lii^-li priests
which have infirmity ; but the word of
the oath, which was since the law,

-■' "•"'■ maketh the Son, who is consecrated1 for
evermore.

J* CHAPTER VIII. — <« Now of the

j things which we have spoken this is the

As those high priests. — The high priest's offering
Up sacrifices first for himself and then for the people
constituted a chief part of his duty upon the Day of
Atonement. (See chap. v. 3.) The annual recurrence of
that day is distinctly referred to more than once in this
Epistle (see chaps, ix. 25 : X. 1, 3) : hence the words now
before us. which seem to imply daily sacrifices thus
offered by the high priests, have given rise to much
discussion. Neither the morning and evening sacrifices
nor the daily meat-offering of the high priest could
have been spoken of in the trrms here used, which in
their natural meaning suit the ritual of the Day of
Atonement, and that alone. It is true— and passages
of Philo and the Talmud are appositely quoted to illus-
trate the fact — that, as the high priest was represented
by all other priests, their actions were, counted as his;
but it seems impossible to think that the words have
no more significance than this. Either we must take
"daily" as equivalent to "day by day" (as the Jews
were accustomed to speak of the Day of Atonement as
"the day "), — which will give us the meaning, "on each
recurrence of this sacred day ; " or we must connect
the word, not with the Jewish high priests, but with
Jesus alone. The order of the Greek would of itself
suggest this latter arrangement of the words. If it is
correct, the choice of the word "daily" presents but
little difficulty. There could be no epiestion of years in
regard to the ministration of the Lord Jesus in the
heavenly sanctuary; and "daily" was perhaps the most
natural word iu such a case, when the frequently stated
repetition of a sacrifice was the thought to be expressed.

For this he did once.— Rather, once for all.
These words and those that follow. " when He offered
up Himself," are best understood as a parenthesis.
The truth stated in the former part of the verse, that
Jesus needeth not, like the high priests, to offer up
sacrifices, first for His oavu sins and then " for those of
the people," finds its explanation in verse 28, "For the
Law." &c. But, having introduced the thought of a
sacrifice for the sins of the people — a thought not yet
expressly mentioned in any part of the Epistle in con-
nection with Jesus, though virtually presented, as we
have seen, in many earlier words — the writer will not
pass on without the most emphatic statement that such
a sacrifice was offered, once for all, in the sacrifice of
Himself.

(28) por the law maketh men high priests
which have infirmity . . .— Better, For the Law ap-
pointed men high priests, {men) having infirmity-, but
the word of the oath, which ivas after the Law, appoint-
eth a Son, who hath been perfected for ever. On "the
word of the oath " see verses 20, 21. Coming " after the
Law," it revoked the commandment (verse; 18), and
was not revoked by it. (" A Son," see chaps, i. 3; v. 8.
"Perfected," see chaps, ii. 10; v. 10.) We are not to
understand that Jesus was first " perfected " and then
appointed as High Priest : this woidd contradict what
has just been taught (verse 27), for it was as High
Priest that He offered the sacrifice of Himself. In
these closing words arc united the two cardinal predic-
tions of Ps. ii.. ex. (coinp. chap. v. 5, 6) : Thou art My
Son," " Thou art a Priest for ever."

VIII.

The mode in which this chapter is introduced shows
that, in the writer's own arrangement, a new division
of the argument begins here. On examination we shall
find that there is a clear difference between the topics
discussed before and after this point ; though it was
hardly possible, and certainly was not the intention of
the writer, strictly to maintain this distinction in every
particular. Hitherto the personal characteristics of
the High Priest have occupied the chief place : from
this point to chap. x. 18 it is His ministration that is
brought before us. Chap. v. 1 — 10 sets forth whatever
there is of similarity between Jesus and the high priests
of the Law : the principal subject of chap. vii. is the
contrast between the priest of whom Ps. ex. speaks
and all others, in respect of dignity (verses 4 — 7, 9, 10),
right of priesthood (verses 8, 16). mode of appointment
(verses 20 — 22), duration of officV) (verses 23 — 25), and
freedom from sin (verses 26 — 28). Interwoven with
this contrast is another — between the former dispensa-
tion, which has failed to attain its purpose, and the
new covenant and better hope (verses 11. 18, 19, 22).
The same kind of comparison is continued in the rest
of the section, and not between the high priests only,
but also between the covenants to which their ministry
belongs. First the writer dwells on the place iu which
the high priest ministers (chaps, viii. 1 — 5; ix. 1 — 5),
then on his ministration, and especially the sacrifice
which he presents (chaps, viii. 6; ix. 6 — x. 18). In
chaps, viii. 7 — 13 (ix. 15 — 19), x. 15 — 17, is introduced
the thought of the contrasted covenants.

(!) Now of the things . . .—Better, Nov: in the things
which we are saying (literally, which are being said)
this is the chief point. Opinion has been much divided
as to the meaning of the first Greek word, whether it
should be taken as " summary " or as " chief point,"
each of these meanings being well supported by the
usage of the language. The words joined with it, " in
the things which we are saying," would lead us to
prefer the second rendering ; and when the course of
the argument is traced we find it difficult to believe
that the writer could express a summary of his thought
in such words as those which follow.

Who is set.— Better, who sat down. Twice before
have the words of Ps. ex. 1 been thus referred to Jesus
chap, i. 3, 13), but their full significance in regard to
the present subject has yet to be brought out. When
in chap. vii. 26 we read, " such an high priest became
us." we must look to what precedes for the explanation
— "such a one" as has already been portrayed. Here
the case is different, and the meaning of "such" is
found in the description which the following words
contain. The last verse of chap. vii. united the two
predictions which pointed to Jesus as Priest and King,
and the same thought is contained here, expressed in
language which at once recalls chap. i. 3. A later
passage (chap. x. 11, 12) will show that the words " sat
down " have yet further significance, involving a con-
: trast to the continued and ever incomplete services of
those who " stood before God " in His earthly sanctuary.
til

Tlie Ministration in t/te

HEBREWS, VIII.

Heavenly Sanctuary*

sum : We have such an liiyli priest, who

... _ is set on the right hand of

Christ High the throne of the Majesty

Priest in the in the heavens ; l2) a

heavenly sane- . • , n , t , i

tuary, and Me- minister ot the sanctuary,1
diatov of anew and of the true tabernacle,

covenant. wMch the Lord pitched?

and not man. (3) For every high priest
is ordained to offer gifts and sacrifices :
wherefore it is of necessity that this man

have somewhat also to offer. W For if
he were on earth, he should not be a
priest, seeing that there are priests a
that offer gifts according to the law :
«. (*) who serve unto the example and
shadow of heavenly things, as Moses
was admonished of God when he was
about to make the tabernacle : for, See,.
saith he, that thou make all things
according to the pattern shewed to thee

The next verse must be closely joined with this, for the
contrast just spoken of does not imply that He no
longer " ministers " on behalf of men (see chaps, vii. 25 ;
ix. 24) ; on the contrary, it is as " a minister " of the
sanctuary that He sat doAvn on the right hand of God.

(2) Of the sanctuary.— The word here rendered
'• minister " (see chap. i. 7, 14) is very commonly used in
the LXX. for the officiating priest. It is difficult, how-
ever, to decide on the meaning of the words here
joined with it — whether they denote holy things or holy
place ; if the latter, what is the distinction between tlds
holy place and " the true tabernacle " ? The ordinary
usage of the Epistle would suggest " holy place," and
perhaps the occurrence of both expressions in chap. ix.
11, 12 (where there is no doubt as to the translation)
is sufficient to remove any hesitation here. The
V sanctuary," therefore, will probably be the heavenly
counterpart of the Holiest Place ; the " true (or, real)
Tabernacle," the counterpart of the sacred Tent of
Moses, containing both the Holy Place and the Holiest
of all (chap. ix. 2 — 4). It is not certain that iu this
place we need go beyond this point, though in chap. ix.
12 the more developed thought may require a closer in-
terpretation. The Holy of Holies is the place of God's
immediate presence; the Tabernacle, that of God's ap-
pointed service. The latter is expressly mentioned here
because special reference is to be made to its typical
representation upon earth ; this is shown by the follow-
ing words, which point to Ex. xxxiii. 7. The word
rendered " true " (which occurs again in chaps, ix. 24 ; x.
22) is full of interest, denoting that which is contrasted
with everything shadowy or imperfect or merely
typical; it is a word especially characteristic of the
Gospel of St. John. (See Note on John i. 9.)

(3) This verse and the three following confirm and illus-
trate the importance of the statement just made. The
general course of thought appears to be as follows : —
That which stands " at the head" of what we are say-
ing, and gives completeness to the whole, is, that we have
a High Priest who ministers in heaven itself (verses 1,
2). For. whereas the very conception of high-priestly
duty would, were He on earth, exclude Him from being
a priest at all (verses 3, 4), like those who " serve a copy
of the heavenly things " ( verse 5), He in heaven holds
and exercises that more excellent ministry of which
their service was a shadow and a type (verse 6).

That this man have . . .—Better, that this High
Priest also have somewhat to offer. If these words
refer to the continued ministration in the heavenly
sanctuary, the explanation is found in chap. ix. 24; but
the meaning may simply be that every high priest, and
therefore the Lord Jesus, must have some sacrifice to
present to God, this being (chap. v. 1) the very object
of his appointment to the office.

(*) For if he were . . .—The oldest Greek MSS. and
two important versions read. " If then He were " j and
two other changes in the text of this verse also rest on
high authority. In its correct form the verse will stand
thus : If then He were on earth. He ivould not even be
a iciest (that is, He would not be a priest at all), seeing
there are those who according to law offer the gifts.
The argument somewhat resembles that of chap. vii.
13, 14 ; there, however, the impediment is that of tribe ;
here the thought is that the place is preoccupied by men
who by express command arc bringing the gifts unto
God.

(5) Who serve unto . . . — Better, men who serve
a copy and shadow of the heavenly tilings. So in chap.
xiii. 10 we read of those who " serve the tabernacle."
On the connection of thought, see verse 3. " Copy," not
in the sense of perfect resemblance, but rather a token
suggesting and designed to suggest the original. (See
Note on chap. ix. 23, where the same word is used.
" Shadow," as the shadow has no substance or indepen-
dent existence, but represents only the outline of an
object. (Conip. chap. x. 1, where "shadow" is con-
trasted with " the very image " ; and Col. ii. 17, where
it is opposed to "the body.") We must not confound
these words, " token " and " shadow," with " the pattern "
mentioned in Ex. xxv. 40, quoted later in this verse.
The -heavenly things" are "the sanctuary" and "the
tabernacle" of verse 2, the realities to which the true
earthly tabernacle corresponded ; their nature can be
understood only when Christ has come as High. Priest
of the good things to come. (See chaps, ix. 11 ; x. 1.)
That every part of God's earthly house might be a fitting
emblem of spiritual truth to be afterwards revealed,
Moses was charged in all respects to follow the pattern
which had been shown him in the mount (Ex. xxv. 40).
Jewish tradition understood these words to imply the
presentation of a heavenly tabernacle to the sight of
Moses, as a model to be imitated with exactness; and
Stephen's words in Acts vii. 44, "according to the
pattern " (the same word is here used) " which he had
seen," convey the same meaning. In itself, Ex. xxv,
40, when compared with verse 9 in the same chapter.
does not necessarily involve a visible representation.
But whether we think of a pattern shown in vision, or
merely of explicit direction received by Moses, the mean-
ing of " the heavenly things " remains the same. The
view here presented of the Jewish tabernacle involves
no depreciation, except in comparison with "the good
things to come." It was only a shadoiv ; but it rise-
above all temples and symbols' of man's art and device
as being a shadow of the heavenly things.

"Was admonished of God.— The words "of
God " are not in the text, but are implied in " ad-
monished," (See the Note on Luke ii. 26.) " Hath
been admonished:" another example of the writer's
characteristic mode of regarding Scripture chap. iv. 9)..

Jesus t/t" Mediator

HKHIM'WS, VIII.

of a, Better Covenant.

in the mount. (0) But now hath he i

obtained a more excellent ministry, by j

how much also he is the mediator of a

better covenant,1 which was established ' or.uatamau.

upon better promises. (7) For if that

first covenant had been faultless, then j -(;'""*

should no place have been sought for

the second. <8> For finding fault with : :1 *■ "'""■

them, he saith, Behold, the days come, i

saith the Lord, when I Avill make a new '

covenant with the house of Israel and '

with the house of Judah : W not ac- !

cording1 to the covenant that I made '

with their fathers in the day when I

took them by the hand to lead them

j out of the land of Egypt; because they
; continued not in my covenant, and I

regarded them not, saith the Lord.
! (10> For this is the covenant that I will

make with the house of Israel after

those days, saith the Lord; I will put-
j my laws into their mind,a and write
'. them in3 their hearts : and I will be to
' them a God, and they shall be to me a
| people : {ll) and they shall not teach
I every man his neighbour, and every

man his brother, saying, Know the
j Lord : for all shall know me, from
; the least to the greatest. <12) For I will
i be merciful to their unrighteousness,

(6> But now. — That is. as the case really is. (See verse
3.) We have here another of those proportional state-
ments commented on in chaps, i. 4; iii. 3; vii. 22. The
last of these passages is closely akin to this. There
we read that by how much the Priest, appointed by the
divine oath is raised above all other priests, by so much
is His covenant better than theirs, Here, that as He is
Mediator of a better covenant, in the same proportion
does His ministry excel that of priests on earth.

Which was established.— Better, one that hath
been ordained. The verb, properly meaning " to legis-
late," has already occurred in chap. vii. 11, " the people
hath received the Law " (literally, hath been legislated
for). Here, then, a word which properly refers to the
passing of a law is applied to a covenant. The explana-
tion must be sought in the special nature of the covenants
of God with man (see chap. vii. 22), which are not com-
pacts between equals, but arrangements offered by the
divine goodness, and made dependent upon conditions.
Hence such a covenant may be spoken of as ordained.
enacted, on the basis of promise. On the promises (see
verses 8 — 12) which are given by God is based the
•• covenant " which becomes the law of His kingdom
, and the declaration of His procedure. The man who
accepts the promises by entering into the conditions
laid down is dealt with according to this law. Here,
Jesus is the '" Mediator," in chap. vii. 22 (see Note)
the " Surety." of the better covenant. The idea is
expanded below in chap. ix. 15 — 18. On the tacit com-
parison with Moses, as mediator of the first covenant,
see Note on Gal. iii. 19.

(7) For the second.— Rather, for a second. This
verse connects itself with the words " a better cove-
nant " in verse <!. The form of expression used clearly
points to the intended inference — that covenant was
faulty, and a place was sought for a second ; this makes
plain the connection with rone 8. The failure of the
first covenant was manifest (chap. vii. 11, 18) to God,
who, whilst the first still existed, " sought " and found
place for a second.

(8) Finding fault with them.— Not, "with it."
but with those through whom the covenant had failed.
The following quotation (verses 8— 12 I is taken from
Jer. xxxi. 31 — 34. It is the crowning point of that
collection of prophecies which is brought together in
chaps, xxx. — xxxiii., descriptive of the hope and sal-
vation of Israel. The characteristics of the prophecy
and its significance in this place will be noticed below
i verse 12). The quotation agrees in the main with the
LXX. (and, except in verse 11. with the text contained

in the Alexandrian MS.), and in one clause only fails
to represent the meaning of the Hebrew original. The
only point requiring notice in this verse is the substi-
tution of " I will accomplish " for " I will make." The
new word closely answers to that which was used in
verse • >. " ordained." (See the Note.)

(9) Not according to the covenant. — The
difference is declared below (verses 10 — 12). "In the
day when " they were led forth out of Egypt the token
of God's covenant was the deliverance itself. At
Sinai, Ex. xxiv. 7. 8 (see chap. ix. 18 — 22). the *' book
of the covenant " was read, and " the blood of the
covenant " was " sprinkled on the people," who had
promised obedience to all the words that the Lord had
said.

And I regarded them not.— It is here that the
translation departs from the Hebrew, which, as is now
generally believed, is faithfully represented in our
Authorised version: "although I was an husband unto
them" (that is, had the authority of a husband). The
quotation here follows the LXX. without change.

(10> I will make.— Literally, I will covenant — not
the same word as in verse 8.

Israel.— Formerly (verse 8), Israel and Judah.
When the reunion of the nation had once been signified,
" Israel " could stand alone as the name of the one
people.

I will put.— Better, putting my laws into their
mind, I will also write them on their heart. In the
former clause the Hebrew has, " I will put my law in
their inward parts;" the law shall be within them, not
an external code. In the latter, the " fleshy tablets of
the heart" are contrasted with "the tables of the Law.*'
This is the first of the " better promises."

(11) His neighbour.- Rather, his fellow-citizen,
according to the best reading. The second promise is
the universality of the knowledge of God. The divine
teaching shall not only be internal, but for this very
reason shall extend to all.

(12) Merciful.— Literally, propitious. On the
kindred word ''make propitiation," see chap. ii. 17.

To their unrighteousness.— Rather, to their
unrighteousnesses, and lit fir tins will I remember no
more. The words •' and their iniquities " are omitted
by the best authorities. Here is given the third and
chief promise : the characteristic of the new covenant
is the full pardon of sin.

Of this new covenant, "ordained" on the three
promises of an inward revelation, universal knowledge
of God, and free pardon of sin, Jesus is the Mediator.

The Fir»t Covenant,

HEBJJEWS, IX

its TabeviKn-l". and Ordinance*

and their sins and their iniquities will I j
remember no more. (13) In that he !
saith, A new covenant, he hath made
the first old. Now that which decayeth
and waxeth old is ready to vanish away, j

CHAPTEE IX.— a) Then verily the
first covenant had also ordinances1 of

divine service, and a worldly sanc-
tuary. W For there was chap. ix. l-in,
a tabernacle made ; the The first cpv(
first, wherein was
candlestick, and the table, nances.
and the shewbread ; which is called
the sanctuary.2 <3' And after the
second veil, the tabernacle which is

riant : its taber-
Le nacle and ordi-

How this is to be understood the writer himself will
teach, for all these promises are present (virtually or
formally) in the last portion of his argument (chap. x.
14 — 18). In part they belong to the new covenant from
the beginning. The pardon is spoken of not as a
gift to individuals, but rather as from the first a
characteristic of the covenant (chaps, ix. 26 ; x. 18).
The first promise is seen in the gift of the Holy Spirit,
and in the teaching represented by the Sermon on the
Mount, in which inward principles of life take the place
of many an outward rule. The second waits for full
accomplishment, but is seen in the abolition of dis-
tinctions between nation and nation, and the common
influence of the Holy Spirit.

This subject has presented difficulties, because it has
been forgotten that this Scripture speaks of no sudden
change in man's relation to God. The essential
promises of the new covenant were not unknown under
the old. " Thy law is within my heart " is the saying
of one Psalmist ; " Thou forgavest the iniquity of my
sin," of another. But in regard to the nation there
was failure. The rites of the Law did not lead to the
perception of spiritual truths ; ordinances which were
intended to teach the divine intolerance of sin became
mere ceremonies ; external sanctions did not preserve
the nation in true obedience to God's law. To all, the
former covenant (like the first Tabernacle, chap. ix. 9)
was a parable, explained only when the new covenant
(which was in truth before the old. Gal. iii. 17) was
" ordained."

(13) In that he saith . . .—Rather, In saying
"new" He hatfi made the first old : now that which
(jroweth old and is failing for age is nigh unto
vanishing away. The very language of the prophet
contains a declaration of the speedy dissolution of the
former covenant. If "nigh unto vanishing" at the
time when Jeremiah wrote, well might it now be
believed to have passed away.

IX.

in the last chapter
The mention of the

(!) The subject commenced
(verses 1 — 6) is continued here.
" more excellent ministry " led to the description of the
new covenant with winch it is united (verses 6 — 13).
This verse, then, attaches itself to the fifth and sixth
verses of chap. viii. "Even the first (covenant), then,
had ordinances of divine service and its sanctuary, of
this world." The " service " is spoken of again in
verse 6 ; the " ordinances " in verse 10, wThere they are
called " carnal." Very similar is the language here,
for the words so emphatically standing at the close of
the verse are probably descriptive not of the " sanctuary "
only, but also of the " ordinances." Both place and
ministrations belonged to this world, and thus stand in
contrast with " the heavenly things," of which the
Tabernacle was a token and shadow. (See Note on
chap. viii. 5. ) The ordinary Greek text ( here following
the first printed Greek Testament) has " the first
Tabernacle." and this reading was followed by Tyndale

314

and Coverdale. All ancient MSS. omit the word; and,
as in a long succession of verses " covenant " has been
the leading thought, the rendering of the Authorised
version is certainly correct.

(2) Tabernacle. — It must be carefully observed
that the Epistle throughout refers to the Tabernacle,
and not once to the Temples which succeeded it. Though
they were formed on the same general model, their
very nature and design necessitated changes of plan
and detail which unfitted them for the writer's argu-
ment here. So far as the Temple was a copy of the
Tabernacle, and so far only, was it made " after the
pattern" that Moses had seen; and so far only was its
symbolism of divine and not human origin.

The first, wherein was . . .—In verse 6. when
the writer passes from place to ministration, he uses
the present tense, although it is of the Tabernacle that
he is speaking. The explanation is that which has
come before us again and again : the arrangements
prescribed in Scripture are to him ever present, abiding
from age to age in that unchanging word. Hence
probably we should here read are instead of " were."
The golden candlestick, the table, and the showbread are
in the Holy Place as it is described in the Law. With
the symbolical meaning of the furniture of the Holy
Place we are not here concerned. The writer contents
himself with words which plainly imply that none of
the parts and arrangements of the Tabernacle were
without significance. On the golden candlestick (more
strictly, lampstand) see Ex. xxv. 31 — 37, and on the
ten candlesticks of the Temple of Solomon, 1 Kings vii.
49 ; on the table and the showbread, Ex. xxv. 23—30 ;
Lev. xxiv. 5—9 (1 Kings vii. 48 ; 2 Chron. iv. 8). It is
somewrhat remarkable that the table should here be so
distinctly mentioned, for usually (both in the Bible and
in Jewish tradition) no special importance appears to
be assigned to it apart from the offering which was
placed thereon. (Coiup., however. Lev. xxiv. 6 ; 2 Chron.
xiii. 11 ; Mai. i. 7, 12.) This offering is in Hebrew
called " bread of the face" — i.e., bread of the (divine)
Presence ; in Matt. xii. 4, Luke vi. 4, " loaves of the
setting forth; " here "the setting forth of the loaves."

Sanctuary. — Or. holy place. The same word is
applied to the Holy of Holies in chaps, viii. 2 ; ix. 8, 12.
24, 25; x. 19; and probably in xiii. 11. This verse and
the next give the proper names of the two parts of
the Tabernacle, which must be used when the one is to
be distinguished from the other. Where there is no
risk of mistake the simpler designation is sufficient.
(See Lev. xvi. 2. 17, 20.) It will be observed that here
and in verses 3, 6, 7, these divisions are spoken of as
if two distinct Tabernacles.

(3) The tabernacle. — Rather, a tabernacle which
is called the Holy of Holies. This literal translation
of a Hebrew expression for "most holy" does not
occur in the Bible, but has become familiar through the
Latin sanctum sanctorum. The inner chamber of the
Tabernacle is in a few passages only mentioned
separately in the Pentateuch as the " Most Holy Place"

The Most Holy Place.

HEBEEWS, IX.

The Ark of the Covenant

called the Holiest of all; W which
had the golden censer, and the ark

of the covenant overlaid round about
with gold, wherein was the golden pot

that had manna, and. Aaron's rod that
budded, and the tables of the covenant ;
(5^ and over it the cherubims of glory
shadowing the mercyseat ; of which we

(Ex. xxvi. 33, 34), or "the Holy Place" (Lev. xvi. 2,
etal.). In the description of the Temple a different
word is employed, always rendered ■"oracle" (1 Kings
vi. 16, et at.). The veil separating the two divisions
(described in Ex. xxvi. 31 ; xxxvi. 35) is here called the j
second veil, by way of distinction from the " hanging for ]
the door" of the Tabernacle (Ex. xxvi. 36; xxxvi. 37). J
(*) Having a golden censer.— Or, having a J
golden altar of incense. Hardly any passage in the
Epistle has given rise to more controversy than this ;
and even now opinions arc greatly divided. The
question raised does not merely concern the interpre-
tation of a single verse, but has been brought into
prominence in all recent discussions as to the author-
ship of the Epistle. It will be possible to notice all
important points in the controversy without entering j
into any discussion of the Greek, for it is allowed on !
both sides that the word here used — thumiaterion
(which simply means an instrument or a place connected
with the offering of incense) — will admit of either
rendering. The usage of the LXX., in most cases
peculiarly helpful in this Epistle, throws little light on
the matter; for this word is entirely absent from the
descriptions in the Pentateuch, and occurs twice only
in later books (Ezek. viii. 11 ; 2 Chron. xxvi. 19 — both
times for " censer"). The Pentateuch, indeed, makes
no mention of a special censer for the use of the high
priest on the Day of Atonement (Lev. xvi. 12) ; but,
as we learn from the Mishna, the later law not only
prescribed a censer of gold, but laid stress on the
particular kind of goldT On the other hand, in Philo
and Josephus the word here used is the regular desig-
nation of the altar of incense. That altar, it is true, was
not of gold, only overlaid with gold ; but as one of its
names in common use was " the golden altar " (Ex.
xl. 5, et al.) this point is of no moment. If we look
at internal probabilities, it is hard to decide which
would be more surprising — the special mention of the
censer (by the side of the ark and the cherubim) in this
description of the Most Holy Place, or the absence of
all notice of the incense-altar, which held so important
a place in connection with the ceremonies of the Day
of Atonement. Hence, though "censer" has (mainly
through the influence of the Vulgate) been the more
familiar rendering, the most eminent modern commen-
tators have, with some marked exceptions, adopted the
other view. Probably there would be little difference
of opinion on the qxiestion, were it not that the words
here used seem to assign to the altar of incense a place
within the veil. As, however, there are the strongest
reasons for believing that the golden censer was not
kept in the Holiest Place, this difficulty applies almost
equally to both intei'pi'etations. At first sight the
difficulty is very great. The incense-altar and the
ark are coupled together, and the word which describes
their relation to the Holiest Place is that which, a little
later in this verse, distinctly signifies "containing."
So weighty is this consideration that many have been
unable to avoid the conclusion that the writer has erred
in this matter of detail ; and various suppositions have
been resorted to in explanation of his mistake. (See
Introduction.) But, to take the lowest ground, surely
ignorance on such a point is inconceivable. Not only
are the notices in Exodus perfectly plain, but passages

in Philo and Josephus show how customary in the
writer's own age it was to speak of the three sacred
objects in the Holy Place — the candlestick, the table,
and the golden aha*, There must exist some special
reason for this connection of the altar with the Most
Holy Place — a connection which (we may well believe)
would have been otherwise expressed had the writer
held it possible that readers, familiar with the facts,
could regard his language as even ambiguous. Such a
reason will be found to be suggested by the language
of the Pentateuch, and by the ceremonial of the Day
of Atonement. In Ex. xxx. 6, Moses receives special
injunction to place the altar of incense " before the
veil that is by the ark of the testimony, before the
mercy seat that is over the testimony ; ^ similarly in
Ex. xl. o. The purification of this altar is most
expressly associated with the purification of the Holiest
Place on the Day of Atonement : this stands out in
strong relief both in the Pentateuch ( see Ex. xxx. 10 ;
Lev. xvi. 18) and in the Mishna. The typical signifi-
cance of the altar of incense (comp. Rev. viii. 3. 4;
ix. 13) we might also show to be in full harmony with
the thought here presented. There is, however, one
passage in the Old Testament (1 Kings vi. 22) which
appears to give direct expression to what these other
passages imply; for there the true translation must lie,
"also the ichole altar that belongeth to the oracle he
overlaid with gold."*

Ark of the covenant (Num. x. 33 ; Dent. xxxi.
26, et al.). often called "the ark of the testimony,"
i.e., the ark containing the tables of the Ten Command-
ments, which were the symbol of the covenant of God
with the people. (See Ex. xxv. 10 — 16.)

Wherein was . . . — Rather, wherein are (see verse
2) a golden pot having the manna, &c. In Ex. xvi.
33, 34. and Num. xvii. 10. 11. the pot containing " an
omer of manna " and also Aaron's rod are said to have
been laid up " before the testimony." This is often
understood as meaning " before the ark of the testi-
mony ; " but it is as natural to suppose that these
memorials were placed inside the ark, in front of the
tables. 1 Kings viii. 9 clearly suggests that the ark
had at one time contained more than the tables of
stone, and so it has been understood by Jewish com-
mentators. There is no mention of a " golden " vessel
in the Hebrew of Ex. xvi. 33; the word is added in
the LXX. It will be observed that this epithet
is mentioned three times in the verse : such splendour
was natural in the sanctuary " of this world " (verse 1).

(5) Cherubims of glory.— See Ex. xxv. 18—22;
xxix. 43; Num. vii. 89; Ezek. x. 19. 20. As these
passages will show, the reference is to the glory which
appeared above the mercy seat. (See Note on chap. i. 3.)
This is the only express mention of the cherubim in the
New Testament ; but see the Notes on Rev. iv. 6. et seq.

The mercy seat (literally, the propitiatory} is the
rendering adopted in the LXX. for the Hebrew
Capporeth, signifying the golden covering of the ark
(Ex. xxv. 17). Whether the Hebrew word properly

* Some interesting remarks on this passage will be found n.
a paper bv Dr. Milligan in the Hiblr Kilucaior (vol. Hi., p. 230).
His suggestion is that the writer, having in mind the Day of
Atonement, sees the Tabernacle with its inner veil withdrawn.

'/>' e Priestly Ministrations.

HEBREWS, IX.

Carnal Ordinances.

cannot now speak particularly. <tJ) Now
when these thing's were thus ordained,
the priests went always into the first
tabernacle, accomplishing the service of
God. ,7) But into the second went the
high priest alone once every year, not
without blood, which he offered for him-
self, and for the errors of the people :
<8) the Holy Ghost this signifying, that
the way into the holiest of all was not

yet made manifest, while as the first
tabernacle was yet standing : <9) which
ivas a figure for the time then present,
in which were offered both gifts and
sacrifices, that could not make him that
did the service perfect, as pertaining to
the conscience ; (10J ivhich stood only in
meats and drinks, and divers washings,
and carnal ordinances,1 imposed on
them until the time of reformation.

•-denotes covering or bears the meaning which is ex-
pressed by the Greek translation, is a disputed question,
into which we cannot here enter. The act of expiation
•with which the Greek name at all events stands con-
nected is that of Lev. xvi. 10 — 14. It is noteworthy
that in 1 Chron. xxviii. 11 the Most Holy Place itself
is called "the house of the mercy seat.'' (See the
Note on Rom. iii. 25.)

Of which— viz., all things that the Holy Place and
the Holy of Holies contained.

Particularly— I.e.. severally, one by one.

(fi) Now when these thing were thus or-
dained . . . — Better, And when these things have
been thus prepared, into the first tabernacle the priests
enter continually, accomplishing the services. As
has been already observed (verse 2), the present tense
is used throughout these verses (6 — 10), not because
the writer refers to the services as still continuing, bat
because ho is still tracing the ordinance of Scripture.
It is of the Tabernacle alone that he speaks. The words
t«f verse 4 would have been entirely incorrect in regard
to the temple of his day, in which the Most Holy Place
was empty.

The service.— Comp. Ex. xxx. 7. 8 ; Lev. xxiv. 1 — 8.

(71 Went . . . offered.— Rather, entereth . . .
ojfereth.

Errors. — Literally, ignorances. (See chaps, v. 2, 3;
vii. 27. ) By " once in the year " Ave must of course
understand on one day of the year, viz., the tenth day
of Tisri. On that day, according to Lev. xvi., it was
the duty of the high priest to enter the Holy of Holies
twice: (1) with the incense and with the blood of the
bullock, his own sin-offering (Lev. xvi. 12 — 14);
(2) with the blood of the same bullock and that of the
goat, the sin-offering for the people (verses 15 — 19).
In the ritual described in the tract "Joma" of the
Talmud, he is said to enter four times ; the first minis-
tration being separated into its two parts (offering
incense, sprinkling the blood of the bullock), and a
fourth entering (to bring out the censer) being added.

(8) That the way into the holiest of all was
not yet made manifest. Rather, that the way
into the sanctuary has not yet been made manifest.
By '• sanctuary." or " holy place," is here meant the
Holy of Holies ; not, however, as existing upon earth,
in type and figure, but in the sense of chaps, viii. 2
and ix. 24. These external arrangements show that the
way into the Holy Place (of the Tabernacle) is not open :
by this the Holy Spirit, whose word we are reading
whenever we trace the injunctions of the Law, teaches
this lesson, that the way into God's immediate presence
is not yet manifest.

While as the first tabernacle was yet stand-
ing.— Rather, while the fi,rst tabernacle yet ha* place
(or, standing), i.e.. whilst there exis+s such a distinction
as that between " the first Tabernacle " (verse 6), and

"the second." It is impossible to understand '"the
first Tabernacle" in any other sense than that which it
bears in the early part of the sentence — the Holy Place
as distinguished from the Holiest of all. This outer
Tabernacle, however, may be looked at from different
points of view. On the one hand, it was the place
from which (as well as from the inner sanctuary) the
people generally were excluded; and on the other, it was
the place beyond which the ministration of the priests
in general might not extend. It is the latter that corre-
sponds to the thought of this verse. The contrast
between the body of priests and the people hardly
meets us once in the whole Epistle, except in a very
small number of general statements (chaps, vii. 14;
viii. 4 ; ix. 6) ; the only contrast is between the one
Priest or High Priest and all who approach unto God
through Him. Not the Jewish economy, but that to
which it pointed, is the subject of the writer's thoughts :
Christ's people are now the priests, who offer through
Him their constant sacrifice. (See chaps, xii. 28 ; xiii.
10, 13, 15.) Those who ministered in " the first Taber-
nacle " (who are looked upon merely as substitutes for
the people, performing the "services" in their place,
and as their representatives) were excluded, not from
entrance oidy, but even from sight of the place of
God's presence. What was thereby "signified" we
have already seen.

(9) Which was a figure . . .—Rather, Which is
a parable unto the time present, according to which
(parable) are offered both gifts and sacrifices, tvhich
cannot perfect, as to the conscience, him that doeth the
service. The general meaning may be given thus : this
" first Tabernacle " (i.e., the existence of an outer as
distinguished from an inner sanctuary I is a parable for
the period connected with it (literally, "for the season
that stands near it," the adjacent period, so to speak);
and in full accordance with the parabolic character of
the first Tabernacle (see verse 8) is the presentation
of offerings which have no power to accomplish the
perfect end of worship in the case of any worshipper.
The priests offered sacrifices to God, but were limited
to the outer sanctuary, which was not the place of
God's manifested presence ; a fit symbol this of offer-
ings which cannot purify the conscience ( see verse 14 ;
chap. x. 1). The above rendering follows the best
reading of the Greek ; in the ordinary text the relative
" which," in the second clause, refers to " the time," not
to " the first Tabernacle."

(io) Which stood only in . . .—Better, only
joined with meats and drinks and divers ivashings, —
carnal ordinances, imposed until a time of reformation.
Here again the best authorities correct the received
Greek text, omitting " and" before the word " carnal,"
and so altering the next word as to make it descriptive
of the "gifts and sacrifices" mentioned in verse 9.
These sacrifices — looked at in themselves, as powerless

Christ entered, once for aU,

HEBREWS, IX.

into the Hobj Place,

<"> But Christ bein^

,, priest of g-ood things to
Chap. i\. it— r -i ° 7 ° j

18. Thesetypea come, by a greater and
fulfilled in more perfect tabernacle,
not made with hands,

Christ.

that is to say, not of this building;

(i-' neither by the blood of g
and calves, but by his own blood he
entered in once into the holy place,
having obtained eternal redemption

to attain the end designed (chap. x. 1, 4) — -are mere
appendages of such regulations ;is deal with meats and
drinks and washings. The character of this latter
class of ordinances no one could mistake ; and what the
Writer here says is that .these powerless sacrifices belong
to the same line of things. On the "washings" see
Note on chap. vi. 2. The preceding words would most
naturally refer to meats. \c. of which men were re-
quired to partake (as Ex. xii. ; Lev. vii. 15, et al.);
but no doubt include the various restrictions and dis-
tinctions of the ceremonial law (Lev. xi.; Num. vi.,
et al.). All these are "ordinances of flesh," ordi-
nances which relate to the outward state of things
only ; closely connected with the maintenance of
external privileges and relations, but (in themselves)
nothing more. " Imposed," eomp. Acts xv. 10 : "refor-
mation." chap. viii. 7 — 12.

(ll, 12) Tire changes of translation required in these
verses are not considerable in themselves, but important
for the sake of bringing out the unity of the sentence
and the connection of its parts. But Christ having
tome <i High Priest of the good things to come (or,
the good thing* that are come, see below), through
the greater and more perfect Tabernacle, not made with
ho nils, that is to sag, not of this creation, also not
through blood of goats and calves, hut through His
own blood, entered once for all into the Holy Place,
having won eternal redemption. With verse 11 begins
the contrast to the first verse. In that we read of the
first covenant as possessing ordinances of service and
its holy place— both, however, " of this world," and the
following verses describe the sanctuary itself (1 — 5)
and the ordinances (6 — 10). Now, the Mediator of the
New Covenant (chap. viii. 6), "Christ." whose name
brings with it the thought of the satisfaction of all
hope and fulfilment of all promises, has appeared as
High Priest ; and entering into the true Holy of Holies
has accomplished once for all what the earlier minis-
trations typified. This is the main thought ; but in few
verses do the single words require more careful study.
The various-reading mentioned above, "the good things
that are come." is very interesting. It is not supported
by a large number of authorities," but amongst them are
the Vatican MS. (whose guidance, it may be remarked, we
shall soon lose, as the ancient text breaks off suddenly
in the middle of a word in verso 14), the Claromontaue
MS., and two Syriac versions. One strong argument
in its favour presents itself on a comparison with chap,
x. 1 | where there is no doubt about the reading), " the
good things to come." A scribe who had in mind those
words, confirmed by the repeated occurrence of a
similar thought in different parts of the Epistle (chaps,
ii. 5; vi. 5), might easily substitute them for words
expressing a less familiar thought. The two phrases
differ more in form than in reality. In one we look at
the new order of things, which is never to pass away, as
already introduced by Christ (see Note on chap. i. 2i ;
and in the other the same new order is thought of as
future to those who waited through long ages for " the
( 'hrist,v and in its consummation still future to ourselves
(chap. vi. 5). The form of expression reminds us of
chap. iii. 1, where Jesus is called the High Priest of

our confession (compare also Mai. iii. 1. " the Messenger
of the covenant"): He is associated with "the good
things'' as having brought them in, as Mediator of the
covenant to which they belong.

Through (or, by means of) the more perfect Taber-
nacle, through (or, by means of) His own blood, Christ
entered into the Holy Place. The two-fold reference to
the type is very plain. It was by passing through "the
first Tabernacle" that the high priest reached the
Holiest Place ; it Avas by means of the blood of the sin-
offering that he was enabled to enter into that place of
God's presence (verse 7). But what in the antitype
answers to this Tabernacle ? The expression of chap.
iv. 14, perhaps, first presents itself to the mind : if,
however, we were right in understanding the words
" that has passed through the heavens " as descriptive of
our Lord's ascension far above all heavens (Eph. iv. 10),
it seems evident that this verse is no real parallel. In
chap. x. 20 the thought is somewhat different, but yet
sufficiently akin to be suggestive in regard to these
words. There the veil is spoken of as symbolising
" the flesh " of our Lord. Here we have in all
probability an extension of the same thought, "' the
more perfect Tabernacle " being the human nature
of our Lord. We think at once of a number of
passages presenting the same idea: "The Word was
made flesh and made His tabernacle among us" (John
i. 14); "He spake of the temple of His bodv (John
ii. 19); "The Father that dwelleth in Me" (John
xiv: 10) ; " In Him dwelleth all tin; fulness of the God-
head bodily" (Col. ii. 9). As in Him God gave to the
world the first true; revelation of Himself (chap. i. 2;.
God's dwelling-place amongst His people was a type of
the Incarnate Word. The symbolism of the present
verse compels us to think of the first and second Taber-
nacles as separate. It was otherwise in chap. viii. 2. a
verse which can only receive its proper explanation
when the words now before us are considered. There
the reference is to the High Priest who has already
entered the Holiest Place and has " sat down at the
right hand " of God. The distinction of outer and
inner sanctuary has disappeared ; and, carrying out more
fully the thought of the passages quoted above, we may
gay that, as "the sanctuary" of chap. viii. 2 symbolises
the place of God's immediate presence,," the true Taber-
nacle " represents the place of His continued and
unceasing revelation of Himself to man, " in Christ."
There is no difficulty now in explaining the epithets,
" greater," " more perfect," " not of this creation." By
means of this assumption of human nature Hi1 received
power to become High Priest, power also to become
Himself the sin-offering. Once before only in the
Epistle have we read of this two-fold relation of our
Lord to tho sacrificial act. There it is mentioned
parenthetically (chap. vii. 26) and by anticipation, here
it is the leading thought (verses 14, 26, 28; chap,
x. 10, et al.). The efficacy of this offering is taken up
again in verses 13, 14 ; the entering into the Holiest
Place, in the latter part of the chapter. ' A new thought
is introduced in the last words of this verse. " having
won eternal redemption.'''' Through the sacrifice atone-
ment has been made and sin expiated : the blessing
won, which in chap. v. 9 is called eternal salvation (sen

Tits /'"sif ////<</ of the Flesh.

HEBKEAVS, IX.

The Cleansing of the Conscience.

for us. <13) For if the blood of bulls
and of goats, and the ashes of an
heifer sprinkling- the unclean, sanc-
tifieth to the purifying of the flesh :
ll4) how much more shall the blood of
Christ, who through the eternal Spirit

offered himself without spot to God,1
purge your conscience from dead works
to serve the living God? ^15) And for
this cause he is the mediator of the new
testament, that by means of death, for
the redemption of the transgressions

Note 011 chap. vii. 25), is here "eternal redemption."
The latter figure enlarges the former by the additional
thought of the payment of a price. The deliverance of
man from God's wrath and the penalty of sin, which
Jesus effected by means of the offering1 of Himself, is
the " eternal redemption which He won " (see verse 14,
and Eph. i. 7). The words, "for us."' are not in the
text : they are too intimately present in the whole
thought to need direct expression.

(13) For if the blood of bulls and of goats.—
This verse connects itself with the last words of verse
12, "having won eternal redemption," showing why
our hope may rise so high. The sacrifice is mentioned
here in words slightly different from those of verse 11 ;
but in each case the writer's thought is resting on the
sin offering of the Day of Atonement, a bullock for the
high priest himself, a goat for the people. (There is
no distinct reference in this Epistle to the " scapegoat "
sent into the wilderness.)

And the ashes of an heifer.— The nineteenth
chapter of Numbers is wholly occupied with the
remarkable institution hero referred to. A red heifer
without spot was slain and wholly burnt, " with cedar-
wood and hyssop and scarlet," and the ashes were laid
up in a clean place without the camp. " And for the
unclean they shall take of the ashes of the burning of
the sin-offering, and running water shall be put thereto
in a vessel : and a clean person shall take hyssop and
dip it in the water and sprinkle .... upon the
unclean" (verses 17 — 19). The " unclean " are those
that have been defiled by touching the dead body of a
man, or by being in any way brought into connection
with death. It is said that on the third and seventh
days of the high priest's week of preparation for the
Day of Atonement (see Note on chap. vii. 26). he was
sprinkled with this water of purification, lest he should
inadvertently have contracted such defilement.

Sanetifieth to the purifying of the flesh.—
Hotter, sanctify unto the cleanness of the flesh.
As we have seen already (verse 10). the writer is
looking at the intrinsic character of the sacrifices
(chap. x. 4) and rites of purification, apart from their
importance as marks of obedience or their value -to
those who were able to discern their spiritual lessons.
They could not cleanse the conscience (verse 9) ; but
they could and did remove what the Law accounted
•' uncleanness." and disabilities connected with the out-
ward life and religious worship of the commonwealth.

(14) Through the eternal Spirit.— Better, through
an eternal Spirit; for in a passage of so much difficulty
it is important to preserve the exact rendering of the
Greek, and the arguments usually adduced seem
insufficient to justify the ordinary translation. By
most readers of the Authorised version, probably,
these words are understood as referring to the Holy
Spirit, whose influence continually rested on " the
Anointed One of God" (Acts x. 38). For this opinion
(here seems to be no foundation in the usage of the
New Testament, and it is not indicated by anything in
the context. The explanation of the words must rather
be sought in the nature of our Lord, or in some attribute

of that nature. There are a few passages, mainly in
the Epistles of St. Paul, in which language somewhat
similar is employed in regard to the spirit {pnewma) of
our Lord. The most remarkable of these are Bom. i. 4,
where " spirit of holiness " is placed in contrast with
'• flesh ; " and 1 Tim. iii. 16, " in spirit." On the latter
Bishop Ellicott writes : " in spirit, in the higher
sphere of His divine life : the pnewma of Christ is not
here the Holy Spirit, but the higher priticiple of
spiritual life, which was not the Divinity (this would be
an Apollinarian assertion), but especially and intimately
united with it." (Another passage of great interest is
1 Pet. iii. 18.) The attribute " eternal " is explained by
chap. vii. 18, 19, "according to power of indissoluble
life (He hath become priest), for of Him it is testified,
Thou art a priest for ever." Through this spirit, a
spirit of holiness, a spirit of indissoluble life, He
offered Himself to God. This made such a self- offering
possible ; this gave to the offering infinite worth, lu
the words which stand in contrast with these (verse 13)
we read of the death of animals which had no power
over their own transient life : He who was typified in
every high priest and in every victim. " through air
eternal spirit," of Himself laid down His life (John
x. 18), offering Himself to God in the moment and
article of death. — offered Himself in His constant
presence in the Holiest Place (verse 24).

Without spot.— The word here used is frequently
applied in the LXX. to the victims " without blemish "
that were offered in sacrifice. The sinlessness of Jesus
is expressed under the same metaphor in 1 Pet. i. 19.

Purge your conscience from dead works to
serve the living God. — Better, cleanse our conscience
from dead ivorks to serve a Living God. The word
•' cleanse " is akin to " cleanness" in verse 13. Authorities
are divided between " our " and " your " ; but the
former is probably the better reading. Once before, in
chap. vi. 1. the writer has spoken of " dead works."
(See the Note.) It is here, however, that the significance
most fully appears ; for we cannot doubt that there
exists a reference to the purification made necessary by
all contact with death. (See verse 13.) Since the works
are dead because they had no share in true life, which
is the life of God, the last words bring before us the
thought of a Living God (chap. iii. 12). This thought
also stands connected with " eternal Spirit." for those
who are cleansed through the offering of Christ shall
share His relation to the Living God. The contrast is
in every respect complete. From the whole number of
Jewish rites had been selected (verse 13) the two which
most fully represented the purification from sin and
from pollution through death, in order that this
completeness of antithesis might be attained. It
is not necessary to trace the details of the contrast.
In each and in all we read the " How much more ! "

(15) And for this cause.— Or, And because of (his.
This verse looks back to the great truth of verses 11, 12,
which the last two verses have served to confirm and
place in bolder relief. " Christ through His own blood
entered once for all into the Holy Place, having won
eternal redemption; and by reason of this He is tho

A Covenant established

HEBREWS, IX.

hj weans 9/ Death,

thai were under the first testament, they jior,******* of necessity be1 the death of the
which arc called might receive the j - .testator. (17> For a testament ia of

promise of eternal inheritance. (16) For | j force after men are dead : otherwise it is

where a testament is, there must also l* of no strength at all while the testator

Mediator of a covenant, a now covenant, in order that
they who have been called may receive the promise of
the eternal inheritance." For " the new testament "
we must certainly read a new covenant : whatever may
be thought of the following group of verses, the
rendering testament has no place here. The leading
thought of chap. viii. is the establishment of a new
covenant, and the former covenant has been referred to
three times in this very chapter (verses 1, 4).

That by means of death.— Rather, that, death
having taken place for redemption from the trans-
gressions, Ac. The first covenant had been broken
by " transgressions : " unless there be redemption from
these — that is, from the bondage of penalty which lias
resulted from these — there can be no promise and no
new covenant. In respect of this bondage, this penalty,
the death of Christ, was a ransom — an offering to God
looked at in the light of a payment in the place of debt,
service, or penalty due. When debt and payment are
changed into the corresponding ideas of sin and
punishment, the ransom gives place to the sin-offering,
of which the principle was the acknowledgment of
death deserved, and the vicarious suffering of
death. So far our thought has rested on the removal
of the results of the past. The covenant and the
promise relate to the establishment of the better future.
Death was necessary alike for both. The offering of
Christ's life (Matt. xx. 28) was a ransom or an offering
for sin ; it was also a sacrifice inaugurating a new
covenant, which contained the promise of the eternal
inheritance. See verses 16 — 18; also Gal. iii. 13,14,
where the thought is very similar.

They which are called.— More clearly, they that
have been called. (See Acts ii. 39; Rom. i. 6, 7;
2 Thess. ii. 13. 14.) In chap. iii. 1 we have a similar
expression, "partakers of a 'heavenly calling : " there
also the idea of sonship (chap. ii. 10), with its right of
" inheritance," is certainly present.

(16) Testament. — As has been already pointed out,
the greatest difference of opinion has existed in regard
to the meaning of the Greek word diatheke in this
passage. (See Note on chap. vii. 22.) It will be seen at
once that the interpretation of this verse and the next
entirely depends on that one epiestion. If '"testament"
is the correct meaning of the Greek word, the general
sense of the verses is well given in the Authorised
version. A few commentators even agree with that
version in carrying back the idea of testament into
verse 15. although in the other two places in which the
word is joined with " Mediator" (chaps, viii. 6 ; xii. 24)
they adhere to the ordinary rendering, " covenant." By
most, however, it is held that a new thought is intro-
duced in the present verse. The writer, it is urged,
having spoken of a promise of an inheritance, (verse 15),
and a promise that cannot be made valid unless death
take place, avails himself of the illustration which a
second (and very common ) meaning of the leading word
affords ; and though a covenant has hitherto been in
his thoughts, he adds interest and force to his argument
by calling up the analogy of a testament e.r will. It is
further urged that this procedure will not seem un-
natural if we reflect that the diathikS between God and
man is never exactly expressed by Covenant, since it is
not of the nature of a mutual compact between equals.

(See chap. vii. 22.) The position is chiefly defended
by two arguments: — (1) verse 16, being a general
maxim, gives no intelligible sense in regard to a
covenant, but is easy and natural as applied to a will.

(2) A Greek word used in verse 17. where the literal
translation is " over (the) dead," cannot be used of
sacrifices of slain animals, but of men only. This, we
believe, is a fair statement of the case on the one side ;
and it may be fully acknowledged that, if verses 16, 17
stood alone, and if they were written of Gentile rather
than Jewish usage, the case would be very strong. As
it is, we are compelled to believe that the difficulties
which this interpretation brings with it are beyond
comparison more serious than those which it removes.
(1) There is no doubt that in the overwhelming
majority of New Testament passages the meaning
covenant must be assigned. By many high authorities
theso verses are considered to contain the only excep-
tion. (2) In the LXX. the word is extremely common,
both for the covenants of God and for compacts
between man and man. (See Note on chap. vii. 22).

(3) The application of diatheke in this Epistle rests on
the basis of the Old Testament usage, the key passage-
being Jer. xxxi. 31 — 34, quoted at length in chap. viii.
With that quotation this passage is linked by the
association of diatheke with Mediator in verse 15 and
chap. viii. 6, and with "the first" in verse 15 and
in chaps, viii. 13 and ix. 1. (4) In the verses which
follow this passage the meaning covenant must certainly
return, as a comparison of verse 20 with the verse of
Exodus which it quotes (chap. xxiv. 8) will show.
(5) It is true that the idea of " death " has appeared
in verse 15, but it is the death of a sin-offering ; and
there is no natural or easy transition of thought from
an expiatory death to the death of a testator. And
yet the words which introduce verses 16 and 18
("For" and " Wherefore ") show that we are following
the course of an argument. (6) Though to us verse 16
may present a very familiar thought, we must not
forget that to Jews dispositions by will were almost
altogether unknown. Were it granted that a writer
might for illustration avail himself of a second mean-
ing which a word he is using might happen to bear,
this liberty would only be taken if by that means
familiar associations could be reached, and the argu-
ment or exhortation could be thus urged home. In an
Epistle steeped in Jewish thought such a transition
as that suggested would be inexplicable. There are
other considerations of some weight which might be
added ; but these seem sufficient to prove that,
even if the difficulties of interpretation should prove
serious, we must not seek to remove them by wavering
in our rendering of diatheke in these verses. We
believe, therefore, that the true translation of verses
16, 17, must be the following -.—For where a covenant
is, there must of necessity be brought in the death oj
the covenanter. For a covenant is of force when there
hath been death (literally, over the dead) ; for hath it
ever any strength while the covenanter liveth ? In
verse 15 we have seen the two-fold reference of the
death of Jesus, to the past and to the future. As
High Priest He has offered Himself as a sin-offering
to cleanse the conscience from dead works; the same
offering is also looked on as a ransom redeeming from

Israel sprinkled with the

HEBREWS, IX.

Blood of the Covenant..

liveth. <18) Whereupon neither the first
testament was dedicated1 without blood.
(19) For when Moses had spoken every
precept to all the people according to
the law, he took the blood of calves and

i ir, purple,
purified.

of goats, with water, and scarlet- woo],
and hyssop, and sprinkled both the
book, and all the people, <20> saying, This
is the blood of the testament which
God hath enjoined unto you. W More-

the penalty of past transgressions; and, still by means
of His death. He has, as Mediator, established a new
covenant. We are reminded at once of the words of
Jeans Himself, " This cup is the new covenant in My
blood" (1 Cor. xi. 25). It is this very thought which
the writer proceeds to develop : a covenant cannot be
established without death — cannot exist at all. That
amongst Jews and Greeks and Romans alike cove-
nants were confirmed by sacrifice Ave need not pause
to prove : of this usage we have the earliest example
in Gen. xv. In such sacrifices, . again, there is
'•brought in,** or assumed the death of him who
makes the covenant. There will not, perhaps, be much
difficulty in accepting this as a maxim. The conflict
of opinion really begins when we ask in what manner
this is assumed. The usual answer is, that the death
of victims is emblematic of the punishment which the
contracting parties imprecated on themselves if they
should break their compact. .It may have been so
amongst the Greeks and Romans, though this is doubt-
ful.* Amongst the Jews, however, the analogy of
their general sacrificial system, in which the victim
represented the offerer, renders such an explanation
very improbable. As to the precise idea implied in this
representation, it is not easy to speak with certainty.
It has been defined in two opposite ways. In the death
of the victim each contracting party may be supposed
to die either as to the future, in respect of any power
of altering the compact (the covenant shall be as safe
from violation through change of intention as if the
covenanter were removed by death) ; or as to the past,
to the former state of enmity each is now dead. It is
not necessary for our argument to decide such a
question as this. The oidy material points are, that a
covenant must be established over sacrifices, and that
in such a sacrifice " the death of him that made the
covenant " must in some manner be " brought in " or
assumed. There remains only the application to the
particular covenant here spoken of. If this be taken
as made between God and man, the sacrificial death of
Jesus in man's stead ratified the covenant for ever,
the former state of separation being brought to an end
in " the reconciliation " of the gospel. The peculiar
character of verse 15, however (see above), seems rather
to suggest that, as Jesus is set forth as High Priest
and sacrifice, so He is both the Author of the covenant
and the sacrifice which gives to it validity. In this case
we see represented in His sacrifice the death of each
" covenanter." (The transition from " Mediator "
to Giver of the covenant is not greater than that
which the other interpretation recpiires — a transition
from a mediator of a testament to a testator.) There
are minor points relating to details in the Greek which
cannot be dealt with here. Of the two arguments
quoted above, the former has, we hope, been fully met ;
though (it may be said in passing) it would be easier
to give up verse 16 as a general maxim, and to regard
it as applying only to a covenant between God and
sinful man, than to divorce the whole passage from the

* Sec !Mr. Wratislaw's very interesting- note in his "Notes
and Dissertations," pp. 155, 156. The whole subject is very care-
fully treated in an admirable pamphlet by Professor Forbes,
of Aberdeen.

context by changing "covenant" into "will." One
point of interest must not be omitted. There are
coincidences of expression with Ps. 1. 5 which make
it very probable that that Psalm, memorable in the
development of the teaching of the Old Testament, was
distinctly in the writer's mind. This comparison is
also of use in the explanation of some expressions in
the original of these two Arerses.

(18) Whereupon.— Better, Wherefore not even ho*
the first (covenant) been dedicated (or, vtumgwrated
ivithout blood. (See Ex. xxiv. 6 — 8.)

(19) Every precept. — Or. commandment. See
Ex. xxiv. 3 ; where we read that Moses " told the
people all the words of the Lord, and all the judg-
ments." These he wrote in a book (verse 4), and this
"book of the covenant" (verse 7) he "read in the
audience of the people." The contents would probably
be the Ten Commandments, and the laws of Ex. xx.
22— xxiii. 33.

Of calves and of goats.— In Exodus (verse 5) we
read of "burnt offerings" and of "peace offerings of
oxen." The " goats " may be included in the burnt
offerings; for though Jewish tradition held that a
goat was never sacrificed as a burnt offering, Lev. i. 10
is clear on the other side. It is possible that " the
calves and the goats " may be only a general expression
for " the sacrificial victims." (See verse 12.)

With water, and scarlet wool, and hyssop.—
In Ex. xxiv. there is no mention of these details, bill
similar notices are found in other parts of the Penta-
teuch, where the ceremony of sprinkling for purification
is described (Ex. xii. 22; Lev. xiv. 4, 6; and Num.
xix. 6, 17, 18). The water (itself an emblem and means
of cleansing) was designed to prevent the coagulation
of the blood, and to increase the quantity of the puri-
fying fluid. The " scarlet wool " may have been used
to bind the hyssop to the stick of cedar- wood, which
was the instrument of sprinkling. The precise notices
in the Law forbid us to doubt that each of these
substances had a definite symbolical meaning, but to us
the subject is involved in obscurity.

Both the book and all the people.— The Greek
is more emphatic : both the booh itself and all the
people. The latter fact alone is mentioned in Exodu<
(verse 8). The sprinkling of the book of the covenant
may be regarded from two points of view. It may
depend either on the same principle as the (later)
sprinkling of the Tabernacle (verse 22), and the " re-
conciling" of the Tabernacle and the Holy Place (Lev.
xvi. 20) on the Day of Atonement; or on the symbolism
of the covenant as noticed above (verses 15 — 17). In
the latter case we must suppose that, as the blood was
divided into two portions (Ex. xxiv. 6) in token of
the two parties to the covenant, and part " cast upon
the altar," the book of the covenant was associated with
the altar as representing the presence of Jehovah.

(20) The testament which God hath enjoined
unto you. — Better, the covenant which God com-
manded in regard to you. " Commanded," see chap.
viii. 6 : in the LXX. the word is " covenanted."

(21) He sprinkled with blood.— Rather, he
sprinkled in Wee tnanner with the blood. It is sin-
gular that the word rendered " in like manner" (fouud

The Patterns of Heaven/// Things.

HEBREWS, IX.

The Heavenly Sanctua/ry%

over he sprinkled with blood both the
tabernacle, and all the vessels of the
ministry. (22) And almost all things
are by the law purged with blood ; and
without shedding of blood is no re-
mission. W It was therefore necessary
that the patterns of things in the

heavens should be purified with these ;
but the heavenly things themselves with
better sacrifices than these. (24) Foi
Christ is not entered into the holy
places made with hands, which are the
figures of the true ; but into heaven it-
self, now to appear in the presence of

in the Bishops' Bible, " likewise," and in other versions)
should have been overlooked in the Authorised version.
The incident hero mentioned belongs, of course, to a
later date. It is not expressly recorded in Scripture,
but is related by Josephus (Ant. iii. 8, § 6) ; and, apart
from internal probability, might almost be concluded
from the narrative of the Pentateuch itself. In Ex.
xl. 9 — 15 we read of the divine injunction that Moses
should put the anointing oil not only upon Aaron and
his sons, their garments, and the altar, but also upon
the Tabernacle and its vessels. In Lev. viii. 10 — 12 is
recorded the fulfilment of this command ; but in the
later verses of the same chapter we read that the altar
was Sprinkled with the blood of the sin-offering
(verse 15), and that Moses sprinkled Aaron and his sons
and their garments with " the anointing oil and the
blood which was upon the altar." Manifestly we may
infer that the Tabernacle and its vessels were included
in the latter ceremony. Whatever was connected with
the covenant which God made with His people must be
sprinkled with the blood, which at once typified purifi-
cation (verses 14, 24), and ratified the covenant (verses
15, 17).

(22) And almost all things.— The meaning of the
word '• almost," as it stands in the Greek, is rather, " One
may almost lay down the rule," " One may almost say."
What follows, in both parts of the verse, is a general
saying, modified by these introductory words. And
one may almost say —according to the Laiv, all things
are cleansed in blood, and apart from the shedding of
blood there is no forgiveness. To the first rule an
exception is found in the various purifications by water
or by fire (see Num. xxxi. 22 — 24) ; to the second in the
remarkable law of Lev. v. 11 — 13. The expression
" in blood " is used because sprinkling with the blood
of the slain victim was in figure a surrounding
with, or inclusion within, the purifying element. On
" cleansed " (chap. i. 3) the best comment is found in
Lev. xvi. 19, 30 ; on " forgiveness," in the words
which in Lev. iv. are repeatedly (verses, 20, 26, 31, 35)
used of the effect of the sin offering. " it shall be for-
given him." The second clause of the verse is founded
on Lev. xvii. 11. By " shedding of blood " we must
probably understand "the slaying of the animal, rather
than the pouring out of the blood by the altar (Lev. iv.
34, et al.) With these words compare Luke xxii. 20.

(23) The patterns of things in the heavens.—
Rather, the tokens (chap. viii. 5) of the things in the
heavens. In the first part of the verse a conclusion is
drawn from the sacred history, which related the ac-
complishment of the divine will, and showed therefore
what was " necessary.*' But the real stress lies on the
second part. The whole may be paraphrased thus:
"Whilst then it is necessary that what are but tokens
of the things in the heavens should be cleansed with
these things, it is necessary that the heavenly things
themselves should be cleansed with better sacrifices
than these." The meaning of " these things " might
perhaps be found in verse 19 (the various instruments
of purification), or in verse 13 (the two sin offering's

45 321

there spoken of) ; but, from the prominence given to
repetition in the following verses, the plural seems
rather to mean with these sacrifices repeated from time
to time. The common thought in the two parts of the
verse appears to be (as in verse 21) that everything re-
lating to the covenant of God with sinful man must be
brought under the symbol of expiation, without which
he can have no part in that covenant. The " heavenly
things " are not defiled by sin ; but the true heavenly
sanctuary cannot be entered by man, the new fellowship
between God and man " in heavenly places " cannot be
inaugurated, till the heavenly things themselves have
been brought into association with the One atoning
sacrifice for man.

Better sacrifices. — Here again the use of the
plural is remarkable. It seems to arise from the
studious generality in the terms of this verse. To
" these things " the natural antithesis is " better sacri-
fices." That in the ministry of the true High Priest
there was a presentation of but one sacrifice is not
assumed here, because it is to be strongly brought out
below (verses 25, 26).

(24) ;por Christ is not entered.— Better, For
Christ did not enter into a holy place made with hands,
of like pattern to the true (or, real) holy place. In the
second part of verse 23 the two thoughts were the
" heavenly things themselves " and " better sacrifices."
Of these the first is taken up here; the second in
verses 25, 26. That verse was general : this sets forth
the actual fact. " For the sanctuary into which Christ
entered is not a copy or a token of the things in the
heavens, but heaven itself." " Of like pattern," see
chap. viii. 5 ; " the true," chap. viii. 2 ; " into heaven
itself," chap. viii. 1.

Now to appear in the presence of God for
us. — Better, now to be made manifest before the face
of God for us. We cannot doubt that these words
continue the contrast between the true High Priest
and the high priest on earth. On the Day of Atone-
ment the high priest came before what was but a
symbol of the Divine Presence ; he caused the Holiest
Place to be filled with the smoke of the incense before
he entered with the blood of the offering. He did not
dare to delay his return, even by prolonging his prayer,
lest he should " excite terror in Israel." In the heavenly
sanctuary the High Priest is made manifest before the
face of God. (Comp. Ex. xxxiii. 20.) Three different
words in these verses (24, 26, 28) are in the Authorised
version rendered by the same word " appear " : "to
make manifest," "to manifest," "to appear," may
serve as renderings which shall keep in mind the
difference of the words. The form of the Greek verb
might seem to imply a single appearance only ; by the
added word " now " tho writer corrects, or rather en-
larges, the thought, and shows that the true meaning is
a manifestation which is both one and unceasing.
With emphasis he places at the close the words which
indicate "the people" whose High Priest He has
become. As in chap. viii. 1 his language was " we have
such a High Priest," and in chap. ix. 14, " shall purge

Christ once offered for Sin.

HEBREWS, IX.

His Seeond Coming for Scdvatic

God for us : (^ nor yet that lie should
offer himself often, as the high priest
entereth into the holy place every year
with blood of others ; VQ) for then must
he often have suffered since the founda-
tion of the world : but now once in the
end of the world hath he appeared to

put away sin by the sacrifice of himself.
(2?) And as it is appointed unto men
once to die, but after this the judg-
ment : V® so Christ was once offered to
bear the sins of many ; and unto them
that look for him shall he appear the
second time without sin unto salvation.

our conscience ; " so here, it is on our behalf that Christ
is manifested unto God.

(25) Nor yet that he should— i.e., Nor yet (did
He enter into heaven) that He may offer Himself often.
The connection has been pointed out already in the
last Note. The " offering " which is here in thought
does not correspond to the actual sacrifice of the sin-
offerings on the Day of Atonement, but to the presen-
tation of the blood in the Holiest Place. In this really
consisted the presentation of that sacrifice to God.
That this is the meaning here is shown by the contrast
in the latter part of the verse, where we read of the
high priest's entering the Holy Place (i.e., the Holy of
Holies; see Note on verse 2) "with blood not his own,"
and by the argument of verse 26.

(26) For then must he often have suffered.
— The repeated presentation of Himself to God
must imply, as a necessary condition, a repeated
" suffering " of death ; as the high priest's offering of
the blood of expiation in the Holiest Place implied the
previous sacrifice of the victim. The writer's point of
view is the time when " Christ entered into heaven
itself." In speaking of the repeated " suffering "
(Luke xxiv. 26, 46, et al.), he marks the limits within
which it must lie, reaching back to the " foundation of
the world." The expression in the second part of the
verse is the converse of this : looking forward from
the " foundation of the world," through all the succes-
sive periods of human history until the Incarnation, he
writes, " Now once at the end of the world " — " at the
consummation of the ages " — hath Christ " been mani-
fested." The words " consummation of the age " occur
five times in St. Matthew's Gospel — chaps, xiii. 39, 40,
49; xxiv. 3; xxviii. 20. (See the Notes.) The phrase
here is more expressive still. The history of all pre-
ceding ages was a preparation for the manifestation of
the Christ (" who verily was fore-ordained before the
foundation of the world, but was manifest in these
last times" (literally, at the end of the times), 1 Pet. i.
20 ; all subsequent history develops the results of that
manifestation. A similar thought is contained in St.
Paul's words " the fulness of the seasons " (Eph. i. 10),
" the fulness of the time " (Gal. iv. 4). (See further
the Note on chap. i. 2.)

To put away sin by the sacrifice of Him-
self.— Literally, for the annulling of sin through His
sacrifice. The word which in chap. vii. 18 was used
for the abrogation of the command relating to the line
of earthly priests, is here applied to the destruction of
the power and abolition of the results of sin. As in
the manifestation before the face of God we see the
proof that the goal which the human high priest failed
to reach had been attained, so these words proclaim
full deliverance from guilt and penalty, and from the
hold of sin itself — a deliverance which the sin-offering
could but express in figure.

(27) And as it is appointed . . .—More literally,
And as there is laid up for men once to die, and after
ihis judgment. Man's life and works on earth end with
death : what remains is the result of this life and

these works, as determined by God's "judgment."
Man does not return to die a second time. That some
few have twice passed through death does not affect
the general law. The emphatic word " once " and the
special design of the verse are explained by the words
which follow.

(28) So Christ was once offered.— The ordinary
translation, dividing the verse into two similar portions,
fails to show where the emphasis really lies. The two
members of the verse correspond to each other, point
by point, with remarkable distinctness ; but the first is
clearly subordinated to the second. ''So the Christ
also, having been once offered that He might bear the
sins of many, shall appear a second time apart from
sin to them that wait for Him unto salvation." It is
important to notice that, not only is there perfect
parallelism between the two members of this verse, but
there is a similar relation between this verse as a whole
and verse 27. In that were presented two cardinal
points of the history of sinful man j in this the main
outlines of the Redeemer's work. Each verse deals
first with the present world, and secondly with " the
last things." The two verses, taken together, are con-
nected with the preceding argument by the word
" once." Christ will not " suffer " often. He has
been manifested once, to accomplish by one act the
"annulling" of sin (verse 26). And this is in harmony
with the lot of man, who must die once, and but once
(verses 27, 28). But what is the exact nature of this
correspondence ? Do the words simply mean that, as
the Christ was man, so it was laid up for Him to die
but once P Or may the connection of thought be
expressed thus ? — The work of redemption is so ordered
as to correspond to the course of man's history : as
man must die once, and what remains is the judgment
which he must abide, so the Christ has died once, and
what remains is His return for judgment — a judgment
which He Himself administers, giving salvation to His
people. We will not venture to say that the former
thought is absent from the words (which are sufficiently
general to include both), but certainly the second is
the more important. If now we return to verse 28, it
will be seen that the words " having been once offered "
in the first member are answered by * shall appear "
in the second; "to bear sins," by "apart from sin . . .
unto salvation;" and "of many," by "to them that
wait for Him." In verses 14, 25, the writer spoke of
Christ as offering Himself, here as " having been
offered ; " so in Eph. v. 2 we read that He " delivered
Himself up for us," but in Rom. viii. 32 that God
" delivered Him up for us all," and in Rom. iv. 25,
" who was delivered up for our offences." The words
which follow are taken (with a slight change) from
Isa. liii. 12, " and He bare the sin of many." These
words clearly involve sacrificial imagery. What is
signified is not directly the removal of sin (as in the
different words of John i. 29) ; but, as on the animal to
be slain the sins of the offerer were in figure laid, and
the death which followed signified the death which
the offerer had deserved, so, with an infinite extension

The Sacrifices of the Law

HEBKEWS, X.

unable to take away Sin.

CHAPTER X.— :« For the law

Chap. x. 1-18. haying a shadow of good
The repeated things to come, and not

LawfiThefOne the veiT imaSe of the
Sacrifice which things, can never with
takes away sin. thoge sacrifices which they
offered year by year continually make
the comers thereunto perfect. (2) For

I then would they not have ceased to
be offered? because that the wor-
shippers once purged should have
had no more conscience of sins.
(3) But in those sacrifices there is a
remembrance again made of sins every
year. <4> For it is not possible that the
blood of bulls and of goats should take

of meaning, are the words here applied. It is certainly
no mere accident that the writer, thus availing himself
of the prophet's words, speaks of the Christ. In
contrast with the one Sufferer are the " many " whose
sins are borne (comp. chap, ii; 10; Matt. xxvi. 28).
When the Christ shall appear the second time, it shall
be "apart from sin" — no longer bearing sin, but
"separate from sinners" (chap. vii. 26). Of the
judgment which He shall pass upon " the adversaries "
(chap. x. 27) this verse does not speak, but only of His
appearing to His own people, who " wait for Him."
This expressive word, again and again used by St. Paul
(see Note on Rom. viii. 19) to describe the attitude of
Christ's people upon earth towards their Lord (Phil. iii.
20 ; 1 Cor. i. 7) and His salvation (Rom. viii. 23, 25),
is here applied to all who love His appearing. By
these " He shall be seen " as He is (1 John iii. 2). The
last words "unto salvation" declare the purpose of
His appearing, in a form which at once recalls the
teaching of earlier verses in the Epistle (chap. v. 9 ;
vii. 26), and especially verse 12 of this chapter, and
which brings to mind the name of Him for whom we
wait, the Saviour (Phil. iii. 20).

The latter part of the ninth chapter was an expansion
of verses 11, 12. In particular, verses 23 — 28 have
been occupied with the theme, " Christ entered once
for all into the Holy Place, having won eternal redemp-
tion." The repeated offerings presented by the high
priests have been contrasted with the sacrifice which
He has. offered. To this thought the opening verses of
this chapter attach themselves, explaining more fully the
incfficacy of the one, the power and virtue of the other.
Gradually the main thoughts of the preceding chapters
are gathered up, and the last and chief division of the '
argument of the Epistle is brought to a close in verse 18.

(!) A shadow of good things to come.— These
words have already come before us; the " shadow" in
chap. viii. 5, and " the good things to come " in the
ordinary reading of chap. ix. 11.

Not the very image.- The antithesis is hardly
what we should have expected. The word " image "
is indeed consistent with the very closest and most
pei-feet likeness ; but why is the contrast to "shadow"
expressed by a word which cannot denote more than
likeness, and not by a reference to the things them-
selves ? The answer would seem to be that, from the
very nature of the " good things to come," the law
could not be conceived of as having the things them-
selves ; but had it possessed " the very image " of them,
a representation so perfect might have been found to
bring with it equal efficacy.

Can never with those sacrifices.— It is difficult
in ascertain the exact Greek text in the latter half of
this verse. With the ordinary reading the general
construction of the sentence is that which the Authorised
version represents, "For the law . . . can never . . .

323

make perfect." The better MSS., however, read " they
can," a change which introduces some irregularity of
construction: the pronoun "they" must probably in
this case be understood of the priests. The order of
the Greek is also very peculiar. Two translations of
the verse (with the changed reading) may be given :
(1) " They can never with the same sacrifices year by
year which they offer continually make them that draw
nigh perfect." (2) "They can never year by year, by
the same sacrifices which they offer continually, make
them that draw nigh perfect." The difference between
the two renderings will be easily seen. The former
makes the whole sentence to relate to the annual
sacrifice on the Day of Atonement, and gives to " con-
tinually *' almost the same meaning as "year by year."
The meaning of the latter is that by the annual sacri-
fices, which are the same as those which the priests are
offering for the people day by day (for the sacrifice of
the Day of Atonement did not in itself differ from the
ordinary sin offering), they cannot make the worshippers
perfect. The latter translation agrees best with the
original, and conveys a very striking thought. It is
open, however, to a very serious objection — that it
separates the verse into two incongruous parts. That
annual sacrifices not different in kind from the sin
offerings which were presented day by day (and which
the very institution of the Day of Atonement declared to
be imperfect) could not bring to the worshippers what
they needed, is an important argument ; but it has no
connection with the first words of the verse. Henoe,
though the Greek does not very readily yield the former
translation, it is probably to be preferred. "With the
expression " them that draw nigh " or " approach " (to
God) comp. chap. vii. 26, where the same word is used.
On " make perfect " see chaps, vii. 11 ; ix. 9.

(2) For then. — Better, otherwise. The very repeti-
tion of the annual ceremonial was a testimony to its
imperfection. The idea of repetition has been very
strikingly brought out in verse 1.

Once purged. — Better, because the worshippers,
having been once cleansed, ivould have no more con-
sciousness of sins. " Worshippers," not the same word
as in verse 1, but similarly used in chap. ix. 9, 14 ;
xii. 28 (Phil. iii. 3, et al.) : in chap. viii. 5 ; xiii. 10, it is
applied to priestly service.

(3) There is a remembrance.— Better, a remem-
brance of sins is made year brj year. In each of the
three prayers of the high priest (see chap. v. 3) for
himself and his house, for the priesthood, for the
people, he made special acknowledgment of sin. " I
have sinned, I and my house and the sons of Aaron :
Thy people have done perversely."

(•*) This verse explains those which precede. No in-
consistency really belonged to these sacrifices and this
ceremonial, though so often repeated; for it was im-
possible that any such sacrifice should really remove
sin. The offering was necessary, and it answered its
purpose; but it could not remove the necessity for
another and a better offering.

Sacrifices and Offerings

HEBREWS, X.

Thou wouldest not.

<&way sins. (5) Wherefore when he
jometh into the world, he saith, Sacri-
fice and offering thon wouldest not,
but a body hast thou prepared me : 1

Or, tlum hast fit-

In burnt offerings and sacrifices for
sin thou hast had no pleasure. W Then
said I, Lo, I come (in the volume of the
book it is written of me,) to do thy will,

<5) Wherefore. — That is, on account of this power- i
lossness of the sacrifices of the law.

He saith. — Christ, in the prophetic word of Scrip- j
rare. Though not directly mentioned here, He has i
been the subject of the whole context (chap. ix. 25 — 28). j
The words which follow are a quotation from Ps. xl. 6 — j
8, and agree substantially with the LXX., except that j
in verse 7 a word of some importance is omitted (see J
the Note there). The LXX., again, is on the whole a
faithful representation of the Hebrew text : one clause
only (the last in this verse) presents difficulty. Par-
ticular expressions will be noticed as they occur : the
general meaning and application of the psalm must
first receive attention. Like Ps. 1. and li. (with some
verses of Ps. lxix.), Ps. xl. is remarkable for its antici-
pation of the teaching of the prophets (Isa. i. 11 — 17;
Jer. vii. 21; Hos. vi. 6; Mic. vi. 6 — 8; et al.) on one
point, the inferior worth of ceremonial observances
when contrasted with moral duties. It seems probable
that the psalm is David's, as the inscription relates, and
that its key-note is to be found in the words of Samuel
to Saul (1 Sam. xv. 22) : " Hath the Lord as great de-
light in burnt offerings and sacrifices, as in obeying
(literally, hearkening to) the voice of the Lord ? Behold,
to obey (literally, to hear) is better than sacrifice, and to
hearken than the fat of rams." The first part of the psalm
is an expression of thanksgiving to God for deliverance
from peril. David lias learned the true mode of dis-
playing gratitude, not by offerings of slain animals, but
by the sacrifice of the will. So far does the latter excel
the former, so truly is the sacrifice of will in accordance
with the will of God, that the value of the legal offer-
ings is in comparison as nothing. There is in all this
no real slighting of the sacrificial ritual (see Jer. vii.
21 — 28), but there is a profound appreciation of the
superiority of spiritual service to mere ritual ob-
servance. It can hardly be said that this quotation rests
on the same principle as those of the first chapter. |
The psalm is certainly not Messianic, in the sense of j
being wholly predictive like Ps. ex.. or directly typical j
like Ps. ii. In some respects, indeed, it resembles j
2 Sam. vii. (See the Note on chap. i. 5.) As there, I
after words which are quoted in this Epistle in reference j
to Christ, we read of David's son as committing iniquity I
and receiving punishment ; so in this psalm we read, !
" Mine iniquities are more than the hairs of mine head."
David comes with a new perception of the true will of
God, to offer Him the service in which He takes
pleasure. And yet not so— for such service as he can
offer is itself defective; his sins surround him yet in
their results and penalties. Hence, in his understand-
ing and his offering of himself he is a type, whilst his
sinfulness and weakness render him but an imperfect
type, of Him that was to come. Such passages as these
constitute a distinct and very interesting division of
Messianic prophecy. We may then thus trace the
principle on which the psalm is here applied. Jesus
came to His Father with that perfect offering of will
and self which was foreshadowed in the best impulses
of the best of the men of God, whose inspired utter-
ances the Scriptures record. The words of David, but
partially true of himself, are fulfilled in the Son of
David. Since, then, these words describe the purpose
of the Saviour's life, we can have no difficulty in under-

standing the introductory words, "when He cometh
into the world, He saith;" or the seventh verse, where
we read, " Lo, I am come to do Thy will." When
David saw the true meaning of the law, he thus came
before God ; the purpose of Jesus, when He received
the body which was the necessary instrument for human
obedience, finds its full expression in these words.

Sacrifice and offering. — The corresponding
Hebrew words denote the two divisions of offerings, as
made with or without the shedding of blood.

But a body hast thou prepared me.— Rather,
but a body didst Thou prepare for me. Few discrep-
ancies between the LXX. and the Hebrew have attracted
more notice than that which these words present. The
words of the Psalmist are, " In sacrifice and offering
Thou hast not delighted: ears hast Thou digged for me."
As in Samuel's words, already referred to as containing
the germ of the psalm, sacrifice is contrasted with hear-
ing and with hearkening to the voice of the Lord, the
meaning evidently is, Thou hast given me the power
of hearing so as to obey. A channel of communication
has been opened, through which the knowledge of God's
true will can reach the heart, and excite the desire to
obey. All ancient Greek versions except the LXX.
more or less clearly express the literal meaning. It
has been supposed that the translators of the LXX.
had before them a different reading of the Hebrew
text, preferable to that which is found in our present
copies. This is very unlikely. Considering the general
principles of their translation, we may with greater
probability suppose that they designed merely to express
the general meaning, avoiding a literal rendering of a
Hebrew metaphor which seemed harsh and abrupt.
They seem to have understood the Psalmist as acknow-
ledging that God had given him that which would pro-
duce obedience ; and to this (they thought) would
correspond the preparation of a body which might be
the instrument of rendering willing service. If the
present context be carefully examined, we shall see
that, though the writer does afterwards make reference
(verse 10) to the new words here introduced, they are
in no way necessary to his argument, nor does he lay
on them any stress.

(6) Burnt offerings.— Better, whole burnt offer-
ings. These (which were the symbol of complete con-
secration) are not mentioned in this Epistle, except in
this verse and verse 8.

Thou hast had no pleasure.— Better (for con-
formity with the preceding clauses), Thou hadst no
pleasure.

C) Lo, I come. — Rather, Lo, I am come — I am
here. The original meaning of the following words is
not quite certain. The Hebrew admits of two render-
ings. (1) Then I said, Lo, I am come ! in the roll of
the Book it is prescribed unto me ; (2) Then I said,
Lo, I am come with the roll of the Book that is written
concerning me. The "roll of the Book" is the roll
containing the Divine Law. The next clause is quite
distinct in construction: "I delight to do Thy will,
O God; yea, Thy law is within my heart." The
omission of the words " I delight," alters the connection
of the words; but it will be seen that, though the
Hebrew verses are condensed, their meaning is exactly
preserved.

324

" Lo, I come

HEBEEWS, X.

to do Thy Will 0 God."

O God. W Above when he said, Sacri-
fice and offering and burnt offerings and
offering for sin thou wouldest not,
neither hadst pleasure therein; which
are offered by the law ; (9) Then said he,
Lo, I come to do thy will, O God. He
taketh away the first, that he may
establish the second. (10) By the which

will we are sanctified through the
offering of the body of Jesus Christ
once for all. (11J And every priest
standeth daily ministering and offering
oftentimes the same sacrifices, which
can never take away sins : (12) but this
man, after he had offered one sacrifice
for sins for ever, sat down on the right

(8) Above when he said.— Better, Whereas he
saith above ; or, as we might express it, '' Saying at the
outset," " Setting out with saying." In the following
woi-ds the best MSS. have the plural, " Sacrifices and
offerings and whole btirnt offerings and (sacrifices) for
sin." The change from singular to plural is in har-
mony with the thought of verses 1—4, the repetition
of sacrifices.

Which are offered by the law.— Rather, such
as are offered according to law. The change from
" the law " to " law " seems intentional, as if the writer
had in thought the contrast between any external law of
ritual and a principle of inward obedience.

(9) Then said he, Lo, I come.— Rather, then
hath he said, Lo, I am come to do Thy will. The words
" O God " are not in the true text, but have been acci-
dentally repeated from verse 7.

He 'taketh away the first, that he may
establish the second.— It is important to inquire
how this is done, first in the case of the writer of the
psalm, then as the words are used of Jesus. David,
perceiving that that which God seeks is the subjection
of man's will, refuses to rest in the sacrifices of the
law. No one will think that burnt offering or gift or
sacrifice for sin was henceforth at an end for him : the
confession of his iniquities (verse 12) implied a recourse
to the appointed means of approach to God : even the
sacrifices themselves were taken up into the service of
obedience. But to the symbols shall be added the con-
secration and the sacrifice of praise (Ps. 1. 23) which they
typified. The application to the Saviour must be inter-
preted by this context. In making these words His
own, He declares the sacrifices of the law to be in
themselves without virtue ; Jehovah seeks ihem not from
Him, but, having prepared a human body for Him,
seeks only the fulfilment of His will. But included in
that will of God was Christ's offering of Himself for
the world ; and. on the other hand, it was His perfect
surrender of Himself that gave completeness to that
offering. His death was at once the antitype of the
sacrifice for sin and the consummation of the words,
" I am come to do Thy will. O God." Hence, in say-
ing, " Lo. I am come to do Thy will " (that which God
has really willed), He taketh away the sacrifices of
slain animals that He may establish the doing of God's,
will. That such sacrifices as were formerly offered are
no longer according to God's pleasure follows as an
inference from this.

(io) By the which will we are sanctified.—
Better, In which will we have been sanctified. In the
last verse we read of that which Jesus established —
the doing of the will of God. He did that will when
He offered the sacrifice of His perfect obedience —
" obedience as far as death " (Phil. ii. 8). In this will
of God which He accomplished lies our sanctification,
effected " through the offering of the body of Jesus
Christ once for all." In chap. ix. 14 the efficacy of
the blood of Christ to cleanse the conscience is con-
trasted with the power of the offerings of the law to

" sanctify in regard to cleanness of the flesh : " here
the real sanctification is joined with " the offering of the
body of Jesus Christ." In the word " body " lies a
reference to verse 8, where the body is looked on as the
instrument of obedient service (comp. Rom. xiL 1) ; but
the word "offering" still preserves its sacrificial
character, and contains an allusion to the presentation
of the body of the slain victim. (Comp. chap. xiii. 11).
As this offering has been presented " once for all "
(chaps, vii. 27; ix. 12), so " once for all " has the work
of sanctification been achieved.

(U) The last was a verse of transition. Naturally
following from and completing the previous argument,
it leads in the words " once for all " to a new thought,
or rather prepares the way for the resumption of a
subject to which in an earlier chapter marked promi-
nence was given. If the sanctifying work of the true
High Priest has been accomplished " once for all," such
ministry remains for Him *no longer (verses 12 — 14).
Here, then, the writer brings us back to chap. viii. 1, 2 —
to that which he there declared to be the crowning point
of all his wrords.

And every priest.— Some ancient MSS. and ver-
sions read " high priest," but the ordinary text is in all
probability correct. (With the other reading the work
of the priests in their daily ministrations is ascribed
to the high priest, whose representatives they were.)
Hitherto the thought has rested almost entirely on the
ceremonial of the Day of Atonement; there is therefore
new significance in the contrast between Jesus and
" every priest " in all His ministrations. On " standeth "
see the Note on chap. viii. 1. The accumulation of
words which point to the ceaseless repetition of the
offerings of the law (verse 1) is very noteworthy. The
last words point to verse 4.

<12) But this man.— Rather, but He. In the main
this verse is a combination of chaps, vii. 27 (ix. 26) and
viii. 1. One addition is made, in the words, " for ever."
These words (which occur in three other places, chaps,
vii. 3 ; x. 1, 14) are by many joined with what precedes,
by others with the latter part of the sentence, " sat down
on the right hand of God." The different editions of
our Bible and Prayer Book (Epistle for Good Friday)
are divided, some (including the earliest) having a
comma at the word " ever," others at " sins." In most
of our earlier English versions the construction adopted
was shown by the arrangement of the words. Thus
Tyndale has, " sat him down for ever ; " and the Bishops'
Bible, "is set down for ever." Coverdale (following
Luther) is very clear on the other side: "when He had
offered for sins one sacrifico which is of value for ever."
Most modern commentators seem to adopt the latter
view ("forever sat down"), but hardly, perhaps, with
sufficient reason. The analogy of verse 14 is distinctly
on the other side ; and the Greek plirase rendered " for
ever " is more suitably applied to the offering of a
sacrifice than to the thought of the following words.

325

Perfection.

HEBEEWS, X.

Remission of Sins.

hand of God ; (13^ from henceforth ex- i
pecting till his enemies be made his
footstool. M) For by one offering he
hath perfected for ever thenl that are j
sanctified. <15) Whereof the Holy Ghost ;
also is a witness to us : for after that
he had said before, <16) This is the !
covenant that I will make with them |
after those days, saith the Lord, I I
will put my laws into their hearts, I

and in their minds will I write them ;

<17> and their sins and iniquities will I

remember no more." <18) Now where

remission of these is, there is no more

offering for sin.

tW Having therefore, chap. x- 19_

brethren, boldness.1 to 39. Exhorta-

enter into the holiest by the tion . to stead"
■ui i * t ran, i J fastness 111

blood ol Jesus, (2°) by a new faith and good

and living way, which he works-

The contrast to verse 11 is strongly marked. The
sacrificial work has been performed, and the High
Priest no longer " standeth ministering." The words
" sat down " (Ps. ex. 1) add to the priestly imagery that
of kingly state.

(13) Expecting.— This word belongs to the contrast
just mentioned. He does not minister and offer His
sacrifice again, but waits for the promised subjection of
His foes. Once before in this context (chap. ix. 28) our
thought has been thus directed to the future consum-
mation. There it consists in the second coming of
Christ for the salvation of " them that wait for Him ; "
here it is He Himself who is "waiting," and the end is the
attainment of supreme dominion. (See chap. i. 3, 13.)

(14) No repetition of His offering is needed, for by
one offering He hath brought all unto "perfection," and
that "for ever." In chap. vii. 11 we have read that
" perfection " did not come through the Levitical priest-
hood or through the law (verse 19) ; the object of
man's hopes and of all priestly service has at last been
attained, since through the " great High Priest " " we
draw nigh to God" (chap. vii. 19). In this is involved
salvation to the uttermost (chap. vii. 25). The last
word of this verse has occurred before, in chap. ii. 11.
As was there explained, it literally means those who are
being sanctified, all those who, from age to age, through
faith (verse 22) receive as their own that which has been
procured for all men.

(15) "Whereof. — Better, And the Hohj Ghost also
beareth witness unto us. The Holy Ghost, speaking in
Scripture (chap. iii. 7 ; ix. 8)— the Scripture quoted in
chap. viii. 8 — 12 — beareth witness.

After that he had said before.— Rather, after He
hath said. The word " before " is not in the best MSS.

(16) I will put my laws. — Rather, putting my laws
upon their heart, upon their mind also will I write
them. The first part of the quotation (chap. viii. 8, 9,
10 in part) is omitted, and also some later lines (the
last words of verse 10 and the whole of verse 11 in
chap. viii.). In the remainder we notice some variations,
which prove that the writer is not aiming at verbal
agreement with the original passage, bat is quoting
the substance only. (See the Note on chap, viii, 10.)

(17) Every reader must feel that as these verses stand
in the Authorised version the sense is imperfect. The
words " after He hath said before " (verse 15) imply
" then He saith," or similar words, at some point in
the verses which follow. Our translators did not
attempt to complete the sense ; for the marginal note
("some copies have, Then he saith, And their ") found
in ordinary editions was added at a later date.* By

* From Dr. Scrivener's " Cambridge Paragraph Bible "
to. xxxii.) we learn that the note was added by Dr. Paris in
the Cambridge Bible of 1762. Dr. Scrivener adds: "probably
from the Philoxenian Syriac version, then just becoming
known."

many commentators it is believed that the words " saith
the Lord " (verse 16) are intended as the completion
of the sentence, so that no supplement is needed. This
is, we think, very improbable. As it is the last part
of the quotation that is taken up here, it is at the
beginning of this verse that the explanatory words
must come in: " Then He saith, And their sins and their
iniquities will I remember no more." This we have
seen to be the crowning promise of the new covenant
of which Jesus is the Mediator. When these words
were first quoted (chap. viii. 12), some important points
in the argument were still untouched. Now the firm
basis of the promise has been shown, for the covenant has
been ratified by the death of Christ, and the blessings
He has won for men are eternal (chap. ix. 15, 12).

(18) Now where.— Rather, But where remission (or
forgiveness, see chap. ix. 22) of these is, there is no
longer offering for sin. Here the argument reaches its-
triumphant close.

At this point we enter on the last great division
of the Epistle (chaps, x. 19 — xiii. 25), which is occupied
with earnest exhortation, encouragement to perseverance-
alternating with solemn warning against apostasy.
The first section of this main division extends to the
end of this chapter.

09) The exhortation which here begins is very similar
to that of chap. iv. 14 — 16. Its greater fulness and
expressiveness are in accordance with the development
in the thought.

Therefore.— The chief thoughts taken up are those
expressed in chap. ix. 11, 12. The word "boldness"
has occurred in chap. iii. 6; iv. 16. (See the Notes.)

By the blood of Jesus.— Better, in the blood of
Jesus; for the meaning probably is, " Having therefore
boldness in the blood of Jesus for entering into the
Holy {i.e., the Holiest) Place." It is not that we enter
"with the blood," as the high priest entered the Holy
of Holies (chap. ix. 25) : no comparison is made between
Christ's people and the Jewish high priest. But as
when he entered within the veil the whole people
symbolically entered in with him, so do we enter with
our High Priest, who " by means of His own blood "
entered for us (and as our " Forerunner," chap. vi. 20)
into the immediate presence of God. In that through
which He entered we have our ", boldness to enter."

(20) By a new and living way.— Better, by the
way ivhich He dedicated (or inaugurated) for us, a new
and living ivay. This way was opened to us by Him ;
in it we folloAV Him. For Him, the way into the
Holiest led through the veil, His flesh. As the veil
concealed from the high priest the place of God's
presence, which he could enter only by passing through
the veil ; so, although in His earthly life Jesus dwelt
i in the presence of God, yet as our representative He

The Way into the Holiest opened.

HEBREWS, X.

Provocation unto Love.

hath consecrated1 for us, through the veil, J 0v> ncw made-

that is to say, his flesh ; *21J and having

an high priest over the house of God ;

c->2) let ns draw near with a true heart

in full assurance of faith, having our

hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience,

and our bodies washed with pure water.

(23) Let us hold fast the profession of

our faith without wavering ; (for he is

faithful that promised;) C«j and let us
consider one another to provoke unto
love and to good works : (^ not for-
saking the assembling of ourselves
together, as the manner of some is ;
but exhorting one another : and so much
the more, as ye see the day approaching.
<26) For if we sin wilfully after that we
have received the knowledge of the

could not enter the heavenly sanctuary until He had
passed through and out of His life of flesh (see chap,
ix. 11). There is probably a covert allusion to the
rending of the Temple veil in the hour when Jesus thus
passed through the rent veil of His flesh. This way is
new (chap. ix. 8, 12), it is living, for in truth this
" way " is living union with Christ (John xiv. 6).

(21> An high priest.— The Greek words properly
signify a great priest (conip. chap. iv. 14), which is one
of the names by which the high priest is frequently
designated, both in the Hebrew (Lev. xxi., et al.), and in
the LXX. It may seem strange that the writer should
here make use of a new word in the place of that which
has occurred so frequently. But there is strong reason
for believing that the language of one of the prophecies
of Zechariah (vi. 11 — 13) is here before his mind. In
the preceding verses (12 — 14) he has used words which
united sacerdotal and kingly imagery; and it would
be remarkable if this did not lead his thought to that
prophecy. On the head of Joshua, " the great priest "
(Zech. x\. 11), are placed crowns of silver and gold in
token of royal dignity : then follows the prediction of
Him of whom Joshua was the type. " He shall build
the house of the Lord : and He shall bear the glory,
and shall sit and rule upon His throne ; and He
shall be a priest upon His throne." In the verse
before us are combined several of the characteristic
thoughts of that passage — the great priest, the priestly
ruler, the house of God. The last-mentioned words
are repeatedly used throughout the Old Testament,
both in the Pentateuch and in later books, for the
Tabernacle or Temple of God. In chap. iii. 6 (to which
there is a manifest allusion here) the meaning is en-
larged, but only so that under "the house" is also
comprised the household of God. Here the two
thoughts are combined. Into the house of God we may
enter ; over it Jesus rules as " the great Priest." The
family of God subject to His rule includes the whole
community of " the people of God " in heaven and upon
earth.

(22) Let us draw near.— See verse 1; also chaps, iv.
16; vii. 25; xi. 6.

With a true heart.— " True," the word used in
chaps, viii. 2, ix. 24, a real — i.e., a sincere heart. As
in chap. vi. we read of "full assurance," or rather,
" fulness of hope," so here of fidness of faith. With-
out this there could be for us no " living way " (verse
20) for entering into the holiest place. The thought
of the whole verse connects itself with the priestly
character of those who are the people of God (Ex. xix.
6 ; Rev. i. 5, 6). It is as priests that they enter the
house of God, sprinkled with the blood of atonement
(chaps, xii. 24 ; ix. 14 ; Lev. viii. 30; 1 Pet. i. 2), and with
all defilement washed away (Lev. viii. 6). " Sprinkled
from an evil conscience : " that is, freed by means of
the ••sprinkling" from a conscience defiled by guilt.
In the last words there is a clear allusion to baptism,

as the symbol of the new life of purity (Eph. v. 26;
Tit. iii. 5 ; 1 Pet. iii. 21).

(23) In this verse again we have the characteristic
Avords of earlier exhortations : " hold fast " (chap. iii. 6,
14) ; " profession," or, rather, confession (chaps, iii. 1 ;
iv. 14).

Of our faith. — This rendering, apparently found
in no earlier English version, is supposed to be due to
oversight on the part of our translators. The true
reading is " of the hope " (chap. vi. 11, 18, 19). Tho
two following words must be joined with " confession,"
"let us hold fast the confession of the (Christian)
hope so that it waver not." This hope " maketh not
ashamed" (Rom. v. 5), for the promise is sure.

(24) Gradually the writer passes from that which
belongs to the individual (verses 19, 20) to the mutual
duties of members of a community. Possibly he
knew that amongst those whom he addresses there
had existed " provocations " that did not tend towards
brotherly love. Tho strict meaning may simply be —
let us take note of one another, to stimulate one another
to good works ; but in the result, if not in the expres-
sion, is included the converse thought, " that we may
ourselves be thus provoked."

(25) As the manner of some is.— Some members
of this community, it Avould seem, had persuaded
themselves that the relation of Judaism to Christianity,
of the " synagogue " (the Greek word here used seems
to allude to this technical name, and yet intentionally
to avoid it) and the Church, was such as to permit
them to avoid close intercourse with Christians and
direct association with Christian assemblies. This
neglect was the first step towards apostasy.

Exhorting. — Better, encouraging. (Comp. chap,
xii. 12.)

The day.— See 1 Cor. iii. 13—" the day shall declare *
eveiy man's work. Elsewhere we read of " the dav
of the Lord" (1 Thess. v. 2); "the day of Christ"
(Phil. i. 10). The words of Jesus to His disciples
(Matt. xxiv. ; Luke xvii.) had enabled all who were
willing to hear to understand " the signs of the times."
As the writer gave these warnings, the day when the
Son n>f Man should come in His kingdom, bringing
judgment upon Jerusalem (Matt. xvi. 28), was close at
hand — that day which is distinctly presented to us in
the New Testament as the type of His final coming.

(26) For.— The connecting links are the thought of
the consequences to which such sinful neglect (vei*se 25)
may lead, and the awful revelation of judgment which
the final day will bring. Even more clearly than in
chap. vi. 4—6 the state described is one of wilful and
continued sin, which is the result and the expression of
apostasy from Christ. It is not, " If Ave fall under
temptation and commit sin;" but, "If Ave are sinning
wilfully." The descriptive Avords are few as comparec
with those of the former passage, but they teach tht
same lesson. Not merely the " kuoAAdedge " but the

327

No more Sacrifice for Sins.

HEBREWS, X.

The Lord shall judge His People.

truth, there remain eth no more sacrifice
for sins, (27) but a certain fearful looking
for of judgment and fiery indignation,
which shall devour the adversaries.
(28) He that despised Moses' law died
without mercy under two or three
witnesses : (29^ of how much sorer
punishment, suppose ye, shall he be
thought worthy, who hath trodden
under foot the Son of God, and hath

counted the blood of the covenant,
wherewith he was sanctified, an unholy
thing, and hath done despite unto the
Spirit of grace ? (30) For we know him
that hath said, Vengeance belongeth unto
me, I will recompense/ saith the Lord.
And again, The Lord shall judge his
people. ^ It is a fearful thing to fall
into the hands of the living God.
(32) But call to remembrance the former

" full knowledge " (Rom. i. 28) of the truth has been
received by those to whom the writer here makes
reference ; they have been " sanctified in the blood of
the covenant " (verse 29). For such " there remaineth
no longer a sacrifice for sins : " that offering of Jesus
which they deliberately reject has abolished all the
earlier sacrifices. The observances and ceremonies of
Judaism, which had been full of meaning whilst they
pointed to Him that was to come, have lost all their
virtue through His coming. Nay more : for such sin
as this, the sin of knowing and wilful rejection of the
only Sin offering, God has provided no other sacrifice.
In its general significance this passage does not differ
from chap. vi. 4 — 6. (See the Notes.)

(27) But a certain fearful looking for.— Better,
But a fearful awaiting of judgment, and a jealousy of
fire that shall devour the adversaries. For Christ's
" waiting " servants the thought of " judgment " is lost
in that of " salvation " (chap. ix. 27, 28) ; to these sinners
nothing is left but the awaiting of judgment. The
next words are a partial quotation, or an adaptation, of
Isa. xxvi. 11 : " Let them see (and be ashamed) the zeal
for the people ; yea, fire shall devour Thine adver-
saries." (The Greek translation gives the second
clause correctly, but not the former part of the sen-
tence.) In the prophetic imagery of the Old Testament
the destruction of the enemies of Jehovah is but the
other aspect of His zeal or jealousy for His people.
This imagery was familiar to every Hebrew; and no
words could show more powerfully than these that to
forsake Christ for Judaism was (not to join, but) to
abandon " the people of God." For such apostates

• there remaineth the zeal, the jealous wrath, of a devour-
ing fire. (Comp. chap. xii. 29; Mai. iv.)

(28) He that despised Moses' law.— Rather, A
man that hath set at nought a law of Moses dieth with-
oid pity before two or three ivitnesses. The reference is
to Deut. xvii. 2 — 7, the last words being a direct quota-
tion from verse 6 in that section. There the subject is
apostasy from Jehovah to the worship of idols. That
sin which, by the acknowledgment of all, had in ancient
time robbed Israel of the name of God's people is
tacitly placed by the side of the sin of those who for-
sake Christ. It will be seen how impressively the
thought of the last verse is maintained in this.

(29) Shall he be thought worthy.— Better, shall
he be accounted (or, judged) worthy, by God the Judge
of all, when " the Day " shall come. In the act of
apostasy the sinner trampled under foot the Son of
God, treated with contempt and scorn Him to whom
belongs this highest Name (chap. i. 1 — 4); and the
principle of this act becomes the principle, of the whole
succeeding life. That "blood" by which the new
covenant was established (chap. ix. 15 — 17) — the blood
in which he himself had received the sanctification
which the law could not give — he has esteemed an un-

holy thing. There is no medium between highest
reverence and utter contumely in such a case : to
those who did not receive Jesus as Lord He was a
deceiver (Matt, xxvii. 63), and one who deserved to die.

Hath done despite.— Hath treated with outrage
and insult the Spirit of whose gifts he had been par-
taker (chap. vi. 4), for "grace" returning arrogant
scorn.

(30) Vengeance belongeth unto me, I will
recompense.— This quotation from Deut. xxxii. 35
completely preserves the sense of the original words,
" To me belongeth vengeance, and recompence," whilst
departing from their form. The LXX. shows still
wider divergence, neglecting entirely the emphasis
which rests on the words " to Me." It is therefore
very remarkable that this quotation is given, in exactly
the same form, in Rom. xii. 19. As, however, the words
" I will recompense " are found in the most ancient
of the Targums (that of Onkelos) it is very possible
that St. Paul may have there adopted a form already
current amongst the Jews. (See Note on Rom. xii. 19.)
If so, there is no difficulty in accounting for the coin-
cidence in this place. But, even if this supposition is
without foundation, and the saying in this form was
first used in Rom. xii. 19, is there any real cause for
wonder if a disciple of St. Paul in a single instance
reproduces the Apostle's words ? It should be observed
that the words " saith the Lord " must be omitted from
the text, according to the best authorities.

The Lord shall judge his people.— This, again,
is a quotation, and from the same chapter (Deut. xxxii.
36). If the context of the original passage be examined,
there will be no doubt as to the meaning of the words.
As in Ps. xliii. 1, exxxv. 14, " to judge," as here used,
signifies to maintain the right of one who is exposed to
wrong. " The Lord shall judge His people" (see verse
27) when He shall appear to establish their cause by
taking vengeance on His enemies and theirs. With
what impressive force would the quotations in this
section (verses 27, 28, 30) — differing widely in form,
but presenting a very striking agreement in their
meaning — fall on the ears of readers familiar from
childhood with the ideas and language of the Old
Testament Scriptures !

(3y The living God.— As in chaps, iii. 12 ; ix. 14,
the exact meaning of the writer's words is " a Living
God ; " and a reference to the first of these passages
(and to chap. iv. 12) will show clearly what is their
force in this place. There can be little doubt- that
Deut. xxxii., from which he has been quoting, is still in
his thought. See verse 40— " I lift up my hand to
heaven, and say, I live for ever."

(83) In the last six verses the writer has enforced his
exhortation by an appeal to the danger of falling away
and the fearful consequences of unfaithfulness. From
warning he now turns to encouragement, as in chap. vi. :

328

Tlve Fight of Afflictions.

HE13EEWS, X.

The Recompence of Reward.

days, in which, after ye were illumi-
nated, ye endured a great fight of
afflictions ; (Si) Partly, whilst ye were
made a gazingstock both by reproaches
and afflictions ; and partly, whilst ye
became companions of them that were
so used. P*) For ye had compassion of
me in my bonds, and took joyfully the

spoiling of your goods, knowing in your-
selves that ye have in heaven a better
and an enduring substance. (35) Cast
not away therefore your confidence,
which hath great recompence of reward.
(36) Yor ye have need of patience, that,
after ye have done the will of God, ye
might receive the promise. (37) For yet

win their souls by their endurance (Luke xxi. 19) ; so in
verse 39 the writer speaks of " the gaining of the soul."
Thus trained, they could accept with joy the loss of
possessions for the sake of Christ, perceiving that in
Him they had received themselves as a possession, a
bids them imitate, not others, j better and a lasting possession. (It would be possible
to render the clause, " knowing that ye yourselves have
a better possession," &c. ; but the parallelism of verse
39 renders it almost certain that the former view of the
words is correct.)

(35) Cast not away therefore your confidence.
— Rather, Cast not away therefore your boldness, seeing
it hath a great recompence. To " cast away boldness "
is the opposite of " holding fast the boldness of the
hope " (chap. in. 6); the one belongs to the endurance
of the faithful servant (verses 32, 36), the other to the
cowardice of the man who draws back (verse 38). This
verse and the next are closely connected : Hold fast
your boldness, seeing that to it belongs great reward ;
hold it fast, for " he that endureth to the end shall be
saved." On the last word, " recompence," see chap. ii. 2.

t36) Patience — i.e., brave, patient endurance (see
the Note on chap. vi. 12). The general strain of the
exhortation in that chapter (verses 9 — 20) closely re-
sembles these verses.

That, after ye have done ... ye might-
Better, that, having done the will of God, ye may receive
the promise. To do the will of God (chap. xiii. 21) is
the necessary condition for receiving the promised
blessing and reward (see chap. xi. 39); for both "en-
durance " is necessary. In these words we have an
echo of Matt. vii. 21, where our Lord sums up His
requirements from those who call themselves His in
words which express the purpose of His own life (verses
7, 9 ; John iv. 34).

(37) The connection is this : " Ye have need of en-
durance" for "the end is not yet " (Matt. xxiv. 6) ; yo
shall " receive the promise," for the Lord shall surely
come, and that soon.

A little while.— Rather, a very little ivhile. The
expression is remarkable and unusual; it is evidently
taken from Isa. xxvi. 20 — " Come my people . . . hide
thyself for a little moment until the indignation be over-
past." The subject of this passage, from which the
one expressive phrase is taken, is the coming of
Jehovah " to punish the inhabitants of the earth for
their iniquity ; " in " a little moment " shall the indig-
nation consume His foes, then will He give deliveranco
to His people. Even this passing reference would
serve to call up before the mind of the Hebrew readers
the solemn associations of the prophecy — the promised
salvation, the awful judgment.

And he that shall come will come. — Rather,
He that cometh ivill come and ivill not tarry. In this
and the next verse the writer of the Epistle takes up a
passage, Habak. ii. 3, 4, which occupies a very important
place in the writings of St. Paul (Rom. i. 17 ; Gal. hi
11), and, as we have already seen (Note on chap. vi. 1),
in the later Jewish teaching. St. Paul's citations are

and here, as there, ho thankfully recalls the earlier
proofs which his readers had given of their Christian
constancy and love. Let them call to mind and ever
keej) in remembrance what the grace of God had already
enabled them to endure. (Comp. 2 John 8). As Theo-
phylact has said, he
but themselves.

Illuminated.— Better, enlightened. It is important
to keep the word used in the parallel verse, chap. vi. 4
(see !Note).

Fight of afflictions.— Rather, conflict of sufferings ;
for the last word has in this Epistle (chap. ii. 9, 10) as-
sociations too sacred to be lost. The former word (akin
to that used by St. Paul in 2 Tim. ii. 5 of the contests
in the public games) recalls the intense struggles of the
contending athletes ; it occurs nowhere else in the New
Testament. Comp. Phil. i. 27, iv. 3; (Phil. i. 30; Col.
i. 29, ii. 1; 1 Tim. vi. 12; chap. xii. 1.) This struggle
they had manfully endured.

i&) Whilst ye were made a gazingstock.—
Literally, being exposed in the theatre (see the Notes
on Acts xix. 29; 1 Cor. iv. 9; xv. 32). Here also it is
probable that the word has only a figurative sense.

Whilst ye became companions.— Better, having
become sharers with them that thus lived — that lived
amidst "reproaches and afflictions." Not "com-
panions " only had they been, but sharers of the lot of
their persecuted brethren, both by sympathy and by
voluntary association with their sufferings.

(34) ;por ye had_ compassion of me in my
bonds.— Rather (according to the true reading of the
Greek), for ye had sympathy with them that were in
bonds (comp. chap. xiii. 3, " Remember them that are in
bonds as bound with them "). The change of reading
is very important in connection"1 with the question of
authorship. (See the Introduction.)

And took joyfully. — Better, and accepted with
joy the spoiling of your possessions. In the spirit of
Matt. v. 12 (Acts v. 41 ; 2 Cor. xii. 10), they accepted
persecution not with " patience and long suffering "
only, but "with joy" (Col. i. 11). The rendering "pos-
sessions " is necessary because a similar word (" sub-
stance" in the Authorised version) will immediately
occur. In the last clause two remarkable changes in
the Greek text are made necessary by the testimony of
our best authorities. The words " in heaven " must
certainly be removed ; they are omitted in the oldest
MSS., and are evidently an explanatory comment which
has found its way into the text. For the reading, " in
yourselves," there is hardly any evidence whatever.
The MSS. are divided between two readings, "your-
selves " and " for yourselves ; " the former having also
the support of the Latin and Coptic versions. There is
little doubt that we must read " yourselves ; " and the
most probable translation will now be, perceiving that
ye have your own selves for a better jtossession and one
that abideth. They had been taught the meaning of
the words spoken by Jesus of the man who gains the
world and loses himself (Luke ix. 25), and of those who |
45* 329

The Just shall live by Faith.

HEBEEWS, XI.

Let him not dravj back.

a little while, and he that shall come
will come, and will not tarry. <38) Now
the just shall live by faith : but if any
man draw back, my soul shall have no
pleasure in him. (39) But we are not of

them who draw back unto perdition ;
but of them that believe to the saving
of the soul.

CHAPTER XI.— d) Now faith is the

limited to a few words of verse 4, " But the just shall
live by faith ; " here are quoted the whole of the fourth
verse and part of the third. Perhaps it is too much to
say that they are quoted, they are rather applied, for,
as will be seen, the order of the clauses (see next verse)
is changed, and some alterations are made in the
language. It is important in this Epistle to discrimi-
nate between the instances of direct quotation from the
Scripture, where the word of God is appealed to as fur-
nishing proof, and those in which passages of the Old
Testament are explained and applied (see the Note on
verse 5). The words before us nearly agree with the
LXX., "If he delay, wait for him, because coming
he will come, and will not tarry." The subject of the
sentence there is not clear; probably the translator
believed that the Lord spoke thus of His own coming,
or the coming of the future Deliverer. In the Hebrew
all relates to the vision, " it will surely come, it will
not tarry." The only difference between the LXX.
and the words as they stand here consists in the sub-
stitution of " He that cometh " for " coming." Now
the reference to the Deliverer and Judge is made plain.
No designation of the Messiah, perhaps, was more
familiar than " He that cometh" (Matt. xi. 3, et al.) ; but
in is here employed with a new reference — to the second
advent in place of the first. The departure from the
sense of the Hebrew is not as great as may at first
appear. When the prophet says " The vision . . .
shall surely come," it is of that which the vision re-
vealed that he speaks, i.e., of the fall of the Chaldeans ;
but the salvation of Israel from present danger is
throughout the prophets the symbol of the great deliver-
ance (comp. chap. xii. 26 and Hagg. ii. 6). With this
verse comp. verse 25; also Phil. iv. 5; Jas. v. 8; 1
Pet. iv. 7 ; Rev. i. 3 ; xxii. 20, et al. ; and, in regard to
the application of the prophecy, verses 27, 28, 30.

(38) Now the just shall live by faith.— The
Greek text of this clause is not perfectly certain, but it
is probable that the word " my " should be added, so
that the translation of the verse will be as follows, But
my righteous one shall live by faith. In the Hebrew
the first part of the verse is altogether different : " Be-
hold his soul is lifted up, it is not upright in him ; but
the righteous shall live in (or, by) his faithfulness (or,
faith)." The first words seem to refer to the haughty
Chaldean invader ; the rendering of the last words is
considered below. The Greek translation varies a little
in different MSS. : " If one draw back, my soul hath
no pleasure in him ; but the righteous one shall live by
my faithfulness " (or possibly — not probably — "by faith
in me "). In the Alexandrian MSS. the last Words run
thus : " But my righteous one shall live by faith " (or
faithfulness). It is clear, then, that in the passage
before us the writer has taken the words as they
stood in his text of the LXX., only changing the order
of the clauses. Though the Hebrew word usually
rendered faith in this passage occurs more than forty
times in the Old Testament, in no other case has it this
meaning, but almost always signifies faithfulness of
truth. Here also the first meaning seems to be "by
his faithfulness"; but the thought of faithful constancy
to God is inseparably connected with trustful clinging

330

to Him. Hence the accepted Jewish exposition of the
passage seems to have taken the word in the sense of
" faith." " My righteous one " will naturally mean
* my righteous servant " — the man who will not be
seduced into wickedness ; he shall live by his faithful
trust, for salvation and life shall be given him by God
Himself. In this context the word righteous recalls
verse 36, " having done the will of God."

The transposition of the two clauses makes it almost
certain that the " righteous one " is the subject of both :
not if any man, but, if he (the righteous one) shrink
back. The Genevan and the Authorised stand alone
amongst English versions in the former rendering.

(39) Of them who draw back.— Literally, But we
are not of drawing (or shrinking) back unto perdition,
but of faith unto the gaining of the soul. On the last
words (which are nearly identical with those of Luke
xvii. 33, though deeper in meaning) see the Note on
verse 34. The exhortation thus closes with words of
encouragement and hope.

XI.

This chapter is very closely connected with the last
verses of chapter x. Those verses have taught the
necessity of faith for the attainment of the promise.
Here we read of men to whom, through their faith, the
promise has been made sure.

(!) We have seen how the writer approached the
subject which is the chief theme of this last divisiomof
this Epistle. The coming of the Lord, for judgment
upon'His adversaries, for salvation to His people, draws
nigh. In the midst of dangers and judgments God's-
righteous servant shall live, and the ground of his life
is his steadfast faith — if he shrink back, destruction will
overtake him. " Our principle of action " (the writer
says to his Hebrew readers) " is not shrinking back, but
faith. And faith is this . . . ." It has been debated
whether that which follows is a definition of what faith
is, or in reality a description of what faith does. It is.
not a complete definition, in the sense of including all
the moments of thought which are present in the word
as used in the last chapter (verse 38) or in this. The
"things hoped for" are not mere figments of the
imagination; their basis is the word of God. If we
keep this in mind, the words, still remaining general in
their form, agree with all that has led up to them and
with all that follows ; and whether they be called defi-
nition or description will be of little consequence.

The exact meaning of the special terms here used it
is not easy to ascertain. The word rendered " substance "
has already occurred twice in the Epistle In chap. i. 3
this was its true meaning — the essence which, so to
speak, underlies, " stands under," the qualities possessed.
In chap. iii. 14 the same metaphor of standing under is
applied to steadfastness, confidence (see the Note). The
former of these renderings the Authorised version — in
this instance deserting the earlier translations (which
for the most part have "sure confidence" or "ground")
to follow the Rhemish in its rendering of the Latin
substantia — has made familiar in the present passage.
The sense which it presents, however, is not very clear ;

Faith.

HEBEEWS, XL

Things not seen.

substance l of things hoped for, the evi-
Chap xi The dence °f things not seen.

triumphs
Faith.

of <2) For by
obtained a

b the elders
ood report.

(3) Through faith we understand that
the worlds were framed by the word of
God, so that things which are seen were
not made of things which do appear.

and the symmetry of the verse almost compels us here
to make choice of some word which denotes an act, or
at all events an attitude, of the mind. Most commen-
tators of our own day accept the second meaning
explained above, " confidence " or " assurance in regard
to things hoped for." To adopt Dr. Vaughan's clear
explanation, " Faith is that principle, that exercise of
mind and soul, which has for its object things not seen
but hoped for, and which, instead of sinking under them
as too ponderous, whether from tbeir difficulty or from
their uncertainty, stands firm under them — supports and
sustains their pressure — in other words, is assured of,
confides in and relies on them." This interpretation
yields an excellent sense, and has the advantage of
assigning to the Greek word a meaning which it
certainly bears in an earlier chapter, and in two places
of St. Paul's Epistles. On the other hand, the analogy
of the second member of the verse, and a peculiarity in
the Greek construction which we cannot here discuss,
seem to be in favour of a third rendering of the words :
" Faith is the giving substance to things hoped for." It
has indeed been said that by such a translation the
things hoped for are represented as being without
substance. But this difficulty is only apparent ; for in
regard to ourselves these objects of our hope do not yet
exiet, since they still belong to the future (Rom. viii.
24, 25). In the second clause the word " evidence" is
likely to mislead ; very probably, indeed, it now fails
to convey the sense intended by our translators, who
here followed the rendering of the Genevan Bible
(suggested by Calvin's " evidentia"). The Greek
word denotes putting to the test, examining for the
purpose of proof, bringing to conviction. Under this
aspect faith appears as neither blindly rejecting nor
blindly accepting whatever may be said about things
unseen, but boldly dealing with them as if with things
seen, and then unflinchingly accepting that which has
stood the proof. One peculiarity of the Greek yet
remains to be noticed. In the second clause the word
" things " is expressed in the Greek (as in chap. vi. 18),
but not in the first ; we are by this means reminded of
the reality of that which is thus spoken of as unseen.
The whole verse, then, may be rendered " Now faith
is the giving substance to what is hoped for, the testing
of things not seen." And now passing away from the
general aspect of the words to that in which they are
presented by the context, we have as the meaning:
Faith, holding to God's word, gives substance to what
that word promises, investing the future blessings with
a present existence, treating them as if already objects
of sight rather than of hope. Through faith, guided by
the same word, the things unseen are brought to the
proof ; what that word teaches, though future, or though
belonging to a world beyond human sight, is received with
full conviction. Thus " every genuine act of faith is the
act of the whole man, not of his understanding alone, not
of his affections alone, not of his will alone, but of all
three in their central, aboriginal unity." And thus faith
becomes " the faculty in man through which the spiritual
world exercises its sway over him, and thereby enables
him to overcome the world of sin and death." (Hare,
Victory of Faith.)

(2) For by it.— Better, For therein the elders had
witness borne to them. The connection seems to be

this : Faith truly accomplishes all this ; for it was in
the exercise of such a faith that the elders gained the
witness which the Scripture bears (see verses 4, 5, 39) to
them and to their noble deeds. This verse, then, is
added to confirm the first.

(3) Through faith.— Rather, By faith, as in the
following verses. The first place is not given to " the
elders," for the writer's object is to set forth the
achievements of faith. With these, he would say, the
Scripture record is filled. Even where there is no
mention of this principle; we must trace it in the lives
of God's servants; even where there is no history of
men, there is a necessity for the exercise of faith by our*-
selves, and the first words of Scripture teach this
lesson.

That the worlds were framed.— Literally, tJiat
the ages have been prepared. The remarkable expres-
sion which was used in chap. i. 2 is here repeated. The'
complete preparation of all that the successive periods
of time contain is the idea which the words present.
The narrative of the first chapter of Genesis ascribes
the whole creation of " the heaven and the earth " to
God; and associates with "a word of God" every
stage in the preparation and furnishing of the earth.
(See Note on chap. i. 2.) This is the first lesson of that
record. But it does not stand alone, as is taught more
plainly still by the next clause.

So that things which are seen.— A slight altera-
tion in the Greek is necessary here — "the thing seen"
(or " what is seen ") being the true reading. A more
important point is a change in the aspect of the whole
clause, which the Greek seems to require. As the
English words stand, they point out the significance of
the statement of Scripture respecting the creative act :
we believe the writer intended rather to state the divine
purpose in relation to that first creation and all subse-
quent acts that are included in the " preparing of the
ages." " In order that what is seen should not have
come into being out of things which appear." This is
probably the true meaning of the clause. In the
narrative of the first chapter of Genesis God would
have us learn a lesson for the whole course of human
history and development. As the visible universe did
not take its being out of what was apparent, so what
from time to time is seen does not arise of itself out of
what is manifest to man's natural perceptions. Not only
is the eternity of matter denied, but from the begin-
ning a warning has been given against a materialistic
philosophy. The first page of Scripture is designed to
teach the' constant presence and work of the Creator.
This lesson we learn and apply by faith; and the
result of its application is seen in many points of the
history which follows. In that history the operation
of faith is twofold. The writer's most obvious design is
to call attention to the faith possessed by " the elders,"
and its wonderful triumphs ; but it is in many cases by
the same faith that we interpret the Scripture record
so as to discover this to have been their guiding prin-
ciple. But seldom does the Old Testament directly
speak of faith, and hence the importance of this verse
(which some have thought incongruous, since it re-
tards the exhibition of the elders' faith) as throwing
light on our interpretation of the teaching of God's
word.

331

Abel and Enoch.

HEBREWS, XI.

Noah and Abraham.

(4) By faith Abel offered unto God a
more excellent sacrifice than Cain, by
which he obtained witness that he was
righteous, God testifying of his gifts :
and by it he being dead yet speaketh.1
W By faith Enoch was translated that
he should not see death; and was not
found, because God had translated
him : for before his translation he
had this testimony, that he pleased
God. (6> But without faith it is im-

possible to please him: for he that
cometh to God must believe that
he is, and that he is a rewarder of
them that diligently seek him. W By
faith Noah, being warned of God
of things not seen as yet, moved with
fear,2 prepared an ark to the saving of
his house ; by the which he condemned
the world, and became heir of the
righteousness which is by faith. (8) By
faith Abraham, when he was called to

W A more excellent. — The Greek literally means
that Abel's sacrifice was " more than " Cain's (comp.
chap. iii. 3, "more glory"; Matt. vi. 25; Luke xi.
32, et al.). The word " sacrifice " (which, as is the case
with very many words in this chapter, is taken directly
from the LXX.) has not its special sense (see Note on
chap. x. 5) in the narrative of Gen. iv. ; for the offerings
of the two brothers are there designated by the same
name, both in the Hebrew (" offering ") and in the
Greek (" sacrifice"). Hence, apart from the first words,
" by faith," there is nothing here said to explain the
superiority of Abel's offering ; though one who believes
sacrifice to have been of Divine institution, and who
notes the close connection between God's word and the
actions of the men whose faith is here recorded, may
hold it probable that Abel's obedience was manifested
in his mode of approaching God.

By which he obtained witness.— Probably,
" through which faith," but the Greek may also mean
through which sacrifice. The witness (verse 2) is that
borne by God in His acceptance of the offering
(shown by some visible sign) ; we might also add that
such a testimony to Abel is implied in the reproof of
Cain (Gen. iv. 7), but the following words, " God bearing
witness over " (or in regard to) " his gifts," show what
was chiefly in the writer's thought. Such acceptance
implied Abel's righteousness, and thus testified to his
" faith." It is remarkable that in three out of the four
places in which Abel is mentioned in the New Testa-
ment this epithet is used (Matt, xxiii. 35 ; 1 John iii.
12). In the later Jewish tradition (contained in the
Targuni of Jerusalem) the brothers are represented as
types of faith and unbelief; and in verse 10, "thy
brother's blood" (Hebrew, "bloods ") is expanded into
" the blood of the multitude of the righteous who were
to arise from thy brother." In this clause the autho-
rities for the Greek text are much divided. One reading,
" he testifying over his gifts to God," has the support
of the three oldest MSS., but can hardly be correct.

And by it. — Better, and through it (his faith).
The reference is to Gen. iv. 10, "the voice of thy
brother's blood crieth unto me from the ground " (see
chap. xii. 24) ; hence, as Calvin remarks, " he was
plainly numbered among God's saints, whose death is
precious in His sight."

(5) See death.- See Luke ii. 26 ; Ps. lxxxix. 48
(John viii. 51).

And was not found . . . translated him.- An
exact quotation from the LXX. (Gen. v. 24). The word
rendered " translated " is a very simple one, denoting
merely change of place ; but nothing can equal the sim-
plicity of the Hebrew, " he was not. for God took him."

He had this testimony.— Better, he hath had
witness borne to him (verses 2, 4) that he hath been
well pleasing to ■■ God. The form of the expression
shows that the writer is again speaking of the ev

present word of Scripture (chap. iv. 9, &c.) That
word does not record the translation of Enoch until it
" hath " borae witness to him that he pleased God.
The Avords " walked with God " are rendered in the
LXX. "was well pleasing to God," and it is this
rendering that is quoted here and in the next verse.
The writer himself supplies the comment in the next
verse, which has a very close connection with this.

(9) But without faith.— Better, and apart from
faith it is impossible to be "well pleasing" (unto Him);
for he that draweth near (chap. vii. 25 ; x. 1, 22) to God
must believe . . . Thus the very statement that Enoch
pleased God is an assertion that in him faith was
found. No one can be the habitual worshipper of God
(this is what the phrase implies) if his faith does not
grasp these two truths. " Is a rewarder " — literally,
becometh a recompense)- (chap. ii. 2 ; x. 35) ; the future
recompense is present to the eye of faith.

(7) Being warned of God.— (See chap. viii. 5.)
Moved with fear — The marginal rendering "being

wary " (or better, taking forethought) is preferred by
some, and agrees very well with the proper meaning
of the word ; but it is more probable that the writer
has in view that devout godly fear which the words
akin to this regularly denote in the New Testament.
(See the Notes on chaps, v. 7 ; xii. 28.) Noah's obedi-
ence to the divine warning was an evidence at once of
his fear of God and of the faith which gave substance
and present reality to " the things not seen as yet."

By the which.— As before (verse 4), the words
" through which " are slightly ambiguous, for they
may relate either to the ark or to the faith. The latter
reference is more probable. His faith, shown in the
building of the ark, exposed the unbelief of "the
world," which woidd not listen to his warnings, and
thereby incurred the divine condemnation. Our
Lord uses "condemn" in the same sense in Matt. xii.
41, 42. By the same faith Noah " became an heir of
the righteousness which is according to faith." Noah
is the first to receive in Scripture the name "righteous"
(Gen. vi. 9). See also Ezek. xiv. 14, 20; and 2 Pet, ii. 5,
" Noah, a preacher of righteousness." This righteous-
ness is looked on as an inheritance, received by all who
manifest the faith. In this place the righteousness is
connected with faith, as in the writings of St. Paul, but
with a change of figm-e. It is not looked on as arising
out of faith (Rom. x. 6), or as resting on the condition of
faith (Phil. iii. 9), or as obtained by means of faith (Rom.
iii. 22), but as corresponding with faith, or answering
to it. There is no important difference of thought,
but the idea of a continuous inheritance answering
to continuous faith is very strikingly presented here.

(8) When he was called to go out.— Our older
versions are here better than the Authorised, bringing
in the word " obeyed " after " called " — " obeyed to ge
out into," &c.

332

The City lohich hath Foundations.

HEBEEWS, XL

The Heavenly Home.

go out into a place which lie should
after receive for an inheritance, obeyed ;
ai id he went out, not knowing whither
he went. W By faith he sojourned in
the land of promise, as in a strange
country, dwelling in tabernacles with
Isaac and Jacob, the heirs with him of
the same promise : (10) for he looked for
a city which hath foundations, whose
builder and maker is God. M Through
faith also Sara herself received strength
to conceive seed, and was delivered of a
child when she was past age, because
she judged him faithful who had pro-
mised. (12> Therefore sprang there even
of one, and him as good as dead, so

many as the stars of the sky in multi-
tude, and as the sand which is by the
sea shore innumerable. (13) These all
died in faith,1 not having received the
rjromises, but having seen them afar off,
and were persuaded of them, and em-
braced them, and confessed that they
were strangers and pilgrims on the
earth. <u) For they that say such things
declare plainly that they seek a country.
<15> And truly, if they had been mindful
of that country from whence they came
out, they might have had . opportunity
to have returned. (16> But now they
desire a better country, that is, an
heavenly : wherefore God is not ashamed

Which he should after receive.— The English
rendering may seem to imply that when " called "
Abraham received the promise that the land to which
he would be directed should in the future be his
inheritance. It is not so (Acts vii. 5) ; for this promise
is not found in Gen. xii. 1 — 3, but was bestowed when
he had obeyed (Gen xii. 7). The meaning here is,
" unto a place which he was to receive."

(9) The land of promise — More correctly, accord-
ing to the true reading, a land of the promise : into a
land which the promise (Gen. xii. 7) made his own he came
as a sojourner, and sojourned in it as in a land belong-
ing to others, making his settled abode there in tents.
The words of which this is a paraphrase are very
expressive, especially those of the last clause. Abraham
there " made his home once for all, well aware that it
was to be his home — expecting no change in this respect
all his life long — in tents," movable, shifting abodes
— here to-day, there to-morrow — with (as did also in
their turn) " Isaac and Jacob,"' the " heirs with him of
the same promise." (Dr. Vaughan.)

(10) A city which hath foundations.— Rather,
the city which hath the foundations. The general
thought is that which we find expressed in verses
14 — 16. There, the strangers and pilgrims are seeking
for a country of their own ; here, the dweller in tents
is waiting for the city that hath the foundations. All
these verses clearly teach that the promise as appre-
hended by the patriarchs was not bounded by the gift
of Canaan. Of what nature their expectations of the
future life may have been we cannot tell ; but this they
knew, that their fellowship with God and their interest
in His promises would not cease with this transient
life. What they saw of earthly blessing was but the
earnest of some greater gift still future, and yet present
through the power of their faith. The shifting tent
might bo Abraham's home now, but he waited for
that city which should never know change — of which
alone it could be said that it hath " the foundations,"
and whose Architect and Maker is God. (Comp.
Ps. lxxxvii. 1 ; Rev. xxi.)

UD Through faith also Sara herself.— Rather,
Bij faith Sarah herself also, or, even Sarah herself.
This emphatic introduction of the name of Sarah may
point to the unbelief which for a brief while she dis-
played (Gen. xviii. 12); but the words may simply
mean, "Sarah also, on her part" — the joint recipient
with Abraham of the divine promise, a promise in
which it might at first seem that she had no part. (Comp.

333

Gen. xvi. 1, 2.) The words " was delivered of a child "
are absent from the best authorities ; so that we must
read, " even when she was past age." With the last
words of the verse compare chap. x. 23.

(12) The stars of the sky. — Better, the stars of
the heaven. (See Gen. xv. 5 ; xxii. 17.)

And as the sand. — "And as the sand by the sea-
shore, which is innumerable " (Gen. xxii. 17). With
the first words of the verse compare Rom. iv. 19.

(is) These all died in faith. — We must not
change the order of the original. Seven verses up to
this point have begun with the emphatic words " by
faith." There is a change here, but not in the empha-
sis of this thought. We should not expect to read
" By faith these died; " what is said is, " In accordance
with faith all these died ; " faith had been the support
and guide of their life, and their death was in accord-
ance with the same principle. That is, they (Abra-
ham, Isaac, Jacob, Sarah) did not die in possession of
what had been promised (verse 39), but saw at a
distance the blessings of which God had spoken
(verse 1).

And were persuaded of them. — These words do
not belong to the true text ; and the word " embraced "
should be rendered " greeted," or " saluted." We read,
therefore : " Not having received the promises, but
having seen and greeted them from far " (Gen. xlix.
18), " and having confessed that they were strangers
and sojourners upon the earth " (Gen. xlvii. 9 ; xxiii. 4).
(Comp. 1 Chron. xxix. 15; Ps. xxxix. 12; cxix. 19,
54; also 1 Pet. i. 1; ii. 11. The verses which follow
are a comment on this. For the last words, " on the
earth," see verse 16.

(1*) Such things. — " I am a stranger and a sojourner
with you " (Gen. xxiii. 4). " The days of the years of
my pilgrimage .... the life of my fathers in the
days of their pilgrimage " (Gen. xlvii. 9).

Declare plainly that they seek a country.—
Rather, make it plain that they are seeking a home, or
fatherland.

(15) They might have had. — Rather, they would
have had opportunity to return. All their life long
they would have been able to claim again their earlier
fatherland, by returning whence they came.

(16) They confess themselves but sojourners (verse
13), and thus make it plain that they are still seeking
their true home (14) ; and yet, if they had sought
nothing more than an earthly home, there is one
already, which was once theirs, and to which they

The Trial of A braham.

HEBREWS, XL

Isaac. Jacob.

to be called their God : for lie hath
prepared for them a city. <17^ By faith
Abraham, when he was tried, offered up
Isaac : and he that had received the
promises offered up his only begotten
son, <18) of1 whom it was said, That in
Isaac shall thy seed be called : <19> ac-

counting that God was able to raise him
up, even from the dead; from whence
also he received him in a figure. (2°) By
faith Isaac blessed Jacob and Esau con-
cerning things to come. (21> By faith
Jacob, when he Avas a dying, blessed
both the sons of Joseph ; and wor-

might return (15) ; hence it is no earthly but a heavenly
country that they desire. This is the general current
of thought in these verses, presenting a very close
analogy to the argument of chap. iii. 7 — iv. 11 ; here, as
there, words which otherwise might appear to have but
an earthly reference are seen to have a higher and a \
spiritual import. In verses 8 and 9 we have before us \
only the land of inheritance, but in verse 10 the
heavenly rest ; and in verse 13 words which as x*ead in
Genesis might seem to refer to a wandering life in the I
land of Canaan are taken as a confession of sojourning
upon earth. It is not necessary to suppose that the
desires and yearnings of " the fathers " expressed them-
selves in the definite forms which later revelation has
made familiar; in all that is essential the hope existed,
whilst the mode of the fulfilment was unknown.
Through faith the patriarchs were willing to connect
their whole life and that of their children with waiting
at God's bidding for the fulfilment of a promise — !
wandering and sojourning until God's own time should
come when He would grant a home in a country of
their own. And yet each of these servants of God
recognised that relation to God in which lay the foun-
dation of the promise to him to be personal and abiding.
If these two thoughts be united, it will be easy to see
how each one for himself would be led to regard the
state of wandering in which he spent his life as an
emblem of a state of earthly waiting for an enduring
home; the sojourning in the laud was a constant
symbol of the sojourning upon earth. Hence (see the
passages quoted in verse 13) the same language is used
from age to age after Canaan is received as an in-
heritance. (Comp. chap. iv. 9; and see Ex. iii. 15,
and Matt. xxii. 31, 32.)

But now. — See chap. viii. 6 ; the meaning is not
" at this present time," but " as the case stands in
truth."

Wherefore God is not ashamed. — Rather,
Wherefore God is not ashamed of them, (compare chap,
ii. 11). Because of this lofty desire, or rather, because
of the faith and love towards Him iu which the desire
was founded, and of which therefore the longing for
a heavenly country was the expression, God is not
ashamed of them, to be called (literally surnamed) \
their God (Gen. xvii. 7 ; xxvi. 24 ; xxviii. 13 ; Ex. iii. 6 ; I
et al.). That He is not ashamed of them He has shown,
" for He prepared for them a city." Before the desire
existed the home had been provided. (Comp. Matt.
xxv. 34.)

<17) The patriarchs displayed their faith in the atti- ;
tude of their whole life, and in their death. This has !
been the thought of the preceding verses ; the writer ;
now passes to the lessons taught by particular actions
and events.

Tried.— Gen. xxii. 1 : " God did tempt Abraham."
The following word is in the Greek " hath offered up
Isaac," and several other examples of a similar pecu-
liarity will present themselves in this chapter. As in
former cases (chaps, iv. 9 ; vii. 11 ; x. 9) the refei'ence is
to the permanent record of Scripture, in which the fact ,

334

related is ever present. Abraham stands before us
there as having offered his son. It will be seen that
the offering is spoken of as if consummated. As
regards faith the sacrifice was indeed complete; the
perfect surrender of will had been made, and the hand
was stretched out for the deed.

And he that had received the promises
offered up. — Rather, and he that had welcomed
(gladly accepted) the promises was offering up. From
the figurative accomplishment of the deed the writer
passes to the historical narrative ; hence we read, " he
. . . was (in the act of) offering." This clause and verse

18 set forth the greatness of the sacrifice (compare
Gen. xxii. 2, in the literal rendering, " Take now thy
son, thine only one, whom thou lovest, Isaac ") ; verse

19 explains the operation of his faith.

(18) Of whom.— That is, Isaac. But the Greek
words should perhaps be rendered to whom (Abraham) :
" Even he to whom it was said." On this quotation
from Gen. xxi. 12 see the Note on Rom. ix. 7.

(19) That God was able. — These words are better
taken as the expression of a general truth — " Account-
ing that God is able to raise up even from the dead."
The faith which tests and brings conviction of the
things not seen made this reasoning possible, and gave
power to act upon it even when Isaac must be slain.

From whence also. — Better, from whence he did
in a figure (literally, a parable) receive him. As in a
figure the offering was completely carried out (verse
17), so also in figure he received his son back from the
dead.

(2°) Concerning things to come. — It is probable,
though not certain, that the word " even " should be
inserted before " concerning " ; on these words, then,
the emphasis will rest. Not having regard to things
present only, or things almost at hand, but looking far
into the future, through the divine revelation which
opened to him the meaning of the promises received
by Abraham, he gave to each son the blessing designed
by God (Gen. xxvii. 27 — 29, 39, 40). Isaac's confidence
in the divine guidance of his words is especially seen
in verse 33 of the chapter.

(21) Both the sons. — Rather, each of the sons.
The separate character of the two blessings is thus
brought out (Gen. xlviii. 14 — 19). (See the last Note.)
In the case of the two events mentioned in this verse
the order of time is reversed, probably that the bless-
ing of Jacob may immediately follow the similar record
of verse 20.

And worshipped. — The incident referred to will
be found in Gen. xlvii. 31. After receiving from
Joseph a promise, confirmed by oath, that he shall be
buried with his fathers, " Israel bowed himself upon "
(or, worshipped towards) "the bed's head." In the
LXX. and in the Targums the words are under-
stood as denoting an act of worship. The Greek trans-
lators have taken the last word of the Hebrew verse to
denote "staff" (Gen. xxxii. 10), not "bed," the words
which bear these different meanings differing very
slightly in form. The whole clause is given here as

TJie Faith of Moses.

HEBKEWS, XT.

His Clu

shipped, leaning upon the top of his
staff. &) By faith Joseph, when he
died, made mention of1 the departing
of the children of Israel ; and gave com-
mandment concerning his bones. (23) By
faith Moses, when he was born, was hid
three months of his parents, because
they saw he was a proper child ; and
they were not afraid of the king's com-
mandment. f24) By faith Moses, when

1 Or, remeiiiln ml.

2 Or, for Christ.

he was come to years, refused to be
called the son of Pharaoh's daughter;
<25> choosing rather to suffer affliction
with the people of God, than to enjoy the
pleasures of sin for a season; (^esteem-
ing the reproach of Christ2 greater
riches than the treasures in Egypt : for
he had respect unto the recompence of
the reward. <27> By faith he forsook
Egypt, not fearing the wrath of the

it stands in the LXX., the difference between the
renderings being immaterial for the purpose which the
writer had in view. The quotation of the familiar
words serves to recall the scene, and brings before us
Israel's thankful and devout satisfaction when assured
that he should rest with his fathers in the land of
Canaan ; by this, at the point of death, he expressed
his faith in the promise by which Abraham and his
seed received Canaan as their inheritance.

(22) When he died. — Literally, drawing to his
end. The word is taken from Gen.l. 26 ; and the mention
of the departure (literally, the Exodus) of the children
of Israel is found in verses 24, 25. This example of
faith in the promise and clinging to the hope which it
held forth needs no comment. For the fulfilment of
Joseph's dying request see Ex. xiii. 19, " Moses took
the bones of Joseph with him" out of Egypt; and Josh,
xxiv. 32, " And the bones of Joseph buried they in
Shechem."

(23) Because they saw he was a proper child.
— " Proper " has its now obsolete sense of handsome,
comely, a meaning not uncommon in Shakespeare.
The word used in the Greek translation of Ex. ii. 2
is preserved both in Acts vii. 20 (see the Note) and in
this place. It would seem that the remarkable beauty
of the infant was understood by his parents as a divine
sign given for the guidance of their conduct. The
next clause should probably be closely connected with
this—" because they saw . . . and were not afraid of
the king's commandment " (Ex. i. 16). Their reliance
<jn the protection of God enabled them to brave the
anger of the king.

(24) Come to years— i.e., grown up, "when he
was full forty years old " (Acts vii. 23). The words
here used are taken from the Greek translation of
Ex. ii. 11, where we first read of Moses as openly
associating himself with his oppressed people. When
Moses slew the Egyptian who was " smiting a Hebrew,
one of his brethren," he in act " refused to be called a
son of Pharaoh's daughter," and chose "to suffef
affliction with the people of God." (See Ex. ii. 15.)

(25) Choosing. — Better, having chosen. His act
was an expression of his deliberate choice. He joined
his people because it was "the people of God." To
stand aloof for the sake of ease and pleasure would for
him have been apostasy from God (" sin," comp. chap,
x. 26). The faith of Moses had brought " conviction
of the things not seen," which " are eternal " ; hence he
looked not at " the things seen " which are " for a
season " (2 Cor. iv. 18. where the same word is used).

(26) The reproach of Christ.— Better, The re-
proach of the Christ. Many explanations have been
proposed of this remarkable phrase, some of which —
as " reproach for Christ," " reproach similar to that
which Christ endured " — cannot possibly give the true
meaning. The first point to be noted is that the words

are almost exactly a quotation from one of the chief of
the Messianic Psalms (Ps. lxxxix. 50, 51) — " Remember,
Lord, the reproach of Thy servants ; how I do bear in
my bosom the reproach of many peoples : wherewith
Thine enemies have reproached, O Lord ; wherewith
they have reproached the footsteps of Thine Anointed."
Here the writer in effect speaks of himself as bearing
" the reproach of the Anointed " of the Lord ; pleading
in his name and identifying himself with his cause.
" The Anointed " is the king who (see the Note on chap,
i. 5) was the type of the promised Christ. Through-
out the whole of their history the people of Israel were
the people of the Christ. Their national existence origi-
nated in the promise to Abraham, which was a promise
of the Christ ; and till the fulness of time should come
their mission was to prepare the way for Him. The
reproach which Moses accepted by joining the people
of the promise was, therefore, "the reproach of the
Christ," the type of that "reproach" which in later
days His people will share with Him (chap. xiii. 13).
He who was to appear in the last days as the Messiah
wa6 already in the midst of Israel (John i. 10). (See
Ps. lxix. 9; Col. i. 24; IPet.i.ll; and the Note on
2 Cor. i. 5. Phil. iii. 7 — 11 furnishes a noble illustra-
tion of this whole record.)

For he had respect unto the recompence ot
the reward. — Rather, for he looked unto the recom-
pence (chap. x. 35). He habitually "looked away"
from the treasures in Egypt, and fixed his eye on the
heavenly reward.

(27) By faith he forsook Egypt. — It is a matter
of great difficulty to decide whether these words refer
to the flight into Midian (Ex. ii. 15), or to the Exodus.
The former view, which seems to be taken by all ancient
writers and by most in modern times, is supported by
the following arguments: — (1) The institution of the
Passover is mentioned later in this chapter (verse 28) ;

(2) the second departure was made at Pharaoh's urgent
request (Ex. xii. 31); (3) "he forsook" is too per-
sonal an expression to be used of the general Exodus.
On the other side it is urged with great force : (1) that,
although the actual departure from Egypt followed the
institution of the Passover, the "forsaking" really
commenced in the demand of chap. v. 1 — 3, persevered
in until the anger of the king was powerfully excited
(chap. x. 28) ; (2) that, as might have been certainly
foreseen, the wrath of both king and people was
aroused as soon as the people had departed (Ex. xiv. 5):

(3) that the flight to Midian was directly caused bj
fear (Ex. ii. 14, 15) ; (4) that the following words.
" he endured, &c," are much more applicable to the
determined persistency of Moses and his repeated dis-
appointments (Ex. v. — xii.) than to the inaction of his

j years of exile. On the whole the latter interpretation
I 0™„,t. preferable. If the former be adopted, we must

distinguish between the apprehension which led him

The Triumphs

HEBREWS, XL

of Faith,

king : for he endured, as seeing him
who is invisible. (28) Through faith he
kept the passover, and the sprinkling of
blood, lest he that destroyed the first-
born should touch them. (29> By faith
they passed through the Red sea as by
dry land : which the Egyptians assaying
to do were drowned. <30> By faith the
walls of Jericho fell down, after they
were compassed about seven days.
(3i) By faith the harlot Rahab perished
not with them that believed not,1 when
she had received the spies with peace.
<32) And what shall I more say ? for the

Or, Hint were ilis-
nhedieul.
a 3 Mace. 7. 7.

time would fail me to tell of Gedeon,
and of Barak, and of Samson, and of
Jephthae ; of David also, and Samuel,
and of the prophets : ^ who through
faith subdued kingdoms, Avrought right-
eousness, obtained promises, stopped
the mouths of lions, <34> quenched the
violence of fire, escaped the edge of
the sword, out of weakness were made
strong, waxed valiant in fight, turned
to flight the armies of the aliens.
(35) "Women received their dead raised to
life again : and others were tortured,"
not accepting deliverance; that they

to seek safety in flight and the courage which enabled
him to give up Egypt.

He endured. — In the presence of Pharaoh (or in
the weariness of exile) lie was strong and patient, as
seeing the invisible King and Leader of His people.

(23) Through faith he kept— Rather, By faith
he hath kept (see verse 17). The celebration of the
Passover and the sprinkling of the blood were acts
of obedience, having reference to a danger as yet un-
seen, but present in God's word (Ex. xii. 12).

Lest he that destroyed — Better, that the destroyer
, of the first-bom may not touch them. (See Ex. xii. 21,
22, 28, 29.)

(29) which the Egyptians assaying to do.—
Literally, Of which the Egyptians making trial were
swallowed up (Ex. xiv., xv.). In the same " trial," but
with the support of the word of God, had consisted
Israel's faith. The word land is not in the ordinary
Greek text (and hence stands in italics), but is found
in the best MSS. It is with this word that the follow-
ing clause ("of which ..'.*) connects itself.

(30) Seven days. — It is the persistence of Israel's
obedience (in the midst, we cannot doubt, of the un-
measured contempt and ridicule of their foes) during
the seven days of almost total inaction (Josh, vi.) that is
here brought into relief.

(31) That believed not.— Eather, that were dis-
obedient (see chaps, iii. 18; iv. 6, 11). To her and to
her countrymen alike had come the knowledge of what
the Lord had done for Israel (Josh. ii. 10). She recog-
nised from these signs, and acknowledged, the supre-
macy of Jehovah (verse 11), and she cast in her lot
with His servants; the men of Jericho continued in
their disobedience, and perished (Josh. vi. 21). Through
faith, therefore, a despised heathen woman became
united with the people of God. With such an example
these more detailed histories may fitly close.

(32) The sacred writer has lingered over the life and
deeds of the greatest of the patriai-chs and of Moses the
legislator of the nation : two examples only — differing in
kind from those which have preceded, and peculiarly
suggestive and important — have been taken from the
history of the people after the death of Moses. Enough
has now been said to guide all who are willing to
search the Scriptures for themselves. "With a brief
mention of names which would call up before the minds
of his readers achievements almost as wonderful as
those on which he has been dwelling, he passes from
the elders who received witness from God by their faith,
and (verses 33 — 38) speaks in general terms, but all the
more distinctly, of the triumphs which faith has won.

The time would fail me.— The slight changes of
text required by our best evidence give increased Vivid-
ness : For the time will fail me if I tell of Gideon,
Barak, Samson, Jephthah. To the exploits of Barak
(Judg. iv., v.), Gideon (vi. — viii.), Samson (xiii. — xvi.),
Jephthah (xi., xii.), there is manifest reference in the
words of later verses (33, 34). There seems to be no
design in this arrangement of the names. In the
following clause also, " of David and Samuel and the
prophets," there is a similar departure from the order
of time.

(33) Subdued kingdoms.— Better, overcame king-

i doms. To all the deliverers of Israel of whom we have
read in verse 32 (and especially to David, 2 Sam.
viii., x., xi.) these words will apply. They also " wrought
righteousness," as each judge or king or prophet
" executed judgment and justice unto all his people "

! (2 Sam. viii. 15).

Obtained promises.— Do these words mean that

[ these men of faith won promises of future blessing
(such as were vouchsafed to David and the prophets),
or that promises of deliverance were fulfilled to them P
There seems no reason for doubting that the writer's
language may include both thoughts. The words which
follow (though illustrated in the history of Samson and
of David) clearly point to Daniel (chap. vi.).

(34) The violence.— Rather, the power (Daniel iii.).
Escaped the edge of the sword.— Though it

would not be difficult to trace the application of this
and the following clauses to the heroes of Israel cele-
brated in the Old Testament history (the perils of
David and Elijah and the " weakness " of Samson and
Hezekiah will occur to the mind of all), it seems likely
that the writer's thought is resting mainly on the his-
tory of the Maccabsean times. That the following verse
relates to narratives contained in the Second Book of
Maccabees is generally acknowledged; and no words
could more truly characterise the general contents of
the First Book than those of the present verse.

(35) Raised to life again. — Literally, by a resurrec-
tion. (See 1 Kings xvii. 22, 23 ; 2 Kings iv. 35—37.)
At this point the character of the record is changed ;
hitherto we have heard of the victories of faith in
action, now it is of the triumph of faith over suffering
that the writer speaks. Those who " escaped the edge
of the sword" (verse 34) and those who " were slain
with the sword " alike exemplified the power of faith.

Others were tortured.— See the account of the
aged Eleazar (2 Mace. vi. 30), martyred because he
would not pollute himself with swine's flesh and the
" flesh taken from the sacrifice commanded by the

Confessors and Martyrs.

HEBREWS, XII.

Tlie, Cloud of Witnesses.

might obtain a better resurrection :
(^ and others had trial of cruel mockings
and scourgings, yea, moreover of bonds
and imprisonment : <37) they were stoned,
they were sawn asunder, were tempted,
were slain with the sword : they wan-
dered about in sheepskins and goat-
skins ; being destitute, afflicted, tor-
mented ; <m> (of whom the world
was not worthy :) they wandered in
deserts, and in mountains, and in
dens and caves of the earth. W And

these all, having obtained a good
report through faith, received not
the promise : ^ God having pro-
vided1 some better thing for us, that
they without us should not be made
perfect.

CHAPTER XII.— d) Wherefore see-
ing we also are compassed „, .. , ,_

■u j. -j.1 x i j Chap. in. 1—17.

about with so great a cloud Let us through
of witnesses, let us lay aside f^th persevere

• -l \ j A. -to the end.

every weight, and the sin

king." The following chapter records the martyr-
dom of seven brethren, who for their adherence to !
their law were put to death with cruel tortures. (See j
especially verses 9, 14, 23, 29, 36.)

JSTot accepting deliverance.— Literally, not ac-
cepting the redemption, i.e., the deliverance offered,
which must be purchased at the price of their con-
stancy.

A better resurrection.— Better than that return |
to the present life which is spoken of in the first words ;
of the verse.

(36) The language becomes more general, but still j
chiefly refers to the same troublous times.

Yea, moreover of bonds. — Lasting and cruel |
captivity, a worse fate even than " mockings and i
scourgings."

(37) They were stoned.— As Zechariah (2 Chron. j
xxiv. 20 — 22), and — according to a Jewish tradition ■
mentioned by Tertullian and others — Jeremiah. (See I
Matt, xxiii. 35, 37.)

They were sawn asunder. — An ancient tra-
dition, mentioned both by Jewish and by early
Christian writers, relates that Isaiah was thus put to
death by order of Manasseh. The following words, '
" they were tempted," are very remarkable in such a '
position ; and many conjectures have been hazarded j
on the supposition that a mistake of transcription has !
occurred. If the text is correct, the writer is speaking of j
the promises and allurements by which the persecutors |
sought to overcome the constancy of God's servants.

Slain with the sword.— See 1 Kings xix. 1, 10 j
Jerem. xxvi. 23.

They wandered about.— Rather, they went about,
as outcasts ; compelled to live the life of wanderers and
exiles.

Tormented. — Rather, being destitute, afflicted, ill- ■
treated (of whom the world was not worthy), wandering j
in deserts and mountains and caves and the holes of !
the earth. Once more the Maccabaean persecutions j
seem to be chiefly in view. (See 1 Mace. ii. 28, 29; i
2 Mace. v. 27 ; vi. 11. Comp. also 1 Sam. xxii. 1 ; j
1 Kings xviii. 4.)

(39) Having obtained a good report. — Now that j
the history is concluded the word of verse 2 is resumed, j
That in such a faith as was described in verse 1 " the j
elders " received their witness from God, the records j
themselves have shown; yet "these all, having had j
witness borne to them through their faith, received not I
the promise," i.e., the promised blessing. There are j
three passages of the Epistle which must be kept !
together — chap. vi. 15, "And so, having patiently
waited, he (Abraham) obtained the promise; " chap.
x. 36, " Ye have need of endurance, that having done
the will of God ye may receive the promise ; " and I

337

the present verse. To the saints of the Old Testament
the promised blessing was future ; they obtained it, but
not within the limits of this present life. To us the
promised blessing is present, revealed to us in its true
nature, obtained for us once for all; for we know that
eternal redemption has been won through Christ's
entering for us once for all into the heavenly sanc-
tuary (chap. ix. 12), and to us the "perfection" has
come, in that through Him we " draw near to God "
(chap. vii. 11, 19). That (1) the full personal appropria-
tion of the gift is for every one of us still future, and
(2) the full revelation belongs to another state of being,
is true, but not inconsistent with what has been said.

(40) Por us. — Rather, concerning us, that without
(or, apart from) lis they should not be made perfect.
" Some better thing " — better than they had received
(Matt. xiii. 17 ; 1 Pet. i. 10, 11). The design of God
was that they and we may be perfected together ;
first in the joint reception of mature knowledge and
privilege through the High-priestly work of the Lord
Jesus (comp. Eph. iii. 10 ; 1 Pet. i. 12) ; and then that
we with them may, when the end shall come, •' have
our perfect consummation and bliss both in body and
soul, in the eternal and everlasting glory of God." See
further the Note on chap. xii. 23.

XII.
In this chapter the writer takes up again the ex-
hortation of chap. x. 19 — 39, pointing to the example
of Jesus, encouraging those who are in trial, warning
against sin, and especially the sin of rejecting Him
who speaks to us from heaven.

(!) Wherefore seeing we also are com-
passed about. — Rather, Therefore let tis also — since
we are compassed about with so great a cloud of
witnesses — having put away all encumbrance and the
sin . . . run with patient endurance the race that is
set before us, looking, &c. (In so difficult a verse as
this we need an exactness of translation which might
not otherwise be desirable.) It is plain that the chief
thought is, " Let us run our race with patient endurance,
looking unto Jesus the Author ... of our faith ; "
so that here again we have the thought which the
writer is never weary of enforcing, the need of faith
and patienco for all who would inherit the promises.
The connection is chiefly with the last verses of
chap, xi., which are, indeed, a summary of the whole
chapter. The purpose of God has been that those who
throughout the past ages obtained witness of Him
through their faith should not reach their consumma-
tion apart from us. To that consummation, then, let
us press forward. Present to us in the view of Christ's
accomplished sacrifice, it is all future in regard of

■Jesus the Author and

HEBREWS, XII.

Per/ecter of Faith.

which, doth so easily beset us, and let us
run with patience the race that is set be-
fore us, <2) looking unto Jesus the author1

and finisher of our faith; who for the
joy that was set before him endured the
cross, despising the shame, and is set

personal attainment. As those who have preceded us
reached the goal, each one for himself, by faith and
patient endurance, so must we. The thought of per-
severing effort crowned by a recompence of reward
/chaps, vi. 12, 18 ; x. 35 — 39) very naturally suggested
the imagery of the public games (by this time familiar
even to Jews), to which St. Paul in his Epistles so
frequently alludes. (See 1 Cor. iv. 9; ix. 24 — 27;
Phil. iii. 12—14; 1 Tim. vi. 12; 2 Tim. iv. 7, 8 ; comp.
chap. x. 32, 33.) In these passages are called up the
various associations of the great national festivals of
Greece — the severe discipline of the competitors, the
intenseness of the struggle, the rewards, " the righteous
judge," the crowd of spectators. Most of these
thoughts are present here (verses 1, 2, 4), and new
points of comparison are added, so that the scene is
brought vividly before our eyes. It has been often
supposed that the word " witnesses " is used in the
sense of spectators of the race. To an English reader
this idea is very natural (as " witnesses " may simply
mean beholders), but there is no such ambiguity in the
Greek word {martyr es). The Greek fathers rightly
understood it to signify those who bear witness, and
the chief point of doubt seems to have been whether the
sense is general, or whether the word bears its later
meaning — martyrs, who have borne testimony with
their blood. Those who thus encompass us, a countless
host (a " cloud " of witnesses), have had witness borne
to them through their faith, and in turn stand forth
as witnesses to faith, bearing testimony to its power
and works. One and all they offer encouragement to
us in our own contest of faith, and for this reason they
are mentioned here. That the idea of the presence of
spectators may be contained in the other words, " com-
passed about with so great a cloud," is very possible ;
but no interpretation must be allowed to interfere with
the chief thought — that the runner's steadfast gaze is
fixed on Him who has Himself traversed the course
before us, and is now the Judge and Rewarder.

Every weight. — The Greek word was sometimes
used by Greek writers to denote the excessive size and
weight of body which the athlete sought to reduce by
means of training; but may also signify the encum-
brance of any burden, unnecessary clothing, and the
like. It is here best taken in a general sense, as
denoting anything that encumbers, and thus renders
the athlete less fitted for the race. In the inter-
pretation we might, perhaps, think of the pressure of
earthly cares, were it not that the writer seems to
have in mind the special dangers of the Hebrew
Christians. The "divers and strange teachings"
spoken of in chap. xiii. 9, in which would be included
the Judaising practices which they were tempted
to observe (such as St. Peter described as a "yoke"
too heavy to be borne), will probably suit the figure
best.

And the sin which doth so easily beset us.
— The last six words are the translation of a single
adjective, which does not occur elsewhere. The Greek
commentators, from whom we might expect some light
on the phrase, seem to be entirely reduced to con-
jecture. Chrysostom, for example, adoj>ts in various
places two altogether different meanings, "sin which
easily (or, completely) surrounds us," "sin which is
overcome." To these Theophylact adds a third,

" sin through which man is easily brought into danger."
The prevailing opinion amongst modern writers appears
to be that the word signifies well (or, easily) surround-
ing; and that the writer is comparing sin with a
garment — either a loosely fitting garment by which the
runner becomes entangled and tripped up, or one that
clings closely to him and thus impedes his ease of
movement. This view of the meaning is taken in our
earlier English versions, which either follow the Latin
(Wiclif, "that standeth about us;" Rhemish, "that
compasseth us"), or render the words, the sin that
hangeth on, or, that hangeth so fast on. The sense is
excellent, but it is very doubtful whether the Greek
will admit of such a rendering. Though the exact
word is not found elsewhere, there are words closely
allied as to the meaning of which there is no doubt.
Analogy clearly points to the signification much admired
(literally, well surrounded by an admiring crowd). It
is not impossible that even with this meaning the
words " lay aside " or put away (often applied to
putting off clothing) might still suggest a garment ;
if so, the allusion .might be to a runner who refused to
put off a garment which the crowd admired, though
such an encumbrance must cause him to fail of the
prize. It is more likely that the writer speaks of sin
generally as an obstacle to the race, which must be put
aside if the runner is to contend at all. If we look at
the later exhortations of the Epistle, we shall find
repeated mention of the reproach which the followers
of Christ must bear. Even in the history of Moses
(chap. xi. 26) there are words which suggest the thought.
(See also chaps, x. 33; xiii. 13). So in the next verse
we read of the cross of Jesus and the shame which He
despised. Over against this " reproach " is set the sin
which is sure to win man's favour and applause — the
sin of which we have read in chap. x. 26 (comp.
chap. xi. 25), which, seemingly harmless in its first
approaches, will end in a " falling away from the
living God." The rendering with which the Autho-
rised version has made us familiar is full of interest,
but cannot (at all events as it is commonly understood)
be an expression of the sense intended. Whatever
view be taken of the one peculiar word, it does not
seem possible that the phrase can point to what is
known as a " besetting sin," the sin which in the case
of any one of us is proved to possess especial power.

(2) Looking unto Jesus.— As in chap. ii. 9, the
description precedes the mention of the name, " Look-
ing unto the Author and Perfecter of (our) faith, Jesus."
The first word is very similar to that of chap. xi. 26 ;
the runner looks away from all other objects and fixes
his gaze on One. Jesus is not directly spoken of as
the Judge (2 Tim. iv. 8) ; but, as the next words show,
He has Himself reached the goal, and His presence
marks the point at which the race will close. As the
last verse spoke of our "patient endurance," this
speaks of our faith, and of this Jesus is the Author
and the Perfecter. The former word has occurred before,
in chap. ii. 10 ; and here, as there, origination is the
principal thought. There the idea of leading the way
was also present; but here "Author" stands in con-
trast with " Perfecter," and the example of our Lord
is the subject of the clause which follows. Because it
is He who begins and brings to perfection our faith,
we must run the race with our eye fixed upon Him :

338

The Chastening of tlie Lord.

HEBEEWS, XII.

A Fatlier's Discipline,

down at the right hand of the throne of
God. W For consider him that endured
such contradiction of sinners against
himself, lest ye be wearied and faint in
your minds. (4> Ye have not yet re-
sisted unto blood, striving against sin.
(5) And ye have forgotten the exhorta-
tion which speaketh unto you as unto
children, My son, despise not thou the
chastening of the Lord, nor faint when
thou art rebuked of him: ^ for whom

the Lord loveth he chasteneth, and
scourgeth every son whom he receiveth.
<7> If ye endure chastening, God dealeth
with you as with sons ; for what son is
he whom the father chasteneth not?
w But if ye be without chastisement,
whereof all are partakers, then are ye
bastards, and not sons. <9> Furthermore
we have had fathers of our flesh which
corrected us, and we gave them reverence :
shall we not much rather be in subjec-

in Him is the beginning, in Him the completion of the
promises (2 Cor. i. 20) ; and in the steady and trustful
dependence upon Him which this figure describes
consists our faith.

"Who for the joy that was set before him
endured the cross.— The literal meaning is very
forcible, endured a cross, despising shame ; the shame
of such a death being set over against the joy that lay
before Him. Here again we have the thought of chap,
ii. 9 (Phil. ii. 9, 10) ; the joy of His accomplished pur-
pose (Isa. liii. 11 ; Matt. xxv. 21 ; Luke x. 21, 22) and
the glory with which He was crowned (John xvii. 1 ;
1 Pet. i. 11) being the reward for His " obedience even
unto death." The whole form of the expression (comp.
especially chap. vi. 18, "the hope set before us") shows
that Jesus is presented to us as an example not of
endurance only, but also of faith (chap. ii. 12). On
the last words of the verse see chaps, i. 3, 13 ; viii. 1 ;
x. 12, 13 ; there is here a slight change in the Greek,
which requires the rendering, and hath sat down at the
right hand of the throne of God.

(3) The figure of the race is still continued, " For
unless ye thus look unto Jesus ye will grow weary."

Consider. — Literally, compare ; place your suffer-
ings by the side of His.

Him that endured such contradiction.—
Rather, Him that hath endured such gainsaying from,
sinners against themselves. The word " gainsaying,"
(chaps, vi. 16; vii. 7) is so frequently used in the
LXX. for the rebelliousness of the people of Israel,
that we need not here limit it to contradiction in words.
The change of " Himself " into " themselves " (the
reading of the oldest MSS.) is important, but it is not
easy to say with what the last two words should be
joined; for the meaning may be either " sinners against
themselves" (comp. Num. xvi. 38), or "gainsaying
against themselves." In either case the force of the
words will be that the sin or the opposition manifested
against Him was really against themselves, since it
was for their salvation that He came upon earth. .To
all His other sorrows were added the pain of their
ingratitude and His grief over their aggravated guilt.

And faint. — Rather, fainting in your souls.

(4) Ye have not yet resisted unto blood.—
Still the general figure is retained, but for the foot-
race is substituted the contest of the pugilists. In
verse 1 sin was the hindrance which must be put
aside ; here it is the antagonist who must be subdued.
It is interesting to note exactly the same transition
in 1 Cor. ix. 26. (See Note.) The contest has been
maintained but feebly, for no blood has flowed in their
struggle with temptation and sin ; they have not
deserted the arena, but have shrunk from the suffering
which a determined struggle would have caused. It
is possible that the writer goes beyond the figure in

339

these words, and that the price of their resistance
might indeed have been their " blood."

(5) In this cowardly avoidance of trouble and per-
secution they have been shrinking from that chastening
which every son receives from the Lord.

Which speaketh unto you.— Better, which holds
converse (or, reasoneth) with you as with sons. The
words which follow are taken from Prov. iii. 11, 12,
and agree with the text of the LXX., except that for
"son" we have "my son," and for "reproveth" (verse 6)
" chasteneth." In the original passage Solomon is the
speaker, and it is the second verse only that speaks of
God's fatherly love. It may be so here also, but the
exhortation of the Scripture seems to bo quoted as
if spoken directly by God. Hiinself to His sons.

Despise. — Better, think not lightly of. In the next
clause the Hebrew (" and loathe not His correction ")
denotes rather a spirit that rejects and chafes under
divine discipline. As the words are found hero, they
point to losing heart and hope.

(6) And scourgeth.— As the words stand in our
Hebrew text, the meaning is " even as a father the
son in whom he delighteth." A very slight change in
one word, however, will yield the sense in which the
clause was understood by the Greek translators, and
which is here retained. For the purpose of this quo-
tation the difference between the two renderings is not
material.

(?) If ye endure chastening.— The whole weight
of ancient evidence is in favour of a change in the first
Greek word. Two translations are then possible :
(1) " It is for chastening that ye endure : " the troubles
that come upon you are for discipline — are not sent in
anger, but in fatherly love. (2) *' Endure for chasten-
ing : " bear the trial, instead of seeking to avoid it by
unworthy and dangerous concession ; endure it, that it
may effect its merciful purpose.

"What son is he. — Or, what son is there whom his
father chasteneth not t

(8) Whereof all are partakers.— Better, whereof
all (God's children) have been made partakers. Were
it possible that they have never known this fatherly
" chastening," it must be that they are not sons whom
a father acknowledges, and for whose training he
has care.

(9) Furthermore we have had fathers.— Rather,
Furthermore ice had the fathers of our flesh as chasteners
(i.e., to chasten us). The thought of the former verses
has been, " He chastens as a father." From likeness
we here pass to contrast. The contrast drawn is
between our natural parents and "the Father of spirits"
(comp. Num. xvi. 22; xxvii. 16; Zech. xii. 1) — the
Creator of all spirits, who is the Giver of life to all,
who knows the spirit which He has made (see Ps. xciv.
9, 10) and can discipline it by His chastening.

The Fruit of Righteousness.

HEBREWS, XII.

Follow Peace and Holi

tion unto the Father of spirits, and live?
(io) j\)r they verily for a few days chas-
tened us after their own pleasure ; but
he for our profit, that we might be
partakers of his holiness. (11) Now no
chastening for the present seemeth to
be joyous, but grievous : nevertheless
afterward it yieldeth the peaceable fruit
of righteousness unto them which are
exercised thereby. (12) Wherefore lift up

the hands which hang down, and the
feeble knees ; ^ and make straight l
paths for your feet, lest that which is
lame be turned out of the way ; but let
it rather be healed. I1*) Follow peace
with all men, and holiness, without
which no man shall see the Lord :
<15> looking diligently lest any man fail
of2 the grace of God; lest any root of
bitterness springing up trouble you, and

And live. — Since the life- of the spirit subsists only
in union with Him.

(io) After their own pleasure. — Rather, as
seemed good unto them. The contrast is continued
here between human liability to mistake and the perfect
knowledge of our heavenly Father, who seeks our
profit, and cannot err in the means which He employs.
There is a general resemblance between this verse and
the last, the "few days" corresponding to the "fathers
of our flesh ; " and the last clause here, " that we may
be partakers of His holiness," to the words which close
verse 9, " and live." To the " few days " no contrast
is directly expressed in the second member of the
verse; none was needed, because the last words so
clearly imply the permanence of the result.

(H) Now no chastening . . .—Better (the read-
ing being slightly changed), All chastening seemeth for
the present time to be not joyous, hut grievous. The
language, so far, would seem to be perfectly general,
relating to all chastening, whether human or divine.
The following clause may seem to confine our thought
to the latter ; but, with a lower sense of " righteous-
ness," the maxim is true of the wise discipline of
earthly parents.

The peaceable fruit of righteousness —
Better, peaceful fruit, (fruit) of righteousness, to them,
that have been trained thereby. The " peaceful" fruit
stands in contrast with the unrest and trouble which
have preceded during the time of " chastening." But
there is more than rest after conflict, for the object of
the conflict is attained ; the fruit consists in righteous-
ness. (Comp. Isa. xxxii. 17 ; Prov. xi. 30 ; Jas. iii. 17 ;
Phil. i. 11.) It has been sometimes supposed that in
the word " trained " the writer returns to the figure
of verse 4 ; but this is not probable.

(12) Wherefore.— As in chap. x. 24, the writer
passes from the thought of personal risk and duty, to
speak (in verses 12 — 17) of that which is binding on all
members of a community. " Wherefore " — since the
trouble which has brought discouragement should rather
call forth thankfulness — " strengthen (literally, make
straight again, restore to a right state) the weakened
hands and the palsied knees. The words are almost
i rsproduction of Isa. xxxv. 3, where those who have
Jost heart and hope (compared to men whose limbs are
palsy-stricken) are encouraged by the promise of the
coming of their God bringing recompense and salvation.
(See chap. x. 36, 37.)

(13) And make straight paths.— Quoted with
some slight changes from the Greek translation of
Prov. iv. 26, " ponder " (or, more probably, make even)
" the path of thy feet."

Be turned out of the way.— The difficulty in
these Avords is concealed to some extent when they are
separated from the following clause, as in the Autho-
rised version ; this separation, however, the Greek will

not allow. If the words be rendered, " that what is
lame may not be turned out of the way, but may rather
be healed," wre cannot but feel that the two members
are somewhat incongruous. It is probable, therefore,
that the first verb here bears the meaning which it not
unf requently has in medical writers, be put out of joint.
Let the paths (or tracks) which you follow be straight,
for crooked and uneven paths will make the limbs
which are lame more helpless still; should nothing
aggravate the hurt that has been received, it may soon
be healed. In the application, the words are a warning
against the shifting courses of men who are ready to
turn aside from strict duty when persecution threatens,
aud seek to avert the danger by compliance with what
they do not in heart approve. Whatever may be the
result in the case of " the strong " (Rom. xiv. 1 ;
1 Cor. viii.), the example brings destruction on " the
weak."

(14) Follow peace.— More clearly (as our word
" followr " is somewhat ambiguous), follow after peace.
There is a manifest allusion to Ps. xxxiv. 14 (quoted
also in 1 Pet. iii. 11). This charge is general (Rom. xii.
18), and must not be limited to peace with fellow
Christians (Rom. xiv. 19). The two admonitions of
this verse were admirably suited to a period of per-
secution. Let all make peace their aim, yet not so as
to sacrifice purity. (Comp. Jas. iii. 17.)

And holiness. — Better, and the sanctijication with-
out ivhich no man shall see the Lord. In chap. ix. 28
we have the promise that " Christ . . . shall be seen "
by them that wait for Him : hence it might be supposed
(especially as in the next verse we read of " the grace
of God'") that "the Lord" is here, as in chap. ii. 3, a
designation of our Saviour. As, however, this Epistle
especially brings Him before us as the Sanctifier
(chaps, ii. 11 ; xiii. 12), who leads us into the presence
of God (chap. x. 19), we must rather look on these
words as akin to Matt. v. 8, " Blessed are the pure in
heart, for they shall see God" (Rev. xxii. 4).

(15) Lest any man fail.— Rather, whether any one
be falling back from the grace of God. The defection
of one member of the community brings loss and danger
to the whole body. The last words of chap. x. 26 will
show what is implied in this " falling back from the
grace of God."

Any root of bitterness.— It is clear that Deut.
xxix. 18, though not formally quoted, is before the
writer's mind. In that chapter Moses had again
brought before the people the covenant which, nearly
forty years before, had been made and ratified " in
Horeb " (see chap. ix. 18 — 20). With especial solemnity
he sets before them the sin and terrible punishment of
idolatry, " Lest there should be among you man or
woman . . . whose heart turneth away this day from
the Lord our God, to go and serve the gods of these
nations ; lest there should be among you a root that

Esau rejected.

HEBEEWS, XII.

The Terrors of Sinai.

thereby many be defiled ; <16) lest there
be any fornicator, or profane person, as
Esau, who for one morsel of meat sold
Ins birthright. <17> For ye know how that
afterward, when he would have inherited
the blessing, he was rejected : for he
found no place of repentance,1 though
he sought it carefully with tears.

(is) f"or je are not come unto the
mount that might be touched, and that

burned with fire, nor unto blackness,

and darkness, and tempest,

W and the sound of a g^^etr^

trumpet, and the voice of of Sinai. The

words ; which voice they Sewr£°evenant

that heard intreated that

the word should not be spoken to

them any more : <20) (for they could not

endure that which was commanded,

And if so much as a beast touch the

beareth gall and wormwood." The marginal note on
the last words (" poisonful herb "), explains their true
meaning — that which springs from the root is not
merely bitter, it is also poisonous. Again, therefore
(see chap. x. 27, 28, 30), the apostasy to which the
Hebrew Christians were tempted is compared with the
sin committed by those who by idolatry fell away from
God's ancient covenant ; and as one idol-worshipper in
a community might bring into it a root of bitter poison,
so one apostate from the Cln-istian faith would bring
trouble and defilement on the Church. In Acts viii. 23
St. Peter makes reference to the same chapter of
Deuteronomy as he speaks to Simon Magus, who, above
all other men, proved a root of bitter poison in the
early Church.

Many.— Rather, the many (according to the best
reading) — i.e., the whole community.

(lc) Lest there be.— Better (as in the last verse),
ivhetlier there be. Though Jewish tradition (see, for
example, the Targum of Palestine on Gen. xxv. 29)
affirms that Esau was a man of impure life, it is not
pi'obable that he is so represented in this verse. Here
he is mentioned as a type of " the profane," who care
not for divine things, but only for the gains and
pleasures of this world.

Who for one morsel of meat. — Better, who for
one meal sold his own birthright (Gen. xxv. 29 — 34).
We cannot suppose that the writer has in thought the
material rights of the firstborn, such as his claim on
pre-eminence and, possibly (see Deut. xxi. 17), on a
larger share of his father's possessions. Tradition
relates that, up to the time of Aaron, priestly functions
were discharged by each firstborn son (comp. Num. iii.
5 — 12) ; and to the line of the firstborn would seem to
belong that "blessing of Abraham" (Gen. xxviii. 4)
which every one who shared Abraham's faith would
earnestly desire to possess.

(1?) For ye know how that afterward . . .—
The meaning of the verse will be seen more clearly
if one clause be placed in a parenthesis : " For ye
know that even when he afterward desired to inherit
the blessing he was rejected (for he found no place of
repentance), though he sought it earnestly with tears."
The blessing of Jacob related in Gen. xxvii. is here
viewed (apart from all attendant circumstances) as a
necessary consequence of Esau's "profane" scorn of his
birthright. Notwithstanding Esau's piteous entreaty,
Isaac cannot but ratify (verse 33) the blessing which
he has pronounced ; though his son sought the blessing
earnestly with tears (verse 38), he was rejected. He
" found no place of repentance ; " that first act (Gen.
xxv. 33) could not be recalled, but brought with it a loss
which nothing could retrieve.

(It is right to add that other interpretations of the
verse have been given, which seem, however, much less
probable. Thus, the last clause has been understood

to mean that Esau earnestly sought repentance ; and
the preceding words, which we have placed in a
parenthesis, that he could not bring his father to a
change of purpose.)

(18—29) The exhortation to faithfulness is most impres-
sively enforced by means of a comparison between the.
earlier revelation and that which is given in Christ.

The mount that might be touched. — It
appears certain that the word " mount " has no
place in the true Greek text. Had this word been in
the sentence as originally written, its absence from all
our more ancient authorities would be inexplicable ;
whilst, on the other hand, the contrast with verse 22,
and the recollection of Deut. iv. 11, from which the last
words in this verse ai-e taken, would vory naturally lead
a transcriber to supply this word, which he might supposo
to have accidentally dropped out of the text. If, how-
ever, the writer did not make use of the word here,
though the contrast of verse 22 was already before his
mind, it seems certain that the word was not in his
thought ; and hence we have no right to introduce it in
the explanation of the verse. The true translation, in
all probability, is as follows : For ye are not come unto
a material (literally, a palpable) and kindled fire, and
unto gloom and darkness and tempest. The object of
the writer is to set forth the terrors which accompanied
the giving of the Law, — that which the awe-stricken
people saw and heard. Not the mount, but the terrible
fire was that which met their gaze. Thus again and
again in Deuteronomy we find reference to the voice
and the fire alone (chaps, iv. 33, 36 ; v. 4, 25, 26 ; xviii.
16). Shortly before "the day of the assembly" in
Horeb Israel had been led by "a pillar of fire" (Ex.
xiii. 21) ; in verse 29 of this chapter the figure of " a
consuming fire " is applied to God Himself. To avoid
such associations as these, and vividly to represent what
then was shown to the Israelites, he speaks of " a
material and kindled fire." The metaphor in "palpable"
as applied to fire is hardly more remarkable than that
involved in " a darkness which may be felt " (Ex. x.
21, where the word used in the LXX. is almost the
same as that which wo have here).

(19> See Ex. xix. 19 ("the voice of the trumpet"),
Deut. iv. 12 (" the voice of the words ").

Intreated.—" If we hear the voice of the Lord oui
God anymore, then we shall die" (Deut. v.25; Ex.xx. 19).
Though God drew near to Israel, to reveal Himself, so
terrible was His voice to them, so awful the penalties
which fenced round their approach to Him, that they
shrank back from hearing His words.

(2°) There is no sufficient reason for enclosing this
verse and the next in apai'enthesis.

And if so much as.— Better, If even a beast
touch the mountain, it shall be stoned (Ex. xix. 12,
13). The next clause, " or thrust through with a dart,"

Moses' Fear.

HEBREWS, XII.

The Heavenly Zion.

mountain, it shall be stoned, or thrust
through with a dart : (21> and so terrible
was the sight, that Moses said, I ex-

ceedingly fear and quake :) ^ but ye
are come unto mount Sion, and unto
the city of the living God, the heavenly

is absent from our best authorities ; and has accidentally
found its way into the text from Ex. xix. 13.

(2i) And so terrible was the sight that ....
— Better, And (so fearful was the appearance) Moses
said, I exceedingly fear and tremble. Deut. ix. 19, as
it stands in the Greek translation, contains these words
in part (" I exceedingly fear ") ; there, however, they
belong to a later time, when Moses was " afraid of the
auger and hot displeasure" of the Lord against the
worshippers of the golden calf (Ex. xxxii.). Various
Jewish traditions speak of the terror of Moses as upon
Mount Sinai he beheld the wonders of the heavenly
world (see chap. ii. 2) ; but no saying that has been
preserved throws additional light on the words before

(22—24) « "What it was to which Israel in the time of
the Old Covenant drew nigh, we have now heard. Their
drawing nigh was at the same time a standing afar off ;
the mount of the revelation might not be approached by
them ; the voice of God was too terrible to be borne ;
and yet it was only tangible material nature in which
God at once manifested and concealed Himself. The
true and inner communion with God had not yet been
revealed : first must the Law lead to the painful con-
sciousness that sin prevents such communion, and
intensify the longing that sin may be taken out of the
way. Under the New Covenant, no longer is a tangible
mountain the place of a divine revelation made from
afar ; but heaven is thrown open, and a new super-
sensuous world in which God is enthroned is opened to
admit us, opened through the Mediator of the New
Covenant, accessible in virtue of His atoning blood"
(Delitzsch).

(22) Unto mount Sion.— Literally (and in these
difficult verses it is unusually important to follow the
literal rendering of the Greek), Ye are come unto
Zion (the) mountain and city of a Living God, a
heavenly Jerusalem. The thought of a celestial city
which should be the exact counterpart of the earthly
Jerusalem is often dwelt upon in Jewish writings :
hence the writer is using familiar words, but with a new
and spiritual meaning. The same imagery has been
employed in chap. xi. 10, 13 — 16, for this is the city
" that hath the foundations, whose Architect and Maker
is God." (See also Rev. xxi. 2, et seq. ; Gal. iv. 26.)
This " heavenly Jerusalem" is " Zion, mountain and city
of a Living God." Mount Zion is mentioned first,
because the contrast with Mount Sinai is throughout
present in thought. The name recalls many passages
of the Old Testament, especially of the Psalter, as far
back as the time when David chose the place for the
Ark of the Covenant. Here God desired to dwell
(Ps. lxviii. 16) ; in this holy hill He set His anointed
King (Ps. ii. 6). (See also Pss. xlviii. 2, 11 ; lxxviii.
68 ; ex. 2 ; exxxii. 13.) Zion is not only the mount of
God, His dwelling place; it is also "the city of God,"
whose gates the Lord loveth (Ps. lxxxvii. 2). (See Ps.
xlviii. 12, 13, et al.) In chap. viii. 2 we find associated
the place of the special manifestation of the glory of
God and the resort of His worshipping people ; so here
the heavenly sanctuary and the city inhabited by " the
ransomed of the Lord" (Isa. xxxv. 10). In Horeb
Israel intreated that they might not hear the voice of

" the living God " (Deut. v. 26). In this spiritual com-
monwealth we all " have drawn nigh " to Him.

In the first member of these three verses (22 — 24),
therefore, there is very little that is open to question ;
the difficulties lie in the words which follow, " and to
an innumerable company of angels, to the general
assembly and church of the firstborn which are written
in heaven." Four or five different arrangements of
these words are allowed by the Greek, and every one
of these has been adopted and defended by writers of
eminence. Here the discussion must be very brief.
On a careful examination of the whole passage, it
seems in the highest degree probable that the writer
introduces by " aud" each successive member of the sen-
tence, and that groups of words not so introduced serve
as appositions, explaining what precedes them. If this
be so, the arrangement of the Authorised version is not
tenable. We believe that the choice must lie between
two renderings : (1) " And to myriads of angels, a
festal assembly and congregation of the firstborn en-
rolled in heaven." (2) " And to myriads, a festal
assembly of angels and a congregation of the firstborn
enrolled in heaven." In the first of these renderings
angels are the subject throughout ; in the second, " the
myriads " to whom we have come nigh are divided into
two companies — the festal host of angels, the church
of the firstborn. Let us look at the latter interpre-
tation first. By it the " firstborn " are sought amongst
men ; either those who are already inhabitants of the
heavenly world, or men still living upon earth, though
enrolled as citizens of heaven (Luke x. 20). Some have
understood the words to relate to those who hold prece-
dency, either in rank or in time, among men to whom
God has given the name of sons ; as, saints of pre-
eminent piety, " the noble army of martyrs," the faith-
ful under the Old Covenant, Enoch and Elijah, the
Apostles, the first generations of Christians, or the
believers of the later as distinguished from those of
the earlier dispensation. A far more probable expla-
nation is that which makes the word here " equivalent
to heirs of the kingdom, all faithful Christians being
ipso facto ' firstborn,' because all are kings " (Dr.
Lightfoot on Col. i. 15). See chap. i. 6 ; also, " as
instances of the figurative use of firstborn in the Old
Testament, where the idea of priority of birth is over-
shadowed by and lost in the idea of pre-eminence,"
Job xviii. 13 ; Isa. xiv. 30. If this be the time inter-
pretation, 1 Pet. ii. 9 unites the two thoughts which this
figure suggests, '; Te are ... a royal priesthood "
(see above, verse 16) ; and the whole of that verse,
especially as compared with Ex. iv. 22, well illus-
trates the position here assigned to the company of the
faithful upon earth. The word which we have here
rendered congregation, moreover, is that which is regu-
larly applied to the Church of Christ. There is,
therefore, very much to be said on behalf of this inter-
pretation, which is in every way attractive. And yet,
full of interest as is such an explanation of the special
words, it seems certainly unsuitable to the passage as
a whole. It is not easy to believe that the words ''and
to myriads " are to be taken by themselves. It is still
more difficult to explain the introduction of the living
Church on earth in this position — between angels and
the " God of all," whilst " the spirits of just men made
perfect " are mentioned later, iu an association from

342

The Heavenly Fellowship.

H.cjx>ItE W b, XII. Jesus, Mediator of a New Covenant.

Jerusalem, and to an innumerable com-
pany of angels, <23) to the general assem- I
bly and church of the firstborn, which
are written1 in heaven, and to God the '
Judge of all, and to the spirits of just

2 Or, testament-

men made perfect, <24) and to Jesus the-,
mediator of the new covenant,2 and to
the blood of sprinkling, that speaketh
better things than that of Abel. <25> See
that ye refuse not him that speaketh.

which the Church on earth cannot be severed — with
" Jesus the Mediator of a new covenant and the blood
of sprinkling." For these reasons especially it seems
necessary to adopt the first-mentioned arrangement of
the words : "ye have come near ... to myriads of
angels, a festal assembly and congregation of the first-
born enrolled in heaven." Two passages of the Old
Testament seem to have been chiefly in the writer's
mind (Deut. xxxiii. 2, and Dan. vii. 10) ; in each of these
the Lord appears attended by " myriads of angels,"
who stand before Him and minister to Him (Ps. ciii.
20). We who by means of the " better hope draw near
to God" (chap. vii. 19) are led to this "holy hill " and
city, and through the hosts of " ministering spirits "
into the very presence of the " God of all." The de-
scriptive words which follow are borrowed from the
history of Israel. The first (Ezek. xlvi. 11 ; Hos. ii.
II ; ix. 5 ; Amos v. 21 ; Isa. lxvi. 10) is the general and
joyous gathering for the feasts of the Lord ; the second
is the word used throughout for the " church in the
wilderness," the " congregation " of Israel. The latter
points to the united body of the servants of God, the
former to the joyful gathering for His service. The
second word is so commonly used of Israel and of the
Christian Church that it has been denied that any
other application is ever made ; but there is certainly
an exception in Ps. Ixxxix. 7 (a Psalm which, as we
have seen, was much in the writer's thoughts), " God
is greatly to be feared in the congregation of the
saints." How fitly angels — who in Job i. 6, ii. 1,
xxxviii. 7 (comp. Ps. xxix. 1, et al.), are called "sons
of God," are here spoken of as " firstborn," needs no
explanation ; they are the enrolled citizens of heaven,
whose assembly we are permitted to join (Eev. v. 11 ;
comp. Luke xx. 36).

(23) And to G-od the Judge of all.— The order
of the Greek seems to require the rendering, and to a
Judge (who is) God of all. Up to this point our thought
has rested on the heavenly world and those who from
the time of their creation have been its inhabitants.
Men who have passed through this earthly life have
no essential right to citizenship in the " heavenly Jeru-
salem." They come before a Judge (comp. chap. ix.
27). " The Lord shall judge His people " (chap. x. 30),
severing between His servants and His foes (Mai. iii.
18 ; iv. 1), condemning the wicked, and receiving the
righteous to His own dwelling-place. This Judge is
" God of all " — of angels and of righteous souls (Wisd.
iii. 1), and of Christian men who " draw nigh " to the
celestial city. How characteristic of the writer and
his theme is the introduction of these solemn words
into the midst of this description of Christian privi-
lege and blessing.

And to the spirits of just men made perfect.
— The last verses of chap. xi. are at once called before
the mind by these words. The " righteous " men have
"by faith" run their course (chaps, x. 38; xi. 4, 7;
Phil. iii. 12) ; they have obtained the pi'omises (chaps.
vi. 15 ; xi. 1). The analogy of Scripture forbids us to
consider their present state as the full consummation ;
for that, these " spirits" and Ave who are yet " in the
ix>dy" await the day of the resurrection. These words.

however, do not refer to the period of the Old Cove-
nant only ; indeed they do not in strictness belong to
that period at all. The spirits of the righteous servants
of Christ join the same fellowship ; and only when
Christ was manifested does the state to which the
name " perfection " is thus given seem to have begun.
What was received by those "spirits of the righteous"
when they saw the day of Christ, we cannot tell ; but
the teaching of Scripture seems to be that they were
raised to some higher state of blessedness. These are
the new inhabitants of the world above; they have
[ come into the presence of God by means of the blood
of sprinkling, through Jesus.

(24) And to Jesus the mediator of the new
covenant. — Rather, a new covenant. There is
another change in the Greek which it is not easy to
express. In all other places in which we read of the
New Covenant (chaps, viii. 8, 13 ; ix. 15 ; Luke xxii. 20 ;
1 Cor. xi. 25 ; 2 Cor. iii. 6) a word is used which im-
plies newness of kind and quality ; here it is a covenant
which is newly made — literally " young," having all
the freshness of youth in comparison with that which
long since was waxing old (chap. viii. 13). Here also,
if we follow the order of the original (see chaps, ii. 9 ;
iii. 1 ; xii. 2, et al.), the description precedes, and the
name "Jesus" follows, thus standing between the
words which describe His covenant and those which
speak of His blood.

And to the blood of sprinkling. — Rather, and
to blood of sprinkling that speaketh better (or, more
powerfully) than Abel. Jesus is Mediator of a new
covenant (chaps, viii. 6 ; ix. 15) through the shedding of
His blood (chaps, ix. 15—17 ; x. 29). This is " blood of
sprinkling," blood which cleanseth the conscience from
dead works to serve a living God (chap. ix. 14) : it
was typified by the blood of the covenant with which
Moses sprinkled all the people (chap. ix. 19, 20).
Abel being dead yet speaketh (chap. xi. 4), for his
blood crieth for vengeance. This blood speaks with
greater power, and speaks not for wrath but for puri-
fication and atonement. 1 John ii. 1, 2, completes the
contrast : God was the Avenger of " righteous Abel,"
but Jesus Christ the righteous is our Advocate with
the Father, and He is the propitiation for our sins.

It does not seem probable that the writer designs a
detailed contrast between the several particulars of
these verses and of verses 18 — 21. The number in
each case is the same (six), and in the case of the
first and last some analogy may be traced ; but this is
all that can be said with safety. If our interpre-
tation of these verses is correct, there is no mention
of the Church on earth. But can we wonder at this ?
It is to that living Church that the words themselves
are from age to age addressed. They describe the
blessed heavenly fellowship to which each servant of
Christ now toiling on earth is joined : when he has
run the race set before him, he will, through the blood
of sprinkling and through Jesus the Mediator, reach
the company of the just made perfect, and stand before
the "God of all."

(25) Refuse not. — In verse 19 we have read that the-
Israelites entreated that they might no more hear the-

The Shaking of the Earth.

HE BREWS, XIII. The Kingdom which cannot be moved.

For if they escaped not • who refused

him that spake on earth, much more

shall not we escape^ if we turn away

from him that speaJceth from heaven :

(26) w;h0Se voice then shook . the earth :

but now he hath promised, saying, Yet

once more I shake not the earth only, but

also heaven. (27) And this word, Yet

once more, signifieth the removing of l 3u;k,Ty be

those things that are shaken,1 as of i a-djw-

things that are made, that those things
which cannot be shaken may remain.
(28) Wherefore we receiving a kingdom
which cannot be moved, let us have 2
grace, whereby we may serve God
acceptably with reverence and godly
fear : (29) for our God is a consuming
fire.

CHAPTER XIII.— (D Let brotherlv

voice of God (literally, deprecated the speaking of
more words). Twice in this verse the same word is
used in the sense of declining to listen, with clear
referenco to the earlier verse.

Him that speaketh.— God speaking to us from
heaven (chap. i. 1, 2). Sec below.

For if they escaped not who refused.—
Rather (according to the better reading of the Greek),
For if they escaped not when they refused on earth
Him that teamed. The terrors which accompanied
the giving of the Law were designed to impress all
hearts with the fearful peril of disobedience. In shrink-
ing from the voice of Him that warned they could not
escape the declaration of the Law or the terrible penalties
which awaited all transgressors.

If we turn away. — -Rather, who turn away from
Him that (wameth) from heaven. The argument is
similar to that of chap. ii. 2, 3, where the same word
" escape " is found. He from whom they turned aside
on earth is He who now speaks to us ; but then His
voice was heard amidst earthly terrors, now His reve-
lation comes through His Son who is exalted in heaven.
If we do not hearken to the word of life and promise
that is ever coming to us from God through His Son,
it Avill be because we deliberately " turn away," for the
excuse of the panic-stricken Israelites cannot be ours.
The voice that speaks on earth fell on the outward ear,
but He who speaks from heaven makes His voice heard
in the inner conscience ; the one may fail to be heard
and understood, the other will find us out, and is
neglected only through stubbornness of will. Much
less, then, shall we escape if we turn away from Him
who warns from heaven.

(26) Shook the earth— Ex. xix. 18, 19 ; Judg. v. 4,
5. The terrors of Sinai were, moreover, a type of a
more terrible revelation of judgment, when not only
shall the earth tremble, but the earth and the heaven
shall be moved, and all that is transitory and mutable
shall pass away. The words of Hag. ii. 6 are taken as
a prophecy of this consummation. The reference of the
prediction of which this forms part to the first coming
of the Messiah is passed over ; it is only as bearing
upon the last days that the words are quoted here.

Now he hath promised. — This whole time of
waiting is included in the " now." It is as if the words
were : " now we have this promise, and are looking for
its fulfilment."

I shake.— Rather (according to the better reading),
I will move (or, make to tremble).

(P) This word, " Yet once more," is equivalent to
once more only ; and the words " once more only will I
move the heaven and the earth " must of necessity
point to the final change, which issues in the removal
of all that can pass away.

Which cannot be shaken. — Literally, ivhich are
not shaken. The great difficulty of the verse is to
ascertain on what word this clause depends. (1) If

upon " removing," the sense will be : This word . . .
signifieth the removing of the things made (as being
created things), that the things not shaken may remain.
The next verse throws light on the writer's meaning ;
there that which "cannot be shaken" is the kingdom
which wo receive: he is not speaking of that which
belongs to a material creation. (2) The other view can
only be briefly mentioned : This word . . . signifieth
the removing of the things shaken, as of things that
have been made in order that the things not shaken
may remain. The idea is striking — that created things
were made for the very purpose of giving place to
what shall abide ; but the other view seems to give the
more probable meaning of the verse.

(28) Receiving a kingdom. — These words clearly
contain a reference to Dan. vii. 18, " The saints of the
Most High shall receive the kingdom." Nor can it
well be doubted that the closing verses of Hag. ii. are
also before the writer's mind; after verse 21, Avhich
repeats the words of verse 6, quoted above, the prophet
declares the overthrow of earthly kingdoms, and con-
tinues to His servant Zerubbabel the Messianic promise.
Christ has made His people kings; and when heaven
and earth have passed away, they shall be found heirs
of a kingdom that cannot be shaken (chap. ii. 5 — 9).

Let us have grace. — Many render the last word
thankfulness, but the ordinary translation is prefer-
able. There is for us a " throne of grace " to which
we may draw near and " find grace " (chap. iv. 16).
The characteristic of our Christian state is that we
" have grace," and have not " fallen back from the
grace of God" (verse 15). Let us continue in this
state and thus be enabled to offer our priestly service
unto God (chaps, ix. 14; xiii. 15).

Acceptably. — Literally, icell-pleasing. (See chaps,
xi. 5 ; xiii. 16.)

With reverence and godly fear. — According tc
the true reading of the Greek, the meaning is with
reverent fear and awe. The former word is that which
occupies so important a place in chap. v. 7. (See Note.)
The tone of the whole chapter — we might rather say,
the whole Epistle — is presented in this combination of
'"grace" and acceptable service with awe and reverent
fear. The last thought connects itself closely with
the following verse.

<29) A quotation from Deut. iv. 24. There these
words follow a solemn warning against idolatry. This
passage then belongs to the same class as chap. x. 27,
28, 30. (See the Notes.)

XIII.

This concluding chapter is chiefly occupied with special
exhortations relating to Christian conduct : with these,
however, are intermingled some important and charac-
teristic references to the leading themes of the Epistle.

(!) Brotherly love. — Better, The love of the
brethren. (See Rom. xii.-lO, and Note ; 1 Thess. iv. 9;

34-1

The Love of the Brethren.

HEBREWS, XIII.

Jesus Christ, the Same for Ever.

love continue. (2) Be not forgetful to
Chap. xiii. l— entertain strangers : for
ft Exhortation thereby some have enter-
love, ' purity, tained angels unawares,
contentment. ' (3) Remember them that
are in bonds, as bound with them ; and
them which suffer adversit}% as being
yourselves also in the body. W Marriage
is honourable in all, and the bed unde-
nted : but whoremongers and adulterers
God will judge. (5) Let your conversa-
tion be without covetousness ; and be
content with such things as ye have :

for he hath said, I will never leave
thee, nor forsake thee. a (6) So that we
may boldly say, The Lord is my helper,
and I will not fear what man shall do
unto me.

W Remember them which have
the rule1 over you, who ehap xiii< 7_
have spoken unto you 17. imitate
the word of God: whose S8ChriS
faith follow, considering Christ's re-
the end of flieir conver- Pr°ach.
sation. (8> Jesus Christ the same
yesterday, and to day, and for ever.

1 Pet. i. 22.) The love which they had shown to the
Christian brotherhood is commended in chap. vi. 10
(x. 33) ; and yet there was some ground for fear
that such affection might not " continue " (chap. x. 25).

(2) To entertain strangers. — Hospitality to
Christian brethren at a distance from their homes is
especially intended (1 Pet. iv. 9) : this was one mani-
festation of the " love of the brethren " (verse 1).
The prominence assigned to this duty in the exhorta-
tions of the Epistles of the New Testament was faith-
fully reflected in the practice of the early Church.

Thereby some have entertained angels un-
awares.— See Gen. xviii.. xix. The Greek word for
"angels" — messengers — of itself , would serve to re-
mind these Christians that, though the strangers whom
they welcomed were but men, they might be special
messengers of God. Clement of Rome, in his Epistle
to the Corinthians (a.d. 95), appeals to the same ex-
amples (and also to Rahab) : " For his faith and hospi-
tality a son was given to Abraham in his old age. For his
hospitality and godliness Lot was saved from Sodom."

(3J As bound with them. — Either (1) "As if ye
yourselves Avere in bonds " (see chap. x. 33, 34 ; 1 Cor.
xii. 26) — by true fellow-feeling make yourselves sharers
in their lot; or, (2) " mindful that ye too are in bonds " —
like them ye are Christ's prisoners, and their bonds are
but one of the tokens of that service in which all
Christians are bound. (Comp. 1 Cor. vii. 22.)

As being yourselves also in the body.—
" Mindful that you, like them, still dwell in a body
liable to pain, and may therefore suffer ill-treatment in
the cause of Christ."

W Marriage is honourable in all. — Rather,
Let marriage be held in honour among all, and let
the bed be undefiled; for fornicators and adulterers
God will judge. The precept is directed against im-
purity (chap. xii. 16), and also against the false asceti-
cism of men "forbidding to marry" (1 Tim. iv. 3).
The laxity of morals among Gentiles (Note on Acts xv.
20) and the prevalence of divorce amongst Jews
(Matt. v. 32) explain the sudden introduction of such
warnings : of these sinners the all-seeing God will be
the judge. (Comp. 1 Thess. iv. 6.)

(5) In these two verses (4, 5) we have the same con-
nection of thought as in chap. xii. 16; Col. iii. 5 ; Eph.
v. 3. " Impurity and covetousness may be said to
divide between them nearly the whole domain of human
selfishness and vice" (Liglitfoot on Col. iii. 5).

Conversation. — Literally, way of thought and
life, character, disposition.

For he. — Rather, for He Himself hath said. As

in many other places in this Epistle, the word of Scrip-
ture is regarded as directly spoken by God ; but there
is an emphasis here ("He Himself") which well suits
the remarkable impressiveness of the words quoted,
" I will in no wise let thee go ; no, nor will I forsake
thee." This promise of divine support and protection
does not occur exactly in the same form hi the Old
Testament, but is clearly taken from Dent. xxxi. 6,
" He will not fail thee nor forsake thee." (Comp. also
Gen. xxviii. 15 ; Josh. i. 5 ; 1 Chron. xxviii. 20.) The
appositeness of these words and those which follow
(verse 6) will be seen if we remember the trials which
the Hebrew Christians had already endured (chap. x.
32 — 34). It is very probable that this thought supplies
the link of connection between verses 5, 6, and verse 7.

(6) We may boldly say.— Rather, so that we say
with courage. The words of the quotation (Ps. cxviii. 6)
should be arranged thus: "The Lord is my helper; I
will not fear : what shall man do unto me ? "

(7) Which have the rule.— Rather, which were
your leaders (verse 17, 24; Acts xv. 22), who spake
unto you the word of God. These spiritual guides had
been removed from them by death.

Whose faith follow.— Better, and, contemplating
the end (or, issue) of their life, imitate their faith.
Their Christian life and course ( Jas. iii. 13 ; 1 Pet. i.
15, et al.), had been known by the Church ; they, too,
have obtained a good report "by faith" (chap. xi. 2),
and all who contemplate the blessed issue of such a life
will be strengthened to imitate their faith. We may
well suppose that some had died a martyr's death, but
the writer seems carefully to avoid any direct expres-
sion of this thought ; his words apply to all who have
ended their course in the triumph of faith. This verse
recalls a striking passage in the Book of Wisdom, chap,
ii. 17 — 20; especially verse 17, where the ungodly say of
the righteous man, " Let us see if his words be true, and
let us prove what shall happen in the end of him."

(8» Jesus Christ the same . . .— Rather, Jesus
Christ is yesterday and to-day the same ; yea, also for
ever. Their earlier guides have passed away (verse 7) ;
their Lord and Saviour abides the same for ever. He
who is the subject of all Christian teaching is the same,
therefore (verse 9) " be not carried away by divers
teachings." Thus, this verse stands connected both
with what precedes and with what follows. " Yester-
day " carries the thought back to the lifetime of the
teachers now no more ; what the Saviour was to them,
that will He be to their survivors. The whole period
since He "sat down on the right hand of God" (chap. x.
12, 13) is covered by this word. What He was "yester-
dav and to-day" He will bo for ever. (See chap. i.
11, 12.)

345

Tlie Heart established by Grace.

HEBEEWS, XIII.

The Reproach of C Jurist.

<9) Be not carried about with divers and r
strange doctrines. For it is a good
tiling that the heart be established with
grace ; not with meats, which have not
profited them that have been occupied
therein. <10> We have an altar, whereof
they have no right to eat which serve
the tabernacle. (11) For the bodies of

those beasts, whose blood is brought
into the sanctuary by the high priest
for sin, are burned without the camp.
(12) Wherefore Jesus also, that he might,
sanctify the people with his own blood,
suffered, without the gate. <13) Let us
go forth therefore unto him without the
camp, bearing his reproach. (u^ For

(9) Be not carried about.— The better reading of
the Greek gives a meaning somewhat different, B2 not
carried away by divers and strange teachings. The
ordinary reading may have come in from Eph. iv. 14.
The " teachings " by which they were in danger of
being led astray were various, and were all foreign to
the one true word. The contrasts expressed in the
second part of this verse and in verses 10, 11, throw
light on the nature and source of the erroneous doctrine.
Its subject was not "grace," but "meats;" its pro-
moters were connected with those who serve the
Tabernacle. Hence the writer is probably speaking of
doctrines and practices similar to those censured by
St. Paul in Col. ii. 16—23. (See the introductory
Note on Rom. xiv. ; also 1 Tim. iv. 3.) In chap. ix. 10
we read of " meats and drinks" in connection with the
Law of Moses ; here the divers and strange teachings "
must include human additions to that Law and perver-
sions of its spirit.

With grace ; not with, meats.— Better, by grace,
not by meats. Instead of being " carried away by
strange teachings," let your hearts be made firm and
sure by grace. As the whole system of ceremonial
observance is alluded to under the one term " meats,"
so the blessings of the Christian faith are comprised
under "grace," a word used throughout this Epistle
with peculiar significance. (See especially chaps, x. 29;
xii. 15, 28.) One human system of teaching will but
lead on to another ; grace will keep the heart firm in
its loyal love to Jesus Christ, who is ever " the same "
(verse 8).

Which have not profited.— Literally, in which
they that walked were not profited. To the English
reader the mode of expression must appear peculiar ;
in the Greek, however, there is little or no incongruity,
for the word which we render "walk" is used most
freely to denote a course or manner of life. Comp.
Eph. ii. 10, "unto good works which God hath before
ordained that we should walk in them." Here the
meaning is, that those who have made these external
observances the rule of their life have failed of the
profit which they sought. (Comp. chap. vii. 18, 19.)

(10, 11) " "We need not such profitless teaching ; we
already have sustenance Avhich is ' meat indeed,'' by
which the heart is established." According to the Law,
the priests (they who " serve the Tabernacle," see
chap. viii. 5) received for themselves a greater or
smaller portion of the animals offered as peaee-offerings
and trespass-offerings ; in some cases, also, the flesh
of the sin-offerings fell to their lot (Lev. iv., v., vii.,
xxiii.). When the high priest presented a sin-offering
on his own behalf (Lev. iv. 3 — 12), or for the con-
gregation (verses 13 — 21), he sprinkled some of the
blood in the Holy Place in front of the veil ; on the
Bay of Atonement alone was the blood taken within
the veil into the Most Holy Place. In the case of
these three offerings the priest received no part of the

animal sacrificed ; certain portions were burnt on the
altar of burnt-offering, and the rest of the body was
carried forth "without the camp," and wholly con-
sumed by fire. Though the writer here speaks of
animals whose blood is brought into the Holy Place
through the high priest, as an offering for sin, it is
probable that (as in chaps, v. — ix.) he has in thought the
Bay of Atonement only, so that here " the Holy Place "
bears the sense of the " Holiest of all." (See Note on
chap. ix. 2.) (It will be noted that throughout he
uses the present tense ; see the same Note). Eor us
there is but one sacrifice for sin, the efficacy of which
endures for ever (chap. x. 12) : Jesus entering the
Holiest Place for us in virtue of His own sacrifice has
fulfilled the type contained in the high priest's sprink-
ling of the blood. But whereas those priests might
not eat of their sin-offering, to us greater privilege is
given ; we feed on Him who was slain for us, whose
flesh was for the life of the world (John vi. 51 — 56).
We then (who are all "priests unto God") " have an
altar of which," on the very principles of their Law,
' ' they that serve the Tabernacle (see chap. viii. 5)
have no right to eat." The stress is Laid on the
sacrifice, of which we eat, not upon the altar itself.
If separately interpreted, the altar will be the place of
sacrifice, the Cross.

(12) The sin-offering was burned without the camp.
Jesus who in all other points fulfilled the law of atone-
ment fulfilled it in this point also, in that He suffered
" without the gate " (Matt, xxvii. 32 ; John xix. 20).
The two expressions answer to one another, each
denoting that which lay beyond the sacred precincts,
outside the special dwelling-place of God's people.
" The people," see chap. ii. 17 ; " sanctify," chaps, ii.
11; ix. 13; x. 10.

(13) The suffering " without the gate " was a symbol
of His rejection by the Jews. All who would be His-
must share the reproach which came upon Him, who
was cast out by His people and crucified (chap. xi. 26) :
they also must go forth "without the camp," for-
saking the company of His foes. Each one must for
himself make choice either of the synagogue or of the
church of Christ; between the two there can be no
fellowship.

(14) In this verse there seems to be a union of two
thoughts : (1) We are free to go forth from the city
so long held sacred, for our hopes are bound up with
no abiding earthly sanctuary. (2) We may not shrink
from the reproach of Christ because it will sever us
from kindred and friends ; for by the very profession of
our faith we are " strangers and sojourners " (chap. xi.
13), seeking after the heavenly Jerusalem (chaps, xi. 10;
xii. 22). How impressive are these words when read
in the light of the events then unlooked for, yet so
near at hand, issuing in the destruction of both Temple
and city !

We seek one to come. — Rather, we seek after
that (city) which is to come.

The Sacrifice of Praise.

HEBEEWS, XIII.

Pray for us-.

fiere have we no continuing city, but we
seek one to come." (15) By him there-
fore let us offer the sacrifice of praise to
God continually, that is, the fruit of
our lips giving thanks to1 his name.
(16) But to do good and to communicate
forget not: for with such sacrifices
God is well pleased. (17> Obey them
that have the rule over2 you, and
submit yourselves : for they watch for
your souls, as they that must give

1 Gr. caufcxtiiKj tn.

account, that they may do it with joy,
and not with grief : for that is unprofit-
able for you.

(is) pray for us : for we trust we have
a good conscience, in all
things willing to live hon- ?2a5p- g^
estly. <19> But I beseech salutations and
you the rather to do this, prayers'
that I may be restored to you the sooner.
(20) ^OT the God of peace, that brought
again from the dead our Lord Jesus,

(U>) By him. — Better, through Him. Through His
sacrifice, which has made atonement, we are hallowed
(verse 12), and fitted for our priestly service (1 Pet.
ii. 5).

Let us offer the sacrifice.— Rather, let us offer
up a sacrifice of praise continually unto God, that is,
fruit of lips making confession to His name. The
sacrifice we may bring is that symbolised by the thank-
offering of Lev. vii. 12 — where the same word is used.
(See Ps. 1. 14, 23.) "We will render the fruit of our lips "
is the Greek version of Hos. xiv. 2 ; the Hebrew text
(as we have it) differs in expression but not in meaning,
"We will render our lips as bullocks" — i.e., as sacrifices.
(Comp. Ps. cxix. 108 ; Isa. lvii. 19.) The fruit is borne
by lips which offer thankful acknowledgment to the
name of God (Ps. cxiii. 1).

(16> And yet another offering may we bring : with
thankfulness to Him must be joined acts of well-
doing to men ; these, too, being presented as sacrifices
to God.

To communicate — i.e., freely to inipai-t to others.
(See Rom. xii. 13; xv. 26; 2 Cor. ix. 13; 1 Tim. vi. 18.)
(!7) The present section of the chapter begins (verse
7) and ends (verse 17) with a reference to the rulers
of the Church : Remember your former leaders, and
imitate their faith ; obey them that lead you now.

Submit yourselves. — Better, yield (to them). Be-
sides fulfilling their injunctions, be ready to comply with
their wishes and requests.

For they watch.— The Greek is emphatic : " For
it is they that watch on behalf of your souls as having
to give account."

That they may do it. — Be obedient and yielding
to them, that they may do this (may watch for your
souls) with joy and not sighing (or, groaning), for this
would be unprofitable for you ; if ye so live that they
must watch over you with grief, this will both weaken
their hands and bring on you the divine displeasure.
No words could more powei-fully present to members
of the Church the motives for obedience to their
spiritual guides ; and to these guides themselves the
ideal of their work and life, as men who are keeping
watch for souls, either with rejoicing or with mourning
(Acts xx. 31), ever mindful of the account they must
give to God for the flock which He entrusted to their
care (Ezek. iii. 18 ; xxxiii. 7; xxxiv. 10 ; 1 Pet. v. 4).

(18> The following verses — containing personal notices
relating to the writer himself and his readers (verses 18,
19, 22, 23), a prayer on their behalf (verses 20, 21), a
doxology (verse 21), and brief salutations (verses 24, 25)
■ — present many points of resemblance to the concluding
sections in some of St. Paul's Epistles. The first
words, '• Pray for us," are found in Col. iv. 3; 1 Thess.
v. 25 : 2 Thess. iii. 1. That the writer does not use
the plural pronoun of himself alone appears certain from

the change in verse 19 ; but it is not clear whether he
is associating himself with the rulers of the Church
(mentioned in verse 17), or with the companions in
labour who were with him as he wrote.

We trust. — A change in the reading of the Greek
requires the translation : For we are persuaded that we
have a good conscience, desiring in all things to conduct
ourselves well. Some prejudice against the writer, or
some mistrust of his motives, must have existed in the
Church ; that amongst Hebrew Christians a disciple of
St. Paul should bo misrepresented or misunderstood,
can cause us no surprise. But whatever suspicion might
be cherished by a few, the next verse is proof that he
knew himself to be beloved by the many.

(19) But I beseech you.— Rather, And I exhort
you the more (literally, the more abundantly) to do this.
All that we can certainly infer from this verse (see
Introduction) is that the writer had formerly been asso-
ciated with those whom he now addresses, and that he
is at present hindered from returning to them.

(20) Now the God of peace.— See Rom. xv. 33;
xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xiii. 11; Phil. iv. 9; 1 Thess. v. 23;
2 Thess. iii. 16. In almost all these places there is
something in the context suggestive of strife or turmoil
to be brought to rest by " the God of peace." Hence
we may well believe that the writer here has in thought
those divisions of thought and feeling which have been
hinted at in verses 17 — 19, and which in truth were the
expression of the deep-seated mental unrest which it is
the object of the Epistle to remove.

Our Lord Jesus. — As in chaps, ii. 9, iii. 1, xii. 2,
the name is introduced after the description, according
to the order of the Greek : " Now the God of peace that
brought up from the dead (Rom. x. 7) the great Shep-
herd of the sheep, by the blood of an eternal covenant,
our Lord Jesus . . ." Two passages of the prophets
have contributed to the language of this remarkable
verse : (1) Isa. lxiii. 11, " Where is He that brought
them up out of the sea with the shepherds of His flock P"
Hero the shepherds are no doubt Moses and Aaron
(Ps. lxxvii. 20); the Greek translation, however, has,
" Where is he that raised up out of the sea the shepherd
of the sheep ? " Moses, who led Israel through the sea,
was brought up therefrom in safety to be the " shep-
herd " of his people Israel ; by the same Almighty
hand the great Shepherd of the sheep has been brought
up from among the dead. (2) Zech. ix. 11, "As for
thee also, by the blood of thy covenant I have sent
forth thy prisoners out of the pit wherein is no water."
In other words, " because of the blood which ratified
thy covenant (Ex. xxiv. 8) I have released thy
prisoners." As in the former case, the resemblance
between the words in the LXX. and those here used
is sufficient to convince us that the passage was in the
I writer's thought. In {i.e., in virtue of) the blood of an
347

The Everlasting Covenant.

HEBEEWS, XIII.

Salutations.

that great shepherd of the sheep,
through the blood of the everlasting
covenant,1 <21> make you perfect in
every good work to do his will, work-
ing2 in you that which is well pleasing
in his sight, through Jesus Christ; to
whom be glory for ever and ever. Amen.
<22> And I beseech you, brethren, suffer
the word of exhortation : for I have
written a letter unto you in few words.

Or. testament.

(23) Know ye that our brother Timothy
is set at liberty ; with whom, if he
come shortly, I will see you. (24> Salute
all them that have the rule over you,
and all the saints. They of Italy
salute you. W Grace be with you all.
Amen.

1" Written to the Hebrews from Italy by
Timothy.

eternal covenant (chap. ix. 15 — 18) God has raised up
the Lord Jesus. The covenant was ratified by His
blood ; the first of the blessings of the covenant, and
that in which all blessing lay included, was this, that
God raised Him up from the dead to be " the great
Shepherd of the sheep." If these prophetic words re-
specting Him who brings peace to the world (Zech. ix.
10, et al.), were in the writer's mind, how natural is his
appeal to the God of peace. It has been often observed
that this is the only passage in the Epistle in which we
read of the resurrection of our Lord apart from His
ascension ; elsewhere His exaltation is contemplated as
one act (chap. ii. 9, et al). It is not certain that we
have an exception even here, for though the meaning
of Rom. x. 7 is beyond doubt, the words may in this
place be used with a wider meaning.

(21) Make you perfect.— To "make perfect" is
the translation of two different words in this Epistle.
In the one, which is of frequent occurrence (chaps, ii. 10;
x. 1 ; xii. 23, et al.), " perfect " stands contrasted with
that which is immature, which has not attained its
end and aim. The other, which is used here (and in
a somewhat different sense in chaps, x. 5, and xi. 3),
rather conveys the thought of completeness, complete
equipment or preparation.

Every good work.— The best authorities read
"every good thing;" and below, substitute " us " for
" you."

Working. — Literally, doing, or making. The words
of Phil. ii. 12, 13, are different, but the general thought
is the same. " Well pleasing " recalls chaps, xi. 5 ; xii.
28 ; verse 16. (Rom. xii. 2 ; Eph. v. 10.)

Through Jesus Christ.— That is, "working in
us through Jesus Christ that which is well-pleasing in
His sight." In verse 20 (as in chap. ii. 9) we read of
the exaltation of " Jesus." Here, where the subject
of thought is the lasting mediation of our High Priest,
the writer introduces the complete name " Jesus Christ,"
thus preparing for the doxology which follows. That
this ascription of praise is addressed to our Saviour (as
in 2 Tim. iv. 18 ; Rev. i. 6 ; 2 Pet. iii. 18), it seems
hardly possible to doubt.

Glory.— Rather, the glory. (See Gal. i. 5.)

(22) And I beseech you.— Rather, But I exhort
you, brethren, bear with the word of exhortation ; for
indeed it is in few words that I have written unto
you. How fitly the whole Epistle may be spoken of as
an "exhortation" is obvious. (See Note on chap. v. 11.)
And if we take into account the subjects with which
the writer lias been dealing, we shall not wonder that a
Letter which might have been read to the assembled

church in less than an hour should be described as
brief. (Comp. 1 Pet. v. 12.)

(23) It is clear that the Hebrew Christians knew of
the imprisonment of Timothy, but had not heard the news
of his release. In 2 Cor. i. 1 ; Col. i. 1 ; Philem. verse 1,
Timothy is spoken of as "the brother;" in 1 Thess.
iii. 2, and here, as " our brother " (for the word " our "
printed in italics in the Authorised version, belongs to
the true t,ext). With him, the writer adds, " if he come
shortly [sooner than the date at which he himself must
depart]. I will see you."

(24) That have the rule over you.— Better,
that are your leaders : see verses 7, 17.

They of Italy salute you.— These much dis-
cussed words are consistent with either of two hypo-
theses:—(1) That the writer is in Italy, and salutes
" the Hebrews " in the name of the Christians of Italy :
(2) That the writer is addressing a Church of Italy,
and sends greeting from Christians who have their home
in Italy, but are now with him. (See Introduction.)

(25) Grace be with you all.— This brief closing
benediction is also found in Titus iii. 15, and, with the
omission of " all," in Col. iv. 18; 1 Tim. vi. 21 ; 2 Tim.
iv. 22.

[As in the other Epistles the subscription is destitute
of authority, not being found (in the form given above)
in any MS. of the Epistle earlier than the ninth century.
No ancient MS. contains more than the simple notice,
'• To the Hebrews," except the Alexandrian, which adds
" written from Rome." The mention of Rome or Italy
is, no doubt, due to verse 24. It is possible also that
verse 23 is the only authority for the reference to
Timothy as the bearer of the Epistle : for an ancient
interpretation understands that verse to speak, not of
the release of Timothy from captivity, but of his
departure on some official mission.]

[The works chiefly used have been the commentaries
on the Epistle by Bleek, Delitzsch, Hofmann, Liinemann,
Kurtz, Bengel, Ewald, Alford, Wordsworth, McCaul,
and Biesenthal ; Westcott On the Canon ; Lightf oot's
Clement ; Bleek's Einleitung in das N. T. (by
Mangold) ; Ewald's Geschichte ; Davidson's two Intro-
ductions to the New Testament; Reuss's History of
Christian Theology ; Riehm's special work on the
Doctrinal System of this Epistle; Stanley's Sermons
and Essays; the Commentaries on the Psalms by
Delitzsch, Perowne, Jennings and Lowe ; and Carpzov's
Sacrae Exercitationes.]

84*

THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF

JAMES.

INTRODUCTION

THE GENEEAL EPISTLE OF

JAMES,

I. The Writer. — Questions of Identity. — " James,
a servant (literally, a slave) of God and the Lord Jesus
Christ :" this is all the direct information to be
learned from the author concerning himself. The name
James was, of course, a favourite with the Jews under
the more common form of Jacob, and is familiar to us
in studying the books of the New Testament. "We
read there of :— -

1. James the son of Zebedee.

2. James the sou of Alphseus.

3. James " the Lord's brother."

4. James the son of Mary.

5. James " the Less " (or, " the Little " ).

6. James the brother of Jude.

7. James the first Bishop of Jerusalem.

Is it possible for us to decide between so many, or
even feel fairly convinced that we can identify one of
these as the writer of our Epistle? To reject them all,
and ascribe it to' another James, of whom no further
mention is made, would seem to be the addition of
fresh and ueedless difficulty to a problem already
sufficiently obscure. The first claimant in the above
list may be dismissed at once, from the fact of his early
death. James the Great, as he is called, the brother of
John, was executed by Herod Agrippa I. in a.d. 44
(Acts xii. 2), a date much too early for this Letter ; and
no tradition or opinion worthy of consideration has
ever attributed it to him.

The next inquiry must be one of much circumspec-
tion, beset as it is with thorns of controversy : in fact,
the conflict .of authorities must seem well nigh hopeless
to an ordinary mind. Apart from the main question,
many collateral ones have arisen to embitter the dis-
pute, and by no means the last word has been said on
either side. If, then, an attempt be here made to arrive
at some conclusion, it must confessedly be with much
misgiving, and full admission of the almost equal
arguments against our decision.

By comparing St. Paul's description concerning
numbers 4 and 7 (above) in Gal. i. 19 and ii. 9 — 12, it
is thought he must bo referring to one and the same
man; let that be granted, therefore, to begin with.
We may identify numbers 3 and 4 by the knowledge that
James the son of Mary had a brother called Joses (Matt.
xxvii. 56), and so also had James " the Lord's brother"
(Matt. xiii. 55) ; and further we may consider numbers
3 and 6 identical, because each was brother to Jude
(Mark vi. 3 ; Jude, verse 1) ; James the Little, number 5,
is clearly the same as the son of Mary, number 4. (Comp.
Matt, xxvii. 56 ; Mark xv. 40; Luke xxiv. 10.) These
might, it is true, be coincidences merely, and, when We
remember the frequency of Hebrew names, seem in-

sufficient for more than hypothesis; but we are arguing
on probability only, and not to absolute demonstration.
Thus far, then, numbers 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, are thought to bo
one and the same person — the Apostle James, and he
the Lord's brother; the claims of number 1 have been
disposed of ; those of number 2, the son of Alphanis.
remain. The question, perhaps the greatest of all, is
whether the process of identification can be extended
further, for on this depends largely the issue of the
dispute with regard to the brethren of the Lord and
the perpetual virginity of His mother.

Further Consideration of "the Brethren of the Lord."
— We have no need in the present instance to enter on
the war-path of this theological quarrel. There seems
an intentional silence in Holy Writ concerning the
family of our Saviour, to teach us, perhaps, that it
stood in no spiritually peculiar position nearer to Him
than we may be ourselves, and to remind us of His
precious words, " Whosoever shall do the -will of My
Father which is in heaven, the same is My brother,
and sister, and mother " (Matt. xii. 48 — 50). Bearing
this in mind, and with thoughts of peace in our
heart for. those who truly — and reverently — differ from
us, we may soon learn the outlines of tliis discussion.

The terms " brother " and " brethren " meet us so
often in the New Testament, as applied to Jesus Christ,
that we can hardly pass them by. Do they infer tho
strict and actual relationship, or one merely collateral P

1. Uterine, or Helvidian Theory. — The advocates of
the natural sense, that these men were the younger sons
of Joseph and Mary, urge the plain meaning of the
Greek word adelphos, i.e., "brother," and deny its
use figuratively. They point, moreover, to Matt. i. 25,
and suppose from it the birth of other children iu tho
holy family. Those who shrink from such a view are
charged with sentiment, as impugners of marriage, and
even with ideas more or less Manichaean concerning the
impurity of matter. The German commentator Bleek,
and. Dean Alford and Dr. Davidson amongst ourselves,
contend thus for the actual brotherhood, maintaining
the theory originally propounded by Helvidius, a writer
of the fourth century, answered by the great Augustine
To their first argument we may answer that in holy
Scripture there are four senses of brotherhood, namely
of blood, of tribe, of nation, of friendship, and the three
last of these wall all apply to the case in point, As for
the view based on Matt. i. 25. the words, either in the
Greek tongue or our own, authorise it not. To say " ho
did not do such a thing until the day of his death "
does not (as Bishop Pearson has observed) suggest
the inference that he did it then or afterwards; and
the term " first-born " by no meaus iinphes a second,
even in our present use of language., uuder similar

JAMES.

circumstances. Above all, though it is confessedly no
argument, there is the feeling alluded to by Pearson
and others, and acquiesced in by many, that there could
have been no fresh maternity on the part of

" Her who with a sweet thanksgiving
Took in tranquillity what God might bring;
Blessed Him, and waited, and within her living
Felt the arousal of a Holy Thing."

"And as after His death His body was placed in a
sepulchre ' wherein never man before was laid,' so it
seemed fitting that the womb consecrated by His
presence should not henceforth have borne anything of
man." It is right, however, that the reader should be
referred to the excellent Note of Professor Plumptre on
Matt. xii. 46, where the question is carefully discussed.
2. Agnatic, or Epiphanian Theory. — A second class
«f divines are in accordance with the theory of Epi-
phanius, who was Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, towards
the end of the fourth century, and no mean antagonist
of the Helvidians. At the head of their modern repre-
sentatives, facile princess for scholarship and fairness,
is Canon Lightfoot. The brethren of the Lord are
said to be the sons of Joseph by a former wife, i.e.,
before his espousal of the Virgin Mary, and are rightly
termed adefphoi accordingly. Far from being of
the number of the Twelve, they were believers only
after Christ's resurrection. Thus, then, are explained
such texts as Matt. xii. 46, Mark iii. 31, Luke viii. 19,
John vii. 5. By this supposition, James the Lord's
brother must be a distinct person from James the son
of Alphaeus. But an objection — nay, " the one which
has been hurled at the Helvidian theory with great
force . . . and fatal effect"— is strangely thought by
Lightfoot to be powerless against his favourite Epi-
phanian doctrine. It is this : our Lord on the cross
commended His mother to St. John : " Behold thy
mother," " Behold thy son " (chap. xix. 26, 27) ; "and
from that hour," we are told, " that disciple took her unto
his own home." If the Uterine theory be right, she
had at least four sons living at the time. " Is it con-
ceivable that our Lord would thus have snapped
asunder the most sacred ties of iiatural affection ? "
Nor could the fact of His brethren's unbelief " override
the paramount duties of filial piety ; " and the objection
is weakened further by our knowledge that within a
few days " all alike are converted to the faith of
Christ : yet she, their mother, living in the same city,
and joining with them in a common worship (Acts i. 14),
is consigned to the care of a stranger, of whose house
she becomes henceforth an inmate." Now, all this
argument, forcible and fatal as it unquestionably is to
the idea of real and full relationship, is hardly less so
against that of, step-sons. For, seeing they were borne
by a former wife, they must have been older than
Jesus ; and, on the death of Joseph, the eldest would
certainly have become head of the family, in full
dominion over the younger children and the widow
herself, and with chief responsibility for their protec-
tion and welfare. The custom prevailed under Roman
law as well as Jewish, and exists in the East still:
being, in fact, a relic of immemorial antiquity. Nor can
Ave conceive, for other than the weightiest reasons, such
as immorality or crime, that our Lord, who came " not
to destroy the Law, but to fulfil," woidd thus openly have
set one of its firmest obligations aside. It seems clear
that the widowed mother watching by the cross, and
soon to be childless among women, with the sword of
separation piercing to and through her own soul (Luke
ii. 35), had none to care for her, except the beloved dis-
ciple into whose charge she was given by her dying Son.

3. Collateral, or Hieronymian Theory. — There remains
one proposition more, known, from the name of its
foremost champion, Jerome, as the Hieronymian
theory; and this, on the whole, presents fewest diffi-
culties to the religious mind. The sons of Alphaeus (or
Cleopas : the name is the same in different dialects)
were the cousins of our Lord, their mother and His
being sisters ; and such a relationship would entirely
justify the use of the word " brethren." The balance of
evidence seems to the writer of these Notes to incline
towards this venerable belief; and, identifying "the
son of Alphaeus" with "the brother of the Lord," he
considers him to have been the James of the Epistle.
Unless this solution of the difficulty be allowed, we are
committed to the recognition of a third James an
Apostle, and one so called in only a secondary sense.
It is true the term was not strictly applied to the
original Twelve, and therefore might have been applied
to a third James as well as to a Barnabas ; and we will
further admit that, if James were one of the unbelieving
brethren mentioned in John vii. 5, he could hardly have
been the early convert enrolled by our Saviour in His
apostolic band : though Bishop Wordsworth, on the
contrary, thinks that he, like Peter, might have fallen
away for a time. A better account for such a state-
ment may be sought in the reflection that, although it
is recorded " neither did His brethren believe in Him."
there is no evidence against them all ; and in tho
absence of negative proof it seems safer — at least, not
inconsistent with the charity which "hopeth all things"
—to think of James and Jude as happy exceptions to
the family jealousy and mistrust.

Again, unless we consider the son of Alphaeus the
brother of our Lord, in the tribal sense of Jerome, we
must admit the existence of two men, strikingly similar
in life and calling, evidently related, each with a mother
named Mary, and. brethren Joses and Jude; and to
which of these two, if they were not one and the same,
can the Epistle be best ascribed ?

Opinions of Theo^gians. — These problems, hard as-
suredly, seem fairly such as may best be solved by the
ingenuity of ancient writers, well acquainted with con-
temporary ideas. The opinions of moderns, such as
Lightfoot, Bleek, Alford, and Davidson, are grounded
on no discovery of facts hidden from theologians who
were at least as able and honest as themselves ; and the
old testimony has been so thoroughly sifted that, until
more be brought forward, we had better remain un-
decided if we cannot hold a conclusion fortified by the
consensus of Clement of Alexandria and John the
Eloquent, in the Greek Church ; Jerome and Augustine,
in the Latin ; Pearson, Lardner, Home, Wordsworth,
and Ellicott in our own ; and by German writers, such
as Lampe, Hug, Meier, and Lange.

Conclusion. — Thus we see the best ecclesiastical
authority and traditions have pretty constantly assigned
the authorship of the catholic Epistle to the third
name on our list (above), and identified him with the
second, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh, in accordance,
with what we venture to affirm is the plainest path out
of the maze.

Further History of James. — So much externally ; f oi
internal evidence we have a singular agreement between
the fervid abrupt style of the Letter and the character
of its reputed writer, known as " the Just " by the Jews,
and termed by them (in honour, not reproach) the " Camel-
kneed," from his long and frequent devotions. In no
way conspicuous amongst the disciples, he comes into
prominence only after the Resurrection ; perhaps that
witness to the Lord Christ was specially needed in his

352

JAMES.

case to perfect faith, and to transform the silent man of
prayer into the strong aud fearless leader of the infant
Church.

As the first Bishop of Jerusalem we find him (Acts
xv.) presiding in a solemn assembly to hear the mis-
sionary reports and to arrange for the requirements
of Gentile converts. The pastoral letter (Acts xv.
24 — 29) may be compared with the catholic one now
before us. as it was probably written by the same hand.
The last Scriptural notice of James is (Acts xxi. 18) on
St. Paul's final visit to the Holy City, when, again, a
synod of the elders seems to have been held. A Greek
Christian writer, named Hegesippus, himself a convert
from Judaism, tells us more of the fate of this " bul-
wark" of the fold. Comparing his highly artificial
account (preserved for us in the history of Eusebius :
too prolix for insertion here) with the naiTative in
Josephus, the plain truth 'seems that James the Just
was hurled from a pinnacle of the Temple, and finally
despatched by stoning, as a believer in Jesus of
Nazareth, about the year 69, immediately before the
siege of Jerusalem by the Roman emperor Yespasian.
Josephus (Ant. xx. 9) accuses the high priest Ananus,
a Sadducee, of the judicial murder, and declares that
the " most equitable of the citizens, and such as were
the most imeasy at the breach of the laws, disliked
what was done," and complained to King Agrippa and
Albinus the procm'ator, who, in consequence, removed
Ananus from his office. Many authors, ancient and
modern, have been of opinion that the martyrdom of
James was the "filling up of the sins of Jerusalem,
and made its cup of guilt to overflow."

" Though the mills of God grind slowly, yet they grind exceed-
ing small :

Though with patience He stands waiting, with exactness
grinds He ail."

II. His Epistle. — To whom written. — In the first
and chief place, James unquestionably wrote to his
countrymen, scattered over the whole earth, though
still belonging to their twelve tribes. But in no sense
can the Letter be looked upon as an appeal to un-
believing Jews, abounding as it does with references to
Christian doctrines held, and Christian works to be
maintained, by those who had " the faith of our Lord
Jesus Christ." That the majority of its readers would
be the poor and meek can hardly be doubted, if we
turn to such passages as those in chap. ii. And it
would seem that these struggling societies o* humble
Christians were in a danger more peculiar to the poor —
that is, of envying and fawning upon the rich and well-
to-do ; forgetting that they themselves were oppressed
by such, dragged before judgment-seats, and exposed
to the blasphemy and contempt outpoured by un-
believers on the " Christian " name (chap. ii. 6, 7).

Style and Character. — In his denunciation of the
rich dcfrauders, James breaks out into a fiery eloquence
worthy of an ancient prophet ; the tender change from
rebuke of the wrongers to comfort for the wronged
(chap. v. 7, 8) is unsurpassed in the whole roll of
inspired utterance ; and in condemnation of lust (chap,
iv. 1 — 4), pride (chap. iv. 5 — 10), evil speaking (chap,
iv. 11, 12), and all worldliness (chap. iv. 13 — 17), the
fervour and righteous indignation of the Apostle show
of themselves the manner of his life and death : for
again, as with God's servant of old, " the land was not
able to bear all his words " (Amos vii. 10).

Scope and Aim. — Nothing can be clearer and simpler
than the scope and aim of this Letter ; as the Sermon
on the Mount compared with the rest of Matthew, so
this exhortation of James the Just (or " the Wise," as the

46 '

Greeks love to call him) stands fortli among its fellow
Epistles, a lovely gospel of good works, of Christian
steadfastness and patience. Some theologians un-
fortunately, blinded by their own partial apprehension
of one side of God's truth, have misread its chapters,
and found therein an opposition to the doctrine of St.
Paul. Luther even could go so far as to call the
Epistle "worthless as one of straw." Happily, later
criticism has vindicated the teaching of the brother of
the Lord ; and the plainest reader may learn for him-
self that Paul and James were at one, infallibly moved
by the same Spirit of the living God.

State of Religious Opinion : — Judaism and Chris-
tianity.— Let us recollect a little more fully the con-
dition of the faith among those Christians who were
first converted from Judaism. With them the ad-
herence to outward forms, the stickling for the letter
of the Law, and other like barren principles, had become
a belief, which displayed itself in new shapes, corre-
sponding with their altered state of religion. " Where-
ever," it has been well said, " Christianity did not effect
a complete change in the heart the old Jewish spirit
naturally manifested itself in the professed converts."
It was what our Puritan divines quaintly, but correctly,
termed " the Popery of the human heart." The souls
that had trusted wholly and entirely in sacrifice as a bare
substitution of victims, and deliverance from an indis-
criminate vengeance, now clung to faith, as a passive
thing, instead. The old idol had, as it were, been torn
down by these ardent disciples : a new one was upraised
to the vacant niche ; faith in a faith became the leading
idea, and the light which was in them turned to dark-
ness, the breath of life to death.

Affected by Oriental Theories. — But perhaps a
cause of this confusion is to be found much further
afield. The Jewish Church had become largely affected
by the more remote Eastern thought; the captivity,
while it eradicated utterly all wish for idolatry, in--
fluenced the chosen people in a strange and unlooked-
for way. The power of the mystical speculations of
India, more especially of the devout followers of
Gotoma Sakya Muni, now known as Buddhists, is only
beginning to be rightly pondered by Christian scholars
and divines. It was not the Persian systems, nor the
Chaldaean, but the Hindu (and not infrequently work-
ing through, and by means of, them) which perplexed
anew the Oriental mind. Here was, doubtless, the
origin of the Essenes and other offshoots of Judaism ;
and even in the Church itself similar mischief may be
traced in the varying forms of heresy which drove her
almost to destruction. The ancient theory of sacrifice
in India was abandoned by the Brahmans, and in its
place faith was everywhere preached ; the sole essential
was dependence on God ; implicit " reliance on Him
made up for all deficiencies in other respects, whilst
no attention to the forms of religion or to the rules of
morality was of the slightest avail without this all-
important sentiment." * Precisely the same wave of
thought seems to have broken on the Jewish Church ;
and one not much dissimilar, we know, in later times,
has changed the whole set of religious tendencies in
Western Europe.

Denounced accordingly. — It seems, then, that in com-
plete aversion from such innovations, James wrote
what he did of moral righteousness, as opposed to
correct belief ; in other words, contending for a religion
of the heart and not the lips alone ; with him

* See Elphinstone's India, Vol. i.. Book 2, chap,
from the text-book called Bhagwat Gita.

quoting

JAMES:

Christianity was indeed " a life, and not a mere bundle
of dead opinions." " Wilt thou know, O vain man,"
pleads the impassioned Apostle (chap. ii. 20, 21), " that
faith without works is dead ? Was not Abraham our
father justified by works when he had offered Isaac ? "
And surely here we catch the echoes of a greater than
James, who answered the Jews when they boasted to
Him in the Temple, " Abraham is our father," " If ye
were Abraham's children ye would do the works of
Abraham " (John viii. 39). His " faith, working by
love," upheld him through a desolating trial. If we
look at the motive, he was justified by faith; if we look
at the result, he was justified by works. No less a
faith than Abraham's could have wrought thus mightily
before the face of heaven, or can so take the kingdom
thereof by violence still ; and the theology which could
discern opposition in the plain declarations of God's
word herein is fit only for the dust that has buried its
volumes on forgotten shelves.

" Who are we that with restless feet,

And grudging eyes unpurged and dim.
Among the earthly shadows beat,
And seek to question Him?"

Date of the Epistle. — The Epistle has been called
" general " — that is, " universal " — chiefly because it was
addressed to no body of believers in one place in par-
ticular. The absence of all allusion to Gentile converts
fairly proves an earlier date than the circular letter
preserved in Acts xv. 24 — 29, that is, somewhere about
the year a.d. 44. And, if such be correct, we must
look on this as one of the oldest writings in the canon
of the New Testament.

Genuineness and Canonicity. — It does not seem to
have been known at first to all the early Church, no
direct quotation being found till the time of Origen,
though indirect references may be traced in the
Apostolic Fathers. In the lists of sacred books uni-
versally acknowledged, or the contrary, drawn up by
Eusebius, Bishop of Csesarea (in Palestine), at the
beginning of the fourth century, the Epistle of James
is amongst the latter — the " antilegomena," or " those
spoken against," along with the Epistles of Jude,
2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John. The uncertainty was with
regard to its author ; little doubt ever being felt con-
cerning its inspiration. The great Greek Fathers of
the fourth century all quote it as canonical, and are
supported by the Latin. Some of the divines of the
Reformation, however, mistrusted it, chiefly on account
of internal and doctrinal evidence ; and, of course, the
German rationalists have eagerly attacked the Epistle
from such a ground of advantage. But it has thus far
well survived the storms of controversy, and will as
surely remain unharmed, to be the help and delight of
the patient souls who trust still that " the coming of
the Lord draweth nigh."

" Hora novissima, tempora pessima sunt, vigilemus ;
Ecce minaciter imminet, Arbiter Ille supremus :
Imminet, imminet, ut mala terminet. a;qua coronet,
Recta remuneret, anxia liberet, sethera donet."

So wrote Bernard of Morlaix, seven hundred years
ago, with the words of James (chap. v. 8) above quoted
in his heart. It were well to grave them on our own :
" For yet a little while, and he that shall come will
come, and will not tarry " (Heb. x. 37). The free trans-
lation appended is the familiar one, by Dr. Neale : —

" The world is very evil : the times are waxing late ;
Be sober, and keep vigil; the Judge is at the gate :
The Judge that comes in mercy, the Judge that comes with

might,
To terminate the evil, to diadem the right."

Analysis of Contents.
The Salutation (chap. i. 1).

I. Appeals on behalf of—

(i.) 1. Patience (chap. i. 2 — 4).

2. Prayer for wisdom : to be asked in faith

(chap. i. 5—8).

3. Lowly-mindedness (chap. i. 9 — 11).
(ii.) a. Endurance (chap. i. 12 — 15).

6. Because of God's goodness (chap, i,

16—18).
(iii.) 1. Meekness (chap. i. 17 — 21).

2. Self-knowledge (chap. i. 22—25).

3. Practical religion (chap. i. 26, 27).

II. Rebukes on account of—

(i.) a. Respect for persons (chap. ii. 1 — 9).

/8. Because leading to a violation of law
(chap. ii. 10, 11).
(ii.) Faith without works (chap. ii. 14 — 26).

o. Example of Abraham (chap. ii. 21 — 24).

P. Example of Rahab (chap. ii. 25).

7. Summary (chap. ii. 26).

(iii.) Censoriousness and sins of the tongue
(chap. iii.).
a. Warnings and examples against (chap. iii.

5-12).
/3. Exhortations to gentleness, or silence (chap,
iii. 13—18).
(iv.) 1. a. Lust (chap. iv. 1 — 4).
j8. Pride (chap. iv. 5—10).

2. Evil speaking (chap. iv. 11, 12).

3. a. Worldliness (chap. iv. 13 — 17).
£. Trust in riches (chap. v. 1 — 6). •

III. Conclusion.

(i.) Exhortation to patience (chap. v. 7 — 11).
(ii.) Caution against swearing (chap. v. 12).
(iii.) Advice of divers kinds : —

o. 1. To the sorrowful (chap. v. 13).

2. To the joyful (chap. v. 13).

3. To the sick and suffering (chap. v.

14, 15).
£. 1. Concerning confession (chap. v. 16).

2. Concerning prayer : example of

Elias. (chap. v. 17, 18).

3. Concerning conversion (chap. v.

19, 20).

[References. — Much abler and fuller treatment of the
subject may be read in the following books, to all of
which, and to many others by way of reference, the
writer of these Notes is under much obligation : —

Alford's Greek Testament, with a Critically -revised
Text. Vol. IV. Rivingtons, 1871.

Bleek's Introduction to the New Testament. (Trans-
lated by Urwick.) Vol. II. T. & T. Clark, 1874.

Davidson's Introduction to the New Testament.
Vol. III. Bagster, 1851.

Home's Introduction to the Holy Scriptures. Vol.

IV. Twelfth Edition. ByTregelles. Longmans, 1869.
Lightfoot on St. PauVs Epistle to the Galatians:

Dissertation II., The Brethren of the Lord. Macmillau,
1869.

Meyrick's articles on " James " and " The General
Epistle of James," in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible.
Vol. I. Murray, 1863.

Wordsworth's New Testament, with Introductions
and Notes, The Genei-al Epistles, &c. Rivingtons,
1872.1

354

THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF

JAMES.

CHAPTER L— W James, a servant i
Chap. i. i. The of God and of the Lord J
salutation. Jesus Christ, to the twelve i

tribes which are scattered abroad,
greeting.

W My brethren, count it all joy when

(1) James, a servant (or slave, or bond- servant)
of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ.— Bound
to Him, i.e., in devotion and love. In like manner,
St. Paul (Rom. i. 1, et seq.), St. Peter (2 Pet. i. 1), and
St. Jude brother of James (verse 1), begin their Letters.
The writer of this has been identified (see Introduction,
ante, p. 352 ) with James the Just, first bishop of Jeru-
salem, the brother of our Lord.

To the twelve tribes which are scattered
abroad. — Or, to the twelve tribes in the disper-
sion. To these remnants of the house of Israel,
whose " casting away " (Rom. xi. 15) was leading to
the " reconciling of the world ; " whose " fall " had
been the cause of its " riches ; " " and the diminishing
of them the riches of the Gentiles " (verse 12).
Scattered abroad indeed they were, " a by-word among
all nations " (Deut. xxviii. 37), " a curse and an as-
tonishment" (Jer. xxix. 18) wherever the Lord had
driven them. But there is something figurative, and
perhaps prophetic, in the number twelve. Strictly
speaking, at the time this Epistle was written, Judah
and Benjamin, in great measure, were returned to the
Holy Land from their captivity, though numbers of
both tribes were living in various parts of the world,
chiefly engaged, as at the present day, in commerce.
The remaining ten had lost their tribal distinctions, and
have now perished from all historical record, though it
is still one of the fancies of certain writers, rather pious
than learned, to discover traces of them in the abori-
gines of America, Polynesia, and almost everywhere else ;
most ethnologically improbable of all," in the Teutonic
nations, and our own families thereof. But long before
the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, and even the
preaching of Christianity, Jewish colonists were found
in Europe as well as Asia. " Even where they suffered
most, through their own turbulent disposition, or the
enmity of their neighbours, they sprang again from the
same undying stock, however it might be hewn by the
sword or seared by the fire. Massacre seemed to have
no effect in thinning their ranks, and, like their fore-
fathers in Egypt, they still multiplied under the most
cruel oppression." (See Milman's History of the Jews,
vol. i., p. 449, et seq.) While the Temple stood these
scattered settlements were colonies of a nation, bound
together by varied ties and sympathies, but ruled in
the East by a Rabbi called the Prince of the Captivity,
and in the West by the Patriarch of Tiberias, who,
curiously, had his seat in that Gentile city of Palestine.
The fall of Jerusalem, and the end therewith of national
existence, rather added to than detracted froin the
authority of these strange governments; the latter

ceased only in the reign of the Emperor Theodosius,
while the former continued, it is said, in the royal line
of David, until the close of the eleventh century, after
which the dominion passed wholly into the hands of the
Rabbinical aristocracy, from whom it has come down
to the present day. The phrase " in the dispersion "
was common in the time of our Lord ; the Jews won-
dered whether He would " go unto the dispersion
amongst the Gentiles " (John vii. 35, and see Note
there).

(2—27) Immediately after the salutation, and with more
or less a play upon the word which we translate " greet-
ing " (" rejoice, " verse 1 ; " count it all joy," verse 2)
there follow appeals on behalf of patience, endurance,
and meekness.

(2) Count it all joy when ye fall into divers
temptations. — Better, Account it all joy whenever ye
fall into divers temptations — i.e., trials; but even with
this more exact rendering of the text, how can we,
poor frail creatures of earth, it may well be asked,
feel any joy under such? Do we not pray in our
Saviour's words, " Lead us not into temptation " ?
(See Matt. vi. 13, and Note there.) Yet a little con-
sideration will open out the teaching of Holy Scrip;
ture very plainly. The Apostle here is following th
same line of thought as that expressed in Heb. \
14. By vise (or habit, more properly) our senses may
be exercised to the discernment of good and evil. Thft
grace of God given to the soul is capable of growth an<?
enlargement, like the powers of body and mind. If
either be unemployed, weakness must supervene, and
eventually decay and death. And just as the veteran who
has proved his armour well, and learned to face habitual
danger as a duty, is more trustworthy than a raw re-
cruit, however large of limb and stout of heart, so with
the Christian soldier. He must learn to " endure hard-
ness " (2 Tim. ii. 3), and bear meekly and even gladly
all the trials which are to strengthen him for the holy
war. Innocence is a grace indeed, and yet there is a
higher stage of the same virtue, viz., the purity which
has been won by long and often bitter conflict with
the thousand suggestions of evil from without, stirring
up the natural impurity within. Temptation is not sin.
" You cannot," says the old German divine, ': prevent
the birds flying over your head, but you can from
making nests in your hair ; " and the soul victorious
over some such trying onset is by that very triumph
stronger and better able to undergo the next assault.
The act of virtue has, in truth, helped to build up the

355

Of Patience under Trial,

JAMES, I.

and of Prayer for Wisdom,

ye fall into divers temptations ; (3> know-

.,' '. ing this, that the trying of
Chap. i. 2-4. & J • , , i i, &
An appeal on JOXXY faith WOrketh pa-
behalf of pa- tience. W But let patience
tience. j^^ /ter perfect work, that
ye may be perfect and entire, wanting
nothing.

<5) If any of you lack wisdom, let him
ask of God, that giveth to
all men liberally, and up- wisdom" tola*
braideth not ; and it shall prayed for in
be given him. <6> But let taith-
him ask in faith, nothing wavering. For
he that wavereth is like a wave of the

habit, from which, when it is perfected, a happy life
cannot fail to spring. The interpretation of our Lord's
prayer is rather the cry for help to God our Father in
the trial, than for actual escape from it : Lead us not,
i.e., where we in our free will may choose the wrong
and perish. And there is a strangely sweet joy to be
snatched from the most grievous temptation in the
remembrance that " God is faithful, who will not suffer
you to be tempted above that ye are able ; but will
with the temptation also make a way to escape, that ye
may be able to bear it" (1 Cor. x. 13).

(3) Knowing this, that the trying of your
faith worketh patience. — And this verse confirms
our view of the preceding one ; the habit of patience is
to be the blessed result of all the weary effort under
God's probation. James the Wise had learned it long
and painfully, and he returns to his exhortation of it
again, especially in chap. v. 7 — 11 (which see).

(*) Let patience have her perfect work.— Do
not think the grace will come to its full beauty
in an hour. Emotion and sentiment may have their
place in the beginning of a Christian career, but the
end thereof is not yet. Until the soul be quite un-
moved by any attack of Satan, the work cannot be
deemed " perfect." The doctrine is not mere quietism,
much less one of apathy, but rather this, that the
conscious strength of patient trust in God is able to
say at all times (comp. Ps. lxiii. 8) —

" My soul hath followed hard on Thee ;
Thy right hand hath upholden me."

And if in this patience we can learn to possess our
souls (Luke xxi. 19) the perfect work of God will be
wrought within us.

That ye may be perfect and entire (or, com-
plete).— A special proof herein for religious people
may be taken with regard to temper. Few trials are
harder ; and sweetness of disposition often melts away
from physical causes, such as ill-health or fatigue.
But the great test remains ; and it is one which the
world will ever apply with scorn to the nominally
Christian, refusing to admit the claims of saintliness
on the part of any whose religion is not of the house-
hold as well as the Church. The entirety and com-
pleteness of the life hidden with Christ in God (Col.
iii. 3) are manifested most by self-restraint.

"Wanting nothing.— The older version, " lacking,"
found in Tyndale, Cranmer, and the Genevan Bible
seems decidedly better. Here is no wish that the
faithful should be free from care, heeding nothing ;
but rather that their whole lives might be without
fault or flaw : a perfect sacrifice, as it were, offered tip
I to God. And this idea is confirmed by reflecting on
the original meaning of the word translated " entire "
above in the Authorised version=complete, i.e., as an
offering, with no blemish.

(5) If any of you lack wisdom.— The Apostle
passes on to the thought of heavenly wisdom ; not the
knowledge of the deep things of God, but that which
is able to make us wise unto our latter end (Prov. xix.

20). Few may be able, save in self-conceit, to say
with Isaiah (chap. 1. 4), " The Lord God hath given me
the tongue of the learned ; " and, on the other hand,
the wisest, and most gifted of men may truly be
wanting in the wisdom descending from above.

Let him ask of God.— But whoever, learned or
unlearned, feels in his heart the need of the knowledge
of God, since to know Him "is eternal life" (John
xvii. 3), " let him ask " for it in all purity of intention,
simply, i.e., for His honour and service, " and it shall
be given him."

That giveth to all men liberally, and up-
braideth not. — " Liberally " had better, perhaps, be
changed to simply — i.e., God gives fully and directly,
and reproacheth (or, " upbraideth ") not the utterance of
such a prayer, in no way detracting from the gracious-
ness of His gifts. How wide the difference from any
generosity of man ! " Tea," wrote Dante, in exile at
Verona,

"... thou shalt learn how salt his food, who fares
Upon another's bread,— how steep his path,
Who treadeth up and down another's stairs."

"The fool," said the wise son of Sirach, "giveth
little, and upbraideth much . . ., and is hated of God
and man " (Ecclus. xx. 15).

(6) But let him ask in faith, nothing waver-
ing.— Surely this verse alone would redeem the Apostle
from the charge o.c slighting the claims of faith. It
is here put in the very forefront of necessity ; without
it all prayer is useless. And mark the addition —

Nothing wavering.— Or, doubting nothing: re-
echoing the words of our Saviour to the wondering
disciples, as they gazed at the withered fig-tree on the
road to Bethany (Matt. xxi. 21). This "doubting" is
the halting between belief and unbelief, with inclina-
tion towards the latter. But it may be asked by some
one, whence and how is an unhesitating faith to be
gained ? And the reply to this will solve all similar
questions : faith, in its first sense, is the direct gift of
God; but it must be tended and used with love and
zeal, or its precious faculties will soon be gone. In the
hour of some besetting thought of unbelief " the shield
of faith " will " quench all the fiery darts of the
wicked " (Eph. vi. 16), but that shield must be lifted.
up, as it were, in an act of faith. " There is no God —
at least, to care for me," may be the hopeless cry,
responsive to a cruel wound of the enemy. Let the
battle-hymn of the Christian make quick answer, " I
believe in God ; " and often, with that very effort, the
assault will cease for awhile. Further, let us take
comfort in the thought that intellectual is not moral
doubt : the unorthodox are not as the adulterous..
Nevertheless, intellectual doubt may spring from an
evil habit of carping criticism and self-opinion, for the-
foundation of which, in so far as a man himself has
been oither the wilful or the careless cause, he must
bear the curse of its results.

For he that wavereth (or, doidrfeth) is like a
wave of the sea driven with the wind and

356

Against Mistrust in God.

JAMES, I.

Of lowliness of Mind.

sea driven with the wind and tossed.
(7) For let not that man think that he
shall receive any thing of the Lord.
<8) A double minded man is unstable
in all his ways.

(9) Let the brother of low degree re-

joice1 in that he is exalted: (10) but the
rich, in that he is made Ch ^ 9 _
low : because as the flower 11. Of lowiy-
of the grass he shall pass ^indedness.
away. <u) For the sun is no sooner
risen with a burning heat, but it

tossed. — Doubteth is preferable to " wavcreth " ; there
is 110 play on the Greek words, as in the English text —
** wavereth " and " wave." Like storm-beaten sailors,
the doubtful are " earned " up to heaven and down
again to the deep ; their soul nielteth away because of
tin" trouble (Ps. cvii. 26). And who can describe the
terror, even of the faithful, in, those hours of darkness
when the face of the Lord is hidden ; when, as with
the disciples of old, the ship is in the midst of the
sea. tossed with the bitter waves. Nevertheless, the
raging wind will clear the heavens soon from clouds,
and by the radiance of the peaceful moon we too
may behold our Helper near — the Lord Jesus walking
on the sea — and if He come into the ship the storm
must cease.

(7) Once more the Apostle warns the doubtful,
holding out no hope of help until the wavering mind
be tixed on God.

(8) The eighth verse had better be joined with the
seventh, and punctuated thus : — Let not that man
think he shall receive anything of the Lord: — double-
minded, unstable in all his ways. The reason why he
c;tn obtain nothing is because he is a man of two minds,
and by consequence uncertain in his ways. The words,
apparently are those of a proverb. It is useless to
have, as it were, two hearts, one lifted up to God, the
other turned away. " Come not unto Him with a
<louble heart " (Ecclus. i. 28 ; and comp. Matt. vi. 24).

(9 — ll) Lowly-mindedness is the subject of the next
paragraph. There is wide misapprehension of our state of
trial : the poor and humble are apt to forget the honour
thus vouchsafed to them, worthier in truth than the
wealth of this world, which quickly fades away ; and
the rich and noble are often unmindful of the true
source of their dignity, and that " unto whomsoever
much is given, of him shall bo much required " (Luke
xii. 48).

O) Let the brother of low degree rejoica in
that he is exalted (or, better, in his exaltation). —
There is no praise from the plain St. James for the
pride which apes humility, nor the affectation which
loves to be despised. If it please God to " exalt," as
of old, " the humble and meek," then anew should be
sung a magnificat to Him. The lowly-minded doubt of
the Virgin Mary, "How shall this be ?" (Luke i. 24),
was not reproved by the angel ; while the question of
blunt incredulity on the part of Zacharias was severely
punished (Luke i. 20), and this diverse treatment thus
■experienced was deserved in either case. Both doubted,
yet quite differently, and she of the lower degree
rejoiced most in God her Saviour for regarding the
lowliness of His handmaiden (Luke i. 47, 48). Willing-
ness thus for Christ's service, whether it be great or
little, is the right condition of mind for all disciples,
and specially the young, with readiness, nay gladness,
for "duty in that state of life unto which it shall
please God to call them." Pleasure will be naturally
felt by most at the prospect of a rise in the world ;
but there are some finer spirits who fain would shrink
from anything like exaltation ; and to these the kindly

357

Apostle writes that they may take heart, and not fear
the greater dangers which of necessity accompany a
higher call.

(io) But the rich, in that he is made low (or,
better, in his humiliation). — And, on the other hand.
let a change of state be a cause of joy to the rich man,
hard though the effort thereto must confessedly be.

There is an antithesis between his humiliation and
the humility of " the brother of low degree : " " God
putteth down one, and setteth up another " (Ps. lxxv.
7). Such seems to be the primary meaning of this
passage, though, doubtless, there is a more spiritual
significance underlying, which would teach the poorest
that he may be " rich toward God," and win from the
most wealthy the acknowledgment of his deep poverty
beside the Lord of all " good treasure " (Deut. xxviii. 12).
" I know thy poverty," said the Spirit unto the Church
in Smyrna, " but thou art rich " (Rev. ii. 9) ; and to
the Laodiceans, " Thou sayest, I am rich . . ., but thou
art poor" (Rev. iii. 17).

Because as the flower of the grass he shall
pass away. — No more simple and striking simile of
human instability and vanity can be found than " the
grass of the field, which to-day is, and to-morrow is
cast into the oven " (Matt. vi. 30) ; and the thought
suggests a picture to the mind of the writer, which he
draws with .strong and yet most tender lines. Our
English version misses the setting of his graceful idyl,
the exquisite beauty of which can hardly be trans-
ferred from the Greek; but the following attempt is
at least nearer the original : —

(U) For the sun is no sooner risen . . .—
Translate, the sun arose with the burning heat, and
dried up the grass ; and the flower thereof fell away,
and the grace of its fashion perished. The grace, the
loveliness, the delicacy of its form and feature — lite-
rally, of its face — withered and died away. Often
must the Apostle have seen such an effect of the fiery
Eastern sun, scorching with its pitiless glare the rich
verdure of the wilderness ; and in his ear, perchance,
was the cry of Isaiah (chap. xl. 6 — 8) :■ —

"All flesh is grass :
And all the goodliness thereof is as the flower of the field.
The grass withercth ;
The flower fadeth ;
Because the Spirit of the Lord hloweth upon it :
—Surely the people is grass.
The grass withcreth ;
The flower fadeth ;
But the Word of our God shall stand for ever."

So also (or, thus) shall the rich man fade
away (or, wither) in his ways.— Not the rich
brother, observe, is to fade thus, though his wealth
will so pass away. The warning is rather (as in Mark
x. 24) " for them that trust in riches." Even " the
mammon of unrighteousness," well used, will make
for us "friends that may receive us into everlasting
habitations " (Luke xvi. 9). And he who, out of the
possessions wherewith God has blessed him, "' deviseth
liberal things, by liberal things shall stand " (Isa. xxxii.
8). There seems, moreover, looking closely at the text,
a special fitness in its exact words : for they mean that

The Vanity of

JAMES, 1.

The Blessedness of Endurance.

withereth the grass, and the flower
thereof falleth, and the grace of the
fashion of it perisheth : so also shall the
rich man fade away in his ways.

<12) Blessed is the man that endureth
temptation : for when he is tried, he
shall receive the crown of life, which

the Lord hath promised to
them that love him. W Let
no man say when he is
tempted, I am tempted of
God: for God cannot be
tempted with evil,1 neither
tempteth he any man :

Chap. i. 12—15.
Theblessedness
of endurance
under trials
and tempta-
tions, and the
difference be-
tween the two.

the rich shall perish in their journeyings for the sake
of gain ; and to no people could the rebuke apply more
sharply than to the Jews, the lenders unto " many
nations " (Deut. xv. 6), the merchants and bankers of
the world. Nor can " the sword of the Spirit," un-
sheathed from this "Word of God (Eph. vi. 17), be
without an edge for those of us in these latter times
who err in the former ways.

(12—18) The Apostle returns to the consideration of
the afflicted Christian. Such a one has a blessedness,
greater infinitely than any earthly happiness, already
in possession, and the promise of a future beyond all
comparison.

It may be well to point out in this place that the idea
of blessedness with regard to man is conveyed to us in
the New Testament by a different word from that
which expresses the like concerning God. The force
of this may be seen in Mark xiv. b'l, where the high

receive a glorious kingdom, and a beautiful crown from
the Lord's hand." " The righteous live for evermore "
(Wisd. v. 15).

(13> Let no man say when he is tempted, I
am tempted of God.— Far be it from the true-
Christian either to give way to sin " that grace may
abound " (Rom. vi. I), or to suppose for one moment
that God, and therefore power invincible, is drawing
him from righteousness. Almost every reflection upon
the nature of sin leads up to an inquiry as to its cause ;
and the enigma will hardly be solved in this life. The
very facts of the presence of evil amongst God's
creatures, and its continual attraction even for the best,
have often driven men to doubt His supremacy. Sadly
— how can Ave of charity think otherwise ? — some have
felt the pain, but not the purpose of the world. At
times they cannot see in nature " the work of a Being
at once good and omnipotent," and prefer to doubt
the latter quality sooner than the former.* But this

. , -, - T j ., A , ml j.1. /Si • a n a i* "'e uitier mutiny suuner intiti iiie luruicr." JDUI inis

the Blessed ? " i.e., the Blessed God, to show which the
adjective is rightly printed with a capital letter. The
word applied to God — as in Luke i. 68; Rom. i. 25; ix.
5; 2 Cor i. 3; xi. 31 ; Eph. i. 3; 1 Pet. i. 3— may be
almost called a Christian one ; at least, it is not found
in much earlier writings, whereas the other term de-
scriptive of man's blessedness (or rather, happiness) is
ancient and classical. Only in one passage (1 Tim. i.
11) is there an exception to this remarkable distinction ;
and such may well be considered, as it is by the German
critic De Wette, un-pauline, though on no such a single
instance, or even several such, could the superstructure
be built that has been raised up by those who deny the
genuineness of the Pastoral Epistles.

<12> Blessed is the man that endureth tempta-
tion.— Surely the Apostle links such blessedness with
the nine Beatitudes, heard in the happy days gone by
upon the Mount with Christ (Matt. v. 3—11). The
words he uses in the original are the same as those
which are expressed above, in our second, third, and
fourth verses, by " patience " and " trials," and mean
a firm endurance, steadfastness, tenacity of purpose, and
quenchless enthusiasm, such as men of Teutonic blood
can appreciate perhaps even better than could either
Greek or Jew.

For when he is tried (literally, proved, or tested,
and found worthy) he shall receive the crown of
life, (i.e., the life) which the Lord hath promised
to them that love him.—" Lord " is not found in
the best MSS., but of course is required by the sense
of the passage. Probably in this case, as in so many
others, a little note— or " gloss," as it is called — was
made on the margin of an early manuscript, and in-
cluded unwittingly in the text by some later copyist.

The " pride " and " beauty " of the worldling are as
" a fading flower " (Isa. xxviii. 1) under the scorching
sun; but the unfading, ever-living crown is for the
spiritual, the true lovers of their Lord : blessed in
truth are they who thus endure the trial. " Therefore,"
says the Book of Wisdom (chap. v. 16), "shall they

dual system of the Persians, or rather, of Manes, who
j corrupted with his Indian fancies the faith of Zoroaster.
| The Manichees settled the difficulty better than our
l Deists by declaring the existence of a good God and a
! bad one ; and appealed to the daily strife between
virtue and vice, nay, life and death, in witness of their
simple creed. Thanks to the gospel, a nobler theology
is our Christian heritage, whereby we are persuaded
that good will triumph at the last, and by which we are
taught humility withal to own that God's ways in so per-
mitting and overworking evil are beyond man's compre-
hension. And a better scepticism remains for us than
that of the Theist, or Agnostic either ; a disbelief more
vehement that here can be the end, since in this life we
experience in no sense the rewards of just and unjust
to the full.

For God cannot be tempted with evil.— We
can see here a good instance of the excellence of the
old Geneva Bible, "the first on several occasions to
seize the exact meaning of a passage which all the pre-
ceding versions had missed." Our present rendering
follows the Genevan exactly, rejecting those of Wiclif.
" God is not a tempter of yuell things " ; Tyndale, " God
tempteth not vnto evyll " j and Cranmer, " God cannot
tempte vnto euyll."

Neither tempteth he any man.— The trial comes
of Him, i.e., the Tempter is allowed; but so far, and no
further. God Himself is " unversed of evils," and no
possibility of temptation remains with Him. Into the
unseen splendour of His fulness no thought of wrong
can enter ; no foul thing wing its silent flight. It were
blasphemy, perilously near that of the Phai'isees (Matt,
xii. 22 — 37) to think God's kingdom could be so divided
against itself, that He, directly or indirectly, should
seduce His subjects into the revolt of sin. No ; if we
have one golden clue by which we may feel our erring
way out of the labyrinth of this lower world into the

358

* Specially see J. S.
Nature, p. 38.

Mills "Three Essays on Religion,''

The Effect of Lust.

JAMES, I.

God tlve Giver of all Good.

<14) but every man is tempted, when
he is drawn away of his own lust,
and enticed. <15) Then when lust hath
conceived, it bringeth forth sin : and
sin, when it is finished, bringeth forth
death.

(16) Do not err, my beloved brethren.
(i?) Every good gift and
every perfect gift is from $*»£*£&
above, and cometh down from God's
from the Father of lights, ^changeable-
with whom is no vari-

belicf and trust in God our Father for the life to come,
it is this : trials and temptations are permitted to
strengthen us — if we will — for His mightier service.
And, as compulsory homage would be worthless to the
loving Lord of all, voluntary must be found instead,
and proved and perfected. Herein is the Christian
conflict, and the secret of God's ways with man.

U-0 So far the inspired Apostle has spoken of the
outward part of temptation; now he lays bare the
inner — for we suffer the two-fold evil. From without
come the whispers of Satan, by himself or his legion-
aries, skilled in all that may entice and delude the
unwary soul. And if the doctrine be true that to
every one a guardian angel is appointed, so also would
seem to be the opposite idea, that each has some demon
of the pit watching him incessantly, and commissioned
specially for his utter destruction. How terrible must
be the skill of such assailants, experienced in the arts
which have deceived mankind since the first fatal day.
But there is the limit of external power in this matter ;
the ablest and subtlest fiend can but guess what is
passing in its victim's mind, and shape its snares
accordingly. God oidy is the discerner of hearts, and
the " spirit of man which is in him " alone, with its
Maker, " knoweth the things of a man" (1 Cor. ii. 11).
The Holy Spirit " searcheth all things " (verse 10), and
all are manifest in His sight (Heb. iv. 13), but to no
less than His own omniscience. Satan, therefore, can
merely act on his general knowledge of human nattire,
aided by particular guesses at the individual before
him, whom he fain would destroy. He has learned too
well the deep corruption of the heart, and knows what
gaudy bait will most attract the longing and licentious
eyes.

Every man is tempted when he is drawn
away of (or, by) his own lust, and enticed.—
Evil humanity thrills responsive as a harp played by a
cunning hand ; but no power of hell can force its way
through the barriers which God the Holy Ghost erects
around the faithful and confiding soul : only by treason
of the man himself can the great enemy enter in and
reign.

(15) Then when lust have conceived . . . .—
Then come the downward steps &t ruin — Lust, having
conceived, bringeth forth sin; and sin, when it is
finished, bringeth forth death. The image well depicts
the repellent subject. The small beginning, from some
vain delight or worldly lust and pleasure; next from
the vile embrace, as of an harlot — sin. growing in all
its rank luxuriance, until it bear and engender, horribly,
of itself, its deadly child. The word of parturition is
frightful in the sense it would convey, as of some
monstrous deformity, a hideous progeny ten-fold more
cursed than its begetter.

The one effect of sin. more especially that of the
flesh here alluded to. must be Death. The act itself
is mortiferous, the result inevitable ; just as much so,
and as naturally, as the work of poison on the body.
There arc antidotes for both, but they must be given in
time ; the door of mercy stands not always open, nor

will the " fountain opened . . . for sin and unclean-
ness " (Zech. xiii. 1 ) flow on for ever. " Because," sayo
the Wisdom of God (Prov. ii. 24 — 26), " I have called,
and ye refused ... I also will laugh at your calamity."
'• The wages of sin is death " (Rom. vi. 23), and their
paymaster is the devil.

(16) Do not err, my beloved brethren.— Thus
far James the Wise has declared what God is not, what
qualities are alien to Him ; but this is only a negative
aspect of the truth, and he now would show the posi-
tive— namely, that God is the Author of all and every
good. And this lesson he introduces with a caution to
his brethren beloved, not to err. He is most earnest
and emphatic. " Be not ye deceived," however much
the world may wander in delusive paths. A marked
change from the dreadful tenor of the last verse is
here made to bright reflections on the gifts of God;
and a new incentive to endurance is found in the
happy thoughts of His goodness.

(17) Every good gift and every perfect gift is
from above.— This beautiful sentence, more musical
still in the Greek, is thought to be the fragment of
some Christian hymn. Two words are translated by
our one " gift " ; the first is rather the act of giving,
the second the gift itself, and the effect of both together
is a climax to the statement of God's benevolence.
The difference between the two is observed in the
Genevan version of 1557. "There are diversities of
gifts " (1 Cor. xii. 4), even as " one star differeth from
another star in glory " (1 Cor. xv. 41), but " the same
Spirit " is the giver of all. Where in St. John's Gos-
pel (chap. iii. 1) we read, "Except a man be born again,"
the most probable meaning is " from above," expressed
exactly as in the present case ; and thus we know whence
is the true birth of the soul.

Cometh down from the Father of lights.—
Great difference of opinion is found concerning these
" lights," whether the term be figurative, as of goodness
or wisdom ; or a reference to the mysterious Urim (Ex.
xxviii. 30, et seq.) which flamed on the breast of Aaron ;
or spiritual, as of grace and glory; or material, viz.,
the " lights " set " in the firmament of heaven " (Gen.
i. 14, 15) "when the morning stars sang together"
(Job xxxviii. 7). It were not amiss to take the whole
of these interpretations, for they, and perhaps others,
the purport of which we as yet can barely guess, are
included in this Scripture. " God," remarks Bishop
Wordsworth, "is the Father of all lights — the light
of the natural world, the sun, the moon, and stars, shining
in the heavens ; the light of reason and conscience ; the
light of His Law ; the light of prophecy, shining in a
dark place ; the light of the gospel shining throughout
the world ; the light of apostles, confessors, martyrs,
bishops, and priests, preaching that gospel to all
nations ; the light of the Holy Ghost shining in our
hearts ; the light of the heavenly city ; God is the
Father of them all. He is the everlasting Father of
the everlasting Son, who is the Light of the world."
But that the mind of the sacred writer was mainly on
the lights of the material universe may be seen from
his next thought.

God's I

JAMES, I.

and Man's Duty to Him.

ableness, neither shadow of turning.
(is) of hjg own vvill begat he us with
the word of truth, that we should be
a kind of firstfruits of his creature.

(19) Wherefore, my beloved brethren,
let every man be swift to hear, slow to
speak, slow to wrath : (20^ for the wrath

of man worketh not the righteousness
of God. (21> Wherefore lay chap . 19_2i.
apart all filthiness and Appeals there-
superfluity of naughtiness, f2w on ¥half
r, . J .,-, b -, ot meekness

and receive with meekness and steadfast-
the engrafted word, which ness-
is able to save your souls. ,

With whom is no variableness, neither
shadow of turning.— The phraseology is almost
scientific. There are changes, literally " parallaxes," of
the heavenly bodies themselves, and eclipses one of
another by shadows projected through space, but no
such variableness with God, nor changing of faintest
shade. And even further, the greatest and most mar-
vellous of His works on high " must be dissolved "
(2 Pet. iii. 11), "the sun darkened, the moon not give
her light, the stars fall from heaven " (Matt. xxiv. 29), and
the heavens themselves " be rolled together as a scroll "
(Isa. xxxiv. 4). But if " the things which are seen are
temporal, the things which are not seen are eternal"
(2 Cor. iv. 18). "I am the Lord," is the burden of
His latest prophet ; " I change not " (Mai. iii. 6).

(!8) Of his own will begat he us with the word
of truth. — There is a greater witness to God's good-
ness than that which is written upon the dome of
heaven, even the regeneration of man. As the old
creation was "by the Word" (John i. 3, 10, et seq.), the
new is by Him also, the Logos, the Word of Truth,
and that by means of His everlasting gospel, delivered
in the power of the Holy Ghost. So tenderly is this
declared, that a maternal phrase is used — God brought
us forth in the new birth ; and though " a woman " may
forget " the son of her womb " (Isa. xlix. 15), yet will
He " never leave, nor forsake " (Heb. xiii. 5).

That we should be a kind of flrstfruit of
his creatures. — And why this mercy and loving-
kindness ? for our own sakes, or for others and for
His ? Surely the latter ; and " if the flrstfruit be holy,
the lump is also holy " ( Rom. xi. 16). We know " Who is
the firstborn of every creature " (Col. i. 15) "the first-
begotten of the dead " (Rev. i. 5), nay, " the beginning
of the creation of God " (Rev. iii.. 14); "and we are
created in Christ Jesus " (Eph. ii. 10), become new in
Him (comp. 2 Cor. v. 17 ; Gal. vi. 15), made the
firstfruits of His redemption ; and, moreover, it would
seem we are the sign of the deliverance promised to the
brute creation " which waiteth for the manifestation of
the sons of God " (Rom. viii. 19, 21). The longing for
a future perfection is shared by all created beings upon
earth, and their discontent at present imperfection points
to another state freed from evil (Rom. viii. 18 — 22).
" The creature was made subject to vanity, not willingly,
but by reason of Him who hath subjected the same in
hope " (Rom. viii. 20). And the fruition of this hope is
foreshadowed in the words above. " The very struggles,"
it has been well observed by Dean Howson, " which all
animated beings make against pain and death show that
pain and death are not a part of the proper laws of their
nature, but rather a bondage imposed upon them from
without ; thus every groan and fear is an unconscious
prophecy of liberation from the power of evil." " The
creature itself also shall be delivered " is the plain asser-
tion of St. Paul (Rom. viii. 21); comparing his with
that of St. James, we must conclude that they point to
all nature, animate and inanimate as well. " We look
for new heavens and a new earth, wherein dwelleth

righteousness" (2 Pet. iii. 13), and "there shall be no
more death . . . nor any more j>ain " (Rev. xxi. 4).

" All creation groans and travails ;
Thou, O Lord, shall hear its groan.
For of man, and all creation,
Thou alike art Lord alone."

(19) We come now to the third subdivision of the
chapter. By reason of the Divine benevolence, the
Apostle urges his readers— (1) to meekness, (2) self-
knowledge, (3) practical religion.

Wherefore, my beloved brethen.— There ap-
pears to be some small error in the MSS. here, but the
alteration is only just worth mentioning : ye ~know my
brethren beloved, seems the correct version, the very
abruptness of which may serve to arrest attention.
Yea, " have ye not known ? " might well be asked
further in the indignant language of Isaiah (chap. xl.
21 ; comp. Rom. v. 19).

Let every man be swift to hear, slow to
speak, slow to wrath. —For all these cautions are
required in the building up of the new life. " The
quick speaker is the quick kindler ; " and we are told
later on " how great a matter a little fire kindleth "
(chap. iii. 5). And what have we at all to do with
wrath, much less that our whole life — as unhappily it
often is — should be wasted with such bitterness ?
Anger, no doubt, is a wholesome tonic for some minds,
and certain weaknesses ; but u he that is slow to auger
is better than the mighty, and he that ruleth his spirit
than he that taketh a city" (Prov. xvi. 32).

(20) por the wrath of man worketh not the
righteousness of God.— Sarcastically rings the
context. Perhaps there is still a sharper point to the
satire : the wrath of man does not work God's righte-
ousness "to the full." The warning may well be
sounded in the ears of Christians still, who ai*e not less
apt than Jonah of old to say quickly and in self-excuse,
" I do well to be angry" (Jonah iv. 9). How many a
holy work of household and parish has been and* is
thus hindered and destroyed ; and if the golden words
of the first bishop of the Church had been heeded
better, there never hnd appeared one page of her long
history blotted with the blood of a religious war.

(2i) 'Wherefore lay apart all filthiness and
superfluity of naughtiness.— So Peter (lPet.iii.21)
speaks of " the filth of the flesh." But the defilement
here referred to seems general and not special, common,
that is, to the whole natural man. The superabundance
— the overgrowth — of evil will occupy the heart, if
care be not taken to root it out ; and, like the thorns in
the parable of the sower (Matt, xiii., 7, et seq.), spring
up and choke the good seed. All such a rank and
poisonous crop must be gathered and laid aside, in
heaps may be, for some fiery trouble to consume, that
out of the dead luxuriant weeds a richer soil for virtue
may be made.

Naughtiness (ne-aughtiness, or nothingness) was
used in 1611, instead of the older and more correct

The Danger of Self -deception.

JAMES, I.

The Law of Liberty.

<W But be ye doers of the word, and

not hearers only, deceiving

§&ti*S J™r own selves. *► For

tion as to the if any be a hearer of the

ofSlfn°Wledge word' and not a doer' he
is like unto a man behold-
ing his natural face in a glass : l24) for

he beholdeth himself, and goeth his
way, and straightway forgetteth what
manner of man he was. <25) But whoso
looketh into the perfect law of liberty,
and continueth therein, he being not a
forgetful hearer, but a doer of the work,
this man shall be blessed in his deed.1

"translation, malice or maliciousness. The badness
implied in the original is much more positive than that
which appears from our present version.

Receive with meekness the engrafted word.
— Or, in mildness accept ye this word of truth (see
verse 18, above), engrafted, like a good olive tree, or
rather implanted, in you. The term is peculiar to this
place, and means " innate " in its first intention. If
taken so, " the innate Word " will be Christ Himself
formed within us. (Comp. Gal. iv. 19.)

Able to save your souls.— In like manner Paul
at Miletus commends the elders of Ephesus " to God,
and to the Word of His grace, which is able to build
you up, and to give you an inheritance among all them
which are sanctified " (Acts xx. 32). Observe, the idea
of salvation thus conveyed by the implanted word, is
so potentially and not actually. Tended and cultured,
it will grow into a tree of life, the fruit whereof may
heal the wounds of sin ; but the after-growth of this
plant of God is largely in the hands of man.

We can hardly help making a brief inquiry in this
place on the meaning of " soul." There are few words
more vaguely used by devout persons, or which present
greater difficulties to the learned, or open wider fields
of speculation for the thoughtful. In common language
we speak of " body and soul, " meaning much the
same as "body and spirit;" but theologians write
more carefully of " body, soul, and spirit " (comp.
2 Thess. v. 23) ; and psychologists distinguish between
the animal branch of their subject and the rational or
intellectual (^vx^-vovs). The second of these methods
of division is known as the trilogy, and is of most im-
portance to the Christian reader. By it is understood
(1) the body, wholly and entirely material, of and
belonging to this world ; (2) the mind or reason,
corporal also — that is, arising from the body, and
depending in its exquisite balance upon it; (3) the
true soul or spirit, the breath as it were of God, im-
material and immortal. Our bodily nature, of course,
is shared with the lower creation, and the spiritual
with the higher, while the intellectual is peculiar to
mankind. If it be hard to draw a line between vege-
table and animal, harder still is it to separate instinct
from reason, the difference being of degree rather than
kind. But if the one side of the mental soul — namely,
the rational, be near akin to what is termed instinctive
in the brute, the other, the intellectual, however it may,
as it does, soar upward, yet approaches not to the
angels, for the difference here is of kind and not
degree. Now, strange to say, the Apostle treats not
of the spirit but the natural soul. Other texts in plenty
assure us that God is able to save the one ; from this
we may learn salvation is for both, such being the work
of " the engrafted Word." Reason and intellect con-
secrated to divine service have an eternity before them,
one of activity and not repose. The highest concep-
tion of God to the Greek mind was the Aristotelian
idea of intellectual self-sufficiency and contemplation;
the Oriental strives, as for ages it has striven, for
extinction and nothingness ; but to the Christian is

46* 30

given the sure and certain hope of the glorified body,
the enlightened soul, the perfected spirit— three in
one, and one in three — working the will and praise of
its Maker and Redeemer for ever.

(22) Doers of the word. — Acting up to the full
of their knowledge, whether gained by the spoken or
the written Word of God. There is a force in the
original sentence, which our own language cannot
supply. The temi " deceiving" is the contrary of- that
rendered li word," and means its corruption ; the Word
which is the source of knowledge and life may be so
handled as to cause error and death. No acquaintance
with the Bible, apart from the practice of its precepts,
will avail the Christian any more than it did the Jew.
" For not the hearers of the law are just before God,
but the doers shall be justified " (Rom. ii. 13). Those who
deceive themselves may not altogether be hypocrites ;
there is a subtler danger of being blind, and neverthe-
less exclaiming "We see." (Comp. John ix. 41.)

(23) He is like unto a man beholding his
natural face in a glass. — The Apostle points grimly
to an example of this self-deception. He (literally,
this) is like unto a man beholding his natural face in a
mirror. Not a "glass," but a mirror of polished steel,
such as are still used in the East. " His natural face,"
or the face of his birth — the real appearance, that is,
which the reflection of the Word of God, properly
looked into, will afford the inquirer.

(24) For he beholdeth himself . . .—Better, for
he beheld himself and went his way, and straightway
forgot what he was. Like the simile in verse 11. this
is described as an actual occurrence, seen and noted by
the writer. There is a recognition of the well-known
face, followed by instant and complete forgetfnlness ;
and thus is it often with the mirror of the soul. In
some striking sermon or book a man's self is made
manifest to him, and the pictm-e may be too familiar to
cause aversion ; but, whether or no, the impression
fades from his mind as quickly as the echoes of tho
preacher's words. At the best the knowledge was only
superficial, perhaps momentary ; widely different from
that which comes of a holy walk with God.

(25) But whoso looketh . . .—Translate. But he
who looked into the perfect law of liberty and continued
therein. The past tense is still kept to enforce the
figure of the preceding verse. The earnest student of
the Scriptures stoops down in humility of body and
mind to learn what the will of their Author may be.
He reads, as it were, upon his knees ; and if he finds
therein a law, it is one of liberty and not slavery, life
and not death — although, as Dean Alford observes
here, " not in contrast with a former law of bondage,
but as viewed on the side of its being the law of the
new life and birth, with all its spontaneous and free
development of obedience."

Not a forgetful hearer . . .—Literally, not a
hearer of forgetfulness, but a doer of work. Thus ren-
dered, the words of the sentence balance each other, and
Comment is needless.

This man shall be blessed in his deed.— Or,

What is True Religion

JAMES, II.

acceptable to God.

W If any man among you seem to be
Ch i °<5— 27 reh"g'ious, an^ bridleth not
Practical ve- his tongue, but deceiveth
ligion. ^jg own heart, this man's

religion is vain. <27) Pure religion
and undefiled before God and the

Father is this, To visit the father-
less and widows in their affliction, and
to keep himself unspotted from the
world.

CHAPTEE II.— (i) My brethren, have

as in the margin, doing. A return perhaps in thought
to the Beatitudes, and the close of that Sermon on the
Mount, of which they were the opening words. The
blessedness of this humbly active Christian is like that
of the wise man there spoken of " which built his house
upon a rock" (Matt. vii. 24, 25).

(26> But St. James has thus far dilated only on the
first part of his advice in verse 19, " Let every man be
swift to hear " ; now he must enforce the remaining
clause, " slow to speak."

If any man among you seem to be reli-
gious . . . — Better, If any one imagine himself to be
religious, not bridling his tongue, bid deceiving his own
heart, this man's religion is vain. The sense of the
Greek is slightly obscured by the English version. " If
any man . . . seem " — i.e., to himself, and not to
others merely ; the warning is not to the hypocrite, but
the self-deceived. A Christian may have, or rather
cannot help having, the feeling that he is a religious
man ; and so far well. But if such a one deceive Ins
own heart, as confessedly he may, and give to those
around him the proof of his self-delusion in not curbing
his tongue, vain and useless is all his religious service.
Just as some mistakenly suppose there can be a religion
of hearing without acting, so others rest satisfied " in
outward acts of worship, or exactness of ritual." " But,"
remarks Bishop Moberly on this passage, and his voice
may win an audience where another's would not, " if a
man think himself a true worshipper because he con-
forms to outward services, while he lets his tongue
loose iu untruth or unkindness or other unseemliness,
he deceives himself." The first mark of true religion is
gentleness of tongue, just as the contrary, blasphemy,
is the most damning fault of all. Our Lord directly
says, " By thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy
words thou shalt be condemned" (Matt. xii. 37). The
text, however, is more a guide for self-examination than
a stone to be cast at a neighbour ; and " well is " it
indeed for " him that hath not slipped with his tongue "
(Ecclus. xxv. 8).

The Apostle returns to this subject, though from a
different point of view, in chap, iii., which compare
with the above. The best commentary on the whole is
Bishop Butler's Sermon, No. IV., " Upon the Govern-
ment of the Tongue."

(27) Pure religion . . .—It will be observed that
by religion here is meant religious service. No one
word can express this obvious interpretation of the
original, taken as it must be in completion of the verse
before ; and certainly " religion " in its ordinary sense
will not convey the right idea. Real worship, we may
say, pure and undefiled, beheld and acknowledged as
such in the presence of God, even the Father — mark
the tender pathos of His divine relationship — is this :

To visit the fatherless (or, orphans) and widows
in their affliction, and to keep himself un-
spotted from, the world.— Here is the double proof
of the perfect iii.> of holiness, the savour whereof is as
perpetual incense before the throne of God. And the
lielp afforded to the helpless, put thus in the first place

of the two requirements, will often bring about the
second — namely, that spotless condition of unworldli-
ness which marks, and will ever mark, the true servant
of the Lord Jesus Christ. Deeds of benevolence may
be and are often done by those who are not His ; but
all who truly belong to Him must live a life which
praises Him continually in good works; not, it is
hardly needful to say, as a cause — but rather the
natural and inevitable result of love for Him, warming
the heart within.

Scrupulous indeed were the " religious " contempo-
raries of James ; they would not enter where the image
of Divus Csesar had its votive flame, while they were
ceremonially clean for the keeping of their passover
— " they went not into the judgment hall lest they
should be defiled " (John xviii. 28). But He whom
there they cruelly sought to slay had told them before,,
though in vain, " that which cometh out of the man, that
defileth the man" (Mark vii. 20), and " nothing from
without can defile him " (verse 15). What an eternal
caution may be learned here against cold reliance upon
ritual! What an instance, ever, under all varieties
and forms, to be applied to themselves by the erring,
persecuting, and deceitful sons of men ! while, on the
other hand, from these words of the wise Apostle we
may be sure what is truest, nay, the only true service,
acceptable and accepted, of the Most High — " To
visit the fatherless and the widow," beholding in them
a new image of Christ, the Man of Sorrows, is to show
pity verily to Him ; and at the last such " pure re-
ligion " will receive His own approval. " Inasmuch as
ye have done it unto one of the least of these, my
brethren, ye have done it unto me" (Matt. xxv. 40).
Blessed be the ears attuned to catch the golden
cadence, for it rings in angel voices round the soothers
of the sick and sorrow-laden even now !

II.

(!) My brethren. — The second chapter opens with
some stern rebukes for those unworthy Christians who
had " men's persons in admiration," and, doubtless, that
" because of advantage " to themselves. (Comp. Jude,.
verse 16.) The lesson is distinctly addressed to be-
lievers, and its severity appears to be caused by the
Apostle's unhappy consciousness of its need. What
were endurable in a heathen, or an alien, or even a Jew,
ceased to be so in a professed follower of the lowly
Jesus. And this seems to be a further reason for the
indignant expostulation and condemnation of verse 14.
Thus the whole chapter may really be considered as
dealing with Faith ; and it flows naturally from the
foregoing thoughts upon Religion — or, as we inter-
preted their subject-matter, Religious Service.

Have (or, hold) not the faith of our Lord Jesus
Christ, the Lord of glory, with (or, in) respect
of persons. — " Ye know the grace of our Lord Jesus
Christ," wrote St. Paid to the proud and wealthy men
of Corinth (2 Cor. viii. 9), "that, though He was rich,
yet for your sakes He became poor, that ye through His
poverty might be rich;" and, with more cogent an

appeal, to the Philippians (chap.

-), " In lowli-

Of undue Respect

JAMES, II.

for Persons.

not the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ,
the Lord of glory, with re-

£haP' Eebukea sPect of Persons« (2) For if
on account of there come unto your as-
wrong respect semblyl a man witli a gold
tor persons : y ,. , ° ,

with clivers in- ring, in goodly apparel, and
stances there- there come in also a poor
man in vile raiment ; (3J and
ye have respect to him that weareth the

Or. tynagogue.

gay clothing, and say unto him, Sit
thou here in a good place ; 2 and say to
the poor, Stand thou there, or sit hetfe
under my footstool: Ware ye not then
partial in yourselves, and are become
judges of evil thoughts ? (5) Hearken,
my beloved brethren, Hath not God
chosen the poor of this world rich in
faith, and heirs of the 3 kingdom which

ness of mind Let each esteem other better than them-
selves : look not every man on his own things, but every
man also on the things of others. Let this mind be in
you, which was also in Christ Jesus : Who, being in the
form of God" — i.e., Very God, and not appearance
merely — nevertheless " thought not His equality with
God a thing to be always grasped of,'4 as it were some
booty or prize, " but emptied Himself'' of His glory,
•" and took upon Him the shape of a slave." Were
these central, nay initial, facts of the faith believed
then; or are they now? If they were in truth, how
could there be such folly and shame as " acceptance of
persons" according to the dictates of fashionable
society and the world ? " Honour," indeed, " to whom
honour " is due (Rom. xiii. 7). The Christian religion
allows not that contempt for even earthly dignities —
affected by some of her followers, but springing more
from envy and unruliness than aught besides. True
reverence and submission are in no way condemned by
this scripture : but their excess and gross extreme, the
preference for vulgar wealth, the adulation of success,
the win-ship, in short, of some new golden calf.

('-) For if there come unto your assembly
(literally, synagogue). — This is the only place in the
New Testament where the Jewish word is used for a
Christian congregation.

A man with a gold ring, in goodly apparel.—
Better, a man golden-ringed, in bright apparel. Roman
satirists had much to say upon the fops and dandies of
their time, with "all their fingers laden with rings";
some, if we may trust the sneer of Martial, having six
on each ; and others with heavy gold or light, accord-
ing to the oppressiveness of the season ; no doubt, the
fashions set in Rome extended to Jerusalem. " Goodly
apparel" is, rather, gorgeous — splendid in colour- or
ornament ; the same two words are translated " gay
clothing " in the following verse.

And there come in also a poor man in vile
raiment.— Squalid, even dirty, as from work and
wear — the exact opposite of the idle over-dressed
exquisite.

W And ye have respect to him that weareth
the gay clothing (or, bright apparel). — Look on him,
that is, because of his fine appearance, with undue re-
spect and consideration.

And say unto him, Sit thou here in a good
place (or. as margin, well) ; and say to the poor,
Stand thou there, or sit here under my foot-
stool.— The sidesman or elder in charge of the church
finds a stall for the person of substantial presence,
while anything does for the poor one; but — most con-
siderate offer — he can stand; or, if he prefer it, sit
under the great man's footstool, lower down, that is, on
the floor beneath. We know Christ's words for those
who loved of old " the chief seats in the synagogues "
(Matt, xxiii. 6), nor can there be doubt as to their full
application now. What is to be urged in excuse for

363

the special pews in churches and chapels, hired and
appropriated, furnished luxuriously, and secured by
bolt and lock? If in the high places sit the men and
women in goodly raiment still, while the poorly clad
are crowded into side benches and corners, or bene-
ficently told to stand and wait till room be found
somewhere beneath the daintier feet, — how can there be
escape from condemnation on the charge which follows ?
— namely this —

(■*) Are ye not then partial in yourselves,
and are become judges of evil thoughts ?—
Or, as the sense, fully expressed, would be : " My
brethren, if you acted thus, did you not doubt in your-
selves, and become by such false and unfaithful dis-
crimination judges of and in your own evil thoughts ?
Did you not lose the idea of brotherhood, and become
contentious as to supremacy of self and place —
serving yourselves while prepared for the service of
Christ P The Lord Jesus thought not His equality with
God a thing ever to be grasped at, if work for man
could be done by self-humiliation. Therefore, although
being ' equal to the Father, as touching His Godhead.'
He became ' inferior ... as touching His Manhood.'
And none may turn unmoved from that picture of
sublime condescension to the petty strifes of quality
and position which profane the Christian sanctuary.
Most sadly true is it that in making distinctions such
as these between rich and poor, we 'become of the
number of those who doubt respecting their faith ; '
for, while it abolishes such altogether in the presence of
God, we set them up of our own arrogance and pride.
' We draw nigh unto Him with our mouth, and honour
Him with our lips, but our heart is far from Him ; and
our worship therefore vain.'" (Comp. Isa. xxix. 13;
Ezek. xxxiii. 31 ; Matt. xv. 8—9.)

(5) Hearken, my beloved brethren.— With
complete change of manner the Apostle writes now as
if he were speaking, in brief quivering sentences,
appealing to the hearts which his stronger words may
not compel.

Hath not God chosen . . . ?— There is, then, an
election on the part of God. It were folly to deny it.
But this passage, like so many others, gives the reason
for that choice. " The poor of this world " are His
chosen ; not merely for their poverty, although it may
have been the air, so to speak, in which the virtues
which endeared them to Him have flourished most. And
these are rich for present and for future. They know
Him "now by faith," and "after this life have the
fruition of His glorious Godhead." "Blessed be ye
poor, for yours is the kingdom of God" (Luke vi. 20).
The way thereto for them is nearer and less cumbered
than for the rich, if only they fulfil the Scripture
(comp. Matt. vi. 3), and be poor " in spirit : " then,
indeed, are they "heirs of the kingdom which He hath
promised to them that love Him." The world must
always measure by its own standard, and consider

The Poor not to be despised.

JAMES, II.

The Law to be kept, hi full,

he hatli promised to them that love
him ? (6> But ye have despised the poor.
Do not rich men oppress you, and draw
you before the judgment seats ? (7) Do
not they blaspheme that worthy name
by the which ye are called ? w If ye
fulfil the royal law according to the scrip-
ture, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as
thyself, ye do well : <9) but if ye have

respect to persons, ye commit sin, and are
convinced of the law as transgressors.

(io) For -whosoever shall keep the whole
I law, and yet offend in one
point, he is guilty of all. f^he wnole"
(11) For he that Said,1 Do Law is broken
not commit adultery, said Jj f S?e at
also, Do not kill. Now if °ne po"
thou commit no adultery, yet if thou

poverty a curse, just as it looks on pain and trouble as
evil. But the teaching of God, declared most elo-
quently in the life of His blessed Son, is the direct
opposite to this. In a worship which demands of its
votaries costly gifts and offerings — and every religion
tends downwards to such desires — the rich man has a
golden pavement to his future bliss. No wonder,
therefore, that again and again the voice of the Spirit
of God has pointed out the narrow way, and the eternal
excellency of truth, and faith, and love, the riches
easiest of acquisition by the poor.

(6) But ye have despised the poor.— Better, ye
dishonoured the poor man — i.e., when, as already men-
tioned (chap. ii. 2, 3), you exalted the rich unto the
" good place " of your synagogue. Thus whom God
had called and chosen, you refused. " It is unworthy,"
observes Calvin on this passage, " to cast down those
whom God lifts up, and to treat them shamefully whom
He vouchsafes to honour. But God honoureth the
poor ; therefore whoever he is that rejects them perverts
the ordinance of God."

Do not rich men oppress you ?— Or, lord it over
you as a class ; not assuredly that this can be said of
each wealthy individual. It is the rich man, of the
earth earthy, trusting in his riches (comp. Matt. x. 24),
who makes them a power for evil and not for good.
Here is presented the other side of the argument, used
on behalf of the poor, viz., observe first how God
regards them (verse 5), and next, judge their adver-
saries by their own behaviour.

Draw you before the judgment seats ?— Better,
Do they not drag you into courts of justice 1 " Hale "
you, as the old English word has it. Summum jus
summa injuria — -extreme of right is extreme of wrong —
a legal maxim oft exemplified. The purse-proud
litigious man is the hardest to deal with, and the one
who specially will grind the faces of the poor. No body
of laws could on the whole be more equitable than the
Roman, but their administration in the provinces was
frequently in venal hands ; and besides, the large fees
demanded by the juris-consulti — " the learned in the
law " — quite barred the way of the poorer suitors, such
as, for the most part, were the Christians to whom this
Letter was written.

(7) Do not they blaspheme . . .— To "blaspheme"
is to hurt with the tongue, and includes all manner of
evil speech ; but a more exclusive use of the word is with
regard to things divine, and particularly the unpardon-
able sin against the Holy Ghost (Matt. xii. 31). A
moment's reflection will show, unhappily, that this is
alluded to in the text.

That worthy name by the which ye are
called ? — Better, that good, that glorious Name which
was invoked (or, called) over you — viz., at baptism.
" Into the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of
the Holy Ghost " (Matt, xxviii. 19) had all been bap-
tised who were thus addressed ; but most probably the

Second Person of the Trinity is referred to here. And
it was the scorn and contempt visited upon His Name,
which changed the mere abuse and ribaldry into a
perilous likeness to the deadliest sin. Most commen-
tators thus restrict the Name here to that of Christ.
If their view be correct, the blasphemy would probably
be linked with that epithet of " Christian " — then so
dishonourable — coined, we are told, first in Antioch
(Acts xi. 26). But there were far more insulting terms
found for the poor and struggling believer — " Naza-
rene," "Atheist," and even worse.

(8) If ye fulfil the royal law.— Better para-
phrased thus, If, however, ye are fulfilling the Law, as
ye imagine and profess ye are doing, the royal law,
according to the Scripture, " Thou shalt love thy
neighbour as thyself, ye are doing well ; but ....
Mark the touch of irony in the defence which St. James
puts into the mouths of his hearers. It were certainly
a sweet proof of neighbourly affection, that exemplified
in verse 3. The "royal," or "kingly law," is, of
course, God's, in its highest utterance; and may bo
taken as an illustration of what a law really consists :
viz., a command from a superior, a duty from an
inferior, and a sanction or vindication of its authority.
There is much confusion of thought, both scientific
and theological, with regard to this ; were it not so we
should hear less of the " laws of nature," and divers
other imaginary codes which the greatest legist of
modern times has called " fustian." The sovereign law
of love, thus expressed by the Apostle, is one so plain
that the simplest mind may be made its interpreter ;
and the violation of it is at once clear to the offender.

(9) But if ye have respect to persons . . .—
Translate, But if ye respect persons, ye work sin, and
are convicted by the Law {i.e., at the bar of conscience)
as transgressors. The first principle has been broken,
and not a mere detail. De minimis non curat lex : the
laws of men cannot concern themselves with trifles;
but the most secret soul may be proven and revealed
by some little act of love, or the contrary : and such is
the way of the Lord " that searcheth the hearts "
(Rom. viii. 27).

(io) For whosoever shall keep . . .—Better, have
kept the whole Law, but shall have offended in one, has
become guilty of all. As a chain is snapped by failure
of the weakest link, so the whole Law, in its harmony
and completeness as beheld by God, is broken by one
offence of one man ; and the penalty falls, of its own
natural weight and incidence, on the culprit.

(ii) For he that said . . .—All men have favourite
vices and indulgences ; and most

" Compound for sins they have a mind to
By damning those they're not inclined to ; "

forgetful that the same Lawgiver has laid His restric-
tions upon every sort and kind. Not that we can believe
all sins are the same in their deadening effect upon the

and not merely in part.

JAMES, II.

Of Mercy in Judgment.

kill, thou art become a transgressor of ;

the law. <12> So speak ye, and so do, as | 1 0r- ■**■*

they that shall be judged by the law

of liberty. (13) For he shall have judg- |

ment without mercy, that hath shewed
no mercy; and mercy rejoiceth1 against
judgment.

(14) What doth it profit, my brethren,

soul, or, further, in their punishment. The point which
St. James urges is that sin, as sin, involves the curse of
the law ; and that " respect of persons," with its un-
loving and unlovely results, must bring its deceived
possessor into condemnation before God. Just as our
Lord referred the Sixth and Seventh Commandments
(Matt. v. 21 — 32) to the first issues of the angry or lust-
ful heart, and by no means confined them as did the
Rabbinical teachers to the very act, so now in like
manner the Apostle takes his stand upon the guiltiness
of any breach wliatever of the Law. Love is its complete
fulfilment, we are well informed (Rom. xiii. 10), but
in that startling briefness lies comprehended all the
decalogue, with its utmost ramifications ; and men of
the world would find a rule of the most minute and
rigid ceremony easier to be followed than this simple
all-embracing one. " The fulfilling of the Law " is very
different from the substitution of a single plain
command for a difficult code ; this would seem to be
the mistake of many, noisily asserting their freedom
from the older obligations, who do not so evidently
live under the mild bondage of the new.

A curious question may be raised upon the inverted
order of the Sixth and Seventh Commandments in this
passage, as well as in Mark x. 19 ; Luke xviii. 20 ;
Rom. xiii. 9. (Not so however, observe, in the sermon
on the Mount, Matt. v. 21 — 27.) Professor Plumptre
says they are thus placed because " standing first in
the second table, the Fifth being classed by most Jewish
writers as belonging1 to the first," and " there was,

probably, a traditional order of the Tenth, varying from
that at present found in the Hebrew Pentateuch."
The Greek version, known as the Septuagint, supports
this theory, placing " Thou shalt not commit
adultery " in verse 13 of Ex. xx., and " Thou shalt
not kill " in verse 15.

(12) So speak ye, and so do.— The writer has
shown how unsuspected sins lead quickly to a violation
of the Law, and in concluding this part of his Epistle
he returns to the warning against an unguarded tongue,
with which he commenced in chap i. 26.

The law of liberty.— The term is only found here
and in chap. i. 25, and seems one of which James the
"Wise was peculiarly fond. What, however, did he pre-
cisely mean ? Neither the ceremonial, nor the moral,
most certainly ; but the spiritual law of One greater
than Moses. The idea, however, is in most of the
New Testament writings, and particularly St. Paul's.
(Comp. John viii. 32; Rom. viii. 21; 1 Cor. x.29; 2 Cor.
iii. 17 ; Gal. ii. 4; v. 1, 13 ; and 1 Pet. ii. 16.)

(13) For he shall have judgment without
mercy, that hath shewed no mercy.— Better, For
unmerciful judgment shall be to him that wrought not
mercy. Here again are the clearest echoes of our
Saviour's words (Matt. vi. 1, 2, et seq.), and a reference,
we can hardly doubt, to His well-known parable (Matt,
xviii. 21 — 35) ; and we must remember, further, that
" the unforgiving temper, apart from all outward wrong,
constitutes the sin of the unmerciful servant ; " oppor-
tunity only being lacking for its full effect. The
pitiless are usually cowards, and may well be moved by
fear, if they will not by love : " I mil repay, saith the
Lord " (Rom. xii. 19).

Mercy rejoiceth against judgment.— There can
hardly be a fitter comment on this text than that which
must be present in every reader's mind— the speech of
Portia in The Merchant of Venice,

" The quality of mercy is not strained ; " &c.

— (Act iv. scene 1.)

But let the words of the Greek, John the Golden
Mouthed, be added, for their exceeding beauty also.
" Mercy is dear to God, and intercedes for the sinner,
and breaks his chains, and dissipates the darkness, and
quenches the fire of hell, and destroys the worm, and
rescues from the gnashing of teeth. To her the gates
of Heaven are opened. She is the queen of virtues,
and makes men like to God, for it is written, ' Be ye
merciful as your Father also is merciful ' (Luke vi. 36).
She has silver wings like the dove, and feathers of gold,
and soars aloft, and is clothed with divine glory, and
stands by the throne of God ; when we are in danger
of being condemned she rises up and pleads for us, and
covers us with her defence, and enfolds us in her
wings. God loves mercy more than sacrifice " (Matt.
ix. 13).

(14—26) Faith and Works. — We now enter on the
most debatable ground of the Epistle; a battle-field
strewn with the bones and weapons of countless adver-
saries. It is an easy thing to shoot " arrows, even bitter
words " ; and without doubt, for what seemed to be
the vindication of the right, many a hard blow has
been dealt on either side —so many, indeed, that quiet
Christian folk have no desire to hear of more. The
plain assertions of holy Scripture on this mattor are
enough for them ; and they experience of themselves no
difficulty in their interpretation.

The old story of the Knights who smote each other
to the death upon the question of the gold and silver
shield, each looking at it only from his own point of
view, may well apply to combatants who cried so lustily
for " Paul " or " James." But, now the dust of con-
flict has somewhat blown aside, it would be hard to
prove that the Apostles themselves were ever at
variance, or needed such doughty champions at all.

Truth is, they regarded the same object with a
different motive, and aimed at a dissimilar result :
just as in medicine, very opposite treatments are
required by various sicknesses, and in the several
stages of disease. The besetting error of the Jewish
Christians to whom St. James appealed was that
which we have traced (see Introduction, p. 353 ) to a
foreign source; and, as it wandered but slowly from
the furthest East, it had not yet reached the churches
of Europe, at least sufficiently to constitute a danger in
the mind of St. Paul. No better tonic for the enervat-
ing effect of this perverted doctrine of Faith could be
found than a consideration of the nobler life of Abraham;
and what example could be upheld more likely to win
back the hearts of his proud cfescendants ? And. if to
point his lesson, the Apostle urged a great and stainless
name, even that of the Friend of God, so with it would
he join the lowly and, perhaps, aforetime dishonoured
one of Rahab. that he might, as it were, plead well with
all men of every degree or kind.

Of Faith

JAMES, II.

and Works.

Chap. ii. 14— though a man say he hath
bus on Faith, faith, and have not works ?
and particu- can faith save him ? <15)Ifa
Sou? worS bother or sister be naked,

and destitute of daily food, (16> and
one of you say unto them, Depart in
peace, be ye warmed and filled; not-
withstanding ye give them not those

Dean Alford, quoting with entire approbation the
opinion of the German commentator De Wette, found
it " impossible to say " that the ideas of Faith, Works,
and Justification in the two Apostles were the same.
The summary of his remarks is fairly this : — Accord-
ing to St. James, Faith was moral conviction, trust, and
truth ; and yet such a theoretical belief only that it
might bo held by devils. Works are not those of the
Law, but an active life of practical morality and well-
doing ; Justification is used in a proper or moral sense,
but not the higher or " forensic/' as we now call it. On
the other hand, St. Paul's idea of Faith presupposes
self-abasement, and " consists in trust on the grace of
God, revealed in the atoning death of Christ " ; Works
with him referred chiefly to a dependence on legal ob-
servances ; Justification assumed a far wider signifi-
cance, especially in his view "of the inadequacy of a
good conscience/ to give peace and blessedness to men "
(1 Cor. iv. 4), such being only to be found by faith in
God, who justifies of His free grace, and looks on the
accepted penitent as if he wei'e righteous. But even
this divergence, small as it is compared with that dis-
cerned by some divines, is really overstrained ; for in
the present Epistle the Church of every age is warned
"against the delusive notion that it is enough for men
to have religious emotions, to talk religious language,
to have religious knowledge, and to profess religious
belief, without the habitual practice of religious duties
and the daily devotion of a religious life " : while the
letters of St. Paul do not, in this way, combat hypocrisy
so much as heterodoxy. There is always the double
danger, dwelt upon by Augustine somewhat after this
manner : — One man will say, " I believe in God, and it
will be counted to me for righteousness, therefore I will
live as I like." St. James answers him by showing
that "Abraham was justified by Works" (chap. ii. 21).
Another says, " I will lead a good life, and keep the
commandments; how can it matter precisely what I
believe!" St. Paul replies that "Abraham was justi-
fied by faith" (Rom. iv.). But, if the Apostle of
the Gentiles be inquired of further, he will say that,
although works go not before faith, they certainly come
after. (Witness his discourse on Charity, 1 Cor. xiii.)
And, therefore, concludes Bishop Wordsworth, " the
faith described by St. Paul is not any sort of
faith by which we believe in God; but it is that
healthfid evangelical faith whose works spring from
\ove."

Thus the divine lesson stands forth, clearly written ;
ttnd ho who runs may read. Faith must be embodied
in acts : " faith, without acts of faith, is but a dream."
" The -two cannot be separated, for they are given in one
by God to man, and from him go back in one to God.
As by faith we behold the greatness of God, and of His
eternal grace, His ineffable holiness, majesty, glory,
goodness, love ; so we shall know and feel the nothing-
ness of all in ourselves — whether faith or works — save
as they are the gift of God. As we probe ourselves,
we learn the depth of our own evil ; but, as we confess
our own evil and God's good. He will take away from
us the evil, and crown us with His goodness : as we
own ourselves to be, of ourselves, unprofitable servants,
He, owning us in His wwks, will say, 'Well done,

good and faithful servant, enter thou into the joy of
thy Lord ' " (Matt. xxv. 21).

A deeply learned and interesting excursus on Faith,
in its active and passive meanings, and on its Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin synonyms, may be read in Bishop
Lightfoot's Notes on the Galatians, pp. 152 — 162.
Admitting that " so long as our range of view is con-
fined to the apostolic writings, it seems scarcely pos-
sible to resist the impression that St. James is attack-
ing the teaching, if not of St. Paul himself, at least
of those who exaggerated and perverted it," our pro-
foundest theologian assures us that the passage in
Genesis (chap. xv. 6) was a common thesis in the
Rabbinical schools, the meaning of faith being variously
explained by the disputants, and diverse lessons drawn
from it. The supremacy of faith, as the means of
salvation, might be maintained by Gentile Apostle and
Pharisaic Rabbi : but faith with the former was a very
different thing from faith with the latter. With one
its prominent idea was a spiritual life, with the other an
orthodox creed ; with the one the guiding principle was
the individual conscience, with the other an external
rule of ordinances; with the one faith was allied to
liberty, with the other to bondage. " Thus," he says
in conclusion, "it becomes a question whether St.
James's protest against reliance on faith alone has any
reference, direct or indirect, to St. Paul's language and
teaching; whether, in fact, it is not aimed against an
entirely different type of religious feeling, against the
Pharisaic spirit which rested satisfied with a barren
orthodoxy, fruitless in works of charity."

(14) What doth it (or, is the) profit, my brethren,
though a man say he hath faith, and have not
works ? — Some allusion here is made most probably
to the Shema, the Jewish creed, " Hear, O Israel, the
Lord our God is one Lord " (Deut. vi. 4). It was the
daily protest of the devout Israelite in the midst of
idolaters, and the words of his morning and evening
of life, as well as of the ordinary day. A similar utter-
ance of faith is held to be the test of the true believer
in Islam, when the two inquiring angels put their
awful questions to the departed soul. But the idea is
much more ancient, for a similar confession was required
of the just before Osiris, the Lord of the Egyptian
Heaven.

Can faith save him ?— The stem inquiry comes
like a prophecy of woe upon the wretched man — saved,
as he fancied, by covenant with God, and holding a
bare assent and not a loving faith in Him.

(15) But (the word should be added, for it continues
an argument ) if a brother or sister be naked, and
destitute of daily food — i.e., the food for each day,
not that which suffices for one, or for a present distress ;
the case is rather of worst and direst want, so that the
heart untouched by the spectacle of such misery must
be hard indeed.

(16) And one of you say unto them, Depart in
peace, be ye warmed and filled.— Is it unlikely,
knowing as we do the style of the rugged Apostle, that
he was drawing other than from the life ? Perhaps it
was a scene in his own experience during that very
famine foretold by Agabus (Acts xi. 28 — 30).

Folly of mere Belief.

JAMES, II.

Example of Abraham.

things which are needful to the body;
what doth it profit? <17) Even so faith,
if it hath not works, is dead, being
alone.1 <18) Yea, a man may say, Thou
hast faith, and I have works : shew me
th\ faith without thy works,'2 and I
will shew thee my faith by my works.
(19) Thou believest that there is one
God ; thou doest well : the devils also
believe, and tremble. (20) But wilt thou

3 Or, Thou scent.

know, O vain man, that faith without
works is dead ?

(2i) "Wag not Abraham our father jus-
tified by works, when he
had offered Isaac his son 24. Example T-
upon the altar ? (22> Seest the faith of
thou3 how faith wrought Abraham»
with his works, and by works was faith
made perfect? <&) And the scripture
was fulfilled which saith, Abraham be-

There would, however, seem to be a worse inter-
pretation of the words, beginning so softly with the
Eastern benediction: namely, "Ye are warming and
tilling yourselves." It is the rebuke of cool prosperity
to importunate adversity : " Why such impatience ?
God is one, and our Father: He will provide." No
amount of faith could clothe the shivering limbs and
still the hunger pangs ; what greater mockery than to
be taunted with texts and godly precepts, the usual out-
come of a spurious and cheap benevolence.

Notwithstanding ye give them not. — The " one
of you" in the beginning of the verse, then, was re-
presentative of the whole body addressed by St. James ;
and now by his use of the plural "ye," we see that no
individual was singled out for condemnation : the
offence was wider and worse.

(17) Even so faith, if it hath not works, is
dead, being alone. — Better, like the margin, is dead
in its own self. If to be childless among women were a
•curse in Israel, so to bo barren among God's graces is
the condemnation of faith in Christendom. And St.
Paul, in substantia] harmony with this assertion of his
brother Apostle, declares (Rom. ii. 13) " Not the hearers
of the Law are just before God, but the doers of the Law
shall be justified." There had been no lack of charity
under the earlier Jewish teaching ; in fact, " righteous-
ness " in many passages of Holy Writ, and in the para-
phrases for the unlearned, called the Targums, was
explained to be " almsgiving." But the whole system
of Rabbinism seems gradually to have destroyed the
spiritual life of its scholars; and amongst them now
was fast spreading the doctrine of a sterile faith. In
the revival of Monotheism under the sword of the pro-
phet of Mecca, the faith of Abraham once more shone
in the creed of his descendants : though, alas ! the sons
of Ishmael, and not Isaac the chosen : and the Muham-
medans tell us still that if fasting and prayer bring the
believer to the gates of Paradise, alms will let him in.

(is) Yea, a man may say . . .—The bearing of
this verse is commonly misunderstood ; its words are
those of scorn, uttered probably by some enemy of the
faith — Jewish or Pagan — and are another instance, like
that of the unruly tongue, by which those outside the
pale of Christianity may and will judge us within.
Verses 18 to 22 are all the speech of this practical
opponent of first century solifidianism. The English
version, " Show me thy faith without thy works " is
correct, though according to some editors t^see marginal
variation) it should be by or from.

The sense is ^obvious ; and whether the speaker be
Christian or ho. lie lays claim to faith in God, the
Father of all, as the efficient cause of bis good deeds.

l19) Thou believest that there is one God;
thou doest well.— Better thus, Thou believest that
■God is One ; thou doest well. He is the formal object
of faith derived from knowledge, whether by sense, in-

tuition, or demonstration ; you are theologically correct,
and may even declare your internal faith by external
confession — well, indeed.

The devils also believe, and tremble.— They
shudder in the belief which only assures them of their
utter misery ; literally, their hair stands on end with
terror of the God they own. Assent, opinion, know-
ledge— all are thus shared by demons of the pit ; call
not your joint possession by the holier name of Faith.
" I believe in God," " I believe in one God " — such is
the voice of the Christian ; and this is said in the full
sense " only by those who love God, and who are not
only Christians in name, but in deed and in life."

C-°) Bnt wilt thou know, O vain man, that
faith without works is dead ? — " Vain," i.e.,
empty and useless. Some copies have a word which
means idle, fruitless, workless, in place of that trans-
lated '" dead " ; but the sense is the same either way.
" If," says Bishop Beveridge, " I see fruit growing upon
a tree, 1 know what tree it is upon which such fruit
grows. And so, if I saw how a man lives, I know how
he believes. If his faith be good, his works cannot but
be good too ; and if his works be bad, his faith cannot
but be bad too : for, wheresoever there is a justifying
faith, there are also good works ; ami wheresoever there
are no good works, there is no justifying faith." Works
are the natural fruit of faith ; and without them it is
evident the tree is dead, perhaps at the very roots,
ready to be cut down and cast into the fire.

(2i) Was not Abraham our father justified
by works . . ? — St. James now addresses his two
examples from familiar history in force of his plea for
active faith. The first is the marvellous devotion and
trust of Abraham (Gen. xxii.) when he offered Isaac his
son upon the altar ; that boy himself the type of God's
dear Son, who bore, like His meek ancestor, the sacrificial
wood up the long weary road of death. Happily, the
story is as well known to Christian readers as to the
Jewish of old time, and may safely be left hei'e without
further comment.

(--) Seest thou how . . ?— Better taken simply,
and not as a question, Thou seest how. &.c.

(23) The scripture was fulfilled.— Namely, that
earlier declaration of God (Gen. xv. 6) when the child-
less Abraham, with only a Syrian slave for his heir,
trusted in the divine promise that his own seed should
be as the number of the stars of heaven.

Abraham believed God, and it was imputed
unto him for righteousness.— He proved his faith
by obedience, when he freely gave back to the Giver
his son, the heir of all the promise.

The Friend of God.— Amatus a Deo — beloved of
Him, not the friend to God, nor lover of Him, as some
have hastily imagined. It is not an exact quotation
from the Hebrew Bible, though the substance thereof
may be found in Isa. xli. 8. The term was traditional

307

Rahab the Harlot.

JAMES, III.

T. lie Danger of Teaching others.

lieved God," and it was imputed
unto him for righteousness : and
he was called the Friend of God.
<2;) Ye see then how that by works
a man is justified, and not by faith
only.

<25^ Likewise also was not Rahab the
Chap. ii. 25. harlot justified by works,
Example 2: when she had received the
that of Rahab. meSsengers, and had sent
them out another way? <26) For as the

3™i:I5(s2i!iln™'i ^ody without the spirit l is dead, so faith
i .<*. •«■*■' without works is dead also.

Aj)._cfr. 60. ! CHAPTER HI.—*1) My brethren, be
not many masters, know- ch »• j ',
ing that we shall receive 12. Warnings

*°rJUd9ment- the greater condemnation.2 SSSbb?^S'
(2) For m many things we sins of the
offend all. If any man Jjgg^ **
offend 'not in word, the its venom and
same is a perfect man, unruliness.

throughout the East, and is used by the Arabs as de-
scriptive of the patriarch to this day.

(24) Ye see then how that by works . . .—
Observe that St. James says a man is not justified " by
faith only" putting the adverb in the last and most
emphatic position. He never denies Justification by
Faith; but that fancied one of idle, speculative,
theoretic faith, with no corresponding acts of love.

(25) Likewise also . . ' .—The second example,
brought forward in strange and complete contrast to
Abraham, "the father of many nations," is that of
Rahab, the harlot, who received and sheltered in her
house at Jericho the two spies sent out from the camp
of Israel (Josh. ii.). The evil name of the poor woman's
unhappy trade cannot truthfully be softened down to
" innkeeper," nor even " idolater."

Sent them out. — Literally, hastened, or thrust
them forth, showing her haste and fear.

It may not be out of place to notice that Clement,
Bishop of Rome, one of the Apostolic Fathers, in his
first letter to the Corinthians, sees in the scarlet thread
which Rahab bound in her window a type of our Re-
deemer's blood. And it is most remarkable, as showing
the mercy of God, that this outcast of society was not
only saved alive and brought into the fold of Israel, but
became a direct ancestress of her Saviour, by marriage
with Salmon, the great-great-grandfather of David
(Matt. i. 5).

(26) As the body without the spirit . . .—A
closing simile of much force, As the body without the
spirit, so faith without works. But the term " with-
out " is hardly strong enough to represent the Greek
"apart from." Of our own human wisdom we had
been rather inclined to say that works were likest to
the body, and faith to the breath or animation thereof.
" The Apostle's view," says Alford, " seems to be this,
Faith is the body, the sum and substance of the Chris-
tian life ; .works ( = obedience) the moving and quicken-
ing of that body, just as the spirit is the moving and
quickening principle of the natural body. So that ' as
the body without the spirit is dead, so faith without
works is also dead.' "

III.

Chapter iijl. is a division of the Epistle complete in
itself, specially concerned with Sins of the Tongue.
Warnings and examples are given in plenty (verses
5 — 12) followed by exhortations to meekness and
gentleness, and the promise of " the fruit of righteous-
ness " to the lovers of peace (verses 13 — 18).

(!) Be not many masters. — Better, teachers, which
meaning was conveyed by " masters " when the English
Bible was first published. The condemnation is of
those who appoint themselves, and are as " blind

leaders of the blind" (Matt. xv. 14). No man had a
right to exercise the sacred functions of the appointed
masters in Israel (see Note on John iii. 10), and none
might take the honour of the priesthood unto himself,
" but he that was called of God, as was Aaron " (Heb.
v. 4). Whereas we know from our Lord's own words
that the Scribes and Pharisees loved respectful " greet-
ings in the markets, and to be called of men ' Rabbir
Rabbi ' " (Matt, xxiii. 1 — 12). Nevertheless His
disciples were not to be acknowledged thus : for " one
is your Master, even Christ ; and all ye are brethren."
The neglect of this wholesome caution perplexed the
early Church, as much as the later branches thereof.
(Comp. Acts xv. 24; 1 Cor. i. 12; 1 Cor. xiv. 26; GaL
ii. 12.)

The greater condemnation.— Rather, the greater
judgment — more strictly searching and severe. " None
of us liveth to himself, and no man dieth to himself "
(Rom. xiv. 7), and, if this be true of common Christian
life, how deep is the responsibility incurred in the
attempt to teach others! Nay — "who is sufficient for
these things ?" (2 Cor. ii. 6.) The test of all ministry
must come at last in the day of trial and fiery inquisi-
tion of God ; this and not the world's opinion will be
the real approval (1 Cor. iii. 11 — 15). If the work of
any teacher abide, his reward will be exceeding great ;
if it " be burned," woe to him ! " He himself shall be
saved, yet so as by fire," scathed by that which shall
consume the rubbish he has raked together ; the faith
which prompted such a man shall save him, but no
reward can follow useless teaching ; nor can there be
escape for his own soul, except he wrought honestly.

(2) For in many things we offend all.— Better
thus, For in many things we all offend : not, what
might be inferred, " we are an offence to all," as Matt,
xxiv. 9 ; 1 Cor. iv. 13, et al. Humble, indeed, was the
holy mind of James, but this confession of error uplifts-
him in all right appreciation, and in no way casts him
down. The very human weakness of Peter, and Paul,
and James, endears them to us ; for so we know
assuredly that they were " men of like passions " with
ourselves (Acts xiv. 15), and, where they succeeded, we,
by the like grace of God, may also win the crown.

If any man offend not in word, the same is a
perfect man. — If any man : much more one who fain
would teach his fellows. To " offend " means to
stumble over something, and fall, and in this sense we
get the exact meaning of " offending " by an unguarded
allusion to a subject painful in the mind of another.
" A constant governance of our speech, according to
duty and reason, is a high instance, and a special argu-
ment of a thoroughly sincere and solid goodness," says.
Isaac Barrow ; but the meekest of men failed once, and
blessed indeed is lie who takes heed to his ways that he*
sins not with his tongue (Ps. xxxix. 1).

The Duty of

JAMES, III.

Curbing the Tongue

and able also to bridle the whole
body. W Behold, we put bits in the j
horses' mouths, that they may obey j
us ; and we turn about their whole
body. (4) Behold also the ships, which
though they be so great, and are driven I
of fierce winds, yet are they turned about ;
with a very small helm, whithersoever j
the governor listeth. (5) Even so the •
tongue is a little member, and boasteth \
great things. Behold, how great a j

2 Br. nature.

fir. nature of

matter l a little fire kindleth ! (6) And

the tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity :

so is the tongue among our members,

that it defileth the whole body, and

setteth on fire the course of nature;

and it is set on fire of hell.

W For every kind 2 of beasts, and of

birds, and of serpents, and ~ ... „
„ ., . . ,,r ' Chap. m. 7 —

of things m the sea, is 12. The un-
tamed, and hath been natural be-
tamed of mankind : 3 (8> but 0LV1°

Able also to bridle the whole body.— Not that
if the tongue be stilled all the members of the body are
consequently in peace ; but, because the work of ruling
the one rebel is so great, that a much less corre-
sponding effort will keep the others in subjection.

(3> Behold. — A more clumsy reading is insisted
upon here : but if, instead of " behold." The supporters
of such curious corrections argue that the least likely is
the most so ^ and thus every slip of a copyist, either in
grammar or spelling, becomes more sacred in their eyes
than is the Received text with believers in verbal
inspiration.

Three comparisons of the tongue are now introduced ;
the bit (verse 3), the rudder (verse 4), and a fire
(verse 6) : the two former to show what mastery may
be gained by self -discipline, the latter to warn us of a
danger which may quickly spread beyond our power
to quell.

(4) The governor— i.e., the "helmsman," from the
Latin gubemator. The Venerable Bede, our earliest
English translator, refers the ships here to an image of
ourselves, and the winds to the impulses of our own
minds, by which we are driven hither and thither.

St. James, remembering the storms of the Galilean
lake, could well rejoice in a simile like this, although
he himself may only have known the craft of an inland
sea, and never have beheld " broad rivers and streams "
wherein went " galley with oars and gallant ship " (Isa.
xxxiii. 21). And none knew better than the brother of
the Lord who was the true

" Helm of the ships that keep
Pathway along the deep."

(5) Even so . . .—Thus, like the tiny rudder of
the mighty ship, whereon its course most critically
depends — the tongue is a little member ; for it
" vaunts great words which bring about great acts of
mischief." The verb translated boasteth is pecrdiar to
this place, but occurs so often in the works of Philo
that we may be almost certain St. James had read
them. And many other verses of our Epistle suggests
his knowledge of this famous Alexandrian Jew.

Behold, how great a matter a little fire
kindleth !— It would be more in the spirit and temper
of this imaginative passage to render it, " Behold, how
great a forest a little spark kindleth ! " Thus it is
expressed in the Latin Yulgate; and note our own
margin, "wood." The image constantly recurs in
poetry, ancient and modern ; and in the writer's mind
there seems to have been the picture " of the wrapping
of some vast forest in a flame, by the falling of a single
spark." and this in illustration of the far-reaching
mischief resulting from a single cause. (Comp. Ecclus.
xxviii. 10.)

(6) And the tongue is a fire.— Better thus, The

tongue — that world of iniquity— is a fire, to burn and
destroy the fairest works of peace. The tongue is in
our members that which defileth the whole body, and
setteth the world aflame, and is set on fire itself of
Gehenna, " The course of Nature " is literally the
" wheel," the " orb of creation." The Jewish word
for the place of torment, the accursed side of Hades,
should be thus preserved : whence it was that the rich
man of the parable prayed for water to cool his tongue
(Luke xvi. 24).

" Speech is silver ; silence, gold." But even the
Christian world will not endure overmuch the godly
discipline of silence. Three temptations "to smite
with the tongue " are specially powerful of evil : viz.,
as a relief from passion, as a gratification of spite, as
revenge for wrong. The first is experienced by hot-
tempered folk ; the second yielded to by the malicious ;
the third welcomed by the otherwise weak and defence-
less ; and all of us at times are in each of these divisions.
Then, again, there are the " foolish talkings " (Eph. v.
4), and worse, the jestings at holy things, and mis-
quotations of Scripture : all to be avoided as not
becoming saints. If then we would " walk in love "
we must curb the tongue ; but, better still, strive to
cleanse the heart, and so be quite determined that
nothing shall go forth but words of meekness and
affection. Nay, if we be truly Christ's, though "re-
viled " by the unruly tongues of others, we shall, like
Him, " revile not again " (1 Pet. ii. 23). And as the
whole body is the Lord's to be sanctified to Him
(1 Cor. vi. 19 et seq.), so particularly must the tongue
be kept from "evil-speaking, lying, and slandering,"
and used rightly for the service of God. Thus may w©
truly offer " the calves of our lips " (Hos. xiv. 2), more
acceptable than the blood of victims slain on a thousand
altars, " than all whole burnt-offerings and sacrifices "
(Mark xii. 23).

(7) For every kind of beasts . . .—Compare the
margin, and read more exactly, thus : Every nature of
beasts and birds, and creeping things, and things of
the sea, is tamed, and hath been tamed, by the nature
of man. All kinds have been mastered by mankind, as
promised at creation (Gen. i. 26 — 28). There lives no
creature which may not be won by kindness and grati-
tude; and —

" He prayeth best who lovcth best
All things both great and small ;
For the dear God Who loveth us,
He made and loveth all."

The four-fold division of animal life above is curiously
like and unlike that in Acts x. 17, where we read of
" four-footed beasts of the earth, wild beasts, creeping
tilings, and fowls of the air."

(8) But the tongue can no man tame; it
is an unruly (or, restless) evil, full of deadly

369

An Instrument of micch aood

JAMES, III.

and great harm.

the tongue can no man tame ; it
is an unruly evil, full of deadly
poison. (9) Therewith bless we God,
even the Father ; and therewith
curse we men, which are made after the
similitude of God. ^10) Out of the same
mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing.
My brethren, these things ought not so
to be. (11) Doth a fountain send forth
at the same j>lace l sweet xvater and
bitter ? (12) Can the fig tree, my brethren,

bear olive berries ? either a vine, figs ?
so can no fountain both yield salt water
and fresh.

(13) wi10 is a wise man and endued
with knowledge among chap> iiL 13_
you ? let him shew out 18. Exhorta-

of a good conversation ^jLj^^J5

° meekness, gen-

his works with meekness tleness, and
of wisdom. <M) But if ye *>eace-
have bitter envying and strife in your
hearts, glory not, and lie not against

poison.— Mortiferous, bringer of death, like a poisoned
dart or arrow; and therefore most suggestive of en-
venomed flights at the fame of others. St. James does
not mean that no one can tame his own tongue, for so he
would hardly he responsible for its vagaries ; and lower
down it is written expressly, " these things ought not so
to be." The hopeless savagery of the tongue, excelling
the fury of wild beasts, must be that of the liar, the
traducer, and blasphemer. (Comp. Ps. cxl.)

(9) Therewith bless we God, even the Father.
i — A strange reading of this verse in the more ancient
manuscripts makes it, Therewith bless we the Lord and
Father. And it may serve to remind us of the one-
ness of our God, that thus He may be termed Lord
and Saviour. His worship and praise are, as explained
under verse 6, the right use of the tongue ; but, most
inconsistently, therewith curse we men which have been
made in the image, after the similitude, of God. See
Ps. 1. 16 — 23, with its final words of warning to the
wicked, and praise " to him that ordereth his con-
versation right."

The " likeness of G-od " assuredly remains in the
most abandoned and fallen ; and to curse it is to invoke
the wrath of its Creator. What then can be urged in
defence of anathemas and fulminations of councils, or
the mutual execrations of sects and schisms, in the
light of these solemn words ? " Though they curse,
yet bless thou . . . and let them cover themselves
with their own confusion " (Ps. cix. 28, 29).

(10) Ought not. — The Greek equivalent for this is
only found here in the New Testament, and seems
strangely weak when we reflect on the usual vehemence
of the writer. Was he sadly conscious of the failure
beforehand of his protest ? At least, there seems no
trace of satire in i\\a sorrowful cadence of his lines,
" Out of the same mouth ! "

(H) Doth a (or, the) fountain send forth (literally,
spurt) at the same place (or, hole, see margin)
sweet water and bitter (i.e., fresh water and salt) ?
— A vivid picture, probably, of the mineral springs
abounding in the Jordan valley, near the Dead Sea;
with which might be contrasted the clear and sparkling
rivulets of the north, fed by the snows of Lebanon.
Nature had no confusion in her plans ; and thus to
pour out curse and blessing from the same lips were
unnatural indeed. Or, again —

(12) Can the fig-tree, my brethren, bear olive
berries ? either a vine, figs ?— Read, Can a fig-
tree bear olives, or a vine, figs ? The inquiry sounds
like a memory of our Lord's, " Do men gather grapes
of thorns, or figs of thistles ? " (Matt. vii. 16.)

So can no fountain . . .—This, the last clause of
the sentence above in the Authorised version is very con-
fused in the original, but seems to be merely this, Neither
can salt (water) bring forth fresh ; or, as Wordsworth

renders it, Nor can water that is salt produce what is
sweet. And such in effect is Alford's comment : "If
the mouth emit cursing, thereby making itself a brackish
spring, it cannot to any purpose also emit the sweet
stream of praise and good words ; if it appear to do so,
all must be hypocrisy and mere seeming." Every
blessing is, in fact, tainted by the tongue which has
uttered curses ; and even " Praise is not seemly in the
mouth of a sinner" (Ecclus. xv. 9).

(i3j Who is a wise man and endued with
knowledge ?— Who is wise, i.e., in the wisdom of
God, and learned in that of man ? The latter state is
of knowledge natural or acquired, the former is Sophm,
the highest heavenly wisdom, " the breath of the power
of God — the brightness of the everlasting light — more
beautiful than the sun, and above all the order of the
stars" (Wisd. vii. 25 — 29). Just as the devils hold
with man the lower kinds of faith, that is belief merely
(chap. ii. 19), so do they share in his earthly knowledge.
The self -same term as that describing it above is used
by the evil spirit who answered the presumptuous sons
of Sceva, " Paul I feow," while a different one alto-
gether referred to the Lord Jesus (Acts xix. 15).

" Where shall Wisdom he found,
And where is the place of Understanding?"

was the question of Job (chap, xxviii. 12). And the
LXX. version marks the parallelism in the same Greek
words as those used by St. James to distinguish between
the two ideas.

Let him shew out of a good conversation—
i.e., right conduct. " Conversation " has slipped from
its original meaning, which exactly represented the
Greek, and is often misapprehended by the English
reader. Literally, " turning oneself about," M changed
to " walking to and fro," and the talking while engaged
in these peripatetics, and then to its limited modem
use. There is to be general good conduct, and particu-
lar proofs of it in kindly works in meekness of wisdom ;
noble acts of a holy habit.

(14> But if ye have bitter envying and strife
in your hearts.— Rather, it should be, bitter zeal and
party-spirit. "Above all. no zeal" was the worldly
caution of an astute French prelate. But that against
which the Apostle inveighed had caused Jerusalem to
run with blood, and afterwards helped in her last hour
to add horror upon shame. The Zealots were really
assassins, pledged to any iniquity ; such were the forty
men " who bound themselves under a curse, saying they
would neither eat nor drink till they had kill#d Paul "
(Acts xxiii. 12 ; see Note there). Some of these des-
peradoes unluckily escaped the swords of the Romans,
and fled to the fastnesses of Mount Lebanon. They
were probably the nucleus of a still more infamous
society, known in the middle ages as that of the Old

370

Tlir Wisdom from Above.

JAMES, IV.

and the Marks thereof.

the truth. (15> This wisdom descendeth
not from above, but is earthly, sen-
sual, ' devilish. (1(i) For where envying
and strife is, there is confusion2
every, evil work. <17> But the wisdom
that is from above is first pure, then
peaceable, gentle, and easy to be in-

:i or, wiOiota

wranglimi.
1 Or, imiiirnl.

n-nA \- ,;r- '"""'"■ or,
imqutetnees.

treated, full of mercy and good fruits,
without partiality/' and without hypo-
crisy. <18) And the fruit of righteous-
ness is sown in j>eace of them that
make peace.

CHAPTER IV. — W From whence

Man of the Mountain ; in fact, our word " assassin "
•comes from " Hassan," their first sheik. Happily for
humanity they were at length exterminated by the
Turks.

Glory not. — Boast not yourselves as partakers of
this accursed zeal ; behold already what ruin it is bring-
ing on us as a nation and a Church. And it were well
to take care even in these milder days of religious fac-
tions, that the strife of creeds be wholly different in
kind from the old zealot feuds, and not merely in de-
gree. Able only to rend and overthrow, party-spirit
will, if it be gloried and exulted in, lay down the walls
of Zion " even to the ground." But " if any man defile
the temple of God, him shall God destroy" (1 Cor. iii.
17), and the words must be translated much more
sternly, " If any man destroy . . ."

Lie not against the truth.— This is not tautology,
nor a Hebraism, but of far deeper import. "' What
is truth p " said jesting Pilate (John xviii. 38), and, as
Bacon remarks in his Essay on Truth, he would not stay
for an answer. Probably he put a question familiar to
himself, learned in a certain school of knowledge whose
wise conclusion was that mankind could not tell; and
the inquirer turned away, unwitting that before him
stood the incarnate Truth itself. The world of unbelief
repeats the careless utterance of the Roman Governor,
and holds with him in its new Agnosticism ; and to its
self-assurance and pride of life He. Who can only be
learned in the doing of His will (John vii. 17), is alike
unknowable and unknown. But the words of the
Apostle have a mournful significance for the ignorant
of God ; and a terrible one for the Christian who knows
and sins against the Light. Falsehood is not the hurt
of some abstract virtue, or bare rule of right and
wrong, but a direct blow at the living Truth (John xiv.
6), Who suffered and still " endures such contradiction
of sinners against Himself " (Heb. xii. 3). As the fault
of Judas was double— personal treachery against his
Friend and Master, and a wider attack on Christ, the
Truth manifest in the flesh — so in a like two-fold manner
we smite at once God and our brother when we speak
or act a lie. All faintest shades of falsehood tend to
the dark one of a fresh betrayal of the Son of Man if
they be conceived against others, while if they be
wrought only to shield ourselves, we are. as Montaigne
observed, " brave before God, and cowards before men,"
who arc as the dust of His feet.

(15) This wisdom descendeth not from above
• • • • — Better thus, This is not the wisdom coming
down from above, bid is earthly, natural, devilish.
This— it were profanation to call it by the holy name (if
•2o<pia {Sophia), being in sharpest contrast to it, of the
earth earthy; natural (as margin), or "psychical," in
the second sense of the tripartite division of man —
body, soid, and spirit — explained under chap. i. 21
(comp. Jude. verse 19. " Sensual, having not the
Spirit ") ; and even worse, akin to the craft of devils.

(16) For where envying and strife is, there is
confusion.— Where emulation, zeftl, and rivalry exist,
there also are sedition, anarchy, restless disturbance.

and every villainous act. The whole state is evil, and
utterly contrary to the rule of the Gospel —

" For words and names let angry zealots fight :
Whose life is in the wrong can ne'er be right."

(!7) But the wisdom that is from above . . .—
Whereas, in sweetest contrast to all this repulsive foul-
ness and riot, the true wisdom from above is first pure,
chaste as the Lamb of God, " the Word made flesh "
(John i. 14), then peaceful, gentle, and compliant —
easy to be won, full of mercy and good fruits, im-
partial, not double-minded (non duplex), nor hypocri-
tical. Compare with this beautiful description St.
Paul's list of the fruits of the Spirit, " love, joy,
peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meek-
ness, temperance " (Gal. v. 22), and his discourse on
Love (1 Cor. xiii.).

Truly this wisdom "cannot be gotten for gold,
neither shall silver be weighed for the price thereof ; "
" Happy is the man that lindeth her." (Read Job xxviii.
14—19, and Prov. iii. 13—18.)

(18> And the fruit of righteousness . . .—
Better thus slightly altered : And fruit of righteous-
ness is sown in peace by them that makepeace. They
" shall be called the children of God " (Matt. v. 9).
Their fruit is hidden in the precious seed, but " the
times of refreshing shall come," and the glorious plant
bring forth her flower, and bear the golden fruit for
the blessed ones to eat in the fadeless paradise of God.
As "whatsoever a man soweth that shall he also reap"
(Gal. vi. 7) — here is a harvest laid up for the righteous
to enjoy for ever; and (comp. Heb. xii. 11) God's
chastening of the truly penitent yields with it a like
promise afterwards of " the peaceable fruit of righteous-
ness " — so, in the tender mercy of our Saviour, "they
that sow in tears shall reap in joy" (Ps. exxvi. 6).
Thus, in some words which well might mark the close
of one whose " quiet spirit slowly passeth by to some
more perfect peace " —

" Peace conies at length, though life be full of pain ;
Calm in the faith of Christ I lay me down ;
Pain for His sake is peace, and loss is gain :
For all who bear the cross shall wear the crown."

IV.

At the end of what has been considered the second
portion of this Epistle, there is a last series of rebukes,
suggested apparently by those already given. Chap. iv.
is included in this "fourth subdivision. (See Analysis
of Contents.) The lust of the eye and the pride of life
are at the root of all the wrong-doing.

(!) From whence come wars . . ?— More cor-
rectly thus. Whence arc wars, and whence fightings
among you/ The perfect peace above, capable, more-
over, in some ways, of commencement here below,
dwelt upon at the close of chap, iii., has by inevitable
reaction led the Apostle to speak suddenly, almost
fiercely, of the existing state of things. He traces the
conflict raging around him to the fount and origin of
evil within.

371

Of LvMs and

JAMES, IV.

Evil Concupiscence.

come wars and fightings1 among you? i1 or, bmwungs
Chap iv 1—4 come ^ieV n0^ hence, even of !
Eebukes of lust your lusts 3 that war in |2 0r' p!casures-
and low desires. -y0Xlv members? (2) Ye sov, pleasures.

lust, and have not : ye kill, and de-
sire to have, and cannot obtain :
ye fight and war, yet ye have not,

because ye ask not. W Ye ask, and
receive not, because ye ask amiss,
that ye may consume it upon your
lusts.3

(4) Ye adulterers and adulteresses,,
know ye not that the friendship of the
world is enmitv with God ? whosoever

Come they not . . . — Translate, come they not
hence, even from your lusts warring in your members ?
The term is really pleasures, but in an evil sense,
and therefore " lusts." " The desires of various sorts
of pleasures are," says Bishop Moberly, "like soldiers
in the devil's army, posted and picketed all over us, in
the hope of winning our members, and so ourselves,
back to his allegiance, which we have renounced in our
baptism." St. Peter (1 Pet. ii. 11) thus writes in the
same strain of " fleshly lusts, which war against the
soul"; and St. Paid knew also of this bitter strife in
man, if not actually in himself, and could " see another
law" in his members — the natural tendency of the
flesh — "warring against the law of his mind, and
bringing him into captivity to the law of sin which
is in his members " (Rom. vii. 23). See also Note on
2 Cor. xii. 7.

Happily the Christian philosopher understands this ;
and with the very cry of wretchedness, "Who shall
deliver me ? " can answer, " I thank God, through
Jesus Christ our Lord " (Rom. vii. 24, 25). But the
burden of this hateful depravity drove of old men like
Lucretius to suicide rather than endurance; and its
mantle of despair is on all the religions of India at the
present time — matter itself being held to be evil, and
eternal.

(2, 3) Ye lust, and have not . . .—Better thus :
Ye desire, and have not ; ye hill, and envy, and
cannot obtain; ye fight and make war; ye have
not, because ye ash not; ye ash and receive not,
because ye ash that ye may spend it on your
lusts. It is interesting to notice the sharp crisp
sentences, recollecting at the same time that St. James
himself fell a victim to the passions he thus assails,
probably at the hands of a zealot mob. The mar-
ginal note to the second of the above paragraphs
gives envy as an alternative reading for " kill " :
but this is an error. " Ye kill and play the
zealot " would be still nearer the original : for, as with
Jedburgh justice in %h.e old Border wars, hanging
preceded the trial, so with these factions in Jerusalem
death went first, almost before the desire to deal it.
Lust, envy, strife, and murder: — like the tale of
human passion in all ages, the dreadful end draws on.
It is written in every national epic ; its elements
abound in the life of each individual : the slaughter
in Etzel's halls overshadows the first lines of the
Nibelungen-lied ; the curse of Medea hangs like a
gathering cloud around Jason and his Argonauts. Is
it objected (verse 3) that prayer is made but not
answered ? The reply is obvious ; Ye ash not in the
true sense ; when ye do ask ye receive not, because
God is too loving, even in His anger. Nevertheless,
remember, He gave the Israelites "their desire, and
sent leanness withal into their soul " (Ps. cvi. 15). " I,"
<*aid He by Ezekiel (chap. xiv. 4), "will answer him
that cometh to Me, according to his idols." What
greater curse could fall than an eternity of avarice to
the miser, of pollution to the sensual, of murder to the

violent ? Many a m'^i of quiet Christian life will
thank God by-and-by, when he knows even as he is
known (1 Cor. xiii. 12), that not a few of his prayers
were unanswered, or at least that they were not granted
in the way which he had desired. Safety is only to be
found in our Lord's own manner of petition, " Not my
will, but Thine be done " (Luke xxii. 42). Alas ! in
shameful contrast to this we read of many an evil-
hearted prayer offered up to the Lord our Righteous-
ness ; invocations of saints for help in unholy deeds ; of
angels, for acts rather befitting devils of the pit;
and can hardly have the conscience to reproach the
heathen for supplicating their gods in no worse a
manner for no better cause.

(*) Ye adulterers and adulteresses.— The phrase
may seem to flow naturally after the former ones, but
the Received text, from which our version was made, is
wrong. It should be, ye adulteresses ! as accusing
those who have broken their marriage vow to God.
The sense is familiar to us from many passages in the
Old Testament, in which God speaks of Israel in a
similar manner, e.g., Ps. lxxiii. 27 ; Isa. liv. 5 ; Jer.
ii. 2 ; Ezek. xvi. passim ; xxiii. 37 — 43 ; Hos. ii. 2.
Again in the New Testament : Matt. xii. 39 ; xvi. 4 ;
Mark viii. 38 ; Rev. ii. 20—22 ; xvii. 1, 5, 15, &c. ; St.
Paul's description of the church (2 Cor. xi. 2), espoused
" as a chaste virgin to Christ ; " and comp. 2 Pet.
ii. 14, specially the margin. " God is the Lord and
husband of every soul that is His ; " and in her revolt
from Him, and love for sin, her acts are those of an
adulterous woman.

Know ye not that the friendship of the
world is enmity with God ?— i.e., the state of being
an enemy to God, not one of simpler enmity with Him.
There cannot be a passive condition to the faith of
Christ : " he that is not with Me is against Me " (Matt,
xii. 30). Renunciation of the world, in the Christian
promise, is not forsaking it when tired and clogged with
its delights, but the earliest severance from it ; to break
this vow, or not to have made it, is to belong to the foes
of God, and not merely to be out of covenant with Him.
The forces of good and evil divide the land so sharply
that there is no debatable ground, nor even halting-
place between. And if God be just, so also is Ho
jealous (Ex. xx. 5).

" Let us not weakly slide into the treason:
Yielding another what we owe to Him."

Whosoever therefore will be (or, wills to be)
a friend of the world is the enemy of God.—
The choice is open ; here is no iron fate, no dread neces-
sity : but the wrong determination of the soul con-
stitutes it henceforth as an ally of Satan. " Woe unto
you, when all men speak well of you " (Luke vi. 26), for
the world, as our Lord has taught us. must " love its
own" (John xv. 19). And the sooner the soldier of
Christ learns to expect its animosity, the better will
he give himself up to the battle. (Comp. Matt,
vi. 24 ; Luke xvi. 13.)

372

God's Treatment of the Proud,

JAMES, IV.

and also of the Humble.

therefore will be a friend of the world
is the enemy of Godr

W Do ye think that the scripture saith
ov, • 5_io *n vain> The spirit that
Condemnations dwelleth in ns lusteth to
of arrogance envy?1 (6) But he giveth
an price. m0re grace. Wherefore

he saith, God resisteth the proud, but
giveth grace unto the humble." (7) Sub-
mit yourselves therefore to God. Resist
the devil, and he will flee from you.
<8) Draw nigh to God, and he will draw
nigh to you. Cleanse your hands, ye

sinners ; and purify your hearts, ye
double minded. (9^ Be afflicted, and
mourn, and weep : let your laughter
be turned to mourning, and your joy
to heaviness. (10> Humble yourselves
in the sight of the Lord, and he shall
lift you up.

W Speak not evil one of another,
brethren. He that speak-
eth evil of his brother, f2hap- $■ elx][
and judgeth his brother, speaking, and
speaketh evil of the law, J^J Jude-
and judgeth the law : but

(5) Do ye think . . ?— The tone of the Apostle is
changed to one of appeal, which, perhaps (but see
below), may be rendered thus : Suppose ye that the
Scripture saith in vain, The (Holy) Spirit that dwelleth
in lis jealously regards us as His own ? Our Authorised
version does not allow of this apparent reference to the
Spirit of God indwelling His human temples (1 Cor.
iii. 16; vi. 19, et seq.), for "lusteth to envy," or
enviously, would imply evil and not good. It were
well that the unfaithful, addressed in verse 4, should
bear the general sentiment of this verse in mind, and
not fancy such warnings of holy writ were uttered
emptily, in vain.

Many commentators have been puzzled to say whence
the words came which are quoted as authoritative by
St. James. Surely the substance was sufficient for him,
as for other inspired writers, without a slavish adher-
ence to the form : comp. Gen. ii. 7 for the inbreathing
of the Spirit, with any such chapter as Deut. xxxii. for
His jealous inquisition. It must, however, be noted
that a slightly varied punctuation of the verse will give
ipiite another sense to its questioning. (See Words-
worth.) Suppose ye that the Scripture speaketh in
vain ? Doth the SptrzY, which took up His abode in you,
lust to envy 1 And defensible or not as this translation
may be, at least it escapes some of the difficulties of
the foregoing. (Exhaustive notes, with references to
most authorities, are in Alford ; or an easy summary of
the matter may be read in Plumptre's St. James.)

(6) But he giveth more grace— i.e., because
of this very presence of the Holy Ghost within us.
He. as the author and conveyer of all good gifts, in
their mystic seven-fold order (Isa. xi. 2) adds to. the
wasted treasure, and so aids the weakest in his strife
with sin, resisting the proud, lest he be led to destruc-
tion (Prov. xvi. 18), and helping the humble, lest he be
" wearied and faint in his mind " (Heb. xii. 3).

God resisteth the proud . . .—Excepting
" God," instead of " Lord," this is an exact quotation
from the LXX. version of Prov. iii. 34, which reads in
our Bibles, " Surely He scorneth the scorners, but He
giveth grace unto the lowly." It is again brought
forward by St. Peter (1 Pet. v. 5), and seems to have
been a common saying — " a maxim of the wise that
had become, as it were, a law of life."

(?) Submit yourselves therefore to God.
(Bid) resist the devil.— The hardest advice of all,
to a man reliant on himself, is submission to any, more
especially to the Unknown. But, as a correlative to this,
the Apostle shows where pride may become a stimulant
for good, viz.. in contest with the Evil One.

He will flee— Or, he shall flee. " The Devil,"

says the strange old book called The Shepherd of
Hermas, " can tight, but he cannot conquer; if, there-
fore, thou dost withstand him, he will flee from thee,
beaten and ashamed."

The text is another proof of the personality of
Satan ; no amount of figures of speech could otherwise
interpret it.

(8) Draw nigh to God . . .—God waiteth to be
gracious (Isa. xxx. 18). Like the father of the prodigal
son (Luke xv.), He beholds us while we are " yet a
great way off," and runs, as it were, to hasten our
return. He has " no pleasure in the death of him that
dieth " (Ezek. xviii. 32). But who shall come " into
the tabernacle of God, or rest upon His holy hill "
(Ps. xv. 1), except the man "of uncorrupt life"?
Surely, the penitent as well ; the murderous hands
" which all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten,"
the hearts polluted with the most abominable lusts, may
and must be cleansed ; sinners and double-minded
(refer to chap. i. 8) though they be, and both in one,
the Lord of mercy will " draw nigh " to them, if they
to Him : all their " transgressions shall not be men-
tioned," they " shall live and not die " (Ezek. xviii.
21, 22).

(9) Be afflicted, and mourn, and weep.— For
wretchedness, sorrow, and tears are the three steps of
the homeward way to peace and God. And in proof of
real conversion there must be the outward lamentation,
as well as the inward contrition. Grieve, therefore,
with a " godly sorrow not to be repented of " (2 Cor.
vii. 10) — the remorseful anguish of a Peter, and not a
Judas. Let the foolish laughter at sin, which was
" as the crackling of thorns " before the avenging fire
(Eccles. vii. 6), be turned to mourning ; banish the
joyous smile for the face cast down to heaviness, and
so await the blessedness of those that mourn (Matt. v.
4), even the promised comfort of God.

(10) Humble yourselves . . .—Read, Humble
yourselves therefore before the Lord, and He shall lift
you up. " For thus saith the high and lofty One "
(Isa. lvii. 15), " I dwell in the high and holy place,
with him also that is of a contrite and humble spirit,
to revive the spirit of the humble, and to revive the
heart of the contrite." (Comp. 1 Pet. v. 6.) " God,"
says Thomas a Kempis, " protects the humble and
delivers him ; He loves and consoles him ; He inclines
Himself towards the humble man, He bestoAvs on him
exceeding grace, and after his humiliation He lifts him
up to glory ; He reveals his secrets to the humble, and
sweetly draws and leads him to Himself."
. (n> Speak not evil . . .—Do not "back-bite."
as the same word is translated in Rom. i. 30, and

373

God the one Law-Giver.

JAMES, IV.

Worldliness is reproved.

if thou judge the law, thou art not a
doer of the law, but a judge.

<12) There is one lawgiver, who is able
to save and to destroy :

r7haP'ThJ' folly w^° are tllou that judgest
of' worldliness, another? (13) Go to now,

sta°terUnCertain ^ tlmt Sa^' T° da^ 0r t0

morrow we will go into
such a city, and continue there a year,

and buy and sell, and get gain : a
(I*) whereas ye know not what shall
be on the morrow. For what is your
life? It is1 even a vapour, that ap-
peareth for a little time, and then
vanisheth away. (15) For that ye ought
to say, If the Lord will, we shall liver
and do this, or that. (16) But now ye
rejoice in your boastings : all such re-

2 Cor. xii. 20. The good reason why not is given in
the graceful interjection " brothers." Omit the con-
junction in the next phrase, and read as follows : —

He that speaketh evil . . . — Punctuate thus:
He that, speaketh evil of his brother, judgeth his
brother ; speaketh evil of the law, and judgeth the law.
In this way the cumulative force of St. James's re-
marks is best preserved. Hearken to the echo of his
Master's words. " Judge not, that ye be not judged "
(Matt. vii. 1). But the apostolic condemnation is in
no way meant to condone a viciotis life, and leave it
unalarmed and self-contented ; for boldness in rebuke
thereof we have the example of John the Baptist. All
that he reproves is the setting up of our own tribunals,
in which we are at once prosecutor, witness, law, law-
giver, and judge ; not to say executioner as well.
Prcejudicium was a merciful provision under Roman
law, and often spared the innocent a lengthier after-
trial ; but prejudice — our word taken from it — is its
most unhappy opposite. Many worthy people have
much sympathy with David, in their effort to hold their
tongue and keep " silence, yea even from good words ; "
truly it is " pain and grief " to them (Ps. xxxix. 3).
But "to take the law into one's own hands "is to break
it, and administer inequitably.

(12) There is one lawgiver . . . .—Better thus :
One is the Law-giver and Judge, Who is able to save
and to destroy : but thou — who art thou that judgest
a neighbour 1 As a king is the fountain of honour, so
the ultimate source of law is God ; and all judgment
really is delegated by Him, just as ordinary courts
represent the royal majesty : to usurp such functions
is to provoke the offended sovereign — whether of earth
or heaven. " It is not our part," said Bengel, " to
judge, since we cannot carry out our sentence."
(Comp. a parallel scripture, Rom. xiv. 4.)

Able to save and to destroy.— Life and death,
salvation and utter destruction, seem to be placed in
intentional contrast here. (Comp. Matt. x. 28.) The
thought of annihilation meets us with awful suggestive-
ness, yet let lis leave the mystery for awhile in happier
thought —

" That nothing walks with aimless feet ;
That not one life shall be destroyed,
Or cast as rubbish to the void,
When God hath made the pile complete."

(13) Ye that say . . . .—The Apostle would
reason next with the worldly ; not merely those
abandoned to pleasure, but any and all absorbed in the
quest of gain or advancement. The original is repre-
sented a little more closely, thus : To-day and to-
morrow we will go into this city, and spend a year
there, and trade and get gain. " Mortals think all men
mortal but themselves ; " yet who does not boast himself
of to-morrow (Prov. xxvii. 1), in spite of a thousand
proverbs ; and reckon on the wondrous chance of

That untravellcd world, whose margin fades
For ever and for ever as he roams I "

(14) Whereas ye know not . . . .—Read,
Wliereas ye know not aught of the morrow — what,
i.e., the event may be. The hopeless misery of the un-
faithful servant comes into mind at this ; he has left
the greater business to perform the less ; or, it may be,
said in heart, " My lord delayeth his coming," and so
has begun " to smite his fellow-servants, and to eat and
drink with the drunken." And lo ! the thunder of the
chariot wheels, the flash of the avenging sword, the
" portion with the hypocrites," the " weeping and
gnashing of teeth." (Read Matt. xxiv. 42 — 51.)

For what is your life ? It is even a vapour.—
The rebuke is stronger still, the home-thrust more
sharp and piercing — Ye are even a vapour : ye your-
selves, and all belonging to you ; not merely life itself,
for that confessedly is a breath; and many a man,
acknowledging so much, counts of the morrow that he
may lay up in store for other wants besides his own.

A vapour, that appeareth for a little time,
and then vanisheth away (or, disappear eth). —
There is a play upon words to mark the sad antithesis.
The vision of life vanisheth as it came ; and thus even
a heathen poet says —

" Dust we arc, and a shadow."

(Comp. Wisd. v. 9—14.)

(15) ;por that ye ought to say . . . .—Re-
ferring to verse 13, in some such a continuation of
reproof as this : Woe unto you that say, ....
instead 6f saying, " If the Lord will "....'
In fact, it is a thing of the past, not of time, but-
completed action on the part of God — " If the
Lord have willed it, we shall both live and do this
or that." Such is far, be it noted, from Fatalism, in
even its best form, as under the teaching of Islam.
The sovereignty of God is acknowledged, but with it is
plainly recognised the existence of man's free will,
dependent, however, on the permission of the Most
Higli for its fleeting duration and power. St. Paul
speaks in similar tone of coming to Corinth, "if the
Lord will " (1 Cor. iv. 19) ; and " God willing " (d.v.),
" the reference of all the contingencies of the future to
One supremely wise and loving Will, has been in all
ages of Christendom the stay and strength of devout
souls."

(16) But now . . . . — How different is the case
with you, cries St. James ; you actually glory and de-
light in your own self-confidence and presumption, and
every such rejoicing is evil. The word for " boastings"
is the same as that translated " the pride of life " in
1 John ii. 16 — i.e., its braggart boastfulness, not the
innocent gladness of living. It is the trust of the
''ungodly" (Ps. x. 6, "There shall no harm happen
unto me "), and the mistaken confidence of even such
godly men as Job (chap. xxix. 18, " I shall die in my
nest "), before the Almighty instructs them by trouble,
and loss, and pain.

374

The end of Riches

JAMES, V.

gotten by Wrong.

joking is evil. (17) Therefore to him
that knoweth to do good, and doetli it
not, to him it is sin.

CHAPTEK V.— W Go to now, ye rich . AU_lr-
Chap v. i— men> weep and howl for
c. ' Rebukes your miseries that shall

If riches, 'Zl COr UP°n V°U- f\Y°™

the vain confi- riches are corrupted, and
dence therein. vour garments are moth-

' eaten. W Your gold and silver is
cankered ; and the rust of them shall
| be a witness against you, and shall eat
! your flesh as it were fire. Ye have
heaped treasure together for the last
days. W Behold, the hire of the labourers
who have reaped down your fields, which
is of you kept back by fraud, crieth : and
the cries of them which have reaped are
entered into the ears of the Lord of

(17) Therefore . . . . — A difficulty presents itself
in this verso — whether the application be general, or a
particular comment on the words preceding. Probably
both ideas are correct. We learn the converse to the
evil of vainglory in life, namely, the good which may
be wrought by every one. Occasions of well-doing lie
in the abject at our dooi's, and the pleadings of pity in
our very hearts. And thus it is that omission is at
times worse than commission; and more souls are in
jeopardy for things left undone than for things done.
In '" The Beautiful Legend" there is a strife between the
call of duty to give out a dole of bread to the hungry,
and the temptation to linger in religious ecstasy over
a vision of Christ. But the true brother knew " to do
good," and did it ; and, returning at the end of his
work, found his cell full of the radiant presence of
the Lord, and heard the words of rich approval —
" Hadst thou stayed, I must have fled."

And again, in another succession of thoughts on the*
text, God has no need of human knowledge ; no, nor of
our ignorance ; " and it is a sin to shut the ears to in-
struction : it is a duty to get knowledge, to increase in
knowledge, to abound in knowledge." Nor must we
rest therein, but (2 Pet. i. 6, 7) " add to knowledge
temperance, patience, godliness, brotherly kindness,
charity."

The first six verses, condemnatory of the trust in
riches, ought to follow chap. iv. 17 without a break, and
thus end the proper division of the Epistle. Our present
arrangement of chapter and verse here, as in so many
cases, tends to confusion rather than clearness.

(!) Go to now, ye rich. — As in chap. iv. 3. it was
"Woe to you, worldly," so now "'Woe to ye rich:
weep, bewailing "— literally, howling for your miseries
coming upon you. Comp. Isa. xiii. 6 ; xiv. 31, and
xv. 3, where (in the LXX.) the same term is used ; — a
picture word, imitating the cry of anguish, — peculiar
to this place in the New Testament. Observe the
immediate future of the misery ; it is already coming.
Doubtless by this was meant primarily the pillage and
destruction of Jerusalem, but under that first intention
many others secondary and similar are included : for
all " riches certainly make themselves wings " and fly
away (Prow xxiii. 5). Calvin and others of his school
fail to see in this passage an exhortation of the rich to
penitence, but only a denunciation of woe upon them ;
in the sense, however, that all prophecy, whether evil
or good, is conditional, there is sufficient room to
believe that no irrevocable doom was pronounced by "a
Christian Jeremiah."

(2) Your riches are corrupted . . .—As expanded
in the eloquent gloss of Bishop Wordsworth. " Tour
wealth is mouldering in corruption, and your garments.

stored up in vain superfluity, are become moth-eaten :
although they may still glitter brightly in your eves,
and may dazzle men by their brilliance, yet they are in
fact already cankered ; they are loathsome in God's
sight ; the Divine anger has breathed upon them and
blighted them ; they are already withered and blasted."
(Comp. Matt. vi. 19.)

(3) Your gold and silver . . .—In like manner,
the gold and silver are said to be " cankered," or eaten
up with rust. The precious metals themselves do not
corrode, but the base alloy does, which has been mixed
with them for worldly use and device. The rust of
them shall be a witness to you .- not merely against,
but convincing yourselves in the day of judgment;
and, moreover, a sign of the fire which shall consume
you. So will the wages of the traitor, and the harlot,
the spoil of the thief and oppressor, burn the hands
which have clutched them ; the memories of the wrong
shiver through each guilty soul, like the liquid fires
which Muhammedans say torture the veins of the
damned in the halls of Eblis.

Ye have heaped . . .—Read, Ye heaped up trea-
sures in the last days : — the days of grace, given you
for repentance, like the years when " the long-suffering
of God waited in the days of Noah " (Gen. vi. 3 ; 1 Pet.
iii. 20), or the time during which God bore with
Canaan, " till the iniquity of the Amorite " was " full "
(Gen. xv. 16).

Some expositors have seen in this verse an instance
of James's belief that he was " living in the last days
of the world's history ; " and compared his delusion with
that of Paul and John (1 Thess. iv. 15, and 1 John ii. 18).
But there was no mistake on the part of the inspired
writers ; freedom from error in their sacred office
must be vindicated, or wdio shall sever the false gospel
from the true ? The simple explanation is an old one —
the potential nearness of Christ, as it is called. In
many ways He has been ever near each individual, as
by affliction, or death, or judgment; but His actual
return was probably nearer in the first ages of faith
than in the brutality of the tenth century, or the
splendid atheism of the fifteenth, or the intellectual
pride of the nineteenth. His advent is helped or
hindered by the state of Christendom itself : " one
day is with the Lord as a thousand years, and a.
thousand years as one day " (2 Pet. iii. 8), there is
neither past nor future in His sight ; only the pre-
sence of His own determination : and nought retards
Christ's Second Coming so much as the false and
feeble Christianity which prays " Thy kingdom come "
in frequent words, but waits not as the handmaid of
her Lord, with " loins girded about and lights burning "
(Luke xii. 35), "until the day dawn, and the day-star
arise" (2 Pet. i. 19).

(4) Behold, the hire of the labourers.— Not
merely the wrong of the poor, but the wages kept back

375

The Vengeance of God

JAMES, V.

is nigh at hand.

sabaotli. ^ Ye have lived in pleasure
on the earth, and been wanton ; ye have
nourished your hearts, as in a day of

Or, Be long pa-
ticnt, or, suffer
with lung pa-
tience.

slaughter. (6) Ye have condemned and

killed the just; and he doth not resist you.

^ Be patient l therefore, brethren,

from him by the niggardly master, contrary to the
merciful Jewish law (Lev. xix. 13), which permitted no
delay in payment whatever (comp. Jer. xxii. 13 ; Mai.
iii. 5). And the indignant remonstrance of the text is
" a swift witness " also against the like-minded of this
generation — whose God is self, whose religion political
economy, and whose one great object in life is to buy
in the cheapest market and sell in the dearest : as if
for these ignoble purposes the Lord God had given
them a brain and a soul.

The hire of the labourers . . . kept back by
fraud, crieth (out). — A question has ari sen concerning
the right position of the word translated " of," or
from you. in this clause ; whether the withholden dues
appeal "from the wronger to God," or as the Authorised
version has it above, " the hire of the labourers o/you
kept back by fraud." The balance of opinion seems to
be with the latter.

Are entered into the ears of the Lord of
sabaoth. — " A sublime and awful picture " is in the
mind of the Apostle. The Lord of Hosts, the name
by which He is called, especially by the last of the
prophets, Malachi, is seated as a judge on His throne,
to hear the right ; the charge is laid, the guilty called,
the witnesses are heard : the cries of the wronged have
entered into His ears : —

"The Lord of the Vineyard beholdeth afar ;
The arm of His fury is bared to the war :
The day of His terrible wrath is at hand."

It is the reflection of our own Bede that St. James thus
speaks (comp. Rom. ix. 29) of the Lord of Sabaoth, or
armies, to terrify those who suppose that the poor have
no helpers. (Comp. Ps. lxxii. 12.) God's nnvjestic title
is proclaimed, we may believe, by an Hebrew to
Hebrews, for a warning against their darling sin of
covetousuess, and in hope that the vision of Isaiah
(chap. vi. 1 — 4) would move them to consider who and
what the Lord of Hosts, of angels, of cherubim, of
■seraphim, might be " when He maketh inquisition for
blood," forgetting not the complaint of the poor " (Ps.
ix. 12).

(5) Ye have lived in pleasure.— And what an
indictment is this brought against them by the
Apostle : — Ye revelled upon earth, and wantoned ;
ye nourls'hed your hearts in a day of slaughter.
The pleasure and wantonness wherein the rich had
lived, the selfishness with which they had cared for
their own hearts, in a time of death for others — nay, pre-
paration of like for themselves : this is the aggravated
wrong, and the inexpiable shame. In the Received
text above they are accused of having " nourished their
hearts as in a day of slaughter," the cries of the victims
thus seeming an addition to their own delights ; but
the charge against them is heavy enough without this
insertion.

As they had dealt to others, so the vengeance of God
■dealt with them. The Passover called together the
richest Jews from all parts of the earth, and they
themselves were the victims in their last sacrifice.
No words can overdraw the fury of the Roman
onset, under Titus, when the Temple floors ran with
blood, and the roofs raged in fire till all was utter
desolation.

376

(6) Ye have condemned and killed the just.—
Better thus : Ye condemned, ye sleiv the just — as in the
speech of Peter (Acts iii. 14, 15), or that of Stephen
(Acts vii. 52). Such a reference, however, has been
disallowed by some commentators as conveying too
harsh an accusation against the whole Jewish people ;
and besides, it being unfair to forget that St. James
was writing to Christian Jews, as well as to the anti-
Christian. But, in a manner, all wrong and oppression
tend towards the murder of the Just One, as every
falsehood (see Note on chap. iii. 13) is an attack on the
Truth. And far beyond this, in the present case our
Lord is rightly to be considered the victim of the Jews.
His blood is on them and on their children (Matt, xxvii.
25); they filled up "the measure of their fathers"
(Matt, xxiii. 32), that " the blood of all the righteous"
might come upon them, from Abel to Zacharias (Matt,
xxiii. 35):' the one crowning sin made them guilty of
all. And not only is this backward participation true,
but there is a forward one as well. Christ Himself
was persecuted by Saul in the afflictions of His servants
(Acts ix. 4, 5), and so onward ever till the martyr-roll
be full.

It is of strange significance that in this verse — ye
condemned, ye slew the just — James the Just propheti-
cally described his own murderers. The last words,
moreover, of the Scripture, simply record the behaviour
. of himself, as of every real witness for Christ : He
doth not resist. No : " the servant of the Lord must
not strive " (2 Tim. ii. 24) even in death ; and by such
meekness and resignation is best seen the likeness to
the divine Master, Who " was brought as a lamb to the
slaughter" (Isa. liii. 7). Comp. Wisd. ii. 10 — 20 for
a striking parallel, on the oppression of the righteous,
which would not inaptly describe the " just man," the
" Son of God."

(7) Be patient.— The third, and last, part of the
Letter commences here with these exhortations towards
endurance.

Therefore — i.e., because of this your deep and
abiding misery, be sure God's help is nigh : —

" The darkest hour is on the verge of day."

" Out of your stony griefs *' build, like Jacob of old, a
house of God (Gen. xxviii. 19), whereunto you may run
and find refuge. If there be wrath laid up in store
for the oppressor, great is the coming peace of the
oppressed.

The husbandman waiteth for the precious
fruit of the earth, and hath long patience for
it . . . Be ye also patient. — It becomes you, the
just, to bear with the unjust till God work the end of
your trial, and prove them at the same time. Again
and again, through several verses (7 — 11), St. James
repeats his advice, emphasising it with various reasons :
the nearness of deliverance ; the Judge standing at the
gate ; the example of the prophets — persecuted by
men, and therefore blessed of God ; the liope of those
who endure — Job for example : the very faithfulness
and tender mercy of the Lord, bringing all things to
a perfect end. Few ideas are more startling (is a re-
flection of Dr. Evans) than those produced by the
strange combinations in Scripture. Matters are joined
there which we mostly put asunder here, speaking of

The Just are therefore to be

JAMES, V.

patient under Affliction.

unto the coming of the Lord. Behold,
_, the husbandman waiteth

H.aP* Exhorta- for the precious fruit of
tions of pa- the earth, and hath long
tience to the ,. % .. ..i , °

afflicted, with patience tor it, until he
the assurance receive the early and latter

or God s de- • m\ -a i

liverance - ex- **&• (8) Be ye also pa-
amples of old tient; stablish your hearts:
for the coining of the Lord

draweth nigh. <9> Grudge not1 one
against another, brethren, lest ye be
condemned : behold, the judge standeth
before the door. <10J Take, my brethren,
the prophets, who have spoken in the
name of the Lord, for an example of
suffering affliction, and of patience.
<u> Behold, we count them happy which
endure. Ye have heard of the patience

them, at least, as apart. And thus we read in the
Revelation (chap. i. 9) of the kingdom aud patience of
Jesus Christ. But all Christians are citizens of a
patient kingdom ; the King thereof is more patient, as
He hath greater need of patience than His subjects, and
He is patient, because He is strong. Impatience is a
sign 01 weakness. God can afford to wait, for His
time is eternity. And we can be strong in His
strength, and wait also in patience. In so far as
St. James's hearers were earthly minded, they could
not learn this lesson ; so often with ourselves we would
have our wrong righted instantly, and to the full. Only
one view of life can alter this, viz., the lifting of our
gaze from earth to heaven, remembering that " the time
is short " (1 Cor. vii. 29).

The early and latter rain.— It is, perhaps, just
as well to recollect there were only two seasons of rainfall
in the Holy Land, and. if long delayed, famine was a
certain result. With the change of the Israelites from
pastoral life to agricultural, the malignity of these
dearths was lessened; but they were and are still
severe. The Bible mentions many such — e.g., in the
days of Abraham (Gen. xii. 10), Isaac (Gen. xxvi. 1),
Jacob (Gen. xlii. 2), Ruth (chap. i. 1), Samuel (2 Sam.
xxi. 1), Ahab (1 Kings xviii. 2). The " early rain " fell
during the autumn sowing — in October, November, and
December; "the latter" in March and April. By
many versions the word "rain" is omitted, but, of
course, was always intended.

(8> The coming of the Lord draweth nigh.—
Read thus, The presence of the Lord is nigh. For the
ancient belief in the nearness of Christ's second
advent, see Note above, in verse 3. The word used by
the Apostle to describe its closeness is the same as that
used in Matt. iii. 2, " The kingdom of heaven is at
hand." The afflicted are therefore to stablish, or
rather strengthen, their hearts. If "comfort" re-
tained its older sense, such would express the true
idea. Comp. the great prophecy of Israel's consola-
tion (Isa. xl., et seep).

(lJ) Grudge not.— Say in preference, Murmur not.
*' Grudge " has curiously changed its meaning from an
outward murmur to an inward feeling. It has un-
fortunately been retained both here and in 1 Pet. iv. 9.
See also Ps. lix. 15, specially the Prayer Book version,
" They will . . . grudge if they be not satisfied " — i.e.,
complain and murmur.

Lest ye . . . — It is not " lest ye be condemned,"
but lest ye be judged, repeating the exact words of the
original in Matt. vii. 1.

Behold, the judge standeth before the door.
— Compare this scene with that depicted in Rev. iii. 20.
In the one Christ lingers mercifully outside the door
that " loves its hinge " ; fain would He enter and
abide. In the other He sounds a note of alarm ; men
are -waked in the night, not girding their loins for a
journey, but in vague wonder at uncertain noise, who

377

may turn again to their slumber," or in wistful listening
wait in vain for the voice of mercy which shall plead
with them no more for ever (Ruskin).

One of the mocking questions put to St. James by
his enemies, as they hurried him to death, was, " Which
is the door of Jesus ? " And failing to receive an
answer to their mind, they said, " Let us stone this
James the Just ! " which they did, after they had cast
him over the Temple wall.

(10) por an example.— Another reason for en-
durance, an example of affliction and patience, the
prophets who spoke in the name of the Lord. These
are the bright ones in the cloud of witnesses, of whom
the Epistle to the Hebrews (chap. xii. 32 — 38) speaks,
who, like Daniel, " stopped the mouths of lions " ; like
Jeremiah and Elijah, " escaped the edge of the sword ; "
"out of weakness were made strong"; who "were
stoned," like Zachariah ; " sawn asunder," like Isaiah ;
" slain with the sword," like Urijah and John ; " of
whom the world was not worthy." Thus the saints of
the Old Covenant are held up for honour and imitation
to those of the New. James was not advocating a
religion alien to that of Moses, but building again more
widely "the ruins of the tabernacle which had fallen
down," that "all the Gentiles might seek after the
Lord." (Comp. his speech in the synod, Acts xv. 13
—21.)

(n) "We count them happy which endure.—
Rather read it, we count them blessed which endure ;
or, as some critics would have it, endured. (See Matt,
v. 11, and 1 Pet. ii. 19.) Tho heathen philosopher
Solon called no one " happy" upon earth; but, with the
mystery of pain around him. cried sadly, " Look to the
end." And the sated and weary soul of Solomon had
no better thought than to praise " the dead which are
already dead, more than the living" (Eccles. iv. 2).
How different the teaching of St. James, himself
taught by the example of the suffering Christ : verily,
" he that is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater
than " the greatest and the wisest who know not of its
light and peace (Matt. xi. 11).

The patience of Job.— The earliest notions cur-
rent in the world were, doubtless, that on the whole
prosperity came to those who lived morally and physi-
cally well, while adversity in body or mind followed
closely on the wicked and improvident. It is easy to
see how these opinions, even among the happier races
who had not wandered far from God, gradually
hardened into stern rules of judgment, by which each
man saw in the chances and calamities of life an im-
mediate effort of an avenging Deity. This was ages
before a pious Asaph (Ps. lxxiii.) could reflect on the
contradiction of experience in this matter, and be
troubled at the " prosperity " of the wicked ; or before
the wise king could notice (Eccles. vii. 15, and viii. 14)
the just man perishing "' in his righteousness," and the
unjust prolonging "his days in wickedness"; "tho

Swearing is forbidden.

JAMES, V.

Advice J or Grief and Joy.

of Job, and have seen the end of the
Lord ; that the Lord is very pitiful, and
of tender mercy.

<12) But above all things, my brethren,
Chap v 12 swear no^? neither by
Caution against heaven, neither by the
swearing. earth, neither by any other

oath : but let your yea be yea ; and
your nay, nay; lest ye fall into con-
demnation.

U3) Is any among you chap.v.13. Ad.
afflicted ? let him pray, vice to sorrow-
Is any merry? let him ful and joyful,
sing psalms.

fishes taken in an evil net," and " the birds caught in
the snare " (Eccles. ix. 12). It was ages earlier still than
the presence of that "Wiser than Solomon, who spoke of
the hapless " eighteen on whom the tower in Siloam
fell " — " Think ye that they were sinners above all ? "
(Luke xiii. 4, 5). Job's friends were so certain of his
misdeeds, that they would not hear his self-defence ; if
God tried his endurance, man surely afflicted his patience.
We can hear the three in council against him, becoming
more zealous as they believe themselves the defenders of
God's justice. (See Job iv. — xxii.) They are shocked
at Job's obstinacy, and annoyed into vehement accusa-
tion against him, because he will " hold fast " to his
" integrity." It is a damning iiroof to them of his
guilt. Not only had he been wicked, but now actually
he is impious and rebellious ; such conduct is not to be
borne. " Is not thy wickedness great ? " says Eliphaz
(Job xxii. 5). Thou must have — nay. '' thou hast taken a
pledge from thy brother for nought, and stripped the
naked of their clothing ; " thou couldst not — nay, " thou
hast not given water to the weary, and thou hast with-
holden bread from the hungry : " truly thine iniquities
are infinite." Now, we know Job was innocent ; God
Himself bears witness to it (Job i. 8). And finally
the suffering, patient, righteous man was declared to
have spoken wisely : as Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar
the contrary. They — types of a censorious piety— had
conceived of God by their own faulty notions of religion,
and fondly deemed they could enter into the motives of
the Most High. Job lor awhile had seemed to cloud
his own belief with baser attributes, as (Job xvi. et
seq.) to a God who causelessly dealt in cruelty and pain;
but through such fleeting mistakes he rose at last to the
full conviction of His perfect truth and justice. It
might be that He gave happiness to those who
sought Him ; it might be He allowed them misery —
as the world would call it ; but this nor that had part
in the matter at issue. Earthly blessings " He gives to
whom He wills, or leaves to the powers of nature to
distribute among those who fulfil the laws" thereof;
but "to serve him and love Him is higher and better
than any mundane welfare, though it be with wounded
feet and bleeding forehead, or an ash-heap and filthy
sores" (Froude). This was the faith to which Job
attained : higher, " clearer, purer, there is not possible
to man." In such like " patience " it were well for us
that we should " possess our souls " (Luke xxi. 19).

And have seen the end of the Lord.— Better
thus, Ye have heard . . . see also the end of the Lord.
The reference is at once past and future : consider, i.e.,
what God wrought in the end of trial, on the faithful of
old time, like Job ; learn from it how great a deliverance
He will also Avork for you. But " if ye will not believe,
surely ye shall not be established" (Isa. vii. 9). It
is a mistake to understand here any allusion to the
death of Christ, as if the Apostle spoke to those who
witnessed it.

That the Lord is very pitiful.— St. James, in
the fulness of his gratitude, seems to have coined a
word for this single place. " Great-hearted" would be

close to its meaning ; but originally the bowels were
thought to be the seat of the affections, and hence such
terms of expression : as also in Gen. xliii. 30 ; 1 Kings
iii. 26 ; Isa. lxiii. 15; Lam. i. 20; Phil. i. 8; 1 John iii.
17, et al.

" The Lord " here is Jehovah : under which name
the Lord spake and wrought before He was made man.
See Bishop Pearson On the Creed, in Article 2, proving
the significance of Kvptos, or Lord, as the right trans-
lation of the Hebrew El, Elohim, Shaddai, Adonai,
and Jehovah. And compare Isa. xl. 3 with Matt. iii. 1 ;
Mai. iii. 1 with Matt. xi. 10 and Jer. xxiii. 6.

(12) The question of the lawfulness of oaths has
oftentimes perplexed alike the doctors of the Church
and its simpler hearers of God's word. The text,
taken as it stands, would support the views of the
Essenes, and many of the Paulicians, and other ancient
sectaries. With equal force it might be urged by the
followers of Peter Waldo, or the Unitas Fratrum (the
Moravians), or the Society of Friends.

Swear not. — The words are put quite distinctly in
Greek and English — neither by the heaven, nor by the
earth. And it sounds like special pleading, worthy of
a rabbi, to hear such a divine as Huther say that
" swearing by the name of God is not mentioned,"
nor accordingly is such an oath prohibited. " We must
not imagine," he continues (and his argument had best
be fairly given), " that this is included in the last member
of the clause, the Apostle evidently intending by it
{i.e., ' neither by any other oath') to point only at certain
formulae, of which several are mentioned in Matt. v.
34 — 37. Had he intended to forbid swearing by the
name of God he would most certainly have mentioned
it expressly ; for not only is it in the Law, in contra-
distinction to other oaths, commanded (see Deut. vi. 13 ;
x. 20; Ps. lxiii. 11), but in the prophets is announced as
a token of the future turning of men to God " (Isa. lxv.
16; Jer. xii. 16; xxiii. 7, 8). There were, we learn,
many subtle distinctions in Jewish oaths ; and the un-
lucky foreigner who trusted in an apparently firm one,
too often found out his mistake. Certainly all such
subterfuges are utterly condemned ; and further, every
word which breaks the letter or spirit of God's Third
Commandment. As to the higher judicial forms of
oaths, remembering that our Lord answered such
before Caiaphas (Matt. xxvi. 63, 64), we can fearlessly
conclude, with the 39th Article of Religion, that "a
man may swear, when the magistrate requireth. in a
cause of faith and charity, so it be done according to
the prophet's teaching — in justice, judgment, and
truth."

Let your yea he yea . . . — Your word be as your
bond, needing no strengthening by any invocation of
God, or holy things, " lest ye fall into judgment " — not
" condemnation," though certainly such might follow.

(13) We now pass on to advice of different kinds — to
the heavy-laden or light-hearted, to the suffering and

378

Of Anointing the Sick

Chap. v. 14, 15. <14> Is any sick among

Counsel for yQU ? let limi caU for fog
the sick : the J , .. „ , , . ,

anointing with elders of the church; and
oil, and pray- \ei them pray over him,
ing over them ... F . ^ •,, . .1 •

in faith. anointing him with oil m

JAMES, V. With on.

the name of the Lord : <l5> and the
prayer of faith shall save the sick, and
the Lord shall raise him up ; and if he
have committed sins, they shall be for-
given him.

afflicted. Prayer is to be the refuge of one, praise the
safeguard of another ; the whole life is to revolve, as
it were, around the throne of God, whether in the
night of grief or day of joy.

Let him pray. — No worthier comment can be
found than Montgomery's hymn —

" Prayer is the burden of a sigh,
The falling of a tear.
The upward glancing of an eye,
When none but God is near."

Long petitions, or many, cannot be always made ; mind
and body may be too weak and ill ; but ejaculations —
"Arrows of the Lord's deliverance," as Augustine
called them, " shot out with a sudden quickness " — these
are ever in the power of the beleagured Christian.
And—

" More things are wrought by prayer
Than this world dreams of."

Let him sing. — The word originally applied to
instrumental music, the Eastern accompaniment of
" psalms." Praise, like prayer, ought to be individual
as well as congregational. Hymns might be used by
all in their devotions, and could not fail to be a blessing ;
while for those who have God's great gift of music,
it were surely better to sing — as the Apostle urges —
than to say. There is a sadness latent in the most
jubilant of earthly tunes, but not so witli the heavenly ;
and quiring angels do not scorn to catch our humblest
notes, and weave them in their endless song, if they be
raised in thankfulness to Him Whom they and all
creation praise.

0-4) The elders of the church— i.e., literally,
the presbyters. The identity of " bishop " (episcopus)
and " presbyter " in the language of the apostolic ago
seems conclusive. Such is the opinion of Lightfoot
(Epistle to the Philippians, 93 — 97 ; see also his Dis-
sertation on the Christian Ministry, ibid., 180 — 267),
and few may hope to gainsay it. In fact, the organisa-
tion of the early Church was much more elastic than theo-
logians always suppose ; and names and terms were
applied less rigidly than the schoolmen of the Middle
Ages have so stoutly declared. But, on the other hand,
no man who has read the Patres Apostolici can deny the
reality of Church government as enforced by them, nor
base on their authority any defence of Congregationalism
or the rule of a mere presbytery. The theory of de-
velopment must be maintained, though not on the lines
of Dr. Newman.

(u, 15) Anointing him with oil.— Or, unction.
The use of some precious and mysterious ointment, on
solemn occasions, obtained in most of the ancient
nations, specially the Eastern. The Jews themselves
were by no means originators of the habit, although
they carried it to its highest ceremonial and significance.
Apart, too, from the regular performances of the rite,
as upon the accession of a king, or the consecration of
a high priest, it often occurred in private cases, and
some striking instances are recorded in the Gospels : —
the spikenard, costly and fragrant (Luke vii. 36 — 50),
wherewith the Saviour's feet were anointed by "a
woman which was a sinner ; " and that, again, which

379

Mary, of her grateful love, poured upon Him six days
before His death (John xii. 3 — 9). These were not
unusual acts, but chiefly worthy of note because of the
persons concerned. It was not remarkable for women
to make such offerings to a famous rabbi, but that our
Lord should be so treated, carried a deeper meaning.
Nor, again, was it a new ordinance with which the
Apostles were first commissioned, in pursuance whereof
they " anointed with oil many that were sick, and
healed them " (Mark vi. 13). " Here," observes Bishop
Harold Browne, "unction was evidently an outward
sign, similar to .that used by our Saviour, when He
made clay, and put it to the blind man's eyes. It was
connected with the miraculous power of healing." This
connection only, this use of a known form with a diviner
import, was the cause of astonishment ; and clearly it
was to such a practice, with simply its common intention,
that St. James refers. Nor can we refrain from saying,
however undesirous of controversy, that all which unction
now implies to the Romanist is quite opposed to what-
ever force and value are given it in Holy Writ. There
unction is enjoined " with the special object of re-
covery ; " its purport was a present bodily one, and in
no way applicable to the future of the soul. " The
prayer of faith shall save the sick " — i.e., shall heal him :
the faithful prayer shall be that which God will
answer, and so " raise up " the sufferer. But, it is
urged, the next clause has a different force: "If he
have committed sins, they shall be forgiven him."
Such is only apparent in our own version, and not in
the original. The grammatical sense infers that the
sick man is abiding under the consequence of some
committed sin, which is " presumed to have been the
working cause of his present sickness." So Alford, and
Bede similarly : " Many by reason of sins done in the
soul are compassed by weakness : nay, even death of
the body." And the former theologian again : " Among
all the daring perversions of Scripture, by which the
Church of Rome has defended her superstitions, there
is none more patent than that of the present passage.
Not without reason has the Council of Trent defended
its misinterpretation with anathema; for indeed it
needed that, and every other recommendation, to sup-
port it, and give it any kind of acceptance. The
Apostle is treating of a matter totally distinct from the
occasion and the object of extreme unction. He is
enforcing the efficacy of the prayer of faith in
afflictions (verse 13). Of such efficacy he adduces one
special instance. In sickness let the sick man inform
the elders of the church. Let them, representing the
congregation of the faithful, pray over the sick man,
accompanying that prayer with the symbolic and sacra-
mental act of anointing with oil in the name of our
Lord. Then the prayer of faith shall save (heal) the
sick man, and the Lord shall bring him up out of his
sickness ; and even if it were occasioned by some sin,
that sin shall be forgiven him. Such is the simple and
undeniable sense of the Apostle, arguing for the
efficacy of prayer; and such the perversion of that
sense by the Church of Rome." Not that we should
think this and other like cases are wholly intentional
twistings of God's word. The Latin Bible is in many

Confession of Faults to,

JAMES, V.

and Prayer for, each other.

Srha.p- , v* }Q- (16) Confess your faults

Mutual conies- , i.i_ * j

sion of faults, one to another, and pray

one for another,
be healed. The

that ye may
effectual fervent

places a faulty — though uot deliberately unfaithful —
rendering of the Hebrew and Greek; and half our
differences with Rome arise from such misinterpreta-
tions. Allowing the beginning of mischief to have
been oftentimes a wrong translation, religious opinions
engendered from it, we can understand, would be hardly
cast aside, more especially when advantageous to their
possessors. Little by little the change of doctrine
drew on, and most probably thus : — The aim of the
apostolic anointing was bodily recovery, and (again we
quote Bishop Browne) " this exactly corresponds with
the miraculous cures of early ages; ... so long as
such . . . powers remained in the Church, it was
reasonable that anointing of the sick should be re-
tained." But these powers ceased, in the wisdom of
<jrod, after awhile ; not so, however, the ceremony to
which men's minds in distress had been accustomed.
It was retained in affection when its true force had
departed. But since no outward result remained
visible, fervent and mystical teachers could not well
avoid searching for the invisible j and thus the area of
operations was removed from the flesh to the spirit.
The words of Holy Scripture would, with a little
straining, bear such a colourable translation : and so
was laid the foundation of that belief now current in a
great part of Christendom. The Greek Church still
practices unction, but rather in memory of a venerated
custom, wherein God's mercy was aforetime present;
the Latin, unfortunately, is bound by its Council of
Trent (Sessio xiv.) to believe " extreme unction to be a
sacrament, instituted by Christ, conferring good, re-
mitting sins, and comforting the infirm." Its authorised
manual of devotion — The Grown of Jesus (p. 710) —
says, " Our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, in His
tender solicitude for those whom He has redeemed by
His precious blood, has been pleased to institute another
sacrament, to help us at that most important hour on
which eternity depends — the hour of death. This
sacrament is called Extreme Unction, or the last
Anointing." And further explains, " The priest, in
•administering this sacrament, anoints the five principal
senses of the body — the eyes, the ears, the nostrils, the
lips, the hands and the feet — because these have been
employed during life in offending God. At each
anointing he pronounces these words : ' May the Lord
by this holy anointing, and by His own most tender
mercy, pardon thee whatever sin thou hast committed,
by thy sight, hearing,' &c. . . . " Notwithstanding
this lamentable departure from right exegesis, some
divines think it wise and well to reflect how far with
profit the ancient ceremony could be revived ; while
others would rather let it slumber with the past.
" When miraculous powers ceased, it was reasonable
thaj the unction should cease also." Still more reason-
able is it that even the form or memorial, however
touching and beautiful, should be abandoned, rather
than we should seem by it to be at one with the
changed — alas ! the false — teaching of that Church of
man's tradition, Rome.

(is) Confess your faults one to another.— The
meaning attributed to, the words of this verse by many
devout Catholics cannot be established either from the
opinion of antiquity, or a critical examination of the
Greek text according to modern schools. " We have,"
observes Alf ord, " a general injunction arising out of a
circumstance necessarily to be inferred in the preceding

example (verses 14, 15). There, the sin would of
necessity have been confessed to the elders, before the
prayer of faith could deal with it. And seeing the
blessed consequences in that case ' generally,' says the
Apostle, in all similar cases, and ' one to another univer-
sally, pursue the same salutary practice of confessing
your sins . . . ' Confess therefore one to another — not
only to the elders (presbyters) in the case supposed, but
to one another generally — your transgressions, and
pray for one another that ye may be healed, in case of
sickness, as above. The context here forbids any wider
meaning . . . and it might appear astonishing, were it
not notorious, that on this passage, among others, is
built the Romish doctrine of the necessity of confessing
sins to a priest."

Not that all Roman Catholic divines, indeed, have
thus read the injunction. Some of the ablest and
greatest have admitted " that we cannot certaiidy affirm
sacramental confession to have been meant or spoken of
in this place " (Hooker). How then did the gradual
perversion take hold of men's minds ? The most
laborious investigation of history and theology will alone
answer the question properly ; and here oidy a brief
resume is possible. There can be little doubt that,
strictly consonant with the apostolic charge, open con-
fession was the custom of old. Offenders hastened to
some minister of God, and in words, by which all
present in the congregation might take notice of the
fault, declared their guilt ; convenient remedies were as
publicly prescribed, and then all present joined in prayer
to God. But after awhile, for many patent reasons,
this plain talk about sins was rightly judged to be a
cause of mischief to the young and innocent; and
such confessions were relegated to a private hearing.
The change was in most ways beneficial, and hardly
suspected of being a step in a completely new doctrine.
It needed years — centuries, in fact— to develop into
the hard system of compulsory individual bondage
which cost Europe untold blood and treasure to break
asunder. A salutary practice in the case of some un-
happy creatures, weakened by their vices into a habit of
continual sin, was scarcely to be conceived as a rule
thrust upon all the Christian world. Yet such it was,
and " at length auricular confession, followed by abso-
lution and satisfaction, was elevated to the full dignity
of a necessary sacrament. The Council of Trent ana-
thematises all who deny it to be truly and properly a
sacrament instituted by Christ Himself, and necessary
to salvation (jure divino) ; or who say that the method
of confessing secretly to the priest alone ... is alien
to Christ's institution, and of human invention "
(Harold Browne). Marvellous perversity of acute
brains and worthy sentiment, showing only how steep
is the way of error ; and how for Christian as for Jew
the danger of tradition is perilous indeed. " To con-
clude," in the words of Hooker, " we everywhere find
the use of confession, especially public, allowed of, and
commended by the fathers; but that extreme and
rigorous necessity of auricular and private confession,
which is at this day so mightily upheld by the Church
of Rome, we find not. It was not then the faith and
doctrine of God's Church, as of the Papacy at this
present — (1) that the only remedy for sin after baptism
is sacramental penitency ; (2) that confession in secret
is an essential part thereof ; (3) that God Himself can-
not now forgive sins without the priest ; (4) that because

Tlie Power of Prayer.

JAMES, V.

Conversion.

prayer of a righteous man availeth
much.

<17> Elias was a man subject to like
passions as we are, and

TiSP,effec7t 'of !ie Prayed earnestly > that
fervent prayer; it might not rain: and it
Elf ah ample rained not on the earth by
the space of three years
and six months. ,18) And he prayed
aerain, and the heaven grave rain,

j and the earth brought forth her
\ fruit.

(19) Brethren, if any of you do err from
j the truth, and one convert chap. v. 19, 20.

1 Or, inhis prayer.' him ; <20) let him knOW, Of conversion :

that he which converteth n^s ^ggj:
the sinner from the error ing home the
of his way shall save a lost-
soul from death, and shall hide a multi-
tude of sins.

forgiveness at the hands of the priests must arise from
confession in the offender, therefore to confess unto
him is a matter of sucli necessity as, being not either in
deed, or, at the least, in desire, performed, excludeth
utterly from all pardon, and must consequently in
Scripture be commanded wheresoever any promise of
forgiveness is made. No, no; these opinions have
youth in their countenance. Antiquity knew them not;
it never thought nor dreamed of thorn" (E. P., vi. iv. 14).

'" As for private confession," says Jewel in his
Apology, " abuses and errors set apart, we condemn it
not, but leave it at liberty." Such must be the teaching
•of any Church which, in the epigram of Bishop Ken,
•• stands distinguished from all papal and puritan inno-
vations," resting upon God's Word, and the earliest,
holiest, simplest, best traditions of the Apostles of His
dear Son. And if an ancient custom has become a
universal practice in the Latin communion, presumed
to be of sacramental virtue, scholars will tell us that
the notion has never been absent altogether from any
branch of the Catholic Church ; and that in some shape
or form, it lives in most of those societies which sprang
into existence at the Reformation largely from abhor-
rence of the tyranny and misuse of confession.

The effectual fervent prayer . . .—Better, The
prayer of a righteous man availeth much in its working.
it moves the hand of Him Who moves the world.

" What are men better than sheep, or goats,
That nourish a blind life within the brain.
If, knowing God, they lift not hands of prayer—
Both for themselves, and those who call them friend?
For so the whole round earth is, every way.
Bound by gold chains about the feet of God."

In Matt. xiv. 2, and Mark vi. 14, we read of John
the Baptist, that " mighty works do show forth them-
selves in him." A nearer approach to the sense would
be "they work" — energise, if we might coin a word;
and such is also the meaning of the present passage —
the prayer of the just, pleading, striving fervently,
hath power with God. even like Israel of old, and shall
prevail (Gen. xxxii. 28). Some divines trace a literal
force in the passage, rinding in it an allusion to the
Energumens of the first century (the "mediums" of
that age), who were possessed by demons; that, just
as these unhappy beings strove in their bondage,
so equally — nay, infinitely more — should Christians
" wrestle with the Lord."

(17' Elias. — James supplies a lacuna in the story of
Elijah. In 1 Kings xvii. 1, the prophet simply and
sternly tells Ahab " there shall not be dew nor rain
these years, but according to my word." Further on
(1 Kings xvii. 41 — 46) " there is a sound of abundance
of rain." In our Epistle we read that Elias " prayed
earnestly " — literally, prayed in his prayer, a Hebraistic
form of emphasis (see margin). He asked for drought,
and it lasted three years and a half, so that " there was
a sore famine in Samaria." He prayed once more.

and " the heaven was black with clouds and wind, and
there was a great rain," and thus again " the Lord
hearkened unto the voice of a man." Yet Elijah was
no demi-god ; we even learn how he shrank from his
prophet's yoke, and longed to die. No one therefore
may despair in his petitions but rather let his " re-
quests be made known unto God;" for "men ought
always to pray, and not to faint" (Lukexviii. 1).

It rained not on the earth.— This Orientalism
need not be a snare to the most literal of readers. The
punishment, because of Ahab and Jezebel, fell on their
own kingdom, and not the whole world. In a similar
hyperbole Obadiah told Elijah, concerning this very
famine, " there is no nation, or kingdom, whither my
lord hath not sent to seek thee " (1 Kings xviii. 10).

(19) Brethren.— My brethren, it rather ought to be.
The last, and, to some, the dearest of the wise Apostle's
remarks, is this on conversion; and it fitly closes his
loving and plain-speaking Letter.

If any of you do err . . .—Better thus, If one
of you be led away from the truth, and one convert
him. It is not the wilful error, so much as the being
seduced by others, who draw the unwary from their
proper course, till in time they become of themselves
" wandering stars, to whom is reserved the blackness
of darkness for ever " ( Jude, verse 13). As the leading
away was an act prompted by the devil, so the bringing
home is the service of God, and each will have its fit
reward. The sinner is riding, as it were, headlong to
destruction, when a friend lays hold upon the rein,
and literally "converts" him, i.e., turns him round;
but, observe, the wanderer is still far from home,
and many a weary league must he traverse, even with
face turned and kept heavenward, before the end be
neared.

(20) Let him know.— Or, as it rather seems to be,
Knoio ye : be absolutely sure of this, in a knowledge
better than all the Gnostic and Agnostic learning of
the day. He which turneth a sinner from the error of
his way shall save a sotdfrom death — the means thereto
being given him by the Saviour of all — and shall hide
a multitude of sins ; not, of course, his own, but those
of the penitent, brought back by this good servant into
the fold. So is it possible to be a fellow-worker with
Christ (2 Cor. vi. 1), and a sharer in His work of sal-
vation, as, in another sense, we too vicariously suffer
for the sins and faults of others. (Comp. Col. i. 24,
and Butler's Analogy, part 2, chap, v.)

What St. James was in word that also was he in
deed; for he "prayed fervently" for the pardon and
conversion of those who killed him. " Hold," said
some of the by-standers, when the martyr sank upon
the stones, " the Just is praying for you ! " Stephen's
prayer won Saul for the infant Church : it can hardly
be that James's last breathmgs of pity were unanswered
of God.

331

THE EPISTLES GENERAL OF

PETER.

INTRODUCTION

THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF

PETER.

1. The Author.— The authorship of this Epistle
can hardly be called a matter of question. If it
be not St. Peter's own, we have no choice but
to set it down as an impudent forgery. It claims
directly, and in the simplest form, to be the writing
of the chief Apostle of our Lord (chap. i. 1).
The author asserts himself to be a " witness of the
sufferings of Christ" (chap. v. 1), and yet does it so
modestly and with such absence of detail as would be
inconceivable in a forger acquainted with St. Peter's
history. The enthusiastic and impassioned style of the
Letter corresponds with the character of St. Peter as
we find it recorded in history ; and in several
marked points not only the doctrinal statements,
but even the literary style and turu of the sentences.
recalls the style of St. Peter's speeches in the Acts.
The fact that the Letter was written in Greek (for
the adjectives alone are sufficient disproof of the
theory that it is a translation from an Aramaic original)
is no objection to the Petrine authorship. Galilee was
a half-Greek country, studded with Greek cities ; St.
Peter's brother bore a Greek name. No Galilean of
the middle classes (to which St. Peter evidently be-
longed) could have been ignorant of the language ;
indeed, there is sufficient evidence that Greek was as
much used in Galilee as Aramaic.

It seems that no question was ever entertained until
this century with regard to the genuineness of the
Epistle by any church, or by any individual, whether
orthodox or heretical. The Epistle was, indeed, re-
jected by Marcion, but distinctly on the ground that it
was St. Peter's. Origen speaks of it as oue of the
books whose authority had never been disputed. The
Second Epistle of St. Peter, which, even if not genuine,
cannot be dated later than the early part of the second
century, refers back to it, and refers to it expressly as
the work of St. Peter. St. Clement of Rome, writing
(probably) a.d. 95, though lie does not directly quote
from it with marks of citation, lias expressions such as
•' His marvellous light." and several others less marked.
which seem certainly to indicate his acquaintance with
it. St. Polycarp (about 115 A.D.), bishop of one of the
churches to which the Epistle was addressed, within
the compass of one short letter to the Philippians, cites
ii again and again — e.g., " In whom, though ye never
saw Him, ye believe, and believing ye rejoice;" "not
rendering evil for evil, or railing for railing;" and
many other passages. St. Polycarp's friend Papias
according to Eusebius) made use of this Epistle too, and
seems to have made special comments on the connection
between St. Peter and St. Mark. Besides traces of the
use of it to be found in Hernias. Theophilus, and others,
it is freely quoted, and by name, by Irenaeus, Clement
of Alexandria, Tertullian, and all subsequent writers.

Iu fact, it would be difficult to imagine stronger external
evidence in its favour. M. Renan, to take one example
of an historical critic whose theology is not that of E»t.
Peter, writes : " If, as we are happy to believe, this
Epistle is really Peter's, it does honour to his good
sense, his straightforwardness, and his simplicity ; "
and he gives many good reasons for his belief.

There is but one argument against the genuineness
of the Epistle to which any weight at all can be
assigned, and even this loses all its force when it is ex-
amined. 'As for the eclectic and conciliatory tendencies
observed in the Epistle of Peter," writes M. Renan
(Antichrist, p. ix.), " they constitute no objection to any
but those who, like Christian Baur and his disciples,
imagine the difference between Peter and Paul to have
been one of absolute opposition. Had the hatred be-
tween the two parties of primitive Christianity been as
profound as is thought by that school, the recon-
ciliation would never have been made. Peter was not
an obstinate Jew like James." "Without necessarily
agreeing in this description of James, we may well
accept the statement that St. Peter was a man peculiarly
susceptible of impressions, and (even putting out of
view the two Epistles in our Canon) his admiration, and
indeed his awe of St. Paul are visible to any reader of
the Acts and the Epistle to the Galatians. No writer
recognises them more frankly than M. Renan (Saint
Paul, pp. 85, 86). Now, on the one hand, it is very
easy to exaggerate the Pauline character of this Epistle.
It contains no one doctrine, such as Justification by
Faith, which is essentially bound up with the name of
St. Paul. On the matter of the free admission of
Gentiles into the Church (which indirectly forms a
large element in this Epistle) St. Peter had made up
his mind long years before he came much under the
influence of St. Paul (Acts x. 34 ; xi. 17 ; xv. 11). But
on the other hand, there were special reasons why, in
this Epistle, all St. Peter's sympathy for his co-Apostle
should come out. He was using, either as his secretary
or as his letter-bearer — perhaps in both capacities — that
liberal-minded Silas (chap. v. 12), who, after being
chosen by the Church of Jerusalem as their own ex-
ponent to the Gentiles of Antioch, had attached himself
to St. Paul, accompanied him in the most momentous
of his missionary travels, and hail I apparently) devoted
himself to the edification and extension of those Asiatic
churches which the two had founded together. St.
Mark, too, dear to St. Peter as his own "son" in the
faith (chap. v. 13), had been but recently again I after
early misunderstandings) a chosen companion of St.
Paul, and was probably not very long returned from
a mission on which that Apostle had despatched him
into Asia Minor (Col. iv. 10). And, moreover, all St.
Peter's chivalrous nature would be aroused by the

385

•I PETER.

maimer in which the churches of call that region, or
any rate the Jewish element in them, were beginning
to revolt (as at Corinth also) against their founder when
his back was turned.

II. The Place, Time, and Occasion of the
Epistle. — The place from which the Letter was
written was, we may say without any hesitation,
Rome. If this be not the case, we must understand
the "Babylon" of chap. v. 13 to mean the Eastern
Babylon; and it is neither very probable in itself
that St. Peter should have visited that city, and there
have been met by St. Silas and St. Mark, nor is there
any trace of a tradition, however meagre, that
he ever travelled in those parts. On the other hand,
were it not for the abuse made of the fact by the sup-
porters of the Papacy, no one would ever have questioned
the universal and well-authenticated tradition which
affirms that St. Peter was, along with St. Paul, co-founder
of the Church of Rome. The whole subject has been,
of late years, sifted to the bottom by various German
and other writers, especially by Dr. Hilgenfeld in re-
peated articles between 1872 and 1877 in his Zeitschrift.
Though every conceivable difference may be found
between these authors respecting the dates and duration
of St. Peter's sojourn at Rome, very few are so hardily
sceptical as to reject altogether evidence as strong,
early, and wide, as that on which we believe that
Hannibal invaded Italy. This fact being then certain,
the only question is whether Eusebius is right — or St.
Clement of Alexandria, and even Papias, whom he
appears to be quoting — in suggesting that " Babylon "
in this Epistle meant Rome. *

About this there can be no difficulty. Not only is
Rome so styled in the Apocalypse, and some few years
later in the Jewish Sibylline Oracles, but M. Renan
quotes passages from various Rabbinical writings
where the same name occurs with the same meaning.
The Jews delighted in substituting symbolical names
and epithets even in plain prose speech {e.g., Jerub-
besheth for Jerub-baal, Hainan iheAgagite; St. Peter,
himself, if the Second Epistle be his, seems to do the
same when he calls Balaam "the son of Bosor ") ; and the
detestation of Rome, natural to a Jew at all times, and
heightened by Christianity when once the persecution
began, found vent for itself in all manner of names culled
from the Old Testament, such as Nineveh and Edom,
as well as Babylon.

If, then, Rome be the place from which St. Peter
wrote, how can we find approximately the time ? It can-
not be put earlier than the year 64, for two reasons
especially : (1) because it shows a deep acquaintance
with the Epistle (so-named) to the Ephesiaus.f the date

* The words occur in a passage describing the origin of the
Gospel of St. Mark, which ends thus, "and that [St. Peter]
ratified the hook for the churches to study (Clement, in the
sixth of his Hypotyposcs, has put the story in our hands, and
his account is substantiated also by the Bishop of Hierapolis
named Papias), and that Peter mentions Mark in his former
Epistle, which also they say that he composed at Rome itself,
and that he means this when he calls the city in a figurative
kind of way ' Babylon,' in these words, The co-elect one in
Babylon yrcctcth you, and Mark my son."— (Eus. Hist. Eccl.
II. xv. 2.)

t Compare chap. i. 1, 2 with Eph, i. 4 ; chap i. 3 with Eph. i. 3 ;
chap, i.4, 5 with Eph. i. 11, 18; chap, i. 12 with Eph. iii. 10;
chap. i. 14 with Eph. ii. 2, 3 ; chap. ii. 5 with Eph. ii. 20, 21, 22 ;
chap. ii. 18 with Eph.. vi. 5 ; chap. iii. 1 with Eph, v. 22 : chap,
iii. 22 with Eph. i. 20, 21 ; chap. iv. 3 with Eph. ii. 2 ; and other
passages. The connection with Silvanus, and with Mark, is
sutlicient 10 explain St. Peter'sclose familiarity with an Epistle
which had been destined (largely) for the same readers as his
own. His deep knowledge of the Epistle to the Romans
(which is traceable in very many passages is a strong

of which is 62 or 63 ; (2) because direct persecution had
broken out against the Christians as Christians, and
this did not take place until after the great fire at Rome
in July, 64. The phenomena of the letter will not bear
interpreting by the theory of simple disaffection, how-
ever deep and spiteful, of the populace against the
Christians. They are liable at any moment, even away
in Asia, to be called upon to give an account for their
faith in the law courts (chap. iii. 15). If any of them
is proved to be a Christian, ho will very likely " suffer "
— suffer capital punishment — for that crime (chap. iv.
16). The whole piece is burdened with persecution of
a most systematic kind on every side. There is. how-
ever, one side-question which causes some difficulty.
St. Paul is not mentioned as joining in the salutation
to the churches which he had founded. Why so ? No
more probable conjecture can be made than that, shortly
after writing his Epistles to the Asiatic Churches, St.
Paul was tried and liberated, and made that journey
into the far West on which he had long set his heart,
and which St. Clement of Rome, who must have known
well, says that he took. By this journey he escaped
death in the outbreak of Nero's persecution ; and St.
Peter, arriving at Rome about the same time, finds him
gone, and Silas and Mark just coming back to head-
quarters from their work in Asia, with reports of divi-
sion and disorder which required immediate attention.
Accordingly St. Peter issues this circular letter which
we have before us.

Opinions are much divided as to whether the Letter
was addressed primarily to Jewish or to Gentile Chris-
tians, or to both indifferently. Either answer is beset
with difficulties, but the question will be found fully
discussed in the Notes on the chief passages (chap. i. 1,
14, 17, 18 ; ii. 9, 10; iv. 3, et al), in which it will be
seen that the annotator adheres to the usually received
opinion that St. Peter keeps to his original intention of
going to the circumcision only. The pact between the
Apostles was, indeed, not of that rigid nature which
would preclude the possibility of his writing to the
Gentiles, eA'en as St. Paul wrote to Jews ; still, it seems
more natural on the whole to suppose that he adhered
to the pact. The letter is throughout exactly what the
author describes it as being (chap. v. 12). He " exhorts
and testifies that this is God's true grace." That is, he
insists upon the Jewish Christians recognising fully that
St. Paul's gospel was all that it ought to be (chap. i. 12,
25), and exhorts them to consequent unity and brotherly
love. The presence of persecution both increases the
temptation to fall away and also heightens the heinous-
ness of such desertion, therefore every warning and every
encouragement is pointed by the mention of sufferings
and of the reward that is coming when Christ returns.
The analysis of the Letter, which is somewhat hard to
make, may be seen in the marginal notes.

In the preparation of the Notes, the writer has not
only had the usual printed commentaries and books of
reference, but every now and then has had the advantage
of manuscript notes of lectures (such as will scarcely
be heard in Cambridge again) by the Bishop of Durham,
lent to him by the Chancellor of Truro Cathedral.

argument in favour of the identification of " Babylon " with
Koine. There are some indications also of an acquaintance
with the Epistles to the Thcssalonians, again perhaps through
Silvanus. It is noteworthy, as showing the position which
St. Peter held amidst conflicting parties, that the document
which, next after the Epistles to the Romans and Ephesians.
has most influenced this Letter, is the Epistle of St. James ; for
instance, compare chap. i. 6, 7 with Jas. i. 2, 3 ; chap. i. 24 with
Jas. i. 10. 11 ; chap. iv. 8 with Jas. v. 20 ; chap. v. 5-9 with Jas.
iv. 6—10 ; ct al

THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF

PETER

CHAPTER I.— d) Peter, an apostle
Chap. i. l, 2. of Jesus Christ," to
The salutation, the strangers scattered4

a Matt. 10. 2.

6 John % »; Jus.; COrding

throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappa-
docia, Asia, and Bithynia, W elect ac-
to the foreknowledge of God

The Salutation. — A comparison of this salutation
with those of St. James, St. Jude, and St. John (Second
and Third Epistles, and Rev. i. 4 — 6), will show that
it is not distinctively a Pauline form of beginning a
letter, but one common to all the early Christians. The
same may be observed in the letters of the apostolic
Fathers. And the outburst of praise immediately
following is likewise a usual type.

(!) Peter, an apostle. — The authoritative tone of
this Epistle is shown at the outset. The writer assumes
his full titles ; not (as in the Second Epistle) his merely
human name of Simeon, nor his humble capacity of
*' servant," but the Rock-name which Christ had given
him, and the official dignity of an " Apostle of Jesus
Christ " — i.e., one charged with full legatine authority
from Christ (John xvii. 18 ; xx. 21) — a vicar of Christ
to the Church, and not only a representative of the
Church to Godwards. Observe also that while St.
Paul constantly adds " by the will of God," or some
similar phrase, by way of justifying his assumption
of the title, St. Peter has no need to do more than
mention it ; his claim was never questioned. Again,
though St. Silas and St. Mark are with him, they
are not associated in the initial greeting, as they would
probably have been by St. Paul (e.g., 1 and 2 Thess.
i. 1). "Apostle" though Silas was (see 1 Thess. ii. 6),
and "faithful brother" to the recipients of the Letter
(chap. v. 12), his support would have added but little
weight to the utterances of the Rock- Apostle. And
yet, with all this quiet assumption of dignity, St. Peter
knows no higher title to bestow on himself than that
which he held in common with the other eleven — " an
Apostle ; " not " the Apostle," nor " bishop of bishops,"
nor (which means the same thing) " servant of servants."

To the strangers scattered throughout . . .
— Literally, to the elect, sojourners of the dispersion of
Pontus. The persons for whom the Letter is destined
are very clearly specified. In John vii. 35 we have
" the dispersion of the Greeks," where it clearly
means " those of the dispersed Jews who live among
the Greeks," so here " the dispersion of Pontus,"
or " the Pontine dispersion," will mean " those of
the dispersed Jews who live in Pontus." In Jas.
i. 1 the same word is used, and, in fact, it seems to
have been the recognised name for all Jews who did
not live in Palestine. The word rendered by "so-
journers" means people avIio are resident for a time
among strangers: it might, for instance, describe
English people who have taken houses in Paris without
becoming naturalised; and, as it is here in so close a

connection with geographical words, it seems forced
to interpret it metaphorically (as in chap. ii. 11).
Palestine, not Heaven, is the home tacitly contrasted ;
Pontus, not earth, is the place of sojourn. This, then,
is clear, that the Apostle of the Circumcision is writing
to those of the Circumcision. The addition of the words
" the blood of Jesus Christ " is the only thing which
shows that they are Christian Jews.

Pontus, Galatia . . .—The provinces which
between them make up the whole, or nearly so, of what
we call Asia Minor, are named in no order that can be
assigned a meaning, or that indicates the quarter
whence the Letter was written. Possibly the circum-
stances which called for the writing of the Epistle may
have been most striking in Pontus. Notice that at
any rate the churches of Galatia and Asia owed their
origin to St. Paul. Of the founding of the rest we
know nothing ; perhaps they were founded by St. Silas :
but Jewish settlers from Cappadocia and Pontus had
heard St. Peter's first sermon on the Church's birth-
day (Acts ii. 9). A few years later and Pliny finds
the whole upper shore of Asia Minor overrun and
swallowed up by Christians.

<2) Elect.— A true chosen people. This word marks
them off from the rest of the Jewish settlers in those
parts. It is an evasion of the difficulty to say that
they were elect only in the mass, as a body. The
election was individual and personal. God selected
these particular Hebrews out of the whole number, and
made them Christians ; but what He elected them to is
abundantly shown in the next words. For all their
election they are not certain of salvation, and their
title of " elect " implies no more than the fact that God
has put them into the visible Church. (See Notes on>
1 Thess. i. 4, and 2 Pet. i. 10.)

According to the foreknowledge of God.—
The origin of this election, the aim, and the means
employed are now touched upon, and connected with
the three Divine Persons respectively. (1) The origin.
Their election is not accidental, nor yet something done
on the spur of the moment, an afterthought of God, but
"according to tli3 foreknowledge of God the Father"
— i.e., in execution of His fore-arranged scheme. The
word implies not simply a perception of the future,
but the forming of a decision. (Comp. the same word in
verse 20, and in Rom. viii. 29; xi. 2.) Though the
thought is common also to St. Paul, St. Peter was
familiar with it before St. Paid's conversion. (See Acts
ii. 23.) (2) The means. The preconcerted scheme of
God embraced not only the choice of these particular
persons for a blessing, but the lines on which the choice

387

Praise for the Comfort

I. PETER, I.

of the Gospel,

the Father," through sanctification of the
Spirit,4 unto obedience and sprinkling
of the blood of Jesus Christ : c Grace
unto you, and peace, be multiplied.
^ Blessed be the God and Father of our

it Kmii. «.29; 11.2.
d 2 Cor. 11. 31 ;
Ei>h. 1. 8, 17.
b -1 TliL-.ss. 2. 13.
1 Gr. mil rlt.
r Mait.Jti. ;•*; Ht-h.
12. 21.
e Titus 3. r>, 7.

Lord Jesus Christ/ which Ch
according to his abundant1 Prai
mercy hath begotten us g^^ itl
again unto a lively hope * comforts and
by the resurrection of &lories-

was to work itself out — " in a course of sanctification
by the Spirit." The words and the thought are
identical with those of 2 Thess. ii. 13, but probably so
far differ in exact meaning that there " the Spirit " is
the spirit sanctified, here it is the Spirit which sancti-
fies. (Comp. also 1 Thess. iv. 7.) We see that even the
blessing of " obedience and sprinkling " — much more
that of glory hereafter — is unattainable except in the
path of sanctification. (3) The end. That to which
God had elected them was not in the first instance the
participation of the joys of the post-resurrection life,
but the benefits of redemption on this side of the grave.
While other " sojourners of the Pontine dispersion "
were allowed to remain in the disobedience which
characterised the Jews, and trusting to the efficacy of
membership in the covenant people, these had, in
accordance with God's plan, been admitted to "obe-
dience"— i.e., the reception of the gospel facts and
precepts (see Note on 2 Thess. i. 8), and to the —

Sprinkling of the blood.— This important phrase
must be compared with Heb. ix. 19, and xii. 24,
which passages were, perhaps, suggested by it, unless,
indeed, the idea had become the common property of
the Church already. There is nothing in St. Paul's
"writings to compare with it. As the people themselves
are " sprinkled," and not their houses, the reference
cannot be to the Paschal sprinkling (Ex. xii. 22), but,
as in Hebrews, to the scene under Mount Sinai in
Ex. xxiv. 8, where, once for all, the old covenant was
inaugurated by the sprinkling of the people. It was to
that same scene that our Lord referred when He said
of the Eucharistic cup, " This is My blood of the new
covenant." Thus, " elect unto the sprinkling of the
blood," seems to mean " selected for admission into the
new covenant inaugurated by the sprinkling of Christ's
blood." But whereas the old covenant was inaugu-
rated by sprinkling the people collectively and once for
all, the new is inaugurated anew and anew by individual
application ; so that the Eucharistic cup was not
(according to the Quaker theory) to be drunk once
for all by the Apostles then present as the represen-
tatives of the whole subsequent Church. Neither does
this inauguration by sprinkling come but once for all
in the individual's lifetime, but as often as the covenant
is broken by his sin he comes to renew it again.
Doubtless the participation of the Holy Communion is
the act of " sprinkling " here before St. Peter's mind,
it being the one act which betokens membership in
the new covenant-people, the new Israel. Of course
the application of blood in both covenants rests on the
notion of a death-forfeit being remitted.

Of Jesus Christ.— He does not say " of the new
testament," but substitutes the name of the Victim in
whose blood the covenant is inaugurated — Jesus. And
who is this Jesus ? The Christ ! The Messiah ! As
though Israel at Sinai had been sprinkled with the blood
of Moses. What a contrast between the other Jews of
Pontus, with their Messianic expectations, and these
" elect sojourners " sprinkled with Messiah's blood !

Be multiplied.— This occurs again only in 2 Pet.
i. 2 ; Jude, verse 2. (Comp. Dan. iv. 1.) It contains an
exhortation to progress. There are some good things
of which we cannot have too much.

(3—12) Panegyric of the Gospel from a
Hebrew point of view. — The Apostle thanks
God for the resurrection of Jesus Christ. That fact is
a regeneration of us, and a pledge of future glory, in
view of which such afflictions as beset the Asiatic
Hebrews were seen to serve a purpose, and that pur-
pose the very " salvation " which had formed the
theme of the Old Testament.

(3) Blessed.— A form consecrated to God alone
(e.g., Mark xiv. 61 ; Rom. ix. 5 ; 2 Cor. xi. 31), a
completely different word from the " blessed," or
happy, of the Beatitudes ; and differing from the
" blessed " of the Virgin Mary (Luke i. 28, 42) in that
this form implies that blessing is always due on account
of something inherent in the person, while that only
implies that a blessing has been received. The idea
of blessing God (literally, speaking Him well, Ps.
c. 3) is, of course, wholly Hebrew.

Of our Lord Jesus Christ.— No longer only " the
Lord God of Israel," as, e.g., 1 Chron. xxix. 10 ; 2 Chron.
vi. 4 ; Luke i. 68 ; He is now in a nearer, tenderer rela-
tion to these members of the new covenant. He is
the Father of the Messiah, and yet the God whom
Jesus adores (John xx. 17).

Which according to his abundant mercy.—
This is the reason for which God deserves blessing
from us. The word " according " never means exactly
the same as " in " or " by " ; here it rather shows that
the particular instance was in keeping with what might
have been expected, had we but known, from the
" much pity " which God must have felt for creatures
so forlorn. Our regeneration was no sudden capri-
cious favour.

Hath begotten us again.— Rather, begat us
again — the historical moment being here given as that
of the resurrection of Christ. This great word, which
is St. Peter's own, being only found again in verse 20,
evidently contains the whole meaning of the being
"born from above" or "begotten all over again" of
John iii. 3, of the "fresh creation" of 2 Cor. v. 17,
Gal. vi. 15, of the " regeneration " of Tit. iii. 5, of the
" begotten of God " in St. John's Epistle, and (to a
certain extents of the " brought He us forth " of
Jas. i. 18. It seems to indicate that, if it takes
effect, it makes a complete change not only in the con-
dition and prospects of the man, but in the man himself :
such a change, for example, as would pass over an
animal if it were suddenly to receive the powers of a
human being. It is no metaphor when the change
from the natural man to a man united with the Incar-
nate God is described as an act of creation parallel
only to those of the creation of matter and force
(Gen. i. 1, 2), the creation of life (Gen. i. 21), and the
creation of humanity (Gen. i. 27), for, according to
St. Peter's teaching, we are thus actually made " par-
takers of the divine nature " (2 Pet. i. 4).

Unto a lively hope.— Or, into a living hope.
Before this regeneration there was nothing to look
forward to — at best a kind of dead-alive surmise that
there might be something beyond the weary world.
But as the animal we have imagined would find himself
suddenly new-begotten into a state in which he was

The Inheritance

I. PETEE, I.

reserved for the Saints.

Jesus Christ from the dead," <4> to an •*■_*■!*»
inheritance incorruptible, and undefiled,
and that fadeth not away, reserved in

heaven* for

you

1 (5)

who are kept by

Bpli.2. a

d Itoni. a 18,
/l ('ill. I. ...
I Or, tor us.

v Matt :.. l»*,
Hon.. ;,. 8:1
Jas. 1.1

the power of God through faith c
unto salvation ready to be revealed'' in
the last time. ^ Wherein ye greatly
rejoice/ though now for a season, if

conscious of himself and of God, so we found our-
selves new-begotten into a state of definite and most
energetic expectation of whole soscula swculorum — ■
worlds beyond worlds — of bliss before us.

By th§ resurrection of Jesus Christ. —
Mystically speaking, the moment of our emergence
into this new glow of expectation was that when the
Messiah Jesus, who had been cut off, emerged from
among the dead. Then we saw it all ! St. Peter,
indeed, is speaking, so far as himself was concerned,
not mystically, but literally, as his history before and
after the Resurrection shows. To him, and to the
other Apostles, the Resurrection was a regeneration,
and they became new beings. To subsequent Christians
preeisely the same effect takes place when (suddenly or
gradually) the fact of the Resurrection is acknowledged
and its significance realised. (See what St. Paul says,
Phil. iii. 10.) Yet we must not confine the meaning of
the words to the effects of this conscious realisation.
St. Peter is viewing the transaction theologically, i.e.,
from God's point of view, not phenomenally, from
man's. He speaks of the begetting, not of the being
born— of the Resurrection itself, not of the preaching
of the Resurrection. To God, with whom, according
to St. Peter, time does not exist (2 Pet. iii. 8), there is
no interval between His begetting of Christ again from
the dead (Acts xiii. 33; Rev. i. 5), and His begetting
of us again thereby. In the mystery of our union
with the Incarnate Word, His historical resurrection
■did, through baptism, in some ineffable manner, infuse
into us the grace which makes new creatures of us.
Archbishop Leighton says well, " Not only is it (the
Resurrection) the exemplar, but the efficient cause of
our new birth." (See below, chap. iii. 21, and Rom.
vi. 4.)

(4) To an inheritance.— This is structurally parallel
to and explanatory of, the clause " into a living hope."
We are, as the saying is, born to an estate. This
notion of an " inheritance," or property, that we have
come in for, is particularly Hebrew, occurring very fre-
quently in the Old Testament. The Pontine dispersion
had lost their " inheritance " in Palestine, but there is
a, better in store for them.

Incorruptible, and undefiled, and that fadeth
not away. — Exuberant description of the excellencies
of the new Canaan. The first epithet contrasts its
imperishable nature (see Rom. i. 23; 2 Tim. i. 10)
with the fleeting tenure of the earthly Canaan. The
second speaks of its freedom from pollutions such as
desecrated the first " Holy Land." Perhaps it may
specially mean that the new Holy Land will never be
profaned by Gentile incursions and tyrannies. The
third, and most poetical of all (which is only found
besides in Wisd. vi. 12), conveys the notion of the
unchanging beauty of that land — no winter in the in-
heritance to which the Resurrection brings us (Cant,
ii. 11).

Reserved— The perfect tense, which hath been
reserved unto you, i.e., either in the temporal sense —
"kept all this while until you came," or " with a view
to you." (Comp. Heb. xi. 40.) He now adds explicitly
that it is no earthly, hut a heavenly possession.

(8) Who are kept.— This explains the word " you: "
"those, I mean, who are under the guardianship of

389

God's power." Bengel say.s", " As the inheritance hath
been preserved, so are the heirs guarded ; neither shall
it fail them, nor they it."

Through faith.— The Apostle is fearful lest the
last words should give a false assurance. God can
guard none of us, in spite of His "power," unless
there be a corresponding exertion upon our part —
which is here called u faith " — combining the notions
of staunch fidelity and of trustfulness in spite of
appearances. It is through such trustful fidelity that
we are guarded.

Unto salvation. — These words " unto " arise like
point beyond point in the endless vista. ''Begotten
unto an inheritance, which hath been reserved unto
you, who are kept safe unto a deliverance." This sal-
vation, spoken of again in verse 9, must not be taken
in the bald sense of salvation from damnation. Indeed,
the thought of the perdition of the lost does not enter
at all into the passage. The salvation, or deliverance,
is primarily a deliverance from all the trials and per-
secutions, struggles and temptations of this fife — an
emergence into the state of peace and rest, as we can
see from the verses that follow.

Ready to be revealed in the last time.— How
such an assurance helps to form the very " faith "
through which the treasure is secured ! That perfect
state of peace, that heavenly inheritance, is not some-
thing to be prepared hereafter, but there it is. If only
our eyes were opened, we should already see it. It is
all ready, only Avaiting for the great moment. The
tense of the word "revealed" implies the suddenness
of the unveiling. It will be but the work of an instant
to put aside the curtain and show the inheritance which
has been kept hidden so long behind it. This, however,
will not take place till the exact period (so the word for
'• time " suggests ; comp. 2 Thess. ii. 6), and that period
will be the last of the world's history. For such
teaching the Hebrews would be well prepared by the
Old Testament — for instance, comp. Dan. xii. 9, 13 —
and it was the earliest kind of teaching culled for con-
verts out of the "oracles of God" (Heb. v. 12;
vi. 2).

(6) Wherein ye greatly rejoice.— "His scope,"
says Leighton, " is to stir up and strengthen spiritual
joy in his afflicted brethren ; and therefore having set
the matter of it before them in the preceding A-erses,
he now applies it, and expressly opposes it to their
distresses." There is a little doubt as to the antecedent
of the word "wherein." At first sight it would seem
to be " in the last time," and the thought would then
be that this " last time." with all its predicted afflictions,
was already begun, and that the Pontine Hebrews were
fulfilling the injunction of our Lord in Luke xxi. 28,
and " rejoicing " (the word is one of enthusiastic and
demonstrative joy) in the near approach of their re-
demption. This makes good sense, but it is better
to see the antecedent in " the whole complex sense of
the preceding verses, concerning the hope of glory. In
this thing ye rejoice, that ye are begotten again ; that
there is such an inheritance, and that you are made
heirs of it ; that it is kept for you. and you for it ; that
nothing can come betwixt you and it, and disappoint
you of possessing and eujoying it, though there be
many deserts and mountains and seas in the way, yet

Trial of Faith.

I. PETEK, I.

Faith in Christ, though unseen*

need be, ye are in heaviness through
manifold temptations : (7) that the trial
of your faith, being much more precious
than of gold that perisheth, though it
be tried with fire," might be found unto

a Dan. 12. 10.

c2Tlu\ss. 1.7,10,
12; Jolin 20.2(1.

praise and honour and glory at the
appearing of Jesus Christ : * (8) whom
having not seen, ye love ; in whom,
though now ye see him not, yet be-
lieving, c ye rejoice with joy unspeakable

you are ascertained that you shall come safe thither."
(Leighton.)

Though now for a season.— Literally, after
having been grieved in the present {if it must be so) for
a little %vhile in the midst of manifold temptations.
The Apostle takes his stand at the moment of the revela-
tion and looks bach upon the fast-passing present and
its griefs. What the temptations were we cannot tell ;
but the word " manifold " shows that it was not only
one type of temptation under which all lay alike. The
chief was probably the unkind attitude of Gentile
neighbours (chaps, ii. 12, 15 ; hi. 14 — 17 ; iv. 4, 12 — 19),
which was the most searching " test of faith." Iden-
tical words (in the Greek) occur in Jas. i. 2, 3, so as
almost to suggest a common origin — possibly to be
found in Rom. v. 3.

If need be. — Or, if it must be so. To encourage
them to bear up St. Peter throws in this phrase, so as
not to take it for granted that they will have to suffer ;
he hopes it may not be so. (Comp. chap. hi. 17.)

(7) That the trial of your faith.— This depends
grammatically on "having been grieved." The purpose
of God's providence in sending the griefs is " that the
trial of your faith might be found unto praise." The
word "trial " here does not mean exactly the same as
in the passage of St. James ; in that passage it signifies
the active testing of faith, here it has rather the mean-
ing of the cognate word translated " assurance " in
Rom. v. 4, " proof " in 2 Cor. ii. 9, Phil. ii. 22, i.e., the
attested worth, the genuine character. This seems
necessitated by the comparison of the trial with the
gold itself, as we shall see. You cannot compare an
act or process with gold, but you can compare "the
genuine character" brought out by the process properly
enough. Besides, that which you wish to " praise " at
Christ's coming is not the process by which the faith
was proved, but the worth of the faith itself. " Faith "
seems to mean the same as in verse 5.

Being much more precious than of gold.—
There is no reason, or indeed any grammatical right,
to insert the "of." It should be, more exceedingly
valuable than gold. He does not say " your faith is
more valuable than gold," but " your faith's genuine-
ness is more valuable than gold." It is worth anything
to establish the true character of your faith ; it would
be a most serious loss to leave a chance of an imputa-
tion upon your Christianity.

That perisheth, though it be tried with
fire. — Rather, which is a thing that perisheth, and yet
is tried through fire. The argument is this. Gold is a
perishable thing, and comes to an end with the rest of
the world, or is worn away with handling and is lost ;
and yet men take great pains to test it and show that
it contains no dross, and do so by means of fire. How
much more may we expect a fiery trial (chap. iv. 12) to
test the character of our belief in the unseen Christ,
when that belief is never to come to an end (1 Cor. xiii.
13), and on its freedom from alloy everything depends !

Might be found.— That is, might clearly prove to
be. The time will come when the gold will be inspected,
and the Judge, and all the spectators, will " find " that
the testing was sufficient and the character satisfactory.

" Found unto praise," or, found for a praise, is a
Hebraism, meaning " found to be a matter of praise."
St. Peter is fond of heapiug up words of like significa-
tion. (See verse 4, and chap. v. 10.) " Praise " is
the language that will be used about these men's faith ;
" honour," the rank in which they will be placed ;
" glory," the fervent admiration accorded to them :
the three words correspond to the regions of word, act,
and feeling.

At the appearing of Jesus Christ.— Iievelation
would have been better, as the word in the Greek is
the same as in verse 5. This gives the date at which
the trial will have done its work : it is the same as the
" last time " when the " deliverance " will be revealed.
Remember that all through the afflictions and assaults
the men are "being guarded by the power of God."
There are several words and thoughts in this whole
passage which would suggest that Dan. xii. was before
the mind of the Apostle more or less consciously.

(8) Whom, having not seen.— Said in contrast to
the word " revelation " in the last verse : " whom you
love already, though He is not yet revealed, so that you
have not as yet seen Him." There seems to be a kind
of tender pity in the wwds, as spoken by one who
himself had seen so abundantly (Acts iv. 20 ; x. 41 ; 2 Pet.
i. 16). In this and the following verse we return again
from the sorrow to the joy, and to the true cause of
that joy, which is only to be found in the love of Jesus
Christ. There is another reading, though not so good
either in sense or in authority: "whom, without
knowing Him, ye love." Bengel remarks that this is
intended for a paradox, sight and knowledge being the
usual parents of love.

Ye love. — The word of calm and divinely-given
attachment, in fact the xisual word in the New Testa-
ment, that which Christ used in questioning the
writer (John xx. 15), not the word of warm human
friendship with which St. Peter then answered Him.

In whom. — To be construed, not with " ye rejoice,"
but with " believing." The participles give the grounds
of the rejoicing : " because at present without seeing
ye believe in Him none the less, therefore ye rejoice."
The word " rejoice " takes us back to verse 6 : "ye
greatly rejoice, I repeat." Notice, again, the stress laid
on faith : we have already had it three times mentioned.
St. Peter, whose own faith gained him his name and
prerogative, is, at least, as much the Apostle of faith
as St. Paul is, though his conception of it, perhaps,
slightly differs from St. Paul's. The definition given
by the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews (chap xi. 1)
might have been, perhaps was, drawn from a study of
St. Peter's writings. Our present verse gives us the
leading thought of " faith " as it appears in both of
these works addressed to Hebrews, viz., its being the
opposite of sight, " the evidence of things not seen,"
rather than as the opposite of works. And the main
object of both these Epistles is to keep the Hebrews
from slipping back from internal to external religion,
i.e., to strengthen faith. (Comp. Heb. hi. 12.) The
Apostle is full of admiration for a faith which (unlike
his own) was not based on sight. (See John xx. 29—
an incident which may have been in the writer's mind.)

390

The Salvation of our Souls

I. PETER, I.

the End of our Faith.

and full of glory : <9> receiving the end
of your faith, even the salvation of your
souls." <10) Of which salvation the prO-

el Luke l. f,u,
t Matt. I& ir

Matt. Hi. 25, 38

phets* have enquired and searched
diligently/ who prophesied of the grace
that should come unto you : (11J searching

Unspeakable.— The beautiful Greek word (which
means " unable to find expression in words") seems to
have been coined by St. Peter.

Full of glory.— Literally, that hath been glorified ;
i.e., a joy that has reached its ideal pitch, and feels no
further sense of imperfection ; a signification of the
word found, for instance, in Rom. viii. 30.

(») Receiving the end of your faith.— The " end
of our faith " means, the object to which our faith is
directed, the thing- we believed for. And "faith"
catches up the "believing" of last verse, so that, in
reading, the accent of the sentence falls on " end," not
on " faith ; " and the whole clause is added to justify
the statement that we rejoice with a joy which has
already attained its full perfection. The reason is, he
says, because we receive already, in the present fife,
the object of all this trusting without sight ; we need
not wait till the next world to attain our glorification.

The salvation of your souls.— It might bo
simply, salvation of soids, including other men's besides
our own, but the context is against it, and the absence of
articles is characteristic of St. Peter. It seems at first
sight not a very exalted object for our faith to work to,
the deliverance, or safety, of our own souls. And yet
our Lord fully recognises the instinct of the higher self-
preservation as that to which the ultimate appeal must
be made (Matt. xvi. 25, 26). He could give His own
soul a ransom for many (Matt. xx. 28) ; He could save
others and not Himself (Matt, xxvii. 42); St. Paul
could wish himself accursed from Christ for his
brethren's sake, " that they might be saved " (Rom. ix.
3; x. 1) ; Moses could ask to be "blotted out of the
book " (Ex. xxxii. 32) ; and yet the fact remains, that
in seeking our own welfare, in the highest sense, we are
fulfilling a primal law of our being, imposed upon us
by the Creator. We are bound to make that our first
object, if it were only to gratify Him who has no
pleasure in the death of him that dieth, even if we
could possibly divest ourselves of all " selfish " interest
in the matter.

" A charge to keep I have,
A God to (jlorify ;
A never-dying soul to save,
And fit it for the sky."

The Buddhist longing for Nirvana is as far as
possible removed from the healthy spirit of Chris-
tianity. " Salvation " here seems to have widened its
meaning since verse 5 ; while there the main thought was
final deliverance from the afflictions of life, here the
salvation is said to be received in the very midst of all
these afflictions. The addition of the word " souls,"
appears to make the difference. For the soul, there is
present salvation, because persecutions, &c, do not
touch it. and it is capable of the most complete emanci-
pation from the evils of sin (Matt. i. 21 ; Luke i. 69,
71. 75; Rom. vi. 14; vii. 24, 25.) Salvation, then, is
the restoration of man to the ideal excellence from
which he was fallen : it contains — here, at any rate — no
allusion to " damnation " as an opposite.

(10) Now St. Peter brings his doctrine home to the
hearts of his readers of the Dispersion, by showing
them how scriptural it is. Surely they will not " draw
back *> (Heb. x. 39). but believe on to the purchasing of
their souls, when they consider that all the prophets
looked forward with envy to the prize now in their hands. !

391

(10) Of which salvation.— The " of " stands for
" concerning," " with regard to "; and the salvation which
formed the subject of investigation to the prophets was
the present deliverance of the believing soul from sin
and gloom, as well as the salvation yet future. It is
difficult not to believe that the song of Zacharias was
in St. Peter's mind when he thus wrote ; the theme of
that song is precisely the glory of present salvation
through Christ, and the fulfilment of prophecy thereby :
" Blessed be the Lord God . . . who hath raised up a
horn of salvation for us . . ., as He spake by the mouth
of His holy prophets, — salvation from our enemies . . .,
that we might serve Him without fear, in holiness and
righteousness before Him all the days; and thou too,
little child, shalt be called a prophet ... to give know-
ledge of salvation unto His people."

Have enquired and searched diligently. —
Rather, did inquire ; for our present version tends
to convey the notion that the prophetic writings which
we now possess are the residt of the inquiry. This
would be wrong. Calvin rightly says : " When he states
that the prophets inquired and examined, this refers
not to their writings or teaching, but to the private
longing with which each was fired." In fact, St. Peter
goes on to say that the writings which the Holy Spirit
impelled them to make were actually the text on which
their longings were the comment : they endeavoured to
understand what they themselves had written. The
two Greek words give a much more lively picture than
the English, of the intense eagerness of the search, and
of the depth to which it penetrated. If these great
prophets took such pains to understand our present
salvation, we ought to take heed not to " let it slip."
Precisely the same argument is used for precisely the
same purpose by our Lord in Matt. xiii. 16, 17.

Who prophesied of the grace.— This is a de-
scription of the prophetic scriptures. The whole
subject of the Old Testament is the bounty of God
under the New ; and this was what the prophets tried
to idealise.

The grace that should come unto you.—
Perhaps the words in italics might be with advantage
changed into, " the grace in reserve for you : " the word
is the same as in verse 4. " Grace " here seems to
mean little more than " favour " or " bounty," not the
ordinary theological sense. The " favour " consists in
our salvation.

(11) Searching. — This further explains the " inquired
and searched " above ■ it particularises the object of
the inquiry. They knew that they spoke " concerning
a salvation," but they did not know the details. The
present passage is perhaps the most striking in the
whole New Testament in regard to the doctrine of
prophetic inspiration. Assuming that the prophets did
not speak simply of their own human calculation, but
somehow under the influence of the Divine Spirit, we
are brought to face the question, how far their utter-
ances were their own. and how far suggested to them
from on high. The doctrine of Montanism. which has
not altogether died out of the Church yet, asserts that
from first to last prophecy is superhuman ; that every
word and letter is forced upon the man by a power not
his own, which leaves him no choice. God. and God
alo&e, is responsible for every syllable. The human
will and intelligence need not even concur in the

The Test

imony

I. PETER, I.

of the Prophevs

what, or what manner of time the
Spirit a of Christ which was in them

In Matt. 22. 43 ;

2 Pet. i.2i.
! b Isa. «!; Dan.
9. g&

did signify, when it testified beforehand
the sufferings of Christ,* and the glory

message they deliver, nor even be conscious that they
are delivering it. Thus Montanus makes God to say
through him : " Lo, man is as a lyre, and I am as that
which strikes the chords : the man is unconscious, and
I alone wake." On the other hand, some of the early
opponents of Montanism went so far as to say that the
inspired Avriters had a clear and immediate perception,
a complete insight into the mysteries which they fore-
told,— that Isaiah, for instance, saw, as plainly as wo do,
Mary and Jesus in his prophecy of lmmannel. Our
present verses show a doctrine between the two. The
prophets find themselves impelled to say words which
they are conscious of choosing and using, but which
they feel to have a deeper meaning than they themselves
were conscious of intending. It is clear to them
(verse 12) that what they meant primarily as applying
to present circumstances, was in reality being overruled
by the Spirit to apply more fully to the future. But
what that future was they struggled, and half in Tain,
to know. We may apply to them what Keble says of
the Greek poets : —

" As little children lisp, and tell of Heaven,
So thoughts beyond their thoughts to those high bards were
given."

What, or what manner of time.— If this be
right, it must mean, " what exact or approximate date."
But the simplest translation would be, to whom, or what
period, the Spirit of Christ in them was pointing. This
would give new significance to the sentence. They were
aware that they were speaking of a Messiah ; but who
the man should be who would hold that office, or at
what period of their history he would arise, this was
what they longed to know. They foresaw a Christ,
but they could not foresee Jesus ; they could give to
, their Christ no definite position in future history.
(Comp. Matt. xxii. 42; Luke iii. 15; xxiii. 35; John
iii. 28 ; vii. 26, 41 ; Acts ii. 36, and often.)

The Spirit of Christ which was in them.—
They are conscious of a power within them which is
not themselves, " moving " them. And this power is
described as " the Spirit of Christ." Now, observe
that a change has come over St. Peter's way of speak-
ing. Hitherto, he has always said, " Jesus Christ,"
his object being to keep constantly before the eyes of
these Hebrews the truth which he was the first man to
enunciate, viz., " Thou art the Christ " (Matt. xvi. 16), that
Jesus was the person who fulfilled all that was expected
of the Messiah. " Christ " is not once used by St.
Peter (as it is often by St. Paid) as a proper name : it
always marks the office, not the person. Therefore we
may not prove by this expression two doctrines, how-
ever true they may be in themselves, which are
commonly sought to be supported by it, viz., the pre-
existence of our Lord, and the procession of the Holy
Ghost from Him as well as from the Father. In spite
of a well-quoted passage in Barnabas (chap, v.), " The
prophets had the gift from Him, and prophesied of
Him," it cannot here mean, " the Holy Ghost given
them by our Lord Himself." Besides, it is theo-
logically incorrect to say that Christ as the Anointed
had any pre-existence, except as an indefinite hope
in the minds of the Hebrews. The Son, the un-
incarnate Word, pre-existed, but it is Apollinarianism
to say that Jesus had any existence before the In-
carnation,— still more Christ, since it may be doubted
whether the Incarnate Word became " Christ " until

392

His baptism. That, at least, appears to be St. Peter's
doctrine (Acts x. 38). " The Spirit of Messiah," then,
at any rate when applied to the ages before Christ
came, must have a different meaning. Probably not
exactly " the Spirit that was to anoint and be in the
Messiah," but rather, " the Messiah-spirit " or " the
Messianic spirit." The prophets wondered who the
man was, aud where he would live, to whom this
Messianic inspiration which they felt within was
pointing. St. Peter himself, we repeat, was the first
person who fully knew the answer.

When it testified beforehand.— A much more
solemn word in the original than it looks in the
English, and used by no other writer than St. Peter.
It does not mean simply, " when it bore witness before-
hand;" but "testifying" means an appeal to Heaven
to mark and record the words so spoken : " when with
a solemn appeal it announced beforehand." Was he
not thinking of the awful appeal in Dan. xii. 7 ?

The sufferings of Christ.— This unduly contracts
the fulness of the Greek, which reads, the sufferings for
Christ (just as we had before "the grace for you"), i.e.,
" these sufferings in reserve for Messiah." The Old
Testament passages which may be supposed to be
chiefly indicated are Isa. liii. aud (still more) Dan. ix.
24 — 26. If it be asked how St. Peter knew that the
prophets had these longings and doubts, we answer,
that it was not only a probable guess, but the result of
a study of Daniel, who records again and again the
prophetic agony of his search into the future. Beware
of treating the title " Christ " as a proper name. Eight
out of the ten times that St. Peter uses the word by
itself, i.e., without "Jesus" or "the Lord," it is in
direct connection with suffering (here, and in chaps, i.
19 ; ii. 21 ; iii. 18 ; iv. 1, 13, 14 ; v. 1). Conversely, he
never speaks of the sufferings of Jesus Christ. That
is to say, he loves to dwell upon the Passion of our
Lord, not in its personal but its official aspect. The
striking point is that the Messiah should have suffered
thus. It was especially necessary to show this in any'
effort to retain the faith of the Hebrews. Comp. Luke
xxiv. 26 — 46 (Peter present); Acts iii. 18 (Peter
speaking) ; xvii. 3 (to Hebrews) ; xxvi. 23. And we can
see a reason for the insistence in St. Peter's history.
The very same day, apparently, when he had announced
his belief that Jesus was the Messiah, he took Him to
task for speaking of sufferings and shame. He never
could forget the reprimand, like a sword-cut, which he
received. The whole Epistle may be said to be an
expansion of what Jesus said in answer (Matt. xvi.
23 — 27). Some commentators include in this phrase
of "the sufferings in reserve for Messiah," the
thought of the sufferings of the Church as well ; but it
seems far-fetched, especially when we see the true
meaning of the word " Christ." Finally, we may add,
that some would join very closely together the words
for " signify " and " testifying beforehand," which
would give us this sense : " examining, in reserve for
whom, or for what period, the Spirit, with its solemn
appeal beforehand, was pointing out these sufferings in
reserve for Messiah." This is possible, and keeps
the same sense, but it unnecessarily complicates the
sentence.

And the glory that should follow.— Literally,
and the glories after them. The plural " glories " corre-
sponds to the plural " sufferings," — the one as multiform

mot for themselves,

I. PETER, I.

but for us.

that should follow. <12) Unto whom it I
was revealed, that not unto themselves," '
but unto us they did minister the I
things, which are now reported unto j

a ]>:m. in 14.
b Acts 2. 2.

you by them that have preached the
gospel unto you with the Holy Ghost
sent down b from heaven ; which things
the angels desire to look into/

&C the other ; resurrection, ascension, reassumption of
the divine glory (John xvii. 5), triumphs of Church
history, restitution of all thing's. The sufferings and
subsequent glories of the Christ form, of course,
together the whole of the gospel.

(12) Unto whom it was revealed.— As verse 11
expanded and expounded the words " inquired and
searched," so the first part of verse 12 expounds the
words - prophesied of the grace in reserve for you."
That is to say, the revelation here spoken of is not a
special revelation sent in answer to their laborious
musings, but rather the very thing which occasioned
them ; the perplexity consisted in feeling that God had
•a further meaning for their words. And the exact
limits of the revelation are mentioned : they were
shown that they spoke for the benefit of futurity, and
no more! What a "trial of faith !" What a sublime
disappointment ! (Heb. xi. 40.)

Unto us.— Far the better reading is, unto you. It
is a distinct characteristic of this Epistle, that "we,"
" us," " our," are so seldom used (in the best text) where
they might have been expected. Where St. Paul
throws in his own sympathy, and puts himself on a
footing with those whom he addresses, St. Peter utters
his lofty pastoral from above. There are but four
places iu the Epistle (chaps, i. 3; ii. 24; iii. 18; iv. 17)
where he associates himself thus with his brethren, and
one of those (chap. ii. 24) is really a quotation, and
one (chap. iii. 18) at best a very doubtful reading. The
same teudency may be observed in his speech (Acts
xv. 7), where the right reading is " made choice among
you."

The things. — In the original simply them ; so that
a semicolon might better follow than a comma, and
which things be put instead of "which." The most
natural thing is to suppose that the pronoun represents
the preceding " sufferings in reserve for Messiah and
the glories after." In what sense, then, could the
prophets " minister," either to themselves or to us, the
sufferings and glories of Messiah ? The word is one
which signifies a servant bringing to his master the
things which he needs — commonly used (e.g., John
xii. 2) of serving up a meal ; and the prophets are said
To serve the Messianic sufferings and glories to us, to
wait upon us with them, to present them to our use and
study and comfort. (Comp. chap. iv. 10.) When it
says, however, that they ministered them "not to them-
selves but to us," we must not suppose that they
derived no comfort from their predictions (see John
viii. 56) : the "not" must betaken in the same sense
as in " I will have mercy and not sacrifice " (Matt.
ix. 13).

Which are now reported unto you.— Rather,
which things [i.e., the gospel story) now (in contrast
with the days of the prophets) were (not "are") openly
declared to yoti(hi all their details, in contrast with the
dim and vague way in which they were seen before).
Such is the force of this compouud Greek verb in John
iv. 25: Acts xix. 18; xx. 20. 27.

B;/ them that have preached.— More correctly,
through those who preached ; the difference being
that St. Peter is referring to the first bearers of the
gospel to those parts, not to all who from that time to
♦he date of the Letter had preached. This is a point

47* 393

well worth noticing. The phraso seems to show thai
St. Peter himself was not of the number. Perhaps
half the churches which received the Letter looked to St.
Paul as their founder. (See last Note on verse 1.) Here,
then, we find the Rock- Apostle authoritatively setting
his seal to the teaching of his junior colleague, just
as he does iu the Second Epistle (chap. iii. 15). It seems
to imply that these Jewish Christians were beginning
to feel a reaction from St. Paul's evangelical teaching ;
and the Apostle of the Circumcision is called in to
enforce what the Apostle of the Uncircumcision had
taught. The revolt of the Hebrew Christians in Asia
from evangelical teaching appears again at a still later
period (Rev. ii. 9 ; iii. 9). It was, perhaps, only with
Jewish Christians that such an appeal from St. Paul
to St. Peter would be made, and need not imply
superiority throughout the whole Church. St. Peter's
perfect concurrence with St. Paul here is a sufficient
contradiction to the Tubingen theory of their irrecon-
cilable divergence — only the Tubingen school reject
the Epistle on the ground that it makes the Apostles
too harmonious !

With the Holy Ghost sent down from
heaven.— The magnificent phrase seems meant to
contrast the full effusion of the Spirit now, with His
limited working in the prophets (verse 11). But it
contains more teaching than this. The tense of the
participle " sent " is such as might without violence be
rendered " sent once and for ever," " sent in a moment."
Now, remember that almost undoubtedly some of the
recipients of the Letter (see last Note on verse 1) were
eye-witnesses of His being " sent " to St. Peter and the
rest on the Day of Pentecost. St. Peter, then, here
claims for St. Paul (and St. Silas perhaps) the very
same inspiration with which himself was furnished.
And as here he claims full inspiration for St. Paul's
preaching, so he does afterwards for his writing
(2 Pet. iii. 15).

Which things the angels.— The "which things"
here is gi*ammatically parallel to the " which things " of
the last sentence, and therefore would mean " the
sufferings of Messiah and the glories after." But
logically we have tc go back to the beginning of verse
10 : " Do I say that prophets, who had the mysteries of
our redemption on their lips, yet pored in vain to catch
the detailed meaning which you catch ? Nay ; angels (not
" the angels "), who were present at every detail, and
bore an active part in it all (see Matt. i. 20 ; iv. 11 ; xxviii.
2; Luke i. 26; ii. 9; xxii. 43; John i. 52), — angels,
of whom He ' was seen ' (1 Tim. iii. 16), — covet now
to exchange places with you that they may gaze into
the mystery." The word which has here shrunk into
our word " to look into," means really, to bend aside
to see. In its literal sense it occurs in John xx. 5, 11,
and in Luke xxiv. 12 (a verse not found in the best text .
of people standing at the side of the cave so as not to
get in their own light, and stooping sideways to peer
in. Metaphorically it is used in Jas. i. 25. where see
Note. It seems to mean a strained attention to some-
thing which has caught your eye somewhat out of your
usual line of sight. Here then, the intention is to
show that we are in a better position to understand the
mysteries of redemption, not only than prophets, but
also than angels; and they covet to stoop from their

Exhortation to Hope

I. PETEK, I.

and Sobriety.

Chap. i. 13—25. (13) Wherefore gird up the

Exhortation to l0ins « 0f y0ur mind, be

generate per- sober, and hope* to the end1
sons. for the grace c that is to be

/; verse V,.

i Ur. perfectly.

,1 Uo'lll. vi. •

c venae ift

brought unto you at the revelation
of Jesus Christ ; (14) as obedient children,,
not fashioning d yourselves according to
the former lusts e in your ignorance : f

own point of view to ours. And why so ? Not because
of the inherent mysteriousness of the union of the two
natures in Christ, for of that they are as intelligent as
we, or more so ; but because they are incapable of fully
understanding human nature, flesh and blood, with its
temptations and pains, its need of a Saviour. In
Francia's great picture, the two angels kneel by weeping
Mary and dead Christ without a trace of grief on their
countenances. The Son of God Himself only became
capable of entering into our infirmities through be-
coming flesh, and experiencing the same (Heb. ii. 16,
18 ; iv. 15). Several passages show us that the tragedy
of human history is by no means enacted only for the
benefit of the actors, but as a lesson (possibly, as
Archbishop Whately pointed out, only a single illus-
tration out of many in one lesson) for the instruction
of unfallen spirits (1 Cor. iv. 9 ; Epli. iii. 10 ; 1 Tim.
hi. 16). Our present passage has impressed itself
on Christian lyrics as much, perhaps, as any in the
New Testament. Charles Wesley well strikes the
meaning in many of his poems : as —

" Ask the Father's Wisdom how.
Him that did the means ordain ;
Angels round our altars bow
To search it out in vain ;"

or again —

" Angela inflxt amazement
Around our altars hover,
With eager t/aze adore the grace
Of our Eternal Lover."

Though very possibly the divine intention of the
cherubim over the mercy-seat (Ex. xxv. 20) may have
been to symbolise that which is here said, yet it is not
to be thought that St. Peter was consciously thinking
of the symbol.

(13-25) General Application of the fore-
going.— This salvation being so magnificent, the Asiatic
Hebrews must cling to it tenaciously, in holiness.
in reverence caused by consideration of the cost of
it, and in charity : the gospel they have received cannot
be improved upon.

(13) Gird up the loins of your mind. — A

metaphor from persons gathering up the flowing Oriental
dress (which had been let down for repose), so as to be
ready for energetic action {e.g., 1 Kings xviii. 46, for
running ; Job xxxviii. 3, for arguing). What exact
kind of action St. Peter meant them here to prepare
for we need not inquire. A " mind," rather than
" soul " or " heart," seems to bespeak practical intel-
ligence. Thus when the Galatians, too, began to fail
from evangelical to Judaic religion St. Paul calls
them "senseless" (Gal. iii. 1).

Be sober.— Not in the literal sense, but with the
same notion of alertness as in " gird up " ; sobriety
and wakefulness are often combined (e.g., chap. v. 8 ;
1 Thess. v. 6).

Hope to the end.— Literally, hope perfectly, or,
thoroughly, or, with completeness. " Indeed this hope,"
says Leighton, "is perfect in continuance, it is a hope
unto the end. because it is perfect in its nature." The
chief thought, however, is that the hope should not be
half-hearted, dispirited. St. Peter brings us back to

394

what he began with, that ours is a living hope. The
exhortation is exactly of the same nature as that which
pervades the Epistle to the Hebrews (see, for instance,
Heb. iii. 6, 14 ; vi. 11), and for the same reason — i.e.,
that spiritual sloth, combined with fear of man, was
beginning to turn these Jewish Christians back to dead
works. " Hope on," in these passages, is tantamount
to " remain Christians."

For the grace.— Not exactly" hope for the grace,"
i.e., expect confidently that it will come : rather, " hope
upon the grace," as in 1 Tim. v. 5, the only other place
where the same construction is used, and where it is
rendered " trusteth in God." Here, therefore, it is,
" confidently hope (for salvation, glory, &c.) on the
strength of the grace." The grace is the same as in
verse 10.

That is to be brought.—" If we will render it
strictly, it is, That is a-bringing to you. That blessed-
ness, that consummation of grace, the saints are
hastening forward to, walking on in their way, where-
soever it lies indifferently, through honour and dis-
honour, through evil report and good report. And as
they are hastening to it, it is hastening to them in the
course of time ; every day brings it nearer to them
than before; and notwithstanding all difficulties and
dangers in the way, they that have their eye and their
hopes upon it shall arrive at it, and it shall be
brought safe to their hand; all the malice of men
and devils shall not be able to cut them short of this
grace that is a-bringing to them against the revelation
of Jesus Christ" (Leighton). On the tense, see also
Note on 1 Thess. i. 10. Notice also that it is now the
personal Name, not the official title. St. Peter is
enforcing the gospel as we know it; we no longer
" search unto whom " the title of the Messiah belongs.

(14) As obedient children. — Literally, as children
of obedience — children, i.e., in the sense of relationship,
not of age. It is characteristic of the writer to keep
one thought underlying many digressions, and so here,
the appeal to them as " children " is based on the
" begotten again " of verse 3, and " inheritance " of
verse 4; it comes up again in Averse 17, " the Father" ;
in verse 22, " the brethren " ; and again inverse 23, " be-
gotten again." The usual characteristic of Jews in
the New Testament is disobedience. (See Note on
2 Thess. i. 8.) The " as " means " in keeping with
your character of," just as we say in common English,
" Do so like obedient children."

Wot fashioning yourselves according to.—
This rare verb is the same as is translated " be not
conformed," in Rom xii. 2, from which some think it is
borrowed. The expression is a little confused, the lusts
themselves being spoken of as a model not to be
copied, where we should rather have expected "not
being conformed to your former selves."

The former lusts in your ignorance — i.e.,
which you indulged before you came to know the
gospel truth — of course implying also that the ignorance
was the mother of the lusts. The same assumption
is made here which we shall find again below in chap.
ii. 9, and still more in chap. iv. 3, that the recipients
of this Letter had lived in ignorance and in vice up to a
certain point of their lives. And it is contended, with
much plausibility, that both accusations show the-

Iluliiuxs of Life

I. PETER, I.

and the Fear of God.

<15> but as he -which hath called you is
holy, so be ye holy in all manner of
conversation; <16) because it is written,"
Be ye holy ; for I am holy. (17) And if
ye call on the Father,* who without
respect of persons judgeth according to

.11; Matt. .;

every man's work, pass the time of your
sojourning here in fear : ' 08) forasmuch
as ye know that ye were not redeemed
with corruptible things, as silver and
gold, from your vain f conversation re-
ceived by tradition from your fathers ;

recipients of the letter to be of Gentile and not of
Jewish origin. It is true that lusts of the flesh are not
usually laid to the charge of the Jews, as they are of
the Gentiles. (See, for instance, 1 Thess. iv. 5 ; Eph.
iv. 17.) It is also true that the ignorance with which
the Jews are charged (for instance, Acts iii. 17 ; Rom.
x. 3 ; 1 Tim. i. 18) has quite a different tendency from
this. But it may be answered that such details are of
little weight in comparison with the direct evidence of
the first verse, and the indirect evidence of the whole
tone of the Letter; also that, putting out of sight
expressions of St. Paul's which have nothing to do with
St. Peter, "ignorance" is surely not an unnatural
word to represent the contrast between the state of
unrcgenerate Jews and the same persons when they
have attained to knowledge higher than that of pro-
phets or of angels ; that even Jews were men of
flesh and blood, and therefore not exempt from the
temptations of the flesh, from which mere legalism was
quite insufficient to protect them (see Rom. vii. 8,
" sin through the commandment wrought in me every
hist) ; that in Heb. v. 2, and ix. 7, Jewish people
are supposed to have need of a high priest to bear
with and atone for their "ignorance" and "igno-
rances;" that the same writer contemplates the
possibility of " many " of his Hebrews being " defiled"
through fleshly sin (Heb. xii. 15, 16), and deems it
necessary to urge strongly the sanctions of marriage
(Heb. xiii. 4).

(15» But as lie which hath called you is holy.
— More correctly, Bid according to (or, after, i.e., in
the likeness of : see Eph. iv. 24, " after God ") the Holy
One who called you. The "calling" is mentioned
because of the obligation it imposes upon us. Bengel
notices how fond St. Peter is of the words "call,"
|' calling." (See chaps, ii. 9, 21 ; iii. 9 ; v. 10 ; 2 Pet.
i. 3, 10.) The "call " here seems to mean specially the
call to be children of God.

So be ye holy .—Perhaps the imperative would
come out stronger thus, Do ye also show yourselves
holy in every part of your conduct. Leighton says,
" He hath severed you from the mass of the profane
world, and picked you out to be jewels for Himself; He
hath set you apart for this end, that you may be holy
to Him, as the Hebrew word that signifies 'holiness'
imports ' setting apart,' or fitting for a peculiar use ;
be not then untrue to His design. It is sacrilege for
you to dispose of yourselves after the impure manner
of the world, and to apply yourself to any profane use,
whom God hath consecrated to Himself."

(16) Be ye holy; for I am holy.— The better read-
ing here is, Ye shall he holy; it is still, however, a
command, not a promise — except that all God's com-
mands are promises. The command comes some five
or six times in the Book of. Leviticus, addressed not
only to the Levites, but to all the people. It would,
therefore, apply twice over to the recipients of this
letter by virtue of their twofold consecration, in the old
and in the new Israel.

<17) And if.— The "if" casts no doubt, but. on the
contrary, serves to bring out the necessary logical con

nectiou between invoking the Father — and such a
Father -and fear. (See Note on 1 Thess. iv. 14.)

Ye call on the Father.— We might paraphrase
by " if you use the Lord's Prayer." (Refer again to
verses 3, 14.) The word seems not only to mean "if
you appeal to the Father," but " if you appeal to the
Father by the title of Father." (Comp. Rom. viii. 15 ;
Gal. iv. b.)

Who without respect of persons judgeth.—
This "judgeth," or decideth, refers not only to the
great judgment of the last day, but is used in re-
ference to the word " if ye call upon the Father."
That word has a forensic sense (in wrhich it is used in
Acts xxv. 11) of lodging an appeal, and every time we
lodge our appeal to the Father on the ground of His
Fatherhood, He decides the case, but decides it without
favour — makes no allowance to our wrong doing on the
ground of being His regenerate children, and Certainly
none on the ground of being of the Hebrew race. That
this last notion finds place here we may see from
St. Peter's woi'ds in Acts x. 34, 35. He decides
" according to every man's work " — i.e., upon the in-
dividual merits of the case before Him. The man's
" work " (not " works ") embraces all his conduct in the
lump, as a single performance, which is either good
on the whole or bad on the whole.

Pass the time ... in fear.— The word for
" pass " really is the same as the " conversation " of
verse 15, and is intended to take our thought back to it ;
" As obedient children, be holy in every part of your
conduct ; and if you wish for favour from the Father,
see that that conduct is characterised by fear." " This
feai-," says Archbishop Leighton, "is not cowardice
(nor superstition, we may add) ; it drowns all lower
fears, and begets true fortitude ; the righteous dare do
anything but offend God. Moses was bold and fearless
in dealing with a proud and wicked king, but when
God appeared he said (as the Apostle informs us),
' I exceedingly fear and quake.' " This extract well
contrasts with the meaning which some would appa-
rently thrtuit into the word "fear," as though it meant
that the position of the Christians, as " aliens " in the
midst of a hostile world, required a timid attitude
towards man. The " fear " of the Father may be seen
in the first two clauses of the Lord's Prayer itself.

Your sojourning.— See on verse 1, " strangers."
Because the word is metaphorical here and in chap.
ii. 11, is no reason why the similar word should be
so there, in quite a different context. The expression
here sets a limit for the discipline of fear, and at the
same time suggests a reason for it — children though
they are, they are not yet entered on their " inheritance "
(verse 4), and have to secure it.

(18) Forasmuch as ye know. — This correctly
paraphrases the simple original knowing. Security,
which is the opposite of the fear of the Father, is
incompatible with knowing by whose and what anguish
alone the inheritance could be purchased for us.

Corruptible things.— St. Peter's contempt for
"silver and gold" is shown early in his history (Acts
iii. 6 ; comp. chap. iii. 4). Gold and silver will come

395

Redemption hy

<19> but with the precious blood of
Christ, as of a lamb ■ without blemish

I. PETER, I. the Blood of Christ.

j and without spot : (20) who verily was
II' ?*H foreordained before the foundation of

to an end with everything else that is material.
Observe that, by contrast, the " blood of Christ " . is
implied to be not corruptible ; and that, not because
of the miraculous incorruption of Jesus Christ's flesh,
but because the " blood of Christ " of which the
Apostle hero speaks is not material. The natural
blood of Jesus was only the sign and sacrament of that
by which He truly aud inwardly redeemed the world.
(See Isa. liii. 12, " He poured out His soul unto death,"
and Heb. x. 9, 10.)

Redeemed . . from your vain conver-

sation.—We have to notice (1) what the "redemption"
means, and (2) what the readers were redeemed from.
Now (1) the word "redeem" is the same which is used
in Luke xxiv. 21 (" We used to hope that He was the
person destined to redeem Israel "), and in Titus ii. 14
(" Gave Himself for us, that He might redeem us from
all iniquity"), and nowhere else. The substantive
appears in Luke i. 68 ; ii. 38 ; Heb. ix. 12, to represent
the action of redeeming ; and in Acts vii. 35, of Moses,
to represent the person who effects such a redemption.
Properly it means to ransom a person, to get them out
of slavery or captivity by paying a ransom (Matt.
xx. 28 ; Mark x. 45 ; comp. 1 Tim. ii. 6). The notion
of an actual ransom paid, however, was apt to slip away,
as in the case of Moses just quoted, who certainly gave
nothing of the nature of an equivalent to Pharaoh for
the loss of his serfs. So that here, as in all passages
relating to the Atonement, we must be very careful not
to press the metaphor, or to consider it as more than a
metaphor. The leading notion here is not that of
paying an equivalent, but to call closer attention to the
state in which the readers were before. It was a
servitude like that of Egypt, or a captivity like that of
Babylon, from which they needed a " ransomer " like
Moses or Zerubbabel. What then was that condition?
(2) St. Peter describes it as a " vain conversation
traditional from the fathers." The word " conversa-
tion " again catches up verses 15, 17, " be holy in your
conduct ; let it be a conduct of fear ; for your old
vain conduct needed a terrible ransom before you could
be set at liberty from it." The question is, whether
a Gentile or Jewish mode of life is intended. If it
meant merely as regards religious worship, it would
suit either way, for it was of the essence of Roman state
" religion " that it should be the same from generation
to generation. (See Acts xxiv. 14.) But " conversation "
or " manner of life " is far too wide a word to be thus
limited, and at the same time the word " tradition "
implies (in the New Testament) something sedulously
taught, purposely handed down from father to son as an
heirloom, so that it could not be applied to the careless,
sensual life of Gentiles, learned by example only. On
the other hand, among the Jews " tradition " entered
into the minutest details of daily life or "conversation."
(See Mark vii. 3, 4 — the Petrine Gospel.) It was a
matter of serious " tradition " how a cup was to be
washed. " Vain " (i.e., frivolous) seems not an un-
natural epithet to apply to such a mode of life, especially
to one who had heard Mark vii. 7. It would seem,
then, that the readers of this Letter were certainly Jews
by birth. But would the Apostle of the Circumcision,
the supposed head of the legal party in the Church,
dare to call Judaism a " vain conversation," to stig-
matise it (the single compound adjective in the Greek
has a contemptuous ring) as " imposed by tradition

39G

of the fathers," and to imply that it was like an
Egyptian bondage ? We have only to turn to Acts
xv. 10, and we find him uttering precisely the same
sentiments, and calling Judaism a slavish "yoke,"
which was not oidy so bad for Gentiles that to impose
it upon them was to tempt God, but also was secretly
or openly felt intolerable by himself, by all the Jews
there present, and even by the fathers who had imposed
it. Judaism itself, then, in the form it had then
assumed, was one of the foes and oppressors from
which Christ came to " ransom " and. " save " His
people. (See Notes on verses 9, 10, and comp. Acts
xiii. 39.)

(19) With the precious blood of Christ —
" Precious " means, not " much prized by us," but
costly, pi-ecious in itself ; opposed to the perishableness
of goltl and silver. Notice that it is not " Jesus," but
" Christ," i.e., the Messiah. No price short of the
"blood," i.e., the death, of the Messiah could free the
Jews from the thraldom of their " vain conversation."
(Comp. verse 2 and Note.) How Christ's death freed
them from it is not explained here ; but we may give
a twofold explanation, as we did of His resurrection
being our regeneration, in verse 3. Historically it did
so, because when they came to realise that their
Messiah could only reach His glories through suffering
it gave them a new insight into the whole meaning of
the system under which they had been brought up. It
did also, however, doubtless, in a more mysterious way,
such as we cannot imagine, procure in God's sight their
emancipation ; and the following verses show that
again St. Peter is thinking more of the theological
than of the phenomenal side of the occurrence.

A.s of a lamb without blemish and without
spot. — We might roughly paraphrase it by, " as of a
sacrificial victim, to the sufficiency of whose offering
no exception can be taken." The word " as " shows
that in St. Peter's mind the notion of a " sacrifice,"
in reference to the atonement, was only a simile, or
metaphor, just as it was with the notion of " ransom."
Once more observe that the sacrifice was offered to
effect a redemption which for the readers had already
taken place. (Comp. Heb. ix. 14.) The primary
thought in mentioning a " lamb " is, of course, that of
sacrifice ; but when we come to consider why that par-
ticular sacrificial animal was named rather than another,
it is, no doubt, for two reasons. First, because of the
whiteness, the helplessness, the youth, the innocence,
aud patience, which make it a natural symbol of our
Lord. (Comp. Ecce Homo, p. 6, ed. 3.) The second
reason is to be found in St. Peter's own life. The first
thing that we know in his history was a putting
together of those two words — Messiah, and the Lamb
(John i. 36, 40, 41). Neither he nor St. John (see
Rev. v. 6, et al.) ever forgot that cry of the Baptist.
They, no doubt, understood that cry to refer, not pri-
marily to the Paschal, or any other sacrifice, but to
Isa. liii. 7, and perhaps to Gen. xxii. 8. A word in the
next verse will make it clearer that St. Peter really had
the Baptist consciously before his mind when he thus
wrote.

(20) Who verily was foreordained.— There is a
sharp contrast intended between the two clauses of
this verse, and in the Greek the tenses are different.
" Who had been foreknown, indeed, before the founda-
tion of the world, but for your benefit was {only)

The Manifestation of Christ

I. PETER, I.

leads vs to belief in God.

the world," but was manifest " in these
last times for you, W who by him do
believe in God, that raised him up from
the dead, and gave him glory ; that

Act* 2. as; iter. j j0Xa faith and hope might be in
God. W Seeing ye have purified your
souls in obeying the truth through
the Spirit unto unfeigned love of the

pointed out at the end of the times." St. Peter is |
returning once more to the great argument of verses
10 — 12, " Do not treat your share in the gospel libera-
tion as if it were, at best, a piece of good luck, and so
learn to despise it. Neither think of it as if Paul and j
Silvauus were preaching to you a novel invention at
discord with the spirit of the old covenant, under which
you were bred. God knew from all eternity who was j
to be His Messiah and His Lamb, but for your sakes
the particular and personal declaration of Him was
reserved till now. For you has been kept the revelation
of a secret which underlay the whole Old Testament
system." The grammatical antecedent of the relative
"who verily" is not " lamb," but ''Christ;" and the !
word for " foreordained " is, literally, foreknown, only
as in A'erse 2 (see Note), with the additional notion of
coming to a decision. We see that St. Peter's doctrine I
has not changed since the great day of Pentecost (Acts ]
ii. 23). The foreknowledge (as that passage would j
show) includes not only the knowledge and decision
that Jesus should be the Christ, but that the Christ's I
history should be what it was; and this seems to in-
volve not only the doctrine that the Incarnation was no
mere episode, consequent upon the Fall of man, but also
the doctrine that, " before the foundation of the world,"
God had foreknown, and predecided to allow, the Fall
itself. The same doctrine seems to be involved in j
Rev. xiii. 8, but only indirectly, because there the words !
" from the foundation of the world," are to be attached, !
not to the word " slain," but to the word " written."

Was manifest. — Better, was manifested, i.e.. un- j
ambiguously shown, pointed out. The context shows
that it does not simply mean the visible life of the
Incarnate Word among men, as in 1 Tim. iii. 16;
1 John iii. 5 ; but that the Messiah and Lamb of God
was pointed out as being identical with the Man Jesus.
And this was the work of John the Baptist, to say of
the particular Person whom he saw walking by Jordan,
"Behold the Lamb." So St. John Baptist himself
described his mission : " The whole purpose of my
coming was that He might be manifested, singled out
and shown to Israel," as the Person round Avhom all
their Messianic hopes were gathered (John i. 31).

In these last times — i.e., not merely "in modern
times," "lately," but "at the end of the times,"
showing St. Peter's belief that the end of the world
was not far distant. (Comp. once more Dan. xii. 4, 9,
13.) Almost exactly the same phrase is used in Heb.
i. 2 ; 2 Pet, iii. 3.

(21) Who by him do believe in God.— The
sentence is joined on to the foregoing verso just as in
verse 5, " Who are kept." The " who " might be
rendered by "and you;" and the clause adds a kind
of proof oi the foregoing statement, drawn from the
result of God's manifestation of Christ to them. " This
Christian doctrine is no innovation, nothing to lead
you away from the God of our fathers. That same
God had had the scheme in His thoughts from the
beginning, and it is in that same God that you have
been led thereby to believe." There is a better sup-
ported and more forcible reading, Who through Him
are faithful towards God, which combines the ideas of
believing, i.e., putting the whole trust in God, and
of loyal inward observance of Him. And if any one

397

asks whether it be possible to say that Hebrew men
only came to believe in God through the revelation of
Christ, we must answer by pointing to the whole scope
of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and especially to Heb.
iii. 12, where it is not faith in Christ, but faith in a
living God, which they are warned not to abandon ; and
to Heb. vi. 1, where faith toward God is part of the
" word of the beginning of Christ."

That raised him up.— These clauses give the
historical facts which had led them, " through Christ,"
to a living faith in God. Though the thought is
common with St. Paul (e.g., Rom. i. 2—4), St. Peter
was familiar with it years before St, Paul's conversion.
See this in Acts ii. 23, 24 ; and verses 33 — 36 of the
same chapter will show what he means by " gave Him
glory "—not to be confined to the Ascension, though
that is the prominent thought ; the glory was already
partly given in the Resurrection. Comp. John xvii. 1,
where there is the same reciprocal glorification of the
Father and the Son, as here.

That your faith . . . might . . .—An inexact
rendering which obscures the connection. Literally
it is, so that your faith and hope is in (or, toward)
God ; that is to say, " Your faith and hope does not
stop short in Jesus." Hammond seems to be quite
right in paraphrasing, "Who by believing on Him
(Jesus Christ) are far from departing from the God of
Israel, but do, indeed, the more firmly believe and
depend on Him as that omnipotent God who hath
raised Christ from the dead." The co-equal Son is
less than the Father (John xiv. 28) ; and we should
terribly mistake the meaning of the gospel were we
content to rest in the love of Christ Himself without
accepting His reA^elation of the Father. This is the
" living hope " of verse 3, brought about by Christ's
resurrection. Some of the German commentators
translate, " So that your faith may be also hope in
God ; " which has nothing ungrammatical in it, but
does not suit the context so well.

(22) Purified your souls in obeying.— Bengel
well points us to 2 Pet. i. 5 — 7, where, in like manner,
St. Peter delights to exhibit gradations of grace.
" Obeying the truth " here will correspond to " know-
ledge " there, with its immediate consequences of " self-
mastery," " endurance," and " reverence ; " after which
we pass on to " love of the brethren," and thence, as
to a higher grace, to "love" or "charity." On this
last point see Note on 1 Thess. iv. 9. Perhaps the
literal "in the obedience of the truth" {i.e.. the
Christian gospel) does not exactly coincide with
" obeying the truth," as implying rather " the obedience
(to God) which the truth (i.e., the knowledge of the
truth) demands," Truth has a claim, not only to be
accepted intellectually, as truth, but to alter moral
conduct in accordance (comp. John xvii. 17) : a doctrine
which lies at the bottom of the Socratic maxim,
'* Virtue is knowledge." That Socratic maxim, how-
ever, does not sufficiently take into account the inert-
ness of the will to act on principle ; and no doubt it
was under some such instinct that some copyist
first added as a gloss the words (not found in the
original text) '•through the Spirit." The first effect
of such knowledge of the truth, under the Spirit's
influence, is to " pui-ify " the soul of selfish aims, and

Exhortation to

I. PETER, I.

Mutual Love.

brethren, see that ye love one another
with a pure heart fervently : (23) being
born again, not of corruptible seed, but

a Jolm 1. 13,
b Heb.4. 13.

c U:\. 4i). <;, 7, 8.
1 Or, For that.

of incorruptible," by the word * of God,
which livethc and abideth for ever.
(24) For i arj fles]1 is as grass? and an the

to give it that " altruism " (as they call it now), or
desire for the benefit of the community rather than
self, which is here described as " love of the brethren."
(See Notes on 1 Thess. hi. 13, and iv. 6.)

Unfeigned love of the brethren.— The epithet
"unfeigned," in itself, would suggest that St. Peter
was uneasy about the depth of their brotherly kind-
ness. And the brotherly kindness is here, as usual,
attachment to other members of the Church, special
point being added to the word here because of the
notion of regeneration running through the whole
passage. (See verse 14.) Is it not possible that some
coolness had arisen between the Jewish and Gentile
members of the Church, and that St. Peter finds it
necessary to remind the former that they are truly
brethren, sons of one Father, and that they ought
not only unaffectedly to have done with all jealousy of
the Gentile members, but to be far beyond that, loving
one another " from the heart (the word ' pure ' is not
part of the original text, and interrupts the run of the
sentence) strenuously?"

(23) Being born again.— Rather, Having been be-
gotten again. It is not part of the exhortation, as
though they had still to be thus begotten, but assigns
the moral grounds for the exhortation. It is logically
parallel with " seeing ye have purified," and might be
rendered, seeing that ye have been begotten again.
For the meaning of the word, refer back to verse 3.

Not of corruptible seed.— That is, not of the
seed of Abraham, but of the seed of God. This is the
argument : " You must learn not to be selfish, or
arrogant, as being of the chosen race, but to have a
true brotherly feeling and earnest love for the Gentile
converts, and for those who, like St. Paul, are specially
working for the Gentiles, because your inheritance of
the promised ' salvation ' is grounded, not on your
Abraliamic descent, but on your spiritual regeneration,
in which matter the Gentile converts are your equals."
That this was the doctrine of St. Peter is certain from
his speech at the Council of Jerusalem, " God put no
difference between us and them, having purified their
hearts by faith ; " and again, " It is only through the
favour of the Lord Jesus that we hope to be saved, in
precisely the same manner as they" (Acts xv. 9, 11).
(Comp., for the argument, 1 John v. 1.)

By the word of God.—" Seed," in the beginning
of the clause, is more literally the act of sowing, or
engendering, which sowing is carried on " through the
living and abiding word of God," this " word of God"
being the actual seed sown. The " seed " of all exist-
ence is the spoken "Word of God, the expressed will
and meaning of creative thought (Ps. xxxiii. 6) ; and so
here, even when spoken mediately, through the lips of
men (as explained in verse 25), it is that which begets
men afresh. God creates afresh, though men speak
the creative word for Him, just as " it is He that hath
made us," although He does so through natural laws
and human powers. The " Word of God " here is, no
doubt, the preaching of the gospel, but especially, as it
would seem, the preaching of the Resurrection (verse 3),
or of the sufferings and glories of Messiah (verse 12),
the " truth " of the last verse. The part taken by
" the Word " in the sacrament of regeneration may be
seen again in Eph. v. 26 and Jas. i. 18; in connection
with the other sacrament we may also refer to John

vi. 63. " Incorruptible " (i.e., imperishable ; see verses
4, 18) finds a more energetic paraphrase here in " living
and abiding" (the words "for ever" not being part
of the true text). The former epithet is a favourite
with St. Peter (verse 3, chap. ii. 4, 5), and is perhaps
borrowed from this place by the author to the Hebrews,
in connection with the " word of God " (Heb. iv. 12).
The epithets serve to prepare the way for the quo-
tation.

(24) por au flesh is as grass.— The citation is from
Isa. xl. 6 — 8, and varies between the Hebrew and the
LXX. in the kind of way which shows that the writer
was familiar with both. But the passage is by no
means quoted only to support the assertion, in itself
ordinary enough, that the Word of the Lord abideth
for ever. It is always impossible to grasp the meaning
of an Old Testament quotation in the mouth of a
Hebrew without taking into account the context of the
original. Nothing is commoner than to omit purposely
the very words which contain the whole point of the
quotation. Now these sentences in Isaiah stand in the
forefront of the herald's proclamation of the return of
God to Sion. always interpreted of the establishment
of the Messianic kingdom. This proclamation of the
Messianic kingdom comprises words which St. Peter
has purposely omitted, and they contain the point of
the quotation. The omitted words are, " the Spirit of
the Lord bloweth upon it : surely the people"— i.e.,
Israel — "' is grass." Immediately before our quotation
went the words, " the glory of the Lord shall be re-
vealed, and all flesh shall see it together ;" statements
which so shocked the LXX. translator that he entirely
omitted verse 7, and changed the previous verse so as
to make some difference between Jew and Gentile (as
Godet points out on Luke iii. 6), into " the glory of
the Lord shall be revealed," i.e., to Israel, " and all
flesh shall see the salvation of God." The comment
of Bishop Lowth on the original passage will well
bring out what St. Peter means here : " What is the
import of [the proclamation]? that the people, the
flesh, is of a vain temporary nature ; that all its glory
fadeth, and is soon gone ; but that the Word of God
endureth for ever. What is this but a plain opposition
of the flesh to the Spirit ; of the carnal Israel to the
spiritual; of the temporary Mosaic economy to the
eternal Christian dispensation ? " Here, then, St. Peter
is quoting one of the greatest of Messianic prophecies ;
and his Hebrew readers would at once understand the
Hebrew method of the quotation, and see that he was
calling attention to the absolute equality of Jew and
Gentile there proclaimed. Generation of the cor-
ruptible seed, physical descent from Abraham, was
"the glory of the flesh" (observe that according to
the best text St. Peter does not follow the LXX.. and
insert " of man," but follows the Hebrew, and says - all
the glory thereof," i.e., of the flesh). On this " the
Spirit of the Lord " had breathed (Ps. civ. 30) ; and
the merely fleshly glory had withered like grass. But
"the word of our God," which, mark well, St. Peter
purposely changes into " the Word of the Lord," i.e., of
Jesus Christ, incidentally showing his Hebrew readers
that he believed Jesus Christ to be " our God " — this
"abideth for ever." The engendering by this is im-
perishable, i.e., involves a privilege which is not, like
that of the Jewish blood, transitory: it will never

The Word of the Lord endureth.

T. PKTEIl, II.

A New Life in Christ.

glory of man as the flower of grass.
The grass withereth, and the flower
thereof falleth away: (25) but the word
of the Lord endureth for ever. And
this is the word which by the gospel is
preached unto you.

CHAPTER II.— (D Wherefore laying

I Bph. 4. 21;
Col. 8. g; .la*.
L. 81.

aside" all malice, and all guile, and
hypocrisies," and envies, chap i{ x_10
and all evil speakings, The idea of the

j (2) as newborn babes, de- ??? Ifra(l as

J sire the sincere milk' of

I the word, that ye may
grow thereby: <3> if so be ye have
tasted that the Lord is gracious/

in pro-
phecy to be rea-
lised by them.

become a matter of indifference whether we have been
engendered with this, as is the case now (Gal. vi. 15)
witJi regard to the " corruptible seed ; " no further
revelation will ever level up the unregenerate to be
the equals of the regenerate. And in this regeneration
'• all flesh "' share alike. The teaching of the Baptist,
who fulfilled this prophecy, is here again apparent.
(See Matt, iii. 9.)

(25) The word which by the gospel is
preached.— An incorrect rendering of the original
tense. It literally runs, And this is the word which
Was preached unto you. The whole magnificent perora-
tion of this paragraph, as of the last, leads up to
this : that, in the opinion of St. Peter, the Gospel, as
delivered by St. Paul and his followers — the Gospel of
equality, or rather of unity between Jew and Gentile
in Jesus Christ— was the living and supreme abiding
revelation of the will of God ! Well may the Tubingen
school wish to disprove the genuineness of this Epistle !

II.

(l-io) Exhortation to realise the Idea of
the New Israel. — The Apostle bids them put away
all elements of disunion, and to combine into a new
Temple founded on Jesus as the Christ, and into a new
hierarchy and theocracy.

(!) Wherefore.— That is, Because the Pauline teach-
ing is correct which brings the Gentiles up to the same
level with the Jews. It may be observed that this
newly enunciated principle is called by St, Peter in the
previous verse of the last chapter, a "gospel," or piece
of good news, for all parties.

Laying aside.— This implies that before they had
been wrapped up in these sins. There had been
" malice " {i.e., ill will put into action) on the part
of these Hebrew Christians against their Gentile
brethren, and " guile." and "hypocrisies," and "jea-
lousies," which are all instances of concealed malice.
Of these three, the first plots, the second pretends not
to plot, and the third rejoices to think of the plot suc-
ceeding. The word for " all evil speakings " is literally,
all talkings doivn — this is " malice " in word. Arch-
bishop Leighton well says, " The Apostles sometimes
name .some of these evils, and sometimes other of
them ; but they are inseparable, all one garment, and
all comprehended under that one word (Eph. iv. 22),
? the old man,' which the Apostle there exhorts to put
off; and here it is pressed as a necessary evidence
of this new birth, and furtherance of their spiritual
growth, that these base habits be thrown away, ragged
filthy habits, unbeseeming the children of God." All
these vices (natural vices to the Jewish mind) are con-
trasted with the "unfeigned (literally, un-hypocritieal)
brotherly kindness " of chap. i. 22.

(2> As newborn babes.— The word " newborn " is,
of course, newly, lately born, not born anew, although
the birth meant is the new birth of chap. i. 23. They
are said to be still but newborn because they are still

so far from maturity in Christ, as these sins testified.
The metaphor is said to be not uncommon in Rab-
binical writers to denote proselytes. St. Peter would,
therefore, be describing Jews who had newly received
the word of God, as proselytes of the new Israel.
" As " means " in keeping with your character of."
(Comp. chap. i. 14.)

Desire the sincere milk. — The word for
" desire" here is a strong word — get an appetite for it.
Bengel is perhaps right when he says on " newborn
babes," " It is their only occupation, so strong is their
desire for it." St. Peter here again seems to lend
a thought to the writer to the Hebrews (Heb. v. 12 —
14). In both places Jewish Christians are beginning to
rebel against the Gospel instructions, and in both places
they are warned that they have not yet outgrown the
need of the very simplest elements of the Gospel. The
epithet " sincere " should have; been rendered guileless,
as it contains a contrast with "guile" in the verse
before ; perhaps the intention of the epithet may be to
rebuke the attempt to deal deceitfully with the Old
Testament Scriptures after the example of the Septua-
gint passage quoted above.

Of the word. — This translation of the original
adjective cannot possibly be right. The only other
place in the New Testament where it is used, Rom.
xii. 1, will show clearly enough its meaning here.
There it is rendered " your reasonable service " — i.e.,
not " the service which may be reasonably expected of
you/' but " the ritual worship which is performed by
the reason, not by the body." So here, " the reasonable
guileless milk " will mean " the guileless milk which is
sucked in, not by the lips, but by the reason." The
metaphor of milk (though used by St. Paul, 1 Cor.
iii. 2) was not so hackneyed as now ; and the Apostle
wished to soften it a little, and explain it by calling it
" mental milk," just as (so Huther points out) he
explained the metaphor in chap. i. 13, by adding " of
your mind." It is needless to add that the " mental
milk " would, as a matter of fact, be " the milk of the
word," and that the Apostle is pressing his readers to
cling with ardent attachment to the evangelical religion
taught them by the Pauline party.

That .ye may grow thereby.— All the best
manuscripts and versions add " unto salvation," which
may confidently be adopted into the text. " Grow " is,
of course, said in reference to the infant state of the
converts as yet, and the. maturity set before them
(children long to be grown no) is spoken of as " salva-
tion." When we compare this with chap. i. 18, we
see that the perfect emancipation from Jewish super-
stitions is a main part of the " salvation " to which
they are to grow up.

(3) If so be ye have tasted.— The " if so be," as
elsewhere (2 Thess. i. 6, Note), constitutes a strong
appeal to the readers to say whether it were not so.
St, Peter confidently reckons that it is so. It should
rather be ye tasted, looking back to a quite past
time, probably that of the first conversion, when the

399

Lively Stones in

I. PETER, II.

Spiritual House.

(4) To whom coming, as unto a living stone,
disallowed indeed of men," but chosen of

Ps.118.22.

1 Or, be ye built.

b 1 Cor. 3. 9 ;

Eph. 8. 21.

God, and precious, (5) ye also, as lively
stones, are l built up a spiritual house,4

taste of spiritual things is the most delicious. How
sad to be past the relish for evangelical truth ! The
quotation, or rather adaptation, from Ps. xxxiv. 8 is,
no doubt, suggested by the metaphor of '' milk." A
curious little point about our translation here is that
the word "gracious" has been adopted to suit the
Prayer Book version of the Psalm. It is scarcely
suitable to the Greek word, which, originally signify-
ing " usable," " serviceable," passes on to be used of
anything mild and pleasant, as, for instance, in Luke
v. 39, of the mellowness of old wine. Here, therefore,
the word seems to be peculiarly used with reference
to the sense of taste. A more important point, doc-
trinally, is that St. Peter is here applying to Jesus
Christ (as the next verse shows) a passage which
otherwise we might not have thought of applying
to Him in particular. It gives quite a new com-
plexion to the 34th Psalm, when we see that in St.
Peter's view the Psalmist was speaking prophetically
of our Lord. We shall find him quoting the same
Psalm in the same sense again in chap. iii. 10.

(4) To whom coming.— The word used is that
which gives rise to the name of a " proselyte." (Comp.
Note on verse 2.) It is also strangely used in some-
thing of the same sense in 1 Tim. vi. 3. "Joining
Him therefore as proselytes." Not that St. Peter has
any notion of a mere external accession. The Apos-
tolic writers do not contemplate the possibility of a
difference between the visible and invisible Church.
From this point the regeneration-idea, which coloured
the whole of the preceding portion of the Epistle,
suddenly disappears. The thought is no longer that
of a spiritual seed instead of a carnal seed, but of a
spiritual Temple instead of the stone temple at Jeru-
salem.

A living stone.— The very structure and order of
the sentence puts Jesus Christ first. Foundation first,
building afterwards. It is a pity to insert "as unto"
with our version ; it takes off from the striking, attract-
ing effect of the sudden metaphor. St. Peter is fond
of explaining his metaphors— e.g., " inheritance ... in
heaven," " tested genuineness . . . more precious than
of gold," "gird up . . . loins of your minds:" so
here, " living stone." It is more than doubtful whether
St. Peter, in what follows, had before his mind the
giving of his own surname. The word which he here
uses is neither petros, nor petra, but lithos ; and
indeed the whole idea of the relative position of the
Church to the petra and to the lithos is quite different.
Neither petros nor petra could possibly be used of the
squared wrought stone, but represent the native rocky
unhewn substratum — part, or whole — which pre-exists
before any building is begun, even before the " chief
corner-stone " would be placed. (Comp. Matt. vii. 24.)
Here, therefore, the idea is quite different : the sub-
stratum is not thought of at all ; and Jesus Christ is a
carefully selected and hewn stone (lithos), specially
laid as the first act in the work of building. The only
thing, therefore, which is. in fact, common to the two
passages is the simple thought of the Christian Church
being like a building. Our present verse gives us no
direct help towards finding how St. Peter understood
the famous name-passage. All we can say for certain
is that he did not so interpret it as to suppose an
official connection with his own person to be the one
essential of the true Church, or else in again using

the metaphor of building the Church (though in a
different connection) he could hardly have omitted all
mention of himself. He is, apparently, thinking only
of the Messianic interpretation of Old Testament say-
ings as expounded by our Lord — the " unsophisticated
milk of the word" of verse 2.

Disallowed indeed of men.— A direct reference
to the passage (Ps. cxviii. 22), which is quoted below in
verse 7. It here says " men," rather than " builders,"
in order to contrast them more forcibly with God.
The word " disallowed," or " rejected," implies a form
of trial or probation which comes to an unsatisfactory
conclusion. The human builders examine the stone,
inspect all its qualifications, and find it unsuited to
the edifice which they have in hand, and refuse it not
only the place of honour, but any place at all. in
their architecture. St. Peter wishes to bring out
strongly the absolute opposition between God and the
Jews.

But chosen of God, and precious.— Literally,.
but with God elect, honoured. This is a direct allusion
to the passage, Isa. xxviii. 16, which is quoted in verse
6. While the human builders saw the qualities of the
stone, and rejected it because of its not fitting in with
their ideal, on the other hand, " with God," i.e., in God's
counsel and plan, it was " elect," i.e., choice had been
laid upon it, it had been selected for God's building
purposes ; and not only " elect " (for this might be
equally said of all the " living stones ; " see chap. i. 2,
where the word has precisely the same meaning), but
also " honoured," which is further explained to mean,
singled out for the place of honour, i.e., for that of
corner-stone. The designation of this stone as " elect,"
brings out again what we have had in chap. i. 11, 20_
viz., the eternal predestination of Jesus to the Messiah-
ship.

(*) Ye also, as lively stones, are built up.— This
is true enough : they were in process of building up ;
but it suits the hortatory character of the whole Epistle
better to take it (the one is as grammatical as the
other) in the imperative sense : Be ye also as living,
stones built up. The rendering " lively," instead of
" living," as in verse 4, is arbitrary, the Greek being
precisely the same, and the intention being to show
the complete confonnation of the believers to Him
who is the type and model for humanity. " Built up,"
too, only expresses a part of the Greek word, which
implies " built up upon Him."

A spiritual house.— The epithet is supplied, just-
as in " living stone," to make it abundantly clear that
the language is figurative. In the first three verses
of the chapter these Hebrew Christians were treated
individually, as so many babes, to grow up into an
ideal freedom of sotd : here they are treated collectively
(of course, along with the Gentile Christians), as so
many stones, incomplete and unmeaning in themselves,
by arrangement and cemented union to rise into an ideal
house of God. St. Peter does not distinctly say that
the "house" is a temple (for the word "spiritual" is
only the opposite of " material "), but the context makes
it plain that such is the case. The temple is, however,
regarded not in its capacity of a place for worsh ip so
much as a place for Divine inhabitation. "The spiritual
house," says Leighton truly, " is the palace of the
Great King. The Hebrew word for palace and temple
is one." And the reason for introducing this figure-

The chief Corner-stone

■I. PETER, II.

laid in Zio,, .

an holy priesthood,6 to offer up spiritual |« Isa- *■• i «■ *«•] Christ. <6> Wherefore also it is contained
sacrifices, acceptable to God by Jesus I »im.m.i*. in the scripture,* Behold, I lay in Sion

seems to be, to console the Hebrews for their vanishing
privileges in the teinplo at Jerusalem. They are being
taught to recognise that they themselves, in their union
with one another, and with Jesus Christ, are the true
abode of the Most High. The Christian substitution of
something else in lieu of the Jerusalem Temple was
one of the greatest stumbling-blocks to the Hebrews
from the very first. (See Mark xiv. 58 ; John ii. 21 j
Acts vii. 48; xxi. 28; compare also Heb. ix. 8, 11.)
All history is the process of building up a " spiritual
palace " out of a regenerate humanity, in order that, in
the end, the Father Himself may occupy it. This
follows from the fact that the Incarnate So?i is
described as a part of the Temple. Even through the
Incarnation — at least so far as it has as yet taken
effect — creation has not become so completely pervaded
and filled with tho Deity as it is destined to be when
the •' palace " is finished. (See 1 Cor. xv. 28.) Tho idea
of the Eternal Son occupying such a relation to the
Father on the one hand, and to humanity and creation
on the other hand, is really the same as when He is
called (by an entirely different metaphor) the " first-
born of all creation " (Col. i. 15).

An holy priesthood. — " Being living stones," says
Bengel, "they can be priests as well." They not only
compose the Temple, but minister in it. By becoming
Christians they are cut off from neither Temple nor
hierarchy, nor sacrifice ; all are at hand, and they
themselves are all. The old priesthood, like the old
Temple, has " had its day, and ceased to be." Mark,
though, that the Apostle is not dwelling on the indi-
vidual priesthood of each (though that is involved),
but on the hierarchical order of the whole company of
Christians : they are an organised body or college of
priests, a new seed of Aaron or Levi. (See Isa. lxvi. 21.)
The very word implies that all Christians have not an
equal degree of priesthood. And this new priesthood,
like the old, is no profane intruding priesthood like
that of Core (Jude 11), but "holy" — i.e., consecrated,
validly admitted to its work. The way in which this
new metaphor is suddenly introduced, — "to whom
coming, be built up upon Him ... to be an holy
priesthood," implies that Jesus Christ is the High
Priest quite as much as it implies His being Corner
Stone. The Incarnate Son heads the adoration offered
to the Father by creation, just as He binds creation
into a palace for the Father's indwelling.

To offer up spiritual sacrifices.— The new
priesthood is not merely nominal : it is no sinecure.
None is a priest who does not offer sacrifices (Heb.
viii. 3). But the sacrifices of the new hierarchy are
" spiritual," — i.e., not material, not sacrifices of bulls and
goats and lambs. What, then, do the sacrifices consist
of? If our priesthood is modelled on that of Jesus
Christ, as is here implied, it consists mainly (Calvin
points this out) of the sacrifice of self, of the unll ;
then, in a minor degree, of words and acts of worship,
thanks and praise. (See Heb. xiii. 10 — 16.) But in
order to constitute a true priesthood and true sacri-
fices after the model of Jesus Christ, these sacrifices
are offered up on behalf of others. (See Heb. v. 1. and
1 John iii. 16.) The first notion of the priesthood
of all believers is not that of a mediatorial system
being abolished, but of the mediatorial system being
extruded ; whereas, before, only Aaron's sons were
recognised as mediators and intercessors, now all Israel,

all the spiritual Israel, all men everywhere are called
to be mediators and intercessors between each other
and God.

By (or, through) Jesus Christ. — The name again,
not the title only. Wo all help one another to present
one another's prayers and praises, which pass through
the lips of many priests; but for them to be acceptable,
they must be presented finally through the lips of the
Great High Priest. He, in His perfect sympathy with
all men, must make tho sacrifice His own. We must
unite our sacrifices with His — the Advocate with the
Father, the Propitiation for our sins — or our sacrifice
will be as irregular and offensive as though some
Canaanite should have taken upon himself to intrude
into the Holy of Holies on Atonement Day. (See
Heb. x. 19 — 25, especially verse 21.)

(6) "Wherefore also.— The mention of Jesus Christ
brings the writer back again to his theme, viz., that the
whole system to which his readers belong has under-
gone a radical change, and is based on Jesus and His
fulfilment of the sufferings and glories of the Messiah.
The right reading here is not "wherefore also," but
because — i.e., the quotations are introduced in the same
way as in chap. i. 16 and 24, as justifying the foregoing
expressions.

It is contained in the scripture.— In the
original the phrase is a curious one. " The scripture "
never means the Old Testament as a whole, which
would be called "the Scriptures," but is always the
particular book or passage of the Old Testament.
Literally, then, our present phrase runs, because it
encloses or contains in that passage. Thus attention
is drawn to the context of the quotation, and in this
context we shall again find what made St. Peter quote
the text.

Behold, I lay.— The sentence is taken from Isa.
xxviii. 16, and, like the last, is adapted to the occasion
out of both Hebrew and LXX. Geseuius on that
passage gives evidence to show that the early Jewish
explanation, current in our Lord's time, referred it
to tho Messiah; the later Rabbinical expositors, pro-
bably by way of opposition to the Christians, explained
it to mean Hezekiah. In order to gain a clear con-
ception of St. Peter's aim in the quotation, it is neces-
sary to glance over the whole section contained in the
28th and 29th chapters of Isaiah. " The prophecy here
cited," says Archbishop Leighton, "if we look upon
it in its own place, we shall find inserted in the middle-
of a very sad denunciation of judgment against tho
Jews." Besides our present text, which is quoted also
in Rom. ix. 33, our Lord's prophecy of the destruction
of Jerusalem is an amplification of Isa. xxix. 3, 4 ; His
sharp censure of the corrupt traditions which had
superseded the law of God (Matt. xv. 7 — 9) is taken
from Isa. xxix. 13; St. Paul's image of the potter
changing his purpose with the lump of clay (Rom. ix.
21), comes from Isa. xxix. 16. Like one bright spot in
the sad picture appears our verse, but only as serving
to heighten the general gloom. St. Peter's quotation
here, therefore, calling attention as it does to the
context, is at least as much intended to show his
Hebrew readers the sweeping away of the carnal Israel
as to encourage them in their Christian allegiance. In
the original passage the sure foundation is contrasted
with the refuge of lies which the Jewish rulers had
constructed for themselves against Assyria, " scorning 9

The rejected Stone

I. PETER, II.

made Head of the Corner.

a chief corner stone, elect, precious : and
he that believeth on him shall not be
confounded. <7) Unto you therefore

1 Or, an honour.

which believe he is precious : l but unto
them which be disobedient, the stone
which the builders disallowed, the same

this sure foundation as a piece of antiquated and un-
practical religionism. Niigelsbach (in his new com- \
mentary on Isaiah) seems to be right in interpreting '
the " refuge of lies " to mean the diplomatic skill with |
which Ahaz and the Jewish authorities nattered them- \
selves their treaty with Egypt was drawn up. aud the
!** sure foundation " opposed to it is primarily God's :
plighted promise to the house of David, in which all
who trusted would have no cause for flight. In the !
Messianic fulfilment, those promises are all summed j
up iu the one person of Jesus Christ (Acts xiii. 33 ;
2 Cor. i. §0) ; and the " refuge of lies " in which the
Jewish rulers had trusted was the wicked policy by
which they had tried to secure their "place and
nation " against the Romans (John xi. 48).

In Sion. — In Isaiah it means that the people have
not to look for any distant external aid, such as that of
Pharaoh : all that they need is to be found in the city
of David itself. Here, it seems to impress upon the
Hebrew Christians that they are not abandoning their
position as Hebrews by attaching themselves to Jesus
Christ. It is they who are really clinging to Sion
when the other Jews are abandoning her.

Shall not be confounded (or, ashamed).— Our
version of Isaiah translates the Hebrew original by the
unintelligible " shall not make haste." It really means,
shall not flee. While all the Jewish rulers, who had
turned faithless and trusted in their finesse with Egypt,
would have to flee from the face of the Assyrians, those
who preserved their faith in God would be able to stand
their ground. This, of course, did not come literally
true in the first instance, where a common temporal
overthrow came upon faithful and faithless alike, from
Babylon, though not from Assyria. In the Messianic
fulfilment, however, the faith or unbelief of the in-
dividual makes all the difference to him : the overthrow
of the many does not affect the few. St. Peter adds
to " believe " the words " on Him " or " on it," which
are found in neither the Hebrew nor the Greek of
Isaiah, such an addition being quite in keeping with
the Rabbinic method of quotation, which frequently
alters words (comp. Matt. ii. 6) to bring out the con-
cealed intention more fully. The general quality of
"faith" of which the prophet spoke, i.e.. reliance on
the promises of God, becomes faith in Him in whom
the promises are fulfilled. For a like cause St. Peter
prefers the LXX. "be ashamed" to the Hebrew "flee
away." there being (except at the Fall of Jerusalem) no
opportunity for actual flight. It comes to the same
thing in the end: "shall not find his confidence mis-
placed."

(7) He is precious.— Rather, Unto you therefore,
the believers, belongs the honour. So said in re-
ference to His being called " a stone elect, honoured,"
taken in conjunction with " shall not be ashamed."
Both the Hebrew and the Greek word rendered
" precious " may with equal propriety be translated
" honoured," and this contrasts better with the " shame"
just spoken of. Thus Dr. Lightfoot takes it. The
argument is this : " God has selected Jesus for special
honour, and has promised that all who trust in Him,
instead of scorning Him like the Jewish rulers, shall
have no cause to blush. Now you do trust in Him,
therefore to you belongs the promise, and the honour
bestowed by God on Him reflects on you. You, like

Him, are made parts of the divine imperishable archi-
tecture."

Unto them which be disobedient.— The better
reading is, Unto them which disbelieve ; the other word
being an importation from verse 8. The true reading
better preserves the contrast with " you that believe."

The stone which the builders disallowed.—
We should perhaps have rather expected the sentence
to run more like this : " To you which believe belongs
the honour, but to those who disbelieve belongs the
shame from which you are secured." But instead, the
Apostle stops short, and inserts (by a quotation) the
historical fact which brought the shame, viz., the dis-
appointment of their own design, and the glorious com-
pletion of that which they opposed. The words which
follow are quoted directly from the LXX., and properly
represent the Hebrew. Almost all the best modern critics
consider the Psalm from which this verse is cited to be
a late Psalm, written subsequent to the return from
Babylon, in which case it is most probable that the
composer was directly thinking of the prophecy of
Isaiah above quoted. The Messianic interpretation of
the Psalm would be no novelty to the Hebrews who
received this Epistle (see Matt. xxi. 9), though probably
they had not perceived it in its fulness. In its first
application the passage seems to mean as follows : The
speaker is Israel, taken as a single person.' He has
been a despised captive. The great builders of the
world — the Babylonian and Persian empires — had re-
cognised no greatness in him, and had no intention of
advancing him ; they were engaged in aggrandisement
of self alone. Yet, after all, Israel is firmly planted
once more in Sion, to be the first stone of a new
structure, a new empire. Thus this interpretation at
once suggests the admission of the Gentiles, humanity
at large, into the architecture. Israel is the corner-stone,
but corner-stones are not laid to be left unbuilt upon.
In the fulfilment Christ takes the place of Israel, as is
the case with Isa. liii. The builders are the rulers of
the Jews. In Acts iv. 11 our author had called the
Sanhedrin to their face, " you builders." They, like
the kings of Babylon, had been intent on building a
fabric of their own, and had despised Jesus, yet, with-
out any intention of so doing, had been the means of
advancing Him (Acts iv. 27, 28). He had been made
the basis of a new spiritual structure, in which faith,
not fleshly lineage, was the cement and bond ; and the
believing Israelites, united to Him in both ways, shared
the honour of being corner-stone. A further point is
given to the quotation if we suppose, with Hengsten-
berg. Delitzsch, and others, that the remembrance of
Isaiah's prophecy of the " corner-stone" was suggested
to the original Psalmist by the works of the Second
Temple, then begun, advancing, or fresh completed. It
will then fit in more perfectly with the description of
the " spiritual house." Leighton well points out how
sore a trial it was to the faith of Jewish Christians to
see that their own chosen people, even the most learned
of them, rejected Christ, and adds, "That they may
know this makes nothing against Him, nor ought to
invalidate their faith at all, but rather testifies with
Christ, and so serves to confirm them in believing,
the Apostle makes use of those ^prophetical scriptures
that foretell the unbelief and contempt with which the
most would entertain Christ."

A Stumbling Stone

I. PETEE, II.

to the Disobedient.

is made the head of the corner," W and
a stone of stumbling, and a rock of ;;,,;;;;
oftence,6 even to them which stumble at /' l?kx .' !;»..;.
the word, being disobedient : whereunto I ' ,'w, ■,'/ )„ ;

•ms'i- '\rls^aii' a^s0 they were appointed/ <9) But ye
are a chosen generation,'' a royal priest-
hood/ an holy nation, a peculiar
people ; 1 f that ye should shew forth

(8) And a stone of stumbLKg and a rock of
offence.— Another quotation, no doubt suggested by
the word " a stone," but conveying a totally different
metaphor. Here there is no thought whatever of the
stone as a material for building ; the thought is that
of a mass of rock on the road, on which the terror-
stricken fugitives stumble and fall. The words are
taken from Isa. vii;. 14, and are translated directly
from the Hebrew. The LXX. not only makes
nonsense, but can again be hardly acquitted of " guile "
(verse 1) in its endeavour to. make out the best
possible case for Israel by deliberately inserting
the word " not " twice over. We shall find St. Peter
in chap. iii. 14 quoting the verses which immediately
precede our present citation, and again the point lies
in the context. The words are no mere phrase hastily
caught up to serve the turn. They come out of
the great Immanuel section of Isaiah, and imme-
diately involve, like the quotation in verse 6, the sharp
contrast between the Jews who trust in Immanuel
(the presence of God with Israel) and the Jews who
do not, but rely on " confederacies." To the one party,
the Lord of Hosts will be " for a sanctuary ; " but to
the other party, who are described as " both houses of
Israel," and specially as the " inhabitant of Jerusalem,"
He will be " for a stone of striking, and for a rock of
stumbling over," and also " for a snare." The " sanc-
tuary " does not seem to mean a temple (though this
would connect it with the preceding words of St.
Peter), but rather such a " sanctuary " as that of
Bethel (Gen. xxviii. 18), a consecrated stone to which a
man might flee as an asylum. In the flight of terror
before the face of the Assyrians the very stone which
afforded right of sanctuary to those who recognised
and trusted it, was a vexatious and dangerous obstacle,
a trap full in the way to those who did not. Once
more, therefore, the Hebrews of the Dispersion, in
separating themselves from " both houses of Israel "
and the "inhabitant of Jerusalem," were obeying the
warnings of the Immanuel prophecy, which every
Hebrew recognised as Messianic. Though the coupling
of these passages of the Old Testament together
certainly seems to show traces of the influence of St.
Paul (comp. Rom. ix. 32, 33), yet St. Peter must have
been present and heard " the Lord of Hosts " Himself
put them together (Luke xx. 17, 18), and probably St.
Paul's use of the passages is itself to be traced back to
the same origin.

Stumble at the word, being disobedient —
It seems better to arrange the words otherwise : which
stumble, being disobedient to the word. The participle \
thus explains the verb. " ' A stone of stumbling ' He j
is to them ; and the manner of the stumbling is in
being disobedient to the gospel preaching" (Leighton).

Whereunto also they were appointed— i.e., I
unto stumbling. The present commentator believes j
that when St. Peter says that these unhappy Jews were
appointed to stumble, he primarily means that the clear
prophecies of the Old Testament which he has quoted
marked them for such a destiny. It was no unforeseen,
accidental consequence of the gospel. It had never
been expected that all who heard the gospel would
accept it. Those who stumbled by disbelief were
marked out in prophecy as men who would stumble.

Thus the introduction of the statement here has the
direct practical purpose of confirming the faith of the
readers by showing the verification of the prophecy.
Still, in fairness, we must not shirk the further ques-
tion which undoubtedly conies in at this point. Even
though the moment of their appointment to stumble
was that of the utterance of the prophecy, it cannot be
denied that, in a certain sense, it was God Himself who
appointed them to stumble. It will be obseiwed, how-
ever, from the outset, that our present passage casts
not a glance at the condition of the stumbling Jews
after death. With this caution, we may say that God
puts men sometimes into positions where, during this
life, they almost inevitably reject the truth. This
is implied in the very doctrine of election — e.g., in
2 Thess. ii. 13, where, if God selects one man out of the
hundred to a present salvation through belief of truth,
it seems to follow logically that the ninety and nine
are appointed to have no share in that salvation, so far
as this life is concerned, through disbelief of truth.
These things remain as a trial of faith. It suffices
that we know for certain that God is Love. He has
" brought us forth at His own option by the word of
truth, that we should be a kind of firstfruits of His
creatures" (Jas. i. 18). We have but to prize more
highly our own present salvation, and to trust His
love for that fuller harvest of which we are but the
firstfruits. In some way even their stumbling will
ultimately prove His love, to them as well as to us.

(9) But ye —Like St, Paul in 2 Thess. ii. 13, St.
Peter turns with an outburst of triumph to the happier
and more practical and attractive theme. All the
most splendid titles of the old Israel belong in a fuller
sense to these Hebrews who have joined the new
Israel. In verse 5 they are bidden to aim at being
what here they are said to be. (Comp. Col. iii. 3, 5.)

A chosen generation. — Better, a chosen, or elect
race. As originally the clan of Abraham was selected
from among " all the families of the earth" (Amos iii. 2),
so out of the clan of Abraham after the flesh were these
men selected to be a new clan, or race. They are not
merely individuals selected one by one and left in
isolation, but a tribe consolidated, only the bond hence-
forth is not merely one of common physical descent,

A royal priesthood, an holy nation.— These
words are a direct quotation from Ex. xix. 6, according
to the LXX. version. The Hebrew has '' a kingdom of
priests," as in Rev. i. 6 (according to the best reading);
which would mean, God's organised empire, every
member of which is a priest. Nor is the thought far
different here. The word "royal" does not seem
intended to imply that every Christian is a king, or of
royal birth (though that, of course, may be shown from
elsewhere), but describes his belonging to the King as we
might speak of the royal apartments, the royal borough,
the royal establishment, or even of the royal servants.
The substitution, therefore, of " royal priesthood " for
" kingdom of priests " brings out more clearly the per-
sonal relation to the Personal King. But if the writer
had said" royal priests," the notion of organisation would
have slipped out of sight altogether. By way of com-
pensation, therefore, it is restored in the substitution of
" priesthood " (see Note on verso 5) instead of " priests."
This, and the next phrase, " an holy (i.e., consecrated)

The Holy Nation'

I. PETER, II.

the praises1 of him who hath called 1("."rt<<
you out of darkness into his mar- "i"'^,,"

vellous light: <10)
were, not a people

and Peculiar People.

which in time past
,a but are now the

nation," describe the whole Israelite nation as they
stood beneath Mount Sinai. This must be taken into
consideration in dealing with the doctrine of the
Christian ministry. The sacerdotal office was as
common to all Israelites under the Law as it is to all
the new Israel under the Gospel.

A peculiar people. — This curious phrase is lite-
rally, a people for a special reservation. It is, no doubt,
intended to represent Ex. xix. 5, though it differs both
from the Greek and the Hebrew, the variation being
due to a recollection of the Greek of two other passages
of the Old Testament (Isa. xliii. 21 ; Mai. iii. 17). The
word rendered "peculiar" means properly '"making
over and above," and would be represented in Latin
by the word peculium, which means a man's private
pocket-money, as, for instance, the money a slave
could make by working over hours, or such as a wife
might have apart from her husband. When children
speak of a thing being their " very own " it exactly
expresses what we have here. From this sense of
" making over and above," by working out of hours, the
word conies in other places to mean " earning by hard
work," in such a way as to establish peculiar rights of
property over the thing earned. So in Acts xx. 28,
where St. Paul is probably thinking of the passage
of Isaiah above referred to, both the hard earning and
the special possession are intended : " the Church of
God, which He won so hard for His very own, by His
own blood." Here, perhaps, the thought of " earning "
is less obvious, and it means " a people to be His very
own." Comp. 1 Thess. v. 9, and Eph. i. 7, where
(according to Dr. Lightfoot) it means " for a redemption
which consists of taking possession of us for His own."

That ye should shew forth the praises.— This
is an adaptation, though not exactly according to the
LXX., of Isa. xliii. 21, which passage is brought
to St. Peter's mind by the word rendered " peculiar."
The word " praises " is put here in accordance with the
English version there. The Greek means " virtues," or
" powers," or " excellencies," a rare word in the New
Testament (see 2 Pet. i. 3). And the word for " shew
forth," which is nowhere else found in the New Tes-
tament, means by rights " to proclaim to those without
what has taken place within." This strict signification
is very suitable here. St. Peter says that God has
taken us for a people peculiarly near to Him, and the
purpose is, not that we may stand within His courts
and praise Him, but that we may carry to others the
tidings of what we have been admitted to see. This
was the true function of the old Israel, " Do My
prophets no harm " (Ps. cv. 15). They were not elect
for their own sake, but to act as God's exponents to
the world. This function they abdicated by their
selfish exclusiveness, and it has descended to the new
Israel. St. Peter and St. Paul are at one.

Of him who hath called you out of dark-
ness.— This is to be understood of the Father, not of
Christ. For one thing, the act of calling is almost
always ascribed in the New Testament to God Himself ;
and for another thing, it is probable that St. Peter
regards our Lord as Head of this "people of God,"
just as He is corner-stone of the Temple, and High
Priest of the hierarchy. The act of calling (literally it
is, who called, not " who hath called ") was that of
sending the preachers of the gospel to them, i.e., St.
Paul and bis followers (comp. chap. i. 12, 26). Here

again, then, we have St. Peter speaking in praise of
St. Paul's mission, and, indeed, speaking in the same
tones of unbounded admiration : " His marvellous
light." But could Hebrew Christians be said to have
gone through so great a change in becoming believers ?
Had they been in " darkness r"' We may answer that
St. Peter's use of the word " marvellous " is no affecta-
tion of sympathy. He himself found the change to
be what he here describes, therefore there is no diffi-
culty in supposing that other Hebrews should have
found it so too. Besides which, the state of the Jews
immediately before Christ and without Him is often
described as " darkness." (See Matt. iv. 16 ; Luke i.
79.) This very passage is quoted a few years later by
St. Clement of Rome (chap, xxxvi.), as applying to
himself among others, and Dr. Lightfoot has clearly
established that St. Clement was a Jew.

(io) Which in time past were not a people.—
Here at last, say some, Ave have a distinct proof that
the Epistle was written to the Gentiles only, or, at
least, to churches which contained a very small pro-
portion of Jews. Such, however, is by no means the-
case ; in fact, the opposite. We have here an empha-
sised adaptation of Hos. ii. 23, " And I will have
mercy upon Lo-ruhamah, and I will say to Lo-animu
'Thou art Amnii,' i.e., My people." Now who were
Lo-ruhamah and Lo-ammi ? Types of Israel left un-
pitied, and rejected from their covenant with God.
And this unpitied and rejected Israel, after being
" scattered," or sown, all over the earth, was to be
restored again to favour, together with the increment
of the Gentiles who joined it as the result of the
" sowing." St. Peter means, then, that in his Hebrew
readers and the brethren from among the Gentiles,
who by the gospel of St. Paul bad adhered to thein,.
this promise given by Hosea had found its fulfilment.
But, as usual, the quotation demands a more searching
scrutiny of the context from which it is taken. The
name Diaspora, or Dispersion, by which St. Peter, in
chap. i. 1, designates those to whom he writes, was-
applied to themselves by the Jews in direct allusion
(as seems probable) to the name Jezreel, or God will
scatter, in Hos. i. 4. Now mark that St. Peter does
not say " which in time past were not God's people,"
but " were not a people." This was the effect of the
dispersion, or " scattering." Though each Jew of the
dispersion retained, and still retains, in isolation,
his national characteristics and aspirations, yet their
unity — that which made them a "people" — was, and
is, for the time broken. The Hebrews had not only
ceased to be in covenant as " God's people," but had
ceased to be "a people" at all. But in Christ, that
very "scattering" becomes a "sowing" (Hos. ii. 23),
for the name Jezreel means both equally ; their very dis-
persion becomes the means of their multiplication by
union with the Gentiles in Christ, and thus spiritually
they recover the lost unity, and become once more a
solid and well-governed confederation, i.e., " a people,"
and that "the people of God." (See John xi. 52. and
Dr. Pusey's notes on Hosea.) It is a mistake to take
St. Paul's quotation of this passage in Rom. ix. 26, as
if it referred solely to the Gentiles ; for he expressly
affirms that the title " My people " belongs to neither
section exclusively, but to both in reunion—" us whom
He called, not only of the Jews, but also of the
Gentiles."

Exhortation to Vigilance

people of God : which had not ob-
tained mercy, but now have obtained
mercy.

(11) Dearly beloved, I beseech you as
strangers" and pilgrims, abstain from

I. PETER, II.

fleshly lusts

and Purity of Life.

Or, irlienin.

which war Chap. a.

pre-

against the soul;* ^having fentThcn
your conversation honest needs vigilant
among the Gentiles : that, Purity of m&-
whereas 1 they speak against you as

Prudential Rules op Conduct in View of
the Hostile Attitude or the Heathen. — As
slanders against the Christian name are rife, and bring-
ing practical persecution on the Church, they are ex-
horted to extreme care about their conduct, especially
in regard (1) to purity, and (2) to due subordination,
whether as subjects to the officers of state, or as slaves
to their masters, or as wives lo their husbands (chaps,
ii. 11— iii. 12.)

(li) Dearly beloved.— " Affectionate and pressing
exhortation," says BeLgel. " That which is known to
come from love," says Leighton, " cannot readily but
be so received too, and it is thus expressed for that
very purpose, that the request may be the more wel-
come. Beloved, it is the advice of a friend, one that
truly loves you, and aims at nothing but your good ; it
is because I love you that I intreat you, and intreat you,
as you love yourselves, to abstain from fleshly lusts."

As strangers and pilgrims.— The exhortation
will be felt with the more force if we turn to the Psalm
from which St. Peter draws the phrase (Ps. xxxix. 12,
LXX.). The words, especially when compared with
that Psalm, prepare for the description of distress
which is to follow. (Comp. also Ps. cxix. 19.) The
word "pilgrim" (which comes to us through the French
form plderin, from the Latin peregrinus) does not
originally, or in this place, mean one on a pilgrimage.
It implies no journeying, but simply residence in a
foreign country. Here it represents the same Greek
word which is rendered "strangers" in chap. i. 1, but
is used in a metaphorical and not literal sense. Though
no longer "scattered," but gathered mercifully once
more into " a people," they were still far from home —
unprotected residents in an alien and hostile world,
which scrutinised their conduct and was anxious for
an opportunity to get rid of them.

Abstain from fleshly lusts.— First prudential
rule. Although all bad desires might be described as
fleshly, the word seems here to mean what we usually
understand by it, the lusts which lead to drunkenness,
gluttony, and uncleanness. And though such sins
are usually characteristic of the Gentile, not of the
Jew, yet see our Note on chap. i. 14. Jews were not
impeccable in such matters, and here the Apostle has
a special reason for insisting on the observance of the
.seventh commandment. It may even be said that his
mode of insistence recognises that his readers usually
do observe it. He appeals to them as " Israelites from
home" to be on their guard in such matters, as Leonidas
might exhort Spartans going into battle not to flinch,
or Nelson tell English 'sailors that " England expects
every man to do his duty." There was special reason
for these Hebrew Christians to be more than ever
vigilant, because (see Note on next verse) of the
calumnies which the heathen were beginning to cir-
culate about the Christians.

Which war against the soul.— This clause is no
specifying of the particular fleshly lusts to be guarded
against, as though there were some of them which did
a ut war against the soul; but it is a description of
the way in which all fleshly lusts alike act. It means
not merely a general antagonism between soul and

body, but that the lusts are on active service, engaged
in a definite campaign against the immortal part of
the man. St. Peter has probably forgotten for the
moment his metaphor of strangers and sojourners,
and we are not to put the two things together too
closely, as though their position of strangers rendered
them more liable to the attack of the hostile lusts.
" Abstain " cannot mean merely " be on your guard
against." It runs rather thus : " You Christian Jews
are dwelling as sojourners in the midst of jealous
Gentile foreigners, and must, therefore, be particularly
observant of moral conduct; for though I know that
you usually are so, yet the fleshly appetites are actively
engaged against your soul all the time; and if you
should in any degree let them get the better of you.
the heathen neighbours will at once take advantage of
you." As the expression might have been drawn
equally well from St. Paul or from St. James, it is
perhaps the easiest thing to suppose that (like the
metaphors of building or of giving milk) it was part of
the common property of Christians, and not consciously
traceable to any originator.

(i2) Conversation.— A favourite word with Si.
Peter, occurring (substantive and verb) seven times in
this Epistle, and thrice in the second — i.e., as often as
in all the other New Testament writings put together.
It means the visible conduct of the daily walk in life.
This, as among Gentiles — i.e., heathen (the words are
synonymous, though St. Paul generally says "those
without" when he means heathen as opposed to
Christian) — is • to be " honest." We have no word
adequate to represent this charming adjective. It is
rendered " good " immediately below and in John x. 11
("the Good Shepherd"), "worthy" in James ii. 7.
" goodly" in Luke xxi. 5. But it is the ordinary Greek
word for " beautiful," and implies the attractiveness of
the sight, the satisfaction afforded by an approach to
ideal excellence.

That whereas. — The marginal version is more
literal, and in sense perhaps preferable, " wherein."
It means that the very fact of the heathen having
slandered them will make their testimony " in the day
of visitation " all the more striking, as (by way of
illustration) the doubts of St. Thomas tend to "the
more confirmation of the faith." So in Rom. ii. ],
" wherein thou judgest another, thou condemnest thy-
self;" or Heb. ii. 18 (lit.), "wherein He Himself hath
suffered, being tempted."

They speak against you as evildoers.— A
significant phrase. St. Peter asserts distinctly that
calumnies were really rife, about some particulars of
the Christian morality, at the time that this letter was
written. It is a mark of a late date, for at first the
Christians had not attracted sufficient notice, as a body.
to be talked of either in praise or blame. The heathen
at first regarded them as merely a Jewish sect (Acts
xviii. 15; xxv. 18—20), and as such they received
from the Roman Government a contemptuous tolera-
tion. The first state recognition of Christianity as a
separate religion, with characteristics of its own. was
the Persecution of Nero in the year 64. Now. it so
happens that we have almost contemporary heathen
documents which bring out the force of this passage.

Aii Exhortation to Evildoers.

I. PETER, II.

Submission to Authority.

evildoers," they may by your good
works, which they shall behold, glorify
God b in the day of visitation. (13) Submit
yourselves to every ordinance of man for

| the Lord's sake : c whether it be to the
king, as supreme; (U) or
unto governors, as unto ^Sit™ X°
them that are sent by him

Suetonius, in his life of Nero (chap. 16), calls the
Christians by the very name St. Peter uses, " the
Christians, a kind of men of a new and malefic
superstition." Only about forty years later, we have
Pliny's famous letter to Trajan, written actually from
the country in which St. Peter's correspondents lived,
and referring to some of the very persons (probably)
who received the Epistle as having apostatised at the
time of the persecution under Nero ; in which letter
Pliny asks whether it is the profession of being a
Christian which is itself to be punished, or " the crimes
which attach to that profession ! " The Apologists of
the second century are full of refutations of the lies
current about the immorality of the Christian assem-
blies. The Christians were a secret society, and held
their meetings before daylight ; and the heathen, partly
from natural suspicion, partly from consciousness of
what passed in their own secret religious festivals,
imagined all kinds of horrors in connection with our
mysteries. From what transpired about the Lord's
Supper, they believed that the Christians used to kill
children and drink their blood and eat their flesh.
Here, however, the context points to a different scandal.
They are Avarned against the fleshly lusts, in order that
the heathen may find that the Christians' great glory
lies in the very point wherein they are slandered.
" Evildoers," therefore, must mean chiefly offences on
that score. It is historically certain that such charges
against Christian purity were extremely common. Even
as late as the persecution under Maximin II., in the
year 312, it was reported that these meetings before
light were a school for the vilest of arts.

By your good works which they shall
behold. — More literally, they may, in consequence of
your beautiful works, being eye-ivitnesses thereof — The
" good works " are not what are commonly so called —
i.e.," acts of benevolence, &c. Rather, their " works " are

law that men may pass. This passage is most directly
modelled on Rom. xiii. 1, et seq., where the reason
assigned for submission is the same as that in John
xix. 11, viz., that ultimately the authority proceeds
from God Himself. Here, however, the thought is
quite different. They are to submit, but not because of
the original source from which the authority flows, but
because of the practical consequences of not submitting.
It must be done " for the Lord's " (i.e., Jesus Christ's)
" sake," i.e., in order not to bring discredit upon His
teaching, and persecution upon His Church. This
difference of treatment, in the midst of so much resem-
blance, shows that at the date of St. Peter's letter there
was much more immediate cause for laying stress on
political subordination. St. Paul, writing to the Roman
Church, urges submission to Claudius, because the
Roman Jews (among whom the Christians were
reckoned) were often in trouble and expelled from the
city of Rome (Acts xviii. 2) ; St. Peter, writing in all
probability from the Roman Church, urges submission
to Nero and the provincial governors because "igno-
rant and foolish men " were beginning to misrepresent
the Christian Church as a kind of Internationalist or
Socialist conspiracy.

The king, as supreme.— First division of second
prudential rule : subordination political. Of course it
means the emperor. The name " king," though detested
in Latin, was used without scruple by the provincial
Greeks to express the sovereignty of the Caesars.
When he is described here as " supreme," it is not in-
truded (as our English version would convey) to
contrast his supreme power with the inferior power of
the " governors ; " the word is only the same which is
rendered " higher " in Rom. xiii. 1. Huther rightly
says, " The emperor was in the Roman Empire not
merely the highest, but actually the only ruler; all
other magistrates Avere but the instruments by which

contrasted with the current report, and mean scarcely j he exercised his sway." Of course all Asia Minor, to

more than the " conversation" mentioned already. The
present passage is, no doubt, a reminiscence of Matt,
v. 16, where the word has the same force.

Glorify God in the day of visitation.— This
" glorification " of God will be like that of Achan in
the book of Joshua (chap. vii. 19), an acknowledg-
ment how far they had been from the glorious truth.
Some commentators understand the day of visitation
to mean the day when the heathen themselves come
really to look into the matter. This is possible ; and it
came true when Pliny tortured the Christian deaconesses
and acquitted the poor fanatics, as he thought them,
of all immoral practices. But from the ordinary use
of the words, it would more naturally mean the day
when God visits. And this will not mean only the
great last day, but on whatever occasion God brings
matters to a crisis. The visitation is a visitation of
the Christians and the heathen alike, and it brings j
both grace and vengeance, according as men choose to
receive it. (See Luke xix. 4t, and comp. Luke i. 78.)

(13) To every ordinance of man.— Second pru-
dential rule, subordination. Literally, to every human
creation, i.e., to every office or authority which men
have established. It is not only to ordinances of
directly Divine institution that we are to submit.
Mind that he does not say we are to submit to every I

406

which St. Peter was writing, was in the Roman Empire ;
the language would have been different had the letter
been addressed to, or perhaps had it even been written
from, the geographical Babylon.

(u) Governors, as unto them that are sent by
him. — This word will include legati, proconsuls, pro-
praetors, procurators, all officers entrusted with the ad-
ministration of provinces. Of course the person " by "
whom they are here said to be (from time to time)
"sent" is Caesar, not "the Lord." The persons to
whom the letter is addressed would have very little to
do with Caesar himself directly, their submission would
be chiefly shown to the lieutenants. Yet how personal
was the Imperial government, even in details, is shown
in Pliny's letters ; the very letter before that in which
he asks how to deal with the Christians of Bithynia
requests Trajan's leave to cover in an unhealthy beck
in the town of Amastris.

For the punishment of evildoers.— St. Peter
credits Roman imperialism (rightly in the main) with
having as its aim the promotion of moral behaviour
among its subjects. The word for " punishment " is
that which is translated " vengeance " in 2 Thess. i. 8,
and implies forcing the malefactors to make satisfac-
tion to those whom they had wronged, the " avenger "
being, of course, quite disinterested. The " praise "

The True Use of

I. PETEli, II.

Christian L iberty.

for the punishment of evildoers, and for
the praise of them that do well. <15) For
so is the will of God, that with well doing
ye may put to silence the ignorance of

] (Jr. hariii'i.
a (ial. !>. IS.

•_■ Or, Eateem.

foolish men : <l6) as free, and not using '
your liberty for a cloke of maliciousness,"
but as the servants of God. <17^ Honour2
all men. Love the brotherhood. Fear

which hero, as in Rom. xiii. 3, is said to have been
bestowed by the government on welldoers, must mean
the solid praise of preferments, which is hardly so
marked a feature of government as the foregoing. Be
it observed that neither St. Peter nor St. Paul lay
down any exceptions to the rule of complete obedience.
They refuse to contemplate, at least to formulate, the
occasions when disobedience may be neccssaiy. Obe-
dience is the first thing to learn, and when they have
learnt it. they will know of themselves when to disobey.
St. Peter himself stands to all time as the type of
magnificent disobedience (Acts iv. 19).

(15) For so is the will of God.— This refers to the
command contained in the last two verses, which then
is further explained by the clause which follows, " that
with well-doing." See a very similar construction in
1 Thess. iv. 3. The " well-doing " of this and the last
verse bears the most general sense of good conduct, not
the special sense noticed on the " fair works " and
" fair life " of verse 12.

Put to silence the ignorance of foolish men.
— A very contemptuous expression, the word for " put
to silence " being the same as in 1 Cor. ix. 9 ; 1 Tim.
v. 18, to "muzzle" or " gag," implying that there is
something of the animal about these "foolish men."
The same contempt appears in each word of the
clause, even down to " men," which might be rendered
" people " or " creatures." The word for '" ignorance "
implies a stolid and wilful ignorance, and is so used by
heathen authors, as well as very markedly in the only
other place in the New Testament, 1 Cor. xv. 34.
"Foolish," too, contains moral reprobation, Luke xi.
40 ; xii. 20 ; 1 Cor. xv. 36, suggesting thoughtlessness
rather than senselessness. The definite article is also used
in the Greek (as in 2 Thess. iii. 2), and again seems to
indicate that St. Peter had some particular enemies in
view who had brought the charges. This accusation
was evidently one of a political nature; and, indeed,
history shows us that the hostility of the empire to the
faith was entirely based on the corporate nature of
the Christian religion. They would not have minded
the cultus, but they could not tolerate the Church.
Pliny distinctly says in his letter to Trajan, that it was
in consequence of Trajan's issuing an order against
hetcerice or societies, that he was led to contend with
the Christians in Bithynia.

(16» As free.— This points at once to what was the gist
of the accusation. The Christian took hp a position of
complete independence within, and professed himself in
a certain sense to be above the laws, by virtue of being
a member of Christ's kingdom. This position of inde-
pendence the heathen state resented, and looked upon
the Christian Church as a dangerous organisation.
Here, therefore, St. Peter both insists upon, and defines
that independent position. "This the Apostle adds."
says Leighton, " lest any should so far mistake the
nature of their Christian liberty as to dream of an
exemption from obedience either to God or to man
for His sake, and according to His appointment. Their
freedom he grants, but would have them understand
aright what it is."

And not using.— The word " as " in the Greek
attaches better to the participle instead of to the word

"cloke," so that the sentence will run, As free (i.e., as
men who are really free), and not as using freedom for
a curtain of vice. In this way the true and the false
freedom are more forcibly contrasted.

For a cloke of maliciousness.— The uncommon
word here used means any kind of covering, but not in
the sense of a garment, so that we must not insist on
the metaphor of the word " cloke." The same Greek
word is used in Ex. xxvi. 14 to express the second
covering of the tabernacle there mentioned, i.e., the
uppermost, outermost covering. Grimm quotes a
fragment of the comic poet Menander, " Wealth is
a covering of many a bad thing ; " this helps us to see
that what St. Peter means is not ordinary hypocrisy.
The man does not profess to be better than lie is, but
loudly asserts that ho is not a slave. Men admire such
freedom of speech, and excuse his vices just because of
their openness.

But as the servants of God.— Such freedom as
has been mentioned is no freedom. It is moral slavery.
The only true freedom lies in being " servants " (or
rather slaves) "of God," whose will it is that you
should be good subjects (verses 13 and 15). For a
slightly different turn of thought, see Gal. v. 13.

(!7) Honour all men.—" These words have very
briefly, and yet not obscured by briefness, but witlial
very plainly, the sum of our duty towards God and
men ; to men, both in general, honour all men, and in
special relations, in their Christian or religious relations,
love the brotherhood ; and in a chief civil relation,
honour the king. And our whole duty to God, com-
prised under the name of His/e«;-, is set in the middle
betwixt these, as the common spring of all duty to men,
and of all due observance of it, and the sovereign rule
by which it is to be regulated " (Leighton). St. Paid
had said that this honour was to be paid to those to
whom it was due ; St. Peter says that this includes all
men ; there is not one who can bo entirely despised, not
one who has quite lost the likeness of Christ ; Jews are
not at liberty to despise even the idolatrous Gentiles.

Love the brotherhood.— See chap. v. 9. and Note
on chap. i. 22. The brotherhood means, of course, all
Christian men, who (mystically even now that the Church
is divided, but then actually) formed a single confra-
ternity. " All men," Christian or heathen, are to be
" honoured," but there is a special sense in which love
is only possible between fellow-Christians. For the
converse proposition, see Matt. v. 41.

Fear God.— This enforces reverence for every law
and ordinance of God, and therefore serves fitly to
introduce the next precept. Rebellion against Nero is
rebellion against God (Rom. xiii. 2. Bengel compares
Prov. xxiv. 21).

Honour the king.— This is the climax. Logically,
the foregoing commands have only been inserted for
the purpose of bringing out this last more clearly.
This was the point on which the Christian religion was
assailed, and the putting the readers through their
catechism (as it were) of duties in other respects-
awakes their conscience to receive this precept. Verses
13—16 have insisted on the duty of political sub-
mission, and then the writer steps back, so to speak,.
for a final thrust : " so — as to all men you must pay

407

Servants to be obedient.

I. PETER, II.

Suffering wrongfully.

<xod. Honour the king. <18) Servants,
be subject to yovr masters with all fear;"
not only to the good and gentle, but
also to the froward. (19) For this is
thankworthy, if a man for conscience

toward God endure grief, suffering
wrongfully. <2°) For what glory is it, if,
when ye be buffeted for your faults, ye
shall take it patiently ? but if, when ye
do well, and suffer for it, ye take it

reverence ; as to the Christians, love ; as to God, fear —
so to the emperor you must pay constant reverence."
It is . hardly right to say with Bengel that this
paragraph is specially written because of the usual
disaffection of Jews towards the Roman government;
rather it is called for (like the warning of verses 11, 12),
not by any special temptation within them, but by the
particular circumstances of the time, i.e., the calumnies
that were afloat against Christians.

(18) Servants— Second division of the second pru-
dential rule : subordination social. This word is not the
same as is used by St. Paul— e.g., Eph. vi. 5 ; Col. iii.
22 — but is used only besides in Luke xvi. 13 ; Acts x. 7 ;
Rom. xiv. 4. It brings forward the family or household
relation of servant or slave to master, and not (as does
•the common word used in verse 16) the mere fact of
oivnership. We need not be surprised at directions for
household servants, or slaves, in a letter addressed to
Jewish Christians, for there were large numbers of
Hebrews in this position both now and later; St.
Clement, for example, was probably both.

Be subject. — Rather, being subject, or submitting
yourselves. The participle joins this clause loosely to
the " submit yourselves" of verse 13, where the word
is the same. (Comp. chap. iii. 1.)

With all fear.— "All" implies everything which
goes to make up true fear, every kind of fear ; and the
" fear " (as when we speak of the fear of God) is not
intended to mean any unmanly cowardice, dread of
punishment, or such terror as is involved in having
secrets which one dreads to have divulged. One com-
mentator well defines it as "the shrinking from trans-
gressing the master's will, based on the consciousness
of one's own inferiority."

Masters.— This is the word which properly cor-
responds to the word by which the " servants " are
described, not merely " owners," as in Eph. vi. 5 ;
Col. iii. 22.

The froward. — Literally, the crooked. Its meaning
is made clear by the contrasted adjectives, " good," i.e.,
kindly, considerate ; and "gentle," or, rather, reason-
able, not disposed to take too stern a view of matters.
A " froward " master, then, is one with a warped
nature, who is unreasonably exacting, capricious, and
cross-grained; in fact, one who will deal with his
servants in the manner spoken of in the following
verses.

(19) For this is thankworthy.— "This," viz.,
what goes before, which is further explained in what
follows. Quite literally it is, for this is grace, or else
(for, like grace in French, the word has the double
signification) this is thanks. The passage has some
little importance in controversy, as some of the older
Roman Catholic divines pressed it into the service of
the supererogation theory, " This is grace," they said,
means " this deserves grace as its reward." It is need-
less to point out how shallow a view of duty is implied
in the thought that it was more than duty to be thus
submissive. Still taking the first translation, others
would interpret. " this is a mark of grace " — i.e., shows
that you are Christians indeed ; or, " this is a gift of
grace " — i.e., a supernatural and heroic virtue, such as

must have come from God, and not from you." These
two interpretations make good sense in themselves, but
they seem not to suit the context (" what glory is it ")
quite so well as our authorised rendering, and they
ignore the sayings of our Lord, which must certainly
have been in St. Peter's mind, recorded in Luke vi.
27 — 35, especially verses 32 — 34, and again in Luke
xvii. 9. The thought is that where duty is both
obvious and easy (as is the case with good masters),
people do not lavish gratitude for the performance of
it. The best of masters hardly feels grateful to the
best of servants for doing his duty, though he will be
grateful for the spirit and manner in which it is done.
Here the " thanks " are put quite generally, as in the
first passage in St. Luke : " this is a matter for thanks."
It does not say as yet who is to pay the thanks, and we
may naturally conclude that the master so served, and
all who are cognisant of the service, are the persons
meant.

For conscience toward God endure grief,
suffering wrongfully.— This does not mean " if a
man is afflicted for his religion's sake." Rather, the
conscience towards God, or, perhaps, rather, conscious-
ness of God, is thrown in to guard against any false
theory that patience by itself is a thankworthy thing.
However unjust the man's treatment may be, and how-
ever little he may resent it in act, it is not thankworthy
unless his resignation be grounded on consciousness of
God's presence. A resignation which comes from stolid
want of feeling, or stoical fatalism, or from the sense
that it is no good to seek redress — such resignation is
sinfully defective. The two necessary qualifications,
before patience can become in any sense meritorious,
are (1) that the suffering should be undesei-ved, (2)
that the man should recognise in it the hand of God.

(20) For what glory is it.— A poetical and pagan -
sounding word, not elsewhere found in the New
Testament ; in the Old Testament it corresponds to the
word "fame," in Job xxviii. 22. The sense may be
said to be slightly humorous. " If you make a blunder "
(such is the meaning of " fault " here — it might include
such things as the breaking of dishes), " and receive a
buffet for it " (or a box on the ear — a common punish-
ment of slaves for trifling faults), " and bear it with
fortitude" (the meekness of patience has no place in the
word), " do you expect to be made the subject of an heroic
or dithyrambic poem, to have your name resounded
through the world and immortalised among posterity !J :'
The " for " at the beginning of the clause explains why
the writer added "suffering wrongfully" at the end of
the last.

When ye do well, and suffer for it.— It is a
pity that the translators have limited St. Peter's
meaning by the insertion of the last two words. It
is unnecessary to understand the suffering to be direct ly
provoked by the well-doing. It would have done just
as well to say, " when ye do well, and yet are ill-treated."
The " froward " master makes his servants suffer without
thinking what he makes them suffer for.

This is acceptable with God.— Timidity about
St. Peter's theology has caused a difference between
the rendering of the same word in two consecutive

Tlie Suffering of Christ,

I. PETER, II.

our Great Example

patiently, this is acceptable1 with God.
I-1' For even hereunto were ye called:
because Christ also suffered for us,3
leaving us an example, that ye should

or, thank.

a John 8. 40.

h [m, 5S. '.i.
Suinc read, /

r eh. 8.9.
ti ISO. S& 7.

follow his steps : (22> who did no sin,a
neither was guile found in his mouth : *
<-3) who, when he was reviled/ reviled not
again ; d when he suffered, he threatened

verses. It should bo translated " thankworthy " liere
as well as above, and must be taken in precisely the
same sense. Observe that the Apostle does not con-
tinue, " this is glory," as we might have expected; a
Christian is not supposed to care for such trash as
fame. But a Christian may well care to win the
titanic* of God! And such endurance of griefs for
God's sake is now distinctly said to be " thankworthy
with God " — i.e., from God's point of view. See
2 'lliess. i. 6, where, as here, it is assumed that the
moral law is identical for God and for us, and that His
principles and impulses of action are the same as those
which He has implanted in us. " He will thank a man
for it," says Archbishop Leighton, not a divine to
favour the doctrine of human merit, but too honest a
scholar to shrink from the meaning of words. Many
things are strictly duty, and yet we do not expect to
find them done, and are proportionably grateful when
we Bee that they are done. And shall we. for the sake
of a doctrinal thesis like that, "that man can deserve
nothing at the hand of God," deny to God the pos-
sibility of enjoying one of the happiest exercises of
love, the sense of gratitude ?

(-1) For even hereunto were ye called.—
Namely, to the combination of suffering and well-
doing. To this they "were called" by the Gospel
which St. Paul had preached to them ; it ought not to
be a surprise to them when it comes. (See chap. iv. 12.)
It was a special point in St. Paul's preaching to fore-
warn fairly of the tribulations attending all who
wished to enter the kingdom of God. Comp. 1 Thess.
iii. 3, 4, and Acts xiv. 22, which latter passage refers
to preaching in the very homes of some of the recipients
of this Epistle.

Because. — This justifies the last assertion. It
appeared on the very face of the gospel message that
wo should all (slave and freeman alike) have to do well,
and at the same time suffer, because the gospel told us
that it was so with Him, the subject of the gospel.
Notice what a fine assumption lies in this " because " —
viz., that Christ's experience must needs be that of
every Christian.

Christ also suffered. — It is to be carefully
observed again that he does not say " Jesus suffered ; "
the whole point is that these Hebrew Christians have
given in their adhesion to a suffering Messiah. (See
Note on chap. i. 11.) And the true reading immediately
.after is " for you, leaving you an example, that ye
should follow His steps;" not, of course, that St.
Peter exempts himself from the need of the atone-
ment or the obligation of following Christ's steps, but
because it is his accustomed style to give a charge (us
it were) rather than to throw himself in with those
whom he addresses. ( See Note on chap. i. 12.) There
is one important point to be observed. Christ is said
to have suffered ''for you," but this does not moan M in
your stead" but " on your behalf, for your good."
Christ's atonement for us is not represented in this
passage as vicarious. Ho did not, according to St.
Peter's teaching, die as a substitute for us, any more
than He rose again as our substitute. So far as the
words themselves go, the death of the Messiah "for
us" might have been such a death as that of the
hero who, in the battle of Murgarten, gathered the

Austrian spears like a sheaf into his own bosom, "for "
his fellow-patriots, clearing the way for them to follow.
The addition "for you" conveys the thought that in
gratitude wo ought to suffer with, or even for, Him.

Leaving us (you) an example.— This clause
seems added as a kind of explanation of the abrupt
" because " just before. " You were called to suffering,
I said, because Christ, too. suffered ; for in so suffering
He left ("as something to survive Him" is implied in
the word) an example to you." (This last "you ' stands
very emphatically in the Greek). The curious word for
" example," nowhere else used in the NeAv Testament,
means primarily the " copy " given to a child to write
from, or a " plan " suggested for carrying out in detail,
a sketch to be filled in. It is used in this literal sense
in 2 Mace. ii. 28, 29, and in the metaphorical sense it
occurs repeatedly in the Epistle of St. Clement ; in one
passage (chap, xvi.) apparently with a reminiscence of
this place, for the author has been quoting the passage
of Isaiah to which we sliall come presently, and theu
adds, " See then, beloved sirs, what is the copy which
has been set us ; for if the Lord was so lowly-minded,
what shall we do wdio through Him have come under
the yoke of His grace ? " The leaving us of this copy
was one of the benefits of His passion implied in
" suffered for you."

Follow his steps.— In all probability St. Peter
used the word rendered " example " without any sense
of its containing a metaphor, or else it would accord
badly with the metaphor here. The word for " follow"
is a strengthened form, and in 1 Tim. v. 10 is rendered
" diligently follow ; " in verse 24 of the same chapter
it is "follow after" — i.e., " dog; " the only other place
being Mark xvi. 20. It means (as in 1 Tim. v. 24)
rather " to follow up," made still more vivid by the
addition of "His steps" (Rom. iv. 12; 2 Cor. xii. 18).
St. Peter could remember the day when he was called
to follow, and he did so literally (Matt. iv. 19 ; John
xxi. 19); but the Pontine Christians, who had believed
without having seen (chap. i. 8), could only "follow
Him up " by the footprints which He had left.

(22) Who did no sin.— This verse is not to be
taken by itself, but in the closest conjunction with the
following. It is not the sinlessness of Christ by itself
that is here set as an example before the servants, but
His sinlessness in combination with His ill-treatment,
or rather, His meekness under the combination. St.
Peter again adapts the words of Isaiah (chap. liii. 9) to
his purpose. The word there was one of violent trans-
gression; St. Peter substitutes the simple word which
he had used in verse 20, " fault " — " who never made
a fault " — such as household servants were often com-
mitting— '' neither was guile found in His mouth " —
again referring to what was common with servants —
petty acts of dishonesty, and petty deceits to screen
themselves from punishment. One thing which lends
special point to the allusion to Isaiah's prophecy is
that Israel is in that passage spoken of under the
title of God's " servant," a thought familiar to St. Peter
long ago in connection with Christ. (See Note on
Acts iii. 13.)

(23) Who, when he was reviled.— This "who"
might bo rendered by and yet He. Conscious though
He was of being blameless (John viii. 46), it did not

409

Christ ban

Sins

I. PETER, II.

His oivn Body.

not; but committed himself1 to him i: ^rs-(.airi™mi,to'j own self bare our sins" in his own
that judgeth righteously: (24) who his "Ij;;^1" body on3 the tree, that we, being dead

make Him retaliate upon His accusers by counter-
accusations, true though these might have been. The
word hero translated " revile " is the same which re-
appears in chap. iii. 9 as " railing," and a sample of
what it means is given in John ix. 28. The servants
would be particularly liable to be thus abused, and
instances are not wanting in the comic poets where
they lose their self-control under it, and openly rate
their owners in return. The " suffering," on the other
hand, implies actual bodily maltreatment, " buffeting "
(verse 20) and the like, to which the slaves could not
answer directly by striking in return, but would some-
times take their revenge by "threats" of what they
would do — run away, or burn the house, or poison
the food, or do little acts of spite. Instances of our
Lord's silence or meekness under " reviling " may be
seen in John vii. 20 ; viii. 40 ; Matt. xii. 24, as well as
in the accounts of the Passion. There are no recorded
instances, until the last day of His life, of His " suffer-
ing " in the sense here intended ; but the tense of the
verbs " reviled," " threatened," " committed," shows
that the writer was not thinking exclusively of any one
occasion, but of our Lord's constant habit, though
naturally there would be uppermost in St. Peter's
mind the hours while he stood warming himself at
Caiaphas' fire, with the denial on his lips, and saw the
Messiah blindfold and buffeted. He is also thinking
of Isa. liii. 7.

But committed himself.— This was His only
form of revenge. As the Greek does not express the
grammatical object of the verb, it is better not to
supply one so definite as " Himself " or " His cause,"
rather, " but would leave it to Him that judgeth right-
eously." M. Renan (Antechrist, p. 117) says that
this passage " requires it to be understood that the
incident of Jesus praying for His murderers was not
known by Peter ; " and other critics have held the same
view. But (1) St. Peter, as we have said, is speaking
of what was the constant habit of Jesus, not of what
He did on the day of His crucifixion only. (2) The
word does not necessarily imply any act or word of
direct appeal to God to judge between His murderers
and Him ; on the contrary, the leading thought is
that of " passing the matter over " to God (comp.
Rom. xii. 19), by simply refusing to take any action in
self-defence. (3) It would have been unlike the usual
method of the Epistles to make direct reference to any
of the minor details of our Lord's history. (4) Such
a reference here would be beyond the point, for St.
Peter said nothing in verse 19 about praying for the
bad masters, and here he is only justifying by Christ's
example the position he had laid down there.

To him that judgeth righteously.— God is
described in the aspect which is most reassuring to
men who are suffering unjustly (2 Thess. i. 5). This
looks back to that " consciousness of God " spoken of
in verse 19. There is a curious various reading which
is adopted by the Vulgate, though without any solid
authority, and evidently a mere blunder, the interpreta-
tion of which we may leave to those who are committed
to it : " He gave Himself over to him (or, to one) who
judgeth unrighteously." St. Cyprian seems to have
understood it of our Lord's voluntary self-surrender to
Pilate.

(2£> "Who his own self.— This verse, like the
* for you " in verse 21, is intended to make the readers

feel the claims of gratitude, not to set before them
another point in which Christ was to be imitated.
But at the same time it serves to enforce still more
strongly the two points already mentioned — i.e., sin-
lessness and suffering. So far was Christ from " doing
sins," that He actually His own self bore ours, and in
so doing endured the extremity of anguish " in His own
body," so that He could sympathise with the corporal
chastisements of these poor servants; and "on the
tree," too, the wicked slave's death.

Bare our sins ... on the tree.— This brings us
face to face with a great mystery ; and to add to the
difficulty of the interpretation, almost each word is
capable of being taken in several different ways. Most
modern scholars are agreed to reject " on the tree," in
favour of the marginal " to," the proper meaning of
the Greek preposition, when connected (as here) with
the accusative, being what is expressed in colloquial
English by the useful compound " on-to the tree."
It is, however, not obligatory to see motion consciously
intended in this preposition and accusative everywhere.
It is used, for instance, Mark iv. 38, of sleeping on the
jnllow ; in 2 Cor. iii. 15, of the veil resting %ipon their
hearts ; in Rev. iv. 4, of the elders sitting upon their
thi'ones. This word, then, will give us but little help
to discover the meaning of the word translated " bare."

(1) That verb means literally " to carry or take up,"
and is used thus in Matt. xvii. 1, Markix. 2, of taking
the disciples up the Mount of Transfiguration ; and in
Luke xxiv. 51, of Jesus being carried up into heaven :
therefore Hammond, Grimm, and others would here
understand it to be, " He carried our sins up with Him
on-to the tree," there to expiate them by His death.

(2) A much commoner meaning of the word is that
which it bears in verse 5, " to offer up " (so also in
Heb. vii. 27; xiii. 15; Jas. ii. 21). The substantive
formed from it {Anaphora) is still the liturgical term
for the sacrificial section of the Eucharistic service.
This interpretation is somewhat tempting, because the
very preposition here used, with the very same case,
appears in Jas. ii. 21, and frequently in the Old
Testament, together with our present verb, for " to
offer up upon the altar." In this way it would be,
" He offered up our sins in His own body on the altar
of the cross." So Luther and others take it. This
would be perfect, were it not for the strangeness of
regarding the sins themselves as a sacrifice to be offered
on the altar. The only way to make sense of it in
that case would be to join very closely "our sins in
His own body " — i.e., as contained and gathered up in
His own sinless body, which might come to nearly the
same thing as saying that He "offered up His own
body laden with our sins " upon that altar. (3) Both
these renderings, however, pass over the fact that
St. Peter is referring to Isa. liii. In the English
version of that chapter, " hath borne," " shall bear,"
"bare," appears in verses 4, 11, and 12, indifferently;
but the Hebrew is not the same in each case, for in
verse 11 the word for " shall bear " is identical with that
rightly rendered " carry " in verse 4, and has not the
same signification as that which appears as " to bear "
in verses 4 and 12. The difference between these two
Hebrew roots seems to be that the verb sabal in verse
11 means " to carry," as a porter carries a load, or as
our Lord carried His cross ; while the verb nasa\ used
in verses 4 and 12, means rather "to lift or raise,"

Sheep gone Astray

I. PETEE, II.

Returned to the Shepherd,

to sins, should live unto righteous-
ness : " by whose stripes ye were
healed.4 <^ For ye were as sheep

a fnl. l. 81

d eh. 5. 4 ; Hel)
l& 20.
b Isa. 53. 5.

going astray;" but are now returned
unto the Shepherd d and Bishop of
your souls.

which might, of course, be the action preparatory 1
that other of " carrying." Now, the Greek word wliic

to
carrying." jnow, the Ureefc word, which
we have here undoubtedly better represents nasc? than
sabal, but the question is complicated by the fact that
the LXX. uses it to express both alike in verses 11 and
12, observing at the same time the distinction between
" iniquities " and " sin," while in verse 4 (where again
it reads " our sins" instead of " our griefs") it adopts
a simpler verb; and St. Peter's language here seems
to be affected by all three passages. The expression
" our sins " (which comes in so strangely with the use
of "you" all round) seems a reminiscence of verse 4
(LXX.). The order in which the words occur is
precisely the order of verse 11, and the tense points to
verse 12, as well as the parallel use in Heb. ix. 28,
where the presence of the words " of many " proves
that the writer was thinking of verse 12. We cannot
say for certain, then, whether St. Peter meant to
represent nasa' or sabal. We have some clue, however,
to the way in which the Greek word was used, by find-
ing it hi Num. xiv. 33, where the " whoredoms " of the
fathers are said to be " borne " by their children (the
Hebrew there being nasa'). Many instances in classical
Greek lead to the conclusion that in such cases it
implies something being laid or inflicted from without
upon the person who " bears." Thus, in Num. xiv. 33,
it will be, " your children will have to bear your whore-
doms," or, " will have laid upon them your whoredoms."
In Heb. ix. 28 it will be, " Christ was once for all
presented (at the altar), to have the sins of many laid
upon Him." Here it will be, " Who His own self had
our sins laid upon His body on the tree." Then comes
a further question. The persons who hold the sub-
stitute theory of the Atonement assert that " our sins "
here stands for " the punishment of our sins." This is,
however, to use violence with words ; we might with
as good reason translate verse 22, " Who did, or per-
formed, no punishment for sin." St. Peter asserts that
Christ, in His boundless sympathy with fallen man, in
His union with all mankind through the Incarnation
whereby He became the second Adam, actually took, as
His own, our sins, as well as everything else belonging
to us. He was so identified with us, that in the great
Psalm of the Messianic sacrifice, He calls them " My
sins " (Ps. xl. 12), sinless as He was. (See St.Matthew's
interpretation of the same thought, chap. viii. 17.)

That we being dead.— Just as the former part of
this verse is an expansion of " Christ suffered for us,"
so the latter part is an expansion of " that ye should
follow His steps." The " we," however, is too em-
phatically placed in the English. To St. Peter, the
thought of our union with Christ is so natural, that he
slips easily over it, and passes on to the particular
point of union which he has in view. " He bore our
sins on the tree, in order that, having thus become 'lost'
to those sins, we might live to righteousness." The
words present, perhaps, a closer parallel to Col. i. 22
than to any other passage ; but comp. also Rom. vi. 2,
8, 11, and 2 Cor. v. 14, and Notes. St. Peter's word
for " dying" in this place is not elsewhere found in the
New Testament,, and is originally an euphemism for
death ; literally, to be missing — i.e., when sin comes to
seek its old servants it finds them gone.

"With whose stripes ye were healed.— Observe
how soon St. Peter reverts to the second person, even

though he has to change the text he is quoting. Another
mark of his style may well be noticed here, viz., his
fondness for a number of co-ordinate relative sentences.
(See chap. i. 8. 12 ; 2 Pet. ii. 1, 2, 3 ; and his speeches.
Acts hi. 13, 15; iv. 10; x. 38, 39.) He is especially
fond of finishing off a long sentence with a short rela-
tive clause, as here. Comp., for instance, verse 8,
2 Pet. ii. 17, also Acts iv. 12, where it would bo more
correct to translate, " Neither is the salvation in any
other, for, indeed, there is no second name tinder
heaven which is the appointed name among men ; in
whom we must be saved" — i.e., if we are saved at all.
The purpose of the little clause seems to be once more
to make the good and ill-used servants feel, when the
weals were smarting on their backs, that the Righteous
Servant of Jehovah had borne the same, and that it
had served a beneficial purpose, as they knew to their
everlasting gratitude. Of course the " stripes " (in
the original singular number, and literally weal) do not
refer merely to the scourging. The words form a
paradox.

(25) For ye were as sheep going astray.— The
right reading does not attach " going astray " to
" sheep," but as predicate of the sentence, " ye were
going astray like sheep." The "for" introduces an
explanation of how they came to be in need of " heal-
ing." " I may well say that ye were healed ; for
Israelites though you are, your consciences and
memories tell you that you were as far gone in wilful
error as any Gentiles, and needed as complete a con-
version." (Comp. verse 10.) Jew and Gentile take
different ways, but both alike fulfil the prophecy,
" every man to his own way." Tho two metaphors, of
healing and going astray, do not match very well, but
the fact that both are quotations from Isa. liii. makes
their disagreement less harsh. We must notice how
deeply that prophecy (the interpretation of which was
probably learned from the Baptist) had sunk into
St. Peter's mind. (See chap. i. 19.)

But are now returned. — The tense of the original
verb points to the actual historical time at which it
took place, rather than the position now occupied,
" but now ye returned." Tho word " now " is used in
the same way in verse 10, where literally it is, " but
now did obtain mercy." " Returned " does not in the
Greek imply that they had at first been under the
Shepherd's care and had left Him. The word is that
which is often rendered " were converted," and only
indicates that they turned round and moved in a con-
trary direction.

The shepherd and bishop of your souls.—
Undoubtedly this means Christ. The first of the two
titles is of course suggested by the simile of the sheep.
The image is so natural and so frequent, that we can-
not say for certain that it proves St. Peter's acquaint-
ance with the parable of the Good Shepherd in John x.
More probably, perhaps, he is thinking of Ps. xxiii. 3,
" He converted my soul " (LXX.), where " the Lord,"
as usual, may be taken to mean the Son of God rather
than the Father; or else of Ez. xxxiv. 11, 16, where the
words rendered " seek them out " in our version is re-
presented in the LXX. by that from which the name
of a "bishop" is derived. (Comp. Ezek. xxxiv. 23:
xxxvii. 24 ; also Isa. xl. 11, which last citation comes
from a passage which has been in St. Peter's mind

Stibjection of Wives

CHAPTEE III

I. PETER, III.

to Husbands.

(D Like-
fee in sub-
wives^ to hus- jection to your own hus-
bands;" that, if any obey not

Chap. iii. 1 — 6.

Subjection of wise, ye wives

bands.

the word, they also may without the
word be won by the conversation of
the wives; W while they behold your
chaste conversation coupled with fear.

just before, chap. i. 24.) It is hardly necessary to add
that to the Hebrew mind the thought of superintend-
ence and ruling, not that of giving food, was upper-
most when they spoke of shepherds, and that the
pastors spoken of in the Old Testament are not the
priests or givers of spiritual nutriment, but the kings |
and princes. Thus it will here be nearly synonymous j
with the second title of bishop. This name suggests j
in the first instance not so much overseeing as visiting I
— i.e., going carefully into the different cases brought |
under the officer's notice. (Comp. chap. v. 2, 4, and
Acts xx. 28.) Both words were already familiar as J
ecclesiastical words already, and as sxich were especially
appropriate to Christ, the Head of the Church ; but
as they had not yet become stereotyped in that sense,
the writer adds, " of your souls," to show that it was
not an outward sovereignty and protectorate which
the Messiah had assumed over them. " Soul " is a
word of which St. Peter is fond (chaps, i. 9, 22; ii. 11 ;
iv. 19 ; 2 Pet. ii. 8), but which is, perhaps, never used
by St. Paul in this sense. It is to be remarked how
St. Peter works almost every section of the Epistle
round, so as to end with some encouragement to the
readers to cling to Jesus as the Messiah, and to their
Christian state, from which they were in danger of
receding into Jndaism. He makes even the special
exhortations lead up to that which is the main
exhortation of the Letter.

III.

(!) Likewise ye wives . . .—Third division of
second prudential rule : subordination conjugal. Here,
again, the form in the original is pai'ticipial, joining this
injunction on to chap. ii. 13, 18, where the word is the
same in Greek, " wives, in the same way submitting
yourselves." Whether this imposes for all time upon
Christian wives as complete a submission towards
their husbands as is here enjoined might perhaps be
questioned, because the special reason for the command
in this place was to allay suspicions engendered by the
boldness with which Christianity proclaimed the freedom
of the individual. St. Peter has just been giving
injunctions for absolute submission, even to injustice,
on the part of slaves ; and the progress of Christianity
has abolished slavery altogether. The measure of the
Christian wife's submission may safely be left to her
own enlightened conscience, guided by other passages
of the New Testament not written, like this, for a
special emergency.

Your own husbands. — This does not order sub-
mission to the husband in contrast to submission to
other directors, but rather gives a reason for obedience.
*' The Christian wife that hath love to God," says
Leighton. " though her husband be not so comely, or
so wise, or any way so amiable, as many others, yet
because he is her own husband, and because of the
Lord's command in the general, and His providence in
the particular disposal of His own, therefore she loves
and obeys."

That if any obey not the word.— Rather, in
order that even supposing some {at present) disobey the
word. " The word " is. of course, the Gospel, the
declaration of the fulfilment of the prophecies in
^esus. And those who " disobey the word " are,

according to constant usage, the Jews. The present
verb is used of the Jews in Acts xiv. 2 ; xvii. 5 ; xix. 9 ;
Rom. x. 21 ; xi. 31 ; xv. 31, besides St. Peter's own
use in chap. ii. 8; iv. 17. The only places where it is
distinctly used of others are Eom. ii. 8 (of Jew and
Gentile together), Rom. xi. 30 (where the Gentiles are
compared with the Jews), Heb. iii. 18 (of the Israelites
in the wilderness), Heb. xi. 31 (of the men of Jericho),
1 Pet. iii. 20 (of the refractory antediluvians). In any
case it must mean a wilful refusal to submit to the
Word, in spite of being intellectually convinced. (See
especially chap. ii. 8.) For every reason, therefore, it
is more probable that the case here supposed is that
of Hebrew (Christian) women, married to men of their
own race who reject the gospel.

They also may . . .—The order here is not so neat
as in the original, and it spoils the point to insert the
definite article before " word." It should run, In
order that . . . through their wives' conversation,
without a word, they may (literally, shall) be gained.
There is something almost playful in the substitution
of "their wives" instead of "you," and in the " with-
out a word " contrasted with " the word " before.
St. Peter seems to enjoy laying the little innocent
plot. He was himself, as the Prayer Book reminds
us, a married man. And what he means here, is not
that those who have resisted the public preaching in
the synagogues, should even without that public
preaching be won; rather, that though the gospel as
uttered verbally only provokes them to opposition, the
gospel as submissively acted by their wives, without a
word said on the matter, ought to convert them.
" This, model of submission and humility," says
M. Renan, meaning the Lamb of God, " is made by
Peter the law for all classes of Christian society. The
wife above all, without setting up for a preacher (sans
/aire la precheuse), ought, by the discreet charm of
her piety, to be the great missionary of the faith."
The word rendered " won" keeps up the playfulness of
that which goes before; it means "to turn a profit."'
and there is just enough of ruse in it to make the
enforcement of submission to a husband of opposed
religious views seem an enticing little speculation. The
tense of the original verb indicates that the scheme is
certain to succeed. (Comp. Matt, xviii. 15 ; 1 Cor. ix.
19, 20.) Archbishop Leigh ton points out that in Hebrew
the name of the book of " Ecclesiastes ; or, the
Preacher," is a feminine, and the same is the case in
Ps. lxviii. 11, and elsewhere.

(2' While they behold . . .—The same curious
word as in chap. ii. 12, and the tense, which is ill-repre-
sented by " while they behold," sets us at the moment of
the triumph of the wife's conduct, literally, having kept,
or when they have kept an eye on your chaste conversa-
tion. The husband is jealously on the watch to see
what his wife does who has embraced these foolish
notions ; at last he breaks down. Jesus must be the
Messiah, or his wife could not have been so chaste !
The adjective " chaste " is here to be taken in a large
sense ; it is the same which enters into the verb trans-
lated " purify " in chap. i. 22, and it is implied that the
" fear " (i.e., of the husband ; comp. Note on chap. ii. 18)
has been an incentive to this sweet virtue; "your life
so immaculate in fear," or even almost "so timidly

412

TJte most fitting

I. PETER, III.

Adornment of Wives.

(3) Whose adorning let it not be that
outward adorning of plaiting the hair,
and of wearing of gold, or of putting
on of apparel ;" W but let it be the hidden
man of the heart, in that which is not

corruptible, even the ornament of a meek
and quiet spirit, which is in the sight
of God of great price. (5) For after this
manner in the old time the holy women
also, who trusted in God, adorned them-

pure." Leighton says, " It is a delicate, timorous grace,
afraid of the least air, or shadow of anything that
hath but a resemblance of wronging it, in carriage or
speech, or apparel, as follows in the third and fourth
verses."

(3) Whose adorning let it not be . . . .—The
passage shows that the Asiatic Christians were not all of
the poorer classes. Many of the wealthy Jewesses had
joined them. The wealth of the Ephesian Christians
about this time may be gathered from 1 Tim. ii. 9, and
of the Laodiceans from Rev. iii. 17. Two things are
to be noted about the advice here given. (1) It is not
intended directly as a corrective of vanity. St. Peter
is not bidding them beware of love of dress, although
(as Bengel points out) Ihe three words of " plaiting,"
" wearing " (literally, putting round oneself), and
" putting on," are intended to convey the notion of
elaborate processes in Avhich time is wasted. But the
main thought is, How are the husbands to be attracted ?
Not, says St. Peter, by any external prettiness of
adornment, but by inward graces. (2) The Apostle is
not forbidding the use of gold, &e. Leighton (him-
self something of a precisian ) says, " All regard of
comeliness and ornament in apparel is not unlawful,
nor doth the Apostle's expression here, rightly con-
sidered, fasten that upon the adorning he here speaks
of. He doth no more universally condemn the use of
gold for ornament than he doth any other comely
raiment, which here he means by that general word of
putting on of apparel, for his ' not ' is comparative ;
not this adorning, but the ornament of a meek spirit,
that rather, and as much more comely and precious ;
as that known expression (Hos. vi. 6), ' I will have
mercy, and not sacrifice.' " At the same time he is, of
course, speaking of these things with studied contempt ;
and we may be sure he would have spoken with
abhorrence of any adorning which partook of the nature
of lying. Even in one of Xenophon's works there is
a charming passage where an Athenian gentleman
expostulates with his wife on the folly of hoping to
attract him by wearing high-heeled shoes and painting
her face with rouge and white.

(4 > But let it be . . .—The connection of the clauses
is somewhat difficult, but is made more so by our
translation of verse 3. Literally it would run, of whom
let it not be, or, to whom let there not belong the outward
adorning, but the hidden man of the heart. If we
adopt the translation in the Authorised Version, it
makes "the hidden man" an ornament to be worn in
preference to the gold and braided hair, which would
be both illogical, and dishonouring to " the hidden
man." What St. Peter says is, '"Do not rely, for
winning your husbands, upon ornamentation (which is
but external), but upon character."

The hidden man of the heart— Not equivalent
to St. Paul's expression, "the new man" (Eph. iv. 24),
but simply the inner self, the true self— i.e., the genuine
moral character. It is more like' St. Paul's phrase,
"the inward man," and may, perhaps, have been
adapted from it. (Comp. Rom. vii. 22; 2 Cor. iv. 10 ;
Eph. iii. 16.) According to his custom, St. Peter
ex | ilaina by adding the genitive, " of the heart. " (Comp.
chap. i. 13.) At the same time, the choice of that

413

particular word, rather than " soul " or " mind," gives
warmth and affection to what might otherwise seem a
bare moral or metaphysical conception.

In that which is not corruptible.— The sense
is somewhat obscured by our insertion of "even the
ornament." Had it been " even in the ornament," it
would have been clearer, though not right even then.
It is literally, in the imperishableness of the meek and
quiet spirit, contrasting the abiding beauty of character
with the " perishable " or " contemptible " nature of
the ornaments just spoken of. So in chap. i. 18, he
spoke of " silver and gold " as " perishable." The same
kind of phrase is used by St. Paul in 1 Tim. vi. 17,
" trust in the uncertainty of riches " — i.e., in riches
which are but uncertain things. So here, "in the
imperishableness of the meek spirit" means in the meek
spirit, which is not (like gold) a perishable thing. Yet
the preposition " in " must not be taken as equivalent
to "dressed in," "adorned Avith;" the "meek and
quiet spirit " is not a mere decoration of the " hidden
man." Neither, on the other hand, is it quite " con-
sisting in," as though " hidden man " and " meek
spirit " were identical ; for " the hidden man of the
heart " would be bad in bad men, and good in good :
see, for instance, our Lord displaying the hidden man
of the Pharisee's heart (Matt, xxiii. 28). It is rather
the particular mode in which St. Peter wishes the
inward character to exhibit itself. "We might para-
phrase the whole thus : — " Let it not be with you a
matter of external ornamentation — elaborate processes,
and costly, but perishable, decorations — but let it be a
matter of tlie heart, the character, the true self,
manifesting itself in a constant tone of unassuming
and impertui'bable sweetness — an imperishable attrac-
tion." The word " spirit " here is used, not in its strict
metaphysical sense, but in the sense of a mood or
general tenour and complexion of life; as. for instance,
in Luke ix. 55 (perhaps), 1 Cor. iv. 21, Gal. vi. 1, and
elsewhere. St. Peter assures us in this passage that
moral characteristics gained in this life remain our
characteristics in the next.

Which is in the sight of God of great price.
— The antecedent to " which" has been variously taken.
Is it "the meek and quiet spirit?" Is it "the im-
perishableness of the meek and quiet spirit ?" Or is it
" the hidden man of the heart exhibiting itself in such
a spirit ? " Each has something to be said for it, but
the last seems nearest to the truth. The thing which
is valuable in the eyes of God is the having such an
inward character. Thus we might put a stronger stop
at the word " spirit; " and this relative clause will bo
another instance of St. Peter's favourite mode of speech
noticed on chap. ii. 24. Such a possession will be not
only attractive to the husband for the time, but has a
permanent value as being esteemed by God.

W i^or after this manner.— Here we have not
only the ground of the foregoing precepts, but also
of the assurance that God sets a value on such em-
bellishments. It had been accepted by Him in the
holy women of old who hoped in Him. and would be
accepted again. "The Apostle enforces his doctrine by
example," says Leighton : " the most compendious way
of teaching." By "holy women" he means, not only

Example of Sara.

I. PETER, III.

Duty of Husbands.

selves, being in subjection unto their
own husbands : (6) even as Sara obeyed
Abraham, calling him lord : a whose
daughters1 ye are, as long as ye do
well, and are not^ afraid* with any

c 1 Cor. 7. 12.

amazement. W Likewise, ye husbands,
dwell with them0 accord-
ing to knowledge, giving Corresponding
honour d unto the wife, as duty of hus-
unto the weaker vessel, bands'

holy in character, but " sainted " — consecrated by their
memories being recorded for our reverence in Holy
Writ.

"Who trusted in God.— Tt is a great pity that
" trusted " should have been substituted for the original
" hoped." The position of Sara and the holy women
of the Old Testament was one of expectancy, of looking
forward to the fulfilment of a promise ; and the de-
scription of them as such is intended to make the
readers of the letter feel the difference of their position.
To them the promise to Sara was accomplished. The
expression contains a reference to the mention of God
in the last verse.

Adorned themselves, being in subjection.—
The imperfect tense of the verb means " used to adorn
themselves." They took daily pains thus to adorn
themselves, and spent, perhaps, as long in the process
as the other ladies over their toilette. The participle
which is added explains more fully the " after this
manner." Their subjection was their ornament.

(6) Even as Sara. — A definite example of the
general fact just alleged. St. Peter seems rather to
have argued from what every one would feel must have
been the case than from explicit records. Sara's usual
subjection is clearly seen in the one instance to which
St. Peter refers (Gen. xviii. 12), where Sara, though
not addressing Abraham, but speaking to herself, calls
him " my lord." People show their usual habits of
mind more freely in speaking to themselves.

Whose daughters ye are. — A very misleading
version, following the Vulgate. What St. Peter says
is, whose children ye became, or were made. There
was a definite period in their past lives at which they
came to be — what they were not before — children of
Sara. Have we not here, therefore, a distinct proof
that these readers of the Epistle were Gentiles and
not Jewesses ? Not so. The phrase, " which hoped
in God," pointing as it does to the coming of the
Messiah, prepares us to understand how these Hebrew
women became Sara's children. It was only by enter-
ing into her hope and attaching themselves to Jesus
Christ, for whose coming she had looked. St. Peter
has already been insisting on the nothingness of the
fleshly descent, the " corruptible seed." As has been
pointed out on chap. i. 24, this doctrine was not first
taught by St. Paul, for St. Peter had heard it from
the Baptist (Matt. iii. 9) and from our Lord Himself
(John viii. 39). Whether persons were naturally Jews
•or Gentiles, they could not be children of Abraham
without voluntarily becoming so by embracing his
principles — i.e., by becoming Christians. The participial
clauses which follow will need no change of translation,
for they express not the act or process by which these
ladies became children of Sara, but the condition on
which they would remain her children. A very similar
passage occurs in Heb. iii. 14 : " We have become par-
takers of the Christ, if (for the future) we hold," &c.
(Comp. also 1 Thess. iii. 8 ; Heb. iii. 6.)

Do well.— See chap. ii. 12, 15, 20. The word
means, of course, general good behaviour, especially in
all wifely duties. As this is a condition of remaining
Sara's children, it is implied that it was a characteristic
of Sara. Some critics would even put in a parenthesis

all the words from " even as " to " ye are," and
attach these participles (as they are in the Greek) to
the last clause in verse 5, thus: " adorned themselves,
being in subjection to their own husbands (as Sara, for
instance . . . whose daughters ye were made), doing
well, and not being afraid," &c. This is, however,
somewhat cumbrous, and leaves the clause " whose
daughters ye became " a little too bald.

Are not afraid with any amazement.— Though
this translation is grammatically possible, it does not
make such good sense as to translate, are not afraid of
any alarm. It is, in fact, a quotation from or allusion
to Prov. iii. 25, as Bengel points out, where " Be not
afraid of sudden fear" is rendered in the LXX. by
these same peculiar words. The " Wisdom " in that
passage, which brings the calmness with it, is Christ,
and it is Christ who must be understood in verse 26 :
"the Lord shall be thy confidence." To be afraid of
sudden alarms and panics argues a lack of trust in
God's providence and power, and would, therefore, be
unbecoming the daughters of Sara, who "hoped in
God." The " alarms " which they naturally might fear
are, of course, quite general, but especially here, we
may suppose, dread of what their unbelieving husbands
might do to them. (Comp. verse 13 et seq.)

(?) Likewise, ye husbands.— The subjection is
not to be all one-sided, though the husband's subjection
to the wife will be of a different kind from the wife's
to him. We are hardly to take this as a separate
paragraph from the foregoing, but rather as a corollary
added to it, to correct a false impression that might
otherwise have been conveyed.

Dwell. — Rather, dwelling. The participle is attached
to the previous sentences, just as in chaps, ii. 16, 18,
iii. 1 ; but St. Peter does not like to say to the husbands
" submitting yourselves " (though it is implied in the
" likewise "), and conveys the deference which the
husbands are to pay under other terms : such as
" according to knowledge," " giving honour."

With them.— The whole order of the sentences
needs re-arrangement as follows: Ye husbands, like-
voise, dwelling according to knowledge, as ivith a weaker
vessel, with what is female, apportioning honour as to
joint heirs also of a grace of life. In order to under-
stand this very hard passage, we must remember what
is St. Peter's object all throughout these instructions,
viz., to commend Christianity to jealous watchers with-
out. Here, therefore, we may well suppose that he is
thinking chiefly of the case of believing husbands
(Jewish) married to unbelieving wives (Jewish also),
thus presenting the counter-picture to that of verse 1.
And the first thing is that they are to " dwell with "
these wives, not to divorce them, nor to cease from
conjugal cohabitation with them ; such harshness would
lend very little attractiveness to the Christian religion
among the Jewish homes to which the divorced wife
would turn. (See 1 Cor. vii. 12 et seq. — a passage which
must almost have been in St. Peter's mind.)

According to knowledge. — This phrase, which
is like an adverb, such as " scientifically, intelligently,"
means that the husband is to study to enter into the
whole bearings of the case, to take everything into
account. Husband and wife will not get on together

The Mutual Duties

I. PETEE, III.

of all Christians.

and as being heirs together of the
grace of life ; that your prayers be not
hindered.

W Finally, he ye all of Chap. iU. 8_12.
I one mind, having compas- Mutual duties
;;;,;,,';.;',;;:,;" sion one of another, love1 of aU-

smoothly at haphazard, without pains taken to under-
stand the situation. (See 1 Thess. iv. 4 ; " you should
know")

Unto the wife, as unto the weaker vessel.—
Or rather, as we now take it, as with a weaker

with what is female. This explains the saying " accord-
ing to knowledge." The thing which the husband is
specially to understand and take into account is that
he is dealing with a thing less strong than himself.
The whole of chivalry is in these words, and St. Peter
(next after Christ) may be considered the founder of
it. Weakness itself, by being weakness, has a claim
upon the strong man's deference and self-submission.
The weakness here ascribed to the female sex is
primarily that of the body, as we shall see when we
consider the word " vessel," though it may, perhaps,
indicate frailty in other respects as well. If the word
"vessel" is to be here a description of a "wife," as
some contend on 1 Thess. iv. 4, in a sense in which it
does not equally describe a husband, it is difficult to
see with what the vessel is compared and pro-
nounced weaker. "Dwell with the female as with a
more delicate vessel or instrument " than what ? If
we answer " than yourselves," it becomes clear that the
husbands are, by implication, less delicate vessels. And
this is the case. In the Note on 1 Thess. iv. 4, it has
been shown that the word " vessel" (whether as recep-
tacle or as instrument) is a description of the body, or
rather of the self as manifested in the body. The word
in itself may be used to describe anything made to be
serviceable — machinery, tackle and gear, pots and pans,
and, in fact, any kind of apparatus or implement — and
here it might be very fairly rendered, " as with a weaker
thing or object." That which is translated "the wife "
is really a neuter adjective, and it is a question whether
we are to supply with it the noun "vessel" — "with the
female [vessel] as with a vessel which is weaker " — or
whether it is to stand absolutely, " the female," as we
say " the good," " the evil " — i.e., " that which is
female." The latter seems, on the whole, simpler and
more forcible, as calling closer attention to the fact of
weakness being inherent in the sex.

Giving honour.— The word for " giving " implies
rendering a portion which is due. And what is here
called " honour " is not to be understood only of the
wife's maintenance (as some say), though such is
probably the interpretation of the word in 1 Tim. v. 17,
and comp. Ex. xxi. 10 ; nor is the wife only to be
honoured by being consulted in affairs of moment and
put in charge of the household. The •" honour " to be
accorded to wives " as to joint heirs of a grace of life "
is the same kind of " honour " as St. Paul, in 1 Thess.
iv. 4, says must be accorded to oneself. Indeed, from
the juxtaposition of three significant words there, wo
can hardly escape the conclusion that St. Peter was
remembering that passage of St. Paul, " that every one
of you should know how to obtain possession of the
vessel of himself in sanctification ind honour." It is
that chaste respect for the wife which is meant in the
Prayer Book by the phrase, " With my body I thee
worship." It means that the husband must not dare
to take any liberties with his wife. Would the Christian
husband be likely to approve his religion to the un-
believing wife if she found that he took a coarse view
of the conjugal tie P

And as being heirs together of the grace of
life. — There is here a very intricate question of read-
ings, on which it depends whether the " heirs " are
to be nominative or dative, the husbands or the wives.
The present annotator prefers, on the whole, to follow
Tischendorf, and read the dative, " paying respect as
to persons who are also joint heirs (i.e., with you) of a
grace of life." Happily, it comes to much the same
thing, the only difference being that in the one case
deference is paid to the wife on the ground of her
possessing a joint dignity with the husband, and in the
other case on the ground that the husband does not
possess his dignity except conjointly with the wife.
That dignity which they conjointly "inherit" — i.e.,
possess as a gift from God — is called " the grace (or
perhaps, a graoe) of life." This is generally inter-
preted to mean, " the gracious gift of everlasting life."
Undoubtedly, "life" is often used absolutely in tho
New Testament to mean eternal life — e.g., Matt, xviii. 8 ;
and it gives a very intelligible sense, that the husband
should reverence the wife as being equally with him-
self an everlasting soul. But this neither gives
sufficient force to the conjoint nature of the possession,
nor does it take into account the possibility of such a
case as, in fact, we suppose to be here intended, viz., of
a believing husband and unbelieving wife. Although,
in a sense, " the unbelieving wife is sanctified by the
husband " (1 Cor. vii. 14), yet not in such a sense as
for them to be called conjoint possessors of eternal
life. It seems best, therefore, to suppose that the
" grace (or dower) of life " which husband and wife
hold, not only in common, but conjointly, is life in the
natural sense. This "grace," this mysterious and
divine gift — not apart from one another, but conjointly —
they are privileged by the Creator's primeval benedic-
tion (Gen. i. 28) to transmit. They have the power
(no Archangel has the like) to bring human beings
into existence. And in consideration that such is the
dignity and the intention of marriage, a man may well
be called upon to revere his partner in the great pre-
rogative.

That your prayers be not hindered— i.e., the
husbands' prayers, not necessarily their prayers with
their wives. It is easy to feel how the consciousness
of having treated a wife with less awe than is indicated
by the foregoing words would clog the man's prayers,
whether for himself or for his wife's conversion — the
latter being, probably, what St. Peter chiefly meant.
Very likely he had in view what St. Paul writes in
1 Cor. vii. 5.

(8) Finally, be ye all.— A return from the special
to the general. St. Peter has not, however, forgotten
the purpose with which the former rules were given ;
his thought is still how to produce a right impression
on the unbelieving world, although some of these in-
junctions touch only interned relations between mem-
bers of the Church. "By this shall all men," says
our Lord, " know that ye are my disciples, if ye have
love one to another" (John xiii. 35); and, again, "That
they all may be one . . . that the ivorld may believe
that thou hast sent me" (John xvii. 21). Accord-
ingly, this verse, like verses 1 and 7, is attached to
chap. ii. 13, and should be translated, Finally, being all.

Of one mind. — Or. unanimous. Though the Greek
word does not occur elsewhere in the New Testament,

The Duty of Kindness

I. PETER, III.

and Forbearance,

as brethren, he pitiful, be courteous :
<9) not rendering evil for evil, or railing
for railing : but contrariwise blessing ;
knowing that ye are thereunto called,
that ye should inherit a blessing. <10) For

he" that will love life, and see good
days, let him refrain his tongue from
evil, and his lips that they speak no
guile : (U) let him eschew evil, and do
good ; let him seek peace, and ensue it.

the duty is enjoined often, e.g., Roin. xii. 16 ; 2 Cor. .
xiii. 11 ; Phil. ii. 2. It involves an agreement not only
in doctrine but in practical aims, the affections of all
being in the same direction. This unanimity requires
expression to be conscious, and therefore it strikes at
the root of the reserve by which Christian people do
not open out their hearts to each other in the matter
of religion. Such unity of mind is no product of in-
difference, which Leighton describes as "not a knitting
together, but a freezing together, as cold congregates
all bodies how heterogeneous soever, sticks, stones, and
water."

Having compassion one of another. — Liter-
ally, sijmpathetic. The word " compassion " has lost
the meaning which it once had, and signifies little
more than pity. Here the command includes the " re-
joicing with them that do rejoice," as much as the
" weeping with them that weep " (Rom. xii. 26). The
same word only occurs again in Heb. iv. 15 ; x. 34.

Love as brethren. — Again a single adjective,
fraternal, or, loving the brethren. For the meaning
see chap. i. 22, Notes.

Be pitiful. — Rather (omitting the word "be"),
tender-hearted. So it is translated in Eph. iv. 32, the
only other place where it occurs. It differs from
" sympathetic " in being limited to yearnings over the
afflicted. Strangely enough, in profane Greek, the
word is only found to mean " strong -henrted."

Be courteous. — The injunction is so charming,
and so appropriate in the mouth of St. Peter, that
one is almost loth to correct the reading, and substitute
(undoubtedly the right word) humble-minded. This
adjective brings us back to that mutual subjection and
complaisance which is the main subject of all these
rules. Comp. also chap. v. 5.

(9) Not rendering.— So far St, Peter has been
speaking of internal conduct, The two last adjectives,
however, lead gradually into the wider field of conduct,
and probably now he is thinking solely of relation to
the adverse world. Among the Christians surely there
would be no "evil" or "railing" to provoke a retort!
" Evil," in act ; " railing," in word. (See chap. ii. 23,
and Rom. xii. 17.)

But contrariwise blessing. — No doubt a remi-
niscence of the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. v. 44).
The word "blessing" here is not substantive, but a
participle, opposed to " rendering : " " not rendering
them evil or railing, but on the contrary blessing them."
Though the word is chosen as the exact opposite of the
bad language used against the Christians, " blessing "
may perhaps involve the opposite of unkind action as
well. It is used for the conferring of benefits : (1)
spiritual, in Acts iii. 26; Gal. iii. 8; (2) material, in
2 Cor. ix. 5. (Comp. 2 Kings v. 15 ; Joel ii. 14 ; Hag.
ii. 19.)

Knowing that ye are hereunto called.— Comp.
chap. ii. 21. It should be, were called, viz.. when St,
Paul and others first preached to you. What, then,
does he mean that they were called to ? to the fore-
going, or to the following? to blessing instead of
rendering evil and railing? or to receive a blessing?
The comparison of chap. ii. 21 seems to support the

former, for there the " hereunto " points to what pre-
ceded. The argument will then be precisely the same
as in that passage : " You ought not now to shrink from
so hard a duty, for you were given clearly to under-
stand, when you were admitted into Christianity, that
you would have to act thus."

That ye should inherit a blessing. — Rather, in
order that ye may inherit a blessing. God had a
purpose in calling them to so hard a task, and in now
requiring of them the fulfilment of it ; and that pur-
pose is that they may receive a blessing. They must
not think it an arbitrary hardship, or a restriction
which will not in the end be found gainful to themselves.
God's full and eternal blessing is only to be obtained
through such a course of self-suppression and of love
even to those who hate us. The argument thus be-
comes more forcible, and the question which follows
more appropriate, than if we adopt the other view,
viz., "Bless, instead of retorting, for it is more suitable
for men who are expecting to be blessed."

(10) For. — St. Peter will show that he is not going
beyond his book when he says that the blessing is
only to be obtained by those who bless.

He that will love life. — The "will" here is not
merely the future tense, but " he that hath a mind to
love life." St. Peter's quotation, from Ps. xxxiv. 12 —
16, is not exact, according to either Septuagint or
Hebrew, but the divergence is probably not due to a
confusion of memory, but (as often) designed to bring
out an additional significance. The Psalmist had
asked merely, " What man is he that lusteth to live ? "
and he promises merely long life to self-restraint. The
Apostle asks, Who cares to have a life worth having, a
life which makes a man glad to live? This is the
" blessing " spoken of in verse 9 — not simply everlast-
ing life, but a life of unruffled happiness. (Comp. Ps.
cxxxiii. 3.) This healthy enjoyment of life, the opposite
of a morbid craving for death (see Eccles. ii. 17), is
implied to be competent for any person to attain who
"wills."

" Serene will be our days, and bright,
And happy will our nature be,
When love is an unerring light,
And joy its own security."

See good days.—" See " in the same sense as— e.g.,
Ps. xxvii. 13; John iii. 3; Heb. xi. 5 — for to "expe-
rience " — consciously to enjoy or to suffer, as the case
may be.

Let him refrain. — Literally, let him sto}J. The
evil word is on the very tip of his tongue.

No guile. — " Guile " is often used, in a very wide
sense, of inmost anything wrong (see chap. ii. 22); but
here, probably, the distinction is that " evil " means
open railing and bitter speech, while " guile " may
mean the words which are " softer than butter, having
war in his heart " (Ps. Iv. 21).

<n) Let him eschew evil. — Literally, swerve out
of the way from evil. The two former clauses dealt
with the domain of word ; these two with the domain
of action. It suits St. Peter's intention better to take
the verse, not as an exhortation to virtue in general,
but as an instruction how to behave under provocation

Exhortation to keep

I. PETER, III.

a Pure Conscience,

(13) ]ror the eyes of the Lord are over
the righteous, and his ears are open
unto their prayers : but the face of
the Lord is against l them that do
aril.

(13) And who is he that will harm you,

1 Gr. upon,

a Is. 8. L8, l&

! if ye be followers of that Chaps, iii. \:,-

which is good ? CM) But and iv(;- c"f ri' T"

.. J> ... ness of mte-

ii ye suiter for righteous- grity is the se-

ness' sake, happy are mi cretofahappj

, , ' „ 1.L,J „ J . life, and the se-

and be not airaid " of their Cret of Christ's

terror, neither be troubled ; triumphs.

and in danger. The " good " which the man is to do
is what is kind, not merely what is virtuous; and so,
by contrast, the '"evil" to be eschewed probably means
chiefly what is malicious.

Seek peace, and ensue it. — " As much as in you
lieth," says St. Paul, " live peaceably with all men."
It is to be a matter of diligent search ; and if it seems
to flee away it is to be " ensued "—i.e., pursued. The
active practical measures here prescribed confirm the
surmise that " blessing " in verse 8 covered more
ground than benedictory prayers.

(12) For. — Or, Because. In the Psalm there is no
siieh connecting particle, but it is involved in the juxta-
position. The sense that the Lord's eyes are over you
is a sufficient reason for self-restraint under provoca-
tion: especially, perhaps, when we see that by "the
Lord" St. Peter understands Jesns Christ. That this
is the case is clear from his use of the same Psalm in
chap. ii. 3. If Christ, the model of meekness under
persecution (chap. ii. 23), is watching, we not only need
no passionate self- defence, but should be ashamed to
use it. Was St. Peter thinking how once, while he
himself was cursing and swearing at those who accused
him of being a Christian, he felt the eyes of the Lord
turn upon him !J The thought of His eyes being over
us is chiefly that of guardianship.

Open unto their prayers. — Rather, are towards
their prayer — i.e., directed towards it. Here, as in
chap. ii. 3, the Prayer Book version has influenced our
translation.

Against them that do evil.— There is no differ-
ence in the Greek between this preposition and that
just rendered "over." But the countenance of the Lord
is over them that do evil things. He marks what they
are doing. This is sufficient comfort when men injure
us (chap. ii. 23) ; sufficient warning not to injure in
return. It is instructive now to turn and see the
circumstances in which this loA'ely Psalm was com-
posed. The moment was one of David's extremest
peril among an infuriated heathen population. The
danger and dread he was in are shown in Ps. lvi. Yet
nothing can be brighter and more serene than Ps.
xxxiv. He had obtained life and days ; and it was all
through confidence in God on the one hand, and in-
offensive self-submission on the other. Had he used
violence — " shown spirit," as we say — like the " young
lions," he would have come worse off. It seems to be
for this cause that St. Peter deemed the Psalm so
appropriate to his readers, misjudged and suspiciously
watched (Ps. lvi. 5, 6) by unbelievers, who only wraited
the opportunity to shed their blood {ibid. 1, 2). But
the striking change is that, whereas David's trust in
Jehovah was a trust simply in the Eternal Being with-
out distinction of Persons, St. Peter bids the Hebrews
of Asia read that Psalm into an act of faith in Jesus.
We shall see the same thing in verse 15, as we saw it
in chap. ii. 3. The force of the change will be felt by
any one who reads through that Psalm, substituting
(like the Rheims version) " our Lord" for "the Lord."

(13-iv. 6) Exhortation
48

keep a Pure Con- j

science. — It is the only charm against persecution.
It is like Christ to suffer with a good conscience; and
He had His reward for it, in bringing us. and even
the spirits of men who had died impenitent, to God
thereby. It is the very meaning of the baptism by
which He saves us. To feel its beauty and safety, we
have but to consider the ugliness and danger of our
former life.

(is) And who is he that shall harm you?—
There is always a ring of scornful assurance in an in-
terrogative introduced by " and ; " " And who. pray ? "

If ye be followers. — Rather, if ye make your-
selves zealots. The phrase looks on into the future ;
not merely "if at present ye be." And the word
wdiich means "follower" {i.e., imitator) is here a false
reading for zelotes, the name by which St. Peter's lesser
namesake among the Apostles was known, probably
because of his enthusiastic attachment to the old or to
the new Law. The same zelotes is found in Tit. ii. 14
and elsewhere. The translation, " of Him which is good,"
is perfectly possible, but does not quite so well suit
the context. Some writers (Leighton among them)
take the verse to mean, or at least to include, that when
men see the goodness and loving-kindness of our lives
they will not be disposed to hurt us. This thought is,
however, foreign to the passage. It means that men
and devils may try their worst, as they did on Christ,
and cannot harm us.

(14) But and if ye suffer.— The old-fashioned
phrase would read more intelligibly thus : Nay, if ye
should even suffer. So far are men's attempts- to
"harm" us (by acts of malice to property or good name,
&c.) from really injuring us, that even if it should
come to be a matter of "suffering " we are to be con-
gratulated. What he means by this " suffering," which
is so much more than being " harmed," may be seen
from chaps, ii. 21 ; iii. 17 ; iv. 1, 15. He means the
horrors of capital punishment. He does not speak of
this as something that was already occurring, nor as
though it were something immediately and certainly
impending, but as a case well Bupposable. There had
then as yet been no martyrdoms in Asia. The letter
is therefore earlier in date than the Apocalypse (Rev.
ii. 13). It is a noticeable point that in all St. Paul's
Epistles the word "to suffer" occurs but seven times,
and nowhere twice in the same Epistle; whereas it
comes twelve times in this one short Letter of St. Peter.

For righteousness' sake.— Like the " suffering
wrongfully " of chap. ii. 19. It is not as suffering that
it is valuable.

Happy are ye. — Quite the right word : yet the use
of it obscures the obvious reference to the Sermon on
the Mount (Matt. v. 10). The reference to it is all the
clearer in the Greek from the significant way in which
St. Peter leaves his sentence incomplete, merely giving
the catchword of the beatitude. We might represent
it to ourselves by putting "Blessed" in inverted
commas, and a dash after it. He makes sure Ins
readers will catch the allusion. There is no part of
our Lord's discourses which seems (from the traces in

The Believer must give Reason

I. PETEK. III.

of the Hope that is in him.

<15) but sanctify the Lord God in your
hearts : and be ready always to give an

answer to every man that asketh you a
reason of the hope that is in you with

the earliest Christian literature) to have taken so rapid
and firm a hold on the Christian conscience as the
Sermon on the Mount.

Be not afraid of their terror.— Here the trans-
lators might with advantage have kept the same word,
and said (as in the original passage from which St.
Peter is quoting, Isa. viii. 12), Fear ye not their fear —
i.e., the thing which makes them fear ; do not regard
with dread the same object as they do. In the original,
the persons whose fears Isaiah and the faithful Jews
are not to fear are those who were in dread of Syria
and Israel. Here the persons are not named ; but, of
course, according to this interpretation, " they " cannot
be the enemies who try to harm the Christians, but, if
any one, those of the Christians who, for fear of man,
were beginning to abandon Christianity. The inten-
tion, however, is not to press this clause for its own
sake, but to throw greater force upon the clause which
begins the next verse. It argues carelessness about
the passage in Isaiah to interpret, " Be not afraid of
the fear which your foes strike into you."

(is) But sanctify the Lord God in your hearts.
— The tense of this and the two preceding imperatives
shows that St. Peter meant this for advice to be acted
upon at the moment of being called on to suffer. The
passage, as it stands in Isaiah, runs literally, " Jehovah
Sabaoth, Him shall ye sanctify, and He (shall be) your
fear, and He yonr dread." It becomes, therefore, very
striking when we find that, without a shadow of doubt,
the right reading here is, But sanctify the Lord the
Christ in your hearts. How is it possible, except on
the supposition that the Catholic doctrine is really a
statement of fact, that a Jew like St. Peter should ever
have come to apply to a Man whom he had known
familiarly, a Man who had served him at table and had
washed his feet, the words which Isaiah had said about
the " Lord of Hosts ? " This passage immediately
precedes that which was quoted in chap. ii. 8, and (like
that) is not caught up at random, but as coming in the
great Immanuel passage. That presence of God which
was the palladium of Israel in the days of Hezekiah
has found fulfilment in " the Christ " now given. But
what is meant by " sanctifying " Him ? The phrase is
not elsewhere used in the New Testament, except in
the Lord's Prayer ; but in the Old Testament see Lev.
x. 3; Isa. xxix. 23; Ezek. xxxviii. 23. As to "glorify"
God means (in word and deed) to recognise His glorious
perfections ; as to " magnify " Him means to recognise
His greatness; as to "justify" Him means to recognise
His inherent justice ; so to " sanctify " Him means to
recognise, in word and deed, His full holiness, and
therefore to treat Him with due awe. This not oidy
substitutes the fear of God for the fear of man (since
they mutually exclude each other), but enforces purity
of life, thus catching up again " that which is good "
and "for righteousness sake." This, adds St. Peter,
is to be done " in your hearts." This does not mean
simply " with your hearts," or "from your hearts" (i.e.,
inwardly, or, with all sincerity and devotion), but it
signifies the local habitation where the Christ is to be
thus recognised. That is to say: St. Peter, like St.
Paid (Eph. iii. 17), acknowledges an indwelling of j
Christ in the hearts of the faithful ; and this indwelling
not merely subjective, consisting of their constant re- j
collection of him, but real and objective i there He is,
as in a shrine, and they must pay due reverence to His

presence. The Apostle does, in fact, in those words
"in your hearts," purposely call attention to the differ-
ence between Isaiah's use of the name Immanuel and
the Christian meaning of it. To Isaiah, God dwelt in
the midst of a people in its corporate capacity; St.
Peter knew that, through the Incarnation, each indi-
vidual Christian has God in him, united with him.

And be.— The better reading omits the connecting
particle, so that we should put " being " instead of
" and be."

Ready always to give an answer. — This is the
consequence of sanctifying Christ within by the wor-
ship of a pure life, that no moment, no questioner finds
us unprepared to speak with freedom of our hope in
Him. The word for " answer " here is apologia, an
apology; not, of course, in the modern sense of an
excuse, but a defence, the reply of an accused person,
like the well-known Apologia Socratis, or the great
modern Apologia pro Vita Sua, or the works from
which Tertullian, Athenagoras, St. Justin, and others
are called " The Apologists." It does not mean that
every person is bound to be able to state intellectually
the nature and grounds of the Christian creed, though
such a duty may, perhaps, be fairly deduced from the
text. It does not say that every Christian ought to
know why he is a Christian, but that every Christian's
own life ought to be so free from taint, so conscious of
Christ enshrined within, as to cause him no misgiving
in defending the faith from the calumnies (see chap,
ii. 12) brought against it. The constant readiness, or
freedom from encumbrance of sin, is the main point,
" which intimates," says Leighton, " it was not always
to be done to every one, but we, being ready to do, are
to consider when, and to whom, and how far." Con-
sciousness
from defending

That asketh you a reason. — Rather, that de-
nt andeih of you an account. It does not mean inquirers
about Christian doctrine, but those who call Christians
to account for their profession of the Gospel hopes.
Though it must not be exclusively so taken, St. Peter
evidently means chiefly the being called into the law
court to give account. Probably he is thinking of our
Lord's charge to himself and his co-apostlcs, in St.
Luke xii. 11. (Comp. Matt, x. 5, 16, 19.)

Of the hope that is in you. — More literally, wit h
regard to the hope that is in you: i.e., with regard to
the Christianity in which you share. It is, of course,
quite a modern application to the text to see in this
anything of the individual assurance of salvation.
However fairly it may be argued that a Christian
ought to know why he, personally, expects to be saved.
it is not the thought of St. Peter here. Christianity
is here called a hope, rather than a faith, as in Acts
xxviii. 20, Col. i. 23, because, especially in times of
persecution, so much of our creed has a future tinge.

"With meekness and fear. — There ought certainly
to be added a warning But before these words. The
readiness of the Christian's defence of himself and
the Church from all moral aspersions is not to be
marred by any self -exaltation or improper confidence.
Archbishop Leighton says, "Not, therefore, blustering
and flying out "into invectives because he hath the
better on it against any man that questions him touch-
ing this hope, as some think themselves certainly;
authorised to use rough speech because they plead for

of impurity of life shuts a man's mouth
tding Christian morality.

So t/iat the False Accuser

I. PETER, III.

may be put to Shame.

meekness " and fear : l <1G) having a good
conscience ; that, whereas they speak
evil of you, as of evildoers, they may be
ashamed that falsely accuse your good
conversation in Christ. (17) For it is

better, if the will of God be so, that
ye suffer for well doing, than for evil
doing. <18) For Christ also hath once
suffered for sins, the just for the un-
just, that he might bring us to God,4

truth. On the contrary, so much the rather study
meekness, for the glory and advantage of the truth."
The " fear" will be. in huge measure, a dread of over-
stepping the bounds of truth or modesty in speaking
of the Christian morals. The Acts of the Martyrs,
with all their splendour, too often show how St. Peter's
cautious But was needed.

(16) Having a good conscience.— This strikes the
key-note of the paragraph. How vigorously St. Peter
repeats it! "Zealous for that which is good." "for
righteousness' sake," "sanctify the Lord," "with meek-
ness and fear," "a good conscience," "your good con-
versation."

Whereas. — The word means precisely the same as
in chap. ii. 1:2, where see Note.

They speak evil of you, as of evil doers.—
Tischendorf follows one of the best manuscripts and
the Pesehito-Syriac version in reading whereas ye are
evil spoken of. It is easy to see how the ordinary read-
ing would come in, from the similarity of chap. ii. 12;
and we may pretty confidently adopt the emendation.
In any case, the words "as of evil doers" should be
removed.

They may be ashamed (or, confounded). — When?
St. Peter is evidently thinking of the Christian at the
bar of the curator or pro-consul, and the mortification
of the delator, or spy, who had given information
against him.

Falsely accuse.— Literally, insult, that is, "odiously
calumniate." The word occurs again only in Luke
vi. 28.

In Christ. — This is the nearest approach in St.
Peter to a use of this word as a proper name. Still,
it is not so. Other Hebrews, he reminds them in this
word, were safe from persecution only by rejecting
the national hope of a Messiah. It is simply because
these men are " in Christ" that the heathens (perhaps
also their fellow Jews) insult their conversation. The
phrase "in Christ," i.e., as members of the Church,
occurs again in chap. v. 10, 14, and the thought is
common enough in St. John {e.g. 1 John v. 20), but it
does not come in 2 Peter, nor in Hebrews, St. James,
or St. Jude. Of course, St. Paul's writings teem with
it. It contains the converse side of the Incarnation
doctrine to that involved in verse 15; we not only
have the whole Christ dwelling in us, but He embraces
us all ; " Ye in me, and I in you " (John xiv. 20).

(17) For it is better.— There is a kind of ironical
suppression in this comparison.

If the will of God be so. — A strikingly reverent
phrase in the original, If the will of God should will it.
This is. of course, to be taken only with the word
'• suffer." which itself means, as in verse 14, to suffer
eapitaUy. St. Peter is thinking of the legal process
of verses 15, 1(1. coming to a verdict of "guilty." He
was himself daily expecting such a death.

For well doing. — Better, perhaps, as well doers.
It does not necessarily mean, in the Greek, that the
well doing was the reason of the suffering, but simply
that it accompanied it.

to) For Christ also. — This gives a reason for
thinking it no such formidable thing to suffer when

4 1 9

one is innocent. It has been tried before, and tho
precedent is encouraging. " It is," says Archbishop
Leighton, " some known ease to the mind, in any dis-
tress, to look upon examples of the like or greater
distress in present or former times . . . As the ex-
ample and company of the saints in suffering is very
considerable, so that of Christ is more than any other,
yea, than all the rest together." If King Messiah
(note that he does not call Him Jesus) could endure to
be cut off (but not for Himself), was it for any one
wdio clung to the promises to shrink from the like

test P

Hath once suffered. — Even if we retain the verb,
it should be suffered, not " hath suffered," it is all past
now; but much the better reading is died, which leaves
no doubt about the meaning of " suffering " in verse
17. And this He did " once." In this significant
word St. Peter strikes out the main argument of a
great portion of the Epistle to the Hebrews | Heb. vii.
27 ; ix. 27 ; x. 10). The thought that Christ suffered
or died " once " conveys comfort to these Christians
for several reasons : (1) because His death has, once for
all, taken all terror from an innocent death; (2) because
no Christian will have to die more than one death ;
(3) because one death, so soon over for ever, contains
the further idea of happiness and peace beyond. The
word "to die" in Greek is often used in a penal sense —
" to be put to death " — and is to be so taken here.

For sins. — When the Apostle says " Christ also,"
he raises a comparison between Christ and the Christian
martyr. Now the parallel does not merely consist in
the fact that both " suffer " or are put to death. Both
are put to death but once. Both are put to death
innocent : the martyr " while well-doing." Christ
acknowledged to be "just." But this does not exhaust
the likeness. The Messiah is said to be put to death
" for sins." Now this expression " for sins " (literally,
in connection with sins) is that which is used to
mean " as a sin-offering." (See Rom. viii. 3 ; Gal. i. 4 ;
Heb. x. 6, 8, 18, 26 ; xiii. 11 ; 1 John ii. 2 ; iv. 10.)
If, therefore, " Christ also was put to death as a sin-
offering," it is implied that, in a sense, the Christian
martyr is also a sin-offering, and (though in an infi-
nitely lower degree) dies, like Him, " just for unjust."
This is a fresh encouragement to St. Peters first
readers to meet death bravely. In what sense they
can be sacrifices for other men's sins we shall consider
presently.

The just for the unjust.— That preposition
"for " contains a volume of theology. Though it is not
so weak a word as the one which occurs in the phrase
"for sins," it does not express the notion of substi-
tution. (Comp. Note on chap. ii. 21.) It is simply
"on behalf of." As a substitute for the unjust, we
make bold to say that (according to Holy Scripture,
and the primitive fathers, and the conscience of man)
neither the martyrs nor Christ Himself could have
made atonement; "on behalf of" other men, the
martyrs could very easily be said to die. It is, per-
haps, a pity that the definite article has been inserted
in our version. Though, of course, our Lord is tiie
only human being who can in strictness be called just.

Christ suffered I. PETEK, III. for our Sins.

being put to death in the flesh, but | I quickened by the Spirit : <19> by which

St. Peter means the word here to cover others besides
Him ; " Christ also died, a just man on behalf of unjust
men."

That he might bring us to God.— Or, better,
bring you ; though it cannot be stated peremptorily in
this case that such is the reading. (See Note on chap,
i. 12.) The substantive derh-ed from this verb appears
as " access " in Rom. v. 2 ; Eph. ii. 18 ; iii. 12. A most
important doctrinal passage. St. Peter says not a word
about the Atonement in its effect upon the mind of
the Father towards man. Though thei-e is, no doubt,
some deep truth in the phrase which occurs in the
second of the Thirty-nine Articles — "suffered ... to
reconcile His Father to us" — it is a side on which the
New Testament writers do not much dwell. It is
too high a mystery for our minds to reach. The phrase
is itself not Scriptural. The New Testament, as has
been well pointed out, never even speaks of the recon-
ciliation as mutual. The quarrel is treated as one-sided,
so far, at least, as in connection with the Atonement.
"When, then, our Lord was put to death as a sacrifice
for sins — a righteous man on behalf of unrighteous men
— St. Peter explains these terms by the expression " in
order that He might bring you to God," not " in order
that He might bring God to you." The voluntary
death of a righteous man upon the cross, in the calm calcu-
lation that nothing else would so attract sinful men
to Himself, and thus to the Father who sent Him (John
xii. 32 — this is the aspect of the Atonement which
St. Peter sets forth. Perhaps on another occasion he
might have set forth a different aspect ; but now he is
still thinking of the effect of Christian conduct upon
the outer world, and his object is to make the Chris-
tians feel that they too can, in their measure, bring the
unjust, the persecuting heathens and Jews, to God by
innocent and voluntary deaths. Thus their deaths are
carrying on the work of i-econciliation ; and what
Christ did for them (" died for you ") they do for
others. Well then may they be called blessed when
they suffer (verse 14).

Being put to death in the flesh, but quick-
ened by the Spirit.— The interpreters of this
sentence may be classified in two groups, according as
they understand the fact referred to in the second clause
to be (1) the resurrection of Christ, or (2) something
which took place between His death and His resurrec-
tion. Now, if we could accept the translation in the
English Bible, "by the Spirit," it would be pretty
obvious to accept (1); and we should point to such
passages as Bom. i. 4, viii. 11, to show that the resur-
rection of Christ was due to the action of the Holy
Ghost. It would not be possible to follow Oecumenius,
Calvin, Beza, and Leighton, in taking " the flesh " to
mean generally the human nature of Christ, and " the
Spirit " by which He was quickened to mean His own
divine nature ; for Christ has a human spirit as truly as
a human body and soul, and it would be heresy to call
His divine nature His spirit, as though it occupied in
Him the position which is occupied in men by the
human spirit. But, as a matter of fact, we cannot trans-
late it " quickened by the Spirit." It is literally, hilled
indeed in flesh, but quickened in spirit. Now, how
can " quickened in spirit " be a description of the Re-
surrection ? It cannot be answered (with Huther) that
the "spirit" here means the resurrection body ; for
though that is indeed a spiritual body, yet it is playing
fast and loose with words to identify " spirit " and

" spiritual body." If the resurrection body be only
spirit, where is the resurrection ? Neither would the
antithesis be correct between " flesh " and " spirit," if
by " spirit " is meant the new form of body given at
the Resurrection. Or, again, taking " spirit " in its true
sense of the inward incorporeal self, could the Resur-
rection be described as a quickening of it ? True, the
spirit itself will gain in some way by its re-incorpora-
tion (2 Cor. v. 4) ; but as the spirit has been alive all
along, but the flesh has been dead, the contrast would
be very forced to express death and resurrection by
"killed inflesh, butquickened in spirit,'.' instead of saying
rather " killed in flesh, but soon quickened in the same."
Thus we are driven to (2). As a matter of fact, there
is nothing in the words to suggest an interval between
the quickening and the killing. They both are parts
of the same act, aud both are used to explain the word
" died." It is a kind of apology for having used the
word death at all (for we have seen that St. Peter's
object is to help the future martyrs to despise death,
verse 14) : " Died, do I say ? yes, killed in flesh, it is
true, but actually quickened to fresh eneigies in spirit
by that very act of death." (Comp. our Lord's charge
to the Twelve, Matt. x. 28.) But how can His death be
said to have been a quickening of His human spirit ?
Some take the word to mean simply " preserved alive,"
a word almost identical, being used apparently in that
sense in Luke xvii. 33, Acts vii. 19. The notion, how-
ever, would be too weak here ; some energetic action
seems required to balance "being killed." That St.
Peter is speaking of something not altogether peculiar
to Christ, but common to men, may still be inferred from
his saying " Christ also." The doctrine, then, seems to
be (as Bengel and others say) that the spirit, set free
from the body, immediately receives new life, as it were,
thereby. To purely spiritual realities it becomes alive
in a manner which was impossible while it was united
to the flesh. The new powers are exemplified in what
follows immediately. So long as Christ, so long as any
man, is alive in the flesh, he cannot hold converse with
spirits as such ; but the moment death severs flesh and
spirit the spirit can deal with other spirits, which Christ
proceeded forthwith to do.

(19) By which.— If " by the Spirit " had been right
in the former verse, this translation might have stood
here, though the word is literally in; for "in" is
often used to mean " in the power of," " on the strength
of :" e.g., Rom. viii. 15. But as that former rendering
is untenable, we must here keep strictly to in tvhich —
i.e., in spirit. This might mean either of two things :
(1) " spiritually speaking," "so far as thought and sym-
pathy goes," as, for instance, 1 Cor. v. 3, Col. ii. 5 ; or
else (2) " in spirit." as opposed to " in the body " — i.e..
"out of the body" (2 Cor. xii. 2 ; comp. Rev. i. 10), as
a disembodied spirit. We adopt the latter rendering
without hesitation, for reasons which will be clearer
in the next Note.

He went and preached unto the spirits in
prison.— There are two main ways of interpreting this
mysterious passage. (1) The spirits are understood as
being now in prison, in consequence of having rejected
His preaching to them while they were still on earth.
According to this interpretation — which has the support
of such names as Pearson, Hammond, Barrow, and
Leighton (though he afterwards modified his opinion),
among ourselves, besides divers great theologians of
other countries, including St. Thomas Aquinas on the

He preached to

I. PETER, III.

tike V:' '('x '"- i ' wwi

also lie went and preached"1 unto the *«&•«•*
spirits in prison;* ^ which sometime ''- 1't"' '
were disobedient, when once the long-

suffering of God waited in the days of
Noah, while the ark was a preparing,
wherein few, that is, eight souls were

ono hand and Beza on the other — it was " in spirit,"
i.e., mystically speaking, our Lord Himself who, in and
through the person of Noah, preached repentance to
the old world. Thus the passage is altogether dis-
sociated from the doctrine of the descent into hell;
and the sense (though not the Greek) would be better
expressed by writing. He had gone and preached unto
fin spyrits [now) in prison. In this case, however, it
is difficult to see the purpose of the digression, or what
could have brought the subject into St. Peter's mind.
(•_' i The second interpretation — which is that of (practi-
cally) all the Fathers, and of Calvin, Luther (finally),
Bellarmine, Bengel, and of most modem scholars —
refers the passage to what our Lord did while His body
was dead. This is the most natural construction to put
upon the words "in which also" [i.e., in spirit). It
thus gives point to the saying that He was "quickened
in spirit." which would otherwise be left very meaning-
less, The "spirits" here will thus correspond with
"in spirit" there. It is the only way to assign any
intelligible meaning to the words "He went and "to
suppose that He "went" straight from His quickening
in spirit — i.e., from His death. It is far the most
natural thing to suppose that the spirits were in prison
at the time when Christ went and preached to them.
We take it, then, to mean that, directly Christ's human
spirit was disengaged from the body, He gave proof
of tin; new powers of purely spiritual action thus ac-
quired by going off to the place, or state, in which
other disembodied spirits were (who would have been
incapable of receiving direct impressions from Him
had He not Himself been in the purely spiritual
condition), and conveyed to them certain tidings : He
"preached" unto them. What was the substance of
this preaching we are not here told, the word itself
(which is not the same as, e.g., in chap. i. 25) only
means to publish or proclaim like a crier or herald;
and as tin; spirits are said to have been disobedient and
in prison, some have thought that Christ went to pro-
claim to them the certainty of their damnation ! The
notion has but to be mentioned to be rejected with
horror; but it may be pointed out also that in chap,
iv. 6, which refers back to this passage, it is distinctly
called a "gospel;" and it would be too grim to call
that a gospel which (in Calvin's words) " made it more
clear and patent to them that they were shut out from
all salvation ! " He brought good tidings, therefore,
of some kind to the "prison" and the spirits in it.
And this " prison " must not be understood (with Bp.
Browne, Articles, p. 95) as merely "a place of safe
keeping," where good spirits might be as well as bad,
though etymologically this is imaginable. The word
occurs thirty-eight times in the New Testament in the
undoubted sense of a "prison," and not once in that of
a place of protection, though twice (Rev. xviii. 2) it is
used in the derived sense of " a cage."

(20) Which sometime were disobedient.— The
absence of the definite article here in the Greek (contrary
to St. Peter's usage in participial sentences — e.g., chap.
i. 5, 7, 10, 17) makes it possible to think that the spirits
mentioned in this verse are not co-extensive with those
in prison. It is, literally, to men who once upon a time
were disobedient. Our Lord preached to the whole
class of spirits in prison, of all times and races ; and
then, to magnify the bounty of this act, St. Peter in-

stances a particular group of them, who were the most
marked criminals of any, and whoso case suggested
a useful application. He has a reason for using the
word " disobedient." It would not describe all sinners,
but those who had heard and been convinced by the
word of God, but refused to accept it. (See Note on
verse 2.) This was the case with those to whom Noah
preached (2 Pet. ii. 5); and, in spite of their "disobe-
dience," Christ, after His innocent and sacrificial death,
went in spirit and preached a gospel to them. Now,
let it be recollected that St. Peter's object through the
whole of this section is to encourage the Hebrew
Christians to be ready, through a good conscience, for
a brave martyrdom, if need be. They are to think how
their deaths, like Christ's, may bring their persecutors
to God. Nay — he seems to imply — their very spirits
going forth into the world of spirits may conceivably
carry a gospel of some kind even to Hebrew relatives
who have passed away, like those Antediluvians, in tho
" disobedience " which was characteristic of the Jews.
St. Clement of Alexandria, who derives the notion from
the Shepherd of Hernias, gives his belief that the
Apostles also, when they died, preached to those who
had died before them ; and though there is little that
throws light on our occupation in the intermediate
state, it can hardly be pronounced impossible for some
spirits to be allowed to follow Christ's example there
by preaching to spirits in prison. Many expositors,
afraid of the consequences of admitting that there
could be a possible gospel for men who died impenitent,
have supposed that the imprisoned spirits to whom
Christ went were the less wicked people destroyed by
the Flood ; others that they were those who had some
motions of penitence when the rain began to fall ; but
these ideas are foreign to the text, which only tells us
that they " were disobedient/' and adds nothing to
extenuate their crime. They are a typical instance of
men who died "as evil doers" (verse 17).

"When once the longsuffering of God waited.
— The word " once" has no business in the text, origi-
nating only in an ingenious but unnecessary guess of
Erasmus. The clause serves to heighten the guilt of
the poor sinners to whom Christ preached in prison.
Not only did they die a judicial death for their extreme
sensuality (Gen. vi. 3, 11), not only did they disobey
an isolated call to repentance fi-om Noah, but con-
tinuously, through all the time of the building of the
ark (traditionally 120 years), they went on refusing to
listen. Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed without
a preacher to warn them, the Canaanites were anni-
hilated without an offer of repentance, but these
abandoned Antediluvians sinned in spite of the long
ministry of Noah, and died impenitent. Both their
wickedness and God's longsuffering with them were
embodied in Hebrew proverbs, which St. Peter's readers
would know, and yet Christ had a gospel for them.

"While the ark.— Better, while an ark. It does
not merely describe the period of the disobedience, but
rather changes the thought altogether. We now turn
from the destruction of the majority to the salvation
of the few.

Wherein. — Literally, ivhcrcinto — i.e., by getting
into which.

Few, that is, eight souls were saved.— The
mention of disobedience calls up to the Apostle's mind

421

The Meaning

I. PETEE, III.

of Baptism.

saved by water. <21> The like figure
whereunto even baptism doth also now

save" us (not the putting away of the
filth of the flesh, but the answer of a

at once the vast number of Hebrews who rejected the
gospel of Christ. As in chap. ii. 4 et seq., so here, he
stablishes the readers against the thought, " Can I be
right and all these people wrong ? " by showing that
from the beginning it was always a small number who
accepted salvation, and they should naturally expect it
to be so now. It is better to be one of the eight in the
ark than of the many disobedient in the water.

By water. —Or, through water. The very water
which drowned the disobedient was the instrument of
caving to those who believed, for it floated their ark.
It cannot be denied that this is a little forced. So,
in the same way, in chap. ii. 8, the same stone is to
some a sanctuary, to some a stumbling-block. This
pregnant word " water " leads on to the next thought.

(2i) The like figure whereunto even baptism
doth also now save us.— There are two undoubted
false readings in this sentence which must be cleared
away before we can consider the meaning. First, the
word " whereunto " is a mistake for the more difficult
which ; and second, it should be you, not "us. " We may
then translate, either, Which baptism also, in antitype,
doth now save you, or else, Wliich (water) also, in anti-
type, now saveth you — baptism. The first is less likely,
both from the order of the words in Greek, and also be-
cause of the difficulty of calling the Flood point-blank a
baptism. According to the second translation, the water
through which Noah was saved is said in the present day
(" now," as opposed to " in the days of Noe ") to save
us (the " you " is emphatic). It does so, in the same
sense as we might say, for instance, that the sprink-
ling of the paschal blood saves us : that is to say, it
foreshadowed something wliich does as a fact save us.
This St. Peter expresses by the adjective which may
be rendered " in antitype." The thing it represented
is Christian baptism. Where, then, lies the likeness
between the two? Not merely in the identity of the
element water, which serves but to arrest the fancy,
and make one think of the deeper resemblance. One
obvious point is that the number of persons accepting
the proffered salvation at the present crisis is, as in
the days of Noe, very small compared with those who
reject it. The main thought, however, is not of the
Christians, as a body or family (like Noe's), being
saved while others are lost. For each individual by
himself there is a meaning in his baptism which is
prefigured by the Flood; and the explanation of baptism
wliich follows, and the opening of the next chapter,
show that, the Apostle was thinking chiefly of this
individual application. As the passage of Israel through
the Red Sea is described as a baptism (1 Cor. x. 2)
because it marked their transition from the state of
bondage to a new national life, and left their enemies
destroyed in the water, so Noe's safe passage through
the Flood is a type of baptism, because it was a re-
generation of humanity, it was a destruction of the
carnal, sensual element (Gen. vi. 3.. "he also is flesh"),
it washed the human race from its pollutions, and man
rose to a new and more spiritual existence for the time
being, with the bow for a sign of a perpetual covenant
made. So baptism is a destruction and death to the
flesh, but a new life to the spirit. It must be observed
how carefully St. Peter expresses the permanent effect
of baptism by the present tense " saveth: " not "saved
you," nor "hath saved you;" it is a living and ever-
present fact, the ''everlasting benediction of His

heavenly washing ; " it washes the neophyte not from
past sins only, but from those which he afterwards
commits, if only he still repents and believes.

Not the putting away of the filth of the
flesh. — The Apostle is not cautioning his readers
against the thought that baptism acted ex opere ope-
rato, as a charm, but he is telling them, on the contrary,
that it is no external rite. He was writing to Jews,
who were very familiar with ceremonial washings, or
" baptisings," which, though they symbolised a cleans-
ing from sin, really effected nothing but to make the
skin less dirty.

But the answer of a good conscience toward
God. — An expression which has caused almost as
much difficulty as any in the New Testament. The
difficulty lay especially in two points : first, that the
context was so involved as to give little indication what
to expect ; secondly, that the Greek word (eperotema)
which is here rendered " answer " is so seldom found,
and might easily take such various shades of meaning.

(1) Touching the word itself, we may at once reject
the translation " answer," for it could only mean an
"answer" in that sense in which "question" and
"answer " are identical, both of them being "the thing
asked," the subject matter of both being the same;
but so cumbersome a sense is not in keeping here.

(2) Next we may consider the attractive theory that it
means a " contract." The form in wliich a contract
was made was as follows: N says to M, "Dost thou
promise ? " and M answers, " I promise." Now, in
Byzantine Law-Greek such a contract is known as an
eperotema, or " questionment," from the question with
which proceedings began. And, as a matter of fact,
the baptismal covenant has undoubtedly been entered
upon from the earliest times with just such questions
and answers. Tertullian speaks of this (De Corona,
chap, iii.) as an ancient custom in the end of the second
century. There are, however, three serious objections :
first, that " the contract of a good conscience " is a
somewhat vague and imperfect phrase, and far more
difficult in Greek than in English ; secondly, that there
is no trace of the legal tenn eperotema until centuries
after the date of St. Peter, or of Tertullian either ;
thirdly, that had eperotema been a recognised term for
a " contract" in St. Peter's time, we should have been
certain to find this explanation in some of the Greek
Fathers. (3) The usual meaning of the verb would
lead us towards a less unsatisfactory conclusion. Epe-
rutan is "to put a question " for further information's
sake. And we may remark that the order of the Greek
would strongly suggest that the words " toward God "
should be attached (in spite of the analogy of Acts
xxiv. 16) not to " good conscience," but to the word
eperotema. Now, there is a constant use of the verb
eperotdn in the Old Testament in connection with the
name of God. In Josh. ix. 14, Judg. i. 1, xviii. 5, and
many other places, it means " to consult God," " to
inquire of the Lord," to seek to Him for direction. Or,
with a slightly different turn, it is used, as in Isa. xik.
3, lxv. 1, for " to inquire after God," in which sense it
finds its way into the New Testament in Rom. x. 20.
Thus baptism would be said to be, "not the flesh's
putting away of dirt (for so it might be turned, though
it is somewhat forced), but a good conscience's inquiry
at the hands of God," or " a good conscience's inquiry
after God." Observe that if the " good conscience " is

Jesus Christ

I. PETER, III.

Ascended into Heaven.

good conscience toward God,) by the
resurrection of Jesus Christ : " (~> who is
gone into heaven, and is on the right

| hand of God ; angels and authorities
.s; Bom.6.4 and powers being made subject unto
El>u- '••-"• him.*

the agent in this transaction, as here expressed, St.
Peter would recognise (as in Luke viii. 15) the man's
happy state of soul before baptism, and baptism would
be the mode of his further approach to God. That
this is good doctrine cannot be denied. (4) There is,
however, another version for which a still better case
can be made out : viz.. " demand." It is true that the
verb eperotan more frequently means " to ask " a
question than '' to ask " a boon, expecting a verbal re-
sponse rather than a practical one ; but it is once used
in the New Testament in the latter sense (Matt. xvi. 1),
and in the Old Testament also (as Ps. cxxxvii. 3). And
the only other instance of the word eperubma in inspired
literature makes for this view. This occurs in Dan.
iv. 17. where the English has " demand," and the Latin
petitio. There is, indeed, almost as much difficulty in
ascertaining the exact sense there as here; but, on the
whole, it seems to mean the '"demand" for Nebuchad-
nezzar's degradation. This was evidently the meaning
assigned to our present passage by the anonymous Father
Ja the Catena, for, wrongly joining the words "through
the resurrection " with eperotema, he says : " It teacheth
also how we beseech of Him ; and how ? by confessing
the resurrection of the Lord." Taking, then, the render-
ing "demand," a further question arises: Does St. Peter
mean that baptism is the demand ( made by God or the
Church upon the man) for a good conscience towards
God? or the demand made bij a good conscience upon
God, without specifying the demand? or finally, the
demand upon God (made by the man) for a good con-
science ? Of these the second seems the weakest,
because it leaves the nature of the demand so open, and
because the notion of a good conscience previous to
baptism is less suited to the context. The first would
indeed give a vigorous sense. St. Peter would then be
saying, "Have a good conscience (verse 16), for, besides
all else, it is your baptismal obligation, and in defiling
conscience you forfeit your baptismal salvation ; " but
it labours under the defect of connecting "toward God"
with " conscience " instead of with " demand," and it is
imperfect, moreover, in not demanding a good con-
science toward men as well as toward God. The last
seems both the clearest in itself, the best antithesis to
the balancing clause, and the most in keeping with the
context. It will then be : " Noah's flood, in antitype,
to this day saves you — that is to say, baptism, which is
no cleansing of the skin from dirt, but an application
to God for a clear conscience." A " good conscience,"
in this case, will not mean an honest frame of mind,
but a consciousness of having nothing against you,
such as would come to even the chief of sinners from
the baptismal remission of sins. " Conscience " is
used in this retrospective sense four times in Hebrews
(chaps, ix. 9, 14, and x. 2, 22) ; and, indeed, in verse
16 it meant " having nothing on your mind because of
the past," rather than " being sure that you mean well."
And how well this suits the context! The Apostle,
from chap. iii. 13 to chap. iv. 6, is uttering the praises of
a clear conscience, and warning from everything that
could defile it. " With this," he says, " you cannot be
harmed ; with this, you will be always ready to defend
the faith when called to account. It was because He
had this that Christ was able to atone for you and bring
you to God, and to conduct His mission to the dead,
and to give by His resurrection an efficacy to your

baptism; and that baptism itself only saves you by
the fact that in it you ask and receive the cleansing of
the conscience."

By the resurrection.— Rightly joined in our
version with " doth save." Baptism derives all its
sacramental efficacy from the fact that Christ has, by
the Resurrection, introduced into the world a new kind
of life, which in baptism is imparted to the believer.
The doctrine here approaches still nearer to that of Rom.
vi. than to that of chap. i. 3. In the first chapter, the
Resurrection of Christ was said to be the means and
the moment of our regeneration, but baptism (though
of course implied) was uot mentioned, nor the death
to sin. But here, as in Romans, these two take a pro-
minent place. As humanity died to the flesh in the
bad Antediluvians, and rose again, washed clean, hi Noe,
so to the believer there was in baptism a death to the
flesh, and he rose again, with a conscience washed clean
through the union thereby effected with the crucified
and risen Christ. Note, again, that when the Apostle
speaks of glories he uses the name of Jesus : when
of sufferings, it is the title of Christ.

(22) who is gone into heaven, and is on the
right hand of God.— This verse (which partakes
of the character of a doxology) serves two purposes.
First, it carries on the history of Jesus Christ. How
carefully, in spite of what seem at first irrelevant di-
gressions, St. Peter holds his threads. Christ's passion
and death, activity among the dead, resurrection
from among them, ascension into heaven, perpetual
session in glory, follow one another in due order. The
second purpose of the clause runs parallel to the first.
St. Peter is teaching the entire conformity of the be-
liever to the Lord. If the believer will but retain his
good conscience, he may hope for a pi-ecisely similar
experience. The Latin and several other good versions,
together with several Latin Fathers, add a curious
sentence after the words " on the right hand of God,"
which runs : swallowing up death, that we might be made
heirs of eternal life ; but there is no sufficient authority
for the sentence. The first notion of being " on the right
hand of God," taken, probably, from Ps. ex. 1, seems
to be that of occupying the highest post of honour pos-
sible, next after that of God — i.e., the Father — Himself.
It is not necessary here to consider what else may be
implied in the phrase as to the conditions of our Lord's
human existence ; but when we compare St. Paul's
statement, in Eph. iv. 10, about His now " filling all
things," we feel that these pictorial words, such as
" heaven " and " right hand of God," are intended to
convey the notion that His humanity is now entirely
without conditions, though still retaining all that is
truly essential to humanity. It may be observed
that, assuming (as even most sceptical critics do) the
genuineness of this Epistle, we have here at first hand
the deliberate evidence of one who had been perfectly
familiar with Jesus Christ as man with man. By
what stretch of imagination can we suppose that such a
person could ever have invented, or have accepted from
others this mode of speaking about his former Teacher,
had he not been conscious of the resurrection and
ascension of Jesus as simply historical facts, of the
same order as the fact of His death ?

Angels and authorities and powers being
made subject unto him.— There can be no doubt

423

We are to follow

I. PETER, IV.

Christ's Example.

CHAPTER IV.— (D Forasmuch then
as Christ hath suffered for us in the
flesh," arm yourselves likewise with the
same mind : for he that hath suffered
in the flesh hath ceased from sin;*

(2) that he no longer should live the
rest of his time in the flesh to the lusts
of men, "but to the will of God. (3) For
the time past of our life may suffice us
to have wrought the will of the Gentiles,

that this whole verse is coloured by recollection of
the circular letter which St. Paul had sent to the
Churches of Asia, which we call the Epistle to the
Ephesians. Perhaps the heresy which St. Paul
lamented in that Epistle may still have lingered in
existence, in cabalistic Jewish circles, among those same
Churches when St. Peter thus wrote to them. He may,
for the moment, be glancing away from his faint-hearted
Hebrew brethren, who, in fear of persecution, were
slinking back into Judaism, and turning rather to those
Gnosticisiug Jews who began to abound in Asia, who
made " genealogies " of aeons, and gave Christ a place
among them. In favour of such an opinion one might
appeal to the vivid picture of licentiousness in the next
chapter, and the development of the same, manifestly
under Gnostic influence, in the Second Epistle and
in the Apocalypse. Prom the expi'ession " being
made subject," or, literally, having been subdued (or,
siibjected)," we may infer that St. Peter meant evil
spirits, this being a crowning triumph of Christ, and
not only a mark of His exaltation. We need not think
that St. Peter, any more than St. Paul, is distinctly
teaching that there are such grades of spiritual beings ;
he is probably only borrowing the titles from the heretics
glanced at, aud saying that, whatever unseen powers
there are, whatever they may be called, they are now
subdued to Christ.

IV.

(!) Forasmuch then . . .—Literally, a participial
phrase: Christ, then, having suffered in (or, to) the flesh
— i.e., so far as the flesh is concerned. The reference
is to the words " killed hi (or, to) the flesh " in chap. iii.
18, to which the word "then" takes us back. It is
difficult to decide about the right of the words " for
us " to stand in the text. Teschendorf and Lachmann
strike them out, and they are probably right in doing
so. The authority for the reading " for you " is nearly
as strong ; but in fact neither is wanted here, as the
point is not the atoning character of Christ's death,
but the death itself.

Arm yourselves likewise with the same
mind. — Or rather, with the same conception. It does
not mean merely " put yourselves into the same dispo-
sition : " that is, " resolve to die with Him." Though
the word which is here rendered " mind " may possibly
bear the meaning " intent " assigned to it in Heb. iv.
12 (the only other place in the New Testament where
it occurs), the more natural and common sense is that
of conception, notion, view. Christ is therefore said
to have been " armed " with a particular " concep-
tion" or "view," which He found to be sufficient shield
in the day of suffering ; and Ave are exhorted to try the
same defensive armour. The "view" which Christ
found so efficacious was the view He took of the
" suffering " itself. What that view was is forthwith
explained.

For he that hath suffered in the flesh . . .—
Rather, that he that hath suffered to the flesh is at rest
from sin. This is the "view" which we are to take.
The thought is probably derived from Rom, vi. 7. The
death of the body puts a stop (at any rate, for the

redeemed) to any further possibility of sin. Welcome,
death ! A slight difficulty is caused by the implied
fact that Christ, too, in dying " ceased from sin." But
the Greek word for "hath ceased" literally means hath
been caused to rest, St. Peter using expressly (for the
only time in the New Testament) that part of the verb
which does not mean a voluntary cessation from what
one was doing before, but a pause imposed from with-
out. And that Christ looked upon His death as a boon
of rest from sin (it does not say from sinning) is not
only a true and impressive thought, but is fully justi-
fied by Rom. vi. 10, " He died unto sin," and even by
His cry, " It is finished." Whatever harshness there is
in the thought is much softened by the fact that St.
Peter names it as the view we are to take, not directly
as the view He took ; so that it admits of some adjust-
ment when applied to Him.

(2) That he no longer.— The Greek admits at
least equally of the translation, That ye no longer.
Thus, this second verse will attach itself, not to the
clause " that he that hath suffered," but to the clause
" arm yourselves." And unless this be understood, we
become involved in the difficulty that whereas, up to
this very point, St. Peter has been urging the future
martyrs, by the example of Christ) to face the death of
the body bravely, he would now be sliding confusedly
into treating of the baptismal death to sin, and indeed
actually saying that a martyr's death was a step to
leading the rest of the life on earth becomingly! But
if we attach verse 2 to the clause "arm yourselves,"
it runs, without any confusion, thus : " As Christ suf-
fered to the flesh without shrinking, take for your
protection and support the same thought which proved
a protection and support to Him — viz., that to be rid
of sin for ever was the greatest of all possible blessings,
and that this is only attainable through the bodily
death ; and the result of embracing this thought will
be, that for the rest of your lives on earth (so soon,
perhaps, to be cut violently short) you may no longer
live to men's lusts, but to God's will."

(3) For the time past of our life.— There are
two words in the English here which do not stand in
the true text, and sadly impede the sense. They are
" of our life," and " us." The fii-st is added by some
scribe to point the contrast with "the rest of his time."
The second — which should be " you," if anything at all
— is simply put to fill the gap after the word " suffice."
If " our life " and " us " were right, we should have St.
Peter, quite unlike his wont, identifying himself with
the bad life here described, as though he himself had
shared in it.

May suffice. — It is the same word as in Matt. vi.
34-; x. 25, and would be, literally, For sufficient is the
past. There is an irony in the word similar to that in
chap. iii. 17, " it is better."

To have wrought. — Rather, to have perpetrated.
The Greek word denotes the accomplishment of a
criminal purpose, as in Rom. ii. 9; 1 Cor. v. 3; and
one passage more horrid still.

The will of the Gentiles.— Just as. in verse 2,
there was a contrast between man's manifold and con-
flicting lusts and God's unity of will, so there is a

And Jorsake the

I. PETEK, IV

Life of t/ie Gentiles.

when we walked in lasciviousness, lusts,
excess of wine, revellings, banquetings,

and abominable idolatries : <4> wherein
they think it strange that ye run not

contrast now between God's " will " and (for the Greek
word is quite different) the heathen's " wish." " To have
perpetrated the heathen's wish " means to have done
the bad things which the heathen wanted them to be
guilty of. The heathen were fain to catch them at
malpractices. (See Note on chap. ii. 12, and the word
" speaking evil " below.)

When we walked.— A participle in Greek, which
gives no support to the use of " we," but means simply
having proceeded. Thus it does not directly state that
they had so proceeded, for the participle explains the
foregoing verb : " The past is sufficient to have done
what the heathen want you to have done — viz., to have
walked."

Lasciviousness. — It should be plural, expressing
the repeated acts of sin. The word in Greek means
any outrageous debauchery, so that it may be said to
include all the words that follow.

Excess of wine, in like manner, should be plural.
It is a contemptuous word {wine- swilling s), and differs
from the word translated "banquetings" below, be-
cause the latter is more refined, and also implies com-
pany, which the first need not. The "revellings"
might mean any roystering parties, but contains more
of the notion of making a pretext of a meal than
" banquetings," which consist solely of drinking.

Abominable idolatries.— It is not as idolatries
that they are called abominable, but because of the
abominable adjuncts of the idol-festivals. This clause
is the main support of those who think that the Letter
was written to converts from heathenism and not from
Judaism. How, it is urged, could St. Peter have said
to persons who had been brought up as Jews, "The
time past is long enough for you to have proceeded in
abominable idolatries " ? The argument is most con-
vincing as it stands. If they had been living in
idolatry, it is incredible that they were of Hebrew race :
if they were of Hebrew race, it is incredible that they
should have lived in idolatry. But, as a matter of
fact, St. Peter does not say that they ever had lived in
those sins. Quite on the contrary, he says, in verse 4,
that the heathen found, to their surprise, that the
Christians would not go with them in these things;
and that, finding it to be so, they "blasphemed" or
slandei*ed them in this very respect. It may, perhaps,
be answered that the Apostle is alluding to a period
long past, and contrasting it with the present which
so puzzled the Gentiles. But there is no ground for
taking "the time past" to mean the time up to the
date of their conversion to Christianity. It is simply
" your past time " (i.e., the whole up to the date of the
Letter), in contrast with "the rest of your time" (verse
2, literally, your remaining time), i.e., the whole sub-
sequent to the date of the Letter; so that it cannot
mean, " The heathen think it strange that you do not
join their profligate courses as you used in old days,"
in which case we should naturally have expected him
to say, " They think it strange that ye no longer run
with them." Besides, it seems plain, from verse 2, that,
whatever may be meant by " perpetrating the wish of
the Gentiles," it was still a present danger when St.
Peter wrote, or there would be little point in mention-
ing it at all. But if he means that, up to the date of
the Letter, some of the recipients of it had been living
in "abominable idolatries," how could he continue that
the Gentiles were astonished that they did not do so ?

48* 425

for if the idolatries meant were the heathen's own
idolatries, the heathen would have been aware of their
joining them, and it would have been no " slander " to
say so. The conclusion is, that neither before nor after
their conversion had they been really proceeding thus.
St. Peter is, in fact, only putting in words the slander
of the Gentiles, at which he had hinted in chap. ii. 12
— 15 ; iii. 16. " For the future," says he, " live to the
will of God, not to the lusts of men. The past is long
enough (without invading the future) to have perpe-
trated what the heathen want you to have perpetrated
— viz., to have been proceeding in debaucheries and
abominable idolatries — slandering you in that verv
point wherein they are puzzled if you do not run with
them to the same excess of riot." As an historical fact,
these are the very calumnies which we find to have
been brought against the early Christians — idolatries
and all. The filthy idolatry ascribed to the Christians
by the heathen may be found recorded in Tertullian's
Apology, and (so it is said) on the Avails of Pompeii.
But what, then, does St. Peter mean when he says that
the past is sufficient to have perpetrated what the
heathen wanted ? It certainly implies that some of
them had, even since their conversion, been doing what
the malicious heathen would be glad to see them do.
But we have already noticed that he is speaking ironi-
cally in using the word "sufficient," and the irony
continues through the rest of the clause. " Some of
you have been living, up to the present time, more or
less to human lusts (verse 2). You have done so quite
long enough now. You have quite sufficiently gratified
the Gentiles, who long to prove that you are no beiter
than themselves." The argument is like that which
Nestor, in Homer, addresses to the wrangling Greek
captains : —

"Sure Priam would rejoice, and Priam's sons,
Could they but learn this feud betwixt you twain."

We may observe, further, that all through the Epistle
St. Peter appears to have dread of a doctrine which was
fast beginning to rise among the Asiatic Christians —
that such sins as fornication and idolatry, being but
bodily, were venial, especially in time of persecution.
(See chaps, i. 14, 15; ii. 11; v. 8.) Such pernicious
doctrine was probably founded on a " wresting " of St.
Paul's teaching (2 Pet. iii. 16) on eating things offered
to idols ; from which it was concluded that the accom-
panying impurities were innocent likewise. This doc-
trine becomes very prominent in the Second Epistle;
and in the Apocalypse there is even some reason to
connect it specially with the Jewish element in the
Church. (Comp. together 2 Pet. ii. 15 ; Rev. ii. 6, 14,
15, with Rev. ii. 9.)

(*) Wherein they think it strange.— The word
" wherein " is used in exactly the same sense as in chap,
ii. 12 ; that is to say, it does not directly point back to
the list of sins just named, but the grammatical ante-
cedent is to be supplied in the participial clause which
follows, thus : " In a particular where they cannot
imagine your not being as bad as themselves, slan-
derously affirming that you are." The only difficulty
involved in this view is one which does not show in the
English, viz., that the participle is attracted into the
nominative case by the influence of the finite verb,
instead of being (as it strictly should) in the genitive.
agreeing with " of the Gentiles." But we have seen
before that St. Peter deals very freely with participles

The Christian's Life

I. PETEK, IV.

to be an Example to Men.

with them to the same excess of riot,
speaking evil of you : (5) who shall give
account to him that is ready to judge

the quick and the dead." (6) For for
this cause was the gospel preached also
to them that are dead,* that they might

in the nominative ease. (See chap. ii. 12, where
"having" is nominative, though in strictness it should
be accusative, agreeing with "you, as strangers and
pilgrims ; " comp. also ii. 18 ; iii. 1, 7. 9, 15, 16.) Like
instances are not wanting in classical Greek.

(5) Who shall give account.— Perhaps said with
a reference to chap. iii. 15, where these very persons
call the Christians to give " account " (the Greek word
is the same). The side-purpose of the clause (as in
the similar threat, chap. ii. 8) is to warn the readers
against sharing their fate by sharing their sins.

To him that is ready to judge. — This carries
on the history of Jesus Christ a step further still. The
last thing was His sitting on the right hand of God.
This is the order of the Apostles' Creed. Bengel
wisely remarks : " The Apostles, when they are not
expressly treating of the date of Christ's advent, set
forth that advent to their longing and devotion as close
at hand. Hence Peter includes the slanderers of his
day among the living, as just about to be judged."

(6) For for this cause was the gospel preached
also to them that are dead.— This version is
misleading, and seems indeed to be one of those rare
cases where the original has been expanded by the
translators for doctrinal ends. The Greek is simply,
For for this end was the gospel preached to the dead
also, or, still more literally, to dead men also. No one
with an un-preoecupied mind could doubt, taking this
clause by itself, that the persons to whom this preach-
ing was made were dead at the time of being preached
to. If this is the case, then, pretty obviously, St. Peter
is carrying us back to his teaching of chap. iii. 19, and
is explaining further the pui-pose of Christ's descent
into hell.

That they might be judged according to
men in the flesh, but live according to God
in the spirit.— In order to obtain a clear notion of
this hard saying, it will be necessary ouce more to
survey the course of the whole passage. " It is better."
the Apostle said, " to suffer in well-doing than in evil-
doing1." They must take their choice, that is, which
kind of suffering they would have. It was not indeed
certain that in case they chose to do well they would
suffer for it ; and if they did, there was the history of
Christ to encourage them. But in case they chose
to be evil-doers, it was eei-tain that they would suffer.
" And you had better," he says, " suffer in Avell-doing
than in evil-doing." He then gives an instance of
persons who suffered in evil-doing — the fleshly Ante-
diluvians, whom God cut short in their crimes by the
Flood, and to whom Christ went to preach in their
prison-house. He then exhorts his readers — some of
whom had, for one reason or another, been allowing
themselves to fall into antinomian ways— not to live any
longer to the flesh, not to make true the slanders of the
heathen, who tried to make out that the Christians were
as bad livers as themselves : for such evil-doers were
doomed to speedy suffering; those heathens would soon
be called to account by Him who was ready to judge
quick and dead alike ; " for," he adds. " the object of
that preaching to the dead also was that they may be
judged according to men in flesh, but may live accord-
ing to God in spirit." (I) The first question is, What
does the Apostle mean to substantiate by this last
verse, "for for this cause ?" Not the fact that Christ

will judge the dead as well as the quick, for that would
have no practical bearing upon the readers. Not the
fact that Christ was now ready for judgment; for
although He will certainly not come until the dead as
well as the quick are in a position to be judged, yet we
should then have expected something more like, " The
reason why the dead were preached to was that the
judgment might no longer be put off;" instead of
which, the whole point of the verse is the particular
destiny in reserve for those dead, which destiny was the
intention and result of Christ's preaching the gospel to
them. It must, therefore, be a further reason for
warning the Christians not to live lives of evil-doing
like the contemporaries of Noah or their own heathen
contemporaries. If it be necessary to attach the word
" for " to any particular words, we may perhaps attach
it to the words " they shall give account ; " and verse 6
would hint at the kind of account they would have to
give, as " giving account " implies the settlement which
follows. (2) But if verse 6 clenches the warning to the
Christians not to become antinomian, then we must un-
derstand the destiny of these dead to whom Christ
preached to be not the brightest, after all. This brings
us to consider what is meant by their being " judged in
flesh" (i.e., as in verse 1, so far as flesh is concerned).
In the previous verse, Christ is said to bo quite ready
to "judge" quick and dead. The context makes us
feel that St. Peter is not picturing to himself that
scene as one of calm forensic investigation, with
" opened books " or the like. His idea of this judg-
ment is rather of a "judgment" such as took place
in tjie days of Noe, a great crisis (the Greek word for
"judgment") or world-wide catastrophe, which, of
course, cannot harm the just, but only the unjust. He
shows the same conception of the Judgment, and illus-
trates it by Noe's Flood, in 2 Pet. ii. 5 — 9, ami iii. 6, 7.
Now " judgment " is a neutral word, which, in Scrip-
ture, takes its colour from the surroundings, so that it
sometimes is a thing to be longed for {e.g., Ps. xliii. 1,
lxxii. 2 ; Heb. x. 30); at other times a thing to lie
dreaded, as here. Though we do not limit the " quick
and dead " here to mean the wicked quick and dead,
yet they are evidently uppermost in St. Peter's mind,
so that there is scarcely any conscious change in the
meaning of the word " judged " when we pass from
verse 5 to verse 6. It there means certainly a judicial
punishment, or even judicial destruction. While the
word often denotes a condemnation (as in English we
say "to sentence") — for example, in John xvi. 1, 2;
Thess. ii. 12 ; Rev. xix. 2 — it seems to have the further
notion of a judicial death in 1 Cor. xi. 31, 32 : " Had
we been in the habit of discerning ourselves, we should
not have been subject to these repeated judgments
(weakness, sickness, death — verse 30); but now these
judgments are a discipline from our Lord, to save us
from being condemned with the world." And that
judicial destruction to the flesh is what St. Peter means,
he proves by contrasting " but may live in spirit " rather
than " be saved " or " justified." (3) It is next to be
considered what date we are to fix for this judgment of
the flesh. Was it previous to Christ's preaching the
gospel to them in hell, or was it to be subsequent ?
Taking the former line, we should be able to paraphrase,
" His object was, that though in flesh they had been
judged, having been judicially destroyed by the Flood,

426

The approacJiimg End.

I. PETER, IV.

Need of Charity.

be judged according to men in the
flesh, but live according to God in the
spirit."

W But the end of all things is at hand :

| be ye therefore sober, and
! watch unto prayer. <8> And
I above all things have fer-
vent charity among your-

Chap. iv. 7—11.
Need of charity,
hospitality,and
bounty.

they yet might live hereafter in spirit." But, besides
other difficulties, it is far more than doubtful whether
it is Greek to infuse a past sense into the subjunctive
mood here used: i.e., to render this. " it was preached
in order that they might have been judged." Had we
the words by themselves, and no preconceived theology
to hinder us, we should undoubtedly translate, " To this
end was the gospel preached to dead men too : viz., in
order that they may he judged indeed according to men
so far as they are flesh, but may live according to God

foully corrupted, but in God"s mercy, through accept-
ing the gospel preached to them by Christ after their
death, were to be allowed a purely spiritual existence.
They would thus be .sentenced "according to men," i.e.,
from a human point of view : they would be unable to
take their place again among the glorified human species
in a human life ; but still they would be alive " accord-
ing to God," from God's point of view — a divine life,
but " in the spirit " only. It was a gospel that Christ
preached to them, for without it they would not have

so far as they are spirit." The judgment spoken of I come to " live according to God " at all. Yet, on the

would not be their death beneath the waves of Noe, but
something still future ; and this view would be con-
firmed by reading what St. Peter says of them, and of
the angels who (in all probability) sinned with them, in
the passages of the Second Epistle above referred to.
How, then, will they be hereafter condemned to a
judicial destruction of the flesh, but a merciful preser-
vation of the spirit ? The answer, though it seems
inevitable to the present writer, must be given with
trembling, and in deference to the judgment of the
Church, the collective Christian consciousness, when-
ever that shall be expressed upon the point. A close
parallel may be found in 1 Cor. v. 5. There St. Paul
judges to deliver to Satan (is he the warder of the
" prison " where such spirits are confined ?) a person
who has foully sinned in the flesh, " for annihilation of
the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of the
Lord Jesus." That in that place it does not mean a
temporal judgment upon the bodily life (such as was
passed upon the Antediluvians or the profaners of the
Eucharist at Corinth) is clear, from the fact that excom-
munication was not attended with temporal death.
That it does not mean voluntary self-mortification of
the flesh in this world seems clear (among other con-
siderations) by comparison of our present passage, for
the opportunity for self -mortification in the flesh was
long past for the spirits to whom Christ preached.
Now why, in these two cases, do the writers take pains
to point the antithesis between " flesh " and " spirit,"
if, after all, the flesh is to share the mercy shown to the
spirit ? The antithesis becomes a false one. Why did
not St. Paul say, " To deliver such an one to Satan for
the destruction of the flesh, that he may be saved
in the day of the Lord Jesus ? " and St. Peter, " For
this cause was the gospel preached to the dead also, that
though judged indeed in flesh, they might, after all, live
according to God ? " And what is the point of this dread
warning, if in the end these Antediluvians attain to the
same bliss, "both in body and soul," as other men?
There is a whole set of passages which seems to teach
that resurrection — i.e., the permanent restitution of life
to the body— is a gift which does not belong to all. To
those who eat Christ's flesh, He promises, " I will raise
him up at the last day " (John vi. 54). St. Paul suffers
the loss of all things, " if by any means he may attain
to the resurrection of the dead" (Phil. iii. 11 ; comp.
2 Cor. v. 3, 4). Our Lord bids the Apostles " fear Him
[it is doubtful whether he means God, or Satan, who
acts by God's permission] who is able to destroy both
soul [He does not say ' spirit '] and body in hell. So
it would be the simplest explanation of our present text
if we might believe that these Antediluvians were to be
deprived of resurrection of the flesh which they had so

other hand, it was a warning to the Christians. When
it says " the gospel was preached to the dead also," it
implies a similar preaching to others, viz., to the heathen
who were to "give account," and that the result of the
preaching would bo the same. Those heathen who
through ignorance lived corrupt lives all around, might
possibly, in the intermediate state, hope to receive a
gospel which would enable a bare half of their humanity
to live according to God hereafter. It could not avert
the destruction of their flesh. What, then, could be the
hope of a Christian, one who had heard and embraced
the gospel in this life, and had then surrendered him-
self to the same corruptions as the Gentiles ?

(7—u) DutyofBenevolence within the Church
in view of the Advent.— The end of the world is
not far off ; let it find you not only sober, but (above all
else) exerting an intense charity within the Church, by
hospitality and generosity, in these as much as in
spiritual ministrations seeking not your own glory, but
God's.

(?) The end of all things is at hand.— Or, hath
come nigh ; the same word (for instance) as in Matt,
iv. 17; xxvi. 46. It is but a repetition in other words
of verse 5, inserted again to give weight to all the
exhortations which follow. Probably, if St. Peter had
thought the world would stand twenty centuries more,
he would have expressed himself differently; yet see
2 Pet, iii. 4—10.

Be ye therefore sober, and watch unto
prayer. — These words sum up the cautions given in
verses 1 — 6, before passing on to the next subject.
The first verb includes more than sobriety, and means
the keeping a check upon all the desires. The usual
notion of sobriety is more exactly conveyed in the word
rendered " watch," which is the same as in chap. i. 13
and chap. v. 8. " Unto prayer " is a slip for unto prayers ;
the difference is that it does not mean that we are to
be always in frame to pray, but that actual prayers
should be always on our lips : every incident in life
should suggest them. They would be especially
necessary if any moment might see the end of the
world. The tense of the imperatives in the Greek
carries out the notion that the persons addressed had
slipped into a careless state, from which they needed
an arousal'.

(8) And above all things have fervent charity
among yourselves. — The original is far more
vigorous : But before all things keeping intense your
charity towards yourselves. St. Peter assumes that
the charity is there, but insists on its not being suffered
to flag in outward expression. (Comp. the same word

Exhortation to

I. PETER, IV.

Hospitality and Bounty.

selves : for charity shall1 cover the nral- |ior.«*K
titude of sins. (9> Use hospitality one to j
another without grudging. <10> As every |
man hath received the gift," even so i
minister the same one to another, as :,

a Rom. 12. 6—8.

good stewards of the manifold grace
of God. W If any man speak, let him
speak as the oracles of God ; if any man
minister, let him do it as "of the ability
which God giveth : b that God in all

in chap. i. 22; also in Luke xxii. 44; Acts xii. 5;
xxvi. 7.) «

Shall cover. — Properly, neither "shall" nor "will,"
the right reading being present, covereth. The words
are usually said to be a quotation from Prov. x. 12,
"Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all
sins;" but they are widely different from the LXX.
in that passage, and also vary from the Hebrew ; and
as precisely the same variation occurs in Jas. v. 20,
it seems more probable either that St. Peter had the
passage of St. James consciously in his mind, or that
the proverb was current and familiar to both writers
in the form, " Love covereth a multitude of sins." It
is, therefore, unsafe to argue from the exact shade of
meaning which the words bear in Prov. x. 12. To
"cover," in Hebrew, often means to "forgive," the
idea being that of an offensive object which you bury
or hide by putting something else over it; see, for
examples, Ps. xxxii. 1; lxxxv. 2; and the place in
Proverbs seems to mean that whereas a bitter enemy
will rake up every old grudge again and again, one
who loves will not allow even himself to see the wrongs
done to him by a friend. If this sense be accepted
here, it will imply that the Christians in Asia had a
good deal to put up with from each other ; but even
so, the argument seems a little strained : " Keep your
charity at its full stretch, because charity forgives,
however many the wrongs may be." It far better suits
the context to take the proverb in the same sense as
in St. James, without any reference to the Old Testa-
ment passage. In St. James it is usually taken to
mean. " He shall save (the convert's) soul from death,
and shall cover [i.e., procure for him the pardon of) a
multitude of sins ; " but as the true reading there is
"his soul," it is more natural to suppose that St. James
is holding up, as the reward of converting the sinner,
that the person who does so shall save his own soul,
and procure for himself the pardon of a multitude of
sins. So here it seems obvious that St. Peter is urging
charity as something which will be found advantageous
when the " end of all things " comes ; and the advan-
tage he mentions is, " because charity covereth a multi-
tude of sins : " i.e., the exercise of this grace makes up
for a great many other shortcomings in the man. A
very good case might be made out for a doctrine of
Justification by Love.

(9) Use hospitality.— It is a great pity that again
(as in chap. iii. 8, and elsewhere) the participial clauses
are broken up in our version into separate injunctions.
Here it is, properly, being hospitable. This is the first
form of charity — receiving Christians who came from
other towns (comp. 3 John, verses 5, 6). See how such
hospitality covers (to the surprise of the bestowers) a
multitude of sins in Matt. xxv. 35 — 38.

"Without grudging. — That is, without murmuring.
How frequently Christian hospitality is marred by
grumbling at the expense and the trouble which it
costs !

(!0) As every man hath received the gift.—
There is no definite article in the Greek, which might
be rendered, According as every man was gifted. They
are reminded, as in 1 Cor. iv. 7, that the gift was received,

and for the same purpose. At what period these gifts
were received it is hard to say, as in some instances the
gift was of a spiritual nature, in others of a temporal
nature. Each, however, has a gift of some kind for
the benefit of the community.

Even so minister.— In the original, ministering.
It is still an exhibition of the " intense charity " of
verse 8. The verb is the same as in chap. i. 12, where
see Note.

As good stewards. — No one receives these gifts,
spiritual or temporal, as his own ; he is but a " stewai-d,"
and when he offers them to the Church it is not as a
benefactor, but as a servant, " ministering."

Of the manifold grace of God.—" Grace " is
here used, not in its theological sense, but, as in chap,
iii. 7, in the sense of bountiful giving ; and the beautiful
word rendered " manifold " brings out the subtle and
picturesque variety with which God arranges and dis-
tributes His bounty. But the emphatic word of the
sentence is " of God."

(H) If any man speak.— St. Peter proceeds to
speak of two particular forms taken by this " manifold
grace of God;" (1) the power to speak; (2) the power
to minister. The speaking is, of course, public preach-
ing in the Church ; and the man who does so is to do
it " as oracles of God." The article is not added in the
Gi'eek, so that it must not be pressed to mean " speak-
ing on the model, or in accordance with the doctrines of.,
the Old Testament." Rather, the emphatic word is " of
God;" and the Apostle means that the preacher is not
to trust to his own natural powers and wit, or to seek
applause for himself, but to act as one possessed of
powers not his own ; to speak only that which God
inspires him to speak. This clause must not be taken
as being in this place complete in itself. It is apparently
only introduced to give point to what follows, the inten-
tion of the whole paragraph being to enforce liberality.
It is easy to recognise in spiritual things the principle
of God being all in all ; and St. Peter bids them apply
the same principle to material gifts. " Recollect that
whatever you possess, you possess from God in trust
for the Church. Just as the man who preaches is to
preach as a mere mouthpiece of God, so the man who
gives must consider himself as being but God's dis-
penser, that in this, too, God may have all the glory."
For the same kind of rhetorical effect, see chap. ii. 17,
last Note.

If any man minister.— This does not mean
" ministering " in the congregation, or spiritual minis-
trations of any sort, but giving the good things of this
life for the benefit of the poor. The word rendered
" ability " not unfrequently expresses (like our word
" resources ") a sufficiency of wealth ; and the word
which appears as " giveth" is the same which is used
of supplying material blessings in 2 Cor. ix. 10. In a
compound form, the same verb occurs in Gal. iii. 5, Col.
ii. 19, 2 Pet. i. 5 — 11 ; and the substantive in Eph. iv. 16,
Phil. i. 19. The original classical meaning of the word
is to pay the expenses of putting a play on the stage,
which at Athens was a public burden borne- by the
wealthier citizens in turn, like the shrievalty of an
English county. Thus the wealthy Christian who

428

r. hcon ragement against

I. PETER, IV.

Evil Dags to come.

things may be glorified through Jesus
Christ, to whom be praise and dominion
for ever and ever. Amen.

<12> Beloved, think it not strange con-
Chap, iv. 12— cerning the fiery trial
Encourage- which is to try you, as
daysto though some strange thing
happened unto you : <13) but

ment
the evil
come.

supports the Church and relieves all the poor is
not really the Church's patron : he is a responsible
manager; but the paymaster is God.

That God in all things may be glorified.—
How clearly St. Peter works it out : " the manifold
grace of God," " as oracles of God," "out of the resources
of which God is paymaster," " that God in all things
may be glorified." The " all things" means emphatically
that in these money matters as much as in the spiritual
works God's honour is concerned. For a most touching
expansion of this text, see the Epistle of St. Theonas,
Patriarch of Alexandria, to the High Chamberlain of
the Emperor Diocletian, an English translation of
which may be seen in The Persecution of Diocletian, by
the same "hand as these Notes.

Through Jesus Christ.— They see and feel that,
had it not been for Jesus Christ, these rich men would
not have been so liberal ; and when they thus thank
Him for it. they are in effect thanking God.

To whom.— That is, to God, rather than to Jesus
Christ. And it should be, " to whom is," or belongs,
rather than "to whom be," and "the glory and the
dominion," not "glory and dominion."

(12—19) Exhortation to Courage and Stead-
fastness in Persecution.— All ought to be prepared
for persecution. It is a blessed and glorious thing to
have to bear it. A criminal's death and a Christian
martyrdom are the exact opposites of each other.
Vengeance is speedily coming.

(12) Beloved.— See Note on chap. ii. 11.

Think it not strange.— The same word as in
verse 4-. It means, literally, to feel like people in a
strange country, lost and bewildered. It is further
explained by the clause " as though some strange
thing were (by bad luck) happening unto you." These
Hebrew Christians felt at first it was not what was to
be expected, that those who attached themselves to the
Messiah should have a life of sorrow and persecution
in the world.

The fiery trial which is to try you.— This
rendering is not only slovenly, but conveys a false im-
pression, for the fiery trial was not future, but actually
present. Literally it runs, Be not bewildered at tile
conflagration among you taking place for a trial to
you, Already, then, the Asiatic Christians are enduring
a fierce persecution. The word which describes it is
only found besides in Rev. xviii. 9, 18, " burning."
(Comp. chap. i. 7.)

(13) But rejoice.— The opposite of being bewildered
at it, for "rejoicing" in it implies a recognition of its
character and purpose. The word rendered " inasmuch
as " (which occurs also in 2 Cor. viii. 12) seems to
mean, "in proportion .as : " "the more nearly you are
made to share Christ's sufferings the more yon" should
rejoice." In the Acts of St. Probns (a Cappadocian),
when, after many other tortures, the judge ordered
them to heal some nails and run them through his hands,
the martyr exclaims, " Glory to Thee, Lord Jesu Christ,

rejoice,0 inasmuch as ye are partakers of
Christ's sufferings; tnat, when his glory
shall be revealed, ye may be glad also with
exceeding joy. (U) If ye be reproached
for the name of Christ, happy are ye; *
for the spirit of glory and of God resteth
upon you : on their part he is evil spoken
of, but on your part he is glorified.

who hast even deigned to let my liands be pierced for
Thy name's sake ! "

Christ's sufferings.— Rather, the sufferings of the
Christ. (Comp. Note on chap. i. 11.)

That — i.e., " in order that." This is to be attached
to " think it not strange, but rejoice " — " in order that at
the revelation of His glory also (as now. in the sharing
of His sufferings) ye may rejoice (the word is t he same ,
exulting." Such a recognition of the meaning of suffer-
ing, such a rejoicing in suffering now, is a sure means to
rejoicing in glory also hereafter.

(14) If ye he reproached. — The form of speech
denotes that they icere so reproached.

For the name of Christ.— Literally, " in the name
of Christ," i.e., on the score of being Christians only.
(Coinp. verse 16.) Again, see how St. Peter presses the
Messianic title : surely they will not abandon the hopes
of Israel !

The spirit of glory and of God resteth upon
you. — He is called the " Spirit of glory " here in the
same way as He is called the " Spirit of truth " John
xiv. 17), the " Spirit of holiness " (Rom i. 4). the " Spirit
of grace" (Heb. x. 29), &c. It expresses that glory —
i.e., the triumphant manifestation of perfections— is His
gift and His distinguishing sign and the atmosphere in
which He lives. " Glory " stands in contrast with
"reproach." And lest it should be doubted who was
meant by the splendid phrase, the Apostle adds. " and
of God." All " glory " is His, and therefore the Spirit
which is the " Spirit of glory " can be no other than
the " Spirit of God ; " but as God Himself is greater
than His own glory, the words form a climax, and it
means more to call Him the " Spirit of God " than to
call Him the " Spirit of glory." And this Spirit
"resteth" upon the persecuted Christians. It means
far more than " reinaineth " or " ahideth." It expresses
the complete repose and satisfaction with which the
Spirit of glory abides on men who have the hearts of
martyrs. " This shall be My rest for ever : here will
I dwell, for I have a delight therein." It is the word
which is used of the quiet retreat which our Lord took
after John's death (Mark* vi. 31) ; of the calm relief
which He offers to the weary souls who come to Him
(Matt. xi. 28. 29) ; of the repose of the blessed dead
after the work of life is over (Rev. vi. 11; xiv. 13). In
the Old Testament it is used of the Spirit in Num.
xi. 25, and 2 Kings ii. 15 ; but, above all, in Isa. xi. 2.
which was probably in St. Peter's mind. And the
argument is, that reproach for the name of the Christ
is a proof of glory in reserve, or rather, already belong-
ing to the man. Perhaps St. Peter intentionally hints
(in speaking of the " Spirit ") that all who make them-
selves partakers of Christ's reproach are made partakers
of His chrism.

On their part.— These words, to the end of the

verse, are an undoubted interpolation, though of very

early date, appearing even in St. Cyprian's works. The

i clause would bring out the different view taken by

believers and unbelievers of the martyr-spirit. Pliny

429

They are to suffer,

I. PETER, IV.

but as Christians.

(15> But let none of you suffer as a mur-
derer, or as a thief, or as an evildoer, or
as a busybody ■ in other men's matters.
(16) Yet if any man suffer as a Christian,
let him not be ashamed; but let him

glorify God on this behalf. <17) For the
time is come that judgment must begin
at the house of God: * and if it first begin
at us, what shall the end be of them
that obey not the gospel of God?

says in his letter that, whatever Christianity itself
may he, there can he no doubt such obstinacy ought to
be punished. Marcus Aurelius speaks with contempt
of the spirit in which Christians suffered themselves to
be put to death as mere self-will, unlike the philosophi-
cal grace of the Stoics. Gibbon speaks of the " pious
obstinacy " of St. Felix of Tibiura.

(I5) But let none of you.— The Gi-eek takes ex-
actly the opposite turn : "for let none of you suffer."
The connection is a little difficult, but it seems to be
this : "I say advisedly that you are happy, and that
the Spirit of glory reposes on you who die for the
faith; for I am sure that you will not try to deceive
yourselves and others by pretending to die as martyrs,
when in reality you are dying as criminals." In order
to understand this caution, we must recollect, how
largely the first converts Avere drawn from actually
criminal classes, and how easily they were admitted. In
the persecution of Diocletian, Mensurius of Cartilage
found it necessary to expose those who drew persecu-
tion upon themselves to cloke their crimes uuder
pretence of Christian faith. "Some," he siys, "are
criminals, some debtors, who take the opportunity of
persecution to be rid of so burdensome a life, thinking
to atone for and wash off their misdeeds thereby." It
is conceivable that St. Peter may have had some such
danger in view.

As a murderer, or as a thief, or as an evil-
doer.—The insertion of " as " in the two latter cases
obliterates the distinction between the class composed
of those three words, and that which follows. It should
be, as a murderer, or thief, or evildoer. "When Pliny
came to govern these men, a little later, he found that
on a fixed day they met together before daylight, "and
bound themselves by a sacramental oath, not to any
crime, but that they would not do or see done any
thefts, any robberies, any adulteries ; that they would
break no promises, and would repudiate no liabilities
when called upon." These words will partly explain
the general term " evildoer." (See also chaps, ii. 12,
14; iii. 16.)

Or as a busybody in other men's matters.—
M. Kenan writes (Antechrist, p. 42) : — " Others, through
excess of zeal, declaimed aloud against the pagans, and
cast their vices in their teeth." Their more sensible breth-
ren humorously called them ' bishops.' or ' overseers of
those who are without.' " Such is, indeed, the meaning
of the droll word which St. Peter here gives : except
that, instead of " bishops of those without," it means
" bishops of other men's matters." It denotes those
prying and self-important people who fancy they can
set everything to rights, and that everybody they come
across is under their personal jurisdiction. Such per-
sons would tend to make Christianity unpopular among
the unbelievers, and, in case of persecution, would be the
first to " suffer" (i.e., to be picked out for martyrdom ;
see Note on chap. iii. 14) ; and while flattering them-
selves for the boldness with which they had spoken out,
they would incur St. Peter's censure, and their martyr-
dom would be reckoned no martyrdom by the Church.
" Cruel mishaps." continues M. Renan, " befell them ;
and the wise directors of the community, so far from

extolling them, told them pretty plainly that it did but
serve them right."

(16) Yet if any man suffer as a Christian.— St.
Peter purposely uses the name which was a name of de-
rision among the heathens. It is not, as yet, one by which
the believers .would usually describe themselves. It oidy
occurs twice besides in the New Testament — in Acts
xi. 26, where we are told of the invention of the nickname
(see Note there), and in Acts xxvi. 28, where Agrippa
catches it up with the insolent scorn with which a
brutal justice would have used the word " Methodist " a
century ago. So contemptible was the name that, as
M. Renan says (p. 37), " Well-bred people avoided pro-
nouncing the name, or, when forced to do so, made a
kind of apology." Tacitus, for instance, says : " Those
who were vulgarly known by the name of Clmstians."
In fact, it is quite an open question whether we
ought not here (as well as in the two places of Acts
above cited) to read the nickname in its barbar-
ous form : Chrestian. The Sinaitic manuscript has
that form, and the Vatican has the form Chreistian;
and it is much harder to suppose that a scribe
who commonly called himself a Christian would
intentionally alter it into this strange form than to
suppose that one who did not understand the irony of
saying a Chrestian should have written the word with
which lie was so familiar.

Let him not be ashamed.— Although the name
sounds worse to the world than " murderer," or " thief,"
or "malefactor."

On this behalf— This is a possible rendering, but
it is more pointed to translate literally, but let him
glorify God in this name — i.e., make even this name
of ridicule the ground of an act of glory to God.

Wl For the" time is come- The "for" (literally,
because) seems to substantiate the whole of the former
part of the section, from verse 12 onwards, but with
special reference to the injunction to glorify God on
the ground of bearing the name of Christians, upon
which it follows in much the same way as "for the
spirit of glory " followed upon " if ye be reproached
. . . happy are ye." The judgment is just about to
begin, and all those who bear the name of Christians
may well be thankful that they do.

That judgment.— It should be, that the judgment
— i.e., the great judgment which we all expect. The
word " begin," however, shows that in St. Peter's mind
it would be a long process ; and he probably does not
distinguish in his mind between the " burning which is
befalling for a trial" and the final judgment, except
that that "burning" is but the beginning. (Comp.
verso 5.)

Begin at the house of God.— The phrase con-
tains an obvious reference to Ezek. ix. 6 (comp., also
Jer. xxv. 29). Who are meant by the " house of God "
is clear, not only from such passages as chap. ii. 5 ;
1 Cor. iii. 16 ; 2 Thess. ii. 4, but also from the imme-
diate addition, " and if first at us." We who are
Chrestiani, who bear the mark of the Christ's shame
upon our foreheads, and are not ashamed of it. are
quite safe in this judgment : " come not near any man
upon whom is the mark." The sense is a little closely

The Righteous and t/ie Sinner

I. PETEli, IV.

in the Judgment,

<18> And if the righteous scarcely be
saved, where shall the ungodly and the

sinner appear ? a <-l9) Wherefore let them
that suffer according to the will of God

packed. It seems as if St. Peter meant at first only to
say. " Thank God that you are ' Christians,' for the
judgment is just about to begin," as something which
only concerns the unbelievers ; then, as an after-
thought, lie adds, "and begin, too. at the house of
God," by way of making the believers also feel the
need of care.

And if it first begin at us, what shall the
end be . . . ? — It is more expressive to omit, with St.
Peter, the verb " begin " : and if first at Us. The argu-
ment is: " If we, who are the very household of God,
must undergo this searching investigation first, what
will happen, as the judgment nears its climax, to those
Who," Ac. ? When he says " the end of those that obey
not," he does not mean exactly "the final doom of those
that obey not," as contrasted with "the end" of those
that obey, or as contrasted with their own earlier
opportunities: rather, "the end" is the end of the great
process of judgment, as contrasted with the " beginning
first at us." The judging of the house of God has
now gone on for eighteen hundred years, but it has
not vet touched those who are without.

That obey not the gospel of God?— Rather,
that disobey the gospel of God f The word is the same
which we have noticed several times (see Note on chap.
Hi. 1) as being peculiarly applied to the Jews. Now
the object of this mysterious threat (which is made
more terrible by being thrown into the form of a ques-
tion) is not only to solace the persecuted by the thought
of God being their avenger, but to warn them against
slipping into the position of those thus threatened.
The recipients of the Letter, we must recollect, were
Jewish Christians, who were in a two-fold danger —
either of relapsing sullenly into Judaism, or of plunging
into heathen excesses, like the Nicolaitan school, under
the notion that such things could not hurt the spiritually-
minded. To meet these two forms of danger, the
Apostle hints darkly at the punishment of the two
classes in this phrase and in the verse following, pre-
cisely as St. Paul, in 2 Thess. i. 8 (see Note there),
divides the wicked to be punished into Jew and Gentile,
or. in Rom. ii. 9, still more particularly. And that he
is thinking specially of unbelieving Jews in this place
appears from the context in Ezek. ix. 6 (especially verse
J-)), where the separation to be effected is not between
Jew and Gentile, but between Jew and Jew — those
'• that sigh and that cry for all the abominations" com-
mitted by Israel, and those that commit the abomina-
tions. As Bengel remarks, " The persecution of Nero
was but a few years before the catastrophe of the
Jews."

(is) And if the righteous scarcely be saved.
— This is a literal quotation, word for word, of Prov.
xi. 31, according to the LXX. The quotation proves to
us St. Peter's perfect familiarity with both the Hebrew
original and the Greek version. We have seen how he
rejects the LXX. version when it does not suit his
meaning (e.g., chap. ii. 8): here it suits him (though
it differs from the Hebrew), and he accepts it. The
" righteous " man here means, apparently, as Leighton
says, " he that endeavours to walk uprightly in the
(rays of God." rather than the man who is then declared
finally justified. The fact that they are "scarcely"
saved " imports not," according to Leighton. " any un-
certainty or hazard in the thing itself to the end. in
respect of the purpose and performance of God, but

only the great difficulties and hard encounters in the
way." This is only partly true. The Apostle is rather
thinking of the final judgment than of the life of trial;
and he means that there was but little margin left: a
very few more falls, a few more refusals to follow the
calls of grace, and they would have been lost. Doubt-
less, when the best of us looks back, in the light of the
last day. upon all that he has been through, he will be
amazed that he ever could be saved at all. Yet Bengel
well calls us to see the other side of the picture in
2 Pet. i. 11.

The ungodly and the sinner.— This is the
Gentile character. "Ungodly" denotes open irreligion
— contempt of God and all that belongs to His worship.
" Sinner " goes more to the moral side of the nature,
pointing most of all to sins of the flesh. (Conip..
for instance, Luke vii. 37.) " Sinners " was almost a
synonym for " Gentiles." (See, e.g., Luke vi. 32 ;
xxiv. 7; Gal. ii. 15.) The question "Where shall he
appear ? " imagines some scene such as that of Matt,
xxv. 32 .- " Where shall we see him ? where will he
have to stand ? "

(19) Wherefore. — Because the beginning of the
judgment — the judgment of the Christians — is so light
in comparison with the fearful end when it lights on
the disobedient and wicked.

Let them that suffer according to the will
of God.— Our version omits an important little word :
Let them that suffer also (or, Let even them that suffer)
according to the will of God. The stress is on "suffer"
— i.e., be put to death. And the clause, " according to
the will of God," seems not intended to mean " in a
godly and unblameable manner," as opposed to the
" suffering as a murderer" (verse 15) ; rather, it brings
out that such a death is no accident, no sudden calamity,
but in strict accordance with God's prearranged design.
(Comp. chap. Hi. 17 : " if the will of God will it.")
Thus it harmonises with the following : " faithful
Creator," " commit their souls."

Commit the keeping of their souls.— The
beautiful verb rendered " commit the keeping of " is a
technical term for depositing a deed, or sum of money,
or other valuable, with any one in trust. In the literal
sense it occurs in Luke xii. 48 ; 2 Tim. i. 12 : in a
metaphorical sense, of doctrines committed in trust to
the safe keeping of the Episcopate, in 1 Tim. i. 18 ; vi.
20 ; 2 Tim. i. 14 ; ii. 2 : of leaving persons whom you
love in trust, in Acts xiv. 23 ; xx. 32. But the words
which St. Peter probably has ringing in his ears when
he thus writes are the words of our Lord on the cross
(where the same verb is used): "Father, into Thy
hands I commend My spirit " (Luke xxiii. 46). " Their
souls" might, perhaps, with still more propriety, be
here translated their lives. The connection will then
be: "Consider the mildness of these trials compared
with the terrors overhanging the sinful. Even if the
worst should come to the worst, and you must die a
martyr's death, it is but the execution of God's plan
for you. View your life as a deposit: lay it confident ly
in His hands, to be returned to you again when the
time conies : and you will find Him faithful to what a
Creator ought to be."

A faithful Creator— The word " faithful " is used

i.i reference to the "deposit" placed in His hands;

and the title " Creator" seems to be chosen here rati er

than " Father," or the like, because creation of the soul

431

Exhortations

I. PETEB, V.

'to the Elders.

commit the keeping of their souls" to him
in well doing, as unto a faithful Creator.

CHAPTER V.— (i) The elders which
are among you I exhort, who am also
an elder, and a witness of the sufferings

ie of Christ, and also a partaker of the
glory that shall be revealed:
W feed the flock of God General' exhort
which is among you,1 taking tations and con-
the oversight thereof, not by c uslon"
constraint, but willingly ; not for filthy

includes not only the giving of its existence but the
shaping of its destiny. " The will of God," in accord-
ance with which they " suffer," is part of the act of
creation. The noble expression, however, contains the
idea that the act of creation imposes duties and respon-
sibilities upon the Creator. It is conceivable that some
powei*ful being (not our God) might create, and be
careless of the happiness or of the moral welfare or of
the mutual relations of his creatures. Such a creator
would be " unfaithful : " we should have a right to
expect differently of him. But God is a "faithful
Creator." " Though He slay me, yet will I trust Him."
In well doing. — In the Greek these words come
emphatically last. (Conip. chap. iii. 17.)

(l-ii) Further Exhortations suggested by the
Crisis. — The officers of the community are not to flinch
from the duties imposed upon them, nor yet to perform
them in any spirit of self-assertion. The laity, on the
other hand, are to observe discipline. Indeed, mutual
submission is the only safe-guard in the face of a com-
mon danger. An unbroken front must be presented,
and the sense of brotherhood fostered.

(!) The elders which are among you . . .—The
best text preserves the word " therefore " after " elders."
In view, that is, of these hopes and threats, of the
pi'esent persecution, and of the coming judgment, St.
Peter gives his solemn charge to those who shared with
him the responsibility of office in the Church. The
word rendered " exhort " is that common New Testa-
ment word (parahalu), which we miss in English, in-
cluding encouragement and entreaty, and even con-
solation, as well as exhortation. (See, e.g., Acts iv.
36.) The whole of this Epistle is an example of such
paraclesis.

Who am also an elder.— St. Peter is giving no
irresponsible advice. He knows by experience the
dangers which beset the office. The head Christian of
the world, and writing from the thick of the persecu-
tion already begun in Rome, the Asiatic elders cannot
set his advice down as that of some easy layman who is
untouched by the difficulty. It can "hardly be said,
therefore, that this is an example of St. Peter's humility,
as though he recognised in himself no higher office than
that of these presbyters. The effect is, on the contrary,
to make the recipients of the Letter feel that he is using
a strong argument a fortiori.

And a witness of the sufferings of Christ.—
The Greek word calls attention, not so much to the fact
of his having been a spectator, an eye-witness, but
rather to the fact of his bearing testimony to the suffer-
ings. Here again, too, it is in Greek " the sufferings of
the Christ." (See Note on chap. i. 11.) Not only did
St. Peter know, by bearing office himself, what the
dangers of office were, but he was able to testify how
the Messiah Himself, the Apostle and High Priest of
our profession, had suffered, from which it was natural
to conclude that all Christians also were destined to
suffer.

And also a partaker of the glory . . .—This
splendid assurance follows naturally from being a wit-
ness of the sufferings of the Christ. " I am in as much
danger as any of you," the Apostle says, "but I can
testify that the Christ Himself suffered thus, and there-
fore I knew that we who suffer with Him are even now
partakers of the glory, though a veil at present hides
it." St. Peter insists in the same way on our present
possession of what will not be shown us for a time in
chap. i. 5.

(2) Feed the flock of God which is among
you. — By the word " feed " here is meant, not merely
the giving of pasture, but the whole government. It
is the verb used in John xxi. 16, not that in the 15th
and 1 7th verses. There can be hardly any doubt that
St. Peter was thinking of that scene when he issued
these directions. Our Lord had committed into his
hands all His sheep and lambs, without restriction of
age or country, to be fed and shepherded ; and now the
time was approaching when he would have to " put off
this tabernacle " (2 Pet. i. 14), and he here takes order
that " after his decease " the charge committed to him
may be fulfilled. He still shepherds the flock by proxy.
Two other points must be mentioned, which bring this
passage into connection with the charge given by St.
Paul to the Ephesian elders (Acts xx. 28), which was
very probably known to St. Peter. (1) St. Peter calls
it " the flock of God." Textual critics are much
divided on the reading in Acts xx. 28, but, on the whole,
the Received reading seems the best supported : " the
Church of God which He hath purchased with His own
blood." At the same time, St. Peter is in remembrance
how Christ had said, "Feed My sheep." It may
be fairly thought, therefore, when we see St. Peter's
own theology in chaps, i. 25, ii. 3, iii. 15, that when he
writes, " Feed the flock of God," his thoughts turn to
the Second Person of the Holy Trinity rather than to
the First. (2) Hooker well points out. on Acts xx. 28,
the unity of the flock. Though there were many elders
in Ephesus, there was but one flock they fed between
them. So now, all over Asia Minor, it was but one
flock. St. Peter, to whom the flock throughout the
whole world was committed, saw it as a whole, but the
elders to whom he writes had only to look to that part
of the one flock which was " among them." The mar-
ginal rendering is against the order of the Greek words,
and does not suit the context so well when the context
is rightly understood.

Taking the oversight thereof.— It is exceed-
ingly doubtful whether these words form pari of the
original text or not. If they do, the translation unduly
limits the meaning, which would be better expressed by
" maintaining (or, exercising) the oversight," or " per-
forming the duties of bishops," for he is addressing
men who were already ordained. By this time the word
" bishop " had not become a fixed title of one special
office, though the office itself was in existence.

Not by constraint, but willingly.— Why should
this exhortation be given so prominently ? It is hardly
to be thought that St. Peter had in view the humility
which led men to adopt such strange methods of

Against Greed and Pride.

I. PETER, V.

Submission of the Young.

lucre, but of a ready mind ; <3> neither
as being lords 1 over God's heritage, but
being ensamples to the flock. w And
when the chief Shepherd shall appear, ye
shall receive a crown of glory that fadeth

1 Or, overruling.

not away. W Likewise, ye younger, sub-
mit yourselves unto the elder. Yea, all
of you be subject one to another, and be
clothed with humility : for God resisteth
the proud, and giveth grace to the

avoiding the responsibility of the priesthood as we
find resorted to by Chrysostom and Ambrose. Much
more probably he is thinking of the actual danger to
life and property of being " ringleaders of the sect "
(Acts xxiv. 5), which would lead cowardly bishops to
throw up their office. He is not treating of the motives
which should lead a man to accept the position. He
speaks to persons who already hold the office, and
urges them not to leave the flock; like hireling's, when
they see the persecution coming on. Several of the
best authorities add, " but willingly, according to God."
It was God, that is, who put them in that station, and
they must not need the compulsion of their laity, or of
the rest of the episcopate, or of the Apostles, to keep
them at their post.

Not for filthy lucre, but of a ready mind.—
The opposite vice to that on which he has just passed
sentence. Some, who had no fears, might be tempted
to retain the office by the good salary which the
Church gave, or might threaten to resign if their
salaries were not raised in proportion to their risk.
The " ready mind," of which the Apostle speaks, means
the love of the work itself, which should be the sole
motive in seeking, or performing, the gospel ministry.

(8) Neither as being lords. — Rather, nor yet as
lording it. The English version is somewhat too strict
for the Greek and for the sense. There is a sense in
which the heads of the Church are, and ought to be,
lords and princes over the rest ; but this is very different
from " lording it," acting tyrannically, forgetting the
constitutional rights of their subjects.

Over God's heritage.— Quite literally, Over the
lots. The word first of all means (as in Matt, xxvii. 35
or Acts i. 26) the actual scrap of paper or wood that
was tossed. Then it comes to mean (like the word "lot"
in the language of auctions) the piece of property that
falls by lot to any one's share. Then all notion of
chance disappears, and it comes to mean the portion
assigned to any one. So St. Peter says that Simon Magus
has " no share nor lot in this thing " (Acts viii. 21). In
Acts xxvi. 18, Col. i. 12, the same word is rendered "in-
heritance." In Acts xvii. 4, our version endeavours, not
very successfully, through the Latin word "consorted,"
to keep up the underlying notion of the Greek, which
literally is " were allotted to Paul and Silas." Here,
therefore, we must understand " the lots," over which
the clergy are not to lord it, to be the different congre-
gations, districts, parishes, dioceses, which had been
allotted to them. At the same time it does not at all
imply that any process like drawing of lots had been
resorted to in their appointment, as is seen from Acts
xvii. 4, just cited. It will be seen that our version
is misleading in substituting singular for plural, and
in inserting the word " God's." The whole flock is
God's (verse 2), purchased with His own blood ; but the
• allotments" are the portions assigned by Him to the
different clergy. It is some consolation to see, whim we
groan under the lives and characters of some church
officers now, that even in the Apostles' days cowardice,
greed, and self-assertion were not unknown.

Ensamples to the flock.— The best way of be-
coming a real prince and lord over men is to show i servitude

433

them by example whit they
Parson, who —

lght to do, like Chaucer's

" Cristas lore and hys Apostlis twelve
He taught, but fyrst hee practys'd it himselve."

Leighton well quotes from Nazianzen : " Either teach
not, or teach by living."

W And when the chief Shepherd shall appear.
— Or, And at the chief Shepherd' s appearing. The
" and " treats it as a simple natural consequence of
acting as just indicted. The beautiful word for
" chief Shepherd " seems to have been invented by
St. Peter, and it has been apparently imitated in Heb.
xiii. 20. How could an office be more honoured than by
speaking of Christ as the chief bearer of that office ?

A crown of glory that fadeth not away.—
It might perhaps be more closely, though less beauti-
fully, represented by the glorious crown of amaranth,
or the amaranthine crown of glory. Amaranth is the
name of a flower which, like our immortelles, does not
lose its colour or form. St. Peter immediately adds
" of glory," lest we should think too literally of the
wreath of immortelles.

(5) Likewise, ye younger. — Self-submission has
been, at least tacitly, inculcated upon the pastors in
verse 3 ; so the writer can say " likewise " in turning to
the rest. In comparison with the presbyters or elders,
the lay people are styled " younger," or " juniors ; "
although in point of natural age, or of baptismal
seniority, they might be the older. So our Lord ad-
dresses His disciples (according to the rabbinical fashion)
as " children," though there is good reason to suppose
that several were older than Himself ; and St. Paul, in
the same way, called all the Corinthian Christians his
" sons." This seems to be the most natural interpreta-
tion of the word ; for it was undoubtedly in respect of
the supposed juniority of the whole of the lay people
that their rulers received the name of " presbyters."
Otherwise there is nothing against the interpretation
which makes " ye younger " to be an address to those
who held inferior offices in the Church, such as deacons,
catechists. readers, and the like (Acts v. 6, 10). The
danger of any insubordination of the laity or inferior
clergy against the priesthood at such a crisis was very
obvious.

Yea, all of you.— Here the true text strikes out
the words " be subject and," so that the clause will run,
Yea, all of you be clothed with humility one to another.
Not only mutual complaisance between riders on the
one hand and ruled on the other, but clergy to clergy
and laity to laity are to behave with the same self-
suppression.

Be clothed with humility.— The Greek verb is a
rare and curious one. It means properly, " tie your-
selves up in humility." Humility is to be gathered
tight round about us like a cloak, and tied up so that
the wind may not blow it back, nor the rain beat insido
it. But there is a still further and more delicate shade
of meaning in the word. There was a peculiar kind of
cape, well known by a name taken from this verb (we
might call it a " tie-up "), and this kind of cape was
worn by slaves, and by no others. It was a badge of
Thus St. Peter bids them all gird them-

Exhortation to

I. PETER, V.

Humility and Sobriety,

humble. <6) Humble yourselves there-
fore under the mighty hand of God, that
he may exalt you in due time : <7) casting
all your care upon him ; for he careth
for you. <8) Be sober, be vigilant ;
because your adversary the devil, as a
roaring lion, walketh about, seeking

whom he may devour : <9) whom resist
stedfast in the faith, knowing that the
same afflictions are accomplished in your
brethren that are in the world. W But
the God of all grace, who hath called us
unto his eternal glory by Christ Jesus,
after that ye have suffered a while, make

selves for one another in a slave's " tie-up " of humility.
None are to be masters in the Church of Christ. And
the humility is to be the very first thing noticed about
them, their outward mark and sign.

For God resisteth the proud. — The exhortation
to mutual self- submission is reinforced by a quotation
of a well-known proverb. The proverb is based on the
LXX. translation of Prov. iii. 34; but as it differs
somewhat from both the Hebrew and the Greek of
that passage, and is found word for word in Jas. iv. 6,
we may probably give the same account of it as of the
other proverb quoted in chap. iv. 8, where see Note.
A sad calamity for Christians under persecution,
suddenly to find God Himself in array on the enemy's
side ! (such is the meaning of "resisteth"); and this is
what they would find, if they went against discipline.
On the other hand, if they were submissive, He would
bestow " grace " upon them ; here again, perhaps, not
in the strict theological sense, but in that of "favour."

(6) Humble yourselves therefore.— This, too,
looks an amplification of a proverb, when we compare
it with Jas. iv. 10. The humility here recommended is
not merely a submissive bearing of the strokes which it
pleased God to let fall upon them, but it was to be
shown, as we see in the former verse, in their bearing
toward one another. And " the mighty hand of God "
is not to be regarded as that which is chastising them,
but as the protecting shelter which they are humbly to
seek.

In due time.— St. Peter probably means, in the day
of judgment, which seemed so instant.

(7) Casting all your care upon him.— An adap-
tation of Ps. Iv. 22, according to the LXX. Anxiety
implies not only some distrust of God's providence,
but also some kind of belief that we may be able to
manage better for ourselves ; therefore here, as in the
Sermon on the Mount, we are exhorted, especially in
time of danger, simply to do what we know we ought
to do, and to be unheeding about the rest.

" Lord, it belongs not to my care
Whether I die or live."

The confidence cannot be misplaced, for God is not
forgetful of us. The play of words in the English does
not represent anything in the original, where the two
words for " care " are quite different.

(8) Be sober, be vigilant.— Single words in the
Greek, and in the tense which bespeaks immediate
attention. The best text omits the following " be-
cause." These are the sudden cries of warning of a
shepherd who spies the lion prowling round the flock
in the darkness, while the guardians of the flock lie
drowsy and secure.

As a roaring lion. — The epithet is not only added
to lend terror to the description, but the roaring implies
hunger and determination.

Walketh about.— Comp. Job i. 7 ; ii. 2. St. Peter,
however, is not calling attention to the fact that Satan
is always prowling about, but he warns the sleeping
shepherds that he is especially doing so now. This

season of persecution was just his time for picking off
one here and another there.

Seeking whom he may devour.— Perhaps still
more expressive to say, " seeking winch he may de-
vour." Satan is eyeing all the Christians in turn to
see which he has the best chance of, not merely stalking
forth vaguely to look for prey.

(9) Whom resist stedfast in the faith.— The
expression is somewhat more picturesque in the Greek
than in the English. " Stand and face him," instead
of running away from posts of duty (verse 2), or lying
still and letting things take their course (verse 8).
And the words for "stedfast in the faith" seem to
mean not oidy that each individual is to stand firm,
but that they are to present all together a solid front
to the lion.

Knowing that the same afflictions are ac-
complished in your brethren that are in the
world. — The phraseology of the original is very
strange. The sameness of the sufferings is brought
out by an expression which literally runs " the same
things in the way of sufferings;" the fraternal unity,
by the use of the same abstract word which we had in
chap. ii. 17. The verb rendered " to accomplish " some-
times denotes execution or infliction. So the whole will
run, knowing that the very same things in the way of
sufferings are being inflicted upon your brotherhood
which is in the world. " There is one thing," says
Archbishop Leighton, "that much troubles the pa-
tience and weakens the faith of some Christians ; they
are ready to think there is none, yea, there was never
any beloved of God in such a condition as theirs.
Therefore the Apostle St. Paul breaks this conceit
(1 Cor. x. 13), ' no temptation hath taken you but such
as is common to man:' and here is the same truth, 'the
same afflictions are accomplished in your brethren.'
This is the truth, and, taken altogether, is a most com-
fortable truth ; the whole brotherhood go in this way,
and our eldest Brother went first." The addition,
" that are in the world," points the suffering Christians
indirectly to solace themselves with the thought of
that portion of the brotherhood which has got beyond
the infliction. It would be possible to translate, though
somewhat far-fetched in point of thought, " knowing
that the same sufferings (or, the identity of the suffer-
ings) is completed by your brotherhood in the world "
— i.e., finds a consummation in making closer the bonds
of brotherhood between you.

(io) who hath called us unto his eternal
glory. — The true reading is, who called you, not "us."
The moment of the call was that when St, Paid and
the others first preached there. (See chap. i. 12, 25,
and Notes.) The God who now bestows all grace, by
the giving of that grace calls us into glory.

" The men of grace have found
Glory begun below."

By Christ Jesus.— On the whole it seems best,
with Tischendorf. to drop the name of Jesus out of
the text : the title " Christ " will then stand between

434

Glory to Christ Jesus. J-

you perfect, stablish, strengthen, settle
you. (11J To him be glory and dominion
for ever and ever. Amen. <12) By
Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you,

FETER, V.

Concluding Greeting.

as I suppose, I have written briefly,
exhorting, and testifying that this is
the true grace of God wherein ye
stand. (13) The church that is at

" the eternal glory," which we possess " in Him " (not
"by Christ Jesus," as our version lias it. but by virtue
of our union with the Christ), and the immediate
mention of suffering. Iu Him the two are drawn
inseparably together.

Suffered a while.— The Greek says distinctly, " a
little while," as in chap. i. 6. All time is short iu com-
parison of what comes after. The original looks as if
St. Peter meant not only " after that ye have; suffered,"
but also " by the fact of your having suffered."

Make you perfect.— Strictly these are futures,
"shall (or, will) make you perfect," &c. This verb
occurs again in 1 Thess. iii. 10, and elsewhere. It
implies the reduction to order and fitness for work
of what is disordered or broken. The others, which
are all very similar in meaning, are heaped up after
St. Peter's manner. Bengel thus explains them :
"Make you perfect, that there remain no defect in
you. Stablish, that nothing shake you. Strengthen,
that you may overcome all force brought against you."
The word for " to settle " means " to found," to give a
solid foundation. All this is to take place at the close
of the short spell of suffering which is the means to it.
St. Peter seems, therefore, to contemplate the passing
off of the persecution before the end of the world ; for
these verbs could hardly be so naturally used to express
our education in the world to come.

(ii) To him be glory. — " The Apostle," says
Leighton, " having added prayer to his doctrine, adds
here, you see, praise to his prayer." This is the true
consolation iu trouble, to extol the power of God. If
His be the dominion, and He have called us to His
glory, then what can we fear ?

(12-14) Concluding Greeting. — You will trust
the bearer of this Letter, and abide steadfastly in the
faith which he has taught you. The exiled Israel in
this wicked capital feels for you. Love and peace be
among you.

(i-) By Silvanus, a faithful brother unto you,
as I suppose.— There is not any reason for doubting
that this is the same as the Silas of the Acts and the j
Silvanus of 2 Cor. i. 19; 1 Thess. i. 1; 2 Thess. i. 1.
It is not a common name, and nothing would suggest
the doubt, except the acceptance a priori of the
Tubingen theory, that the feud between St. Peter and
St. Paul was so deadly as to preclude the possibility of
the first giving his patronage to a friend of the second.
"We have already seen repeatedly how false that theory
is. That the bearer of this Letter was a personage of
great consideration, may be seen from the fact that
St. Peter speaks of him as well known throughout the
whole Hebrew population of Asia Minor. In the
original the testimony is still more marked than in our
version, as it has the definite article, " the, or that, faith-
ful brother unto you." Silas being of the circumcision
himself (Acts xy. 22), St. Peter can without any risk,
writing to the Jews, call him "brother." And since
there was probably some disaffection towards him
among the Jewish Christians, for the wav in which he
had sided with St. Paul. St. Peter, the Apostle of the
circumcision, adds it as his own personal conviction
that Silas was no false brother to the Hebrew Chris-

4-:i6

tians. by saying, "as I reckon." The words "as I
suppose " (or, rather, as I reckon) do not imply any
uncertainty ou St. Peter's part, nor even that St. Peter a
knowledge of Silas was less intimate than that of Un-
persons to whom he writes. It means, rather, the mosl
complete confidence in Silas, which the writer is noi
at all ashamed to declare — " that faithful brother onto
you. in my estimation, if my conviction is worth any-
thing." This only shows that St. Peter had not altered
his opinion either of Silas or of the relative positions of
Jew and Gentile in the Church, since that great council
in which he took so prominent a part, when Silas WAS
selected, no doubt because of his uniting liberal views
with steadfast allegiance to the Law, to bear the apos-
tolic mandates to the Gentile metropolis of Antioch.
The same qualifications which fitted him for that work,
would now again serve him in good stead to bear to
the Jews of Asia Minor St. Peter's countersignature to
the doctrine of St. Paul. At the same time the expres-
sion, " that faithful brother unto you," indicates that St.
Silas had been himself working in Asia Minor. Of his
history nothing is recorded subsequent to his labours
with St. Paid at Corinth (Acts xviii. 5; 2 Cor. i. 19);
but putting together the fact that he is not included in
the list of St. Paul's companions in Acts xx. 4, with
what is implied by this present passage, we might
naturally infer that he was left at Ephesus, and devoted
himself to the evangelisation of the Asiatic provinces.

Briefly.— So Heb. xiii. 22. The writer hints that
if this present Letter is not enough to effect its purpose,
it is uot because there is any lack of matter or weakness
of conviction. (See also John xx. 25.)

Exhorting, and testifying that this is the true
grace of God wherein ye stand.— These words
give St. Peter's own account of the object and contents
of the Epistle. The " exhortation " involves all that
was mentioned in the Note on verse 1. The word for
" testifying" has a little further force than appears in
our version ; it is " bearing witness thereto." The
fact had been alleged by others ; St. Peter comes in as
evidence to its truth. Literally it woidd run : " that
this is true grace (or, a true grace) of God" ; i.e., that
the position which they now occupy, through the
preaching of the gospel, is indeed one which the favour
of God had brought them into : it was no fictitious
grace, no robbing of them under pretence of bringing
them glad tidings. When he says " this," he seems
to mean " this of which I have spoken," " this which
has formed the subject of my Letter." And the best
text pursues; "wherein stand ye," or " whereupon take
up your stand." Thus the very sentence itself would
contain the two elements of the Letter— "exhorting" as
well as " testifying." Nothing is to drive them or
entice them from the ground which the Pauline
preachers have marked out for them.

U3) The church .... elected together with
you.— In the original it simply stands " the co-elect
one [fern, sing.] in Babylon." Some, therefore, seeing
immediately after, "Marcus, my son," and knowing
that St. Peter was a married man (Matt. viii. 14,
1 Cor. ix. 5), have thought that this "co-elect one"
was St. Peter's wife. But (1) it is highly improbable
that St. Mark was in that sense "son" to St. Peter;
^2) quite as improbable that she would have been put so

Greeting from Babylon.

I. PETEK, V.

Conclusion.

Babylon, elected together with you,
saluteth you ; and so doth Marcus
my son. (u> Greet ye one another

with a kiss of charity. Peace be with
you all that are in Christ Jesus.
Amen.

prominently forward in such an Epistle ; (3) the word
"co-elect" evidently refers back to chap. i. 2, and
means " co-elect with you," not " with me." It was
becoming a not infrequent mode of designating a
church, to personify it under a female title (see 2 John,
verses 1, 4, 5, 13) ; and it seems therefore much more
natural to suppose that the salutation is from this
church of " Babylon " to her sister churches in the
provinces of Asia Minor. The modesty with which
this church at " Babylon " is spoken of, as being only
one of many " co-elect " ones is noteworthy. She
does not claim such a position among churches as
{e.g.) in Cant. vi. 8, 9.

That is at Babylon. — Three places have claimed
to be understood under this name : (1) A little place
called Babylon in Egypt, which has nothing to plead
for itself except the unlikelihood of St. Peter ever
being at the Oriental Babylon, coupled with the
difficulty of supposing that the name is used quite
figuratively. Perhaps, also, we should mention the
traditional connection of St. Mark with Egypt. No
one now, however, maintains this view. (2) The
literal Babylon in the East. This has for itself the
simple way in which St. Peter uses the word without
any circumlocution. But it has nothing else for it,
to set against all the overwhelming arguments in
favour of the third claimant ; besides which we learn
from Josephus of a great expulsion of Jews from
the Oriental Babylon a few years before this date :
these Jews might of course, however, have gathered
there again, as they did at Rome, in spite of frequent
expulsions. (3) It may be called the established inter-

{)retation that the place meant is Rome. We never
lear of St. Peter being in the East, and the thing in
itself is improbable, whereas nothing but Protestant
prejudice can stand against the historical evidence that
St. Peter sojourned and died at Rome. Whatever
theological consequences may flow from it, it is as
certain that St. Peter was at Rome as that St. John
was at Ephesus. Everything in the Letter also points
to such a state of things as was to be found at Rome
about the date when we believe the Letter to have been

written. It is objected that St. Peter would not gravely
speak of Rome under a fanciful name when dating a
letter; but the symbolism in the name is quite in
keeping with the context. St. Peter has just per-
sonified the church of the place from which he writes,
which seems quite as unprosaic a use of language as
to call Rome "Babylon." And it seems pretty clear
that the name was quite intelligible to Jewish readers,
for whom it was intended. The Apocalypse (xvii. 18)
is not the only place where Rome is found spoken
of under this title. One of the first of living Hebraists
(who will not allow his name to be mentioned) told the
present writer that no Hebrew of St. Peter's day
would have had need to think twice what city was
meant when " Babylon " was mentioned. And on the
mention of the name, all the prophecies of the vengeance
to be taken on the city which had desolated the Holy
Land would rush with consolation into the mind of the
readers, , and they would feel that St. Peter, though
supporting St. Paul, was still in full sympathy with
themselves. Finally, as M. Renan suggests, there were
reasons of prudence for not speaking too plainly about
the presence of a large Christian society in Rome. The
police were still more vigilant now than when St. Paul
wrote in guarded language about the Roman empire to
the Thessalonians. (See Excursus on the Man of Sin,
after 2 Thess.) It might provoke hostilities if the
Epistle fell into the hands of a delator, with names and
places too clearly given.

Marcus, my son. — The particular word here used
does not occur elsewhere of spiritual relationship, but
the other thought is very improbable. We should have
heard of it in other places had St. Mark been his son
in the flesh. (See Acts xii. 12.) St. Mark was, of
course, well known in Asia Minor (Acts xii. 25 ; Col.
iv. 10 ; 2 Tim. iv. 11).

(14) Kiss of charity.— Not only does he wish them
to receive the greetings of the Roman Church, but to
display their brotherly love to each other as well. On
the kiss of charity, see 1 Thess. v. 26. The " peace "
Which he wishes to them includes, though it is not
limited to, peace amongst themselves.

INTRODUCTION

THE SECOND EPISTLE GENEEAL OP

PETER.

I. The Authorship.— The question of the authen-
ticity of our Epistle is oue of well-known difficulty.

The objections to its genuineness are more serious than
those against any other book in the New Testament,
and yet are not so conclusive as by any means to have
silenced those who defend the authenticity. Before pro-
ceeding to a consideration of the arguments on each
side, two remarks seem to be necessary.

ll.)NThe Epistle must stand or fall as a whole. It is
impossible to reject passages which appear to be open
to objection and retain the rest. The thought is
eminently consecutive throughout, the style is uniform,
and the writer frequently glances back at what he lias
said before or anticipates what is coming. The net-
work of connected ideas which thus pervades the
whole cannot be severed otherwise than violently.
Moreover, the singular want of agreement among those
who advocate an expurgated edition as to what portions
should be struck out and what not, is another reason
for refusing to disintegrate the Epistle. Thus, Grotius
thinks that the words "Peter" and "Apostle," in chap,
i. 1, and verses i. 18 and iii. 15, 16, are interpolations.
Bertholt would retain chaps, i. and iii., rejecting chap. ii.
Lange (in Herzog) would reject all that lies between
chaps, i. 19 and iii. 3, i.e., from the words " knowing
this first" in chap. i. 20 to the same words in chap. iii. 3.
Ullmann surrenders all but chap. i. Bunsen retains
nothing but the first eleven verses and the doxology.

(2.) It is inexpedient to encumber the discussion with
an attempted reductio ad horribile of one of the alter-
natives. A court must not concern itself with the
consequences of finding the prisoner guilty. Let us,
therefore, at once set aside all such notions as this ; that
if the Epistle is not by St. Peter, " the Church, whieh
for more than fourteen centuries has received it, has been
imposed upon by what must, in that case, be regarded
as a Satanic device." Satan forging the Second
Epistle of St. Peter would indeed be Satan casting out
Satan. Or, again, " If any book which she reads as
the Word of God is not the Word of God, but the
work of an impostor, then — with reverence be it said —
Christ's promise to His Church has failed, and the
Holy Spirit has not been given to guide her into all
truth . . . The testimony of the universal Church of
Christ, declaring that the Epistles which we receive as
such are Epistles of St. Peter and are the Word of
God, is not her testimony only— it is the testimony of
Christ." Every true Christian will sympathise with
the zeal for God's Word which is conspicuous in
these passages ; but it will be well to keep apart two
questions which they combine and almost confuse—
(a) Is this Second Epistle the work of St. Peter? (b) Is
it part of the Word of God ? The second question is

437

here taken for granted. The Church answered it in the
affirmative fifteen hundred years ago, and it is no part of
the present work to question the decision. Only the
first question will be discussed; and to attempt to settle
it by considerations such as the passages just quoted
suggest, is neither just, nor wise, nor in the deepesl
sense reverent. It is not just ; for how can we give a
fair hearing to adverse evidence if we approach it in a
spirit which compels us to regard it as false or mis-
leading ? It is not wise ; for what will be our position
if, after all, the adverse evidence is too strong for even
our pre-judgment ? It is not reverent ; for it virtually
assumes that the Almighty cannot exalt an Epistle put
forth under a pretended name to the dignity of being
His Word; and that He who spoke to- His chosen
people by the lips of impure Balaam cannot speak to
us by the writings of one who may have ill-advisedly
assumed the pen of an Apostle. Hos. i. 2, 3 and iii. 1,
2 may warn us to be on our guard against pronouncing
hastily beforehand as to what means and instruments
it is or is not possible for God to employ for the
instruction of His people.

These remarks are not made with a view to sur-
rendering the authenticity of the Epistle as a thing of
no moment, but only that we may be able to weigh
the evidence with calmness. The question of the
genuineness of the Epistle is one of immense interest
and no small importance ; but there is no terrible alter-
native before us. If, after all, we have to admit that
the Epistle is possibly, or probably or certainly not
the work of St. Peter, the spiritual value of the
contents, both in themselves and in having received
the stamp of the Church as canonical, will remain
absolutely unchanged ; although, possibly, our own views
of God's providence in relation to the canon of Scripture
may require re-consideration and re-adjustment. This,
however, is but the common experience both of the in-
dividual and of the race. Men's views of God's dealings
with them are ever needing re-adjustment, as He hides
and manifests Himself in history; for His ways are
not as our ways, nor His thoughts as our thoughts.

The objections to the genuineness of the Epistle are
of four kinds: being drawn (a) from the history of the
Epistle ; (b) from its contents in relation to the First
Epistle; (c) from the contents considered in them-
selves ; (d) from the same in relation to the Epistle of
St. Jude.

In each case it will be most convenient to state the
adverse facts first, and then what may be said on the
other side.

{a) External Evidence : Tlie Histonj of the Epistle. —
Among the earliest winters there is a remarkable silence

11. PETER.

with regard to this Epistle. There is no mention of it,
and no certain quotation from it or allusion to it. in
either the first or second century. Neither the Apos-
tolic Fathers nor Justin Martyr nor Ireneeus yield
anything that can be relied upon as a reference. It is
probable that Irenaeus did not know of its existence ; it
is almost certain that neither Tertullian nor Cyprian
did. About Clement of Alexandria there is some
doubt, owing to inconsistent statements of Eusebius
and Cassiodorus. But seeing that in the large amount
of Clement's writings now extant there is only one
possible, and not one probable, reference to it, and that,
in quoting 1 Peter, lie writes, " Peter in his Epistle
says," the probability is that he did not know it. The
Muratoriau Fragment {cxrc. A.D. 170) omits it. It is
wanting in the Peschito or old Syriac version (and St.
Peter was personally known in Syria, especially at
Antioek), and also in the old Latin version which pre-
ceded the Vulgate. Thus we are brought quite into
the third century without any sure trace of the Epistle.

Origeu certainly knew it. In those of his works
which exist only in the Latin translation of Rufinus he
quotes it as the work of St. Peter. But Rufinus is
not a trustworthy translator ; and Origeu, in works of
which the original' Greek is still extant, either expresses
a doubt about it or rejects it by implication, as Clement
of Alexandria does. Eusebius certainly rejected it ;
Chrysostom, Theodore, and Theodoret probably did so ;
and we learn from Didymus. Jerome's preceptor, that
doubts about it still survived late in the fourth century,
though he seems to have overcome them in himself.
At the Reformation these doubts revived again, and
have never subsided since. At the present time, a large
number of the best critics consider the Epistle suspicious
or spurious.

On the other hand, there are possible allusions to it
in Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Hennas, Justin Martyr,
Melito, Theophilus, and Hippolytus : and some even
among adverse critics consider those in the Shepherd
of Hennas (circ. a.d. 140) to be certain. Specimens of
these possible allusions will be found in the Notes on
passages which they resemble : — Clement, ii. 5; iii. 4;
Polycarp. iii. 4; Hennas, ii. 13, 15,20; iii. 5; Justin
Martyr, ii. 1, iii. 8; Melito, iii. 5 — 7; Theophilus, i. 19,
21 ; Hippolytus, i. 21. The first certain reference to
the Epistle as by St. Peter is in a Latin translation of
a letter by Origen's pupil, Firmilian of Ceesarea, to
Cyprian (a.d. 256). Athanasius, Cyril of Jerusalem,
Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Jerome, Rufinus, and Augus-
tine accepted it, although they knew that it had been
much suspected ; and they, of course, had evidence
which has not come down to us. The Councils of
Laodicea (circ. a.d. 360) and of Hippo (a.d. 393) for-
mally included it in the Canon, decisions which have
never been reversed. Its omission from the Muratoriau
Fragment is somewhat weakened by the fact that
1 Peter (about which there is no doubt) is omitted
also: and as a set-off to its omission from the Peschito,
we have the fact that Ephrem Syrus seems to have
accepted it.

Thus the adverse external evidence, serious though
it is. is anything but conclusive. It can easily be ex-
plained. Communication between' the churches was
fitful and irregular, sometimes slow, sometimes very
rapid. Accidents might favour the circulation of the
First Epistle and delay that of the Second. The very
fact of its being the first Letter from the pen of the
chief Apostle would promote the spread of the First
Epistle; and as it was known to have been written
only a few years before the death of St. Peter, this

would make a second Letter within so short an intervai
a little improbable. The marked difference of style
and language 'between the two Letters, which Jerome
tells us had attracted notice, would increase the distrust.
The amount of apocryphal literature which began to
appear at a very early date, and Hooded the Church
in the second and third centuries, made all churches
very suspicious about unknown writings ; and several
of these apocryphal books bore the name of St. Peter.
Every year that the arrival of the Epistle at any par-
ticular church was delayed would make its acceptance
by that church less probable. The fate of the Fourth
Gospel, on account of its appearing after the others
had obtained full possession of the field, is an illustra-
tion of similar causes and effects. When we remember
that many narratives of Christ's life (Luke i. 1, Note)
and some letters of St. Paul have entirely perished,
we need not be surprised that a short Epistle like this,
containing little that ordinary Christians did not know,
should have remained for more than a century quite
unknown to many churches and suspected by others.
If the external evidence were all, we might admit that
the general and authoritative reception of the Epistle
in the fourth century, after such full doubt and debate,
is more than sufficient for us.

(b) Internal Evidence : The Contents of the Second
Epistle in relation to the First. — Very formidable
lists of points of difference between the two Epistles
have been drawn up, but recent adverse critics have
ceased to urge many of these supposed differences ; we
may, therefore, content ourselves witlT some of the most
telling of such arguments as specimens, (o) 1 Peter
uses Old Testament phraseology, and quotes Old Tes-
tament writers ; 2 Peter, with two doubtful exceptions
(chaps, ii. 22 ; iii. 8), does neither. (&) 1 Peter is mainly
about suffering persecution; 2 Peter is mainly about
heresy. (y) 1 Peter speaks of the Death, Resurrection,
and Ascension of Christ; 2 Peter mentions none of
them. (5) 1 Peter represents the return of Christ as
near (chap. iv. 7), and calls it a " revelation " (chaps, i.
7, 13 ; iv. 13) ; 2 Peter represents it as possibly dis-
tant (chap. iii. 15), and calls it "coming" (chaps, i. 16;
iii. 4, 12). («) 1 Peter calls our Lord simply ''Christ"
or "Jesus Christ;" 2 Peter always adds " Saviour '*
(five times; and the word does not occur once in
1 Peter), or " Lord," or both. (0 1 Peter insists on
faith ; 2 Peter on knowledge. (y) The Greek of 1 Peter
is smooth, with easily-moving sentences, simply con-
nected ; that of 2 Peter is rough, with heavily-moving
sentences, of which the construction is often harsh and,
when prolonged, broken.

To these and similar arguments it may be replied
that considerable differences between the two Epistles
are admitted, but they may easily be exaggerated.
Of the above, some are not strictly true ; in particular,
(a) and (e) , others tell rather in favour of the genuine-
ness of 2 Peter. Why should a second letter, written
soon after the first, on a very different subject, repeat
the topics of the first, or even use much of its phrase-
ology P Encouragement under persecution and denun-
ciation of corrupt doctrine and conduct require very
different language. Great similarity of expression
under such very different circumstances would have
looked like the careful imitation of a forger. Jerome's
suggestion, that St. Peter lised different " interpreters"
in the two Epistles to put his thoughts into Greek, is a
possible solution of many differences ; but it is not
likely that St. Peter, though originally an illiterate
fisherman, was still, at the end of a long and active life,

II. PETEB.

unable to write the Greek of either Epistle ; and both
of them show traces of a writer not perfectly at home
in the language. King's theory, that 2 Peter is a
translation from an Aramaic original, is another pos-
sible solution. But neither theory is needed. Both
Epistles are too short to supply satisfactory materials
for an argument of this kind ; and neither of them
exhibit any such marked characteristics as those found
in the writings of St. Luke or St. Paul or St. John.
An anonymous pamphlet on any subject by Carlyle or
Victor Hugo would probably bo assigned to the right
author at once; but most writers, even if known by
many books, have no such marked style as would betray
them in a few pages on a special subject : and here we
are arguing as to the authorship of a tract of four
pages from a tract of six pages on a different subject.
In such a case, similarities, which cannot easily be the
result of imitation, are stronger evidence of identity of
authorship than dissimilarities are of non-identity.
Difference of mood, of subject, of surroundings, would
probably account for all the dissimilarities, did we but
know all the facts. The First Epistle would seem to
have been written with much thought and care, as by
one who felt a delicacy about intruding himself upon
communities which St. Paul had almost made his own.
Hence the earnest, gentle dignity of the Epistle, which
makes one think how age must have tamed the spirit
of the impetuous Apostle. But in the Second Letter,
written probably under pressure, we see that the old
vehemence is still there. There is a slight indication
of it in the way in which he goes at once to the point
(chap, i 3 — 5) ; as he nears the evil which has so
excited his fear and indignation, the construction be-
comes broken (chap. i. 17); and when he is in the full
torrent of his invective, feeling seems almost to choke
his utterance. Hence the rugged Greek, from which
at times we can scarcely extricate the construction ;
hence, too, the repetitions, which some have thought a
sign of inferiority. They are the natural residts of
emotion struggling to express itself in a language with
which it is not perfectly familiar. Similar harsh con-
structions and tautological repetitions may be found in
some of St. Peter's speeches as recorded in the Acts
(chaps, i. 21. 22; hi. 13—16, 26; iv. 9; x. 36—40).

Against the admitted differences may bo set some
very real coincidences, both in thought and language,
between the two Epistles. These also may be exagge-
rated and their force over-estimated; but when soberly
treated they are a valuable contribution to the evidence.
Obvious similarities of language are of no great moment
(see Notes on chaps, i. 14, 16; ii. 7) ; for it is admitted
by all that the writer of the Second Letter knew the
First. But subtle coincidences of thought, lying almost
beyond the reach of the conscious imitator, are worth
considering. (See on chaps, i. 3, 5, 7 ; ii. 18, 19.) The
traces of St. Paul's phraseology, which have been urged
against the originality of 2 Peter, may, from this point
of view, be counted in its favour, for such traces are
very strong in the First Epistle.

The arguments, therefore, to be drawn from a com-
parison of the two Letters do not give much support
to those who impugn the genuineness of the Second
Epistle. A patient consideration of the facts may lead
some to the conclusion that, considering the brevity of
both Letters and the different purpose of each, the
amount of agreement, both on and below the surface,
throws the balance in favour of both being the product
of one mind. The assertion that had the Second
Epistle not claimed to be by St. Peter no one would
ever have dreamed of assigning it to him, is easily made

and not easily refuted; but study of the phenomena
will lead to its being doubted.

(c) Internal Evidence : The Contents of the Epistle
considered in themselves. — It is in this section of the
argument that far the most serious objections to the
authenticity occur. The following have been urged :
(a) It is unlike the simple, practical spirit of St. Peter
to enlarge upon the manner of the creation and of the
destruction of the world (chap. iii. 5 — 7, 10 — 12). {B) It
is unlike an Apostle to appeal to " the commandment
of your Apostles " (chap. iii. 2). (7) The interchange
of future and present tenses (chaps, ii. 1, 2, 3, 10, 12,
13; iii. 3, 5) looks like a later writer trying to write
like a prophet in an earlier age, and at times forgetting
his assumed position. (5) Ideas belonging to an ago
later than that of the Apostles are introduced. Of this
there are four marked instances — (1) The expression
" the holy mount " (chap. i. 18) betrays an ago which
professes to know where the Transfiguration took place
(of which the Gospels tell us nothing), and which has a
taste for miracles. (2) No such argument as that
urged by the scoffers (chap. iii. 4) would be possible in
St. Peter's lifetime ; it implies that at least the first
generation of Christians has died out. (3) 2 Peter is
addressed (chap. i. 1) to all Gentile Christians, and at
the same time (chap. iii. 1) to the same readers as thcso
of 1 Peter, which is addressed (chap. i. 1) to particular

t churches, i.e., the post- Apostolic idea that the letters
of Apostles are the common property of all Christians

I is implied. (4) St, Paul's writings are spoken of as

I equivalent to Scripture (chap. iii. 16).

Let us take these objections in order, (a) That St.
Peter should enlarge upon the details of the creation

I and of the destruction of the world is not more strange
than that he should enlarge upon " the spirits in
prison" (1 Pet. iii. 19, 20; iv. 6). It would almost
seem as if such mysterious subjects had an attraction
for him (1 Pet. i. 12). At least it is more reasonable
to suppose this, seeing that there are some facts to
support us, than to settle precariously what " the
simple, practical spirit of St. Peter " would or would

I not be likely to enlarge upon. (8) Let us grant that

; an Apostle is often content with insisting on his own
authority : this is no proof that he would never appeal
to the authority of another Apostle. In 2 Peter the
writer has more than once stated his personal claim to
be heard (chap. i. 1, 18), and is then willing to sink liis
own authority in that of the Apostolic body, nay, is
anxious to do so ; for, as in the First Epistle, he still
feels a delicacy about addressing congregations which,
in the first instance, belonged to the Apostle of the
Gentiles, and so he not only appeals to that Apostle's
commandment, but points out that his commandment
is at the same time that of Jesus Christ. In Eph. iii.
5 St. Paul makes a similar appeal to the authority of
others ; and it may warn us to be cautious in arguing
as to what an Apostle would be sure to do in certain
cases when we find this passage used to cast doubt on
the Apostolic origin of such an Epistle as that to the
Ephesians. (7) This plausible argument will not bear

\ close inspection. The evils which the writer foretells

; are already present in the germ. Moreover, the pro-

j phetic present as equivalent to a future is very common
in prophecies ; the future is so confidently realised that

I it is spoken of as present. In similar prophecies in the
New Testament there is a similar mixture of future and

I present (2 Thess. ii. 3, 7 ; 2 Tim. iii. 1, 2, 8). < (5)fe

J come now to the most weighty group of objections.

! (1) The expression " the holy mount " does not imply

II. PETER.

that the mount is known ; and the theory that it does
is reduced to an absurdity when it is further urged
that " the holy mount," as applied to a known spot,
must mean Mount Zion. Would any sane Christian,
whether of the first or of the second century, represent
the Transfiguration as taking place on Mount Zion ?
" The mount " simply means the one spoken of in the
Gospels in connexion with this event. Nor does the
epithet " holy " indicate a miracle-loving age. Any
Jew would naturally use it of a spot where the glory of
the Lord had been revealed (Ex. iii. 5; Josh. v. 15).
(2) The force of this argument is not so great as at
first sight appears. In the Epistle of Clement of
Rome (a.d. 95 — 100) the same scoffing argument is
quoted as condemned by " Scripture " (chap, xxiii.).
The " Scripture " is probably not 2 Peter. But we here
have proof that this scoffing objection was old enough
to have been written against before a.d. 95. The kin-
dred error of Hyinenaeus and Philetus was in existence
in St. Paul's lifetime. Besides which, it is not certain
that " since the fathers fell asleep " refers to Chris-
tians at all. (See Notes on chap. iii. 4.) The argument
may be a piece of Sadducism, which had found its way
into the Christian Church ; the tone of it is not unlike
that in Mark xii. 23. (3) The premises here are too
vague for so definite a conclusion. To state the pre-
mises fairly we must say 2 Peter is addressed in the
main to all Gentile Christians, and also in the main to
the same readers as 1 Peter, which is addressed mainly
to five or six different churches. From such indefinite
data no very clean-cut and decided result can be ob-
tained. Moreover, it is open to question whether the
idea that the letters of Apostles are the common
property of Christians was not in existence in the
Apostolic age. The phenomena of the text of the last
two chapters of Romans (see Notes there) tend to show
that this idea was beginning to arise some years before
the traditional date of St. Peter's death. The Epistle
to the Ephesians would lead us in the same direction.
So that it is doubtful (a) whether the idea is implied in
2 Peter; (b) whether it was not in existence in St. Peter's
lifetime. (4) No objection, probably, has had more
effect than this. " The other Scriptures," it is urged,
may mean either Old Testament or New Testament
writings ; in either case, we are face to face with a
writer later than the Apostolic age. If Old Testament
Scriptures are meant, it is incredible that St. Peter
would place Epistles of St. Paul side by side with
them as " Scriptixre." If New Testament Scriptures
are meant, this indicates a date at which certain
Christian writings had begun to be considered equal in
authority to the Old Testament, and this date is later
than the death of St. Peter. In the Notes (chap. iii. 16)
it is shown that probably not Old Testament, but
Christian, writings are meant ; not any definite col-
lection of writings, but certain well-known documents
other than the Epistles of St. Paul just mentioned.
We must remember that the Greek words for " other "
are sometimes used loosely, and rather illogically, with-
out the two individuals, or two classes, being exactly
alike (comp. Luke x. 1 ; xxiii. 32 ; John xiv. 16) ; so that
we cannot be sure that the writer means to place these
Epistles of St. Paul on precisely the same level with
" the other Scriptures." And that " Scripture " was
used in the first century as rather a comprehensive
term is shown by the passage from Clement of Rome
alluded to above, where he quotes (chap, xxiii.) as
" Scripture " a passage not found either in the Old or
New Testaments. Again, the high authority claimed
by Apostles for their own words makes this passage,

although unique in the New Testament, quite intel-
ligible. (Comp. Acts xv. 28 ; 1 Cor. v. 3, 4 ; 1 Thess.
ii. 13.) Perhaps the nearest parallel is 1 Pet. i. 12, where
evangelists are placed on the same level with the Old
Testament prophets, a very remarkable coincidence
between the two Epistles. One more consideration
must be urged. The date of St. Peter's death is not
certain, and the traditional date may be too early.
Several of the objections just considered would be still
further weakened if St. Peter's death took place not in
the third, but in the fourth quarter of the century.

But besides answering objections, we may observe —
(1) that the writer professes to be Simon Peter ("chap.
i. 1), one whose death Christ foretold (chap. i. 14), a
witness of the Transfiguration (chap. i. 16 — 18), and
the writer of the First Epistle (chap. iii. 1) ; (2) that
he speaks with authority (chap. i. 12, 13, 15, 16), yet is
not afraid to admit the high authority of prophecy
(chap. i. 19) ; (3) that there is some trace of the con-
ciliatory position between Jewish and Gentile converts
which St. Peter occupied between the rigour of St.
James and the liberty of St. Paul (chaps, i. 1, 2 ; iii. 15);
(4) that the exj)ression " our beloved brother Paul," so
unlike the way in which Clement of Rome, Ignatius,
Polycarp, and Clement of Alexandria speak of St.
Paul (see Note on chap. iii. 15), is a strong mark of an
Apostolic author — a writer of the second century would
scarcely find his way back to this; (5) that some
striking coincidences between thoughts and expressions
in this Epistle and passages in St. Peter's speeches as
reported in the Acts exist, and will be pointed out in
the Notes. (See Notes on chaps, i. 1 ; iii. 12.)

On the other hand, no weight can be allowed to the
argument that " all motive for forgery is absent." It
is quite true that " this Epistle does not support any
hierarchical pretensions nor bear upon any of the
controversies of a later age." But a motive quite
sufficient can bo found, viz., to put down with the
authority of an Apostle an alarming corruption, both
in doctrine and conduct. This motive might have
induced excellent men in the primitive Church to write
in the name of St. Peter, and the moral sense of the
community would not have condemned them. Such
personations, purely in the interests of religion and
virtue, are neither impossible nor unknown; and the
very words " forgery" and "impostor," in reference to
such acts and agents in primitive times, are fallacious.
We must beware of transferring our own ideas of
literary morality to an age in which they were abso-
lutely non-existent.

(d) Internal Evidence : The Contents of the Epistle
in relation to the Epistle of St. Jude. — This subject is
discussed in the Introduction to Jude. The conclusion
there arrived at is that the priority of neither Epistle
can be proved, but that the balance inclines decidedly
towards the priority of 2 Peter. If the priority of Jude
should ever be demonstrated, then we have still more
reason for placing the date of St. Peter's death later
than a.d. 67 or 68, unless the authenticity of 2 Peter is
admitted to be more than doubtful.

The conclusion, then, to which this long discussion
leads us is this — the objections to the Epistle are such
that, had the duty of fixing the Canon of the New
Testament fallen on us, we should scarcely have
ventured, on the existing evidence, to include the
Epistle; they are not such as to warrant us in re-
versing the decision of the fourth century, which had
evidence that we have not. If modern criticism be the
court of appeal to which the judgment of the fourth

II. PETER.

century is referred, as it has not sufficient reasons for
reversing that judgment it can only confirm it. Ad-
ditional evidence may yet be forthcoming. A Hebrew
or Greek text of the Booh of Enoch might settle the
relation between 2 Peter and Jude beyond dispute ; and
this would clear the way not a little. Meanwhile, we
accept the authenticity of the Epistle as, to say the
very least, quite the best working hypothesis.

II. The Place and Time.— The suggestions as to
the place where the Epistle was written are mere con-
jectures ; we have no evidence of any value. As to the
date, any time after the writing of the First Epistle,
may bo right ; probably not long before the Apostle's
martyrdom. The fact that the destruction of Jerusa-
lem is not mentioned is reason for believing that it had
not taken place when the letter was written. If it be
said that a writer personating St. Peter would have
avoided so obvious a blunder, we may reply (1) that
these are just the pitfalls into which literary personators
in an early age fall ; (2) that it is not certain that it
would have been a blunder — St. Peter may have been
living A.D. 70 ; (3) that the destruction of Jerusalem
would have served the purpose of the letter so well, as
an argument (more strong than the Transfiguration) for
Christ's return to judgment, as a fulfilment of prophecy
on this subject, aud as a signal instance of divine
vengeance, that no explanation of its omission is so
satisfactory as that it had not yet taken place.

III. Object and Contents.— The object of the
Epistle is twofold: (1) warning against the seductions
of false doctrine and the licentiousness akin to it ; (2)
exhortation to increase in the grace and knowledge of
our Lord Jesus Christ. The basis for both is the
same — the certainty of Christ's return to judgment.
With true tact, the writer begins and ends with
exhortation and encouragement; the warning and
denunciation lie in between, and strongly as the latter
are worded, terrible as are the metaphors and illustra-
tions employed, even here the gentleness and tenderness [
of one who knew from experience what tenderness could
do for those who had gone the length of " denying even I
the Master that bought them " (2 Pet. ii. 1 ; Luke xxii.
61) continually come to the surface, and break the
flood of vehement denunciation (chaps, ii. 5, 7 — 9; iii. 1, 2).

The plan of the contents is easily recognised, and the
transitions from one division to another are so natural,
that (as remarked at the outset) it is impossible to
strike out any portion as spurious aud retain the rest.

I.— Introductory.

Address and greeting (chap. i. 1, 2).
II.— Hortatory and Argumentative.

(1) Exhortation to increase in spiritual graces,

in order to gain eternal life at Christ's
coining (chap. i. 3 — 11).

(2) Transition to the argumentative part; the

purpose of this Epistle stated chap. i.

(3) Basis of the exhortation — the certainty of

Christ's coming, which is proved :

(a) By the Transfiguration, which was an anti-

cipation of it (chap. i. lb' — 18).

(b) By the utterances of prophets, who have

predicted it (chap. i. 19 — 21).
III.— Warning.

(1) First Prediction: false teachers shall have
great success and certain ruin (chap. ii.
1 — 10) ; their impious practices described
(chap. ii. 10—22).

44]

(2) Transition to the second prediction ; the

purpose of both Epistles stated (chap,
iii. 1, 2).

(3) Second Prediction : scoffers shall throw

doubt on Christ's return (chap. iii. 3, 4) ;
their argument refuted (chap. iii. 5 — 9).

(4) Basis of the warning — the certainty of

Christ's coming (chap. iii. 10).
IV. — Hortatory.

(1) Concluding exhortations (chap. iii. II — 18) ;

(2) Doxology (chap. iii. 18).

IV. The False Teachers and the Scoffers.—

We are probably to regard these as in the main iden-
tical ; but in spite of the vigorous language in which
they are described, it is difficult to say what particular
heresy is indicated. As in many of the Old Testament
prophecies, the picture is painted in strong, lurid
colours ; but the outlines are not sufficiently defined
to enable us to specify any distinctive characteristics.
The spirit of heresy, capable of developing into
endless varieties, rather than any one of the va-
rieties themselves, is placed before us. Cavilling,
pride, irreverence, impatience of restraints, impatience
of mysteries — these form the corrupt atmosphere
in which heresies are generated, and these are just
the qualities that are depicted here. The indefinite-
ness of the description has been pointed out by critics
on both sides of the question of authenticity. It is a
strong argument in favour of an early date for this
Epistle. A writer of the second centtuy, with the full-
blown Gnosticism of Basilides. Carpoorates, Valentinus,
and Marcion around him, could scarcely have divested
himself of his experience, and given us. not the details
of what he saw and heard, but the germs that had
developed into these after a growth of half a century.
Historic divination, by means of which the essentials
of an earlier age are discovered and separated from
what is merely accidental — historic imagination, by
means of which these essentials are put together in a
life-like picture — are powers of modern growth. The
divination of the second century was exercised on the
future, not on the past ; its imagination on the possi-
bilities of the unseen world, not on the realities of the
world of sense. The disagreement of critics as to the
time in the second century at which the letter was pro-
bably written makes us all the more disposed to doubt
whether the second century is right at all. Bleek
suggests A.D. 100 — 150; Mayerhoff, circ. A.D. 150;
Davidson, circ. 170; Schwegler and Sender, a.d.
190—200.

The view here taken of the false teachers and scoffers,
that they are the forerunners of the Antinomian heretics
of the second century, is confirmed when we turn to
St. Paul's Epistles. There we find indications of these
evils at a slightly earlier stage. Wo see him contend-
ing against corrupt practices, which were on their road
to being established, inasmuch as some tried to justify
them on principles which were a caricature of his own
teaching. His Christian liberty is stretched to cover
the detestable maxim, "Let us do evil that good may
come," participation in idolatrous feasts, incestuous
marriages, intemperance at love-feasts, &c. (Rom. iii.
8; 1 Cor., passim). A self- satisfied knowledge is
intruding itself (1 Cor. viii. 1 — &). The resurrection
of the dead is being denied 1 1 Cor. xv. 12 ; 2 Tim. ii. 18).
In 2 Peter the corrupt practices and the corrupt prin-
ciples are more definitely combined. St. Peter pre-
dicts that still greater abominations than those against
which St. Paul wrote will not only be justified, but

II. PETER.

taught upon pinnciple. Going beyond those who denied
the resni'rection, men will mock at the coming of Christ
and the day of judgment. Thus the false teachers of
2 Peter are just a step nearer to the systematised Anti-
nomianism of the second century than the evil-doers
denounced by St. Paul. St. Jude shows us in active
operation the mischief of which St. Paul and St. Peter
had seen the beginning and foretold the development.
Tertullian, Irenseus, and Hippolytus tell us to what
hideous proportions and fantastic variety the develop-
ment eventually progressed.

It is well known that the f ramers of our Authorised
version, while on the whole making an enormous
advance on previous English versions, sometimes went
back. In some instances the changes they made in the
translations on which they worked were the reverse of
improvements. Perhaps no portion of the New Testa-
ment is more full of cases of this kind than the Second
Epistle of St. Peter. In a large number of such cases
it will be found that the earlier versions which are
superior to the Authorised version are Wiclif's and the
Rheinish; and not unfrequently that the version which
has led our translators astray is the Genevan. None of
these three versions were among those which the trans-
lators were instructed to use ; and of Wiclif's they pro-
bably made very little use ; of the other two they made
a great deal of use. Wiclif's version and the Bhemish
were made from the Latin Vulgate, not from the Greek :
so that we have what at first sight seems to be a startling
fact, that versions made from a Latin translation are

often superior to the best version made from the Greek.
The explanation is simple. The Vulgate is a good
Latin translation of excellent Greek texts ; our version
is a good English translation of very defective Greek
texts. " The errors in the text of our English Testa-
ment inherited from them are considerably more
important than the existing errors of translation "
(Westcott). The late Dr. Routh, when asked what
commentary he considered to be on the whole the best,
is said to have answered " The Vulgate." The facts
just noticed are a striking illustration of his meaning.
In the Notes the renderings of previous versions will
often be given, where our translators seem to have
adopted an inferior rendering.

[In writing the Introduction and Notes for this
Epistle, use has been made of the Commentaries of
Alford, Bengel, Bruckner's edition of Do Wette, Hof-
maun, Huther, Reuss, Schott, and Wordsworth, together
with the Introductions of Bleek and Davidson, and the
articles in Smith and Herzog. A much better use
might have been made of them had time permitted.
But it is only just to the editor and the reader to
say, that the commentator on 2 Peter and Jude
was asked to undertake the work at very short notice,
and to complete it within a very short time. If he
is found to have undertaken a task beyond his
strength, he must plead in excuse the attraction
which the work had for him, and the wish to render
help to a far abler but over-worked contributor to this
Commentary].

THE SECOND EPISTLE GENEEAL OF

PETER.

CHAPTER I.— W Simon Peter, a
Chap. i. 1, 2. servant and an apostle

Greeting.

of Jesus Christ, to them

that have obtained like precious faith
with us through the righteousness of
God and our Saviour Jesus Christ :

(!) Simon Peter.— The marginal reading "Symeon"
is to bo preferred. " Simon " has probably been sub-
stituted as being more usual. The Geneva Bible, which
our translators unfortunately sometimes follow when it is
misleading, has "Simeon." " Symeon," of St. Peter,
occurs elsewhere only Acts xv. 14, in a speech of the
strongly Jewish St. James. As being the more Jewish
form of the name, it points to a Jewish Christian as the
author ; and as being unusual, it shows that the writer, if
not the Apostle, is no slavish imitator. As coming from
St. Peter, the Apostle of the circumcision, it is natural
enough. The differences between this opening and
that of 1 Peter are instructive. There, as approaching
communities which might seem to belong to St. Paul,
he carefully suppresses everything personal ; he calls
himself merely " Peter," the name which Christ Him-
self had given him along with his high commission
(Matt. xvi. 18), and " Apostle," the title which stated
his commission. Here, as coming a second time to
those who now "know him better (both through his
former Epistle and through Silvanus) , he adds personal
designations. There, as if not venturing to depart
greatly from his own peculiar field, he addresses him-
self mainly to the Jewish converts. He .*e, with more
boldness, the natural result of increased familiarity, he
addresses Gentile converts chiefly. (See Note on 1 Pet.
i. 1.)

A servant and an apostle.— De Wette suspects
a combination of 1 Pet. i. 1 with Jude, verse 1. The
coincidence is too slight to argue upon. (See Rom. i. 1
and Note on Jude, verse 1.) The amount of similarity
between the opening verses of Jude and those of this
Epistle is too small for any conclusions as to the de-
pendence of one on the other. Although the word for
" servant " strictly means slave, the English version is
quite correct. (See on Rom. i. 1.)

To them that have obtained.— The Greek word
implies that they have not won it or earned it for
themselves, but that it has been allotted to them.
Comp. Acts i. 17, where the same word (rare in the
New Testament) occurs in a speech of St. Peter. (See
Note on '"godliness," verse 3.) Another coincidence
to be noticed is the way in which St. Peter speaks of
the Gentile Christians (Acts. xi. 17) when charged with
having visited " men uncircuineised," and again (Acts
xv. 8—11) at the Council of Jerusalem ; both remark-
able parallels to this.

Like precious faith with us.— Not that all had
an ecpial amount of faith, which would scarcely be pos-
sible; nor that their faith gave all an equal right to
salvation, which the Greek could scarcely mean; but
that all believed the same precious mysteries. (Comp.

44r

1 Pet. i. 7.) It is delicately implied that " we as well
as you have had it allotted to us ; it is no credit to us ;
we are not superior to you." "Us" may mean either
the Apostles, or (more probably) the first Christians, as
distinct from those converted later, i.e., Jewish as dis-
tinct from Gentile Christians. This shows that Gentile
converts are chiefly addressed in this Epistle, as Jewish
in the First Epistle. Gentiles would be more likely to
be doubters respecting Christ's return to judgment,
than Jews well acquainted with Hebrew prophecies on
the subject. Gentiles also Avould be more likely than
Jews to fall into the excesses denounced in the second
chapter, which bear a strong resemblance to the cata-
logue of heathen vices given by St. Paul in Rom. i.
The idea that Christians are the antitype of the chosen
people is prominent in St. Peter's writings. (Comp.
chap. ii. 1, and 1 Pet. i. 10.) Note that no particular
churches are mentioned. The Second Epistle is more
"general" or "catholic" in its address than the First.
Here again we have a mark of independence. A writer
personating St. Peter, and referring to the former
Letter (chap. iii. 1), would probably have taken care to
make the address of the second letter tally exactly with
that of the first.

Through the righteousness.— Better, in the
righteousness. So Wiclif, Tyndale, and Rheims version.
"Righteousness" is variously explained. Perhaps tin
best interpretation is " fairness, justice." He has no
respect of persons, and hence has given to all Christians,
early or late, Jew or Gentile, a " like precious faith."

Of God and our Saviour Jesus Christ.— Better,
of oar God and (our) Saviour Jesus Christ. Here, as
in Titus ii. 13 (comp. 2 Thess. i. 12), we are somewhat
in doubt as to whether we have one or two Persons of
the Trinity mentioned. Rigid grammar would incline
us to make " God" and "Saviour" both apply to Christ.
But rigid grammar alone is not always the safest guide
in interpreting Scripture. The very next verse, inde-
pendently of other considerations, seems to determine
that both the Father and the Sou are here mentioned.
The mode of expression which causes doubt on the
subject, perhaps indicates the writer's perfect belief in
the oneness of the Father with the Son. The addition
of " Saviour " to the name of Jesus Christ is very
frequent in this Epistle (verse 11, chaps, ii. 20; iii. 18;
comp. chap. iii. 2). It shows how completely " Jesus "
had become a proper name, the exact signification of
which was becoming obscured. " Saviour " does not
occur in 1 Pet., but the cognate " salvation " does
(chaps, i. 5, 9, 10; ii. 2). Both words point onwards
to safety from perdition at the last. (Comp. St. Peter's
speech, Acts v. 31.)

The Apostle's Salutation.

II. PETER, I.

The Great and Precious Promises.

<2> grace and peace be multiplied unto
you through the knowledge of God, and
of Jesus our Lord, (3) according as his
Chap. i. 3—11. divine power hath given
Exhortation to unto us all things that
ntimfgracesf1" pertain unto life and godli-

ness, through the knowledge of him that
hath called us to l glory and virtue :
W whereby are given unto us exceeding
great and precious promises : that by
these ye might be partakers of the
divme nature, having escaped the cor-

(2) Grace and peace be multiplied unto you.—
Identical with the last clause of 1 Pet. i. 2, and with
no other greeting in any Epistle. What follows here
is peculiar to this Epistle, which begins and ends with
grace and knowledge. (Comp. chap. iii. 18.)

Through the knowledge. — Better, as before, in.
The preposition indicates the sphere or element in
which the action takes place, or the aspect in which it
is contemplated. Tyndale and the Rhemish version have
'• in." " Knowledge " is not quite strong enough. In
the original we have a compound word, which implies
fuller, riper, more minute knowledge. But any of these
expressions would be a little too strong, as the simple
word is a little too weak. The same compound recurs
verse 3. It is rare in St. Paul's earlier letters, but is
more common in the later ones. This fact, coupled
with its appearance here, agrees well with the more
contemplative aspect in which the Gospel began gradu-
ally to be presented ; a change which finds its fullest
expression in the transition from the first three Gospels
to the fourth. The word is introduced here with
telling emphasis ; " in the fuller knowledge of God "
anticipates the attack that is coming upon the god-
less speculations of the " false teachers " in chap. ii.

And of Jesus our Lord. — Deliberately added.
These false teachers "denied the Lord that bought
them" (chap. ii. 1), and promised all kinds of high-
sounding benefits to their followers (chap. ii. 18). The
Apostle assures his readers that only in fuller knowledge
of their Lord can grace and peace be multiplied to them.
The combination "Jesus our Lord" is unusual; else-
where only Rom. iv. 24. Another small indication of
independence (see first Note). There should be a full-
stop at " Lord;" so Tyndale, Cranmer, and Geneva.

(3—11) Exhortation to progress in spiritual graces in
order to win eternal life at Christ's coming. God has
given us all we need for salvation ; let us profit by it,
and show ourselves worthy of it.

(3) According as.— Better, seeing that. This must
not be made to depend on verse 2. In the canonical
Epistles the address does not go beyond the blessing.
Galatians is the only exception ; there a relative clause
is added to the blessing ; but this Ls solemnly brought
to a close with a doxology, so that the exception is one
that almost proves the rule. In Hebrews, James,
1 and 3 John, there is no opening blessing ; the remark
holds good of all the rest. Verses 3 and 4 are a brief
introduction to the direct exhortations contained 5 — 11.
The eagerness with which the writer goes direct to his
subject is characteristic of St. Peter's temper.

His divine power. — The pronoun refers to "Jesus
our Lord." The adjective occurs in the New Testament
in these two verses (3 and 4) only ; elsewhere we have
the genitive case, " of God," " of the Lord," " of the
Father," and the like.

All things that pertain unto. — All that are
necessary for the attainment of. He does not give life
and godliness in maturity, but supplies us with the
means of winning them for ourselves. " All " is

emphatic ; nothing that is requisite is grudged us, and
nothing is our own, it is all the gift of God.

Godliness.— The Greek word occurs Acts iii. 12,
in a speech of St. Peter, and four times in this Epistle;
elsewhere only in those to Timothy and Titus. It
belongs to the phraseology of the later books of the
New Testament. "Godliness" is the realisation of
God's abiding presence, the fruits of which are
reverence and trust: "Thou God seest me;" "I have
set God always before me, therefore I cannot fall."
It is introduced here, perhaps, in opposition to the
godlessness and irreverence of the false teachers.
(Comp. 2 Tim. iii. 5.)

Through the knowledge.— Through learning to
know God as One who has called us to salvation.
(Comp. verse 2.)

To glory and virtue.— Rather, by glory and
virtue; or perhaps, by His oivn glory and virtue,
according to another reading. " To" cannot be correct,
whichever of the various readings is the right one.
Tyndale, Cranmer, and Rheims have " by ; " the error
comes from Geneva, which has " unto." " Glory "
points to the majesty of God, " virtue " to His aetivitj-.
" Virtue " as applied to God is unusual, but occurs
1 Pet. ii. 9 (see Note there), a coincidence to be noted.
The word is rendered there " praises," but "virtues" is
given in the margin. The whole verse is strikingly
parallel to this one, though very differently expi*essed.

(■*) Whereby.— By God's " glory and virtue ; " not
by "all things that pertain Onto life and godliness,"
although the latter is possible, and is preferred by some.

Are given unto us. — Better, He hath given unto us,
viz., He who called us, God. Wiclif , " He gaf ; " Rheims,
" He hath given."

Promises.— The Greek word occurs here and in
chap. iii. 13 only. Its termination indicates the things
promised rather than the act of promising. They are
"exceeding great," or rather " the greatest," because they
contain an earnest of the completion and perfection of
the Christian life ; they are very " precious," because this
earnest is in itself something real, and not mere empty
words. Not the promises of the Old Testament are
meant, that Christ should come ; but those of the New
Testament, that Christ should come again. The cer-
tainty of Christ's return to reward the righteous and
punish the wicked is one of the mam subjects of the
Epistle.

That by these. — "These" is variously referred

(1) to " all things that pertain unto life and godliness,"

(2) to " glory and virtue." (3) to " promises." The last
is most likely, the second least likely to be right. The
hope expressed in this verse, and again iii. 13, is
distinctly parallel to that in 1 Pet. i. 4.

Ye mightbe partakers.— Bettev,become partakers.
Rheims, " be made." This idea of close relationship to
God and escape from corruption is found in 1 Pet. i. 23.
The change from the first person plural to the second
is easy enough both in Greek and English : by it what
is true of all Christians is applied specially to those
whom the writer is addressing. We have a similar
change in 1 Pet, i. 3, 4; ii. 21, 24.

Exhortation to Progress

II. PETER, I.

in Spiritual Graces.

ruption that is in the world through
lust, w And beside this, giving all
diligence, add to your faith virtue ; and
to virtue knowledge ; (6) and to know-

ledge temperance; and to temperance
patience; and to patience godliness;
<7) and to godliness brotherly kindness ;
and to brotherly kindness charity.

Through lust. — Rather (as in verses 1, 2, 13 ; chap.
ii. 3) in lust. It is in lust that the corruption has its
root. (Comp. 1 Pet. i. 22.) The word " escaped " indi-
cal es i hat " bondage of corruption " ( Rom. viii. 21) from
which even the Christian is not wholly free, so long as he
is in the body ; and in which others are hopelessly held.
A. comparison of this last clause with chap. iii. 13 will
confirm us in the view that " by these " refers to the
'•promises." We see there what the things promised
arc. Instead of merely " having1 escaped " evil, "we,
acrording to His promise, look for " better things ; for,
from " the corruption that is in the world in lust " we
turn to " new heavens and a new earth, wherein dwelleth
righteousness." There should be no full-stop at the
end of this verse ; the sentence continues unbroken
from the beginning of verse 3 to the end of verse 7.

(W And beside this.— Rather, and for this very
reason. The Authorised version is quite indefensible,
and is the more to bo regretted because it obscures a
parallel between this and 1 Peter. There also we are
exhorted to regulate our conduct by God's (1 Pet. i. 15 ;
ii. 1, 5). [In the Notes on verses 5 — 8 use has been
made of addresses On some Traits in the Christian
Character. Camb. 1876.]

Giving all diligence.— Literally, bringing in all
diligewe to the. tide of God's gifts and promises; making
your contribution in answer to His. He has made all
things possible for you ; but they are not yet done,
and you must labour diligently to realise the glorious
possibilities opened out to you.

Add to your faith virtue.— Rather, in your faith
supply virtue. The error comes from Geneva ; all other
English versions are right. The interesting word in-
adequately translated " add " occurs again in verse 11,
and elsewhere only in 2 Cor. ix. 10 ; Gal. iii. 5 ; Col. ii.
19. Everywhere but here it is translated " minister."
Sufficient explanation of the word will be found in
Notes on 2 Cor. ix. 10 and Gal. iii. 5. The notion of
rendering a service that is expected of one in virtue of
one's position fits in admirably here. God gives; His
blessings and promises come from His free undeserved
bounty ; man renders, supplies, furnishes, that which,
considering the benefits which he has received, is fairly
required of him. Note that we are not told to supply
faith ; that comes from God (Eph. ii. 8), and the Apostle
assumes that his readers possess it. "Virtue " is that
which is recognised by all men as excellent ; the excel-
lence of man as man. Heathen moralists had drawn a
noble picture of what man ought to be ; the gospel gave
the command to realise a yet nobler ideal, and also gave
the power by which it could be realised.

And to virtue knowledge.— As before, and in
your virtue [supply] knowledge — i.e., in the virtue
which each of you possesses. "Virtue for each individual
is the excellence corresponding to the talents committed
to him. The word for "knowledge" here is not the
compound used in verses 2 and 3, but the simple sub-
stantive. It means, therefoi*e, knowledge that still
admits of growth, not yet ripe or complete. It is
worth noting that the word for absolute knowledge,
epi&Ume, does not occur in the New Testament. By
" knowledge " here is probably meant spiritual dis-
cernment as to what is right and what is wrong in all
things; the right object, the right way, the right time.

(•) And to knowledge temperance; and to
temperance patience ; and to patience god-
liness. — And in your knowledge [supply] self-
control, and in your self-control, patience, and in
your patience, godliness. In other words, your dis-
cerning between good and evil must lead to avoid-
ing the evil and choosing the good — i.e., to the
control of your own lawless propensities ; and in
restraining these you must endure difficulties patiently;
and your patience must not be the stolid defiance of the
savage, or the self-reliant and self-satisfied endurance
of the Stoic, but a humble and loving trust in God.
Virtue and knowledge are energetic and progressive ;
they are exercised in developing the powers implanted
in us. Self-control and patience are restrictive and
disciplinary ; they are exercised in checking and regu-
lating the conflicting claims of many co-existing powers,
so as to reduce all to harmony. There is special point
in " self-control " being placed as the consequence of
" knowledge." The false teachers would insist that
knowledge led to liberty, which with them meant
emancipation from all control whatever. Self-mastery
is to the world at large the opposite of liberty ; to the
Christian it is another name for it — that service which
is perfect freedom. Patience to the world is to accept
loss and suffering; to the Christian it is to win the
best of prizes — " in your patience ye shall win your
souls."

(?) And to godliness brotherly kindness ; and
to brotherly kindness charity. — And in your
godliness [supply] love of the brethren, and in your
love of the brethren, charity. In other words, your
godliness must not be selfish and solitary, but social
and Christian ; for he who loveth God must love his
brother also (1 John iv. 20, 21). And though " charity
begins at home " with " them who are of the household
of faith," it must not end there, but reach out to all
men, whether Christians or not. (Comp. 1 Thess. iii. 12 ;
Gal. vi. 10.) The translation "brotherly kindness" is a
little to be regretted ; it obscui'es the exact meaning of
the word, and also the fact that the very same word is
used in 1 Pet. i. 22. "Love of the brethren" means
love of Christians as such, as members of the same
great family, as God's adopted children. " Charity "
means love of men as such, as creatures made in the
likeness of God, as souls for which Christ died. The
word for " charity " is emphatically Christian love ; not
mere natural benevolence.

Each in this noble chain of virtues prepares the way
for the next, and is supplemented and perfected by it.
It begins with faith, and it ends (like St. Paul's list of
virtues, Col. iii. 12 — 14) with charity. But we must
not insist too strongly upon the order in the series,
as being either logically or chronologically necessary.
It is a natural order that is here given, but not the
only one. These three verses are the First Epistle
condensed. Each one of the virtues mentioned here
is represented quite distinctly in 1 Peter : virtue,
i. 13; knowledge, iii. 15; self-control, i. 14; ii. 11;
patience, i. 6; ii. 21; godliness, i. 15, 16; iii. 4; love of
the brethren, i. 22 ; iii. 8 ; charity, iv. 8. The list of
virtues given in the Epistle of Barnabas ii. runs thus :
— Faith, fear, patience, long - suffeinng. temperance,
wisdom, prudence, science, knowledge. The very slight
45

They must give Diligence

II. PETEE, I.

to make their Calling sure.

(8) For if these things be in you, and
abound, they make you that ye shall
neither be barren nor unfruitful in the
knowledge of our Lord Jesus Christ.
W But he that lacketh these things is
blind, and cannot see afar off, and hath

forgotten that he was purged from
his old sins. <10> Wherefore the rather,
brethren, give diligence to make your
calling and election sure : for if ye
do these things, ye shall never fall :
(u> for so an entrance shall be minis-

amount of similarity affords no ground for supposing
that the writer was acquainted with 2 Peter.

(8) For if these things be in you.— First reason
for the preceding exhortation — the benefit of having
these graces. The original of "be in you " is a strong
expression, implying permanent and not mere momentary
existence.

And abound.— Strictly, and multiply or increase.
(Comp. Rom. v. 20, and Note there ; vi. 1 ; 2 Thess. i. 3,
where the same inadequate translation occurs in the
Authorised version.)

Neither be barren nor unfruitful.— Better,
not idle nor yet unfruitful. Cranmer, Tyndale, and
Geneva all have "ydle." The Greek word literally
means " without work " — i.e., doing nothing, as " un-
fruitful " means producing nothing. " That ye shall
be " is not in the Greek, and is not needed. The two
adjectives " idle " and •' unfruitful " exactly correspond
to the two verbs "be in you " and "increase." If these
things be in you, you will be morally active ; if they
increase, you will be morally productive.

In the knowledge-— Rather, unto the knowledge ;
the fuller, more advanced knowledge of verses 2, 3, and
chap. ii. 20. This is the goal towards which all these
virtues tend, the fruit which they tend to produce —
the perfect knowledge of Christ. Those who are the
most like Christ in their lives have the fullest know-
ledge of Him in this world, a knowledge to be perfected
in the next world, when, purified from sin, " we shall
see Him as He is," This clause, without the negatives,
accurately describes the condition of the false teachers
whom the Apostle has in view. They were both " idle
and unfruitful unto the knowledge of our Lord Jesus
Christ." They neither did nor produced anything that
in any degree advanced such knowledge either in them-
selves or others. The list of virtues just commended
(verses 5 — 7) constitutes a solemn indictment against
them. Practical infidelity leading to vicious conduct; a
hollow and pretentious philosophy leading to libertinism;
an impatience of control leading to utter godlessness ;
a selfish indifference to the claims of those nearest
to them ending in absolute heart lessness towards all
men — such is the charge brought against them, by
implication here, directly in chap. ii.

(9) But he that laeketh.— Rather, for he that
lacketh. Geneva and Rheims have "for." The "for"
introduces the second reason for the exhortation to
furnish forth all these graces — viz., the evil of not
having them. The Greek implies absence of possession
in any degree, not merely absence of permanent pos-
session. (See first Note on verse 8.)

Is blind. — We might have expected " will be idle
and unfruitful, &c," but the writer is not content with
merely emphasizing what lias just been said, after
the manner of St. John (e.g., chap. i. 3 ; 1 John i. 5;
ii. 1. 27, 28 ; iv. 2, 3, 6) ; he puts the case in a new way,
with a new metaphor equally applicable to the subject
of knowledge. Note that he does not say " will be
blind," but " is blind." The very fact of his possessing
none of these graces shows that he has no eye for them.

Cannot see afar off. — The Greek word means
literally closing the eyes ; and the point seems to be,

not wilful shutting of the eyes (those who ivon't see),
but involuntary and partial closing, as in the case of
short-sighted people ; in a spiritual sense, those who
have only a very hazy apprehension of the objects of
belief and of the bearing which their beliefs should have
on their conduct. There is, therefore, no anti-climax,
a weak expression following a strong one, but a simple
explanation, a more definite term following a general
one ; it explains what kind of blindness is meant. The
special kind of short-sightedness here indicated is that
of one who just sees that he is a member of a Christian
community, but perceives neither the kind of life that
one who has been purged from heathen enormities is
bound to lead, nor the kind of life which alone can
win an entrance into Christ's kingdom. The short-
sightedness of not being able to see beyond this present
world is probably not expressed here.

And hath forgotten.— Literally, having received
or incurred forgetfulness — a unique expression in the
New Testament. The phrase does not necessarily imply
that the forgetfulness is voluntary ; it is the inevitable
result of wilful neglect — the neglect to cultivate Chris-
tian virtues. The forgetfulness is not the cause of the
shortsightedness, but a phase of it.

His old sins.— Those committed before ho was
" purged " in baptism (1 Cor. vi. 11 ; Eph. v. 26 ; 1 Pet.
iii. 21).

(10) Wherefore the rather.— Exhortation resumed,
with still more earnestness, for the reasons just stated
in verses 8 and 9. The direct address, " brethren," is
a mark of this increased earnestness, and also assures
those addressed that they are not included among the
mere nominal Christians described in the preceding
verse.

Give diligence. — Recalling " bringing all dili-
gence " in verse 5.

Calling and election.— By God into the kingdom
of heaven. " Calling " and " election " are two aspects of
the same fact, "calling" referring to God's invitation,
" election " to the distinction which this invitation
makes between those who are called and those who
are not. " Election " is one of St. Paul's words. One
of the best MSS. and several versions insert " by means
of your works," which gives the right sense, although
the words are wanting in authority. It is by follow-
ing the injunctions given (verses 5 — 7) that our election
is made secure. God calls us to salvation (verse 3),
selects us from the heathen ; it is for each one of us to
respond to the call, and thus ratify His choice.

If ye do these things.— Showing that the making
sure of our election is not a single act, but. multiform,
viz., the furnishing the graces commended (verses
5—7).

Never fall.— The same word is translated ' offend'"
(Jas. ii. 10; iii. 2); and " stumble " (Rom. xi. Hi. It
means to knock one's foot and stumble. The man who
has acquired these graces has his path freed from many
stumbling-blocks, and his vision cleared to see and
avoid the rest.

<n) An entrance shall be ministered unto
you.—" Ministered " is the passive of the same verb
that is translated "add" in verse 5, and is probably

4ie

He reminds them of this,

II. PETER, I.

knoimng his End is nigh.

tered unto you abundantly into the
everlasting kingdom of our Lord and
Saviour Jesus Christ. <12) Wherefore
Chap. i. 12—15. I will not be negligent
Transition to put you always in
tiorT to* argu- remembrance of these
ment. things, though ye know

them, and be established in the present
truth. <13) Yea, I think it meet, as

a John xxi. 18.

long as I am in this tabernacle, to
stir you up by putting you in remem-
brance ; (14) knowing that shortly I
must put off this my tabernacle, even
as our Lord Jesus Christ hath shewed
me/' (15) Moreover I will endeavour that
ye may be able after my decease to have
these things always in remembrance.
(16) For we have not followed cunningly

chosen to answer to verse 5. " Supply these graces,
and an entrance into the kingdom shall be abundantly
supplied to you " — " abundantly," i.e., with a warm
welcome, as to a son coming home in triumph; not a
bare grudging admission, as to a stranger.

Thus ends the first main section of the Epistle,
which contains the substance of the whole. Its gentle
earnestness and obvious harmony with the First Epistle
have made some critics ready to admit its genuineness,
who throw doubt on much of the rest. But if it
stands it carries with it all the rest. Change of style
is amply accounted for by change to a new and exciting
subject : and the links between tbe parts are too strong
to be severed by any such considerations. (See opening
observations in the Introduction.)

The first sections of the two Epistles should be
carefully compared. In botli we find these thoughts
pervading the opening exhortation: Be earnest, be
active; for (1) so much has been done for you,
and (2) there is such a rich reward in store for
you. (Comp. especially the conclusions of the two
sections, 1 Pet. i. 13 with 2 Pet, i. 10, 11.)

(12—15) Transition from the exhortation just con-
cluded to the argument that follows, closely and natu-
rally connected with both.

(12) I will not toe negligent.— According to the
right reading, I shall he sure to; because on your doing
these things depends your entrance into Christ's kingdom.

Though ye know them.— We find the same
affectionate delicacy in Rom. xv. 14, 15 (see Notes
there) ; 1 John ii. 21 ; Jude, verse 5.

And be established in the present truth.—
Comp. " This is the true grace of God wherein ye
stand " (1 Pet. v. 12), to which it is not impossible that
this verse refers; the " always " here looks like a half
apology for what his readers might think needless
repetition. " The present truth "is an instance of a
translation being misleading through its very literal-
ness. The three Greek words are exactly represented,
but the sense is misrepresented. The meaning is, not
the truth that we are now discussing, the truth before
us, but the truth of" the gospel that is oome unto you
(Col. i. 5, 6), and is present with you : " the faith once
for all delivered unto the saints" (Jude, verse 3).

(13) Yea, I think it meet.— Better, But I think
it right. So Rheims ; Tyndale and Cranmer have
" notwithstanding." The meaning is, " but (so far from
my writing being unnecessary) I think it right," &c.

In this tabernacle.— The comparison of the
human body to a dwelling is common in all literatures,
and the temporary nature of a tent makes it specially
appropriate. (Comp. 2 Cor. v. 1.)

By putting you in remembrance.— Better, in
naff ing you. The stirring up consists in the reminding.
(See verses 1, 2, I ; also chap. iii. 1, where the same
phrase occurs.)

(W) Knowing that shortly I must put off this
my tabernacle.— This is rather wide of the mark.
Among English versions Wiclif alone is right. The
meaning is, Knowing as I do that the putting off of my
tabernacle will be done swiftly (comp. chap. ii. 1) — i.e.,
will soon be over when it once begins. The point is,
not that the writer believes himself to be near his end,
but that his end would be such as to allow of no death-
bed exhortations ; what he has to say must be said in
good time, for Christ had told him that his death would
be a violent one (John xxi. 18). Some of those who
have taken the passage in the sense of the Authorised
version have supposed a special revelation to be im-
plied in the last half of the verse. But without any
revelation an old man might know that his end must
soon come; and Christ had already told him that it
should come when he began to be old. " The putting
off of my tabernacle " involves rather a mixture of
metaphors ; we have a similar mixture in Col. v. 1 — 4.
The word for " putting off " occurs nowhere but here
and 1 Pet. iii. 21 ; but the coincidence is not one on
which much stress can be laid.

Hath shewed me.— More strictly, shaved me. The
substitution of perfect for aorist is here objectionable,
as it obscures the reference to a definite moment in the
Apostle's life. If the reference were to John xxi. 18,
this would be at once fatal to the authenticity of our
Epistle ; for of course no part of St. John's Gospel,
and least of all the last chapter, was written during the
life of St. Peter. But if the reference be to the event
narrated in John xxi. 18, then that narrative confirms
what is said here, this being a prior and independent
allusion to the same occurrence. In this case we have
strong evidence of the authenticity of St. Peter.

(15) Moreover I will endeavour.— The verse
requires re-arranging. "Always" (or better, at all
times) belongs to " may be able," not to " have in re-
membrance;" and perhaps "moreover" is not quite
right. Better, But I will endeavour that ye may at all
times also (as well as now) have it in your power after
my decease to remember these things. To what does
this declaration point ? The simplest answer is, to his
writing this letter, which they might keep and read
whenever they liked. (Comp. verse 13.) Other sug-
gestions. are — to his having copies of this letter
distributed; or, writing other letters; or, instructing
St. Mark to write his Gospel; or. commissioning
"faithful men" to teach these things. There
seems to be nothing either for or against these
conjectures. It is a coincidence worth noting that,
with the Transfiguration in his mind (verses 16 — 18), he
uses, in close succession, two words connected in^ St.
Luke's account of the Transfiguration (Luke ix. 31, 33)
— " decease" and "tabernacle."

(16—21) The certainty of Christ's coming again is
the basis of these exhortations; and that certainty is
proved (1) by the Transfiguration, which was an

The Apostle an Eye-ioitness

II. PETEE, I.

of Christ's Transfiguration.

devised fables, when we made known
Chap. i. 16—21. un^° you *ne power and
The certainty coming of our Lord Jesus
i^SSb^tf Christ, bnt were eyewit-
these exhorta- nesses of his majesty,
tions. (i7) For he received from

God the Father honour and glory,
when there came such a voice to him
from the excellent glory, This is
my beloved Son, in whom I am well
pleased. (18) And this voice which came
from heaven we heard, when we were

anticipation of His coming again in glory ; (2) by the
utterances of the prophets who predicted it.

(16) por we have not followed.— More literally,
For we did not follow, or, It was not by following out.
&c., that. " For " introduces the reason for " I will
endeavour " above. The word for " follow," or " follow
out," occurs again in chap. ii. 2, 15, and nowhere else in
the New Testament.

Cunningly devised fables.— "We cannot be sure
that any in particular are meant, whether heathen,
Jewish, or Christian ; the negative makes the statement
quite general. Various things, however, have been
suggested as possibly indicated — heathen mythology,
Jewish theosophy, Gnostic systems (as yet quite in
their infancy in Simon Magus, St. Peter's adversary),
and Apocryphal Gospels. Probably some elements in
the doctrine of the false teachers are alluded to ; some-
thing analogous to the " feigned words " of chap. ii. 3.
There is reason for believing that the particular ele-
ments in their teaching thus incidentally condemned
were of Jewish origin. If this conjecture be correct,
then St. Peter is here dealing with errors similar to
those condemned by St. Paul (1 Tim. i. 4; 2 Tim.
iv. 4 ; Tit. i. 14 — the only other passages in which the
word "fables " occurs). And in this case much light is
thrown on some of the marked peculiarities of this Epistle
and that of St. Jude, viz., the fondness of both writers
for the oldest, and sometimes the most obscure, passages
of Old Testament history, as well as for some strange
portions of uncanonical and apocryphal tradition. They
were fighting these seducers with their own weapons ;
difficult passages of Scripture and tradition, which these
men had worked up into a system of pernicious mysti-
cism, St. Peter and St. Jude proved to be altogether oi
a different meaning, and to tell against the very doc-
trines that they were employed to support.

When we made known unto you.— It is diffi-
cult to determine to what this refers. It is erroneous to
suppose that the phrase necessarily implies personal com-
munication by word of mouth. In the First Epistle the
Apostle wrote to congregations not personally acquainted
with him ; and we have no reason for assuming that he
had visited them since. " When we made known " may
possibly refer to the First Epistle, against which sup-
position the plural " we " is not conclusive. Or a
written Gospel — and, if so, the one with which St. Peter
is commonly connected, viz., that of St. Mark— may be
in the Apostle's mind. But the simplest explanation
is that he refers to the Apostolic teaching generally.

The power and coming.— The power conferred
upon Christ after being glorified in His passion and
resurrection, and his coming again to judgment.
(Comp. chap. iii. 4; Matt. xxiv. 3, 27; 1 Cor. xv. 23;
&c, &c, where the same Greek word is used.) In this
power He will come again. His first coming at the
Incarnation would neither be the usual meaning of the
word nor would suit the context.

But were eyewitnesses.— More literally, but by
having been made eye-witnesses. " It was not by fol-
lowing fables that we made known to you His power

and coming, but by having been admitted eye-witnesses.'"
The word for " eye-witness " is sometimes a technical
term for one who was admitted to the highest grade of
initiation in the Eleusinian mysteries. This meaning-
would be very applicable here ; but it may be doubted
whether St. Peter would be familiar witli this use of
the word. It occurs nowhere else in the New Testa-
ment. The kindred verb, "to be an eye-witness," occurs
in 1 Pet. ii. 12 ; iii. 2, and nowhere else — a coincidence
worth noting. The words of another witness of the
Transfiguration, "And we beheld His glory," &c. (John
i. 14), should be compared with the passage before us.

Of his majesty.— At the Transfiguration, which
was a foretaste and an earnest of the glory of His
second coming. This is St. Peter's view of it; and
that it is the correct one is perhaps shown by the Gospels
themselves. All three accounts of the Transfiguration
are preceded by the declaration, " Verily I say unto
you, there be some standing here, which shall not taste
of death, till they see the Son of man coming in his
kingdom," or similar words (Matt. xvi. 2S ; Mark
ix. 1 ; Luke ix. 27). Apparently the Transfiguration was
regarded by Christ Himself as in some sense the
coming of the Son of man.

(17) For he received.— Literally, For having re-
ceived. The sentence is unfinished, owing to the long
dependent clause, "when there came . . . well pleased."
The natural ending would be, "He had us as His
attendants to hear it," or something of that kind.

Honour and glory.— Both refer to the voice from
heaven. To make "honour" refer to the voice, and
" glory " to the light shining from Christ's body, about
which nothing has been said, is forced and unnatural.

When there came such a voice to him.—
Better, in that a voice was borne to Him speaking
thus. The expression " a voice was bome to Him " is
peculiar, and occurs nowhere else. The Greek for "the
grace that is to be brought to you " (1 Pet. i. 13) is
parallel to it, and is another small coincidence worth
noting. Note also that the writer has not slavishly
followed any of the three accounts of the Transfigura-
tion, which a forger might be expected to do. A
genuine witness, knowing that he is on firm ground,
can afford to take his own line ; a " claimant " must
carefully learn and follow the lines of others.

From the excellent glory. — Rather, by the
excellent glory— another unique expression. The prepo-
sition "by" almost compels us to re3ect the interpretation
that either the bright cloud or heaven itself is meant.
It is rather a periphrasis for God. In Deut. xxxiii. 26.
God is called by the LXX., " the Excellent of the sky."

This is my beloved Son, . . .—The Greek is
almost the same as in St. Matthew's account (chap,
xvii. 5); but "hear him" is omitted, and for "in
Whom " we here have, "unto Whom " which can scarcely
be brought into the English sentence. The meaning is
"unto Whom my good pleasure came and on Whom it
abides." (Comp. Matt. xii. 18, and Clem., Horn. III. liii.)

(18) And this voice which came from heaven
we heard. — Rather, And this voice we heard borne
from, heaven: We were ear- witnesses of the voice

448

The Utterances

II. PETER, I.

qf the Prophets.

with him in the holy mount. ,1!') We
Jia ve also a more sure word of prophecy ;
wli'.'reunto ye do well that ye take heed,
as unto a Ueht that shineth in a dark

place, until the day dawn, and the day
star arise in your hearts: <20) knowing
this first, that no prophecy of the scrip-
ture is of any private interpretation.

coming from heaven; as we were eye -witnesses of His
majesty. It was no vision, it was no hallucination. We
all heard, ami we all saw ; so that [ have the highest
authority for what I would now impress upon you. A
voice which I myself heard borne from heaven to earth,
in the midst of glory which I myself saw, foretelling
the glory that is yet to come.

In the holy mount.— It is, perhaps, not even
■ partly right" to say that the epithet " holy " indicates
a view of the event later than that of the Evangelists,
and points to a miracle-loving age. Rather, it indicates
a view many centuries older than the Evangelists — that
■wherever God had specially manifested Himself was
"holy ground" (Ex. iii. 5; Josh. v. 15. Comp. Gen.
xxviii. 16, 17 ; Ex. xix. 12 ; Acts vii. 33.) The expres-
sion would be natural to any Jew speaking of the
Transfiguration. (See Introduction, I. c.)

(is) we have also a more sure word of
prophecy. — Rather, And ice have the prophetic word
more sure (so Rheims alone); or. And we have, as some-
thing more sure, the prophetic word, as a second proof
•of the truth of my teaching respecting Christ's coming.
The expression, " the prophetic word," occurs nowhere
else in the New Testament. ''The Scripture" given
below (Note on chap. iii. 4), as quoted by Clement of
Rome, is quoted again in the so-called Second Epistle
of Clement (chap, xi.) as " the prophetic word." The
([notation in both cases is probably from some un-
•cauonical book of prophecies. Here the expression
means the whole; body of prophecy respecting the
subject in hand ; but the meaning of the whole sen-
tence is not quite clear. It may mean (i.) that the
Transfiguration has made prophecies more sure, for we
who were there have thus witnessed their fulfilment.
In this case, however, wo should have expected some-
thing more than "and" to introduce the statement,
such as " and hence," " and thus," " whereby," &c. Or
it may mean (ii.) that in the prophetic word we have
something more sure than the voice from heaven. Here
a simple "and" is natural enough; and the word of
prophecy is suitably compared with the voice from
heaven. But how can the word of prophets be more
sure than the voice of God? In itself it cannot be so ;
but it may be so regarded (1) in reference to those who
■did not hear, but only heard of, the voice from heaven ;
(2) in reference to the subject in hand. (1) For the
readers of this Epistle the many utterances of a long
line of prophets, expounded by a school of teachers only
second to the prophets themselves, might easily be
"more sure" evidence than the narrative of a single
writer ; and " if they heard not Moses and the prophets,
neither would they be persuaded" by the report of a
voice from heaven. (2) The Transfiguration, though
an earnest of Christ's future glory, was not so clear a
promise of it as the express words of prophecy. If this
latter interpretation be right, we have another mark of
authenticity. A forger would be likely to magnify his
own advantage in hearing the voice from heaven over
the ordinary proofs open to every one. In any case,
the coincidence with 1 Pet. i. 10—12 must not be over-
looked. (Comp. also St. Peter's speech. Acts iii. 20, 21).

Whereunto ye do well that ye take heed.—
Or, and ye do well in giving heed to it — a gentle mode

49 <

of exhortation, by assuming that the thing urged is
being done. The exhortation is quite in harmony with
1 Pet. v 10. We have a similar construction in 2 Pet.
ii. 10, " Do not tremble in speaking evil."

A light that Shineth.— Better, a lamp that shineth.
Prophecy, like the Baptist, is a " lamp that is lighted
and shineth," preparatory to the Light. (See Note on.
John v. 35.) Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, circ. A.D.
170, has (Autolycus II. xiii.) "His word, shining as a
lamp in a chamber; " too slight a parallel to this passage
to bo relied upon as evidence that Theophilus knew
our Ei>istle. (See below, second Note on verse 21.)

In a dark place. — This translation is somewhat
doubtful The word rendered '* dark *' occurs here only
in the New Testament, and its usual meaning is " dry."
From " dry" wo pass easily through " rough " to " dirty."
meanings which the word has elsewhere (comp. the Latin
squalidus); but the passage from " dirty" to " dark " is
less easy, and there is lack of authority for it. " In a
waste place " would perhaps be safer ; and the image
would then be that prophecy is like camp-fires in the
desert, which may keep one from going utterly astray,
till sunrise frees one from difficulty. The " waste place""
is either the wilderness of this world or the tangled life
of the imperfect Christian.

Until the day dawn.— Literally, until the day
beam through the gloom. Here, again, the meaning
may be two-fold : (1) Christ's return in glory to illumine
the wilderness of this world, to clear off its obscurities,
and show the way through its mazes ; or (2) the clearer
vision of the purified Christian, whose eye is single and
his whole body full of light. (Comp. 1 John ii. 8.) No
comma at dawn ; " in your hearts " belongs to both
" dawn" and " arise," if to either.

And the day star arise.— An amplification of
"until the day dawn." "Day star" occurs nowhere
else in the New Testament. Christ calls Himself "the
bright morning star" (Rev. xxii. 16).

In your hearts.— It is difficult to determine to
what these words belong. The Greek admits of three
constructions : (1) with " take heed " ; (2) with " dawn "
and " arise '"' ; (3) with " knowing this first." The last
is not probable. Perhaps " and ye do well in giving
heed to it in your hearts " is best — i.e., let it influence
your lives, not receive a mere intellectual attention.

(20) Knowing this first.— The participle belongs to
" take heed " in verse 19. " First " means " first of all "
(1 Tim. ii. 1), not "before I tell you." In studying
prophecy this is the first thing to be borne in mind.

Is of any private interpretation. -Better, comes
to be, or becomes of private interpretation. The word
rendered "interpretation" occurs nowhere else in the
New Testament ^ but the cognate verb occurs in Mark
iv. 34, where it is translated " expound." (See Note
there.) There can be little doubt that " interpretation,"
or " solution,'' is the right rendering here, although
others have been suggested. The main question how-
ever, ia the meaning of the word rendered "private,"
which may also mean " its own." Hence three explana-
tions are possible. The term may refer (1) to the reci-
pients of the prophecies— that we may not expound
prophecy according to our own fancy; or (2) to the
utterers of the prophecies— that the prophets had not

Inspiration of Proplieey,

II. PETEE, II.

False Prophets foretold. ■

(2i) ]?or -the prophecy came not in old
time l by the will of man : but holy men
of God spake as they were moved by the
Holy Ghost.

CHAPTEE H.— W But there were

false prophets also among the people,

.at anytime. \ even as there shall be false chap. ii. l— -j.

teachers araoiiff you, who *lirst . predic-

• -i i ii u • • i tion : False

privily shall bring m dam- teachers shall
I nable heresies, even deny- arise.
a.d_66. ing the Lord that bought them, and

the power of expounding their own prophecies; or (3) to
the prophecies themselves — that no prophecy comes to
be of its own interpretation, i.e., no prophecy explains
itself. The guide to the right explanation is verse 21,
which gives the reason why " no prophecy of the scrip-
ture," &c. This consideration excludes (3) ; for verse 21
yields no sense as showing why prophecy does not in-
terpret itself. Either of the other two explanations
maybe right. (1) If prophecy came "by the will of
man," then it might be interpreted according to man's
fancy. But it did not so come ; consequently the in-
terpretation must be sought elsewhere — viz., at the
same source from which the prophecy itself proceeded.
(2) If the prophets spoke just as they pleased, they
would be the best exponents of what they meant. But
they spoke under divine influence, and therefore need
not know the import of their own words. Prophecy
must bo explained by prophecy and by history, not by
the individual prophet. The whole body of prophecy,
" the prophetic word " (verse 19), is our lamp in the
wilderness, not the private dicta of any one seer. In
modern phraseology, interpretation must be comparative
and scientific. This view is strengthened by comparing
1 Pet. i. 10 — 12. where it is stated that the prophets did
not know how or when their own predictions would be
fulfilled. Possibly this passage is meant to refer to 1 Pet.
i. 10—12, and if so, we have a mark of genuineness ; a
forger would have made the reference more clear. If
the coincidence is accidental, this also points in the same
direction ; in any case, the coincidence is worth noting.

(2i) por the prophecy came not in old time. -
Rather, For prophecy was never sent, or brought. Wiclif
and Rheims alone have " brought " ; all the rest " came."
The verb is the same as that used of the voice from
heaven (verses 17 and 18), and also in this verse for
" moved," so that there is a telling antithesis, difficult
to preserve in English. Prophecy was not brought in
by men ; but men were brought to utter it by the Spirit.
(Comp. 2 John, verse 10.) The rendei'ing in the margin is
right — ■" not at any time," rather than " not in old tim,e.,y
" Not at any time " = " nevei'," which both Tyndale
and Cranmer have : Wiclif has " not ony time." The
erroneous " in old time" comes from Geneva.

But holy men of God . . .— The Greek is uncer-
tain. A reading of very high authority would give us.
But men spoke from God moved by the Holy Ghost.
This is probably to be preferred. Men spoke not out
of their own hearts, but as commissioned by God ; not
" by the will of man," but under the influence of the
Holy Spirit. (Comp. St. Peter's speech at the election
of Matthias, and again in Solomon's Porch, Acts i. 16;
iii. 18.) The word for " moved " is a strong one, meaning
"borne along," as a ship before the wind (Acts xxvii.
16,17). Theophilus of Antioch (Autolycus. II. ix.) writes
" men of God. moved (or, filled) by the Holy Ghost, and
becoming prophets, inspired and made wise by God
Himself, became taught of God." Here, again, the
parallel is too slight to be relied on as evidence that
Theophilus was acquainted with this Epistle. (See above,
third Note on verse 19.) The same may be said of a
passage in Hippolytus (Antichrist, ii.). " These fathers
were furnished with the Spirit and largely honoured by

the Word Himself .... and when moved by Him the
Prophets announced what God willed. Eor they spake
not of their own power, neither did they declare what
pleased themselves, &c. &c."

Some have fancied that these last three verses (19 — 21)
savour of Montanism, and are evidence of the late origin
of the Epistle. But what is said here; of the gift of
prophecy is not more than we find elsewhere in the
New Testament (Matt, i. 22 ; ii. 15 ; Acts i. 16 ; iii. 18) ;
and in the Old Testament (Num. xi. 17, 25, 29 ; 1 Sam.
x. 6, 10 ; xix. 20, 23 ; Jer. i. 5 — 7). Montanists used much
stronger language, as readers of Tertullian know. With
them prophecy was ecstasy and frenzy; prophets ceased
to be men — their reason left them, and they became
mere instruments on which the Spirit played. The
wording of these verses points to an age previous to
Montanism. A Montanist would have said more; an
opponent of Montanism would have guarded himself
against Montanist misconstruction.

II.

By a perfectly natural transition, we pass to an
entirely different subject — from exhortation to show
forth Christian graces to a warning against corrupt
doctrine. True prophets (chap. i. 21) suggest false
prophets, and false prophets suggest false teachers.
On the character of the false teachers here attacked see
Introduction, TV. There are several prophecies in the
New Testament similar to the one contained in this
and the next chapter (Acts xx. 28 — 31 ; 2 Thess. ii.
3—7; 1 Tim. iv. 1—7; 2 Tim. iii. 1—9; iv. 3,4; comp.
1 John ii. 18 ; iv. 3). Those in 2 Thess. and 2 Tim.
iii. are specially worthy of comparison, as containing,
like the present chapter, a mixture of future and pre-
sent. (See Introduction, I. c, 7.) The fervour and
impetuosity with which the writer attacks the evil
before him are thoroughly in harmony with St. Peter's
character. (Comp. Notes on Jude throughout.)

First Prediction: False teachers shall have great
success and certain ruin (verses 1 — 10).

(i) But there were false prophets also.—
To bring out the contrast between true and false pro-
phets more strongly, the clause that in meaning is
secondary has been made primary in form. The mean-
ing is. " There shall be false teachers among you, as
there were false prophets among the Jews ; " the form
is, "But (in contrast to the true prophets just men-
tioned) there were false prophets as well, even as," &c.

Shall be false teachers among you.— We must
add " also." With this view of Christians as the anti-
type of the chosen people comp. 1 Pet. ii. 9. The word
for " false teachers " occurs here only. It is probably
analogous to "false witnesses." and means those who
teach What is false, rather than to " false Christs." in
which case it would mean pretending to be teachers
when they are not, " False prophets " has both mean-
ings— sham prophets and prophesying lies. Justin
Martyr, about A.r>. 145 (Trypho. lxxxii.). has "Just
as there were false prophets contemporaneous with your
holy prophets" (he is addressing a Jew), "so are there

The Apostle Foretells

II. PETER, II.

the Coming in of Heretics.

bring upon themselves swift destruction.
<2) And many shall follow their pernicious l
ways; by reason of whom the way of
truth shall be evil spoken of. (3) And

i or, laseiviouB
ways, m tome
copies read.

I through covetousness shall they with
feigned words make merchandise of
you : whose judgment now of a long
time lingereth not, and their damnation

now many false teachers amongst us." Another pos-
sible reference to this Epistle in Justin is given below
on chap. iii. 8. As they occur close together, they seem
to render it probable that Justin knew our Epistle.
" There shall be false teachers among you, who privily
shall bring in heresies of destruction," is quoted in a
homily attributed, on doubtful authority, to Hippolytus.
(See below, on chap. iii. 3.)

Privily shall bring in.— Comp. Jude, verse 4,
and Gal. ii. 4; and see Notes in both places. Comp.
also the Shepherd of Hermas, Sim. VIII. vi. 5.

Damnable heresies.— Rather, parties (full) of
destruction (Phil. i. 28), "whose end is destruction"
(Phil. iii. 19). Wiclif and Rheims have "sects of per-
dition.*' "Damnable heresies " comes from Geneva —
altogether a change for the worse. The Greek word
liairesis is sometimes translated " sect " in our version
(Acts v. 17; xv. 5; xxiv. 5), sometimes "heresy" (Acts
xxiv. 14; 1 Cor. xi. 19; Gal. v. 20). Neither word
gives quite the true meaning of the term in the New
Testament, where it points rather to divisions than
doctrines, and always to parties inside the Church, not
to sects that have separated from it. The Greek word
for " destruction " occurs six times in this short Epistle,
according to the inferior texts used by our translators
(in the best texts five times), and is rendered by them
in no less than five different ways : " damnable " and
" destruction " in this verse; "pernicious ways," verse
2; "damnation," verse 3; "perdition," chap. iii. 7;
"destruction,"' chap. iii. 16.

Even denying the Lord that bought them.
— Better, denying even the Master that bought them.
(See Note on Jude. verse 4.) The phrase is remarkable as
coming from one who himself denied his Master. Would
a forger have1 ventured to make St. Peter write thus ?

This text is conclusive against Calvinistic doctrines
of partial redemption ; the Apostle declares that these
impious false teachers were redeemed by Jesus Christ.
(Comp. 1 Pet. i. 18.)

And bring upon themselves.— More literally,
bringing upon themselves. The two participles, " deny-
ing " and " bringing," without any conjunction to con-
nect them, are awkward, and show that the writer's
strong feeling is already beginning to ruffle the smooth-
ness of his language.

Swift destruction— i.e., coming suddenly and un-
expectedly, so as to preclude escape; not necessarily
coming soon. (See first Note on chap. i. 14.) The
reference, probably, is to Christ's sudden return to
judgment (chap. iii. 10), scoffing at which was one of
tlie ways in which they "denied their Master." By
their lives they denied that He had "bought them."
He had bought them for His service, and they served
their own lusts.

(2) Many shaU follow their pernicious ways.
- — " Pernicious ways " is a translation of the plural of
the word just rendered "destruction." (See fourth
Note on verse 1.) But here the reading is undoubtedly
wrong. The margin has the right reading — lascivious
ways (or better, wanton ways)— being the plural of the
word translated "wantonness" in verse 18. "Wiclif has
" lecheries ; " Rheims " riotousnesses."

The connexion between false doctrine and licentious-

ness was often real, and is so still in some cases — e.g.,
Mormonism. But it was often asserted and believed
without foundation. Impurity was the common charge
to bring against those of a different creed, whether
between heathen and Christian or between different
divisions of Christians.

By reason of whom.— The many who are led
astray are meant, rather than the original seducers.
(Comp. Rom. ii. 24.)

The way of' truth.— (See Note on Acts ix. 2.)
"The way of truth "occurs in Clement of Alexandria
(Cohort, ad Gentes, x.), the only near approach to any-
thing in 2 Peter in all the writings of his that have
come down to us. This is strong evidence that he
did not know the Epistle, especially as references are
frequent to 1 Peter, which is sometimes quoted thus :
" Peter in his Epistle says " (Strom. IV. xx.).

Shall be evil spoken of.— By the heathen, who
will judge of the way of truth by the evil lives of the
many who have really been seduced from it, though
they profess still to follow it. In the homily commonly
called the Second Epistle of Clement (xiii.) there is a
remarkable amplification of this statement. Our Epistle
was probably known to the writer of the homily, who
to a considerable extent preaches against similar evils.

(3) And through covetousness. — Better, In
covetousness. This is the atmosphere in which they
live. (See Notes on verse 18 and chap. i. 1, 2, 4. 13.)
Wiclif and Rheims have " in." Simon Magus offering
St. Peter money, which no doubt he was accustomed to
take himself for his teaching, may illustrate this (Acts
viii. 18; comp. 1 Tim. vi. 5; Tit. i. 10, 11). These
false teachers, like the Greek Sophists, taught for
money. A bombastic mysticism, promising to reveal
secrets about the unseen world and the future, was a
Aery lucrative profession in the last days of Paganism,
and it passed over to Christianity as an element in
various heresies. (Comp. the Shepherd of Hermas,
Sim. IX. xix. 3.)

Make merchandise of you.— The verb means
literally to travel, especially as a merchant on busi-
ness ; and hence " to be a merchant," " to trade," and,
with an accusative, " to deal in," " make merchandise
of." (Comp. our commercial phrase, " to travel in "
such and such goods.) It may also mean simply " to
gain," or " gain over," which would make good sense
here; but our version is perhaps better. The word
occurs elsewhere only in Jas. iv. 13. " With feigned
words " possibly refers back to " cunningly devised
fables" (chap. i. 16).

Lingereth not.— Literally, is not idle, the cognate
verb of the adjective in chap. i. 8. Their sentence has
long since been pronounced, is working, and in due
time will strike them. We have a similar thought in
1 Pet, iv. 17.

Their damnation slumbereth not.— Better,
their destruction. (See fourth Note on verse 1.) Wiclif
and Rheims have " perdition." The destruction involved
in the judgment pronounced by God is awake and on
its way to overtake them. The word for " slumbereth "
occurs in Matt. xxv. 5 only.

Wo now pass on to see how it is that this judgment
"of a long time " has been working. It was pronounced
461

Divine Vengeance on
slumberetli not.

II. PETER, II.

Sodom and Gomorr/ta.

W For if God spared j
Cha ii i—io no^ ^ne an&els that sinned, j

Their certain but cast them down to j

ruin- hell, and delivered them \

into chains of darkness, to be reserved
unto judgment ; <5) and spared not the
old world, but saved Noah the eighth
person, a preacher of righteousness,

bringing in the flood upon the world
of the ungodly; <6' and turning the
cities of Sodom and Gomorrlia into
ashes condemned them with an over-
throw, making them an ensample unto
those that after should live ungodly ;
<7) and delivered just Lot, vexed with
the filthy conversation of the wicked :

against all sinners, such as they are, from the first
beginning' of the world.

(4—8) Three instances of divine vengeance, proving
that great wickedness never goes unpunished.

(4) For if God.— The sentence has no proper
conclusion. The third instance of God's vengeance is
so prolonged by the addition respecting Lot, that the
apodosis is wanting, the writer in his eagerness having
lost the thread of the construction. The three instances
here are in chronological order (wanton angels, Flood,
Sodom and Gomorrha), while those in Jnde are not
(unbelievers in the wilderness, impure angels, Sodom
and Gomorrlia). Both arrangements are natural — this
as being chronological, that of St. Jude for reasons
stated in the Notes there. (See on verse 5.)

The angels that sinned.— Better, the angels for
their sin: it gives the reason why they were not spared,
and points to some definite sin. What sin is meant ?
Not that which preceded the history of the human
race, commonly called the fall of the angels— of that
there is no record in the Old Testament; and, moreover,
it affords no close analogy to the conduct of the false
teachers. St. Jnde is somewhat more explicit (Jude.
verse 6) ; he says it was for not keeping their own
dignity — for deserting their proper home ; and the
reference, both there and here, is either to a common
interpretation of Gen. vi. 2 (that by " the sons of God "
are meant " angels "). or, more probably, to distinct and
frequent statements in the Book of Enoch, that certain
angels sinned by having intercourse with women — e.g.,
chaps, vii. 1, 2 ; cv. 13 (Lawrence's translation). Not
improbably these false teachers made use of this book,
and possibly of these passages, in their corrupt teaching.
Hence St. Peter uses it as an argumentum ad hominem
against them, and St. Jude, recognising the allusion,
adopts it and makes it more plain; or both writers,
knowing the Boole of Enoch well, and calculating on
their readers knowing it also, used it to illustrate their
arguments and exhortations, just as St. Paul uses the
Jewish belief of the rock following the Israelites.
(See Note on 1 Cor. x. 4.)

Cast them down to hell.— The Greek word
occurs nowhere else, but its meaning is plain — to cast
down to Tartarus ; and though " Tartarus " occurs
neither in the Old nor in the New Testament, it probably
is the same as Gehenna. (See Note on Matt. v. 22.)

Into chains of darkness.— Critical reasons seem
to require us to substitute dens, or caves, for " chains."
The Greek words for "chains" and for "caves "here
are almost exactly alike ; and " caves " may have been
altered into " chains " in order to bring this passage
into closer harmony with Jude, verse 6, although the
word used by St. Jude for "chains" is different. (See
Note there.) If "chains of darkness" be retained,
comp. Wisd. xvii. 17. There still remains the doubt
whether " into chains of darkness " should go with
"delivered" or with "cast down into hell." The former
arrangement seems the better.

(5) And spared not the old world— The fact
that the Flood is taken as the second instance of divine
vengeance gives us no clue as to the source of the first
instance. In the Book of Enoch the Flood follows
closely upon the sin of the angels, as in Gen. vi. upon
that of the sons of God, so that in either case the first
instance would naturally suggest the second.

Noah the eighth person.— According to a com-
mon Greek idiom, this means Noah and seven others ;
and the point of it is that the punishment must have
been signal indeed if only eight persons out of a whole
world escaped. The coincidence with 1 Pet. iii. 20
must not pass unobserved, especially as there the men-
tion of " spirits in prison " immediately precedes, just
as [here, the angels in " caves of darkness." The sug-
gestion that eight is here a mystical number (the sabba-
tical seven and one over) is quite gratuitous; as also
that " eighth " may mean eighth from Enos, which
would be utterly pointless, there being neither mention
of Enos nor the faintest allusion to him. (Coinp.
Clement I. vii. 6 ; ix. 4; and see Note on verse 9.)

Bringing in the flood upon the world.—" In "
should be omitted. The phrase is exactly parallel to
"bring upon themselves swift destruction '' in verse 1.
The word for " bring " is the same in both cases.

(6) And turning . . . . — The construction
,still depends upon the " if " in verse 4. (See Note on
Jude, verse 7.)

Condemned them with an overthrow.— Or.
perhaps, to an overthrow, like " condemn to death "
in Matt. xx. 18. The very word here used for ". over-
tln-ow " — catastrophe — is used by the LXX. of the over-
throw of these cities (Gen. xix. 29); in the New
Testament it occurs in 2 Tim. ii. 4 only.

An ensample unto those. — Literally, an en-
sample of those — i.e., of the punishment which such
sinners must expect. (Comp. "Are set forth for an
example," Jude, verse 7.)

(7) And delivered just Lot.— Better, righteous
Lot; it is the same adjective as occurs twice in the
next verse. These repetitions of the same word, of
which there are several examples in this Epistle (" de-
struction " thrice, chap. ii. 1 — 3 ; various repetitions,
chap. iii. 10—12; "look for" thrice, chap. iii. 12 — 14,
&c), and which have been stigmatised as showing
poverty of language, are perfectly natural in St. Peter.
and not like the laboured efforts of a writer endeavour-
ing to personate him. A person writing under strong
emotion does not stop to pick his words; he uses the
same word over and over again if it expresses what he
means and no other word at once occurs to him. This
is still more likely to be the case when a person is
writing in a foreign language. The fact that such re-
petitions are frequent in the Second Epistle, but not in
the First, is not only fully explained by the circum-
stances, but, as being so entirely in harmony with
them, may be regarded as a mark of genuineness.
" Delivered righteous Lot." Here, as in the case of
the Flood (verse 5), the destruction of the guilty

452

The Godlt/ delivered

II. PETEE, II.

out <>f TemptatioTia

<8) (for that righteous man dwelling
among them, in seeing and hearing,
vexed his righteous soul from day to
day with their unlawful deeds ;) (9) the
Lord knoweth how to deliver the godly
out of temptations, and to reserve the
unjust unto the day of judgment to be

Or, dominion.
Jade 8.

punished : <10) but chiefly them that walk
after the flesh in the lust of
uncleanness, and
government.1 Presump- scriptionof the
tttous* are they, selfwilled, ^teachers,
they are not afraid to speak evil of digni-
ties. <n> Whereas angels, which are

Chap.ii.10 -25
despise Detailed d«-

suggests tlie preservation of the innocent. Is it
fanciful to think that these lights in a dark picture
arc characteristic of one who had himself " denied the
Master who bought him," and yet had been pre-
served like Noah and rescued like Lot? This brighter
side is wanting in Jade, so that in the strictly his-
torical illustrations this Epistle is more full than the
other (see Note on verse 15) ; it is where apocryphal
books seem to be alluded to that St. Jude has more
detail.

The filthy conversation.— Literally, behaviour
in wantonness (comp. verses 2 and 18) — i.e., licentious
mode of life. The word for ft conversation," or " be-
haviour." is a favourite one with St. Peter — six times
in the First Epistle, twice in this (chap. iii. 11); else-
where in the New Testament only five times.

Of the wicked.— Literally, of the lawless — a word
peculiar to this Epistle; we have it again in chap. iii.
17. The word translated " abominable " in 1 Pet. iv. 3
is closely allied to it.

The judgment on Sodom and Gomorrha forms a
fitting complement to that of the Flood as an instance
of God's vengeance, a judgment by fire being regarded
as more awful than a judgment by flood, as is more
distinctly shown in chap. iii. 6, 7, where the total
destruction of the world by fire is contrasted with the
transformation of it wrought by the Flood.

(8) For that righteous man.— This epithet, here
thrice given to Lot, seems at first sight to be at variance
witli his willingness to remain, for the sake of
worldly advantages, in the midst of such wickedness.
But " righteous " is a relative term ; and in this
case we must look at Lot both in comparison with
the defective morality of the age and also with the
licentiousness of those with whom he is here contrasted.
Moreover, in the midst of this corruption he preserves
some of the brighter features of his purer nomad life,
especially that '"chivalrous hospitality" (Gen. xix.
2, 3, 8) to which the author of the Epistle to the
Hebrews seems to point as a model : " Be not forgetful
to entertain strangers, for thereby some have enter-
tained angels unawares " (chap. xiii. 2). Add to this
the fact of God's rescuing him and his family, especially
in connexion with the declaration that ten " righteous "
people would have saved the whole city (Gen. xviii. 32),
and his ready belief and obedience when told to leave
all, and also the fact that Zoar was saved at his inter-
cession (chap, xix. 21). and wo must then admit that
the epithet "righteous" as applied to Lot is by no
means without warrant.

<!'> The Lord knoweth. —This is the main sen-
tence to which the various conditional clauses beginning
verse 4 (see Note there) have been leading. But the
construction is disjointed, owing to the eagerness of
the writer, and the main clause does not fit on to the
introductory clauses very smoothly. Even the main
clause itself is interrupted by the insertion of "to
deliver the godly out of temptations." What the
writer specially wishes to prove is that "the Lord
knoweth how to reserve the ungodly unto the day of

judgment tinder punishment." as is shown by the
" for " connecting verse 4 with verse 3.

To be punished.— Bather, being punished, or
under punishment. They are already suffering punish-
ment while waiting for their final doom. The error in
our version is parallel to that in Acts ii. 47, where
"such as should be saved" stands instead of " those
who were being saved." The participle is present, not
future.

The same double moral — that God will save the
righteous and punish the ungodly — is drawn from the
same historical instance by Clement of Rome {Epistle
to the Corinthians, xi.) : " For his hospitality and god-
liness Lot was saved from Sodom, when all the couutry
round was judged by fire and brimstone; the Master
having thus foreshown that He forsaketh not them who
set their hope on Him. btit appointeth unto punishment,
and torment them who swerve aside." A possible, but
not a certain, reference to our Epistle. (.See Note
below on chap. iii. 4.)

(io) Them that walk after the flesh. - Less de-
finite than Jude, verse 7. Here there is nothing about
going away or astray, nor about the flesh being
" other " than is allowed. This is natural; Jade's re-
mark applying to the inhabitants of the cities of the
plain in particular, this to sensual persons generally.

In the lust of uncleanness.— Better, in the lust
of pollution — i.e., the lust that causes pollution. The
exact word occurs nowhere else ; the same word, all
but the termination, occurs in verse 20, and nowhere
else.

Despise government.- — (Comp. "despise do-
minion," Jude, verse 8.) Our version is minutely per-
verse. The word translated " government " here and
" dominion" in Jude is one and the same in the Greek;
whereas the words translated in both places " despise "
are different.

Presumptuous are they.— A fresh verse should
begin here ; the construction is entirely changed, and a
fresh start made. From " the unjust " to " govern-
ment " the reference is to ungodly and sensual people
in general ; here we return to the false teachers in
particular. Audacious would bo more literal than
" presw mptuous." The word is found here only. On
the change to the present tense, see Introduction. I.,
c, y.

Speak evil of dignities.— The exact meaning of
"dignities," or "glories," is not clear, either here or
in Jude, verse 8. The context in both places seems to
show that spiritual powers alone are intended, and thai
earthly powers, whether civil or ecclesiastical, are not
included, much less exclusively indicated. The con-
struction here resembles that in chap. i. 19 : " Do not
tremble in (or, while) speaking evil of dignities," like
" ye do well in taking heed." These men deny tho
existence of, or irreverently speak slightingly of, those
spiritual agencies by means of which God conducts tho
government of the world.

(ID Whereas angels.— Literally. Where angel*-*
i.e., in circumstances in which angels. This verse, if it

453

God's Judgments upon

II. PETER, II.

RaUera and Presumptuous.

greater in power and might, bring not
railing accusation against them 1 before
the Lord. <12) But these, as natural
brute beasts, made to be taken and
destroyed, speak evil of the things that

they understand not ; and shall utterly
perish in their own corruption ; <13) and
shall receive the reward of unrighteous-
ness, as they that count it pleasure to
riot in the day time. Spots they are

refers to the same incident as Jnde, verse 9, seems at
first sight to tell somewhat in favour of the priority of
Ju.de ; for then, only when compared with Jude, verse 9,
does it become intelligible. The inference is that this
is an abbreviation of Jude, rather than Jude an ampli-
fication of this. But (1) such an inference is at best only
probable. The writer of this Epistle might possibly
count on his readers at once understanding his allusion
to a tradition that may have been well known, while
St. Jude thought it best to point out the allusion more
plainly. (2) It is possible that the contest alluded to is
not that between Satan and Michael about the body of
Moses, but that between Satan and the angel of the
Lord about Joshua the high priest (Zech. iii. 1, 2).
(3) It is also possible that it does not refer to any
contest with Satan at all, but merely to angels not de-
nouncing these false teachers before God, but leaving
them to His judgment. If either (2) or (3) is correct,
the argument for the priority of Jude falls to the
ground. If (1) is right, then the argument really
favours the priority of 2 Peter ; for if the author of
2 Peter had Jude before him (and this is maintained
by those who contend for the priority of Jude), and
mailed to make use of St. Jude's illustration, why
LJiould he so deface St. Jude's statement of it as to
Make it almost unintelligible ? The reason suggested
is altogether inadequate — that reverential feelings made
him wish to avoid mentioning Michael's name — a name
that every Jew was perfectly familiar with in the Book
of Daniel.

Greater in power and might.— This is taken
in two ways — either "greater than these audacious,
self-willed men," which is the simpler and more
natural explanation ; or " greater than other angels."
as if it were a periphrasis for " archangels," which is
rather awkward language. But either explanation
makes good sense.

Railing accusation against them.— Literally,
a railing judgment. Wiclif has " doom," all the rest
•' judgment " ; both superior to " accusation." " Against
them," if the reference is either to the contest about
the body of Moses or to Zech. iii. 1, 2, must .mean
against " dignities," and " dignities " must here mean
fallen angels, who are considered still to be worthy of
reverence on account of their original glory and inde-
fectible spiritual nature. The position is, therefore,
that what angels do not venture to say of devils, this,
and worse than this, these audacious men dare to say of
angels and other unseen powers. But " against them "
may possibly mean " against the false teachers," i.e.,
they speak evil of angels, yet the angels bring no de-
nunciation against them, but leave all judgment to
God (Dent, xxxii. 35, 36; Rom. xii. 19; Heb. x. 30).
This explanation avoids the awkwardness of making
" dignities " in verse 10 mean unseen powers generally,
and chiefly good ones ; while " against dignities " in
this verse has to mean against evil powers only.

(12) But these, as natural brute beasts.— Omit
"natural." This verse appears to tell strongly in
favour of the priority of our Epistle. The literary
form of Jude, verse 10, is so very superior ; the anti-
thesis (quite wanting here) between abusing what
they cannot know and misusing what they cannot

help knowing is so telling, and would be so easily
remembered, that it is improbable that a writer who
was willing to adopt so much would not have
adopted in this respect also ; and whichever writer is
second, it is evident that he was willing: to adopt his
predecessor's material almost to any extent. On the
other hand, there is nothing improbable in a writer who
knew this verse improving upon it by writing Jude.
verse 10. The verses, similar as they are in much of
their wording, are very different in their general drift.
Jude, verse 10. is simply an epigrammatic description
of these ungodly men ; this verse is a denunciation of
final ruin against them.

Made to be taken and destroyed.— Literally,
bom naturally for capture and destruction. " Natural "
conies in better here as a kind of adverb than as an ad-
ditional epithet to beasts. The force of it is that these
animals cannot help themselves — it is their nature to
rush after what will prove their ruin; but the false
teachers voluntarily seek their own destruction against
nature. This verse contains one of the repetitions
noticed above (see on verse 7 ) as characteristic of this
Epistle. The word for " destruction " and " corruption "
is one and the same in the Greek, the destroying being
literal in the first case, moral in the second. Moreover,
the word for " perish " is from the same root. " Like
brutes born for capture and destruction, these men
shall be destroyed in their destruction." But such a
translation would be misleading in English.

Shall utterly perish. — A reading of higher
authority gives us, shall even perish.

In their own corruption.— " Own" may bo
omitted. Their present evil life anticipates and con-
tains within itself the elements of their final destruc-
tion. Thus they "bring it upon themselves" (verse 1).
The right division of the sentences here cannot be
decided with certainty; the Apostle hurries on, in the
full flood of his denunciation, without paying much
attention to the precise form of his language. On the
whole, it seems best to place only a comma at the end
of verse 12, with a full stop or colon at " unrighteous-
ness," and to make what follows part of the long
sentence, of which the main verb is " are gone astray"
in verse 15.

<13> And shall receive.— Literally, about to re-
ceive (as they are). i„Coinp. 1 Pet. i. 9; v. 4; see also
Epistle of Barnabas, iv. 12.)

As they that count.— We must begin a fresh
sentence, and somewhat modify the translation. " To
riot " is too strong ; the word means " delicate fare,
dainty living, luxury," and if the exact meaning be
retained, this will necessitate a change of "in the day
time." For though "rioting in the daytime" makes
good sense — revelry even among professed pleasure-
seekers being usually confined to the night ( 1 Thess.
v. 7) — " dainty fare in the day time " does not seem to
have much point. The meaning is, perhaps. " for the
day," without thought for the morrow, counting luxury
for the moment a pleasure — the doctrine of the Cyre-
naics and the instinct of "brute beasts." In the
Shepherd of Hennas (Sim. VI. iv. 4) there is a passage
which may possibly be an echo of this : " The time of
luxury and deceit is one hour, but the hours of torment

Spots and Blemishes."

II. PETER, II.

" Wells without Water."

and blemishes, sporting themselves I
with their own deceivings while they |
feast with yon ; (U) having eyes full of j
adultery,1 and that cannot cease from
sin ; beguiling unstable souls : an heart
they have exercised with- covetous
practices; cursed children: (15) which
have forsaken the right way, and are

gone astray, following the way of
Balaam the son of Bosor, who loved the
wages of unrighteousness ; (16) but was
; rebuked for his iniquity : the dumb ass
| speaking with man's voice forbad the
| madness of the prophet. '~17> These are
I wells without water, clouds that are
j carried with a tempest; to whom the

have the power of thirty days; if, then, a man luxuriates
for one day," &c. &c. (See below on verses 15,20;
chap. iii. 5.)

Sporting themselves.— The word is a compound
of the one jnst translated "luxury"; henee luxuriating.
It is worth noting that the words for " spots and
blemishes" exactly correspond to the words translated
" without blemish and without spot " in 1 Pet. i. 19.
(See below on chap. iii. 14.)

With their own deceivings.— Better, in their
deceits, if this is the right reading. But both hero and
in Jude. verse 12, the reading is uncertain, authorities
being divided between agapai, " love-feasts," and
apatai, "deceits." In Jude the balance on purely
critical grounds is decidedly in favour of "love-feasts;"
here (though much less decidedly) in favour of "de-
ceits." In Jude the context confirms the reading
" love-feasts ; " here the context is neutral, or slightly
inclines to " love- feasts," to which " while they feast
with you " must in any case refer. But if " love-
tVasts " be right in Jude (and this is so probable that
■we may almost assume it), this in itself is strong sup-
port to the same reading here. Whichever writer is
prior, so strange a change from " deceits " to " love-
feasts" would hardly have been made deliberately;
whereas, in copying mechanically, the interchange
might easily be made, the words being so similar. The
change from "spots " to " rocks," if such a change has
been deliberately made by either writer(see on Jude, verse
12), would not be parallel to a change between "deceits"
and " love-feasts." The one is a mere variation of the
metaphor, the other an alteration of the meaning. In
2 Thess. ii. 10 there is possibly an intentional play
upon the similarity of these two words.

&*) Of adultery.— Literally, of an adulteress. This
verse has no counterpart in Jude.

That cannot cease from sin.— Literally, that
•cannot be made to cease from sin. (Conip. attentively
1 Pet. iv. 1.) It was precisely because these men refused
to •• suffer in the flesh," but, on the contrary, gave the
flesh all possible licence on principle, that they could
not " cease from sin."

Beguiling.— Strictly, enticing with bait. We have
the same word in verse 18, James i. 14, and nowhere
else. If " deceits " be the right reading in verse 13,
this clause throws some light on it. In any case, the
metaphor from fishing, twice in this Epistle and only
once elsewhere, may point to a fisherman of Galilee.
(Comp. Matt. xvii. 27.)

With covetous practices.— Better, in covetous-
ness. The word is singular, as in verse 3, according to
all the best MSS. and versions.

Cursed children. — Rather, children of maledic-
tion. So Rlieims; Wiclif has "sones of cursyrae."
They are devoted to execration ; malediction lias
adopted them as its own. (Comp. "son of perdition,"
John xvii. 12; 2 Thess. ii. 3.)

(is) The right way.— (Comp. Acts xiii. 10.) In the
Shepherd of Hennas (I. Vis. III. vii. 1) we have "Who

have believed indeed, but through their doubting have
forsaken their true way.'" (See Notes on verses 1, 3,
13, 20; chap. iii. 5.)

Are gone astray.— The main verb of this long
sentence. Here parallels with Jude begin again. In
the historical incident of Balaam, as in that of Sodom
and Gomorrha, our Epistle is more detailed than Jude
(see on verse 7). The past tenses in this verse are quite
in harmony with the view that this chapter is a genuine
prediction. (Comp. Gen. xlix. 9, 15, 23, 24.) The future
foretold with such confidence as to be spoken of as
already past is a common form for prophecy to assume.

Balaam the son of Bosor. — Bosor seems to be a
dialectical variation from Bcor, arising out of peculiar
Aramaic pronunciation — a slight indication that the
writer was a Jew of Palestine. The resemblanco
between these false teachers and Balaam consisted in
their running counter to God's will for their own profit,
and in prostituting their office to an infamous purpose,
which brought ruin on the community. He, like they,
had " enticed unstable souls," and had " a heart exer-
cised in covetousness." A comparison of this passage
with Rev. ii. 14, 15, gives countenance to the view that
among the false teachers thus stigmatised the Nico-
laitans may be included. In Jude, verse 11, these
ungodly men are compared not only to Balaam, but also
to Cain and Korah. It seems more likely that St. Jude
should add these two very opprobrious comparisons than
that the vehement writer of this Epistle should reject
material so suitable to his invective. If so. we have
here another argument for the priority of our Epistle.
(See on verse 12.)

(16> But was rebuked for his iniquity.— Lite-
rally, Bat had a conviction of his own transgression —
i.e., was convicted of it, or rebuked for it. His trans-
gression was that, although as a prophet he knew the
blessedness of Israel, and although God gave him leave
to go only on condition of his blessing Israel, he went
still cherishing a hope of being able to curse, and so
winning Balak's promised reward.

The dumb ass. — Literally, a dumb beast of burden.
The same word is rendered " ass " in Matt. xxi. 5. in the
phrase "foal of an ass." In Palestine the ass was
the most common beast of burden, horses being rare, so
that in most cases "beast of burden" would necessarily
mean " ass."

Forbad the madness. — Strictly, hindered the
madness; and thus the trivial discrepancy which some
would urge as existing between this passage and Num.
xxii. disappears. It has been objected that not the ass
but the angel forbad Balaam from proceeding. But
it was the ass which hindered the infatuation of Balaam
from hurrying him to his own destruction (Num. xxii.
33). The word for " madness " is probably chosen for
the sake of alliteration with "prophet" — prophetou
paraphronian. It is a very rare formation, perhaps
coined by the writer himself.

(i<) These are wells. — Or, springs; same word as
I John iv. 6. These men an; like dried-up watering-

455

The Miserable Ihmdage

II. PETER, II.

of tli e Wickeck

mist of darkness is reserved for ever.
(is) yor when they speak great swelling
words of vanity, they allure through the
lusts of the flesh, through much wanton-
ness, those that were clean l escaped
from them who live in error. (19) While
they promise them liberty, they them-

nr.f,n-„r,fli,,<,r.

j selves are the servants of corruption :
for of whom a man is overcome, of the
same is he brought in bondage. (2°) For
if after they have escaped the pollutions
of the world through the knowledge of
the Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, they
are again entangled therein, and over-

places in the desert, Which entice and mock the thirsty
t ra ve Her ; perhaps leading him into danger also by draw-
ing him from places where there is water. (Comp. Jer.
ii. 13 ; xiv. 3.) The parallel passage, Jnde, verses 12, 13,
is much more full than the one before us, and is more
like an amplification of this than this a condensation
of that — e.g., would a simile so admirably suitable to
false guides as ''wandering stars" have been neglected
by the writer of our Epistle ? A Hebrew word which
occurs only twice in the Old Testament is translated
by the LXX. in the one place (Gen. ii. 6) by the word
here used for " well,'' and in the other (Job xxxvi. 27)
by the word used in Jiule, verse 12, for " cloud." Thus
the same Hebrew might have produced " wells without
Water " here and " clouds without water " in Jude.
This is one of the arguments used in favour of a
Hebrew original of both these Epistles. Coincidences
of this kind, which may easily be mere accidents of
language, must be shown to be numerous before a solid
argument can be based upon them. Moreover, we
must remember that the writers in both cases were
Jews, writing in Greek, while thinking probably in
Hebrew, so that the same Hebrew thought might
suggest a different Greek expression in the two cases.
When we have deducted all that might easily be ac-
counted for in this way, and also all that is perhaps
purely accidental, from the not very numerous instances
of a similar kind that have been collected, we shall not
find much on which to build the hypothesis of these
Epistles being translations from Hebrew originals.
(See Introduction to Jude, II.)

Clouds that are carried with a tempest.—
Better, mists driven by the storm-wind. Wiclif has
" myistis." The words for "clouds" and "carried
about" in Jude, verse 12, are quite different, so that our
version creates a false impression of great similarity.
The idea is not very different from that of the " wells
without water." These mists promise refreshment to
the thirsty soil (Gen. ii. 6), and are so flimsy that they
are blown away before they do any good. So these
false teachers deceived those who were thirsting for
the knowledge and liberty promised them by raising
hopes which they could not satisfy.

To whom the mist of darkness.— Better, for
whom the gloom of darkness. (See Note on Jude, verse
6.) "For ever" is wanting in authority; the words
have probably been inserted from the parallel passage
in Jude.

<18) Great swelling words of vanity.— Ex-
aggei-ation, unreality, boastfulness, and emptiness are
expressed by this phrase. It carries on the same idea
as the waterless wells and the driven mists — great pre-
tensions and no results. The rebuke here is not unlike
the warning in 1 Pet. v. 5, 6.

Allure. — Translated " beguile " in verse 14, where
see Note.

Through the lusts of the flesh.— Better, m the
lusts of the flesh (as in verse 3, and chap. i. 1, 2, 4, 13).
The preposition " in " points to the sphere in which the
enticement takes place ; " through " should be reserved

which is the

for " wantonness " (see Note on verse
bait vised to entice.

Were clean escaped.— Both verb and adverb
require correction. The margin indicates the right
reading for the adverb — " for a little," or better, by a
little ; scarcely. The verb should be present, not past—
those who are scarcely escaping, viz., the " unstable
souls " of verse 14. Wiclif has " scapen a litil ; "
Rheims " escape a litle." The word translated " scarcely"
occurs nowhere else in the New Testament ; that trans-
lated here " clean," and elsewhere " indeed," or " cer-
tainly," is frequent (Mark xi. 32 ; Luke xxiii. 47 ; xxiv.
34, &c. &c). Hence the change, an unfamiliar word
being, by a slight alteration, turned into a familiar one.
The two Greek words are much alike.

(19) Promise them liberty.— A specimen of the
"great swelling words" — loud, high-sounding talk
about liberty. The doctrines of Simon Magus, as re-
ported by Irenseus (I., chap, xxiii. 3) and by Hippolytus
(Befut VI., chap, xiv.), show us the kind of liberty that
such teachers promised— -being " freed from righteous-
ness " to become " the slaves of sin."

Servants of corruption.— -Better, bond-servant*.
or slaves of corruption. Our translators have often
done well in translating the Greek word for " slave "
by " servant " (see Note on chap. i. 1), but here the
full force of the ignominious term should be given.
Tyndale, Cranmer, and Geneva have " bond-servants ; "
Rheims " slaves." (Comp. " bondage of corruption,"
Rom. viii. 21.)

Brought in bondage.— Or, enslaved. We seem
here to have an echo of John viii. 34 (see Notes there) :
" Every one who continues to commit sin is the slave of
sin," words which St. Peter may have heard. Comp.
Rom. vi. 16 — 20, which the writer may also have had
in his mind. Thei'e is nothing improbable in St. Peter
being well acquainted with the Epistle to the Romans
during the last years of his life; the improbability
would rather be in snpposing that he did not know it.

(20) ;por if after they have escaped the pollu-
tions of the world. — Applying the general statement
of the preceding verse to the case of these false
teachers. In the Shepherd of Hernias (I. Vis, IV.
iii. 2.) " the black there is the world in which we dwell,
and the fire-and-blood-colour -(indicates) that this world
must perish through blood and fire; but the golden
part are ye who have escaped this world.'" Another
possible reminiscence of our Epistle. (See above on
verses 1, 3, 13, 15 ; and below, chap. iii. 5.)

Through the knowledge.— Better, in "knowledge,
the preposition " in " pointing to that in which the
escape consists. (See on verse 18, and comp. Luke i.
77.) The knowledge is of the same mature and complete
kind as that spoken of in chap. i. 2, 3, 8 (where see
Notes), showing that these men were well-instructed
Christians.

Entangled therein, and overcome.— Or. en-
tangled and overcome thereby, which, from the latter
part of verse 19, seems to be the more probable con-
struction.

456

The Do</ rehirned to his Vomit •

II. PETER, III.

the Sow to in ■•/■ Wallo

wing.

come, the latter end is worse with them
than the beginning. (21> For it had
been better for them not to have known
the way of righteousness, than, after
they have known it, to turn from the
holy commandment delivered unto
them. (")But it is happened unto them
according to the true proverb, The dog
is turned to his own vomit again ; and

the sow that was washed to her wal-
lowing in the mire.

CHAPTER III.— W This second
epistle, beloved, I now
write unto you; in both Tuition 'to
which I stir up your pure second predic-
minds by way of remem- tlon'
brance : (2) that ye may be mindful of

The latter end is worse with them than the
beginning. — Most certainly this should be made to
correspond with Matt. xii. 45, of which it is almost an
exact reproduction — their last state is worse than the
first. The only difference is that the word for "is" in
Matt. xii. 45 means literally " becomes," and here " has
become." (Comp. the Shepherd, Sim. IX. xvii. 5.)

(2i) It had been better for them not to have
known. — There are many things of which the well-
known lines,

" 'Tis better to have loved and lost.
Than never to have loved at all,"

do not hold good. To have loved a great truth, to
have loved a high principle, and after all to lose them,
is what often causes the shipwreck of a life. To have
loved Jesus Christ and lost Him is to make shipwreck
of eternal life.

The way of righteousness.— The life of the
Christian. That which from a doctrinal point of view
is " the way of truth " (verse 2). from a moral point of
view is "the way of righteousness." So also "the
faith delivered to the saints " of Jude, verse 3, is the doc-
trinal equivalent of "the holy commandment delivered
unto them " of this verse.

<2-) But it is happened unto them according
to the true proverb. — More literally, There has
happened to thou, what the true proverb says ; " but "
is of very doubtful authority. The word for "proverb"
is the one used elsewhere only by St. John in his
Gospel, and there translated once "parable" and thrice
" proverb." " Parable," or " allegory," would have
been best in all four cases (John x. 6, where see Note ;
xvi. 25, 29). The first proverb is found, Prov. xxvi. 11,
and if that be the source of the quotation, we have here
an independent translation of the Hebrew, for the LXX.
gives an entirely different rendering, " dog " being the
only word in common to the two Greek versions. The
word for "vomit" here is possibly formed by the
writer himself; that for "wallowing" is also a rare
word. The LXX. adds, "and becomes abominable,"
which has no equivalent in the existing Hebrew text ;
and it has been suggested that these words may mis-
represent the Hebrew original of the second proverb
here. But it is quite possible that both proverbs come
from popular tradition, and not from Scripture at all.
If, however, the Book of Proverbs be the source of the
quotation, it is worth while noting that no less than
four times in as many chapters does St. Peter recall
passages from the Proverbs in the First Epistle (chaps,
i. 7; ii. 17; iv. 8, 18). In the Greek neither proverb
has a verb, as so often in such sayings — a dot/ that has
returned to his own vomit; a washed sow to wallowing
in tlin in in' ; just as we say "the dog in the manger,"
" a fool and his money."

The word for " mire," not a very common one, is used
by Irenams of the Gnostic false teachers of his day,
who taught that their fine spiritual natures could no

49* 457

more be hurt by sensuality than gold by mire. " For
in the same way as gold when plunged in mire does
not lay aside its beauty, but preserves its own nature,
the mire having no power to injure the gold, so they
say that they, no matter what kind of material actions
they may be involved in, cannot suffer any harm, nor
lose their spiritual essence." (I. chap. vi. 2). But it is
not probable that Irenseus knew our Epistle.

III.
(b 2) Just as the hvo halves of the first main portion
of the Epistle are linked together by some personal
remarks respecting his reason for writing this Epistle
(chap. i. 12 — 15), so the two predictions which form the
second main portion are connected by personal remarks
respecting the purpose of both his Epistles.

(!) This second epistle, beloved, I now write.
— Rather, This now second epistle I write, beloved; or,
This epistle, already a second one — implying that no
very long time has elapsed since his first letter, and that
this one is addressed to pretty much the same circle of
readers. There is no indication that the first two
chapters are one letter, and that this is the beginning
of another, as has been supposed. With this use of
" now," or " already." comp. John xxi. 14.

Pure minds.— The word for " pure " means literally
" separated " — according to one derivation, by being
sifted; according to another, by being held tip to the
light. Hence it comes to mean " unsullied." Here it
probably means untainted by sensuality or, possibly,
deceit. In Phil. i. 10, the only other place where it
occurs in the New Testament, it is translated " sincere."
(Comp. 1 Cor. v. 8 ; 2 Cor. i. 12 ; ii. 17.) The word for
" mind " means " the faculty of moral reflection and
moral understanding," which St. Peter, in his First
Epistle (chap. i. 13), tells his readers to brace up and
keep ready for constant use. These very two words
are found together in a beautiful passage in Plato's
Phaedo, 66a.

By way of remembrance.— We have the same
expression in chap. i. 13, and the translation in both
cases should be the same — stir up in putting you in
remembrance.

(2) By the holy prophets.— Appealed to before
in chap. i. 19. (Comp. Jude, verse 17.) The coherence of
the Epistle as a whole comes out strongly in this last
chapter: verse 1 recalls chap. i. 12, 13; chap. iii. 17
recalls chap. i. 10 — 12 ; chap. iii. 18 recalls chap. i. 5 — 8.
In this verse the Apostle commends the warnings of
the Old Testament and the New Testament, as to the
coming of Christ, to Christians throughout all ages.

The commandment of us the apostles of the
Lord. — " Of us " is, beyond all doubt, a false reading ;
it should be " of you," or " your." The Greek is some-
what awkward, owing to the number of genitives, but
the order of the words is conclusive as to the meaning —

Exhortation to Faith

II. PETER, III.

in Christ's Promises.

the words wliich were spoken before by
the holy prophets, and of the command-
ment of us the apostles of the Lord and
Saviour : (3) knowing this first, that
... • „ „ there shall come in the

Chap. 111. 3, 4. i , j po ii •

Second pre.lic- last days scoffers, walking
tion. Scoffers after their own lusts, <4) and

shall

saying, Where

the

promise of his coming? for since the
fathers fell asleep, all chap Ui 3_9

things Continue as they Answers to the

were from the beginning scoffei*s-
of the creation. (5) For this they
willingly are ignorant of, that by the
word of God the heavens were of old,
and the earth standing1 out of the

the commandment of your Apostles (or rather) of the
Lord and Saviour. The commandment is at once a
commandment of the Apostles and of the Lord. " The
Apostles of the Lord " must not be taken together, as
in our version. The expression " your Apostles " may
be taken as a mark of genuineness rather than of the con-
trary. It is at least not improbable that a true Apostle,
having once stated his credentials (chap. i. 1), would
sink his own personality in the group of his colleagues
from a feeling of humility and of delicacy towards those
whom he was addressing, especially when they owed
their Christianity mainly to other Apostles than him-
self. It is not improbable that a writer personating an
Apostle would have insisted on his assumed personality
and personal authority here.

What commandment is meant ? Surely not the whole
Christian law; but either the command to beware of
false teachers (Matt. vii. 15; xxiv. 5, 11 ; Mark xiii. 22;
Rom. xvi. 17 ; Eph. v. 6 ; 2 Tim. iv. 3), or, more pro-
bably, what is the main subject of this Epistle, to be
ready for Christ's coming (Matt. xxiv. 36 — 39; Mark
xiii. 35—37 ; Luke xii. 40 ; 1 Thess. v. 2—4).

Second Prediction : Scoffers shall throw doubt
on Christ's return.

(3) In the last days.— Comp. 1 Pet. i. 20 ; Heb. i. 2;
and the parallel passage to this, Jude, verse 18. " Know
this first, children, that there shall come in the last days
scoffers, walking after their own lusts " is quoted in
a homily attributed on doubtful authority to Hippolytus.
(See above on chap. ii. 1.)

Scoffers. — The best authorities add " in scoffing,"
intensifying the meaning by repetition (as in Eph. i. 3;
Rev. xiv. 2; comp. Luke xxii. 15). There are other
repetitions of this kind in the New Testament, which
have been rendered by strengthening the verb in some
other way (John iii. 29 ; Acts iv. 17 ; v. 23 ; Jas. v. 17).

(*) Where is the promise ?— Not meaning, of
course, " In what passages of Scripture is any such
promise to be found ? " — but, " What has come of it P
where is there any accomplishment of it?" (Comp.
Ps. xiii. 3; lxxix. 10; Jer. xvii. 15; Mai. ii. 17.)

Of his coming.—" His " instead of " the Lord's "
indicates not merely that only one Person could be
meant, but also the irreverent way in which these
scoffers spoke of Him.

Since the fathers fell asleep.— What fathers are
meant ? Four answers have been given to this ques-
tion : (1) The ancestors of the human race; (2) the
patriarchs and prophets ; (3) the first generation of
Christians ; (4) each generation of men in relation to
those following. Probably nothing more definite than
our remote ancestors is intended. The expression
"fell asleep" is used of St. Stephen's death in Acts
vii. 60 (comp. Matt, xxvii. 52 ; 1 Cor. vii. 39, where the
word is not literally translated; xv. 6, 18, &c.). The
thoroughly Christian term "cemetery" (— sleeping-
place), in the sense of a place of repose for the dead,
comes from the same Greek root.

458

There is a passage quoted by Clement of Rome
(circ. A.D. 100) wliich seems at first sight to contain a
reference to this verse : " Far be from us this Scripture
where He saith, Wretched are the double-minded, who
doubt in heart and say, These things we heard in the
times of our fathers also, but behold, we have grown old,
and none of them has happened to us " (Epistle to the
Corinthians, xxiii.). But the remainder of this " Scrip-
ture," as quoted by Clement, is so utterly unlike the
verse before us, that one suspects some other source.
And this suspicion is confirmed when we find the same
passage quoted in the so-called Second Epistle of Clement
(xi.) as "the prophetic word." (See on chap. i. 19 and on
chap. ii. 9). The differences between the two quotations
are such that the pseudo-Clement appears to be quoting
independently, and not merely borrowing from the true
Clement. In neither case does close inspection en-
courage us to believe that our present verse is the
source of the quotation. But the quotation by the
true Clement is important as a complete refutation of
the objection that " the fathers " means the first Chris-
tians, and consequently no such scoffing argument as
this would be possible in the lifetime of St. Peter.
This very argument was not only in existence, but
was condemned in a document wliich Clement before
the close of the first century could quote as " Scripture."
Comp. Epistle ofPolycarp, chap. vii. : " Whosoever per-
verts the oracles of the Lord to his own lusts, and says
there is neither resurrection nor judgment, he is the
firstborn of Satan."

All things continue as they were.— Rather,
as they are. The error has probably arisen from a
desire to get rid of the slight difficulty of two dates
being given: (1) from the death of "the fathers." and
(2) from the beginning of the creation. The suggestion
that "the fathers " are the first progenitors of the human
race is another attempt to get rid of the difficulty by
making the two dates virtually one and the same. But
the second date is an after-thought, frequent in Thucy-
dides, intensifying and strengthening the first. Since
the fathers fell asleep all things continue as they are —
nay, more, since the beginning of the creation.

This sceptical argument is. used with increased force
as each generation passes away. It will be at its strongest
just before the fallacy of it is irrefragably exposed —
on the eve of the day of judgment.

(*) For this they willingly are ignorant of.—
Literally, For this escapes their notice of their own will.
They voluntarily blind their eyes to this fact — at onco
an explanation of their aigument. and^Vs^ answer to it,
drawn from the Mosaic account of the Creation.

The earth standing out of the water and in
the water. — The margin is nearer the true meaning
with " consisting " for " standing," and the same word
is translated " consist" in Col. i. 17. The notion is that
of coherence, solidarity, and order, as distinct from
chaos. "Out of [the] water" indicates the material
out of which the earth was made ; not, as our version
leads us to suppose, that out of wliich the earth rose,

The Steadfastness and

II. PETER, III.

Loiiijsnffi ring of God.

water and in the water : (•) whereby the i
world that then was, being overflowed
with water, perished : (7) but the heavens
and the earth, which are now, by the
same word are kept in store, reserved
unto fire against the day of judgment
and perdition of ungodly men. (8) But,

beloved, b<> not ignorant of this one
thing, that one day is with the Lord as
a thousand years, and a thousand years
as one day. (ilJ The Lord is not slack
concerning his promise, as some men
count slackness ; but is longsuffering to
us-ward, not willing that any should

like an island from the ocean. "In the water" is
wrong, and again the error is probably derived from
Geneva, though Tyndale has it also. We should render
rather, by means of [the] water. In both clauses the
article should perhaps be omitted — the earth consisting
out of water and through water. (Comp. Ps. xxiv. 2;
<'xxxvi. 6.) In the Clementine Homilies (XI. xxiv.) we
have the idea of all things being made by water. In
the Greek " by the word of God " comes last, not first ;
emphasis is obtained either way. " By the word of
God ; " not by a fortuitous concourse of atoms, not by
spontaneous generation. In the Shepherd of Hernias
(I. Via. I. iii. 4) Ave read, " Behold, the God of virtues
(powers) .... by His mighty word has fixed the
heaven, and laid the foundation of the earth upon the
waters." (See above on ii. 1, 3, 13, 15, 20.) In an
Apology of Melito, Bishop of Sardis, addressed to
Antoninus Caesar about a.d. 170, there is a passage
bearing a considerable amount of resemblance to these
verses io — 7).

(6) Whereby.— The meaning of this is much dis-
puted. The original literally signifies, by means of
which things. But what things? The context allows
Various alternatives : (1) These facts about the Creation;
(2) the heavens and the earth ; (3) the water out of
which, and the water by means of which, the world was
made ; (4) any or all of these together with the word of
God. There is good reason for preferring the second
of these. Both the heavens and the earth contributed
to the deluge ; for then " all the fountains of the great
deep were broken up, and the windows of heaven were
opened" (Gen. vii. 11). The English "whereby" is as
vague as the original.

The world that then was, . . . perished.— So
that it is absurd to say that all things continue un-
changed since the Creation. The world was so trans-
formed by the deluge that the world previous to that
catastrophe perished, chaos for the moment returned,
and a new world issued from the crisis. " The world
that then was, perished " is equivalent to " He spared
not the old world " in chap. ii. 5.

(?) By the same word.— Or. as some first-rate
authorities read, by His word. The sense in either case
is that the universe is preserved for judgment by the
same power that created it. " His word " here does not
mean any single utterance of God or passage of Scrip-
ture, such as Isa. lxvi. 15 ; Dan. vii. 9, 10 ; Mai. iv. 1.
Just as " the world that then was " was destroyed by
water, so the present world is being treasured up to be
destroyed by fire. Comp. Rom. ii. 5. Christ Himself.
in a. discourse' which St. Peter heard (Mark xiii. 3), Itad
made the Flood a type ol the Judgment (Matt. xxiv. 37 —
39). (See below on verse 10.) "Unto fire," or "for
fire," should perhaps be taken with " kept in store "
rather than with "reserved."

(8) Second Answer to the sceptical argument :
Time is the condition of man's thought and action,
but not ot God's. His thoughts are not as our thoughts.
nor His ways as our ways ; what seems delay to us is none
to Him.

But, beloved, be not ignorant of this one
thing. — Although these scoffers are willingly ignorant
of what refutes their error, do not you be ignorant of
what will lead you to the truth.

One day is with the Lord as a thousand
years. — This half of the saying is epiite original, and
has no equivalent in Ps. xc. 4. The second half is only
partially parallel to "a thousand years in Thy sight are
but as yesterday, when it is past." Consequently, we
cannot be sure that the Apostle had this passage from
the Psalms in his mind, though it is probable enough
that he had. That God can punish in one day the sins
of a thousand years is a thought which is neither in
the text nor in the context. What is insisted on is
simply this— that distinctions of long and short time are
nothing in the sight of God ; delay is a purely human
conception. Justin Martyr, about a.d. 145 ( Trypho.
Ixxxi.j, gives " the day of the Lord is as a thousand
years " as a quotation, and in this form it is closer
to 2 Pet. iii. 8 than to Ps. xc. 4. As another possible
reference to our Epistle follows in the next chapter, it
may be regarded as not improbable that Justin knew
the Epistle. (See above, second Note on chap. ii. 1. ) But
the saying may have been a favourite one, especially
with those who held Millenarian views. In the Epistle
of Barnabas (xv. 4) we read, " For a day means with Him
a thousand years, and He Himself wituesseth, saying,
Behold, to-day shall be as a thousand years." where
for "to-day "the Codex Sina Ulcus reads "the day of
the Lord." Iremeus has " The day of the Lord is as a
thousand years " twice— (Y. xxiii. 2 ; xxviii. 3) ; Hippo-
lytus has it once yComm. on Daniel, Lagarde, p. 153);
Methodius once (in Photius' Bibliotheca, cod. 235). In
no case, howcver,is the context at all similar to the verses
before us.

(9) Third Answer — a practical one : Make good use
of what to you seems to be delay.

The Lord is not slack. — We are in doubt whether
" the Lord " means Christ or God the Father. In
verse 8 "the Lord" certainly means God; and this is
in favour of the same meaning here. On the other
hand, " concerning His promise " naturally refers to
Christ's promise that He will return. The same doubt
recurs with regard to verse 15 (see Note there). By
'" is not slack " is meant " does not delay beyond the
time appointed." There is no dilatoriness ; He waits.
but is never slow is never late.

Concerning Uis promise.— The Greek construc-
tion is peculiar, formed on the analogy of a comparative
adjective — "is not slower than his promise." (Comp.
Rom. iii. 23. |

But is longsuffering.— (Comp. verse 15 and 1 Pet.
iii. 20. As St. Augustine puts it, God is patten* quia
(ief mins — longsuffering because He is eternal. He
who is from everlasting to everlasting can afford to
wait. (Comp. the Shepherd, Sim. VIII. xi. 1.)

To US-ward.— The true reading. beyond all doubt, is
towards go'1. It is specially natural here that St. Peter
should not include himself among those whom he ad-
dresses ; for he is writing mainly to Gentile Christians

The Final Destruction

XL PETEE, III.

of this World.

perish, but that all should come to re-
pentance. (10) But the day of the Lord
will come as a thief in

Chap. iii. 10.

The certainty the night ; in the which
of Christ's ^ie ]ieavens shall pass

commy the " _ *\

basis of this away with a great noise, i [.;;;-((.( ';;;*' >>"■•
warning. an(i the elements shall !

melt with fervent heat, the earth I
also and the works that are therein

shall be burned up. <n> Seeing then
that all these things shall chap ^ n_
be dissolved, what manner 18. Concluding
of persons ought ye to exhortations.
be in all holy conversation and
godliness, (12> looking for and hasting1
unto the coming of the day of God,
wherein the heavens being on fire shall
be dissolved, and the elements shall

(chap. i. 1). and this longsuffering of God had been
conspicuous in His dealings with the Gentiles (Rom.
xi. 11—36.) (See second Note on 1 Pet. i. 12.)

(10) The certainty and possible nearness of Christ's
coining is the basis of the preceding warning and of
the exhortations which follow.

As a thief in the night. — Suddenly and without
warning. The words are an echo of Matt. xxiv. 43, a
saying which St. Peter certainly heard (Mark xiii. 3),
or possibly of 1 Thess. v. 2, which may easily be
included in the Epistles referred to below in verse 16.
The words " in the night " are here wanting in authority.

The heavens shall pass away.— Again an appa-
rent reminiscence of the discourse in Matt. xxiv. (where
comp. verse 35) — the third such reminiscence in this
chapter (see preceding Note, and on verse 7). This re-
peated reproduction of words and ideas from one of
the most impressive of Christ's discourses, which only
St. Peter and three others seem to have heard, may
fairly be added to the evidence in favour of the authen-
ticity of the Epistle-.

With a great noise.— Better, with a rushing
■noise. The expression occurs nowhere else in the New
Testament, but some such idea as that in Isa. xxxiv. 4,
Rev. vi. 14, is probably indicated — not the roar of
flames or the crash of ruins, but the parting and rolling
up of the heavens. (Comp. Rev. xx. 11.)

The elements shall melt with fervent heat.—
The meaning of " elements " here is much dis-
puted. (See Notes on the word in Gal. iv. 3, 9.) The
difficulty of supposing fire to be destroyed by fire
seems to exclude the four elements being intended;
moreover, the earth is mentioned separately. Hence,
some take " the elements " to mean water and air, the
two remaining elements; but this is not very satis-
factory. More probably, the various forms of matter
in the universe are intended, without any thought of
indicating what they are precisely. But seeing that
Justin Martyr calls the sun, moon, and stars " heavenly
elements " {Apol. II . v., Trypho, xxiii.), and that in
predictions of the last day frequent mention is "made
of " signs hi the sun. and in the moon, and in the
stars" (Matt. xxiv. 29; Mark xiii. 24; Luke xxi. 25;
Isa. xiii. 10 ; xxiv. 23 ; Joel ii. 31, &c), it is possible
that the heavenly bodies are meant here, all the more
so. as the mention of these " elements " immediately
follows that, of the heavens. Bengel (perhaps with
more poetry than correctness) ingeniously connects
this explanation with the radical signification of the
word, viz., " letters of the alphabet, " " for stars in the
heaven are as letters on a scroll." (Comp. Rev. vi. 14.)
"Shall melt" should rather be, as in the next two
verses, shall be dissolved. Wiclif has " dissolved,"
Bheims " resolved.'* This dissolution is the opposite
of the consistency spoken of in verse 5. In verse 12
"melt" is correct, and suits the heavenly bodies better

than the four elements. (Comp. The Second Epistle
of Clement, xvi. 3.)

The eartl* ^lso and the works that are
therein.— Equivalent to " the earth and the fulness
thereof," "works" being used in a comprehensive
sense for products both of nature and art. The moral
work of each individual is not meant; consequently,
a reference to 1 Cor. iii. 13 is misleading. The two-
passages have little in common, and nothing is gained
by bringing in the difficulties of the other passage here.
In this passage the Apostle is stating plainly and in
detail what some of the Prophets of the Old Testament
had set forth in general and sometimes obscure lan-
guage— that a judgment by fire is in store for the world
(Isa! lxvi. 15, 16, 24; Mai. iii. 1—3; iv. 1).

Shall be burned up.— The question of readings
here is one of known difficulty. One important MS. has
" shall vanish away" (James iv. 14); two first-rate MSS.
and other authorities have " shall be found." The later
Syriac has '• shall not be found," which is pretty nearly
equivalent to " shall vanish away," and is sometimes given
as exactly equivalent to it. " Shall be found," the read-
ing most strongly attested, is summarily rejected by
some editors as yielding no sense. The theory that
it has grown out of the Latin for " shall be burned
up " — eurethesetai out of exurentur — does not seem
very probable. Nor is it true that it yields no sense.
By placing a colon at " also," and making what follows
a question, we obtain — The elements shall be dissolved,
the earth also : and shall the ivorks that are therein be
found ? Happily, nothing of importance turns on the
reading; all the variations amount practically to the
same thing — that the elements, the earth, and all that is
in it, shall be destroyed.

<n) Seeing then that all these things shall be
dissolved.— For " then " Ave ought probably to read
" thus," seeing that all these things are thus to be
dissolved. The original is present in form, but rightly
translated by the future, being the prophetic present.
i.e.. the future prophetically regarded as present.

What manner of persons.— Not so much a ques-
tion as an exclamation. In any case, the sentence should
run on to the end of verse 12. To put an interrogation
at " to be " or at " godliness," and make what follows
an answer to the question, would be stiff and frigid,
and very unlike the fervour of this Epistle.

Ought ye to be.— We might fairly translate.
ought ye to be found. The Greek implies that the
state is one that has continued for some time before
the day comes.

In all holy conversation and godliness.-
Literally, in holy behaviours and godlinesses. (See
Notes on chap i. 3 and chap. ii. 7.) The plurals indicate
a variety of acts. They occur in this passage only.

(12) Hasting unto.— There is no " unto " in the

Greek. The margin is probably right, hasting the

coming — i.e., hastening Christ's coming by holy lives, by

! helping to make the Gospel known to all nations (Matt.

460

Hope in a New Heaven

ir. petv:k, hi.

and a New Earth.

melt with fervent heat ? (13) Neverthe-
less we, according to his promise,
look for new heavens and a new
earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness.
<u) Wherefore, beloved, seeing that

ye look for such things, be diligent
that ye may be found of him in
peace, without spot, and blame-
less. <15) And account that the long-
suffering of our Lord is salvation;

xxiv. II). so as to " accomplish the number of the
elect," and by praying " Thy kingdom come." (Comp.
2 Tim. iv. 8; Rev. xxii. 20.) The thought is singularly
parallel to St. Peter's speech in Solomon's Porch (Acts
iii. 19 — 21, where see Notes) ; and as the thought is
.striking and unusual — perhaps nowhere else in the
New Testament distinctly — this coincidence may fairly
be admitted as a note of genuineness.

The coming of the day of God.— A phrase
which occurs here only. It is doubly remarkable :
(1) '" coming," in the special sense indicated by the par-
ticular word used in the Greek, is elsewhere used of
Christ Himself, not of the day ; (2) " the day of God "
is a very unusual expression.

Wherein.- Rather, by reason of which, either
" the day " or " the coming " being meant.

Shall melt.—" Melt " is here correct, being quite a
different word from that rendered " melt " in verse 10,
which is the same as that here translated " be dis-
solved." In the so-called Second Epistle of Clement
(chap, xvi.) we have a somewhat similar passage — " The
day of judgment cometh even now as a burning oven
(Mai. iv. 1), and [the pouters'] of the heavens shall melt,
and all the earth as lead melting on the fire."

(13> Nevertheless we, according to his promise.
— " Nevertheless" is too strong, and the emphasis is on
"new," not on ''we." But new heavens and a new
earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness, we look for, ac-
cording to His promise. (Comp. Rev. xxi. 1.) On the
repetition of " look for," three times in three verses,
see above on chap. ii. 7. The promise of the new
heavens and new earth is given in Isa. lxv. 17 ; lxvi. 22.
There are two words for " new " in Greek ; one looks
forward, " young " as opposed to " aged ; " the other
looks back, "fresh" as opposed to " worn out." It is
the latter word that is used here and in Rev. xxi. 1, 2.
Both are used in Matt. ix. 17, but the distinction is not
marked in our version — " They put new wine into fresh
wine-skins."

Wherein dwelleth righteousness.— Comp. Isa.
lxv. 25 ; Rev. xxi. 27. Righteousness has its home
there; is not a wanderer and changeful guest, as on
earth, therefore by righteousness must ye make your-
selves worthy of entering therein.

With this whole verse compare 1 Pet. i., where (verse
4) a similar thought is expressed with equal beauty, and
where (verse 13) a similar conclusion is drawn from it.
(See next verse.)

(1*) Be found of him in peace, without spot,
and blameless.— Rather, Be found spotless and
blameless in His sight. " Be found of Him," i.e., " by
Him" (comp. chap. ii. 19), cannot stand; the construction
is parallel to ''be found unto you" (2 Cor. xii. 20), i.e.,
" in your judgment," or " in your sight," The pair of
epithets, " spotless and blameless," should be noticed as
coinciding with 1 Pet. i. 19, and also as forming a
marked contrast to the false teachers, who are called
"spots and blemishes" (2 Pet ii. 13). "In peace"
cannot well refer to differences between Jewish and
Gentile Christians, a subject quite foreign to this
Epistle. It may possibly refer to the false teachers
and the discord caused by them ; but more probably it

lias no special reference. It expresses at once the con-
dition and the consequence of being "spotless and
blameless." "There is no peace, saith my God. for
the wicked."

(is) The longsuffering of our Lord.— Again, as
in verse 9, we are in doubt as to whether God the
Father or the Lord Jesus is meant. In neither ease is
absolute certainty obtainable ; but here the balance
seems decidedly in favour of the latter meaning. In
verse 8 "the Lord" certainly means God. and not the
Lord Jesus (comp. chap. ii. 9, 11). In verse 18 " our
Lord " is expressly stated to be Jesus Christ. The
two intermediate verses, 9 and 15, are open to dispute.
The fact that "our" appears in this verse before
"Lord," as in verse 18, inclines the balance here
towards the meaning in verse 18. Moreover, had God
been meant, it would have sufficed to say, " and account
that His long-suffering is salvation." If this is correct,
and " our Lord " means Jesus Christ, " then through-
out this weighty passage the Lord Jesus is invested
with the full attributes of Deity." Here, possibly, as
also in chap. i. 1 (see Note), the expression points to
toe writer's entire belief in the unity of the two Persons.
Account the longsuffering of our Lord salvation in-
stead of accounting it to be "slackness" (verse' 9);
make use of it for working out your own salvation in
fear and trembling, instead of criticising it.

As our beloved brother Paul.— This may pos-
sibly mean something more than that St. Paul was a
fellow-Christian and a personal friend — viz., that he
was a fellow-worker anil brother-evangelist. More
than this it cannot well mean, though some interpret it
" brother- Apostle." Tychicus is twice called " beloved
brother" by St, Paul (Eph. vi. 21 ; Col. iv. 7), and the
addition of " our " here can make no such change of
lneaning. It is doubtful whether there is any allusion
to the dispute between St, Peter and St. Paul (Gal. ii. 11),
although an expression of mai-ked affection would be
quite in place as evidence that all such differences were
now forgotten. In any case the familiarity and equality
which the expression " our beloved brother Paul" im-
plies should be noticed. It is in marked contrast to the
way in which Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Poly carp, and
Clement of Alexandria speak of St. Paul, and in this
way is a decided note of genuineness. A writer of
the sub- Apostolic age would not easily be able to free
himself from the feeling of the age in this respect.
Clement of Rome (Corinthians, xlvii. 1), says. " Take
up the Epistle of the blessed Paul the Apostle."
Ignatius (Ephesians, xii. 2) calls him " Paul the sancti-
fied, the martyred, worthily called blessed." Polycarp
(see next Note) calls him " the blessed and glorious
Paul," or " the blessed Paul." Clement of Alexandria
commonly says simply " the Apostle" but sometimes
"the divine Apostle," or "the noble Apostle." An
imitator in the second century would scarcely have
attained to the freedom of "our beloved brother
Paul."

According to the wisdom given unto him.—
Comp. 1 Cor. iii. 10 ; Gal. ii. 9. Polycarp. in his
Epistle to the Philippiaus (chap. iii. 2), says. "Neither
I nor any one else like me can equal the wisdom of the

461

The Teaching of

II. PETER, III.

Paul's Epistles.

even as our beloved brother Paul
also according to the wisdom given
unto him hath written unto you;
<-1,;) as also in all his epistles, speaking

in them of these things; in which
are some things hard to be under-
stood, which they that are unlearned
and unstable wrest, as they do also the

blessed and glorious Paul, who . . . wrote letters to
you, into which if ye look diligently, Sec. &c." This
seems to show that St. Paul's letters had already
become the common property of the churches.

Hath written unto you.— More literally, wrote
to you. "What Epistle, or Epistles, are here meant?
Few points in this Epistle have been more debated.
The following are some of the many answers that have
been given to the question : (1) a lost Epistle ;
(2) Hebrews, because of chaps, ix. 26 — 28 ; x. 23 — 25,
37 ; (3) Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, because our
Epistle is supposed to be addressed to the Christians
of Asia Minor ; (4) Ephesians only, for the reason
just stated, and because Colossians and Galatians
contain little or no mention of the day of judgment ;
also because of Eph. iv. 30, and the encyclical character
of the Epistle ; (5) 1 Corinthians, because of chap. i.
7- — 9 ; (6) Romans, because of chaps, ii. 4 and ix. 22, 23 ;
(7) 1 and 2 Thessalonians, because of 1 Thess. iv. 14 —
18 ; v. 1—11, 23, because 2 Pet, iii. 10 recalls 1 Thess. v.
2, also because " things hard to be understood " admir-
ably describes much of 2 Thess. ii., which treats of the
time of Christ's coining, the very subject here under
discussion.

Of these seven theories, (1) can neither be proved
nor disproved ; (3) and (4) lose much of their weight
when we consider that the persons addressed in 2 Peter
are nowhere defined, excepting that to some extent
they are identical with those addressed in 1 Peter. Of
the remaining four, (7) seems to be very probable,
both on account of the large amount of coincidence,
and also because of the early date of those Epistles,
allowing an interval of fifteen years, in which the two
Epistles might easily have become well known in other
churches. Still it is difficult to find a passage in them
about the longsuffering of God, such as Rom. ii. 4;
ix. 22. 23. And when we consider that Romans also
appears to have been an Encyclical Letter, and was
written not so very long after the Epistles to the Thes-
salonians; that in Rom. iii. 8 St. Paul himself tells
us that he had been grossly misunderstood ; that chap.
ix. 3 might easily cause serious misunderstanding,
and that Rom. vi. 16 seems to be recalled in 2 Pet.
ii. 19 — it will perhaps be thought that on the whole
Romans best answers to the requirements of the
context,

(ir>) As also in all his epistles.— All those known
to the writer. The expression does not necessarily
imply that St. Paul was dead, and that his Epistles
had been collected into one volume. That each church
made a collection of them as they became known to
it, and that in the great centres "they became known
soon after they were written, are conjectures of great
probability.

Speaking in them of these things — viz., of the
return of Christ and of the destruction of the world.
Some, however, understand the words as meaning the
exhortations to holiness here given.

Some things hard to be understood.— Cer-
tainly the difficulties with which 2 Thess. ii. bristles
are well described by this expression, and they relate
to the very point in question— the time of Christ's
coming. Moreover, scoffers could easily turn them to
account by arguing that '" the man of sin " had not yet

appeared, and that therefore there was no likelihood of
the end of the world coming just yet. But in admitting
that 2 Thess. ii. is among the passages alluded to here,
we are not committed to the theory that 1 and 2 Thess.
are alluded to in verse 15. Many refer these words to
St. Paul's doctrine of justification by faith as wrested
to mean '"faith without works." So, again, Eph. ii. 5,
6, and Col. ii. 12 might be wrested to mean that " the
resurrection is past already*' (2 Tim. ii. 18). (See
Note on Rom. iii. 8 respecting perversion of his
teaching.)

Unlearned and unstable.— The word for " un-
learned " here is not the same as that translated
'• unlearned " in Acts iv. 13. (See Note there.) That
signifies " without special study ; " this means " with-
out ordinary instruction." Ignorance naturally pro-
duces instability ; those who have no clear principles of
Christian doctrine easily fall victims to seductions of
all kinds. (Comp. chap. ii. 14.)

Wrest.— Literally, torture by means of the rack;
and hence "strain," "distort." That St. Paul's doc-
trine of Christian liberty, as opposed to the bondage of
the Law, was seen by himself to be liable to great
abuse, and had already begun to be abused, we learn
from his own writings (1 Cor. vi. 12 — 20; Gal. v. 13 —
26 ; where see Notes. Comp. Rev. ii. 20.)

The other scriptures.— The Old Testament can-
not well be meant. St. Peter would scarcely haA-e placed
the writings of a contemporary side by side with the
Scriptures of the Old Testament (the canon of which
had long since been closed) without some intimation of
a grouping which at that time must have been novel,
and probably was quite unknown. It is much more
probable that Christian writings of some kind are in-
tended, but we can only conjecture which, any of the
canonical writings of the New Testament then in exist-
ence, and perhaps some that are not canonical. That
an Apostle should speak of the writings of a brother-
Apostle in the same terms as the books of the Old Testa-
ment— viz., as Scripture — need not surprise us. especially
when we remember the large claims made by St. Paul
for his own words (1 Thess.ii. 13; 2 Thess. ii. 15; Eph.
iii. 3— 5. Comp. Acts xv. 28; Rev. xxii. 18, 19). In 1 Pet.
i. 12, Evangelists are almost made superior to the Old
Testament Prophets — a statement indicating a view
which harmonises well both with 2 Pet. i. 15 — 19 and
with the view set forth here; for in chap. i. 15 he
assigns to this Epistle much the same purpose as in
chap. i. 19 he assigns to the Old Testament Prophets.
Moreover, we have seen how Clement of Rome uses the
term " Scripture " of a passage which comes from some
uncanonical book (see above on verse 4). See Intro-
duction, I. c. 5. 4.

Unto their own destruction.— The Greek is
very emphatic as to its being "their own." (Comp.
"Bring upon themselves swift destruction," chap. ii. 1.)
It is their own doing — St. Paul and other writers of
Scripture are not to blame ; and it befits them— they
will find the end they deserve. This passage gives no
countenance to the Roman doctrine that all Scripture
is hard to understand, and therefore not to be read by
the people. All that is here said is that some Scripture
is hard to understand, and that bad men make a bad
use of the fact. The inference drawn from this by St.

Final Exhortation.

II. PETER, III.

Conclusion.

other scriptures, unto their own destruc-
tion, w Ye therefore, beloved, seeing
ye know these things before, beware
lest ye also, being led away with the
error of the wicked, fall from your

own stedfastness. <18> But grow in
grace, and in the knowledge of our
Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. To
him be glory both now and
for ever. Amen. Doxology.

Peter is not, " Do not read Scripture," nor even " Pass
over what seems to be hard," but '"Be on your guard
against being led astray by interpretations contrary to
tiie spirit of the gospel.

(W) Know these things before. —Seeing that I
have forewarned you of the certain appearance, eon-
duct, and success of these false teachers and scoffers.
'• Forewarned, forearmed."

Being led away with.— The Greek word occurs
only thrice in the New Testament — here, Rom. xii. 16,
and Gal. ii. 13. In Rom. xii. 1(5 its meaning is a good
deal different (see Note there). In Gal. ii. 13 it has
th« same meaning as here; and, strangely enough, it is
of Barnabas being " carried away with " the dissimula-
tion of Peter and his associates.

The error of the wicked.— Better, the error of
the lawless (chap. ii. 7), but not " the seduction " or
" deceit of the lawless." as some would render it. It is
the same word as occurs at the end of chap. ii. 18, and
it implies wandering from the path, but not leading
others astray. The context, not the word itself, shows
that there was seduction. " The lawless " are the false
teachers and scoffers.

Tall from your own stedfastness.— Referring
back to chap. i. 10 — 12, just as verse 18 refers back to
chap. i. 5—8 ; showing how complete is the coherence
between the beginning and ending of the Epistle.
(Comp. Gal. v. 4.) This " steadfastness " will be based
on belief in Christ's coming, and on the hope of enter-
ing into His kingdom, and thus will be in marked
contrast to the unbelief of the "unstable " in verse 16.
The word for " steadfastness " occurs nowhere else.

Tho entire absence of directions — which St. Jude
gives rather elaborately — as to how these evil men and
their victims are to be treated by sound Christians is
in favour of the priority of this Epistle. When evil
men begin to arise, the first impulse is to avoid them
and their ways, and to this course St. Peter exhorts
his readers. When such men have established them-
selves and gained proselytes, people begin to consider
how to deal with the seducers and to win back the
seduced, and to these points St. Jude directs his
readers.

(18) But grow in grace, and in the knowledge
of our Lord. — Or, But grow in the grace and in the
knowledge of our Lord — i.e., it may mean " the grace
of our Lord" as well as "the knowledge of our Lord.''
But the Greek is not decisive on this point ; and the
rendering in our version avoids the awkwardness of
coupling a subjective and objective genitive together
by " and." For "the grace of our Lord " must mean
the grace of which He is the giver ,- while " the know-
ledge of our Lord" must mean the knowledge of which
He is the object. Rom. xv. 4 and 1 Pet. i. 2 are not
instances of such coupling.

The Apostle ends, as he began, by exhorting them to
that sound knowledge which he sets forth as the sure
basis of all Christian activity, whether the knowledge
be full and mature, as in chap. i. 2, 3, 8 ; ii. 20 or to
lie acquired and increased, as in chap. i. 5 aud here.

Doxology. — The Epistle comes to a most abrupt
conclusion, without any personal remarks or greetings.
This is so unlike the First Epistle, so unusual in
Apostolic letters generally, that an imitator, and so
accomplished an imitator as the writer of this Epistle
must have been, would scarcely have omitted so usual
and natural an addition. The addition would have been
doubly natural here, for the personator (if the writer
of the Epistle be such) is personating St. Peter near the
end of his life, writing to congregations whom he is
not likely either to see or address again. Surely the
circumstances would have seemed to him to demand
some words of personal greeting and tender farewell ;
and Acts xx. 18—35; 2 Tim. iv. 6—18, would have
supplied him with models. But nothing of the kind is
inserted. Assume that St. Peter himself is tho writer,
and then we can understand how lie came to disappoint
such natural expectations. His heart is too full of the
fatal dangers which threaten the whole Christian com-
munity to think of himself and his personal friends.
As to his death, which cannot be far off, he knows that
it will come swiftly at the last, and his chief fear
is lest it should come upon him before he has left
on record these words of warning and exhortation
(chap. i. 13 — 15). Therefore, at the opening he hurries
to his subject at once, and presses on, without pause or
break, until it is exhausted ; and now that he has un-
burdened his heart he cares to say no more, but ends at
once with a tribute of praise to the Master that bought
him.

To him be glory.— Better, to Him be the glory—
all that His creatures have to render. Whatever may be
our view of verse 15. there can be no doubt that in this
doxology homage is paid to Jesus Christ as true God.
It- is, perhaps, the earliest example of that " hymn to
Christ as God " which Pliny tells Trajan the Christians
were accustomed to sing before daybreak.

And for ever.— Literally, and to the day of eter-
nity. The phrase is used by the LXX. in Ecclus. xviii.
10. but is found nowhere else in the New Testament.
It means that day which marks the end of time and the
beginning of eternity, the day which not only begins
but is eternity. The expression is quite in harmony
with the general drift of the chapter. " Heaven and
earth shall pass away, but " "the day of God" "shall
not pass away."

Amen.— Comp. Jude, verse 25. Here the word is
of rather doubtful authority. Being usual in doxologies,
it would be very likely to be added by a copyist.

463

THE EPISTLES OF

JOHN.

INTRODUCTION

THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF

JOHN.

I. Who was the Writer?
II. Who were the Readers?

III. What WERE THE CIRCUMSTANCES OK THE

Churches?

IV. Is the Writing an Epistle 1

I. Who was the Writer ?— Three Epistles come
before us in the New Testament bearing a Aery strong
family likeness to each other and to the Fourth Gospel.
They carry no superscription in their text, but " the
elder,'' or " the old man." Whose are they ? The
manuscripts from which they are derived have always
said " John's," and in some is added "the Apostle."

We will here consider the First. The Second and
Third will be treated separately. The evidence for
the First is as strong as anything could be. It was
accepted as the Apostle's by the whole Church.
Eusebius, the historian (bom about a.d. 270), places it
among the writings " universally admitted (homolo-
goiimena)"; and Jerome states that it received the
sanction of all members of the Church. The only
exceptions were such sects of heretics as would be
likely to repudiate it as not harmonising with their
theological errors : the Alogi, or " Unreason ables," an
obscure and rather doubtful sect in the second century,
who rejected St. John's Gospel and the Revelation,
and therefore, probably, these three Epistles ; and
Mareiou. in the same century, avIio chose such parts of
the New Testament as suited him best, and altered
them at pleasure.

The evidence of quotation and reference begins early.
Poly carp, the disciple of St. John, became a Christian
A.D. 83. In the epistle which he wrote to the Philippians,
occur these words : " For every one that confesseth not
that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is antichrist."
The likeness to 1 John iv. 2. 3, is marked ; and it is far
more probable that a loosely written letter, such as his,
should embody a well-known saying of so sententious
and closely worded a treatise as the First Epistle of John
than the other way.

Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, nourished in the first
half of the second century. Irenseus, who was' born
about the end of the first century, says that he was
a hearer of St. John. This is contradicted by Eusebius
on the evidence of Papias' own writings (H.E. III. 39.
1, 2); but he wrote a work called, An Explanation of
the Oracles of the Lord, in which he bore witness to
the authenticity of Christian doctrine. The account
of his work is derived from Eusebius, the historian,
who says that " he used testimonies from the First
Epistle of John." By balancing the name of St. John
in this sentence with that of St. Peter, Eusebius evi-
dently understood the Apostle.

About A.D. 100 was bora Justin Martyr. In his

V. Whkx was it WRITTEN?
VI. Where was it written?
VII. What is its Scope?
VIII. Notes ox Difficult Passages.
IX. Literature.

time was written the anonymous epistle to Diognetus,
Six of its chapters contain indisputable reminiscences
of the First Epistle. The epistle of the Churches of
Vienne and Lyons was written in a.d. 177. It quotes
1 John iii. 16. Carpocrates, the Gnostic, lived at
Alexandria at the beginning of the second century. Ke
tried to pervert 1 John v. 19, " The whole world lieth
in the evil one." Irenseus cites three passages from the
First Epistle, mentioning its author; and Eusebius men-
tions this piece of evidence in, exactly the same manner
as that from Papias. Clement of Alexandria was born
about a.d. 150. Like Irenseus, he quotes passages from
the First Epistle, naming the author. So Tcrtullian.
born about the same time. Origen, and the succeeding
Fathers. About a.d. 170, a Canon of the New Testa-
ment was drawn up by some teacher for the use o£
catechumens. This is now known by the name of
Muratori, who discovered and printed it A.D. 1740.
(See Trcgelles' Canon Muratoriauus. pages 1, 81 — 89 :
Oxford, 1867.) "What Avonder." it says, "that St.
John makes so many references to the Fourth Gospel
in his Epistles, saying of himself, ' that which wo
have seen with our eyes, and have heard with our ears,
and our hands have handled, that have we written ' ?
for thus he professes himself not only the tye-witness.
but also the hearer and the writer of all the wonders of
the Lord in order." And, after cataloguing St. Paul's
Epistles, it continues : " The Epistle of Jude, and the
two which bear the name of John as a title, are con-
sidered General." The writer evidently means the
Second and Third Epistles, which might not have been
considered general from their shortness and slightness.
The Pcschito, or Syrian version, of about the same date,
gives the same evidence as the Muratorian Canon. We
have thus a consentient voice from the churches of East
and West, of Syria, of Alexandria, of Africa, and of Gaul.
So strong, so clear, is the external proof. On the
internal, nothing can be better than the words of
Ewald. " As in the Gospel, we see here the author
retire to the background, unwilling to speak of himself,
and still less to support anything by the weight of his
name and reputation, although the reader here meets
him. not as the calm narrator, but as an epistolary
writer, as exhorter and teacher, as an Apostle, and.
moreover, as the only surviving Apostle. It is the same
delicacy and diffidence, the same lofty calmness and
composure, and especially the same truly Christian
modesty, that cause him to retire to the background as

I. JOKN.

an Apostle, and to say altogether so little of himself.
He only desires to counsel and warn, and to remind his
readers of the sublime truth they have once acquired ;
and the higher he stands the less he is disposed to
humble 'the brethren' by his great authority and
directions. But he knew who he was, and every word
tells plainly that he only could thus speak, counsel, and
warn. The unique consciousness which an Apostle as
he grew older could carry within himself, and which
he, once the favourite disciple, had in a peculiar
measure ; the calm superiority, clearness, and decision in
thinking on Christian subjects ; the rich experience of
a long life, steeled in the victorious struggle with every
unchristian element ; and a glowing language lying con-
cealed under this calmness, which makes us feel intuitively
that it does not in vain commend to us love as the
highest attainment of Christianity — all this coincides
so remarkably in this Epistle, that every reader of that
period, probably without any further intimation, might
readily determine who he was. But where the connec-
tion required it the author intimates with manifest
plainness that he stood in the nearest possible relations
to Jesus (chaps, i. 1 — 3 ; iv. 16 ; v. 3 — 6), precisely as
he is wont to express himself in similar circumstances
in the Gospel ; and all this is so artless and simple, so
entirely without the faintest trace of imitation in either
case, that nobody can fail to perceive that the self-same
author and Apostle must have composed both writings"
(Ewald, Die Johann. Schriften, i. 431).

No less than thirty-five passages of the Fourth
Gospel are common to the First Epistle. These
expressions occur in twenty-three different places, and
are used in a way of which only the author of the same
two treatises could be capable. Considerably more
than half of the parallel places in the Gospel belong
to the farewell discourses of John xii. — xvii. There
the tender, loving, receptive, truthful, retentive mind
of the bosom-friend had been particularly necessary ;
at that great crisis it had been, through the Spirit of
God, particularly strong ; and the more faithfully St.
John had listened to his Master aud reproduced Him,
the deeper the impression was which the words made on
his own mind, and the more likely he was to dwell on
them in another work instead of on his own thoughts
and words. The style may be his own both in Gospels
and Epistles, modified by that of our Lord ; the
thoughts are the thoughts of Jesus. (See Yol. I.,
pp. 557 and 558.) An examination of the following
parallels will illustrate this :

First Epistle of John.
Chap. iii. 16.

iv. 5, 6.

First Epistle of John.

Gospel of John.

Chap

i. 1, 2

Chap

i. 1, 2, 14.

i. 4.

XV. 11.
xvi. 24.

i. 10.

„

v. 38.

ii. 1, 2.

xiv. 16.

xi. 51, 52.
xiii. 15, 34, 35

ii. 4—6.

xiv. 21—24.
xv. 10.

ii. 8.

xiii. 34.

ii. 11.

xii. 35.

ii. 23.

xv. 23, 24.
v. 24.

ii. 27.

„

xiv. 26.

„

iii. 1.

xvii. 25.

„

iii. 8.

viii. 44.

„

iii. 10.

viii. 47.

iii. 13—15.

v. 24, 38.
xv. 18, 19.

iv. 9.
iv. 16.
v. 3, 4.

v. 9.
v. 12.

v. 13.
v. 14.

Gospel of John

Chap.

xv. 12, 13.

ix. 31.

xvi. 23.

iii. 31.

xv. 19.

viii. 47.

„

iii. 36.

yi. 69.

xiv. 15.

xvi. 33.

„

v. 36.

iii. 36.

xiv. 6.

xx. 31.

„

xiv. 13, 14.

„

xvi. 23.

The proof that the Fourth Gospel was the work of
St. John is given in the Introduction to that Gospel, in
the first volume. On internal grounds alone, without
the strong external evidence already sketched, an
unbiassed mind would find it very difficult to believe
that the First Epistle (aud the Second and Third also)
are not by the same author. Even the style and con-
struction have an identity which could not easily be
spurious or accidental. This is seen in the habit of
thinking in periods the limbs of which are parallel and
co-ordinate instead of progressive : the juncture of
these by " and " instead of by particles, expressing con-
sequence or movement : the peculiar use of four special
particles : the general Aramaic framework of the
diction : and the constant reappearance of special
words and phrases. The identity of ideas in both
writings is of the same character ; they bear no sign of
imitation, but are the free production of the same
spirit. Light, life, darkness, truth, the lie, propitiation,
doing righteousness, doing sin, doing lawlessness, life
and death, loving and hating, love of the Father and
love of the world, children of God and children of the
devil, the spirit of truth and the spirit of error : all
these notions underlie the thought of both Gospel and
Epistle. The writer of each, too, has the same charac-
teristics : love of the background for himself ; absorbing
devotion to his Lord ; faithful receptiveness and faculty
for sympathetic reproduction of His thoughts and
spirit ; pure unruffled, unfaltering movement among
the very inmost facts of life and being; intense un-
hesitating indignation (like thunder from a clear sky)
for wilful depravers of spiritual truth ; and the abso-
lute tranquillity of that certainty which comes from
long conviction and demonstrable experience. So,
again, the particular dogmatic notes of each are the
same : the Spirit already marking off the true from
false believers, and so preparing the way for the final
judgment ; the manifestation of the sons of God
already by the presence of the Father and the Son
in the Spirit ; the actual present beginning of ever-
lasting life, and the safety from future judgment;
the present existence of the last hour; Christ the
actual Paraclete, the Divine Spirit being another. It
would, indeed, be difficult to find a more structural and
penetrating identity between the works of any author
whatever than there is between the Gospel and the
First Epistle.

It was Scaliger (1484—1558) who first announced
" the three Epistles of John are not by the Apostle of
that name." The tradition mentioned by Eusebius
that there was liviug at Ephesus at the same time as
St. John a presbyter of the same name, to whom great

4G8

I. JOHK

weight was attributed because he was a hearer of our
Lord, seems to have given rise to the notion that " the
elder*' of the three Epistles was this traditional person.
Those who take this view are guilty of tlie fallacy that
if (his man existed he must have had all the charac-
teristics of the Apostle because he had his name and
was contemporary. It is far more probable that the
beginning of the" three Epistles gave rise among the
ignorant to the tradition.

In modern times, S. G. Lange was the first who
questioned the Epistle on internal grounds. His argu-
ment rests on the assumption that it is destitute of all
characteristic individuality and personality; that the
affinity of the Epistle to the Gospel is an imitation ;
that the Epistle exhibits marks of senile decay ; and
that if it was written after the destruction of Jerusalem
mention must have been made of it in chap. ii. 18.
Few sound critics will think these assumptions worth
refutation. The next opponent, Bretschneider, lived
to recant his doubts. The unreasonableness of Claudius,
Horst, and Paulus is even more arbitrary, imaginative,
and groundless than that of Lange.

The Tubingen school have a preconception of their
own to support. As, according to them, there can be
no miracle, so there can be no direct revelation ; the
beginning of Christianity must have been the natm-al
consciousness of an individual, such as Jesus of
Nazareth, developing gradually through a much longer
period than the accepted Christian history; they
hold that Christ only slightly modified Judaism; that
in the hands of St. Peter and of St. John in the
Apocalypse, His teaching took an Ebionite form, in the
hands of St. Paul was adapted to the Gentile world at
large: thence arose contentions, in reconciliation of
which the greater part of the writings of the New
Testament were composed, as paity-writings without
strict historical value. The Epistle is therefore treated
by different members of the school as it will best suit
their special theory. Kostlin and Georgii think the
author of the Gospel the same as of the Epistle ; Zeller
supposes it possible that they may be by different
hands. Baur pronounces the Epistle a weak imitation
of the Gospel; Hilgenfeld a splendid product of it.
Thus they contradict each other. The main arguments
of Baur are five, and may be given as a specimen : —
(1) Studious anxiety of the writer of the Epistle in his
preface to be considered the same as the author of the
Gospel; (2) vain attempt at drawing a distinction
between divine and human testimony ; (3) the eschato-
logy of the Epistle more material than that of the
Gospel; (4) the ideas of propitiation and Christ the
interceding Paraclete more like the Epistle to the
Hebrews than the Gospel ; (5) the teaching wholly
Montanistic. because it describes Christians as holy and
sinless, mentions the anointing, and draws a distinction
between venial and mortal sins. Of these it may be
shortly said (1) that an imitation would have been
more skilful, and that the intense consciousness of the
eye-witness would necessarily produce the same line of
thought when St. John was prefacing his moral treatise
as when he was writing his history ; (2) that the dis-
tinction runs throughout the Gospel ; (3) to a candid
reader the difference is impossible to discover ; (4) no
expression could be more sacrificial than " the Lamb of
God which taketh away the sin of the world ;" (5) St.
John is describing the ideal, not a class : the anointing
is most certaiidy not that in baptism, mentioned for
the first time by Tertullian, but that of " pouring out
the Spirit : " and there is no reference whatever to the
six or seven deadly sins of Tertullian, while there is

a very distinct similarity between the idea of the
.sin unto death and the sin against the Holy Ghost
of the Gospels. Baur, in fact, as Diisterdieck says,
has taken the Gnostic and Montanistic caricatures
of the Apostolical teaching as if they were its type
and origin.

The Epistle, then, has abundant historical evidence ;
the internal evidence that it is by the same hand as the
Fourth Gospel is particularly strong; and the attacks
of hostile critics are peculiarly arbitrary and un-
founded.

II. Who were the Readers ?— There is in St.
Augustine's works — and he often quotes this Epistle
— a solitary citation of it as written to the Parthians.
Whether this was his own opinion, a mere current
traditional title, or a clerical error, the designation
seems to have arisen from the fact mentioned by
Clement of Alexandria that the Second Epistle \va-
sometimes called " that to the virgins " (the word
in the Greek for "virgin" being parthenos). This
title evidently became misunderstood, and may have
been applied to the First Epistle in error. One
critic has discovered in " that which ye heard from the
beginning" a proof that the readers were the inhabitants
of Judsea ; another, identifying St. John's corre-
spondent Caius with St. Paul's host at Corinth (it was
one of the commonest of all classical names), fancies
that they must have been Corinthians ; but it was
evidently written to no church in particular : probably
to a circle of churches in immediate connection with St.
John, such as the seven addressed in the Revelation.
The warning against idolatry may not unreasonably
suggest Gentile Christians, and the. contrast of the
knowledge of the true God in Jesas Christ, implying
eternal life, with the dazzling speculations of innovat-
ing teachers, harmonises with the historical notice that,
St. John resided at Ephesus.

III. What were the Circumstances of the
Churches?— (1) There is no allusion to persecutions.
The hatred of the world, the victory over the wicked
one, the victory over the world, suggest spiritual
conflict rather than hostile attacks.

(2) The internal indications point rather to disunion,
want of brotherly love, want of steadfastness in the
fellowship of the Father and the Son, the seductions of
worldliness, the snares of false brethren, the evils of a
time of peace, when persecution no longer braces the
sinews of faith, and warning is needed rather than
consolation ; or when perversion has lost the moral
shock of novelty and Christian loyalty the fire of
its indignation; a time full of evidence of continued
spiritual vitality in old and young, but also when a
recognised leader of a church can be so ambitious as
to reject the authority of the last of the Apostles, and
when heathen speculation rather than Jewish prejudice
is beginning to corrupt Christian faith.

(3) The particular heretics combated had a Docetic
tendency, not yet fully developed. Their theory was
that the Son of God was a phantom, united for a time
with the man Jesus. St. John's contemporary, Cerin-
thus, already noticed in the Introduction to his Gospel,
held that Jesus was the son of Joseph, to whom the
Logos was united from His baptism to His crucifixion.
The stress laid on the true knowledge as growth in
understanding what had been revealed from the begin-
ning, points also to the beginning of Gnosticism, the
system which exalted speculation into religion, buried
Christianity under a heterogeneous philosophy, and

409

I. JOHN.

substituted intellectual athletics for faith working by
love.

(4) The only division of Christians recognised is that
into mature and young. All alike receive the unction
of the Holy Ghost. John himself joins in the con-
fession of sin. He lays on all the duty of trying the
spirits. He makes all alike responsible directly to the
Lord.

IV. Is the Writing an Epistle ?— As an Ency-
clical Letter, it would have no special dedication nor
salutations; the Epistle to the Hebrews is similarly
without the one, that of St. James without the other.
" I write " occurs seven times, "I have written" six,
" you " thirty-six, " little children " ten, " beloved " six,
" fathers " and " young men " twice each, " brethren"
once. The introduction is an amplification of the
ordinary epistolary address, founded on a reminiscence
of the more abstract introduction to the Gospel. Bacon
says : " An Epistle has more natural feeling than a
treatise ; more ripe development than momentary con-
versation." Diisterdieck says : " The whole writing
rests as thoroughly on a living personal relation be-
tween the author and his readers, the application of
the written exhortation is so absolutely personal, that
this ground is enough to make us consider the writing
as a genuine Epistle. This epistolary character
belongs, moreover, to the whole keeping and character
of the short writing. With all logical order there
reigns in it that easy naturalness and unconstraint of
statement which suits the immediate interest and
hortatory tendency of an Epistle ; while the strict, pro-
gressive, dialectical development, peculiar to a treatise
or a homily, is held back." It may be described, then,
as a circular letter of St. John to the churches connected
with his ministry, embodying a succinct statement of
his principal views of Christian doctrine. There is no
good reason for calling it either with one critic, the
•' polemical," or, with another, the " practical " part of
the Gospel ; or " a homiletical essay, the readers being
present ; " or " a summary," or " a companion letter of
the Gospel."

V. When was it written?— (1) As it contains
no reference to persecutions, it is less likely to have
been written in the time of Trajan (A.D. 98 — 117) ;
probably before the end of the reign of Domitian,
A.D. 96; after the reign of Nero and the destruction
of Jerusalem, a.d. 70. Thus we get the period
between a.d. 70 and 96. A date near 70 is less likely,
because the breaking up of the Jewish world would
have made some reference of the kind probable. " The
last hour " is a note of spiritual, not material time.

(2) Jewish opposition no longer troubles the apostolic
horizon.

salem seems by this time
Christian world.

the natural order of the

(6) It must always be a matter of opinion whether
the Gospel or Epistle was written first. It may be that
a comparison of John xx. 31, " These things are written
that ye might believe," with 1 John v. 13, " These
things have I written unto you that believe," indicates
an earlier and more elementary object for the Gospel ;
but it cannot be pressed. It is certainly likely that
the doctrinal chords struck in the Narrative should
afterwards receive their fuller variations in the Exhor-
tation. It may even be that some of the churches or
their members, aroused by these solemn notes, asked
St. John for a doctrinal writing.

(7) On the whole, there is no improbability in putting
the date about a.d. 90.

VI. Where was it written ?— On such a point as
this we are left to groundless conjecture, which is use-
less. An old tradition mentions Ephesus.

VII. What is its Scope ?— That the joy which
Christians already had might not be dimmed by the
world or by error, but might be crowned with com-
pleteness even in this life (1 John i. 4), and that they
might realise the assurance of the actual beginning of
eternal life within them.

For this purpose God is held up as Light and Love,
both through Jesus Christ. By that exercise of their
will, which would make them remain in Christ as they
knew Him, both by hearing and by their consciences,
they would enjoy tfia serene dignity of companionship
with the Almighty Father and His Son, and so secure
these tAvo grand objects.

Christians, looked at in the ideal, cannot be wilful
sinners ; but when betrayed into sin, they may recover
through confession and reconciliation. The proof of
the Christian life must be sought in obedience to the
will of God, showing itself specially in true brotherly
love. The chief dangers are the world and the depra-
vation of Christian doctrine.

The light of God is shown in the absolute distinctness
from Him of everything that is evil.

The love of God is shown in that sonship of Chris-
tians which is manifested by personal righteousness.
Its correlative in us is love to God, shown in pure love
for one another. The purity of love is measured by the
purity of faith. And that faith is irrefragably grounded
in the witness of the Old Testament through the Father,
culminating in the inauguration of baptism ; in the wit-
ness of the New Testament through the Son, culminating
in the blood of Calvary ; and in the witness of the Spirit
speaking through our own consciences.

Christians cannot be reminded too often that their
religious life is a matter of positive, demonstrable,
realised facts, to be completed by earnest continual
progress. They are already in the Father and in the
Son ; they have eternal life begun within them ; they
have passed from death unto life ; they have the witness
of the Spirit. If they are in doubt^they can prove the

(4) The heresies are the seeds of Docetism and Gnos- truth of their life by obedience to God and love to the

ticism : this points to the end of the first century.

(5) St. John is not mentioned in the Acts after the
Jerusalem Council of a.d. 51. But he does not seem
to have been at Ephesus when St. Paul took leave of
the elders in a.d. 60. (See Vol. I., Introduction to the
Gospel, p. 371.) If St, Paul died in a.d. 64. St, John
can hardly have begun working at Ephesus till then.
The tone of the Epistle implies a long and ripe pastoral
intimacy. St. John was banished to Patmos before the
end of the reign of Domitian, a.d. 96. He died after
a.d, 100.

470

human family. For those in sin or error they can
pray. The sight of the world and the knowledge of
the Redeemer make it finally most important that
they should hold to the faith in the utmost simplicity,
and avoid all substitution of shadow for substance.

St. Paul writes now in a storm of argument, then in
a humble strain of self -forgetful, self -abasing expostu-
lation and entreaty ; now eloquently on high abstract
truths, now in exquisite descriptions, then about the
homeliest and simplest duties. St. John moves in a
calm sphere of certainty among the very highest,

I. JOHN.

grandest, and largest of Christian truths, raising the
general outlines 01 human life into the same atmosphere
till they are illuminated and penetrated by the clear
rays of Light and Love. All is simple, broad, clear,
calm, sure. He writes at once with the most command-
ing authority, and the most loving tenderness; the pro-
foundest wisdom, and the most touching simplicity; the
most searching knowledge of the human heart and its
difficulties and failures, and the most elevating and
bracing courage and confidence; the gentlest affection,
and the most pitiless and sternest condemnation of wilful
departure from truth in practice or opinion.

It is noticeable that in a treatise on the very inner-
most secrets of religious life, to all Christian souls are
attributed the same duties and privileges, and no men-
tion is made of ministerial authority or responsibility ;
and that, though fellowship with the Father and the
Son and the witness of the water and the blood are
both brought into prominence, no allusion is mado to
sacraments.

VIII. Notes on Difficult Passages.

(1) Propitiation.

" He is the propitiation for our sins " (1 John ii. 2).

" Sent His Son to be the propitiation for our sins "
(1 John iv. 10).

The same form is used in Luke xviii. 13 : " God be
merciful (be made propitious) to me a sinner ; " and in
Heb. ii. 17: "to make reconciliation for the sins of the
people."

In classical Greek the verbal form means " to make
a person favourable."

From these facts it is clear that Christ is regarded as
making God favourable to us. The word "reconciliation "
introduces another idea, and should be kept for another
Greek word, which occurs in 2 Cor. v. 18, 19 ; Eph. ii.
16 ; Col. i. 20. Although God is kind to the unthankful
and the evil, yet for the sake of eternal Order and
Righteousness He is represented to us as unable to
pass over rebellion without punishment, as a warning
and a security as well as a discipline. In this sense
He could not look favourably on the world until His
Son had bought it back by becoming sin for us. Thus
He is the sacrifice on behalf of the sins of the whole
world, which enables the Father, whose name is Love,
to show the full scope of His favour. Divine love
then can have its perfect operation in reconciling
man, or bringing him back. Expiation appeases that
wrath, without which God would not be just ; Recon-
ciliation breaks down the enmity of man in his state
of sin.

(2) Brotherly love.

The unflinching truthfulness and courage of St. John
are nowhere more remarkable than in the pertinacity
with which, amongst the perversions of human affection
which are the blot of all societies, and were especially
flagrant in the ancient world, he urges his friends to
brotherly love. Love is the fulfilling of the law, the
proof of union with God, the sign of having passed
from death unto life, the great commandment of Christ,
the outcome of birth from God, the witness of God's
presence, the perfection and crown of our love to Him :
the absence of it is the mark of spiritual death. It is
that desire for the good of others, temporal and eternal,
without which self-denial and self-sacrifice are but barren
pride. ^ Like St. Paul, it knows no man after the flesh
— that is, for mere fancy, pleasure, or advantage — but is
the instant recognition of merit and of God's good gifts
wherever they may present themselves. Founded on
faith and measured by it, it is absolutely pure and

unselfish; it would lay down life itself for the good
of others. And because it is that attitude of the
human mind towards its fellows which is the reflex
of God's mind towards us. it embraces and implies all
human virtues.

(3) The last hour (chap. ii. 18).

This phraseology occurs first in Gen. xlix. 1,
"That I may tell you that which shall befall you in
the last days " ; where it means "the sequel of days,"
" far-off times." So Num. xxiv. 14. " What this
people shall do to thy people in the latter days ; " Dent.
iv. 30, " When all these things are come upon thee, even
in the latter days ; " and Dent, xxxi. 29, " Evil will
befall you in the latter days."

In Isa. ii. 2, it has begun to mean the new age of the
world ; a vague indefinite time, during which, or before
which, Messiah's kingdom would be established. " It
shall come to pass that in the last days the mountain
of the Lord's house shall be established." So Micah
iv. 1.

In Matt. xii. 32, our Lord distinguishes between this
world (or rather, age) and the world to come. So "this
time " is contrasted with " the world to come " in Mark
x. 30 and Luke xviii. 30. In our Lord's usage, then,
the beginning of the kingdom of Messiah belonged to
the present age. and the coming age would not be till
the completion of that kingdom. So the day of resur-
rection and final judgment, the beginning, that is. of
the coming age, is "the last day" of the present (John
vi. 39, 40, 44, 54; xi. 24; xii. 48).

St. Paul also speaks of the present age and the
coming, the sufferings of the present time and the
glory that shall be, and of things present and thin'gs
to come (Rom. viii. 38). In Tit. ii. 12. 13, those who
live "in this present world" are 'looking for the
glorious appearing of the great God and our Saviour."
He says that " in the last days " before that final period
there "shall come perilous times" (2 Tim. iii. 1); and
that " in the latter times some shall depart from tliti
faith " (1 Tim. iv. 1). Although actually in this present
age, yet, according to St. Paul, Christians have more or
less entered on the coming age proportionally to their
degrees of progress. So the present age is regarded as
tainted with sin and alienated from God (Rom. xii. 2 ;
I Cor. ii. 6, 8 ; iii. 18 ; 2 Cor. iv. 4 ; Gal. i. 4 ; Eph. ii.
2 .; 2 Tim. iv. 10). Since the first advent of Christ, he
regarded the present age as beginning to draw to its
close; "our admonition, upon whom the ends of the
world are come " (1 Cor. x. 11).

St. Peter identified his age with the " last days ;' of
the prophets (Acts ii. 17). and considers the date of the
first advent as "in these last times " (1 Pet. i. 20). But
as a few verses before (verse 5), he speaks of " salvation
ready to be revealed in the last time" ; and again (2 Pet.
iii. 3), "There shall come in the last days scoffers" (comp.
Jude, verse 18), he evidently looked to a still more
definite close of the already closing age.

St. James, too, looked forward to such a period: "Ye
have heaped treasure together for the last days " (Jas.
v. 3). The Epistle to the Hebrews, like the first usage
in St, Peter, treats the existing times as " these last
days" (Heb. i. 1, 2); " now once in tin- end of the world
hath He appeared to put away sin by the sacrifice of
Himself " (Heb. ix. 26). As well as this, it looks for-
ward to the future age of which Christians already, in
varying degrees, partake : " Have tasted the powers of
the' world to come" (Heb. vi. 5); "Christ being conio
an high priest of good things to come" (Heb. ix. 11).
This tasting is only a beginning, not an actuality, till
the second coming (Heb. xiii. 14).

471

I. JOHN.

St. John, then, having, like the other Apostles, the
notion that the first age was drawing to its close, and
that the latter days were already upon the earth, and
believing — or. at the very least, firmly hoping — that
the second advent was not far off. did not hesitate,
especially in view of Matt. xxiv. 22, 24, to speak of
the time of his old age as " the last hour." Of the
date of the second coming even the Son was to he
ignorant; but at any rate, since the death of the last
of the Apostles, and the closing of the Canon, there
lias been no change in the Christian dispensation, it has
been a constant repetition of repentance, forgiveness,
watching.

(4) Antichrist.

" As ye have heard that antichrist shall come, even
now are there many antichrists " (1 John ii. 18).

'• He is the antichrist, that denieth the Father and
the Son" (1 John ii. 22).

" Every spirit that confesseth not that Jesus Christ
is come in the flesh is not of God : and this is that
spirit of antichrist, whereof ye have heard that it
should come: and even now already is it in the world"
(1 John it. 3).

" For many deceivers are entered into the world,
who confess not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh.
This is the deceiver and the antichrist " (2 John,
verse 7).

Our Lord foretold false Christs and false prophets,
who ''shall show great signs and wonders: insomuch
that if it were possible they shall deceive the very
elect" (Matt. xxiv. 11, 24; Mark xiii. 22, 23).

St. Paid spoke of the growth of the; antichristian
"lie," especially in the cities of Asia Minor. "'After
my departing shall grievous wolves enter in among
you. not sparing the flock. Also of your own selves
shall men arise, speaking perverse things, to draw
away disciples after them" (Acts xx. 29, 30; and
2 Tim. iii. 1 — 9). These would be but anticipations
of that concentrated force of opposition for which St.
Paul looked immediately before the second coming.
" For that day shall not come, except there come a
falling away first, and that man of sin be revealed,
the son of perdition, who opposeth and exalteth him-
self above all that is called God, or that is worshipped :
so that he as God sitteth in the temple of God,
shewing himself that he is God . . . Then shall that
Wicked be revealed, whom the Lord shall consume
with the spirit of His mouth, and shall destroy with
the brightness of His coming : even him, whose coining
is after the working of Satan with all power and
signs and lying wonders, and with all deceivableness
of unrighteousness in them that perish ; because they
received not the love of the truth that they might be
saved " (2 Thess. ii. 3—10).

St. John meant by the antichrists what St. Paul
meant by the grievous wolves ; the individual manifes-
tations of " the spirit of antichrist," which St. Paul
describes as "he whose coming is in them that perish."
There is a difference, however, in the application of
the idea, for the opposer in St. Paul's view is rather
from without, St. John's principle of evil rather from
within. Just as St. John noticed the same tendencies
showing themselves in the same way in different indi-
viduals, and called them spirits, so in looking forward
to a more formidable and final apostasy, he calls it
" the spirit of antichrist," which has already declared
itself in so many personal antichrists. St. Paul's " man
of sin" must be of the same spiritual character, for no
human being could ever be powerful and dangerous
enough to answer the description.

(5) The three witnesses (1 John v. 7, 8).

The authority for the words, "in heaven, the Father,
the Word, and the Holy Ghost, and these three are
one ; and there are tln*ee who bear witness in the earth,"
is a copy made in tho sixteenth century, of Codex 173,
which dates from the eleventh.

The words are wanting in all the Greek Codices,
including the Codex Sinaiticus, and in all the ancient
versions, including the Latin, as late as the eighth
century. Since then they are found in three variations.
Had they been known, they must have been quoted in
the controversies about the Trinity ; but they are not
cited by any Greek or any of the older Latin Fathers.
A quotation from Tertidlian (adv. Prax. 25) and a
parallel quotation from Cyprian (Ep. ad Jub.), where
each is establishing the doctrine of the Trinity, refer to
John x. 20, and xvi. 5 ; and another from Cyprian (de
Unit. Eccl. p. 79) refers to 1 John v. 8, where the spirit,
the water, and the blood, were interpreted patristically
as direct symbols of the Trinity.

The words probably crept into the text gradually
from Groek notes on the passage, and from the expres-
sion of Cyprian, which would be placed alongside to
show how he interpreted St. John's meaning. The
second place in Cyprian runs thus : " The Lord says,
' I and My Father are one ' ; and again, concerning the
Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit, it is written :
' And these three are one.' "

Their first appearance is in a work ascribed to
Yigilius, of Thapsus, at the close of the fifth century.
They afterwards occur in Latiu translations. They
first appeared in print in the earliest Greek edition, the
Complutensian, published a.d. 1522. (See Yol. I.,
p. xviii., and Dr. Scrivener's Introduction to the Critical
Study of the New Testament, on this passage.)

Erasmus at first refused them, but at last yielded to
pressure, when he heard that they were in the Codex
Britaunicus. But that manuscript is only of the
fifteenth or sixteenth century. Stephanus, Beza, and
the Textus Receptus followed his lead. Luther never
translated them ; in his first commentary he pronounced
them spurious, in his second he commented on them.
We owe them solely to the reluctant deference paid by
Erasmus to unleai-ned current opinion. There is hardly
a passage in all literature more demonstrably spurious.

On the internal evidence, after such adverse criticism,
it is hai'dly necessaiy to speak, but it may be well to-
quote Sir Isaac Newton. After writing of the fulness
and strength of the argument as it stands, without the
inserted words, he says : "If you insert the testimony
of the three in heaven, you spoil it, for the whole design
of the Apostle being here to prove to men by witness
the truth of Christ's coming, I would ask how the testi-
mony of the ' three in heaven ' makes to this purpose r
If their testimony be not given to men, how does it
pi*ove to them the truth of Christ's coming ? If it be,
how is the testimony in heaven distinguished from that
on earth ? It is the same Spirit which witnesses both
in heaven and in earth. If in both cases it witnesses to
us men, wherein lies the difference between its witness-
ing in heaven and its witnessing in earth ? If in the
first case it does not witness to them, to whom does it
witness ? And to what purpose ? And how does its
witnessing make to the design of St. John's discourse ?
Let them make good sense of it who are able; for
my part, I can make none." (Paraphrastic exposition.)

IX. Literature.— I am indebted chiefly to Dr.
Karl Braune. The Epistles General of John, in Dr. J. P.
Lange's series (an English Translation is published by

472

I. JOHN.

T. and T. Clark, Edinburgh); to Dr. H. A. Ebrard's
Die Briefe Johannes, Kbnigeberg, 1859 (an English

translation was published by T. and T. Clark in 1860) ;
and to Dr. Friedrich Liicke's Commentar uber die
Briefs des Evangelisten Johanrds, Bonn, 1836 (an
English translation was published by T. and T. Clark
in 18371. Perhaps the best authority of all is Erich
Haupt, Der Ersie Brief des Johannes, Colberg, 1870;
London, Williams and Norgate. There are also Dr.
J. E. Huther's Handbuch uber die Drei Briefe des
Apastel Johannes, 3rd Edition, Gottingen, 1868, in
Meyer; De Wetto in his Commentary on the New
Testament ; and Diisterdieck's Die Drei Johanneischen
Briefe, Gottingen, 1852—54.

Of the Greek commentaries, those of Diodorus of
Tarsus and Chrysostom have been lost; a few frag-

ments remain from Clement of Alexandria, a few
J more from Didymus of Alexandria. Catena- have been
; preserved from Oecumenius, Theophylact, and two

Scholiasts.

Among Latins, an Expositio remains by Augustine,

and one by Bede. The epistle was also commented on by

Erasmus, Luther, Calvin, Beza, Zwingli, and BnlHnger.

Calovius, Grotius, and Bengel are often quoted in modern

editions.

Besides the commentaries of Wordsworth and Alf ore!
| should be mentioned A. Neander's, The First Epistlr

of John practicalhj explained, Berlin, 1851 (translated

by Mrs. Conant, New York, 1853). and F. D. Maurice's.

The Epistles of John : Lectures on Christian Ethics,

Macmillan, 1867 ; also the able but posthumous edition

of W. E. Jell -

473

THE FIRST EPISTLE GENERAL OF

JOHN.

CHAPTER L— (i) That which was
Chap. i. 1—4. from the beginning, which
Exordium. we have heard, which we
have seen with our eyes, which we
have looked upon, and our hands
have handled, of the Word of life ;
<2> (for the life was manifested, and we
have seen it, and bear witness, and

After A.D. Oil.

[1. The Exordium (chap. i. 1—41

(1) Object and Purpose of the Apostolic

Preaching: The setting forth of the his-
torical Christ for the spread of human
fellowship with the Father and the Son
(verses 1 — 3).

(2) Design of the Epistle : Fulness of joy

for those who should read it (verse 4).]

d) That which was from the beginning.—
The profound emotion, the hearty sympathy, the tender
anxiety which St. John feels as he begins his counsels
to his friends, mark off this introduction very distinctly
from the parallel passage in the Gospel. There it was
■calm contemplation of the height and depth of Christ's
existence ; here he vehemently insists on the personal
relation between the Word and those to whom He had
been revealed.

As in the Gospel, he starts with the grandeur of an
iudefiniteness beyond which no eye can pierce : At the
beginning of all that concerns us, be it world or universe
or all creation, there was that which we are an-
nouncing. " That which," not " Him who," because it
is not merely the Person of Christ which he is going
to declare, but also His Being, all that relates to Him,
His gospel, the treasures of wisdom that lay in Him,
His truth, all that could be known about Him by
human ken.

The vibrating eloquence of the passage makes the
construction at first sight obscure. But take " that
declare Ave unto you " (verse 3) as the principal verb, set
aside verse 2 as a parenthesis, notice the rising climax
of verse 1 (heard, seen, looked upon, handled), pause at
the end of verse 1 to sum up the results of this climax
in the words " of (or, that which concerns) the Word of
life," and at the beginning of Aerse 3 resume the
thoughts interrupted by the parenthesis, and all is at
once clear.

Which we have heard, — All those gracious
words AAdiich proceeded out of His mouth, enough to fill
countless books could ' they have been noted down.
St. John has given us more of these than any other of
the Evangelists ; and their effect upon him Avas such
that it is almost the same as if he had written doAAm
nothing at all of his oaa-u; for the thought and style
of Him avIio had loved him more intimately than

shew unto you that eternal life, which
was with the Father, and was mani-
fested unto us ;) ^ that which we have
seen and heard declare we unto you,
that ye also may have fellowship with
us : and truly our fellowship is with the
Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ.
(*) And these things write we unto you,

others, had moulded his oaa-u thought and style into
a strikingly close resemblance. " We " includes all
the oye-Avitnesses. (Comp. Luke i. 2.)

Which we have seen.— All that is meant by
the Word of God in its fullest sense had been seen iii
the human Person of Jesus of Nazareth during His
earthly sojourn, and especially during the three years'
ministry. In a similar sense Jesus Himself said. '" He
that hath seen Me hath seen the Father," John xiv. 9.
(Comp. chap. iv. 14 ; Isa. xl. 5 ; 2 Pet. i. 16.)

With our eyes. — This gives the same force as " the
Word AAras made flesh;" it Avas an actual personal
visible revelation, as opposed to the eA*olving of a reli-
gious system out of the inner consciousness or re-
flection.

Which we have looked upon.— A more delibe-
rate and closer contemplation ; for which John had
special opportunities, as one of the inner three, and
again as he who lay on Jesus' bosom. There is a change
of tense implying emphasis on the historic fact, "which
in those days we gazed upon."

And our hands have handled.— Comp. Matt.
xxvi. 49; Luke xxiv. 39 ; John xx. 27. This and the
foregoing expressions might be directed against Ce-
rinthus and the Doketists — those .that held that Christ
Avas only a phantom.

Of the Word of life.— All that concerns the
Word of the true Life, the Reason, or Son, or Express
Image of God. in whom AA-as inherent all life, material
as AA-ell as moral or religious. (Comp. John i. 4; v. 26;
xi. 2--» ; Col. i. 16, 17 ; Heb. i. 3.)

(2) For the life was manifested, and we have
seen it, and bear witness, and shew unto you
that eternal life, which was with the Father,
and was manifested unto us.— The parenthesis
reiterates with redoubled force that the Avhole essence
of the relation of God to man lies in the audible, visible,
tangible, historical appearance of God in Jesus. After
the manner of St. John, the AA-ord " life " at the end of
the last sentence suggests the form of the phrasing in
the new sentence : Jesus Avas that Eternal Life which
was at the side of the Father, in communion with Him,
in equal intercourse with Him ; that Life on which all
other existence, physical and spiritual, depend (1) for
its license to exist. (2) for its fulfilment of the end
for which it was created. (See Note on John i. 4.)

471

The Purpose of Writing-

I. JOHN, I.

The First great Message.

that your joy may be full. (5) This then
.... is the message which we

Chaps. 1. o—n. . , , v> i • i

28, God is Light, have heard ol him, and
Chap, i 5, The declare unto you, that God
loading thought. .glight? and ^ Mm ig no

darkness at all. <6) If we say that we
have fellowship with him, and walk

in darkness, we lie, and do not the
truth : i7> but if we walk Cnap ; 6 7
in the light, as he is in Light excludes
the light, we have fellow- sm-
ship one with another, and the blood
of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth
us from all sin. ,8) If Ave say that

[2. First Half. God is Light (chaps, i. 5— ii. 281.

(1) Statement of the Leading Thought

(verse 5).

(2) First Inference : The true fellowship

(verses 6, 7); the Christian must not sin.

(3) Second Inference : Confession of sins

verses 8 — 10) ; the Christian must not con-
ceal his sin.

(4) Third Inference : Remedy for sins (chap.

ii. 1, 2).

(5) Obedience the Sign of Walking in

Light (verses 3—8).

(6) Especially Brotherly Love (9—11).

(7) The Things they must not Love if

they walked in the llght (12—17).

(8) The Manifestations of Darkness (18 —

28).

(a) Signs ivhereby they should hioiv the fore-

runners of the last time (18 — 23).

(b) Exhortation to continue in the light

(24—28).]

(1) (5) This then is the message which we
have heard of him, and declare unto you.—
What the Son had received from the Father, this the
Apostles were to report to the world. The attention is
aroused, as by the silence before the thunderstorm, to
expect a central and fundamental notion of the utmost
importance.

That G-od is light.— Here is the essence of Chris-
tian theology, the truth about the Deity as opposed to all
the imperfect conceptions of Him which had embittered
tlie minds of the wise. To the heathen. Deity had
meant angry, malevolent beings, worshipped best by the
secrecy of outrageous vice ; to the Greeks and Romans.
forces of nature transformed into superhuman men and
women, powerful and impure ; to the philosophers, an
abstraction either moral or physical; to the Gnostics
it was a remote idea, equal and contending forces of
good and evil, recognisable only through less and less
perfect deputies. All this John, summing up what the
Old Testament and our Lord had said about the
Almighty Father, sweeps away in one simple declara-
tion of truth. Light was God's garment in Ps. civ. 2 ;
to Ezekiel (chap. i. 2), the appearance of the likeness of
the glory of the Lord was brightness; to Habakkuk
(chap. iii. 3), His brightness was as the light ; Christ
had called the sons of God children of the light (John
xii. 3fi). and announced Himself as the Light of the
World (chap. viii. 12) ; in the Hebrews (chap. i. 3),
Christ was the refracted ray of the Father's glory, " the
express image of His person ; " to James, the Almighty
was the Father of all lights (chap. K'17); to Paul, He
dwells "in the light that no man can approach unto"
(1 Tim. vi. 16); to St. Peter, the Christian state is an
admission "into His marvellous light" (1 Pet. ii. 9).
These ideas John comprehends : God is Light. Light
physical, because (1) it was He who called everything first
out of darkness, and (2) from whom proceeds all health
and perfection; light intellectual, because (1) He is the

source of all wisdom and knowledge, and (2) in His
mind exist the ideals after which all things strive;
light moral, because (1) His perfection shows that the
difference between good and evil is not merely a
question of degree, but fundamental and final, and (2)
the life of Christ had exhibited that contrast sharply :
once for all. Thus, on this declaration depends the
whole doctrine of sin : sin is not merely imperfection ;
it is enmity to God. There can be no shades of pro-
gression, uniting good and evil : in Him is no darkness
at all. Good and evil may be mixed in an individual:
in themselves they are contrary.

(2) (fi) If we say.— A favourite form with John,
expressing sympathetic delicacy.

That we have fellowship with him . . . .—
Some of the Gnostics (like the Anabaptists ) said that
on account of their spiritual knowledge they wen' free
to act as they liked, without committing sin. For
walking as a description of the spiritual state, com-
pare chap. ii. 6 ; 2 John vi. ; Rom. vi. 4, viii. 4 ; Eph.
iv. 17 ; Phil. iii. 20.

Darkness would include any conscious habit which
was opposed to God's example of perfection.

We lie.— We are a self-contradiction, and we know it.

And do not the truth.— The truth with St. John
is as much a matter of action as of thought and word ;
that sphere of conduct which is in harmony with God,
whose nature is Light.

(7) As he is in the light.— The effulgence of the
atmosphere of the perfectly good, the sinlessly loving,
the gloriously pure, which, created by God and pro-
ceeding from Him, is specially " His throne." At the
same time, wherever such characteristics of Divine
Light are found, there He is particularly present.

We have fellowship one with another, and
the blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us
from all sin.— The antithesis to " lying and doing
not the truth," presented under the twofold aspect of
(1) the brotherly result of walking with God, (2) its
purifying influence. Each human being that comes
near us becomes the object of our friendly sympathy;
and the sacrifice of Christ has both put away the sin of
the world and prevents sin from reigning in our mortal
bodies ; it obtains forgiveness for us, and by reminding
us that it was sin that brought Jesus to the cross, has a
continually purifying power over us. through the Spirit
of Christ and of the Father. (See 1 Cor. vi. 11 ; Eph.
i. 7, 19, 20; Heb. ix. 14; 1 Pet. i. 19—23.)

• (3) (8) If we say that we have no sin.—
The preceding words had reminded St, John that even
mature Christians, though certainly not " walking in
darkness," yet have sinful tendencies in themselves :
sensuous impulses, non-spiritual inclinations, lack of
self-knowledge, a lowered standard, principles and
views borrowed partly from the world, wavering of
will, and hence even graver faults. Not to admit this
would be to mislead ourselves, and in us the power and
energy of light, searching the very corners of the

Sin and Forgiveness,

I. JOHN, II.

The Advocate and Propitiation,

we have no sin, we deceive ourselves,
and the truth is not in
UgS enw" us. ^ If we confess our
.•onfession to sins, he is faithiul and just
to forgive us our sins, and
to cleanse us from all unrighteousness.
(1(" If we say that we have not sinned, we
make him a liar, and his word is not in us.

Aft it AD .00.

heart, would hot be working. (See Rom. vii. 18 — 23 ;
Gal. v. 17.)

(9) If we confess our sins.— An advance in the
thought from the general " having sin." Confession
to God must recognise and measure each particular
fault. (Pss. xxxii. 5 ; li. 3 ; Prov. xxviii. 13 ; Luke xv. 21.)

He is faithful and just to forgive us our
sins, and to cleanse us from all unrighteous-
ness.— He, from the context, cannot possibly be any
other than God. Here another grand progression of
thought meets us : not merely " we are in the truth," but
the actual and glorious result on God's side ; faithful
and just on account of Christ's sacrifice and our re-
pentance. For the double notion of forgiving and
cleansing, see Note on verse 7. The Romish inter*
preters, in their arbitrary way, limit the cleansing here
to purgatory.

(10) if we say that we have not sinned.—
The argument of the passage equally excludes the
interpretation "freedom from guilt since conversion"
as "innocence during the whole life." St. John is
here repeating, in a more emphatic form, the thought
of verse 8.

"We make him a liar, and his word is not
in us.— Stronger far than " we lie," or " the truth is
not in us." Our foolish presumption is regarded in
its worst aspect : an impiety against God, whose word,
revelation, appeal to our conscience, and witness by the
Spirit, are thus blasphemously contradicted. Parallel
to " we do not the truth " and " the truth is not in us,"
the practical result here is that we cannot be regarded
as having in any sense received God's revelation into
our hearts.

II.

(4) The third idea that arises from the great fact
that God is Light has already been suggested (chap.
i. 7), but now takes its distinct place in the series.
It is the doctrine of Reconciliation and Redemp-
tion. St. John does not wish them to contemplate
with complacency the probability of sinning; but
to remember gratefully, in spite of falls, that the
Author and Restorer of Light has provided a remedy
both for the offence before God, and for its effect
on themselves. First comes the principle that we
must not sin ; second, the admission that we do sin ;
third, the consolation for actual sin when it is in spite
of sincere zeal for sanctification.

(1) My little children.— Six times in the letter
occurs this diminutive of tender and caressing love:
chaps, ii. 12, 28; hi. 18; iv. 4; v. 21. He was aged,
lie felt a fatherly care for them, he was their spiritual
progenitor. (Comp. Gal. iv. 9.) The thought of the
shame and misery of sin melted his heart. *' My child "
was what he called out to the lapsed youth, according to
Eusebius (H. E. iii. 23).

These things.- He carries them on through the
former points up to the new thought.

CHAPTER II.— a) My little children,
these things write I unto Ch,ri a ] (,

VOU, that ye sill not. And The remedy for

if any man sin, we have sin-
an advocate with the Father, Jesus
Christ the righteous : W ail(J ne js ^q
propitiation for our sins : and not for
our's only, but also for the sins of the

That ye sin not.— Another side of the object of
the teaching : their joy could not be full unless they
were earnest against sin. And yet the most holy
would not be perfect.

If any man sin.— See chap. i. 8 — 10.

"We have an advocate with the Father, Jesus
Christ the righteous.— The word here; translated
Advocate was translated Comforter in John xiv. 16, 25 ;
xv. 26 ; xvi. 7. It has two meanings ; one, as in Job
xvi. 2, he who comforts, or exhorts ; the other, as here,
he who is appealed to — a proxy, or attorney. (Comp.
Rom. viii. 26; Heb. iv. 14—16; vii. 25.) The Re-
deemer, the Word made flesh, and reascended with His
human nature, is that part of the Deity which assures
us of the ever-active vitality of divine love. If the
justice of God is connected most with the Father, tin
mercy is pledged by the Son. He has exalted our
nature, undertaken our interests, presents our prayers,
and will one day be surrounded by the countless
millions of His human brothers whom He has
rescued, wearing the same nature as Himself. He is
represented as continuing our advocate, because other-
wise His work might appear a mere separate earthly
manifestation ; " righteous," because Christ, the only
blameless example of human nature, can alone inter-
cede for it with. God (Heb. vii. 26 ; 1 Pet. iii. 18 ; John
xvi. 8 — 10). The Armenian translation actually adds
"and blameless." Augustine remarks that St. John
did not set forth any apostle or saint as intercessor
(here, if anywhere, he would have doue so), but only
Christ. " We " is not the Church corporately, but
merely another instance of St. John's kindly delicacy,
as iihchap i. 6, &c.

(2) And he is the propitiation for our sins.—
On the word " propitiation," see the Introduction. By
the satisfaction which the voluntary sacrifice of the
Saviour offered to that divine order which requires the
punishment of rebellion, both for its own correction and
for a universal warning, the whole Deity has been
rendered propitious, His graciousness has been called
out, the righteousness of Rom. iii. 16 has been set in
motion, that willeth not the death of a sinner, and is
higher than mere retributive justice. (Comp. chap,
iv. 10; John xiv. 5, 6; 1 Cor. i. 30; 2 Cor. v. 18, 21;
Heb. ii. 17, ix. 28, x. 20; 1 Pet. ii. 21—24.)

And not for ours only, but also for the sins
of the whole world. — This statement must not be
limited. Its scope is that Christ's redemption was
offered for the whole of mankind, from Adam to the
last man. Who lay hold of the redemption, must lie
determined on other considerations. (Comp. chap. iv.
14 ; John i. 29 ; iv. 42.) Multitudes may be saved
through this redemption who never heard of Christ
>Acts\. 34. 35; Rom. ii. 14. 15). St. John's object in
introducing this truth here is to rebuke the arrogance
of those Christians who looked down on the non-
Christian world as outside the Fatherhood aud mercies
of God. Such au error might be seen, for example, in

476

ObnU

the Test.

I. JOHN, II.

The Commandment, Old and New.

whole world. W And hereby we do !

know that we know him,
Vlmp.\Ssuranc^ if we keep his command-
through obe- inents. (4) He that saith,
■dience. j know him, and keepeth

not his commandments, is a liar,
and the truth is not in him. ^ But
whoso keepeth his word, in him verily
is the love of God perfected : hereby
know we that we are in him. ^ He

the heated partisanship of a Crusader or persecutor for
a civilisation politically Christian against one outside his
own sympathies. (Comp. Tit. iii. 2 — 7 ; Rom. xi. 17, 18.)

(5) The fourth inference from the doctrine that God
is Light analyses more accurately the general expres-
sion of chap. i. 7, walking in the light. If Christ is,
as in verses 1, 2. the Paraclete and Propitiation of the
world, it becomes necessary to ascertain whether Ho is
this to us ; lest, when this salvation is offered, we con-
demn ourselves by rejecting it. The test is. " obedience
to the commandments, especially in brotherly love."

(8) Hereby means, by what follows.

That we know him. — Rather, have known Him
so also in verse 4, 1 have known Him); that we have'
not grasped a shadow, but have been in intercourse
With the living God, who reveals Himself not through
Speculation, but through a true inward life of man.

If we keep his commandments.— Christ's—
because of the reference to John xiv. 15. " Keep " like
a precious heirloom, watching them against the inroads
of our lower nature. (Comp. Matt. xix. 17 ; xxviii. 20 ;
1 Tim. vi. 14.) If each man's conscience was the
standard of practice, confusion would again reign in
morals as it reigned in the days of the Sophists at
Athens. (Compare Plato's Republic, Bk. ii., Jowett's
translation.) A code and an example fitted for all times
and all circumstances have been given by our Lord.

(*) He that saith . . . — In particularising the
general proposition according to his custom, St. John
rejects the fii"st person plural as shocking, unreal, and
artificial, and throws the blasphemy on some third
person. So " is a liar " is stronger than " we lie." and
" we deceive ourselves ; " in such a case the lie has
entered thoroughly into the man's nature.

(5) But whoso keepeth his word.- The revela-
tion of the will of God, looked at as a whole.

In him verily is the love of God perfected —
St. John has before his mind an ideal of a man so
filled with the Spirit that in all things he embodies the
will of God ; the love that such a man has for God is
indeed complote. But he knows that the best of the
human race can only approach such an ideal in different
degrees, at a great distance ; and the perfection of the
love which they bear to God will vary in the same
degree. (Comp'. chaps, ii. 15 ; iii. 17 ; iv. 12 ; v. 3.) " In
him verily ; " rather, Truly in him. It is most emphatic,
and refers back " the truth is not in him," in verse 4.

Hereby know we that we are in him.— Comp.
verse 3 and chap. i. 6 ; without such a test there could
be no happiness in religion. " In him " implies that
we are saved by His grace, surrounded by His love,
inspired by His thoughts, partakers of His nature,
filled by His Spirit, the dwelling-place of the Father
and the Son, with certain access to the divine throne and
certain answer to prayer, heirs of the heavenly kingdom.

that saith he abideth in him oughl
himself also so to walk, even as he
walked. {7) Brethren, I write no new
commandment unto you, but an old
commandment which ye had from the
beginning. The old commandment is
the word which ye have heard from the
beginning. (8) Again, a new command-
ment I write unto you, which thing is
true in him and in you: because the

(6) Ought himself also so to walk, even as he
walked. — Abiding in Him — in Christ — is an evident
reference to John xv. 4 — 11. In the terms of verses
3 — 5 there is a double gradation : on the one hand,
knowing Him, being in Him, remaining in Him ; on
the other, keeping His commandments, keeping His
word, walking even as He walked. The last expression
is the strongest of the latter three, as it views the
Christian in action. The walk of Christ was the walk
in the light (comp. chap. i. 7) ; divine love the secret
spring developing itself in a new virtue for every
variety of circumstance. In verses 7 — 11 brotherly
love is introduced as the special manifestation of this
obedience that springs from the walk in the light. At
a superficial glance it might have been thought that,
the personal address introduced a new paragraph; it is
really only like the "Verily, verily," of our Lord,
breaking in to emphasize a message to be brought
directly home to the hearts of the readers. The life of
obedience, the walk in light, is nothing else but the
life of brotherly love : '" This is my commandment, that
ye love one another " (John xv. 12 ; comp. also chap,
xiii. 34, 35).

(") I write no new commandment unto you,
but an old commandment which ye had from
the beginning. The old commandment is the
word which ye have heard from the be-
ginning— i.e., " I am preparing to give you a special
direction, which has been implied already by the walk
in light. If you look at it from the point of view of
your first entrance into Christ's kingdom it is old.
because it was the chief point of His moral teaching
which you then heard. If you look at its effect in you
it is new, because (1) it had never been taught so
forcibly and clearly before Christ ; ( 2) you are so
imperfect that you are always liable to forget it ;
3) your obedience to the command can never be com-
plete, but will always require fresh growth; (4) it can
never be permanent without continual renewal by
Christ's presence." " Ye " is therefore his present
Christian audience ; "from the beginning " implies the
time of their conversion ; " the word " is here less wide
than in verse 6, and means rather Clmst's teaching on
this point. (Comp. 2 John, verse 5; Lev. xix.. xviii. 24.)

(8) Which thing is true in him and in you.—
The commandment might have hung in the air and
remained " old," i.e., confined to the definite point of
time of its promulgation, had it not been embodied for
ever (1) in the living example of Christ during His
life on earth; (2) in His active presence and power
si nee His resurrection; (3) in the conduct and character
of His people, radically renewed by His Spirit and con-
tinuallv growing after His image. (Comp. chap. iii.
23; John xiii. 34.)

Because the darkness is past, and the true
light now shineth.— Rather, ie pte&ng awary ;

Darkness, Liyht, Hatred, Love.

I. JOHN, II.

Mural Results of Haired.

darkness is past, and the true light I
now shineth. (9j He that saith he is in
the light, and hateth his I

Chap. i. 9—i 4. t ° • • i i

li. Obedience brother, is in darkness even
shown in bro- until now. <10) He that
therly love. loyeth hig brother aDideth

in the light, and there is none occasion

of stumbling1 in him. <u) But he
that hateth his brother is in dark-
ness, and walketh in darkness, and
knoweth not whither he goeth, be-
cause that darkness hath blinded
his eyes. (12> I write unto you,
little children, because your sins are

already shineth. Here he gives the reason why lie
announces as new what he says is already truly realised
in Christ and in process of realisation in His people.
A visible change, a notable renovation, is going on ; the
gross darkness that covered the face of the earth is
being rent away in the circle of the apostolic preaching ;
the life of the Lord, which gleamed forth for three-and-
thirty years in the cities and on the hill-sides of Judaea
and Samaria and Galilee, is now bursting far and wide
into ever-increasing brightness ; wondrously quick is
the spread of the rays of His glory; multitudes in
every known land are gathered into His kingdom. Old
things are passing away as the Apostle looks round,
and all things are becoming new. (Comp. John i. 4
—9 ; Rom. xiii. 12 ; Eph. v. 8 ; 1 Thess. v. 4, 5.)

(6) Here (verses 9 — 11) is the chief way in which the
old commandment, the new commandment, the word
from the beginning, the walk in light would be mani-
fested : brotherly love towards those with whom we
have fellowship in Jesus Christ, God's Son. And as
He, by being the propitiation for the sins of the whole
world, had declared the universality of God's family
and kingdom, so the sympathy of believers would ex-
tend in different degrees as far as the whole human
race ; to those first who were conscious of the same
hopes as themselves ; to those next who might be
brought to share them ; to those, perhaps, in a less
degree, who in every nation feared God and,, worked
righteousness without knowing the Saviour personally ;
and so on, finally, to all who did not wilfully excommu-
nicate themselves. But the brotherly love would be
chiefly amongst Christian friends, else it would be
diffused into nothingness.

(») He that saith . . .—The whole history of
religious rancour has been a deplorable illustration of
these words. Controversy for principles honestly and
reasonably held is one thing : prejudice, spite, private
(•ensures and condemnations, harsh words, suspicions.
jealousies, misunderstandings and misrepresentations
are the chief props of the kingdom of darkness among
Christian churches and nations. (Comp. John xiii. 34 ;
xv. 12 ; 1 Cor. xiii. 2 ; 1 Pet, i. 22 ; 2 Pet. i. 7—9.)

Hateth means not merely the absence of love, but the
presence, in ever so small a degree, of dislike or any of
the feelings already described, or those kindred to them.
(10) He that loveth.— From the associations con-
nected with love in poetry and romance this saying
sounds strange. But all such love is tinged with
passion, and the desire of satisfying some "personal
lack; this is the pure disinterested seeking for another's
welfare, of which Christ was the great example. It is
that which the modern scientific non-Christian world is
fying to make its religion ; but without the Christian
mot}''" and cultivated for its own sake instead of by
the worSm8' °^ *ne Spirit of God, it seems artificial and
powei-less.

Occasion °^ stumbling. — Stumbling - block.
(Comp. Isa. viL -^^ ' xxv"i' 16"; Ps. cxix. 165 ; John xi

9, 10; Rom. ix. 33 ; xiv. 13; 1 Cor. i. 23 ; 1 Pet. ii. 7.)
When love such as Christ's is the ruling pi-inciple
of life, then the stumbling-blocks of human nature are
removed — such as impurity, pride, selfishness, anger,
envy, suspicion, unsympathetic coldness, censoriousness.

(u) But he that hateth.— Verse 10 was an anti-
thesis to verse 9 ; verse 11 is, after St, John's manner,
an antithesis again to verse 10, putting the matter of
verse 9 more strongly and fully, and forcibly concluding
the section which describes the Avalk hi the light.

Walketh in darkness.— This describes the acts of
the man whose selfishness or other sins interfere with his
love. Such are all insisting upon class distinctions ; all
ambitions, political, social, or personal ; everything that
savours of shrinking from " in honour preferring one
another."

Knoweth not whither he goeth. -This refers to
the "occasion of stumbling" inverse 10. He is sure
to stumble ; is like a blind man groping his way among
pitfalls ; has all the snares of human nature within him.
(Comp. Isa. vi. 9 et seq. ; Matt. xiii. 14 et seq. ; John xii.
40 ; Acts xxviii. 26 ; 2 Cor. iv. 4.)

Hath blinded. — Just as it is we oui'selves who
make the gate strait and the way narrow, so it is our
own fault if the darkness settles down on our eyes.

(7) The Things they Must not Love if they
walked IN THE Light (verses 12 — 17). — 'The so-
lemnity of the thoughts of Arerses 9 and 11 is too much
for the warm heart of the Apostle. He cannot bear
even to seem to suggest that his " dear little children "
are shrouded in the gloomy horrors of moral darkness,
haunted by the faithful memories of their sins, and
enticed hither and thither by the malevolent spirits of
evil. He will warn them with the most tender and
pitiful affection against the wicked one, the world, the
flesh, the follies and vanities of the human heart ; but
first he will show them frankly what he thinks of them,
what he hopes of them, the trust he places in them, the
grounds which he takes for granted in writing to them.

(12) I write unto you, little children.— The
arrangement of these triplets should be prefaced by
saying that the last " I write," in verse 13, is, according
to the best reading, " I wrote," or " I have written; "
and that the "little children" of verse 12 is the same
word as that which he used in verse 1 for the whole
class of his readers, and is therefore quite general, hut
that the " little children " of verse 13 is a different
word, meaning children in age. So we get : —
I write. I wrote.

1. All readers. 1. Children in age. [Sug-

gested, according to
the perfect simplicity
of St. John's style.
by the term used in
the first set for his
readers generally.]

2. Fathers. 2. •Fathers.

3. Youths. 3. Youths.

478

Grounds for Writing.

I. JOHN, II.

Warning against the World.

forgiven you for his name's sake. (l:;) I
write unto you, fathers,

Chap. 11. 12— 14

His opinion ot
differentolasaes

of his hearers.

t because

him th.it

have known
is from the
beginning. I write unto
you, young men, because ye hare
overcome the wicked one. I write
unto you, little children, because ye
have known the Father. (11) I have
written unto you, fathers, because vc
have known him that is from the

beginning. I have written unto you,
young men, because ye are strong, and
the word of God abideth in you, and ye
have overcome the wicked one. (15> Love
not the world, neither the Ch i{ 15_17-
things that are in the The things con-
world. If any man love trary to light,
the world, the love of the Father
is not in him. (16> For all that is
in the world, the lust of the flesh,
and the lust of the eyes, and the

1. Forgiveness.

2. Knowledge of Christ

3. Victory.

Reasons.

1. Knowledge of the
Father.

2. Knowledge of Christ.

3. Strength, perseverance,
victory.

Some have thought the second triplet an explanatory

note that has crept into the text ; others that " I write "
refers to what he is doing at the moment, "1 wrote"
the view they would take when they read what he had
written. It seems better, however, if we allow the
Gospel to have been written first, to refer " I am
writing " to the Epistle ; " I did write " to the Gospel.

Because your sins are forgiven you for his
name's sake. -Rather, have been forgiven. When
Christ expired on the cross, the sins of all were for-
given who should in after-time believe and carry on
their repentance towards perfection. The process is
•ealised in the soul when it wakes up to a sense of love
of the Saviour through faith.

(IS) Fathers. — The heads of families.

Him that is from the beginning.— There can
be little doubt that this means the same Person as the
subject of " His name's sake." (Comp. John i. 1 ;
viii. 58 ; xvii. 5 ; Knowledge of Christ is assigned in
both cases as the reason for addressing the elder
members of his audience, because full}' to under-
stand the work, the doctrine, the example of Christ,
is a work fitted for mature thought. (Comp. 1 Cor.
iii. 1. 2.)

Young men.— They might be regarded more as
still engaged in the work of settling their character,
forming their habits, disciplining their inclinations,
confirming the choice which all must make for them-
selves between good and evil. (Com]). 2 Tim. ii. 22.)
St. John is not here addressing those who have failed
in the struggle and not repented, but those who have
got the better of such temptations, or arc in process
of getting it.

The wicked one.— Comp. chaps, iii. 12; v. 18;
Matt. xiii. 19; Eph. vi. 16.)

(in Because ye have known. To those who
have once begun to understand Christ, the topic must
always be delightful and interesting.

Because ye are strong,— For the reasons men-
tioned before, young men have more special need
of strength. (Comp. Ps. cxix. 9.) This power can
only come through the presence of the message and
teaching of God in their hearts, which will be brought
by faith in Christ, acceptance of His redemption, and
reverential study of His example. When Christ has
thus dwelt in their minds, then the victory is won, and
the spirits of evil can no longer entice them.

(15) Love not the world.— Having thus affection-

ately expressed his hopes about each class of them, the
last of the Apostles is freer to express that warning
which was suggested to his mind by the mournful
picture of verse 11. If they would not walk in dark-
ness— if they would be where the true Light shineth —
then they must not love the world. What does " the
world " mean ? In Acts xvii. 24 it meant the universe ;
in John i. 9, perhaps more distinctly, the earth ; in 1 John
ii. 2 the sum total of mankind ; in John viii. 23 that
moral order, to be found in this spot of creation, which
is antagonistic to God. Thus it became a phrase for all
such inventions, plans, customs, thoughts, and estimates
of mankind as are not in harmony with the will
and purpose of God. It is ridiculous to suppose that
St. John intended to condemn the love either of natural
philosophy; or of the scenery of that creation which
God saw to be very good, and which sin has been
unable to injure; or of all mankind, who are His
children. No created thing is evil in itself ; the evil
lies in the use which man makes of it. We must
remember that our Lord said, "I am the Light of the
World " (John viii. 12), so that none of the phases of
the meaning of the word can be essentially evil, except
where it implies man's own ungodly creations. The world
which is not to be loved is the sphere of rebellion,
caprice, ambition, vanity, pride, avarice, forgetfulness
of God, self-pleasing, sensuous desires and interests.
connivance with standards of thought and action anta-
gonistic to the will of God. To take one example :
Christ declared all Christians brothers ; any respect
for rank and wealth beyond a conscientious " bowing
in the house of Rimmou " is a sign of the forbidden
affection.

The love of the Father is the true posture of
the soul towards God. If the soul is evenly balanced
between love of God and of the world it is negative
and colourless. If the balance incline towards the
things that distract from the pure and simple walk
with God, then the emotion for Him has died away j if
the balance be for Him. " the expulsive power of the
new affection " makes the contrary attractions insig-
nificant and increasingly powerless.

(16) All that is in the world.— The essence, the
kernel of this sphere showing itself in countless ways.

The lust of the flesh— i.e., that proceeds from the
earthly nature; all desire taking possession of the soul
as a motive for thought aud action which does not arise
from principles in harmony with the will of God.

The lust of the eyes— i.e.. of which the eyes are'
the seat ; all delight in objects living or inanimate
apart from their moral and religious importance ;
personal beauty, for instance, considered otherwise than
as an index of a Christ-like soul. (Comp. John vii. 24;
viii. 15; 2 Cor. v. 16; Jas. ii. 1.) Our Lord's intro-
spection was of moral qualities in Mark x. 21.

The Perishable and the Abiding.

I. JOHN, II.

The Last Hour and the Antichrists.

pride of life, is not of the Father,
but is of the world. (17> And the
world passeth away, and the lust
thereof: but he that doeth the will of
God abideth for ever. <18' Little children,
. . . _9 it is the last time : and
Signs "of the as ve have heard that
forerunners of antichrist shall come, even
tne last hour. nQw ^ there many anti_

christs ; whereby we know that it
is the last time. W They went out
from us, but they were not of us ;
for if they had been of us, they would
no doubt have continued with us :
but they went out, that they might
be made manifest that they were not
all of us. <2°)But ye have an unction
from the Holy One, and ye know all

The pride of life. — The Greek word is only used
besides in the New Testament in Jas. iv. 16. The
phrase means a boastful, ostentatious attitude in regard
to the good things of this life allotted by God to be
spent in His service. All living up to a supposed social
position instead of as the responsible steward of un-
deserved bounties, is hereby condemned. Of this any
social organism existing for pleasure instead of for
moral or religious ends might be considered illustrative.

(17) The world passeth away.— No reasonable
man can set his affections on what is in its very essence
perishable ; for the perishable must be ever disappoint-
ing, and can in no sense satisfy. It is only passion,
and the madness of folly, and the contagion of accu-
mulated examples, that influence the soul towards what
can oidy create the agonising ache of a growing void.

And the lust thereof. Of all the long succession
of impulses excited by the world, nothing remains but
the injury which they have inflicted.

But he that doeth the will of God abideth
for ever.— There is no permanence but that of defeat
and failure in what is in rebellion to the Supreme
Author and Ruler of all things. But that which has
continuously derived all its sustenance from Him. must
have absorbed from Him the "bright shoots" of that
" everlastingness " which is His. Everything that is
good is a part of Him, and can no more fade than He
can. It is by being in harmony with this undeviatiug
tendency of righteousness to victory that real happiness
discovers its own secret. (Comp. John x. 28, 29 ; 1 Cor.
vii. 31; Jas. i. 10; 1 Pet. i. 24.)

(8) The Manifestations of Darkness (verses
18—28).

(a) Signs whereby they should know the fore-
runners of the last time (verses 18 — 23).

(b) Exhortation to continue in the light
(verses 24—28).

After cheering his readers by stating the grounds of
his writing, and the opinion winch he" has of them, he
reminds them of the momentous epoch at which they are
living, of the discriminating effect which it has had on
mere nominal Christians, and of the signs by which
such might be known, introducing, as in verse 12, a
saving clause to separate his friends from the condem-
natory category. The train of thought connected with
" the last hour " is suggested by verse 17. '* the world
passeth away," and is appropriate to the treatment of
the general subject of light as it brings the manifesta-
tion of its contrary.

<18) The last time.— Rather, hour. Until the visions
of the Apocalypse, St. John naturally thought from
Christ's words. "If he tarry till I come" (John xxi.
22), that he would see the last days before the Second
Advent, Our Lord, in Matt, xxiv. 06, distinctly

asserted that not even the angels knew the day and the
hour; and on this subject accordingly the Apostles
were evidently left to their own conjectures. St. Paul
expected a speedy return (2 Thess. iv. 17) ; so did
St. Peter (2 Pet. iii. 12—15). In the same way St. John
thought that he recognised in the serious signs of his
time that final period spoken of in Isa. ii. 2 ; Mic. iv. 1 ;
Acts ii. 17 ; 1 Tim. iv. 1 ; 2 Tim. iii. 1 ; and 2 Pet, iii. 3.
And it was indeed true that with the approaching death
of the last living witness of the Lord's life, the new
revelation was being finally closed, miraculous out-
pourings of the Spirit were ceasing, heresies and
opponents were growing, and the lives of Christians
were beginning to fade into the light of common day.

Antichrist.— See Introduction. Of the terrible per-
sonage or power prophesied in 2 Thess. ii. 1 — 12. Rev.
xi.. xiii., and xvii., the " liars " already mentioned in chap,
i. 6, and afterwards in chaps, iv. 3. 14 ; are regarded
as forerunners. So might Hymenseus and Philetus
(2 Tim. ii. 17). Diotrephes (3 John, verse 9). the
Nicolaitanes (Rev. ii. 6). or Simon Magus. Ccrinthus.
Ebion, any who opposed the teaching of Christ from
within or without, (Comp. also Jade, verse 4.) See
Excursus on 2 Thess. ii. 3 — 12.

(19) They went out.— The special instances in his
mind were of men who had seemed to belong to the body
of Christ, but were never really penetrated by His
Spirit. (Comp. Matt, xiii. 3—7, 24—30, 47—50.)
St. John is not pronouncing a general law that " grace
is indefectible ; " but in looking back on each case of
apostasy he sees there must have been some element in
the character not subdued to Christ, The writer of
the Epistle to the Hebrews (chap. vi. 4 — 6) regarded
it as possible for those who have been made partakers
of the Holy Ghost to " fall away." They might have
partaken of the Holy Ghost in some degree, and yet
not have been wholly Christian. Safety lies in the
continual appeal to Christ.

(20, 2i) But ye have an unction from the Holy
One, and ye know all things. I have not
written unto you because ye know not the
truth, but because ye know it, and that no
lie is of the truth.— If the Antichrists had formerly
any unction at all from Christ, the Holy One (comp.
John xv. 26; 2 Cor. iii. 17, 18; Eph. iii. 16; Phil
i. 29), they must have grieved His Spirit, But St.
John's hearers were still " holding the Head," and there-
fore had the divine instinct which " guided them into
all truth." If they trusted to the Spirit in simplicity,
questions of morality and religion, all that concerned
the soul, would be made sufficiently plain to them. He
does believe this of them ; humbly he begs them not to
think that he distrusts them. If "he did not think that
they had the eye of their understanding spiritually
enlightened, lie would know that there would be no
response in their hearts to his words, nor interest about
them in their intelligence.

480

Tloe most fatal of Lies.

I. JOHN, II.

The Anointing,

things. (2l) I have not written unto you
because ye know not the truth, but
because ye know it, and that no lie is
of the truth. <22> Who is a liar but he
that denieth that Jesus is the Christ?
He is antichrist, that denieth the Father
and the Son. W Whosoever denieth
the Son, the same hath not the Father :
[but] lie that acknowledged the Son hath
the Father also. P*> Let that therefore
•• ojoq a°icle in you, which ye
Exhortation to liave heard from the be-
continue in the ginning. If that which
ye have heard from the

beginning shall remain in you, ye
also shall continue in the Son, and
in the Father. <25> And this is the
promise that he hath promised us,
even eternal life. (26) These things have
I written unto you concerning them
that seduce you. (27^ But the anointing
which ye have received of him abideth
in you, and ye need not that any man
teach you : but as the same anointing
teacheth you of all things, and is truth,
and is no lie, and even as it hath taught
you, ye shall abide in him.1 <28) And
now, little children, abide in him ; that,

!--' Who is a liar ?— Rather, the liar, the enemy
of light above all others. St. John thrusts home his
point by a lively personal reference. All who err from
Christ's leaching- are liars; the greatest of all. he who
may be called actually Antichrist, is he who denies that
the Crucified is the Son of God. Such a man, with
the opportunity of seeing and believing in the light, by
refusing to do so loses the knowledge of God in the
impressive beauty of His relation as Father revealed in
Jesus. And a God who cannot be revealed, who has
no Son, who cannot be heard or seen, is at best a cold
abstraction.

(23) Whosoever denieth the Son. . . .—The
sentence in italics has good authority, and should stand
as part of the text. " Acknowledging " here, as the
opposite of that denial which involved such weighty
"onsecpiences, implies, as Bede says, " the confession
■of the heart, the mouth, and the deed."

After this description of the manifestations of dark-
ness in their midst, and of his trust in them, he winds
up with some forcible practical appeals, weaving
together with concentrated power ideas which have
already been suggested, and introducing the most
familiar associations of the Lord's teaching.

(24, 25) As for y0U (omit " therefore "), that which ye
heard from the beginning, let it remain in you. If
there remain in you that which ye heard from the
beginning, ye in your turn shall remain in the Son
and in the Father. And this is the promise ivhich
He Himself •promised to us, the life eternal.

He turns over in his mind the question, " What shall
I say to my dear children about these sad apostasies
that shake the faith and darken the heart ? " Well,
there is nothing new to tell them ; they have heard it
all, only let it remain fixed and fresh in them ! Then
all he could wish will be theirs ; they will be living
and moving and having their being in the life and
mind and love of the Son, the beloved Lord who lias
ascended, and through Him not less in the Father
Almighty Himself. And the great promise which the
Son made to them and to the world transcends all else,
for it is of life eternal.

(-4) Let that therefore abide.— An echo of John
xv. 7.

Which ye have heard from the beginning.
Since each individual first felt the gospel brought
home to his heart. Its message is always the same.

(-•> Eternal life. — The life which cannot be
measured by days and years, but is the enjoyment of
the blessedness of virtue. This is a present fact, begun
as scon as the believer begins to be in Christ, growing

50 4Sl

more and more unto the perfect day as he walks more
closely with God, secured for ever when he enters into
his rest, and perfected in the gloi'y of heaven. (Comp.
John v. 21—26; x. 10, 27, 28; xi. 25, 26; xvii. 3.)
That this life, depending on knowledge of God, is begun
here, does not lessen the reasonableness of its being
perfected hereafter, any more than its future comple-
tion prevents its present beginning.

(26) These things have I written.— To remind
them that he is still on the subject of the Antichrists,
and to sum up what he has said about them.

(27) But the anointing.— He reverts to verses
20 and 21 as a favourite ground of consolation and
encouragement. Anointing played a great part in the
physical life of Eastern races. The climate was dry.
sultry, and enervating ; unguents restored freshness,
elasticity, and life to the parched and feeble frame.
So, like dew reviving the verdure of the hill-side, or
ointment restoring the vigour of muscles and sinews,
the healing, soothing, influence of the Divine Spirit
breathes about the children of God, unfolds the mean-
ing of what they have heard, brings all tilings to
their remembrance, and guides them into all truth.
They needed not the pretended discoveries of false
teachers ; all they wanted was the unction of God to
bring home what they had heard from the beginning.

Shall abide in him. — Rather, abide ye in Him
(imperative). These words are the conclusion to the
four parallel clauses of the last half of verse 27. On
the grounds that their minds were visibly alive to
spiritual insight; that this insight was from God, a
living power, witnessed to by the life of Christ and His
Apostles, and all the phenomena of Christianity ; that
it was no mere human theory like the speculation of
false teachers, demonstrably at variance with Christ ;
and, lastly, that it had already brought home to their
inmost souls the priceless lessons of which they were
aware, he earnestly charges them, " Abide ye in Christ ! "

(28) And now. — As in John xvii. 5; Acts iii. 17;
iv. 29; vii. 34; x. 5; xxij. 16 ; 2 Thess. ii. 6, these words
mark a conclusion arising naturally from previous
thoughts. As they have this holy anointing, and can
exercise the Christian critical ability, and can see the
truth, all they have to do is to let their whole being
rest in the Son; this cannot be urged upon them too
often, or too simply. Their safety depends on the
exercise of their own will. (Comp. John xv. 1 — 6.)

Little children.— Tenderly, as in vei-se 18.

When he shall appear.- Rather. if. Compare
verse 18 for the thought of the possible nearness of
Christ's Second Advent. He passes to the first person

The Moral Importance of Hope.

L JOHN, III.

The Marvel of Divine Love.

when lie shall appear, we may have
confidence, and not be ashamed before
Chaps, ii. 29-v. him at his coming. ^ If
12. God is Love. ye know that he is right-
Chap, ii. 29. J , i ,■, . - s
Criterion of eous, ye know l that every
sonship. one that doeth righteous-
ness is born of him.

After A.D. 90.

CHAPTEE III.— d) Behold, what
manner of love the Father Chap. iii. 1—3. .
i hath bestowed upon us, JjJ^jjj **§jfc
| that we should be called love.

the sons of God : therefore the world
! knoweth us not, because it knew him
I not. (2) Beloved, now are we the sons

plural, to place himself under the same experiences,
laws, promises, hopes, fears, as his friends. It would
be foreign to his. nature to express a personal wish that
he himself might not be ashamed on the score of their
declension.

So ends the treatise on Light. From the thought
that the true fellowship excluded sin, he passed on to
forbid the concealment of sin, for sin could not be
altogether banished ; then he spoke of the remedy for
sin ; then of the test of walking in the Light ; so he was
led to speak of the chief Christian characteristic ; and
then of the things to be forsworn. That led him to
think of nominal Christians who had been unable to
forswear them, and had therefore become enemies of
Christ and beacons of warning. His friends needed no
practical counsel except reminders of what they knew,
and exhortations to exercise their moral choice by
holding on to Christ.

[3. Second. Half. God is Love (chaps, ii. 29 —
v. 12.)

(1) Righteousness the Criterion of Divine

Birth (chap. ii. 29).

(2) The Divine Birth the Outcome of

God's Love (chap. iii. 1 — 3).

(3) Its Consequence on Human Conduct

(verses 4 — 10).

(4) Brotherly Love the necessary Flower

of the Divine Birth (verses 10 — 18).

(5) The Glorious Results of God's love in

Sonship (verses 19 — 24).
(a) Assurance (verses 19 — 21).
(6) Grant of requests (verse 22).

(d) Gift of the Spirit (verse 24).

(6) Necessity of Trying the Spirits (chap. iv.

1-6).

(7) The Perfect Love the surest Test

(verses 7 — 21).

(8) Faith the Test of Love (chap. v. 1 — 12).

(a) The power of faith (verses' 1 — 5).

(b) The ivitness of faith (verses 6 — 10).

(1) Righteousness the Criterion of the
Divine Birth (verse 29). — In passing on to think
of God in His character of Love rather than of Light
(this, with several interludes, is the leading thought up
to chap. v. 12), St. John is led, by the earnest exhorta-
tion of verse 28 (with which lie closes the former
subject), to pause for a moment on the idea of right-
eousness, which, as it was the main object of the earlier
dispensation, so is the final cause of Christianity. This
suggests to his mind the new idea, " The righteous are
born of God." "Wherever there was a spark of true
righteousness, there was a birth from God.

(29) He is righteous. — St. John looks at the Father
and the Son as so essentially one, that from his use of
the pronoun merely it would not be clear which Person

he meant. Here "born of Him," shows that he thinks
of the Father, or of the Deity in its oneness; not
specially of Christ.

Ye know.— Rather, ye perceive. A divine germ,
sent by the will of God, has come into the life, and,
just as the body and spirit grow in the womb, so the
new man is gradually formed in the soul, not to be per-
fected till the future life.

III.
(2) The Divine Birth the Outcome of God's
Love (chap, iii.l — 3).— The thought of the new birth
suddenly fires the Apostle's mind with reverent
amazement, in which he calls on his hearers to join.
He then sketches some consequences of the Son-
ship : —

(a) Neglect by the world, just as the world l:ncw^

not Him who made them sons.

(b) The future glory in the perfected likeness.

Sons. — Rather, children. The asserted relationship
is no mere empty rhetorical title. It is not only a com-
parison to point origin, dependence, sympathy, care,
union, love; it is a fact. As our spiritual life come*
from God, we have but to be conscious of it, and to
claim its privileges.

(2 a.) It passes before St. John's mind how strange
it is that the stream of the world's thought, the tide of
the world's history, should be going on as they had
been before Christ came. Of how small account was
the old man, at Ephesus, or elsewhere, in the eyes of
the wise, the powerful, the popular ! Why was this P
Because God, manifest in Christ, had been unintelli-
gible to the world as such, or, if intelligible, the cause
only of antagonism. As far as the children were like
their Father, so far would the elements that made up
their character be antagonistic to the elements that
make up the character of the world. For, as far as
" the world " exists at all in the moral meaning of the
word, it is a mixture of qualities and tendencies which
may or may not be like each other, but which all agree
in being opposed to true righteousness.

(2 b.) We can imagine some one saying in the roo:;;
where St. John was dictating, or the thought occurring
to himself, " If you say we are already sons, what shall
we be hereafter ? " We cannot say. It is not good
for us to know. At any rate, there will be the perfected
sonship, the completed likeness, the unquiet and rebel-
lious children conformed to the Father's character.
(Comp. Rom. viii. 17, 18; 1 Cor. ii. 9; Gal. iv. 1;
Col. iii. 3.)

(!) Of G-od.— Literally, out of God — a part of His
holy nature. (Comp. John i. 12, 13 ; iii. 3, 5, 6 ; Rom.
xii. 2; Eph. iv. 23, 24; Tit, iii. 5; 1 Pet. i. 3, 23;
2 Pet. i. 4.)

(2) For we shall see.— The old philosophical dogma
that if knowledge could be perfect it would necessitate
virtue, is true in this sense : the more we see God in

The Future of Sonship.

I. JOHN, III.

fts Pwrifyiwg Poicer

of God, and it doth not yet appear what
we shall be : but we know that, when
he shall appear, we shall be like him ;
for we shall see him as he is. (j) And
every man that hath this hope in him
purifieth himself, even as he is pure.

(4) Whosoever committeth sin trans-
gresseth also the law: for chap m 4 10
sin is the transgression Moral effects of
of the law. <« And ye sonshiP-
know that he was manifested to take
away our sins ; and in him is no sin.

this life (provided it is a real sight) the more like Him
we must be. When we are aide to see Him, by entering
on the glorified life hereafter, our likeness will have
grown complete, and it will never again be able to be
defaced. (Comp. Ps. xvii. 15; Matt. v. 8 ; 1 Cor. xiii.
12; 2 Cor. iii. 18; Rev. xxii. 4.) A true knowledge
must be convincing; when we are permitted to see the
actual truth in God Himself, it will be impossible for
any corner of the soul to remain unconvinced, un-
warmed, unrenewed.

(2 c.) St. John, as usual, turns gently to the practical
side of his thought. If we really hold this glorious
hope of the future likeness, it cannot help having a
correlative force in our present life. Such a hope must
be the mother of the determination to be purified here ;
the resolve to be rid of all pollution in body or soul,
and to struggle free from the chains of sins. The
word for purifying is applied in the New Testa-
ment—

1. To wisdom (Jas. iii. 47);

2. To vows (Acts xxi. 24, 26 ; xxiv. 18) ;

3. To the Christian walk (2 Cor. vi. 6 ; 1 Tim. v.

22; Jas. iv. 8; 1 Pet. i. 22) ;

4. To chastity (2 Cor. xi. 2; 1 Tim. iv. 12; v. 2;

Tit, ii. 5).
Our Lord gives a list of things that defile in Matt. xv.
18. St. John probably thought of Matt. v. 8 in thus
connecting the future vision with present purity.

(3) The Consequence of the Divine Birth on
Human Conduct (chap. iii. 4 — 10). — This paragraph
is an expansion of the thought of verse 3, which was the
practical conclusion of the meditation on the divine
love as seen in the new birth. In thinking of the
nature of righteousness, of the new birth, and of purity,
the Apostle is led to dwell on their opposite, lawless-
ness, the synonym and essence of sin. His object being
to bring purity and righteousness into relief, and to
determine who are the children of God and who of the
devil, he pursues the contrast by a series of antitheses,
introducing, after his manner, reflections suggested by
particular stages of the thought.

1st Contrast : Purity, and the act of sin regarded
as lawlessness (abstract).

Reflection : Christ manifested to take
away our sins.
2nd Contrast : Abiding in Christ, we sin not ;
sinning, we have neither seen nor known
(practical).
'3rd Contrast (in the form of a warning) : The
righteous are like God ; sinners are of the
devil (hortatory).

Reflection : Christ manifested to destroy
the works of the devil.
4th Contrast : The sons of the devil sin ; the sons
of God keep the germ from Him, and sin
not (explanatory).
5th Contrast .- The criterion between the two son-
ships is doing righteousness and (a new
thought in this passage) loving the brother
(the test).

(4) Transgresseth also the law.— Rather, doeth
lawlessness.

The transgression of the law.— Or, lawlessness.
He is not thinking of the law of Moses, but defining
and analysing the nature of sin in general : it is acting
from caprice instead of on principle, disobeying the
conscience, neglecting the will of God, rebelling against
His commandments.

(5) And ye know . . .—The Incarnation is here
mentioned with the purpose of strengthening the appeal
to pm-ity. The very object of Christ's coming was to
take away our sins by atonement, and their power in us
by reformation. He is Himself sinless. Those who
really rest firm in Him cannot be habitual sinners, nor, on
the other hand, can habitual sinners be really in Him.

To take away our sins.— See John i. 29. For
the use of the word "take away," compare John xi. 48;
xv. 2 ; xvii. 15 ; xix. 31, 38. The idea of sacrificial sub-
stitution was uppermost in chap. ii. 2. Here it is
rather that of sanctification ; but the other is not
excluded. The two are always connected in St. John's
mind. (Comp. chaps, i. 7; iv. 9, 10, 11.) The purpose
of Christ's coming was not so much to teach a new
doctrine as to produce a new life ; the first was the
means to the second.

And in him is no sin.— The fact that Christ, is
perfectly sinless is dwelt on because He is the vital
element of the Christian's being, and if present in him
must produce a result like Himself.

(6) Abideth in him.— See chap. ii. 6, 24, and John
xv. 4. The whole nature must consciously repose in
Christ, breathe His spiritual atmosphere, draw all'
nourishment from Him, have no principle of thought
or action apart from Him. This intimate union is re-
garded as the direct consequence of Christ's manifes-
tation, and of His sinless character as manifested.

Sinneth not.— See Rom. vii. 17. Although the
Christian does not always do what is best, he does not
willingly commit sin; his real self is on the side of
God's law.

Whosoever sinneth. — Adopts the lawless disposi-
tion delibei'ately. In the moment of conscious wilful
sin, any former partial sight or knowledge he may
have had of Christ becomes a thing of the past, as if it
were not, and proves its own inadequacy. Ignatius
says, " None who professeth faith sinneth, and none who
hath love hateth. They who profess themselves Chris-
tians will be manifest by what they do." (Comp. chap,
ii. 19, and Matt. vii. 23.) A real saving sight of Christ
is when our mind becomes conscious of the convincing
truth, beauty, perfection, love, and power of His
existence. The corresponding knowledge is when that
sight has become experience, the soul having learnt the
effect of His strengthening, purifying grace ; having
proved the happiness of spiritual intercourse with
Him ; and having meditated continually on the records
of the sayings and doings of His earthly manifestation.
There may be here a reference to the Gnostics, who said
that their " knowledge " was so great that they had no
need to work righteousness : grace would be enough,
without works.

Sin incompatible with, it.

I. JOHN, III.

The Touchstone.

•(6) Whosoever abideth in hiui sinneth
not : whosoever sinneth hath not seen
him, neither known him. M Little
children, let no man deceive you : he
that doeth righteousness is righteous,
even as he is righteous. <8) He that
committeth sin is of the devil ; for the
devil sinneth from the beginning. For
this purpose the Son of God was mani-
fested, that he might destroy the works

Or, command-

of the devil. <9> Whosoever is born of

God doth not commit sin; for his seed

remaineth in him : and he cannot sin,

because he is born of God. (10) In this

the children of God are Chap. iii. 10—

manifest, and the children \8- SoasMp
„ ,, ', ., , shown m bro-

oi the devil : whosoever therly love,
doeth not righteousness is not of God,
neither he that loveth not his brother.
(ii) For this is the message1 that ye

(7, 8) By the solemn appeal, " My little children," the
practical contrast of verse 7 is introduced in the form
of a warning in verses 7 and 8. The words " is of the
devil," in the second branch of the antithesis, show that
the words " is righteous, even as lie is righteous,'' are
meant to claim for the true Christian a likeness of
nature to Christ. Although there is no allusion to it
here, the teaching of the Epistle to the Romans shows
that the eternal righteousness of Christ may bo an
object of faith, even though His name and earthly
manifestation be unknown.

(8) Of the devil. -See on John viii. 44. Not that
the devil has created the sinner, but that the sinner has
.allowed him to generate his evil nature, until gradually
the whole nature may have become evil, and therefore
generated by the devil, to the exclusion of any elements of
goodness. By making the devil the antithesis to Christ,
St. John insists as strongly as it would be possible for
him to insist on the moral importance of remembering
the existence and kingdom of an allowed power of
evil. The work of the Messiah cannot be fully under-
stood without acknowledging this fact of human con-
sciousness.

For the devil sinneth from the beginning.—
" For " states the reason why sinners are of the devil.
By '" from the beginning," therefore, we understand,
not the date of the devil's existence, or of the creation
of the earth and solar system, or of human history, or
of the devil's fall, but the beginning of human sin.
As soon as human sin began, then the devil was at
work and claiming his parentage.

The Son of God was manifested.— The devil
is not honoured by being placed over against the whole
Almighty Deity, but is regarded as the special an-
tagonist of the Son. (Compare verse 5.) In taking
away our sins Christ would be destroying the works of
the devil, which are every possible variety of sin. The
consequences of sin — affliction, death, condemnation —
arcs rather the wholesome discipline of God.

Verse 9 repeats, in a more perfect form of contrast
to verse 8, the thought of verse 7. (Comp. chaps, ii.
29, and iii. 6.) We have seen that the birth of the new
nature is not complete till we enter into our rest ; so
also the freedom from sin is progressive. His seed is
the Holy Spirit: that influence proceeding from God,
imbued with divine vitality, regenerating, renewing,
refreshing, causing the nature of holiness to spring, to
grow, to bloom, to bear fruit. The result is the same
whether the metaphor is regarded as animal or veget-
able. The Christian does not say. " I have the seed of
God within me, so I need not mind if I am betrayed
into sin." That would alone be enough to prove that
the seed of Gdd is not there. If he is betrayed into
sin. he trembles lest the seed of God should not be
there. He struggles to free his permanent will from

all participation in what was wrong. He claims the
help of the Spirit in his struggle ; and his sincerity
shows that it was a genuine bond fide betrayal, not a
pre-conceived moral choice. " Sinneth not," therefore,
looks rather to the Christian's course as a whole. " He
cannot sin," means that if he is really born of God it is
an impossibility for him deliberately to choose evil. If
he deliberately chooses evil he is not born of God. " A
child of God in this conflict receives indeed wounds
daily, but never throws away his arms or makes peace
with his deadly foe " (Luther).

Verse 10 sums up the matter in a terse distinction :
all mankind are either children of God or children of
the devil- — they who try to do good, and they who
deliberately and consciously choose evil. It is not even
for an Apostle to judge which man belongs to which
class ; at any rate, the true Christian can never be a
wilful rebel. And here, as the importance of brotherly
love is so constantly before his mind, St. John allows
the note which he struck in chap. ii. 9 to enter agaiu
into the melody of his thoughts. Brotherly love, the
most prominent part of Christian righteousness, may
well be mentioned in the contrast between sin and
holiness, as it is the most comprehensive of all virtues.

(4) Brotherly Love the necessary flower
of' the Divine Love in the Divine Birth (chap.
iii. 11 — 18). — In verse 10 St. John showed the neces-
sary connection between righteousness and love ; there
is no contradiction between the two : the one is neces-
sary to the other. Justice will become sternness
without love; love will be weakness without justice.
The two thoughts are introduced and connected in
both halves of the Epistles. (See chap. ii. 3 — 11.)
Here the duty of love is still more strongly insisted
on, as the general subject is the love of God, as in the
first half of the Epistle it was the light of God. We
have (a) the command or message of Christ; then [b)
the contrast of Cain ; then (c) the similar conduct of
the world (a thought which had occurred before, in
verse 1) ; then (d) the comfort of the connection be-
tween love and life, as contrasted with hatred and
death; then (e) the identification of the hater with the
murderer, and the impossibility of associating the idea
of eternal life with the destroyer of temporal life ; then
(/) the example of God's love in the death of the Son,
urging us even to the same extremity of self-sacrifice ;
then, (g) as a minor premiss, the thought thrust home,
for a practical conclusion, that the smaller self-sacrifice
of daily assistance to others is an essential to the
Christian life.

(4 a.) (H) For states the reason why brotherly love
was added to righteousness at the end of the last para-
graph: because it was the earliest and most prominent
feature of Christianity presented to them.

Brotherly Love : Unpopularity.

I. JOHN, III.

A Practical Application.

heard from the beginning, that Ave
should love one another. (12) Not as
Cain, who was of that wicked one, and
slew his brother. And wherefore slew he
him ? Because his own works were evil,
and his brother's righteous. (1:3) Marvel
not, my brethren, if the world hate you.
{U> We know that we have passed from
death unto life, because we love the
brethren. He that loveth not his
brother abideth in death. W Whoso-
ever hateth his brother is a murderer :

and ye know that no murderer hath
eternal life abiding in him. {l(i> Hereby
perceive we the love of God, because he
laid down his life for us : and we onght
to lay down our lives for the brethren.
(17) But whoso hath this world's good,
and seeth his brother have need, and
shutteth up his bowels of compassion
from him, how dwelleth the love of God
in him? <18) My little children, let us
not love in word, neither in tongue ;
but in deed and in truth. a^ And

Love one another.— The injunction is perfectly
general, without the restrictions of society; wherever
Christian love is due, there it must immediately be
paid. (Comp. 1 Pet, i. 22.)

(4 b.) (i2) Not as Cain, who was of that . . .—
Rather, Not as Cain was of that . . . ; an abrupt
conversational form. (Comp. John vi. 58.) Cain is
introduced as the prototype of envy, jealousy, and
the inward hatred which the evil feel at the good.

( 4 c.) (I*) The conduct of the world to Christians is of
a piece witli this invariable characteristic of those who
are in darkness, exemplified in Cain. (Comp. John xv.
18. 19; xvii. 14; 2 Tim. iii. 12.)

Marvel not is equivalent to " Be not dismayed ;
be of good courage."

(4 d.) (1*) Tfcis is a characteristic instance of St. John's
logic. From the terseness and pregnancy of his style,
he does not give all the steps of an argument, but fre-
quently tarns it upside down, in order more speedily to
bring out a forcible spiritual truth. But for this he
would have written, " We love the brethren, because
\v have passed from death unto life; but he that
abideth in death loveth not." But wishing to put these
ideas in the form of a direct encouragement, in face of
a hating world, he puts the reason as the conclusion,
and the conclusion as the reason. This unexpected
tarn rivets the attention far more than a rigid deduc-
tion. Another ground of assurance lias been stated in
chap, ii. 2: keeping the behests of Christ, of which (as
we have seen) love is the most prominent. "The
brothers " means all the members of the human family:
the love of Christ which, in verse It!, we arc bidden to
imitate, was for the whole world of sinners. (Comp.
Matt. v. 44; 1 Cor. iv. 12.)

Passed from death unto life. — This dates from
the beginning of the new birth, the dawn of eternal
life in the converted heart, And just as the perfect
Christian love embraces all other Christian virtues,
so not only does actual hatred, but the absence of love,
indicate absolute spiritual deadness.

(4 e. ) (15) Regarding the abseiice of love as of one class
with the presence of hatred, St. John here puts more
prominently forward the active member of the class
than the quiescent, The statement is intended as an
illustration of the fact that where no love is there can
neither be eternal life. The full argument would be
" Where love is not, there is hatred ; where hatred is,
there is murder; where murder is, there can be no
eternal life." (Comp. Matt, v. 21—26.)

(4/.) (is) Hereby perceive we the love of
God. — Bather, Hereby know we tlie true love ; mean-
ing, of course, that perfection of love which is God
Himself. Christ, the Word made flesh, is regarded as
identical with this love, so only the pronoun is used.

The highest proof of love is the sacrifice of that which
is most precious: nothing could be more precious than
the life of the Word made flesh. (Comp. John x.
11. 15, 17, 18; xiii. 37, 38; xv. 13; Gal. ii. 20; Eph.
v. 2, 25.)

For us.— Rather, on our behalf. (See Rom. v. 8.)

And we ought. — The reason of this consequence
is that we are to be like Christ in everything ; as our
being is orbed in His, so whatever was His spirit will
be ours: even His unparallelled act of self-sacrifice
must be reproduced in us, at however great a distance.
For the good of our fellows we must be even ready to
die. (Comp. John xiii. 34; xv. 12, 13; Rom. ix. 3;
xvi. 3, 4.) '

(4 g.) But implies a progress from the greater duty
to the less ; if the less is neglected, far more com-
pletely is the command disobeyed.

Good. — Rather, sustenance, or " necessaries of life."

World is not here used in a bad sense, but merely of
such elements of existence as are not spiritual.

The word " see " is strong, and implies calm and
attentive contemplation.

The word translated " bowels of compassion " is used
in the LXX. (Prov. xii. 10) for -tender mercies.*' It
is used in the New Testament as we use " heart."' and
has nothing to do with bowels. It should be trans-
lated " compassion."

How abideth. — In verse 15 it was eternal life :
here St. John thinks of our love to God as one of
the two chief signs and products of eternal life :
eternal life bringing into activity its relation to its
source.

(ly) The words " My little children," are. as usual, a
mark of a sudden access of warmth, tenderness, and
earnestness. "Word," of course, is antithetical to
•deed," "tongue" to "truth." The construction of
the first pair (which is different from that of the
second) implies merely the instruments of the love; that
of the second implies its whole condition. ■ St. John
hints that there is some danger of this conventionality
amongst his friends, and earnestly exhorts them to
genuineness. He forbids all the traitorous babble of
heartless insincerity, and urges that just, active.
straightforward, all-embracing affection which was
complete in Christ alone. (Comp. Rom. xii. 9; Eph.
iv. 15; Jas. ii. 15—17; 1 Pet. i. 22; 2 John, verse 1 ;
3 John, verse 1.)

(5) The Glorious Results of God's Love
realised through the Sonship (verses 19—24).

(a) The comfort of assurance (verses 19 — 21).

(b) The grant of our requests (verse 22 |.

(d) The gift of the Spirit (verse 24).

Assurance through Conscience.

I. JOHN, III.

Other Fruits of Sonship.

hereby we know that we are of the
Chap. iii. 19— truth, and shall assure1
24 Glorious re- our hearts before him.

(20) Yor if our heart con-

sults of sonship .
Chap. iii. 19— 21.

(a) Assurance, demn us, God is greater
than our heart, and knoweth all things.
(21> Beloved, if our heart condemn us
not, then have we confidence toward
God. <22) And whatsoever we ask, we
receive of him, because we keep his

commandments, and do those things
that are pleasing in his Chap .g- 22
sight. <23) And this is his (6) Grant of re.
commandment, That we <iuests-
should believe on the name of his Son
Jesus Christ, and love one another, as
he gave us commandment. <24> And
he that keepeth his com- Chap. iii. 24.
mandments dwelleth in ^cLpf ffe^e -Sj

. . t i • i • »t <Jod;(d) and gift

him, and he in him. And of the Spirit.

The style of St. John is so much the opposite of
rhetorical, that the transitions are very gradual, and
the paragraphs melt one into another. Here the reality
and sincerity of the brotherly love which he has been
urging reminds him of one happy consequence of it :
that it convinces us of the truth of oiir profession and
of the deep security of our relation to God. If we
love as God loves, then our hearts need not fear. This
immediately suggests, by way of contrast, the whole-
some thought that, if our heart does condemn us, we
ought very seriously to repent, because God is a far
more accurate and searching judge. Moving on, how-
ever, from the idea of confidence, St. John next dwells
on the happy consequence of keeping God's command-
ments and doing what is pleasing in His sight, as we
can do when we are really His sons : and that is, the
certainty that, in one way or another, according to His
will, all our prayers will be answered. Then, lest there
should be any mistake about the nature of God's
commandments, he puts them in their simplest form :
belief in the revealer of His will for theory, brotherly
love for practice. This brings forward another result
of being enabled to keep His commandments ; the
presence of God in the Christian, and the life of the
Christian in God. Lastly, if we ask how we are to
be sure of this presence, we are led to what may be
regarded as the fourth consequence of sonship : the
demonstrable transformation of all our aims and
thoughts by the silent working of the Divine Spirit.
Thus, although St. John did not set out intending to
lay down these four results, they stand out evident
from the rest of the train of thought.

(5 a.) <19> Hereby refers to what precedes in verse
18. "And" is best omitted. For "we know" read
shall we know.

Are of the truth.— That we have our foundation
in, and draw our life from, the truth— that we belong
to its kingdom. " The truth " means all of the eternal
nature, purpose, and will of God which it concerns us
to know — revealed in Christ, brought home by the
Spirit, exemplified in Christian lives. " The heart "
means the affections (coinp. John xiv. 1, 27; xvi. 6, 22) ;
the seat of the moral feelings, as distinct from the intel-
lect ; the emotional side of the moral nature, of which the
intellectual side was called by St. Paul "the conscience."
(Comp. Acts xxiv. 16; Rom. ii. 15; ix. 1; xiii. 5; 1
Cor. viii. 7; 2 Cor. v. 11.) The construction here is
more disputed than that of any other passage in the
Epistle. There are five ways of taking it : —

(i.) Shall assure our hearts before Him; because,
if our heart condemn us, it is because God
is greater than our heart, and knoweth all
things.
(ii.) Shall assure our hearts before Him, wherein-
soever our hearts condemn us; for God is
greater than our heart, and knoweth all things.

(iii.) Shall persuade our hearts before Him that, if
our heart condemn us, God is greater than
our heart, and knoweth all things.
(iv.) Shall assure our hearts before him ; for, if our
heart condemn us, God, since He is greater
than our heart, knows all things.
(v.) As in the text.

The fifth makes the best sense, and is far more like
St. John's usual style, with the statement, the contrast,
and the statement repeated in a stronger form ; but it
is obliged to consider one of the words — the second
"that" or the second "because," as in (i.) — a redundant
repetition. The bias of the reader will probably be
turned to one or other of these renderings, according as
he holds " greater " to mean " more searching " or " more
merciful." The former is necessary if we consider
verse 20 a contrast, after the manner of St. John.

(5 b.) The grant of requests the second rtsvlt of this
near relation to God (verses 22, 23).

(22) Whatsoever we ask.— If this sounds un-
limited, we should remember that it is said of us in our
character as children of God ; as far as that is true of
us, we cannot ask anything contrary to His will.
(Comp. John xvi. 23, 24.) Our prayers are heard
through the merits of Christ ; but if we do not keep
the commands of God, if (still more positively) we
make no attempt to do what is pleasing in his sight,
prayer must be fruitless. The fact is that, unless there
is such a moral result in ourselves, our faith has not
laid hold of Christ's merits, is dead, and is no true
faith at all.

(23) And this . . . — The sum of God's command-
ments, and the compendium of the life that pleases
Him, is stated shortly in two spiritual facts indis-
solubly connected — (a) belief on the Name ; (b) brotherly
love. Belief is the root of the matter, because the
recognition of Jesus as Messiah is the essential founda-
tion of the Christian fellowship. (Comp. Gal. v. 6 —
14; audi Tim. i. 5.)

(5 c.) The mutual indwelling of the Father and Hit
redeemed sons the third result of the Adoption. (Comp
chaps, i. 3; ii. 6, 24, 28; iv. 13.) St, John is not
thinking specially of any Person of the Deity.

(5 d.) The solid proof of the indwelling, and there'
fore tlie Sonship, is the demonstrable presence of the
Spirit (end of verse 24). t

Hitherto the thoughts have been chiefly about the
Father and the Son where any direct reference was
made to Persons in the Trinity. Here the Divine
Spirit comes into prominence; formerly He had only
been alluded to in the anointing (chap. ii. 20, 26 ;
comp. Rom. viii. 15; xv. 19; 1 Cor. ii. 4; Gal. iv. 6;
1 Thess. i. 5).

The mention of faith in verse 23 suggests to St.
John the necessity of a still further discussion of
truth and error, lest it should be thought that all

Not every Spirit is of God.

I. JOHN, IV.

Nature of the False Spirits.

hereby we know that he abideth in us,
by the Spirit which he hath given

CHAPTER IV.— (« Beloved, believe
Chap. iv. l-o. »ot evPT spirit but try
Duty of trying the spirits whether they
the spirits. are 0f God: because many
false prophets are gone out into the
world. <2) Hereby know ye the Spirit
of God: Every spirit that confesseth
that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh is

After A.D. 90.

of God : (3) and every spirit that con-
fesseth not that Jesus Christ is come in
the flesh is not of God : and this is that
spirit of antichrist, whereof ye have
heard that it should come ; and even
now already is it in the world. W Ye
are of God, little children, and have
overcome them : because greater is he
that is in you, than he that is in the
world. (5) They are of the world : there-
fore speak they of the world, and the
world heareth them. ^ We are of God:

religious fervour is of the truth. The mention of the
Spirit enables him to make the transition distinctly,
and he treats of the various phases of religious life,
true and false, under the corresponding name of spirits.

IY.

(6) Not all Spirits are the Result of the
Sonship : Necessity of Examining them (chap.
iv. 1—6).

(a) The difference among spirits (verse 1).

(b) The measure (verses 2, 3).

(d) The condemnation (verse 5).

(e) Inference and conclusion (verse 6).

The mention of faith in chap. iii. 23 had reminded
St. John of the danger of intellectual, as well as of moral
error. The mention of God's Spirit at the conclusion
of the last paragraph gave him a form in which to
clothe the discussion of truth and falsehood in its
human manifestations. By " spirits " he means thoso
tendencies towards good and evil (here especially with
regard to thought and opinion) which may be con-
sidered as coming from the supreme power of God, on
the one hand, and from the inferior power of the devil,
an the other. Into the question what these influences
are, whether, like the Holy Spirit, they are personal or
not, he does not enter. Where one quality, or opinion,
shows itself in different individuals, he identifies it
and calls it a spirit. Religious fervour might take a
form quite antagonistic to the real will and law of God.
For Christians there was but one standard by which to
measure all claims on their religious allegiance : con-
fession that the man Christ Jesus was the Word. All
that demurred to that plain fact, and the loyalty implied
by it, belonged to the spirit of antichrist. His hearers,
however, if lie understood them rightly, need not fear.
By virtue of their adherence to the truth, God was in
them. In Him they had conquered the spirits of the
world, and had but to claim their victory. The false
teachers might be known, and must be condemned by
the savour of the world that was in their method and
their message, and by their popularity with what was
opposed to God. The Apostles and those who taught
with them could confidently before God put forward
the grand claim that theirs was the spirit that came
from Him, because they had held undeviatingly to the
truth as manifested in Jesus.

(6 a.) (l) Beloved.— Whenever St. John uses this
word, he has a strong and earnest exhortation in hand.
(Comp. chap. iii. 2 — 21 ; verse 7.)

Try the spirits.— Comp. 1 Cor. x. 15; xi. 13; xii.
10 ; Eph. v. 10 ; 1 Thess. v. 21. It is most important

to notice that this examination of truth and error is
inculcated on all alike, not merely on an ordained
and materially separate class.

Prophets, in the New Testament, preach rather
than predict. (Comp. 1 Cor. xiv. 1—4, 24; Eph. iv. 11.)

Are gone out into the world, either " from us,"
or else " have appeared in order to give their message."
(Comp. John vi. 14; xvi. 28; xviii. 37.)

(6 b.) Comp. 1 Cor. xii. 3. The real humanity of
the Saviour is the truth here specially emphasised.

(2) Jesus Christ is taken to imply all His history.
(Comp. chap. iii. 23, and verse 6.)

Come is used of Christ in St. John's language for
His mission and manifestation. (Comp. John v. 43 ;
vi. 14; vii. 28, 29; viii. 42; xvi. 28; xviii. 37.)

(3) Every spirit that confesseth not.— There
is a curious old reading mentioned by Socrates, the
historian, viz., " every spirit that destroyeth " (or,
dissolveth) " Jesus Christ." It is, however, evidently
a gloss, written against the Gnostics, which crept
into the text. It is clear that this verso presupposes
an evangelistic presentation of Christ before refusal to
confess His historical person could be made. (Comp.
chap. ii. 18.)

(6 c.) This consolation is in the same manner as
that in chap. ii. 12, and is introduced by the same
endearing phrase. He is sure they have held to the
truth, and have the Sonship. (Comp. chap. iii. 1, 2, 13,
14.) God is in them, and therefore the victory is
already theirs. Although they may still have to
struggle, they have only to claim Christ's strength, and
they have won. In making their choice between light
and darkness, love and hate, good and evil, God and
the devil, they became of the victorious party.

(4) Them — i.e., the antichrists, the false prophets,
the spirits that are not of God. (Comp. chap. ii. 13,
14.)

He that is in the world— i.e., " the prince of this
world," the devil.

(6 d.) As usual, a contrast. The reason of their
success is at once their distinguishing mark and their
condemnation. (Comp. John viii. 37, 43, 47 ; xviii. 37.)

(5) Hearing them. — This implies listening with
attention and pleasure.

(6 e.) (6) We are of God.— The first side of the
antithesis repeated, after St. John's manner, with a
difference, we being substituted for ye, and meaning
" the Apostles and those who taught with them." St.
John feels the grave duty, in condemnation of Cerin-
thus and other opponents, to assert the genuine truth
and divine authority of the apostolic gospel. There
could be no spiritual pi-ide in this ; it was a conscientious
obligation. God spoke in them, and their loyalty for-
bade alike disclaimer and accommodation. (Comp.

487

Brotherly Love tlie Criterion.

I. JOHN, IV.

God's Love for Man.

lie that knoweth God heareth us; he
that is not of God heareth not us.
Hereby know we the spirit of truth, and
the spirit of error. (7) Beloved, let us
Chap. iv. 7—21. love one another : for love

wl^TreSS ls °f G°d 5 an? every 0ne

on love. that loveth is born of

God, and knoweth God. <8) He that

loveth not knoweth not God ; for God
is love. (9) In this was manifested the
love of God toward us, because that God
sent his only begotten Son into the
world, that we might live through him.
(10) Herein is love, not that we loved God,
but that he loved us, and sent his Son
to be the propitiation for our sins. W Be-

John xviii. 37.) When heretics said, " Christ ought to
have said this or that," the Apostles had only to reply,
" But He did not say it."

Hereby know we. — The criterion here is much
the same as in verses 2 and 3, but regarded from a
different point of view : attention to false innovators,
or faithful adherence to the Jesus Christ of history.

(7) The Perfect Love the Surest Test (chap.
iv. 7—21).

(a) Fraternal love the necessary product of
the true knowledge of God, because God
is love (verses 7, 8).
(e) The grand recent historical exhibition of
God's love (verses 9, 10).

(d) God's abode in us, the perfecting of His

love in us, and the proof of His presence
through the Spirit, are the equivalent for
seeing Him (verses 12, 13).

(e) All this is grounded on the strong, unde-

niable truth of the Apostolic witness to

Christ (verses 14, 15, 16).
(J) The fearlessness which is the residt of

perfect love (verses 17, 18).
(g) Tlie cause of our love to God, and the

necessary connection of that love with

love to our fellows (verses 19, 20, 21).

This may be considered the central portion of the
second half of the Epistle. Nothing could be more
significant of St. John's teaching. Here many trains
of thought which have occurred before are gathered
together in one grand treatise on love, divine and
human — the complement of the thirteenth chapter of
the First Epistle to the Corinthians. The thought of
(a) was suggested, though not in so complete and
concise a form, in chaps, iii. 10, 11, 23, ii. 4, and iii. 6;
that of (b) in chaps, iii. 16, and ii. 2; that of
(c) also in chap. iii. 16; that of (d) in chaps, ii. 5,
and iii. 24 ; that of (e) in chap. i. 1, 2 ; that of
(/) in chap. ii. 28 ; that of (g) in chaps, ii. 4, and
iii. 17. The connection with the paragraph on the
trial of the spirits is very obvious : " every one that
loveth is born of God ; " so that the quality and
quantity of our affection will be the best gauge
whether we have the spirit of truth or of error. The
absence of love is ignorance of God, for real know-
ledge of Him imparts His nature. And if any ask
how we know of His love, the answer is that it was
seen in His Son. In sending Him, He loved us without
any love on our part. Our relation to God reminds us
that we must have the same love to each other. The
fact that God cannot be seen is an additional reason
for mutual affection among us; for brotherly love is
the demonstrable proof of His presence, and of the
growing completeness of the work wrought by His
love in us. The Spirit Himself, through whom our

488

love would come, confirms the reality of God's in-
dwelling. And these spiritual emotions and develop-
ments are not illusory, for they are guaranteed by
the ocular and oral evidence of the Apostles to the
historical Person of Christ. So the result of all this
will be perfect and fearless confidence. To sum up
(verse 19) : our love to God springs from His to us ;
hatred of our brother (or the absence of love for him)
is the denial of all love for God ; and for this duty wo
rest not on our own deductions only, however true, but
on His plain command.

(7 a.) (?) One another.— As God loved the world,
so we are to love mankind, not merely Christians.
(Comp. chap. iii. 13.)

For love is of God.— Ho who is truly alive shares
the life of God, which is love. All true love is part of
His being.

(8) Knoweth not.— Rather, never knew. Real
knowledge of God has a convincing practical effect;
without such an effect it is not knowledge, but a mere
mental deception.

God is love.— In the early part of the Epistle St,
John had defined God as light, and the thoughts had
been grouped round and in relation to that central idea.
It would of course be impossible ever to exhaust all
the definitions of God ; but just as our nature may be
roughly classified as intellectual and moral, mind and
heart, thought and emotion, so, when we have thought
of God as Light (embracing all such attributes as truth,
knowledge, purity, health, power, and justice), we shall
not have traversed in outline all that we can know of His
nature, or all that concerns us to know, until we have
also thought of Him as Love, the author and source of
all true affection, kindness, pity, friendliness, rejoicing
in the creation of infinite life for the sake of its infinite
happiness, and offering eternal bliss to all His human
family, that He may be for ever surrounded by inex-
haustible illustrations of the joy and glory of perfection.

(7 b.) <9) In this was manifested.— St. John
echoes his beloved Lord (from John iii. 16).

In us.— (Comp. John ix. 3.) "In our case."

Only begotten.— In contrast to us, His adopted sons.

That we might live.— Human life is regarded as
no true living, but a mere existence, until " Christ be
formed in the heart " and we become " partakers of
the divine nature."

d°) Herein is love.— What love is this, that, dis-
tasteful, uncongenial, unloving, unlovely as we must
have been in His sight, He did this great thing for us !
(Comp. John xv. 16; Rom. v. 8. 10; Tit, iii. 4.) On
Propitiation, see chaps, ii. 2, and iii. 16.

(7 c.) (n) Beloved.— An impulse moves St. John's
mind corresponding to that in verse 7.

We ought.— As God has bestowed his affection so
gratuitously on us, and we benefit by it in such an in-
conceivable degree, and can make Him no return, wo
can only pay the debt by bestowing cur poor equivalent

The Proof of GooVs Presence.

I. JOHN, IV.

The Perfection and Cause of Love.

loved, if God so loved us, we ought
also to love one another. <12> No

Chap. iv. 12, 13. man na^x seen (*0& a*
Equivalent' for any time. If we love
seeing God. one another, God dwelleth
in us, and his love is perfected in
us. (L3) Hereby know we that we
dwell in him, and he in us, because
he hath given us of his Spirit.
W And we have seen and do testify
Chap. iv. 14—16. that the Father sent the i
The ground. Son to be the Saviour of
die world. 0*) Whosoever shall confess
that Jesus is the Son of God, God

Gr. love with iik.

dwelleth in him, and he in God.
<16) And we have known and believed
the love that God hath to us. God is
love; and he that dwelleth in lov<
dwelleth in God, and God in him.
(17) Herein is our love1 made perfect,
that we may have boldness chap iv 17
in the day of judgment : 18. The con-
because as he is, so are se(iuc;nce-
we in this world. <18> There is no fear
in love ; but perfect love caste th out
fear: because fear hath torment. He
that feareth is not made perfect in love.
(19) We love him, because he first loved

on our fellow men. Although our happiness depends
strictly on God, still He has allowed us to be stewards
for Him in some small degree for the happiness of
those about us.

{Id.) (12) No man . . —St, John quotes his
Gospel (chap. i. 18). This is simply the general pro-
position, " God is invisible," and has no reference to
spiritual sight. (Comp. Ex. xxxiii. 20 ; John vi. 46 ;
1 Tim. vi. 16.) The appearances of God to Abraham or
Moses would be like the Shechinah in the Temple, but
no material glimpse of Him who is a Spirit. St, John
mentions the fact as an admission of the limits of
human nature and the condition of faith, but only in
order to state the richness of the substitute, which is
the presence of God within the soul, verified and sub-
stantiated by the historical Person of Christ.

His iove is perfected in us.— Its operation in us
has full scope and sway.

C18) Hereby know we.— Comp. chap. iii. 24.

(7 e.) A second antithesis to the opening words of
verse 12. The Apostolic witness to the person of Christ
is again and again insisted on as the foundation of
Christian theology. (Comp. chap. i. 1 — 3 ; John i. 14 ;
Acts iv. 20; xxii! 15; xxvi. 1*U

(i*) Saviour of the world.— Comp. chap. ii. 2.

(15) Whosoever shall confess— i.e., receives the
Apostolic witness as beyond dispute. (Comp. chap. ii.
23, and verse 6 ; Rom. x. 9.) The noble width of this
declaration is ruust remarkable, in opposition to human
inventions of narrow and sectarian communions.

Son of God, in the sense of "only begotten," as
in verse 9.

(is) And we have known and believed.— This
has the effect of a reflective repetition of verse 14,
"Yes, we have known and believed." This time,
however, the "we " includes those who have heard and
accepted the testimony of the eye-witnesses.

God is love.— In this meditative recapitulation
St. John cannot help summing up everything again in
the boundless formula of verse 8. Knowledge is here
the process that leads to conviction ; belief, the result
of conviction.

He that dwelleth in love.— St. John's whole
purpose is none other than to raise man to his highest
possible development by demonstrating the reality and
nature of fellowship with the Divine. Here he arrives at
the very central position of all : that as God is Love itself,
so he that allows nothing to trouble that atmosphere of
pure love (here neither specially towards God or man)
which God would enable him to breathe, if his own
wilfulness did not turn him away from it, will be

50* 489

bathed in the light of God, animated with His life.
and one with Him. It is a combination of verses 8
and 15.

Us has the same width as verse 15.

(7/.) W Herein is our love made perfect.—
Rather, In this love is perfected with us. " Love," as in
verse 16, is the disposition to be attracted towards
what is worthy of sympathy, whether it be God or
man.

That we may have boldness.— The day of judg-
ment, whether near or remote, is regarded as so certain
that it is a present fact influencing our conduct, Love
will be more or less perfect in us in proportion as it
gives us more or less just and reasonable grounds for
confidence were we suddenly placed before the great
white throne. (Comp. chap. ii. 28.)

Because as he is, so are we in this world.—
If we live in this serene atmosphere of pure sympathy
with God and man, Christ is in us and we in Him,
because God is Love itself. Sharing His nature, there-
fore, we must be like Him, and the more completely we
allow this Divine love towards our Father and our
brothers to transform our whole being, the more we
shall be like our Judge, and the less cause we shall
have for dread.

In this world merely indicates our present place
of habitation.

(18) There is no fear.— The more perfect this dis-
position of serene sympathy becomes, the less share
can any form of anxiety have in it. Even if regarded
as direetedto an earthly object, if it be pure and divine
in its character, not even want of reciprocity can disturb
its equanimity. Where it is a well-grounded sympathy
with a perfect being, its serenity is all the more com-
plete in proportion to its sincerity. When love is
perfect, fear dwindles to nothing, is absolutely expelled.
Love, seeking to be perfect, and finding fear alongside
of it, will diligently seek out the cause of the fear,
perfect itself by getting rid of the cause, and so
got rid of the fear. Fear in such a connection implies
some ground for alarm, and suffers punishment (not
" torment ") by anticipation. The presence of such a
ground for alarm would imply a proportionate imper-
fection of love. (Comp. chap. iii. 19 — 21.)

{7 g.) The cause of our love to God, and the necessary
connection of that love with love to our fellows (verses
19—21).

(19) ^e love him, because he first loved us.
— God's loving us made it possible for us to love Him :
otherwise we should not have known Him. or had the
faculty of loving Him even had we known Him. To

Faith the Corrective of Love.

I. JOHN, V.

Faith to be shown in tVorks,

us. (20) If a man say, I love God, and
hateth his brother, he is
Chap. iv. 19- liar. for he that ioveth
21. The cause , . . , , . , ,

of love to not his brother whom he
God and the hath seen, how can he love
God whom he hath not
seen '? <21) And this commandment have
we from him, That he who Ioveth God
love his brother also.

CHAPTER V. — d) Whosoever be-

After A.D. 90.

lieveth that Jesus is the Christ is born
of God : and every one chap v T_12

that Ioveth him that begat The test: Power

Ioveth him also that is be- of faith (1~5)-
gotten of him. <2) By this we know that
we love the children of God, when we
love God, and keep his commandments,
(3) F-or this is the love of God, that we
keep his commandments : and his com-
mandments are not grievous. (4) For
whatsoever is born of God overcometh

suppose that St. John is putting a mere ease of grati-
tude is to rob him of the dignity and depth of his
meaning. m

(20) These last three verses are a recapitulation in a
vivid form, of the truth and the duty contained in verses
10, 11. God made it possible for us to love Him, and
the very first result of our feeling this power within us,
and allowing it to put itself into force will be seen in
pure and devout sympathy for all whom we can help.
As usual, hating, and not loving, are put as inter-
changeable members of the class of malevolence. St.
John argues on the ground that it is much easier for
human nature to be interested by what comes before
its eyes than by that about which it has to think.
Gregory the Great says, " In love the eyes are guides ; "
and (Ecumenius, " Sight leads on to love." (Comp.
chaps, ii. 4; iii. 17; and verse 12.)

(21) However this may be, there is a still stronger
position : the simple command of God in Christ.
(Comp. Luke x. 27 ; John xiii. 34, 35 ; xiv. 21 ; xv. 9.
10, 12.)

(8.) Faith the Test of Love (chap. v. 1—12).

(a) Its power (verses 1 — 5).

(6) The evidence on which it rests (verses 6 — 10).

(8 a.) St. John has been setting love in the supreme
place which it held in our Lord's teaching and in St.
Paul's. But there is another faculty which has to
regulate, purify, direct, and stir up oxir weak and im-
perfect loving powers, and that is, faith. Without
faith we cannot be certain about the quality of our love.
He begins very simply with a position already laid
down : genuine faith in Christ is the genuine birth
from God. From that faith, through that birth, will
come the proper love, as in a family : the love of our
spiritual brothers and sisters. (This is specially sym-
pathy with real Christians ; but it does not exclude the
more general love before inculcated.) If we are doubt-
ful about the quality of our love, or are not sure
whether any earthly elements may be mingled with it,
we have only to ask ourselves whether we are loving
God and keeping His commandments : the true work of
faith. The love of God does, indeed, actually consist
in keeping His commandments (and none can
complain that they .. e tyrannical, vexatious, or capri-
cious). The very object of the divine birth is the
conquest of all that is opposed to God and to His
commandments, and thr instrument of the conquest is
faith. There can be no victory over these elements,
that are opposed to God, and, consequently, no pure,
true, God-like love, except through faith.

(8 b.) Having left the discussion about the effect of

faith on love with the same thought which began it —
belief in Jesus Christ — he is led to state the grounds
on which that faith rests. These are here stated to be
three : water, or Christ's baptism, symbolising the
complete fulfilment of the Law in His own perfect
purity, and thus appealing to the Old Testament ;
blood, or His meritorious cross and passion, symbolising
His own special work of atonement and reconciliation ;
and the Spirit, embracing all those demonstrable proofs
of His kingdom which were from day to day forcing
themselves on the attention of believers. If we accept
human testimony on proper grounds, far more should
we receive this divine testimony of God to His Son' — the
witness of the Old Testament, of the work of Christ,
and of the Spirit. This witness is not far to seek, for
it is actually within the true believer.

(8c.) The contents of the record which God has thus
given us are at once most simple and most comprehen-
sive : the gift of eternal life in His Son. The presence of
the Word of God in the heart is the sole condition of life.

(8 a.) (!) "Whosoever believeth . . .—-What may
be the works of God among those who have not heard
of His Son we do not here inquire. Enough that
those who have this privilege are sons if they accept
the message.

Begotten. — Of those who have the new birth, in a
general sense : quite distinct from " only-begotten."

(2) By this we know . . .—Love and obedience to
God will assure us of the truth of our love to others.
In chaps, ii. 3 and iv. 20, 21, obedience to God and love
to our fellows were the signs of knowledge of God and
love to Him. The two are really inseparable. If love
of God is absent, then our love of our fellows is not
genuine — is earthly, is a mockery. If love of our
fellows is absent, then we have no love for God. All
friendship must be tested by loyalty to God ; all love
to Him must be tested by charity.

(3) For this is . . .—These words are introduced
to show that what were treated as two separate qualities
in the last verse are in reality the same thing.

And his commandments are not grievous.—
A transitional thought, introduced for encouragement,
and forming a bridge to the next statement. (Comp.
Matt. xi. 30.) God has commanded us nothing for His
own sake, but everything for our own highest profit
and happiness. Were we perfect, we should not find
them commands at all, for they would be our natural
impulses. The more sincerely we serve God, the more
enjoyment we shall derive from them. Only to these
whose inclinations are distorted, perverted, and cor-
rupted by sin can God's laws seem irksome.

I*) The difficulty experienced by some in keeping
God's commands arises from the influence of all that is
opposed to Him in our surroundings. But he who is

The Evidence for Faith.

I. JOHN, V.

The Three-fold Witness.

the world : and this is the victory that j
overcometh the world, even our faith. I
(5) Who is he that overcometh the world, [
but he that believeth that Jesus is the I
Son of God? («) This is he that came |
Chap. v. 6—10. by water and blood, even
Evidence. Jesus Christ ; not by water

only, but by water and blood. And
it is the Spirit that beareth witness,

I because the Spirit is truth. <7) For
there are three that bear record in
heaven, th.9 Father, the Word, and the
Holy Ghost : and these three are one.
(8> And there are three that bear Avit-
ness in earth, the spirit, and the water,
and the blood : and these three agree
in one. &) If we receive the witness of
men, the witness of God is greater : for

born of God — the true child of God — fights with this
only as a conqueror, because, as far as he is born
again, God is in him. God overcame the world in
Christ, and is still ever conquering through Him in
His sons : so that to such the commands are congenial.
(Comp. chaps, iii. 9; iv. 4; John xvi. 33.)

And. this is the victory . . .—A new thought,
suitable to the tenor of the passage, which lays down
that faith is the measure of love. As the conquest that
is overcoming the world is wrought by human instru-
ments, its agent may be regarded as our faith, which
appropriates Christ's work, and carries it out for Him
and through Him. (Comp. chaps, ii. 13, 14, 23 ; iv. 4 ;
1 Cor. xv. 55 — 57.)

(5) Who is he that overcometh ?— An appeal to
the consciousness of Christians. If there be any besides
the disciples of Jesus who have vanquished all that is
opposed to God, where are they? God has declared
that He will not harshly judge the Pagan world (Rom.
ii. 13, 15) ; but salvation by uncovenanted mercies is a
very different thing from the glories of the illuminated
and victorious Christian heart. Where are they ? Not
Socrates, with his want of the sense of sin and his
tolerance of evil ; not Cicero, with his tormenting
vanity ; not the Gnostics, with their questionable lives :
only those in whom had dawned the bright and morn-
ing Star.

(8 b.) (6) This is he that came by water and
blood, even Jesus Christ.—" Water " and " blood "
are referred to as two of the three great witnesses, or sets
of evidence, for Christ. They are symbols, and look back
to two of the most characteristic and significant acts of
His personal history. The one is His baptism, the other
His cross. Why His baptism ? The baptism of John
was the seal of the Law. It was the outward sign by
which those who repented at his preaching showed their
determination to keep the Law no longer in the letter
only, but also in the spirit. Jesus, too. showed this deter-
mination. Baptism in water was His outward sign and
seal to the Old Testament : that He had not come to
destroy but to fulfil the Law ; not to supersede the
prophecies, but to claim them. It was to show that in
Him the righteousness and purification which the Law
intended was to be a reality, and through Him to be
the law of His kingdom. Thus it pointed to all the
evidence which the Old Testament could possibly afford
Him ; and, through the Old Testament, it pointed to
the dispensation of the Father. Thus, when this most
symbolic act was complete, the Almighty Giver of the
old Law or covenant was heard saying. " This is My
beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased."

" Blood." in the same way, refers to the special work
of Christ Himself — the work of reconciliation and atone-
ment by His death and passion, the realisation of all
that the sacrifices and types of the former state of
religion had meant. That He was the true sacrifice
was proved by the perfection of His life, by the signs

and wonders with which He had attracted and convinced
His followers, by the fulfilment of prophecy, by the
marvels of His teaching, by the amazing events which
had happened at the different crises of His life, by His
resurrection and ascension, and by the confession of all
who knew Him well that He was the Word made flesh,
full of grace and truth, and with the glory as of the
only-begotten of the Father.

Not by water only. — John the Baptist might
have been said to come by water only : he came preach-
ing the washing away of the personal results of sin
through turning again to the truth and spirit of the
Law; Jesus came by blood also, for His sacrifice atoned
for sin as rebellion against God.

And it is the Spirit that beareth witness.—
The Holy Spirit had descended on Jesus at His bap-
tism, had proved Him to be the Son of God in every
word and act of His life, had raised Him up on the
third day, and glorified His body till it could no longer
be seen on earth. He had made new men of His dis-
ciples on the Day of Pentecost, had laid far and wide
the foundations of the new kingdom, and was daily
demonstrating Himself in the renewed life in all parts
of the world. (Comp. Matt. iii. 16; John i. 32, 33;
iii. 34; Rom. i. 4; 1 Tim. iii. 16; 1 Pet. iii. 18.)

Because the Spirit is truth.— Rather, the truth ;
the sum and substance of God's revelation in all its
fulness, regarded as personally proceeding from the
divine throne, teaching the prophets their message,
accompanying the Son on His human pilgrimage, and
bringing all things afterwards to the remembrance of
His disciples.

(7) For the reasons why this verse cannot be retained
in the text, see the Introduction.

(8) The text of this verse is properly, For there are
three that bear witness ; the Spirit, and the water, and
the blood. It is a repetition of verse 6 for the purpose
of emphasis. The fact that the three that bear witness
are in the masculine gender bears out the interpretation
given of verse 6 ; that they imply the Holy Spirit, the
author of the Law, and the author of Redemption.
It also explains how verse 7 crept in as a gloss.

And these three agree in one.— Literally, make,
for the one. The old dispensation, of which the Bap-
tist's preaching was the last message, had no other
meaning than the preparation for the Messiah; the
sacrifice of Calvary was the consummation of the
Messiah's mission ; the kingdom of the Spirit, starting
from that mission, was the seal of it. The three wit-
nesses to Christ have their counterparts in the Christian
soul : " baptism, not the putting away of the filth of
the flesh, but the answer of a good conscience toward
God;" "the blood of Christ purging our conscience
from dead works to serve the living God;" and "the
baptism with the Holy Ghost and with fire."

(9) If we receive the witness of men.— Any
human testimony, provided it is logically binding on

491

The Witness Internal.

I. JOHN, V.

The Sum of Faith.

this is the witness of God which he hath
testified of his Son. <101 He that be-
lieveth on the Son of God hath the
witness in himself: he that believeth
not God hath made him a liar ; because
he believeth not the record that God
gave of his Son. W) And this is the

record, that God hath given to us
eternal life, and this life Cn v u V2
is in his Son. <W He that The contents o£
hath the Son hath life ; faith-
and he that hath not the Son of God
hath not life. (13) These things have I
written unto you that believe on the

our understandings, to establish common facts or to
prove opinions. (Comp. Deut. xvii. 6 ; xix. 15 ; Matt,
xviii. 16 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 1 ; Heb. x. 28, 29.)

The witness of God is greater.— Any message
that clearly comes from God is to be accepted by us
with a readiness infinitely greater than in the case of
mere human testimony. St. John considers the three-
fold witness from God to convey a certainty which no
human evidence could claim.

For this is the witness of God which he
hath testified of his Son.— Such witness from
God there is : for this three-fold testimony is what He
has said to us about His Son. If any should doubt
whether the carponter, Jesus of Nazareth, was in
reality God, St. John would refer them to the righteous-
ness and predictions of the Law and the prophets all
fulfilled, to the life and death of Christ which spoke for
themselves, and to manifest inauguration of the reign
of the Spirit. Under these three heads would come
all possible evidence for Christian truth.

(!<>) He that believeth on the Son of God
hath the witness in himself.— To the real believer
the three-fold testimony of God no longer remains
merely an outward object of thought to be contemplated
and grasped : it has become part of his own nature.
The three separate messages have each produced their
proper result in him, and he can no more doubt them
than he can doubt himself. The water has assured him
that he is no longer under the Law, but under grace, and
has taught him the necessity of the new birth unto
righteousness (John iii. 5 ; Tit. iii. 5). The blood
has shown him that he cannot face God unless his sins
are forgiven ; and it has enabled him to feel that they
are forgiven, that he is being daily cleansed, and that
he has in himself the beginnings of eternal life (chaps,
i. 7 ; ii. 2 ; John vi. 53). And the Spirit, which has
had part in both these, is daily making him grow in
grace (Gal. v. 22 ; Eph. v. 9).

He that believeth not God hath made him
a liar.— The negative contrast, as usual, to strengthen
the affirmative. St. John regards the evidence as so
certain, that he to whom it is brought and who rejects
it seems as if he was boldly asserting that what God had
said was false. The sceptical reply that the message
did not really come from God at all it is not St, John's
purpose to consider; his object is to warn his friends of
the real light in which they ought to regard the oppo-
nents of the truth. There should be no complacent
condoning; from the point of view of the Christians
themselves, such unbelievers were throwing the truth
back in God's face.

(8 c.) What Faith contains (verses 11. 12).

(ii) This is the record.— This is the substance of
the witness of God. The Christian creed is here re-
duced to a very small compass : the gift of eternal life
and the dependance of that life upon His Son. Eternal
life does not here mean the mere continuance of life
after death, whether for good or evil ; it is the expres-
sion used throughout St, John's writings for that
life in God, thought of without reference to time, which

can have no end, which implies heaven and every possible
variety of blessedness, and which consists in believing
in God the Father and in His Son. Its opposite is
not annihilation, but the second death: existence in
exclusion from God. (Comp. chap. ii. 25 ; John xvii.
3; 2 Tim. i. 10.)

(12) He that hath the Son hath life.— The
emphatic word here is " hath." As this sentence is
addressed to the faithful, there is no need to say " the
Son of God." " Having the Son " is His dwelling in
the heart by faith : a conscious difference to human life
which ti'ansforms its whole character. " Having life "
is the birth of the new man within which can never
die.

He that hath not the Son of God hath not
life. — As this is contemplating unbelievers, the words
4i of God " are added, to show them what they have-
lost, i i

[4. The Conclusion (chap. v. 13—21).

(1) Fresh Statement of the Purpose of

Writing, equivalent to that at the

beginning of the Epistle, but differing
from it (verse 13).

(2) What can be done for those who

do not come up to the standard
assumed throughout the epistle
(verses 14 — 17).

(3) Some Practical Points recapitulated

(verses 18—20).

(a) God's sons do not sin (vei'se 18) ;

(b) Personal assurance that we are God's sons

(verse 19) ;

the gift of the spirihial sense, and of
abiding in the God of Truth through
His Son (verse 20).

(4) Last Warning (verse 21).]

St. John, thinking perhaps of the close of his Gospel*
where he states the same purpose (John xx. 31), and
reminded by verse 11 of the supreme importance of
having eternal life, and of the necessity of finding this
in the Son, sums up the object of his Letter in these
two ideas. He tells his friends again that he writes to
them because they believe on the name of the Son of
God, and explains his wish to be that, by the thoughts
which he has put before them, they may feel certain
that the eternal life which ought to be theirs is theirs-
already, and that their belief may not cease, but may be
really vital. Thinking then of those who would be
deceiving themselves if they pretended to any such
hopeful assurance, he reminds the faithful of the power
of prayer. Beginning with the general statement that
confidence in God means that He hears us, he goes on
to show that hearing must imply that our petitions are
granted; and next, that it would be a petition quite in
accordance with God's will, and therefore likely to be
heard, if a believer were to pray for a sinning brother.
At the same time it must be recollected that there is

The Apostles Object. — Intercession.

I. JOHN, V.

Differences in Sin.

name of the Son of God ; that ye may

know that ye have eternal

*ii.aPThe con- life, and that ye may be-

ciusion and re- Heve on the name of the

capitulation. gon of God (M) And ^

is the confidence that we have in him,1
that, if we ask any thing according to
his will, he heareth us : (15) and if we
know that he hear us, whatsoever we ask,
we know that we have the petitions that
we desired of him. (16) If any man see his

Or, concerning

brother sin a sin which is not unto
death, he shall ask, and he shall give
him life for them that sin not unto
death. There is a sin unto death : I
do not say that he shall pray for it.
<17>A11 unrighteousness is sin: and there
is a sin not unto death. (18) We know
that whosoever is born of God sinneth
not; but he that is begotten of God
keepeth himself, and that wicked one
toucheth him not. (19) And we know

such a state of wilful, hard-hearted rebellion that it
is past praying for. Meantime thoy must remember
again that as far as they were born of God they could
not wilfully sin ; that if they were what St. John thought
them they had ample proofs that they were of God,
and must not forget that the whole world was cor-
rupted ; and that there could not be any doubt that the
Son of God was come, and had given them the spiritual
sense necessary to discerning the true God. In that
true God they were, through His Son. The God of
whom the Son had spoken was that true God, and to
know Him as such in His Son was eternal life. The
last request was. that they should strictly guard them-
selves against any appearance or tendency whatsoever
which might claim their sympathy or allegiance apart
from God.

(1) Feesh Statement op Purpose (verse 13).

(13) Comp. John xx. 31. The expression here is more
positive than in the Gospel : there, " that ye might
heliove, and that believing ye might have life ; " here,
"" that ye may know that ye have." He wishes to pro-
duce in them a good hope. The specific object at 'the
beginning of the Epistle was the communication of
joy through fellowship with the Apostles; the know-
ledge of possessing' eternal life and the continuance
■of their faith would be precisely that joy.

(2) What can be done foe those who do not

•COME UP TO THE STANDARD ASSUMED (verses 14

—17).

<14) And this is the confidence.— The assurance
intended in verse 13 implies confidence, and confidence
means the conviction that God is not deaf to our prayers.
But these must not be contrary to His will. The
Lord's Prayer reminds us that the Person referred to
here is the Father.

(is) That we have the petitions.— The goodness
of God as Light and Love is so fully established that if
our petitions are according to His will it follows neces-
sarily that He grants them.

<16) If any man see his brother sin a sin
which is not unto death.— Here are meant such
stumblings as do not imply any distinct, wilful, delibe-
rate severance from the faith of Christ. To divide sins,
on the authority of this passage, into venial and mortal
is to misunderstand the whole argument of the Epistle
and to seduce the conscience. St. John only means that
though prayer can do much for an erring brother, there
is a wilfulness against which it would be powerless:
for even prayer is not stronger than freewill. (Comp.
«hap. ii. 1; Luke xxii. 31, 32; John xvii. 9; Heb. vii.
25.)

And he shall give- The interceding Christian is

493

regarded as gaining life for the erring brother and
handing it on to him.

There is a sin unto death.— The limit of inter-
cession is now given : such conscious and determined
sin as shows a loss of all hold on Christ. Such a state
would be a sign of spiritual death. Hardened obstinacy
would be invincible ; and as it would not bo according
to the will of God that prayers, by the nature of the
case in vain, should be offered to Him. St. John thinks
that intercession ought to stop here. At the same time,
he is careful not categorically to forbid it ; he only says
that in such cases he does not recommend intercessory
prayer. (Comp. Matt, xii. 31, 32; Mark iii. 29; Heb.
vi. 4, 6 ; x. 26, 27.) " His brother" is here, of course,
a nominal Christian.

(!7) All unrighteousness is sin.— Here St. John
reminds them that all Christians might, at one time
or another, stand in need of intercessory prayer, even
those who, on the whole, might be considered as " sin-
ning not " (because their permanent will was against
sin. and for holiness), because every declension from the
perfect righteousness of God is error or sin. Nothing
that was not hopelessly deliberate need be considered a
sign of absolute spiritual death. (Comp. chap. iii. 4.)

(3) Some Peactical Points eecapitulated
(verses 18—21).

(a) God's sons do not sin (verso 18).

St. John refers back to " that ye may know " in verse
13, and sums up three points from former portions of
the Epistle, describing the true consciousness of the
Christian. Each begins with " We know."

(18) Sinneth not. — There is no reason to supply
" unto death." (Comp. the Note on chap. iii. 9.) St.
John means strongly to insist, in this the solemn close
of his Letter, that the true ideal Christian frame is the
absence of wilful sin. Stumbles there may be, even
such as need the prayers of friends, but intentional
lawlessness there cannot be.

But he that is begotten of God keepeth him-
self.— Rather, he that is begotten of God keepeth him :
that is, the Son of God preserves him. (Comp. John
vi. 39 ; x. 28 ; xvii. 12, 15.)

And that wicked one toucheth him not.— The
last mention of tho devil was in chap. iii. 10. The
devil and his angels attack, but cannot influence so
long as the Christian abides in Christ. (Comp. 1 Pet.
v. 8; Eph. vi. 11; Rev. iii. 10.)

(3 b.) Personal assurance that we are God's sons
(verse 19).

Next after the cardinal point that righteousness is
the characteristic of the new birth comes the necessity
that the Christian should make up his mind that he
has been, or is being, born again, and is really different

The Conclusion.

I. JOHN, V.

Last Words.

that we are of God, and the whole world
lieth in wickedness. @oj And we know
that the Son of God is coir.^, and hath
given us an understanding, that we
may know him that is tvue, and we

are in him that is true, even in his

Son Jesus Christ. This is the true

God, and eternal life. <21> Little

children, keep yourselves from idols.
Amen.

from the world. The proofs would be seen in chaps,
i. 6; ii. 3, 5, 29; iii. 9, 14, 19, 24: iv. 7, 13, 15; v. 1, 10.

(19) The whole world lieth in wickedness.—
Rather, the wicked one. There is a constant danger
lest Christians should forget this. (Comp. Gal. i. 4.)

(3 c) Personal assurance of the Incarnation, of the
gift of the spiritual sense, and of abiding in the God of
Truth through His Son (verse 20).

The series ends with a climax : the Son is indeed
come ; He gave us the faculty of seeing the true God ;
and in that Almighty Being we actually are. through
the Son. The greatest faet^of all to St. John's mind
is that his Friend and Master of sixty years ago
was the very Word made flesh. (Comp. chaps, i. 1. 2;
ii. 13, 22, 23; iii. 5, 8, 16, 23; iv. 2, 9, 10; v. 1, 5,
9, 11.)

(2°) And hath given us an understanding.—
Comp. Acts xxvi. 18 ; 1 Cor. ii. 12—15 ; Eph. i. 18.
This spiritual faculty of discernment was one of the
gifts of that Spirit which Christ was to send. (Comp.
chap. ii. 20, 27; John xiv. 26; xvi. 13.)

Him that is true.- The personality of God. Amid
all the deceptions and fluctuations of the world, St.
John felt, with the most absolute and penetrating and
thankful conviction, that the followers of Christ were
rooted and grounded in perfect, unshakable, unassail-
able truth. This could not bo unless they were resting
on the living Son and holding fast to Him.

This is the true God, and eternal life.— A
most solemn and emphatic crown to the whole Epistle.
" This God, as seen in His Son, is the true God." If
the Word had not been God, God could not have been
seen in Him. " And God, seen in His Son, is eternal
life." This is only another way of putting John xvii. 3.

(Comp. verses 11, 12, and 13.) To make " this is the
true God" refer only to the Son is equally admissible
by grammar, but hardly suits the argument so well.

(4) Last Warning (verse 21).

(21) Little children, keep yourselves from
idols. — This parting word is suggested by the thought
of " the true God." Every scheme of thought, every
object of affection, which is not of Him, is a rival of
His empire, a false god, a delusive appearance only,
without solidity or truth. We cannot conclude better
than in the words of Ebrard : " This idea is a general
and very comprehensive one : it embraces all things
and everything which may be opposed to the God
revealed in Christ and to His worship in spirit and
in truth. Pre-eminently, therefore, it embraces the
delusive and vain idols of the Corinthian Gnosticism,
whether ancient or modern ; but it includes also the
idols and false mediators of superstition, to whom the
confidence is transferred which is due only to God in
Christ — be their name Madonna, or saints, or Pope, or
priesthood, or good works, or pictures, or office, or church,
or sacraments. The One Being in whom we have ' the
life eternal' is Christ. .... And this Christ wc
possess through the Spirit of God, whose marks and
tokens are not priestly vestments, but faith and love.
In this meaning, the Apostle's cry sounds forth through
all the ages, in the ears of all Christians, ' Little
Children, keep yourselves from Idols ! ' The
holiest things may become a snare if their letter is
regarded and not their spirit. Every Christian Church
has a tendency to worship its 'own brazen serpents.
Happy are they who have a Hezekiah to call them
Nehushtan ! "

494

INTRODUCTION

THE SECOND AND THIRD EPISTLES OF

JOHN.

I. Who wrote them.
II. Date.
III. Character and Scope.

I. "Who wrote them ?— It is difficult to imagine
why any should suppose these two Epistles to be by
different bauds. Was this author the Apostle ?

(1) External Evidence. — This is uot nearly so strong
as for the First. It is natural that it should be so, for
the two Epistles seem to have been regarded as of far
less general interest ; and, therefore, there was less
.obvious propriety in placing them in a collection of
important Apostolical literature, and little reason why
they should be quoted at all. The main argument for
them is, indeed, their unaffected, inartificial kinship to
the First. The oldest authority for the Second is the
Muratorian Canon, composed before a.d. 170. Origen
speaks of St. John's Epistles in the plural, and his
disciple, Dionysius, cites the Third by name. The
Muratorian Canon speaks of two Epistles of John,
apparently distinct from the First. The Muratorian
writer explains the principle of his arrangement of the
Canon distinctly : saying that the Epistles of Paul
to Philemon and Timothy, although addressed only to
individuals, were placed in the Canon on account of
their character. And even if the two Epistles of John
mentioned were the First and Second, the fact that
the Epistle to Philemon has precedence of those to
Timothy (and Titus), probably because it is addressed
also to Apphia and Archippus and the church in
Philemon's house, makes it very easy to understand
that the Second Epistle of John (early supposed to be
addressed to a church under the symbolic form of a
lady) would be received into a canon, while the Third,
addressed to an unknown individual, and dealing with
special circumstances, might not be considered suffi-
ciently general for such a position. In early days there
must have been many fugitive writings of the Apostles ;
and the discretion of the churches in selecting from
them for an authorised collection would be guided pro-
bably more by usage than by deliberate valuation. ]
Clement of Alexandria (a.d. 190—220), says, "The
Second Epistle of John, written to the Virgins, is of j
the simplest character; it is written to a certain Baby- |
Ionian, called Electa, but that means the election of the
holy Church " (Opera, p. 1011, ed. Potter). Origen,
in addition to what has been quoted from him above, is
alleged by Eusebius (Eccl. Hist. vi. 25) to have said,
"Not all consider these Epistles to be genuine," without
endorsing the doubt himself. Dionysius of Alexandria,
pupil and successor of Origen, makes use of the Second
and Third Epistle to illustrate St. John's diction ; he
says that they were generally received as St. John's by

IV. Where were they written.
V. Literature.

tradition. Irenseus, disciple of Polycarp and of Papias.
(he died a.d. 202) quotes 2 John, verse 7, by a mistake of
memory, as belonging to the First Epistle ; the words
of 2 John, verse 11, he cites as by John the disciple
of the Loi'd. Ephrem the Syrian knew both Epistles,
but it is easy to understand why two small fragments of
such a private character were not translated in early
days, and therefore did not appear in the Peschito
version ; for that contains only three general Epistles
(James, 1 Peter, 1 John). Cyprian shows that the Second
Epistle was received as Apostolical and Canonical in
the North African Church, by the fact that he mentions
a quotation of the tenth verse by Aurelius, Bishop of
Chullabis. Eusebius by speaking of St. John's Epistles
in the plural number (Demonstratio Evangelica, iii. 5)
shows that he himself recognised some other Epistles
as well as the First ; but, as from their shortness and
small range there had been very slight occasion to quote
them, he put them among the highest class of those
writings which were not placed by absolutely universal
consent in the authoritative Canon, and were therefore
called Antilegomena. Jerome gives the " opinion
of several writers," not as his own. that they were
by the traditional John the Presbyter ; a view rejected
by Oecumenius and Bede. In the Middle Ages they
were received without question as the Apostle's ;
then Erasmus took up the opinion mentioned by
Jerome, and was followed by Grotius. Most modern
commentators recognise them as Apostolic. The
Tubingen writers are, of course, obliged to consider
them as later, referring them to Montanistic, or at any
rate, sub-apostolic times.

(2) Internal Evidence. — The term "elder": The
fact that St. John does not give his name is in favour
of authenticity. As in the Gospel and the First
Epistle, he prefers to retain a dignified incognito,
intelligible to all whom it concerned. Even if the
messengers did not know whose letters they were
carrying, even if the correspondents did not know
the handwriting, they would be perfectly aware from
the style and matter, and the promise of a visit. It is
doubtful whether by " elder " he meant " aged," or an
official position. In classical Greek these words would
have a different form, but St. John's Greek is that of a
man who had become accustomed to a provincial form
of the language late in life, and quite admits of slight
irregularities. If he means an office, there is nothing
to show that all the Apostles always used the apostolic
title. St. Peter called himself " fellow-presbyter "

II. AND III. JOHN.

(1 Pet. v. 1), and Eusebius called the Apostles Pres-
byters {Bed. Hist. iii. 39). The Apostles and " Over-
seers " were, in fact, only a specially responsible and
important branch of the Presbyterate. As the last
remaining Apostle, St. John might prefer not to insist
on a designation now unique ; or, as the name " elder "
was originally adopted with reference to mature age,
he may have used it as a hint of his own advanced
years ; or the dangei-s of the times may have made it
advisable for him, for his messenger, and for his corre-
spondents, to drop the higher title.

The only authority for the existence of another John
at Ephesus, at the same time as the Apostle, called
" the elder," and " the disciple of the Lord," is Papias,
quoted by Eusebius. Is it not possible, that, as Euse-
bius says that he was " very small in mind," there may
be some confusion in some of these details ? May not
even the confusion itself have arisen from these anony-
mous Epistles being misunderstood by the unin-
telligent ? But, even admitting the existence of such
a second John, it is too much to ask us to believe that
he resembled the Apostle not only in name and history,
but also in style, character, and thought. And where
it was extremely reasonable that the Apostle should
leave out his name, it becomes most improbable that
this alternative John should have left it out.

The Second and Third Epistles are full of peculiar
forms, common also to the First. Notice 2 John
verse 1, " knowing the truth " ; verse 2, " abide in " ;
verse 3, " in truth and love " ; verse 4, " walking in " ;
verso 5, " the commandment which we had from the
beginning " (1 John ii. 7) ; verse 6, " this is love, that";
" as ye heard from the beginning " (1 John iii. 11, 23) ;
verse 7, " deceivers are gone forth " (1 John ii. 18) ;
" confessing not Jesus Christ coming in the flesh "
(1 John iv. 1, 2); "the antichrist"; verse 9. "abideth
not in the doctrine, hath not God" (1 John ii. 23);
"hath the Son and the Father"; verse 12, "that our
joy may be full " (1 John i. 4) ; 3 John, verse 1, " in
truth " ; verses 3, 4. " walkest in truth " ; verse 11, " is
of God, hath not seen God " (1 John iii. 6, 10 ; iv. 8).
There are five or six expressions in the two Epistles
which do not occur elsewhere in St. John's writings,
but it would be in the highest degree absurd to con-
fine any writer exclusively to the language used in a
former production. Additional reason for variety here

would be found in the simple colloquial character of
the writings.

Accordingly, while there is every reason to hold that
the Second and Third Epistles are by the author of
the First, and the First by the Author of the Gospel,
it is difficult to find any valid reason to the contrary.

II. Date. — Jn the absence of all evidence to the
contrary it seems probable that the circumstances and
time were not very dissimilar in all three Epistles.

III. Character and Scope. — In the Second, the
Apostle, who is probably staying at the same place as
some of his correspondent's children, writes to a
mother and her other children to express his sympathy
and delight at the faith of the family, and to warn
them against admitting false teachers to their circle.
It contains noticeable definitions of love, antichrist,
and of true and false believers. It also has a general
lesson on the treatment of wilful depravers of divine
truth.

In the Third, he recounts how some missionaries
had been badly received by Diotrephes, who had ambi-
tiously obtained for himself the chief influence in a
certain church, but notwithstanding Gaius had been
courageous and kind enough to entertain them hospit-
ably. Gaius is exhorted to help them still further.
The Letter gives us an idea of the high importance of
hospitality at the time as a Christian virtue; and
brings out the fact that St. John's authority was no less
disputed in certain cases than St. Paul's. It is pro-
bable that the church of Diotrephes had not been
founded by St. John ; that St. John had special claim
to be obeyed ; and that ecclesiastical influence seems to
have by this time become vested in a single head.

IV. Where were they written? — Probably at
Ephesus, before a tour of inspection. Had they been
written in Patmos, some notice of the captivity might
be expected.

V. Literature. — To the authorities mentioned in
the First Epistle, add the Articles in Smith's Dictionary
of the Bible, and a paper by Professor Salmon on the
Third Epistle in the Christian Observer, April, 1877.
I should mention again my obligations to Dr. Karl
Braune.

THE SECOND EPISTLE OF

JOHN

(i) THE elder unto the elect lady and
Verses 1, 2. ner children, whom I love
The person ad- in the truth ; and not I
dressed. only? but also all they that

bare known the truth; W for the truth's

sake, which dwelleth in us, and shall
be with us for ever. <3) Grace be with
you, mercy, and peace, verse3. Greet-
from God the Father, and ing-
from the Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of

[1. Address, (verses 1 — 3).

(a) Character of the Person addressed :
her adherence to the truth (verses 1, 2).

(b) Salutation (verse 3).

2. Exhortation (verses 4 — 11).
(a) Statement about certain of her chil-
dren (verse 4).

(6) Main Message : Appeal to mutual love
(verse 5 1.

(d) Fixity of Gospel Teaching (verse 6).

(e) The Deceivers and Antichrists (verse 7).
(/) Danger (verse 8).
(g) False Progress a Test (verse 9).
(h) Those who have not the Cardinal

Doctrine of Christianity not to be
Entertained by Her (verses 10, 11).

3. Conclusion (verses 12, 13).
(a) Purpose of Coming Shortly (verso 12).
(6) Message from Her Sister's Children

(verse 13).]

(1) A man so well-known to his correspondent that
he only calls himself "the old man," or, "the elder,"
writes to a mother, whose name is possibly Kyria, and
to her children. Her sister's children are in the same
place as the writer. The two mothers are both honoured
with the religious title "elect." The writer (we assume
from the introduction that he is the Apostle John) loves
the family with true Christian love. All who are in
the way of truth have the same feelings for them, for
the truth is a bond of union between all such. He
wishes them grace, mercy, and peace from the Father
and the Son. in all their thoughts and all their affections
(verses 1—3).

(1 a.) (I) The elder.— The word is used with refer-
ence to age in 1 Tim. v. 2 ; 1 Pet. v. 5 ; with reference
to office. Acts xi. 30; xiv. 23; xv. 4, 6, 23; xvi. 4; xx.
17 ; 1 Tim. v. 1, 17, 19 ; Tit. i. 5 ; Jas. v. 14 ; 1 Pet.
v. 1.

Unto the elect lady.— St. Paul uses " elect " in
exactly the same way (Rom. xvi. 13). (Comp. also
1 Pet. i. 1. 2.) The use of the epithet for the sister in
veree 13 shows that it is impossible that the word should
be the correspondent's name. The Greek word, how-
ever, for " lady.'' (Kuria, or Kyria) was a proper name ;
so that those who think that St. John addresses " the
elect Kyria "are at liberty to do so. The absence of
the article would not be more surprising in that case

than it would be if we translate " lady," for " elect "
would evidently bo in such familiar use that the article
would be easily omitted.

If the name of the matron is not given, it is not
absurd to suppose that the dangers of the times, or
family persecution, may have made it advisable that
both her name and that of the writer should be with-
held. The messenger would supply both deficiencies.

The term " lady ". would not imply anything about
her social station. Epictetus says that all women above
fourteen were addressed by men in this term.

And her children. — Those of them who were with
their mother. St. John seems to have seen some of the
family later.

"Whom I love in the truth.— Rather, in truth ;

i.e., with true Christian love, with all the sincerity.

I purity, and respect, which the true love which springs

J from God requires. (See Notes on 1 John iii. 18, 19.)

And not I only . . .—St. John disclaims anv

special peculiarity in his affection for the family. All

Christians who had been brought or should be Drought

into relation with them wrould have the same feeling ;

because the character of all of thera was based on the

truth as it is in Christ, and moulded on it.

(2) For the truth's sake, which dwelleth in

! us, and shall be with us for ever.— The personal

! form of this sentence irresistibly reminds us of John

j xv. 6, " I am the way, the truth, and the life." If Christ

; is once in our hearts, He will not leave us unless we

1 deliberately leave Him. The expression is therefore

j equivalent to saying, " We will not let Him go."

(1 b.) (8) Grace be with you, mercy, and peace.
| — (Comp. 1 Tim. i. 2; 2 Tim. i. 21.) " Grace " is the favour
I of God conveying fully every spiritual blessing (Rom.
j iii. 4; Eph. ii. 4 — 10); "mercy" is the pitif ulness which
I sympathises with man, is longing to forgive Ids sins.
I and is more ready to hear than he to pray ( Luke x. 30
I —37; Ps. ciii. 3 — 18): "peace" is the result of the
reception of these two gifts in the heart, the untroubled
! calm of a conscience void of offence before God and
■ men (John xiv. 27 ; Rom. v. 1 ; Phil. iv. 4 ; Col. iii.
15).
From God the Father, and from the Lord
j Jesus Christ, the Son of the Father. — The
j perfect independence, parallel equality, and mutual con-
nection of the two Persons is noticeable.

In truth and love.— To be joined with "grace
mercy and peace." Truth was to absorb and regu-
late all their intellectual faculties; love, all their
emotional.

497

The Message and its Definition.

II. JOHN.

Dangers from A ntichrists.

the Father, in truth and love. W I re-
Verses 4—11. joiced greatly that I found
Exhortation. 0f thy children walking in
truth, as we have received, a command-
ment from the Father. (5) And now . be-
seech thee, lady, not as though I vrote
a new commandment unto thee, but that
which we had from the beginning, that
we love one another. ^ And this is love,
that we walk after his commandments.
This is the commandment, That, as ye
have heard from the beginning, ye

Or, ilit itied: Some
odiilcs read,
irllteii in- lain
iiuhiid. but thtil
tje rcetifi, &i:

should walk in it. <7> For many de-
ceivers are entered into the world, who
confess not that Jesus Christ is come in
the flesh. This is a deceiver and an
antichrist. (8^ Look to yourselves, that
we lose not those things which we have
wrought,1 but that we receive a full
reward. (9) Whosoever transgresseth,
and abideth not in the doctrine of
Christ, hath not God. He that abideth
in the doctrine of Christ, he hath both
the Father and the Son. <10) If there

(2) St. John had lately had opportunity of observing
how some of the matron's children proved their ad-
herence to the truth by their daily conduct. Having
congratulated her about this, he states the chief thing
which he desires of her j the pure Christian love which
implies every other grace and virtue ; in other words, \
walking after the divine commandments. That this
love should be pure, that these commandments should
be unimpaired, it was necessary to remember that
nothing new could be added to the original message of !
Christ. This warning was timely, because many errors
had already appeared, especially that greatest error j
which denied the Incarnation. The family must, there-
fore, be on its guard, lest it should be cheated of its I
reward. The test was very simple : any advance beyond
the doctrine of Christ. It would be better for the
family not to entertain in their house any who had
committed themselves to these doctrines of develop-
ment (verses 4 — 11).

(2 a.) (4) I rejoiced . . .— Comp. Eom. i. 8 ; 1 Cor.
i. 4 ; 2 Cor. i. 3; Eph. i. 3 ; Phil. i. 3 ; Col. i. 3.

Of thy children.— Probably those met at home.

"Walking in truth.— Comp. John viii. 12 ; 1 John
i.6,7; ii. 6 ; 3 John, verses 3, 4.

As we have received a commandment. -That
is, walking according to the revelation of God's will in
Christ Jesus.

(2 b.) (5) Love is the Christian's moral disposition of
mind, which embraces all other virtues and graces. It
implies faith, because it is founded on Christian
principle, and can only be tested by a right belief. It
implies purity, because it is modelled on the love of
God, and has abjured the old man. It implies unsel-
fishness, because it desires the good of the other for his
own sake and God's. It implies humility, because it
distrusts itself, relies on God, and thinks more of the
other than of itself. (Comp. John xiii. 14; xv. 12;
1 Cor. xiii.; Eph. v. 2; 1 Pet. iv. 8; 1 John iii. 11, 23;
iv. 7, 21.)

Not as though.— See the Notes on John ii. 7, 8,
and iii. 11.

(2 c.) (6) The attitude of love in general, whether
towards God or man, is best defined and described as i
" walking after God's commandments." It might have
been thought that love would be a vague immeasurable
feeling, differing chiefly in intensity ; but the Christian
disposition which is described as love is that practical
and enlightened result of faith which naturally acts and
expresses itself by following God's will in all things.
(Comp. 1 John iv. 7, 16.)

(2 d.) This is the commandment.— The sum of all
God's commandments for us is this : that we should be
doers of the word which we have heard since first

Christ began to fulfil the Law and the Prophets, and not
of any other. All development from what He said,
or from what we have repeated from Him is disobedience
and error. (Comp. 1 John ii. 24.)

(2 e.) The appearance of deceivers is the reason for
this warning against false progress (verse 7).

The ground of his love for the matron and her
family was that they held to the truth. He is pro-
portionately anxious that they should not go beyond it
through evil influences.

(?) Deceivers. — " Those who cause others to wander."
(Comp. 1 John ii. 26 ; iv. 1—6 ; 1 Tim. iv. 1.)

Entered into the world.— Comp. 1 John ii. 19 ;
iv. 1.

Confess not that Jesus Christ is come in
the flesh. — Rather, confess not Jesus Christ coming
in flesh. The Greek implies the idea only, without
reference to time. (Comp. 1 John iv. 2, 3.) The ex-»
pression would include both those who denied that
Jesus was the Messiah, and those who, for Gnostic
theories, held Him to be only a phantom, declaring the
Incarnation to be an impossibility.

This is . . .—Rather, the deceiver, and the antichrist
— i.e., among all the human errors by which the influence
cf the Evil One is manifested, this is the most destruc-
tive. Those who adopt such errors are the most fatal
deceivers and opponents of Christ and truth.

(2/.) The warning (verse 8).

(8) Look to yourselves.— For the triple "we" in
this verse, read " ye." The result of the error would be
loss of the fellowship with the Father and the Son
in truth and love. (Comp. Gal. iii. 1 — 4; iv. 11.)

Which we (or, ye) have wrought.— Their faith,,
hope, love, and the growth of the Christian graces.

A full reward.— The diminution of the reward
would bo in proportion to the gravity of the error.
The reward would be the peace of God which passeth
all understanding, the blessed stability, firmness, and
joy which truth and love communicate. (Comp. Col.
iii. 24; Gal. iv. 2.)

(2 g.) The test (verse 9).

Progression beyond Christ's teaching, a sign of the
absence of God; refusal to go beyond His lines a
proof of the presence of Father and Son.

W Transgresseth. — Rather, goeth beyond. (Comp.
Matt, xxi. 9; 1 Tim. i. 18; v. 24; 2 Tim. iii/ 7, 14;
Tit. i. 9.)

The doctrine of Christ.— That which Christ
taught. (Comp. Matt, vii. 28 ; xvi. 12 ; xxii. 33 ; Mark
i. 22 ; iv. 2 ; xii. 38 ; John viii. 31 ; Acts ii. 42 ; v. 28.)

Hath not God.— Comp. 1 John ii. 23 ; v. 12.

(2h.) Practical direction (verses 10, 11).

Although it would be possible to love unbelievers, in
the sense of earnestly desiring that they might come to

Practical Advk

IX. JOHN.

Expectations and Greeting.

come any unto you, and bring not ] [ write unto you, I would not write with

this doctrine, receive him not into , I paper and ink : but I trust Verses 12, 13.

your house, neither bid him God j to come unto you, and Conclusion,

speed : (11) for he that biddeth him ,J %0llV™0ut'' t0 speak face to face,1 that our joy may

God speed is partaker of his evil
deeds. <12) Having many things to

be full. (13> The children of thy elect
sister greet thee. Amen.

a knowledge of the truth, it would be wrong — for sincere
Christians it would be impossible — to hold out to them
the right hand of fellowship. Especially dangerous
would it be for the matron and her family. (Comp.
2 Tim. iii. 6.)

(10) If there come.— The construction implies that
it was the case. St. John was dealing with facts. St.
Paul held the same view (Rom. xv'i. 17 ; Gal. i. 8, 9 ;
Tit. iii. 10, 11; and, in regard to morals, 1 Cor. v. 11;
xvi. 22).

This doctrine.— See verse 9. He is not speaking
of those who had never heard or been instructed in
the doctrine of Christ; they would be less dangerous.
He means those who deliberately altered the Apostolic
teaching. And his reason is evidently chiefly the
religious welfare of the matron and her family. The
case supplies an important instruction in the theory
of Christian social conduct.

Receive him not into your house, neither
bid him God. speed. — These are no terms of ordi-
nary politeness, which the Apostle does not forbid, but
terms of close Christian intimacy and spiritual com-
munion, the deliberate cultivation of personal ac-
quaintance, fraternal intercourse. The highest sort of
Christian brotherly love — love, that is, in its fulness and
truth — can only find reciprocity in the same atmosphere
of Christ, on the same basis, and in the same charac-
teristics. (Comp. 2 Cor. vi. 16.)

(n) Is partaker of his evil deeds.— Condones
his false doctrine ; puts himself in a position to accept
it ; shares the guilt of his disloyalty by sympathising
with him; and in this way lowers his whole moral
standard, doing an injury to " God, Christ, the Church,
the truth, individual communities, and his own soul."
If any interpret the exhortations to love in the Epistles
of St. John too liberally, or by too low a measure, this
passage is a wholesome corrective. In applying this
teaching to modern times we should remember (1) that
St. John is only speaking of those who deliberately
deprave the doctrine of Christ in its great outlines;
(2) that there may be much in ourselves, in our systems,
in our quarrels, in our incrustations of divine truth, in
our want of the sense of proportion in dealing with
divine things, which may have hindered others from
receiving Christ.

(3) Conclusion (verses 12, 13).

(12) Having many things to write unto you.—

This verse shows that the Letter to the matron and her
family was not a mere accompaniment of a copy of the
First Epistle. His heart is full of things to write, but
he hopes soon to have unlimited conversation.

Paper.— The Egyptian papyrus.

Ink.— A mixture of soot, water, and gum. The

papyrus-tree grows in the swamps of the Nile to the
height of ten feet and more. Paper was prepared from
the thin coats that surround the plant. Pliny describes
the method (xiii. 23). The different pieces were joined
together by the turbid Nile water, as it has a kind of
glutinous property. One layer of papyrus was laid flat
on a board, and a cross layer put over it ; these were
pressed, and afterwards dried in the sun. The sheets
were then fastened or pasted together. There were
never more than twenty of these sheets fastened to-
gether in a roll; but of course the length could be
increased to any extent. The writing was in columns,
with a blank slip between them; it was only on one
side. "When the work was finished, it was rolled on a
staff, and sometimes wrapped in a parchment case
(Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,
p. 567).

Of the ink used by the Romans. Pliny says that it
was made of soot in various ways, with burnt resin or
pitch. "For this purpose they have built furnaces
which do not allow the smoke to escape. The kind
most commended is made in this way from pine- wood :
it is mixed with soot from the furnaces or baths ; and
this they use for writing on rolls. Some also make a
kind of ink by boiling and straining the lees of wine."
The black matter of the cuttle-fish was also sometimes
used for writing (Smith, Dictionary of Greek and
Roman Antiquities, p. 110).

The pen was a reed, sharpened with a knife, and
split like a quill-pen.

The Jews seem to have used lamp-black dissolved in
gall-juice, or lamp-black and vitriol, for ink. The
modern scribes " have an apparatus consisting of a
metal or ebony tube for their reed-pens, with a cup or
bulb of the same material attached to the upper end.
for ink. This they thrust through the girdle, and carry
with them at all times " (Thomson, The Land and the
Book, p. 131 ; Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, p. 1802).

Speak face to face.— Not that there was any oral
tradition which he would not write down. His Gospel
and First Epistle would contain the outline of all his
teaching. But on this occasion there was no need for
writing. (Comp. 1 Cor. xiii. 12.)

That our joy may be full.— Comp. 1 John
i. 4. It would be the deep satisfaction cf the inter-
change of spiritual thoughts and aspirations without
the limitations of a monologue or of writing materials.

(13) The children of thy elect sister.— He may
have been staying at this second matron's house; at any
rate, the family knew he was writing. The simplicity
of the great Apostle, the personal friend of the risen
Lord, the last of the great pillars of the Church of
Christ — in transmitting this familiar message, makes a
most instructive finish to what is throughout a beautiful
picture.

THE THIRD EPISTLE OF

JOHN.

(D THE elder unto the wellbeloved ]
Gaius, whom I love in I

IS! L Ad" the truth-1 (2) Beloved, I

wish 3 above all things that

thou mayest prosper and be in health,

Verses 2 — 12. even a8 thy SOul prOS-

Substance of pereth. (3) For I rejoiced
the Epistle. greatly, when the brethren

After A. D. 90.

! came and testified of the truth that
is in thee, even as thou walkest in
the truth. '(*) I have no greater joy
than to hear that my children walk in
truth. (5> Beloved, thou doest faithfully
whatsoever thou doest to the brethren,
and to strangers ; <6> which have borne
witness of thy charity before the church :

[1. Address (verse 1).

2. Substance (verses 2 — 12).

(a) Good Wishes for Bodily Health (verse 2).

(b) High Character of Gaius for (a) Con-

sistency (verses 3, 4) j (b) Hospitality
(verses 5, 6, 7).

Travellers (verse 8).

(d) Opposition ofDiotrephes to the Apostle

(verses 9, 10).

(e) Exhortation to Gaius not to Follow

such an Evil Example (verse 11).

(/) General Truth: contrast between the fol-
lowers of good and of evil (verse 12).

(g) Commendation of Demetrius, and Appeal
to Confidence (verse 12).

3. Conclusion (verses 13, 14).]

(!) The elder.— See the Introduction, and 2 „ onn,
verse 1.

Gaius. — The common Roman name Caius. A Caius
is mentioned in Acts xix. 29 ; xx. 4 ; Rom. xvi. 23; 1 Cor.
i. 14. The difference in date between these and St.
John's correspondent would alone be sufficient reason
•against any attempt at identification. There is nothing
to show whether he was a presbyter or not.

Whom I love in the truth.— Or, in truth. (See
2 John, verse 1.)

(2 a.) (2) Beloved.— St, John's affection is founded
on the high merits of Caius as a Christian.

Above all things. — This may mean " in all things."

Be in health. — An ascetic would be surprised that
one of the greatest of the Apostles should be so earnest
on such a point. But the better a man's health, the
more thoroughly he can do the work of God. Sickness
may be allowed to chasten the erring or rebellious heart,
but a Christian whose faith is firm and character esta-
blished, can ill afford to despise the inestimable blessing
of a sound body. Functional and organic disorder
or enervation proportionately lessen the capacity for
thought, resolution, and activity.

Even as thy soul prospereth. — The word "pros-
pereth " is literally makes good way, and so links on to
the idea of walking, in verses 3 and 4. The health of the
soul came first in the Apostle's mind : when there is
that, he can wish for bodily health to support it.

(2 b.) (3) I rejoiced greatly.— Compare 2 John,
verse 4. " For " introduces the reason of ' the high
praise in verse 2.

The truth that is in thee.— The inward presence of
Christ, manifested by the Christian life and consistency
of Caius.

Even as thou walkest in the truth.— This is an
additional evidence from the brethren to show that the
presence of the truth in Caius had been practically
tested.

Thou is emphatic in the Greek, showing that there
were others, like Diotrephes, of whom this could not
be said.

(4) I have no greater joy.— This is a general
statement arising out of the particular instance. The
comparative is double — a comparative formed on a
comparative ; it may be only irregular, an evidence
that the writer was not a classical Greek scholar, or it
may be for intensity. There is a similar comparative in
Eph. iii. 8, where the force is evidently intensive.

My children means the members of the churches
specially under the care of St. John.

(5) Thou doest faithfully — i.e., worthily of a faithful
man, consistently with the Christian character. It may
be translated, " Thou doest a faithful work in whatso-
ever . . . ."

Whatsoever thou doest. — Done from right mo-
tives, as unto Christ. Whatever form (it is hinted that the
form would be various) the activity of Caius might take,
so high was the Apostle's opinion of his character, that
he was sure it would be done wisely and well.

And to strangers. — According to another reading
it is, " And that, strangers," as in 1 Cor. vi. 6, Eph.
ii. 8, Phil. i. 28. Either way, the strangers would be
Christians; but, according to the reading in the text,
the brethren would be more or less acquaintances of
their host. 'The duty of entertaining Christians on
their travels was of peculiar importance in early times,

(1) from the length of time which travelling required.

(2) from the poverty of the Christians, (3) from the kind
of society they would meet at public inns. The duty is
enforced in Rom. xii. 13; 1 Tim. iii. 2; Tit, i. 8; Heb.

I xiii. 2 ; 1 Pet. iv. 9.

(6) Charity might be translated " love."

! Before the church. — That where the Apostle then
I was, and from which they had probably been sent forth as

500

A General Duty — Opposition.

Ill JOHN.

Diotrephes and Demetrius.

whom if thou bring forward on their |
journey after a godly sort, thou shalt
do well : (7) because that for his name's
sake they went forth, taking nothing of
the Gentiles. (8) We therefore ought to
receive such, that we might be fellow-
helpers to the truth. <9) I wrote unto
the church : but Diotrephes, who loveth
to have the preeminence among them,
receiveth us not. <10) Wherefore, if I
come, I will remember his deeds which

he doeth, prating against us with ma-
licious words : and not content there-
with, neither doth he himself receive
the brethren, and forbiddeth them that
would, and casteth them out of the
church. <u) Beloved, follow not that
which is evil, but that which is
good. He that doeth good is of
God : but he that doeth evil hath
not seen God. <12> Demetrius hath
good report of all men, and of the

mi ssionaries, or, at any rate, with some definite religious
abject.

Whom if thou bring forward.— Perhaps while
they were still staying with Caius, the emissaries sent
back a report to the church whence they came. St. John
seems to imply that there was still something which
Caius could do for them. " If thou bring forward " is
in the Greek in the past ; " when thou hast sent them
on, it will be a good work."

After a godly sort. — Rather, worthily of God.
(Comp. Tit. iii. 13, 1 Cor. xvi. 11.) It would imply
journey money, provisions, love, care, encouragement,
prayer, a humble and reasonable imitation of God's
providence to Caius, proportional to his means, the
occasion, and the recipients.

(7) Because that for his name's sake they
went forth. — Their object was the highest possible—
the glory of God's name. Hence there must have been
some kind of missionary character in their journey.
(Comp. Acts v. 41 ; xv. 40; Rom. i. 6; Jas. ii. 7.)

Of the Gentiles. — Probably the heathens among
whom they were preaching. From settled churches, or
wealthy Christians of long standing, there would be no-
thing inimical to the interests of the message in receiving
material support. Among those who were hearing for
the first time, it would be highly prejudicial if there
were any appearance of selling the truth. (Comp. 1 Cor.
ix. 18 ; 2 Cor. xi. 7 ; xii. 16 ; 1 Thess. ii. 9.)

(2 c.) (8) We therefore.— In contrast to the heathens.

To receive.— In the original there is a play with
the word "receiving" in verse 8. (Comp. Matt.
x. 40.)

That we might be fellowhelpers to the
truth. — Fellow-helpers with them. The principle of
co-operation was one of the earliest and leading ideas of
the kingdom of Christ. Those who try to work alone
lose the mighty force of sympathy, are sure to mako
mistakes, cannot help arousing opposition, and run the
risk of nursing in their own souls an unsuspected
spirit of self-will, self-confidence, and spiritual pride.
Those who do not care to help the good works of others
are at best cold Christians, feeble believers ; they fail
in the great critical testing virtue of Christian love ;
they limit the operation of God, who has chosen to
work by human means ; they hinder the spread of the
gospel, and delay the second coming of Christ. (Comp.
2 Cor. viii. 23; Phil. i. 27; Col. iv. 11 ; 1 Thess. iii. 2.)

(2 d.) (9) I wrote unto the church.— " I wrote some-
what unto the Church." This may either have been a copy
of his Gospel or his First Epistle, or a lost letter of no
special importance. The Church was that of the place
where Caius and Diotrephes lived. Nothing whatever

talked malignantly against St. John and his friends ;
that he refused to entertain the emissaries of the
Church in which St. John was residing ; and that he
actually went so far as to eject from the local con-
gregation those who were willing to entertain them.
We may conjecture that, on account of the loyalty of
Caius to St. John, there was so little intercourse be-
tween him and Diotrephes, that he would not even hear
that St. John had written; that the greater part of
the people of the place adhered for the present to
Diotrephes, so that in addressing Caius St. John calls
them " the church," and " them ;" and. from verse 11,
that even now St. John did not think it superfluous to
urge Caius not to follow the example of Diotrephes or
submit to his influence.

Loveth to have the preeminence.— Makes it
his evil aim to have the whole influence of the com-
munity in his own hands.

00) If I come.— Comp. 1 John ii. 28. St. John was
evidently expecting in both Letters to set out on the
same journey.

Prating. — Idle slander ; the moths that are always
attracted to "the fierce light that beats about a throne."
The intense spiritual affectionateness of the Apostle of
love might be easily misunderstood by an unconverted
pretender ; but it is needless to imagine the groundless
babble of a tyrannical upstart.

Casteth them out.— Not necessarily formal excom-
munication ; but Diotrephes had so far succeeded in
his object that he was able to exclude these better
disposed persons from the Christian society of the
place.

(2 e.) (H) Follow not that which is evil.— One of
those simple exhortations so characteristic of St. John,
which derive an intense meaning from the circumstances
and the context. There was probably every reason why
Caius should follow Diotrephes : peace, good-fellowship,
the dislike of singularity, popular example, and the
indolent indifference which ordinary men feel for truth
and right. But the difference between right and
wrong is eternal and irreconcilable. The conduct of
Diotrephes was of the devil ; and mighty moral con-
sequences might follow if Caius gave way from good-
natured pliability. (Comp. John v. 29 ; xviii. 23 ;
Eph. v. 1 ; 2 Thess. iii. 7, 9 ; Heb. xiii. 7 ; 1 Pet.
iii. 10, 11 ; 1 John iii. 12.)

(2/.) He that doeth good is of God.— Comp.
1 John iii. 10. " Doeth good " includes all practical
virtue. (Comp. 1 Pet. ii. 14, 15, 20 ; iii. 6. 17.)

He that doeth evil hath not seen God.— Comp.
1 John ii. 3; iii. 6, 10 ; iv. 2, 3, 4, 6, 8; v. 19.

(2 g.) W Demetrius may very likely be the bearer

can be said of Diotrephes, except that his personal I of the Epistle
ambition led him into the grievous sin of rejecting the j Good report. — Rather, the witness.
authority of the bosom friend of the Saviour ; that he I Of all men. — All Chiistians who knew him.

501

Appeal — Purpose.

III. JOHN.

Conclusion — Greeting.

truth itself: yea, and we also bear re-
cord; and ye know that our record is
true. <13) I had many

not with ink and pen write

unto thee : <14) but I trust I shall shortly
see thee, and we shall speak face to
face.1 Peace be to thee. Our friends
salute thee. Greet the friends by
name.

Of the truth itself .— Christ dwelling in him
manifested His presence as the Way, the Truth, and
ths Life in new virtues for every circumstance that
arose in the career of Demetrius. His walk, agreeing
with the revealed truth of God, showed that God was
with him. (Comp. Acts iv. 13.)

And we also. — St. John adds his own independent
testimony as a third, in the most emphatic manner
possible.

And ye know that our record is true.— There
is no arrogance or egotism in this : it is solely the
appeal to the loyal fidelity of Caius — to the simplicity of
Christ's gospel as set forth by John in accordance with
the other Apostles. The personal experience of be-
lievers would convince them of the truth of the last of
the Apostles. (Comp. John xix. 25 ; xxi. 24.)

(3) (13> I had many things to write.— Rather,
There were many things which I wished to write.

But I will not.— Comp. 2 John, verse 12.

(14> Peace be to thee.— The best wish which the
Apostle can form, instead of the usual Greek ending,
" Be strong," or " Farewell ! " It was our Lord's re-
surrection greeting ; the internal peace of a good con-
science, the external peace of universal friendship, the
heavenly peace of future glory begun even in this
life. (Comp. John xx. 19, 2b' ; Rom. v. 33 ; Gal. vi. 16 ;
Eph. vi. 23 ; 2 Thess. iii. 16; 1 Pet. v. 14.)

Our friends salute thee.— Rather, The friends.
By this appellation, uncommon in the New Testament,
St. John recalls our Lord's words in John xv. 13, 14, 15.

Greet the friends by name.— Each friend was
to receive a personal message from the Apostle, and
Caius would know who they were as well as if St.
John wrote them down. In a short private Letter it
would be unsuitable to have a long list of special
messages as in a Pauline Epistle, especially as the
Apostle hoped shortly to see them. John perhaps
thinks of his Master's ideal in John x. 3.

6U?

THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF

JUDE.

INTRODUCTION

THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF

JUDE.

I. The Author. — Whatever may be our opinion
with regard to 2 Peter, sober criticism requires us to
believe that this Epistle was written by the man whose
Dame it bears. To suppose that Jude is an assumed
Dame is gratuitous. It remains to determine who the
Jude is who addresses us.

He tells us that he is a "servant of Jesus Cki-ist"
and "brother of James." Had he been an Apostle he
would probably have said so. (Comp. Rom. i. 1 ; Titus
i. 1; 2 Pet. i. 1.) Had he been an Apostle he would
Dot have claimed attention by calling himself "the
brother of James," when ho possessed so very much
stronger a claim. The fact that (verse 17) the writer
appeals to the words of Apostles proves nothing; an
Apostle might do so. But at least such an appeal is
more natural in one who is not an Apostle : there being
no reason why he should keep his Apostleship in the
background if he possessed it. Our Jude, then, is the
Judas of Matt. xiii. 55, and the Juda of Mark vi. 3 ;
not the Judas of Luke vi. 16 and Acts i. 13, where
ubrofher of James" should more probably be "son of
James." The author of this Epistle is rightly described
as the brother of James, "brother'' being expressed in
the G-reek. The James indicated is James " the Just,"
the brother of the Lord, and first Bishop of Jerusalem,
who, though not an Apostle, was nevertheless a person
of such dignity as quite to account for this writer
thinking it worth while to mention his near relationship
to him. The present question is mixed up with the
vexed question as to the brethren of our Lord. The
view here taken is that they were not the sons of
Alphams —i.e., cousins— but in some real sense brethren :
either the children of Joseph and Mary, or of Joseph
by a former wife, or by a levirate marriage, or by adop-
tion. Which of these four alternatives is the right one
will probably never be determined. Jerome's theory, that
they were our Lord's cousins, children of AlpliEeus, is
contradicted by John vii. 5. (See Note there and on
Matt. xii. 46.) It owes its prevalence in the West
mainly to Jerome's influence. The identification of
James the Lord's brother with James the son of
Alphains, which it involves, has never prevailed in the
Eastern Church. Our author, then, together with his
better known brother, James, were in some sense our
Lord's ;' brethren," and not Apostles. If it be asked,
Would not Jude in this case have appealed to his
relationship to Christ rather than to his relationship
to James? we may securely answer "No." As the
author of the Admnln'ationes centuries ago remarked,
religious feeling would deter him, as it did his brother
James in his Epistle, from mentioning this fact. The
Ascension had altered all Christ's human relationships,

and His brethren would shrink from claiming kinship
after the flesh with His glorified Body. This con-
jecture is supported by facts. Nowhere in primitive
Christian literature is any authority claimed or attribu-
ted on the basis of nearness of kin to the Redeemer.
He Himself had taught Christians that the lowliest
among them might rise above the closest of such
earthly ties (Luke xi. 27, 28) ; to be spiritually " the
servant of Jesus Christ" was much more than being
His actual brother.

Of this Jude very little is known. Unless he was
an exception to the statement in John vii. 5 (of which
there is no intimation), he did not at first believe on
Christ, but joined the Apostles aftfjr the convincing
fact of the Resumption (Acts i. 14). That, like his
brothers (see Note on 1 Cox*, ix. 5), he was married
appears from Hegesippus, who tells us (Eus. H. E., III.
xx.) that two grandsons of Jude were brought before
Domitian as descendants of a royal house, and there-
fore dangerous persons; but on their proving then*
poverty, and explaining that Christ's kingdom was not
of this world, chey were contemptuously dismissed.
This story almost implies that the relationship to
Christ was very close ; for Hegesippus remarks, by way
of explanation, that Domitian was afraid of Christ, just
as Herod was. Statements of St. Jude's* preaching in
various parts of the world rest upon late and untrust-
worthy evidence. That he was an Evangelist, is im-
plied in his writing this Epistle ; but nothing is known
respecting his labours.

II. Authenticity. — The authenticity of the Epistle
has been questioned by some from very early times, but
without sufficient reason. The evidence against it is
mainly this. External. — The Epistle is not contained in
the Peschito or ancient Syriac version; Eusebius
classes it among the disputed books (III. xxv. 3 ; II. xxiii.
25); Theodore of Mopsuestia seems to have rejected
it; few references to it are found in early writers.
Internal. — It cites apocryphal books; has a suspicious
relationship to Eomans and 2 Peter ; is difficult in
style. Against this we may urge that Ephrem
Syrus seems to have recognised it ; the Muratorian
Fragment {circ. A.D. 170) contains it; the old Latin
version contains it; Tei'tullian (Dc Cult. Fern,. I. iii.)
accepts it as genuine and Apostolic ; Clement of
Alexandria quotes it as Scripture (Strom. III. ii. ;
Paed. III. viii.) ; Origen, though he knew of doubts
about it (Comm. on Matt. xxii. 23) fully accepted it
(on Matt. xiii. 55; xviii. 10, et al.); Jerome (Scrip*
Eccles. it.) says that many rejected it because it quoted
apocryphal books, but that it ought to be reckoned

JUDE.

among the Scriptures ; the Councils of Laodicea (circ.
a.d 360) and of Hippo (a.d. 393) formally included it in
the Canon. The doubts about it are very intelligible : it
"was not by an Apostle, and therefore seemed wanting
in authority, and it quoted apocryphal works. Its
brevity fully accounts for its not being often quoted.
It is too insignificant to be a forgery ; a forger would
have said more, and would have selected some well-
known name, and not that of one but little known, to
give authority to his production. Respecting the
apocryphal books quoted, see Notes on verses 9 and 14 and
the Excursus. The difficulJ style is natural enough in a
Jew writing Greek well, but not with ease. As already
stated in reference to 2 Peter, a theory that these two
Epistles (2 Peter and Jude) are translations from
Aramaic originals has recently been advocated (Did
St. Peter write in Greek ? by E. G. King, Cambridge,
1871). It would be presumption on the part of one
who is ignorant of Hebrew to pronounce an opinion on
the arguments used ; but the number of them seems to
be insufficient. Mere internal evidence of this kind
ought to be very strong to counterbalance the entire
absence of external evidence. Jerome would certainly
give information on this point, if he possessed any,
when he makes his own suggestion that St. Peter used
different "interpreters" to write his two Epistles. (See
Note on 2 Pet, ii. 17.)

III. The Place and Time.— As to the place we
have no evidence, either external or internal. The
Epistle contains some indications of time. (1) The
fact that the destruction of Jerusalem and consequent
rain of the Jewish nation is not mentioned among the
instances of divine vengeance (verses 5 — 7) is a strong
reason for believing that the Epistle was written before
a.d. 70. (2) The fact that such libertines as are here de-
scribed are allowed to remain members of the Christian
community points to a time when Church discipline is
in its very infancy. The evils are very similar to those
which St. Paul has to condemn in the Church of Corinth
(1 Cor. v. 1, 2 ; vi. 8—18 ; xi. 17—22). (3) It seems to
be implied (verse 17) that some of those addressed
had heard Apostles. As to the bearing of the quo-
tation from the Book of Enoch on this question, see
Excursus.

IV. Object and Contents.— The object is plainly
stated (vorses 3, 4) — to urge his readers to contend
earnestly for the faith which was being caricatured and
denied by the libertinism and practical infidelity of
certain members of the community. In what Church or
Churches this evil prevailed we are not told; but it
would be more likely to arise among converts from
heathenism than from Judaism. The plan of the
Epistle, short as it is, is evidently laid with consider-
able care ; and the writer betrays a fondness for three-
fold divisions which is quite remarkable. It would
scarcely be an exaggeration to say that wherever a
group of three is possible he makes ona. One or two
of the triplets may be accidental, but tha majority of
them can hardly be so; and this fact may be worth '
remembering in discussing the question of priority
between this Epistle and 2 Peter. There are ten (or i
possibly twelve) groups of three in this short Epistle of I
25 verses : viz. (1 and 2) verse 1 ; (3) verse 2 ; (4) verse 4 ;
(5) verses 5— 7; (6) verse 8 ; (7) verse 11; (8) verses 12—
15, 16—18, 19 ; (9) verse 19 ; (10) verses 20, 2] ; (11)
verses 22, 23; (12) verse 25. Of these (4) and (10)
are perhaps doubtful; but there can be no question
about the rest, although the last two are obscured in

the English version, owing to our translators having
followed a defective Greek text.

(1) Introduction.

(a) Three-fold address and three-fold greeting

(verses 1, 2).

(b) Purpose of the Epistle (verse 3).

(2) Warning and Denunciation.

(a) Three instances of God's vengeance (verses

5 — 7), and application of these three
instances to the libertines who are now
provoking God (verses 8 — 10).

(b) Three examples of similar wickedness (verse

three examples (verses 12 — 15; 16 — 18;
19).

(3) Exhortation —

(a) To strengthen themselves in the faith by

prayer, godliness, and hope (verses 20,
21).

(b) To treat these libertijies with discrimination,

making three classes (verses 22, 23).

V. The relation of Jude to 2 Peter.— The

similarity both in substance and wording between a
considerable portion of these two Epistles is so great
that only two alternatives are possible ; either one has
borrowed from the other, or both have borrowed from a
common source. The second alternative is rarely if
ever advocated ; it does not explain the facts very
satisfactorily, and critics are agreed in rejecting it.
But here agreement ends. On the further question, as
to which writer is prior, there is very great diversitjr of
opinion. One thing, therefore, is certain ; that which-
ever writer has borrowed, he is no ordinary borrower.
He knows how to assimilate foreign material so as to
make it thoroughly his own. He remains original even
while he appropriates the words and thoughts of
another. He controls them ; not they him. "Were this
not so, there would be little doubt about the matter.
In any ordinary case of appropriation, if both the
original and copy are forthcoming, critics do not doubt
long as to which is the original. It is when the copy
itself is a masterpiece, as in the case of Holbein's
Madonna, that criticism is baffled. Such would seem
to be the case here. The present writer is free to
confess his own uncertainty. A superficial acquaint-
ance with the subject inclined him to believe in the
priority of Jude : further study disposes him to
think that the balance is decidedly in favour of the
priority of 2 Peter, although the balance is considerably
short of proof. The question cannot be kept distinct
from that of the authenticity of St. Peter. Every
argument in favour of the authenticity of 2 Peter is
something in favour of its priority, and vice versa;
although many arguments bear more upon one point
than the other. If, then, the genuineness of 2 Peter is
accepted as probable, this will add additional weight to
the considerations now to be urged in favour of the
priority of 2 Peter ; and they in turn will strengthen
the arguments for its genuineness.

This question as to the relation between these two
Epistles seems to be one in which the old-fashioned
view is not so far wrong after all. And some value
may fairly be allowed to the old-fashioned arguments
for it : (1) that the account of evil-doers in 2 Peter is
in the main a prophecy, whereas St. Jude speaks of

50C

JUDE.

them as present ; the inference being that St. Judo
recognised in what he saw the mischief which St. Peter
had foretold ; and added weight to his own denunciations
by framing them in the very words of the Apostle;
(2) that St. Jnde'a warning. " remember the words which
were spoken before by the Apostles . . . how that they
told you there shall be mockers in the last time walking
after their own ungodly lusts" (verses 17, 18), is an ob-
vious reference to St. Peter's prediction, " there shall
come in the last days scoffers, walking after their own
lusts " (2 Pet. iii. 3). Of course a forger, with St. Jude's
words before him, might frame his own words to fit
them ; but in that case we have still to account for
St. Jude's warning, " remember the words which were
spoken before by the Apostles," &c. They may refer to
such passages as Acts xx. 29 ; 2 Tim. iii. 1 ; or (as some
who insist on " how that they told you," or " used to tell
you," prefer) to warnings given orally by the Apostles ;
still 2 Pet. iii. 3 is the most obvious reference.

No doubt it is antecedently more probable that a small
Epistle should be republished with much additional
matter, than that one-third of a longer Epistle should
be republished with very little additional matter : but
what has been said above about 2 Peter being a
prophecy, of which St. Jnde saw the fulfilment, is an
answer to this. Besides which, we may urge that it is
antecedently improbable that a forger should take so
much from an Epistle that was not only known, but
regarded with suspicion in some quarters, because of its
quoting apocryphal books. That St. Jude is quoted by
one or two writers who seem not to know or to reject
2 Peter (Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen)
may be allowed some weight ; but this could easily be
accounted for, and in itself is not very convincing.

One argument used for the priority of Jude seems to
the present writer to tell strongly for the priority of
2 Peter. It is this : that the evil-doers denounced by
St. Jude are much more distinctly portrayed than those

denounced in 2 Peter. We know from history that the
errorc indicated increased rapidly from the apostolic
age onwards. The later writer, therefore, would have
the clearer picture before his eyes. Would not the
clearer description, then, be likely to be his? (See above
on the False Teachers and Scoffers : Introduction to
2 Pet.) In connexion with this point it is worth
considering whether the careful directions which St.
Jude gives as to the way in which different classes of
the ungodly men are to be treated does not point to a
later stage of the evil (see Notes on Jude, verses 22, 23).
Again, the rather fanciful arrangement into triplets,
which prevails in St. Jude's Epistle, looks more like a
second writer working up old material, than a first
writer working under no influence from a predecessor.

Of the numerous minute arguments drawn from the
wording of parallel passages only one or two specimens
can be given here : others are considered in the Notes.
Jude, verse 6 contains a telling piece of irony in the
double use of "kept," which is wanting in 2 Pet.
ii. 4 ; Jude, verse 10 contains a striking antithesis,
very epigrammatically stated, which is wanting in
2 Pet. ii. 12; Jude, verses 12, 13 contains some fine
similes, especially the one of " wandering stars," which
would have fitted the "false teachers" admirably;
yet most of them are absent from 2 Peter. Would
a writer who is quite willing to borrow anything that
will serve his purpose (this is evident, whichever'
is the borrower) have wilfully rejected all these good
things? If they are improvements added by St. Jude,
all is natural enough. It is worth mentioning in
conclusion, that the arguments urged for an Aramaic
original tell decidedly in favour of the priority of
2 Peter.

While admitting, therefore, that the case is by no
means proved, we may be content to retain the priority
as well as the authenticity of 2 Peter, as at least tht>
best working hypothesis.

507

THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF

JUDE.

S JUDE, the servant of Jesus Christ,
Verses l, 2. and brother of James, to
Greeting. them that are sanctified

by God the Father, and preserved in

A-D^r. ee. i Jesus Christ, and called : ^ mercy unto
| you, and peace, and love, be multiplied.
i &> Beloved, when I gave all diligence
J to write unto you of the common

(i.

') Address and greeting.

(!) Jude. — As to the Jude who here addresses us
see Introduction, I.

The servant of Jesus Christ.— Better, a servant
of Jesus Christ. There is nothing to show that these
words indicate an evangelist, although it is more than beloved, preserved." In the next verse we have another

Father. The love is such as has existed from the
beginning and still continues.
■ Here, in the first verse, we have a couple of triplets :
a three-fold designation of the writer himself, as " Jude,
the servant of Jesus Christ, and brother of James ; "
and a three-fold designation of his readers, as " called

probable that he was one : his writing this Epistle is
evidence of the fact. The words may have a side re-
ference to the ungodly men against whom he writes,
who are not " servants of Jesus Christ." As he does
not say that he is an Apostle, the inference is that he
is not one. Contrast Rom. i. 1 (where see Note on
"servant"); 1 Cor. i. 1; 2 Cor. i. 1; Gal. i. 1; Eph. i.
1 ; Col. i. 1 ; 1 Tim. i. 1 ; 2 Tim. i. 1; 1 Pet. i. 1 (where
"Apostle" is used without "servant"); and Tit. i. 1;
2 Pet. i. 1 (where "Apostle" is added to "servant").
Excepting St. John, whose characteristic reserve ac-
counts for it, Apostles proclaim themselves to be such
in. stating their credentials. Hebrews and the Epistle
of St. James must be set aside as doubtful, or be ad-
mitted as illustrations of the rule. Phil. i. 1 ; 1 Thess.
i. 1 ; and 2 Thess. i. 1 are not exceptions : St. Paid is
there combined with others who are not Apostles. The
same may be said of Philem. verse 1. Moreover, there
St. Paul naturally avoids stating credentials : he wishes
to appeal to Philemon's affection (Philem. verses 8, 9),
not to his own authority.

And brother of James.— This is added not
merely to explain who he is, but his claim to be heard.
It is almost incredible that an Apostle should have
urged such a claim, and yet not have stated the much
higher claim of his own office : the inference again is
that the writer is not an Apostle. Only one James
can be meant. After the death of James the brother
of John, only one James appears in the Acts (chaps.
xii. 17; xv. 13; xxi. 18) — James the Just, brother of
our Lord (Matt. xiii. 15), and first Bishop of Jerusalem.
(See Introduction, I.) The brother of so saintly a
man, one of the " pillars " of the Church (Gal. ii. 9),
and holding so high an office, might claim the attention
of Christians.

To them that are sanctified. — A reading of
very great authority compels us to substitute beloved
for " sanctified " ; and the whole should probably run
thus : to those who are called, beloved in God the
Father, and preserved for Jesus Christ. Some prefer
to take " in God the Father " with both participles :
beloved, and preserved for Jesus Christ, in God the

triplet.

By God the Father.— Better, in God the Father.
He is the sphere in which the love is displayed : it is
in God that Christians love and are loved. The ex-
pression, "beloved in God," is unique in the New
Testament. St. Paul sometimes writes " God our
Father " (Rom. i. 7 ; 1 Cor. i. 3, et at), and at first this
was the more common expression ; sometimes " God
the Father" (Gal. i. 1, 3, et al.).

And preserved in Jesus Christ.— Better, pre-
served for Jesus Christ : i.e., preserved to be His in
His kingdom. This preservation has gone on from the
first, and continues (John xvii. 2, 12, 24).

Called.— The word is used, in St. Paul's sense, for
all Christians — all who have been called to a knowledge
of God and of the gospel. (Comp. Rom. i. 7 ; and see
Note on 1 Cor. i. 24.)

(2) Mercy unto you, and peace, and love. —
Another triplet, which possibly looks back to the one
just preceding: called by God's mercy, preserved in
peace, beloved in love. The addition " and love " is
peculiar to this Epistle. " Mercy " and " peace " occur
in the opening greetings of 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus,
and 2 John. The three are in logical order here : mercy
from God to man ; hence peace between God and man ;
hence love of all towards all.

Be multiplied.— By God. The word, as used in
salutations, is peculiar to 1 and 2 Peter, and Jude.

(3> 4) The purpose and occasion of the Letter.

(3) Beloved.— Very unusual at the beginning of an
Epistle; 3 John, verse 2, is the only other example.
It indicates, possibly, the writer's wish to be brief and
get to his subject at once ; and, as his subject is a
very unpleasing one, he hastens to assure his readers of
affection for them, to prevent his strong language from
offending them.

When I gave all diligence. — Better, in giving
all diligence : i.e., in having it much at heart. Wiclif
and Rheims are nearly right. The expression is unique
in the New Testament — 2 Pet. i. 5 is similar, but the

508

Exhortation to continue

JUDE.

Steadfast in the Faith.

salvation, it was needful for me to
Verses 3, 4. ™te unto you, and
Purpose of the exhort you tnat ye should
Epistle. earnestly contend for the

faith which was once delivered unto
the saints. W J?or there are certain
men crept in unawares, who were before
of old ordained to this condemnation,

ungodly men, turning the grace of our
God into lasciviousness, and denying
the only Lord God, and our Lord Jesus
Christ. (5) I will therefore put you in
remembrance, though ye
once knew this, how that God's*5 punish-
the Lord, having saved ments a warn-
the people out of the land mg to sinners-

Greek for " giving " differs in verb and tense from the
word used here.

Of the common salvation.— The best MSS. in-
sert "our" — of our common salvation: i.e., of those
tilings which pertain to the salvation of ns all. (Comp.
Tit. i. 4.) Some would take these words after "it was
needful for ine to write unto you." The Authorised
version is better.

It was needful for me to write unto you.—
Better, I found it necessary to write at once to you, St.
.Tude had intended to write on general grounds ; then the
circumstances stated in verse 4 made him write imme-
diately for the special purpose of warning them against a
pressing danger. The " at once " comes from the tense,
which is present in the first clause, aorist in the second.
That St. dude had intended to write a longer letter is
pure conjecture, for which there is no evidence.

Contend, for. — The word is a graphic one, im-
plying standing over a thing to fight in its defence.
lou must fight as well as build (Neh. iv. 16, 18).

The faith— i.e., that which is believed by Christians :
not the expression of the doctrine, nor the holding of
it, but th<> substance of it.

Once delivered.— Rather, once for all delivered.
No change in it is possible. (Comp. Gal. i. 8, 9.) By
" the saints " are meant all Christians ; comp. Acts ix.
13 (where see Note), 32, 41. The word is used ad-
visedly here, in marked contrast to the libertines now
to be denounced.

(*) Certain men crept in unawares— viz., into
the Church. The " certain " shows that these men are
a decided minority, and has a tinge of depreciation, as
in Gal. ii. 12. " Crept in unawares " is analogous to
" unawares brought in, who came in privily " (Gal. ii. 4,
where see Note), and to " privily bring in " (2 Pet. ii. 1).
It is this insidious invasion which constitutes the
necessity for writing stated in verse 3. Unfaithful
Christians are sometimes regarded as an emergence
from within, rather than an invasion from without
(1 John ii. 19).

Close similarity to 2 Peter begins here and con-
tinues down to verse 18; the Notes on the parallel
passages in 2 Pet. ii. should be compared throughout.
In this Epistle the first three and last seven verses are
the only portions not intimately related to 2 Peter.

Who were before of old ordained to this
condemnation. — Literally, who have been of old
written down beforehand for this sentence ; or, perhaps,
■"written up"; for the metaphor may come from the
practice of posting up the names of those who had to
appear in court for trial. The text is a favourite one
with Calvinists ; but it gives no countenance to extreme
predestinarian views. " Of old " cannot refer to the
eternal purposes of God, but to something in history.
On the other hand, it is doubtful whether it can refer
to the recent warnings of St. Paul and St. Peter that
false teachers should arise : otherwise one would be
tempted to refer it to 2 Pet. ii. Something more re-
mote from the writer's own day seems to be required :

either the Old Testament prophets, or the Booh of
Enoch, quoted below. The Greek word here rendered
•• before ordained " is in Rom. xv. 4 rendered " written
aforetime." (Comp. Eph. iii. 3.)

To this condemnation.— Literally, to this
tence, or judgment ; but the context shows that the
judgment is an adverse one. " This condemnation,''
viz., the one stated in the denunciations which follow,
and illustrated by the fate of those mentioned in
verses 5 — 7. Note the three-fold description of the
men thus written down for judgment: they are ungodly;
they pervert God's grace ; they deny Christ.

Turning the grace of our God into lasci-
viousness.— Turning Christian liberty into unchristian
license. " Our God," not theirs ; they are " without
God in the world." " Wantonness " would be better
than " lasciviousness " here, as in 2 Pet. ii. 18. The
Greek word expresses license generally, not merely sins
of impurity.

Denying the only Lord God, and our Lord
Jesus Christ.— Rather, denying the only Master, and
our Lord Jesus Christ. " God " is an addition to the
original text, and must be omitted. '' Lord " repre-
sents two words in the Greek quite different one from
the other. The Genevan version is right all but the
insertion of " God ; " the Rhemish quite right — having
"Dominator," however, for "Master." We are once
more in doubt whether one or two Persons of the
Trinity are mentioned here. (Comp. 2 Pet. i. 1.)
Certainly 2 Pet. ii. 1 countenances our taking " the
only Master " as meaning Christ ; and the fact that the
article is not repeated with " Lord " is in favour of
only one Person being meant. But Luke ii. 29, Acts
iv. 24, Rev. vi. 10 countenance our understanding
these words as meaning the Father; and the absence
of the article before "Lord'' is not conclusive. The
insertion of " God " is, perhaps, a gloss to insist on
this latter interpretation. If it be right, the clause is
closely parallel to 1 John ii. 22 : " He is Antichrist
that denieth the Father and the Son." Note the em-
phatic insertion of " our " once more : they will not
have Him for their Lord; His divine authority was
precisely what they denied.

(5—7) "We now enter upon the main body of the
Epistle. Three instances of God's vengeance : the
unbelievers in the wilderness ; the impure angels ;
Sodom and Gomorrha.

(5) I will therefore put you in remembrance.

— Or, But I wish to remind you. The " but " indicates
opposition to the impiety of those just mentioned.

Though ye once "knew this.— The best MSS.
and versions compel us to substitute "all things" for
" this," and we must translate, because ye have once for ,
all (as in verse 3) hitmen ((]j things. You have once
for all been taught all that I want to say to you ; so
that I need only remind you, there is no need to
instruct. (Comp. Rom. xv.* 14, 15, where see Notes;
2 Pet. i. 12; 1 John ii. 21.) "All things " probably

509

Judgment on the

JUDE.

Rebellious Angels.

of Egypt, afterward destroyed them
that believed not. ^ And the angels
which kept not their first estate,1 but
left their own habitation, he hath
reserved in everlasting chains under

Or, principality.

darkness unto the judgment of the
great day. (?) Even as Sodom and
Gomorrha, and the cities about them
in like manner, giving themselves
over to fornication, and going after

has special reference to Old Testament history, as what
follows seems to show.

How that the Lord. — " How that " depends upon
" remind," not upon " have known." There is very
strong evidence in favour of substituting " Jesus " for
" the Lord ; " a most remarkable reading, showing how,
in Christian language, the Man Jesus had become
identified with the Eternal Son. The use of " Christ "
in 1 Cor. x. 4, though less striking, is similar.

Having saved the people.— Or, perhaps, having
saved a people. A whole nation was rescued. The
order of the three examples of signal punishment is in
2 Peter chronological : impure angels, flood, Sodom
and Gomorrha ; here not. But the order here is quite
intelligible. St. Jude's main object is to warn his
readers against that party in the Christian community
who, by its abuse of Christian liberty, transformed
the gospel of purity into a gospel of wantonness, and
to give them a safeguard against such. And the safe-
guard is this : to hold fast the faith once for all
delivered to them, and to remember the consequences
of being unbelieving. For this purpose, no warning
could be more apposite than the fate of Jude's own
nation in the wilderness. This palmary instance given,
two others follow, probably suggested by 2 Peter.

Afterward destroyed. — Better, secondly de-
stroyed. Wiclif, "the secunde tyme"; PJieims,
" secondly." The Lord twice manifested His power
on Israel : (1) in mercy ; (2) in judgment. The refer-
ence is almost certainly to Num. xiv. 35 ; Deut. i. 35,
&c. The destruction of Jerusalem can scarcely be
meant, whatever date we assign to the Epistle, although
the striking reading, "Jesus" for "the Lord," gives
some countenance to such an interpretation. The most
obvious meaning is, that the people destroyed were
those who, in the first instance, were saved. Had the
destruction of Jerusalem been intended, the reference
would probably have been more clear.

(6) And the angels which kept not.— Rather,
because they kept not. The construction is similar to
that in Matt, xviii. 25, " Forasmuch as he had not to
pay." (See Note on verse 8.) This second instance of
the impure angels has nothing to do with the original
rebellion of Satan, or " fall of the angels." The refer-
ence is either to Gen. vi. 2, or (more probably), to
passages in the Book of Enoch. (See Excursus at the
end of this Epistle.)

Their first estate.— The Greek word has two
meanings: (1) beginning, which our translators have
adopted here ; (2) rule or power, which would be
better. "Wiclif has " prinshood ; " Rheims, " princi-
palitie." The word is translated "rale" (1 Cor. xv. 24)
and " principality " (Rom. viii. 38 ; Eph. i. 21 ; iii. 10 ;
vi. 12 ; Col. i. 16 ; ii. 10, 15 ; Titus iii. 1). The term
belongs to the Jewish classification of angels, and j
here refers rather to their power over things earthly
than to the beginning of their state. The two meanings j
are but two views of the same fact : their power or ;
dignity was their first estate. Some explain the word
of the power of God over the angels ; but both wording
and context are against this.

Their own habitation.— Their proper home. By
leaving heaven and coming down to earth, they lost

their power over the earth. (Comp. Milton's Paradise
Lost, Book v.)

He hath reserved.— Better, He hath kept, in
ironical contrast to " which kept not " just above : the
same Greek word is used in both cases. This ironical
contrast does not exist in the parallel passage, 2 Pet.
ii. 4. Would a writer, quite willing to copy, have failed
to copy this F On the other hand, what more natural
than that St. Jude should add a forcible touch ?

In everlasting chains.— Speculations as to how
this and 2 Pet. ii. 4 are to be reconciled with such
texts as Luke xxii. 31, 1 Pet. v. 8, which speak plainly
of the freedom and activity of Satan, and Eph. vi. 12,
Rom. viii. 38, Col. ii. 15, which imply numerous agents
akin to him, are not very profitable. The reality of
powers of evil may be inferred, apart from Scripture,
from their effects. That some of these powers are
personal, some not, some free, some not, and that all are
to be defeated at last, seems to be implied in Scripture ;
but its silence is a rebuke to curious speculation.
Enough is told us for our comfort, warning, and assur-
ance. It consoles us to know that much of the evil of
which we are conscious in ourselves is not our own,
but comes from without. It puts us on our guard to
know that we have such powers arrayed against us. It
gives us confidence to know that we have abundant
means of victory even over them.

Under darkness.— The Greek word occurs only
here, verse 13, 2 Pet. ii. 4, 17, and possibly Heb. xii. 18.
A separate English word, such as "gloom," is desirable
for these passages.

The great day.— So called Rev. vi. 17 (comp.
xvi. 14), and nowhere else in the New Testament.
Perhaps it comes from Joel ii. 31 ; Mai. iv. 5. St.
John's expression is the " last day " (John vi. 39, 40,
44, 54 ; xi. 24 ; xii. 48 : and nowhere else). " The day
of judgment," " that day," and " the day of the Lord,"
are other common expressions.

(7) Even as. — Or, possibly, how, like " how that " in
verse 5, depending upon "put you in remembrance."
Sodom and Gomorrha are typical instances of divine
vengeance both in the Old and New Testament (Isa.
xiii. 19; Jer. 1. 40; Rom. ix. 29).

And the cities about them. — Adma and Zeboim
(Deut. xxix. 23 ; Hos. xi. 8).

In like manner. — We must read, in like manner
to these, and arrange the sentence thus : Even as
Sodom and Gomorrha, and the cities about them,
giving themselves over to fornication in like manner
to these. Who are meant by " these " ? Not the un-
godly men of verse 4, which would anticipate verse 8 ;
nor the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrha, which
would be somewhat clumsy in the Greek ; but the
angels of verse 6. The reference is again to the
impurity of certain angels in having intercourse with
the daughters of men, of which there is so much in the
Book of Enoch. This sin of the angels was strictly
analogous to that of the people of Sodom.

Going after strange flesh.— Strictly, going astray
after other flesh — i.e., other than is allowed; leaving
natural for unnatural uses.

Are set forth for an example, suffering the
vengeance of eternal Are. — It would be possible

510

God's Judgments

JUDE.

a Warning to Sinners.

strange1 flesh, are set forth for an
example, suffering the vengeance of
eternal fire. (8) Likewise also these
filthy dreamers defile the flesh, despise
dominion, and speak evil of dignities.
<9> Yet Michael the archangel, when
contending with the devil he disputed

about the body of Moses, durst not
bring against him a railing accusa-
tion, but said, The Lord rebuke thee.*
(10) But these speak evil of those things
which they know not : but what they
know naturally, as brute beasts, in
those things they corrupt themselves.

to take "of eternal fire" after " example," th' is : are
set forth as an example of eternal fire ir under-
going punishment. (Comp. Wisd. x. 7.) The puirish-
ment of the submerged cities is perpetual ; moreover,
there are appearances as of volcanic fire under them. The
Greek for " undergoing" occurs here only in the New
Testament ; but comp. 2 Mace, ivs 48.

(8—10) Application of these three instances to the
libertines who are now provoking God.

(8) Likewise also. — Rather. Yet in like manner: i.e.,
in spite of these warnings. These ungodly men were
like the unbelievers in the wilderness in denying Christ
and scoffing at His promises ; they were like the impure
angels in leaving that " constitution which is in heaven "
(Phil. iii. 20) for the base pleasures of earth ; they were
like the people of Sodom in seeking even these base
pleasures by unnatural courses.

These filthy dreamers.— We must add also.
"Filthy" is not in the original Greek, nor in any
previous English version, but is supplied from the
next clause ; not rightly, for " di-eamers" goes with all
three clauses, not with " defile the flesh " only. This
being admitted, a number of painful interpretations
ire at once excluded. " These dreamers also " means
these ungodly men, who are deep in the slumber of sin
(see Note on Rom. xiii. 11), as well as the three classes of
sinners just mentioned. Excepting in Acts ii. 17, which
is a quotation from Joel ii. 28, the word for " dreamer"
occurs nowhere else in the New Testament, but is found
in the LXX. version of Isa. lvi. 10, of dogs that dream
and make a noise in their sleep. St. Jude perhaps has
this passage in his mind. (See below, second Note on
verse 12.) " Dreamers " may perhaps refer to the empty
speculations of these men.

Defile the flesh.— Like the inhabitants of the
cities of the plain. Some of the earliest forms of
Gnosticism, on its antinomian as distinct from its
ascetic side, exhibit the licentiousness inveighed against
here ; e.g., the Simouians, Nicolaitanes, Cainites, Car-
pocratians.

Despise dominion.— Like the impure angels.
Insert u and " before " despise." The " dominion," or
lordship, is that of Almighty God. Set aside, or
reject (Mark vii. 9; Luke vii. 30; John xii. 48),
would be better than "despise," to mark the difference
between this and 2 Pet. ii. 10.

Speak evil of dignities.— Like the murmurers in
the wilderness. By " dignities," or glories, are meant
unseen powers worthy of reverence. The Greek word
is rare in the New Testament ; only here, 2 Pet. ii. 10,
and 1 Pet. i. 11. Earthly dignities, whether ecclesias-
tical or civil, are not included. (Comp. the doctrine of
Menander, Irenaeus, I. xxiii. 5.)

(9) Yet Michael the archangel.— These libertines
allow themselves to use language against celestial
beings which even an archangel did not venture to
use against Satan. In the Old Testament Michael
appears as the guardian angel of the people of Israel,

Dan. x. 21 ; xii. 1 ; in the New Testament he is mentioned
only here and in Rev. xii. 7. In the Book of Enoch liis
meekness is spoken of ; he is "the merciful, the patient,
the holy Michael," xl. 8.

He disputed about the body of Moses.— To
be understood quite literally: to make "the body of
Moses " into a metaphor for the people of Israel, or the
Mosaic law, is most unnatural. This passage is the
only evidence extant of any such incident or tradition.
The nearest approach to it is the Targum of Jonathan
on Deut. xxxiv. 6, which says that Michael was the
appointed guardian of Moses' grave. According to
Origen (De Princip. III. ii. 1) the source of it is a book
called the Ascension, or Assumption of Moses. Evi-
dently it is something supposed to be well known to
those whom St. Jude is addressing, and it appears to be
given as a fact which he believes, though we cannot be
sure of this. In any case it does not follow that we
are to believe in it as an historical fact. Reverent, and
therefore cautious, theories of inspiration need not ex-
clude the possibility of an unhistorical incident being
cited as an illustration or a warning. St. Paul makes
use of the Jewish legend of the rock following the
Israelites in the wilderness as an illustration (1 Cor.
x. 4). The strange question, " What did the devil want
with the body of Moses ? " has been asked, and answered
in more ways than one :— (1) to make it an object of
idolatry, as the Israelites would be very likely to worship
it ; (2) to keep it as his own, as that of a murderer, be-
cause Moses killed the Egyptian (Ex. ii. 12).

Durst not . . .—Out of respect to Satan's original
angelic nature. (Comp. 1 Cor. vi. 1.)

A railing accusation.— More literally, a sentence
savouring of evil-speaking. Wiclif , " doom " ; Tyndale
and Cranmer, " sentence " ; Rheims, " judgment."
Michael brought no sentence against the devil, but left
all judgment to God.

The Lord rebuke thee.— The same rebuke is.
administered to Satan by the angel of Jehovah, when
Satan appears as the adversary of Joshua the high
priest, the restorer of the temple and of the daily sacri-
fice, and one of the Old Testament types of Christ
(Zech. iii. 2). It is probable that the tradition here
given by St. Jude is derived from this passage in
Zechariah, or from a source common to both. We have
another reminiscence of Zech. iii. 2 in verse 23.

(10) But these . . . — In strong contrast to the scru-
pulous reverence of the archangel. " Fools rush in
where angels fear to tread."

Those things which they know not.— The
"dignities" of verse 8. This shows that unseen spiri-
tual powers are there meant : these men would know
earthly rulers. It is on the unseen that they show
their irreverence.

What they know naturally.— The means of
gratifying their desires. The two halves of the verso
are in emphatic contrast. What they do not know, and
cannot know, they abuse by gross irreverence : what
they know, and cannot help knowing, they abuse by
gross licentiousness. If this Epistle is prior to 2 Peter

511

The Sins of Co

JUDE.

Balaam, and Korah.

(ii) Woe unto them ! for they have gone
,„ „„ in the way of Cain, and ran

Verses 11 — 19. ti m. j_i r-

The sins of greedily after the error or
Cain, Balaam, Balaam for reward, and
perished in the gainsaying

and Korah.

of Core. W These are spots in your feasts
of charity, when they feast with you,
feeding themselves without fear : clouds
they are without water, carried about
of winds ; trees whose fruit withereth,

it is strange that the author of the latter should have
neglected so telling an antithesis, and should (from a
literary point of view) have so spoiled the passage by
his mode of adaptation (chap. ii. 12). If 2 Peter is
prior there is nothing strange in St. Jude improving
upon tho mode of expression. The word for " know
is not the same in both clauses. The word used in
"which they know not" is the most general and
common word of the kind in Greek, expressing mere
perception, and occurring about three hundred times in
the New Testament; that used in "what they know
naturally" is more definite, and expresses practical
experience productive of skill and science ; it occurs
fourteen times in the New Testament, mostly in the
Acts. (Comp. " Paul I know," Acts xix. 15.)

They corrupt themselves.— Or, perhaps, they
ivork their own ruin. Note the tense ; not f mure, but
present. The corruption, or ruin, is not a judgment
hanging over them ; it is already going on.

(ii) Three examples of similar wickedness : Cain,
Balaam, Korah.

Woe unto them !— An echo of Christ's denuncia-
tions in the first three Gospels, whereby the description
of these evil-doers takes for the moment a denunciatory
form. The past tenses immediately following are
owing to the writer's placing himself in thought at the
moment when these men reap the consequences of their
sins : their punishment is so certain, that he regards it
as having come.

In the way of Cain.— The first great criminal;
the first to outrage the laws of nature. Explanations
to the effect that these libertines followed Cain by
murdering men's souls by their corrupt doctrine, or by
persecuting believers, and other suggestions still more
■curious, are needlessly far-fetched. John viii. 44, and
1 John iii. 15, are not strictly apposite : these ungodly
men may have hated and persecuted the righteous, but
St. Jude does not tell us so. Sensuality is always
selfish, but by no means always ill-natured or malig-
nant.

Ran greedily after the error of Balaam for
reward. — Tho Greek for " ran greedily " literally
means " they were poured out in streams ; " the Greek
for " error " may also mean " deception." Hence three
renderings are possible: (1) as the Authorised version;
(2) " they ran greedily after the deception of Balaam's
reward ; " (3) " they were undone by the deception of
Balaam's reward." The first is best. " Reward " in
the Greek is the genitive of price. Comp. "the
rewards of divination " (Num. xxii. 7) ; _ " they hired
against thee Balaam " (Peat, xxiii. 4 ; Neh. xiii. 2).
Here, again, far-fetched explanations may be avoided.
The allusion lies on the surface — running counter to
God's will from interested motives. Possibly, there
may also be some allusion to Balaam's causing the
Israelites to be seduced into licentiousness (Rev. ii. 14).

Perished in the gainsaying of Core— i.e.,
through gainsaying like that of Korah ; referring to his
speaking against Moses in the revolutionary opposition
whieh he headed. These libertines, like Korah; treated
sacred ordinances with contempt.

The triplet in this verse, like that in verse 8, is
parallel to the three examples of God's vengeance,
verses 5 — 7. Cain, like the inhabitants of Sodom and
Gomorrha, outraged the laws of nature ; Balaam, like
the impure angels, despised the sovereignty of God;
Korah, like those who disbelieved the report of the
spies, spoke evil of dignities.

(12-19) Three-fold description of the ungodly, cor-
responding to the three examples just given. The
divisions are clearly marked, each section beginning
with " These are "(verses 12, 16, 19).

(12—15) Description corresponding to Cain.

(12) These are spots in your feasts of charity,
when they feast with you.— Rather, These are the
rocks in your feasts of cliarity, banqueting with you
fearlessly (see next Note); 'or, These are they who ban-
quet together fearlessly, rocks in your feasts of charity.
The former is preferable. But in any case we must
probably read rocks — i.e., that on whieh those who
meet them at your love-feasts will be wrecked (see Notes
on 1 Cor. xi. 20 — 22) — not " spots," which is borrowed
from 2 Pet. ii. 13. But it is just possible that as
spiloi, St. Peter's word, may mean either " spots " or
"rocks" (though most commonly the foi-mer), so St.
Jude's word (spilades) may mean either " spots " or
" rocks" (though almost invariably tho latter). In an
Orphic poem of the fourth century, spilades means
'' spots " ; but this is rather late authority for its use in
the first century. Hei'e " rocks " is the safer transla-
tion. St. Peter is dwelling on the sensuality of these
sinners, and for him " spots " is the more obvious
metaphor. St. Jude, in tracing an analogy between
them and Cain, would be more likely to select " rocks."
These libertines, like Cain, turned the ordinances of
religion into selfishness and sin : both, like sunken
rocks, destroyed those who unsuspectingly approached
them. On the difference of reading respecting the
word for " feasts of charity," or " love-feasts," see Note
on 2 Pet. ii. 13. Possibly the name Agapai for such
feasts comes from this passage. Had it been common
when St. Paul wrote. 1 Cor. xi., he would probably have
made a point of it ; love-feasts in which there was no
love. (Comp. 1 Pet. v. 14.)

Feeding themselves without fear.— " Without
fear "goes better with "feasting with you"; but the
Greek admits of either construction. " Feeding them-
selves " instead of the poorer members of the flock ;
whereas feeding the poor was one great object of the
love-feasts. Others explain, " feeding themselves "
(literally, pasturing themselves) instead of waiting to
be tended by the shepherds. The former is better, the
scandal being similar to that described in 1 Cor. xi. 21.
(Comp. Isa. lvi. 11, which St. Jude may possibly have
had in his mind ; and see above, second Note on verse 8.)

Clouds without water.— Comp. Prov. xxv. 14.
The meaning is not that these men bring much food to
the love-feasts and give nothing away: there is no
longer any allusion tr the love-feasts. Rather, those
men are ostentatious generally, and yet do no good:
inflated and empty. (See on 2 Pet. ii. 17.)

512

Enoch' a Proj>heey

without fruit , twice dead, plucked up
by the roots ; (1:5) raging- waves of the
sea, foaming out their own shame ;
wandering stars, to whom is reserved
the blackness of darkness for ever.
<14> And Enoch also, the seventh from
Adam, prophesied of these, saying,
Behold, the Lord cometh with ten
thousands of his saints, (15» to execute
judgment upon all, and to convince all

JUDE. of the Lord's Judgment

that are ungodly among them of an.
their ungodly deeds which they have
ungodly committed, and of all their
hard speeches which ungodly sinners
have spoken against him. (16) These
are murmurers, complainers, walking
after their own lusts ; and their mouth
speaketh great swelling words, having
men's persons in admiration because of
advantage. (17) But, beloved, remember

Carried about of winds.— More literally, borne
past (without giving any rain) by winds ; or, perhaps,
driven out of their course (and so showing their flimsi-
ness) by winds.

Trees whose fruit withereth, without fruit.
— Them is no such strange contradiction in the Greek,
nor in any of the earlier English versions. The mean-
ing rather is, autumn trees (which ought to be full of
fruit, and yet are) without fruit; in allusion, probably,
to the barren fig-tree. Others, less simply, explain
" trees in late autumn " — i.e., stripped and bare. But
for this we should expect " winter trees " rather than
"autumn trees."

Twice dead.— Utterly dead, and hence "plucked j
up by the roots." Spiritually these men were " twice \
dead " in having returned, after baptism, to the death ]
of sin. The writer piles up metaphor on metaphor and
epithet on epithet in the effort to express his indig-
nation and abhorrence. The epithets here are in logical
order : in autumn, fruitless, dead, rooted up.

O3) Foaming out their own shame.— More
literally, shames ; their shameful acts. Isa. lvii. 20 is
probably in St. Jude's mind : " The wicked are like the
troubled sea, whose waters cast up mire and dirt."

Wandering stars.— Nothing is gained by under- '
standing comets, which have their orbits, and do not
wander, in St. Jude's sense, any more than planets do.
The image is that of stars leaving their place in the
heavens, where they are beautiful and useful, and i
wandering away (to the ntter confusion of every one [
■who directs his course by them) into sunless gloom,
where their light is extinguished, and whence they j
cannot return. This simile suits the " false teachers "
of 2 Peter better than the " ungodly " of Judo. Would
the writer of 2 Peter have neglected to avail himself
of it?

(14) And Enoch also.— On the Booh of Enoch, i
and this famous quotation from it, see Excursus at |
the end of the Epistle. The following passage from i
Irenseus (IV. xvi. 2) shows that he was acquainted with |
the book, and throws light on St. Jude's use of it : —
" Enoch also, pleasing God without circumcision, was
God's ambassador to the angels, although he was a
loan, and was raised to heaven, and is preserved even
until now as a witness of the just judgment of God.
For the angels by transgression fell to earth for judg-
ment, while a man, by pleasing God, was raised to
heaven for salvation." The mission of Enoch to the
fallen angels is narrated in the Book of Enoch, xii. —
xvi.

The seventh from Adam.— This is not inserted
without special meaning. It was scarcely needed to
distinguish the son of Jared from the son of Cain ; in
that case it would have been more simple to say, " the
son of Jared." It either points to the extreme antiquity
Oi tho prophecy, or else to the mystical and sabbatical

51 613

number seven. Enoch (see preceding Note) was a type
of perfected humanity, and hence the notion of " divine
completion and rest " is perhaps suggested here. Thus,
Augustine, in his reply to Faustus the Manichtaau
(XII. xiv.) : — "Enoch, the seventh from Adam, pleased
God and was translated, as there is to be a seventh day
of rest, in which all will be translated who during the
sixth day of the world's history are created anew by
the incarnate Word." Several of the numbers con-
nected with Enoch in Genesis seem to be symmetrical,
and intended to convey a meaning.

With ten thousands of his saints.— Or, among
His holy myriads — i.e., encircled by them. (Conip.
Deut. xxxiii. 2 ; Heb. xii. 22.)

(is) To execute judgment.-— The Greek phrase
occurs only here and John v. 27.

To convince. — Better, to convict. (Comp. John
viii. 46, and see Notes on John xvi. 8, and on 1 Cor.
xiv. 24.) The words " among them " must be omitted,
as wanting in authority.

Hard speeches.— Comp. John vi. 60, the only
other place where this epithet is applied to words.
The meaning is somewhat similar in each case : harsh,
repulsive, inhuman. It does not mean " hard to under-
stand." Nabal (1 Sam. xxv. 3) has this epithet with the
LXX., where the Authorised version has "churlish."
In the Ethiopic version of the Booh of Enoch there
appears to be nothing to represent " hard speeches . . .
spoken " in this passage.

(16—18) Description corresponding to Balaam.

(16) Complainers. — Literally, discontented with
their lot. Men who " shape their course according to
their own lusts" can never be content, for (1) the
means of gratifying them are not always present, and
(2) the lusts are insatiable. Such was eminently the
case with Balaam, in his cupidity and his chafing
against the restraints which prevented him from grati-
tifying it. There is a possible reference to this verse
in the Shepherd of Hernias (Sim. IX. xix. 3).

Great swelling words.— See Note on 2 Pet. ii. 18.

Having men's persons in admiration.— More
simply, admiring persons (so the Rhemish version) —
i.e., having regard to people of distinction, as Balaam
to Balak. These ungodly men were courtiers, flatterers,
and parasites.

Because of advantage.— -For the sake of advan-
tage— i.e., to gain something by it: like "for reward "
(verse 11). Exactly Balaam's case. Note that each half
of the verse falls into an irregular triplet.

(17) But, beloved.— Better, as in verse 20, But ye,
beloved. "Ye" is emphatic in both cases: "ye," in
contrast to these impious men. All previous English
versions insert the " ye." While taking the form of
an exhortation, the passage still remains virtually

The Apostle reminds them

JUDE.

of his previous Warnings.

ye the words which were spoken before
of the apostles of our Lord Jesus Christ;
(18) now that they told you there should
be mockers in tiie last time, who should
walk after their own ungodly lusts.

(19) These be they who separate them-
selves, sensual, having not the Spirit.
™ But ye, beloved, build- Yevses 20_23
ing up yourselves on your Final exhortal
most holy faith, praying tions.

descriptive. "Be not ye deceived by their impudent
boasting and interested pandering, for these are tin;
scoffing sensualists against whom the Apostles warned
you."

Spoken before of the apostles.— The old use of
"of" for "by," like " carried about of winds" (verse
12). (Comp. 2 Pet. ii. 19.) St. Judo implies that this
warning of the Apostles is well known to those whom
he addresses. This appeal to the authority of Apost les
would be more naturally made by one who was not an
Apostle, but cannot be regarded as decisive. See
Introduction, I., and Note on 2 Pet. iii. 2, to which,
however, this is not quite parallel, for the writer there
has already declared himself to be an Apostle (2 Pet.
i. 1). There is nothing to show that the author of our
Epistle regards the Apostles as considerably removed
in time from himself. "In the last time" is thsvr
expression, not his ; and by it they did not mean any
age remote from themselves. (Comp. 1 John ii. IS;
2 Tim. iii. 1, 2, 6 ; Heb. i. 2 ; 1 Pet. i. 20.)

(18) How that they told you.— Or, perhaps, used
to tell you : but we cannot infer from this that oral
teaching exclusively is meant. This, again, leaves the
question of the writer's position open. Had St. Jude
written " how that they told us," it would have been
decisive against his being an Apostle.

There should be mockers.— Better, that there
shall be scoffers. The quotation is direct, and is intro-
duced formally by a word which in Greek commonly
precedes a direct quotation. This, however, scarcely
amounts to proof that the quotation is from a written
document. The word for " mockers " here is the same
as that translated " scoffers " in 2 Pet. iii. 3. The
translation should be the same in both passages.

In the last time.— These words had better come
first : that in the last time there shall be scoffers.

Who should walk after their own ungodly
lusts. — Better, walking according to their own lusts of
impieties. The force of the genitive may be merely
adjectival, as the Authorised version renders it : but as
it may indicate the things lusted for, it is better to
keep a literal rendering of it.

(19) Description corresponding to Korah.

(19) These be they.— Better, These are they — for
the sake of making the openings of verses 12, 16, and
19 exactly alike, as they are in the Greek.

Who separate themselves.— "Themselves "must
be omitted, the evidence against it being overwhelming.
"Who separate : " who are creating a schism, like Korah
and his company; claiming to be the chief and most
enlightened members in the community to which they
still profess to belong, though they turn upside down
its fundamental principles. The context rather leads
us to suppose that these libertines claimed to be the
oidy " spiritual " Christians, inasmuch as they said
that to their exalted spiritual natures the things of
sense were purely indifferent, and might be indulged iu
■without loss or risk ; while they taunted other Chris-
tians, who regulated their conduct carefully with regard
to such things, with being psychic or " sensuous."
Note the three-fold division of the verse.

Sensual. — The Greek word is psychic, and has
no English equivalent; "sensuous" would perhaps be
best. The LXX. do not use it, but it occurs six times
in the New Testament. Four times (1 Cor. ii. 14;
xv. 44, 46) it is translated "natural" (see Note on
1 Cor. ii. 14); once (Jas. iii. 15), "sensual," with
" natural " in the margin ; and here simply " sensual."
In 1 Cor. xv. 44, 46, the moral meaning is in the back-
ground; in the other three passages the moral meaning
is prominent and is distinctly bad. Psychic is 1 1n-
middle term of a triplet of terms, " carnal, psychic,
spiritual." " Carnal " and " spiritual " speak for them-
selves— the one bad, the other good. Psychic, which
conies between, is much closer to " carnal." and with
it is opposed to ••spiritual." This is more clearly seen
in the Latin equivalents — (Mmatis, animalis, spiritalis.
The carnal man is ruled by his passions, and vises little
above the level of the brutes. The psychic man is
ruled by human reasoning, and human affections, and
does not rise above tin; world of sense. The spiritual
man is ruled by his spirit — the noblest part of his
nature — and this is ruled by the Spirit of God. He
rises to and lives among those things which can only be
"spiritually discerned." Our Christian psychology is
seriously affected by the absence of any English word
for psych ic — the part of man's nature which it repre-
sent s is often lost sight of.

Having not the Spirit.— Or, perhaps, because
they have no spirit. The Holy Spirit may he meant,
although the Greek word has no article ; but more
probably spiritual power and insight is what is meant.
These men had allowed the spiritual part of their
nature, of which they talked so much, to become so
buried in the mire of sensual indulgence and human
self-sufficiency, that it was utterly inoperative and
practically non-existent. The form of negative used
in the Greek seems to imply that their " having no
spirit " is the reason why they are justly called
" sensuous."

Each of these three descriptions (verses 12—15, 16 —
18, and 19) is shorter than the preceding one. Tho
writer hurries through an unpalatable subject to the
more pleasing duty of exhorting those faithful Chris-
tians for whose sake he is writing.

(20, 21) Exhortation to strengthen themselves in tho
faith by prayer, godliness, and hope.

(20) But ye, beloved.— Exactly as in verse 17:
"ye" in emphatic contrast to these sensuous and un-
spiritual men.

Building up yourselves. — Making yourselves
firm on the sure foundation of faith, in contradis-
tinction to those "who separate," and fancy themselves
firm in their impious conceits. The notion is not so
much that of increasing and completing an edifice as of
strengthening its foundations. Faith and its object
are here almost identified. To have faith as one's
foundation is the same as having Christ as one's
foundation. " Your faith," that which has been " once
for all delivered " to you (verse 4). " Most holy faith,"
as opposed to the most unholy quicksands of the
doctrines condemned in this Epistle.

Sow they a/re

JUDE.

t<> treat Sinners.

in the Holy Ghost, <21> keep yourselves in
the love of God, looking for the mercy
of our Lord Jesus Christ unto eternal
life. (--} And of some have compassion,
making a difference: (23)and others save
with fear, pulling tJwm out of the tire;
hating even the garment spotted by

the flesh. (24) Now unto him that is able
to keep you 'from falling, versos 2t, 25.
and to present you faultless I>oxol<w-
before the presence of his glory with ex-
ceedipg joy, (-r,) to the only wise God our
Saviour; bo glory and majesty, dominion
and power, both now and ever. Amen.

Praying in the Holy Ghost. -Only in this way
cnn Christiana make linn their foundation. TheGreek
admits of "in the Holy Ghost" being taken with the
previous clause; but our version is bettor. The ex-
pression "praying in the Holy Ghost" is not found I
elsewhere. It means that we pray in His strength and j
wisdom : He moves our hearts and directs our petitions. |
'See Notes on Rom. viii. 2b'.)

(tt) Keep yourselves in the love of God.— |
Not our love of God, but His love of us. Consequently ■
it is not the case that the three great Christian virtues
— Faith, Hope, and Charity — are inculcated here,
although at first sight we are tempted to think so.
God's love is the region in which those who are built
up on faith, and supported by prayer, may continually
dwell.

The mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ.— The
mercy which He will show as Judge at the Last Day.
By prayer in the Spirit we are kept in the love of the
Father for tho mercy of the Son.

Unto eternal life. -These words may be taken
either with " keep yourselves," or with " looking," or
with " mercy " : best with " keep yourselves."

(22, 23) Exhortation to treat these libertine3 with dis-
crimination, making three classes.

(22> And of some have compassion, making
a difference. — The evidence is very strong in favour
of a widely different reading : And some indeed convict
(verso 15) when they are in doubt (Matt. xxi. 21;
Acts x. 20; xi. 12; Rom. iv. 20; xiv. 23; Jas. i. 6) ; or,
when they contend with you (verse 9 ; Acts xi. 2) ; or,
when they separate from you. Tho first seems best,
though the second also makes excellent sense, and has
verse 0 in its favour. This, then, is the first and least
hopeless class — those who are still in doubt, though
inclined the wrong way. They may still be; remon-
strated with, convicted of error, and reclaimed (Matt.
xviii. 15; Titus i. 13; Jas. v. 20). Some would make
this first class the worst and most hopeless— those
who are to be argued down in disputation, but without
much chance of success. Such interpreters make
the third class the best : those Avho can probably bo
saved by gentle means. The Greek here is so am-
biguous that wo cannot be certain of the meaning.
But the addition of "in fear" and "hating even the
garment spotted by the flesh" to the directions re-
specting the third class, seems to indicate that that
class is tlu' worst.

'23) And others save with fear.—" With fear"
must certainly bo omitted, as no part of the true text.
" Save " should perhaps be try to save. It is the present
imperative, not the aorist.

Pulling them out of the fire.— Better, snatching
them out of the fire. We have here another reminiscence
of Zecii. iii. 1 — 3: we had one in verse 9. (Comp. Amos
iv. 11.) The fire of the judgment to come is probably
not meant; rather the imminent danger (as of one who
is asleep in a burning house) in which the tire of their

si;

sins keeps them. This is (lie second class : thoso who
can still he rescued, but by strong measures. .

After the words "out of the fire" we must insert
another clause omitted from the inferior Greek texts
used by our translators: "and on others have com-
passion in fear." Wiclif and the Rhemish version,
following the Vulgate, have this clause. This is the
third and worst class: those on whom profound pity
is all that we dare bestow, and that in fear and
trembling, lest by contact with them we may be brought
within the influence of the deadly contamination that
clings to all their surroundings. Abhorrence must be
shown to tho very externals of pollution. (Comp. 1 Cor.
v. 11 ; 1 Tim. v. 22; Titus iii. 10, 11; 1 John v. 16;
2 John, verses 10, 11.)

(24, 25) Concluding Doxology.

C8*) Now unto him that is able.— Comp. the
conclusion Rom. xvi. 25. It would be rash to infer
from the similarity that St. Judo must have known the
Epistle to the Romans ; although there is nothing in-
credible in the supposition that he was acquainted with
it. Tho Epistle had been in circulation probably for
some ten years before St. Judo wrote. Doxologies no
doubt became elastic formulas almost from the first.

To keep you from falling. — Better, to keep you
unfallen. From his own warnings, denunciations, and
exhortations, which have been severe and sombre
throughout, St. Jude turns in joyous, exulting con-
fidence to Him who alone can make them effectual.
" Keep you," or, guard you : not the more general
word translated " preserved " in verse 1, but another
more in harmony with tho present context, as indicating
protection against the great perils just pointed out. A
reading of much authority has "them" for "you" — ■
to heep them unfallen. If it be correct, it may be
explained as being in thought, though not in form,
addressed to God, so that those to whom ho is writing
are spoken of in the third person.

Before the presence of his glory.— Tho glory
that shall be revealed at the day of judgment. The
meaning is, " Who can bring it to pass that you stand
blameless before the judgment-seat " (Col. i. 22 ; 1 Thess.
iii. 13).

(25) To the only wise God our Saviour.— Tho
coupling of " Saviour " with " God " is common in the
Pastoral Epistles (1 Tim. i. 1 ; ii. 3 ; Titus i. 3; ii. 10 ;
iii. 4). " Wise " must bo omitted as wanting in
authority. (See Note on Rom. xvi. 27.) Doxologies
became well-known forms with many variations :
changes to something more familiar to tho copyist
might easily be made in transcribing.

After " Saviour " must bo inserted, on the highest
MS. authority, " through Jesus Christ our Lord."
Wiclif and the Rhemish have tho missing clause.

Glory and majesty, dominion and power.—
Omit the first, " and." " Glory " and " dominion " are
frequent in the New Testament doxologies : the Greek
Avords represented by "majesty" and "power" occur

JUDE.

here only. After " power " we must supply, on over-
whelming authority, "before all time." Consequently
"is'' may be substituted for "be" before "glory;"
but no verb is needed.

Both now and ever. — Better, and now and to
all the ages ; so that the whole will run thus : To
the only God our Saviour, through Jesus Christ
our Lord, glory, majesty, dominion, and power,
before all time, and now, and to all the ages.
Tims we have a most comprehensive phrase for
eternity — before time, time, after time — and thus

the three-fold arrangement runs through to the very
end.

Amen. —Common ending of a doxology. (Rom.
i. 25; 1 Pet. iv. 11; 2 Pet. iii. 18.) These ungodly
men may " despise dominion, and speak evil of dignities,"
may utter " great swelling words " about their own
knowledge and liberty, and scoff at those who walk not
with them ; but still, ages before they were born, and
ages after they have ceased to be, glory, majesty, domi-
nion, and power belong to Him who saves us, and would
save even them, through Jesus Christ our Lord.

EXCURSUS ON NOTES TO JUDE.

ON THE BOOK OF ENOCH.

The precise place in histoiy to which this intensely
interesting relic belongs is a riddle of which the answer
is as yet only very partially known. But the results
of investigations during the present century have shown
that the attention paid to the Book of Enoch in the
second, third, and fourth centuries was fully justified.
It is strange that such a book should have been allowed
to pass out of sight. The canonical Book of Revela-
tion inspired Christians, just as the Book of Daniel
inspired Jews, with a love of revelations, visions, and
prophecies, which was at times insatiable, and which
has produced a mass of literature of which wo could
span' a great deal in exchange for something more solid.
Men were so busy divining the future that they forgot to
record the present and the past.

And yet a book so eminently in harmony with this
taste was suffered to perish. This is all the more
strange because judgment, hell, and heaven are among
the main subjects of the book, and the end of the world
was precisely the favourite subject of speculation
among Christians from the fourth to the tenth century.
Moreover, there was the passage in Jude, to say nothing
of notices in the Fathers, to keep the book from being
forgotten. Perhaps the reason was that just the two
data by which men expected to determine the approach
of the end of the world — the downfall of Rome and
the coming of Antichrist — are not hinted at in the Boole
of Enoch. Be this as it may, the fact remains that
from the fourth to the eighteenth century the book was
entirely lost in Western Europe. Some fragments pre-
served in Greek in the Chronographia of Georgius
Syncellus (circ. A.D. 800) show that the book was known
in Eastern Christendom much later than in the West ;
but after that we lose all trace of it. Early in the
seventeenth century it was rumoured that an Ethiopic
version of it existed in Abyssinia. These rumours
ended in disappointment. But in 1773 James Brace
brought back from Abyssinia three MSS. of the Ethio-
pic version. Silvestre de Sacy published a Latin trans-
lation of some of the early chapters in 1800; and-
in 1821 Archbishop Lawrence published an English
translation of the whole, followed by the Ethiopic
text in 1838. Since then the study of the book
has been almost confined to Germany, where Hof-
niann, (Jfrbrer. Lutzelberger, Liicke, Dillmann, Ewald,
Kostliu, Hilgenfeld, Weisse, Volkmar, and Philippi,

have all contributed to the subject ; Dillmann far the
most. The results are anything but harmonious ; but
something has been ascertained on which reliance can
be placed.

The Ethiopic is a translation from the Greek, and the
Greek (of which only the portion preserved by Georgius
Syncellus is known) is probably a translation from the
Aramaic. A Hebrew Book of Enoch was in existence
as late as the thirteenth century, but we have no cer-
tainty that it was identical with the existing work. A
more secure ground for believing in an Aramaic original
is the fact that many of the proper names come from
Aramaic roots. The Ethiopic version is both redundant
and defective : redundant in containing repetitions which
can scarcely be intentional ; defective inasmuch as not
even all that Georgius Syncellus has preserved is con-
tained in it. The repetitions may possibly bo the result
of unintelligent copying, different recensions being
clumsily strung together.

All are agreed that the book is not all by one hand.
In the main it probably is so ; but the aiithor seems to
haAre incorporated portions of other works ; and it is
suspected that the volume, as thus formed, has since
been interpolated. To distinguish the earlier frag-
ments and the later additions from the main body of
the work, and to assign dates to each, is the great
problem that still remains to be worked out. Very
wide differences of opinion exist on the subject, but
there is considerable agreement in assigning the
main body of the book to B.C. 150 — 110. Liicke at
first believed that the book was composed after the
Christian era; but in the second edition of his Ein-
leitung in die Offenbarung Johannis (Bonn, 1852) he
abandoned this view, and placed the first and last parts
in the Maccabajan period, and assigned the central
part — i.e., the parables — to about B.C. 40. Hofmaun,
Weisse, and Philippi have since taken up the theory of
a post-Christian origin, but it has not met with much
favour. Volkmar seems to stand alone in maintaining
that the book was the work of disciples of the great
Rabbi Akiba, and was written to incite people to
join the standard of the impostor, Bar-Cochba, in his
revolt against Hadrian, A.D. 132. Information on the
subject for English readers is best derived from Law-
rence's translation and preliminary dissertation, the
article by Westcott in the Dictionary of the Bible, and

516

JUDE.

that by Lipsius in the Dictionary of Christian Bio-
graphy, from which sources much of tho above is
taken. See also Westcott's Introduction to the Gospels,
p. 93.

The essentially Jewish character of the whole book is
manifest, although it may contain Christian interpola-
tions. There is no doctrine of the Trinity, and nothing
distinctly Christian. Of the Incarnation, tho name
Jesus, tho life on earth, tho Crucifixion, the Resurrection,
the Ascension, of Baptism, and the Eucharist, there is
not a trace. The Messiah is the Son of Man {passim),
the Son of woman (lxi. 9), the Elect (passim), whom
the Lord of spirits seats on tho throne of His glory to
judge " in the word of the name of the Lord of spirits"
(lx. 10, 11 ; lxviii. 39) ; but ho is not the Word, he is
not God.

These facts suffice to show that the book as a whole
is Jewish and not Christian. On the other hand, the
absence of antagonism to Christianity seems to show
that the book was not written after the Christian era.
Volkmar's theory, that it was written in the interests
of the false Messiah, Bar-Cochba, is rendered at once
improbable by the fact that constant reference to the
Book of Enoch is made in the Testaments of the Twelve
Patriarchs. Tliis work was known to Origen, and
perhaps to Tertullian, and therefore cannot be later
than a.d. 150 — 200. But it was probably written
before a.d. 135, i.e., before that obliteration of the very
walls and name of Jerusalem which was the im-
mediate result of Bar-Cochba's revolt. The author, a
Jewish Christian, attacks the idea that Jewish ceremonial
is still binding; and is perpetually reminding the
Jews that the Messiah is not only a King but a Pries! ,
and a Priest to whom tho Aaronic priesthood must
resign. This idea does not at all suit the half century
following Hadrian's destruction of Jerusalem; for that
event put an end to the danger of Jewish ceremonial
overgrowing Christianity. Whereas before that event
the danger of a relapse into Judaism was, for the
church in Palestine, a very real one. The Testaments
of the Twelve Patriarchs may be placed a.d. 100 — 135 ;
and consequently the Book of Enoch must be placed
earlier still. (Comp. Dorner's Person of Christ, i., pp.
152, 417, 420.)

It is well worth while to read the whole of Law-
rence's translation. Those who do so cannot fail to be
often struck with the dignity and beauty even of this
translation of a translation. Not unfrequently they
will come upon something which reminds them of
2 Peter or Jude. The resemblance is often of the
faintest — a couple of words in altogether different con-
text, or a similar thought very differently expi'essed.
It would be strange if all these resemblances were
purely accidental; and an opportunity of forming an
opinion on this question is given in the following pages,
where specimens of these resemblances are tabulated.

The impression which this fact conveys is that the
writers of these Epistles, or at least one of them, was
well acquainted with the Book of Enoch, and that it

suggested sometimes a thought, sometimes a phrase to
him. It is possible, however, that all three writers
may have derived material from a common source.
These questions can scarcely be settled finally until a
Greek copy of the book comes to light, an event by no
means to be despaired of in an age in which so many
literary treasures have been recovered.

The book is evidently the work of a man of the most
earnest convictions : one who believes in God and fears
Him, and is appalled at the practical infidelity and utter
godlessness which he finds around him. There are two
things on which he is never tired of insisting : (1) that
God's rule extends everywhere, over men and angels no
less than over winds and stars ; (2) that this rule is a
moral one, for He bounteously rewards righteousness
and fearfully punishes sin. Nothing, therefore, could
well be more in harmony with the spirit and purpose of
St. Jude; and it ought not to surprise us that he makes
use of such a work. Whether or no he was aware of
the apocryphal nature of the book, we have no means
of determining. Neither alternative need startle us —
that he should have been mistaken on such a point, or
should knowingly have quoted an uncanonical book.
St. Paul was not afraid to quote heathen poets.

It may reassure us in any case to remember that, in
spite of the quotation in St. Jude. the" mind of Christ's
Church has never wavered as to the true nature of the
Book of Enoch. It is one of the many eccentricities of
Tertullian that he upholds its authority; but he is alone
in doing so. His argument is so curious as to be worth
summarising: — "I am quite aware that some reject the
book, and that it is not in the Jewish canon. I suppose
people think that it could never have survived the deluge.
But might not Noah have heard and remembered it all P
or have been inspired to repeat it, just as Ezra is be-
lieved to have restored the Jewish literature lost in the
destruction of Jerusalem ? Nothing must be rejected
which really concerns us ; and we read that every Scrip-
ture suitable for edification is divinely inspired. The
Jews reject it, as they reject other things, because it
tells of Christ" (De Cultu Fern., I. iii.).

It is not quite certain whether Justin Martyr knew
it or not. In Apol. II., v., he gives in few words an
account of the fall of the angels, and the consequences
of it, very similar to that in the Book of Enoch, vi. — xvi.
Justin and the author of the book may have got this
from a common source ; but, in any case, Justin's ac-
cepting the account is no proof that he accepted the
book as of any authority. Origen and Augustine dis-
tinctly mark it as apocryphal, and it is included in no
list of the Scriptures, whether Jewish or Christian.

The question still remains — does St. Jude quote this
book? More than one critic answers in the negative,
maintaining that he merely quotes a traditional saying
of Enoch, which the author of the Book of Enoch in-
serted. Of course this is possible ; but, as the book was
in existence when St. Jude wrote, was probably well
known, and contains the passage quoted, the more
reasonable view is that St. Jude quotes from the book.

517

JUDE.

TABULATED SPECIMENS OF PARALLELS BETWEEN THE BOOK OF ENOCH AND THE SECOND
EPISTLE OF ST. PETER AND THE EPISTLE OF ST. JUDE.

Enoch.

ii. Behold, He comes with ten
thousands of His saints, to execute
judgment upon them, and destroy
the wicked and reprove all the carnal,
for every thing which the sinful and
ungodly have done and committed
against Him.

i. 8. The splendour of the God-
head shall illuminate them.

v. The earth is scorched up with
fervid heat.

vi. 4, 5. Tou calumniate [His]
greatness ; and malignant are the
words in your polluted mouths
against His majesty. Yc withered
in heart, no peace shall he unto you.

vii. 1, 2. It happened, after the
sons of men had multiplied in those
days, that (laughters were horn to
them, elegant and beautiful. And

when the angels, the sons of heaven,
beheld them, they became enamoured
of them, saying to each other; Come,
let us select for ourselves wives
from the progeny of men, and let
us beget children.

x. 26. Then shall the children of
the earth be righteous. (Comp. 1. 5 :
The earth shall rejoice ; the righteous
shall inhabit it, and the elect pos-
sess it.)

xiv. 9. Clouds and a mist invited
me ; agitated stars . . . pressed me
forwards.

xv. 7. Therefore I made not
wives for you [angels], because, being
spiritual, your dwelling is in heaven.

xviii. 16. Therefore was He
offended with them [the angels],
and bound them, until the period of
the consummation of their crimes in
the secret year. (Comp. xxi. 2, 3 :
I beheld ... a desolate spot, pre-
pared, and terrific. There too I
beheld seven stars of heaven [angels]
bound in it together. . . . These
are those of the stars which have
transgressed the commandment of
the most high God; and are here
bound, until the infinite number of
the days of their crimes be com-
pleted. Comp. lxxxvii. 2, 3.)

xl. 8. The merciful, the patient,
the holy Michael.

2 Peter.

i. 17. TJie excellent glory.

iii. 10. The elements shall be
dissolved with fervent heat, the earth
also.

ii. 10. They are not afraid to
spealc evil of dignities.

ii. 4. For if God spared not the
cngels that sinned.

iii. 13. We look for new heavens
and a new earth, wlierein dwellelh
righteousness.

ii. 17. Mists that are driven with
the storm-wind.

ii. 4. If God spared not the
angels that sinned, but cast them
down to hell, and delivered them
into chains of darkness, to be re-
served unto judgment.

JUDE.

14, 15. Behold, the Lord cometh
with ten thousands of His saints, to
execute judgment upon all. and to
convince all that are ungodly among
them of all their ungodly deeds
which they have ungodly committed
and of all their hard speeches which
ungodly sinners have spoken against
Him.

8. Despise dominion, and speak
evil of dignities.

10. But these speak evil of those
things which they know not.

12. Without fruit, twice dead,
plucked up by the roots.

6. And the angels which kept
not their first estate, but left their
own habitation.

12. Clouds they are without
water.

13. Wandering stars.

6. The angels which kept not
their first estate, but left their own
habitation.

6. He hath reserved in everlast-
ing chains under darkness unto the
judgment of the great day.

9. Michael . . . durst not bring
against him a vailing accusation, but
said. The Lord rebuke thee.

Enoch.

xli. 1, Tin* sinners who denied
fhe Lord of glory.

xlv. 2. Sinners who deny the
name of the Lord of spirits. (Comp.

xlvii. 11 ; lxvi. 12.)

xlv. 4, 5. I will change the hire
of heaven. ... 1 will also change
the face of the earth; will Mess it;
and cause those whom I have fleeted,
to dwell upon it.

liii. 8 — 10. All the witters, which
are in the heavens and above them,
shall be mixed together. The water
which is above heaven shall he the
agent; and the water which is under
tiw earth shall be the recipient;
and all shall be destroyed who dwell
upon earth.

Iviii. 4. Hitherto has existed the
day of mercy; and He has been
merciful and long-suffering towards
all ivho dwell on the earth.

lxvi. 6. Tlie valley of the angels,
who had been guilty of seduction,
burned underneath its soil. 15. The
waters will be changed, and become
afire which shall blaze for ever.

lxviii. :>!>. Those who seduced
them shall be bound with cliains for
ever.

Ixxxii. 4 — 6. I saw in a vision
hen ecu purify 'nig a ad snatched away.
... 1 saw likewise the earth ab-
sorbed by a great abyss, and moun-
tains suspended over mountains.
Mills were sinking upon hills, lofty
frees were gliding off from their
trunks and were . . . sinking into
the abyss.

xcii. 17, IS. The former heaven
shall depart and p>ass away ; a new
heaven shall appear. . . . After-
wards likewise shall there be many
weeks, which shall externally exist in
goodness and righteousness. Neither
shall sin be named there for ever.

xcAd. 25. To them there shall be
no peace ; but they shall surely die
suddenly,

xcvii. 1. Woe to them who act
impiously, who laud and honour the
word of falsehood.

cii. 7. You have been satiated
with meat and drink, with human
plunder and rapine, with sin, with
the acquisition of wealth, and with
the sight of good days.

cv. K>, 1 1. Behold they com milled
crimes; laid aside their class, and
intermingled with women. With
them also bhi v transgressed ; married
with them, and begot children. A
great destruction therefore shall
come upon (he earth ; a deluge, a
great destruction, shall take place
in one year.

JUDE.

2 Peter.

ii. 1. Even denying the Lord
that bousrht them.

iii. 1:!. We look for urn- heavens

and a, ueie earth, wherein dwelleth

righteousness.

iii. 5, 6. By the word of God the
heavens were of old, and the earth
consisting out of water and through
water: whereby the world thai then
was, being overflowed with water,
perished.

iii. 9. The Lord is not slack con-
corning His promise, as some men
count slackness; but is longsuffering
to us-ward, not willing that any
should perish, but that all should
come to repentance.

ii. 4. God spared not the angels
that sinned, but . . . delivered them
into chains of darkness.

iii. 10. The heavens shall pass
away with a rushing noise, and the
elements shall be dissolved with
fervent heat, the earth also; and
shall the works thereof be found P

iii. 10. The heavens shall pass
away. 13. We look for new heavens
and a 'new earth, wherein dicelleth
righteousness.

ii. 1. Shall bring upon themselves
swift destruction.

ii., 13. As they that count it
pleasure to riot in the day-time.
Spots they are and blemishes, sport-
ing themselves with their own de-
ceivings while they feast with you.

ii. 4, 5. God spared not the angel*
that sinned, but cast them down to
hell, and delivered them into chains
of darkness, to be reserved unto
judgment j and spared not the old
world . . . bringing in the flood
up&n the world of the ungodly.

519

JUDE.

4. Denying the only Lord, and
our Lord Jesus Christ.

7. Sodom and Gomorrha . . ".
giving themselves over to fornica-
tion, and going after strange flesh,
are set forth for an example, suffer-
ing the vengeance of eternal fire.

6. The angels which kept not
their first estate . . . He hath re-
served in everlasting chains.

11. Woe unto them! for they
have gone in the way of Cain, and
ran greedily after the error of Ba-
laam for reward.

12. These ai-e spots in your
feasts of charity, when they feast
with you, feeding themselves with-
out fear. 16. Having men's persons
in admiration because of advantage.

6. The angels which "kept not
their first estate, lint left their OV)H
habitation. He hath reserved in
everlasting chains.

THE REVELATION

ST. JOHN THE DIVINE.

INTRODUCTION

THE REVELATION

ST. JOHN THE DIVINE.

I. The Author.
II. The Date and Time of Writing.
III. Schools and Principles of Interpretation.

I. The Author.— The general opinion of the Church
of Christ lias accepted the Apocalypse as the work of
John the Apostle, but this general opinion has been called
in question. Our space can only allow us to lay before
our readers a brief resume of the reasons which have
been urged on either side. For convenience it will be
as well to ask the following questions : —

(1) Was the Writer's name John 1 — At first sight it
would seem that there could be but one answer to this
question. The book announces itself as written by a
person whose name was John. Four times over does
the name occur (Rev. i. 1, 4, 9 ; xxii. 8 ).

Is there any reason for questioning the witness thus
given by the book itself ? It has been asserted that the
writer does not claim to be John, but only " gives a
report of a revelation which John had received "
(Scholten). It is perfectly time that a writer might
thus dramatically represent the Apostle John as the
seer of the revelation ; but such possibility is no proof
that it was so, and certainly cannot be entertained in
the total absence of all proof. The reiteration of the
name four times is out of harmony with this conjecture ;
and the theory would not, as Gebhardt has remarked,
be applied to any other book of the New Testament.
Would any serious reply be " thought necessary should
it occur to some one to reject the First Epistle to the
Corinthians, because from such passages as 1 Cor. i. 13,
it does not follow that the author identifies himself with
Paul, but gives (1 Cor. i. 1, 2), after the manner of an
introduction, a report of an Epistle which the Apostle
wrote ? "

We may assume, then, that the writer's name was
John.

(2) Was the Writer John the Apostle. — It is round
this question that we meet the most serious conflict.

(a) It is admitted on all hands, even by those who
oppose the apostolic authorship of the book, that the
great consensus of early opinion regarded the writer as
St. John the Apostle. " From the time of Justin Martyr
to that of Irenaeus and the great Fathers, the Apoca-
lypse was recognised as a production of the Apostle."
Such is the opinion of Keim (Jesu v. Nazara). "We
find the Revelation unhesitatingly attributed to him
(St. John) by the Fathers from the middle of the second
century downwards; by Justin Martyr, Irenaeus,
Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, and others " (Bleek).
The opinion of the third century was the same. Origen,
whose opposition to millenarianism adds value to his
testimony, Cyprian, Lactautius, and others, acknowledge
the Apocalypse as the work of St. John.

IV. CJeneral Scope of the Book.
V. Literature.

Setting aside the opinion of Marcion, and of the un-
important sect of the Alogi (see Introduction to (hi
First Epistle to St. John), doubts respecting the
apostolic authorship seem to have commenced with
Dionysius of Alexandria ; these doubts, which were
echoed hesitatingly by Eusebius, were based not *m
historical or critical, so much as upon doctrinal
grounds : the dread of millenarianism created a wish
to discredit the book which appeared to lend such
weight to the disliked doctrine. It is needless to
follow the history of this controversy ; it is enough to
notice that the first breach of this continuous early
opinion in favour of the apostolic authorship grew out
of doctrinal prejudice rather than candid examination.

(b) In later years, the controversy has been fought
from different bases of operation. The conflict re-
specting the authorship of the Fourth Gospel (see
Introduction to St. John's Gospel) has complicated the
dispute. It seemed to some impossible to believe that
the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse proceeded from
the same pen. The divergence in style and language
was, in their view, too great to admit of their being
written by the same man, even though that man were
an Apostle. If the Gospel was the work of St. John,
the Apocalypse could not be. The generally accepted
opinion that St. John wrote the Apocalypse was as-
sailed by those who, in their wish to preserve their
faith in the apostolic authorship of the Fourth Gospel,
were ready to sacrifice the Book of Revelation. This
was substantially the view adopted by Neander,
Liicke, Ewald, Bleek, Dusterdieck, and others. In
opposition to these, others were ready to adopt the
other hypothesis : they accepted the view that the
two books could not have been the work of one and
the same writer ; but they preferred to sacrifice the
Gospel : the Apocalypse was the work of St. John ; the
Gospel, therefore, could not be. Such was the view of
those who, like Baur, aimed at discrediting the Fourth
Gospel, or who wished to support the theory of a de-
signed antagonism between the school of St. John and
that of St. Paul. Neither of these parties — those who
would sacrifice the Apocalypse to the Gospel, and those
who would sacrifice the Gospel to the Apocalypse —
represent the most recent phase of the controversy.
Another class of thinkers arose who felt that the
witness which the Fourth Gospel and the Revelation
alike gave to the Person of Christ was too strong to be
allowed the authority of an Apostle by those who had
formed other and lower conceptions of the Jesus of
the Gospels. They saw no glimpses of His heavenly
glory and majesty in the synoptical Gospels. They
found that the Book of Revelation was full of them.

52i

REVELATION

The Christ of the Apocalypse was the Word of God,
the King of Kings; the Christ of the Gospels was
One who came not to be ministered to, but to minister.
The portrait given in the Gospels of " the loving and
amiable Son of Man," as the Divine Son of God was

{)atronisingly styled, was not to be found in the Apoca-
ypse; such a book could not have been written by
one who personally knew the gentle and self-sacrificing
Prophet of Galilee — least of all, perhaps, by the be-
loved disciple. Such is the view of more recent critics,
and advanced with varying power and arguments by
Yolkmar, Hoekstra, and Scholten. The book was a
forgery, or at best the composition of some other John
— not of John the Apostle. Besides, it was urged,
the Apostle could not have been the author, for it is
clear that the writer lived in Asia Minor, whereas the
Apostle John never was in Asia Minor at all.

Such is, perhaps, the most recent phase of the con-
troversy.

(c) We have not spaco to do more than touch but
briefly, and only upon a few of the arguments advanced
against the apostolic authorship of the book. It will,
perhaps, be best to specify three or four.

(i.) St. John the Apostle, it is said, never resided in
Asia Minor; he could not, therefore, have been the
author of a book which is undoubtedly the work of one
resident there.

It is proverbially difficult to prove a negative : it is
increasingly difficult when only negative evidence can
be adduced, and this is all that can be appealed to.
The argument, if argument it can be called, runs
thus : the residence of St. John in Asia Minor
is not mentioned by those whom we might have ex-
pected to mention it : therefore, St. John did not reside
there. To use the words of a modern critic (Mr.
Matthew Arnold), "But there is the rigorous and
vigorous theory of Prof. Scholten, that John never was
at Ephesus at all. If he had been, Papias and Hege-
sippus must have mentioned it : if they had mentioned
it, Irenseus and Eusebius must have quoted them to
that effect. As if the very notoriety of John's residence
at Ephesus would not have disproved Irenseus and
Eusebius from advancing formal testimony to it, and
made them refer to it just in the way they do. Hero,
again, we may be sure that no one judging evidence in
a plain fashion would ever have arrived at Dr. Schol-
ten's conclusion; above all, no one of Dr. Scholten's
great learning and ability" (Contemporary Review, vol.
xxv., p. 988).

To this also we may add Gebhardt's words : — " No one
in the second century could believe that the Apostle John
was the author of the Apocalypse, without at the same
time believing that he lived in Asia Minor; and in
like manner, the acknowledgment of the Apocalypse as
the Apostle's from the time of Justin Martyr down-
wards, made prominent by Keim, is an acknowledg-
ment of his residence in Asia Minor, and inferentially
at Ephesus."

(ii.) There are, it is stated, traces of non-apostolic
authorship in the book.

(a) The manner in which the Apostles are spoken of
(see chaps, xviii. 20 and xxi. 14) is thought to be incon-
sistent with the opinion that the Apostle wrote it. The
Apostles are mentioned with a degree of objectiAaty,
and are assigned a prominence which is unlikely if an
Apostle were the writer. But with regard to the last,
if St. John describes the foundations of the heavenly
Jerusalem as bearing the names of the twelve Apostles,
St. Paul speaks of the Church being built upon the
foundation of the Apostles and Prophets (Eph. ii. 20).

The imagery is distinctly apostolic ; and if the Apostles
are mentioned with " objectivity " in the Apocalypse,
are they not mentioned with an equal, if not greater,
degree of objectivity by St. Matthew ? (Matt. x. 2 — 4.)

(6) But, it is argued, there is no hint given through-
out the book that the writer is an Apostle. If St.
John were the writer, would he not betray himself
somewhere as the beloved disciple ? Should we not
have some allusion to his intimacy with his Master,
or to some circumstance connected with the life and
ministry of Christ ? In reply, it is enough to remark
that the nature of the book would not lead us to
expect such allusions. He writes as a Prophet, not
as an Apostle. It would be as idle to expect some
allusion to the circumstances of Milton's political life
in the Paradise Lost. " The Apocalypse declares
itself not to be the work of an Apostle in the same
sense as Schiller's poetry declares itself not to be the
work of a professor at Jena " (Gebhardt).

But it may be further urged that there are not want-
ing certain characteristic allusions which reveal the
writer. The allusions to the piercing of the Saviour's
side (chap. i. 7 ; comp. John xix. 34), and to the washing,
or cleansing (chaps, i. 5 ; vii. 13, 14 ; xxii. 14 — see Note
there — John xiii. 8 — 10), are not to be overlooked ; and
more than these may be detected by a careful student.

(7) There is no trace of Apostolic authority.

If we are not to expect personal reminiscences, wo
surely should expect the air of official authority. But
the answer is, Do we not find this ? The language is
surely that of one who does not doubt that his name
will carry a guarantee with the book. (Comp. Prof.
Davidson's article in Kitto's Biblical Cyclopaedia.)

(iii.) The Christology of the book is described as non-
apostolic. The picture which the Apocalypse gives of
Jesus Christ is not that of the Gospels. In the Gospels
we have the loving and gentle Son of Man ; in the Apo-
calypse we have the Word of God, whose eyes are as a
flame of fire, and whose mouth a sharp sword, &c. Is
not the whole conception of the kingly Christ thus
portrayed the product of a later age ? " The picture
of Christ which here comes before us seems to pre-
suppose a conception so perfectly free, that it can only
belong to a later Christianity " (Scholten). " The
apotheosis of Christ is too strong to be ascribed to
a contemporary and disciple of Jesus" (quoted in
Gebhardt).

Such objections as these arise from a fundamental
misconception of the character and work of Jesus
Christ. The Christ of the Gospels is not the colourless
creation which has been evolved out of the thought of
men living eighteen centuries afterwards. The Chris-
tology of the Apocalypse is distinct enough, but it does
not differ from the Clmstology of St. Paul ; and it is
in complete harmony with the lofty and divine utter-
ances of our Lord Himself even in the synoptical
Gospels. Time and space would fail us in illustrating
this position ; it will suffice to refer to two or three
passages, which might be multiplied : Matt. xxv. 31 ;
xxvi. 13; Luke v. 20; vii. 8, 9, 23, 35; ix. 41; x. 16
—20.

(iv.) The divergence in style between the Revelation
and the Fourth Gospel demands a few words. We have
spoken of those critics, who, in their desire to preserve
the authority of the Gospel, have been willing to throw
overboard the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse.
Is it necessary to do this ? It has been shown that the
external evidence is in favour of the apostolic author-
ship. In the language of Prof. Davidson, " With the
limited stock of early ecclesiastical literature that

524

EEVELATION.

snrvives tlie wreck of time wo should despair of
proving the authenticity of any New Testament book
by the help of early witnesses if that of the Apocalypse
be rejected as insufficiently attested." Is there any
reason in the internal character of the book sufficient
to reverse this verdict ? Or, in other words, assuming
(and the stormy controversy has rather increased than
diminished the right to the assumption ; see Introduction
to St. John's Gospel) the apostolic authorship of the
Fourth Gospel, is there any ground for believing that
the Apocalypse could not have proceeded from the same
writer ? There are no doubt strongly marked differ-
ences. We have not space to touch on the whole
auestion. One or two points call for notice. There are
ifferences of language ; there are " anomalies," " awk-
ward dispositions of words," " peculiar constructions ;"
" the Greek is moulded by the Hebrew tendencies of the
writer." This is no doubt largely the case ; but there
has been often a want of appreciativeness at the root
of some criticisms like these : some violations of gram-
matical construction have been set down to ignorance
on the part of the writer, when it is clear that they
were intentional. Notably, the language of Rev. i. 4
is beyond all doubt designedly ungrammatical ; indeed,
as Bishop Lightf oot has pointed out, were it not so, the
writer would not have possessed sufficient literary power
to construct a single sentence. Nor has sufficient
weight been allowed to the different character's of the
two books, or the interval of time which elapsed between
their writing. The highly wrought rapture of the seer,
when beholding the visions of the Apocalypse indicates
a mental state in which volitional control is at the
minimum, and the automatic action of the mind is left
free. At such a time the images and associations which
have been originally imbedded in the memory are those
which rise uppermost to clothe the thoughts. Thus the
strong Hebrew colouring is precisely what we should
expect from one who, of ardent temperament, has spent
the whole of his earlier life in Palestine, and among
those who were constantly talking over Messianic hopes
and prophecies. (Comp. John i. 38 — 41.) The force
of this is not invalidated by saying that the seer did
not write the visions as he saw them, but recorded
them afterwards. In the first place, it is merely an as-
sumption to affirm this ; in the next, even were it true,
the man who records such visions must recall the whole
mental condition in which he was at the time of vision,
and would preserve in his record the characteristics
of such a state of mind. Nor can much stress be
laid upon the fact that the writer was not young. The
visions of God are given to the old as well as to the
young. The loftiest revealings were given to Moses
when he had passed fourscore years i and, even from a
merely human point of view, it is possible for a man of
sixty to retain the fire and warm imagination of youth.
Even in modern life, when the faculties are too often
drudged into imbecility by forced and premature
development, and deprived of their full and ultimate
power by being made reproductive when they ought
to be remaining receptive, we may find the powers
of imagination survive the strain and incessancy of
toil; indeed, in some cases the imaginative powers
have gathered force till the line of the threescore
years has been passed. Edmund Burke was sixty
when he wrote his Reflections on the Revolution in
France, and none will condemn him for deficiency in
imagination. It was not in the ardour of youth that
Dante wrote the Divine Comedy. The conditions of
ancient and Eastern life were probably much more
favourable to the preservation and quiet ripening of

the powers of thought and imagination. The truth is
that there is nothing so deceptive as the comparison
between the ages and powers of different writers;
there is no standard which can be fairly used as a
measure. Some men of sixty are, in mental force, more
nearly allied to men of forty than to those of their own
age ; and the addition of twenty or five-and-twenty
years brings them to the mellow and quiet autumn-
time of their life.

The Apocalypse may be " sensuous," full of " crea-
tive fancy," "objective," and "concrete;" the Gospel
may be " calm," " mystic," " spiritual," and delighting
in " speculative depth " ; but differences equally great
may be found in the works of other writers. Litera-
ture supplies numberless instances of such varieties.
" It is strange," wrote Lord Macaulay, " It is strange
that the Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful, and the
Letter to a Noble Lord should be the productions of
one man ; " yet no one has been found to doubt that
they were both written by Edmund Burke. The
writings of De Quincey supply examples. Let any one
compare the Autobiographic Sketches, or The Con-
fessions of an Opium Eater, with one of the little
flights of fancy — such as the Daughter of Lebanon —
written under different conditions, and he will find
how much diversity may be found in the works of the
same writer. And, not to go beyond the Gospels,
might it not be said that there is a great separation
in tone and thought between our Lord's discourses
in Matt, xxiii. — xxv. and the Sermon on the Mount ?
We have, then, in the two books — the Gospel and
the Apocalypse — different subject - matter, vision
instead of history; a wide interval of time — some
twenty or twenty- five years ; and, with this interval of
time, a changed atmosphere of associations and influences,
Greek instead of Hebrew : these in themselves would
account for divergences greater even than we find.

If we can thus account for the differences we meet
with, we have to remember that there are resemblances
in the two books which can scarcely be accidental, and
which, found in two independent books, would have
suggested to some shrewd critic the theory of a common
authorship. There is a strong resemblance in language
and imagery : both books delight in the words " wit-
ness " ('martyr), " to overcome," "to keep" (the word
of God), "sign" (semeion), "dwell," or tabernacle
(in this last case the coincidence is lost sight of in the
English version, because the word " dwell " is used
instead of tabernacle, or " tent "), " true " (alethinos),
(John i. 9 ; xix. 35 ; Rev. iii. 14 ; xix. 9).

There is a similarity in the terms used to describe
our Lord. He is the Word (John i. 1 — 3; Rev. xix.
13) ; the Lamb (John i. 29 ; Rev. v. 6) ; the Shepherd
(John x. throughout; Rev. vii. 17); the Bridegroom
(John iii. 29 ; Rev. xix. 7 ; xxi. 2) ; similar images are
used — the Living Water (John iv. 10 ; vii. 38 ; and
Rev. vii. 17 ; xxi. 6 ; xxii. 17) ; the Hidden Food, bread,
or manna (John vi. 32 — 58 ; Rev. ii. 17) ; the Harvest
(John iv. 34, 38 ; Rev. xiv. 15). The same incident —
the piercing of our Lord's side — is referred to; and
the word employed, both in the Gospel and in the
Apocalypse, is singularly not the word used in the
LXX. version of the prophet Zechariah. There is,
besides, a similar disposition towards a seven-fold
arrangement of subjects in the Gospel and the Reve-
lation. (See Introduction to St. John's Gospel.)

Further resemblances might be pointed out. These,
however, will suffice to show that Prof. Davidson, in
his candid, impartial, and valuable article (see above),
says no more than truth when he writes : " After every

525

.KEVELATION.

reasonable deduction, enough remains to prove that the
correspondences between the Apocalpyse and the
Fourth Gospel are not accidental. They either betray
one author, or show that the writer of the one was
acquainted with the other. These cognate phenomena
have not been allowed their full force by Lucke, Ewald,
De Wette, and Diisterdieck."

To conclude. The author represents himself as John
in a way, and at a time, that would naturally suggest
that he either was John the Apostle and Evangelist, or
wished to pass as such. The general consensus of
early opinion believed that the Apostle was the writer.
The doubts grew out of doctrinal prejudice ; there is
no reasonable ground for disputing the residence of the
Apostle in Asia Minor. There are not wanting traces
of personal reminiscences such as the beloved disciple
would have cherished. The portrait of Jesus Christ
is in complete harmony with apostolic teaching ; and
the difficulties which beset the theory that there were
two Johns — one who wrote the Gospel, and the other
the Apocalypse — are greater than those which surround
the theory of a common authorship.

It is only necessary to add the attesting language of
various and independent critics. " The apostolic origin
of the Apocalypse is as well attested as that of any
other book in the New Testament " (Davidson). " The
testimony has been pronounced more absolutely con-
vincing than can be adduced in favour of the apostolic
authorship of any of the books of the New Testament "
{Edinburgh Review, October, 1874).

II. The Date and Time of Writing.— The
evidence for determining the date of the Apocalypse
is in many respects conflicting. Any conclusion on
the matter should be given with caution and hesita-
tion, and with the full admission that the arguments
which can be brought on the other side are entitled to
consideration. It has been too much the practice among
the supporters of different theories to insist with unwise
positiveness upon their own view. Briefly, there are
practically only two opinions, between which the reader
must decide. The book was either written about the
year a.d. 68 or 69, or about a quarter of a century later
(a.d. 96), in the reign of Domitian.

The later date was that which was accepted almost
uniformly by the older theologians. In favour of this
early tradition has been appealed to. The most im-
portant witness (in some respects) is Irenaeus, who says
that " the Apocalypse was seen not long ago, out almost
in our own age, towards the end of the reign of Domi-
tian." Other writers have been claimed as giving a
support to this view by their mention of Patmos as
the place of St. John's banishment ; and it is plain
from the way in which Eusebius quotes the mention
of the Patmos exile by Clement of Alexandria, that he
associated it with the reign of Domitian. On the other
hand, it must be remembered that neither Clement of
Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen, or Jerome, state that the
banishment took place in the reign of Domitian. Ter-
tullian, indeed, represents Domitian as recalling the
exiles ; and other writers affirm that the banishment
took place much earlier. Theophylact, for example,
declares that the Apostle was in Patmos thirty-two
years after the Ascension ; and the preface to the
Syriac version of the Apocalypse affirms that the re-
velation was given to St. John in Patmos, whither he
was banished by the Emperor Nero. Another tradition
assigns the writing to the reign of Trajan. Epiphanius,
in a passage of doubtful value, places the exile in the
reign of Claudius,

526

On the whole, then, there is not any very certain
conclusion to be drawn from the external evidence.
The exile in Patmos receives ample support, but the
date of the exile is hardly settled by early tradition.

Will the internal evidence help ?

The advocates of the later date rely much upon the
degenerate state of the Asiatic churches, as described
in the Epistles to the Seven Churches. The Epistles
to the Ephesians, Colossians, and Philemon were written
during the captivity of St. Paul at Rome, about the year
A.D. 63. If, then, the Apocalypse was written in a.d. 69
or 70, we have only an interval of six or seven years to
account for a striking change in the spiritual condition
of the Asiatic churches. Can we believe that a Church
which is so forward in love as that of Ephesus (Eph.
iii. 18) can have in so short a time left its first love?
Can it be believed that the Laodicean Church — whose
spiritual condition in a.d. 63 can be inferred from that
of Colossi (Col. i. 3, 4) — can have, in six brief years,
forsaken their " faith in Christ Jesus, and their love
to all the saints," and become the " lukewarm " church
(Rev. iii. 15, 16) of the Apocalypse ?

It may be noticed, in passing, that the above argu-
ment assumes that the (so-called) Epistle to the Ephe-
sians was really addressed to the Church at Ephesus ;
and this is by no means certain : the weight of evidence
appears to incline the other way. But allowing this to
pass, and, for the purpose of argument, assuming that
the Epistles to the Ephesians and Colossians afford
indications of the spiritual condition of these and
kindred Asiatic churches, it does not seem to the
writer that the above argument can be sustained. The
two propositions on which its foi*ce depends are the
following : —

(1) It is impossible that churches could change

much for the worse in six years.

(2) A comparison between the Apocalypse and the

Letters of St. Paul show a great change for
the worse.
From these two propositions it is inferred that the
interval must have been more than six years : a gene-
ration at least being required to account for such
degeneracy. "It bespeaks a change of persons, the
arrival of a new generation " (Hengstenberg).

It is believed that neither of the two propositions
mentioned above can be sustained. (1) It needs no long
time for the first ardour of young converts' zeal to cool.
The New Testament gives us examples of such rapid
changes : the " evil eye " of a perverted teaching
bewitched the Galatians (Gal. iii. 1), so that the
Apostle marvelled that the disciples were so rapidly
turning away to another gospel (Gal. i. 6). Changes
quick and real soon sweep over a religious community,
especially in districts where the natural temperament
is warm, impressible, and vivacious. It is not im-
possible that six years may make changes in the
religious condition of churches.

But (2) it is more important to consider the second
proposition, and to ask whether it is so certain that any
such great change had taken place in the instances before
us. A comparison of the Epistle to the Colossians and
that to Laodicea rather leads to an opposite conclusion.
Professor (now Bishop) Lightfoot has shown that the
same truths need enforcing (comp. Col. i. 15 — 18, and
Rev. iii. 14), the same practical dnties are taught
(Col. iii. 1, and Rev. iii. 21), the same lukewarmness
is the subject of caution (Col. iv. 17, and Rev. iii. 19),
the same denunciations are heard against the pride
of life, in wealth or intellect (Col. ii. 8, 18, 23, and
Rev, iii, 17, 18). "The message communicated by

REVELATION.

St. John to Laodicoa prolongs the note which was
struck by St. Paul in the letters to Colosssc. An
interval of a very few years has not materially altered
the character of these churches. Obviously the same
temper prevails, the same errors are rife, the same
correction must be applied " (Bishop Lightfoot, Epistle
to the Colossians, pp. 41—44).

A similar comparison might be made between the
two Ephesian Epistles. The impression left from a
perusal of St. Paul's Letter to the Ephesians, whether
addressed to that church or not, is that he was not
without a fear that the warm love which prevailed
among the Christians addressed might soon change :
it is a love above the accidents of time and the powers
of change which he desires may be theirs (Eph. vi. 24 ;
Rev. ii. 4). The area of comparison between this
Epistle to the Ephesians and the Epistles to the Seven
Churches becomes much wider when wo regard it, in
harmony with probability, as a circular letter addressed
to the Asiatic churches : then the resemblances become
more plain, and the so-called great change in spiritual
condition disappears. It will be sufficient to mention
the following: Eph. i. 18, Rev. Hi. 18; Eph. ii. 6,
Rev. iii. 21 ; Eph. iii. 8, Rev. ii. 9 ; Eph. iii. 17—19,
Rev. ii. 4.

Enough has been said to show that the argument
from the spiritual condition of the churches lends little,
or no support to the later date, but fairly strengthens
the earlier.

The advocates of the earlier date adduce other in-
ternal evidence. They lay great weight upon inferences
drawn from chaps, xi., xiii.,and xvii. They argue that
the measuring of the Temple and the treading down of
the Holy City, described in chap. xi. 1, 2, is a token that
Jerusalem had not yet fallen. This argument does
not seem to the present writer satisfactory. The
measuring of the Temple is symbolical, and it is
unsafe to ground an argument upon it. The aim of
the vision seems to us to point out the safety of the
germ-Church during the times of desolation. The ex-
ternal framework, the old Jewish polity, might be swept
away (chap. xi. 2; comp. Heb. viii. 13) : the true spiritual
germ would never die, but spring forth in fuller
and freer vigour. Such a vision might indeed have
preceded the fall of Jerusalem; but it might also
have been given as a consolation and an instruction
afterwards.

Hardly more convincing is the argument from chaps,
xiii. and xvii. In the account of the seven-headed wild
beast we read of seven kings, five of whom are fallen.
Tin; seven kings are said to be the emperors of Rome.
The five fallen are Augustus, Tiberius, Caius, Claudius,
Nero; the one that is. is Galba. The force of this
depends upon the truth of the interpretation. If the
seer meant the seven kings to represent seven emperors
of Rome, then the date of the Apocalypse is fixed to
the age of Galba; or to that of Nero if we begin to
reckon with Julius Caesar. The former is the most
correct, method of reckoning. To make the sixth head
Vespasian, as some would do, is, as Dr. Davidson has
remarked, quite arbitrary. There is no reason for
omitting Galba, Otho, and Vitelhus from the reckoning.
But the force of the argument for the date here
depends upon the truth of the interpretation 5 and
the foundation passages in the prophecy of Daniel,
from which the Apocalyptic seer drew so much of
his imagery, describe under the emblem of the wild
beasts, kingdoms, or world-powers, rather than in-
dividual monarchs. Still, of course, it is possible
that there may be a double interpretation — one more

local, the other more general — here as well as else-
where. But the requisite interpretation does not seem
to be sufficiently clear for the purpose of argument.

Nor can the argument from silence he accepted. There
is no allusion to the fall of Jerusalem in the book ; hut
it is scarcely safe to infer that the book was therefore
earlier than that catastrophe.

One other internal (so called) argument respecting
date may be noticed here. Liicke cites chap, xviii. 20,
where the Apostles and prophets are invited to rejoice
because they have been avenged on Babylon, to prove
that St. John the Apostle was dead when the book was
written. This is one of those prosaic errors into which
even the most learned and trustworthy of literary ex-
perts are betrayed by their own acuteness.

There yet remains another class of evidence : that of
language and style. Assuming the common authorship
of the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse (see Introduc-
tion to the Gospel, and section on the Author above), we
shall have very little doubt that the general probability
is in favour of the Apocalypse having been written first.
Not only is the Gospel marked by the sententiousness
of age, and the Apocalypse by the warm colouring of
earlier life, but the influence of Jewish associations is
more strongly marked in the latter; while Greek in-
fluences are more distinctly traceable in the former.

The evidence on this head inclines to the earlier
date, but it is not absolutely conclusive : the prevalence
of Hebraic influences noticeable in the Apocalypse
might well fit in with the later date. The influences of
youth often re-assert themselves with startling vigour
in declining years : the provincialisms and accent of boy-
hood have been resumed by men in the evening of life,
after having been kept long in abeyance by the joint
powers of control and culture. Illustrations of this will
occur to the reader. But, in the instance before us, the
probability seems to lie the other way : in the Apostle's
case the Hebraic influences did prevail during the early
life ; the Greek influences were present during his later
life ; and we may well believe that the Apocalypse
" marks the Hebraic period of St. John's life which
was spent in the East, and among Aramaic speaking
populations " ; and that the Gospel was written twenty
or thirty years afterwards, at the " close of the Hel-
lenic period during which St. John lived in Ephesus,
the great centre of Greek civilisation." (See Bishop
Lightfoot's Article on " Supernatural Religion," Con-
temporary Review, vol. xxv., p. 859.)

To conclude this brief summary, we may say that the
general weight of evidence is in favour of the earlier
date, and certainly this supposition fits in best with all
the circumstances of the case.

III. Schools, and Principles of Interpreta-
tion.— Before entering upon the general meaning of
the book, it is desirable to lay before the reader a brief
account of the different schools of Apocalyptic inter-
pretation.

(1) Schools of Interpretation. — It is well known that
there are three main systems of interpretation : these
are called, from their special tendencies of thought, the
Prseterist, the Futurist, and the Historical.

The Praeterist in general maintains that the visions
of the Apocalypse relate to events and circumstances
which are past : the prophecies of the book — at least in
their primary intention — have been fulfilled. Among
the advocates of this view may be reckoned the names
of Grotius and Hammond, the learned and eloquent
Bossuet, Eichhorn. Ewald, De Wette, Liicke. Duster-
dieck, Professor Moses Stuart of America, and in this

527

KEVELATION.

country the late lamented Professor Maurice, Professor
Davidson, and Mr. Desprez.

The Futurist is at the opposite pole of interpretation,
and maintains that the fulfilment of the book is still
future, when our Lord will come again. Professor
Davidson has separated the Futurists into two classes
— the simple Futurist and the extreme Futurist: the
difference between these classes being that the simple
Futurist believes that the prophecies of the book are
future in fulfilment, while the extreme Futurist holds
that even the first three chapters are prophetic. Among
those who have maintained the more moderate Futurist
view may be mentioned De Burgh, Maitland, Benjamin
Newton, Todd, and the devout Isaac Williams. The
extreme Futurist view has been supported chiefly by
some Irish expositors.

The Historical school holds a sort of middle place
between the Prseterist and Futurist. Its advocates
believe that in the Apocalypse we have a continuous
prophecy, exhibiting to us the main features of the
world's history: the visions therefore are partly ful-
filled, partly they are in course of fulfilment, and a
portion still remains unfulfilled. This view has been
sustained by men of conspicuous ability. It was the
interpretation which commended itself to many of the
Reformers, and was favoured by Wiclif, Bullinger,
Bale, and others. It was upheld with more systematic
power by such distinguished writers as Mede, Vitringa,
Daubuz, Sir Isaac Newton, Winston, Bengel, and
Bishop Newton : more recently it has been advocated
by Hengstenberg, Ebrard, Auberlen, by Elliott and
Faber, by Bishop Wordsworth and the late Dean Alf ord,
by Barnes, Lord, and Glasgow.

It is, of course, to be understood that there are
many varieties of interpretation even among those who
belong to the same school of interpreters : but it
would quite exceed the limits at our disposal to speak
of these varieties.

Against these three schools of interpretations it is not
difficult to find objections. It is hard to believe, with
the Prseterist, that the counselling voice of prophecy
should have spoken only of immediate dangers, and
left the Church for fifteen centuries unwarned ; or,
with the Futurist, to believe that eighteen centuries of
the eventful history of the Church are passed over in
silence, and that the whole weight of inspired warning
was reserved for the few closing years of the dispensa-
tion. Nor, on the other hand, can we be thoroughly
satisfied with the Historical school, however ably and
learnedly represented. There is a certain nakedness
about the interpretations often advocated by this school :
the interpreter is too readily caught by external re-
semblances, and pays too little heed to inner spiritual
and ethical principles. A mistake into which this
system falls is that of bringing into prominence the
idea of time. According to them, the visions of the
book are pictures of occurrences to take place at a
certain fixed date. Now it must never be forgotten
that the question of time — the time when this or that
was to happen — was one which our Lord steadily put
on one side. It was not for His disciples to know the
times and the seasons. The knowledge of the time of
an event is insignificant compared with the knowledge
of the forces, elements, and laws which combine to
produce it. This seems to be our Master's teaching to
His followers all through time. Our study is to know
what are the foes we have to contend against, what
combinations they are likely to make, in what power
they are to be confronted, what difficulties are likely
to arise, what certainty there is that all difficulties will

be surmounted and every foe overthrown. It matters
not for us to know when these things shall be : it may
be at the first watch, or midnight, or at the cock-
crowing : the time is a matter of no ethical importance.
It is thus St. Peter treats it : " One day is with the
Lord as a thousand years, and a thousand years as one
day." It is but the echo of His Lord's warning. It
may take a long time or a short tima for the moral
laws and moral forces at work in the world to bring
forth a crisis period. To take St. Peter's words as laying
down a kind of prophetical " time-measure " is to fall
into that fatal source of error, the conversion of poetry
into prose. We are not, then, to look for any indications
of time in the visions of the Apocalypse ; and what
might have made this very plain is the employment of
proportional numbers to denote the prophetic epochs in
the book. These carefully-selected numbers, always
bearing a relationship to one another, and so selected
that a literal interpretation of them is almost precluded,
are beyond doubt symbolical, and thus in harmony with
the whole character of the book. " Most numbers in
the Revelation should not be taken arithmetically, but
indefinitely, because they are part of the poetic costume
borrowed from the Old Testament " (Davidson). The
anxiety respecting the "times and seasons" has led
many interpreters into voluminous errors, and has
created a Thessalonian restlessness of spirit in many
quarters. Infinitely more important is it to notice the
moral and spiritual aspects of the book, the evil and
the good principles which are described in conflict, and
the features which in different ages the combat will
assume.

But, though the time-interpretation of the book is
thus to be placed in the background, it must not be
so done as to imply that the book has no reference to
occurrences which will happen in time. If some of the
Historical school of interpreters have so forced the ques-
tion of time into prominence as to ignore the more im-
portant ethical bearings of the book, it is no less true
that critics on the other side have erred in removing
the application of the book wholly out of the sphere of
history, and giving it only the force of a fairy tale
with a possible and doubtful moral. This is to set
aside the value of the book to the Church of Christ
as she moves across the vexed and stormy sea of this
world's history. The visions of the book do find
counterparts in the occurrences of human history :
they have had these, and they yet will have these,
fulfilments ; and these fulfilments belong neither wholly
to the past, nor wholly to the future : the prophecies of
God are written in a language which can be read by
more than one generation : what was read here helped
the early Christian to whom imperial Rome was the
great Babylon which absorbed to herself the wealth,
and the wickedness, the power and persecuting spirit
of the world, to whom the emperor may have seemed
as a wild beast, savage and relentless, rising out
of the tumults of peoples and nations, fickle and ruth-
less as the sea. No less have the visions of this book
consoled the mediaeval saint or poet, who felt that
the most influential seat of the Church had become
the metropolis of worldliness when " the Prince of the
New Pharisees " was seated in St. Peter's chair, and
when out of a professedly Christianised society had
arisen a power aspiring to some religious culture,
but fierce, wild, and wanton as the wild beast of
ancient days. (Comp. Dante, Inf. xxvii. 85 ; and
Rosetti's Antipapal Spirit of the Italian Poets —
passim). Nor is the force of the consolation ex-
hausted; in the future, the visions of this book,

528

EEVELATIOK.

showing tho certain triumph of all that is good and
true, in the final consummation of Christ's kingdom,
may hereafter serve to console men and women groan-
ing under a tyranny of ungodliness more terrible and
more specious than any which have preceded it, because
built up of a pride which worships physical laws, while
it treads under foot all moral laws, and spurns con-
temptuously all spiritual laws. In the past, the book
has had its meaning: in the future, its meaning may
grow fuller and clearer; but in the present also there
is no doubt that it has its practical value for all who
will reverently and patiently hear and keep the sayings
«f this book.

"We are disposed to view the Apocalypse as the pictorial
unfolding of great principles in constant conflict, though
under various forms. The Praeterist may, then, be right
in finding early fulfilments, and the Futurist in expect-
ing undeveloped ones, and the Historical interpreter is
unquestionably right in looking for them along the whole
line of history ; for the words of God mean more than
one man, or one school of thought, can compass. There
are depths of truth unexplored which sleep beneath the
simplest sentences. Just as we are wont to say that
history repeats itself, so the predictions of the Bible
are not exhausted in one or even in many fulfilments.
Each prophecy is a single key which unlocks many
doors, and the grand and stately drama of the Apo-
calypse has been played out perchance in one age to
bo repeated in the next. Its majestic and mysterious
teachings indicate the features of a struggle which, be
the stage the human soul, with its fluctuations of doubt
and fear, of hope and love — or the progress of kingdoms
— or the destinies of the world, is the same struggle
in all.

(2) The Principles of Interpretation. — It will have
been seen that the writer does not feel at home under
the leadership of any of the three great schools of
prophetical interpretation. The Church of Christ owes
much to all of them, though the cause of truth has
suffered, much from many who have sought to be
prophets when at the most they could aspire to be
interpreters; but the result even of the errors of in-
terpreters has been the slow formation of sounder views,
and therefore an advance towards a clearer, because a
more modest, system. There are certain principles
which seem to be now very generally accepted as
essential to a right understanding of the book. It is
not, indeed, to be supposed that the acceptance of
these principles will enable the student to unlock every
mystery, or expound every symbol ; but it will certainly
save him from following " wandering fires." Of these
principles the chief seem to be the following ; — (1) the
root passages in the Old Testament prophecies must be
considered ; (2) the historical surroundings of the writer
are to be remembered ; (3) the fact that the book is sym-
bolical must never be forgotten ; (4) the obvious aim of
the book to be a witness to the triumph and coming
(parousia) of Jesus Christ must be recognised. These
principles are simple enough, but their neglect has
been only too fatally evident. The difficulty, indeed,
lies rather in the application of these principles than in
their acceptance. It is, perhaps, not too much to say
that the Praeterist school has been apt to ignore the
first of these principles ; the Historical school has not
adequately recognised the second ; and the Futurist
school is in constant danger of forgetting the third;
while partial views in all schools have violated or
weakened the value of the last principle.

The "coming of Christ," viewed from the human
side, is a phrase which is not always to be held to one

meaning : it is, in this aspect, analogous to the " king-
dom of God." "Holy Scripture, beyond all doubt,
recognises potential and spiritual, as well as personal,
' comings ' of the Lord." * " There are many comings
of Christ. Christ came in the flesh as a mediatorial
Presence. Christ came at the destruction of Jerusalem.
Christ came, a spiritual Presence, when the Holy Ghost
was given. Christ comes now in every signal manifes-
tation of redeeming power. Any great reformation of
morals and religion is a coming of Christ. A great
revolution, like a thunderstorm, violently sweeping away
evil to make way for the good, is a coming of Christ "
(Robertson, Sermons, Fourth Series, p. 73). It is thus
that the sacred writers speak as of Christ's coming
always at hand : " The judge standeth at the door ; "
" The coming of the Lord draweth nigh." " So, also, our
Lord speaks : " I will not leave you comfortless ; I will
come to you." Thus, viewed from one aspect, the
" coming of Christ " has various applications ; but
viewed from another aspect, it will be seen to be a
phrase expressive of a simple thought, and free from
all perplexing ambiguity. The coming of Christ, viewed
from the divine side, is as a single act, in which all
subordinate applications are included. There is no
past or future with God. All that is being done, is,
in one sense, done. God's dealings, as seen by human
eyes, are, as it were, projections on the page of history.
An illustration may help. A telegraph cable, whether
cut straight through or on the slope, will present to
view exactly the same combination of copper and iron
wire, gutta-percha, and tarred yarn; but in the
elliptical section the elements will appear in more
extended order than in the circular section : so the
same features which to us appear separate and succes-
sive, when viewed from the higher level of heavenly
thought, may be seen as forming parts of one act.
The various advents of Christ may thus be viewed as
forming elements in one Advent, which is progressive
from one side, but complete from another. The morning
spreads itself in every direction over the forehead of th«i
sky, and yet is but one morning. All the varying scenes
from the First Advent to the Second are but the
beatings of the wings of God's new day. " It is," as
the prophet expressed it in language of glorious paradox.
" It is one day, known to the Lord, neither clear nor
dark, but one day, at whose eventide it shall be light."
If this be true, there is no necessity for leaping to
the conclusion that, when the sacred writers warned
their hearers that the coming of the Lord was neai,
they were mistaken, or that they sought to sustain the
fainting hopes of the early Church by expectations
which have proved false. Doubtless some did not
understand the full and deep meaning of the words

529

* The whole note from Bishop Waldegrave's Bampton Lec-
tures is worth quoting. "Holy Scripture, beyond all doubt,
recognises (1) potential and spiritual, as well as personal,
•coinings' of the Lord. See, for potential 'coinings. Matt. x.
23; John xxi. 22, 23; Rev. ii. 5, 15, 16, 22-25; iii. 3, 10. . . .
Sec, for spiritual 'comings,' Ps. ci. 2; John xiv. 18, 21—24; Rev.
iii. 20. In like manner Holy Scripture recognises (2) a potential
and spiritual, as distinct from a personal, ' presence ' of Christ
with His people. See Matt, xviii. 20; xxviii. 20; Mark xvi. 20;
2 Tim. iv. 17. Now such potential and spiritual comings and
presence will naturally, when translated, if I may so speak,
into the language of imagery, assume the outward appearance
of a personal and visible coming and presence. And this fact
will abundantly account for the use of language (expressive of
potential and spiritual comings) like that in Ps. cii. 13—16 ; Isa.
xix. 1, 16, 19—21 ; xl. 10 ; lix. 20 ; Zech. ii. 10—12 : (expressive of
potential and spiritual presence) like that in Ps. exxxv. 21 ; Isa.
xii. 6; xxiv. 23; lx. 13; Ezek. xxxiv. 23, 24; xli. 22; xliii. 1—9;
xliv. 1, 2 ; Joel ii. 27 ; iii. 17, 20, 21; Micah iv. 7; Zeph. iii. 14, 15;
Zech. vi. 12, 13 ; viii. 3, without expecting a personal reign of
Christ upon earth as its only adequate counterpart."

BEVELATION.

employed: doubtless many still clung to their carnal
conceptions : but the apostolic language, whether from
the pen of a St. Paul, St. Peter, or St. John, expresses
the wider and truer thoughts of the coming of Christ.
We find them anxious to remind those to whom they
wrote that the idea of an immediate visible personal
coming of Christ must not be allowed to gain possession
of the mind. There were forces at work which must
have their way before the end would come : seeds had
been planted, and these must grow : the sowing and
the harvest are linked together as one in the law of
growth, and are yet separate. Thus the spirit of wil-
fulness and impatience is rebuked when men grasp the
true thoughts of God. Yet it must not be supposed
that the waiting Church of Christ will be disappointed
of her hope, or that the heavenly Bridegroom will not
come. He will come again; and all the preliminary
and subordinate advents in judgment and in comfort
will then be seen to have been earnests of the fulness
of His coming. The interpreters are as men who stand
upon a plain to watch the sunrise. When the first veil
of night is withdrawn, and the starlight is somewhat
paled, the more ardent than the rest will cry, " The
dawn ! " but the rest answer, " Not yet." Then when
the mountain peaks begin to flame, another will cry,
" The dawn ! " and the rest will still reply, " Not yet."
And when the landscape around catches its true colours,
another will cry, " The dawn ! " but only when the great
and glorious orb leaps into view will all be one in crying,
" The dawn ! the dawn ! " So is the coming of Christ.
Some look upon the faint lightening in the moral
atmosphere, and say; " Christ comes ! " Others look
to the reflected lights of truth proclaimed in the high
places of the world, and say, " Christ comes ! " Others
look to the general diffusion of knowledge, and say,
" Christ comes ! " They are right, and they are wrong :
right, for it is indeed Christ who is thus enlightening
the world ; they are wrong, for there is a coming greater
than these when He will, in fuller manifestation of
Himself, tabernacle with His people as their everlasting
light.

IV. General Scope of this Book.

(1 ) Its Aim. — What is the aim of this book ? The
answers given, though various, have much in common.
Some see in it a prediction of the overthrow of Pagan-
ism ; others carry it further, and see the destruction of
Papal Rome ; others read in it the rise and fall of some
future Antichrist. Thus far the opinions vary ; but in
one respect there is agreement : the Revelation aims at
assuring the Church of the advent of her Lord : it is
the book of the Coming One. Every school of inter-
pretation will admit this. Some indeed will say that
the expectation raised was never fulfilled, but all appear
to unite in regarding the Apocalypse as the book of the
advent. We may take this as a key to its meaning : it
proclaims Christ's coming and victory. But is it the
victory of Christ over Paganism, or over degenerate
forms of Christianity, or over some final and future
antichristian power or person ? The true answer
appears to be, It is the victory of Christ over all wrong -
thoughtedness. wrong-heartedness, and wrong-spirited-
ness ; the pictures given in the visions find their
counterpart not in one age only, but gather their
futl-filment as the ages advance : the fall of Paganism
is included in the visions, as the downfall of the world-
power of Imperial Rome is included ; but the picture-
prophecy is not exhausted, and will not be till every
form of evil of which Pagan and Imperial Rome, of
which the wild beast and Babylon are types, has been

overthrown. The ages are seen in perspective; the
incidents separated from one another in historical
sequence are gathered into one prophetical scene, and
the Apocalypse presents ns with a variety of these
prophetical scenes, which depict the salient features of
the conquest of evil, the triumph and advent of Christ
— " He comes " is the key. He comes when Paganism
falls; He comes when brute woi'ld force is cast down;
He comes when worldliness falls — He conies, and His
coming is spreading ever over the world, shining more
and more unto the perfect day. Clouds may gather,
and make the epochs which are nearest the full day
darker than those which preceded them, but still in
every epoch leading up to the golden day; the line of
conflict may advance and recede from time to time, but
it is a triumphant battle-field which is pictured. It is
thus the book of the advent and victory of Christ.

But is it a book affording false hopes ? Is it an
echo of the wish of the early Christian Church, or is it
a revelation from Christ to the waiting and perhaps
impatient Church ? I believe it is the latter. So far
from the book giving colour to the expectation of an
immediate personal coming of Jesus Christ, it seems
distinctly to caution the early Christians against
cherishing mistaken notions : " that day shall not come
except there come a falling away first," was the caution
of St. Paul ; the caution of St. John, though expressed
in pictorial foi-m, is none the less emphatic. Let any
one bear in mind the eager impatience of suffering
Christians in early days, and let them then read the
Apocalypse, and they wTill learn that its undertone is
" Not yet, not yet," but still surely is He coming — not
as you think, but as He thinks well, so is He coming.
Let the seals furnish an illustration : the first shows an
ideal conqueror ; Christ, or the gospel of Christ goes
forth to conquer — it is the picture of the Church's
hope ; the vision tells her that her hope is right, Christ
will conquer ; but it is the prelude of visions which tell
her that her expectation is wrong if she expects that the
kingdom of Christ will be established without conflict,
pain, suffering and revolution. The succeeding seals
are the pictures of the things which must needs be :
the wars, the persecutions, the sorrows which will
afflict the world because she will not accept her King :
the parable of Luke xix. 11 — 27, and the emphatic
warning language of Christ Jesus in Matt. xxiv. 4 — 14,
are not forgotten in the Apocalypse. In it we are
bidden to remember that though the victory is sure, the
victory is through suffering; we are shown scenes which
betoken the prolonged sorrows of the faithful, the
obstinate tenacity of evil, its subtle transformations,
and the concealed powers by which it is sustained : we
are thus, as it were, shown the world's drama from a
heavenly view-point, not in continuous historical suc-
cession, but in its various essential features, it is in this
dramatic — that it does not tell its story right on, but
groups its episodes round convenient centres, bringing
into special prominence successively the principles of
God's world-government. It is thus an apocalypse un-
folding in symbolical forms the characteristic features
of the struggle between good and evil, when the power
of the gospel enters the field ; it is the revelation of the
coming (parousia) of Christ, because it shows not only
that He will come, but that He does come ; that He
who has been revealed, is being revealed, and will yet
be revealed.

(2) The Form. — It is the symbolical form which
hinders many in the right understanding of the book.
" I am a man of the earth," wrote Goethe ; " I am a
man of the earth, earthy; to me the parables of the

KKV ELATION.

nnjnst steward, the prodigal son, the sower, the pearl,
the lost piece of money, &c, are more divine (if aught
divine there be ahout the matter'), than the seven
messengers, candlesticks, seals, stars, and woes." This
is only Baying that symbolism employed in the one cast1
was simple:- than that employed in the latter — simpler,
that is to say, to Western minds ; for it may perhaps
be doubted whether the symbolism which to the Teutonic
mind seemed so strange, may not have been simple enough
to those who were accustomed to Hebrew symbolism.
But however this may be, the general symbols of the
book are not so difficult as might appear. There is not
space at our disposal to enter upon a discussion of this
in detail. Certain features, however, are worthy of
notice. The geographical imagery needs attention :
Jerusalem stands as the type of the good canse, Baby-
lon as the type of the metropolis of the world-power:
Jerusalem is thus the Church of Christ (this symbolism
is in complete harmony with St. Paul and other apostolic
writers (comp. Gal. iv. 24—31 ; Heb. xii. 22, 23. Babylon
is the emblem of Pagan Rome, but not only of Pagan
Rome, for the Babylon type remains to this day : there are
inspiring powers on the side of the heavenly Jerusalem
— God is with her; she shall not be moved; the
metropolis of evil has the assistance of evil powers :
the dragon, the wild beast, and the false prophet are
for a time with her. The family of evil bears a marked
parallel to the family of good throughout the book :
there is a trinity of evil powers on the side of Babylon
the harlot, as the blessed Trinity are, with the bride,
the lieavenly Jerusalem. (See Excursus B : The Wild
Beast.) The scenes in the great conflict range them-
selves round the members of these families of good and
evil. The general features and elements of this struggle
are depicted. There are numerical symbols : seven is
the number of perfection, six of man's worldly per-
fection without God, four of the universe, three and a
half of a limited period. There are seals, trumpets,
and vials ; the seals of the book which could only be
opened by Christ betoken that the direction of earth's
history and its explanation can be found only in Christ;
the trumpets are the symbols of God's war against all
forms of evil ; the vials are the tokens of the retri-
bution which falls upon those who turn not at the
divine summons to righteousness. The strong sym-
bolism of the book has a two-fold advantage : when
the application of the visions are not to be exhausted
in one age. the pictorial form is the most convenient to
embrace the manifold fulfilments. Again, the author
has clothed his thoughts in the " variously limiting, but
reverential and only suitable drapery of ancient sacred
language and symbolism, in the conviction that the
reader would penetrate the veil and reach the sense "
(Gebhardt).

(3) The General Structure. — The majority of critics
see a seven-fold structure in the book. The commen-
tators differ, as might be expected, as to the way in
which this seven-foldedness of structure shows itself ;
hut most of them arrange the different parts of the
book in a seven-fold fashion. This is worthy of note,
as the Fourth Gospel (see Introduction to St. John's
Gospel) has been shown to have a similar seven-fold
arrangement. When we notice the fondness of the
seer for such an arrangement in the subordinate visions,
it is not to be wondered at that the whole book should
fall into seven groups ; but we must be careful not to
be carried away by our love of symmetry. The charts
and maps of Apocalyptic interpretation are often very
Procrustean. The general structure of the book,
however, may be noted,

There are : —

1. The Preliminary Chapters.— Christ and His

Church.

(1) The Vision of the Christ (chap. i.).

(2) The Messages to the Chukches (chaps.

ii., iii.).

2. The Visions.

(1) The Vision of the Throned One (chap.

iv.).

(2) The Visions of the Conflict, in two main

sections.

(a) The conflict seen from the world side (chaps.

vi — xi.) :

(a) The seven seals (chaps, vi. — viii. 1).
()8) The seven trumpets (chaps, viii. 2
— xi.).

(b) Tlie conflict seen from the heavenly side

(chaps, xii. — xx.) :

(a) The spiritual foes (chaps, xii. — xiv.).
(£) The seven vials of retribution (chaps.

xv., xvi.).
(y) The fall of foes (chaps, xvii. — xx.).

(3) The Visions of Peace (chaps, xxi., xxii.

1-6).

3. The Epilogue (chap. xxii. 6—21).

It will be seen that there is a moving onward from
the more external to the deeper and more spiritual
aspects of earth's story. The earlier visions (the seals,
for example) show the ordinary phenomena of the
world's story — war, famine, death, revolution. The
next series (the trumpets) show us that there is
another, even a spiritual war, going forward in the
world, and that changes and revolutions are often
tokens of the inner spiritual battle in life. These
visions, however, are, so to speak, all in the sphere of
earth: in the next series we are shown that the war
carried on here is one which has its heavenly counter-
part. The conflict is not simply between good men
and bad, but between principalities and powers. (See
an interesting article on " The Ideal Incarnation," by
Dr. S. Cox, in the Expositor, Vol. II., p. 405.) There is
a heavenly view-point of all things on earth : there are
spiritual forces, the ideal Church, the unseen strength
of God, and the hidden inspirations of evil. In this
struggle all evil will be vanquished. The earthly
manifestations of evil, as well as the unearthly
inspirations of it, will fall ; the great and arch-enemy
will be overthrown ; the true spiritual, eternal rest be
reached, and the golden age be realised. We are thus
taught, in this ever-deepening spirituality of the book,
to look beneath the phenomena, to trace the subtle and
unmasked principles which are at work, to separate
between the false and the true, to believe in ideals
which are not mere ideas, but the true thoughts of
God, which will one day be made real in the eyes of
men, and which are even now real to the eye of faith.
Thus does the Book of Revelation become the unfolding
of a dream which is from God. In it are painted the
scenes of earth's history : the thirst of a nation's life
and its passing groan; the tears and prayers of the
unreckoned holy ones of earth ; the agony of half-
despair which even the best have felt in the night of
conflict, that has so often been the eve of triumph ;
the sustaining faith which has transfigured the weak-
ling into a hero, and nerved the heart of solitary saint-
ship to do battle alone against a degenerate Church or

KEVELATION.

a persecuting world ; the silent victory of truth, or the
unperceived growtli of worldliness and falsehood. The
book is thus a help and stay — not as yielding fruit to
curiosity. It is not a manual of tiresome details : it is
not meant to be a treasure-house of marvels for the
prophetical archaeologist : it is a book of living prin-
ciples. It exhibits the force and fortune of truth as it
acts upon the great mass of human society : it shows
the revolutions which are the result. It shows the
decay of the outward form, the release of the true
germ, which will spring up in better harvests. It
shows us how the corn of wheat may fall and die, and
so bring forth much fruit. It shows us how evermore,
from first to last, Christ is with us — encouraging, con-
soling, warning, helping, and leading us onward through
conflict to rest.

V. Literature of the Apocalypse.— It is per-
fectly hopeless to touch so vast a subject as this. The
mere list of works on the Apocalypse given in Darling's
Cyclopaedia Bibliographica, published in 1859, occu-
pies fifty-two columns. A history of various inter-
pretations is given in Liicke, Einleitung in die Offen-
oarung Johannis ; a similar sketch is given by Bleek,
Lectures on the Apocalypse ; and Elliott (Horos
Apocalyptical, " vol. iv.) has presented us with an ex-
haustive and impartial account, History of Apocalyptic
Interpretations, followed by A Critical Examination
and Refutation of the Three Chief Counter-schemes of
Apocalyptic Interpretation ; and also of Dr. Arnold's
General Prophetic Counter-theory. Dean Alford's
article (Greek Test.) on "Systems of Interpretation,"
is hicid and compact.

Of Commentaries, leaving unnoticed earlier exposi-
tions, those of Vitringa, De Wette, Ewald, Bleek,
Hengstenberg, Meyer, Ebrard, Auberlen, and Diister-
dieck; of Hammond, Bishop Newton, Elliott, Alford,
Bishop Wordsworth, Cunningham, "Woodhouse, Moses
Stuart, De Burgh, I. Williams, besides the works of
Faber, Maitland, and Prof. Birks, are well known;
and Dr. Currey's Notes on Revelation, in the Christian

Knowledge Society's Commentary add much to the
value of a really useful work.

Of lectures, the late Professor Maurice's Lectures are
full of thought and interest ; and many are indebted to
Dr. Vaughan (now Dean of Llandaff ) for his Lectures
on the Revelation of St. John, which are models of
what expository lectures ought to be. Gebhardt's
Lehrbegriff der Apohalypse, now accessible to Eng-
lish readers in Clarke's Foreign Translation Library —
(Gebhardt's Doctrine of the Apocalypse) is a valuable
addition to the literature of the sub3ect ; it contains a
close and careful comparison between the doctrine of
the Apocalypse and that of the Gospel and Epistles of
St. John. Of other books may be mentioned — Rev. S.
Garratt's Commentary on the Revelation of St.
John, considered as the Divine Booh of History ;
Prophetical Landmarks, by Rev. H. Bonar ; Dr.
J. H. Todd's Donnellan Lectures ; and Bishop Words-
worth's Hulsean Lectures. The Apocalypse, by
Rev. Charles B. Waller; The Parousia, a Critical
Inquiry into the New Testament Doctrine of our
Lord's Second Coming ; The Life and Writings
of St. John, by Dr. J. M. Macdonald, of Prince-
town. On special points the following works may
be noted : — On the Epistles to the Seven Churches,
in addition to Archbishop Trench's indispensable
work, and to Stier's well-known one, a valuable con-
tribution has been given by Prof. Plumptre. On the
Millennium : Bishop Waldegrave's " New Testament
Millennarianism " (Bampton Lectures), and the Rev.
Dr. Brown's work entitled Christ's Second Coming :
will it be pre-Millennial ? On the Babylon of the
Apocalypse : Bishop Wordsworth's Rome, the Baby-
lon of the Apocalypse. On the types and symbols :
Fairbairn's Typology of Scripture ; Rev. Malcolm
White's Symbolical Numbers of Scripture ; and the
essay on "The Formal Elements of Apocalyptics "
prefixed to Lange's Commentary on Revelation. Of
this last book, which has not been mentioned above, it
is to be regretted that, with much that is most valu-
able, it should be disfigured by pedantry of style.

ft*

THE REVELATION

ST. JOHN THE DIVINE.

CHAPTER I.— d) The Revelation of
Chap. i. 1—4. Jesus Christ, which God
Preface. gave unto him, to shew

unto his servants things which must
shortly come to pass ; and he sent and

I signified it by his angel unto his servant
John : (2> who bare record of the word
of God, and of the testimony of Jesus
Christ, and of all things that he saw.
(3) Blessed is he that readeth, and they

(D The Revelation of Jesus Christ.— The book
is a revelation of the things which are and the things
which shall be. " John is the writer, but Jesus Christ
is the author," says Grotius; and consistently with
this the action of Christ is seen throughout. It is
Christ who bids John write to the seven churches;
it is Christ who opens the seven seals (chap. vi. 1),
who reveals the sufferings of the Church (chap. vi. 9),
who offers the prayers of the saints (chap. viii. 3),
and delivers the little book to John (chap. x. 1 — 11).
Thus it is seen that though the rise and fall of earth's
history is included in the revelation, it is a revelation
also of a living person ; it is not the dull, dead onward
flow of circumstances, but the lives of men and
nations seen in the light of Him who is the light of
every man and the life of all history; and thus we
learn that " only a living person can be the Alpha and
Omega, the starting-point of creation and its final
rest." The testimony of Jesus is the spirit of this
prophecy, as of all others. The Father gives this to
the Son whom He loves, and shows Him all things
that Himself doeth.

Shortly. — On this word much controversy has
turned. Its force, " speedily," affords a groundwork,
and, it must be admitted, a plausible one, to the
prseterist school of interpreters, who hold that the
whole range of Apocalyptic predictions was fulfilled
within a comparatively short time after the Apostle
wrote. The truth, however, seems to be that the words
of God are of perpetual fulfilment : they are not only
to be fulfilled ; they have not only been fulfilled ; but
they have been and they are being fulfilled ; and they
yet will be fulfilled; and the principles which are
enunciated by the Prophet, though " shortly " fulfilled,
are not exhausted in the immediate fulfilment, but
carry still lessons for the succeeding generations of
mankind.

John — i.e., the Apostle and Evangelist. The argu-
ments in support of this identification are admitted
even by the most captious critics to be conclusive.
" The Apocalypse, if any book can be traced to him,
must be ascribed to the Apostle John " (Supernatural
Religion). (See Excursus A.) To many it will seem
natural that John, the beloved disciple, should be the
recipient of this revelation. Those who have been
nearest to God learn most of His will. Such are
friends, not servants, for the servant knoweth not
what his Lord doeth: and thus, as in the Old

Testament to Abraham, the friend of God, and to
Daniel, a man greatly beloved, so in the Now
Testament to the disciple who leaned on Jesus'
bosom, are shown the things which God was about to
do. " Mysteries are revealed unto the meek. The
pure in heart shall see God. A pure heart pene-
trateth heaven and hell " (Thomas a-Kempis).

" More bounteous aspects on rue beam,

Me mightier transports move and thrill ;
So keep I fair through faith and prayer,
A virgin heart in work and will. "—Sir Galahad.

(2) Who bare record.— Elsewhere as well as
here. And he tells us of what he bore record — of the
Word of God. The writer declares that the substance
of his testimony and witness had been this Word of
God. We have here an indication of what the general
character of his teaching had been. It evidently had
been a teaching laying stress on that aspect of truth
which is so forcibly set before us in the Fourth Gospel
and the Epistles bearing the name of John. (Comp.
chap. xix. 11 ; John i. 1, 14; 1 John i. 1, et al. Note
also that the words " record," " testimony," " witness,"
found in this Averse, recur in the Gospel and Epistles.
Comp. John v. 31—40; xix. 35; xxi. 24.)

(3) Blessed is he that readeth .... prophecy.
— Any declaration of the principles of the divine
government, with indications of their exemplification
in coming history, is a prophecy. Sometimes the
history which exemplifies these principles is imme-
diate, sometimes more remote ; in other cases (as, I
venture to believe, is the case with the predictions of
this book) the events are both immediate and remote.
The prophecy gives us the rule, with some typical
application illustrative of its method of working;
after-history affords us the working out of various
examples. We, then, as living actors in the world,
have not only to read and hear, but to keep — keep in
mind and action those principles which preside over
the development of all human history (Jas. i. 22).
The word " keep " is in itself a proof to me that
the whole fulfilment of the Apocalypse could not have
been exhausted in the earliest times, nor reserved to
the latest times of the Church's history, but that its
predictions are applicable in all eras.

The time is at hand. — In the apostolic mind this
was always true, though the restless idleness of the
Thessalonians was blamed (2 Thess. ii. 2, and iii.
11, 12). The spirit of vigilance and of ever readiness

533

Tlte Salutation

REVELATION, I.

to the Seven C/turc/ies.

that hear the words of this prophecy,
and keep those things which are
written therein : for the time is at
hand.

w JOHN to the seven Chap. i. i-
churches which are in Asia: to the w£
Grace be unto you, and churche s.
peace, from him which is,« gfi*^ k^

for both the providential advents and the final advent
of the Christ was enjoined. (Comp. Rom. xiii. 12;
Jas. v. 9 ; 2 Pet. iii. 8, 9.)

(*) JOHN to the seven churches (or, congrega-
tions) which are in Asia.— It is needless to observe
that the Asia here is not to be regarded as co-exten-
sive with what we know as Asia Minor. It is the pro-
vince of Asia (comp. Acts ii. 9, 10 ; xvi. 6, 7), which was
under a Roman proconsul, and embraced the western
portion of Asia Minor. In St. John's time it consisted
of a strip of sea-board, some 100 square miles in extent.
Its boundaries varied at different periods ; but roughly,
and for the present purpose, they may be regarded as
the Caycus on the north, the Mseander on the south, the
Phrygian Hills on the east, and the Mediterranean on
the west.

Seven churches.— It has been maintained by some
(notably by Yitringa) that the epistles to the seven
churches are prophetic, and set forth the condition of
the Church in the successive epochs of its after-history.
The growth of error, the development of schisms, the
gloom of superstition, the darkness of mediaeval times,
the dawn of the Reformation, the convulsions of after-
revolutions, have been discovered in these brief and
forcible epistles. Such a view needs no formal refu-
tation. The anxiety for circumstantial and limited
fulfilments of prophecy has been at the root of such
attempts. When we read God's words as wider than
our thoughts we stand in no need of such desperate
efforts at symmetrical interpretations ; for the truth
then is seen to be that words addressed to one age
have their fitness for all ; and that these epistles are the
heritage of the Church in every epoch. In this sense
the churches are types and representatives of the whole
family of God. Every community may find its likeness
here. This much is admitted by the best commentators
of all schools. " The seven churches," says St. Chry-
sostom, "are all churches by reason of the seven'
Spirits." " By the seven," writes St. Augustine, " is
signified the perfection of the Church universal, and
by writing to the seven he shows the fulness of one."
And the words, " He that hath an ear, let him hear
what the Spirit saith unto the chui'ches," are, as has
been well observed, a direct intimation that some uni-
versal application of their teaching was intended.

Grace be unto you, and peace.— Three apostles,
St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. John, adopt the same saluta-
tion. Not oidy is this a kind of link of Christian fellow-
ship between them, but its adoption by St. John, after St.
Paul had first used it, is a slight token that the Apoca-
lypse cannot be regarded (as some recent critics would
have it) as an anti-Pauline treatise. As the Christian
greeting, it transcends while it embraces the Greek and
Hebrew salutations. There is no tinge of the sadness
of separation; it is the greeting of hope and repose,
grounded on the only true foundation of either, the
grace of God, which is the well-spring of life and love.

From him which is, and which was, and
which is to come (or, which cometh). — The phrase
presents a remarkable violation of grammar; but the
violation is clearly intentional. It is not the blunder
of an illiterate writer ; it is the deliberate putting in
emphatic form the " Name of Names." " Should not,"
says Professor Lightfoot. " this remarkable feature be

preserved in an English Bible ? If in Ex. iii. 14 the
words run, ' I AM hath sent me unto you,' may wo
not also be allowed to read here, from ' He that is,

AND THAT WAS, AND THAT IS TO COME ? ' " The

expression must not be separated from what follows.
The greeting is triple: from Him which is, and
which was, and which cometh; from the seven Spirits;
and from Jesus Christ — i.e., from the Triune God.
The first phrase would therefore seem to designate
God the Eather, the self-existing, eternal One, the
fount and origin of all existence. Professor Plumptre
suggests that the phrase used here may be used
in allusion and contrast to the inscription spoken
of by Plutarch, on the Temple of Isis, at Sais : "I
am all that has come into being, and that which is,
and that which shall be ; and no man hath lifted my
vail." The heathen inscription identifies God with the
universe, making Him, not an ever-being, but an ever-
becoming, from whom personality is excluded : the
Christian description is of the personal, everlasting,
self-revealing God — who is, who was, and who cometh.
We should have expected after " is " and " was " " will
be ; " but there is no " will be " with an eternal God.
With Him all is; so the word "cometh" is used,
hinting His constant manifestations in history, and the
final coming in judgment. This allusion to the Second
Coming is denied by Professor Plumptre, but as he
admits that the words, " He that cometh," used in the
Gospels, and applied by the Jews to the Messiah, may
be designedly employed here by the Apostle, it is diffi-
cult to see how the Advent idea can be excluded. The
word appears to imply that we are to be always looking
for Him whose " comings " recur in all history as the
earnests of the fuller and final Advent.

From the seven Spirits.— The interpretation
which would understand these seven Spirits to be the
seven chief angels, though supported by names of great
weight, is plainly untenable. The context makes it im-
possible to admit any other meaning than that the greet-
ing winch comes from the Eather and the Son comes
also from the Holy Spirit sevenfold in His operations,
whose gifts are diffused among all the churches, and who
divides to every man severally as He will. For corre-
sponding thoughts in the Old Testament, compare the
seven lamps and seven eyes of Zechariah (chaps, iii. 9 ;
iv. 2, 10), "the symbols of eternal light and all em-
bracing knowledge." It may not be inappropriate to
note that Philo speaks of the number seven in its
mystical import as identical with unity, as unity de-
veloped in diversity, and yet remaining one. This
unity in diversity is the thought St. Paul seems anxious
to keep before the minds of the Corinthians, lest their
gifts should become the source of division. All
work that one and self-same spirit (1 Cor. xii. 11).
The after-recurrence in this book of the number seven
is, I think, selected to support this thought of com-
pleteness and variety ; the dramatic unity is preserved,
though the scenes which are unfolded are amply
diversified ; and the seven seals, seven trumpets, and
seven vials, are not three successive periods, but three
aspects of one complete period presided over by that
one Spirit whose guidance may be seen in all ages, and
in, diverse ways. The Spirits are before the throne.
This reference to the throne gives a touch of authority

534

Christ tlir Key of History.

KEVELATION, I.

St. John in 1'ntinos.

and which was, and which is to come ; and
from the seven Spirits which are before
his throne ; <5) and from Jesus Christ,
who is the faithful witness, and the
first begotten of the dead," and the
prince of the kings of the earth. Unto
him that loved us, and washed us from
our sins in his own blood,* (6> and hath
made us kings and priests unto God
and his Father ;c to him be glory and
dominion for ever and ever. Amen.
(7) Behold, he cometh with clouds ;(/ and

every eye shall see him, and they also

which pierced him : e and all kindreds

of the earth shall wail because of him.

Even so, Amen. (8) I am Alpha and

Omega, the beginning and the ending,

j saith the Lord, which is, and which was,

I and which is to come, the Almighty.

| (9) I John, who also am your Chap j 9_11#

j brother, and companion in The occasion of

! tribulation, and in the the vision.

! kingdom and patience of Jesus Christ,

I was in the isle that is called Patmos,

The Holy Spirit who pleads with
in God's Throne.

to the description.

men is the Spirit fr

(5) From Jesus Christ, who is the faithful
witness, and the first begotten (or, firstborn) of
the dead, and the prince (or, ruler) of the kings
of the earth.— The triple title applied to Christ cor-
responds to the three ideas of this book. Christ the
Revealing Prophet, the Life-giving High Priest, and
the real Ruler of mankind.

The faithful witness. — There may be a re-
ference here, it has been suggested by Prof. Plumptre,
to the bow in the cloud, which is described in Ps.
Ixxxix. 37 as the faithful witness. The coincidence
of expression is remarkable : "I will make him my
firstborn, higher than the kings of the earth ; he shall
stand fast as the sun before me, and as the faithful
witness in heaven." The idea of testimony and wit-
ness is a favourite one with St. John, who records its
use by our Lord Himself. (Conip. John iii. 32 ; v. 36 ;
xviii. 37. See also Rev, xix. 10; xxii. 18. Comp. also
the work of the Only Begotten as stated in John i. 18.)

The prince (or ruler) of the kings of the
earth. — Tin; message does not come from One who
will be, but who is the true ruler of all earthly po-
tentates. The disposition to dwell on the future and
more visibly recognised reign of Christ hereafter has
tended to obscure the truth of His present reign.
It is instructive to notice that this book, which
describes so vividly the manifestations of Christ's
kingdom (chaps, xi. 15 ; xii. 10), claims for Him at the
outset the place of the real King of kings. Such was
the Apostle's faith. " Above all emperors and kings,
above all armies and multitudes, he thought of the
Crucified as ruling and directing the course of history,
and certain in His own due time to manifest His
sovereignty " (Prof. Plumptre). " What are we to see
in the simple Anno Domini of our dates and super-
scriptions, but that for some reason the great world-
history has been bending itself to the lowly person of
Jesus " (Bushnell). " A handful read the philosophers;
myriads would die for Christ ; they in their popularity
could barely found a school ; Christ from His cross
rules the world " (Farrar, Witness of Histoiij). Such
is a real kingship.

Unto him that loved us, and washed us.— In-
stead of " washed us," some MSS. read. " loosed us."
There is cmly one letter's difference in r the two words
in Greek. The general tone of thought would lead us
to pi'efer " washed " as the true reading. On a solemn
occasion, which St. John remembered clearly, our Lord
had said, " If I wash thee not, thou hast no part witli
Me." The thought of the "cleansing blood," in-
tensified by the recollection of the water and blood
which he had seen flowing from Christ's pierced side,

often recurred to his mind (chap. vii. 13, 14; 1 John
i. 7 ; v. 6—8).

(6) And hath made us kings and priests unto
God and his Father ; to him be glory and
dominion for ever (or, unto the ages). — The symbol
of washing in the last verse; naturally leads on to the
thought of consecration, accompanied by blood-sprink-
ling, to the work of the priest (Ex. xix. 6, 10 ; xxiv. 8;
Heb. ix. 21). The book will declare the kingship and

{iriesthood of the children of God — a sovereignty over
luman fears and sufferings — their priesthood in their
lives of consecration, and their offering of themselves
even unto death.

" And all thy saints do evercome
By Thy blood and their martyrdom."

The doxology here is two-fold : glory and dominion.
The doxologies in which the Redeemed Church takes
part grow in strength in the earlier chapters of this
book. It is three-fold in chap. iv. 9 — 11 ; four-fold
in chap. v. 13; and it reaches the climax of seven-fold
in chap. vii. 12.

(?) Behold, he cometh with clouds.— Better,
with the clouds. The reference to Christ's words
(Mark xiv. 62) is undoubted. In the "clouds" St.
Augustine sees the emblem of the saints of the Church,
which is His body, who spread as a vast fertilising
cloud over the whole world.

Every eye shall see him, and they also which
(they were who = " whosoever ") pierced him. — Hero
again is a reference to the incident of the; piercing of
Christ's side (John xix. 34), recorded only by St. John.

Shall wail because of him.— Or, shall wail
over Him. The prophecy in Zech. xii. 10, is the
suggesting one of this. But the passage in Zechariah
describes the mourning of grief over the dead ; the
passage here is the mourning towards one who was
dead, and is alive. He towards whom they now direct
their sorrow is the One over whom they should have
wailed when Ho was laid in His tomb.

(8) The beginning and the ending. — These
words are of doubtful authority ; they are in all pro-
bability taken from chap. xxii. 13, and interpolated
here. The description of the verse applies, with little
doubt, to our Lord, and the words are a strong declara-
tion of His divinity.

The Almighty. — The word thus rendered is, with
one exception (2 Cor. vi. 18), peculiar to this book in the
New Testament.

(9) I John, who also am your brother . . .—
More literally, I, John, your brother and fellow partner
in the tribulation and kingdom and patience in Jesus,
.... because of the word of God and the testimony
of Jesus. He was a fellow-sharer of tribulation with
them, and he shares that patience which brings

The Great Voice

REVELATION, I.

as of a Trumpet.

for the word of God, and for the testi-
mony of Jesus Christ. (10> I was in the
Spirit on the Lord's day, and heard be-
hind me a great voice, as of a trumpet,
(11) saying, I am Alpha and Omega,
the first and the last : and, What
thou seest, write in a book, and send it

unto the seven churches which are in
Asia ; unto Ephesus, and unto Smyrna,
and unto Pergamos, and unto Thyatira,
and unto Sardis, and unto „, . 12_20
Philadelphia, and unto The vision of
Laodicea. 02) And I turned the Revealer
to see the voice that spake imse

experience, because it is a patience in Jesus. It is not
patience for Christ, like 2 Thess. iii. 5, nor patience of
Christ, but rather patience which draws its life and
energy of endurance from Him.

Patmos. — Professor Plumptre notices how little
the scenery of Patmos colours the Apocalypse. " The
vision that follows is all but unaffected by the external
surroundings of the seer. At the farthest, we can but
think of the blue waters of the Mediterranean — now

Surple as wine, now green as emerald, flushing and
ashing in the light as the hues on the plumage of a
dove." The position of the Apostle in Patmos was
probably that of an exile, free to roam where he would
within the limits of the island. There was at any rate
no limit of chains or guard, as in the case of St. Paul
(Acts xxviii. 16, 20). He tells us what was the cause
of his exile. It was his faithfulness in proclaiming,
as we know ho loved to do, the word of God and the
testimony of Jesus. " St. John, proclaiming the Word
of God, who was before all worlds, who had been made
flesh and dwelt among men, who was the King of
kings and Lord of lords, struck a blow at the worship
as well as the polity of the Roman empire. He
opposed the God-man to the man-god " (Maurice on the
Iievel., p. 20). The contest is incessantly the same.
False creeds ever aim to deify man. " Ye shall be as
gods " is their motto and their bible. " Emmanuel,"
is the motto of the true faith —

" The Lord was God, and came as man ; the Pope
Is man, and comes as God."— Harold.

The crucified, suffering Saviour, God in Christ, very
God, and one with man in sorrow, was the stumbling-
block in the past, and is the ideal which offends many
now. (See Bp. Alexander's Bampton Lectures, p. 30,
et seq.) The terms of the conflict remain unchanged
through the ages. (Comp. chap. vi. 9.)

(10) I was (or, I became) in the Spirit. — The mind,
drawn onward by the contemplation of things spiritual,
is abstracted from the immediate consciousness of
outward earthly forms of life. In great natures this
power is usually strong. Socrates is related to have stood
rapt in thought for hours, and even days, unconscious
of the midday heat, or the mocking wonder of his
comrades. To high-souled men, set upon the spiritual
welfai'e of the race, this power of detaching themselves
from the influence of the outward is the result of
their earnestness ; the things spiritual are to them
the real ; the things seen are temporal. It is the Holy
Spirit alone which can give the power of this spiritual
abstraction ; but it is through the ordinary use of
means that this power is bestowed. In St. John's
case it was on the Lord's Day that this spiritual
rapture was vouchsafed.

The Lord's day. — There is no ground whatever
for the futurist interpretation that this expression refers
to the *' Day of the Lord," as in 2 Thess. ii. 2. The
phrase in this latter passage is totally different. The
phrase here is, en te huriake hemera. The adjective
is applied by St. Paul (perhaps coined by him for the

purpose) to the Lord's Supper : from the Supper it
came to be applied to the day on which Christians met
for the breaking of bread. The day is still called icvpiaKTi
[huriake) in the Levant. On the Lord's Day the vision
came to the Apostle. It was the hour of sweetest,
closest communion, when the memories of Christ risen,
and the fellowship he had enjoyed at Ephesus, would
work on his spirit, and aid in raising him in highest
adoration, like St. Paul (2 Cor. xii. 2—4). When so
rapt, he heard a voice, strong, clear, and resonant as a
trumpet. The Apostle's voice could not be heard
among his beloved flock at Ephesus ; but there was a
voice which would reach from the exile at Patmos, not
to Ephesus and its sister churches, but to all churches
and throughout all time. The mouth which persecution
closes God opens, and bids it speak to the world. So
St. Paul, through the Epistles of his Captivity, still
speaks. Luther, by his translation of the Bible, spoke
from his confinement at Wartburg; and Bunyan, by
his divine allegory, shows how feeble were the walls
of his cell at Bedford to silence the voice of God. If
speech be silvern and silence golden, it is also true in
the history of the Church that from the captivity
of her teachers she has received her most abiding
treasures.

(u) I am Alpha and Omega.— In this verse we
pass from St. John to Him who was the Word, of
whom St. John gave testimony. He who is the
faithful witness now speaks. "What thou seest,
write," &c. The previous words, "I am Alpha," &c,
are not found in the best MSS. The words "which
are in Asia," are also omitted.

The seven churches. — There were more than
seven churches in Asia Minor ; but the number selected
indicates completeness. Thus, though having special
refei'ence to the conditions of those churches, the
epistles may be regarded as epistles conveying ever
appropriate lessons to the churches of succeeding ages.
The names of the seven churches are enumerated, as
they would naturally be by a person writing from
Patmos. " First, Ephesus is addressed, as the Asiatic
metropolis, and as the nearest church to Patmos ; then
the other churches on the western coast of Asia ; then
those in the interior " (Wordsworth).

(12> Seven golden candlesticks. — Comp. the
vision in Zech. iv. 2 — 11. It has been observed that
there is a difference in the two visions. In Zech., as
in Ex. xxv. 31, 32, the seven branches are united, so as to
form one candlestick ; here there are said to be seven
candlesticks ; and from this supposed difference it is
argued that we have a hint of the variety of the
Christian churches, as distinguished from the single-
ness of the Jewish church. But is it not moi*e probable
that what St. John saw was the old familiar seven-
branched candlestick, identical in form with that
which has been rendered familiar to all by the Arch of
Titus, but that as the mention of the seven churches
was then fresh in his mind, his eye fell rather upon
the seven limbs and seven lights than on the whole
candlestand, especially if, as Prof. Plumptre suggests,

The Visum of

EEVELATION, I.

tfie Creator Himself.

with ine. And being turned, I saw
seven golden candlesticks ; (13> and in
flic midst of the seven candlesticks one
like unto the Son of man, clothed with
a garment down to the foot, and girt
about the paps with a golden girdle.
(u> His head and his hairs were white

like wool, as white as snow ; and his
eyes were as a flame of fire ; (15) and his
feet like unto fine brass, as if they
burned in a furnace ; and his voice as
the sound of many waters. (1C> And he
had in his right hand seven stars : and
out of his mouth went a sharp two-

tlie figure of the Chi-ist concealed part of the main
stem ? Tims to his view the separate individuality
of the churches, and their real union in Him who was
the Light, would rather be symbolised. Thus, too,
the external teachings of the earlier symbols are not
disturbed : the new revelation illumines the types and
shadows of the older. " These symbols were intended
to raise them out of symbols ; the truths were to throw
light on the parables, rather than the parables on the
truths. Men were to study the visions of an earlier
day by the revelations of that day" (Maurice,
Apocalypse, p. 22).

<13) In the midst of the seven candlesticks
(the word " seven " is omitted in some of the best
MSS.) one like unto the Son of man.—" He who
kindled the light to be a witness of Himself and of
His own presence with men was indeed present."
He was present the same as He had been known on
earth, yet different — the same, for He is seen as Son
of Man ; the same as He had been seen on the Resur-
rection evening ; the same as He appeared to Stephen ;
the same Jesus, caring for, helping and counselling

His people : yet different, for He is arrayed in the

""_ trity. He is robed

to the foot with the long garment of the high priest.

apparel of kingly and priestly dignitj

St. John uses the same word which is used in the
LXX. version of Ex. xxviii. 31, to describe the
robe of the Ephod. (Comp. Zech. iii. 4.) It has been
understood by some, however, to indicate the " ample
robe of judicial and kingly power." There is in the
vision a combination of both thoughts. He is the
King-Priest who is seen by the Evangelist, the Mel-
chisedec whom the Epistle to the Hebrews had so
gloriously set forth (Heb. v. 9, 10; vi. 20; especially
vii. 1 — 17). He is girt about the breasts with a golden
girdle. The girdle is not around the loins, as though
ready for action and toil (Luke xii. 35), but it is worn
as by one who rests from toil in the "repose of
sovereignty." So, according to Josephus {Ant. iii. 7, § 2),
the Levities! priests were girdled. The girdle is of
gold ; not interwoven with gold, as was the high
priest's girdle (Ex. xxviii. 8), but pure gold, the
emblem of a royal presence. (Comp. Isa. xi. 5 ;
Dan. x. 5 ; Eph. vi. 14.)

(w) His head and his hairs were white like
wool, as white as snow.— The whiteness here is
thought by some to be the token of the transfiguration
in light of the glorified person of the Redeemer. " It
is the glorious white which is the colour and lively of
heaven." This doubtless is true ; but it appears to
me a mistake to say that there is no hint here of age.
It is argued that the white hair of age is a token of
decay, and that no such token would have place here ;
but surely this is straining a point, and making a mere
emblem an argument, Age and youth alike have their
glories; the glory of young men is their strength;
the hoary head, too, the token of experience, dignity,
authority, is the glory of age. Physically, white hair
may be a sign of decay ; typically it never is, else the
effort to produce the appearance of it in the persons of

537

monarchs and judges woidd never have been made.
The white head is never in public sentiment other than
the venerable sign of ripe knowledge, mature judgment,
and solid wisdom; and as such it well betokens that
full wisdom and authority which is wielded by the
Ancient of Days, who, though always the same in the
fresh dew of youth, is yet from everlasting, the
captain of salvation, perfect through suffering, radiant
in the glorious youthhood of heaven, venerable in
that eternal wisdom and glory which He had with
the Father before the world. (Comp. Dan. vii. 9.) "He
was one," Saadias Gaon beautifully says, "with the
appearance of an old man, and like an old man full of
mercies. His white hair, His white garments, indicated
the pure, kind intentions He had to purify His people
from their sins."

His eyes were as a flame of fire. — Comp. chap,
xix. 12 ; Dan. x. 6. The eyes of the Lord, which are in
every place, beholding the evil and the good, are here
described as like unto fire, to express not merely in-
dignation (He had looked once on the Jewish rulers in
indignation) against evil, but determination to consume
it ; for our God is a consuming fire, purging away sin
from those who forsake sin, and consuming in their
sin those who refuse to be separated from it. (See
chap. xx. 9 ; Dan. vii. 9, 10 ; Jude, verse 7.)

<15) His feet like unto fine brass.— The
feet, like the feet of the ministering priests of Israel,
were bare, and appeared like chalcolibanus (fine brass).
The exact meaning of this word (used only here) is
not certain. The most trustworthy authors incline to
take it as a hybrid word, half Greek, half Hebrew —
chalcos, brass, and labdn, white, to whiten — and
understand it to signify brass which has attained in the
furnace a white heat. "Such technical words were
likely enough to be current in a population like that of
Ephesus, consisting largely of workers in metal, some
of whom — if we may judge from the case of Alexander
the coppersmith (Acts xix. 34; 2 Tim. iv. 14) — were,
without doubt, Jews. I believe the word in question to
have belonged to this technical vocabulary. It is at
any rate used by St. John as familiar and intelligible to
those for whom he wrote " (Prof. Plumptre in the
Epistles to Seven Churches, in loco).

His voice as the sound (better, voice, as the
same word — phone — is used twice, and translated first
"voice" and then "sound" in our English version)
of many waters.— Daniel described the voice of the
Ancient of Days as the voice of a multitude (Dan. x. 6) ;
but the voice of the multitude was in earlier Hebrew
writings compared to the sound of the waves of the sea,
which the voice of the Lord alone could subdue (Ps.
lxv. 7 ; xciii. 4). This image the Evangelist adopts to
describe the voice of Christ — strong and majestic, amid
the Babel-sounds of earth. That voice, whose word
stilled the sea, sounds as the waves of the sea, which
St. John heard Him rebuke.

(16) And he had (or, having) in his right hand
seven stars. — The stars are explained later on
(verse 20) to bo the emblems of the angels of the

Tlie Apostle receives

KEVELATION, I.

his Charge.

edged sword : and his countenance was
as the sun shineth in his strength.
(17) And when I saw him, I fell at his
feet as dead. And he laid his right

u ls;i. II.. 1. & 14.

hand upon me, saying unto me, Fear
not ; I am the first and the last : a
(ig) I am he that liveth, and was dead ;
and, behold, I am alive for evermore,

seven churches ; they are described as stars in His
right hand ; they, perhaps, appeared as a wreath, or
as a royal and star-adorned diadem in His hand.
(See Isa. lxii. 3.) It expresses their preciousness
in Christ's sight, and the care He takes of them.
A similar emblem is used of Coniah (Jcr. xxii. 24),
where he is compared to the signet upon God's
right hand.

And out of his mouth went a sharp two-
edged sword. — There need be no doubt about the
meaning here : the imagery of the Bible elsewhere
is too explicit to be mistaken; it is the sword of
the Spirit, even the word of God, which is here
described ; it is that word which is sharper than
any two-edged sword, and which lays bare the thoughts
and intents of the soul (Eph. vi. 17 ; Heb. iv. 12.
Comp. Isa. xlix. 2). This is the weapon with which Christ
will subdue His enemies ; no carnal weapon is needed
(2 Cor. x. 4). Those that take any other sword in hand
than this to advance His kingdom will perish with the
weapon to which they have appealed (chap. xiii. 10 ;
Matt. xxvi. 52), but those who arm themselves with this
will find it mighty through God. With this weapon of
His word He Himself fights against His adversaries
(chaps, ii. 12, 16 ; xix. 15, 21) ; with this He lays bare
the hidden hypocrisies of men, cuts off the diseased
members, and wounds that Ho may heal.

" The sword wherewith Them dost command,
Is in Thy mouth and not Thy hand."

It is a two-edged sword ; it lias the double edge of
the Old Testament and the New ; " the Old Testament,*
cutting externally our carnal; the New Testament,
internally our spiritual sins " (Richard of St. Victor).
It lias the double edge of its power to rebuke sin and
self-righteousness ; the evil of wrong-doing and the
evil motives which wait on right-doing ; the two edges
of which will cut off sin from man, or else man in
his sin. (Comp. Isa. xi. 4, and 2 Thess. ii. 8.) The
Greek word here rendered "sword" is used six times
in this book, and only once (Luke ii. 35) elsewhere in
the New Testament.

His countenance was as the sun shineth
in his strength. — It is the spiritual truth which
gives the splendour to such descriptions as these.
The dazzling glory of Him who is the Sun of
Righteousness is intolerable to human eyes. There
is no marvel in this when we remember that He
is the brightness of His Father's glory, and that the
Father dwells " in that light which no man can approach
unto ; whom no man hath seen, nor can see " (1 Tim. vi.
16). It is the lustre of holiness and righteousness
which is here signified, and which " the eye of sinful
man may not see," but of which saints and angel mes-
sengers may catch a faint reflection ; so that the angel's
face may look like lightning (Matt, xxviii. 3), and " the
righteous shine forth as the sun in the kingdom of
their Father " (Matt. xiii. 43). (Comp. the shining of
Moses' face, Ex. xxxiv. 29.)

(17) I fell at his feet as dead.— At the sight of
Him, the Evangelist fell as one dead. " Was this He
whom upon earth St. John had known so familiarly ?
Was this He in whose bosom He had lain at that Last
Supper, and said, ' Lord, which is he that betrayeth

TlieeP' When I saw Him thus transformed, thus
glorified, I fell at His feet as one dead. Well might
such be the effect, even upon the spirit of a just man
made perfect— and St. John was still in the body — of
such an open revelation of the risen glory of Christ "
(Dr. Yaughan). It was pity, and the pang felt at the
severity of retribution which overtook sin, which made
Dante fall as a dead body falls {Inferno, v.) ; it is the
felt consciousness of unworthiness which seems to have
overcome the Evangelist. This consciousness has its
witness outside the Bible as well as in it. " Semelo
must perish if Jupiter reveals himself to her in his
glory, being consumed in the brightness of that glory."
(Comp. Ex. xxxiii. 18, 20, " Thou canst not see My
face ; for there shall no man see Me and live.") For
every man it is a dreadful thing to stand face to face
with God. Yet the consciousness of this unworthiness
to behold God, or to receive a near revelation of His
presence, is a sign of faith, and is welcomed as such.
Of him who said, " Lord, I am not worthy that Thou
shouldest come under my roof," Christ said, " I have
not found so great faith, no, not in Israel " (Matt,
viii. 8—10).

He laid his right hand upon me, saying unto
me, Fear not. — The words " unto mo " should be
omitted. The gesture is desig-ned to give the assur-
ance of comfort ; the hand which was raised up to
bless (Luke xxiv. 51), which was reached forth to heal
the leper, to /raise the sinking Peter (Matt. xiv. 31),
and to touch the wounded ear of Malchus, is now
stretched out to reassure His servant ; and the words,
like those which John had heard upon the Mount of
Transfiguration, and when toiling against the waves
of Galilee, bid him not to be afraid. (Comp. Dan. x.
10.)

I am the first and the last.— The "last " must not
be taken here to mean the least and lowest, as though
it referred to our Lord's humiliation ; the last points
forwards, as the first points backwards. He was before
all things, and so the first; and though all things
change, folded up as a vesture, yet His years shall not
fail, and so He is the last. " The first because all things
are from Me ; the last because to Me are all things "
(Richard of St. Yictor). (Comp. Col. i. 16—18 ; Heb. i.
11, 12.) This pre-eminence of first and last is thrice
claimed for the Lord Jehovah in Isaiah (chaps, xli. 4 ;
xliv. 6; xlviii. 12), and thrice for the Lord Jesus in
this book (in this passage, in chap. ii. 8, and chap. xxii.
13).

(is) I am he that liveth, and was dead.— Better,
and the living One (omit the words " I am ") ; and I
became dead; and, behold, I am alive (or, I am living)
unto the ages of ages (or, for evermore). " Amen " is
omitted in the best MSS. This verse must be care-
fully kept in connection with the preceding, as the de-
scription should go on without pause. He is the living
One — not merely one who once was alive, or is now
alive — but the One who has " life in Himself, and the
fountain and source of life to others, John i. 4; xiv. 6;
the One who hath immortality." 1 Tim. vi. 16 (Trench).
Yet He became dead. There are two wonders here.:
the living One becomes dead, and the dead One is alive
for evermore. It is another form of the glorious truth
and paradox of which the Apostles were so fond (Phil. ii.

538

The Seven Candlesticks

REVELATION, II.

The Seven ChurcJies.

Amen ; and have the keys of hell and of
death. lI!,, Write the things which thou
hast Been, and the things which are,
and the things which shall be hereafter;
'-'" the mystery of the seven starswhioh
thou sawest in mv right hand, and the
seven golden candlesticks. The sewn
stars arc the angels of the seven
churches : and the seven candlesticks

which thou sawest are the seven
churches.

CHAPTEE II.— (D Unto the angel
of the church of Ephesus ..

write; These things saith Epistle to
he that holdeth the seven Church in
stars in his right hand, who Li)hesus-
walketh in the midst of the seven golden

8, 9; Hob. ii. 9). Comp. Christ's words, Luke ix. 24,
and xiii. 43, which contain promises which Ho only
could make who could say, "1 have the keys of death
and of Hades." The order of these words has been
transposed in our English version. The true order is
the more appropriate order, "For Hades is the vast un-
seen realm into which men are ushered by death; dark
and mysterious as that realm was, and dreaded as was
its monarch, our risen Lord has both under His power.
The keys are the emblems of His right and authority."
(Comp. chap. iii. 7, 8.) It is not of the second death that
He speaks; our Lord is here seen as the conqueror of
that clouded region, and that resistless foe Which man
dreaded, (Conip. John xi. 25; Heb. ii. 15.) Comp.
Henry Vaughau's quaint poem " An Easter Hymn" —

" Death and darkness get you packing,
Nothing now to man is lacking;
All your triumphs now arc ended,
And what Adam marred is mended;
(.J raves are beds now for t he weary,
Death a nap to wake more merry."

Christ had spoken before of the gates of hell (Matt.
xvi. 18), and of the keys. (Comp also 1 Pet. iii. 19.) The
key of the grave was one of the four keys which the
Eternal King committed to no ministering angel, but
reserved for himself (so Targum and Talmud). The
whole verse affirms the undying power and inalienable
authority of our Master, and is a fitting prelude to a
book which is to show the inherent divine tenacity of
Christianity. The Church lives on because Christ its
Head lives on (John xiv. 19). The resurrection power
which the Lord showed is to be reflected in the history
of His Church. " The greatest honour is due to
Christianity," says Goethe, "for continually proving its
pure and noble origin by coming forth again, after the
great aberrations into which human perversity has led
it. more speedily than was expected, with its primitive
special charm as a mission . . . ■ . for the relief of
human necessity."

(19) Write the things which thou hast seen
(better, sawest). — It is well to notice the small con-
necting word "then," which has been omitted in the
English. It gives the practical thought to the whole
of the previous vision. This vision is to be described
for the benefit of the Church of Christ, that she may
never forget Him who is the foundation on which she
rests ; the true fountain of her life ; and in whom she
will find the source of that renewing power to which
the last Note alludes. In the history of the faith it will
lie always true that they who wait on the Lord shall
renew their strength (Isa. xl. 28 — 81). Lest, then, at
any time the saints of God should bo tempted to cry
that "their judgment was passed over from their God,"
the Evangelist is bidden first to detail this vision of Him
who is the Life and Captain of His people. He is also to
write the things which are those eternal principles
and truths which underlie all the phenomena of human
history; or the t lungs which concern the present state
of the churches — and the things which are about to

be after these things — those great and wondrous scenes
of the fortunes of the Church and of the world which
will be unfolded.

(20) The mystery of the seven stars which
thou sawest in my right hand.— Having bidden
him write the meaning of this mystery, or secret, He
gives to St. John an explanatory key : " The seven stars
are angels of seven churches (or congregations) : and
the seven candlesticks " (omit the words " which thou
sawest ") " are seven churches." The angels have been
understood by some to be guardian angels; but it is
difficult to reconcile words of warning and reproof
(as in chap. ii. 4, 5), and of promise and encourage-
ment (as in chap. ii. 10), with such a view. More
probable is the view which takes the angel to be the
ideal embodiment (so to speak) of the Church. The
more generally adopted view is that the angel is the
chief pastor or bishop of the Church. The descrip-
tion of them as stars favours this view. Similar
imagery is applied elsewhere to teachers, true and false
( Dan. xii. 3; .Judo 13. Comp. Rev. viii. 10, and xii. 4).
It is stated that the word " angel " was applied to the
president in the Jewish synagogue. See, however,
Excursus. A.

II.

(^ Unto the angel of the church of (literally,
Ml) Ephesus.— On the word " angel," see Note on
chap. i. 20, and Excursus A. Adopting the view that
the angel represents the chief pastor or bishop of the
Church, it would be interesting to know who was its
presiding minister at this time; but this must be
deternined by another question, viz., the date of the
Apocalypse. Accepting the earlier date — i.e., the
reign of Nero, or (with Gebhardt) of Galba — the angel
is no other than Timothy. Some striking coincidences
favour this view. Labour, work, endurance, are what
St. Paul acknowledges in Timothy, and which ho
exhorts him to cultivate more and more (2 Tim.
ii. 6, 15; iv. 5). Again, against false teachers he warns
him (1 Tim i. 7). Further, there is " a latent tone of
anxiety " in the Epistles to Timothy. The nature with
which ho had to do was emotional even to tears,
ascetic, devout; but there was in it a tendency to lack
of energy and sustained enthusiasm. " He urges him
to stand up, to rekindle the grace of God, just as here
there is a hint of a first love left." (See Prof.
Plumptre, Ep. to Seven Churches.)

Ephesus.— The chief city of Ionia, and at this
time the most important city in Asia. It possessed
advantages commercial, geographical, and ecclesiastical,
and, in addition, great Christian privileges. It was a
wealthy focus for trade; it reached out one hand to
the East, while with the other it grasped Greek
culture. Its magnificent temple was one of the seven
wonders of the world; the skill of Praxiteles had con-
tributed to its beauty. The fragments of its richly-
sculptured columns, now to be seen in the British

»39

The Epistle to

REVELATION, II.

the Church at Ephesus,

candlesticks ; (2) I know thy works, and
thy labour, and thy patience, and how
thou canst not bear them which are evil :
and thou hast tried them which say
they are apostles, and are not, and hast
found them liars : ® and hast borne,
and hast patience, and for my name's

sake hast laboured, and hast not fainted.
(4) Nevertheless I have somewhat against
thee, because thou hast left thy first
love. (5> Eemember therefore from
whence thou art fallen, and repent, and
do the first works ; or else I will come
unto thee quickly, and will remove thy

Museum, will convey some idea of its gigantic propor-
tions and splendid decorations. But the religious tone
induced by its pagan worship was of the lowest order.
Degrading superstitions were upheld by a mercenary
priesthood; the commercial instinct and the fanatical
spirit had joined hands in support of a soul-enslaving
creed, and in defence of a sanctuary which none but
those devoid of taste could contemplate without ad-
miration. But its spiritual opportunities were propor-
tioned to its needs. It had been the scone of three
years' labour of St. Paul (Acts xx. 31), of the captivating
and convincing eloquence of Apollos (Acts xviii. 24),
of the persistent labours of Aquila and Priscilla
(Acts xviii. 26) ; Tychicus, the beloved and faithful,
had been minister there (Eph. vi. 21) ; Timothy was its
chief pastor.

These things saith lie . . . .—The titles by which
Christ is described at the opening of the seven epistles
are mainly drawn from chap. i. The vision is found
to supply features appropriate to the needs of the
several churches. The message comes in this epistle
from One who " holdeth " firmly in His grasp (a
stronger word than " He that hath " of chap. i. 16), and
walketh in the midst of the seven golden candlesticks.
The Church at Ephesus needed to remember their
Lord as such. The first love had gone out of their
religion ; there was a tendency to fall into a mechanical
faith, strong against heresy, but tolerant of conven-
tionalism. Their temptations did not arise from the
prevalence of error, or the bitterness of persecution,
but from a disposition to fall backward and again do
the dead works of the past. There was not so much
need to take heed unto their doctrine, but there was
great need that they should take heed unto themselves
(1 Tim. iv. 16). But when there is danger because
earnestness in the holy cause is dying out, and the very
decorum of religion has become a snare, what more
fitting than to be reminded of Him whose hand can
strengthen and uphold them, and who walks among
the candlesticks, to supply them with the oil of fresh
love ? (Comp. Zech. iv. 2, 3 ; Matt. xxv. 3, 4.)

(2) I know thy works. — This phrase is probably
common to all the epistles. See, however, Note on
verse 9. It expresses the way in which all actions are
naked and open before the eyes — those flame-like eyes
(chap i. 14) — of Him with whom we have to do (Pss.
xi. 4, 5 ; cxxxix. 11, 12; Heb. iv. 13). The veneer of a
formal faith might impose on the world, but it would
not escape His scrutiny (Acts i. 24). He knows, too,
and lovingly accepts, the unmarked and unrequited
acts of true love (Matt. x. 42; xxvi. 13), and ap-
preciates, amid all its failures, genuine loyalty to Him
(John xxi. 17).

And thy labour (or, toil), and thy patience.—
The same things which St. Paul had pressed on Timothy
(2 Tim. ii. 25, 26). The first word signifies labour
carried on unto weariness. The " patience" is more than
passive endurance ; it is, as Archbishop Trench says, a
beautiful word, expressing the brave and persistent
endurance of the Christian. But though thus possessed

640

of endurance, He commends them that they could not
endure evil men. In one sense, the lingering of this
grace among them is the green leaf betokening better
things ; they have not lost the power of hating evil.
(Comp. Rom. xii. 9.) No man loves God truly who
cannot hate evil (Ps. ci. 3). ;

And thou hast tried (literally, didst try) them
. . . and hast found them liars.— St. Paul had
warned the Ephesian elders of the appearance of false
teachers (Acts xx. 28 — 31). Zeal for pure doctrine cha-
racterised the Ephesian Church. It is commended by
Ignatius in his epistle (ad Eph. vi.). The false apostles
here spoken of are not, I think, to be identified with
the Nicolaitanes of verse 6 ; that verse is introduced
as a further ground of commendation, mitigating the
censure of verses 4 and 5. The claims to be considered
apostles, which the Ephesian Church had disposed of,
affords additional evidence of the early date of the
Apocalypse. Such a claim could hardly have been put
forward at a later date. But at the earlier periods
such troublers of the Church were oidy too common
(2 Cor ii. 17 ; xi. 14, 15 ; Gal. i. 7 ; ii. 4; Phil. iii. 2, 3).

(3) And hast borne. — This verse needs some
change to bring it into harmony with the best MSS.
It should stand. And hast (or, hadst) patience, and
didst bear for My name's sake, and didst not weary.
In this last word there is a recurrence to the word
(Jcopos) translated labour or toil in verse 2. They had
toiled on to very weariness without wearying of their
toil (Gal. vi. 9), just as they could not bear the evil and
yet had borne reproaches for Christ's sake. " There is
toil, and patience, and abhorrence of evil, and discern-
ment, and again patience, and endurance, and un-
wearied exertion. What can be wanting here ? " (Dr.
Vaughan.)

W Nevertheless I have somewhat against
thee. — Better, I have against thee that thou didst let go.
This is the fault, and it is no trifle which is blamed,
as the word "somewhat" (which is not to be found
in the original) might be taken to imply ; for the decay
of love is the decay of that without which all other
graces are as nothing (1 Cor. xiii. 1 — 3), since "all re-
ligion is summed up in one word, Love. God asks this ;
we cannot give more; He cannot take less" (Norman
Macleod, Life, i., p. 324). Great as the fault is, it
is the fault which Love alone would have detected.
" Can any one more touchingly rebuke than by com-
mencing, ' Thou no longer lovest me enough ? ' " It is
the regretful cry of the heavenly Bridegroom, recalling
the early days of His Bride's love, the kindness of her
youth, the love of her espousals (Jer. ii. 2. Comp. Hos.
ii. 15). It is impossible not to see some reference in
this to the language of St. Paul (which must have been
familiar to the Ephesian Christians) in Eph. v. 23 — 33,
where human 1 ve is made a type of the divine.

(5> Remember therefore from whence thou
art fallen, . . . and do the first works.— It is
argued that we have here evidence that the later, or
Domitian, date of the Apocalypse is the true one, since
it describes a fall in spiritual life which might have

tieptoof for Baekdidmrf.

REVELATION, II.

Words of Encouragement.

candlestick out t>f his place, except thou
repent. ((i) But this thou hast, that
thou hatest the deeds of the Nicolai-
tanes, which I also hate. (7) He that
hath an ear, let him hear what the
Spirit saith unto the churches ; To

him that overcometh will I give to
eat of the tree of life, which, is in
the midst of the para-
dise of God. W And unto gS^Se" to
the angel of the church the Church in
in Smyrna write; These Smyrn:l

occurred in thirty years, but would hardly have taken
place in the few years — ten at the utmost — which
•'lapsed between the visit of St. Paul (Acts xx. 29, 30)
and the reign of Nero. But greater changes than a
decay of this kind have passed over communities in
equally short periods. We have seen nations pass
from imperialism to republicanism, from the fever-heat
of radicalism to the lethargy of conservatism, in shorter
space. Has not the past decade shown marvellously
rapid movements in the Church of our own land!
The change, moreover, in the Ephesian Church was
not so great as the advocates of the later apocalyptic
dale would describe;. There is at present little out-
ward sign of decay; they have resisted evil and
false teachers; they have shown toil and endurance;
but the great Searcher of hearts detects the almost
imperceptible symptoms of an incipient decay. He
alone can tell the moment when love of truth is
passing into a noisy, Pharisaic zealotism ; when men
are "settling down into a lower state of spiritual
life than that which they once aimed at and once
knew." Such a backsliding is " gentle, unmarked, un-
noticed in its course." Further, it must not be for-
gotten that the Apostle did express his presentiments
of coming danger, and specially warned the elders
(Acts xx. 28) to take heed unto themselves ; and in his
Epistle (Eph. vi. 24) he gives in his closing words the
covert caution that their love to Christ should be
an incorruptible, unchanging love : " Grace be with
all them that love our Lord Jesus Christ in incor-
ruption'''' ('"sincerity," English version;. The advice
now given is, " Repent, and do the first works." The
advice is three-fold : remember, repent, reform. Re-
member the love of the past peaceful hours. " How
Bweet their memory still ! " " There are ever goads,"
says Archbishop Trench, " in the memory of a better
and a nobler past, goading him who has taken up
with meaner things and lower, and urging him to
make what he has lost once more his own." (Comp.
Luke xv. 17, and Heb. x. 32.) So Ulysses urges his
crew to further exertions.

" Tall to mind from whence ye sprung :
Ye were not formed to live as brutes,
But virtue to pursue and knowledge high."

Inf. xxvi.

Remember, but also repent, and repent in true practical
fashion ; for Love will recognise no repentance but that
which is confirmed in the doing of the first works. It
must be a repentance whereby we forsake sin. " Christ
does not say, ' Feel thy first feelings,' but, ' Do the first
works.' " " An ounce of reality," says a modern
novelist, " is worth a pound of romance."

Or else I will come . . .—Better, Or else I am
coming unto (or, for thee, in a way which concerns) thee,
and (omit " quickly," which is wanting in the oldest
MSS.) will remove thy candlestick out of its place, unless
thou shalt have repented — i.e., unless the change shall
have come before the day of visitation. The " now they
are hid from thine eyes." is not yet spoken for Ephesus.

(6) But this thou hast, that thou hatest the
deeds (better, works) of the Nicolaitanes.— The
Nicolaitanes were, as lias been expressed, rho Auti-

541

nomians of the Asiatic Church. The life and conduct
were little thought of, and the faith professed was
everything. Some have thought that they were a sect
who derived their name, under some colourable pretext,
from Nicolas the Proselyte ; others hold that the name
is purely symbolical, signifying "destroyer of the
people," and that it is no more than the Greek form
of Balaam. (See Notes on verses 14, 15, below.) The
existence of a sect called Nicolaitanes in the second
century is attested by Irenseus, Tertullian, and Clement
of Alexandria.

(7) He that hath an ear . . .—Or. Let him that
hath an ear, hear. These words — an echo from the
Gospels — recur in all the seven epistles. In the first
three, however, they are placed before the promise ; in
the remaining four they follow it. The heart which is
hardened is the precursor of the ear that is deaf ( Jer.
vi. 10, and John xii. 37— 40). The " spiritual truth"
needs a spiritual organ for its discernment. These
are truths, then, only heard

" When the soul seeks to hear; when all is hushed.
And the heart listens."— Coleridge, Reflection.

To him that overcometh (or, conquereth) will I
give to eat of the tree of life, which is in the
midst of the paradise of God.— The reference to
concpiering is a prominent feature of St. John's other
writings. The word— used but once in the three
Gospels (Luke xi. 22), and but once by St. Paul (Rom.
xii. 21) — is found in John xvi. 33; 1 John ii. 13, 14;
v. 4, 5 ; and occurs in all these epistles to the churches.
The promise of the tree of life is appropriate (1) to the
virtue commended : those who had not indulged in the
license of Nicolaitanes shall eat of the tree of life ;
(2) to the special weakness of the Ephesians : to those
who had fallen, and lost the paradise of first loving
communion and fellowship with God (comp. Gen. iii. 8,
and 1 John i. 3), is held out the promise of a restored
paradise and participation in the tree of life. (Comp.
chap. xxii. 2, 14 ; Gen. iii. 22.) This boon of immor-
tality is the gift of Christ — I will give. It is tasted in
knowledge of God and of His Son (John xvii. 3) ; it is
enjoyed in their presence (chap. xxii. 3, 4).

<8) Smyrna, the modern Ismir, now possessing a
population of about 150,000. Its mercantile prosperity
may be measured by its trade. In 1852 the export trade
amounted to £1,766,653 — about half of this being with
England. The imports in the same year were
£1,357,339. It has always been considered one of tho
most beautiful cities in Asia. It was situated in tho
ancient piwinco of Ionia, a little north of Ephesus —
next it, as Archbishop Trench says, in natural order,
and also in spiritual. Its position was favourable for
commerce. In olden times, as now, it commanded the
trade of the Levant, besides being the natural outlet
for the produce of the Hermus valley. The neigh-
bourhood was peculiarly fertile; the vines are said to
have been so productive as to have yielded two crops.
There are indications that intemperance was very pre-
valent among the inhabitants. Servility and flattery
may be added, for the people of Smyrna seem to have
astutely fickle, and to have been keen in pre*

The Epistle to Smyrna.

REVELATION, II.

Encouragement under Trials.

things saith the first and the last, which
was dead, and is alive ; (9) I know thy
works, and tribulation, and poverty,
(but thou art rich) and I Jenqw the blas-
phemy of them which say they are Jews,
and are not, but are the synagogue of

Satan. ^ Fear none of those things
which thou shalt suffer: behold, the
devil shall cast some of you into prison,
that ye may be tried ; and ye shall have
tribulation ten days : be thou faithful
unto death, and I will give thee a crown

serving the patronage of the ruling powers. In one of
their temples the inscription declared Nero to be " the
Saviour of the whole human race.*' The city was
specially famed for its worship of Dionysos. Games
and mysteries were held yearly in his honour. Its
public buildings were handsome, and its streets regular.
One of its edifices used as a museum proclaimed, in its
consecration to Homer, that Smyrna contested with six
or seven other cities the honour of being the birthplace
of the poet.

The angel of the church in Smyrna.- We
have no means of determining certainly who was
the person here addressed. Many who accept the
Domitian date of the Apocalypse argue that Poiycarp
was at this time the bishoj) or presiding minister at
Smyrna. Even on the supposition that this is the true
date, it seems exceedingly doubtful that this was the
case. It can only be true on the supposition that the
episcopate of Poiycarp extended over sixty years.
Poiycarp was martyred a.d. 156. We know from
Ignatius, who addresses him in a.d. 108 as Bishop of
Smyrna, that his ministry lasted nearly fifty years.
It seems too much to assume that his episcopate com-
menced eight or ten years before. Of course, if we
adopt the earlier date of the Apocalypse, the Epistle
must have been written before Polycarp's conversion —
probably before his birth. But though we are thus
constrained to reject the identification which we would
willingly adopt, it is well to remember that Poiycarp is
the living example of the language of the epistle, and
that, as Professor Plumptre has said, " In his long
conflict for the faith, his stedfast endurance, his
estimate of the fire that can never be quenched, we
find a character on which the promise to him that
overcoineth had been indelibly stamped."

The first and the last, which was dead, and
is alive. — Or better, who became dead, and lived
again. From chap. i. 17, 18, we have selected the
title most fitted to console a church whose trial was
persecution. In all vicissitudes, the unchanging One
(Heb. vii. 3 and xiii. 8), who had truly tasted death,
and conquered it even in seeming to fail, was their
Saviour and King. Some have seen in these words,
" dead and lived again," an allusion to the story of the
death and return to life of Dionysos — a legend, of
course, familiar to Smyrna.

(9) I know thy works.— Some woiild omit the
word "works;" but the phrase "I know thy works"
is admitted to be genuine in five out of the seven
epistles ; and it certainly seems natural to conclude
that it was intended to be common to all, and to re-
mind the Christian communities that whatever their
state it was known to Him whose eyes were as a flame
of fire. " We go from one hour to another, from one day
and year to another, and what is once fairly past in our
doing and omitting and suffering is scarcely regarded
by us any more ; it is like water that has flowed away.
But into the omniscience of Christ all things are taken
up " (Bengel).

Tribulation.— If persecution brought upon them
poverty, it was the means also of unfolding to view

their possession of the/ " true riches ; " they were rich
in honour, in that they were counted worthy to suffer ;
they would also grow rich in the graces which suffer-
ings bring (Rom. v. 3 — 5; Jas. i. 2 — 4).

Blasphemy.— They had to endure reviling as well
as tribulation and poverty ; and, harder still, to hear
some who blasphemed that worthy name by which they
were called.

Jews. — The Jews were foremost in this. "It was in
the synagogue that they heard words which reproached
them as iSiazarenes, Galileans, Christians, Disciples of
the Crucified " (Plumptre). Comp. Jas. ii. 7. It is
interesting to notice that this characteristic hostility of
the Jews was illustrated in the martyrdom of Poiycarp.
The Jews, " as was their wont," were foremost in
bringing logs for the pile.

Synagogue of Satan.— The word " synagogue "
is only once used to describe the Christian assembly
(Jas. ii. 2) ; and even there it is called " ijotw syna-
gogue," not the " synagogue of God." In all other in-
stances the "word is abandoned by the Jews." With
the " synagogue of Satan " here, compare " the throne of
Satan" (chap. ii. 13), "the depths of Satan" (chap. ii. 24).

(W) Pear none of those things. — Though Christ
proclaimed His yoke to be easy, He also said that His
followers must expect tribulation (John xvi. 33). He
never conceals the difficulties or dangers of His service.
(See Matt. x. 16—31; Acts ix. 16.) So here He pro-
claims, " Behold, the devil shall cast some . . . ."

The devil.— The LXX. translation gives this name
to Satan, regarding him as the "accuser." (See Job
i. 6; Zech. iii. 1, 2; and comp. Rev. xii. 10. where he
is described as the "accuser of the brethren.")

Tried. — On the part of the adversary, the intention
was that they might be tempted from their allegiance
to Christ. The real effect would be that they who
endured would come forth tested and approved. The
suffering would be for " ten days." This is variously
explained.. Some think it applies to the periods of per-
secution ; others understand it to mean a long persecu-
tion of ten years ; others take it literally; others again
view it as expressing completeness : the test would be
thorough; The exhortation, "Be thou faithful (even)
unto death," seems to favour this last ; while the men-
tion of " ten days " was, perhaps, designed to remind
them that the period of trial was limited by Him who
knew what they could bear, and would be but a little
while when compared with the life with which they
would be crowned.

A crown of life. — Rather, the crown of life. A
crown was given to the priest who presided at the
Dionysian Mysteries, which were celebrated with great
pomp at Smyrna. A crown was also given at the
Olympian Games, which were held at Smyrna. If there
is any allusion to either of these, the latter would be the
most natural. Some hold, however, the crown— though
the word is Stephanos, not diadema — is rather that of
royalty than of victory. It is interesting to note that
the narrative which tells of the death of Poiycarp closes
with words which it is difficult not to believe to be an
allusion to this promise — "By his patience he over-

Tin' E/jislle to I'' r

REVELATION, IT.

Counsel aiul Reproof,

of life. <n) He tHat hath an ear, lei
him hear what the Spirit aaith onto
the churches.; He that overcometh

shall not bo hurt of the second death.
(l-> And to the angel of

Chap. ii. 12 17. ,, i i • T3

The Epistle to t,1(> church m Pergamoo
the Church iii write; These things saith
lv,'-"""s- he which hath the sharp
sword with two edges;" (1:!) I know
thy works, and where thou dwellest,
men where Satan's seat is : and I
fchou boldest fast my name, and hast i
not denied my faith, even in those |

days wherein Antipas ivas my faithful
martyr, who was slain among you, where
Satan dwelleth. M But I have a few
things against thee, because thou hast
there them that hold the doctrine of
Balaam/' who taught Balac to cast a
stumblingblock before the children of
Israel, to eat things sacrificed unto
idols, and to commit fornication. (1:" So
hast thou also them that hold the doc-
trine of the Nicolaitanes, which thing I
hate. <1G) Repent ; or else I will come
unto thee quickly, and will fio-ht against

came tlic unrighteous ruler, and received the crown of
immortality" [Smym. Kp.).

H" He that overcometh (or conquereth) shall
not be hurt. -Tho words used are precise, and give

certainty to the promise.

The second death.— This phrase is a new one in
Bible language. It is said that Jews were familiar
with i* through its use in the Chaldee Paraphrase. It
clearly points to a death which is other than that of
the body; it stands in contrast with tin* crown of life.
The expressions of chaps, xx. It, and xxi. 8, exclude
tin- idea that a cessation of conscious existence is in-
tended. The life of the spirit is the knowledge of God
(John xvii. 3) ; the death of the spirit, or the second
death, is the decay or paralysis of the powers by which
such a knowledge was possible, and the experience of
the awfulness of a life which is "without God."

I1-' Pergamos.— Unlike Ephesns and Smyrna, Per-
gamos was not distinguished as a commercial city. Its
importance was due, to other causes. A striking cone-
shaped hill rose from the plain which bordered the
northern banks of the Caicus. The hill was considered
sacred. Its value as a strong natural fortress was
early recognised, and it was used as a keep and
treasury where local chieftains deposited their wealth.
Its greatness as a city dated from Enmenes II., who
was given by the Romans a large surrounding territory,
and who fixed Pergamos as his royal residence.
Under Ins auspices a splendid city — rich in public
buildings, temples, art galleries, and with a library
which rivalled that of Alexandria — rose into being. It
has been described as a city of temples, "a sort of
union of a pagan cathedral city, an university town, and
a royal residence." It retained its splendour even after
it passed by bequest to the Roman Republic, and was
declared by Pliny to be a city unrivalled in the pro-
vince of Asia.

Sharp sword with two edges.— See Note on
chap. i. 16. The appropriateness of this language to
the state of the church in Pergamos will best appear
afterwards. (See Note on verses 15, 16.)

<13) I know thy works.— Here, as in verse 9,
some MSS. omit ."thy works," and read, "I know
where thou dwellest — even where Satan's sent is."
The word is translated elsewhere " throne," and should
be here, " Where the throne of Satan is." But why
should this pre-eminence in evil be assigned to Per-
gamos? The answer is difficult. Some leave it un-
solved, saying that in the absence of any historical
notice, it must remain one of the unsolved riddles of
these epistles. Prof. Plnmptre suggests that the
general character of the city, its worship and customs,
in addition to the persecutions which the Christians

543

had encountered, may well account for the description.
.ZEsculapius was worshipped as the " Preserver," or

"Saviour." The symbol of the serpent must have been
conspicuous among the objects of adoration in his
temple. Curious arts were practised ; lying wonders
were claimed; persecution had extended to death.
Such evil in such a city may have led to its being
regarded as the very head-quarters of the enemy\

Hast not denied. — Better, Thou didst not deny
My faith in the days in which Antipas My faithful
witness, was slain, &c.

Antipas. — Short for Antipater. (Comp. Lucas and
Silas, short for Lncanus and Silvanus.) Nothing is
known of Antipas. There arc later traditions respect-
ing him, but these are probably fancy-drawn.

{") But I have a few things against thee.—
The word "few" is not to be taken as though the
ground of rebuke was a trifling one. The little leaven
might leaven the whole lump ; and those who had been
brave unto death in the days of persecution had been
less temptation-proof against more seductive influences.
The church tolerated without remonstrance men holding
[the word is the same as that used in commendation
(verse 13), "Thou boldest (fast) My name"] "the
teaching of Balaam, wdio taught Balak to put a
stumbling-block before the sons of Israel ; (namely)
to eat things sacrified to idols, and to commit fornica-
tion." Israel could not be cursed, but they might be
made to bring a curse upon themselves by yielding to
sin; so the counsel of Balaam was to tempt them
through the women of Midian, and " Behold, these
caused the children of Israel to commit trespass against
the Lord in the matter of Peor, and there was a plague
among the congregation of the Lord " (Num. xxxi. 16).
A similar temptation was endangering the Pergamene
Church.

(15) So hast thou also them that hold the
doctrine of the Nicolaitanes— i.e., thou, as well as
those of old, hast such teachers. There is little doubt
that this is the connection between the verses, but
opinions are divided whether we are on this account to
identify the Balaamites with the Nicolaitanes, and to
suppose that both names point to the same sect. The
simplest meaning of the passage seems to bo that the
temptation to which the Israelites were exposed, is nsed
to illustrate the temptations of the Pergamene Church,
through the teaching of the Nicolaitanes. Both tempta-
tions lead in the same Antinomian direction. Such a
tendency was early seen (comp. Eom. vi. 4; Gal. v.
13; Jude 4), and is not extinct now. " Is there not."
writes Dr. Vanghan. " a vague, unavowed, unrealised
idea that the Atonement has made sin less fatal, that
even sin indulged and persisted in, may yet not work

Promised Rewards

BEVEL ATTON, II.

to them that ovefe&me.

them with the sword of my mouth.
(17> He that hath an ear, let him
hear what the Spirit saith unto the
churches ; To him that overcometh
will I give to eat of the hidden manna,
and will give him a white stone, and
in the stone a new name written,
which no man knoweth saving he that

receiveth it. <18> And unto the angel of

the church in Thyatira *

write ; These things saith ThePEpistl7 to

the Son of God, who hath the Church in

his eyes like unto a flame Thyatlra*
of fire, and his feet are like fine brass ;
(19) I know thy works, and charity, and
service, and faith, and thy patience,

death ? " To such and all who countenance them the
warning is, " Repent ; but if not, I am coming for thee,
and will Avar with thee (note the change of person and
number) with (literally, in — i.e., armed with) the sword
of My mouth."

(17) To him that overcometh. — The promise
should run thus : — To him that conquercth will I give
of the hidden manna, and I will give him a white
stone, and upon the stone a new name graven, which
no man knoweth, but he who receiveth it. On this
promise we may notice (1) that it is appropriate : those
who refused to indulge the fleshly appetite are promised
gratifications far higher, and hidden from the gaze of
sense; (2) the allusions are not all easy to understand.
That to the manna is indeed obvious. Israel ate
manna in the wilderness, and died ; the Father gives
the true bread from heaven that a man may eat thereof
and not die. The Son is that Bread of Life. He that
eatoth Him, even he shall live by Him (John vi. 35, 48, 57)
— live, even though like Antipas he die ; for a man's life
consists not in the abundance of things which he pos-
sesses, but in the moral qualities which go to make up
his character ; and spiritual gifts are the food of these
moral qualities, and these gifts are through Christ.
But the promise is of hidden manna. Is the allusion
to tho pot of manna which had been laid up in the ark ?
There is no doubt that the Jews long cherished the belief
that the ark and sacred treasures of the Temple had
not perished. There was a fondly-held tradition that
they had been buried by Jeremiah in a safe and secret
spot on " the mountain where Moses climbed and saw
the heritage of God, until the time that God shall
gather His people again together, and show them His
mercy " (2 Mace. ii. 4, 7). This " hidden manna," so
longed for by an afflicted race, may have suggested the
use of the word " hidden " ; but the sacred writer would
become anxious to bring out the spiritual truth that
the fountains of Christian life are hidden (Col. iii. 3),
the world knoweth us not. Like the fire in the Inter-
preter's house, men may try to quench it, but a hidden
hand pours in secretly the food of the fuel. More
difficult is the meaning of the white stone, graven with
the new name. Some see in it an allusion to the Urim
and Thummim ; and therefore take it to indicate the
" priestly dignity of the victorious Christian." In
favour of this, it may be noted that it gives unity to
the blessing. Manna and the precious stones worn by
the high-priest are both wilderness and Jewish illus-
trations. Against it, however, must be set the fact that
the word here rendered " stone" is never so applied,
a different word being used both in the LXX. and in
this book to denote a precious stone. Another sugges-
tion, which is, perhaps, less encumbered with difficulty,
is that the reference is to the stone or pebble of friend-
ship, called tessera hospitalis, graven with some legend
or device ; and which gave to its possessor a claim of
hospitality from him who gave it. Some such tickets
admitted those invited into the heathen temples on
festival days, when the meat which had been offered

as a sacrifice formed part of the feast. The stone
is called white ; but the word does not imply that
it is a stone of white colour, but that it is shining,
glistering white. On the stone is graven a new name.
Tho giving of new names is not uncommon in the
Bible : for example, Abraham, Israel, Boanerges,
Peter. The new name expi-essed the step which had
been taken into a higher, truer life, and the change of
heart and the elevation of character consequent upon
it. Such are known in the world by their daily life,
their business, their character ; they are known above
by the place they hold, and the work (the real chai-acter
of which is quite unknown to the world) they are doing
in the groat war against evil. No man knoweth the
characteristics of the growth of the character, the
spiritual conflict in which the work is done, and the
features of that change which has been, and is being
wrought, except he who experiences the love, the grace,
and the tribulation by which his spirit-life has grown.

(18) Thyatira was situated between Pergamos and
Sardis, a little off the main road which connected these
two cities. It was a Macedonian colony, founded by
Alexander the Great after the overthrow of the Persian
empire. The Macedonian colonists appear to have
introduced the worship of Apollo, honoured as the
Sun-god, under the name of Tyrimnas. It has been
thought by some that the description here given of
Christ — " the eyes of flame " — was selected in allusion
to this worship of the Sun-god, under the form of
some dazzlingly ornamented image. Certainly close
commercial intercourse connected the daughter colony
with its mother city. There seem to have been various
mercantile guilds in the colony — bakers, potters,
tanners, weavers, and dyers. The dye-trade was,
perhaps, the most important. Lydia, the seller of
purple, was in all likelihood connected with the guild
of dyers ; and her appearance in Philippi is an illus-
tration of the trade relations of Macedonia and
Thyatira. To her the Christian community at
Thyatira may have owed its beginning. " She who
had gone forth for a while, to buy and sell, and get
gain, when she returned home may have brought home
with her richer merchandise than any she had looked
to obtain " (Trench). The population was of a mixed
character, and included, besides Asiatics, Macedonians,
Italians, and Chaldeans. The message which is sent
to the Christians dwelling among them is from " the
Son of God." This is noteworthy, when we remember
how persistently the other term, " Son of Man," is
used throughout the Book of Revelation, and that here
only is the phrase " Son of God " used ; but it suits,
as does the whole description, the message which
breathes the language of sovei-eignty and righteous
sternness. The " eyes of flame " will search the reins
and the hearts (verse 23) ; the " feet of fine brass "
will tread down the enemies, and smooth the path
before them, who will have power over the nations.

(19) Thy works, and charity. — In the words
of commendation we find two pairs. We have the

644

The Epistle to Thyatira.

EEVELATION, II.

Their Sim and Punishment.

and thy works ; and the last to be more
than the first. (20> Notwithstanding I
have a few things against thee, because
thou suft'erest that woman Jezebel,"
which calleth herself a prophetess, to
teach and to seduce my servants to
commit fornication, and to eat things
sacrificed unto idols. (21) And I gave
her space' to repent of her fornication ;
and she repented not. <22) Behold, I
will cast her into a bed, and them that
commit adultery with her into great
tribulation, except they repent of their
deeds. (23) And I will kill her children
with death ; and all the churches shall
know that I am he . which searcheth

Num.

r*. 2.'.
2.8; I

the reins and hearts : h and I will give
unto every one of you according to your
works. <■*) But unto you I say, and
unto the rest in Thyatira, as many as
have not this doctrine, and which have
not known the depths of Satan, as they
speak ; I will put upon you none other
burden. (25) But that which ye have
already hold fast till I come. (26> And
he that overcometh, and keepeth my
works unto the end, to him will I give
power over the nations : W and he shall
rule them with a rod of iron;' as the
vessels of a potter shall they be broken
to shivers : even as I received of my
Father. (28> And I will give him the

Christian community commended for charity and service,
the outward ministrations which manifest the inner
principle of love; their labour of love, or their work
and love (Heb. vi. 10) in general. In the second pair,
faith and patience; the patience is the token of the
faith (Rom. ii. 7 ; Heb. xi. 27).

And. the last . . . — Read, and thy last works more
than the first. Besides their faith and love, they are
commended for their progress in good works — the last
are more than the first.

(20) A few things.— The Sinaitic MS. has " I have
much against thee;" but the reading, I have against
thee that thou lettest alone, &c, is to be preferred.

Jezebel. — Some adopt the reading, "thy wife
Jezebel." From these words it has been thought that
there was some personal influence at work for evil in
Thyatira. Whether in the household of the " angel "
or not is at least doubtful. The sin alleged against
her is the same for which the Nicolaitanes are con-
demned— fornication, and the eating of things sacrificed
to idols. If the above view be right, the leader of the
exorcists is a woman — regarded by her followers as a
prophetess, as one with a real message from God ; but
viewed by the Lord of the churches as a very Jezebel,
teaching and seducing the servants of God. For letting
her alone, for being timid, paying too much deference
to her spiritual pretensions, for failing to see and to
show that the so-called "deep things" of these teachers
were depths of Satan, the chief minister is rebuked.
A large number of respectable critics regard Jezebel
as a name applied to a faction, not as belonging to an
individual. It seems best to view the name as sym-
bolical, always remembering that the Jezebel spirit of
proud, self -constituted authority, vaunting claims of
superior holiness, or higher knowledge, linked with a
disregard of — and perhaps a proud contempt for —
"legalism," and followed by open immorality, has
again and again run riot in the churches of God.

(21) And I gave her space.— Read, And I gave
her time to repent, and she will not (or, is not willing
to) repent of her formication, or, to repent out of — i.e.,
so as to forsake her fornication. Here, as before, we
are reminded that true repentance is a repentance
whereby we forsake sin. (Comp. chaps, ii. 5 and iii. 2.)

(--') I will cast her into a bed.— The chamber of
voluptuousness will become the chamber of sickness.
The spot of the sin shall be the scene of punishment.
(Comp. 1 Kings xxi. 19.)

(23) Her children.— This is to be understood of her

52 545

followers. The so-called prophetess led the way in
looseness of morals, under the pretence of some deeper
kiiowledge. She had her associates and their disciples ;
the evil and the evil consequences would grow; the
disciples outrun their teachers, and more than tribula-
tion— death — is their penalty.

(24> But unto you I say (omit "and unto') the
rest, &c

The depths. — Or, the deep things. These teachers,
as was the case with the Gnostics, professed to have a
deeper insight into mysteries, the deep things of God.
They may have garnished their speech with this very

fhrase, borrowed — in sound though not in sense — from
Cor. ii. 10, and may have even boasted of their
knowledge of Satan. But such knowledge was pur-
chased too dearly. Better off were they who were
simple concerning evil; they have a burden, but it is
not the burden of judicial tribulation : it is the burden
only of resisting the evils of those troublers of the
Church. The allusion may be to the decree of Acts
xv. 28; the same word for "burden " is used. They
must not abandon their duty of witnessing for purity,
and so for Christ ; this burden they must take up, and
hold fast till He come.

(26, 27) Power (or, authority) over the nations :
and he shall rule them (or, shepherd them) with
a rod of iron; as the vessels of a potter
shall they be broken to shivers. — The promise
is of authority (" the might of right, not the right
of might ") to share in the shepherd-like sovereignty
of the anointed King. (Comp. the Messianic prophecy
of Ps. ii.) Those who refused to stoop to the customs
around them, and to gain influence by crushing
or ignoring their convictions — those who, like their
Master, refused to win power by doing homage to
wrong (Matt. iv. 8 — 10). would share the nobler sway
which He now established. Wherever the Church has
illegitimately grasped at power, she has lost it. "The
wretched power which she had wrenched and stolen from
the nations has been turned against her ; she has been
obliged to crouch to them, and beg their help, and they
have justly spurned her. She has chosen to exalt
herself like Lucifer, and she has fallen like Lucifer.
If she had trusted her Lord. He would have given her
the morning star. She would have derived from Him
what she claimed independently of Him. She would
have dispensed light to the world."

(28) The morning star.— The pledge of the coming
day, both for the waiting witnesses, and for the ungodly,

The Epistle to Sardis.

REVELATION, III.

Word of Encouragement,

morning star. (2!)) He that hath an ear,
let him hear what the Spirit saith unto
the churches.

CHAPTEE III.— (^ And unto the

... angel of the church in

TiSPEpistle~to Sardis write; These things

the Church in saith he that hath the

Sardis. seyen gpirits of Q^ and

the seven stars ; I know thy works,

that thou hast a name that thou
livest, and art dead. <2> Be watchful,
and strengthen the things which re-
main, that are ready to die : for I have
not found thy works perfect before
God. W Remember therefore how
thou hast received and heard, and
hold fast, and repent. If therefore
thou shalt not watch," I will come on
thee as a thief, and thou shalt not

who loved darkness because their deeds were evil : the
earnest of the sovereignty of light over darkness,
when the children of the day would be manifest, and
shine as the stars for ever and ever (Dan. xii. 3).

III.

0-) Sardis. — The modern Sart — now a mere village
of paltry huts — once the capital of the old Lydian
monarchy, and associated with the names of Crcesus,
Cyrus, and Alexander. It was the great entrepot of
dyed woollen fabrics, the sheep of '• many-flocked "
Phrygia supplying the raw material. The art of
dyeing is said to have beeu invented here ; and many-
coloured carpets or mats found in the houses of the
wealthy were manufactured here. The metal known
as electrum, a kind of bronze, was the produce of
Sardis ; and in early times gold-dust was found in the
sand of the Pactolus, the little stream which passed
through the Agora of Sardis, and washed the walls of
the Temple of Cybele. It is said that gold and silver
coins were first minted, at Sardis, and that resident
merchants first became a class there. An earthquake
laid it waste in the reign of Tiberius ; a pestilence fol-
lowed, but the city seems to have recovered its pros-
perity before the date of this epistle. The worship of
Cybele was the prevailing one ; its rites, like those of
Dionysos and Aphrodite, encouraged impurity.

The writer is described in words similar to those in
chap. i. 4, as the one who hath the seven spirits of God,
and the seven stars ; but there is a difference. There
Christ was seen holding the stars in His right hand ;
here it is said He hath the seven Spirits and also the
seven stars. In this language it is difficult to overlook
the unhesitating way in which Christ is spoken of as
owning or possessing that Holy Spirit who alone can
make angels of His Church to shine as stars. The
Holy Spirit is the Spirit of Christ (Rom. viii. 9, 11).
His promise is, "I will send the Comforter unto you"
(John xv. 26), as possessing all power in heaven and
earth. " He is able," to use the language of Professor
Plumptre, " to bring together the gifts of life, and the
ministry for Avhich those gifts are needed. If those
who minister are without gifts ; it is because they have
not asked for them." This the angel of the Sardian
Church had not done ; his faith and the faith of the
Church around him had sunk into a superficial, though
perhaps ostentatious, state. Here, then, lies the ap-
propriateness of the description given of Christ, as the
source of life and light to His Church.

A name that thou livest.— It is only needful to
mention, and to dismiss the fanciful conjecture, that the
name of the angel was Zosimos, or some parallel name,
signifying life-bearing or living. It is the reputation
for piety possessed by the Church of Sardis which is
referred to. Living with the credit of superior piety,
it was easy to grow satisfied with the reputation, and

546

to forget to keep open the channels through which
grace and life could flow, and to fail to realise
that the adoption of habits of life higher than
those around them, or those who lived before them,
was no guarantee of real spiritual life ; for " the
real virtues of one age become the spurious ones
of the next . . . The belief of the Pharisees, the
religious practice of the Pharisees, was an improve-
ment upon the life of the sensual and idolatrous Jews
whom the prophets denounced. But those who used
both the doctrinal and moral improvements as the
fulcrum of a selfish power and earthly rank, were the
same men after all as their fathers, only accommodated
to a new age " (Mozley). Self-satisfaction, which springs
up when a certain reputation has been acquired, is
the very road to self-deception. The remedy is pro-
gress— forgetting the things behind, lest looking with
complacency upon the past, moral and spiritual stagna-
tion should set in, and spiritual death should follow.

(2) Be watchful.— Rather, become wakeful. It will
not do simply to rouse and sleepily grasp at their
spiritual weapons, or even to stand for once at arms ;
you must become of wakeful habit. Strengthen the
remaining things which were (when I roused you)
about to die ; for I have not found thy (or, any of thy)
works perfect — completed or fulfilled, fully done in
weight and tale and measure — before my God.

(3) Remember therefore how (or, after what
sort) thou hast 'received and heard (or, didst
hear — the tense changes). — Remembering that the
words are addressed primarily to the angel himself,
the change of tense may have been designed to point
him back to some particular period of his life, such as
the time when he was set apart to his ministerial work.
The further expectation is to holdfast, or keep — i.e., as
an abiding habit. It has been noticed that this counsel
is identical with that given to Timothy to " keep the
good thing which had been committed to his charge "
(2 Tim. i. 14 ; comp. also 2 Tim. ii. 2). " Repent " is
the closing word ; combined with the exhortation to
hold fast, it reminds us that formal tenacity of truth
and a fruitless inactive regret are alike useless. There
must be the sorrow for the past, and a sorrow which
shows itself in action— a repentance whereby sin is for-
saken. (Comp. chap. ii. 5, 21.)

If therefore thou shalt not watch. — Better.
If thou shalt not watch (or, have been awake), I will
come (omit " on thee ") as a thief, and thou shalt not
know what hour I will come upon thee. The warning-
is an echo from the Gospels (Matt. xxiv. 42. 43 ; Luke
xii. 39, 40). The coming of Christ to judge His
Church would bo in an hour unlooked for. What
kind of hour He would so come was uuknown ; the
sound of His approaching footsteps unheard. Shod
with wool, according to the ancient proverb, stealthily
as a thief, the Judge would be at the door. Yet they

und Promises <>/' Reward.

KEVELATION, III.

Tfie Epistle to Philadelphia,

know what hour I will come upon thee.
w Thou hast a few names even in
Sardis which have not denied their
garments ; and they shall walk with
me in white : for they are worthy.
<5) He that overcometh, the same
shall be clothed in white raiment ;
and I will not blot out his name

13.8; 20. 11! ;

but I will
my Father,

out of the book of life

confess his name before

and before his angels. ^ He that hath

an ear, let him hear what the Spirit

saith unto the churches.

W And to the angel

the church in Philadelphia the Church hi

write ; These things saith Phllad^phia-

f Chap. iii. 7 — 1".
01 The Epistle t/

could uot plead that they had been in darkness
(1 Thess. v. 4).

(-0 The best MSS. commence this verse with " But,"
or "Nevertheless." The case of the Sardian Church was I
bad, yet the loving eyes of the faithful witness would
not ignore the good. There were a few who had not
defiled their garments. These had not succumbed to
the oppressive moral atmosphere around them. The
words cannot, of course, be understood of absolute
purity. Their praise is that, in the deathlike, self- j
complacent lethargy around, they had kept earnest in
the pursuit of holiness, and had not forgotten Him who
could cleause and revive. (Comp. chap. vii. 14.)

They shall walk with me in white.— This
" white " is not the white of the undefiled robe ; it is the
lustrous white of glory, as in the promise in the fol-
lowing verse. (Comp. also chap. ii. 17.)

<5) He that overcometh.— The promise is repeated
to all who overconi'e ; all, not who have never fallen,
or failed, but who concpier, shall be clothed in glisten-
ing white raiment. On this glistering appearance
comp. Dante's words, " robed in hue of living flame,"
and the description so frequent in the Pilgrim's
Progress — " the shining ones." Trench, who reminds
us that this glistening white is found in fhe symbolism
of heathen antiquity, says : " The glorified body,
defecated of all its dregs and impurities, what-
ever remained of those having been precipitated in
death, and now transformed and transfigured into the
likeness of Christ's body (Phil. iii. 31), this, with its
robe, atmosphere, and effluence of light, is itself, I
believe, the white raiment which Christ here promises
to His redeemed." Professor Lightfoot thinks (see his
Epistle to Col. p. 22) that there may be a reference to
the purple dyes for which Sardis, as well as Thyatira,
was celebrated.

I will not blot out . . .—The negative is emphatic,
" I will in no wise blot out." This figure of speech —
a book and the blotting out — was ancient. (See Deut.
xxxii. 32 ; Ps. lxix. 21 ; Dan. xii. 1 ; comp. also Luke x.
20 ; Phil. iy. 3.) The name shall not be erased from the
roll or register of the citizens of heaven. " A process
of erasure is ever going on, besides the process of
entering. When the soul has finally taken its choice
for evil, when Christ is utterly denied on earth and
trodden under foot, when the defilement of sin has
become inveterate and indelible, then the pen is drawn
through the guilty name, then the inverted style smears
the wax over the unworthy characters ; and when the
owner of that name applies afterwards for admittance,
the answer is, ' I know thee not ; depart hence, thou
willing worker and lover of iniquity ' " (Dr. Vaughan).

But I will confess his name.— Another echo of
Christ's words on earth (Matt. x. 32, 33; Luke xii.
8,9).

(7) Philadelphia.— The town of Philadelphia de-
rived its name from Attains Philadelplms. the king
of Pergamos, Avho died B.C. 138. It was situated on
the slopes of Mount Tniolus, in the midst of a district

547

the soil of which was favourable to the cultivation of
the vine. On the coins of the town are to be found
the head of Bacchus. The town was built on high
ground — upwards of 900 feet above the sea-level. The
whole region, however, was volcanic, and few cities
suffered more from earthquakes ; the frequent recai -
rence of these considerably reduced the population
But its favourable situation and fertile soil preserved
it from entire desertion. And of all the seven
churches, it had the longest life as a Christian
city. " Philadelphia alone has been saved . . . ;
among the Greek colonies and churches of Asia,
Philadelphia is still erect, a column in a scene of
ruins." Such is the language of Gibbon, referring to
its later history. As a light in the world at the
present day, we must look to no Eastern Philadelphia ;
the hand of William Penn kindled a light in its great
namesake of the West.

These things saith he that is holy . . . .—
Better, These things saith the Holy, the True, He that
hath the hey of David, that openeth, and no man shall
shut, and He shutteth, and no one shall open.

Holy. — The main idea of the word here used is
that of consecration. It is used of what is set apart to
God ; it does not assert the possession of personal holi-
ness, but it implies it as a duty. It becomes, there-
fore, pre-eminently appropriate to Him who was not only
consecrate, but holy, harmless, undefiled, and separate
from sinners. Prof. Plumptre thinks there may be a
reference here to the confession made by St. Peter ,
(John vi. 69), where the right reading is, " Thou art the
Cln-ist, the holy One of God."

True. — A favourite word with St. John, and
expressing more than the opposite of " false." It
implies that which is perfect in contrast with the
imperfect; the reality in contrast with the shadow;
the antitype in contrast with the type ; the ideal which
is the only real in contrast with the real which is only
ideal ; —

" The flower upon the spiritual side,
Substantial, archetypal, all aglow
With blossoming causes "

in contrast with the flower that fadeth here. Christ,
then, in calling Himself the True, declares that " all
titles and names given to Him are realised in Him;
the idea and the fact in Him are, what they can never
be in any other, absolutely commensurate " (Trench).
In some MSS. the order of these words, " the Holy,"
" the True," is inverted.

The key of David. — Some early commentators
saw in this key the key of knowledge which the scribes
had taken away (Luke xi. 52), and understood this ex-
pression here as implying that Christ alone conld un-
loose the seals of Scripture, and reveal its hidden truth .
to men. In support of this they referred to chap. v.
7 — 9. The fault of the interpretation is that it is too
limited; it is only a corner of the full meaning-. He
who is "the True " alone can unlock the hidden treasures
of truth. But the use of the word "David," and the

Commendation to the

EEVELA.T10N, III.

Church of Philadelphia.

he that is holy, he that is true, he that
hath the key of David, he that openeth,
and no man shutteth ; and shutteth,
and no man openeth ; W I know thy
works : behold, I have set before thee
an open door, and no man can shut it :
for thou hast a little strength, and hast
kept my word, and hast not denied my
name. (9) Behold, I will make them of
the synagogue of Satan, which say they
are Jews, and are not, but do lie ; behold,
I will make them to come and worship

before thy feet, and to know that I have
loved thee. <10> Because thou hast kept
the word of my patience, I also will
keep thee from the hour of temptation,
which shall come upon all the world, to
try them that dwell upon the earth.
W Behold, I come quickly : hold that
fast which thou hast, that no man take
thy crown. (12> Him that overcometh
will I make a pillar in the temple of
my God, and he shall go no more out :
and I will write upon him the name of

obvious derivation of the latter part of this verse from
Isa. xxii. 22, points to a wider meaning. Jesus Christ
is the true Steward of the house of David. (Comp. Heb.
iii. 2, 5, 6.) The faulty, self-seeking stewards, the
Shebnas of Jerusalem and Philadelphia, vainly claimed
a right of exclusion from synagogue or church, where
Jesns, the God-fixed nail in the sure place, upon which
the bundle of earth's sorrows and sins might securely
be suspended (Isa. xxii. 23 — 25), the Eliakim of a
greater Zion, had the key of the sacred and royal
house. In this, the chamber of truth was one treasure,
as the chamber of holiness, the chamber of rest, the
chamber of spiritual privileges, were others. In other
words, though in a sense the keys of spiritual ad-
vantages are in the hands of His servants, " He still
retains the highest administration of them in His own
hands." The power of the keys entrusted to Apostles
gave them no right to alter the " essentials of the
gospel, or the fundamental principles of morality."
The absolution given by them can only be conditional,
unless the giver of it possesses the infallible discerning
of spirits. The reader of Dante will remember how
the cases of Guido di Montefeltro [Inf. xxvii.) and of
his son Buonconte (Purg. v.) illustrate the belief which
sustained so many illustrious spirits (John Huss,
Savanarola, Dante), and in times of unjust oppression,
tyrannical ecclesiasticism, and which this passage
sanctions, that

" Nought but repentance ever can absolve ;
And that though sins be horrible ; yet so wide arms
Hath goodness intinitc, that it receives
All who turn to it."

(8) I know thy works : behold, I have set
(better, given) before thee an open door (better,
a door opened).' — A reference to the passages (Acts
xiv. 27; 1 Cor. xvi. 8, 9; 2 Cor. ii. 12, 13; Col. iv. 3) in
which a similar expression is used reminds us that the
open door was not simply a way of escape from diffi-
culties, but an opening for preaching the gospel, an
opportunity of doing good, as well as an abundant
entrance into the kingdom.

For thou hast a little strength, and hast
kept my word, and hast not denied my
name.— The tenses used point back to some epoch in
the history of this Church when some heavy trial or
persecution arose, which tested the sincerity, fidelity,
or Christian love of the faithful. " The reward then
of a little strength is a door opened" (Dr. Vaughan).

W Behold/ 1 will make.— Better. Behold, I give
some. There is no word to express tins in the original,
but as a word must be supplied to complete the sense,
it is better to adopt " some " than the " them " of the
Authorised version, as it is not a promise that all of
the synagogue of Satan should come.

Of the synagogue of Satan.— We have here a
re-appearance of the same troubles which afflicted the
Church of Smyrna : the fixed and contemptuous ex-
clusiveness of the Judaising party was their triaL
But there was a time coming (perhaps the hour of temp-
tation spoken of in the next verse) when these faithful
ones, now abused and excommunicated by the fanatical
synagogue, would be courted, acknowledged — nay, their
aid invoked.

I will make them to come and worship
before my feet, and to know that I have loved
thee. — Some see in this a hint that the power of a
large-hearted party to protect the Judaisers would be
derived from the influence of the Gentiles, whose
presence in the Church had been a stumbling-block to
the Jewish party. This may have been, and doubtless
was, often the case. But the promise seems to have a
higher fulfilment. The course of events would show
that the so-called latitudinarian was the nearest to
Christ; time would transform the suspected into tlje-
respected. The Amorites woidd come, and the dis-
inherited Jephthahs would be brought to be head of
Gilead. In days of such trouble their strongest oppo-
nents would become their warmest supporters. An
illustration of this will occur to the mind of the reader
in the marvellous support which has been given to the
growth of Christianity by Jews with the tongue, with
the pen, with the harp and organ. Let the names of
Neander, Rossini, and Mendelssohn stand for hundreds-
more.

(10) Because thou hast kept (better, didst Tceep)
the word of my patience. — The one who keeps
God's word is kept. Such is " the benigna talio of the
kingdom of God," as Archbishop Trench calls it. The
promise does not mean the being kept away from, but
the being kept out from the tribulation. The head
should be kept above the waters; they should not be
ashamed, because they had kept the word of patience.
It is through patience, as well as comfort of the Scrip-
ture that we have the hope which maketh not ashamed.
(Comp. Rom. xv. 5, and verses 3 — 5.)

(ii) Behold, I come.— Omit "Behold." Better,
I am coming quickly ; hold fast; continue your race as
those who are striving for a garland (1 Cor. ix. 24).

(12) Will I make a pillar.— A pillar, and an un-
shaken one. There may be reference to the frequent
earthquakes which had shaken down buildiugs in their
city. Those who overcome will prove real supports-
to the great Christian temple. (Comp. Gal. ii. 9.)

Write upon him. — Or, grave upon it. On the sides
of the four marble pillars which survive as ruins of
Philadelphia inscriptions are to be found. The writing
would be the name of God, the name of the heavenly
Jerusalem and (omit the repetition, " I will write upon

5-18

Epistle to the

EEVELATION, III.

Church in taodicecu

my ( ;< >«1, and the name of the city of my
God, which is new Jerusalem, which
comet li down out of heaven from my
God : and / will write upon him, my
new name. <13) He that hath an
ear, let him hear what the Spirit,
saith unto the churches. <U) And ]
unto the angel of tha church of the

i n, in Caodicea.

Laodiceans1 write; These things saith
the Amen, the faithful and ...

true witness, the begin- 22. The^Spistle
ning of the creation of to th« Eaodi-
God; (15) I know thy works, CX'U,1S-
that thou art neither cold nor hot : I
would thou wert cold or hot. (1(j> So
then because thou art lukewarm,

him") the new, unknown name of Christ Himself.
The allusion is to the golden frontlet inscribed with
the name of Jehovah. (Comp. chap. xxii. 4.) He will
reflect the likeness of God ; and not only so, ho will
bear the tokens — -now seen in all clearness— of his
heavenly citizenship (Phil. iii. 20'; Heb. xii, 22, 23).
And a farther promise implies that in the day of the
hist triumph, as there will be new revealings of Christ's
power, there will be unfolded to the faithful and
notorious new and higher possibilities of purity. Thus
does Scripture refuse to recognise any finality which is
not a beginning as well as an end — a landing-stage in the
great law of continuity. (See chaps, ii. 17, and xix. 12.)

(14) Laodicea.— Situated half way between Phila-
delphia and Colossal and not far from Hierapolis. It
received its name from Laodice, wife of Antioehus
the second king of Syria, by whom it was rebuilt and
beautified. It had borne in earlier times the names of
Diospolis and afterwards Rhoas. It shared with
Thyatira and Sardis in the dye trade; the woods
grown in the neighbourhood were famous for their
quality and the rich blackness of their colour. Pros-
perity in trade had so enriched the population that
when their city suffered in the great earthquake (a.d.
60) they were able to carry on the work of rebuilding
without applying, as many of the neighbouring towns
were compelled to do, to the Imperial Treasury for aid.
The language of St. Paul (Col. i. 5 — 8) suggests that
the churches of Colossaj and the neighbourhood first
received Christianity from the preaching of Epaphras,
though it seems strange that so important a city, lying
hard upon the great Roman road from Ephesus to the
east, should have been passed over by St. Paul in his
journeyings throughout Phrygia (see Acts xvi. 6 and
xviii. 23) ; yet, on the other hand, Phrygia was a vague
term, and the language of Col. ii. 1 is most generally
understood to imply that the Apostle had never per-
sonally visited either Colossa? or Laodicea. (See Note
on Col. ii. 1.) But it was a Church in which St. Paul
took the deepest possible interest ; the believers there
Were constantly in his mind. He knew their special
temptations to the worship of inferior mediators, and
to spiritual paralysis springing from wordly prosperity
and intellectual pride. He had great heart-conflict for
those of Laodicea (Col. iii. 1), and in proof of his earnest
solicitude he addressed a letter to them (Col. iv. 61),
in all probability the epistle we call the Epistle to the
Ephesians. From the Epistle to the Colossians we
may gather that when St. Paid wrote the Christians
at Laodicea assembled for worship in the house of
Nymphas (Col. iv. 15) probably under the presidency
of Archippus (verse 17).

Unto the angel Of the Church (or, congregation)
Of the Laodiceans.— Better, in Laodicea. By the
angel we understand the presiding pastor. There is
some ground for identifying him with Archippus. It
is too much to dismiss this as a baseless supposition;
(See Note in Trench.) It is a well-supported view
which understands the passage (Col. iv. 17; to mean

that Archippus was a minister or office-bearer in the
Church at Laodicea.

These things saith the Amen, the faithful
and true witness.— The " Amen." used only here
as a personal name. It is the Hebrew word for
verily, and may have some reference to Isa. lxv. 16;
but moi'e certainly it seems chosen to recall the frequent
use of it by our Lord Himself. He who so often pre-
faced His solemn utterance by " Verily, verily," now
reveals Himself as the source of all certainty and truth.
In Him is Yea, and in Him Amen (2 Cor. i. 20). In
Him there is no conjecture, or guess-work; for He
is ( and the Greek equivalents of the Hebrew Amen are
used following) the faithful and true witness, who
speaks what He knows, and testifies what He has seen
(John iii. 11). " Faithful " is to be taken here as
meaning trustworthy. The word sometimes means
trustful (John xx. 27 ; Acts xiv. 1), at other times,
trustworthy (2 Tim. ii. 22 ; 1 Thess. v. 24). In the
Arian controversy, the application of the word to Christ
was used as an argument against His divinity ; it was
enough to show in reply that the same word was applied
to God, and expressed His faithfulness to His word
and promise (1 Thess. v. 24). " True " — He is not only
trustworthy as a witness, but He combines in Himself
all those qualifications which a witness ought to possess.
The same word is used here as in verse 7, where see
Note. Trench suggests the three things necessary to
constitute a true witness. He must have been an eye-
witness of what He relates, possess competence to
relate what He has seen, and be willing to do so.

The "beginning (better, the origination) of the
creation of God.— This title of our Lord does
not occur in the Epistles to the other churches, but
very closely resembles the language used by St, Paul
in writing to the Colossians (chap. i. 15—18). The
"beginning," not meaning that Christ was the first
among the created, but that He was the origination,
or primary source of all creation. By Him were all
things made (John i. 1 — 3 : coin]). Col. i. 15, 18), not
with Him, but by Him creation began. In short, the
word " beginning " (like the word " faithful ") must
be understood in an active sense. He has originating
power (Acts iii. 14) as well as priority of existence.
The appropriateness of its use will be seen when we
remember that the Laodicean Church was exposed to
the temptation of worshipping inferior principalities.
(See Col. i. 16; ii. 15, where the plural of the word
here rendered " beginning," or origin, is used, and
is translated u principalities.")

(15, 16) Neither cold nor hot.— The " heat " here
is the glowing, fervent zeal and devotion which is com-
mended and commanded elsewhere (Rom. xii. 11). It is
not. however, the self-conscious, galvanised earnestness
which, in days of senile pietism, passes for zeal. It is
an earnestness which does not know itself earnest, being
all too absorbed in its work. It is self-forgetful, and
so self-sacrificing, rather than ambitious of self-sacri-
fice. It is, in short, kindled cf God, and sustained by

The Laodiceans rebuked

REVELATION, III.

and called to Repentance.

and neither cold nor hot, I will spue
thee out of my mouth. (17^ Because
thou sayest, I am rich, and increased
with goods, and have need of nothing ;
and knowest not that thou art wretched,
and miserable, and poor, and blind, and
naked : <18) I counsel thee to bay of me

gold tried in the fire, that thou may est
be rich ; and white raiment, that thou
mayest be clothed, and that the shame
of thy nakedness do not appear; and
anoint thine eyes with eyesalve, that
thou mayest see. <19) As many as I
love, I rebuke and chasten : a be zealous

converse with the Divine One (Luke xxiv. 32), and
restored by intercourse with Him (see verse 20 ; comp.
1 John iv. 15 — 20). The "cold" describes the state of
those who are as yet untouched by the Gospel of Love.
An intermediate state between these is the "luke-
warm " ; such are neither earnest for God nor utterly
indifferent to religion. They are, perhaps, best de-
scribed as those who take an interest in religion, but
whose worship of their idol of good taste, or good
form, leads them to regard enthusiasm as ill-bred, and
disturbing ; and who have never put themselves to any
inconvenience, braved any reproach, or abandoned any
comfort for Christ's sake, but hoped to keep well with
the world, while they flattered themselves that they
stood well with God ; who were in danger of betraying
their Master, Judas-like, with a kiss. With the de-
nunciation of " lukewarmness " here we may compare
the exhortation to greater ministerial earnestness
addressed to Archippus (Col. iv. 17).

I would . . . . — The wish is not that they might
grow cold rather than remain in this lukewarm state,
it is more a regret that they are among those who are
.a a condition which is so liable to self-deception ; such
a state is " both to God displeasing and to His foes."
And this is expressed in startling language, " I am about
(such is the force of the words) to spue thee . . . ."

(!") I am rich.— The verse means, more literally,
Because thou sayest, I am rich, and have grown rich,
and in nothing have need, and knowest not that thou
art the wretched (such is the emphasis) one, and the
pitiable one, and beggarly, and blind, and naked.
Thou art " the type, the embodiment of wretchedness."
The words should, I think, be taken as an amplifi-
cation of the reason for their rejection. Christ was
about to reject them for being in that tepid state
which, beginning with self-satisfaction, led on to self-
deception. They were rich in worldly goods (un-
like the Church in Smyrna), but their very wealth led
them into a quiet unaggressive kind of religion ; they
were proud also of their intellectual wealth ; self-
complacent because in comfortable worldly circum-
stances, and became puffed up with a vain philo-
sophy, they learned to be satisfied with their spiritual
state, and to believe the best of themselves, and then
to believe in themselves. Hypocrites they were, who
did not know they were hypocrites. They thought
themselves good; and this self-deception was their
danger. " For," to use Prof. Mozley*s words, " why
should a man repent of his goodness ? He may
well repent, indeed, of his falsehood; but unhappily
1 lie falsehood of it is just the thing he does not see, and
which he cannot see by the very law of his character.
The Pharisee did not know he was a Pharisee. If he
had known it, he would not have been a Pharisee. The
victim of passion, then, may be converted — the gay. the
thoughtless, or the ambitious ; he whom human glory
has intoxicated; he whom the show of life has en-
snared ; he whom the pleasures of sense have capti-
vated— they may be converted any one of these; but
who is to convert the hypocrite ? He does not know

he is a hypocrite; he cannot upon the very basis
of his character ; he must think himself sincere ; and
the more he is in the shackles of his own character, i.e.,
the greater hypocrite he is, the more sincere he must
think himself" (University Sermons, p. 34).

(!«) I counsel thee to buy.— There, is, perhaps,
a touch oft irony here. How could the poor and naked
buy ? But the irony has no sting, for the counsel but
recalled the invitation of the prophet to buy " without
money and without price " (Isa. Iv. 1).

Gold— i.e., golden coin, " tried," or, fired oxd of fire.
and so free from alloy or dross. Trench suggests that
" gold " here stands for faith. Does not, however, the
self-deceiving state of this Church rather point to*
love as the missing grace ? The Laodiceans were
as those who had many graces in appearance; they
were not unlike one who had gifts, tongues, under-
standing, liberality, but lacked that fervent love with-
out which all was as nothing (1 Cor. xiii. 1 — 3) ; or, ta
use Trench's own image, they were lacking in the only
grace accepted as currency in the kingdom of God.

" O merchantman at heaven's mart for heavenly ware,
Love is the only coin which passes there."

But the possession of this love would bring their zeal
out of the tepid into the fervent state. Such love, pure
and fervent, could only spring from God, who would
shed abroad His love in their hearts (Rom. v. 5).

White raiment. — The putting on of apparel and
the stripping of it off were tokens of honour and
humiliation. (See 2 Sam. x. 1; Isa. lxvii. 2, 3 ; Hos. iL
3, 9; Zech. iii. 3—5; Eev. xvi. 15; Luke xv. 22.)
The wedding-feast was at hand. The unclad would
then be put to shame (Matt. xxii. 11 — 13). Let them be
prepared against this by putting on Christ (Col. iii.
10 — 14) and His righteousness (Phil. iii. 9), that the
shame of their nakedness do not appear — or, much
better, be not made manifest.

Eyesalve.— They were blind ; they were proud of
their intellectual wealth; they boasted of their en-
lightenment. (Comp. Col. ii. 8.) Self-deceived, they
thought, like the Pharisees, that they saw. (Comp.
John ix. 40, 41.) Better would it be for them that
they should receive the anointing of the Holy One
(1 John ii. 20), which would teach them all things,
and especially reveal to them their self-ignorance.
This anointing might be painful, but " the eyes of
their understanding -would be enlightened" (such is
the remarkably parallel thought in the Epistle to the
Ephesians), and they would be enabled to see and
appreciate things spiritual. (Comp. John ix. 7, 25 :
1 Cor. ii. 10—14; Eph. i. 18; v. 19.)

(l9) I rebuke and chasten.— The first word is
that used in the work of the Holy Spirit (John xvi.
8), and signifies to bring conviction ; it is not empty
censure. The second word signifies to educate by
means of correction. The pronoun is emphatic, " I," and
calls attention to the fidelity of Christ's love in com-
parison with the weak partiality seen in human love.
(Comp. Heb. xii. 6.)

5.50

The Lord standeth at the Door.

REVELATION, IV. The Vision of 'the Throne in Heavt

therefore, and repent. (2)1 Behold, I
stand at the door, .and knock: if ;m\
wan hear my voice, and open the door,
I will come in to him, and will sup with
him, and he with me. (21J To him that
overcometh will I grant to sit with me
in my throne, even as I also overcame, and
am set down with my Father in his throne.
(2-> He that hath an ear, let him hear
what the Spirit saith unto the churches.

CHAPTER IV.T-tt) After this I

looked, and, behold, a door „. . , „,

i •■ -i t Chap. iv. 1 — 11.

was opened m heaven: and The vision of

the first voice which I heard toe throne oi

-in . God in heaven

was as it were oi a trumpet

talking with me ; which said, Come up
hither, and I will shew thee things which
must be hereafter. W And immediately I
was in the spirit : and, behold, a throne
was set in heaven, and one sat on the

Be zealous.— Or, be in a constant zealous state;
and now. once for all. repent.

(20) Behold, I stand at the door, and knock.—
11 is difficult not to see an allusion in tins image to
Cant., v. 2 — 6. Perhaps, also, the memory of the first
night spent by St. John with his Master and Friend
(John i. 39) may have been strong in his mind. Indeed,
the life of Christ on earth teems with illustrations
which may well have suggested the image (Luke x.
3S: xix. .")>.: xxii. 11— 18; xriv. 29. 30).

(21) To him that overcometh ... . — He will
share Christ's throne as Christ shared His Father's
throne. Here are two thrones mentioned. My throne,
saith Christ : this is the condition of glorified saints who
sit with Christ in His throne. " But My Father's (i.e.,
God's) throne is the power of divine majesty." Herein
none may sit but God, and the God-man Jesus Christ.
The promise of sharing the throne is the climax of an
ascending series of glorious promises, which carry the
thought from the Garden of Eden (chap. ii. 7) through
the wilderness (chap. ii. 17), the temple (chap. iii. 12),
to the throne. The promise bears marked resemblance
to the language of St. Paul to the Ephesians (chap,
ii. 6). This crowning promise is made to the most
impleading of the churches. But it is well that thus
the despondency which often succeeds the sudden col-
lapse of self-satisfied imaginations should be met by so
bright a prospect. Though their religion has been
proved an empty thing, there is a hope which may well
drive away despair. " The highest place is within the
reach of the lowest ; the faintest spark of grace may be
fanned into the mightiest flame of divine love."

IV.

In this chapter we pass from the sufferings and
temptations of the churches below to the unsullied glory
above. The vision of the Almighty here described is
thought to be interposed here to remind us that all
decrees respecting the future " rest with God, and
come from Him through Jesus Christ." This is no
doubt true ; but there is another reason. From the
world below, and the struggling churches, we are
brought to see the Eternal who is ruling over all. A
vision like this must dwarf our sense of life's sorrows
and temptations, and is a fit preparation for the scenes
of conflict, failure, and persecution, which are about to
be unfolded. Whatever painful sights the seer is called
upon to behold, this vision of Him who rules " over
all from the beginning*' will remain in the back-
ground as the constant witness that in all the changes
and chances of this mortal life, in all the vicissitudes of
the Church's history, God is her refuge: therefore she
witf not be moved though the earth be removed.
It is the vision of eternal strength so often vouchsafed
to the sad. As to Ezekiel "among the captives by the
river of Chebar" (Ezek. i. 1), and to Isaiah mourning

over the gloom which was settling on Judah (Isa. vi. 1) ;
so now to the exile in Patmos, and through him to
all who, in their life-conflict, need "everlasting con-
solation and good hope." "You sec howr distress and
solitude and sorrow favour communications between a
man and his God."

(D After this (better, these things) I looked
(literally, I saw ; not " I looked," as though the pro-
phet turned his gaze then towards it), and, behold
a door was opened (or, set open) in heaven.— He
did not look and see a door opening ; he saw, and lo !
the door stood open. There are differences as well
as similarities between this vision and others where
glimpses into heaven were given to prophets and
saints. In Ezekiel's vision, and in the scene of Matt,
iii. 16 (comp. also Acts vii. 56. and x. 11) the heavens
divide; in this a door stands open. The way into the
presence of God lies open (Heb. x. 19, 20); all who have
faith may enter; in the minds of such the thoughts of
the heavenly will mingle with the sorrows of the earthly,
and the calm of security will be theirs (Ps. xlvi. 5). But
the scenes of earth's troubles will always be dispiriting
to those who cannot reach the heavenly view-point.

And the first voice (or, behold, the first voice)
which I heard was as it were of a trumpet
talking with me; (even one) which said, Come
up hither, and I will shew thee (the) things
which must be hereafter.— The first voice here
spoken of is the voice which the Apostle had heard
in the opening vision (chap. i. 10) ; he heard, and re-
cognised that trumpet-like voice again. It is strange
that any should have maintained that this is not the
voice of Christ. It is admitted that it must be the
same as the voice of chap. i. 10 ; but it is said that the
voice of Christ is heard afterwards (chap. i. 15), not as
a trumpet, but as the voice of many waters. The
answer is simple ; the voice of Christ has many tones ;
and the voice like a trumpet said. " I am Alpha and
Omega, the first and the last." (See chap. i. 10 — 13.)

(2) And immediately I was in the spirit.—
Comp. chap. i. 10. The mind and soul were absorbed
in the vision of things celestial. (See. 2 Cor. xii. 1 — 4.)
" Words may not tell of that transhuman change ;

if I were only what Thou didst create,

Then newly. Love ! by whom the heaven is ruled,

Thou knoxvst, who by Thy light didst bear me up."

I'aradiso, i. 68— 73.

And, behold, a throne was set (i.e.. not that the
seer saw the throne being set, bat when he saw it was
already set) in heaven, and one sat on the
throne.— Comp. Micaiah's speech (1 Kings xxii. 19).
The enthroned One is not named. Have we here a
touch of the Jewish reluctance to name Jehovah ? OI
is it that the descriptive phrase. " He that sat on the
throne" is used here, and kept before us in the whole
book to remind us that the great world drama moves

The Four-and '-twenty Ehhyrs.

EEVELATION, IV.

The Sea of Glass.

throne. ^ And he that sat was to look
upon like a jasper and a sardine stone :
and there was a rainbow round about
the throne, in sight like unto an
emerald. (4) And round about the
throne were four and twenty seats : and
upon the seats I saw four and twenty
elders sitting-, clothed in white raiment ;
and they had on their heads crowns of

gold. <5> And out of the throne pro-
ceeded lightnings and thunderings and
voices : and there were seven lamps of
fire burning' before the throne, which
are the seven Spirits of God. (6) And
before the throne there was a sea of
glass like unto crystal: and in the
midst of the throne, and round about
the throne, were four beasts full of eyes

forward ever under the eyes of the ruling One. (Com]),
chaps, v. 1, 7 ; vi. 15 ; xx. 11 ; xxi. 5.)

(:J) And he that sat was to look upon like a
jasper and a sardine stone.— In determining the
significance of these emblems we must be guided partly
by the analogy of Bible imagery elsewhere, and partly
by our knowledge of precious stones. The sardian,
or sardine, is admitted to be a stone of fiery red colour ;
the emerald, to which the bow round the throne is
compared, is almost certainly a bright green ; the hue
of the jasper is the difficulty. The jasper — the last
stone in the high-priest's breastplate, and first of the
twelve foundations of the New Jerusalem (Ex. xxviii.
20, and Rev. xxi. 19) — is described by the best autho-
rities as a dark, opaque green. Such a colour is quite
in harmony with the colours of the other stones in
the breastplate, and particularly with the foundation
stones, which seem to be arranged in shades of colour
(see Notes on chap. xxi. 19 et seq.) ; but the dark
opaque green would be an ill combination with the
red sardius and the green emerald in the vision of the
present chapter. Is there no further light ? We have
a jasper stone spoken of in chap. xxi. 11, 18, with the
descriptive phrase, " clear as crystal ! " Does not this
point to a stone somewhat different in appearance from
that spoken of simply as jasper ? Such a clear crystal
stone would be the most natural companion to the
sardine, and the combination of the sparkling bright-
ness and fiery red suits the union of brightness and
flame which appears elsewhere in the Bible (comp.
chaps, i. 14; xi. 1 ; Ezek. i. 4 ; viii. 2 ; Dan. vii. 9), and
is best understood of the holiness and righteousness of
God. The latter half of this verse shows us these sur-
rounded by the emerald-coloured bow, the evident symbol
of the divine mercy. The allusion to the bow in the
cloud (Gen. ix. 12 — 16) is obvious ; the bow completely
encircled the throne, as mercy encompassing judgment.
It was a covenant token, bearing witness to God's
faithfulness in dark times, God's care for the ark of
His Church, and His mercy shining forth after storm.

(-0 And round about the throne were four
and twenty seats (or, thrones), and upon the
seats (or, thrones) I saw four and twenty elders
sitting, clothed in white raiment; and they
had on their heads crowns of gold.— Perhaps
the wish to give its due pre-eminence to the thought of
Him who sat on the throne caused our translators to
describe the elders as sitting on seats; but the same
word throne is used of both, and those who are now
seated on thrones are called (chap. v. 10) kings and
priests. In the similar vision in Ezekiel no human
beings are seen; their appearance here is significant.
They are the representatives of Christ's Church and
people, of those whom Christ calls His friends, and
who are admitted to know what their Lord doeth
(John xv. 15). Various reasons have been suggested
why they should be described as twenty-four in number ;
they are the twelve tribes doubled, to signify the union

552

of the Gentile with the Jewish Church ; they are the
two sets of twelve, to represent the two Testaments ;
they are the twelve Patriarchs cojoined with the twelve
Apostles. It will be seen that these were all different
forms of the same thought, that the twenty-four elders
represent the complete Church of God in the past and
in the future, in the Jewish and Gentile worlds ; and
as such the true spiritual successors, as priests to God,
of those twenty-four courses (1 Chron. xxiv. 1 — 19)
arranged by David, and which some have thought gave
rise to the use of the number twenty-four in this
passage. It is the great united Church. The same
thought is touched upon in the double song of Moses
and the Lamb (chap. xv. 3), and in the gates and foun-
dations of the New Jerusalem (chap. xxi. 12, 14).

(5) And out of the throne proceeded (rather,
proceed ; there is a change in the tense used) light-
nings and thunderings and voices.— These' are
viewed by some as the indications of approaching judg-
ments. Perhaps it is better to view them as the tokens of
God's power of judgment than as hints of immediately
approaching judgments. The scene at Sinai (Ex. xix. 16)
was no doubt in the prophet's mind. There the clouds
and lightnings were not so much tokens of coming judg-
ment as the symbols of that righteous power which can
show itself in judgment. " Clouds and darkness are
round about Him ; righteousness and judgment are the
habitation of His throne " (Ps. xcvii. 2). They are the
constant tokens of that power of God

" Which makes the darkness and the light,
And dwells not in the light alone.
But in the darkness and the cloud
As over Sinai's peaks of old."

And there were seven lamps (or, torches) of
fire burning before the throne, which are the
seven Spirits of God.— See chap. iii. 1. The Spirit
of God in His manifold powers is thus described under
emblems of fire. Not merely as a fire of judgment.
The baptism of the Holy Spirit is a baptism of fire
(Matt. iii. 11, 12). The flaming presence purges the
spirit from sin. The Holy Spirit consumes evil. It
is an unquenchable fire against all evils, whether in
men's hearts or in men's lives, or in the world. (Comp.
1 Cor. iii. 13, and Heb. xii. 29.) May there not be
allusion to the covenant with Abraham, which was
ratified by fire ? Lamps, or torches, of fire (lampades
puros, LXX.. same as in this passage) went between the
divided pieces of the heifer and the she-goat. If this
be correct, the vision of this chapter reminds us
that God is ever mindful of His covenant. The rain-
bow, the token of the covenant with Noah ; the flaming
torches, tokens of the covenant with Abraham ; and the
thunderings and lightnings, the tokens of the covenant
at Sinai, are ever with Him. (Comp. also Ezek. i. 4.)

(6) And before the throne there was a sea
of glass like unto crystal.— There is a sea before
the throne of God. The woman apparelled in purple
splendour sits upon many waters (chap, xvii. 1). The

'J'iir Four Beasts.

EEVELATION, IV.

Their Song of Praise.

before and behind. W And the first
beast was like a lion, and the second
beast like a calf, and the third beast
had a face as a man, and the fourth
beast was like a flying eagle. <8) And
the four beasts had each of them six
wings about him ; and they were full of
eyea within: and they rest not1 day
and night, saying, Holy," holy, holy,

1 Gr. they have no

rest
a ch. 1. 4. 8 ; Isa.

Lord God Almighty, which was, and is,
and is to come. (9) And when those
beasts give glory and honour and thanks
to him that sat on the throne, who
liveth for ever and ever, <10> the four
and twenty elders fall down before hiu
that sat on the throne, and worship him
that liveth for ever and ever, and east
their crowns before the throne, saying.

waters are explained (chap. xvii. 15) to be "peoples,
and multitudes, and nations, and tongues." Her
throne rests on the fickle and stormy sea of world-
opinion, fashion, and passion. The waters represent
the unguided, unreasoning, and unprincipled thoughts
of men. By analogy, the calm glass-like sea, which is
never in storm, but only interfused with flame (chap,
xv. 2), represents the counsels of God, those purposes
of righteousness and love, often fathomless, but never
obscure ; always the same, though sometimes glowing
with holy anger (chap. xv. 1). (Comp. th^ Psalmist's
words, '"Thy judgments are like the great deep," Ps.
xxxvi. 6, Prayer Book version. See also Ps. lxxvii. 19,
and Horn. xi. 33—36.) The position of the crystal sea
is analogous to that of the molten sea in front of
Solomon's Temple (2 Chron. iv. 9, 10).

And in the midst of the throne— i.e., between
the seer and the throne. The Apostle saw the crystal
98a, and beyond it the living creatures encircling the
throne — -four living creatures (or, living beings) full of
or. teeming with) eyes before and behind.

(") And the first beast (better, in each case, living
being) was like a lion, and the second beast
like a calf (comp. Ezek i. 7, 10), and the third
beast had a face as a man (or, its countenance as of
a man), and the fourth beast was like a flying
eagle. — These are living beings, not " beasts," as in the
Authorised version. The rendering "beasts" introduces
eon fusion of thought, and violates the laws of Apoca-
lyptic, indeed of Bible imagery. The evil powers are
described under the emblem of wild beasts ; for thus
brute force, and unrestrained passion, and self-will,
A.C are symbolised. (See chaps, xi. 7; xiii. 1, 2; xvi.
2 ; xvii. 3, 7 ; xix. 19, 20 ; xx. 10.) But these " living
beings " do not represent the evil element in the world.
They are representative of animated nature. They are
four in number — as there are four beings which hold a
primacy in the world: among created beings, man;
among birds, the eagle; among cattle, the ox; among
untamed animals, the lion. The characteristics of
these four chiefs of creation unite to make a perfect
picture of the spirit of true service, which should be
brave as the lion, patient as the ox, aspiring as the
eagle, intelligent as man. It may here be noted that
the number "four" in the Apocalypse is almost always
associated with the earth. (See chap. vii. 1.) We need
only call to mind the four quarters, four elements, four
seasons, to see its fitness. (Comp. chap. xxi. 13,16.) The
living creatures are " full of eyes." This strong ex-
pression is used again in the next verse. Twice used,
i s meaning must be significant. The same idea is
found in the later prophets of the Old Testament. The
wheels of Ezekiel and their tires (Ezek. i. 18, and x. 12)
were full of eyes. The stone of Zechariah had seven
the perfect number) eyes (Zech. iii. 9). The thought
is emphasised again in chap. v. 0, where the Lamb is
.-aid to have seven eyes. Multiplicity of eyes may
symbolise vitality and vigilance. Some have 'thought,
52« 5

inappropriately enough, that it signifies the unceasing
praise of God's works. A better interpretation is
given by Dr. Cnrrey. "The power of nature is no
blind force, it is employed in the service of God's
providence, and all over it the stamp of reason is
impressed." (See Speaker's Commentary on Ezek. i.
18). May wo not add that the force of nature is
always observant of God's will? Its myriad eyes are
fixed on Him, as the eyes of a servant on his master
(Ps. cxxiii. 2); doing His commandment, hearkening
unto the voice of His word (Ps. ciii. 20, 21) ; the eyes
too of all creation wait on God, who gives them meat
in due season (Ps. civ. 27, Prayer Book version) —

"His state
Is kingly ; thousands at His bidding speed
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ;
They also serve who only stand and wait."

(8) And the four beasts (or, living being*) had
each of them (literally, one by one of them) six
wings about him; and they were full of (or.
teeming with) eyes. — The last verse spoke of the
living beings teeming with eyes ; this tells us that
neither the dropping nor the raising of their wings
hindered their view.

And they rest not day and night, saying,
Holy, holy, holy, Lord God Almightly, which
was, and is, and is to come. — The resemblance to
Isaiah's vision (chap. vi. 1—4) may remind us that the
voice of God's creation has in every age proclaimed His
eternal holiness. The word " holy " is repeated eight
times in the Sinaitic version. The " six wings " are
taken to express reverence, for with twain (Isa. vi. 2)
he covered his face ; humility, for with twain he covered
his feet; and obedience, for with twain he did fly.
Some have understood these living beings to betoken
rather the creative power of God than the actual
creation. There is much to be said for this ; but the
analogy of the passage suits better the view here adopted.
The twenty-four elders represent, not the regenerating
power of God, but the regenerate Church. The new
creation in Christ Jesus join in praise with all created
things. The doxology in verse 11 favours the inter-
pretation, "Thou hast created all tilings."

(9, io) And when those beasts . . .—Better,
And whensoever the living beings shall give (the future
is used) glory and honour and thanks to Him who
sitteth upon the throne, to Him who liveth to the ages
of ages, the four-and-tiventy elders shall (as is their
WOnt)/oH down before Him, who sitteth on the throne,
mid worship Him that liveth unto the ages of ages, and
shall (as is their wont) cast their crowns before the throne,
saying . . . It is not to Him who sat upon the throne.
but to Him who sitteth there, as he liveth to the ages of
ages, that this homage is paid. The future tense (shoU
give glory,.&c.) implies the eternal repetition of the act.
Tho connection between the praise given by creation,
and the consequent homage of the twenty-four elders,
expresses a truth. The Church of Christ does not

The Vision of the Book

KEVELATION,- V.

sealed with Seven Seals

(ii) Thou art worthy/ O Lord, to receive
glory and honour axid oower : for thou
hast created all things, and for thy
pleasure they are and were created.

CHAPTER V.— W And I saw in
the right hand of him that sat on
the throne a book written within

[sa. 29. 11 :

Kzek. 2. 9, 10;

and on the backside/ sealed
seven seals. $ And I saw
a strong angel proclaim-
ing with a loud voice,
Who is worthy to open the
book, and to 1-oose the seals thereof?
(3) And no man in heaven, nor in earth,
neither under the earth, was able to

with

Chaps, v. 1 — vi.
17. The sealed
book opened by
the Larnfo.

always hear the voice of praise from created things.
Often the creation groaneth and travaileth; but her
chorus of praise rises when she perceives that " every-
thing that hath breath praiseth the Lord." The con-
verse of this thought — the earth bringeth forth her
fruit when the people praise God — is hinted in Ps.
lxvii. 5, 6, '' the earth ceases her travail when the sons
of God are made manifest (Rom. viii. 19 — 21).

Crowns. — The crowns are not royal crowns, but the
crowns of conquerors. These are laid down before the
throne by those who overcame, not in their own might,
but through the blood of the Lamb (chap. xii. 11 ;
comp. chap. vii. 14).

(U) The doxology is three-fold. (See Note on chap.
i. 6.) It should run —

" Worthy art Thou, 0 Lord, and our God,
To receive the glory, and the honour, and the power,
Because Thou didst create all things,

And through (or, owing to— i.e., because of) Thy will they
were (not ' are ') and were created."

The existence of all things was owing to the will of God,
as also was the creation of all things, which was the
realisation or manifestation of that will.

The Sealed Roll. — The vision of the previous
chapter remains. The scenery does not shift, but the
attention of the seer is now directed to one feature —
the book, or roll, which was on the hand of the Throned
One. This roll none in heaven, earth, or under the earth
could open ; but the Lamb takes the roll to open it, or
to unfold its purport to the waiting world and Church ;
the Church and world praise Him who is the Light,
revealing to them all they need to know.

(!) And I saw in the right hand . . .—Better,
And I saw on (not " in ; " the roll lay on the open palm
of the hand) the right hand of Him that sitteth upon
the throne a booh written within and behind, fast sealed
with seven seals. The book is, of course, in the form of
a roll ; it lies on the open hand of the Throned One ; it
was not His will that the book should be kept from any.
It is written, not on the inside only, as was the usual way,
but, like the roll of the book which Ezekiel saw (Ezek.
ii. 9, 10), it was written within and without. Some
have thought that there are two divisions of predictions
— those written within the roll, and those written on
the outer side. This is merely fanciful ; the passage
in Ezekiel which supplies a guidance to the meaning
might have shown the erroneousness of the thought.
Clearly the "lamentation and mourning and woe " in-
scribed all over Ezekiel's roll indicate the filling up of
sorrows : here the same overflowing writing indicates
the completeness of the contents ; there was no room
for addition to that which was written therein. But
what is meant by the book ? Numberless interpreta-
tions have been offered : it is the Old Testament ; it is
the whole Bible ; it is the title-deed of man's inheri-
tance; it is the book containing the sentence of judg-

§54

ment on the foes of the faith ; it is the Apocalypse ; it
is part of the Apocalypse; it is the book of God's
purposes and providence. There is a truth underlying
most of these interpretations, but most of them narrow
the force of the vision. If we say it is the book which
unfolds the principles of God's government — in a wide
sense, the book of salvation (comp. Rom. xvi. 25, 26) —
the interpretation of life, which Christ alone can bestow
(see verses 3—6), we shall include, probably, the prac-
tical truths which underlie each of these interpretations ;
for all — Old Testament and New, man's heritage and
destiny, God's purposes and providence — are dark, till
He who is the Light unfolds those truths which shed a
light on all. Such a book becomes one " which con-
tains and interprets human history," and claims the
kingdoms of the earth for God. The aim of all lite-
rature has been said by a distinguished critic to be
little more than the criticism of life ; the book which
Christ unfolds is the key to the true meaning of life.
The roll is not the Apocalypse so much as the book of
those truths which are exemplified in the Apocalypse.
as in a vast chamber of imagery. The roll was fast
sealed, so that even those who Avere wise and learned
enough to read it had it been unrolled could not do so
(See Isa. xxix. 11.) There are things which are hidden
from the wise and prudent, but revealed unto babes.

(2) And I saw a strong (better, mighty) angel
proclaiming with (or, in) a loud voice, "Who is
worthy . . . — We must not let the word " worthy
pass as though it were simply equivalent to " strong
enough." It seems to imply moral fitness (comp.
Rom. i. 4), which is the true strength in the heavenly
world. It was not lack of intellectual capacity so
much as the taint of moral unworthiness which hin-
dered the reading of the book. This is in harmony
with what we have noticed before. " To commune
with God, there is need of no subtle thought, no foreign
tongue, no newest philosophy : ' the pure in heart shall
see Him : ' and Fox and Bunyan can more truly make
Him known than ' masters of sentences ' and ' angelic
doctors.' " Those who are willing to do God's will
know of God's doctrine. This thought corresponds,
too, with the stress which is laid (in verse 5) on the
Arictory of Christ. It is not simply as divine Son of
God, but also as victorious Saviour and King of His
people, that He opens the book: His worthiness has
been established in conflict and temptation (John
xiv. 30 ; Heb. ii. 9 ; iv. 15).

(3) And no man . . , . — Or, better, no one (for it
is of more than mankind that the Apostle speaks)
was able, in the heaven, nor on the earth, nor under
the earth, nor even (still less ?) to look thereon. The
looking on the book is usually understood of the look
cast on the book of one who would read the contents.
If so, the thought is, none could open, still less read,
the roll. It may, however, be that all who attempted
to take the book were unable to face the glory in which
it lay. When Christ revealed Himself to Saul he
could not see for the glory of that light.

which no Man could open.

KEVELATION, V.

The Lamb as it had been Slain.

open the book, neither to look thereon.
W And I wept much, because no man
was found worthy to open and to read
the book, neither to look thereon.
,5) And one of the elders saith unto me,
Weep not : behold, the Lion of the tribe
of Juda," the Root of David,* hath pre-

vailed to open the book, and to loose
the seven seals thereof. ^ And I be-
held, and, lo, in the midst of the throne
and of the four beasts, and in the midst
of the elders, stood a Lamb as it had
been slain, having seven horns and
seven eyes, which are the seven Spirits

W And I wept much, because no man (better,
no one) was found worthy to open . . . the book
(omit, "and to read"). — The Apostle is not ashamed to
call attention to his tears. I, indeed, for my part (the
"I" is emphatic) wept much. It was not a failure of
faith; it was the outburst of an earnest heart, to which
the knowledge of God and the destinies of his fellow-
men were very dear. Those who have longed to sec the
end of oppression, fraud, and sorrow on the earth, to
know something of the laws which govern the present,
and of their issue in the future, will understand these
tears. " The words, ' I wept much,' can only be under-
stood by those who have lived in great catastrophes of
the Church, and entered with the fullest sympathy into
her sufferings Without tears the Revela-
tion was not written, neither can it without tears be
understood."

(5) And one of the elders . . .—Better, And one
from among the elders saith unto me, Weep not; behold,
the Lion, which is of the tribe of Judah, the Boot of
David, conquered (so as) to open the roll, and the seven
seals thereof. The position of the word " conquered "
is emphatic, and should receive greater prominence.
The verse has been translated, " Behold, one conquered,
(even) the Lion . . ." The right to open the roll is
thus made to turn, as we noticed before, not merely on
the divine Sonship of our Lord, but upon His victory :
He conquered, and so opens the secret purposes of God
to His Church. The thought is exactly parallel with
other scriptures which give emphasis to the work of
redemption. It is " for the suffering of death " that
Christ is clothed " with glory and honour" (Heb. ii. 9).
Similarly St. Paul traces the exaltation of Christ as
the outcome of His humiliation, "wherefore (i.e., in
consequence of His humiliation) God also hath highly
exalted Him " (Phil. ii. 9). Thus Christ, who in con-
quest is seen to be the power of God, in revealing the
true philosophy of history is seen to be the wisdom of
God.

The Lion of the tribe of Juda.— The lion was
the ancient symbol of the tribe of Judah. Jacob
described his son as "a lion's' whelp" (Gen. xlix. 9); the
standard of Judah in the Israelitish encampment is
said to have been a lion. It was the symbol of strength,
courage, and sovereignty.

The Root of David.— Tho Lion is also the repre-
sentative of the royal house of David. " Christ cometh
of the seed of David " (comp. Mark xii. 35 with John
viii. 42) ; the prophets have described Him as the
Branch, which would spring from the ancient stock
(Isa. xi. 1; Zech. vi. 12). But there seems also a
reference to the deeper thought that He who is the
Branch is also the Root (comp. Isa. xi. 10) ; He is the
one who was David's Lord (Matt. xxii. 41 — 45), and
•• the true source and ground of all power " to David
and David's tribe, and of all who looked to Him, and
not to themselves, for strength.

(«) And I beheld, and lo . . .—Better, And I saw

omit "and lo") in tin: midst of the throne and of the

four living beings, and in the midst of the elders, a

Lamb (or, a little Lamb), standing as if having been
slain. Ihe position of the Lamb is described from the
seer's point of view : the Lamb is not on the throne,
but in the middle front of it, and so apparently between
the living creatures, and in the midst of the circle
formed by the twenty-four elders. The passage is
most striking. The Evangelist is told of the Lion
which will- open the seals: he looks, and lo, it is a
Lamb ! yes, a little Lamb — for the word is diminutive.
There is deep significance in this. "When we read of
the Lion, we think of power and majesty, and we are
right; all power in heaven and earth is Christ's, but it
is power manifested in seeming weakness. Tho waters
of Shiloah are mightier than the Euphrates (Isa. viii.
6 — 8) ; righteousness and purity, meekness and gentle-
ness, are greater than carnal weapons (comp. 2 Cor. vi.
6, 7; Eph. vi. 11, et al.); the Lamb mightier than the
roaring lion which goeth about seeking whom he may
devour (1 Pet. v. 8). But it is a Lamb as if it had
been slain. The wound-marks are there, but it is not
dead ; it is standing, for it represents Him who though
He died is alive for evermore ; but the signs of suffering
and death are visible, for it is not the Lamb, but the
suffering Lamb, which is exalted; it is not the Christ,
but the Christ crucified, which is the power of God ;
the Christ lifted up from the earth draws all men unto
Him (John xii. 32 ; 1 Cor. i. 23, 24) ; the corn of wheat
which dies brings forth fruit (John xii. 24). As such
He is the worship of the Church and the world which
He has redeemed. (See verses 8, 9 ; comp. chap. vii.
14.) The reference to earlier Scriptures (Ex. xii. 46 ;
Isa. liii. 7; John i. 29, 36; 1 Cor. v. 7, 8) is not to
be overlooked. From the tokens of suffering the seer
passes to the tokens of strength and wisdom which he
saw in the Lamb. He describes it as " having seven
horns, and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of
God sent forth (or, which are being sent forth) into all
the earth." The horn is the strength of the animal
which carries it. It is so used in the blessing of
Joseph : " His horns are like the horns of a wild bull "
("unicorns " in Authorised version); "with them shall
he push the people together," &c. (Dent, xxxiii. 17 ; comp.
Pss. lxxxix. 24; cxlviii. 14). The seven horns denote
completeness or fulness of strength. The seven eyes,
like the seven lamps (chap. iv. 5). represent the Holy
Spirit in H's manifold gifts of grace ; but as they are
described as eyes of the Lamb, they betoken His
omniscience who is in heaven and yet, by His Spirit,
everywhere (Matt, xxviii. 20) ; whose eye is on all
events, great and small ; whose eyes behold the children
of men. Note, also, that the seven spirits are ascribed
to the Son as well as to the Father. (Comp. John xiv.
26; xv. 26.) The seven spirits are said to be "sent ";
the woitl is from the same root as the word " apostle."
There is an apostolate of the Spirit as well as an apos-

j folate of the Church ; and, if we adopt the version here
which gives the present participle, this spiritual apos-
tolate is being continually exerted: the seven spirits
are in process of being stmt out by Him who says to this

' one " Go," and he goeth ; to the twelve, " Go ye into

The Lamb openeth the

REVELATION, V.

Book with tJte Seven Seals.

of God sent forth into all the earth, j
(?) And he came and took the book out
of the right hand of him that sat upon
the throne. (8) And when he had taken
the book, the four beasts and four and
twenty elders fell down before the
Lamb, having every one of them harps,
and golden vials full of odours,1 which

are the prayers of saints. <9) And they
sung a new song, saying, Thou art
worthy to take the book, and to open
the seals thereof: for thou wast slain,
and hast redeemed us to God by thy
blood out of every kindred, and tongue,
and people, and nation; ^ and hast
made us unto our God kings and priests :

all the world," and sends His Spirit to confer on His
people grace according to the measure of the gift of
Christ.

(7) And he came . . . — Better, And He came, and
He has taken (omit the words "the book," and supply) it
{i.e., the roll) out of the right hand of Him that sittcth
upon the throne. There is a change of tense (" came,"
" has taken "), which seems to be due to the rapt atten-
tion of the seer, whose narrative trembles with his own
intensity of feeling. He wept awhile ago ; now he
need not weep. The Lamb conquered ; He came ; He
lias taken the roll. He is the wisdom of the Church ;
among all pre-eminent; all things will be reconciled in
Him ; the purpose and meaning of all life's mysteries
and sorrows will be made plain in Him. (Coinp. 1 Cor.
i. 24 j Eph. i. 9, 10; Col. i. 18.)

(8) And when he had taken . . .—Better, And
when He took the roll, the four living beings and the
twenty-four elders fell before the Lamb, having each a
harp, and golden vials (or, censers) full of incense,
which are the prayers of the saints (or, the holy ones).
It is not the Church alone which is interested in the
revelation which will throw light on life's mysteries
and the delay of the kingdom : the whole creation
groaneth, waiting for the reign of righteousness ; and
therefore the four living beings, who represent creation,
join with the elders, who represent the Church, in the
adoration of the Lamb who holds the secret of life's
meaning in His hand. The vials (which seem to be
censers, as they hold the incense) and the harps, it is
perhaps more natural to suppose, were in the hands
of the four-and-twenty elders, and not of the living
creatures. Here, then, we have the praises (repre-
sented by the harps), and the prayers (represented by
the censers) of the world-wide and age-long Church
of Christ. The comparison of prayer with incense is
in strict accordance with Old Testament language.
" Let my prayer be set forth before Thee as incense "
(Ps. cxli. 2). The incense held a conspicuous place in
the ritual of the Temple. The greatest care was to be
taken in the composition of the incense, and the same
compound was not to be used anywhere but in the sanc-
tuary. These precautions suggest its typical character.
The true odours are the heart-prayers of God's children.
"Of these three sweet ingredient perfumes," says
Archbishop Leighton, alluding to the composition of the
Temple-incense, " namely, petition, confession, thanks-
giving, is the incense of prayer, and by the divine fire
of love it ascends unto God, the heart and all with it;
and when the hearts of the saints unite in joint prayer,
the pillar of sweet smoke goes up the greater and the
fuller." Every prayer which broke out in sob from an
agonising heart, every sigh of the solitary and strug-
gling Christian, every groan of those groping God-
ward, mingles here with the songs of the happy and
triumphant.

(». M>) And they sung a new song, saying . . .—
Better, And they sing a new song, saying. The use of
the present ('■ sing") is another example of that inten-

sity of interest of which the change of tense in the last
verse afforded an instance. As he records his vision,
he sees it anew ; he describes the action as though it
were even now taking place, and he still hears the notes
of praise. He who knows what it is to have the strains
of some rich melody haunt him for days will under-
stand how the prophet would hear the glad chorus
burst forth afresli in his ears when he recalled the
vision. The new song ; the chorus of the redeemed —

"Worthy art Thou to take the roll,
And to open the seals thereof ;

For Thou wast slain,
And didst buy to God in Thy blood
Out of every tribe, and tongue, and people, and nation,
And didst make them a kingdom and priests,
And they reign upon the earth."

The English version, "hast redeemed," and "hast made,"
weakens the reference to the completed character of
Christ's redeeming work. It is the great victory in
suffering and death which inspires the song, and makes
them sing, " Thou art worthy ; " and so they speak of that
work of Christ as a ivork truly doue : " Thou didst buy
(omit " us ") out of every tribe, &c, and didst make
them," &c. The suffering Saviour has died, has broken
the bond t>f the oppressor, has claimed, by right of
purchase, mankind as His own ; and the price was His
blood. It is well to notice the harmony between this
passage and the statements of other Apostles : " Ye
are not your own.; " " bought with a price." (See
1 Cor. vi. 20; vii. 23; 1 Pet. i. 18, 19; 2 Pet, ii. 1.)
Observe, also, the four terms (tribe, tongue, people,
nation), employed as if to give emphasis to the univer-
sality of redemption, for four is the number of exten-
sion in all directions. With this compare Rom. v.
15—19 ; Col. iii. 11 ; Heb. ii. 9. We have a right to
teach all to say, " He redeemed me and all mankind."
It is instructive to dwell on the climax " they reign,"
in contrast with "Thou wast slain." It is like an
anticipation of the now familiar words —

" Thine the sharp thorns, and mine the golden crown ;
Mine the life won, and Thine the life laid down."

" Didst make them a kingdom and priests." (See chap,
i. 6.) This kingdom and reign is the outcome of
Christ's work. " Every precept of Christianity is
quickened by the power of the death and resurrection
of Christ, It is by the presence of this power that
they are Christians, and it is as Christians that they
conquer the world " (Westcott). " They reign on the
eartn." Such is the best reading; the tense is present.
It is not, I think, to be explained away as a vivid
realisation of the future; it is a simple statement.
which is as true as that the followers of Christ are "a
kingdom and priests." They reign with and in Christ,
but they also reign on the earth. Christ gives them a
kingship, even sovereignty over themselves — the first.
best, and most philanthropic of all kingships. He
gives them, too. a kingship on the earth among men,
for they are exerting those influences, promoting those
principles, and dispensing those laws of righteousness,

•5 -30

Ascription of Praise

REVELATION, V.

and Git

ory to

the Lamo.

and we shall reign on the earth. W And
I beheld, and I heard the voice of many
angels round about the throne and the
beasts and the elders : and the number
of them was ten thousand times ten
thousand," and thousands of thousands ;
<12> saying with a loud voice, Worthy is
the Lamb that was slain to receive
power, and riches, and wisdom, and

Dan. 7. 10 : He!).

strength, and honour, and glory, and
blessing. (1:!) And every creature which
is in heaven, and on the earth, and
under the earth, and such as are in the
sea, and all that are in them, heard I
saying, Blessing, and honour, and glory,
and power, be unto him that sitteth
upon the throne, and unto the Lamb
for ever and ever. (14> And the four

holiness, and peace which in reality rule all the best de-
velopments of life and history. All who traverse these
laws are intruders, transitory tyrants, exerting only a
phantom power. They are not khigs : they may govern,
they do not reign. (Comp. 1 Cor. iii. 21 — 23; Eph.
ii. 6.)

(H) And I beheld . . .—More literally, And I saw,
and I heard a, voice of many angels around the throne,
and the living beings, and the elders ; and the number
of them was myriads of myriads, and thousands of
thousands. The chorus of the redeemed is followed by
a chorus of angels ; for " that which is the highest act
of love, towards whatever persons it was manifested,
from whatever calamities it saved them, must be the
highest manifestation of the divine character and will;
therefore must be the cause of delight to all creatures,
fallen or unf alien. If the Revelation is true, there can
be no breach in the sympathies of any part of God's
voluntary and intelligent universe." It is needless to
observe that the numbers are not to be taken literally;
they are simply employed to express the countless
throng of that " innumerable company of angels "
(Heb. xii. 22) which raised the song —

" Loud as from numbers without number, sweet
As from blest voices, uttering joy."

—Paradise Lost, iii. 316, 347.

<12) Saying with a loud voice . . .—The second
chorus : the chorus of angels —

" Worthy is the Lamb,
That hath been slain,
To receive the power.
And riches, and wisdom, and might,
And honour, and glory, and blessing."

The doxology is seven-fold. We have noticed (chap. i.
6) the increasing strength of the doxologies in Avhich
the redeemed take part. This, though a seven-fold one,
does not interrupt that advance of praise ; for in this
chorus the redeemed do not take part. The definite
article is prefixed to the word "power" only; in the
doxologies of chaps, iv. 11 and vii. 12 it stands before
each word. This has led some to view the single
article as prefixed to all that follows, and to regard all
the words as though they formed one word. May it
not, however, be used to give emphasis to the "power"?
None, above or below, was " able " (same word as
"power" here) to open the book (verse 3); but the
Lamb has conquered to open it, and the chorus pro-
claims the Lamb worthy of that power. Some have
thought that the seven terms of the doxology refer to
the seven seals which the Lamb is about to open. This
seems strained. The notion of completeness is common
to this seven-fold blessing and the seven seals; this is
the only connection between them.

(13> And every creature . . .—The third chorus :
the chorus of the universe. The song of the redeemed,
echoed by the hosts of angels, is now merged in the
utterance of all. " Every creature which is in the heaven.

and upon the earth, and beneath the earth, and upon
the sea, and all the things that are in them, heard I
saying—

"To Him that sitteth upon the throne,
And to the Lamb,
(He) the blessing, and the honour,
And the glory, and the might,

To the ages of the ages."

The song of praise rises from all quarters, and from ail
forms of creation. The whole universe, animate and
inanimate, joins in this glad acclaim. To limit it to
either rational or animate creation is to enfeeble the
climax which this third chorus forms to the two pre-
ceding ones, and is to denude the passage of its fulness
and of its poetry. The Hebrew mind delighted in
representing every bird and every grass-blade as join-
ing in God's praise. " Mountains and all hills, fruitful
trees and all cedars, beasts and all cattle, creeping
things and flying fowl," as well as kings of the earth
and all people, were called on to bless the name of the
Lord. Christian poets have told us that " Earth with
her thousand voices praises God.''

" Nature, attend ! join every living soul.
Beneath the spacious temple of the sky,
In adoration join'd; and, ardent, raise
One general song ! To Him, ye vocal gales,
Breathe soft, whose Spirit in your freshness breathes..
* * * And thou, majestic main,
A secret world of wonders in thyself,
Sound His stupendous praise, whose greater voice
Or bids you roar, or bids your roaring fall.
Soft roll your incense, herbs, and fruits, and flowers.
In mingled clouds to Him whose sun exalts,
Whose breath perfumes you, and whose pencil paints."
—Thomson. Hymn to Seasons.

The Apostle who pictured all creation as waiting in
eager expectation for the full redemption — the re-
demption of "the body" (Rom. viii. 23), looked forward
to the time when " the whole universe, whether animate
or inanimate, would bend the knee in homage and raise
its voice in praise " (Phil. ii. 10). The doxology which
thus rises from the universe is appropriately four-fold :
the definite article (omitted in the English version)
must be supplied before each word (" The blessing,"
&c). The two preceding songs were in honour of the
Lamb; in this last the praise is addressed to the
Throned One and to the Lamb. This linking of
the Lamb with God as the Throned One is common
throughout the book. Here they are linked in praise ;
in chap. vi. 16 they are linked in wrath ; in chap. vii. 17
they are linked in ministering consolation ; in chap. xix.
6, 7, they are linked in triumph. In the final vision of
the book the Lord God and the Land) are the temple
(chap. xxi. 22) and the light (chap. xxi. 23). the refresh-
ment (chap. xxii. 1} and sovereignty (chap. xxii. 3), cf
the celestial city.

(it) And the four beasts . . .—Better, And the
four living beings said. Amen (or, the Amen). Ami the
elders (omit "four and twenty") fell down and wor-
shipped. The remaining words of this verse are
wanting in some of the best MSS., and they spoil the

The Vision of the Seals.

oeasts said, Amen. And the four
and twenty elders fell down and wor-
shipped him that liveth for ever and
ever.

REVELATION, VI.

The First Seal openei

CHAPTER VI.— W And I saw when
the Lamb opened one of chap. vi ] 2
the seals, and I heard, The first sea!
as it were the noise of °Pened-

graphic force of the deselection. The "Amen " rises
from universal nature ; the Church of Christ falls down
in silent adoration. Thought and feeling assert them-
selves above all language. There are times when silence
is the most eloquent applause ; there are times when it
is also the most real worship. "Let thy prayers be
without words, rather than thy words, without prayer "
was a wise precept of an old divine. An English and
an Italian poet have given expression to the same
feeling of the weakness of words. " O speech ! " sang
Dante, when telling his final A'ision —

" How feeble and how faint art thou to give
Conception birth."

—Farad, xxxiii.

Thomson takes refuge in silence from the overwhelming
thoughts of the divine glory : — ■

"I lose
Myself in Him, in light ineffable.
Come, then, expressive silence, muse His praise."

Here the inspired seer describes the chorus of praise
as dying into a silence born of awe and gratefulness
and love.

VI.

The Vision of the Seals. — The relation of
Christianity to great universal evils. The extinction of
war, disease, death, persecution will not be immediate ;
the mission of Christianity is not to abolish them at
once and by compulsion, but to undermine them ; for
her work is not coercion, but conviction, and is primarily
to individuals, and only secondarily and indirectly to
nations.

It is at this chapter that our most difficult work
commences. We now enter nnon the vexed sea of
multitudinous interpretations. In the Introduction will
be found a brief account of the principal schools of
apocalyptic interpretation. It will be sufficient here to
indicate the general view which appears the most simple
and freest from difficulties. The seals which are opened
by the Lamb seem to speak a double message. To the
world they say, " When the Son of Man cometh, shall
He find faith on the earth ? " To the Church they say,
"In the world ye shall have tribulation; but be of good
cheer, I have overcome the world." There are two
lines of thought in the Bible, and these give rise to two
apparently contradictory sets of pictures. There are
the pictures of what would be the state of the world
were the principles of Christ fully and universally-
accepted ; and there are the pictures of the world as it
will be because men do not fully accept them. The
first set are the ideal, and include the abolition of war,
social injustice, poverty, when the golden age and
reign of righteousness shall dawn. When, however,
we speak of this as ideal, Ave do not imply that it
is visionary; it is the sober statement of what
would actually take place were the rule of Christ
admitted in the hearts and lives of men, and what
will take place whenever they do so. But between
this grand possibility and its realisation stands the
wayward, and tortuous, and weakened human will,
which either rejects or fatally but half adopts the
teachings of God. This will of man, seen in a world
which is directly hostile to Christ, and in a Church

>:>8

which is but half faithful to him, must be convinced
ere the true ideal of Christ shall be attained, and the
fulness of His kingdom made manifest. Thus the
ideal pictures are postponed, and the world, which
might have been saved by love speaking in gentleness,
must be saved by love speaking so as by fire. Now
in the earlier Christian times the hope of an ideal
kingdom, soon to be realised in the immediate estab-
lishment of Christ's kingdom, was very strong. Tin
first disciples yearned to see it immediately set up.
" Wilt thou at this time restore the kingdom ? "
The golden light of hope lingered long in their
minds ; they lived in the memory of those prophecies
which foretold the cessation of war, sorrow, pain,
and death. They thought, now that Christ had
come, the Messianic kingdom in its utter gladness
must immediately appear. They forgot the Prince's
visit to the far country; they forgot the citizens
who hated Him, and rejected Hio rule; they forgot
the session at God's right hand till His enemies
were made His footstool. They thought the day of
the Lord, in the sense of the perfecting of His reign,
was at hand; they forgot that the Heavenly Bride-
groom must gird His sword upon His thigh, and that
His arrows must be sharp in the heart of the King's
enemies (Ps. xlv. 3, 5). The vision of these seven
seals is the repetition of the warning against such
forgetfulness. The ideal Kingdom might come if nyiu-
kind would receive it, but it must be established by con-
viction, not by coercion ; and so the actual history of
the growth of the Kingdom would be different from
the ideal; the Church, like her Master, must be made
perfect through sufferings ; where He was, His servant
must be ; through much tribulation the Kingdom must
be entered. The seals unfold, then, the general aspects
of the world's history after Christ's ascension. Certain
features would continue ; war, famine, disease, death
would remain. They might, indeed, have been abolished
had Christ's own received Him ; but as it was, the fact
of the world's will being in opposition to God's will
opposed the manifestation of the peaceful Kingdom.
Thus the scenes which the seals unfold are but the
pictorial statement of Christ's own utterances in Matt.
xxiv. 6, 7, "Ye shall hear of wars; there shall be
famines and pestilences." It will be seen, then, that
the seals tell the seer that these troubles will exist
till the times of the end. The Church through him
is warned to prepare for her mission of suffering ; and
in this way the vision stretches on till the close of
earth's history.

But this is not all. The visions of the book may
have preliminary applications, because the principles on
which they are constructed are eternal ones. Our
Lord's own language in Matt. xxiv. is our guarantee that
we may look for such preliminary applications. The
story of the overthrow of many a nation presents these
features of war, famine, misery, convulsion. • The fall
of Jerusalem, as well as that of the Roman empire,
was preceded by such. On this principle, other inter-
pretations of the vision have a truth in them, as loug
as they are confined to broad, general principles;
the mischievous affection for trivial details has been
the bane of more than one school of interpreters.

The First and Second

11KVELATI0X, VI.

Seals opened.

thunder, one of the four beasts saying,
Coine and see. (2) And I saw, and behold
a white horse : and he that sat on him
had a bow ; and a crown was given unto
him : and he went forth conquering,
and to conquer. (3) And when he had

opened the second aeal, I heard the
second beast say, Come and chap vi 3) 4
see. (4) And there went out The second
another horse that ivas red : * seal opened-
and poiver was given to him that sat
thereon to take peace from the earth,

It is perbapfl worthy of notice that these seals are
not to be regarded as being fulfilled one after another :
in point of fact, the horseman of war and the horseman
•of pestilence have often ridden together. Yet it is true
that there is a tendency in one to produce the other;
war does lead to famine, famine does produce pesti-
lence. There is, perhaps, also an application of these
seals to the history of the Church. Her first era is
that of purity and conquest; her next is that of con-
troversy— the war of opinions; the age of controversy
gives rise to the age of spiritual scarcity, for men
intent upon controversy forget the true Bread, which
came down from heaven, and a famine of the word of
God succeeds ; and out of this there emerges the pale
horse of spiritual death, the parody of the victorious
rider — the form of godliness without the power, the
age of irreligious ritualism : the hidden ones of Christ
may then be revealed, crying " How long ? " and finally
the age of revolution comes to overthrow the old order
and give birth to the new.

(!) And I saw when the Lamb (the diminutive
form of Lamb is still used) . . . — The words " and
see " are doubtful. They are found in some MSS. and
omitted in others : the authority for their omission and
for their retention is about equally divided. Under
these circumstances we may fairly be guided by the
context. To whom is the summons addressed ? Who
is bidden to come? If it was taken to be addressed to
the seer, we can understand why some copyist should
add the words " and see." But are they addressed to
the seer ? It seems difficult to see the purpose of such
a command. He was near already. He had seen the
Lamb opening the seal. There was no object in his
drawing near. Are the words, then, addressed, as
Alford supposes, to Christ ? It is difficult to believe
that the living creature would thus cry to the Lamb,
who was opening the scroll. The simplest way of
answering the question is to ask another: Who did
<?ome in obedience to the voice? There is but one
answer — the horseman. The living beings cry " Come,"
and their cry is responded to by the appearance of the
several riders. What is the spiritual meaning of this ?
The living beings represent, as we have seen, animated
nature— that nature and creation of God which groans
and travails in pain, waiting for the manifestation cf
the sons of God. These summon the emblems of war
and pestilence to come on the scene, for these things
must needs be, and through these lies the way for
the final coming of God's Christ, for whom creation
longs. They bid the pains and troubles come, because
they recognise them as the precursors of creation's true
King. Thus their voice has in it an undertone which
sighs for the advent of the Prince of Peace, who is to
coine.

(2) Conquering, and to conquer.— Better, con-
quering, and that he might conquer. ' One version has,
*'and he conquered." All commentators seem to be
agreed that this rider represents victory. The emblems
— the crown and white horse — are obviously those of
victory. The crown {stephanos) is the crown of triumph.

The horses used in Roman triumphs were white. On
the white horse of triumph the crowned rider goes
forth conquering, and that he might conquer. But
who or what is here represented ? Some take it to bo
a mere emblem of conquest, or victory, as the next
rider represents war. There is then a harmony of
interpretation : the horsemen reveal to the seer thai
the after-history will be marked by conquests, wars,
famines, pestilences. The description, however, seems
to demand something more: the expression, "that he
might conquer," carries our thoughts beyond a mere
transient conqueror. The vision, moreover, was surely
designed to convey an assured happy feeling to the
mind of the seer. No picture of mere Roman con-
quests or world-victory would have conveyed this. Is
not the vision the reflex of the hopes of early Christian
thought ? It is the symbol of Christian victory. It
was thus their hopes saw Christ : though ascended He
went forth in spiritual power conquering. They were
right in their faith, and wrong in their expectation.
Right in their faith : He went forth conquering, and
He would conquer. Wrong in their expectation : the
visions of war, famine, death must intervene. It was
through these that the conqueror would be proved
more than conqueror. It is, perhaps, significant of this
intervening period of trouble and suffering that the
rider is armed with a bow. The arrows of His judg-
ments (Avar, famine) would be sharp among those who
refused the sword of His word. For those who will not
turn He hath bent His bow and made it ready. His
arrows are ordained against the persecutors.

(3> 4) And when he had opened . . .—Better,
And wlten lie opened the second seal, I heard the
second living being, saying, Come. And there came
forth another horse, red; and to him that sat on
him was given to take peace from the earth, and
that they (i.e., the inhabitants of the earth) sliall
kill one another, and there was given to him a great
sword. This seal is the distinct and unmistakable
declaration to the Church that they must look for
wars, even after the Prince of Peace has come. The
advent, of the highest good does not work peace, but
oidy because the hindrance is in man. Man's resistance
to good turns the gospel of peace into an occasion for
the sword. So our Lord declares, " I came not to send
peace, but a sword." The reign of peace, the beating
of swords into ploughshares, is not yet. The vision may
help to fix the Christian position about war. It is to be
expected; it is an evil, but often an inevitable evil.
Those who take part in war are not condemned : those
who occasion offences are. It is as much a mistake to
condemn soldiering as a profession as it is to deny that
•Christianity aims at the suppression of Avar. She
admits the soldier to be a soldier of Christ, even while
she keeps before her the ideal age when nations shall
learn war no more. We expect wars, even while we
believe that the day will come when war will be
reckoned as absurd as duelling is now. The vision says.
'• It must needs be that wars will come;" and war.
even when roused by the passions of men. is a judg-
ment of God, for God's judgments are mostly formed

The Third and Fourth

REVELATION, VI.

Seals opened.

and that they should kill one another :
and there was given unto him a great
sword. (6) And when he had opened
Chap. vi. 5, 6. ^e tMv& sea^ I heard the
The third scai third beast say, Come and
opened. see< And T beheld, and

lo a black horse ; and he that sat on
him had a pair of balances in his hand.
W And I heard a voice in the midst of
the four beasts say, A measure1 of
wheat for a penny," and three measures

1 Theword chcenix

simiilietli :i mea-
sure (ontaihiii'-i
one wine niiiiri,
aud the twelfth
parr of a quail.
a Mel). 41. 40; Lev.
L'ii. L'li; Ezcl;. 4.
lo, Hi.

2 Lr, to him.

of barley for a penny ; and see thou hurt
not the oil and the wine. {-7) And when
he had opened the fourth Ch vi 7 g
seal, I heard the voice of The fourth sell
the fourth beast say, Come openecl
and see. <8) And I looked, and behold
a pale horse : and his name that sat on
him was Death, and Hell followed with
him. And power was given unto them-
over the fourth part of the earth, to kill
with sword, and with hunger, and with

out of man's vices. The seal puts in pictorial form the
warning of Christ that wars and rumours of wars
would be heard of. How true the warning' the after
history shows — wars in the empire, wars among nations,
controversies, and often fratricidal wars in the Church
of Christ.

(5, 6) When He had opened.— Better, When he
opened. The words " aud see " are to be omitted here,
as in the other seals. And I saw, and behold a
horse, black, and he that sat on him having a
balance in his hand. And I heard as it were a voice
in the midst of the four living beings, saying, A
chcenix of wheat for a denarius (penny), and three
choenixes of barley for a denarius (penny), and the
oil and the wine do thou not hurt. "Balance:" There
is scarcely a doubt that a balance, or pair of scales, is
intended (the Greek word also means a yoke); but the
whole imagery of the seal harmonises with the balance,
and the passage from Ezekiel (Ezek. xlv. 10), cited by
Alford, in which there is a " righteous balance " (the
LXX. using the same Greek Avord as here) seems con-
clusive. It is the emblem of scarcity: food is not
weighed out thus in times of abundance. (Comp. Ezek.
iv. 16, " Behold I will break the staff of bread in Jeru-
salem, and they shall eat bread by weight and with care.")
The chcenix (" measure " in English version) was the
amount of food sufficient to support a man for a day.
" A choenix is the daily maintenance " (Suidas, quoted
by Alford). The denarius ("penny" of English version,
here and in Matt, xviii. 28, and Mark xii. 37) amounted
to between sixpence and sevenpence of our money, and
was the usual daily pay of the labourer, and of the
soldier. (See especially Note on Matt. xx. 2.) It is
difficult to speak of this as other than terribly high prices
for food. The whole of a man's pay goes for food, and
even the coarser bread is so expensive that it takes a
whole day's wages to supply food for three adults. It has
been thought that the voice calls to the rider to check his
devastations, lest the growing famine should extermi-
nate the whole human race. This may be, but the check
is at a point which has already wrought the highest
misery. The extent of the misery may be imagined by
imagining what wretchedness Avould be entailed were a
man obliged to pay three or four shillings for bread
sufficient to keep him nourished for a day. Or we may
measure it by the estimate of the disciples (Mark vi. 37)
that two hundred pennyworth of bread would give a
short meal to upwards of nve thousand people. At the
price in this seal, the cost of bread would have so risen
that the two hundred pennyworth of bread would not
suffice to feed one thousand. But what is meant by
the words, " the oil and wine do not thou hurt "? They
were not, like the bread, necessary to life, but among
its luxuries and superfluities. There is a kind of
irony in times of straitness, when the necessaries are

scarcely to be had, and the luxuries remain compara-
tively low in price. The splendours and comforts of
life; are held cheap, when hunger is showing that the
life is more than the dainty meat, and the body than
raiment. The seal then tells the seer that in the ages.
the Church of Christ must expect to see famines and
distress in the world, and luxuries abounding in tho
midst of straitness. Is it not true that the contrast,
which is so ugly, between pampered opulence and in-
dolent pauperism, is the result of the prevalence of
world-principles P Wealth, self-indulgent and heartless,
and poverty, reckless and self-willed, are sure token-
that the golden rule of Christ is not understood and.
obeyed. There is a similar expei'ience in tho history
of the Church. The red horse of controversy is fol-
lowed by the black horse of spiritual starvation. In
the heat of polemical pride and passion for theological
conquest is developed that love of barren dogmatics,
which forgets the milk of the word and the bread of
life, which are the needed food of souls.

(7, 8) The fourth seal. — And when He opened the
fourth seal, I heard the voice of the fourth living being,
saying, Come. And I saw, and behold, a horse, pallid
(or, livid), and he that sat upon him his name was
Death, and Hades was following with him ; and there
was given to them power over the fourth part of the
earth to hill with sword, and with famine, and with
death, and by the wild beasts of the earth. The colour
pallid, or livid, is that deadly greenish hue, which is the
unmistakable token of the approach of death. The
rider is Death — not a particular form of death, but
Death himself. Attending him, ready to gather up the
slain, is Hades. The fourth seal is the darkest and
most terrible. Single forms of death (war and famine)
were revealed in the earlier seals ; now the great King of
Terrors himself appears, and in his hand are gathered
all forms of death — war, famine, pestilence (for the
second time the word "death" is used: it must be
taken in a subordinate sense, as a particular form
of death, such as plague, or pestilence ; we may
compare the use of the word " death " thus applied to
some special disease, in the case of The Death, or Black
Death), and wild beasts. These forms of death corre-
spond with God's four sore judgments— the sword, and
famine, and pestilence, and the noisome beasts of
Ezek. xiv. 21. The seal, therefore, gathers up into one
all the awfulness of the past seals. It is the central
seal, and it is the darkest. It is the midnight of
sorrows, where all seems given up to the sovereignty of
death. The middle things of life are often dark.
Midway between the wicket-gate and golden city
Bunyau placed his valley of the shadow of death,
following the hint of the Psalmist, who placed it mid-
way between the pasture and the house of the Lord
(Ps. xxiii.). Dante, perhaps working from the same

Tlve Opening of

BEVELATION, VI.

the Fifth Seed.

Chap. vi. 9— 11. ,
The fifth seal the

death, and with the beasts of the earth.
<9) And when he had opened the fifth
seal, I saw under the altar
souls of them that
opened. were slain for the word of

God, and for the testimony which they
held:" <10) and they cried with a loud
voice, saying, How long-, O Lord, holy

a Gen. 4. io; r-i.ii.

8, in; Col. 1. ->i ;

i Pet 4. 13.

and true, dost thou not judge and
avenge our blood on them that dwell on
the earth? (11> And white robes were
given unto every one of them ; and it
was said unto them, that they should
rest yet for a little season, until their
fellowservants also and their brethren,
that should be killed as they were,

hint, found his obscure wood and wanderings midway
along the road of life : —

" In the midway of this our mortal life
I found me in a gloomy wood, astray."

The darkest periods of the Church's history were those
Ave call the Middle Ages. By this, however, it is not
meant that there is any chronological signification in the
seal. The vision deepens in its central scene, like the
horror of darkness in the dream of Abraham. The
history of the Church has not unfrequently presented
a sort of parallel. The age which follows the ages of
barren dogmatism and of spiritual starvation is often
an age of sham spiritual life. The pale horse of death
is the parody of the white horse of victory : the form
of godliness remains, the power is gone.

(9-11) The fifth seal differs from the four earlier
seals. It is not introduced by the voice of the living
beings, and the cry " Come." The voice which is now
heard is not the cry of the groaning world, but of the
oppressed and troubled Church. In the fourth seal the
climax of world-sorrow seemed to be reached in the
accumulation of war, famine, pestilence, and noisome
beasts. It declared to the evangelist that there were
evils which would continue and even increase in the
world. " Ye shall hear of wars ; nation shall rise against
nation." Social troubles, war, poverty, and privation
would still exist ; religious troubles, evil men and
seducers would wax worse and worse. Worldly policy,
selfishness, and the untamed passions of mankind
would still trouble humanity. Then if such troubles
and disorders remain, what has the Church been
doing ? Where is the promise of that early vision of
victory ? The answer is given in the fifth seal. The
Church has been following her Lord. As the vision
of Bethlehem and the angel-song of " peace on earth "
passed, and made way for the agony of Gethsemane, the
cross of Calvary, and the cry " My God, why hast Thou
forsaken Me ? " so the glowing dream of a quick con-
quest over all evil passes away, and the picture of an
agonising, persecuted Church takes its place, and the
voice of its anguish is heard, " How long, O Lord ! "
The Church has her Bethlehem, her Nazareth, her
Gethsemane, her Calvary, her Easter morn ; for Christ
said, "Where I am there shall also My servant be"
(John xii. 26). The seals, then, are not merely visions
of war. famine, etc., they are the tokens that the victory
of Christ's Church must, like her Lord's, be a victory
through apparent failure and certain death. The four
seals proclaim her apparent failure ; she has not brought
peace and social and political harmony to the world.
The fifth seal shows her suffering, the witness of the
servants of Christ has been rejected ; in the world they
have tribulation (John xvi. 38).

M I saw under the altar . . .—Read, when He
opened, and, instead of " were slain," &c, had been
slain because of the Word of God, and (because of) the
testimony which they held. 'The seal indicates that the
mission of the Christian Church can only be carried
out in suffering. An altar is seen, and at its foot

tokens of the martyrs who had laid down their lives
upon it. The word "souls " is to be taken as the equiva-
lent of " lives " ; the vision tells that their lives had been
sacrificed. The blood of the victims was in the temple
service poured out at the foot of the altar. St. Paul
makes use of the same imagery — "I am now ready to be
poured out" ("offered " in" English version). In union
with Christ Christians are called upon to suffer witli
Him, even to carry on to its great end the work of Christ
in the world, and so fill up that which is lacking of the
sufferings of Christ (Col. i. 24). The word "souls" has
been made a resting-place for an argument respecting
the intermediate state. There is no ground for this : it
is quite beside the object of the seal, which simply
exhibits the sufferings of Christ's people as the neces-
sary accompaniment of the progress of the gospel
'J licse sufferings are because of the Word of God and
the testimony which they held. It was because of the
Word of God and the testimony that the sacred seer
himself suffered (chap. i. 9). The words here remind us
that the same issue which St. John fought, the suffering
ones of after ages would be fighting. Their witness and
his was the God-man; to this testimony they clung.
They were not ashamed of Christ, or of His words,,
and they suffered for their courage and fidelity.

(10) How long . . . ?— Better. Until when, 0 Master
(the word is the correlative of " servant," see verse 10) the
Holy and True, dost Thou not judge and avenge our blood
from (on) those v;ho dwell on the earth ? By a dramatic
figure the persecuted and slain ones are represented as
crying for retribution on their oppressors. It is not
the Christians themselves (Luke xxiii. 34 ; and Acts
vii. 60) who cry for vengeance, any more than it was
Abel himself who cried from the ground to God : it
was the blood of Abel (Gen. iv. 10), the earth dis-
closed her blood, and refused to cover her slain. The
forgotten or ignored wrongs of generations come forth
from oblivion and cry for vengeance. It is a poetical
description, but it is not fiction. The righteous blood
shed does fall upon the world in retribution : the laws
of God avenge themselves, though the victims do not
live to behold the reward of the ungodly. On the
epithets Holy and True, see Notes on chap. iii. 7.

(n) And white robes were given . . .—The
victims, however, are not forgotten. There was given
to them (each) a white robe. The white robes, the
glistening apparel of the saints (comp. chap. iii. 4, 5),
shall be theirs ; each shall receive it. They are robes of
righteousness (chap. xix. 8) ; they are robes of honour
(chap. iv. 4), for those who wear them are like God,
seeing Him as He is, reflecting His image; they are
acknowledged to be His, as they have acknowledged
Him to be their God. Persecuted on earth, they are
honoured in heaven. There is also a sense in which
a white robe is given to them in the eyes of men :
those whose names have been cast out as evil have
been honoured by a repentant posterity with the robe
of tardy praise; after-generations garnish the sepul-
chres of the righteous whom their fathers slew. The

The Opening of

REVELATION, VI.

the Sixth Seal.

should be fulfilled. (12> And I beheld
when he had opened the

Chap. vi. 12

17. The sixth Sixth

soil opened

seal, and, lo, there
a great earthquake ;

was
and the sun became black as sackcloth
of hair, and the moon became as blood ;
<li) and the stars of heaven fell unto the

earth, even as a fig tree casteth her un-
timely figs,1 when she is shaken of a
mighty wind. (U) And the heaven
departed as a scroll when it is rolled
together;" and every mountain and
island were moved out of their places.
<15J And the kings of the earth, and the

excommunicated in one age are often the canonised
•of the next, for the dull world learns slowly, and its
purest honours are posthumous. But however this
may be, for the suffering saints there is the heavenly
robe and the heavenly rest.

It was said unto them, that they should
rest yet for a little season, until their fellow-
servants also and their brethren, that should
be killed (better, who are to be slain) as they were,
should be fulfilled (or, shall have fulfilled their
course). — They are to " rest." This does not mean that
thej are to cease their cry for vengeance, for the
saints have never cried for this ; but they are to rest,
as the souls of the faithful after they are delivered
from the burden of the flesh, in joy and felicity. But
this rest is yet a waiting for a little while till fellow -
gervants and fellow-sufferers have achieved their work
also. To every disciple a work is given in service and
suffering, and till these have borne their witness and
fulfilled their course (comp. 2 Tim. iv. 7, 8, and Acts
xiii. 25) the departed must wait for their perfect con-
summation and bliss both in body and soul.

(12—17) The sixth seal.— The seals follow the
lines laid down by our Lord in Matt. xxiv. There He
tells His disciples that wars (verse 6), famines and pes-
tilences (verse 7), and persecutions (verse 9) are to be
expected ; these are necessary features in the history of
the world. But these features are desci-ibed by our
Master as preliminary to His Coming and the end of the
world (Matt. xxiv. 3), and that when these had1 wrought
their work then the Coming of the Son of Man would
take place (verses 29 — 31). With this guide, it is im-
possible for us to deny that the opening of this sixth
seal has reference to the Coming of the Son of Man, and
finds its final and ultimate fulfilment in the day when He
will come to gather His elect from the four winds. But
it is not to be forgotten that our Lord wished us to re-
gard certain great culminating epochs as' in a secondary
sense His advents. The eagles which swept down
upon the carcase of any corrupt nationality were proofs
of His reign and true shadows of His coming. The
features indicated in the seals have a sequence which
has been reproduced in the history of nations and
churches. The promise of good ; the breaking forth
of the spirit of violence; the time of social misery,
want, disease ; the oppression of the good ; revolution —
these have repeated themselves in Jewish, Roman,
French, and other histories ; and the prophecy is not
exhausted yet.

(13-14) And I beheld . . .—Better, And I saw
zohen He opened the sixth seal, and (omit " lo ! ") a great
shaking took place, and the sun became black as sack-
cloth of hair, and the moon all became as blood, and
the stars of the heaven fell to the earth, as a fig-tree casts
its winter figs when shaken by a great wind, and the
heaven departed like a scroll being rolled up, and every
mountain and island were moved out of their places.
It is well to keep in mind the parallel imagery of the
Old Testament. The shaking (" earthquake " is hardly
an adequate rendering, as the shaking extends to heaven

as well as earth) was spoken of by Haggai : " Yet once
for all" (not "once more," as in the English version )
" shake I not the earth only, but also the heavens. And
this word ' Once for all ' signifieth the removing of those
things that are shaken " (Hag. ii. 6, and Heb. xii. 26, 27).
Sun black as sackcloth : Joel has a similar thought
• — " the sun shall be turned into darkness " (Joel ii. 30,
31); and Isaiah, '' I clothe the heavens with blackness,
and I make sackcloth their covering" (Isa. 1. 3). The
moon as blood is repeated from Joel ii. 30, 31. The
falling of the stars of heaven has its parallel in Isa.
xxxiv. 3, 4, " All the host of heaven shall be dis-
solved." As a fig-tree is an echo of Isa. xxxiv. 4. It
will be seen by these passages how closely the writer of
the Apocalypse has kept to Old Testament imagery ; and
that events, such as great calamities, changes, and revo-
lutions in the world's history, are described by emblems
similar to those used here. St. Peter, for example,
illustrates the great spiritual revolution of the Day of
Pentecost by the passage from Joel, " The sun turned
into darkness and the moon into blood." Hence it
seems right to regard the language here as figurative,
and to bear in mind that, though its fullest application
belongs to the final advent, there may be many antici-
patory advents. The judgment is often rehearsed before
the day of judgment ; the ages of oppression end in
a day of catastrophe and confusion in which the right-
eous laws of a righteous King avenge themselves on
the law breakers ; the old lights and landmarks are for
a time obliterated, and feeble, but pretentious, religionists
are swept off as autumn figs from the fig-tree, and the
proud and mighty are dismayed ; things come to a crisis,
and men " are proven by the hour" of that judgment;
the unripe or untimely fruit drops off, as those who
have no root in themselves fall away, and as the feebly-
founded house fell in the tempest (Matt. vii. 26, 27).
If this be so in the minor and preliminary crisis of the
world, how much more so in the final crisis, which will
try all ? " Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed
lest he fall." The untimely figs, or unripe figs, are the
gi-ossos, or winter figs, which grow under the leaves,
and do not ripen at the proper season, but hang upon
the trees till the winter. They are a fit emblem of those
who have not used the opportunity and season to ripen
for God. Like the unwise virgins, they have not re-
plenished their lamps with oil; or, to use the unique
expression of St. Luke, they bring no fruit to perfec-
tion (Luke viii. 14). The crisis thus puts the feeble,
timid, and negligent to the test, and also proves the
vanity of those who make any world-power their con-
fidence. As the day of the Lord of which Isaiah spoke
was upon every one that was proud and lifted up, upon
the cedars and oaks, upon the towers and fenced walls,
upon the loftiness and haughtiness of men, so does the
Apocalyptic seer behold the dismay which falls upon
every form of vaingloriousness, pretence, and pride.

(15—17) And the kings . . . — Translate, And the
kings i of the earth, and the magnates, and the com-
manders of hosts, and the wealthy, and the strong, and
every man, bond and free, hid themselves {going) into

The Day of tin- Wrath of the Lamb. REVELATION. VII.

Two Assuring Visions.

great men, and the rich men, and the
chief captains, and the mighty men,
and every bondman, and every free man,
hid themselves in the dens and in the
rocks of the mountains ; '16) and said to
the mountains and rocks, Fall on us,"
and hide us from the face of him that
sitteth on the throne, and from the

A.D. 93.
a Luke 23. 30.

wrath of the Lamb : (17) for the great
day of his wrath is come ; and who snail
be able to stand ?

CHAPTEE VII.— M And after these
things I saw four an- chap.vii.i— 17. The

gels Standing on the two assuring visions:
±- n ,i the vision ot secu-

iour corners of the ntj (1—8) ;

the caves and into the rocks of the mountains ; and say
to the mountains and to the rocks, Fall on us, and hide
us from the face of Him that sitteth upon the throne,
and from the wrath of the Lamb : for the day, the great
(day) of His wrath came (or, is come) ; and who is able to
stand / In the list of the great ones here we may notice
the descending order — kings, magnates or statesmen,
generals, rich men, strong men, bond and free men.
The terror strikes into every class: monarchs and their
advisers, the statesmen and diplomatists, the com-
manders of troops, the merchant princes, the men of
ability, as well as the obscurer orders of society. Neither
royalty, nor rank, nor force of arms, nor opulence, nor
talent, nor strength, either of intellect or frame, avail
in that crisis ; neither does insignificance escape in that
day when God brings to light the hidden things. The
tests of God are spiritual, as the weapons of God's war
are not carnal. Men who have relied upon wealth, rank,
or power, have prepared themselves against one form
of trial, but find themselves unarmed in the day of
spiritual testing. Like Macbeth, they are unable to
fight with the unexpected shape which haunts them.
They would rather meet the bodily foe, " who would dare
them to the desert with a sword."

Thus in the final day of judgment the revealing of
the spiritual order of all life will confound men whose
minds have been blinded by their entire absorption in
world-splendours and world -powders. Nor is it merely
the unveiling of the forgotten spiritual order which
will confound them. The advent is of a Person. It is
more than the manifestation of the kingdom of Him
who all this while had been King on His throne, and
whom they had forgotten — it is the revealing of God's
Son from heaven. It is not without significance that He
is described as the Lamb. In that day of His wrath,
it is not as a Judge who has laid aside the tokens of His
humiliation and suffering : it is as the Lamb. He
whom they now shrink from is He who came meek as a
lamb, gentle, pure, and suffering on their behalf. He
whom they now behold with dismay is He whom they
treated willi neglect, and whose love they spurned.

(17) Who shall be (or, is) able to stand?— The
thought is derived from Mai. iii. 2, which spoke of a
coming of the Lord. Every advent of Christ is the
advent of One whose fan is in His hand, and wdio will
thoroughly purge His floor. Whether it be His advent in
the fiesn, He tested men ; or whether one of His advents
in Providence — such as the fall of Jerusalem, the over-
throw of Pagan Rome, the convulsions of the Refor-
mation and Revolution epochs of history — He still tests
men whether they are able to abide in faith and love the
day of His coming ; and much more, then, in the closing
personal advent, when these visions -will receive their
fullest illustration, will He try men. "Who is able to
stand? " It is the question of questions. Christ's answer
is : " Apart from Me ye can do nothing.'' " Let your loins
be girt about and your lights burning, and ye yourselves
like to men that wait for their Lord's coining." And
parallel is St. Paul's advice; "Wherefore take unto

you, (not the weapons on which men rely, but) the whole
armour of God, that ye may be able to withstand in
the evil day, and, having done all, to stand." This
anxiety that his converts should be ready for the day
of testing is continually appearing in his Epistles.
Comp. the recurrence of " the day of Christ " in Phil,
i. 6, 10, and the Apostle's wish that the Philippians
might be sincere and without offence till the day of
Christ ; and St. John's desire that Christians should
not " be ashamed before Him at His coming," and
" may have boldness in the day of judgment" (1 John
ii. 28, and iv. 17). "Who is able to stand?" The
question is answered in the next chapter. They shall
stand who are sealed with the seal of the living God.

The sixth seal does not give us a completed picture.
We see the great and awe-inspiring movements which
are heralds of the day of wrath. The whole world is
stirred and startled at the tread of the approaching
Christ, and then the vision melts away ; we see no
more, but we have seen enough to be sure that the close
of the age is at hand. Yet we are anxious to know
something of those who have been faithful, pure, and
chivalrous witnesses for truth and right, for Christ and
God. In that day, that awful day, the whole popula-
tion of the world seems to be smitten with dismay ; the
trees, shaken with that terrible tempest, seem to be
shedding all their fruit ; the trembling of all created
things seems to be about to shake down every building.
Are all to go ? Are none strong enough to survive ?
We heard that there were seven seals attached to the
mystic book which the Lion of the tribe of Judah was
opening; but this sixth seal presents us with the
picture of universal desolation : what is there left for
the seventh seal to tell us ? The answer to these ques-
tions is given in the seventh chapter, which introduces
scenes which may either be taken as dissolving views,
presented in the course of the sixth seal, or as com-
plementary visions. And those scenes show us in
pictorial form that the Lord knoweth how to deliver the
godly out of temptation : that in the midst of the time
of the shaking of all things, when all might, majesty,
strength, and genius of men is laid low, and every
mere earth-horn kingdom is overthrown, there is a
kingdom which cannot be shaken. The germ of life
was indestructible, and ready to break forth in fruit,
again : an ark, which sheltered all that was good, moved
ever secure over the desolating floods : — ■

"I looked : aside the dust-cloud rolled,
The waster seemed the builder too;
Upspringlng from the ruined old
1 saw the new.
" 'Tvvas but the ruin of the bad—

The wasting of the wrong and ill ;
Whate'er of good the old time had
Was living atM."

VII.
(i) And after these things . . .—Better, And
after this I saw four angels standing at the four corners
of the earth, holding fast the four winds of the earth,

563

"lie Vision

EEVELATION, VII.

of Security.

earth., holding the four winds of the earth,
that the wind should not blow on the
earth, nor on the sea, nor on any tree.
& And I saw another angel ascending
from the east, having the seal of the

living God : and he cried with a loud
I voice to the four angels, to whom it was

■given to hurt the earth and the sea,
| ^ saying, Hurt not the earth, neither the

sea, nor the trees, till we have sealed the

that there might not blow a wind upon the earth, nor
upon the sea, nor upon any tree. In the sixth seal the
winds had blown, and had shaken violently the fig-tree,
causing its untimely figs to drop off : the untimely or
winter figs represented those whose religious life was
unequal to the strain of trial, and who failed in the
crisis to which they were exposed. But is all the fruit
shaken off ? No ; Christ had said that " if a man abide
not in Me, he is cast forth as a branch ; " but that those
who abode in Him, purged by their trials, would bring
forth more fruit, and the fruit which these bore was not
a fruit easily shaken off, but fruit that should remain
(John xv. 6, 5, 16). They would not be as winter figs,
easily torn from the boughs, for their strength was in
God: before the stormy winds of manifold trials had
blown they had been sealed with the seal of the living
God. This is the scene which is brought before us in
this chapter. In it the care of God, who restrains from
violence the winds, that they should not shake too soon
the immature fruit, the tokens by which the sealed are
known and the meaning of their sealing are set forth.
The chapter, in fact, answers the solemn question of the
last chapter : " Who is able to stand ?" The winds aro
clearly emblems of days of trouble or judgment; as
the winds sweep away the chaff and clear the atmo-
sphere, so do judgments try the ungodly, who are like
the chaff which the wind driveth away : the storm of
God's judgments shakes the mountains and the wilder-
ness, and strips the oaks of the forest. (Comp. Ps.xxix.)
These winds of judgment are ready to blow from all
quarters (four corners of the earth), but they are
restrained till the servants of God are sealed. For
passages whore winds are used as emblems of judgment,
see especially Jer. xlix. 36, 37, " Upon Elam I will
bring the four winds from the four quarters of heaven.
And I will bring evil upon them, even My fierce anger,
saith the Lord.*' Comp. also Dan. vii. 2, " I saw in my
vision by night, and, behold, the four winds of the
heaven strove upon the great sea." But those tem-
pests would not arise or shake a single leaf till the
securing of God's servants was accomplished.

(2) And I saw another angel . . .—Translate.
And I saw another angel going up from the rising of
the sun, having a seal of the living God, and he ivas
crying with a great voice to the four angels to whom it
was given to injure the earth and the sea, saying, Injure
ye not the earth, nor the sea, nor the trees, until we have
sealed the servants of our God upon their foreheads. The
angels appear as carrying out the purposes of God.
This angel rises into view from the door of the dawn.
In the midst of the dark symptoms of coming storm
and judgment there springs up a light for the right-
eous and joyful gladness for such as are true-hearted :
they need not be afraid of evil tidings whose hearts stand
fast believing in the Lord. This angel carries a seal of
the living God. The seal is the emblem of security.
The seal was placed on our Lord's sepulchre to keep the
tomb safe from invasion ; the king's seal was. in the
same way, placed on the stone which was laid at the
mouth of the den in which Daniel was imprisoned :
"the king sealed it with his own signet " (Dan. vi. 17).
The intrusting of the seal into the hands of others was

the token that royal authority had been for the time
delegated to man. So Jezebel " wrote letters in Ahab's
name, and sealed them with his seal " (1 Kings xxi. 8).
Esther obtained the use of the king's seal to pro-
tect her countrymen from the mischief devised by
Hainan : " for the writing which is written in the king's
name, and sealed with the king's ring, may no man
reverse" (Esth. viii. 8). There is also a seal of the
living God. St. Paul tells us that this seal bears two
legends. " The foundation of God standeth sure, having
this seal, ' The Lord knoweth them that are his,'
and, ' Let every one that naineth the name of Christ
depart from iniquity' " (2 Tim. ii. 19). On the one side,
it is dependence on and communion with God ; on the
other side, it is holiness of life. The sealed are found
in Christ, not having their own righteousness, but the
righteousness which is of God by faith (Phil. iii. 9). For
this is the righteousness which will endure to the end,
and which is found in them who are " sealed with the
Holy Spirit of promise, which is the earnest of our
inheritance " (Eph. i. 13, 14). God's image and super-
scription is impressed on such ; just as afterwards we
are told of all the servants of God, " His name shall be
in their foreheads " (chap. xxii. 4). This token is a true
safe-guard and talisman ; as the sprinkled blood on the
lintel protected the house from the destroying angel at
the first Passover. It is a token also of those who have
not conformed to the evil world; they are like those
whom Ezekiel saw in Jerusalem, when the Lord sent
the man with the inkhorn " to set a mark upon the fore-
heads of the men that sigh and that cry for all the
abominations that be done " (Ezek. ix. 4). There has
been much misapprehension respecting this act of seal-
ing. It has been said that it implies security, and
assures God's servants of protection in the coining
judgments : this is, in a sense, true; but the sealing, as
will have been seen by the passages quoted above, is
that sealing of the Spirit, that root of heavenly life in
the soul, which is the pledge of the soul's union with
God ; and the terms of the charter of their protection
are, Who is he that will harm you, if ye be followers of
that which is good ? In the Bible idea, sin, or moral
defilement, is the only real evil : all other things work
together for good. The breastplate which turns aside
the fiery darts is the breastplate of righteousness : those
who, escaping the corruptions which are in the world
through lust, become partakers of the divine nature are
in consequence victorious over all the evil. They are
not exempt from the vicissitudes and tribulation of
life: the winds are let loose to blow, but they are
sealed, and they cannot be shaken ; for what and who
can separate them from the love of Christ ? They are
sealed by the Holy Spirit ; they have an earnest of that
Spirit in their hearts (Eph. i'v. 30, and 2 Cor. i. 22),
and the pledge of His power in their lives. St. John
gives the same two-fold test as St. Paul (2 Tim. ii. 9) :
(1) "Hereby know we that we dwell in him, and he in
us, because he hath given us of his Spirit" (1 John iv.
13) ; and (2) " Hereby we do know that we know him,
if we keep his commandments " (1 John ii. 3). The
sealing is on the forehead : it is God's mark, but it is
where all may see it. " By their fruits ye shall know

S64

aling of

REVELATION, VII.

the Servants of God.

mis of our God in their foreheads.
W And I heard the number of them
which were scaled : and there were sealed
an hundred and forty and four thousand
of all the tribes of the children of
Israel. (5) Of the tribe of Juda were
ed twelve thousand. Of the tribe
of Reuben were sealed twelve thousand.
Of the tribe of Gad were sealed twelve
thousand. <6) Of the tribe of Aser were
sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of

Nepthalim were sealed twelve thousand.
Of the tribe of Manasses were sealed
twelve thousand. (7> Of the tribe of
Simeon were sealed twelve thousand.
Of the tribe of Levi were sealed twelve
thousand. Of the tribe of Issachar
were sealed twelve thousand. (8) Of the
tribe of Zabulon were sealed twelve
thousand. Of the tribe of Joseph were
sealed twelve thousand. Of the tribe of
Benjamin were sealed twelve thousand.

them." The cry of the angel is, Injure not the sea nor
the trees. Doubtless the sea and trees are mentioned
is these are the objects which would be most disturbed
.■Hid injured by a storm of wind. Trees are used as
emblems of real and of pretended religionism. The
true - hearted in faith are described as trees planted
by the waterside, whose fruit does not wither; and it is
singular that St. Jude, who pictures the Antinomian
teachers of his day under the image of autumn trees
(not trees whose fruit withereth, as in English version)
without fruit, immediately adds an expression which
almost suggests the sudden uprising of a testing storm :
the fruitless trees an; "plucked up by the roots"
{Jude, verse 12).

(*) And I heard the number of them . . .—
Translate. And I heard the number of the sealed :
there were a hundred and forty and four thousand
sealed out of every tribe of the sons of Israel. There
.ire two or three questions which these verses suggest.
What are we to understand by the number twelve
thousand from each tribe ? Who are these who are
drawn from the tribes of Israel ? Why is there a
change of the order and names of the tribes ? It may
help us to clearer thoughts to take the second of these
questions first. (1) Who are these one hundred and
forty-four thousand ? An answer to this has been
partly anticipated in our previous comments; but per-
haps a fuller consideration is needed. Some have
1 bought that the sealed ones must he Jewish Christians :
i.e., they are disposed to take the twelve tribes literally.
The scope of the previous verses seems decisive against
this view. The time of judgment and trial is drawing
near ; we have seen the tokens of the coming stoirni in
the opening of the sixth seal ; our wish is to know the
lot of the saints of God; this chapter answers this wish:
they are safe, having the seal of God. Now, to limit
the answer to the Israelitish Christians is to break in
abruptly upon the general flow of thought with a bold
literalism. The sealed ones are explained to be the ser-
vants of God ; the description which follows proclaims
them to be the " Israel of God." It would be a strange
leap away from the subject to introduce a sudden limi-
tation of thought. Nor is there any necessity for doing
so. Israelitish and Jewish names are freely adopted by
the sacred writers, and used in a spiritual sense without
any explanation of such usage : and the Apostle most
emphatically laid down the principle that " he is not a
Jew which is one outwardly, neither is that circumcision
which is outward in the flesh, but he is a Jew which is
one inwardly, and circumcision is that of the heart, in
the spirit and not in the letter" (Bom. ii. 28, 29) j and the
principle he applies by affirming that in Christ "there
is neither Jew nor Greek " (Gal. iii. 28). The Christian
Church absorbs the Jewish, inherits her privileges, and
adopts, with wider and nobler meaning, her phraseology. !

y65

She lias her Jerusalem, but it is a heavenly Jerusalem
(Heb. xii. 22) : a Jerusalem from above (Gal. iv. 26) : a
new Jerusalem (Rev. xxi. 2; see chap. iii. 12) ; and to that
Jerusalem of God the true Israel of God, the chosen
generation and royal priesthood of every age, turn the
eye of faith. It is needless to say that this view does
not rob, as it has been said, the Jew of God's promises;
it only intensifies those promises by showing the growth
of that Church in which the Jew may yet find the
truest consummation of his holiest and highest hopes,
and into which God is yet able to graft' them in again
(Rom. xi. 23, 25, 26), and in which he may yet play
a part loftier than men dream of. (2) How are we to
understand the numbers ? As we cannot adopt the
literal interpretation of the tribes of Israel, still less
can we admit a literal interpretation of the numbers
here mentioned ; but they are not on this ground to
be looked upon as meaningless numbers : there is an
appropriate symbolism in the numbers of the Apo-
calypse. Twelve is used as the number of those who
in every age have been called out to witness for some
truth which the world needed. Thus the twelve tribes
of Israel were the appointed witnesses of a pure theology
and a pure morality in the days of idolatry and license ;
and later, the twelve Apostles became the inheritors of
a similar, though higher, spiritual work in the world.
The number twelve, then, stands for a world-witness of
divine truth ; and the fruits of this world-witness is a
wide and sustained success : the twelve multiplied by
the twelve a thousand-fold — '"the native and not de-
generate progeny of the Apostles apostolically multi-
plied" (Mede, epioted by Dr. Currey). The skeleton
organisation is twelve, the college of the Apostles ; the
one hundred and forty-four thousand represent the
growth into full numbers of the choice ones of God.
(3) Does the change in the order and names of the
tribes symbolise anything ? The alterations are not
without significance. They are briefly these : The
tribe of Dan' is omitted, and the name of Ephraim
does not appear, but the number is made up to
twelve by two representatives of Joseph ; Manasseh,
wdio stands sixth in order, and Joseph (superseding
the name, but representing the tribe of Ephraim), who
is placed eleventh on the list. The number twelve
is maintained to show that in all changes God's pur-
poses stand. The omission of one tribe and the changed
name of another are designed to show that in the
Chui'ch. as in Israel, the most splendid opportunities
may be lost. Dan. once a tribe, and not an insignificant
tribe, which had reared its heroes, gradually lapsed into
idolatry and immorality, dwindled in numbers and
importance, and at length disappeared, and as a tribe
became extinct. Its omission in this list is a silent
but emphatic comment on the sacred warnings: "Lee
him that thinketh he staudeth take heed lest he fall."

'The Vision of

EEVELATION, VII.

Victorious Rest

<9) After this I beheld, and, lo, a great
Chap.vii.9— 17. multitude, which no man
the vision of could number, of all na-

victorious rest. ti()ng> and kindreds, and

people, and tongues, stood before the

throne, and before the Lamb, clothed
with white robes, and palms in their
hands ; W and cried with a loud voice,
saying, Salvation to our God which
sitteth upon the throne, and unto the

" Begin not to say we have Abraham to our father : God
is able of these stones to raise up children unto Abra-
ham." Similarly, Ephraim, as has been suggested by a
thoughtful writer, who exalted himself in Israel, is now
lost in the greater name of Joseph. (Comp. Hos. xiii. 1;
x. 11 ; Luke xviii. 14.) The order of the names is altered.
Reuben no longer stands first : Judah has taken the
firstborn's place ; and Levi, though named, does not
occupy the third, the place of his birthright, but the
eighth place. Here, again, the changes have their teach-
ings. The unstable Reuben, with all his splendid ad-
vantages— the firstborn, the excellency of dignity and
the excellency of power — failed to hold his own among
his brethren ; the fatal instability of his character ac-
companied his history, and weakened his otherwise
pre-eminent powers ; yet weak and erring, the type of
the brilliant and vacillating, he is not an outcast alto-
gether, but finds place, and high place, among the
servants of God. Judah, lion-like, resolute, and strong,
wins the foremost place; from him springs the true
Ruler, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, to unfold the
counsels of God, and to rule the world with a righteous
sceptre. Levi's subordinate position is thought to be
due to the fact that the Mosaic ritual and Levitical
priesthood are at an end. This may be so ; the changes
are the result of the actual history of the tribes,
and illustrate how in the Christian Church, as in the
Jewish, privileges may be lost, opportunities seized or
cast away, offices and functions used for a time, and
then laid aside when their work is accomplished ; but
in all and through all changes, God's unchanging pur-
pose runs onward to its certain close. The grouping of
the tribes is, as has been pointed out, in the order of
closest kinship : " We find not one violent separation
of those who are naturally united, where both are truly
members of the Israel of God" (Eev. C. H. Waller,
Names on Gates of Pearl).

(») After this I beheld . . —Better, After these
things I saw, and behold I a great multitude lohich
no one was able to number, out of every nation,
and (all) tribes, and peoples, and tongues, standing
before the throne, and before the Lamb, clothed in
white robes, and palm branches in their hands. " A
great multitude :" We have just had the picture of the
sealing of a multitude which could be numbered : now
we have the picture of a countless throng. Who are
these? Are they the same as the one hundred and
forty-four thousand, or are they others ? Our answer
must be that this vision gives the climax of the pre-
vious one. The sealing represented the Passover of
the Church : this vision represents its Feast of Taber-
nacles. The sealing assured us that in the midst of
the severe times of testing there would be those who,
wearing God's armour, would come forth unscathed :
this vision shows us the fruition of their labour and their
rest after conflict. The sealing assured us that God's
hidden ones would be safe in trouble : this tells us that
they have come safe out of it — they are those who have
come out of the great tribulation (verse 14). But how
can the numbered of the one vision be the same as the
numberless of the next? They are numbered in the
first vision, as it is one of the assurauces of their safety.

In that vision the idea of their security in trial and
danger is the main one. The servants of God are safe,
for they are sealed and numbered ; they are among
those sheep of Christ whom He calls by name, whose
very hairs are numbered ; they are those whose reliance
is not on self, but on their shepherd ; and the sealing is
the echo of Christ's words, " they shall never perish ; "
they are the servants of God, known by Him and
recognised by Him. But in the next vision, the ex-
panding prospects of the Church and her final repose
are shown to us. The idea of victory and peace, not so
much safety in danger as freedom from it, is set forth ;
and then countless multitudes are seen ; the numbered
are found to be numberless; countless as the sand
by the sea and as the stars in heaven, they are yet in
the reckoning and knowledge of Him who " telleth the
number of the stars and calleth them all by their
names." The numbering must not be understood to
imply limitation. We have seen that it is a number
which symbolises expansive energy and extensive suc-
cess ; it implies the real security and wide-spread
growth of the Church of God; it has no limits; it
gathers from every nation, and people ; it welcomes all ;
where there is neither Jew, nor Greek, barbarian,
Scythian, bond, nor free ; its gates are open all night
and all day to every quarter of the world —

" From earth's wide bounds, from ocean's farthest coast,
Through gates of pearl stream in the countless host,
Singing to Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Alleluia."

The multitude are clothed with white robes, and carry
palm branches in their hands. It has been thought
that these are the emblems of victory; they doubtless
are tokens of a triumph: it is the sacred rejoicing of
the Israel of God. The imagery is drawn from the
Feast of Tabernacles : just as the sealing reminded us
of the protecting sign on the lintels of the houses of
Israel in Egypt, so do these palm branches and songs
of joy recall the ceremonies of the later feast. No
imagery would be more natural to the sacred seer, and
none more appropriate to his subject. The Feast of
Tabernacles commemorated God's care over them in the
wilderness, and their gratitude for the harvest. The
people forsook the houses, and dwelt in booths; the
streets were full of glad multitudes who carried branches
of palm, and olive, and myrtle ; everywhere the sounds
of rejoicing and singing were heard ; " there was very
great gladness" (Ex. xxiii. 16; Lev. xxiii. 43; Nek
viii. 14 — 17). The vision here shows us a far greater
feast. " The troubles of the wilderness are ended,
the harvest-home of the Church is come," and God
tabernacles (verse 15) among His servants.

(10) And cried with a loud voice . . .—Better,
And they cry with a loud voice, saying, The salvation to
our God who sitteth upon the throne, and to the Lamb.
Their cry, uttered with a loud voice, is the acknowledg-
ment that their salvation — the salvation which they
now taste — is due not to themselves, but to their God
and to the Lamb. The salvation here must, I think, be
taken in its most comprehensive sense, including every
deliverance — from the curse of law, from the power of
sin, and from the perils of life. The explanation iu

56C

The Multitude who have

BEVELATION, VII.

out of (jreat Tribulation,

Lamb. <1D And all the angels stood round
about the throne, and about the elders
and the four beasts, and fell before the
throne on their faces, and worshipped
God, (12) saying, Amen : Blessing, and
glory, and wisdom, and thanksgiving,
and honour, and power, and might, be
unto our God for ever and ever. Amen.
(13) And one of the elders answered,
saying unto me, What are these which

are arrayed in white robes ? and whence
came they ? W And I said unto him,
Sir, thou knowest. And he said to me,
These are they which came out of great
tribulation, and have washed their robes,
and made them white in the blood of
the Lamb. <15> Therefore are they
before the throne of God, and serve
him day and night in his temple : and
he that sitteth on the throne shall dwell

verso 14 confirms this. (Comp. Gal. iii. 13; Phil. iii. 9.)
This is " the voice of rejoicing and salvation which is in
the tabernacles of the righteous," when the Lord, who
is their strength and song, "has become their salvation "
(Ps. cxviii. 14). Note the recurrence of " the Lamb."
They are before the throne and before the Lamb;
their salvation is ascribed to God and to the Lamb.

(H) And all the angels . . .—Translate, And all
the any els were standing round the throne, and the
elders, and the four living beings . . . saying, Amen.
The great concourse of angels — those among whom
there lias been joy in heaven when a sinner has
repented— now add their "Amen" to the cry of the re-
deemed, and then raise the seven-fold ascription of
praise —

"Amen!

The blessing, and the glory, and the wisdom,

And the thanksgiving,

And the honour, and the power, and the strength,

(Is) unto our God

Unto the ages of the ages.

The seven-fold form of the doxology, which implies
a divine completeness, is appropriate to this vision,
which shows us the close of the Church's agony, and
is in itself a slight indication that the view which
would limit the seals to some short period of Church
history is incorrect, as it is assuredly inadequate.

(13) And one of the elders answered, saying
unto me. — The seer had asked no question, but the
elder answers the wondering thoughts and questionings
which fill his mind. Perhaps this scene was in Dante's
mind when he described himself in Paradise :

" Silent was I, yet desire
Was painted in my looks ; and thus I spake
My wish more earnestly than language could."

—Paradiso, iv. 10—12.

The elder asks the question which he knows St. John
would fain ask. These ivho are clothed in white robes,
who are they, and whence came they 1 The question
brings the white robes into prominence. Is it, as has
been suggested, that the wonder of the seer is excited
more by the emblem of holiness and innocence than
anything else? He recognises the multitudes as men
and women out of every nation and tribe of sinful
humanity, and he sees them clothed in the garb of
holiness. Who are these countless throngs of holy
ones?

(14) And I said unto him . . .—The form in
which the answer of the seer is given shows how com-
pletely the elder had anticipated his thoughts ; for he
describes his reply as instantaneous. And I have said,
My Lord — the language is that of reverent regard, but
not of worship (see chaps, xix. 10 and xxii. 8, 9) — thou
knowest — i.e., it is for thee to tell me : thy knowledge
and thy view-point is higher than muie ; thou knowest :
it is thine to speak, and mine to hearken.

And he said to me . . .—Read, And he said to me,
These are they who come (the present tense is used :
these are those coming) out of the great tribidation.
They are those who come, not all at once, but gradually.
The saints of God are continually passing into the un-
seen world, and taking their place among the spirits of
just men made perfect. They come out of the great
tribulation. Are we to limit the expression to the
special and peculiar afflictions of the last great trial ?
There is no doubt about the emphasis which the definite
article (unfortunately, ignored in our English version)
gives : it is the great tribulation ; but while there
may yet be in store for the Church of Christ trials
so great that they may be called, in comparison with
those which went before, the great tribulation, it
yet seems out of harmony with the spirit of the
Apocalypse and the complexion of this vision to
limit the phrase to some special season of trial.
Is not the great tribulation the tribidation which
those must encounter who are on the side of Christ
and righteousness, and refuse to l'eceive the mark of
worldliness and sin on their heart, conscience, and life ?
In all ages it is true that we must through much tribu-
lation enter the Kingdom of God; and the vision here
is surely not of those who will come safe out of some
particular trials, but of the great multitude from every
age and every race who waged war against sin, and
who, in the midst of that protracted conflict, endured
the great tribulation which is to continue until Christ's
return. And they washed (not " have washed," for the
washing was done during their earthly life) their robes,
and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. The
imagery is to be found in the Gospel and in the Epistle
(John xiii. 8 — 11 ; and 1 John i. 7) ; its use here and in
chap. i. 5 (if the reading washed is to be preferred to
loosed) points to a common authorship : the emblem of
the blood which washes white, or cleanses, is not used
with such distinctness elsewhere in the New Testament.
It is, in St. John's lips, but a following out of the
twice-repeated words which he quotes from John the
Baptist at the opening of the Gospel, when he proclaimed
Christ to be " the Lamb of God, which taketh away the
sin of the world." In that Lamb of God those who
came out of great tribulation found the forgiveness and
the spiritual power which gave them confidence and
hope in the midst of life's war and life's weariness ; for
the man who knows that ho is forgiven and that he
is being helped to holiness is the man who thinks no
fiery trial strange, but rejoices in the knowledge that
his salvation is of God.

(is) Therefore are they before the throne . . .
— Better, On this account are they before the throne oj
God — i.e., because they so washed their robes, and made
them white in the blood of the Lamb. (Comp. chap. xxii.
14, where a well-supported reading is, " Blessed are they
that wash their robes, that they may have right to the

567

The Blessings

EEVELATION, VII.

of the Righteous.

among them/2 (16) They shall hunger K1,^4 8'(
no more,4 neither thirst any more; I6 iBa.4a.1a
neither shall the sun light on them, I
nor any heat. (1/) For the Lamb which \ cch-iX-<

is in the midst of the throne shall feed
them, and shall lead them unto living
fountains of waters : and God shall wipe
away all tears from their eyes/

tree of life," &c.) They are before the tin-one : they are
like Him, for they see Him as He is (1 John iii. 2), and
serve Him day and night in His temple, and He that
sitteth upon the throne shall tabernacle over them. The
life is not simply one of joy or safety, it is one also of
service. (Comp. chap. xxii. 3.) Those who were made
priests to God here carry on their service in His temple;
yet it is to be remembered that this can only be figura-
tive language, for in the heavenly city there is no temple
(chap. xxi. 22). It serves to teach us that the servant
will find his fitting work of service there as well as here.
He that sitteth iipon the throne shall tabernacle over
them. It is worth noticing how persistently St. John
keeps up the phrase, " He that sitteth upon the throne ''
(chaps, it. 2 ; v. 1, 7, 13 ; vii. 10). Tabernacle, or dwell
as in a tent : The rendering " shall dwell " among them
does not do justice to this word, and at the same time
obscures the allusion which the seer has in his mind. The
allusion is to the Shechinah, the symbol of the Divine
Presence, which rested over the mercy seat. " The idea
that the Shechinah, the okt\v(\ (skene), the glory which
betokened the Divine Presence in the Holy of Holies,
and which was wanting to the sacred temple, would be
restored once more in Messiah's days was a cherished
hope of the Jewish doctors during and after the Apos-
tolic ages." The expected and wished-for glory would
be seen among God's saints. God's tabernacle shall be
with them (chap. xxi. 3), and with them so as to stretch
over them : He will tabernacle over (or, upon) them.
With this we may compare St. Paul's expression in
2 Cor. xii. 9 ("that the power of Christ may tabernacle"
— " rest " in the English version — " upon me "), where
Professor Lightfoot (whose words have just been quoted)
thinks that there is a similar reference to the symbol
of the Divine Presence in the Holy of Holies. (Comp.
Isa, iv. 5, 6 ; Ezek. xxxvii. 27 ; and John i. 14.) There
seems also to be a carrying on of the imagery derived
from the Feast of Tabernacles : as there were the palm
branches of the harvest joy, so there will be the booth,
or tabernacle, of God's presence amonggihem. He shall
be their pavilion, their shelter. " Tnere shall be a
tabernacle for a shadow in the day-time from the heat,
and for a place of refuge and for a covert from storm
and from rain."

(16) They shall hunger no more . . .—Better,
They shall not hunger any more, nor yet thirst any
more ; neither at all shall the sun light upon them, nor
any heat. The negatives are emphatic, and rise in force
as the verse proceeds. None of the privations which
they have endured for Christ's sake shall trouble them ;
none of the dissatisfactions and weariness of life shall
afflict them ; for hunger, thirst, and fatigue will be no
more, for the former things are passed away (chap. xxi.
3, 4). And then, too, shall that blessed hunger and thirst
■ — the hunger and thirst for righteousness — be appeased.
Christ's benediction will then be realised in its fulness :
Blessed are they who so hunger, for they shall be filled.
And as they will receive inward strength and satisfac-
tion, so also will they be kept from the outward trials
which wear down the strength of the strongest. The sun
shall not light on them : The Eastern sun, in its fierce
and overpowering intensity, was a fit emblem of those
trials which dry up the springs of strength. The sun,
risen with a burning heat, deA'Oured the beauty of the

flower (Jas. i. 11) ; the rootless growth on the stony
ground was scorched when the sun was up (Matt. xiii.
5, 6). Man's beauty of wealth and talent, man's reso-
lutions of better things, all fade away before the testing
beams of this sun ; but the time of trial is past, the
pains and temptations of life are over, the sun in that
land will not scorch, for there is no longer need of these
burning beams ; the city has no need of the sun, for the
glory of God lightens it, and the Lamb is the light thereof
(chap. xxi. 23). No sun, and no heat, no burning hot wind
like the sirocco, will spread withering influence there.

(17> For the Lamb . . .—Translate, Because the.
Lamb which is in the midst of the throne shall tend
them, and shall lead them to fountains of waters
of life (or, life-springs of ivaters) ; and God shall
wipe away every tear from their eyes. The Lamb
is described as " the Lamb in the midst of the throne."
The writer told in chap. v. 6 that he had seen a
Lamb in the midst of the throne. When ho looked
towards the throne, he saw the Lamb as the central
object immediately in front of it. He who would draw
near to the throne must pass the Lamb. The position
which the Lamb held was one of significance, and is
therefore repeated here. The Lamb will tend His
people as a shep>lierd tends his flock (the word trans-
lated " feed " has this force), and will lead them to
the springs of the water of life. The twenty-third
Psalm rises at once to our minds. The Lord who was
David's shepherd (Ps. xxiii. 2), who was the Good
Shepherd who sought and brought home the lost for
whom He died (Luke xv. 4 ; John x. 11), does not
forget the shepherd's work in heaven. He who made
His people to drink of the brook in the way (Ps. ex. 7),
who gave to those who came to Him the water which
alone would quench their thirst (John iv. 13, 14, and vii.
37 — 39), leads them now to the springs of the living
water, and makes them drink of the river of His plea-
sures (Ps. xxxvi. 8). Significantly enough the springs of
this living water are in the throne itself (chap. xxii. 1).
Ezekiel saw the stream issuing forth from the Temple
(Ezek. xlviii. 1), but in the city where there is no temple
we are carried to the very throne of God, to find the
well-spring of every gladness. In this emblem of
the water we have another allusion to the Feast of
Tabernacles. Among the ceremonies observed at the
feast was that of the drawing water ; the priest drew
a vessel of water from the brook of Siloam, and poured
it out in the temple-court by the altar of burnt offering,
and the people sang the words, " With joy shall ye
draw water out of the wells of salvation " (lsa. xii. 3).
Here the Lamb, who is also the High Priest, leads His
people to the springs of the water of life. Joy, too,
is theirs ; for God shall wipe away every tear from (or,
out of) their eyes (Isa. xxv. 8 ; Rev. xxi. 4). In Isaiah
it is said God shall wipe away tears from off all faces :
here it is every tear. Thus shall all sorrow be removed
from all : no tears shall gather in any eye, for the
sources of sorrow will be cut off in the land where there
is no more sin. None can weep again when it is God
who wiped away their tears. Blessed are they that
mourn, said Christ — blessed indeed in this, that God
becomes their comforter. Only those who have wept can
enjoy this consolation. Who would not shed life's tears
to have God's hand to wipe them away !

Opening of

REVELATION, VIII.

the Seventh Seal

CHAPTER VHI.-W And when he
chap. viii. i. had opened the seventh
s"aiopSnth seal, there was silence in

heaven about the space of Chap. viii.
half an hour. W And I * ^he ™

2—
vision
of the seven
saw the seven angels which trumpetangela.

YIII.

0) And when he had opened the seventh seal
. . . — Translate, And when he opened the seventh seal
there took place a silence in heaven as it were for half
an horn-. It is greatly to be regretted that this verse
should have been prefixed to this chapter. The section
of the hook with which it is connected is that which
goes before, not, that which follows. The second verse of
this eighth chapter introduces a new series of visions:
the first verse gives the close of the visions which
follow the opening of the seals. ' But what is the
meaning of this verse which describes a half-hour's
silence in heaven ? It is a disputed point whether the
book, or roll, fastened with the seven seals (chap. v. 1,
2) is ever really unrolled to view. Some have thought
that as each seal is opened a portion of the roll is
displayed, unfolding the vision of the seal : others have
regarded the visions as mere accompaniments of the
opening of the seals, and quite distinct from the
writing on the roll; those who take this view are
disposed to think that the roll never is read, for that
when the last seal is broken, and all are expecting to
hear what is written in the book, no reading takes
jdace, but only a silence ensues. It does not seem to
me that this latter view is altogether tenable. It
appears a singularly harsh interpretation to say that the
contents of the roll are never disclosed. The book of
God's purposes was seen in the hand of Him who sat
on the throne. The Evangelist longed to know some-
thing of its contents; vain efforts were made to open
it ; the Evangelist, wept with disappointment ; lie was
then comforted in his sorrow by hearing that the Lion of
the tribe of Judah had conquered to open the hook;
but then, after all this, not a line or word of the book, it
is said, is ever revealed. The servant is waiting to hear
the divine word ; the seer is waiting to record what is
unfolded ; but though the seals are opened, we are
told that the words he waits for never came. St. John
himself gives no hint of so disappointing a conclusion.
Later on (chap. x. 4) he is told not to record the
utterances of the seven thunders, but there the con-
cealing of the utterances is clearly commanded. Here
be evidently associates the visions of the seals with the
contents of the roll. It is only a spirit in bondage to
foolish literalisms which will ask how the visions can
be the writing in the roll. The book represents
God's purposes and principles of His government in
relation to the world - history ; the seals show us
some typical scenes in that world-history, and if
not seen on the parchment of the roll, are yet un-
folding* of principles and truths in the book. But it
does not follow that all that is in the roll is ever
unfolded. Such portions are made manifest as the
seer could hear, and as the Church of Christ needed ;
and thus it may well he that the half -hour's silence is
significant that all God's purposes and revelations are
not exhausted — that, there is something behind which it
is not well that we should know— that prophecy as well
as knowledge is partial. But, the stillness of this half
hour, if it reminds us of what is yet untold, yet pro-
claims to us a time of deep, unbroken tranquillity, When
the cries and groans of the earth, and even the grateful
doxolooies of heaven are hushed into calm, ft is the
silence which tells us that sorrow is ended, and

5G9

eloquently tells us of heart peace. It is the rest of
the troubled on the breast of God. All the earth, with
her strife of tongues is still ; all the cries of men (chap,
vi. 15), of trafficker and warrior, of struggling wise, and
suffering good, are stilled; all flesh keeps silence before
Him ; He gives His people peace .

" 0 earth, so full of dreary noises!
O men with wailing in your voices !

O delved gold, the waiter's heap !
O strife, O curse, that o'er it tall !
God strikes a silence through you all,

Andgivcth His beloved sleep."

Only those who have been carried away by an over-
refined philosophy or morbid sentimentalism can see
anything selfish in longing,- out of earth's cares and
injustices, for such a rest as this. It is surely not
ignoble to pray —

" Vouchsafe us such a half-hour's hush alone,
In compensation for our stormy years ;
As heaven has paused from song, let earth from moan."

(2) The Visions introduced by the Sounding
of Seven Trumpets. — The series of visions which
is now introduced extend to the close of the eleventh
chapter. There are some features which may be
noticed here. There is a marked correspondence of
arrangement between these and the visions of the
seals. As there, so here, there are introduced two
subordinate visions towards the end of the series.
The sixth seal was followed by the vision of the
one hundred and forty-four thousand and the count-
less multitude : the sixth trumpet, is followed by
the vision of the little book and the seven thunders
and the measurement of the temple of God (chaps, x.
and xi. 1 — 14). The general intention of these inter-
posed visions is similar. In both cases they seem
designed to give us an insight of the life within
the life of Christ's Church. The main visions give
us more external aspects ; the interposed visions
show the inner and more spiritual aspects. Thus the
seals show the great outer features of world and Church
history — the war, controversies, the famine and barren
dogmatism, the death, and deathlike externalism, the
persecutions and sorrows and revolutions of on-coming
history ; the interposed visions of chap. vii. show us
the calm and strength and the victory of the children
of God. So also with these visions of the trumpets.
The main visions give us the trumpet-voices of God's
manifold providences summoning the world to surrender
to Him ; the subsidiary visions point to the witness and
work of the true children of God in this world, and the
more secret growth of the Church of Christ. Another
similarity between the seals and the trumpets is to be
found in the separation between the first four and the
last three. The first four trumpets, like the first four "
seals, are grouped together. The first four seals are
introduced by the cry " Come"; the first four trumpets
are followed by judgments on natural objects — the earth.
the sea, the rivers, the lights of heaven — while the last
three have been described as u-oe trumpets, being intro-
duced by the thrice repeated cry of " Woe " | see verse 13).
There is thus a correspondence of arrangement in tin-
two series of visions; but their general import is very
different. We reach in the seventh seal the eternal
quiet of God's presence. Through a scries of visions we
have been shown that the way to rest is not easy, that
we must be prepared to see the great features of earth's

The Seven Angels

REVELATION, VIII.

with the Seven Trumpets.

stood before God ; and to them were
given seven trumpets. <3) And another
ansrel came and stood at the altar,

having- a golden censer; and there
was given unto him much incense, that
he should offer it with the prayers1 of

troubles remain till the close, and that the children of
God must through tribulation and even persecution
enter into the kingdom of God's peace. The seals
answer the question. " Lord, wilt thou at this time
restore the kingdom ? " But the kingdom will be re-
stored. The Church may find her way a way of difficulty,
delay, danger ; but it will be a way to triumph. The
kingdoms of the world will become the kingdoms of
the Lord. Let the people of God go forward ; let their
prayers be set forth as incense ; let them blow the
trumpet, and summon men to repentance ; they are not
alone ; the Lord still fights for His Israel. This is the
assurance which we gather from the trumpets. In all
the wondrous providences which the history of the
world discloses we may hear the trumpet-voice which
heralds the kingdom of Christ, to which the Church is
bearing constant and sufficient witness (chap. xi. 3, 4).
The seals close with peace ; the trumpets close appro-
priately Avith victory (chap. xi. 15). The visions are
not scenes of events which chronologically succeed one
another. The one set shows us the way through troiible
to rest ; the other shows the way through conflict to
triumph : the one set shows us the troubles which befall
the Church because of the world ; the other shows us
the troubles which fall on the world because the Church
advances to the conquest of the world, as Israel to the
possession of the land of promise.

And I saw the seven angels . . .—Better,
And I saw the seven angels which stand (not " stood")
before God ; and there were given to them seven
trumpets. " The seven angels : " Who are these ? The
usual answer is that they are seven angels (or, according
to some, archangels) distinguished among the myriads
round the throne. The passages referred to in support of
this view are two — one from the Apocryphal Book of
Tobit, " I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels
which present the prayers of the saints, and which go
in and out before the glory of the Holy One " (Tobit xii.
15) ; the other, the well-known passage from St. Luke,
"I am Gabriel, that stand in the presence of God"
(Luke i. 19). This may be true, and the emphatic
article (the seven angels) gives the view some support,
but seeing that the number seven is to be taken through-
out the book as symbolical, and not literal, it is perhaps
better to view the seven angels as representatives of the
power of God over the world. They are the seven, the
complete circle of God's power in judgment; for as we
do not take the seven spirits to be literally seven spirits,
but symbols of the complete and manifest influence of
the one Holy Spirit, the third person in the glorious
Trinity, so neither need we infer from the mention of
the seven angels here that they are literally seven pre-
eminent angelic personages, but rather regard them as
symbols of that complete and varied messenger-force
which God evermore commands.

Seven trumpets.— It will help our understanding
of the symbol here, employed to recall the occasions on
which the trumpet was used. It was used to summon
the people together, whether for worship, or festival, or
svar, "for the calling of the assembly, and for the
journeying of the camps." "When they shall blow
with them (the trumpets), all the assembly shall assemble
themselves to thee (Moses) at the door of the tabernacle

of the congregation " (Num. x. 4 — 8). For journeying
an alarm was to be blown (Num. x. 6). " And if ye go to
war in your land against the enemy that oppresseth
you, then ye shall blow an alarm with the trumpets ;
and ye shall be remembered before the Lord your God,
and ye shall be saved from your enemies " (verse 9).
And as for war, so also on festival days the trumpets
were blown ; " Also in the day of your gladness, and in
your solemn days, and in the beginnings of your
months, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your
burnt offerings, and over the sacrifices of your peace
offerings ; that they may be to you for a memorial before
your God : I am the Lord your God." The reader will
remember other illustrations. When the people were
assembled to hear the Ten Commandments the voice of
the trumpet sounded long, and waxed louder and
louder (Ex. xix. 19). The feast held on the first
day of the seventh month was "a day of blowing the
trumpets " (Num. xxix. 1) among the people who would
blow up the trumpet in the new moon, in the time
appointed, on their solemn feast day (Ps. lxxxi. 3). At
the siege of Jericho seven priests bore before the ark
seven trumpets of rams' horns, and on the seventh day
the priests blew with the trumpets (Josh. vi. 4, 5). For
assembling, for journeying, for war, the sound of
the trumpets was heard. The judgments which follow
the blowing of the trumpets in this series of visions
are the trumpet- toned calls of God, summoning man-
kind to assemble to the true tabernacle, bidding His
people go forward, and announcing the overthrow of
His adversaries. Every judgment, on earth, or sea, or
river, by war, or by invasion, is a call which bids men
listen to the still small voice, which they have neglected,
perhaps resisted. Every judgment should rouse the true
servant to greater vigilance and further advance : it is
an alarm sounded on the great battle-field of life.
Miracles have been called the alarm bells of the
universe ; no less are the strange and startling events
of the world's history the alarm notes blown by God's
angels across the world, to remind us of the war in
which every citadel of evil must inevitably fall. It is
mainly, then, as an alarm of war that these angel-
trumpets are sounded. The land of promise is to be
rescued from the tribes and peoples who corrupt it.
As the Canaanites of old were swept away lest their
•wickedness, increasing beyond measure, should spread
abroad a moral death, so are the judgments of these
trumpets sent to undermine, purge away, and finally to
destroy all evil powers which destroy the earth (chap
xi. 18). We may hear, then, in " each blast of the
symbolical trumpet a promise and instalment of the
victory " for which the groaning and travailing creation
yearns, and which will be the banishment of earth's
destroyers, and the manifestation of the sons of God.

(3) And another angel came and stood at
(or, over) the altar, having a golden censer.
— The appearance of this other angel has given rise
to some questioning, and some strained explanations.
Some have thought that by this other angel we are
to understand Christ Himself. This is very doubtful :
the designation " another angel " (see chap. vii. 2)
is against this view. There is really no need to ask
who the several angels are : the book is symbolical.
The angels are not particular personages, but symbolical

The Smoke of the Incense

REVELATION, VIII.

ascendeth up before God.

all saints upon the golden altar which
was before the throne. (tJ And the
smoke of the incense, which came with
the prayers of the saints, ascended up
before God out of the angel's hand.

<5> And the angel took the censer, and
filled it with fire of the altar, and cast
it into l the earth : and there were voices,
and thunderings, and lightnings, and an
earthquake. (ii> And the seven angels

of those agencies — whether personal, or natural, or
supernatural — which are employed by Him who sitteth
on the throne. The angel stood at the altar. The altar
mentioned in chap. vi. 2 corresponded with the altar of
burnt sacrifice, which stood in the open court in front
of the tabernacle or temple. The symbolism of the
Apocalypse being so largely built up out of Jewish
materials, we need not be surprised to find the altar
of incense introduced here. This altar was of gold,
and was situated in the holy place., Here the priest
was wont to burn incense, while the people out-
side were praying. We have an example of the
custom in the history of Zecharias (Luke i. 8 — 11).
The scene described by St. Luke bears a close resem-
blance to this, and gives a key to the symbolism. The
prayers of the people and the smoke of the incense are
ascending together. The angel has a golden censer.
The word here rendered censer is used sometimes for
the incense, but the epithet " golden " shows that it is
the vessel to hold the incense which is intended. The
censer is of gold, as was the altar, and as are so many
thing's in the Apocalypse. (See chaps, iv. 4; v. 8; xv.
6, 7, and xxi. 15, 21.)

And there was given unto him much in-
cense . . . — Literally, And there was given to him much
incense that he might (not " offer it with," as English
version, but) give it to the prayers of all the saints upon
the golden altar which was before the throne. The in-
cense was to be mingled with the prayers of the saints.
The incense was added to give a fragrance to the prayers
of the saints, and render them acceptable before God.
The action of the angel has been spoken of as though it
might give countenance to the erroneous doctrine of
the mediatorship of saints and angels. It is only when
we persist in viewing symbols as literal facts that there
is any danger of such an inference. Dogmas, whose
only foundation is in the incidental symbolism of a pro-
phetic book, are ill-grounded. It is a safe canon that
doctrinal inferences from metaphors are always to be
suspected. The angel here is a mere symbol of a divinely-
appointed agency. No personal angel actually ever
did what is described here : how could incense mix with
prayers? The whole is symbolical of the truth that
the prayers of all the saints need to be rendered accept-
able by the infusion of some divine element. The best
prayers of the best saints are weak, and polluted and
imperfect at the best. The incense which is added
to the prayers is not supplied by the angel : it
is first given to him, and he then mingles it with the
prayers of all saints. It is hard to forget here Him
whose offering and sacrifice became a savour of sweet
smell (Eph. v. 1, 2). The altar is described as the
golden altar — i.e., the altar of incense, as noted above.
It is well for us to remember Dean Alford's caution
that we must not attempt to force the details of any
of these visions into accordance with the arrangements
of the tabernacle. " A general analogy in the use and
character of the heavenly furniture is all that we can
look for " ( Alford, in loco).

(*) And the smoke of . . .—Better, And there
went up the smoke of the incense for (or to, i.e.. designed
for, and to j^ive fragrance to) the prayers of the saints.

oid of the hand of the angel, before God. The emblem
of the rising column of smoke. In which incense and
prayer now mingled, is the token that the prayers of
the saints, now rendered acceptable, and no longer pi-e-
mature, are about to be answered. These prayers of
God's people, weak and imperfect as they are, are yel
invincible weapons in the hands of Christ's soldiers.
and will be found mightier than any carnal weapons.
As Jericho fell without Israel needing to strike a blow,
so now the Israel of God will be seen to be omnipotent
through true and faithful prayer. The charter of the
Church's power is in the words of Christ : " If ye
abide in Me, and My words abide in you. ye shall ask
what ye will, and it shall be done unto you " (John xv. 7).
The judgments that follow are not indeed specifically
prayed for by the Church of Christ, but they are the re-
sults of their prayers, and prove the might of all- prayer..

(5) And the angel . . .—Translate, And the angel
has taken (or, took) the censer, and he filled it from the
fire of the altar, and cast it (i.e., the, fire or hot ashes
which filled the censer) upon the earth. The prayers
have gone up, and the sprinkling of the ashes earth-
ward is the symbol of the answer descending from
heaven. We may recall the similar action of Moses
before Pharaoh, when he took ashes of the furnace and
sprinkled it towards heaven, but it descended towards
earth, as a symbol of the plague about to fall upon the
land (Ex. ix. 8 — 10). The hot ashes are the tokens
of the coining judgments. As in the parallel vision in
Ezekiel (chap. x. 2), when the man clothed with linen is
bidden to " go in between the wheels, even under the
cherub, and fill his hand with coals of fire from
between the cherubims, and scatter them over the
doomed city;" so here the ashes fall — the judgments
are at hand.

And there were voices . . .—Or, And there
took place thunders, and voices, and lightnings,
and an earthquake. There is some variety among
the MSS. in the order of the words here used.
Some place " lightnings " before " voices." These
signs and sounds herald the approach of judgments.
God has arisen in answer to the cry of His people.
"The earth shook and trembled. There went up
a smoke and a fire: coals were kindled at it. At
the brightness that was before Him His thick clouds
passed, hailstones and coals of fire. The Lord also
thundered in the heavens, and the Highest gave His
voice, hailstones and coals of fire. Yea, He sent out
His arrows, and scattered them : He shot out lightnings
and discomfited them ... He delivered me from my
strong enemy" (Ps. xviii. 4—19). It is a solemn thought
that we may send up prayers, and the answer may come
down a judgment; for often it is only through judg-
ment that true loving-kindness can make her way.

(fi) And the seven angels . . .—Translate. And
the seven angels who had the seven trumpets prepared
themselves that they might sound. The angels raised
their trumpets to their mouths, ready to blow. The
sounding of the trumpets introduced the series of
startling events (or providences, as we sometimes call
them) which serve to arrest men's attention, and re-
mind them that there is a kingdom which cannot

The first Angel

KEVELATIOK VIII.

sounds his Trumpet.

which had the seven trumpets pre-
pared themselves to sound. W The

Chap. viii. 7-12. first an£el somided> and
The first group there followed hail and

CLio^our &-e mingled with blood,
angels sound and they were cast upon
their trumpets. tlie earth : and the third

part of trees was burnt up, and all
green grass was burnt up. ^ And
the second angel sounded, and as it
were a great mountain burning with
fire was cast into the sea : and the
third part of the sea became blood ;
W and the third part of the creatures

be shaken. Such events are landing-stages in the great
advancing progress of Christ's kingdom. It may be
well to remind those who are desirous of actual and
limited historical fulfilments which correspond with
the features of the several visions, that the aim of the
visions seems to be to give the seer, and through him
the Church at large, some idea of the general kind
of events which ever mark the decay of the kingdom
of Avrong and the growth of the kingdom of our Lord.
It is to this consummation the visions of the trumpets
lead us. We are to see the destruction of those who
destroy the earth, and the establishment of the king-
dom of Him who will reign in righteousness (chap. xi.
15 — 18). This great consummation is to be achieved
by slow and painful steps. " Wilt thou at this time
restore the kingdom ? " is the question answered by the
seals. "How wilt thou restore the kingdom ?" is the
question answered -by the trumpets. In both cases the
answer is similar. These great results are not and
cannot be attained in the quick ways human impatience
would suggest. The history of the world is not to be
folded up in a hurry, for that history is a development
and a discipline ; it is not only the consummation which
is to be desired : the steps to that end are salutary,
though painful. The chastisement which is not joyous
but grievous may be the best means of bringing to the
world the peaceable fruits of righteousness ; —

" And man, unfriended, faltering on the way,
Must learn to weep before he learns to pray."

And this wholesome lesson of tears must be taught the
world, in the slow and bitter progress of a human his-
tory marked not by one judgment but by many. The
fulfilment, then, of these prophetic visions is not ex-
hausted in one event, however nearly its features may
correspond with the character of the vision.

(7) The first angel . . .—Better, And the first
sounded, and there took place hail, and fire mingled
in blood, and it was cast upon the earth ; and the
third part of the earth was burnt up, and the third
part of the trees was burnt up, and all green grass was
burnt up. The reference to the Egyptian plagues is
obvious : " There was hail, and fire mingled with the
hail, very grievous . . . and the hail smote every herb
of the field, and brake every tree of the field " (Ex.
ix. 23 — 25). This resemblance to the history of Israel
in Egypt gives us the hint of the true meaning. It
carries us back to the past, and asks us to remember
the mighty works of God in old times. It reminds us
shat He who bade Joshua cause the trumpets to be
sounded by the walls of Jericho, and who delivered
His people from the tyranny of Pharaoh, is the same
God, mighty to save His people, to break the fetters of
ignorance, and to cast down the high walls of pride and
sin. But it is needful to observe the variation as well
as the resemblance. This plague differs from the
Egyptian in the introduction of blood. This variation
carries it out of the possibility of literal interpreta-
tions. We begin to think of the strongly figurative
ianguage of Joel : " the blood, and fire, and pillars of

smoke " (Joel ii. 30) ; and we call to mind that St.
Peter announced that the fulfilment of this prophecy
of Joel commenced with the Pentecostal effusion of
the Holy Spirit. Then the war trumpet of deliverance
had been sounded ; then the process of the earth's
emancipation had begun; then commenced the series
of sorrows and judgments which the obstinate love of
men for darkness rather than light would bring upon
themselves ; and through the operation of these the
kingdom of Christ would be established. The first
judgment falls upon the trees and grass. Beneath its
touch the grass withereth, the flower fadeth. Thus the
day of the Lord is upon the cedars of Lebanon that
are high and lifted up, and upon all the oaks of Bashan ;
upon every one that is proud and lofty (Isa. ii. 12, 13;
and 1 Pet. i. 24). It matters little in what way this
humbling of human pride takes place. The world is
full of illustrations. The loftiness of Jerusalem was
lowered when the weakness of her self-sufficient re-
ligiousness was revealed and her Pharisaic pride was
exposed ; the loftiness of Rome was humbled when the
Gothic invaders, like a storm of hail (so they were
described by Claudian), devastated the empire. These
are illustrations ; but the prophecy is for all time, for
the day of the Lord is upon " all that are proud." We
must not press the phrase " the third part " too closely :
it clearly is designed to remind us that in wrath God
remembers mercy, and that while He humbles all He
does not utterly destroy. (Comp. Zech. xiii. 8.) Is
this the baptism of fire which withers the florid, pre-
tentious, but fruitless religions of mankind ?

(8. 9) And the second angel . . .—Translate, And
the second angel sounded, and as it were a great
mountain burning with fire was cast into the sea; and
the third part of the sea became blood ; and the third
part of the creatures that were in the sea died, those
which have lives ; and the third part of the ships were
destroyed. The sea becoming blood reminds us again
of the plagues in Egypt (Ex. vii. 20, 21); but we must
once more note the variation. It is not an uplifted
rod like that of Moses which produces this result :
it is the casting into the sea of a huge mass, as it
were a great mountain, burning with fire. Professor
Stuart calls this image appropriate or peculiar to
St. John. The prophet Jeremiah, however, in a
chapter which in many particulars is parallel to this
and the following chapter (comp. Rev. xi. 18), makes
use of a very similar image : " Behold, I am against
thee, O destroying mountain, saith the Lord, which
destroy est all the earth; and I will stretch out mine
hand upon thee, and roll thee down from the rocks, and
will make thee a burnt mountain " (Jer. Ii. 25). The
mountain was the emblem, in Jeremiah's prophecy, of the
strong consolidated power and institutions of Babylon.
Not only must the loftiness of man be brought low, but
the mountains which they made so strong for themselves.
The power of God's advancing cause would hurl the
rooted mountains from their base. The power of faith,
Christ declared, would suffice to do this (Matt. xxi.
21) ; and it is at least a singular coincidence that this

The sounding of the Third

REVELATION, VIII.

and Fourth Trumpets.

which were in the sea, and had life,
died; and the third part of the ships
were destroyed. (10) And the third
angel sounded, and there fell a great
star from heaven, burning as it were a
lamp, and it fell upon the third part
of the rivers, and upon the fountains
of waters ; <1D and the name of the star
is called Wormwood : and the third part

of the waters became wormwood ; and
many men died of the waters, because
they were made bitter. (12> And the
fourth angel sounded, and the third part
of the sun was smitten, and the third
part of the moon, and the third part
of the stars ; so as the third part of
them was darkened, and the day shone
not for a third part of it, and the night

saying of the Lord's respecting the overthrow of a moun-
tain should occur in His own comment on the destruc-
tion of the fig-tree, just as, in this chapter, the vision of
the mountain overthrown follows that of the destruc-
tion of tree and grass life. Our Lord encourages the
faith of His disciples : " Your power will not only-
expose the pretentious religionisms of the world, as My
word has shown the worthlessness of this tree, but you
will overthrow also the long established usages and evil
customs of nations which corrupt the world." The
powers which seemed strong as the great mountains
would be seen to be but evil powers, burning, poisoning,
destroying ; but its power to destroy is checked : it is
cast into the sea. Yet no great institution, or nation-
ality, or evil principle is overthrown without some corre-
sponding disadvantages. The falling mountain carries
evil even in its fall, the sea becomes blood, the ships
are destroyed. The fall of a great nation — a Babylon —
is always fraught with unavoidable miseries to the
world and its nations. Doubtless, the interests of
commerce and shipping suffer ; but this is not, it
seems to me, the point of the vision. The symbolism
is only weakened by supposing an allegorical mountain
to fall into a literal sea and to destroy literal ships.
The forci> of the vision is that certain gigantic forms of
evil will be overthrown, but the overthrow will be
accompanied with the development of new evils : the
advance is made, but the step forward unveils the subtle
force of evil. Every corrupt institution is destroyed
with the risk of the evil elements diffusing themselves
elsewhere ; just as the political victory of Christianity
was followed by the infusion of certain Pagan elements
into the Church. The vanquished always manage to
impose some laws on the victor. Even the advance of
the Church is accompanied by some such experience.

<io) And the third angel . . .—Translate, And
the third angel sounded, and there fell out of the heaven
a great star burning (or, kindled — the light is not
inherent, but borrowed) as a torch (or, lamp — same
word as in chap. iv. 5), and it fell upon the third part
of the rivers, and upon the springs of the waters.
The flaming star seems to symbolise the fall of a
potentate ; the trumpet-blast proclaims that the mighty
who have been, as luminaries, admired, and perhaps
worshipped, will fall. The advancing progress of
Christianity is to be marked by many such a fall. The
rulers of earth, burning with lust of conquest or
with pride of fanaticism, will be plucked from their seat
among the stars (Obad. verse 4) ; but their fall is ac-
companied, as in the last instance, with miseries. The
fountains and rivers are smitten, the sources of health
and joy, the streams of prosperity, are injured.

W And the name of the star . . .—Translate,
And the name of the star is called Wormwood : and the
tit ird part of the waters became wormwood ; and many
of mankind died from the waters, because they were
embittered. The bitter, nauseous plant known as

wormwood (apsinthos) is used to represent troubles and.
calamities. In Jer. ix. 15 we have an example of this :
" Behold, I will feed them, even this people, with worm-
wood, and give them water of gall to drink." It is
worth noticing that the Israelites are warned against
idolatry as " a root that beareth gall and wormwood "
(Deut. xxix. 18) ; and we may recall the symbolical act
of Moses, who ground the golden calf to powder, cast
the powder in the brook, and made the children of
Israel drink (Ex. xxxii. 20). Some have thought that
this falling star signified some false teacher, whose evil
influence poisoned the pure currents of the gospel, and
perverted the minds of men of original genius, who are
represented here as fountains. The passages cited
above favour the thought, and it may be included in
the general meaning of the vision ; but the main point
seems to be to give us hints of those stages which will
mark the advance of Christianity. The fall of the-
great men, the rulers and leaders, will take place, and
their fall will bring misery to mankind. Doubtless
the appearance of false teachers in the Church is one
of the evidences and an unavoidable accompaniment of
a progressing faith (Matt. xiii. 26). But all such false
lights shall fall before Him who is the true Light and
Morning Star, and who will heal all embittered waters
of life. (Comp. Ex. xv. 23, and 2 Kings ii. 19.)

(12) And the fourth angel . . .—Translate, And
the fourth angel sounded, and there was smitten the
third part of the sun, and the third part of the moon ,
and the third part of the stars ; that the third part of
them might be darkened, and the day might not appear
as to its third part, and the night in like manner. The
dimness which thus falls on the lights of heaven carries
us back to the plague of darkness (Ex. x. 21 — 23) ; but
yet there is this difference : there the children of
Israel had light in their dwellings while all the rest of
the laud suffered the darkness that might be felt;
here, however, the darkness is only such as results
from the withdrawal of the third part of the light of
the sun by day, and of the moon and the stars (so much
more brilliant and needful in Eastern lands than in our
; own) by night. It is a day of the Lord in which the
I light is not clear nor dark — not day nor night (Zech.
xiv. 6, 7). There will be periods in which the lights
s which guide men will give forth uncertain glimmers ;
upon the earth there will be distress of nations.
i men's hearts failing them for fear, and for looking
! after those things which are coming on the earth,
for the powers of heaven shall be shaken (Luke
xxi. 25, 26). Such times of darkness and sorrow must
be. It is through seasons such as these, when the
lights of human wisdom and of spiritual guidance seem
alike obscured, that the Church mast go forward. The
chaos precedes creation, and it is through chaos again
that the Church of Christ must pass to the new
lica ven and new earth. These trumpet -visions, if read
by the side of the story of Genesis, seem like the

Tlie Eagle of Warning.

BEVELATION, IX.

The fifth Trumpet.

likewise. l# And I beheld, and heard

Chap. viii. 13. an ai^el %ing through
The eagle of the midst of heaven, saying
warning. with a i0(ld voice, Woe,

woe, woe, to the inhabiters of the earth
by reason of the other voices of the
trumpet of the three angels, which are
yet to sound !

CHAPTEE IX.— a) And the fifth angel
sounded, and I saw a star „. .
fall from heaven unto the 12. PTbe fifth
earth : and to him was trumpet. First
given the key of the bot-
tomless pit. W And he opened the
bottomless pit ; and there arose a
smoke out of the pit, as the smoke

undoing of creation : the vegetation is smitten, the
earth and sea are intermingled, the lights of the heavens
are darkened, the living things in seas and streams are
destroyed ; but

" Fresher life the world shall draw
From their decay."

The pulling down must precede the building up ; the
removing of the degenerate is one step in the way to
the regeneration.

Introduction to the last three, or Woe,
Trumpets. An Eagle utters the three-
fold Woe.
(!3) And I beheld . . .—Better, And I saw, and I
heard a single eagle (not " angel," as in English version)
flying in mid-heaven, saying with a mighty voice, Woe,
woe, woe, to those that dwell upon the earth by reason
of the remaining voices of the trumpet of the three
angels who are about to sound ! The best MS. authority
is against the reading " angel," and in favour of eagle.
It is, then, an eagle, a solitary eagle, that moves across the
heaven, and utters the warning Woe ! It flies through
the meridian sky, and is thus visible to the very horizon.
It was an appropriate emblem : high-soaring as the
spirit of the seer, the eagle-glance scanned the
borders of the earth, and caught sight of the coming
troubles, and gave warning ; swift and strong as the
judgments of God, its very form gave emphasis to the
warnings of its voice (Dent, xxviii. 49 ; Hos. viii. 1 ; and
Matt. xxiv. 28). And yet the emblem must bring to the
minds of God's children the care of Him who led
Israel, instructed him, and kept him as the apple of His
eye, and cherished him as " an eagle sth-reth up her
nest, fluttereth over her young, spreadeth abroad her
wings, taketh them, and beareth them on her wings "
(Deut. xxxii. 11). Is it not also a precursor of those
eagle-like judgments which fall upon the carcase of
dead nations or a dead society ?

IX.

The resemblance in arrangement of the visions of
the trumpets and the visions of the seals has already
been noticed ; but the warning cry. Woe, woe, woe ! has
no parallel in the seals. The trumpets which follow
are fraught with woe and judgment to the dwellers
upon the earth.

(i) And the fifth angel . . .—Translate, And the
fifth angel sounded, and I saw a star out of the heaven
fallen (not " fall," as in English version ; the seer saw
not a falling^ but a fallen, star) upon the earth. The
emblem of a fallen star is used elsewhere in the Bible.
Isaiah (chap. xiv. 12) speaks of Lucifer fallen from
heaven. Christ described Satan as lightning falling
from heaven. Some great power or ruler is repre-
sented, then, by this fallen star. He is, moreover, said
to have fallen from heaven, and he is represented as
havLug been given the key of the abyss. Does not

this lead us to expect the working of some evil spirit
and diabolical agency? The 11th verse confirms our
expectation. We may compare chap. xii. 8 — 12, where
Satan is described as defeated, cast down to the earth,
and filled with wrath. To understand this fallen star
as the representative of a good angel seems hardly
possible.

And to him was given . . .—Literally, and there
ivas given to him (i.e., to the being represented as a
fallen star) the key of (not " the bottomless pit ") the
pit of the abyss. The abyss is the same word ren-
dered " the deep," in Luke viii. 31, where the demons
besought our Lord not to send them into the abyss, or
deep. It is the word which describes the abode of the
evil spirits. The verse before us suggests the picture
of a vast depth approached by a pit or shaft, whose
top, or mouth, is covered. Dante's Inferno, with its
narrowing circles winding down to the central shaft, is
somewhat similar. The abyss is the lowest spring of
evil, whence the worst dangers arise. (Comp. chaps,
xi. 7; xvii. 8; xx. 1 — 3.)

(2) And he opened . . . — Translate, And he opened
the pit of the abyss ; and there went up smoke out of the
pit, as the smoke of a great furnace ; and the sun was
darkened, and the air, by reason of the smoke of the
pit. The first result of the opening of the pit is the
diffusion of such a dense smoke that light and atmo-
sphere are darkened. In the previous vision there was
an obscuration of light arising from the smiting of
the luminaries ; in this the obscuration arises from
causes external to the luminaries. In that the light-
giving power was enfeebled ; in this the light is not
enfeebled, but hindered. This must be remembered.
The interpretation of these visions is most difficult ; but
we must bear in mind that they are descriptive of that
great war which the Church is waging with the world,
which good is waging with evil, but the end of which,
we are assured, is the victory of good. The kingdoms
of this world become the kingdoms of the Lord, and
of His Christ (chap. xi. 15) ; but during the progress of
the war the issue will often appear doubtful : nay, even
the triumph may seem to be in the hand of the enemy ;
but faith disregards the back-flowing waves, for she
knows the tide is coming in. We have seen that the
advance of Christianity is marked by the manifestation
of evils as well as the establishment of good. Chris-
tianity does not create evils, but the very intense
honesty of her principles reveals the hidden force of
unsuspected corruption. Thus the faith of Christ is
come to give light unto the world, but in her progress
many lights fall — the false lights of world-power,
world-wisdom, false religionism, and heresies. The
enemy, too, is at work, and seeks to obscure her light
by the diffusion of dark and low-born thoughts. The
smoke of the pit blackens the light and confuses the
atmosphere. Now, this obscuration is surely the
diffusion on earth of evil thoughts and ideas, the spirit
of falsehood and hate, hostility to truth, and enmity
against God and man. The bright, clear air made

The opening of

EEVELATION, IX.

the Bottomless I'il.

of a great furnace ; and the sun and i
the air were darkened by reason of
the smoke of the pit. (;i' And there
came out of the smoke locusts upon
the earth : and unto them was given
power, as the scorpions of the earth
have power. (4) And it was com-
manded them that they should not hurt
the grass of the earth, neither any
green thing, neither any tree ; but only

those men which have not the seal of
God in their foreheads. (5) And to
them it was given that they should not
kill them, but that they should be tor-
mented five months : and their torment
ivas as the torment of a scorpion, when
he striketh a man. <6) And in those
days shall men seek death, and shall
not find it ; and shall desire to die, and
death shall flee from them. (7> And

gladsome by the sun is darkened; "all forms that once
appeared beautiful become hideous."

(3) And there came . . .—Better, And out of the
smoke there came forth locusts upon the earth ; and
there ivas given to them power, as the scorpions of the
earth (? land-scorpions) have power. The outcome of
the gloom is the power of devastation and pain. We
still have reference to the Egyptian plagues — this time
to the locusts (Ex. x. 12 — 15) : u They covered the face
of the whole earth, so that the land was darkened."
Similarly, Joel describes the darkening of the land
through the plague of locusts (Joel ii. 3 — 10) : " The
sun and the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall
withdraw their shining." But the locusts of our vision
are armed with the power of scorpions, to sting and to
torture (verse 5) : the scorpions are called scorpions of
the earth. Some have thought that this expression is
equivalent to land-scorpions, in contradistinction from
so-called sea- scorpions. This hardly seems likely or
necessary. Their power to torment men is the prominent
idea. The locusts are not literal locusts : this scorpion-
like power given to them is enough to convince us of
this, even if the next verse did not clearly show it.
The scorpion-like power seems to depict a malicious
energy, as the locusts depict a devastating multitude.

(*) And it was commanded . . .—Translate,
And it was commanded them that they shall not
injure the grass of the earth, nor yet any green thing,
nor yet any tree ; but only (or, except) the men whoso-
ever have not the seal of God on their foreheads. The
locusts which are sent not to injure the vegetation are
clearly not literal locusts, and the security of those who
have the seal of God in their foreheads (those who
were described as sealed, aud so assured of safety
against the tempest blast: see chap. vii. 1 — 3, et seq.)
may confirm us in this view. Whatever the plague
be, it is one which cannot injure God's children.
" Nothing," Christ has said, " shall by any means hurt
you. I give you power to tread on serpents and scor-
pions, and over all the power of the enemy" (Luke
x. 19). It is interesting and suggestive to notice that
this promise of our Lord was given immediately after
the saying, " I beheld Satan as lightning fall from
heaven," as the safety of the sealed ones is mentioned
here after the vision of the star fallen from heaven.
The coincidence is hardly undesigned ; at least, the
sense in which we understand the danger from which
Christ promised His disciples protection may afford us
a guiding meaning here. Now, none have maintained
that Christ promised His disciples entire freedom from
danger, pain, and death. He said. " They shall perse-
cute you and kill you ; ye shall be hated of all men for
My name's sake, but he that endureth to the end shall
be saved." No real injury can happen to them; pain
and death might be encountered, but all things work
together for their higher good. They have a joy which

no pain or peril can take away ; they have a joy in this
(it is the same chapter as above — Luke x.), that their
"names are written in heaven." For such, death has
no sting, the grave no victory. They meet famine and
nakedness, and peril and sword; but in these they are
more than conquerors. No plague can hurt those who
have the seal of God in their foreheads. A plague
from which those whose way is through tribulation are
exempt can hardly be a physical one.

(5) And to them . . . — Better, And it was given
to them that they should not kill them (i.e., those who
had not the seal of God in their foreheads), but that they
should be tortured five months. The general period of
a locust plague is about five months : " as the natural
locusts commit their ravages only for five months, so
the ravages of these symbolical ones will be only for a
short period " (Stuart). Their power is to inflict tor-
ment, and not death. The next verse tells us that men
would consider death preferable to this torment; but
the relief of the grave is denied them.

And their torment . . . — Literally, and the
torture of them (i.e., the torture inflicted by them) is as the
torture of a scorpion when it has stricken a man. The
wound of a scorpion occasions intense suffering : we have
in it the symbol of the malicious cruelty of the merciless.
The emblem is used in Ezekiel : the rebellious and
malicious opponents of the prophet being compared to
scorpions (Ezek. ii. 6). We may compare the similar
imagery of the bee for the Assyrian power (Isa. vii. 18),
and the Psalmist's complaint that his enemies came
about him like bees — a swarm, irritating him with wing
and sting. The tenth verse tells us the way in which
the injury was inflicted : there were stings in their tails.

(6) And in those days . . . — Translate, And in
those days men shall seek death, and shall not find it;
mid they shall yearn to die, and death flees from them.
The change of tense from the future ("shall seek —
shall yearn ") to the present (" death flees ") gives
graphic force to the description. Men will seek for
death in vain ; they will long to die, and lo ! death
is seen fleeing from them. We can see an age in
which death will be regarded as a sweet respite from
the tormenting trials of life: men will stretch out
their hands to death as to a welcome deliverer; but
behold ! death is seen fleeing from them. The word
translated " desire " in our English version is a strong
word ; it has been rendered vehemently desire : it is a
passionate longing, as the yearning of the soul after
one we love. There have been ages in which men have
thus pined for death, in which light and life seem but
mockeries to the miserable, and men "long for death.
but it cometh not j and dig for it more than for hid
treasures'' (Job iii. 20, -21). Such times are those
which have been well called reigns of terror.

(7) And the shapes . . . — Translate, And the
shapes (or, forms) of the locusts were like horses made

The Locusts sent forth

KEVELATION, IX.

to Torment Men.

the shapes of the locusts were like unto I
horses prepared unto battle ; and on
their heads were as it were crowns like j
gold, and their faces were as the faces
of men. (8) And they had hair as the
hair of women, and their teeth were as

the teeth of lions. <°> And they had
breastplates, as it were breastplates of
iron ; and the sound of their wings was
as the sound of chariots of many horses
running to battle. (10> And they had
tails like unto scorpions, and there were

ready for war. The resemblance of the locust to the
horse (especially in the head) has been remarked upon
by travellers, and has found expression in the Italian
and German names cavattetta and heupferd. The
resemblance is more distinct when the horses are made
ready for battle : the hard shell or scales of the locust
having' the appearance of armour. Hence it has been
thought that the sacred writer here alludes to this
horse-like appearance of the locust. It seems a little
doubtful that this is the case, or that in this or any of
the descriptions here there is any reference to the ana-
tomical features of the locust. (See Note on verse 10.)

And on their heads were as it were crowns
like gold, and their faces were as the faces of
men.- -Here again there has been a desire to find some
physical appearance in the locust to suggest the crown
of gold : the antennae, the rugged elevation in the
middle of the thorax, have been imagined to have some
resemblance to a crown ; and the face of the locust, it
has actually been said, bears under ordinary circum-
stances a distant (the adjective is most needful) resem-
blance to the human countenance.

(8) And they had hair . . .—Translate, And they
had hair as the hair of women, and their teeth were as
the teeth of lions, and they had breastplates as iron
'breastplates ; and the sound of their wings rvas as the
sound of chariots of (having, i.e., drawn by) many
horses, running to war. The hair : It is said that-
some locusts are hairy, and the passage in Jeremiah
(chap. li. 27) has been quoted as evidence (the rough
caterpillars here spoken of being said to be " locusts
bristling with hair "), but the application of the passage
is uncertain : the rough caterpillar may be the locust in
the third stage, when the wings are still enveloped in
rough horny cases which stick upon their backs. Others
think the idea of the woman -like hair has its basis in the
antlers of the locust. The teeth like those of the lion
is a description the origin of which is found in the
prophet Joel, in his prediction of the locust plague : " a
nation cometh upon my land, strong, and without num-
ber, whose teeth are the teeth of a lion, and he hath the
cheek-teeth (or, grinding-teeth) of a great lion." The
terrible destructiveness of the locusts, and their strong,
ceaseless, and resistless voracity, were thus described.
Their breastplates are taken as descriptive of their
thoraxes, which in the vision seemed strong as iron.
The comparison of the sound of the wings to the
thunderous sound of chariots and horses rushing
into battle is repeated from Joel ii.

(10) And they had tails . . .—Better, And they
have tails like to scorpions, and stings, and in their
tails is their power to hurt men five months. In this
verse the secret of their power is mentioned : they have
tails like scorpions' tails, and stings which wound and
so cause agony to men. On the period of five months,
see verse 5. In the exposition of this passage it is
utterly vain to look for features of the ordinary natural
locust corresponding to the several particulars set forth
by the sacred seer : this is admitted even by those who
seem anxious to find such counterparts. " We must
regard the comparison as rather belonging to the super-

natural portion of our description." The rule is a
good one. Like the description of the Divine Presence
in chap. 4, most of the visions of the book are in-
capable of pictorial realisation without incongruities
which would be grotesque and profane ; nor need we be
surprised, since the principles and truths are the main
points with the writer. This general rule must be kept in
mind if we would avoid the danger of dwelling too much
on the bearing of details. It is not in the locust that we
shall find even the suggestive basis of the details in the
description here. The smoke rises from the pit of the
abyss; the heaven is darkened, and out of the smoke
emerges the pitchy cloud of locusts. The seer then adds
certain characteristics of this locust plague, partly drawn
from the earlier prophets, but, as his custom is, with
some original additions. They are locusts, but they have
the malice of scorpions ; they advance like horse-soldiers
to battle ; they wear crowns ; they bear a resemblance to
men ; there is something womanlike also in their appear-
ance, and in their voracity they are as lions. The
exigencies of the symbolism are quite beyond the
features of the ordinary locust : the sacred writer
shows us a plague in which devastation, malice, king-
like authority, intelligence, seductiveness, fierceness,
strength, meet together under one directing spirit, to
torment men. Some parts may be purely graphic, as
Alford says, but surely the vision shows lis a great
symbolical army multitudinous as locusts, malicious
as scorpions, ruling as kings, intelligent as men,
wily as womanhood, bold and fierce as lions, resist-
less as those clad in iron armour. The symbolism of
course must not be pressed too closely, but its meaning
must be allowed to widen as new elements are added,
especially when those elements are not suggested by
anything in the locust itself, but are additions clearly
designed to give force to the symbol employed. The
locust - like army has characteristics partly human,
partly diabolical, partly civilised, partly barbarous.
They have been variously interpreted : the historical
school have seen in them the Saracens under Mohammed,
who gave to them a religion which was " essentially a
military system ; " others are inclined to refer them to
" the hordes of Goths and others whose unkempt locks
and savage ferocity " resemble this locust host. There
is a good ground for taking the vision to prefigure the
hosts of a fierce invading army. Even those who believe
that Joel's prophecy foretold a plague of literal locusts,
yet acknowledge that these "may in a subsidiary
manner " represent " the northern, or Assyrian enemies
of Judah " (Introduction to Joel, Speaker's Commen-
tary). But, as the writer there says, these were " them-
selves types of still future scourges ; " so may we see
here a vision which neither the history of the Zealots,
nor that of Gothic hordes, nor of Saracens, have ex-
hausted, but one which draws our thoughts mainly to
its spiritual and moral bearing, and teaches us that
in the history of advancing truth there will come times
wheal confused ideas will darken simple truth and
right, and out of the darkness will emerge strange and
mongrel teachings, with a certain enforced unity, but
without moral harmony, a medley of fair and hideous,

Their King is the A ngel

KEVELATION, IX.

of the Bottomless Pit.

stings in their tails : and their power
was to hurt men five months. (11) And
they had a king- over them, which is the
angel of the bottomless pit, whose name
in the Hebrew tongue is Abaddon, but

in the Greek tongue hath his name
Apollyon.1 (12) One woe is past; and,
behold, there come two Chap. ix. 13—
woes more hereafter, j*1/ The sixth
(1:i> And the sixth angel cond* woe.

reasonable and barbarous, dignified and debased, which
enslave and torment mankind. The outcome of these
teachings is oftentimes war and tyrannous oppression ;
but the sacred seer teaches us distinctly that those
who hold fast by the seal of God are those who canuot
be injured, for he would have us remember that the
true sting of false conceptions is not in the havoc of
open war, but in the wounded soul aud conscience.
Nor is it altogether out of place to notice (by way of
cue example) that the power of Mohammed was more
in a divided and debased Christendom than in his own
creed or sword; the smoke of ill-regulated opinions
and erroneous teachings preceded the scourge. Here,
as in other parts of the book, we may notice that subtle,
plausible errors pave the way for dire troubles and
often sanguinary revolutions. Falsehoods and false
worships that have been diffused over the world become
'" the forerunners and foretellers of a conflict between the
powers of good and evil." Yet as the trumpet sounds
we know that every battle is a step towards the end cf
a victorious war.

(n) And they had a king . . .—Better, They have
over them as king (not " the angel," as in English ver-
sion) an angel of the abyss; his name (is) in Hebrew
Abaddon, and in the Greek he has a name, Apollyon.
There is more than one point in which the seer wishes
us to mark the contrast between these symbolical and
the natural locusts. Locusts have no sting ; these have.
Locusts have no king (Prov. xxx. 27) ; these have a
king. The movements of the invading locusts are con-
ducted with wonderful precision and order, yet no
presiding monarch arranges their march; but here
there is a directing and controlling head. The great
movement is no mere undesigned or instinctive one,
but the offspring of a hidden, spiritual force. The
great battle is not on the surface only, the invasions,
revolutious, tyrannies, which try and trouble mankind,
involve spiritual principles, aud are but tokens of the
great conflict between the spirit of destruction and
the spirit of salvation, between Christ and Belial,
God and Mammon, the Priuce of this world and the
Prince of the kings of the earth. The king of these
locust hordes is named in Hebrew Abaddon, or Perdi-
tion, a name sometimes given to the place or abode of
destruction (Job xxvi. b). "Destruction (Abaddon)
hath no covering" — i.e., before God. (Comp. Prov. xv.
11). In Greek his name is Apollyon, or Destroyer:
The spirit of the destroyer is the spirit that inspires
these hosts. It is a great movement, but its end is
destruction, as its inspiring genius is from beneath, from
an angel of the nether world. It is not necessary for us to
seek some great historical personage for the fulfilment
of this portion of the prophecy, any more than we
ought to accept any great historical event as an
exhaustive fulfilment of the vision. The picture is
vivid and forcible, and its full and certain meaning will
be plain hereafter ; but it at least should draw our
minds from the curiosity which seeks for historical or

f)ersonal counterparts to the self -vigilance which fears
est our own spirit should be injured by the prevalence of
any form of evil. It should teach vis to remember always
the vehement, earnest way in which the sacred writers
describe the subtle, venomous power of all sin, and

53 o

the merciless destructiveness of its work. It is not
of any invading hosts, or signal and special forms of
evil, but of the terrible and usual influence of all sin,
that the Apostle St. Paul writes when he describes
the world-wide devastations of sin in language partly
borrowed from the Old Testament, but singularly re-
minding us of the vision before us. " There is none
that doeth good; no, not oue. Their throat is an
open sepulchre ; the poison of asps is upon their lips ;
their feet are swift to shed blood; destruction and
misery are in their ways; and the way of peace have
they uot known ; there is no fear of God before their
eyes " (Rom. iii. 12 — 18). It is perhaps well to notice
that at this fifth trumpet the unseen spiritual powers of
darkness appear taking part in the conflict. There is a
time when the obstinate resistance of mankind (yes,
and of individual men and women also) to better things
becomes fortified by an evil spirit, and they are no
longer passive resisters of good, but they become
active antagonists of good, hating and obscuring the
light of truth, and wounding the spirits and consciences
of men. Alas ! many walk of whom the Apostle could
only say with tears, " they are the enemies of the cross
of Christ " (the emblem of salvation), " aud whose end
is destruction " (Phil. iii. 18, 19).

(12) One woo is passed . . . — Better, The one
woe has passed ; behold there cometh (the verb is in the
singular) yet two woes after these things. Here is the
patience and faith of the saints. The troubles which
pass only yield place to more, the rest and the victory
are not yet; the powers of evil have not exhausted
themselves, the iniquity of the social and spiritual
Amorites is not yet full.

(!3) The Sixth Trumpet— the Second Woe
Trumpet. — The first point which will strike the reader
is that the plague under this trumpet resembles the
last, though it is one of much more aggravated nature.
Again we have vast hosts, with the powers of the horse,
the lion, and the viper, at command, but the destruc-
tive elements are increased, the multitudes are more
numerous, the horses' heads grow lion-like. With the
mouth breathing forth threatening and slaughter, as
well as with the tail armed with deadly fangs, they
can deal forth, not torment only, as in the last
vision, but death itself, to a vast proportion of
the human race. To aid in this new desolation new
forces are released: the four angels bound near the
Euphrates are loosed. The next point to notice is that,
even more directly than before, we are reminded that
the moral and spiritual aspect of these visions should
claim our thought. The aim of the plague is to exhibit
the death-working power of false thoughts, false
customs, false beliefs, and to rouse men to forsake the
false worships, worldliness, and self-indulgence into
which they had fallen (verses 20, 21). The Psalmist
has told us that great plagues remain for the ungodly.
Here, whatever special interpretations we may adopt,
is an illustration of the Psalmist's words. The enemy
against whom these foes are gathered is the great
world lost in false thoughts, luxurious ways, dishonest
customs ; that world which in the very essential genius
of its nature is hostile to goodness and the God of

The Sixth Ant

REVELATION, IX.

soundeth his Trumpet.

sounded, and I heard a voice from the
four horns of the golden altar which
is before God, <14> saying to the

I sixth angel which had the trumpet,
I Loose the four angels which are
| bound in the great river Euphrates.

goodness. But the hosts which come against this sin-
drowned world are not merely plagues, as famine and
pestilence, they are plagues which are the results of
the world-spirit, and are to a great extent, therefore, the
creation of those who suffer. For there are evils which
are loosed upon the world by the natural action of sin
and sinful customs. As the evil spirit mingled for the
first time in the plague of the fifth trumpet, so from all
quarters (typified by the four angels) new powers of
misery ai'ise. Nor must another feature be overlooked :
the historical basis of the Apocalypse is the past history
of the chosen people ; God's dealings with men always
follow the same lines. The Apocalypse shows us the
same principles working in higher levels and in wider
arena. The Israel of God, the Church of Christ, with
its grand opportunities, takes the place of the national
Israel. Its advance is against the world, and the
trumpets of war are sounded. Its progress is, like
Israel's, at first a success ; it gains its footing in the
world, but the world-spirit which infects it is its worst
and bitterest foe ; it becomes timid, and seeks false
alliances ; it has its Hezekiahs, men of astonishing
faith in hours of real peril, and of astonishing
timidity in times of comparative safety, who can defy
a real foe, but fall before a pretended ally, and who in
mistaken friendliness lay the foundation of more
terrible dangers (2 Kings xx. 12 — 19). The people
who are victorious by faith at Jericho lay themselves
open by their timid worldliness to the dangers of a
Babylonish foe. The plague which falls on the spirit
of worldliness does not spare the worldliness in the
Church. The overthrow of corrupted systems bearing
the Christian name is not a victory of the world over
the Church, but of the Church over the world. He
who mistakes the husk for the grain, and the shell for
the kernel, will despair for Christianity when organisa-
tions disappear ; but he who remembers that God is able
io raise up even of the stones children to Abraham, will
never be confounded ; he knows the vision may linger,
but it cannot come too late (Heb. ii. 3). With all this
section the prophecy of Habakkuk should be com-
pared, especially chaps, i. 6 — 11, 14, 15; ii. 1 — 14; iii.
17 — 19. The history of Israel is in much the key to
the history of the world.

And the sixth angel . . . .—Translate, And
the sixth angel sounded : and I heard a (single) voice
out of the (four) horns of the golden altar, which is
before God, saying to the sixth angel, him, who had the
trumpet (or, 0 thou, who hast the trumpet), Loose the
four angels which are bound a,t the great river
Euphrates. There are one or two verbal points worthy
of notice. The Sinaitic MS. omits the words " single "
and "out of the four horns," and thus reads, "I heard
a voice out of the golden altar." It Avas the same altar
from which the incense ascended mingled with the
prayers of the saints. (,See chap. viii. 3.) Where the
prayers were, thence the voice comes. It reminds us
that the prayers are not ineffectual, that still they are
heard, though the way of answering may be in strange
and painful judgments. The voice is heard as a single
voice out of the midst of the horns of the altar. It is
very doubtful whether the Avord "four" ought to be
retained. The voice is represented as rising from the
surface of the altar, at the corners of which were the

four projections known as horns. The command is
to loose the four angels bound at the Euphrates.
What are these ? Their number — -four — represents
powers influencing all quarters. They are angels (that
is, messengers, or agencies) employed for the purpose.
They are at or near the river Euphrates — that is, the
spot whence the forces would arise. What is meant by
the Euphrates ? Are we to understand it literally ?
This can hardly be, unless we are prepared to take
Babylon and Jerusalem literally also, and to deny all
mystical meaning ; but this is what only few will be
disposed to do. The two cities, Babylon and Jerusalem,
are the types of two radically different sets of ideas,
tAvo totally antagonistic views of life ; and the meaning
and mystical import of the River Euphrates must be
determined by its relation to these two cities. It has
been, indeed, argued that we are not bound to take the
name Euphrates mystically because the remainder of the
vision is mystical, since in Soripture we often find the
literal and the allegorical intermingled. For example,
there is an allegory in Ps. Ixxx. 8 and 11, " Thou
hast brought a vine out of Egypt," &c. It is quite
plain that the vine is used mystically to represent
Israel; but the word Egypt is not mystical — it
indicates the literal fact that out of Egypt Israel was
brought. This is no doubt true, but it hardly meets
the question here. No one will dispute that a distinct,
literal fact or name may be introduced in a passage
otherwise allegorical ; but do we ever meet with a
passage in which names of places are introduced, some
of wmch were to be taken literally and some mystically?
And such would be the case here. The whole tenor of
the Apocalypse keeps before us Jerusalem, the temple,
and its surroundings (chap. xi. 1, 8), and Babylon, with
its might and opulence, as two opposing cities ; and it
is out of all scriptural analogy to interpret Jerusalem
allegorically, and Babylon allegorically, and then to
claim the privilege of understanding Euphrates lite-
rally. In fact, the inconsistency and arbitrariness of
interpreters is tested by these three names, Babylon,
Jerusalem, Euphrates. Some will have Jerusalem to
be literal, and Babylon and Euphrates mystical ; others
will have Babylon mystical, and Jerusalem and
Euphrates literal. Surely those who hold all three to
be literal are more consistent. But if Babylon be
mystical and Jerusalem mystical, it is hard to see
why Euphrates should not be so also. I am far
from denying that those who consistently hold all
three to be literal may not be right. There are
not wanting tokens that a revival of the East
may change the whole political centre of gravity
of the Avorld; but no such literal fulfilment would
annul the infinitely more important mystical aspect of
the Apocalypse. The conflict between a literal Babylon
and a literal Jerusalem either in the past or the future
can never vie in interest with the prolonged and Avide-
spread conflict between the spirit of Christ and the
spirit of Belial, betAveen God and Mammon, which is
Avaged along the Avhole line of history over the arena of
the Avhole world, and plants its battle-ground in every
human heart. In every man, and in the Avhole world,
the war is waged, as the carnal and spiritual con-
tend with one another. It is in this war between the
mystical Jerusalem and the mystical Babylon that the
great river Euphrates is to play an important part.

Tke Four Angela which were

REVELATION, IX.

bound in the Euphrates loosed.

<15> And the four angels were loosed,
which were prepared for1 an hour,
and a day, and a month, and a year,
for to slay the third part of men.
<16> And the number of the army of the
horsemen were two hundred thousand

thousand : and I heard the number of
them. <17) And thus I saw the horses
in the vision, and them that sat on
them, having breastplates of lire, and
of jacinth, and brimstone : and the
heads of the horses were as the heads of

Twice (here and in chap. xvi. 12) the river Euphrates
appeal's, and each time in connection with some warlike
demonstration or invasion. The basis of interpretation,
as with Jerusalem and Babylon, must bo sought in the
history of Judah and Israel. Babylon is the great foe
of Israel, and the Euphrates was the great river or
flood which formed a natural boundary between them.
" The other side of the flood " (i.e., Euphrates) was the
phrase which pointed back to the early life of Abraham
before he had entered upon the life of pilgrimage and
faith ; the Euphrates was the rubicon of his spiritual his-
tory. The Euphrates was the great military barrier also
between the northern and southern nations ; it occupied
a place similar to the Rhine and the Danube in modem
history. The advance of the Egyptian army to the banks
of the Euphrates threatened the integrity of the Assyrian
empire (2 Kings xxiii. 29). The battle of Carchemish
established the supremacy of the Chaldean power to
the west of the Euphrates (2 Kings xxiv. 7); such a
preponderance of Babylonish influence threatened the
safety of Jerusalem. The loosing of the four angels
(or, powers) bound at the Euphrates can only signify
changes analogous to disturbances on the great frontier
line, as the drying up of the Euphrates signifies the
annihilation of the protecting boundary. Such a fron-
tier lino between the spiritual city and the world city
does in practice exist. There is a vast stretch of inter-
vening territory which neither the Church nor the world
really possesses, but over which each desires to possess
power. There is a great neutral zone of public opinion,
civilised habits, general morality, which is hardly
Christian, hardly anti-Christian. When Christianised
sentiments prevail in this, there is comparative peace,
but when this becomes saturated with anti-Christian
ideas, the Church suffers ; and it is out of this that the
worst aspects of trouble and danger arise ; for out of it
arise those forces which bring into acute form the great
war between the world spirit and the spirit of Christ.
The loosing of these four angels, then, seems to indicate
that the issues at stake have become more distinct ; that
the conflict which has gone on under veiled forms
begins to assume wider proportions and to be fought on
clearer issues. The issues have been somewhat con-
fused : the world spirit has crept into the Church, and
against the world spirit, wherever found, the trumpet
blast declares war.

(15) And the four angels . . .—Better, And there
were loosed the four angels who had been made ready
unto (or for, i.e., ready for) the (not " an hour," but the)
hour, and day, and month, and year, that they should
elay the third part of mankind. The English version
reads as though the hour, day, month and year were to
be understood as the length of time over which this
plague of war should last. This idea has been adopted
by many of the historical school of interpreters, and
groat ingenuity has been exercised to find some period
which exactly corresponds with this, and during which
disastrous wars prevailed. But the expression ("made
ready unto the hour," &c.) is not to be taken to imply
that such was the duration of the plague ; it implies
-that the loosing of the angels would take place at a

definite period, the year, month, day and hour of which
were known ; the expression corresponds somewhat
with our Lord's words, " Of that day and hour knoweth
no man." It reminds us that there is a period — an
unknown period, but nevertheless a certain period — at
which the latent powers of retribution wake and begin
to avenge themselves, at which the restraints which have
withheld the long-deserved scourges are removed.
Men and nations little think of this. Peace they cry,
where there is no peace, for they have been by their sins
mining the ground under their feet, or dwelling in that
abode of false security which Bunyan might have
called the city of Meanwell, and that abode is built on
the sands; and when the angels of judgment are loosed,
and the restraining influences of public opinion broken,
the tempest is abroad, the frail house of formal religion
falls, and the time of testing leaves its inmates un-
sheltered. Happy only are they who are ready for the
hour of the Lord's return. The angels are made ready
that they should kill the third part of mankind. The
way in which this slaughter is to take place is explained
in verses 17, 18 : it is a wide and devastating slaughter
carrying away a large portion of the human race.

(16) And the number . . . — Translate, And the
number of the armies of the cavalry was two myriads
of myriads. I heard the number of them. The writer
heard, perhaps from some herald angel, the number of
this vast army of horsemen ; it was twice ten-thousand
times ten thousand — i.e., two hundred millions. The
number is like an echo from Ps. lxviii. 17 — " The
chariots of God are twenty thousand (two myriads),
even thousands (or, thousands of thousands) of angels."
This utterly bewildering number might have been
sufficient to keep interpreters from looking for some
slavishly literal fulfilment : it simply stands for an
immense host, and may serve to point out the prolific
powers of retribution — the harvest of sin is misery,
multiplied thirty, sixty, one hundred-fold.

(17J And thus I saw . . . — Better, And after this
manner saw I the horses in the vision, and those who
sat upon them, having breastplates fiery and jacinth-
like, and brimstone-like, and the heads of the horses
were as heads of lions ; and out of their mouths goeth
forth fire and smoke and brimstone. The seer proceeds
to describe the general appearance of the horses and
horsemen. After this fashion were they : the horses and
horsemen were armed with breastplates of triple hue
(corresponding to the three-fold destructive stream
which goes forth from their mouth), the hues of flame,
and dark purple (jacinth), and brimstone. The jacinth
colour seems to be the dark purple or blue so often seen
in smoke. The Poet Laureate uses the word " azure " to
describe the colour of ascending columns of smoke
("azure pillars of the hearth arise to thee"): the
colour here would be darker, the smoke not arising
from peaceful dwellings, but generated among death-
giving elements. The army is mainly of horsemen, and
they are described as resolute and relentless : we are
reminded of somewhat similar features in the Chaldean
armies spoken of by Habakkuk, "I raise up the
Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation: they are

Tlie Third Fart of Men killed

EEVELATION, IX.

by the destroying Army.

lions; and out of their mouths issued
fire and smoke and brimstone. (18^ By
these three was the third part of men
killed, by the fire, and by the smoke,
and by the brimstone, which issued out
of their mouths. (19) For their power
is in their mouth, and in their tails :
for their tails ivere like unto serpents,
and had heads, and with them they do
hurt. (20) And the rest of the men

Pg. 115. 4;

16: Isa.46.1

10. 5 ; Dan.

which were not killed by these plagues
yet repented not of the works of their
hands, that they should not worship
devils, and idols of gold," and silver,
and brass, and stone, and of wood:
which neither can see, nor hear, nor
walk : (°) neither repented they of
their murders, nor of their sorceries,
nor of their fornication, nor of their
| thefts.

terrible and dreadful : their horses also are swifter than
leopards," &c. (Habak. i. 6— 10\

(18) By these three . . .—Better. From these three
plagues were the third part of mankind slain, by the
tire and the smoke and the brimstone which goeth forth
out of their mouths. For the power of the horse is in
their moidh, and in their tails, for their tails were like
serpents, having heads, and with them they hurt (or,
injure). The destructive power in this vision is in
mouth and tail, in the last trumpet-vision it was in the
tail only (verse 1'0). The devastating power is in-
creased; the foes come swift as horsemen, strong as
lions, venomous as serpents, breathing forth elements
that blind and burn with deadly power. We have, then,
forces which are mighty, malicious, and relentless, and
which are bidden forth against mankind for their sins of
worldliness. (See verses 20, 21.) It is not once only in
the history of the world that such powers have been let
loose. The desolations wrought by invading hordes —
the force and ferocity of Turkish power establishing
itself in Europe and threatening the power of Christen-
dom— the widespread terror and slaughter promoted by
the outbreak of the spirit of unrestrained violence in
France, followed by reckless war, may illustrate such
a vision as the present ; but the main teaching of it
is the never-failing truth that the spirit of worldliness
provokes its own punishment, wherever it may exist,
and its retribution is in a form which serves to reveal
what latent power of destruction lurks behind every
sin, and what hidden spiritual foes there are to intensify
human passions and to increase human misery.

(20, 21) And the rest . . .—Translate, And the rest
of mankind who were not slain in these plagues did
not even repent of (or, oid of — i.e., so as to forsake) the
works of their hands, that they should not worship the
demons (evil spirits), and the idols of gold, and of
silver, and of brass, and of stone, and of wood ; which
can neither see, nor hear, nor walk : and they did not
repent of (or, out of) their murders, nor of (or, oid of)
their sorceries, nor out of their fornication, nor out of
their thefts. These verses make one or two points
clear. First, they show us that, whatever the nature of
the plagues might be, they were afflictions designed to
bring about repentance, and to rouse men, whether
nominally Christian or not, from the lethargy into
which long indulged sin had plunged them. Those
terrible revolutions which are the growth of years, and
which startle men with their apparent suddenness and
violence, are the great appeals of God, asking men to
see the meaning of sin ; they are the trumpet blasts
falling to repentance. But we are told more: the
remainder of the godless did not repent. We are
not, indeed, told that they did not feel terror, or
remorse, or momentary qualms and misgivings, but
that they did not show that which alone is re-
garded as genuine repentance, the repentance out

of sin, the repentance which turns away from sin.
We need always that wholesome caution. We need it
most in times when hysterical and emotional religionism
is fashionable, and it is forgotten that true repentance is
a repentance whereby we forsake sins. These men re-
pented not out of their sin. And their sins are enume-
rated, and the enumeration again takes us back to the
history of Israel as to the historical basis which the sacred
seer enlarged and vivified; for the sins are just those
against which Israel was warned and into which Israel
fell (Deut. iv. 28; Ps. cvi. 34—40 ; Acts vii. 41). The
sins are demon-worship and idolatry : " They served
idols ; they sacrificed their sons and their daughters
unto devils." (Comp. 1 Cor. x. 20 ; 1 Tim. iv. 1.) It
is needful to trace these sins in the history of Israel, as
it has been argued that these are heathen sins, and that,
therefore these plagues must be plagues which fall on
those who are literally heathens. But if we bear in
mind that the series of visions describe features which
will accompany the advance of Christianity in the
world, we shall remember that it is against worldliness,
wherever found, idolatries, of whatever kind, murders
and thefts, called by whatever name, that the true
genius of Christianity makes war. Christ is king, and
king of righteousness, and in righteousness does He-
make war, and the heathenisms which are called
Christianity are as much the objects of His displeasure
as the most obvious Paganism. It is needful to re-
member that Jews are addressed as if they were
heathen, aye, very habitues of Sodom (Isa. i. 10), and
that the Christian Church is warned against sins-
which are little else than idolatries. Covetousness, the-
very essence of worldliness, is by St. Paul twice over-
called idolatry (Col. iii. 5, and JEph. v. 5). It seemsr
therefore, to be foreign to the purpose to try and limit
these plagues only to the non-Christian world. To do
this is to get a narrow, improbable (may we not say an
impossible ?) interpretation ; for the greatest strength
of the world-power would be left untouched. It isr
true that the visions are not showing us the plagues
which fall on apostasy and fornication within the
Church ; but it is true that we are beholding visions
which show how terribly the world-spirit avenges itself
on all who harbour it, whether called Christian or not.
Gross sins, gigantic frauds, complacent familiarity
with crime, followed by blunted moral sense, are
heathenish, whether found in Pagan or Christian
society. Heavy woes must inevitably await the society
which tolerates such works ; but the worst omen of the
coming doom is seen when society has lost the power
to repent because it has lost the power to hate evil.
Such an incapacity is invariably significant of advanced
moral decay. It is the climax in the growth of sin
which the Psalmist noticed where men lose the sacred
abhorrence of evil (Ps. xxxvi. 4). To such repentance
is becoming impossible.

Vision of the Angel

BEVELATION, X.

with, the Little Booh.

CHAPTER X.— W And I saw another
Chap. x. 1—11. mighty angel come down
The little book, from heaven, clothed with
a cloud : and a rainbow was upon

his head, and his face was as it were
the sun, and his feet as pillars of
fire : W and he had in his hand a
little book open : and he set his right

The Interposed Visions. The Witness
against Evil (chaps, x. 1 — xi. 14.) — As between
the opening of the Sixth and seventh seals there was
interposed a two-fold vision — the sealing of the
hundred and forty-four thousand and the glimpse
of the great multitude (chap, vii.) — so is a two-
fold vision interposed here between the sounding of
the sixtli and seventh trumpets. The similarity of
situation of these interposed visions (episodes, as they
have not very accurately been called) suggests that
there must be some corresponding value in their inter-
pretation. This appears to be found in the answer to
the question which rises spontaneously as the visions of
the seals and of the trumpets draw to a close. We
see the scenes which the seals disclose, and we learn
tow war, pestilence, death, persecution, revolution, are
to continue, and we ask. What becomes of the Church,
the bride of Christ? Where are the true servants of
God during these trials ? We are answered by the
interposed visions of the seventh chapter that they are
sealed, and they will be safe. Similarly, the scenes dis-
closed by the trumpets are spread before us, and we see
the features which mark the advance of Christianity in the
world ; we see the pain, the confusion, the devastations
and slaughters, the bringing to light of hidden evils,
which are the necessary accompaniments of this pro-
longed war ; we see, as it were, amid smoke and flame
.and sword, the advancing and receding line of battle, and
we learn that the powers of evil are subtle and self-
multiplying, and, like the dragon in the den of error,
leap into new and multiform life, though smitten by
the sword of the Red Cross Knight. And amid these
confusions of war we almost lose sight of the Church, or
gain only a few hints which show that she is notunharme'd
in the conflict ; and again the question is forced from us,
What becomes of the Church, the bride of Christ?
Where is her work and the tokens of her advance?
To this the interposed visions of the present section are
designed to give an answer ; and that answer is again
a reminder to us that the work of God in the world is
not work on the surface of history merely : the waves
■ratch the eye, and men measure progress by the force
»f these, but the ebb of the tide is unseen. So also is
there a work of God which is more potent than the
conspicuous work on which men love to look. The
work of the Church is not to be measured by results
now. It does achieve results, but her best work is the
work of which she knows not now but will know after*
Avards ; and there is a Church within the Church
which is carrying on this work. There are witnesses of
God against the beast-power and the world-power, who,
though persecuted, are faithful — though dying, live —
though chastened, are not killed ; who, through evil re-
port and good report, triumph over faithlessness and fear.

The interposed vision is two-fold. In the first part,
contained in chap, x., another mighty angel descends
with a little book open in his hand. This book the
-acred seer, as the type of all those who will witness
truly for God in the world, is commanded to eat ; from
sweetness it turns to bitterness, in token that the very
fidelity and love he had to God would be the occasion
of sorrow, for he would have to be the witness of

unpalatable truths to the potentates of the earth; but
he has heard celestial thunders, and he knows that the
end and victory an; near. Such is the preparation of
him who will be a true witness for Christ when many
false witnesses and false Christs are abroad. The
second part expands the same thought under different
imagery. There is a holy of holies in the Church,
where the true witnesses are lightened with celestial
fire for their work of noble peril.

First Scene of the Interposed Vision.

(1,2) And I saw . . .-Translate, And I saw
another mighty angel descending out of the heaven,
clothed with a cloud, and the (not "a ") rainbow upon his
head, and his face as the sun, and his feet as pillars of
fire, and having in his hand a little book (or, roll) open.
Many have thought that this angel can be none other
than Clu'ist Himself. It must be acknowledged that
the description is such that we might well hesitate to
apply it to any but our Lord; but, nevertheless, the words,
"another mighty angel," afford serious difficulty. Our
Lord might indeed appear as an angel, but it is scarcely
conceivable that He would be called ''another mighty
angel : " an expression which seems to associate this angel
with those others who have taken part in these visions.
Remembering this, we must separate from our thoughts
the idea of personal angelic beings. Such are employed
by God, but in the mechanism of these visions the
angels are not necessarily such, any more than the stars
are literal stars : they are typical, representative angels,
as we speak of the Angel of Peace, the Angel of War ;
so we have the Angels of Time, of Death, of Life, as
in the Apocalypse. Tho angel here, even if he does not
represent Christ Himself, descends with the evidences
of Christ's power. He comes to remind the secret
ones of God that Christ is with them always, and that
He will not hide His commandments from those who
are living as strangers and pilgrims upon earth (Ps.
cxix. 19; 1 Pet. ii. 11) ; for he bears a little book open
in his hand. The value of this vision is best seen by
calling to mind tho vision of the Fifth Trumpet. There,
for the first time, the plagues seemed to gather super-
natural power : the key of the abyss was given to tho
star that fell, and the locust host were led by the angel
of the abyss. As an answer to this comes this angel,
bearing the witnesses of Christ's power. When tho
troubles come that darken and confuse, the messenger
from heaven will come to give light, teaching, and
strength to the faithful — so does this angel first give
assurance of the power of Christ. He comes clothed
with a cloud, the token always of the Divine Presence
(Ex. xiii. 21; Ezek. i. 4; Matt, xvii. 5; Acts i. 9).
The, not "a" rainbow, but the rainbow (i.e., the rainbow
of chap. iv. 3), the token of covenant and of love,
glowed round Ins head ; his face, like Moses', had
caught the unutterable light, the sun-like light of Christ's
presence (chap. i. 16); and his feet were like pillars of
fire to tread the earth, strong in the power of purification
and judgment. Some call this the Angel of Time, because
of his utterance in verse 6; but is it not rather the typical
representative of the Angel of the New Testament,
coming witli the1 tokens of covenant truth, and power
and love ? He had in his hand a little book open. Our

581

Seven Thunders

KEVELATIOK X.

utter their Voices..

foot upon the sea, and Ms left foot on
the earth, (3) and cried with a lond
voice, as when a lion roareth : and when
he had cried, seven thunders uttered
their voices. (4,) And when the seven

thunders had uttered their voices, I
was about to write : and I heard a voice
from heaven saying unto me, Seal up
those things which the seven thunders
uttered, and write them not. W And

memories are carried back to the other book, or roll, dis-
played in chap. v. 1 — 5, and two contrasts strike us : that
roll, or book, was sealed, and none were found worthy
to open it; this book is open — -that book was larger;
this one being described as a small book. Do these
contrasts help us to the meaning? One thing they
seem to tell us : the book contains none of those secret
things which were the contents of the former book.
The closed, sealed book pointed to the hidden springs
of future history ; this points to what is open to all.
That book was comparatively large, and rilled with
writing, as the visions of oncoming history were great ;
this book is small, and contains what all may master.
These considerations forbid the idea that the book is a
repetition in brief of what was in the scaled book, " or
that it was the revelation of some remaining pro-
phecies," or of some " portion or section of prophecy."
The vision is a representation that he who comes armed
with the witnesses of Christ's presence comes also
with that ever open proclamation of God's love and
righteousness. The little open book is that gospel
which is the 6word of the Spirit, the weapon of the
Church, that Word of God open to all, hidden only
from those whom the god of this world hath blinded.
The fallen powers may bear the key and let loose
darkening clouds of confused thought and unworthy
teaching ; the outer courts of the Church may be over-
cast : but unto the upright there ariseth light in the
darkness, and God's Word has risen with new light and
power upon the bewilderments and glooms of the age.
" Three books are associated in the Apocalypse. The
first is the book of the course of this world (chap. v.
1) ; .• . . the last is the Book of Life (chaps, xx. 15 ; xxi.
27) . . . : between these two comes " another book,
which is the link between the other two, the ever
open book of God's promises and the witness of
God's righteousness and power. Elliott regarded this
little roll as the Bible opened anew to mankind at the
period of the Reformation. The period affords many
magnificent illustrations of the vision, but it does not
exhaust its truth, since in every age the reverent study
of the Word of God has given freshness and strength
to forgotten truths, and has saved men from the bondage
of traditional notions. From among such students have
arisen God's witnesses.

And he set . . .—The attitude of the angel, with
one fiery foot planted on the sea and the other on the
land, is that of a conqueror taking possession of the
whole world. There is a power, then, by which the
Church and children of God may possess the earth.
It is not the power of pride or worldliness. The true
weapons are not carnal : the sword of the Spirit is the
word of God, and the meek-spirited (meek to be taught
and meek in life) shall possess the earth.

P) And cried with a loud voice . . .—Better,
and he cried with a loud voice, even as a lion roareth.
Another token of the presence of Christ with the
Church. The voice is the voice of a courage and
strength derived from Him who is the " Lion of the
tribe of Judah."

And when he had cried . . .—Translate, and
when he cried, the seven thunders (notice, not " seven

thunders," but " the seven thunders ") spake their own
voices. The thunders are called the seven thunders to
bring them before us as another order of sevens, and
into harmony with the seven seals, the seven trumpets,
the seven vials. Thus we have four sets of sevens. It
was not a seven-fold peal of thunder, but seven
thunders, which spake forth distinctly their own voices.
This marked language brings the seven thunders,
though their utterances arc never revealed, into pro-
minence as a portion of the Apocalyptic system. But
what were these thunders ? Were they more terrible
judgments still? and did the sealing of them signify
the shortening of the days of judgment, as Christ
had said (Matt. xxiv. 22) ? It may be so. One thing
seems certain — the guesses which have been hazarded
(such as that they are identical with the trumpets ; that
they are the seven crusades) can hardly be admitted.
Whatever they were, they were perfectly intelligible to
the Evangelist. He was on the point of writing down
their utterances. Will this fact help us to understand
the general object of their introduction here ?

W And when the seven . . .—Translate, And
when the seven thunders spoke, I was about to write :
and I heard a voice out of the heaven, saying, Seal up
the things ivhich the seven thunders spoke, and write
them not. He could have written down their utter-
ances. It was no mere thunder-like sound he heard :
the thunders spoke ; and he would have continued his
writing as he had been commanded (chap. i. 11) had
not the voice out of heaven forbidden him. The
utterances, then, are for those who hear them ; they are
not to be made generally known. Is it not the solemn,
sacred, divine voice not to be known by all, but by
those who have ears to hear when " the God of glory
thundereth ? " " Lo ! He doth send forth His voice,
yea, and that a mighty voice " (Ps. Ixviii. 33). Man-
kind may hear the thunder ; only those whose ears
God has opened can hear the utterances and the in-
spiriting messages which they bring. So was it once
in our Lord's life. The people said it thundered ; some
thought an angel spake; but there were articulate
words which He who came to do God's will, in whose
heart was God's law, heard, and to Him that thunder-
like voice promised to " glorify His name " (John xii.
28, 29). Similarly here, the Evangelist (who is in this
but a type of the true witnesses for God), who is to
prophecy before peoples and kings (verse 11), hears
words spoken by the divine voice which make him
strong for his mission. It is so evermore. Dull ears
there are who hear thunder, but never God's voice ;
dim eyes there are which see no trace of the divine
craftsman in all nature, though

" Earth 's crammed with God,
And every common bush aglow with Him."

The thunders are not to be written down ; they are for
those who have ears to hear.

(5—7) And the angel . . .—Translate, And the angel
whom I saw standing upon the sea and upon the earth
lifted his right hand to the heaven, and swore in (or,
by) Him who liveth unto the ages of the ages, who created
the heaven, and the things in it, and the earth, and the-

The Seer is commanded

REVELATION, X.

to eat the Little Book.

the angel which I saw stand upon the
sea and upon the earth lifted up his
hand to heaven, <G) and svvare by him
that liveth for ever and ever, who
created heaven, and the things that
therein are, and the earth, and the
things that therein are, and the sea,
and the things which are therein, that
there should be time no longer : <7) but
in the days of the voice of the seventh
angel,- when he shall begin to sound,
the mystery of God should be finished,

as he hath declared to his servants the
prophets. (8) And the voice which I heard
from heaven spake unto me again, and
said, Go and take the little book which is
open in the hand of the angel which
standeth upon the sea and upon the
earth. <9> And I went unto the angel,
and said unto him, Give me the little
book. And he said unto me, Take it,"
and eat it up ; and it shall make thy
belly bitter, but it shall be in thy mouth
sweet as honey. <10) And I took the

things in it, and the sea, and the things in it, that time
(i.e., delay, or postponement) should no longer be : but
in the days of the voice of the seventh angel, whenever
lie is aboid to sound (his trumpet) was finished the
mystery of God, as he evangelised his servants the
prophets. There is a change of tense which sounds
strange : he says, then (not "will be," but) was finished.
In thought he hurries on to the end, and sees the close
no longer in the dim future, but as, with the eye of
God, an accomplished fact. The certainty is guaran-
teed with an oath. The gesture of the uplifted hand
to give emphasis to the oath is of ancient date. Thus
Abraham expressed his resolution to take none of the
spoils of the conquered kings : " I have lift up mine
hand unto the Lord . . . that I will not take from a
thread to a shoelatchet " (Gen. xiv. 22 ; coinp. Ex. vi.
8, margin). So, too, does the man clothed in linen
(Dan. xii. 6 — 9, a passage which, in much, is the
foundation of the one before us) lift up both hands
and sware that there shall be a fixed period for the ac-
complishment of the scattering of the power of the
holy people. The oath in the passage under con-
sideration is to the effect (not that time should cease
and eternity begin, but) that there shall be no longer
any delay. The suffering saints had cried, " How
long?" (chap. vi. 9 — 11), and they had been bidden
to wait a little time. Now the close of all such
waiting time is announced : when the seventh trumpet
shall have blown the mystery of God will be finished.
" ' The mystery of God ' does not mean something
which cannot be understood or explained. It is never
applied to such matters, for example, as the origin
of evil, or the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity. It
does mean a secret ; but then a secret may be told,
and when told is no mystery. The mystery, or secret,
of God means, therefore, the whole of His plan and of
His counsel concerning this earth in its present state
of discipline and of imperfection ; all that God means
to do upon it and towards it, even till that which we
read of as the time of the end (Dan. xii. 4 — 9), the
close of this last dispensation, and the introduction of
that new heavens and new earth wherein dwelleth
righteousness" (Dr. Vaughan). No wonder, as he
announced this fast approaching close of the ages of
suffering and trial, he should add, " According as He (not
"declared " — an utterly inadequate word — but) evange-
lised— i.e., according to the glad tidings which He had
ever proclaimed to and by His servants the prophets."

A somewhat remarkable parallelism between this
passage and 1 Cor. xv. 51, 52, has been pointed out. In
both passages there is reference to the myste-nj, the
glad tidings, and the last (the seventh trumpet is also
the last) ti-umpet. This harmony of reference — taken
in connection with St. Paul's statement, " We shall not

all sleep, but we shall all be changed" — is full of
interest, if it were for nothing more than to notice the
union of thought between the two Apostles; but it
may also throw light upon the teaching respecting the
first resim-ection (chap. xx. 5, 6 ; but see Note there).

(8, 9) And the voice . . .—Translate, And the voice
ivhich I heard out of the heaven (I heard it) again
talking with me (it is not the angel that speaks, but the
voice which had bidden him seal up the thunders is
heard again speaking), and saying, Go, take the roll
(or, the little roll; there is a difference in the MSS.)
which is opened in the hand of the angel who stands
upon the sea and upon the earth. And I went away to
the angel, telling him to give me the little book. And
he saith to me, Take and eat it up ; and it shall make
bitter thy belly, but in thy mouth it shall be sweet as
honey. The image of eating the roll is derived from
the Old Testament. We meet with it in Ezekiel (chap,
iii. 1 — 3) and Jeremiah (chap. xv. 16). The passage in
Ezekiel is probably the basis of the present passage,
and the chapter in which it occurs gives us the meaning
of the symbol : the eating of the roll, or the words of
the roll, is the complete mastering of the contents of
the book — the digesting, as we say, its meaning, till
the principles and truths are thoroughly familiar and
loved. " All my words " (so runs the explanatory verse,
Ezek. iii. 10) " that I shall speak unto thee receive in
thine heart and hear with thine ears." It 'is similar
to the Psalmist's practice : " Thy words have I hid
within my heart ; " he made himself so familiar with
them that they were no longer a code of laws, but a
constant instinct, a second nature to him. Thus pre-
eminently should he be familiar with his Master's
words and heart, saturated with his Master's principles,
who is to be a witness and a prophet for his Lord.
" He who would carry God's words to another must
first be impressed and penetrated with them himself. He
must not only hear, read, mark, and learn, but also (ac-
cording to the Scriptural figure) inwardly digest them."

(10) And I took. . .—The Evangelist takes the roll,
as he was bidden, out of the angel's hand, eats it up, and
finds it, as he was told, " in his mouth as honey, sweet."
In this his experience resembles that of Ezekiel, who
found the roll in his mouth as honey for sweetness
(Ezek. iii. 3). So the Psalmist could rejoice in God's
words and God's law as sweet, sweeter than honey and
the honeycomb (Pss. cxix. 103, and xix. 10). He who is
ready to endure bitterness in his fidelity to God must
not only be interpenetrated by divine teaching; he
must have also realised its sweetness, or else, however
pleasant his words may sound, they will lack the sweet-
ness which is as needful to the words of the teacher as
to the songs of the poet. But the after effect of the
sweet-tasting roll is bitterness. Ezekiel makes no

58a

Tlie Seer eateth up

REVELATION, XL

the Little Book.

little book out of the angel's hand, and
ate it up ; and it Avas in my mouth
sweet as honey : and as soon as I
had eaten it, my belly was bitter.
<a) And he said unto me, Thou
must prophesy again before many

peoples, and nations, and tongues, and
kings.

CHAPTEE XL— (D And there was
given me a reed like unto chap. xi. 1— 14
a rod : and the angel Tiie witnesses.

mention of this bitterness ; yet we know how much
his fidelity to the words he loved so well must have
cost him when he was bidden to arm himself with a
flinty determination (Ezek. iii. 9 — 14, and ii. 6, 7), and
the patient courage of one whose lot was among thorns
and briars and scorpions. It must always be so. The
love of Christ may constrain men, but the very ardour
of their affections must bring them through tribulation,
and may make them as outcasts, defamed, persecuted,
slain. The flaming zeal to emancipate mankind from
thraldoms, follies, and ruinous sins may stir the soul
with a holy joy ; but there come moments when men
are almost tempted to turn back, and to think that they
have undertaken a hopeless task, when they find how
slow is their progress, and what new and unexpected
difficulties arise. Such was the bitterness which Moses
felt : " Why is it that Thou hast sent me ? For since I
came to Pharaoh to speak in Thy name, he hath done
evil to this people; neither hast Thou delivered thy
people at all." The most enthusiastic souls who love
their fellow-men, and who feel how sweet and high is
their calling, perhaps feel most of this bitterness.
Their very love makes all failure very bitter to bear ;
yet is it through this martyrdom of failure that the
noblest victories ai*e won.

(X1) And he . . .—Better, And they (not " he," as
in the English version, but they say : an equivalent for
"It was said,") say to me, Thou must again prophesy
concerning (or, with regard to) peoples, and % lions,
and tongues, and kings many. He is told that the
bitterness will arise in connection with his prophecies
with regard to peoples and kings. This carries us on 1
to the vision in the next chapter,- where the two wit- '
nesses stand so solitary, and prophesy so mightily, yet
so vainly, among men. He will have to tell the story
of churches and peoples, priests and princes, unmindful
of their high calling and their allegiance to their true
king, and of their hatred of God's mightiest and purest
witnesses. The end, indeed, will come. The Church
will be victorious. The kingdoms of this world will
become the kingdoms of Christ : but it will be through
persecutions, apostacies, judgments. This is the sad
vision he must describe. The interposed visions will
answer the question, " What has the Church been
doing ? " but it will show how she has done that work,
distressed by heresies, crippled by worldliness, trodden
down by enemies, and, worse than enemies, foes veiled
as friends. But this very vision will lead to the un-
folding of the more truly spiritual aspects of the
Church's work, and of that conflict in which she con-
tends with the multiform spirit and power of evil.
Thus will he prophesy of peoples and kings many.

XI.

The Second Part of the Interposed Vision.
The Measuring op the Temple ; the Two
Witnesses ; the Earthquake.

The Measuring of the Temple. — We enter
upon the second part of the interposed vision. The
Temple proper is secured. The measuring signifies its

protection from profanation ; the otiter court given to
the Gentiles indicates that practical heathenism and
corruption have invaded the Church ; against corruptions
and profanities, witnesses, who draw their strength from
divine help, are raised up to protest. Their power is
great, though their witness is disregarded; for their
influence outlasts their life, and their words avenge
themselves on their adversaries ; rejected reformation
re-appears as revolution. The vision therefore declares
that, whatever corruptions invade the Church, the kernel
of the Church will never be destroyed, but out of it will
arise those who will be true to the Master's commission,
and whose woi'ds will never be void of power.

Such seems to be the general drift of this chapter.
It is stated thus briefly and simply that it may be
kept in mind as a leading idea in the comments
which follow, and because the chapter is generally re-
garded as one of the most difficult in the book. On
the relation between the allusions to the Temple in this
chapter and the date of the book, see Introduction.
It is perhaps well to remember that, as we have taken
Jerusalem and Babylon as symbolical names, and not
necessarily the literal Jerusalem and the literal Baby-
lon, so the Temple and the court of the Temple are to
be understood as symbols. The gospel has elevated
the history and places of the past into a grand allegory,
and breathed into their dead names the life of an ever-
applicable symbolism. (See Introduction, On the
General Meaning and Practical Value of the Book.)

(!) And there was . . .—Translate, And there
was given to me a reed like a rod (we must omit the
words " and the angel stood "), saying. It is not
said by whom the reed was given, nor are we told
who speaks the command. The whole transaction is
impersonal. The reed, like a measuring rod, is given
him, and at the same time the command is given to
arise and measure the Temple, and the altar, and them
that worship in the Temple. Here, again, we find the
basis of the vision in the Old Testament. Ezekiel was
brought, in vision, to a high mountain, and saw a man
with a line of flax (for measuring long distances) and a
measuring line (for shorter distances). But, more pro-
bably, the vision of Zechariah was in the seer's mind
(Zech. ii. 1, 2), for the vision there of the man with the
measuring rod to measure Jerusalem is followed, in the
fourth chapter (Zech. iv. 1 — 6), by the vision of the two
olive-trees, which are distinctly identified with the two
witnesses in the present chapter (see verses 3, 4). The
Temple, altar, and worshippers are to be measured. The
measuring implies the protecting of, or the token of a
resolve to protect, a portion of the sacred enclosure
from desecration. The measuring, like the sealing of
chap, vii., is a sign of preservation during impending
dangers. To understand what is thus measured out for
protection we must remember that there are two Greek
words which are rendered Temple : the one (hieron)
signifies " the whole compass of the sacred enclosure,
including the outer courts, porches, porticoes, and other
buildings subordinated to the Temple itself;" the other
{naos) is the Temple itself, the house of God, the Holy

584

fie is commanded

KEVELATION, XL

to Measure the Temple.

stood, saying, Eise, and measure the
temple of God, and the altar, and
them that worship therein. (2) But
the court which is without the temple

1 Gr. cast out.

leave out,1 and measure it not; for it
is given unto the Gentiles : and the
holy city shall they tread under foot
forty and two months. (3) And I will

and Holy of Holies. When it is said that Christ taught
the people in the Temple, the first of these words is
used ; and it may be supposed that in one of the
porches or courts of the sanctuary our Lord carried on
His teaching. But when Zacharias is described as
going into the Temple, the word is the second (naos),
for he went into the Temple proper, and left the
people in the outer court, or court wherp the brazen
altar stood. It is the second of these words which is
used here : tho Temple proper, the naos, the house of
God, is measured, together with the altar. We are not
told which altar is intended. It is at least too hasty to
say that it must be the altar of incense, as this alone
was in the Temple proper ; for the explicit direction to
measure the altar sounds like an extension of the
measured area, and may perhaps mean that some
portion of the court reserved for Israel is to be in-
cluded in the measurement. The next verse, however,
seems to imply that every spot outside the Temple
proper was given up to the Gentiles, and was not to be
measured. It is perhaps wisest, therefore, not to settle
too definitely. The gist of the measurement is the
preservation of the true, invisible Church, the Church
within the Church; and everything necessary to the
worship — Temple, altar, worshippers — all are reserved.
There will always be the real and the conventional— the
true and tho formal Christian ; always those who
profess and call themselves Christians, and those who
hold the faith in unity of spirit, in the bond of peace,
and in righteousness of life. These last are the called
and chosen and faithful (Rev. xvii. 14), the sealed who
dwell in the secret place of the Most High, and find
therefore their safe lodging in the night of danger
under the shadow of the Almighty (Ps. xci. 1 ; conip.
also the whole Psalm, especially verses 4, 5, and 9 — 13).
(2) But the court . . .—Translate, And the court
which is outside the Temple cast out, and measure not
it; because it was given to the nations (Gentiles) : and
they shall tread down the holy city forty and two
months. The outer court — meaning, perhaps, all that
lies outside the Temple itself — is to be omitted. A
strong word is used; the words " leave out" are far too
weak. He is not only not to measure it, but he is, in a
sort, to pass it over, as though reckoned profane. The
reason of this is that it was given to the Gentiles.
Our Lord had said that Jerusalem should be trodden
down of the Gentiles (Luke xxi. 24); the sacred seer
catches the thought and tho deeper significance. There
is a treading down worse than that of the conqueror.
It is the treading under of sacred things when the
beast-power, or the world-power in men, tramples, like
the swine, the pearls of grace under their feet, and
turns fiercely upon those who gave them. Such an
experience must the Church of Christ undergo. The
shrine shall be safe, but the spirit of the nations,
though nominally Christian, will be the spirit of
Gentilism, worldliness, and even of violence. In the
outer court of Church life there will be " the ebbing
and flowing mass," who " sit in ihe way of knowledge,"
who " stand idle in the market-place," who have no oil
in their lamps, and who indirectly pave the way for
utter worldliness and practical heathenism. But there
is a limit to this desecration : forty and two months it
is to last. Tho same length of time is expressed in

53*

different forms throughout the book. Sometimes w<
i have twelve hundred and sixty days, as in verse 3 and
. in chap. xii. 6; at another time forty-two months, a
here and in chap. xiii. 5. A similar period seems to be
meant in chap. xii. 14, where a time, times, and half a
time is probably a way of expressing three years and a
half ; all three forms describe periods of the same
length — not, of course, necessarily the same period.
The idea is taken from Daniel, who uses such and
similar expressions (Dan. vii. 25, and xii. 7, 11). This
incorporation of the expressions used by Daniel is one
of those hints which remind us that the laws and prin-
ciples of God's government are the same in all ages : so
that the principles which receive illustration in one set
of historical events are likely to receive similar illustra-
tions in after times ; and that the prophecies of one era
may contain seeds of fulfilments which spring to fruit
hi more than one age. Thus the words of Daniel were
not exhausted in the age of Antiochus, nor the visions
of the Apocalypse in the overthrow of any one nation
or the corruptions of any one Church. So much may
this constantly-recurring period of three years and a
half, or forty-two mouths, or twelve hundred and sixty
days, teach us. It is not needful, then, to take the
period as an exact literal period. It is true that there
have been some remarkable historical periods of this
length, which various schools of interpreters have
pointed out as the fulfilment of these prophecies ; hut
there have been also remarkable blunders on the part of
those who, forgetful of Christ's own warning, have tried
to predict the year when certain prophecies will receive
their accomplishments. It is true, also, that the future
may bring us further light, and enable us to understand
these descriptions of time better ; but for the present,
the period of forty and two months, the equivalent of
three years and a half (the half of seven, the complete
and divine number), is the symbol of a period limited in
length, and under the control of Him who holds the seven
stars and lives through the ages. It is the pilgrimage
period of the Church, the period of the world's power,
during which it seems to triumph ; but the period of sack-
cloth (see verse 3) and of suffering will not last for ever.

en of this
I quote this that none
no satisfactory solution is

5S5

(3-u) The Two Witnesses. — It is the opinion
of one able and pre-eminently painstaking common
tator that " no solution has ever been gi
portion of the prophecy."
may be disappointed when
given here; further light in the knowledge of the
Bible, and the light of history, and, above all, the
aid of the Holy Spirit, may show what the real solu-
tion is. At present it is best to lay down the lines
which seem to lead in the direction of such a solution.
First, the aim of the present vision must be kept in
mind ; and secondly, the vision in Zechariah (chap, iv.,
all), on which this is professedly built, must be remem-
bered. Now the aim of our present vision seems to be
to explain that in the great progress towards victory
the Church itself will snffer through corruptions and
worldliness, but that the true Temple — the kernel, so to
speak, of the Church— will be unharmed and kept safe
in her Master's hands. But the position of this hidden
and enshrined Church will not be one of idle security;
in that Temple will be reared in secret, as the rightful

Power given unto

BEVELATION, XI.

the Two Witnesses.

give poiver unto my two witnesses, and
they shall prophesy 1 a thousand two
hundred and threescore days, clothed

or, / wni gi J m sackcloth. (*) These are the two
;;:'.'","'///:/;"/;;,",;' olive trees," and the two candlesticks
ZVTtn,vi4. i standing before the God of the earth.

king Josiah was, those who will witness undaunted and
nndefiled for their Lord ; throughout the whole of that
chequered period of profanation and pain there will
never be wanting' true witnesses for righteousness and
faith. To assure the sacred seer that this would be the
case, to exhibit the nature of their work and its results,
is the apparent aim of the vision. If this be so, the
witnesses can scarcely be literal individual men, though
it is true that many literal individual men have played
the part of these witnesses. Turning to the founda-
tion vision in Zechariah, we find that the vision there
is designed to encourage the weak and restored exiles in
their work of rebuilding the Temple ; they are shown
that, weak as they are, there is a hidden strength, like
a sacred stream of oil, which can make them triumph
over all their difficulties : not by might or power, but by
God's Spirit, the mountain would become a plain (Zech.
iv. 6, 7), and " Grace ! Grace! " would be the triumphant
shout when the headstone of the Temple was raised. In
both visions, then, our minds are turned to the hidden
sources of divine strength ; there is a safe and secret
place measured oft' by God, where He gives His
children strength — not of ordinary might or power, but
strength of grace. This is the grace which made Zerub-
babel and Joshua strong to achieve their work ; this is
the grace which can make the two witnesses strong to
do their part in the building of that more glorious
spiritual temple which is built on the foundation of
Apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ Himself being the
chief corner-stone. The witnesses, then, stand as the
typical representatives of those who, in the strength of
God, have, through the long ages, borne witness for
Christ against all wrong and falsehood, against a world
in arms or a Church in error, or against a nominal
Christianity in danger of becoming as corrupt and as
cruel as heathenism. Such witnesses stand, like the
two columns Jachin and Boaz, before the true Temple
of God.

(3) And I will give . . .—Translate, And I
will give (omit '"power") to my two loitnesses, and they
shall . . . These are the words of God Himself ; the
omission of the words " and the angel stood " from verse
1 prevents any confusion of thought on this point. Two
witnesses were required for competent evidence (Deut.
xvii. 6; xix. 15, et al.), and there has constantly been a
sending forth of God's chosen messengers in pairs —
Moses and Aaron, Elijah and Elisha, besides Joshua
and Zerubbabel, alluded to by Zechariah ; and in New
Testament times our Lord sent forth His disciples " two
and two," as afterwards Paul and Barnabas, or Paul and
Silas, went forth to preach. There is, besides the mere
mutual support which two can give, a need for the
association of two different characters in the same sort
of work : the energy and the sympathy, the elucidator
of doctrines and the messenger to the conscience, the
apologist and the evangelist, the man of thought and
the man of action, the Son of Thunder and the Son of
Consolation ; it is well that in a world-wide work this
duality of power should be brought into play. The
witnesses iproiphesij : the word prophesy must surely be
allowed a much wider meaning than merely to predict
or foretell future events. The compass of their work,
as described afterwards, embraces much more than
this (see verses 5— 7) : they work wonders, shoAving

tokens that remind us of the days of Moses and Aaron ;
their words are mighty ; their life is a testimony.

Their prophesying, or witnessing, extends over forty
and two months : a symbolical period, as we have seen,
but a period corresponding to that during which other
witnesses had witnessed for God. Thus long did Elijah
bear witness, under rainless heavens, against the
idolatries of Israel ; thus long did a greater than Elijah
offer the water of life to the Jews, and witness against
the hard, unspiritual, worldly religionism of the
Pharisee and Sadducee ; thus, too, must tin; witnesses
for God bear testimony during the period that the world-
power seems dominant. They are clad in sackcloth —
the emblem of mourning (2 Kings vi. 30 ; Jon. iii. 4)
adopted by the prophets, whose God-taught hearts saw
reasons for mourning where shallower minds saw none
(Isa. xx. 2, and Zech. xiii. 2). Compare the garb of
Elijah and John the Baptist (2 Kings i. 8, and Matt. iii.
4), whose very apparel and appearance were designed to
testify against the evils they saw. " The special wit-
nesses of God, in a luxurious and self-pleasing age, are
often marked out from the world by signs of self-denial,
of austerity, and even of isolation " (Dr. Vaughan).

(4) These are . . .— Translate, These are the two olive
trees and the two candlesticks which stand before the
Lord of the earth. This is the verse which refers us to
the vision of Zechariah for the basis of our present
vision. There, as here, we have the two olive trees,
which are explained to be "the two anointed ones which
stand before the Lord of the whole earth." The ex-
planation is supposed to refer to Zerubbabel and Joshua,
or, as others think, to Zechariah and Haggai. At that
time these men were the witnesses for God in their
land and among their people. But the answer of the
angel is general : " the olive trees are the two anointed
ones which stand," &c. For the vision is general and
age-long ; it reminds us of the returned Jewish exiles,
and of those who were then among them, as anointed
witnesses, but it shows us that such witnesses are to be
found in more than one era ; for it is not Zerubbabel
and Joshua who can exhaust the fulness of a vision which
is the representation of the eternal truth that the oil of
gladness and strength from God will rest on those who
rely, not on might or power, but on God's Spirit. The
fact that the witnesses are two is brought more promi-
nently forward here than in Zechariah. There, though
the olive trees are two, the candlestick is but one, with
seven lamps; here there are two candlesticks spoken of
as well as two olive trees. This amplification of the
original vision is, perhaps, designed to remind us of the
greater latitude of diversity in the new dispensation.
Just as in the early chapters of this book we had seven
golden candlesticks, which, though one in" Christ, yet
are spoken of as separate, so here the double aspect, the
diverse though united efforts of the two witnesses, are
brought into prominence. It may serve to remind us
that the witnesses are to be expected to keep their indi-
viduality and to use freely their diverse powers. It is
not from one class or with one mode of action that the
witnesses come : they may be of the statesman class, like
Moses and Zerubbabel; of the prophetic or priestly,
like Zechariah and Haggai, like Aaron and the later
Joshua (Zech. iii. 1) ; for men may witness for God,
according as the evils of their time and age require it.
in the State as well as in the Church. The work of

They will be overcome by

BEVELATION, XL the Beast out of the Bottomless J' It.

W And if any man will hurt them, fire
proceedeth out of their mouth, and
devoureth their enemies : and if any
man will hurt them, he must in this
maimer he killed. (6) These have power
to shut heaven, that it rain not in the
days of their prophecy : and have power
over waters to turn them to blood, and
to smite the earth with all plagues, as
often as they will. (7> And when they

shall have finished their testimony, the
beast that ascendeth out of the bottom-
less pit shall make war against the'm,
and shall overcome them, and kill them.
<8> And their dead bodies shall lie in
the street of the great city, which
spiritually is called Sodom and Egypt,
where also our Lord was crucified.
W And they of the people and kindreds
and tongues and nations shall see their

Wilberforee, Clarkson, and Howard is a work and a
witness for God as well as the work of Chrysostom,
Athanasius, and Luther; for the witnesses are raised
up to speak against the neglect of humanity as well
as against errors in divinity; against a heartless as
well as against a creedless Christianity, for both lead
back to heathenism. These witnesses are burning and
shining lights ; in them is centred the light of their
age ; in them is found the token that the grace of God
never fails, but as the Church's day so shall her
strength be. Here, too, we have the pledge that from
Him who is both Priest and King the civil rulers as well
as the ecclesiastical rulers may draw grace according to
their gifts ; and from Him, too, all who are made kings
as well as priests to God may derive the power to give
the double witness of a life anointed by the Spirit of
consecration and ruled by the sceptre of righteousness.

(5) And if any man . . .—Better, And if any one
■wills to injure them, fire goeth forth out of their mouths,
and devoureth their enemies: and if any one wills to
injure them, thus must he be slain. These have power
to shut the heaven that the rain may not moisten (the
earth) during the days of their prophesying ; and they
have power over tlie waters to turn them into blood,
and to smite the earth with every plague as often as
they will. Again the Old Testament basis becomes
evident ; the histories of Elijah and Moses supply the
illustration. The fire devouring their foes seems to allude
to 2 Kings i. 10; like Elijah, they can close the heaven
(1 Kings xvii. 1) ; like Moses, they can turn water into
blood and summon down every plague (Ex. vii. 20, et seq.).
These last characteristics remind us of the spirit and
power of Moses and Elias, but we must not forget what
has gone before : the witnesses are like olive trees and
lights. In them is concentrated grace, light, and power ;
their witness recalls the great features of various Old
Testament teachers and leaders ; they display the light
of truth, and men may not oppose or injure them with
impunity ; they wield a power which it is not safe to
provoke. As from the mouths of the great Sixth
Trumpet host there went forth fire and smoke and
brimstone to kill the third part of mankind, so out of
the mouths of these witnesses there goes forth a purer,
bnt mightier flame. (Comp. Ps. xviii. 8.) We may com-
pare the sword out of the mouth of Christ (chap. i. 16),
and the promise to Jeremiah (chap. v. 14), " Behold I
will make my words in thy mouth fire and this people
wood, and it shall devour them." The word which is
like a sword to lay bare man to himself may become a
consuming fire to those who resist or oppose it. The
witnesses for God are thus armed with a spiritual
might ; for that word which, when accepted and lived
by, brings peace, when rejected causes pain and
danger. Thus often do the things which might have
been for men's peace become an occasion for falling;
the stone which, used and built into the life, becomes

a precious corner-stone and immovable foundation,
grinds to powder those upon whom it falls. Thus
is it with these witnesses : they come to witness for
principles which go to make the world a Paradise once
more. The world, which casts away their words, will find
them come back with scorching force ; just as the breath
of God gives life and beauty to the world, and power
to men's hearts and lives (Ps. civ. 30; John xx. 22),
yet with that same breath of His lips does He slay the
wicked (Isa. xi. 4). Some have thought that there will
be a time when witnesses for God will be raised up who
will work literal wonders such as these. It is not for us
to say that this will not be the case : all prophecy may
take a sharper and clearer meaning as the times of the
end draw near ; but, meanwhile, it is needful for us to
remember that the very power of truth is such that,
when rejected, it can and does avenge itself by shutting
heaven over our head, and making all the fresh rivulets
of life's purest pleasures loathsome as blood to the
sensualised and perverted heart.

(7) And when . . . — Better, And when they shall have
finished their testimony, the wild beast that goeth up out
of the abyss shall make war with them, and conquer
them, and kill them. Only when their work is done has
the wild beast power over them. To every one there
are the symbolical twelve hours in which his life's work
must be achieved ; to every one there is the time secured
when he may accomplish for God what God sent him to
fulfil : then, but not till then, cometh the night, when none
can work. The wild beast : We shall hear much of this
wild beast later on. Here we are told distinctly that
the wild beast will have his hour of triumph ; he rises
out of the abyss, as the locust horde did (chap. ix. 1, 2).
There is, then, a beast-spirit which is in utter hostility
to the Christ-spirit. We shall be able to study the fea-
tures of this power in a future chapter (chap. xiii. 1) ;
here he is seen to be a spirit of irreconcilable antagonism
to Christ. The image here is not new ; Daniel made use
of it (Dan. vii.), though in a much more limited sense.
This beast-power vanquishes the witnesses. If the wit-
nesses are those who have taught the principles of a
spiritual and social religion, the death of the witnesses
following their overthrow signifies the triumph of op-
posing principles, the silencing of those who have with-
stood the growing current of evil. Men can silence,
can conquer, can slay the witness for a higher, purer,
nobler life. They have done so. The history of the
world is often the history of the postponement of moral
and social advancement for centuries through the wild
outbreak of some brutal, irrational, selfish spirit. The
Reformers, the best friends of the Church and of the
world, have been silenced and slain, and their death
has often been little more than the triumph of the
ignorance and selfishness of a practical heathenism.

(8-io) And their dead bodies . . .—Better, And
their corpse {is) upon the street of the great city, which

587

And after three days

REVELATION, XI. the Spirit of Life enters them again.

dead bodies three days and an half, and
shall not suffer their dead bodies to be
put in graves. (10) And they that dwell
upon the earth shall rejoice over them,
and make merry, and shall send gifts
one to another ; because these two
prophets tormented them that dwelt
on the earth. <u) And after three days
and an half the Spirit of life from God
entered into them, and they stood upon j

Gr. names of

their feet; and great fear fell upon
them which saw them. <12> And they
heard a great voice from heaven saying
unto them, Come up hither. And they
ascended up to heaven in a cloud ; and
their enemies beheld them. <13^ And
the same hour was there a great earth-
quake, and the tenth part of the city
fell, and in the earthquake were slain of
men l seven thousand : and the remnant

is called spiritually Sodom and Egypt, where their Lord
also was crucified. And some from among the peoples
and tribes and tongues and nations look upon their
corpse three days and a half, and do not suffer their
corpses to be put into a tomb. And they that dwell upon
the earth rejoice over them, and make merry, and shall
send gifts one to another; because these two prophets tor-
mented them that dwelt upon the earth. Their corpses
remain unburied, while congratulations and rejoicings
go on ; harmony and concord prevail, as when Pilate and
Herod were made friends ; it is the millennium of evil,
the paradise of fools who make a mock at sin ; but the
forms of the witnesses, though silenced, still in silence
witness against evil. At no time are they hid away out
of sight. Even in an age of religious and social anarchy
the silent tokens of a better order remain, as when in
mockery and profanation the harlot was enthroned within
Notre Dame, the very sanctuary walls, which no longer
echoed to the psalm of Christian life, yet bore silent
testimony to the higher genius of the past. They
are said to lie in "the street of the great city." The city
is described as the great city (comp. chap. xvi. 19),
and also as Sodom, Egypt, and Jerusalem. Do not
passages like this show conclusively that to deny the
mystical or allegorical sense of the Apocalypse is to
keep the husk and cast away the seed ? The city is
great, for it is all-important in the eyes of the inhabi-
tants, as public opinion is all-important to the weak or
the worldly ; it is Sodom, for it is the place where,
through pleasure and luxuriousness (fulness of bread),
the worst forms of immorality take root ; it is Egypt,
for it is the house of bondage, where the wages of sin
become tyrannous ; it is Jerusalem, for it is the apostate
place where the presence of Christ is hated. The
same spirit which slow their Lord is alive to persecute
His servants. " It cannot be that a prophet perish out
of Jerusalem. If they have called the master of the
house Beelzebub, how much more them of his house-
hold ; " and the reason of this hatred is told — the words
of the witnesses ''tormented them." "The reproof of
their gospel and the reproof of their example . . . had
been a torture to them ; there was a voice in them which
echoed its voice — the voice of a convicting conscience,
and the voice of an anticipated judgment."

(H) And after three days . . .—Better, And after
the three days and a half (not simply " three days
and a half,") a Spirit of life out of (from) God
entered into (or, in; i.e., so as to be in) them, and they
stood upon their feet ; and a great fear fell upon those
who beheld them. The vision of the dry bones will be
remembered ; in part, the very wording of it is employed
here — e.g., " they stood upon their feet" (Ezek. xxxvii. 1
— 10) ; and a yet more sacred remembrance — the three
days of our Master's death-sleep — will be traced here.
" Where I am there shall also My servant be " (John xii.
26). " If we suffer with Him, we shall also be glorified

588

together" (Rom. viii. 17). There is a resurrection power
in even rejected truth ; the strength of it is undying.
If it be of God, men cannot overthrow it. " The corn
of wheat that dies brings forth much fruit." The
cause that seemed dead is found to be possessed of a
renewed i>ower and life. " There is an end of resistance
to the Papal rule and religion ; opposers exist no more ! "
cried the orator of the Lateran Council in 1514 ; but
within three years and a half the hand of Luther nailed
up his theses at Wittenberg. It is one illustration
among many.

(12) And they heard . . . — Translate, And they
heard (or, I heard ; the MS. authority is divided, though
the balance inclines to the first) a great voice out of the
heaven saying to them. Come up hither. And they went
up into the heaven in the cloud, and their enemies beheld
them. The resurrection of the witnesses is followed by
their ascension. It is the token that in this too they
shall have a portion with their Lord ; rejected and
slain, there is welcome and honour for them ; they take
their place with those who through faith and patience
inherit the promises ; they rest from their labotirs. But
this is not all. Like Elijah (2 Kings ii. 11), they are
taken up gloriously, but not, like Elijah, in comparative
secret ; their enemies see their exaltation. As for the
witnesses themselves there is the welcome rest of
heaven, so there is the visible recognition of their work
and power on earth ; the cause which seemed dead re-
vives, and with its revival comes the recognition of
those who laboured for it ; the martyred are seen trans-
figured, they become glorious in the eyes of men :

" Persecution dragged them into fame,
And chased them up to heaven."

They went up in the cloud : There is here, perhaps, a
touch of recollection. St. John remembers the cloud
which received his Lord out of sight. Since then the
cloud mingles with his every thought of ascension or
descending from heaven. (Comp. chap. i. 7 ; Acts i. 9.)
The witnesses, like their Master, disappeared in the cloud.

(13) And the same hour . . .—Better, And in that
hour there was (took place) a great earthquake, and the
tenth part of the city fell, and there were slain in the
earthquake names of men seven thousand : and the rest
became affrighted, and gave glory to the God of th&
heaven. The hour of their triumph is the hour of a re-
tributive warning on the city where they were slain .■
convulsion, with the overthrow of dwellings and the
death of seven thousand men. Is it accidental that the
number is the same as the number of those who had
not bowed to Baal? (1 Kings xix. 18.) Rejected refor-
mation avenges itself in revolution, and the city which
might have been purified by the word is purged by the
spirit of judgment (Isa. iv. 4) ; good is effected, even
through fear ; some are saved though as by fire ; and,
unlike those who repented not (chap. ix. 21), they give

The Seventh Trumpet.

EEVELATION, XI.

Chorus oftfte Church.

were affrighted, and gave glory to
the God of heaven. M) The second
woe is past; and, behold, the third
woe cometh quickly. (15> And the
chap. xi. 15— seventh angel sounded;

tron)pet?Third an(* tnere were great voices
woe. in heaven, saying, The

kingdoms of this world are become the

kingdoms of our Lord, and of his Christ ;
and he shall reign for ever and ever.
{l<}} And the four and twenty elders,
which sat before God on their seats, fell
upon their faces, and worshipped God,
<17) saying, We give thee thanks, 0 Lord
God Almighty, which art, and wast, and
art to come; because thou hast taken to

glory to the God of heaven. The visible Church of
Christ is stirred ; there is a reaction from the spirit of
worldlinesa

(14) The second woe . . .—Translate, The second
woe is past. (Omit the word " and," which weakens the
proclamation.) The eagle flying in mid-heaven had an-
nounced the three woe trumpets. A voice now reminds
us that two of these had passed, just as at the close
of the fifth trumpet a voice proclaimed that the first
woe was past. We must remember, too, that the angel
which descended from heaven declared that the end
should not be delayed beyond the sounding of the
seventh trumpet ; the last woe trumpet, therefore, is
the trumpet which will usher in the closing woe and
the finishing of the mystery of God. Whatever view
we adopt concerning the interpretation of the Apocalypse
must be governed by the plainly declared fact that the
seventh trumpet brings us to the very end. The next
verse only serves to make this plainer.

The Seventh Trumpet— the last Woe Trumpet.

(is) And the seventh angel . . .—Better, And
the seventh angel sounded ; and there were great voices
in the heaven (persons) saying, The kingdom of the
world is become (the possession) of our Lord, and of
His Christ, and He shall reign to the ages of ages. The
litei-al translation is, The kingdom of the world is become
our Lord's, and of His Christ. As far as the expression
" our Lord's " is concerned, there is no need that any
word, such as kingdom or possession, should be supplied,
but the additional phrase " of His Christ " creates an
awkwardness, and the word "possession," or inheri-
tance, may not inappropriately be used from the Psalm
which foretells this final establishment of the kingdom
of the anointed Messiah, the Christ of God. " Ask of
me, and I shall give thee the heathen for thine inheri-
tance, and the uttermost parts of the earth for thy pos-
session" (Ps. ii. 8). It is the kingdom — not, as in the
English version. " the kingdoms "—of the world which
has become Christ's possession. The contest is not for
the kingdoms, the separate nationalities : the varying
political systems might exist, as far as mere organisa-
tion is concerned, under the rale of Christ ; the contest
is for the kingdom of the world. Satan was willing to
surrender the kingdoms of the world to our Lord on con-
dition of a homage which would have left him still in
possession of the kingdom of the world. But now the
close of the contest is the overthrow of the kingdom of
evil, the establishment of the kingdom of good : that is, of
God; and He shall reign for ever and ever. Dean Alford
pointed out that our familiarity with the " Hallelujah
Chorus " tempted us to put an emphasis on the word lie
which is not sanctioned by the Greek ; it is the reign of
the Lord which is the prominent thought. The reign
is unto the ages of ages. Surely this means always.
Wo are not told whose voices sing this chorus; it is
just the tumultuous sound of heavenly voices, growing
into natural and irresistible chorus as the trumpet
heralds the approach of the glorious end.

(16) And the four . . .—Translate, And the four-
and-twenty elders, who before God were seated upon
their thrones (not " seats "), fell upon their faces, and
worsliipped God. The four-and-twenty elders represent
the Church of God in all ages ; they sit with Christ
in heavenly places, even while they are toiling and
sorrowing on earth ; every one of the true children of
the kingdom appear before God, and their angels be-
hold the presence of their Father who is in heaven.
They were seated on thrones, not " seats " (comp. chap,
iv. 4), as in English version ; the word used is the same
which is translated " throne " when it refers to our Lord.
It is the same word which is rendered " seat " (chaps, ii.
13, and xvi. 10) when it refers to Satan j but it is better
rendered throne throughout, for by this variation of
translation, as " Archbishop Trench has pointed out, two
great ideas which run through this book, and, indeed,
we may say through the whole of the New Testament,
are obliterated : the one, that the true servants of Christ
are crowned with Him and share His sovereignty;
the other, that the antagonism of the Prince of J)ark-
ness to the Prince of Light develops itself in the hellish
parody of the heavenly kingdom " (Prof. Lightfoot,
Revision of New Testament, p. 41). It is specially de-
sirable that this thought should be kept before us in
this passage, which proclaims that the kingdom and
throne and power of the wicked one have passed away,
and the hour has come when the victorious saints may
sit down with Christ in His throne (chap. iii. 21).

The Chorus of the Church of God.

(17) Saying, We give thee thanks . . .—Better,

" We thank Thee, O Lord,
The God, the Almighty.
He that is, and He that was.
Because Thou hast taken Thy great power
and didst reign.
And the nations were angry.
And then came Thine anger
And the season of the dead to be judged,
And to give their rewards to Thy servants the prophets, and to
the saints,
And to them that fear Thy name, the small and the great.
And to destroy them that destroy the earth."

On the expression " He that is and He that was," comp.
chap. i. 8 and the Note there. We can catch the echo of
the Second Psalm throughout this chorus of grateful
praise. The prayers of the groaning Church (chap. v. 10,
and Luke xviii. 7, 8) and the cries of travailing creation
(Rom. viii. 19) have been heard ; though the heathen
raged and the people imagined a vain thing, their
counsel against the Lord and His anointed, His Christ
(compare verse 16), came to nought ; the joy of their
triumph was short-lived ; the kingdom of evil was but
for a moment ; tho kings were assembled, they passed
by, they saw, they were troubled, they hasted away
(Ps. xlviii. 4, 5) ; never did the real sovereignty of the
Lord cease (Ps. ii. 6) ; but the nations would not believe
in His rule ; they were not wise ; they turned from the
kiss of reconciliation, which was life (Ps. ii. 10 — 12);
then came His anger, and the season of judgment and
the season cf reward. The prophets, the saints, and

The Temple of God

REVELATION, XII.

opened in Heaven.

thee tliy great power, and hast reigned.
<18) And the nations were angry, and
thy wrath is come, and the time of the
dead, that they should be judged, and
that thou shouldest give reward unto
thy servants the prophets, and to the
saints, and them that fear thy name,
small and great; and shouldest destroy
them which destroy1 the earth. <19> And
the temple of God was opened in heaven,

and there was seen in his temple the
ark of his testament : and there were
lightnings, and voices, and thunderings,
and an earthquake, and great hail.

CHAPTEE XII.— (D And there ap-
peared a great wonder2 in _., .". , „
f & i i i i Chap. xn. 1—6.

heaven; a woman clothed The hostility

with the sun, and the of the arch-
mcon under her feet, and

those that fear God's name, the small and the great —
every class and rank of the true servants of the King are
included here; none are forgotten ; not a cup of cold
water, given in His name, shall miss its reward ; for
not alone the pre-eminent in Christian power and in
Christian holiness, but the weak, the struggling, the
obscure, the small as well as the great, are remembered :
" Unto the God of gods appeareth every one of them
in Zion " (Ps. Ixxxiv. 7 ; Prayer Book version). Nor is
the gladness only for this blessing ; there is a joy at the
overthrow of those who destroy the earth. The reign
of evil is the destruction of the earth. The judgments
of God are in mercy to stay the spread of destructive
powers and principles. The tender mercies of the
wicked are cruel; the very judgments of God are
merciful. (See Note on chap. viii. 2.)

But where, we may be disposed to ask, is the " woe"
in all this? We are led to expect that the seventh
trumpet as a woe trumpet will bring in some period of
pain and trouble, as the others have done ; but all we
hear is the chorus of glad voices uttering praise: we
see no token of woe. The answer is that we must not
overlook all that this song of rejoicing implies. The
chorus we hear is the thanksgiving to God that the hour
has come for the overthrow of the kingdom of evil, the
manifestation of the sons of God, and the acknowledg-
ment throughout the world of the sovereignty of the
Lord and of His Christ. The overthrow of that evil
kingdom, which is now to take place, brings with it woe
to those who have supported it j for the time of the
judgment of the dead, and of those whose lives have
marred God's world, has come. It is, then, woe on all
those who have misused God's gifts and those beautiful
things which He gave us liberally to enjoy. It is a woe
on those who have defiled those bodies, which are the
temples of the Holy Ghost, profaned the earth, which is
God's footstool, or darkened by their evil deeds the
heaven, which is His throne. Those who thus defile (or,
destroy : the word is so in the margin, and is the same
as that which follows) God's temple anywhere, God
will destroy (1 Cor. vi. 19, and iii. 17).

im And the temple of God . . .—Translate, And
the temple of God was opened in the heaven, and the
arh of His covenant was seen in His temple : and there
were lightnings, and voices, and thunders, and an earth-
quake, and a great hail. At the beginning of the
chapter we noticed the distinction between the two
words {naos and hieron) applied to the Temple; the
Temple building proper (the naos) was measured off.
Now this (naos) Temple is opened, yes, to its very in-
most recesses ; for not the holy place alone is disclosed,
but the holiest of all, the shrine of shrines, into which
the high priest alone —and he only once a year — entered.
is opened, as though anew the veil of the Temple had
been rent in twain, and there the ark of the covenant of
God is seen. The meaning of this, when read by the

light of the measuring of the Temple, seems to be that
now the secret abode of the safe-guarded children of
God was revealed. In the hour of apostasies and
worldliness the faithful had found their strength and
protection in the shadow of the Almighty ; they were
regarded by God as His true living Temple, and in
them He dwelt, as they, too, found their defence in
Him. But now that the end has come there is no
need that these should be hidden any more. The chil-
dren of God, who are the Temple of God, are made
manifest ; and at the same time the secret spot of their
shelter in troublous days is made plain, and in it is seen
the token of that everlasting covenant which was the
sheet-anchor of their hopes in the day of their trouble
(Heb. vi. 19). The ark of God's covenant is seen;
the ark which contained the tables of the law, the
rod of Aaron, and the manna is unveiled ; and now is
known whence they derived that hidden manna, that
bread of heaven which strengthened their hearts in the
days of temptation ; now is known how it was that the
rod of Christ's power flourished and blossomed in spite
of oft-repeated rejection ; now, too, are known those
high and holy principles by which the lives of the saints
of God were ruled, even that law which the divine
Spirit had written in their hearts (Heb. x. 16. and
2 Cor. iii. 2). Then, too, with the ark of God's
covenant, is brought into view the mercy-seat, that
throne of grace to which the weary and heavy-laden
children of God had so often gone, and where they
had never failed to receive grace to help in eveiy time
of need (Heb. iv. 16). The Temple of God was opened,
and the secret springs of power which sustained the
patience and faith of the saints are found to be in God.
And out of the opened Temple, or round about it, as
round the saci-ed peak of Sinai, the lightnings are
seen and voices and thunders are heard : the tokens of
that holy law which the power of the world had defied
are made manifest ; for God's righteousness has not
lost its strength, and that which is a power of help
to those who seek their shelter in God becomes a power
of destruction to those who turn from Him. The habi-
tation of God is an open sanctuary to faith; it is a
clouded and lightning-crowned Sinai to faithlessness.
(Comp. Heb. xii. 18—24.) The spirit of evil, of selfish-
ness, of luxuriousness, of profanity, which rejects its
birthright of better thoughts and holy things, leads to
" the mount that burned with fire, and xinto blackness and
darkness and tempest, and the sound of a trumpet, and
the voice of words ; " the Spirit of God leads to." the city
of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, and to an innu-
merable company of angels, to the general assembly and
Church of the first-born which are written in heaven."

XII.

We now enter upon the third group of visions (or,
the fourth section of the book, if we include the epistles

The Woman and

EEVELATION, XII.

the Red Dragon*

upon her head a crown of twelve stars ; i
<2) and she being with child cried, travail- :
ing in birth, and pained to be delivered.

<3) And there appeared another wonder1
in heaven ; and behold a great red
dragon, having seven heads and ten

to the seven churches), which occupy chapters xii., xiii.,
and xiv., and close with the solemn scene of the harvest
-and the vintage (chap. xiv. 14 — 20). The close of each
series of visions is in harmony with their general inten-
tion, and, as such, affords a key to their meaning. The
seals end in peace ; the trumpets end in victory ; the
present visions end in harvest. "We have been shown
that toil and trouble shall ond in rest and conflict in
triumph ; now we are to be shown that there is to be a
harvest at the end of the world, when the fruits of the
conflicting principles of life will have ripened, and when
whatsoever a man hath sown that shall he also reap :
and men will bo seen as they are. This set of visions
accordingly moves in a different plane from the earlier
groups ; starting from the same point as the others, it
reviews the ground with a different purpose. It deals
with the spiritual conditions of the great war between
evil and good; it disrobes the false appearances which
deceive men ; it makes manifest the thoughts of men's
hearts ; it shows that the great war is not merely a war
between evil and good, but between an evil spirit and
the Spirit of God : and that, therefore, the question is
not only one between right and wrong conduct, but be-
tween true and false spiritual dispositions. Men look
at the world, and they acknowledge a kind of conflict
between evil and good ; their sympathies are vaguely on
the side of good ; they admire much in Christianity ;
they are willing to think the martyred witnesses of the
Church heroes ; they think the reformers of past ages
worthy of honour ; they would not be averse to a
Christianity without Christ or a Christianity without
spirituality. They do not realise that the war which is
raging round them is not a war between men morally
good and men morally bad, but between spiritual
] towers, and that what the Gospel asks is not merely a
moral life, but a life lived by faith in the Son of God, a
life in which the spiritual dispositions are Godward and
Christward. The Apocalypse, in this set of visions, un-
veils the spiritual aspects of the conflict, that we may
know that the issue is not between Christianity and un-
Christiauity, but between Christianity and anti-Chris-
tianity. Hitherto we have seen the more outward
aspects of the great war. Now we are to see its hidden,
secret, spiritual— yes, supernatural aspects — that we
may understand what immeasurably divergent and anta-
gonistic principles are in conflict under various and
specious aspects in the history of the world. Accord-
ingly, we are shown the child encountered by the
dragon, the woman in conflict with the dragon, the wild
beast as the adversary of the lamb. We see no longer
the battle under human forms, as the struggle for the
possession of the Temple ; but we see clearly and un-
mistakably the real issue which is being fought out, and
we see the real spiritual work which the Church is de-
signed to accomplish in the world. The motto of this
section might well be, " He that is not with me is against
me " — " He that gathereth not with me scattereth ;" for
only those who are truly with Christ will avoid falling
under the yoke of one of the three enemies of Christ — ■
the dragon and the two wild beasts animated and in-
spired by him.

(!) And there appeared . . .—Better, And a great
sign was seen in the heaven. The word sign is pre-
ferable to " wonder," both in this verse and in verse 3.

It is the same word which is rendered sign in chap. xv. 1.
It is a sign which is seen: not a mere wonder, but
something which has a meaning ; it is not " a surprise
ending with itself," but a signal to arrest attention, and
possessing significance ; there is "an idea concealed
behind it. ' (Comp. Note on John ii. 11.)

A woman clothed with the sun, and the
moon under her feet, and upon her head a
crown of twelve stars.— All the lights of heaven
are brought together here for a description which
cannot fail to remind us of the picture of the Shulamite
in the Canticles (vi. 10) : " Who is she that looketli
forth as the morning, fair as the moon, clear as the
sun, and terrible as an army with banners (or, the
heavenly host) ? " It is the picture of the bride, the
Church. The beams of the divine glory clothe her;
she has caught — like Moses — the radiance of her Lord,
whose countenance was as the sun (chap. i. 16) ; the moon
is beneath her feet ; she rises superior to all change, and
lays all lesser lights of knowledge under tribute ; she is
crowned with a crown of twelve stars : the illustrious
members of the Church (twelve being the representative
number in Old Testament as well as New Testament
times) form her crown of rejoicing in the day of Christ.

(2) And she . . . — Better, And being with child, she
crieth, travailing, and tormented to bring forth. All
life dawns in anguish, according to the ancient fiat (Gen.
iii. 16) ; but this is not all. There is an anguish of the
Church which Christ laid upon her ; it is the law of her
life that she must bring forth Christ to the world ; it is
not simply that she must encounter pain, but that she
cannot work deliverance without knowing suffering.
Thus the Apostles felt : the love of Christ constrained
them ; woe it would be to them if they did not preach
the Gospel ; necessity was laid upon them ; they spoke
of themselves as travailing in birth over their children
till Christ was formed in them. This, then, is the picture,
the Church fulfilling her destiny even in pain. The
work was to bring forth Christ to men, and never to be
satisfied till Christ was formed in them, i.e., till the
spirit of Clmst, and the teaching of Christ, and the
example of Christ were received, loved, and obeyed, and
men transformed to the same image, even as by the
Spirit of the Lord.

But there was to be opposition; the enemy is on the watch
to destroy the likeness of Christ wherever it was seen.

(3) And. there appeared . . .—Better, And another
sign was seen in the heaven; and behold a great red
dragon. This, too, is a sign, and has a meaning. The
dragon stands for some dread and hostile power. " The
dragon is that fabulous monster of whom ancient poets
told, as large in siz^e, coiled like a snake, blood red in
colour . . . insatiable in voracity, and ever athirst for
human blood " — a fit emblem of him whom our Lord
declared to be a murderer from the beginning ; for the
dragon is intended here to describe him who, in verse
9, is also said to be that old serpent, called the Devil and
Satan. The red colour is the colour of flame and blood,
and the symbol of destruction and slaughter. The
dragon is the emblem of the evil spirit, the devil, the
perpetual antagonist of good, the persecutor of the
Church in all ages (comp. Ps. lxxiv. 13): just as
the dragon is sometimes employed to represent the
Egyptian power, the ancient foe of Israel (Isa. Ii. 9;
Ezek. xxix. 3).

591

TIte Birth of

KEVELATIOK XII.

the Woman's Child*

horns, and seven crowns upon his heads.
W And his tail drew the third part of
the stars of heaven, and did cast them
to the earth : and the dragon stood
before the woman which was ready to
be delivered, for to devour her child as
soon as it was born. <5> And she

brought forth a man child, who was to-
rule all nations with a rod of iron : and
her child was caught up unto God, and
to his throne. (6) And the woman fled
into the wilderness, where she hath a
place prepared of God, that they should
feed her there a thousand two hundred

Having seven heads and ten horns, and seven
crowns [diadems) upon his heads.— This is the
further description of the dragon. He is one. yet
diverse ; one, as an evil spirit ; diverse, in the varieties
of his power. The woman is hut one: but her foe is
multiform ; she has one trust to keep, one work to do,
and can but fulfil it in her Master's way : evil is bound
by no law, regards no scruple, and exerts its power
through any channel and by every means. Is there not
also an assumption of divine similitude here in the
use of the number seven !J It is at least the representa-
tion of the great and world-wide power which he
exercises as the prince of this world, whose kingdom
is in much a parody of the true kingdom. The whole
description should be compared with the account given
of the beast in chap. xvii. 3, 7, 10, 12. There the
seven heads are explained as seven kings, and the heads
here are crowned ; the ten horns are also explained as
ten kings. The sevenfold kingship and the tenfold
power of the world are thus described as belonging to
the dragon. The picture here, as the picture of the
wild beast in chap, xvii., represents, as concentrated
into a single hostile form, all the varying forces and
successive empires which have opposed or oppressed
the people of God, and sought to destroy their efforts
for good: for all evil has its root in a spirit at enmity
with God. Hence the dragon appears armed witli all
the insignia of those sovereignties and powers which
have been animated by this spirit.

W And his tail . . .—Translate, And his tail drags
(or, sweeps) away the third part of the stars of the heaven,
and casts them to the earth. The stars are the light-
bearers, the illustrious of earth, who were given by God
high place that they might be burning and shining
lights for Him. A large proportion of these are drawn
away in the train of evil ; they are cast down from their
high position of noble opportunities of good work and
great work ; they are dragged down from the height of
the grandest possibilities of good to the low level of a
life enslaved to evil.

And the dragon.— Translate, And the dragon
stands (not "stood") before the woman who is about
to bring forth, that whenever she has brought
foi-th he may devour her child. The spirit of evil
is represented as ever on the watch to destroy the
first tokens of better things. Our minds go back to the
hatred and fear of Pharaoh, setting a watch for the off-
spring of Israel and ordering their destruction; and
even more are we reminded of the jealous hatred of
Herod seeking the life of the infant Christ. It
seems clear that it is on this last incident that
the present vision is primarily built up ; but its
meaning is much wider than this. It shows us
that evermore, as Herod waited to destroy Christ,
the devil, the old spirit whose malignity wrought
through the fears of Pharaoh and of Herod, is on the
watch to destroy every token of good and every resem-
blance to Christ in the world. The mission of the
Church is to bring forth in her members this life of
Christ before men : the aim of the wicked spirit is to

592

destroy that life. The same hostility which was shown
to the infant Christ is active against His children : " If
they have persecuted Me, they will also persecute you."

(5) And she brought forth . . .—Translate, And
she brought forth a man child, who is to shepherd all the.
nations with (it is, literally, in) a rod of iron. There
can be no doubt that this man child is Christ. The com-
bination of features is too distinct to admit of doubt.
It is the one who will feed His flock like a shepherd
(Isa. xl. 12), who is to have, not His own people, but all
nations as His inheritance (Ps. ii. 7 — 9), and whose rule
over them is to be supreme and irresistible. But the
fact that this child is Christ must not cause us to limit
the meaning of the vision to the efforts of the evil one to>
destroy the infant Jesus ; for it is also the Christ in the
Church which the wicked one hates : and wherever Christ
dwells in any heart by faith, and wherever the preachers-
of the gospel in earnest travail for their Master, seek to-
lift up Christ, there will the foe bo found, like the fowls
of the air, ready to carry away the good seed. Though the
basis of the A'ision is in the historical fact, the power of
the vision reaches over a wider area, and forcibly reminds
us that as there are irreconcileable principles at work in
the world, so all these, when traced to their original forms,
are the Spirit of Christ and the spirit of the devil.

And her child was caught up unto God, and
to his throne.— The efforts of the evil one to destroy
are thwarted ; the child is snatched away and placed out
of the range of the dragon's power. The prince of this-
world might instigate Israel to take Jesus Christ and
with wicked hands crucify and kill Him, but the eternal
divine life of Him who had power to lay down His life-
and take it again, and whose years were for ever and
ever, was beyond the reach of every hostile power ; and
after death and resurrection, Christ ascended up where
He was before. But the vision is designed to assure us
that, precisely because of this, so all life in Christ is
beyond the power of the evil one, and that the forces
hostile to good are powerless against that life which is
hid with Christ in God. The Church may be as a weak,
oppressed, and persecuted woman, but her faith rises up
as a song from the lips of its members. " God hath
raised us up together, and made us sit together in
heavenly places in Christ Jesus." The contest is be-
tween the man child and the dragon ; and those who in
heart and mind ascend to where Christ is know that the
contest is not one of mere ideas, but a conflict be-
tween the Christ, who is with them always, though He
has ascended, and all the powers of evil, which will be
smitten down by the rod of His power.

(6) And the woman fled . . .—Translate, And the
woman fled into the wilderness, where she hath there a
place prepared from God, that there they may nourish
her for a thousand two hundred and sixty days. The
flight of the woman into the wilderness, and her fortune?
there, are more fully described in verse 13. This verse
simply tells us that the woman fled ; we read afterwards
that it was persecution which drove her into the
wilderness. As long as the evil one can be called the
prince of this world: as long, that is, as the world

Michael's Victory over

REVELATION, XII.

the Arch-enemy.

and threescore days. (7) And there was
,. „ ,_ war in heaven : Michael

Chap. xn. 7 — 12. -it- i r i-j.

The heavenly and his angels iougnt
victory over the against the dragon ; and
-enemy. ^e dragon fought and his
angels, (8) and prevailed not ; neither was
their place found any more in heaven.
<9> And the great dragon was cast out,

that old serpent, called the Devil, and
Satan, which deceiveth the whole world :
he was cast out into the earth, and his
angels were cast out with him. <10> And
I heard a loud voice saying in heaven,
Now is come salvation, and strength,
and the kingdom of our God, and the
power of his Christ : for the accuser

refuses to recognise her true Prince, and pays homage
to worldliness, and baseness, and falseness in heart,
mind, or life, so long must the Church, in so far as she
is faithful to Him who is true, dwell as an exile in the
wilderness. This feeling it was— not any hostility to
life as life, or to life's duties — which led the Apostle
to speak of Christians as strangers and pilgrims,
and of the Church as another Israel, whom a greater
than Moses or Joshua was conducting to a land
of better promise (Heb. iv. 8, 9). The woman, the
representative of the Church, lias a place prepared by
God for her in the wilderness ; she is not altogether un-
cared for ; she has a place prepared, and nourishment.
God provides her with a tabernacle of safety (Ps. xc. 1),
and with the true Bread "which came down from
heaven " (Ex. xvi. 15 j Ps. lxxviii. 24, 25 ; John vi.
49, 50), and with the living water from the Rock
(John iv. 14, vii. 37—39 ; 1 Cor. x. 3, 4). The time of
the sojourn in the wilderness is twelve hundred and
sixty days, a period corresponding in length to the
forty-two months during which the witnesses prophesied;
it is the period of the Church's witness against pre-
dominant evil. Driven forth, her voice, though but as
the voice of one crying in the wilderness, is lifted up
on behalf of righteousness and truth.

The War in Heaven.

(7) And there was war . . .—Translate, And
there was war in heaven : Michael and his angels
to war with the dragon ; and the dragon warred and
his angels. This is one of those passages which has
ever been regarded as more or less perplexing. It has
afforded material fg,r many poetic fancies, and has been
the occasion of much speculative interpretation. We
shall fail to catch the spirit of its meaning if we insist
upon detaching the passage from its context ; and the
more so that the structure of the chapter seems to give
an express warning against doing so. The narrative
of the woman's flight into the wilderness is suspended
that this passage may be inserted. Coidd we have a
clearer indication of the anxiety of the sacred writer
to connect this war in heaven with tho birth and rap-
ture of the man child ? The man child is born ; born a
conqueror. The dragon is His foe, and the powers of
the foe are not confined to the material and historical
world : he is a power in the world spiritual ; but the
man child is to be entirely a conqueror. His rapture
into heaven is the announcement that there, in the very
highest, He is acknowledged victor; and His victory
is won over the power of the dragon, the old serpent,
whose head is now bruised. " The prince of this world
cometh," said Jesus Christ, " and hath nothing in Me."
'* Now is the judgment of this world; now is the prince
of this world cast out. And I, if I be lifted up, will
draw all men unto Me." Do we need more ? There is
mystery — unexplained mystery, perhaps — about this
war in heaven, but there need be none about the general
occasion referred to; it is the overthrow of the evil

one by Christ : the death-blow given by the Lord of
Life to him who had the power of death ; it is the
victory of Bethlehem, Calvary, and Olivet which is
commemorated, and the effects of which are seen to
transcend tho sphere of the things seen. But why
have we Michael and his angels introduced ? This may
be one of those unexplained mysteries referred to above.
Some, indeed, think that this Michael is a designa-
tion of our Lord Himself, and of Him alone ; but a
consideration of the other passages in which Michael
is mentioned (notably. Dan. x. 13, where Michael is
called " one of the chief princes ") leaves this limited
meaning doubtful, and almost suggests conflict among
the spiritual hierarchies. It may, however, be the
case that the name Michael — the meaning of which
is, " who is like unto God" — is a general name applied
to any who for the moment represent the cause of God
in the great conflict against evil. It may thus belong,
not to any one angel being, but be a kind of type-name
used for the champion and prince of God's people, and
so employed in this passage to denote Him who is the
Captain of our salvation.

<8) And prevailed not . . .—Better, And their
power failed them, and not even was place for them,
found any more in the heaven. The result of the
war was the dragon's defeat. The whole power of the
evil hosts failed them. There is an inherent weakness
in evil : a spot which may be touched whereupon all its
vaunted strength withers. So complete was the over-
throw, that eA-en their place knew them no more. " I
went by, and, lo ! he was gone ; I sought him, but he
could nowhere be found."

(9) And the great dragon . . .—Better, And he
was thrown down, the great dragon, the ancient serpent,
he that is called the Devil and Satan : he who deceives
the whole world was thrown to the earth, and his angels
were thrown with him. Thus the victory of Christ is
marked by the overthrow of the great adversary. The
stronger than the strong one has come, and taken away
his armour (Luke xi. 21, 22). The death-blow is given.
The prince of this world (who found nothing in Christ)
is judged (John xvi. 11). The adversary is described
as the dragon, the fierce and cruel foe who is ever ready
to devour (1 Pet. v. 8). The ancient serpent. The-
serpent was used as an emblem of the evil principle.
(Comp. Gen. iii. 1). But the head of the ancient foe of
man is now bruised : he is the devil, the accuser and
calumniator. He is called the accuser of tho brethren
in the next verse ; he is Satan, the adversary, and he is
the seducer, the deceiver, as he is a liar, and the father
of it (John viii. 44).

(k» And I heard a loud voice . . .—Better, And
I heard a great voice in the heavens saying, Noiv is come
the salvation, and the might, and the kingdom of our
God, and the power of his Christ. The definite article
is placed before the words "salvation" and " might.'"
The words of this doxology are like an echo of the close
of the Lord's Prayer. The prayer " Thy kingdom

593

Joy in Heaven.

EEVELATION, XII.

Wrath of the Dragon.

of our brethren is cast down, which
accused them before our God day and
night. (11) And they overcame him by
the blood of the Lamb, and by the
word of their testimony j and they
loved not their lives unto the death.
<12> Therefore rejoice, ye heavens, and
ye that dwell in them. Woe to the
inhab iters of the earth and of the sea!

for the devil is come down unto you,
having great wrath, because he knoweth
that he hath but a short time. <13) And
when the dragon saw that
he was cast unto the earth, f7 The peit
he persecuted the woman cution of the
which brought forth the church-
man child. 0$ And to the woman were
given two wings of a great eagle, that

come " seems answered. Now is come the kingdom.
But it is not the full establishment of the kingdom
which is here described; it is rather the manifesta-
tion of it. Since our Master passed into the heavens —
and His victory is achieved, we know Him to be King,
and even while we pray " Thy kingdom come " we yet
confess " Thine is the kingdom " — the salvation so
anxiously looked for (1 Pet. i. 10) ; the power so much
needed by weak and sinful men (1 Pet. i. 5 and 1 Cor.
i. 24); and the kingdom which cannot be shaken
(Heb. xii. 28). The accuser of the brethren is cast
down. This is another reason for joy and another
feature of the salvation. The habit of the accuser is
expressed by the use of the present tense. We should
read not " who accused," but " who accuseth." Night
and day he accused. (Comp. Zech. iii. 1, and Job i. 9,
and ii. 5.) In Jewish writings, Michael is called " the
advocate" (sunegor), and stands in opposition to the
accuser (kategor) ; but now the accuser is cast down ;
for who shall lay anything to the charge of God's elect,
when it is God that justifieth, when it is Christ that
died ? (Rom. viii. 33, 34.)

(n) And they overcame him . . .—Better, And
they conquered him (not " by," but) on account of the
blood of the Lamb, and on account of the word of their
testimony, &c. They overcame him — i.e., the accuser,
the devil : their victory over him is " owing to " the
blood of the Lamb. Who is he that condemneth, when
Christ hath died ? What power can the accusations of
the adversary have when the Lamb of God hath taken
away the sin of the world (John i. 29), and when we
have boldness to enter into the holiest by the blood of
Jesus ? (Heb. x. 19.) Dean Alford mentions the tradition
that Satan accuses men all days of the year except on
the Day of Atonement. But their victory is also in
virtue of the word of their testimony : in virtue of the
word to which they bore witness ; not simply, I think,
because they had a word of God to which they could
bear witness, but because they had a word of God and
did bear witness to it. The Christian victory is a
victory of dependence and of obedience : of dependence
on Him without whom they can do nothing ; and of
obedience to Him : it is in keeping of His command-
ments there is great reward : and in bearing testimony
that the testimony becomes a power and a treasure. So
it was the man who did Christ's commandments who
was like the man whose house was founded on the rock.
Theoretical religion relaxes the energy of faith, even
though it may brace the intellect ; practical religion
invigorates faith, gives it its force, and moulds the
heroism of those who, in their love of Christ, " love not
their lives even unto death." It is thought that these
last words imply that the martyred saints alone are
spoken of. This seems to me a mistake. It is true that
in the martyr we have the fullest practical token of
that spirit of devotion to Christ which loves Him more
than life itself; but the spirit of such devotion and

such love has breathed in thousands who have never
died the martyr's death, but who have devoted their
lives to Him they loved. The martyr spirit needs not
death to show itself ; many lose their lives for Christ's
sake who have never been called to lay down their
lives for Him, and these, as truly as those who have
passed away in the shroud of flame, have loved not
their lives unto the death. " He may bid us die for
Him : He does bid us live for Him. If we do not the
one — the less — we may be quite sure that we shall never
rise to the other — the higher and the more glorious "
(Dr. Yaughan).

(12) Therefore rejoice . . .— Better, For this cause
rejoice, ye heavens, and ye that tabernacle in them.
The words " for this cause " must be taken to refer to
the overthrow of the evil one. This is the cause of joy
to the heavens, and to them that tabernacle (not " dwell ")
in them. The word is (as in chaps, vii. 15, xiii. 6, xxi. 3)
" tabernacle." This allusion to the tabernacle where the
glory of God and the mercy-seat were to be found, is
not without force. The sacred imagery of the tabernacle
of witness calls to mind the safe dwelling which the
sanctuary of God afforded to those whose testimony
was given in the wilderness of sorrow. Those who
tabernacled in the secret place of the Most High could
rejoice with joy unspeakable.

Woe to the inhabiters . . .—Translate, Woe to
the earth and the sea ! (the words " to the inhabiters of "
are not found in the best MSS.) because the devil is
gone down to you, having great wrath, knowing (or,
because he knoweth : his knowledge that his season of
power is short is the reason of his great wrath) that
he hath (but) a short season. The painful conscious-
ness of defeat has roused a deeper and more obstinate
rage. Sin, which blunts the conscience, blinds the
reason, and drives men madly to attempt the impossible,
or to rouse

"the unconquerable will
And study of revenge, immortal hate,
And courage never to submit or yield."

The woe to the sea and earth is simply a warning voice
to all that, though the foe is overcome and death
smitten, yet that he has power, quickened by defeat and
fear, for a last struggle ; and that therefore they need
to be sober and vigilant against the adversary. His
season is short. He may be active, sowing tares among
the wheat and animating various hostile powers, such as
the wild beasts of chap. xiii. ; but he has only a season :
there is a limit to his power and the time of his power.
" A little while " was the word our Lord used to denote
His time of absence (John xvi. 16 — 22) : " Behold, He
comes quickly!"

(13) And when the dragon . . .—The wrath
of the defeated dragon is manifested in persecution of
the woman. The present verse explains the reason of
the flight into the wilderness mentioned in verse 6.

(14) And to the woman . . .—Better, And there

594

The Wonian persecuted

KEVELATION, XII.

by the Dragon,

she might fly into the wilderness, into
her place, where she is nourished for a
time, and times, and half a time, from the
face of the serpent. (15) And the serpent
cast out of his mouth water as a flood
after the woman, that he might cause

her to be carried away of the flood.
<16^ And the earth helped the woman,
and the earth opened her mouth, and
swallowed up the flood which the dragon
cast out of his mouth. <17) And the
dragon was wroth with the woman, and

were given to the woman (the) two wings of the great
eagle (tho definite article is used before -great eagle"),
that she might fly into the wilderness, unto her place,
where she is nourished there for a season, and seasons,
and half a season, from the face of the serpent. The
woman is persecuted aud driven into the wilderness :
yet it is with the eagle wings given her by her Lord
that she flies ; the serpent drives her into the wilder-
ness : yet it is in the wilderness that her place is
prepared by God. Tho way that seems hard is the
way that is* most blest. The opposition of the dragon
brings her blessings that she never would have received
except in persecution ; neither the eagle power nor the
heavenly sustenance had been hers without the serpent's
hate. Thus is the trial of faith precious in bringing us
to know the priceless blessings of heavenly help and
heavenly food. She is given eagle's wings. God had
spoken of the deliverance of Israel under a similar
emblem, " Ye have seen . . . how I bare you on eagles'
wings and brought you unto myself " (Ex. xix. 4; comp.
Deut. xxxii. 10 — 12). There is a difference as well as a
resemblance in the emblem here. In Exodus God is
said to have borne Israel on eagles' wings : here the wings
are given to the woman. The strength of the earlier
dispensation is a strength often used for, rather than in,
the people of God; the strength of the latter is a
strength in them : " They mount up with wings as
eagles" (Isa. xl. 31). The place is not a chance spot : it
is prepared of God ; it is in the wilderness, but still it
is the place God prepared for her. It is always a
delight to faith to mark how the ordering of God works
in and through the wilfulness and wickedness of the
enemy: the Son of man goeth, as it was written,
though there is a " woe " against the man by whom
He is betrayed. The wicked one can never drive us
from God's place, but only to it, unless we are enemies
to ourselves. She is nourished in the wilderness. (See
Notes on verse 6.) The length of her sojoura is here
called a season, seasons, and half a season ; it was called
twelve hundred and sixty days in verse 6. The period is
in both cases the same in length, viz., three years and a
half— i.e., the season (one year), the seasons (two years),
and the half season (half a yeai-). This is the period of
the Church's trouble and persecution. It is not to be
sought by any effort to find some historical period of
persecution corresponding in length to this, lasting
three years and a half, or twelve hundred and sixty
days or years. No such attempt has hitherto been
crowned with success. The period is symbolical of the
broken time (the half of the seven, the perfect number)
of the tribulation of God's people. There may be some
future period in which tho vision may receive even
more vivid fulfilment than it has hitherto received; but
the woman has been nourished in the wilderness in the
ages that are gone, and her sustenance there by God is
an experience of the past, and will be in the future. It
is not only in one age, but in every age. that God gives
His children bread in the day of "adversity, during the
season that the pit is being dug for the ungodly. In many
an era the servant of God can exclaim : " Thou propareds't
a table before me in the presence of mine enemies."

(15) And the serpent . . .—Translate, And the ser-
pent cast otd of his mouth after the woman water as a
river, that he might make her to be carried away by the
river. The foe of the woman was described as a dragon
for his cruelty and fierceness — as a serpent for his
subtlety. The first attack on the woman is pictured as
persecution by the dragon: from this she escapes by
flight ; but the subtlety of the enemy finds another de-
vice : the foe (now described as a serpent) pours forth
water as a river to sweep away the woman. The em-
blem is not uncommon in the Bible. Invasion is de-
scribed as "an overflowing flood" (Jer. xlvi. 7, 8; xlvii.
2 ; comp. Isa. viii. 7, 8). The same emblem is used
in Ps. lxxiv. 2 — 6 to describe the uprising of a people's
ill-will. The floods, the rivers, the waves of the sea,
are employed to express popular movements. The
woman that cannot be destroyed by positive persecution
may be swept away by a hostile public opinion. It is
not the rulers alone who stand up against the Lord and

j His Church : an infuriated populace may be stirred up
against them. The temper of the mob occasioned as
much suffering and as many deaths in early Christian
days as did the political authorities. Ill-regulated
popular impulses, leading to violence and unwise action,
whether nominally for Christianity or against it, have
done enough of the devil's work in the world.

(16) And the earth . . . — Translate, And the earth
helped the woman, and the earth opened her mouth, and
drank up the river, <vc. This is generally understood of
some earthly power which is raised up to protect the
Church against persecution. Just as Persia was raised
up to aid Israel after they had been swept away by the
flood of Babylonish conquest, so does help come to the
persecuted Church through the cultured Roman world,
or through some other worldly power, " barbarian and
godless in its beginning, but destined in due time to
embrace, in name at least, the faith once abhorred, and
to introduce that new order of things which should
make a nominal Christianity the religion of states and
nations, and secure it for ever against the risk of a re-
petition of bygone persecutions " (Dr. Yaughan). The
passage seems to want a wider interpretation. By tho
flood or river we understand all great popular move-
ments against Christianity : the earth swallows up these ;
they diffuse themselves for a time, but mother earth
absorbs them all, for the earth is the Lord's and the
fulness thereof, and no movement hostile to truth can
permanently succeed : the eternal laws of truth and
right are ultimately found stronger than all the half
truths, whole falsehoods, and selfishness which give force
to such movements. In a mysterious way, every devil-
born flood of opinion, or violence, or sentiment, will sink
beneath the surface; they rise like a river, they are
tasted, and then rejected. The laws of the earth are
against their permanent success. The finest epic of the
world might have for its motto: "The earth helped ihe
woman." Creation is ultimately a witness for righteous-
ness and truth. It is not one nation, one age, which is
represented here ; it is an eternal law.

(!7) And the dragon . . .—Translate. And the
drdtgon was wroth with the woman, and departed (not

Appearance of

KEVELATION, XIII.

the great World-power*

went to make war with the remnant of
her seed, which keep the command-
ments of God, and have the testimony
of Jesus Christ.

CHAPTER XIII.~ W And I stood

upon the sand of the sea, and saw a
beast rise up out of the chap. xiii. 1—
sea, having seven heads 10- The great
and ten horns, and upon his The first beast-
horns ten crowns, and upon like foe.
his heads the name1 of blasphemy. (2)And

merely " went," but departed, as one baffled in his at-
tempt to carry the woman away by the river) to make
war with the rest of her seed, who keep the command-
orients of God, and have the testimony of Jesus. Omit
the word Christ. The attempt to sweep away the Chris-
tian Church is vain. The wrath of man has always
been found to turn to God's praise; the earth has
always helped the woman ; out of a thousand seeming
defeats the Church of Christ has arisen ; the banner of
the Lord has been lifted up over every flood. But the
foe will not give up his attacks. He can make war upon
individual Christians ; he may cease to assail the collec-
tive Church of Christ, but he can assail Christians by
a thousand discomforts, by petty opposition, by under-
mining their morals, by making them unpopular, not as
Christians, but as " very particular " Christians : for
those thus assailed are they who " keep the command-
ments of God and the testimony of Jesus." It is the
old combination of a holy life and a fidelity to their
Master which is the test of true loyalty. They take
heed to themselves; they abide in Christ; they take
heed to the teaching, that Christ's word may abide in
them. They keep His word, and they witness to Him
in lip and life.

XIII.

This chapter describes the rise of two foes of Christ
and His people. They are described as "wild beasts" in
opposition to Him who is the Lamb. They are distinct
from the dragon j yet they are inspired, as it were, by
him. He gives them power (verse 4) ; his voice speaks
through them (verse 11). They are forces and powers
utilised by him in hostility to the cause of righteousness
and truth. On the whole of this section the parallel
vision in Dan. vii. ought to be read.

(*) And I . . . — Better, And he (not ."I stood," as in
English version, but he, i.e., the dragon) stood upon the
sand of the sea. Some make this sentence a separate
verse, and insert it as the closing verse of chap. xii.
It is true that the sentence has a connection with that
chapter, but it is also closely linked with what follows.
The way in which the dragon carries out his plan of war
is described. Like Milton's " superior fiend," he stands
upon the shore and summons his legions {Par. Lost,
Book I.) to another form of war. Two monsters, one
distinguished by more brutal, the other by more subtle
power, rise at his bidding.

And saw . . .—Translate, And I saw a wild
beast rising out of the sea, having ten horns and
seven heads, and upon his horns ten diadems, and
upon his heads names of blasphemy. — The wild beast
rises out of the sea. In the vision of Daniel (chap,
vii.) the beasts rose out of the sea upon whioh the
four winds strove. The sea represents the graast,
restless mass of human kind ; or, as it is expressed in
chap. xvii. 15, "peoples and multitudes." St. James
represented an undecided man as a wave driven by
the wind (Jas. i. 6). The individuals, like larger and
smaller waves, make up this great ocean-like mass of men,
swayed by impulse or passion. Out of the sea rises a

wild beast. The word is not the same as that used in
chap. iv. 7 (see Note there), but is a word which im-
plies the predominance of the beast nature. Whatever
power rises is one which rules not by love or right, but
by fear and wilfulness. It is the great force of the
world-power, which in every age has been antagonistic
to the power of right. The wild beast is always the
figure of the kingdoms of this world — i.e., the kingdoms
which are founded on passion or selfishness. They are
seven in number, as the beast had seven heads. We
read afterwards of seven mountains. These world-
powers are spoken of as mountains for their strength
and stability; as heads of the wild beast because,,
though separate, they are inspired by the dragon spirit,
the spirit of utter enmity to the rule of the Righteous
King. The seven kingdoms, or heads of the wild beast,,
are more distinctly explained in chap. xvii. 10. There
we read that five are fallen, one was in possession of
power, and the seventh had not yet arisen. The key
is thus placed in our hands. The sixth head is imperial
Rome, the successor of those great world-powers which
were, one and all, founded in unrighteousness — i.e., in
violation of the law of brotherly kindness and faith.
The heads carry the names of blasphemy. The spirit
of arrogant self-sufficiency characterised all the world-
powers. Illustrations would be too numerous for our
space. It is enough to refer to the spirit in Babylon :
" Is not this great Babylon, that I have built for the
house of the kingdom by the might of my power, and
for the honour of my majesty?" The words were
Nebuchadnezzar's (Dan. iv. 30). He became a beast
in uttering them ; but the spirit of them went through
all the world-powers, from the days of Lamech (Gen. if.
23, 24) and Babel (Gen. xi. 4) to the days when Roman
poets prostituted their pens in abject flattery of emperors,,
and a degraded people welcomed them as gods, and put
those to death who refused to offer frankincense and
wine to the images of those Avho wore the purple.

Ten horns. — The beast has, besides seven heads,
ten horns, which are explained further on (chap. xvii. 12>
as " the kings which have received no kingdom as yet,"
but which, when they rise, will draw their strength from
the dragon and be members of the mid beast.

(2) And the beast . . . — The wild beast combined
the features of three wild animals : the leopard, the
bear, the lion. In Daniel's vision (Dan. vii. 4) the
kingdoms were described : the first, like a lion ; the
second, like a bear ; the third, like a leopard or
panther. Here all these features are combined,
because the wild beast is a representative of all forms
of world-power, which have been swift to shed blood :
like a leopard leaping on the prey, tenacious and relent-
less as a bear, and all devouring (their throat is an
open sepulchre) as a lion. The reader will remember
the wild beasts which in vision hindered Dante when
he sought to ascend the " pleasant mount " — the " cause
and source of all delight." The leopard, the lion, the
wolf were symbols of luxuriousness, cruel ambition, and
hungry and heartless avarice, which oppose men and
nations when they seek the Holy Hill, where the light of
God ever rests. (Comp. Inferno, i. 10 — 74.)

Worship of the Beast.

BEVELATION, XIII.

Power given to him.

the beast which I saw was like unto
a leopard, and his feet were as the feet
of a bear, and his mouth as the mouth
of a lion : and the dragon gave him his
power, and his seat, and great authority.
<3) And I saw one of his heads as it
were wounded 1 to death ; and his deadly
wound was healed : and all the world
wondered after the beast. ^ And they
worshipped the dragon which gave power
unto the beast : and they worshipped
the beast, saying, Who is like unto the
beast? who is able to make war with
him? (6) And there was given unto

him a mouth speaking great things and
blasphemies ; and power was given unto
him to continue2 forty and two months.
(6> And he opened his mouth in blas-
phemy against God, to blaspheme his
name, and his tabernacle, and them
that dwell in heaven. W And it was
given unto him to make war with the
saints, and to overcome them : and
power was given him over all kindreds,
and tongues, and nations. (8) And all
that dwell upon the earth shall worship
him, whose names are not written in
the book of life of the Lamb slain from

And the dragon. — Read, And the dragon gave him
his poiver and his throne (not his " seat," as iu the
English version ; it is the royal seat, the throne, which
is meant). (See Notes on chap. xi. 16 and chap. iv. 4.)

And great authority.— It is through this succes-
sion of world-powers that the dragon carries on his
Avar. The wild beast becomes the vicegerent, so to
speak, of the prince of this world.

(3) And I saw . . .—Translate, And (I saw) one
from among his heads as if having been slain [the
expression is the same as that applied to the Lamb in
chap. v. 6 : the wound marks are there when the vision
rises] unto death; and the stroke of his death was
healed. When the wild beast rose from the sea, the seer
saw the deadly wound on the head : the wound was really
unto death ; the beast which had waged war against the
true kingdom of righteousness and faith has received
his death-blow. This is the historical point from which
the vision starts. This being so, the death-blow is that
which has just been dealt : the seed of the woman has
bruised the serpent's head. The blow which casts down
the dragon inflicts a deadly wound upon the wild beast,
which is his agent. When Christ overthrew the wicked
one He gave the death-blow to the world-power — to all
systems founded on passion, or self-sufficiency, or inhu-
manity. But the death-blow is apparently healed.
What is this but telling the Church of Christ that the
fruits of Christ's victory will not be seen without delay ?
The world-power is smitten unto death ; but the actual
death does not follow immediately. The power of evil,
contrary to all expectation, rises with new vigour. This
revived power showed itself, with more or less force,
in the way in which the spirit of the wild beast broke
forth when Christianity seemed to have put fetters on
the Roman empire.

(3. 4) And all the world wondered . . .—Lite-
rally, And the whole earth wondered after the wild beast,
and worshipped the dragon, because he gave the autho-
rity and worshipped the wild beast, saying, Who is like
unto the wild beast ? and who is able to war with him ?
The healing of the death-blow causes wonder to all.
Their wonder leads to worship. The spirit of the wild
beast is adored wherever worldliness prevails. There is
nothing so successful as success, and the homage of men
is more often paid to power than to principle. " Who
is like unto the beast ? " The words are a parody, and
a blasphemous parody, on the ascription of praise to
God which the name Michael imported. (See chap,
xii. 7; comp. Ps. cxii., Mic. vii. 18.) "Who is like
unto God ? " is the legend of the saints : the opposing
cry is, " Who is like unto the beast ? "

" Can you not hear the words coming across the ccnrii-
ries from the lips of two Roman youths talking with
each other, as they lounge together in the Forum ? "
(Maurice.) Can we not hear the echo of the words in
the Champs Elysees, in Piccadilly, in the Broadway,
or Unter Den Linden, from the lips of young men
who have taken fashion, rank, wealth, world-power
in any shape, as their god ?

(5) And there was given . . .—In these verses the
words and the Works of the wild beast are described.
The 5th verse tells us that the liberty to speak and
work ivas given to him. There is consolation in the
words : he has no power beyond what is given ; behind
his reckless and apparently irresistible power there
stands the veiled but real power of God. " Thnu
couldest have no power " (the saints may take up their
Lord's words) " against me, except it were given thee
from above." He speaks great things, and blasphemy.
And there was given him authority to act (literally, to
do) forty-two months. Again the familiar period, the
limited time of the world-power.

(6) And he opened his mouth . . .—Translate,
And he opened his mouth unto blasphemies against
God, to blaspheme His name, and His tabernacle, and
them that tabernacle in the heaven. Much of the beauty
of the thought is lost by the translation " them that
dwell;" the word is tabernacle. The saints, to whom
the name of the Lord is a strong tower, and who have
a tabernacle of witness in this wilderness world, can yet
tabernacle their spirits where their treasure is, in the
heaven, according to that word : " our citizenship is even
now in heaven " (Phil. iii. 20). Against these the world-
power blasphemes : who has not taken the Lord for his
strength, God is not his might ; his might is his god.
(Comp. Hab. i. 11 : " He passes over and is guilty, he
whose might is his god.")

(7) And it was given . . .—Better, He makes war
with the saints, and conquers them. This, too, is said
to be " given him." The conquest is not a conquest of
their fidelity ; it is rather that the beast so far succeeds
that they must suffer or submit. The saints seem to be
single handed ; for there teas given him authority over
every tribe, and people, and tongues, and nations. Nor
does his success end here ; the next verse shows us how
completely earth is at his feet.

(8) And all that dwell . . -Better, And all they
that dwell on the earth shall worship him (every one)
ivhose name has not been written in the book of life of
the Lamb that has been slain from the foundation of the
world. This is the climax of his triumph : he, or it. is
worshipped; but the saints, though conquered, conquer;

597

Appearance of the

EEVELATION, XIII

Second Beast.

the foundation of the world. <9> If any
man have an ear, let him hear. (10^ He
that leadeth into captivity shall go
into captivity : he that killeth with the
sword must be killed with the sword.

Here is the patience and the faith of
the saints. IW And I beheld another
beast coming up out of Chap. xiii _ n_
the earth; and he had two 18. The second
horns like a lamb, and he beas*-like foe.

they do not worship after the fashion of the deluded or
self-seeking. A stronger tie binds them to a better
allegiance; their names are in the Lamb's Book of
Life. There is some doubt about the connection of the
words " from the foundation of the world." Some con-
nect them with the word "written ": this would express
that the names were written " from the foundation of
the world " in the book. Others connect them with the
word " slain " : this expresses that the Lamb was slain
from the foundation of the world. For the former view,
the similar passage in chap. xvii. 8 is cited ; but, on the
other hand, the phrase " from the foundation of the
world " is connected in other parts of the Bible with
certain aspects of the work of Christ (1 Pet. i. 19, 20,
and John xvii. 24), and it seems more natural to take the
words in their simple order. Whatever view we take,
the verse proclaims that the security of God's saints is
based on the eternal love of God. " An eternal deliverer
is the only refuge from this great world-tyranny ; " the
strength of the tempted is in Him who is the same in
love and righteousness through all the ages.

(9) This verse— an echo of his Master's words from
the lips of the beloved disciple — calls marked attention
to the warning words of the next verse.

(10) This verse may read : If any one (is) for captivity,
into captivity he goeth ; if any one to be hilled by the
sword, he shoidd by the swordbe killed. If we read the
verse thus, it is generally understood to be a caution to
Mie suffering saints that there is nothing for them but
to endure, just as Jeremiah told his countrymen that
those who were for death must go out to meet it, and
those who were for sword or captivity must face them
(Jer. xv. 2). But is not this a warning to them that the
way of the Chuixdi's victory lay through suffering
captivity and meeting sword, and that the temptation
to take the sword or seize the weapons of their foes
would be fatal to their true success? The spirit of
the words reminds them that their weapons are the
weapons of faith and patience, of truth and righteous-
ness ; and they must accept the tribulation, as their
Lord did His cross, because thus it must be. At the
same time, their very doing so is a witness to their
foes that "all those who take the sword will perish
with the sword ; " and that the sword, from which the
saints do not shrink, will assuredly turn against those
who use it. Here [i.e., in the enduring of these per-
secutions, and amid so many temptations, not seizing
easy, world-like methods of saving themselves) is the
endurance and faith of the saints.

The Appearance op the Second Wilp Beast.

For the understanding of this portion of the vision we
must notice the contrasts and resemblances between this
and the former wild beast. They are both wild beasts :
they both have horns : they both have a dragon-like in-
spiration (verse 11) : they both tyrannise over men ; but,
on the other hand, the second beast is less monstrous in
appearance : we read only of two horns, and we hear
nothing of seven heads. He somewhat resembles a
lamb ; he rises from the earth, and not from the sea ; his
power lies in deception (verses 13, 14) as well as violence;
ne seems to possess more supernatural power : yet the

whole of his work is directed to magnifying the first
beast (verse 12). Do not these features lead to the con-
elusion that the principles which the second wild beast
supports are the same as those on which the former wild
beast acted, but that he supports them with more
subtlety, intelligence, and culture? But for all the
deception he employs, his work, when stripped of its
specious drapery and seen in its naked ugliness, is to
promote the honour of the first wild beast. Because of
this seductiveness, and of his efforts to support his mis-
sion with higher sanctions (verse 13), he is called in later
chapters (chaps, xvi. 13; xix. 20; xx. 10) the False Pro-
phet ; the force and appropriateness of this designation
becomes more apparent when we notice that the features
Avhich are assumed bear a deceptive resemblance to those
of a lamb. The advancing intelligence of the world,
its increase in knowledge and wisdom, the wider diffu-
sion of culture and thought, produce a change in the
general fashion of life, but the spirit which animates
society is unchanged. The second wild beast is that
change which is a change of mode, but not of spirit — a
change of manners, but not of heart ; there is more re-
finement, more civilisation, more mind, but it is still the
world-power which is worshipped ; it is the self-seeking
adoration of pleasures, honours, occupations, influences
which spring from earth and end in earth — the pursuit
of powers which are worldly. Some see in this second
wild beast the Pagan priesthood aiding the imperial
power, the embodiment of the first wild beast ; others
see in it the Papal sacerdotal power, the heir of Pagan
rites ; others, again, would combine the two, and view
this second wild beast as the sacerdotal persecuting
power, Pagan and Christian. I believe that, though
there is truth in these views, they are too narrow. It is
true that priesthoods — Pagan and Christian — -have often
devoted their influence to the upholding of the great,
world-power ; it is true that men called to be Christian
teachei's forgot their function, and used their knowledge
and power to bolster up the power of the beast and to
make men worship the world, as though there were
nothing higher for men to worship than this world coidd
afford ; it is true that they used, in later days, their
powers to aggrandize the Church rather than to reform
the world and regenerate men t in so far as they did this
they acted like the second wild beast ; but the stretch
of the vision embraces more than these. All who use
their knowledge, their culture, their wisdom, to teach
men that there is nothing worthy of worship save what
they can see, and touch, and taste, are acting the part of
the second wild beast ; and be they apostles of science,
or apostles of culture, or apostles of logical immorality,
or apostles of what is called materialism, if their teach-
ing leads men to limit their worship to the visible and
the tangible, they are making men worship the beast
who is the adversary of the servants of the Lamb.

(n) And I beheld . . . Better, And I saw another
wild beast rising out of the earth. Both wild beasts rise
from beneath. The sea, out of which the first rises, re-
presents the tumultuous impulses and passions of man-
kind ; the earth, the more fixed element of human
thought and wisdom, or society consolidated and dis-

Power given to

EEVELATION, XIII.

the Second Beast.

spake as a dragon. <12> And he exer-
cisetli all the power of the first beast
before him, and causeth the earth and
them which dwell therein to worship
the first beast, whose deadly wound
was healed. (i3) And he doeth great
wonders, so that he maketh fire come
down from heaven on the earth in the
sight of men, (14) and deceiveth them
that dwell on the earth by the means of
those miracles which he had power
to do in the sight of the beast ; saying

to them that dwell on the earth, that
they should make an image to the beast,,
which had the wound by a sword, and
did live. <lb) And he had power to give
life1 unto the image of the beast, that
the image of the beast should both
speak, and cause that as many as would
not worship the image of the beast
should be killed. (16> And he causeth
all, both small and great, rich and poor,,
free and bond, to receive2 a mark in
their right hand, or in their foreheads :

ciplined by intelligence and culture : the wisdom, how-
ever, which guides this wild beast is not divine wisdom,
but that wisdom which a sacred writer described as
earthly, sensual, devilish (Jas. iii. 17).

He had two horns like {those of) a lamb.—
There is an appearance of gentleness about him, but he
spake as a dragon ; the voice betrayeth him. He that
is of the earth is earthly, and speaketh of the earth.
The spirit of the adversary is in him (John iii. 31;
viii. 41).

(12) And he exerciseth . . . — Better, And he
works, or exercises (literally, does), all the authority
(or, power) of the first wild beast in his presence. It
will bo seen by this that we must not look upon the
second wild beast as a successor, but rather as a sup-
porter, of the first. The intellectual force of an earthly
wisdom is practically subservient to the spirit of unmiti-
gated worldliness.

(12, is) And causeth the earth . . .—Literally,
and he makes the earth and them that dwell in it
that they shall worship the first wild beast, the stroke of
ivhose death ivas healed; and he does signs great, so
that lie even makes fire to descend out of the heaven to the
earth in the sight of men. This descent of fire is the
counterpart of the work of the two witnesses (chap. xi.
5), and of Elijah in Old Testament days. It is one of
the features of that deceivableness of unrighteousness
which misleads man. There is a holy fire which inspires
the lips and hearts of the holy ; there is an unhallowed
fire, a fire of mere power, which the worldly spirit is
tempted to worship.

(14) And deceiveth them . . .—Better, And he
leads astray those who dwell on the earth because of the
signs which were given him to do in the presence of the
wild beast ; saying to those who dwell on the earth, to
make an image to the wild beast that has the stroke
of the sword and lived. He leads astray : this is the
key to his success, he deifies the spirit of worldliness ; but
he does it by deception and subtlety : there is an appear-
ance of wonderful power : he can work lying wonders.
When men lose the sense of duty, — the will to ask, " Is
it right ? "—they become an easy prey to some specious
deception. This is the reason that, both in the old and
new dispensations, a caution against " immoral marvels "
is entered (see Deut. xiii. 1 — 3 ; Matt. xxiv. 24 ; and
2 Thess. ii. 9) ; mere greatness, either of achievement or
of miracle, is no guarantee of a good cause. The motto
" Might is right " is the motto of worldliness ; " Right
is might " is the motto of faith, and those who hold it
cannot worship the beast, even though the stroke of
his death- wound is healed. Men have appealed to lying
miracles on belialf of a death-wounded creed : the
cleverness of self-interested partizanship is seldom
barren of imposing expedients.

<15) And he had power . . .—Better, And it wa?
given to him to give breath to the image of the wild beast,
that the image of the wild beast should both speak, and
cause that as many as do not worship the image of the
wild beast shall be slain. The image to the wild beast
is an image also of the wild beast : and the image of
the monster is endued with apparent vitality. Wisdom
can give a semblance of life to the most doomed cause ;
and the bulk of mankind read only with their eyes, and.
not at all with their thoughts. The image of the Roman
emperor was, in ancient days, made an object of
worship. Christians suffered rather than by such an
act of worship prove disloyal to Christ: like their
spiritual ancestors, they refused to worship the image
which the world-power had set up ; they were willing to
render to Csesar the things that were Caesar's, but the
homage which belonged to God they refused to any but
their God. These are but types of those who have
refused, though tempted by specious eloquence and
sagacious subtlety, to offer homage to any mere world-
power; for the golden image is ever set up upon the
plains of this world : its glitter and its vitality survive
the storm and the conflict of the ages : it speaks, and
men hear and adore, for they walk by sight, not by
faith ; and it needs no imperial or papal edict to doom
to social death and failure those who refuse to shape-
their conduct by considerations of self-interest, and who
are sure to be treated as fanatics because they follow
right and conscience and Christ.

(16, 17) And he causeth . . .—Better, And he [i.e.,.
probably, the second wild beast, and not the image, as in
the latter clause of the last verse] makes all men, the small
and the great, and the rich and the poor, and the free
and the slaves, that they should give them a mark upon^
their right hand or upon their forehead : (and) that no
one should be able to buy or to sell but he who has the
mark, the name of the wild beast, or the number of his
name. We have read of the sealing of the servants of
God in their foreheads (chap. vii. 3) : we shall hear of it
again (chap. xxii. 4); the power of evil also has its mark
or stamp. As slaves received a brand or mark in their
flesh, betokening to whom they belonged, so in the
spiritual conflict there is on the side of good and of evil
a brand or mark. St. Paul spoke of such marks in his
own body that proved him a slave of Jesus Christ (Gal.
vi. 17). In the same way the subtle false prophet, the
abettor of world-power, seeks to impress a mark on all,
on the penalty of complete social exclusion. It is
utterly unnecessary to take this brand of evil literally,
any more than we took the seal of Christ literally.
That seal we understood as spiritual, in the faith and in
the character ; this evil brand we must interpret in like
manner. It surely means the acquiescence in character
and action to the principles of this tyrannical world-

The Number of

KEVELATION, XIV.

the Beast.

<l7> and that no man might buy or sell,
save he that had the mark, or the name
of the beast, or the number of his name.
<18) Here is wisdom. Let him that hath
understanding count the number of the

beast : for it is the number of a man ;
and his number is Six hundred three-
score and six.

CHAPTEE XIV.— m And I looked,

power : the right hand is the symbol of toil and social
intercourse ; the forehead is the symbol of character, as
time is ever writing its awful tale upon men's brows.
There have been days when men's faith has been i-ead
only too plainly by a hostile world, and when their simple
trust in Christ caused Christians to be suspected, and
when " men cast out their name as evil," and when the
mark of the beast was worn and gloried in everywhere. '
"We might cite_from the history of the past numberless

such epochs. But are

that the days are gone

Are we sure that it is easy for simple, unaffected good-
Tiess and genuine faith to gain all it might gain ? Are
we sure that honesty, guilelessness, utter and strenuous
truthfulness are not weighted in the race of life ? The
days of the future may bring intenser forms of this
tyranny, as the days of the past have shown them ; but
the days of the present may afford us illustrations
of how readily men may lose, lose much and lose
terribly, rather than succumb to fashions which vio-
late honour and dishono?ir Christ. But we read of
more than a mark here : we read of a " name," and
the " number of a name." What are we to understand
by these ?

(18) Here is wisdom . . .—Translate, Hither is
wisdom. This most difficult verse is introduced by this
word of preface. Wisdom — indeed, the highest wisdom —
is needed for those Avho would understand it. Two or
three points ought to be noticed. (1) The verse surely
implies that the understanding of this name and number
is attainable ; it warns us that wisdom and understanding
are needed, but it as certainly leads us to believe that
to wisdom and understanding a solution of the problem
will be granted. (2) There is a variation in the MSS.
respecting the number. Some MSS. read six hundred
and sixtee: ; but the probability is in favour of the
reading six hundred and sixty-six. In an excursus
(Excursus B) will be found a short account of the
various interpretations which have been given. (3) The
clause " It is the number of a man," has been rendered
" For number is of man." The number, then, is
the combination of three sixes ; there is a wisdom
and understanding which may grasp its import, and
that import is to be guided by the principle that
it is the number of a man, or that number is of
man — is, that is to say, a method of computation
which is used by man, and used by God in order to
symbolise something made thus more intelligible to man.
Is the wisdom which is to solve this, then, the mere
cleverness which can guess an acrostic or an enigma ?
or is it rather that the true heavenly wisdom, which is
moral rather than intellectual, is needed to unite itself
with understanding to solve the problem ? Surely the
dignity of the Apocalypse is sacrificed when we search
for its meaning like children playing with conundrums
rather than like men being guided by its principles.
There is a wisdom which brings its sevenfold beam of
heavenly light to the children of men — a wisdom pure,
peaceable, gentle, full of mercy, without partiality,
without hypocrisy — and when this wisdom rests on
men in. the fulness of its seven-fold pei-fection they may
read the number of the beast, and see that, with all its
vaunted strength, it is but weak ; with all its vaunted
perfection, it is imperfect ; that though it vaunts itself

as rich, increased in goods and needing nothing, it still
lacks that " one needful thing " — faith in God, or the
love by which faith works. Without this it will never
attain even the appearance of that perfect heavenly
number symbolised by seven ; it may multiply itself in
earthly strength — the power of worldliness into the
power of worldly wisdom, and this again by the power
of a hundred-fold satanic subtlety — but it will remain
| still short of the tokens of the kingdom of God ; and
I the number when read will be, however godlike it looks,
but the number of a man after all.

I am disposed, therefore, to interpret this " six hun-
dred and sixty-six " as a symbolical number, expressing
all that it is possible for human wisdom, and human
power, when directed by an evil spirit, to achieve, and
indicating a state of marvellous earthly perfection, when
the beast-power has reached its highest development,
when culture, civilisation, art, song, science and reason
have combined to produce an age so nearly resembling
perfection — an age of gold, if not a golden age — that
men will begin to say that faith in God is an im-
pertinence, and the hope of a future life a libel upon
the happiness of the present. Then will the world-
power have reached the zenith of his influence ; then
will only a wisdom descended from above be able to
detect the infinite difference between a world with faith
and a world without faith, and the great gulf which the
want of a little heaven-born love can fix between an
age and an age.

At the same time, I feel bound to place here, as well
as in the Excursus, two other views — one because it has
recently been advanced with conspicuous ability ; the
other because it is perhaps the most generally adopted,
as it is certainly the most ancient, view. Both these
interpretations are based upon the theory that the
letters of the name, when added together, according to
their numerical value, will make up six hundred
and sixty-six. The first of these alluded to finds the
word in Nero Caesar. The second, and more ancient,
finds it in Lateinos : this last was mentioned by Irenajus.
It will be seen that both these solutions are at one in
making the number point to the great Roman Power;
and this was the great embodiment of the terrible spirit
of self-sufficiency, tyranny, and utter godless worldli-
ness with which St. John was familiar. These inter-
pretations are interpretations in example, and as such
probably true ; but they are only types, as it seems to
me, of that fuller and deeper view which takes the
number as symbolical of that power which, whether
directed by Nero, or inspired by Emperor or Pope, or
false teacher, or military tyrant, has dazzled mankind
by a fictitious glory, a fictitious civilisation, and a
fictitious religion, or deceived them by holding out the
promise of splendour and happiness without the know-
ledge and obedience of God, without law, without faith,
and therefore without true joy. (Conip. Note of the
"Three Frogs," chap. xvi. 13, 14.)

XIY.

We have had before us the terrible foes which
the cause of Christ and His righteousness must
encounter in the world. We have seen the subtle
spirit of the Evil One defeated, yet plotting new

The Lamb and

REVELATION, XIV.

His Followers.

and, lo, a Lamb stood on the mount
Chap xiv. 1—5. ^i°n? an(l with him an hun-
The oamp of dred forty and four thou-
theLamb. 8andj ililv-illL,. llis Father's

name written in their foreheads. (2) And
I heard a voice from heaven, as the
voice of many waters, and as the voice
of a great thunder : and I heard the
voice of harpers harping with their
harps : (3> and they sung as it were a

new song before the throne, and before
the four beasts, and the elders: and no
man could learn that song but the
hundred and forty and four thousand,
which were redeemed from the earth.
W These are they which were not de-
filed with women ; for they are virgins.
These are they which follow the Lamb
Avhithersoever he goeth. These were
redeemed1 from among men, being the

methods of assault, and utilising the powers of tho
world, its sheer force and its culture, to crush holiness
and to destroy spiritual religion. The whole vision re-
minds us that our conflict is not with flesh and blood,
but against the principalities, against the powers, and
the world-rulers of this darkness (Eph. vi. 12). We
have seen the spiritual issues which are at stake. In
all the outward forms which the conflict may assume
there is but one inward spiritual antagonism — the spirit
of evil against the spirit of good, the god of this
world against the Christ of God. We have seen this
power of evil rise to its blasphemous climax. But
what has the Church of Christ been doing? The
sealed ones of God have suffered; but have they done
more than suffer? Has theirs been only a passivo
endurance of evils ? Have they wielded no weapons
against these foes, and used no counter-influence for
good ? The chapter before us will answer. In it the
.sacred seer takes us from our survey of the powers of
evil, and shows us the powers of good. We have seen
the strength of the wild beast : we may now see the
followers of the Lamb. In the chapter there are
seven messengers, or agents, employed, who prepare
for or complete the harvest : the angel of good news
(ver. 6, 7) ; the angel proclaiming the doom of the great
world city (ver. 8) ; the angel who warns men against
the mark of the wild beast (ver. 9 — 12) ; the angel of
comfort (ver. 13) ; the angel of the wheat harvest (ver.
14—16) ; the angel of the vintage (ver. 17—20) ; the
angel of fire (ver. 18). But before these we are shown
a vision of the servants of the Lamb.

The Citadel op the Saints and the
Servants of the Lamb.

0) And I looked . . .—Better, And I saw, and
behold, the Lamb (not " a Lamb : " it is the Lamb, the
true Lamb of God, against whom the wild beast wages
savage and subtle war) standing on the Mount Sion.
The Saviour, the Lamb, in whose blood the saints have
found their victory, is seen standing on the citadel of
the heavenly city. Babylon is to be introduced (verso
8). In contrast, Zion, the chosen abode of God (Ps.
cxxxii. 13 — 18), the type of the spiritual city whose
citizens are true to the King (comp. Ps. ii. 6, lxxiv. 2 ;
Heb. xii. 22 — 24), is introduced. There are to be seen
the Lamb, set, as King upon the holy hill of Zion, and
with Him the sealed ones, His faithful soldiers and
servants. They are described as 144,000 in number : a
number which represents the full growth of the choice
ones of God, the true Israel of God. (Seo Note on
chap. vii. 4.) These have their Father's name on their
foreheads : they can be recognised as children of God,
(Comp. Note on chap. vii. 2, 3, and chap. xxii. 4.)

(2) And I heard a voice . . .—Translate, And I
heard a voice out of the heaven. Tho saints stand
with their Lord, the Lamb, on Mount Zion, and just as

of old a voice came from heaven bearing witness to
Christ, so round the abode of the saints heavenly voices
are heard, full of majesty, terribleness, and sweetness,
as though the sounds of sea and thunder blended with
the music of heavenly harps. We call to mind tho
magnificent 29th Psalm ; there the saints, secure in
Zion, hear all around them the voice of God in the
thunder and in the sea, while in His safe sanctuary tho
saints can sing of His honour.

(3) And they . . .—Translate, And they (i.e., the
heavenly harpers) sing a new song (the words " as it
were " ought, perhaps, to be omitted) before the throne,
and before the living creatures, and the elders (i.e., in the
presence of God Himself, and creation, and the Church),
and no one was able to learn the song except the
hundred and forty-four thousand ivho were purchased
from the earth. It is a heavenly song, and no spirit
dulled by earthly desires can learn it. The Spirit of
the Lord can open the dull ear to hear and to rejoice in
the songs of God's saints. Amid the world-noises of
Babylon men can neither hear nor sing aright the
Lord's song (Ps. exxxvii. 4) ; but the redeemed (the
purchased from the earth) of the Lord can come with
singing unto Zion (Isa. Ii. 11).

(■*. 5) These are they . . .—The characteristics of
the servants of the Lamb are given in this verse and
the following. The first is purity : they are virgins.
The expression can hardly be limited to the un-
married, as the 144,000 represent the wide society
of the choice ones of God. They are those whose
hearts have been made as the hearts of little
children (Matt, xviii. 1 — 4), who have that purity of
heart which Christ declared to be blessed, and which

! St. James declared to be the first mark of heavenly
wisdom (Matt. v. 8, and Jas. iii. 17). The next is im-
plicit obedience : they follow the Lamb whithersoever He
goeth. Some, indeed, take this to be a kind of heavenly
reward: they shall be the nearer companions of tho
Lamb. But it is better to take it as describing their
complete consecration to Christ. They are those who
are with Christ,- who have tasted the cup that their Lord
tasted, and have taken up their cross and followed Him
(Matt, xx. 22; Luke xiv. 27; John xii. 24—26). It is
well to weigh these words ; it is in the " wheresoever "
that we may test the reality of our Christian life.
Here lies the cross that Christ bids us take up. Here
is the echo of Christ's words. " Whosoever forsaketh
not all he hath cannot bo My disciple." The third
mark is separation, or unworldliness : they were pur-
chased from among men, as a firstfruit to God and to
the Lamb. They were a chosen generation, a peculiar
people (Tit. ii. 14; 1 Pet. ii. 9), as the Israel of God
(Dent vii. 6). The fourth feature is utter truthfulness :

I in their mouth no guile or no falsehood. (Comp. Ps.
xiv. and Dent, xxxii. 1. 2.) The verse emphatically
ends with " They are blameless." The words " before

601

The Voices of

EEVELATION, XIV.

the Four Angels.

firstfruits unto God and to the Lamb.
<5) And in their mouth was found no
guile : for they are without fault before
the throne of God. ^ And I saw another

Chap. xiv. 6- anSel % iu. the midst of
13. The four heaven, having the ever-
celestial voices. iasting gospel to preach
unto them that dwell on the earth, and to
every nation, and kindred, and tongue,
and people, (7) saying with a loud voice,
Fear God, and give glory to him ; for
the hour of his judgment is come : and
worship him that made heaven, and
earth, and the sea, and the fountains of
waters." (8) And there followed another
angel, saying, Babylon is fallen, is

fallen,4 that great city, because she
made all nations drink of the wine
of the wrath of her fornication.
W And the third angel followed them,
saying with a loud voice, If any
man worship the beast and his image,
and receive his mark in his fore-
head, or in his hand, (10> the same shall
drink of the wine of the wrath of God,
which is j>oured out without mixture
into the cup of his indignation ; and he
shall be tormented with fire and brim-
stone in the presence of the holy angels,
and in the presence of the Lamb : <-U) and
the smoke of their torment ascendeth
up for ever and ever : and they have no

the throne of God" must be omitted. (Oomp. chap,
vii. 14, 15; Eph. v. 27 ; and Col. i. 22.)

We have seen the servants of God ; we have marked
their character ; we are now to see the weapon which is
to be employed in the conflict against the enemies of
Christ.

(6) And I saw . . . — Better, And I saw another
angel flying in mid-heaven, having an everlasting gospel,
to declare glad tidings ovei' them that sit on the earth,
and over every nation, and tribe, and tongue, and people.
In view of the world the gospel is proclaimed ; this is
the good news that God loves the world, has redeemed
mankind, that they belong to Him. This word of God
is the sword of the Spirit, and the weapon (not carnal)
which the Church uses against her foes. It is repre-
sented as in the hand of an angel rising in view of all
nations : " The sound has gone out unto all lands."

(7) Saying . . . — These words declare what ought
to be the effect of the gospel. Those to whom it is
preached are sitting inactive on the earth. They must
be roused to fear God and give Him glory. They must
not fear the powers of evil, the wild beasts, &c, or be
afraid of their terror (1 Pet. iii. 14, 15). They must
realise that there is an hour of judgment at hand,
which will discriminate between the worshippers of the
world and of God. Let tnem learn to worship the
Creator of all, and to turn from the worship of lesser
and lower.

If we ask when this gospel angel appeared, our answer
must be that the whole cycle of the gospel preaching is
included in the vision, though doubtless there have
been ages when the light of the glad tidings of God has
gone forth with revived lustre, and when the warnings
against easy acquiescence in evil have been given with
unmistakable distinctness.

(8) And there followed . . .—The gospel angel
is followed by the angel that proclaims the downfall of
Babylon. Better, And another, a second, angel followed,
saying, Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great, who has
given all the nations to drink of, &c. The second angel
follows on the first : the doom of the world-city, the
metropolis of the empire of the world-power, follows
the proclamation of the gospel. The principles of
Christ's gospel must undermine the world-power ; the
fall of some Babylon principle has almost always suc-
ceeded the age of spiritual revival. Pagan Rome goes
down before the gospel. Civil freedom follows the
wake of religious freedom, for Babylon belongs not to
one age. Pagan Rome was Babylon to St. John ; papal

Rome was often Babylon to a later age. Dante, Sava-
narola, Taider, Luther, felt her to be so in the days
when their eyes were enlightened; but Babylon was not
on the Euphrates alone : she has reared palaces on the
Seine, and on the Thames, Tiber, and on the Bosphorus.
She may yet erect her power in more imposing form ;
but faith in that gospel which is the power of God, will
cast her down along with everything that exalts itself
against the knowledge of God. The influence of
Babylon is declared in this: that she has given all
nations to drink of deadly wine — the wine alike of her
sin and of her doom, of her fornication and of the
wrath which will overtake it. Babylon, then, is clearly
an emblem of some principles which have been more or
less accepted by all nations, and which will more or less
involve all in the consequences of her fall. (Comp.
chaps, xvi. 19, and xvii., where the features of this
Babylon are more fully developed.)

(9) And the third angel . .—Better, And another
angel, a third, followed them, saying in a loud voice,
If any man worship the wild beast and his image,
end a mark upon his forehead or upon his hand, he
also himself shall drink of the wine of the wrath of
God, which is mingled pure (in full strength, undiluted,
e.g., " He shall have judgment without mercy that
hath showed no mercy;" Jas. ii. 13) in the cup of his
indignation, and shall be tormented in fire, &c, &c.
This third angel naturally follows the other two, which
describe the powers which are in conflict ; the word of
God, and the Babylon of the world; the gospel will
triumph ; Babylon is doomed ; hence comes the
warning that men should not identify themselves
with the city of worldliness, falsehood, and sin. The
reference to the wild beast, the image, and the mark,
carries us back to the last chapter, and shows us that
Babylon is only another aspect of the work of God's
enemies : it is the city of the world-power. The
warning not to receive the mark is a declaration that
man, individual man, is responsible : there is no
necessity for his receiving the mark, the hall-mark of a
cowardly connivance at wrong-doing, or for setting his
judgments by the fashions of the world.

(ll) For ever and ever. — Or, unto ages of ages.
The imagery of the smoke going up reminds us
of the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.
xix. 28; comp. Isa. xxxiv. 10). They have not rest
by day and by night, who worship the wild beast,
&c. Sin, which is first embraced as a delight,
becomes soon an inexorable tyrant, by an awful

602

" Blessed are the Dead."

EEyELATION, XIV.

The final Harvest.

rest day nor night, who worship the
beast and his image, and whosoever
receiveth the mark of his name. <12) Here
is the patience of the saints : here are
they that keep the commandments of
God, and the faith of Jesus. (13) And
I heard a voice from heaven saying unto
me. Write, Blessed are the dead which
die in the Lord from henceforth : Yea,
saith the Spirit,1 that they may rest
from their labours ; and their works do
follow them. (14) And I looked, and
Chap. xiv. 14— behold a white cloud, and
16. The harvest. Up0n the cloud one sat

2 Or

rlrirrt.

a Jo

•I :t. IS,

1 Or, fir
forth

m hcncr-

UtOk the

Spirit,

like unto the Son of man, having on
his head a golden crown, and in his
hand a sharp sickle. (15) And another
angel came out of the temple, crying
with a loud voice to him that sat on thfc
cloud, Thrust in thy sickle, and reap :
for the time is come for thee to reap;
for the harvest of the earth is ripe.2"
(16) And he that sat on the cloud thrust
in his sickle on the earth ; and the earth
was reaped. (17) And another angel came
out of the temple which is chap. xiv. 17—
in heaven, he also having 20. The vintage,
a sharp sickle. <18) And another angel

retribution compelling men along the routine of tho
evil habits which they loathe while they long for,
and long for even while they loathe them : there is a
destiny of unrest in all sin. " The wicked are like the
troubled sea, which cannot rest." It is well that solemn
words like these should be read by the light of the
most certain of all truths — the power sin has of
stamping its indelible features upon the human
character, and giving to habit the force of a destiny.

(12> Here is the patience . . .—Translate, Here is
the patience of the saints (not " here are they," but) who
keep, &c. In this readiness to wait, to endure through
much tribulation to the end, is the patience of the saints
seen. There is a patient waiting for Christ shown by
those who keep God's commandments, who cleave to
righteousness in spite of much temptation, and who
refuse to pay homage to the god of this world because
firm in the faith that Jesus is King.

<13) And I heard a voice . . .—Translate, And I
heard a voice out of the heaven, saying, Write, Blessed
are the dead who die in the Lord from henceforth ; Yea,
saith the Spirit, in that they shall rest from their labours ;
for their works follow with them. We are not told
whose voice speaks, but it proclaims a blessing on (not
oidy martyrs, but) those who die in the Lord, in happy
union and fellowship with Him (John xv. 2 — 5 ; 1 John
i. 3) ; such are happy, for they rest from toil, and their
works of faith and labours of love (even if only the
giving a cup of cold water in the name of Christ)
follow with them into the presence of their Lord (Matt.
x. 41, 42 ; Heb. vi. 10). The words " from henceforth"
form a difficulty ; the reason for their introduction is to
be found in the state of trouble which the last verses
describe : the righteous are happy in being taken away
from the evil to come. Or may it be that the words are
designed to console the mourners in an age when dark
unbelief robs away the sweet resurrection trust, and
writes over its graves, " Farewell for ever " ? If the
climax of world-power should be bitter scorn of the idea
of a life to come, and complacent satisfaction with a
portion in this world, then words of faith, proclaiming
that the dead are happy and restful, and that their
work is not in vain in the Lord, may find new force to
sustain a fainting courage or a wavering trust.

The Harvest.

0*) And I looked . . . — Better, And I saw, and
behold a white cloud, and upon the cloud one seated like
to a son of man, having upon his head a golden crown,
and in his hand a, sharp sickle. There can be little
doubt that Christ Himself is here intended: the " cloud "

(Matt. xxiv. 30 ; Acts i. 9), the expression " Son of man "
(comp. John v. 27 and Dan. vii. 13), the " crown," the
general resemblance to the vision in chap. i. (see
chap. i. 7 — 13), indicate as much. The " crown " is the
crown of victory; the hour of conquest is at hand.
The sickle shows that the harvest has come. (Comp. Joel
iii. 12-14 and Mark iv. 26—29.)

(15) And another angel . . . — Translate, And
another angel came forth out of the temple, &.c. It
has been asked, " What harvest is this ? " It is the
gathering of the good seed, the full corn in the ear, into
the celestial garner (Mark iv. 26 — 29). The angel who
announces that the harvest is ready comes forth from
the Temple, the inner shrine, the holy place which was
measured off in the sanctuary of the faithful (chap. xi.
1) ; whereas the angel who calls for the vintage comes
forth from the altar (verse 18).

The angel cries — Put forth (or, send) thy sickle and
reap, because the hour is come to reap, because the
harvest of the earth is ripe (or, dried) ; the wheat stalks
are dry, and the fields white for harvest (John iv. 35).
The sickle was put in : the earth was reaped.

The Vintage.

There must be some difference between the vintage
and the harvest. There is an autumn gladness about the
harvest : there are tokens of judgment in the vintage.
It is not the sharp sickle alone which is required : tho
winepress, the winepress of God's wrath, is called
into use. An angel from the Temple calls to the Son
of man to reap the harvest : an angel from the altar calls
to an angel from the Temple to gather in the vintage.
The vintage symbolises a harvest of judgment ; do not
the words respecting Babylon (the wine of the wrath
of her fornication, verse 8) come to the mind and con-
firm this? The angel rises from the altar, beneath
which the murdered saints had cried, " How long ? "
and proclaims, " The vintage, the hour of vengeance, has
come ! " And it is not without significance that the
angel to whom this cry is addressed comes forth out of
the Temple, the safe sanctuary of God's faithful ones,
as one wrho has witnessed their secret sorrows and
their sufferings, and is fitted " to recompense tribula-
tion to tho troublers of Israel " (2 Thess. i. 6).

(!7) And another angel . . .—Translate, And
another angel, . . . having himself also (as well as the
Son of man, verse 14) a sharp sickle.

(is) And another angel . . .—Translate, And
anotlier angel, . . . he who hath authority over the fire.
The two scenes — one in chap. vi. 9, 10 (the souls crying
beneath the altar), the other in chap. viii. 5 (the angel

The Vintage gathered.

KEVELATION, XV.

The Seven Plagues

came out from the altar, which had
power over fire ; and cried with a loud
cry to him that had the sharp sickle,
saying, Thrust in thy sharp sickle, and
gather the clusters of the fine of the
earth ; for her grapes are fully ripe.
<19) And the angel thrust in his sickle
into the earth, and gathered the vine
of the earth, and cast it into the great
winepress of the wrath of God. (20) And
the winepress was trodden without the
•city, and blood came out of the wine-
press, even unto the horse bridles, by

the space of a thousand and six hundred
furlongs.

CHAPTER XV. — C« And I saw

another sign in heaven, Chap. xv. 1—8.
great and marvellous, seven Jn preparation

° -, i I, tor the plagues,

angels having the seven the Temple of
last plagues ; for in them God is closed,
is filled up the wrath of God. M And
I saw as it were a sea of glass mingled
with fire : and them that had gotten
the victory over the beast, and over
his image, and over his mark, and over

mingling incense with the prayers of the saints) — must
he remembered. The angel who had charge of the altar
fire, and flung the ashes betokening judgments towards
"the earth, calls Avith a loud cry, Send thy sharp sickle,
■and gather the bunches of the vine of the earth, because
her grapes are ripe.

(19,20) And the angel . . .—The vine {i.e., the
vintage of the vine), when gathered, is cast into the
winepress of the wrath of God, the great (wine-
press). And the winepress was trodden without the
city, and there came forth blood out of the wine-
press as far as the bridles of the horses, from
a thousand six hundred furlongs (stadii). The out-
flow of the blood of the grapes pressed reached
over a distance of sixteen hundred stadii. The
treading of the winepress was a figure representing
vengeance; the red juice of the grape strongly sug-
gested the shedding of blood. (Coinp. Isa. lxiii. 2 — 4.)
The winepresses stood usually outside the city : it is so
represented here, not without an allusion to those
who fall under the weight of this judgment because
they have refused the defence of the true city and
sanctuary. (Comp. verse 1 and Ps. exxxii. 17, 18.) The
distance (sixteen hundred stadii), i.e., four multiplied
into itself and then multiplied by a hundred, is sym-
bolical (such seems the most probable meaning) of a
judgment complete and full, and reaching to all corners
of the earth — " the whole world, of which Satan is
called the prince, is judged, and condemned, and
punished " (Dr. Ourrey). In the vintage and harvest
is a piercing discrimination between the faithful fruit-
bearing children of the King and the cowardly or
selfish, whose hearts are for self and not for Christ,
but who yield themselves servants to sin.

XV.

(!) And I saw another sign in (the) heaven.—
The sign is, as we noticed before (chap. xii. 1), a token,
not a mere empty wonder. This sign is called " great
and marvellous ; " it introduces a new set of scenes ;
the same characters will reappear, but we must start
with fresh attention.

The seer sees seven angels (not " the seven angels ; "
it is perfectly needless to ask what angels, or to try and
identify them with the trumpet angels) having seven
plagues, the last, because in them is completed the wrath
of God. The statement that these are the last plagues
seems to show that the set of visions now commencing
carry lis down to the end of the age; there are no
other plagues after these : they are the last plagues ;
the vials, like the seals and the trumpets, run up to the
final consummation. They are plagues ; the word carries

us back to Egypt : on Egypt fell the ten plagues which
showed forth God's righteous power, and exposed the
hollow pretensions of the magicians and their gods ; the
wild beast-power and the false prophet-power of that
day was crippled and exposed. In like manner upon the
wild beast-power of later ages the plagues of God
fall. They are plagues, because they are sent forth, not
like the trumpets to warn men to repent, but upon
those who have obstinately refused to return ; they are
not goads to the wavering, but they are strokes upon
the wilful and hardened ; they are directed against
those who are deliberately hostile.

(2) And I saw as it were a sea of glass
mingled with fire. — The wild beast rose out of the
sea (chap. xiii. 1) ; the evil-hearted woman sits upon
many waters (chap. xvii. 1) ; they draw strength from
the wild, and ungoverned, and short-sighted impulses
of human passion ; in opposition to this near the
throne of God is the calm and translucent sea of God's
counsels of righteousness and love, now clear as
crystal, now ruddy with the fire of righteous indigna-
tion, the expression of His eternal will against sin.
Such is the appearance of this glass-like sea now that
the angels of the plagues are going forth.

But the seer saw more than this fire-flushed sea. He
saw also those that are victorious over the wild beast.
These he describes (such is the literal translation) as
those ivho conquer out of the wild beast, &c. ,• they
come off conquerors out of the struggle, and they escape
from the temptation to worship his image and wear
the badge of his service : they " escape victorious from"
his image aud from his mark. When he sees these,
they are standing upon (i.e., on the shore of) the sea of
glass, holding harps of God. We have had the harps
mentioned previously (chaps, v. 8, and xiv. 2) ; it is appro-
priate. The life which has been a discord to the world
rises into true music before God ; those who will make
their life a melody must take it first as a conflict. The
harps they hold are called harps of God, not merely
because they are dedicated to Him, but because they
are truly God's. All the most glorious and noble
things in nature were named God's : the lofty trees
were " trees of God " : the high-piled mountain;)
were "mountains of God"; so also the harps which
strike forth the richest music are " harps of God."
Nor is this a mere phrase to be considered as equivalent

ly gr<
trees, hills, and harps are, but onlj

a prosaic or a pro-

to very erreat or very glorious ; great and glorious the

dy a
fane mind can be satisfied with such a naked equivalent.
The godly saw the hand of God in these things ; and
St. John knows that the noblest melody in the ears of
God is the noble life of faith, suffering, and love. The

(S04

The Song of Moses

EEVELATION, XV.

and 0/ the La ml,.

the number of his name, stand on the
sea of glass, having the harps of God.
<3) And they sing the song of Moses
the servant of God," and the song of
the Lamb, Baying, Great and marvellous
are thy works, Lord God Almighty ;
just and true are thy ways, thou King
of saints. W Who shall not fear
thee, 0 Lord, and glorify thy name'?4

for thou only art holy : for all na-
tions shall come and worship before
thee ; for thy judgments are made
manifest. (5) And after that I looked,
and, behold, the temple of the taber-
nacle of the testimony in heaven was
opened : (6) and the seven angels came
out of the temple, having the seven
plagues, clothed in pure and Avhite

power of such a life is in God, not in itself (John xv. 5 ;
Gal. ii. 20), and the music of such a life is music which
God makes (2 Cor. iv. 7 — 10), drawing the sweetest
tones from the strings which are smitten with pain
and sorrow; and as its life's music is God-taught, so
does its song of triumph sound from a harp not its
own, but God's. If our power to sing in trial here
a song worthy of God is only found in God, so will
the songs of heaven be sweet only in Him, for those
who dwell there shall be all taught of Him.

(3) And they sing the song of Moses the
servant of God, and the song of the Lamb.—
They join their voices to the music of their harps.
The song of Moses was a pasan of victory over Pharaoh
and his hosts (Ex. xiv. 26—31, and xv. 1 — 21). Israel
stood on the margin of the Red Sea and saw the
tokens of the overthrow of the great world-power of
that day ; so these saints stand by the border of the
fire-blent sea of glass, and sing the song of triumph
over the doom of the great world-powers of every age.
The cases are parallel, the songs are alike ; and it would
not be out of place were the words of that other song
of Moses, the man of God, to be heard from those who
are made glad according to the days of their affliction,
and who are clothed with the beauty of the Lord their
God (Ps. xc. 1, 15, 17). They also sing the song of the
Lamb. The Apocalypse is full of Christ; the Lamb
is the axis on which the world of its scenery moves ;
He is the key of earth's history; the victory of the
saints is in Him (chap. xii. 11) ; their song of triumph is
of Him who put a new song in their mouth and in whom
all things are reconciled (Eph. i. 10; Phil. ii. 10, 11).

(3. 4) Great and marvellous are thy works . . .—
The song is better thus translated : —

"Great and marvellous are Thy works,

Lord God Almighty.
Just and true are Thy ways.

Thou Kins of the nations.
Who will not fear, O Lord, and glorify Thy name ?

Because Thou only art holy :
Because all the nations shall come and worship
in Thy presence :

Because Thy judgments were manifested."

The works are called " great ;" the " ways " are called
just and true. It is not mere marvel which calls forth
the song of praise, but righteousness, truth, and holi-
ness. The Almighty is the righteous ruler. The
English version has "King of saints;" the reading
should be " King of the nations," or else, perhaps,
" King of the ages." The latter reading harmonises
well with the immediate context and with the other
passages, which link the thought of " the ages " with
the " righteous dealings " of God. " Thy righteousness
is an everlasting righteousness, and thy law is the
truth " (Ps. cxix. 142 ; comp. also verses 144, 151, 152,
160). But the former is to be preferred ; it is appro-
priate in a song which celebrates a victory over those
who vaunted themselves as the princes of this world,
and which proclaims the submission of the nations to

God; and it seems to have been transplanted herefrom.
Jeremiah (x. 7) : " Who would not fear thee, thou
King of the nations ? " The song celebrates the noble
acts of the Lord ; it declares them to be great ; but it is
not their greatness, it is their righteousness and faith-
fulness which calls forth the grateful praise. The long
days of oppression, and the seeming silence of the
Almighty, when the prayer and cry " How longy*' has
risen from perplexed and suffering saints, have brought
the temptation of the psalmist : " I have cleansed my
heart in vain " (Ps. lxxiii. 3 — 13). But now the
righteous acts of the Lord are manifested ; now it is
acknowledged that " verily there is a reward for the
righteous; verily He is a God that judgeth in the
earth" (Ps. viii. 11). Though clouds and darkness
have sometimes been round about Him, it is now beyond
doubt that " righteousness and judgment are the habi-
tation of His throne " (Ps. xcvii. 2).

W Who shall not fear . . .—Rather, Who will-
not fear, &c. (the word "Thee" should be omitted.
because Thou art holy. The word rendered " holy '*
is not that which is usually employed when the holi-
ness of God is spoken of; it is a word which, when
applied to men, denotes one wdio reverences the sacred
obligations of natural and moral order, apart from the
thought of mere law or custom. The word is applied
here, and in chap. xvi. 5, to God, and denotes the recog-
nition of those sacred obligations which the character
of God, if I may say so with reverence, imposes upon
Himself. It is the remembrance that God will, as
Judge of all the earth, do right, and will vindicate the
expectations of those who stay themselves upon His
character, which generates a holy fear of Him.

All nations shall come and worship . . .—
Translate, All the nations worship, because Thy judg-
ments (or, righteous acts) are manifested. The song is
one in anticipation. The angels of judgment are going
forth ; the righteous dealings of God will be seen ; but
these things are spoken of as though accomplished :
their completion is a divine certainty.

(5) And after that . . . — Better, And after these
things I saw, and there was opened the temple of the
tabernacle of the testimony (or, witness) in the heaven.
This temple is called the temple of the tabernacle of
the testimony; the expression sounds cumbrous, but
it is nevertheless suitable. St. Stephen spoke of " the
tabernacle of witness " in the wilderness, which was
made after the pattern showed in the mount (Acts
vii. 44). The tabernacle was well called the tabernacle
of witness, for it contained the ark of the testimony
with the Law of God, and was a perpetual witness of
God's presence among His people. The temple of the
tabernacle then is the shrine, or inner sanctuary, of
the heavenly true tabernacle, after the pattern of which
the tabernacle of Moses was fashioned, which is now
opened.

(6) And the seven angels . . .—Better, And there
came out the seven angels who had the seven plagues

The Seven Angels.

EEVELATION, XVI.

The First Vial

linen, and having their breasts giried
with golden girdles. (7) And one of the
four beasts gave unto the seven angels
seven golden vials full of the wrath of
God, who liveth for ever and ever.
<8> And the temple was filled with smoke
from the glory of God, and from
his power; and no man was able
to enter into the temple, till the
seven plagues of the seven angels were
fulfilled.

CHAPTER XVI.— d) And I heard a
great voice out of the temple saying to
the seven angels, Go your ways, and
pour out the vials of the wrath of God
upon the earth. <2> And the first went,
and poured out his vial chap. xvi. 2.
upon the earth ; and there The nrst vial.
fell a noisome and grievous sore upon
the men which had the mark of the
beast, and upon them which worshipped
his image. (3) And the second angel

from the temple, clothed in linen, pure, glistening, and
girt about their breasts with golden girdles. The
temple is the inner shrine, or sanctuary; it was this
which was measured (chap. xi. 1) ; it was out of this
that the angel with the sharp sickle came for the
vintage of the earth (chap. xiv. 7) ; out of this now
came the seven angels with the seven plagues. It
is well to remember this, for these plagues are not,
like the judgments of the trumpet, calls to repentance ;
they are plagues on those who have refused to return,
who have rejected the sanctuary, the tabernacle of
witness, which the Lord pitched among men, and
who have refused, like obstinate builders, the stone
which has become the head of the corner. Out of the
rejected temple the angels of wrath come ; it is ever
true that out of rejected mercies the heaviest of plagues
are forged. The angels are clad in a garb resembling
that of Christ (chap. i. 13); they are come forth to do
His bidding ; they are clothed in raiment which indi-
cates their righteous errand. (Comp. chap. xix. 8 ; Acts
i. 10, and x. 30.) Instead of linen, some MSS. have " a
stone :" the angels, according to this, were " clad in a
stone, pure, brilliant." There is a pai'allel thought in
Ezekiel, who describes the splendour of the King of
Tyre: " Thou hast been in Eden the garden of God;
every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius,
topaz, and the diamond," &c. (chap, xxviii. 13).

(7) And one of the four . . . — Better, And one from
among the four living beings gave to the seven angels
seven golden vials (or, boivls) full, &c. Thp vials are
the shallow bowls which were used for incense. They
are filled with the wrath of God, and that wrath is now
to be poured out " upon the kingdoms that have not
called upon God's name " (Ps. lxxix. 6). These vials
are given by one of the living creatures who represent
creation ; it is thus through creation that the wrath of
God can visit the rebellious ; that wrath of God is
simply the operation of God's righteous law against sin.
His statutes are eternally righteous. He has given to
all things a law which cannot be broken ; that law is
adverse to evil, and will in the end root it out, for it
does the bidding cf God, who lives unto the ages of the
ages.

(8) And the temple . . .—Translate, And the temple
(the same word — naos — is used as in chap. xi. 1) was filled
with smoke from the glory of God, and from his might ;
and no one was able to enter into the temple until the
seven plagues of the seven angels should be finished.
As in the wilderness (Ex. xl. 34, 35), and as at the
dedication of Solomon's temple (1 Kings viii. 10, 11),
the tokens of God's presence filled the temple, so it is
now, but with a difference : it is smoke, not cloud, which
is the symbol of God's presence. But the vision which
perhaps, under all circumstances, most nearly corre-
sponds with the present is that of Isaiah (chap, vi.) ;

there the prophet beheld the vision of God. His train
filled the temple, and the house was filled with smoke,
and a message of judgment was given to the prophet ;
that message declared that the sin of the people had
reached a climax : they had trifled with convictions, and
henceforward the words of God's servants would harden
rather than awaken them. " Make the heart of this
people fat, and make their ears heavy, and shut their
eyes," &c. (Isa. xi. 9, 10), till the desolating judgments
had fallen. The general drift of the present vision is
similar ; the days of warning are over : the plagues
which now fall will fall on those who have trifled
with convictions : the sanctuary which was opened as
a refuge is now closed : none can enter till tho plagues
have descended. The time has come when the judg-
ments of God fail to stir the conscience which has been
deadened by sin ; the day when the gracious influences
towards repentance was felt has passed. The word
that has been spoken is about to descend in judgment
(Jolin vii. 48). " Who shall not pray, with an agony of
earnestness, From hardness of heart and contempt of
Thy word and commandment, good Lord, deliver us ? "
(Dr. Vaughan).

XVI.

The Seven Viai.s.

(!) And I heard . . .—A great voice is heard out
of the temple ; it bids the angels pour out their vials
" into the earth ;" later on (verse 17) the voice is heard
saying, " It is done." The voice is then said to come from
the throne ; it seems likely that the voice of the first
verse is the same — the divine voice from the throne itself.

(2) And the first . . .-Translate, And the first went
forth, &c. The angel which receives the command
departs and pours forth his vial upon the earth. All
the vials are poured forth " into the earth " (verse 1 )
generally ; the first angel pours his vial forth upon the
earth, that is, the dry land. And there came an evil
and painful sore upon the men (i.e., upon that part of
the human race) who, &c. The plague falls on those who
carry the mark of the beast, and who worship it. Like
the plagues of Egypt, they are directed against those
who aid the oppressor. The plague here described
resembles the sixth of the Egyptian plagues, the plague
of boils (comp. Ex. ix. 8—12 ; Deut. xxviii. 27). Egypt
is one type of the world-power ; and the plagues
are used as types also, and are not to be understood
literally. The plague of the " evil sore " denotes some
throbbing and hateful sore, perhaps spiritual or menial.
which distracts attention and disturbs the personal
serenity and seK-complacency of the worshippers of the
world-power.

(3) And the second angel . . .—Better, And the
second (angel) poured out his vial on the sea,
and it became blood as of a dead man, and every

606

The Second, Third,

KEVELATION, XVI.

and Fourth ViaU.

poured out his vial upon the sea ; and
«, . Q it became as the blood of

Chap, xvi. 3. ..

The second a dead man: and every
vial- living soul died in the sea.

<4) And the third angel poured out his
(hap. xvi. i -7. vial upon the rivers and
The third vial, fountains of waters ; and
they became blood. ^ And I heard the
angel of the waters say, Thou art
righteous, O Lord, which art, and wast,

and shalt be, because thou hast judged
thus. (6> For they have shed the blood
of saints and prophets, and thou hast
given them blood to drink ; for they
are worthy. W And I heard another
out of the altar say, Even so, Lord God
Almighty, true and righteous are thy
judgments. (8) And the fourth angel
poured out his vial upon _, , . .

f, -, r Chap. xvi. 8, 9.

the sun; and power was The fourth vial.

noul of life died (even) the things that were in
the sea. The reference to the first of the Egyptian
plagues is clear (Ex. vii. 20; comp. chap. viii. 8,9).
It has been remarked that " the Egyptian plagues
stood in a very close connection with the natural state
and circumstances of Egypt. The Nile, which was
their strength, became worse than useless when its
waters were turned to blood." There is a similar feature
here. The sea, out of which the wild beast rose, from
which the world-power drew strength, is turned to blood,
the blood as of a dead man, corrupt and loathsome. The
sea represented the tumultuous impulses and passions
of the masses ; there is a certain healthy force in these,
but under certain conditions, when devoted to selfish-
ness and earthliness, they become corrupt and deadly.
Ruled by God and by right, the voice of multitudes is
melodious as the voice of the sea, and the free move-
ment of peoples, like the ocean, a health-giving moral
environment to nations; but swayed by impulse, or
directed by worldliness, they become an element of
corruption, killing every token of better life.

(*) And the third angel . . .—The third vial
resembles the second in its effects. As it is poured
out on the rivers and springs of waters, they become
blood. It is not only the great sea which becomes
blood, but all the merry streams and babbling brooks
which carry their tribute of water seawards also turn
corrupt. And this plague is acknowledged by heavenly
voices as a just retribution (verses 5 — 7). The streams
and rivers feed the sea; they are the powers and
influences which go to the making up of the great
popular sentiment ; these are smitten by the same
corruption. Men cannot worship worldliness or
earthliness without degrading even those who con-
tribute to their instruction, their recreations, and their
joys, to the same level. When the public taste grows
corrupt, the literature will, for example, become so in a
more or less degree ; the up-flowing tide will colour the
down-coming stream. " The morality of a nation's art,"
writes a modern critic, "always rises to the level of
morality in a nation's manners. Morality takes care of
itself, and always revenges any outrage which art may
put upon its laws by either lowering the art that so
offends, or extinguishing it " (Dallas, Gay '■ Science,
Vol. II., 16). It is true in even a wider sense. The
loftier powers of imagination, the range of poetical
elevation, are cramped and killed in a base, world-
worshipping age. The streams of life grow putrid,
the fresh and bright gifts of God are polluted, when
the ocean of public thought is unwholesome.

(5—7) But this state of things is declared to be a
just retribution, and reasonably so ; for the corruption
arises because the true power of life has been rejected :
it is the refusal of the good, the want of the life-giving
element, which is the secret of all death, physical.

moral, spiritual. " 'Tis life we want when breath is
scant." The world-power and its worshippers have
driven away goodness and faith, the elements of the
higher life of man; they have slain the just and the
righteous, who were the salt of the earth ; they have
rejected Christ, who is the life of men ; how can they
reap anything but decay and death ? They slay the
righteous ; the death of righteousness leaves them
nothing but the lifeless blood behind; they can no
longer drink moral life from the good ; there is but the
legacy of death. " Blood of saints and prophets did they
pour out ; and blood didst Thou give them to drink."

(5) And I heard the angel of the waters . . .—
That is, the angel wdio was set over the waters, or the
angel who is, on the heavenly side, representative of the
waters. (See Excursus A : On the Angels.) The angel
acknowledges God's righteousness. Thou art righteous
. . . because Thou didst judge these things — i.e., because
of the righteous law which these judgments manifested.

(6) For they have shed . . .—Better, Because they
shed (not, "have shed," but did shed, or pour oid), and
blood didst Thou give them ; they are worthy. " For "
is to be omitted; the sentence has a startling force
without it. They — i.e., those enemies of all righteous-
ness— are worthy ; they receive the due reward of their
deeds.

(7) And I heard . . . — Translate, And I heard (not
" another out of the altar," but) the altar saying, liven
so, Lord God the Almighty, true and righteous are Thy
judgments. The altar beneath which the souls of the
martyrs cried, and on which the prayers of saints were
offered, is represented as confirming the testimony to
the just dealings of God.

(8, 9) And the fourth . . .—Better, And the fourth
(angel) poured out his vial upon the sun ; and
it was given to it (the "sun," not the "angel;" the
rendering of the English version " unto him " is mis-
leading) to scorch men with fire. And men (i.e.,
those who were worshippers of the wild beast) were
scorched . . . and did not repent to give him glory.
The sun, the great source of light and warmth, whose
beams call forth the flowers of the earth, becomes a
power to blast, not to bless. This is another example
of the way in which the things full of beneficence are
turned into powers of sorrow to those who follow evil.
Not only the pleasant gifts and influences, which, like
streams, were made to gladden men, grow corrupt, but
the very source of light and knowledge becomes a power
to destroy. We may contrast this influence of the sun
with the beneficent beains of the Sun of Righteousness.
Christ rose as the light and sun upon the world,
because He diffused the knowdedge which gave life to
men ; but here we have a light and sun which scorches.
There is a knowledge which withers while it illumines J
there is a teaching which does not warm the heart,, but

607

The Fifth Vial.

EEVELATIOK XVI.

The Sixth Vied.

given unto him to scorch men with
fire. (9) And men were scorched 1 with
great heat, and blasphemed the name
of God, which hath power over these
plagues : and they repented not to give
him glory. (10) And the fifth angel
„,, . ,„ poured out his vial upon

Chap. xvi. 10, -L 1

11. The fifth the seat of the beast ; and
viaL his kingdom was full of

darkness ; and they gnawed their tongues
for pain, (u) and blasphemed the God of
heaven because of their pains and their

sores, and repented not of their deeds.
(12) And the sixth angel poured out his
vial upon the great river Chap xvi 12_
Euphrates ; and the water ig. The sixth
thereof was dried up, that viaL
the way of the kings of the east might be
prepared. (13> And I saw three unclean
spirits like frogs come out of the mouth
of the dragon, and out of the mouth of
the beast, and out of the mouth of the
false prophet. (14> For they are the
spirits of devils, working miracles,

dries both heart and conscience, and brings but
pain. The result, painful as it is. does not work
repentance. Suffering, without grace and humility,
does not bless men ; they grow angry ; the fire hardens
instead of purifying. The whole series of these judg-
ments illustrate the awful truth that there is a stage in
personal life, and in national and world life also, in
which suffering loses its remedial force, because the
character has become set, and even an occasional desire
after higher things is no longer felt.

" When we in our viciousness
Grow hard, the wise gods seal our eyes,
In our own slime drop our clear judgments,
Make us adore our errors, and thus
"We strut to our destruction."

(10) And the fif th . . .—Better, The fifth angel
'poured out his vial upon the throne (not " the seat : " see
Notes on chaps, iv. 10 and xiii. 2) of the wild beast.
The vials of judgment gradually dissolve the integrity
and organisation of the kingdom of the wild beast.
The result of the principles on which it has been based
begin to show themselves : first, moral disease in
individuals'; then a corrupt tone of national morals
spreading into the higher orders of society ; then the
fierce pride of vannted light which scorches. Where
these are, disorganisation is not far off ; evil goes out a
murderer and comes home a suicide. The retribution
comes home ; the throne of the world-power, the very
head and centre of its authority, is smitten.

And his kingdom was full of darkness.— A nd
his kingdom was darkened. "We have the counterpart
of the Egyptian plague (Ex. x. 21 — 23); there was a
typical force in that ancient plague : the kingdom
which boasted itself so full of light becomes darkened.
When men shut out the higher light, the smoke of
their own candles will soon obscure the whole heaven.
When moral evil is linked with intellectual light, the
moral evil will be found the stronger ; for we cannot have
a sunbeam without the sun. " Take heed," said Christ,
" that the light that is in thee be not darkness." There
is a light that is darkness ; the progress of evil bringing
about its own retribution proves this conclusively.

(10, ll) But eVen the failure of their own light does
not work repentance : they gnawed their tongues from
their pain. Here is remorse and suffering. They are
" unto themselves '"' (as the Book of Wisdom describes
the Egyptians) "more grievous than the darkness"
(Wisd. xvii. 21) ; but there is no softening or
humbling of themselves, no turning to God. They still
love what God hates, and hate what He loves, for
they blasphemed God, &c, and repented not of their
works. Such is the wretched state of the world-power
in the day when retributive evil overtakes it — darkness,
pain, and inability to repent. Is it not a picture of the I

6C8

ultimate state of all sin ? It is not a vast world-power
alone which exhibits pain and confusion like this. It
is to be seen over and over again in men and nations.
The power of evil comes home and robs men of their
accustomed guides. They are brought into darkness
and trouble ; the throne where the master-power of
worldliness sat is cast down ; the evil passion which was
the unifying power of their life is deprived of the field
of its power ; then follows exasperation, anger at
defeat, readiness to accuse others, but no blame of self,
no repentance.

(12) And the sixth . . .—Better, The sixth (angel)
poured out his vial on the great rive)' Euphrates ; and
its water was dried that the way of the kings who are
from the rising of the sun might he prepared. The
symbolical meaning of the Euphrates has been touched
upon before. (See Notes on chap. ix. 14.) In the great
age-long struggle between the kingdoms of Christ and
the world the Euphrates represents the great separating
boundary between the two kingdoms, as the literal
Euphrates formed the barrier between Israel and the
hostile northern and eastern kingdoms. It is the great
impediment to war. It is true that there is a great
interposed boundary of public opinion, which restrains
evil from breaking forth in its ruder and more violent
forms. Men may be hostile to spiritual religion,
yet they scarcely like to shock public sentiment, or
to incur the charge of depraving public morals ;
but there may come a time, after false principles
have been taught, corrupt manners tolerated, and the
light of better things darkened, when the public
sentiment loses all sense of shame, and the decorums
of life, which have acted as a breakwater against
the tide of outrageous evil, are swept away : then
is the Euphrates dried, and. then may the hostile
powers of evil, unrestrained by any considerations, un-
checked by the popular conscience, cross boldly over
and invade the whole sacred soil of human life. There
have been times like this when shameless sin has
walked forth, secure of public favour, to desecrate
every sanctuary of purity and faith — when the most
barbarous manners and the most unscrupulous viola-
tions of public faith and morals have been not only
tolerated, but applauded. The " kings of the east " (or
of the sun-rising) represent the forces of rude and
open evil which have been long restrained. As the
four barbarian and tyrant kings (Gen. xiv. 1 — 24)
from the East invaded the land of promise in
Abraham's days, so the leaders of open and violent
hate of right, purity, and Christ, have the way of their
advance prepared. But certain agencies go forth to
bring about this uprising of rude revolt against every
sanctity of life.

(13, li) And I saw . . .— Better, A nd I saw out of the

Three Unclean Spirits.

L'KVELATION, XVI.

The Seventh Vial

which go forth unto the kings of the
earth and of the whole world, to gather
them to the battle of that great day of
God Almighty. {l5) Behold, I come as a
thief." Blessed is he that watcheth,
and keepeth his garments, lest he walk
naked, and they see his shame. (16) And

a Matt. 21. 43.

he gathered them together into a place
called in the Hebrew tongue Arma-
geddon. (17) And the seventh angel
poured out his vial into Chap xv.. K_
the air ; and there came 21. The seventh
a great voice out of the vial-
temple of heaven, from the throne,

month, of the dragon, and out of the mouth of the Mid
beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet, three
unclean spirits, as it were frogs. For they are sjririts
of demons, doing signs, which go forth upon the kings
of the whole world, to gather them together to the war of
the great dug of God the Almightg. Some have thought
that the kings of the East are the representatives of
the Christian powers, and that the drying up of the
Euphrates is the preparation for their entrance into the
land of promise. The general drift of the chapter
seems to me to be adverse to this view. The two hostile
kingdoms are being brought slowly into open antagon-
ism ; the great issues are to be brought to a decisive
test ; the time comes when a decision must be made :
"If God be God, follow Him; if Baal, then follow
him." The situation becomes so strained that it is
useless to keep up the appearance of a respectable
neutrality, for forces have beeu at work which are
gradually bringing all powers into the conflict. The
forces which are at work preparing for this issue are
evil forces ; " unclean spirits," little frogs, spirits of
demons go forth to gather every world-power to the
struggle. All this points to the final mobilisation of
the hosts of evil for an attack upon the kingdom of
Christ. Every impediment is removed, and the
Euphrates is dried. The kings may advance : like the
hosts of Pharaoh they may enter the dried-up sea in hot
haste of their hatred of all righteousness. Evil is reck-
less now, and moves to its destruction ; but it cannot so
move without working upon men. Three evil spirits
go forth for this purpose. There are three radical
foes of Christ and His righteousness : the dragon, re-
presenting the hate of evil spii-its; the wild beast,
representing the hostility of world-power; the false
prophet, representing the antagonism of world-culture
and intellectualism — these three send forth each their
emissary, appealing to the pride and passions of men.
What are we to understand by them ? We must con-
sider their origin. The world-power would have us
worship the things seen. It sends forth the spirit of
earthliness, the spirit which works in the voluptuary,
the ambitious, and the avaricious, the spirit which
makes earthly things its end (Phil. Hi. 19). The world-
culture sends forth its spirit of intellectualism, which
denies the spiritual nature of man, and substitutes taste
and culture for spirituality. The dragon sends forth
the spirit of egotism, of proud, self-sufficient inde-
pendence, which culminates in an utter hatred of the
Creator. The three spirits combined make up that
wisdom which St, James described as earthly, sensual
I unspi ritual, psychical), devilish (Jas. iii. 15). We may
eompare the three foes in the " Red Cross Knight ; "
Sansloy (without law), Sansfoy (without faith), and
Sansjoy (without joy) — Spenser's Faerie Queene. They
are like frogs : here is a reference again to the Egyptian
plagues.

These spirits gather all earthly powers to the war (not
" battle ") of the great day of God the Almighty. The
day which will test the power of combined evil, the day
which, beginning in rash pride, will end in bitter defeat.

54 609

to this the evil spirits lure their followers, as the false
prophets lured Ahab to his overthrow at Ramoth-Gilead
(1 Kings xxii. 20) : such is one of the final aspects of
evil. The voice of inclination is listened to as though
it were prophetic. The suggestions of sinful desire
are not only obeyed, but reverenced as oracles. The
wicked hath an oraclo of transgression in his heart
(Ps. xxxvi. 1 et seq.).

(15) Behold, I come . . .—Translate, Behold, 1
come as a thief. It is the oft-repeated Scripture
warning (chap. iii. 3; 1 Thess. v. 2, 3 ; 2 Pet, iii. 10.
Comp. Luke xii. 35 — 40). It reminds us not only that
our Lord may come unexpectedly, but that He may
even come and we be unaAvare. There is one day when
He will come, and every eye will behold Him ; but He
comes in various ways and forms to bless and to test
man. Blessed are they who are ready, watching. But
vigilance is not enough : the garments must be kept.
The powers of evil are abroad. Sloth and pleasuro
may counsel ease, and tempt the watcher to lay
aside his garments and take rest and sleep. The
earnest watcher desires, like St. Paul, to be found
in Christ, clad in the true righteousness of faith (Phil.
iii. 9).

(16> And he gathered . . .—Better, He gathered
them together to the place which is called in Hebrew
Armageddon. Armageddon is the mountain of
Megiddo. It is the high table-land surrounded by
hills which was the great battle-field of the Holy Land.
There the fortunes of dynasties and kingdoms have
been decided ; there the cause of liberty has triumphed ;
there kings fought and fell ; there Gideon and Barak
were victorious ; there Ahaziah and Josiah were slain.
The old battle-ground becomes the symbol of the
decisive struggle. It is raised in meaning : it is a type,
not a locality. The war of principles, the war of
morals, the war of fashion culminates in an Arma-
geddon. The progress of the spiritual struggle in
individual men must lead in the same way to a
mountain of decision, where the long-wavering heart
must take sides, and the set of the character be deter-
mined. "There is no waving of banners and no
prancing of horses' hoofs ; the warfare is spiritual, so
that there is in sight neither camp nor foe." It is
that conflict which emerges out of vaiious opinions and
diverse piunciples : " the religious tendencies of the
times " are (as we have been reminded) powers mar-
shalling themselves for the battle of Armageddon.
We must not look for great and startling signs : the
kingdom and the conflict of the kingdom is within and
around us (Luke xvii. 20, 21).

(!7) And the seventh . . .—Translate, And the
seventh (angel) poured out his vial upon the «<■■-
there came forth a voice out of the temple, from the
throne, saying, It is done. The results of the out-
pouring of this vial are described in the following
verses ; but befoi'e these are seen, the voice from the
throne — God's own voice see \i'\->v 1) — proclaims, as
though rejoicing in the near approach of the happy end,
" It is done." The close of these scenes of sin and

A great Earthquake.

BEVELATION, XVII.

A Plague of Hail.

saying, It is done. (18) And there were
voices, and thunders, and lightnings ;
and there was a great earthquake, such
as was not since men were upon the
earth, so mighty an earthquake, and so
great. (19^ And the great city was
divided into three parts, and the cities
of the nations fell: and great Babylon
came in remembrance before God, to
give unto her the cup of the wine of
the fierceness of his wrath." (2°) And
every island fled away, and the moun-

tains were not found. (21> And there
fell upon men a great hail out of
heaven, every stone about the weight of
a talent : and men blasphemed God
because of the plague of the hail ; for
the plague thereof was exceeding great.

CHAPTEE XVII.— « And there
came one of the seven chap. xvii. l—
angels which had the seven 6- The vision
vials, and talked with me, clad e woman]
saying unto me, Come Babylon.

suffering is now at hand, for the last of the last plagues
has been sent forth.

(18) And there were voices . . .—There is some
variety in the order of the words in different MSS.
There were lightnings, and voices, and thunders (comp.
chaps, viii. 5 and xi. 19) ; there was a great earthquake,
such as ivas not from the time there was a man upon
the earth. The earthquake, which is the shaking
down of the kingdom of evil (comp. Heb. xii. 26 — 29),
completes the overthrow of which the earlier judg-
ments have been precursors. The throne of the wild
beast has been visited, the centre of his power smitten ;
now the metropolis of his empire is about to fall. And
the great city (i.e., Babylon, the symbol of the world-
power's capital) became into three parts. It lost its
power of cohesion. The three evil spirits endeavoured
to unite all powers in one grand assault, but there is no
natural cohesion among those whose only bond is hatred
of good. The first convulsion shakes them to pieces,
and the cities of the nations fall. Every subordinate
power in which the earthly element was mingled (comp.
Dan. ii. 41 — 44) is overthrown in the earthquake, even
as every tree which the " Heavenly Father hath not
planted shall be rooted up " (Matt. xv. 13) ; and great
Babylon was remembered before G-od, &c. The features
of the overthrow of Babylon are described more fully
later on (chaps, xvii., xviii.), where the various aspects of
evil in the great metropolis of the world-power are
dealt with (chaps, xvii. 1 — 7, and xviii. 1 — 3). The
fall of Pagan Rome is but one illustration of the over-
throw of Babylon.

(20) And every island fled.— So wide- spread are
the effects of the earthquake ; the convulsion tests
every spot ; there is only one kingdom which cannot
be shaken. (Comp. Dan. ii. 44; vi. 26; Heb. x. 28.)

(21) And there fell . . . .—And a great hail,
as of a talent in weight, descends from the heaven
on men. There is again a reference to the Egyptian
plagues. But we may also call to mind the great defeat
of the enemies of Israel at Beth-horon (Josh. x. 1 — 11),
when " the Lord cast down great stones from heaven."
Such an overthrow awaits every confederacy that sets
itself in array against the kingdom of the righteous
King. The discomfiture and the plague works no repent-
ance ; the men blaspheme God because of the hail, for
great is its plague exceedingly. The proud, hard spirit
which still hates the good remains : thus is sin its own
worst penalty. As an illustration of this hard, unsub-
dued spirit, we may call to mind Capaneus, in Dante's
Inferno, and the words in which Yirgil addresses
him : —

" Thou art more punished, in that this thy pride
Lives yet unquenched ; no torment save thy rage
Were to thy fury pain proportioned full.

The unrepentant state of those upon whom the vials are
poured is to be contrasted with the different result of
the earthquake in chap. xi. 13, when men gave glory to
the God of heaven.

XVII.

This chapter and the following give the more
minute account of great Babylon. We have had
mention of her before in general terms (chaps, xiv. 8;
xvi. 9) as the metropolis of the wild beast's empire, the
great city hostile to Jerusalem, the city of the saints.
The Evangelist is now told more particularly her
character, ci-imes, power, and position. She is seen
clothed in splendour, intoxicated with her own power
and cruelty, cupported by the wild beast, and hostile to
the cause of the righteous King ; but doomed to fall,
amidst the wonder of the world and the rejoicing of
the saints (chap, xviii. 17 — 21).

(!) And there came . . .—One of the vial-bearing
angels summons the seer, saying, Hither I will show
thee the judgment of the great harlot that sitteth upon
many waters (or, the many waters — comp. verse 15).
The kings of the earth have committed fornication with
her, and they who inhabit the earth were made drunken
(lost their reason and self-control) from the wine, the
delicious and delirious draught of her fornication.
Before we go further, it is well to make sure of our
ground. Babylon was the great city, whose splendour
dazzled, and whose power destroyed Jerusalem (Isa.
xxxix. 1 — 8 ; xiii. 19 ; xiv. 4, 13, 14 ; xlvii. 5 — 8).
Against Babylon the voices of the prophets were
lifted up (Isa. xxi. 9 ; Jer. Ii. 25) ; she seemed to
them the embodiment of splendid vice and resistless
power ; '' the glory of kingdoms," " the golden city,"
" who exalted her throne above the stars of God,"
" who sat as a lady given to pleasures, and flattering
herself that she would see no sorrow." In her great-
ness and her hostility to Jerusalem she became a type
of later world-powers ; and, in St. John's vision,
Babylon, in her purple and her pomp, in her luxurious-
ness and her tyranny, takes her place. And it is ex-
plained in the vision that Babylon is no longer the
literal Babylon, but the power which has taken her
place of pride and empire. That power was Rome.
Rome was in St. John's day just what Babylon had
been in the days of the prophets — " the hammer of the
whole earth," the " golden cup that made all the earth
drunken " (Jer. 1. 23 ; li. 7 ; comp. verse 2 of this
chapter). At the same time, the way in which the
Evangelist transfers to the Rome of his day the pro-
phetic language which earlier prophets applied to
ancient Babylon (compare these chapters, xvii. and xviii.,
i with Isa. xlvii., Jer. li. 6 — 14) ought to be sufficient

610

The Vision of

REVELATION, XVII.

the Scarlet Woman.

hither ; I will shew unto thee the judg-
ment of the great whore that sitteth
upon many waters : <2^ with whom the
kings of the earth have committed forni-
cation, and the inhabitants of the earth
have been made drunk with the wine of
her fornication. (3)- So he carried me
away in the spirit into the wilderness:
and I saw a woman sit upon a scarlet
coloured beast, full of names of blas-
phemy, having seven heads and ten
horns. w And the woman was arrayed in

2 Or, fornication*.

purple and scarlet colour, and decked1
with gold and precious stones and
pearls, having a golden cup in her hand
full of abominations and filthiness of
her fornication : ^ and upon her fore-
head was a name written, MYSTERY,
BABYLON THE GEEAT, THE
MOTHER OF HARLOTS2 AND
ABOMINATIONS OF THE EARTH.
W And I saw the woman drunken with
the blood of the saints, and with the
blood of the martyrs of Jesus : and

to warn us against limited and local interpretations,
even if the seven-headed wild beast did not show us
that the world-power, like the moral principles of which
Babylon and Rome were examples, is not confined to
one age. If we remember this, we shall see that the
Babylon of the Apocalypse, while, undoubtedly, Pagan
Rome, cannot be limited to it. Is it, then, the question
must be asked, Papal Rome ? The answer is : In so far
as Papal Rome lias wielded tyrant power, turned perse-
cutor, stood between the spirits of men and Christ, de-
praved men's consciences, withheld the truth, connived
at viciousness, sought aggrandisement, and been a
political engine rather than a witness for the righteous
King, she has inherited the features of Babylon. The
recognition of these features led Dante to apply this
very passage in the Apocalypse to Rome under the rule
of worldly and tyrant popes, when he exclaimed to the
shade of Nicholas III. {II compiuto) : —

" Of shepherds like to you the Evangelist
Wras ware, when her who sits upon the waves
With kings in filthy whoredom he beheld :
She who with seven heads tower'd at her birth,
And from ten horns her proof of glory drew
Long as her spouse in virtue took delight.
Of gold and silver ye have made your god,
Differing wherein from the idolater,
But that he worships one, a hundred ye !"

—Inferno, Cant, xix., 109-117.

(3) So he carried . . . .—Better, And he carried
Trie away into a wilderness in spirit : and I saw a
woman sitting upon a wild beast of scarlet colour,
teeming with names of blasphemy, having seven heads
and ten horns. We recognise the wild beast as that
described in chap. xiii. Now the wild beast carries the
woman ; for she draws her support from the great
world-power. The scene is the wilderness. The con-
trast between the desolation around her and the splen-
dour of her appearance is striking and suggestive. The
woman clothed with the sun (chap. xii. 1), persecuted
by the dragon, finds a home in the wilderness into
which she is driven. She is persecuted, but not for-
saken; she can joy in tribulation. The scarlet-clad
woman, amid all her dazzling surroundings, is still in
a wilderness. The runagates continue in scarceness.
Sansjoy is the brother of Sansloy. The wild beast
is scarlet in colour. The dragon was red (chap. xii. 3) ;
the woman is clothed in scarlet. Is it the emblem
of lawlessness ending in violence ? (Comp. Isa. i. 18).
It has also a show of sovereignty.

Full of names.— Teeming with names, &c. — The
living creatures (chap. iv. 8) teemed (the same word
as here) with eyes, the tokens of ready obedience and
true intelligence. The wild beast teems with tokens
of lawlessness and self-sufficiency.

(*) And the woman was arrayed . . .—Better,
arrayed (or, clad) in purple (the colour of the robe

which was in mockery put on our Lord — John xix. 2)
and scarlet, gilded (not " decked ") with gold. &c. Her
appearance is one of imperial splendour. (Comp. the
description of Tyro in Ezekiel, chap, xxviii. 13.)

Having a golden cup in her hand . . .— .
Translate, Having a golden cup in her hand teeming
with, abominations and with the unclean tilings of the
fornication of the earth. Jeremiah (chap. li. 7) called
Babylon a " golden cup in the hand of the Lord." The
cup had made all the earth drunken ; the cup of in-
toxication, splendid and attractive, was full of an evil
power, which robbed men's senses and degraded them.
The great city of the world ever holds out such a
glittering cup, which

" Most do taste through fond intemperate desire.
Soon as the potion works, their human countenance,
Th' express resemblance of the gods, is changed

Into some brutish form

—Comus, 68-77.

(5) And upon her forehead . . .—It was usual
with harlots to wear their name on the forehead; bin
the name here is more than a name. Like the name
impressed upon the foreheads of the saints, it is " the
expression of her nature " —

" MYSTERY,

BABYLON THE GEEAT,

THE MOTHER OF THE HARLOTS AND OF THE

ABOMINATIONS OF THE EARTH."

The word " mystery " is, perhaps, part of the name ; it
is, at any rate, a prefix which tells us that the name is
not literal, but symbolical. Something lies behind,
which will be made manifest in due time. (Comp.
2 Thess. ii. 7.) She is mother of harlots. Others, in
smaller spheres, will follow her example ; but she is the
origin and type of all.

(6) And I saw the woman drunken with
the blood of the saints.— It is said later (chap,
xviii. 24) that in her was found the blood of prophets,
and saints, and of all that have been slain upon
the earth. The cruel spirit of persecution marked old
Pagan Rome. She was drunk with their blood. It
is not literally true that " all the blood shed on the
earth " would bo found in Rome, either Pagan or Papal ;
but it is spiritually true. Just as all the blood from
righteous Abel to Zacharias was required of Jerusalem,
so also of Babylon; for the spirit is the same spirit of
hatred of holiness and love of worldliness. To slay one
is to slay all. as to be guilty in one point of the Law is
to be guilty of all ; for it is not to mere acts, but also
to the spirit and drift of men's conduct, that the Scrip-
tures look. It is the Babylon spirit, whether dominant
in Rome or in London, that kills the good. Wherever
the spirit of worldliness (in its widest sense) is to be

Gil

Explanation of

REVELATION, XVII.

the Vision*

when I saw her, I wondered with great
admiration. (7) And the angel said unto
Chap xvii. 7— me' Wherefore didst thou
17. The vision marvel? I will tell thee
explained. tlie mystery of the woman,

and of the beast that carrieth her,
which hath the seven heads and ten
horns. (8) The beast that thou sawest
was, and is not ; and shall ascend out
of the bottomless pit, and go into per-

dition : and they that dwell on the earth
shall wonder, whose names were not
written in the book of life from the
foundation of the world, when they
behold the beast that was, and is not,
and yet is. (9) And here is the mind
which hath Avisdom. The seven heads
are seven mountains, on which the
woman sitteth. <10^ And there are seven
kings : five are fallen, and one is, and

found, there is the spirit at enmity with God and good,
and there is the Babylon which has slain the saints.

And when I saw her, I wondered . . .—Rather,.
And I wondered when I saw her with great wonder
(not " admiration " in our modern sense). Why did
St. John wonder ? Was it at the splendour or the
blasphemous names ? Hardly these ; for he was
familiar with the former in descriptions of Babylon
given by the prophets, and with the latter from his
own vision in chap. xiii. The wonder probably rose
from the strange alliance of the woman with the wild
beast. It was not wonderful to see the vision of a
wild beast or monster dealing out death and slaughter,
but to see a woman allied with the monster and
drunken with the blood of the holy provoked astonish-
ment. The woman, too, was a harlot. The prophets
had spoken of Israel and Judah as harlots, where they
had allied themselves with the world and its dark
idolatries (comp. Isa. i. 21 ; Jer. ii. 20 ; Ezek. xvi.
15 ; Hos. ii. 5). Did lie read in the form of the vision
the hint that in the lapse of years the Church of Christ,
like Israel of old. might fall from her high calling and
become the ally of the world-power ? The hint of it
slumbered in the vision.

(?) And the angel said unto me, Wherefore
didst thou marvel ?— Better, Wherefore didst thou
wonder ? The angel explains the mystery or hidden
meaning. In doing so he identifies the wild beast
which carries the woman with the wild beast of
chap. xiii. In that chapter the wild beast was seen
wounded to death; the same thought is expressed in
this chapter. The wild beast was and is not. It has
received its death wound: the dying and risen Lord
has given the death-blow to the world-power, as He has
cast down Satan (chap. xii. 9), put limits to his power
(chap. xx. 2), and destroyed him that had the power of
death (Heb. ii. 14). In the victory of Christ the wild
beast that ivas (i.e., that had in successive ages been
seen in the great world-powers) is slain, or, as the
angel expresses it, is not. But though he is not, though
he is to be reckoned as doomed, yet he will show signs
of vitality : he will rise into temporary power. He
shall come up out of the abyss. But the march of his
power is only a march to the grave. He goes to
destruction. Yet this transient revival and apjiarent
recovery from its death-wound will be viewed (as was
said in chap. xiii. 3 : " all the earth wondered after the
Avild beast ") as a marvel by those whose spirits are not
heaven-taught, and whose minds are set upon earthly
things. They that dwell upon the earth shall wonder,
whose name is not written on the booh of life from the
foundation of the world, seeing the wild beast that he
vxis, and is not, and shall be present (i.e., shall come
again).

(?) And here is the mind . . .—Better, Here
Vomit " and ") is the mind, &c. Attention is asked to the

fuller explanation which follows. It needs true wisdom
to behold many incidents of the world's history and
not find stumbling-blocks in them (Pss. lxxiii. 2, 3, and
cxix. 165). The seven heads are seven mountains where
the woman sitteth upon them. The description seems-
to be drawn from Rome, the seven-hilled city. This
keeps the reference to Rome before us, but at the same
time the further explanation (in verse 10) widens our
thoughts, and shows us that the literalism on which the
imagery is based is used to convey a broader symbolical
meaning. The seven heads are seven mountains, &a.y
and they (the seven heads ; the words " There are seven
kings " in the English version are confusing) are seven
kings : the woman rides on the seven-headed beast ;
even so Rome dwells on her seven hills, and so also
the world- city, seen in vision, sits among the various
empires which have risen, like great mountains, in the
history of the world.

(W) And there are seven kings . . . .—Better,
They are seven Icings: five (not "are fallen," but)
fell, the one is, the other is not yet come ; and
when, he shall come, he must continue a short time.
It has been debated whether these kings are individual
sovereigns, or forms of government, or kingdoms.
The last view is the one adopted in this Com-
mentary. The wild beast belongs to no one age,
but is a power which has risen in every age; the
seven heads represent the successive cubninations of
the world-power. Our space is insufficient to discuss
here the whole question. But the language here used
and the passages in the earlier prophets, which may be
called the parent passages of the present vision, favour
the interpretation that great world-kingdoms are
intended. The language favours this view. It is said
that the " kings fell." The word is the one which has
been used for political catastrophe : the cities of the
nations fell (chap. xvi. 19) ; Babylon, it is cried, has
fallen (chap. xiv. 8). It suits the overthrow of empires,
and is so used in the LXX. ; to apply it to indi-
vidual kings is to ask that it shall be ecpiivalent to
" they died." It is to be noticed that the four beasts
of Daniel (Dan. vii. 3 — 8) are declared to be four kings
(verse 17), but these kings are not individual kings, but
represent kingdoms. (See Dan. vii. 23). This brings
us to the drift of the parent passage. Daniel saw
four wild beasts rise from the sea; they represented
the then great world-power Babylon, and its three suc-
cessors, Persia, Greece, and Rome. This is a guide to
us here, as most commentators admit ; but two great
world-powers had preceded Babylon, viz., Egypt and
Assyria : these figure in the ancient prophecies as
forces hostile to the righteous King. St. John, Avhose
visions took the range of the Avorld's drama, could not
see the representative of the eArer rising spirit of
worldly hostility to God's chosen without seeing Egypt
and Assyria included. The voices of Moses and Isaiah

Interpretation of

EEVELATION, XVII.

the Vision.

the other is not yet come ; and when he
cometh, he must continue a short space.
<in And the beast that Avas, and is not,
even he is the eighth, and is of the
seven, and goeth into perdition. 0*) And
the ten horns which thou sawest are
ten kings, which have received no king-
dom as yet ; but receive power as kings
one hour with the beast. <13^ These

a 1 Tim. 6. 15.

have one mind, and shall give their
power and strength unto the beast.
(14) These shall make war with the
Lamb, and the Lamb shall overcome
them : for he is Lord of lords, and
King of kings :a and they that are with
him are called, and chosen, and faithful,
<15> And he saith unto me, The waters
which thou sawest, where the whore

■called to him across the centuries that in these the
world principle of their day found its clearest and
strongest manifestation. In various empires the world-
power showed itself : in Egypt, the house of bondage
(Ex. xx. 2); in Assyria, that exalted herself against
■God (Isa. xxxvii. 23); in Babylon, the hammer of the
whole earth (Jer. 1. 23); in Persia, and in Greece; and
in succession these kingdoms fell, only to be succeeded
by another — Rome, Five fell ; the one is. But what
is the seventh, the other who is not yet come? We
must recall the appearance of the wild beast. It had
seven heads and ten horns. Where were these ten horns ?
It seems generally admitted that they were all on the
.seventh head. The seventh head, which represents the
seventh kingdom, or manifestation of the world pi'inciple
which is described as not yet come, then, was different
in appearance from the others. It was ten-horned. It
had not the same unity of appearance as the others.
Now the ten horns are explained as ten kings or minor
powers (verse 12). The conclusion, therefore, is that
the seventh head must be rather an aggregation of
monarchies than a single universal empire. This
agrees with Daniel's prophecy that out of the fourth
kingdom, which coi-rosponds, as we have seen, with the
sixth head of the wild beast here, ten kings should
arise (Dan. vii. 7, 23, 24).

The seventh kingdom (the ten-horned head) it is
said will, when it arises, continue a "short time." The
short time is probably the same as the " one hour "
in ver. 12, where the ten kingdoms, represented by
the ten horns, receive power one hour with the wild
beast.

(1J> And the beast. . .—Better, And the wild beast
which was, and is not, even he himself is the eighth, and
is of the seven, and goeth into destruction. The wild
beast himself, forming as it were an eighth, has to be
reckoned with. There are seven heads; when these
fall no eighth head will rise, but the wild beast, whose
vitality has been seen in these successive heads, forms,
us it were, an eighth, which is " out of the seven " — not
one of them, but one rising out of them ; no eighth
empire shall rise, but the wild beast, now smitten in all
the seven heads of his power, will, in the convulsive
death-throe, seem an eighth power, in which the ebbing
life of all the seven finds expression. The wild beast
linked itself with seven great empires in succession:
these all fell ; the wild beast is left, as an eighth : then
:" the wild beast goes into destruction." As an illustra-
tion, we may recall her whom the seven brothers had as
wife ; last of all the woman, the eighth, which was of the
seven, died also. It has been noticed that the wild'
beast does not " fall," like the others, " but goes into
destruction;" there are no more world-powers like those
who have fallen, but the wild beast is left, a last power
reserved for destruction, a final antichrist, the lawless
one whom the Lord will destroy with the brightness of
His coming (2 Thcss. ii. 3). This fierce and last flicker-

613

ing up of the doomed power of evil is dwelt on again
in chap. xx. 7 — 10.

(12) And the ten horns . . .—The explanation of
the ten horns. They are the kings, not necessarily,
as we have seen, personal kings, but rather kingdoms
or nationalities, who received not a kingdom as yet ;
as they are on the seventh head, the hour of their
power is not yet, but comes at the fall of the sixth
head : then they receive power one hour. (Comp. " short
time" in verse 10.) But though these are sundered
powers, they are one in their subjection to the wild
beast. They have one mind or judgment, and their
power and authority they give to the wild beast. The
universal empire idea may disappear, but the spirit
and principle of mere earthliness will remain ; it needs
no vast power like Rome to illustrate its spirit. The
ten horns are united in one mind ; they move as the
wild beast directs ; their work and tendency of their
power is hostile to Christ. They shall make war with
the Lamb; and the Lamb shall conquer them because
He is Lord of lords, and King of kings. When do these
powers make war with the Land) ? The answer is, i bey
make war when the direction of their policy and morals
is in favour of oppression, wrong, worldliness; whenever
nations or peoples allow the secular spirit to breathe
through all they do, they are not with Christ, they are
against Him. There are hints that some " special out-
break " of hostility may take place on the eve of the
full manifestation of the righteous King and His
kingdom (chap. xix. 16 — 19) ; busy evil spirits, lawless
utterances, unbrotherly federations, unspiritual con-
ceptions, may pave the way for such ; the great crisis
will then come, when the issue will be secularity and
spirituality. It is not necessary to define the ten
kings; the number does not need to be pressed as
literal ; for in Hebrew, " when a whole was to be
divided into parts, ten was the number commonly
adopted" (Bahr, quoted by Dr. Currey). The war of
the ten kings against the Lamb is brought out more
fully in chap. xix. There the King of kings is seen
victorious; in His victory they who are with Him,
the called, and chosen, and faithful, shall share. This
threefold description is a brief summary of the
Christian life. This is the only place where St. John
employs the word translated " called." (Comp. Matt.
xx. 16.)

(15) And he said unto me . . . — Better. Ami he
(i.e., the angel mentioned in ver. 1) saith, &c. The waters
on which the harlot sits are explained as " multitudes."
We have thus a key to the imagery employed here
and elsewhere (chap. xiii. 1). The wild beast and the
harlot both draw much of their power from the people.
The easily-moved passions of the fickle crowd, its
generous, unreasoning impulses, are used by subtle
and seductive enemies. '"Men never so much need to
be theocratic as when they are most democratic," said
Do Tocqueville. They need to recognise God as their

The great City.

KEVELATION, XVIII.

T/te FaU of Babylon.

sitteth, are peoples, and multitudes, and
nations, and tongues. tl6) And the ten
horns which thou sawest upon the
beast, these shall hate the whore, and
shall make her desolate and naked, and
shall eat her flesh, and burn her with
tire. (17> For God hath put in their
hearts to fulfil his will, and to agree,
and give their kingdom unto the
beast, until the words of God shall
be fulfilled. <18) And the woman
which thou sawest is that great city,

which reigneth over the kings of the
earth.

CHAPTER XVIII.-- a) And after

these things I saw another n,

, & , _ Chap. xvm. 1 —

angel come down from 24 The fall of
heaven,having great power; Babylon.
and the earth was lightened with his
glory m And he cried ch xviii 2
mightily with a strong —3. Her de-
voice, saying, Babylon a utilisation,
the great is fallen, is fallen, and is

King, then, most when their new discovered strength is
likely to be made the tool of unscrupulous ambition.

(16> And the ten horns. . .—Translate, And the
ten horns which thou sawest (not, as in English version,
" on the beast," but), and the ivild beast, these shall hate
the harlot. The harlot was. seen in splendid apparel
riding on the wild beast ; now the wild beast, in the
day of the seventh head, turns with the ten horns of
his power upon her, makes her deserted, strips her of
her adornments, consumes the spoil— for this is what is
meant by " eating her flesh" — and burns her with fire.
The woman in the days of the Evangelist was Rome
tverse 18), but great and resistless as her power
seemed, it was doomed ; the day would come when
other kingdoms would rise who would hate her for her
tyranny, envy her splendour, and covet her wealth.
Then the great Babylon would fall, like Jezebel of old ;
the painted cheek, the pencilled eyebrow, and the
amorous glance have lost their fascination ; those who
have pandered to her vices would turn against her, and
cast her out to be trampled under foot. So did the
Babylon of St. John's day fall — perishing in the blood
that she had spilt, or left " childless and crownless in
her voiceless woe."

W) For God hath put. . .—Better, For God gave
it into their hearts to do his mind, and (to do) one
mind, and to give their kingdom, &c. The kings give
their kingdom to the wild beast ; their authority and
might is used for him, whether in making war upon
the Lamb (verse 14) or in casting down the harlot. In
these enterprises they act unitedly ; there is given to
them to make " one mind." But they are only carrying
out the righteous will of God ; God wills that the har-
lot shall fall ; and even in their war upon the Lamb,
they are but preparing for the crisis when the foes of
the righteous King shall fall (chap. xix. 19). Thus
does the wrath of man ever turn to God's praise.

(ly> And the woman which thou sawest . . .
— Read, And the woman whom thou sawest is (not
" that," but) the great city, which has a kingdom over
the kings of the earth. With these words the angel's
explanation of " the mystery of the woman " (see verse
'!) ends. The harlot is a city; the Babylon of the past
lives again in Rome ; the woman is Rome, the goddess
of lands and peoples."

" She who was named Eternal, and arrayed
Her warriors hut to conquer— she who veiled
Earth with her haughty shadow and displayed
Until the o'er canopied Horizon failed
Her rushing wings— Oh ! she who was Almighty hailed."

XVIII.

The Fall of Babylon. — In the commencement
of the last chapter the angel (one of the vial-bearing

angels) had promised to show the seer the judgment of
the harlot (verse 1) ; he was accordingly shown first the
vision of the scarlet-clad woman seated on the wild
beast. The seer was filled with wonder, and the angel
entered into explanation of the mystery of the woman,
touching on her relation to the beast, and her ultimate
doom, and revealing to him who she was. But though
the angel has proclaimed her overthrow in his explana-
tory statement, the judgment of the harlot has not been
seen in the vision ; we must, in fact, regard the portion
of the last chapter, from verse 7 to the end, as a, kind
of parenthesis, a pause in the drama of vision, the
action of which is resumed in chap, xviii. Yet though
the dramatic action is taken up, we are not shown in
vision her actual overthrow ; but we gather it from the
four agencies which are put forward — the angel which
proclaims Iter moral fall (verses 1—3) ; the voice from
the heaven which gives the vivid description of her
sudden overthrow, and of the marvellous sensation it
occasioned (verses 4—20); the angel which tells the
irremediable character of her overthrow (verses 21 —
24) ; and finally, the chorus of the heavenly multitude
rejoicing over her fall (chap. xix. 1 — 4).

(i) And after these things . . .—Or, better, After
these things (omit " and ") I saw another angel coming
down, having great power (or, authority — entrusted to
him for the work against Babylon) ; and the earth was
illumined by (literally, out of) his glory. The light
which shines from the, heavenly messenger shines like
day upon the "tawdry splendour of Babylon, and shows
that what was admired was but worthless and corrupt.
In his brief, but rousing call, he proclaims it to be so.

(2) And he cried . . .—We must omit " mightily,"
and render, And he cried in a mighty voice, saying.
Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great, and is become an
habitation of demons, and a prison of evei-y unclea/n
spirit, and a prison of every unclean and hated bird.
Those who walk in darkness, and whose eyes the god of
this world hath blinded through their lnsts, look only on
the material side, upon prosperous times, large revenues.
rapidly developing resources. The great city of the
world looks fair and glorious in their eyes, and even
the godly are dazzled by her beauty ; but when the
light of heaven shines, her fall is seen to be inevitable,
for she is seen to be hateful ; her palaces are seen to be
prisons, her highest wisdom little more than low cun-
ning, her most exalted intelligence base-born, her
sweetest songs discordant cries ; the evil spirit, wel-
comed back, has come in seven-fold power ; for the dry
places afford no rest to those who still love sin and the
pleasures of sin. The description in this verse is drawn
largely from Isa. xiii. 21, 22 ; it is a picture of desola-
tion and degradation, but it has its moral counterpart.

The Dirge oj

REVELATION, XVIII.

Babylon's Doom.

become the habitation of devils, and I he
hold of every foul spirit, and the cage of
every unclean and hateful bird. (3) For
all nations have drunk of the wine of the
wrath of her fornication, and the kings
of the earth have committed fornication
with her, and the merchants of the
earth are waxed rich through the abun-
dance1 of her delicacies. W And I heard
Chap, xviii. 4^- another voice from heaven,
20. The dirge of saying, Come out of her,
doom. mv people, that ye be not

partakers of her sins, and that ye re-
ceive not of her plagues. W For her
sins have reached unto heaven, and God

Or, power,
a Isa. '47. 8.

hath remembered her iniquities. (6) Re-
ward her even as she rewarded you,
and double unto her double according
to her works : in the cup which she hath
filled till to her double. <7' How much
she hath glorified herself, and lived de-
liciously, so much torment and sorrow
give her : for she saitlj in her heart, I
sit a queen, and am no widow," and
shall see no sorrow. (8) Therefore shall
her plagues come in one day, death, and
mourning, and famine; and she shall
be utterly burned with fire : for strong
is the Lord God who judgeth her.
(9> And the kings of the earth, who

(3) For all nations have drunk . . .—Better,
Because by the wrath of her fornication (eomp. chap.
xiv. 8, and Note there) all the nations have drunk (or,
according to another reading, have fallen ; the readings
are akin : the drinking of it leads to their degradation
and fall), and the kings of the earth committed (not
" have committed") fornication with her, and the mer-
chants of the earth waxed rich out of the strength of
her luxury. She has been an enemy to mankind viewed
in three great aspects : nations, kings, and merchants.
She has brought delirium upon nations ; she has
reduced kings ; she has bribed merchants : her sins are
strong sins ; with both hands earnestly has she sinned.

(4—20) The voice out of heaven warns the faithful to
leave her, and describes her fall.

W Voice from heaven . . . — Read, Voice out of
heaven, saying, Come forth out of her, my people,
that ye partake not in her sins, and that of her
plagues ye receive not. The voice is not said to
be that of another angel. It is not necessary to say
whose voice it is ; that it is a voice of divine love
giving wanting is enough. The coming forth is not
to be understood of a bodily exodus from Rome.
It is rather the warning which is so needful in every
corrupt state of society, to have no fellowship with the
unfruitful works of darkness ; to practise that separa-
tion from the spirit of the world which is essential lest
we should be entangled in the meshes of its sinful
habits. This duty of separation may sometimes lead
to a literal exodus, and even under the pressure of over-
whelming necessity to secession from a world-corrupted
church; but the jeopardy lies in attachment to the
world- spirit (1 John ii. 15). The parallel warnings in
Jer. Ii. 6, 45, and Zech. ii. 6, 7, should be read ; but the
story of Lot in Sodom best illustrates the spirit of the
passage (Gen. xix.), for it is participation in sin which
is to be primarily guarded against.

(5) For her sins have reached . . .—Better, For
her sins have reached as far as heaven. The idea is of
a great heap firmly fastened, and towering, like another
Babel, as far as heaven. (Comp. 2 Chron. xxviii. 9, and
Ezra ix. 6.) The idea is more than that of the cry of
sin reaching heaven, as in the case of Sodom (Gen. xviii.
20, 21) ; the sins themselves, many and imperial, haVe
touched the face of heaven. God hath remembered her.
(Comp. chap. xvi. 19). Sometimes the oppressed haAre
thought that God had forgotten the voice of the enemy
(Ps. Ixxiv. 10 — 23) ; but the long-suffering of the Lord
is salvation (2 Pet. iii. 8 — 15).

(6) Reward her even as she rewarded . . .—
The same voice which bids the people of God come
forth, summons the agents of vengeance. Chap. xvii.
16 tells whence these may arise. Read, Give back
to her, as she herself also gave back (the word " you "
should be omitted ; it is not the saints, or those who
have suffered from her, that are called to repay her),
and double (the) double according to her works ; in the
cup in which she mingled, mingle for her double.
Many Old Testament parallels will suggest themselves
(Jer. Ii. 18; Ps. lxxix. 12 ; exxxvii. 8 : and Isa. xl. 2).
The " double " must not be taken to mean double
her sins; her sins are themselves called double, and
her judgment is according to her sins. She is double-
stained in wickedness, and "the law of retribution
fiercely works " in her. The cup of her luxuriousness
becomes the cup of vengeance. (Comp. chap. xiv. 8;
xvii. 4; and verse 3.) The flowery path " has led to the
broad gate and the great fire."

(7) The thought of retribution is carried on in this
verse. It should not read, " How much . . .," but,
In as many things as she glorified herself and, luxu-
riated, so much give to her torment and grief ; because
in her heart she saith (comp. Ps. xlix. 11 ; Luke xiv. 30),
I sit a queen, and am not a widow, and shall never see
sorrow. The words are echoes of prophecies against old
Babylon (Isa. xlvii. 7 — 9) and Tyre (Ezek. xxviii. 2).

(8) Therefore shall her plagues come . . .—
Read, For this cause in one day shall come her plagues,
death and mourning . . . and with fire shall she be
burnt, for strong is the Lord God who judged her.
God, the mighty God, has passed sentence. She thought
herself strong ; she forgot the strength of the Almighty.
Her plagues are four- fold, as though from every quarter
her trouble came : " death for her scorn of the prospect
of widowhood ; mourning, for her inordinate revelling ;
famine, for her abundance ; " and fire, the punishment
of her fornication (Lev. xx. 14; xxi. 9). (Comp. the
series of contrasts in Isa. iii. 24—26.)

The Lament of the Kings (verses 9, 10). —
(Their words of lament are given in verse 10.)

(9) And the kings of the earth . . . .—Read,
And there shall weep and mourn over her the kings of
the earth, who with her committed fornication and luxu-
riated, when they see the smoke of her burning, stand-
ing afar off because of the fear of her torment, saying,
Woe, woe, the great city, Babylon the strong city j
bin i use in one hour is come thy judgment. Kings,
merchants (verses 11— 17), shippers ^verses 17 — 19)

The Lament of

REVELATION, XVIII.

the Kings of the Ewrth-.

have committed fornication and lived
deliciously with her, shall bewail her,
and lament for her, when they shall see j
the smoke of her burning, (10> standing j
afar off for the fear of her torment, j
saying, Alas, alas that great city Baby- j
ion, that mighty city ! for in one hour j
is thy judgment come. <n) And the |
merchants of th*e earth shall weep and j
mourn over her; for no man buyeth i
their merchandise any more : (12j the i

merchandise of gold, and silver, and
precious stones, and of pearls, and fine
linen, and purple, and silk, and scarlet,
and all thyine1 wood, and all manner
vessels of ivory, and all manner vessels
of most precious wood, and of brass,

"iw.'*?. i7 ; and iron, and marble, <13> and cinnamon,'1
cant. *. u an(j odours, and ointments, and frank-
incense, and wine, and oil, and fine
flour, and wheat, and beasts, and sheep,

»«*.*** | and horses, and chariots, and slaves,-

join in lamenting the overthrow of the great city ; all
stand afar off, as though fearing to he involved in her
ruin; all cry, "Woe" (or, Alas!) at the beginning of
their lament ; ami at the close the words, " in one hour,"
telling the suddenness of the great city's overthrow,
recur (verses 10, 17, 19) with the monotony of a pass-
ing bell heard at intervals amid the strains of sad music.
The parallel passages in Ezek. xxvi. 15, 16 ; xxvii. 35,
should be compared. The grief described is the result
of fear mingled with selfishness; the mourners re-
member with a regret, only tempered with terror, the
voluptuous life, the quick-growing profits, and the
varied commercial advantages which they have lost in
her overthrow.

The Lament of the Merchants (verses 11 — 17).
— The lament proper, that is, the actual words put in
the mouths of the merchants, is contained in verses 16,
17. The immediately preceding verses describe the
various kinds of merchandise which were dealt in.

(ii—i3) And the merchants of the earth . . .—
Better, The merchants of the earth weep and mourn
(not "shall weep;" the vividness of the description is
intensified by the use of the present tense) over her ;
because their cargo no one buyeth any longer — the cargo
of gold, &c. The list of the cargoes and merchandise
is not without arrangement. The various goods are
placed in groups. The treasures come first — gold,
silver, precious stones, and pearls. The soft goods used
for raiment are placed next — fine linen, purple, silk and
scarlet ; in the description of Dives, clothed in purple
and fine linen (Byssus, the same word as here), we have
a suggestive resemblance. Materials used in giving
splendour to the furnishing of houses come next.
Thyme wood, and every article (vessel, as in the
English version, is hardly wide enough in meaning)
of ivory, costly wood, brass, iron, and marble. The
thyine wood was derived probably from a kind of
citron-tree of African growth ; the wood was sweet-
scented, and was a favourite wood for doors, panels,
and ceilings ; its rich brown hue was often relieved by
inlaid ivory. To articles used in furniture aromatics
succeed. Cinnamon, amomum (this is omitted in the
English version, but authority is in favour of its
insertion), odours, ointments, and frankincense. Cin-
namon, on its use. comp. Ex. xxx. 2, 3; it was one of
the perfumes employed to enhance the delight of the
voluptuary (Prov. vii. 17). It is doubtful whether it is
the same as our modern cinnamon. Amomum, a kind
of sweet-scented shrub, yielding an ointment much
used for the hair. Odours, employed in incense. Next
come articles of food — wine, oil, fine meal, wheat,
cattle, and sheep. Then come the equipages — horses
and chai'iots. The chariot (rheda) was a vehicle much

used in Rome by the wealthy classes. Lastly, the traffic
in human beings closes the list. Slaves (literally,
bodies, and souls of men. There is perhaps an allusion
specially to those slaves who were attached to the
chariots or litters used by the rich. The traffic in slaves
(" persons of men ") is mentioned as part of the com-
merce of Tyre (Ezek. xxvii. 13). The number of slaves
in Rome was enormous. " Souls of men." The climax
of wicked worldliness is reached in this last; it gives
the finishing touch to the picture of society wholly
engrossed in pleasure and indolence and selfishness,
which lays every market under tribute to add to its
luxuriousness, and sacrifices not only the happiness, but
the lives and liberties of their fellow-creatures, to their
own enjoyment. It has been said that the general
description here does not suit Rome, as Rome never
was, and never could be, a commercial centre; but the
picture is designed to show the corrupt luxury and
voluptuousness of society in great Babylon, not neces-
sai-ily the accumulated merchandize of a great com-
mercial city. The various wares are " for her use and
consumption," not for her to sell. All the avenues
from every distant spot of the earth found their focus
in Rome ; her existence, her political supremacy, and
her luxuriousness of living, created and sustained all
the commercial activity here described; with her fall,
the hope of their gains passed from the merchants
of the earth. Compare the language of Gibbon : —
" The most remote countries of the ancient world were
ransacked to supply the pomp and delicacy of Rome.
The forests of Scythia afforded some valuable furs;
amber was brought from the shores of the Baltic and
the Danube ; and the barbarians were astonished at
the price which they received for so useless a com-
modity. There was a considerable demand for Baby-
lonian carpets and other manufactures of the East; but
the most important and unpopular branch of foreign
trade was carried on with Arabia and India. Every
year, about the time of the summer solstice, a fleet of an
hundred and twenty vessels sailed from Myos-hormos,
a port of Egypt on the Red Sea. The coast of Malabar
or the island of Ceylon was the usual term of their
navigation, and it was in those markets that the mer-
chants from the more remote countries of Asia expected
their arrival. The return of the i/eet was fixed to
the months of December or January ; and as soon as
their rich cargo had been transported on the backs of
camels, from the Red Sea to the Nile, and had de-
scended that river as far as Alexandria, it was poured
without delay into the capital of the Empire. The
objects of Oriental traffic were splendid and trifling :
silk, a pound of which was esteemed in value not
inferior to a pound of gold; precious stones also,
among which the pearl claimed the first rank after
the diamond, and a variety of aromatics that were con-

610

Babylon and her

EEVELATION, XVIII.

past greatness.

.ihI souls of men. (u) And the fruits
that thy soul lusted after are departed
from thee, and all things which were
dainty and goodly are departed from
thee, and thou shalt find them no more
at all. (15) The merchants of these
things, which were made rich by her,
shall stand afar off for the fear of her
torment, weeping' and wailing. <16) And
saying, Alas, alas that great city, that
was clothed in fine linen, and purple,
and scarlet, and decked with gold, and
precious stones, and pearls ! (17^ For in
one hour so ^reat riches is come to

nought. And every shipmaster, and all
the company in ships, and sailors, and
as many as trade by sea, stood alar oft',
<18) and cried when they saw the smoke
of her burning, saying, What city is
like unto this great city ! 0'->) And they
cast dust on their heads, and cried,
weeping and wailing, saying, Alas, alas
that great city, wherein were made rich
all that had ships in the sea by reason
of her costliness ! for in one hour is she
made desolate. (20) Rejoice over her,
thou heaven, and ye holy apostles and
prophets ; for God hath avenged you on.

sumed in religious worship and the pomp of funerals.

The labour and risk of the voyage was rewarded with
almost incredible profits; but the profits were made
upon Roman subjects, and a few individuals were en-
riched at the expense of the public " (Gibbon's Decline
and Fall. vol. i., chap. ii.).

(U) Directly addressed to Babylon herself.
And the fruits that thy soul . . . — Rather,
And the fruits (or, the harvest) of the desire of thy soul
that, namely, which thy soul lusteth after) departed
ttot "are departed:" the word expresses the thought
that these things "departed once for all") from thee, and
all things that are rich and that are glorious perish from
•Hid thou shalt not find them any more. The
descriptive passage is interrupted by this verse, in
which Babylon herself is addressed. It is in harmony
with the fervour of the whole chapter that the descrip-
tive tone should for a moment give place to this apos-
trophe. The fruits to which the eye of desire had
looked so longingly as to a harvest of delight departed.
The desire of the wicked has perished.

(15—17) The merchants of these things . . .—
The description is resumed. The merchants stand like
the kings (see verse 10) afar off, because of the
fear of her torment, saying, " Woe ! woe ! (or, alas !
alas!) the great city, because in one hour so great
wealth was desolated. The words of this lamentation
are parallel to the lament of the kings, the only differ-
ence is characteristic — they bewail the sudden decay
of the wealth. On the fine linen and purple, comp.
verse 12, and Luke xvi. 19.

The Lament op the Shipmasters (verses 17 —
19). — On the whole passage read Ezek. xxvii. 32, &c.

fir, is) And every shipmaster . . . .—Or, better,
And every shipmaster, and every one who sails for a
place, and sailors, and all who work the sea, stood, afar
off, and cried when they saw the smoke of her burning,
'/. Who is like the great city ? With tliis
expression compare the similar one applied to the
beast (chap. xiii. 4). It is the outcry of those who call
to mind, with pain, a glory that was great, but now is
gone. It is not to be taken as meaning "what city has
suffered as she lias ? " but rather is it the recollection
of her former splendour — " how great she was." This
lingering of the mind over delights now vanished is
"lie subtle element of misery. So the hapless Francesca
thought —

"There is no greater woe.
Than to remember days of happiness
Amid affliction."— 2h/. v. 121—3.

(is) And they cast dust . . .—Comp. Ezek. xxvii.
30. The casting of dust or earth on the head is a token
of sorrow and humiliation ; it bears relation to the
sitting in the dust. The one upon whom the sorrow had
fallen sat in the dust or ashes. The attitude expressed
that he had been brought very low, even to the ground.
The mourning friends who came round him cast dust
on their heads to express that they shared his sorrow.
Thus it is related of Job : Job sat in the ashes (Job ii.
8) ; the friends who came to comfort him sprinkled
dust upon their heads towards heaven (verse 12). So
in this place, Babylon has been brought low (comp. Isa.
xlvii. 1) ; the mourners, whose gams sink with her fall,
throw dust upon their heads.

<19) Alas! alas! that great city . . .—The lament
is parallel with the laments of the kings and the mer-
chants ; the difference is the appropriate reference to
the destruction of the shipping interests. Woe ! woe !
(or, Alas ! alas!) the great city, in which all who had
their vessels on the sea grew rich out of her costliness.
By her " costliness " we are to understand her extra-
vagances of living, and the splendour of her palaces,
which drew materials from all ports of tin; world. The
lament ends with the repeated cry, " in one hour."
Because in one hour she was desolated.

The Call to the Holy to Rejoice.

(20) Rejoice over her . . . .—Better, Rejoice over
her, 0 heaven, and the saints, and the apostles, and the
prophets, because God has judged your judgment on
(or, out of) her. The second portion of the chapter
closes with this invitation to the saints to rejoice : they
are summoned to rejoice because the law of retribution
has worked on her. Your judgment (it is said to the
saints) is judged on her. This does not mean a judg-
ment which the saints have decreed, but the judgment
which Babylon wrought on the holy is now exacted from
her (comp. verse 6, and chaps, vi. 10. and xiii. 10). Heaven,
and every class of those whose citizenship lias been in
heaven, are bidden by the heavenly voice to rejoice,
The covetous and the worldly mourn; their minds were
set upon a material glory, which has slipped away from
their grasp. All saintly souls, whose affections have
been towards righteousness and the righteous King,
can rejoice; for the wealth of holiness is imperishable,
and the fall of Babylon is the removal of one vast
hindrance to holiness. It has been argued that the
verse represents the Apostles to be in heaven, and
from this it has been inferred that the twelve must
have all died before the Apocalypse was written, and. if
so, St. John was not the writer. The verse, however -,

54*

617

Babylon's Doom

EEVELATION, XIX.

shall be final.

her. (21) And a mighty angel took up a
Chap, xviii. 21 stone like a great millstone,
—24. Her fall and cast it into the sea,
is final. saying, Thus with violence

shall that great city Babylon be thrown
down, and shall be found no more at all.
<-2> And the voice of harpers, and musi-
cians, and of pipers, and trumpeters,
shall be heard no more at all in thee ;
and no craftsman, of whatsoever craft
he be, shall be found any more in thee ;
and the sound of a millstone shall be
heard no more at all in thee ; <23) and
the light of a candle shall shine no
more at all in thee; and the voice of
the bridegroom and of the bride shall

be heard no more at all in thee : for
thy merchants were the great men of
the earth ; for by thy sorceries were ali
nations deceived. ^ And in her was
found the blood of prophets, and of
saints, and of all that were slain upon
the earth.

CHAPTER ±IX.— (D And after
these things I heard a great „, 1—4

voice of much people in The joy of the
heaven, saying, Alleluia; heavenly mul-
Salvation, and glory, and
honour, and power, unto the Lord our
God : W for true and righteous are his
judgments : for he hath judged the great

has no reference whatever to the question : it is not
meant to state who have passed into heaven and who
have not : it is simply a summons to all who have
fought on the side of their Lord to rejoice at the
removal of one of the great obstacles to the mani-
festation of Christ's kingdom. Thus do all holy men,
whether on earth or heaven, joy when any giant evil is
swept away.

The Irremediable Overthrow of Babylon
symbolically declared.

(21) And a mighty angel . . .—The taking up of
the stone and casting it into the waters is a symbol
ilrawn from Jeremiah (chap. li.j. Jeremiah enjoined
Seraiah to bind the prophetic roll to a great stone, and
cast them together into the Euphrates. The meaning
of the act was explained — " Thus shall Babylon sink
and shall not rise," &c. (Jer. li. 63, 64). The great
dead mass, sinking helplessly by the law of its own
weight, signified a fall past recovery. So Pharaoh and
his host sank like lead in the mighty waters. It is the
doom Christ foresliadowed as awaiting those who
caused His children to fall (Matt, xviii 6). The mighty
angel, strong to lift the ponderous stone, throws it into
the sea, saying. Thus with violence (or, with a bound)
shall Babylon, the great city, be thrown, and shall not
be found any more. At one bound, without a single
resting-stage in its downward career, without chance or
power of recovery, the vast world-city would fall. She
who sat as a queen upon many waters, sinks as a stone in
the mighty waters. She will not be found any more.
The words "any more," or " no more," are repeated in
these verses no less than six times, like a funeral knell
over the departed greatness which is described.

(22,23) And the voice of harpers . . .—Better,
the sound . . . The sounds of mirth and triumph, &c,
cease : the sound of harpers, and musicians, and flute-
players, and trumpeters, shall not be heard in thee
any more : the power of wealth has gone ; her own
right hand has forgotten her cunning : every craftsman
of every craft shall not be found in thee any more :
the sound of grinding the corn is at an end : the sound
of millstone shall not be heard in thee ANY MORE : the
cheerful lamps of home and feast are extinguished :
light of lamp shall not shine in thee any more : the
sounds of domestic joy are silenced : voice of bridegroom
and of bride shall not be heard in thee ANY MORE. The
words are an echo of earlier prophecy : ''I destroy from
them the voice of mirth, and the voice of gladness, the |

618

voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride,
the sound of the millstones, and the light of the candle."
It was thus Jeremiah warned Jerusalem of her coming
doom (chap. xxv. 10). Now the same judgments are
pronounced against the foe of the true Jerusalem.

(23) For thy merchants were the great . . . —
The judgment does not fall because the merchants were
gi*eat : it is the sorcery of the next clause which is the
true cause of her fall : the merchants are those who
traded with her, as well as those who dwelt in her:
by "her sorceries" we must understand her artful
policy, her attractiveness, and the seductions by which
she drew into the meshes of her worldliness and sin the
nations around. " In thy sorcery were all the nations
led astray" (chap. xiii. 14).

(24) And in her was found . . .—It is not by
seductiveness only that her guilt is measured : her
hands are defiled with blood : the blood of prophets,
who had witnessed against her : of saints, whose holy
lives were a protest against her sins, and so hateful to
her; and " of all who have been slain on the earth. ."
(Comp. chap. xvii. 6, and Note there.) It is not meant
that literally all the blood shed by violence had been
shed by Rome, or any other single city of which
Babylon is type : all that is meant is that Babylon,
the world city, is founded on those principles, trie-
logical outcome of which is violence, bloodshed, and
hostility to the highest right : those who die by her
hands, few or many, are the evidence that the whole
tendency of her power is against holiness and truth.
In the earthly view, we are guilty of the acts we do :
in the heavenly view, we are guilty of all that the spirit
and sin of our conduct tends to do. The spirit of trans-
gression is seen in one act as well as in many, and as it
is the attitude of the spirit that God looks upon, so in
a single act may be gathered up the transgression of
the whole law. (Comp. chap. xvii. 6. and Note there ;
see also Jas. ii. 10). It is the fatal failure to perceive
this which leads man to make light of sin, and to under-
value the Cross of Christ.

XIX.

The Chorus of the Heavenly Multitude
Rejoicing over Her Fall.

(i-3) And after these things I heard . . .—
Or, I heard, as it were, a mighty voice of a great mul-
titude in the heaven, saying. The saints who were
bidden in the last chapter to rejoice are now heard

The Joy of the

EEVELATION, XIX.

Heavenly Multitude.

whore, which did corrupt the earth with
her fornication, and hath avenged the
blood of his servants at her hand.
(3> And again they said, Alleluia. And
her smoke rose up for ever and ever.
W And the four and twenty elders and
the four beasts fell down and worshipped
God that sat on the throne, saying,
Amen ; Alleluia. ^ And a voice came
out of the throne, saying, Praise our
God, all ye his servants, and ye that
fear him, both small and great. ^ And

I heard as it were the voice of a great
multitude, and as the voice of many
waters, and as the voice of mighty
thunderings, saying, Alleluia : for the
Lord God omnipotent reigneth. W Let
us be glad and rejoice, and give honour
to him : for the marriage of the Lamb
is come, and his wife hath made herself
ready. <8> And to her was granted that
she should be arrayed in fine linen,
clean and white : for the fine linen is
the righteousness of saints. W And he

raising their songs as in one great voice of praise. The
song is as follows : —

Alleluia !
The salvation, and the glory, and the power

Are our God's,
Because true and righteous are His judgments,
Because He judged the great harlot, who corrupted the

earth in her fornication.
And avenged the blood of His servants out of her hand,
Alleluia.

This last " Alleluia" clearly belongs to the song or chorus.
it is separated from the body of it by the descriptive
words (verse 3), And again they said, Alleluia ; or
better, and a second time they have said. The
Evangelist, as he writes, seems to hear once more
the strains of the anthem : he writes down the words,
and, as the final "Alleluia" bursts forth after a musical
pause, he writes, " once more they have said Alleluia."
The word Alleluia occurs in this passage no less than
four times (verses 1, 3, 4, 6) : it is nowhere else used in
the New Testament ; but it is familiar to us in the
Psalms, as fifteen of them begin or end with " Praise
ye the Lord," or "Hallelujah ; " and the genius of Handel
has enshrined the word in imperishable music. The
song hero does not begin with ascribing " salvation,
&c., ' to God, as the English version suggests : it rather
affirms the fact : the salvation, &c, is God's. It is the
echo of the ancient utterance — " Salvation belongeth
unto God." It is the triumphant affirmation of the
truth by which the Church and children of God had
sustained their struggling petitions, as they closed the
prayer which Christ Himself had taught them, saying,
when too often it seemed to be otherwise, " Thine is the
kingdom, and the power, and the glory." So here they
give a threefold praise : the salvation, and the glory, and
the power are all God's. The manifestation of His
power is in the deliverance of His children from the
evil, from the great harlot, and in the avenging the
blood of His servants out of her hand, " forcing, as it
were, out of her hand the price of their blood."

(*) And the four and twenty . . .—The twenty-
four elders, the representatives of the Church, and the
four living beings, the representatives of nature, fell
down and worshipped God who sitteth (not " sat," as
in the English version) on the throne. These, too-, join
in the chorus of praise.

(5-7) And a voice came.— From the direction of
the throne there came a voice bidding all God's servants
rejoice. "We are not told whose voice it is. Some have
assumed that it is Christ's : it is better to leave it inde-
finite. In response to the bidding, the voice of praise is
heard (like the voice spoken of in chap. xiv. 2), as it
were, the voice of a great multitude ; and, as it were,
the voice of many waters ; and, as it were, the voice of
mighty thunders. All nature's tones seem mingled in

this voice of praise : it is human, it is majestic as the
sea, and glorious as the thunder.

The Anthem.

Alleluia !
For the Lord reigned,

The God, the Almighty.
Let us rejoice and exult,
And we will give the glory to Him,
Because the marriage of the Lamb is come,
And His wife hath made herself ready.

Iii this anthem the word for " reigneth " is not in the
present tense, as in the English version ; but, though it
is translated here " reigned," we must not understand
it of the past only : it expresses the exultation of the
servants of God that the Kingship of their God is mani-
fested, and vindicated against those who denied, or hated
His rule. His reign never ceased ; and He has showed
that His was a real sovereignty. Their joy rises also from
the prospect of the nearer union between the Lamb and
His Bride. This close union is more fully spoken of
later : here the glorious close is for a moment antici-
pated : the morning glow announces the coming day :
it is near even at the doors. The image of the marriage
is f amiliar. It entered into our Lord's parable (Matt,
xxii. 2 — 10; xxv. 1 — 10) : we catch it in the Psalms and
in the Epistles (Ps. xlv., and Eph. v. 23, 30 ; 2 Cor.
xi. 2.)

(8) And to her was granted . . .—Better, And
it was given to her that she should be clothed in fine
linen, bright, pure ; for the fine linen is the righteous-
ness (or, righteousnesses ; the word is plural) of the
saints. This verse is not to be taken as part of the
song. The song closes with the announcement that the
Lamb's wife has made herself ready. Then follows the
explanation of this readiness: she is adorned in fine
linen. Her apparel is in contrast to the harlot : it is
not purple and scarlet (chaps, xvii. 4 and xviii. 16), but
pure white. The symbol is explained : " the fine linen
is the righteousness (or, righteousnesses) of the saints."
The raiment is that which strikes the eye : it has its
character, and it indicates the character of the wearer.
The harlot attracts by ostentatious colours, the tokens
of qualities more conspicuous than abiding, more dazzling
than helpful; the Lamb's wife is robed in pure and
stainless white, the token of those high, moral, spiritual
qualities by which she has been known. The source of
these righteousnesses is divine : it is given to her to be
so arrayed. It is no fictitious righteousness : it is real,
it is hers, though it would never have been hers but
for Him without whom she can do nothing (comp. John
xv. 4, 5, and Phil. iii. 8 — 10) : and it is through the
wearing of this white flower of a blameless life that she
has borne witness for her Lord, and against the spirit
of harlotry and sin (Matt. vii. 16 — 18).

(9) And he saith unto me . . .—Who is the

Tfte Apostle forbidden to

EEVELATION, XIX.

worship the Angel.

saitli unto me, Write, Blessed are they
which are called unto the marriage sup-
per of the Lamb/' And he saith unto
me, These are the true sayings of God.
(10> And I fell at his feet to worship him.
And he said unto me, See thou do it
not : I am thy fellowservant, and of thy
brethren that have the testimony of
Jesus: worship God:* for the testimony

of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy. (1U And
I saw heaven opened, and behold a white
horse; and he that sat upon him was called
Faithful and True, and in righteousness
he doth judge and make war. (12) His
eyes ivere as a flame of fire, and on his
head were many crowns ; and he had a
name written, that no man knew, but he
himself. (13> And he was clothed with a

speaker ? The general and simplest opinion is that it
is the angel mentioned in chap. xvii. 1 who speaks.
The speaker bids the seer write : " Blessed ai-o they
Avho are bidden to the snpper of the marriage of the
Lamb." This is one of the six benedictions of the
Apocalypse (coin p. chaps, i. 3 ; xiv. 13 ; xx. 6 ; xxii. 7,
14) : it is founded on our Lord's parables (Matt. xxii.
1 and xxv. 1 ; comp. also chap. iii. 20) : the blessing of
the call to the marriage snpper is more clearly realised
now that the day of joy is at hand. We must not draw
too sharp distinctions, as some have done, between the
bride and the guests : the imagery is varied to give
fulness and force to the truths which no emblems can
adequately express. The Church of Christ will rest,
and feast, and reign with her Lord ; and in all the
peace, gladness, and triumph of that joy-time God's
servants will share. A solemn confirmation of this
follows, as in chaps, xxi. 5 and xxii. 6: "these words
are true (sayings) of God."

(io) And I fell at his feet . . .— The impulse to
worship the messenger who had unfolded such visions
was not unnatural: the immediate checking of it here
and in chap. xxii. 8, 9, on the part of the angel, supplies
an indirect evidence of the genuineness of the whole
book, and gives it a moral tone immeasurably superior
to the vision-books of pretended l^evelations. And he
saith to me, See (or, take heed) not (i.e., to do it) ; I
am a fellow -servant of thee and of thy brethren who
have the testimony of Jesus: worship God; for the
testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy. One bond
of service unites angels and men: to be servants of
God is the highest title they can attain; worship is for
God alone. The words " worship God " are most em-
phatic : "to God give thy worship, and not to me, who
am but thy fellow-servant." The angel is his fellow-
servant, and at that time he was emphatically so, as he
and the Apostle were engaged in one common work —
"the testimony of Jesus." The Apostle's work in the
world was the testimony of Jesus (chap. i. 2, 9), and
the Spirit of prophecy which moved (2 Pet. i. 21) the
angel was likewise the testimony of Jesus. One
work and one worship belong to both. He whom
Apostles worshipped unrebuked (Matt, xxviii. 9, 17)
was the one whom all the angels of God were bidden
to worship (Ps. xcvii. 7; Heb. i. 6). It is wonderful,
with this emphatic witness to our Lord Jesus Christ,
any should have undervalued this book of Revelation,
as one which failed to honour Him.

(ii) And I saw heaven opened . . .—Better,
And I saiv the heaven opened mot " opening.'" but set
open, already opened, as in chap. iv. 1), and, behold a
white horse, and{behold) one that sitteth upon him called
Faithful and True, and in righteousness He judgeth
and warrcth. The description reminds us of the open-
ing of the first seal. Again we have the white horse,
and the rider. That early vision of a conquering Christ
had been first a hope and then a despair, as age after
age interposed its obstacles to the manifestation of

the sons of God ; but now, with added splendour, the
vision is renewed : the hopes of the waiting shall not
perish for ever. Once more the victorious rider
appears, and His name dispels all fear, though the
vision has been long in tarrying. At the end it speaks
and does not tarry (Habak. ii. 1 — 4), for He who rides
upon the heavens, as it were upon a horse, has His name
Faithful and True (Heb. x. 23, and 36—38). This
name combines two characteristics : fidelity to promises,
trustworthiness ; and the power to satisfy every legiti-
mate desire which has been awakened in the hearts of
His people ; for in Him all hopes find repose, and every
ideal is realised. He is further pictured as a warrior.
This warrior bridegroom carries us back to Fs. xlv.,
where a similar combination of marriage joy and
martial triumph is found. Righteousness marks His
progress in war, as faithfulness is manifested towards
those who trust Him (Isa. xi. 4, 5). Here is comfort
on the threshold of a vision of deliverance. The book
has shown us war. conflict, confusion : the passions of
men surging against one another, and dashing like
vain waves against God's immutable laws ; the world-
history is written in blood. We blame men for these
cruel and desolating wars ; but another question rises
imperiously, Why does an all-good ruler allow these
heart-breaking scenes ? If earth's groans pain and
trouble us, do they not grieve Him ? Where is He
that He permits all this ? The answer is, " In
righteousness He judges and makes war." The
worked-out history of the world will make this plain.
The righteousness of God is, being revealed : all will
see it one day ; but now the just must live by faith in
Him who is faithful and true, and who preserves the
germ of all divine life in the history of the world.

(12, 13) His eyes were as a flame . . .—Or, rather.
And His eyes are {as) a flame of fire, and upon His
head many diadems — (He) having names written, and
a name written which no one knows but He Himself —
and clothed in a vesture dipped in blood, and His
name is called The Word of God. On the description
here and in verse 5, comp. Notes on chap. i. 14—16.
There is no doubt who is before us in this vision.
These flame-like eyes have been fixed upon the moving
scenes of human life, and have been reading the
hearts of men, and the true meaning of all events and
actions. All things have been naked and open to the
eves of Him with Whom we have to do" (Heb. iv. 13).
He wears many crowns — diadem1? — crowns rather of
royalty than of victory. Some have thought that the
crowns He wears are crowns taken from the heads of
the kings who have made war with Him (chap. xvii.
12. 13. and 19). It is needless to suppose this; their
crowns were His before they were discrowned. The
diadems He wears proclaim that not only over a world-
wide empire He is king, but of all nations He is truly
king. He is not as an emperor among kings, the head
of a federation of princedoms; but He is truly King —
King of history, King of life, King of human hearts.

The Word of God.

REVELATION, XIX.

Tit** Fairly, sv mmoned.

vesture dipped in blood : " and his name I
isr.il led The Word of God. <14) And the
armies which were in heaven followed
him upon white horses, clothed in fine
linen, white and clean. <15) And out of
his mouth goeth a sharp sword, that
with it he should smite the nations : and
he shall rule them with a rod of iron :
and he treadeth the winepress of the
fierceness and wrath of Almighty God.
<16)And he hath on his vesture and on

his thigh a name written, KING OF
KINGS, AND LOED OF LORDS.*
<17> And I saw an angel standing in the
sun ; and he cried with a chap. xix. 17—
loud voice, saying to all the |L tTh^ ;v!kl
fowls that fly in the midst prophet over-
of heaven, Come and gather thrown,
yourselves together unto the supper of the
great God ; ,18) that ye may eat the flesh
of kings, and the flesh of captains, and
the flesh of mighty men, and the flesh

King every where, over each realm and over all realms,
King of kings, and Lord of lords. He has names
written, and a name. The clause having " names
written " is omitted in the English version. The
authority for its insertion is not entirely satisfactory;
but perhaps the balance of evidence is in its favour. He
has many names Which may be understood, besides a
name which no one knows. This is fitting in One who is
known to men as Shepherd, Redeemer, Saviour, Prince
of Life, but the fulness of Whose love and power none
can exhaust, and the depth of Whose wisdom none
can fathom. " He knows our names. Thanks be to
God, we cannot fathom the depths of His." There is
more yet to be known of Him in the world to which
we go. His vesture is dipped in blood. The prophet
Isaiah (chap, lxiii. 2) probably supplied the foundation
of this description. (Comp. verse 15.) The blood-red
restore is a fit token of the work. He comes to
destroy those that destroy the earth — to tread the wine-
press of the wrath of God ; but we cannot forget that
He who comes for this came first to shed His own
blood. He is, too, "The Word of God." Again we hear
this name ; it is a name which is, besides other things,
significant of Christ's mediating work. He is the Word
who was with God, who was God, and who declares God
to man. (Comp. John i. 1 — 4 ; Hi. 13; xiv. 9.) The title
the Word, the Word of God — used here and in the Gospel
of St. John (chap. i. 2 ; John i. 1 ; 1 John i. 1) — is a
token of their common authorship. (See Introduction
and Excursus A : The Doctrine of the Word, in Com-
mentary on the Gospel.)

(14) And the armies . . .—The words "which
were" should be omitted. TJie armies in heaven
followed Him. Some would limit these to angels. The
apparel which they wear — the fine linen (byssus)
" which is the righteousness of saints " (sec verse 8)—
is conclusive against this limited view. The saints who
have fought the good fight here, and who loved not
their lives unto the death, will share the triumph of
their king. (Comp. also chap. xvii. 14.) The horses
upon which they are seated are white. The raiment
they wear is white, pure. (Comp. verse 8, and chaps,
iii. 4; vii. 14.) The hue of triumph is here, but it
is the triumph of righteousness. (Comp. also Ezek.
xxxviii. 4.)

(15) And out of his mouth . . .—Translate, And
out of His mouth goeth a sharp sword, that with
(literally, in) it He may smite the nations: and He
{Himself) shall shepherd them with (literally, in) a
rod of iron : and He (Himself) treadeth the winepress
of the wine of the wrath of the anger of God the All
nder. The sharp sword is the same that we have read
of before (chap. i. 16); there it was called the two-
edged sword. The omission of the epithet in this
passage, which describes the Word of God as the

conqueror and the judge, is not without significance.
The sword is now wielded for but one work — the word
that Christ spoke will judge men at the last day
(John xii. 48). The power of this word found an illus-
tration in the falling back of the hostile band which
came to take Him in the day of His humiliation (John
xv iii. 5) ; yet more gloriously will the power of His
word be felt (comp. Isa. xi. 4 ; Jer. xxiii. 29 ; 2 Thess.
ii. 8) when He will slay the wicked with the word of
His mouth. The passage in Ps. ii. 9 must bo borne iu
mind. Christ comes as King; His is a rule in righteous-
ness ; those who oppose this kingdom of righteousness
find the shepherd's staff as a rod of iron; the stone
rejected falls upon the builders, and grinds them to
powder. It is thus that the winepress of God's wrath
is set up, and the righteous King appears as one who
treads it out. (Comp. Isa. lxiii. 1 — 3.) He Himself
(the emphasis lies here) treads it. We have again the
figure of the vintage made use of. (Comp. chap. xiv.
20.) It is the harvest of retribution; the wicked are
filled with the fruit of thei* own doings ; so is the work
seen to be the work of the All-Ruler.

(16) And he hath on his vesture . . .— The
King rides at the head of His host. On His robe, whero
it spreads out from the waist, His title is inscribed ; it
proclaims Him to be the one who is the true supremo
King of all. Inscriptions on the outer garments were
sometimes used by distinguished personages. The title
anticipates the final victory ; His power is irresistible,
his Kingship is universal.

Overthrow of the Wild Beast and of the
False Prophet. — The birds of prey gather before-
hand (verses 17, 18). The beast, and the kings of the
earth hostile to the King of kings, gather for war
(verse 20). Their defeat and fate (verses 21, 22). .

(17, 18) And I saw an angel . . .—Better, And 1
saw an (literally, one) angel standing in the sun ; and
he cried ivith a great voice, Hither be gathered together
to the great supper of God, that ye may eat flesh of
kings, and flesh of captains of thousands, and flesh of
mighty men, and flesh of horses, and of them that are
seated on them, and flesh of all. of free and of bond,
and of small and of great. The angel stands in the
sun — the central spot to summon the birds, and the
spot where he stands bathed in the sunlight, the symbol
of the divine presence. (Comp. chaps, l. 16; x. 1; xii.
1.) The birds of prey are assembled beforehand; the
adversaries of the righteous King have a name to live,
but the eagles and vultures are gathered together as
though the carcase had already fallen (Matt. xxi\ . 28
comp. Ezek. xxxix. 17 — 20). The sapper or banquet is
the chief meal in the day. the meal to which guests
would be invited. The banquet or supper here is in

Destruction of the Beast

KEVELATIOK XX.

and the False Prophet.

of horses, and of them that sit on them,
and the flesh of all men, both free and
bond, both small and great. <19> And I
saw the beast, and the kings of the earth,
and their armies, gathered together to
make war against him that sat on the
horse, and against his army. <2°) And
the beast was taken, and with him the
false prophet that wrought miracles be-
fore him, with which he deceived them
that had received the mark of the beast,
and them that worshipped his image.

These both were cast alive into a lake of
fire burning with brimstone. (21> And
the remnant were slain with the sword
of him that sat upon the horse, which
sword proceeded out of his mouth :
and all the fowls were filled with their
flesh.

CHAPTEE XX.— (DAnd I saw an
angel come down from Chap. ix. 1—3.
heaven, having the key of T>em ^men-
the bottomless pit and a of Satan.

contrast with the marriage supper of the Lamb (verse 9),
and with the great supper (Luke xiv. 16 — 24) from which
the invited guests turned away. All classes — the great
and small, the master and slave — are mentioned. Those
who follow the world-power, and array themselves in
hostility to the true King, belong not to one class, but
may be found among all. The war is not between class
and class, but between righteousness and unrighteous-
ness, truth and falsehood, Christ and Belial. We must
remember that the vision is a great figurative repre-
sentation of the defeat of the anti- Christian powers
and principles in the world; this will save us from
misapprehending its purpose, and from a bondaged
literalism.

(19J And I saw the beast, and the kings . . .
— Eather, I saw the wild beast. The wild beast and
the kings are gathered to make or wage not merely
"war," but " the war" (the definite article is used;
comp. chaps, xvi. 14; xvii. 14) against the King of
kings. It has been noticed that the true King is
followed by His army — one army, united by one bond,
and under one King. The wild beast is supported by
diverse armies, owning allegiance to diverse kings, and
united only in hostility to good.

(20) And the beast was taken . . .—Or, And
the wild beast was taken, and with him the false
prophet who did the signs in his presence . . . Again
the definite article (" the signs " or " miracles ") recalls
to our minds what was before described (chap. xiii. 13) ;
the false prophet is the second wild beast of chap. xiii.
He succeeded in deceiving those who received the
mark. See Notes on chap, xiii., where their work of
deception is described ; here our thoughts are fixed
upon their doom. Alive they were cast, the two, into
the lake of the fire which burns with brimstone. The
two — the wild beast and the false prophet — who are
the anti-Christian leaders are cast into the fiery lake.
These leaders are not to be, as we have seen, regarded
as particular individuals. It has, indeed, often hap-
pened, and will doubtless again happen, that an indi-
vidual personage places himself at the head of a great
anti- Christian movement ; yet, in the eye of the seer,
such would be but subordinate leaders. The wild beast
and the false prophet, directed by the dragon, are the
true spiritual chiefs of all such movements. The
world-power, whether coarse, ignorant and brutal, or
cultured and intellectual, is seized, and consigned to
the lake of fire. The imagery here is based upon the
Old Testament : the lake, the fire, and the brimstone
bring back the geography and the incidents attending
the overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrha. (Comp.
Num. xvi. 32—34; Isa. v. 14.) The lake of fire is
mentioned here for the first time ; we hear of it more
frequently afterwards (chaps, xx. 10, 14, 15; xxi. 8).

The flames and brimstone, smoke, and other volcanic
forces indicating the existence of subterranean fire,
might well lead the ancients to place their Tartarus
and Gehenna in the under- world. (See Note in Moses
Stuart on Rev. xiv. 10.) These supplied the imagery
which has become crystallised in the language of after-
generations.

(21) And the remnant were slain . . .—Better,
And the rest were slain with (literally, in) the sword of
Him who is seated on the horse, which (sword) pro-
ceeded out of His mouth ; and all the birds were filled
with their flesh. The rest (i.e., the human beings, the
kings and the great and small, who have been led away
by the world-powers) were slain with the sword of the
King. No human being is described here as being
cast into the lake of fire — only the two great leaders,
the ideal representatives of evil principles, receive that
punishment. The sword which goes out of the King's
mouth (comp. verse 15 and chap. i. 16) slays the
human allies of evil. That word which is quick and
powerful (Heb. iv. 12), that word which Christ spoke
in the days of His humiliation, that word which is
mighty and life-giving (Jas. i. 18) as well as death-
giving, wins at the last. The birds devour the flesh.
The pride and beauty of men, their apparent strength,
the confederations and systems which they have made
so strong for themselves, when their heart was fat as
brawn, are proved to be worthless and strengthless ; all
the men whose hands were mighty find nothing (Ps.
lxxvi. 5, 6). Thus, while all flesh is seen to be but grass,
and all the goodliness and pride of it but as the flower
thereof, the righteous word of the Lord stands for ever,
and at the last rises up as a sword to smite down and
to slay its enemies. " They were killed," says Bengel,
" with the destroying sword of Christ, which is not of
steel or iron, but goes out of His mouth, and so is a
spiritual weapon of resistless might."

XX.

The Millennium. — Some few introductory words
on this most difficult chapter are needful. The outline
of incidents described is very simple. An angel descends,
lays hold upon the dragon, binds him, and imprisons
him in the abyss, where he remains for a thousand years,
after which he is loosed for a short time. During this
thousand years the martyrs, and those who had not
received the mark of the beast, five and reign with
Christ. At the close of this period the dragon is
loosed ; the nations are once more deceived ; the camp
of the saints is threatened by the dragon, and those
whom he has reduced to his service ; but the fire from
heaven destroys the adversaries, and the dragon is cast
into the lake of fire. The general judgment follows.
Simple as the vision appears, every interpretation is

Binding of Satan

KEVELATION, XX.

for a Thousand Years.

great chain in his hand. (2) And he laid
hold on the dragon, that old serpent,
which is the Devil, and Satan, and
bound him a thousand years, (3) and
cast him into the bottomless pit, and

shut him up, and set a seal upon
him, that he should deceive the na-
tions no more, till the thousand years
should be fulfilled : and after that he
must be loosed a little season. <4) And

beset with difficulties. These difficulties are too
numerous to bo treated of here. Our space will
only allow us to indicate the view adopted, though
with the greatest hesitation, in this Commentary. (1)
The millennium vision is, like so many of the apostolic
visions, an ideal picture ; it exhibits a state of things
which is possible to mankind at any time ; for, to use
the language of Hengstenberg, " If the earth were to
watch and pray for a thousand years, Satan would have
nothing on it." Like the vision of the first seal, it shows
us that the victory of Christ was a real victory, and has
put into man's hand the promise of security against the
wicked one's devices. The defeat of Satan (inflicted by
redemption) is described as " a fall from heaven" (Luke
x. 18), as " a casting out " (John xii. 31), as "a judgment
past," " the Prince of this world has been judged "
(John xvi. 11). The ideal picture corresponds. " Satan
is chained in the abyss, as the angels said by St. Peter
to have been delivered into chains of darkness " (2 Pet.
ii. 4). (2) But the rejection of Christ's power and victory
postpones the realisation of this picture ; the sullen
refusing of the King's Son, " We will not have this man to
reigu over us," interposes a barrier against an immediate
fulfilment of the vision. But the fulfilment is not utterly
lost ; the vision is for an appointed time ; it will have
its realisation, though man's waywardness and unbelief
occasion its delay. (3) The vision has its approximate
fulfilment as the Church of Christ, in the faith of the
reality of her Lord's victory, carries on her warfare
against the prince of this world and spiritual wicked-
ness in high places. That this approximate fulfilment
is not unreal may be seen in the fact that Christendom
has replaced heathendom, Christ has taken the throne
of the world, the prince of this world has been judged,
the ascendency of Christian thought and Christian prin-
ciples has marvellously humanised and purified the
world. To an Irenseus, a Polycarp, a Justin Martyr,
a Tertullian, the picture of the world during the Chris-
tian centuries would have the aspect of a millennium,
when contrasted with the ago of Pagan domination and
Pagan persecution. In their eyes, accustomed to the
darkness of heathenism, the world as influenced by a
widely diffused Christianity would seem to be a world
in which Christ ruled. They would see in the acknow-
ledgment of apostles and martyrs and confessors the
wrondroUs resurrection power of God's truth ; they
would see how those who fell for Christ had stepped
from their forgotten graves to sit down with Christ in
His throne. The apostles, the martyrs, the faithful do
reign with Christ. The sovereignty of the world belongs
far more to St. Paul and St. John than to Nero and
Galba. But though thus the saints rise and reign
with Christ over Christendom, we can see that this is
only an approximate realisation, and falls short of the
ideal picture. Christendom established and heathen-
dom overthrown would be a millennium in the eyes of an
Ignatius ; but the Church of to-day looks for a further
and higher fulfilment. Is she justified in this expecta-
tion ? If the principles laid down elsewhere (see Note
on chap, vi.) be correct, the Church is justified in looking
for the full realisation of the vision in a future age.
She can accept the first-fruits of God's promises, but
she will not mistake them for the harvest ; she can

623

rejoice in the growth of her Lord's kingdom, but sho
looks for the day when the powers of evil will be more
effectually curbed, and the gospel will have freer course.
Then the fulness of Christ's victory will be more clearly
seen.

The Binding of Satan.

(!) And I saw an angel come down . . .—
Bather, And I saw an angel descending out of the
heaven, having the hey of the abyss, and a great chain
on (not merely in his hand, but hanging from it as it
would do when on) his hand. It is needless to settle
who is represented by this angel. It is enough that in
the vision he manifests by the key and the chain which
he carries that there is power in Him, who has the keys
of death and of Hades (chap. i. 18), to bind, as He has
death-wounded, him that had the power of death. Tho
bottomless pit is the abyss, as we have had elsewhero
(chaps, ix. 1 ; xi. 7 ; and xvii. 8. Comp. Luke viii. 31) ;
it is figuratively the abode of the devil and his associate
angels (Matt. xxv. 41).

w And he laid hold on the dragon . . . — Or,
And he laid hold of the dragon, the ancient serpent,
who is the devil and Satan, and bound him a thousand
years. The four words are thus used to describe the arch-
enemy; they are the same as those used for the same
purpose in chap. xii. 9. Over the world he has exercised
in every quarter his power as prince of this world, and
he has been found fierce as the dragon, subtle as the
serpent, the slanderer of God and His people, and tho
adversary of all righteousness. He is bound as Christ
declared (Matt. xii. 29 ; comp. Col. ii. 15). A thousand
years was the length at which Rabbis fixed the duration
of Messiah's kingdom. The period is not to be under-
stood literally (see next verse).

(?) And cast him into the bottomless pit . . .
— Rather, and cast him into the abyss (same word as
in verse 1), and locked and sealed (the door or mouth)
above him, that he may not deceive the nations any more
until the thousand years shall have been finished ; oftcr
these things he must be loosed for a little time. Tho
sealing reminds us of the sealing employed when the
wicked one had power through man's agency to imprison
God's messengers. (Comp. Dan. vi. 17, and Matt, xxvii.
66.) Of the exact moment when this binding and im-
prisoning took place it is not needful to inquire too
curiously. That which in the vision is described as
tho wrork of a moment may in the fact and fulfilment
be a very gradual work; or rather, the full manifesta-
tion of its accomplishment may be only gradually made
clear. To fix it, therefore, to any incident (for example,
as Hengstenberg is disposed to do to the coronation of
Charlemagne), is to fall into the " vicious realism *"
against which he rightly protests. The same applies
to the duration of the imprisonment; it is not to bo
understood literally any more than the other numbers
in the book; it symbolises a lengthened period. This
period is followed by the loosing again of the devil for
a short time. (See Note on verse 7. i

The Millennial Reign.

I*) And I saw thrones, and they sat . . .—
There is a prominence given to the thrum*, because

The Millennial Reign.

REVELATION, XX.

The First Resurrection.

I saw thrones, and they sat upon

Chap. xx. 4-6. tliem> and judgment was
The millennial given unto them : and
reign. j saw ^he sou\s 0f them

that were beheaded for the witness
of Jesus, and for the word of God,
and which had not worshipped the
beast, neither his image, neither had
received his mark upon their fore-

heads, or in their hands; and they
lived and reigned with Christ a thou-
sand years. W But the rest of the
dead lived not again until the thousand
years were finished. This is the first
resurrection. <6> Blessed and holy is
he that hath part in the first re-
surrection : on such the second death
hath no power, but they shall be priests

the thought of the reign of the saints is uppermost
in the mind of the seer. The thrones are seen, and
those who sat on them. It has been asked, " By whom
are the thrones oecupied ? " The answer is supplied in
the latter part of the verse. Those who are in the latter
part said to reign with Christ are clearly those who sit
upon the thrones which first caught the prophet's eye;
these are all the real servants of God. They appear
before the seer in two great classes : — First, the martyrs
who have been faithful unto death ; for he speaks first
of seeing the souls of those who have been beheaded
(strictly, " slain with the axe," but clearly the special
class of beheaded martyrs is to be taken as representing
all), because of the testimony of Jesus, and because of
the ivord of God. The number of the martyrs is now
complete (comp. chap. vi. 11) ; these form the first class
mentioned. Secondly, those who have been faithful in
life occupy these thrones. The prophet sees these, even
whosoever did not worship (during life) the wild beast,
nor yet his image, and did not receive the mark (comp.
chap. xiii. 10) on their forehead and upon their hand.
The triumph and sovereignty, whatever they be, are
shared by all the faithful. These things are stated as
constituting their privileges. They lived, whereas the
rest of the dead lived not ; they reigned, and judgment
was given them. This last has been felt to be a diffi-
culty. What sort of judgment is intended? The
passage in Daniel (chap. vii. 22) is clearly suggestive
of the present one. The phrase (judgment was given)
is not there to be understood as meaning that right
was done them (see Note in Speaker's Commentary
on Daniel), neither must it be so understood here.
Judicial powers are given to the saints as to those who
occupy thrones ; " the chief power in governing" (Geb-
hardt) is given them (comp. Matt. xix. 28, and 1 Cor.
vi. 2, 3) ; they reign, they judge, they live ; the true and
full powers of life are seen to be theirs. And is not this
the case always ? Who, next to Him who knows the
secrets of our hearts, exercises judicial powers over
men? Do not those whose lives, as we read them,
rebuke our own ? Truly, those who lived for God, and
refused the mark of earthliness, reign and judge us in
our worldliness and weakness. This is their sovereign
honour here, besides the glad reign in the unseen
world.

(5> But the rest of the dead lived not again
. . . — Rather, The rest of the dead lived not (we must
omit the word "again") until the thousand years be
finished. This is the first resurrection. In those words
we meet one of the keys to the controversy respecting
the millennium. What is this resurrection ? Is it the
resurrection at which the saints shall assume the glori-
fied bodies, and their perfect consummation and bliss ?
It has been argued that the word must be understood
literally as of a bodily resurrection. It is further said
that the contrasting words (" the rest of the dead lived
not") necessitate this literal interpretation. But there
is no reason for restricting the word Resurrection to a

624

literal meaning. The sacred writers frequently use the
idea figuratively. They speak of a resurrection which is-
spiritual; the dead in sin are summoned to rise from
the dead that Christ might give them light (comp. Eph.
ii. 1, and v. 14) ; indeed, the figure often underlies the
language and arguments of New Testament writers
(John v. 24, 25 ; Rom. vi. 5 ; 2 Cor. v. 15 ; Col. ii. 12).
But do the words, " the rest of the dead lived not,"'
force upon us so sharp a contrast that we must under-
stand the first resurrection literally ? Undoubtedly
the words are in contrast. If the words "lived not"
necessarily mean that the rest of the dead did not enjoy
physical life on earth, then the living with Christ of the
saints and the first resurrection must be understood as
giving physical life on earth to the saints. But are we
bound to thus understand literally the "lived" of verse 4
and the " lived not " of verse 5 ? There are two or three
considerations which will be enough to show that they
need not be understood thus. (1) The word " to live "
is used about sixteen times in the Apocalypse. On nine
of these it is applied to the eternal life of God the
Father or God the Son ; it is twice used in the passage
before us (verses 4, 5). Of the remaining five occasions
where the word is used, it is four times, employed in
what can scarcely be other than a figurative sense
(chaps, iii. 1 ; vii. 17; xiii. 14 ; xix. 20 — some might doubt
the figurative use in this last passage), but only once is
it employed in a sense which can fairly be defended as
literal (chap. xvi. 3). (2) There will be faithless people
during the millennium — the nations to be deceived (verse
8). Are we then to picture saints with glorified resurrec-
tion bodies living on the earth, which at the same time
is tenanted by men and women still in the natural body ?
(3) There is a resurrection, which surely is the second
resurrection, described in verses 12, 13 : this last is a
general resurrection of the dead, small and great. There
seems no adequate reason to affirm that this first resur-
rection, then, must be physical. Our notions of life and
death are so circumscribed by the geography of earth,
that we seldom give to the word "life" in oxir thoughts
its true richness and fulness of meaning. We fail to
remember that the faithful ones who live, because
Christ lives, have the promise of the life that now is,
as well as that which is to come ; we forget that God is
not God of the dead, but of the living.

(6) Blessed and holy is he that hath . . . . —
This is one of the benedictions of the Apocalypse.
The blessing on those who have part or share in the
first resurrection has this definite feature. On these
the second death has not power (or authority). The
second death stands in contrast with the first resur-
rection. The second death is not the mere physical
dying ; it is rather that more awful death which lies
outside the region of the things seen and temporal.
Whatever it means, and whatever the conditions which
surround it, it is spiritual rather than physical. It is
not the life of the body which protects the life of the
spirit; It is the Irving and believing in God which

Satan loosed

out of Mi 1'

of God and of Christ, and shall reign
with him a thousand years. ^And
Chap. xx. 7— io. when the thousand years
The loosing are expired, Satan shall be

and final over- . ,J- ' _ . .

throw of Satan, loosed out oi his prison,
(N and shall go out to deceive the
nations which are in the four quarters

of the earth, Gog and Magog," to gather
them together to battle : the number of
whom is as the sand of the sea. <9> And
they went up on the breadth of the
earth, and compassed the camp of
the saints about, and the beloved city :
and fire came down from God out of

protects from the second death; according to Christ's
word of each, "they shall never die1' (John xi. 2t> ;
(•(imp. John x. 27, 28). Blessed, too, are snch in being
priests and kings (they shall reign). Theirs is the
priesthood of life who have offered themselves a living
sacrifice to God (Roin. xii. 1). The kingship of life
is theirs, who have overcome the world-powers in the
word of God and in the blood of the Lamb; these truly
reign. (Comp. Note on chap. v. 10.)

The Loosing of Satan and his Final
Overthkow.

(?) And when the thousand years are ex-
pired.— Rather, And when the thousand years have
been finished. The binding of Satan implied restraint
put upon his power and freedom of action ; the
loosing means the removing of these restraints. The
reign of Christ with His saints has been a witness to
the power of our Master over the wicked one. This
witness has been an opportunity also to the world. It
was the earthly approximation to the ideal picture. It
testified how completely " all power in heaven and in
earth was given to Christ," and how there lay, there-
fore, within the reach of men the power of Him who
would tread down their true enemies, and turn His
hand against their adversaries (Ps. lxxxi. 13, 14). But
the time of opportunity must end. " O that Israel
would have hearkened," is a cry that might have its
counterpart over the history of earth's lost oppor-
tunities. Christendom is planted in the world to be a
framework of regenerating power to mankind, just as
the Law and its adjuncts were designed to bo in Israel.
But, as there the old idolatrous influences broke in
upon the rule of God's covenant, so here do we find
the vision picturing to us how Christendom will be
invaded by the influences of the evil one, when man-
kind has let slip this splendid opportunity of a really
golden age.

(8) And shall go out to deceive the nations.—
Perhaps better, shall come out, as the earth is the
view-point. The nations deceived and led astray are
designated as Gog and Magog. The names are
derived from Ezekiel (chaps, xxxviii. and xxxix.). In
rabbinical books the names were used to describe
the nations who would rise against the reign of the
Messiah. The names are to be understood figuratively.
No particular nation could be well spoken of as w the
nations in the four corners of the earth." The origin
of the figure is not difficult. In Ezekiel, Gog is called
the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal ; or. adopting
another rendering, the prince of Rosh, Meshech, and
Tubal. Magog is mentioned in Gen. x. 2 as one of the
sons of Japheth. The name is there associated with
Gonier. Madai. and Meshech. Gomer is thought to
correspond with the Cimmerians, Madai with tho
Medes, and Meshech with the Muscovites. Mr. Smith,
in his history of Assurbanipal from cuneiform inscrip-
tions, thinks that a certain chief of the Saka (Scythians),
named Gaagi, is the same as Gog. The sons of this
Gaagi are mentioned in connection with Birighudri, a

chief of Madai (Medes). Josephus also identifies
Magog With the Scythians. The remembrance of the
Scythian invasion lingered long in the minds of Asiat it-
nations ; and the names of those northern nations were
adopted as representative of the great and undefined
enemies who would in after ages assail the Messiah's
kingdom, or wage unprovoked war against the true
Israel of God, Ezekiel's language in chap, xxxviii. 17
seems to imply as much. The Evangelist here accepts
the names employed by the earlier prophet. Gog and
Magog stand for the great hosts of the nations, and
their leaders, who would break forth into uncalled-for
hostility against the people of the Lord. It must be
remembered that the imagery is derived from the
history of Israel. Jerusalem, the beloved city of the
true Israel of God, looks out upon her foes. They are
Babylon, Egypt, or they may come from the far
northern regions, tho abode of Gog and Magog, whence
the wild and relentless invaders had poured noon tho
land. Gog and Magog are thus used as typical names.
Under the auspices of such, the great gathering of
turbulent and reckless enemies of the faith would take
place. The hosts of the foes of Jerusalem are described
as innumerable as the sand of the sea. This great
concourse of countless hosts is moved by hostility, to
the faith of Christ. The nations, thus multitudinous,
have been restrained during the millennial reign. Evil
and unbelief have been held in check, but they have
not been extinguished. The millennial reign is clearly,
therefore, not a period in Which the rule of Christ is.
universally and sincerely accepted. There are powers
at work which compete for human affections and
interests ; but the general acceptance of Christian
principles keeps the evil forces in abeyance, and the
gracious strength of God limits the power of the arch-
enemy. But when the restraints are removed, the
.long- suppressed evil breaks forth, and the reluctantly
submissive nations are gathered together to the war —
not to battle, as in our version, but to the war — i.e., to
the war which has been before spoken of in chaps,
xvi. and xix. All the restraints which Christ and
Christian teaching had supplied to the world are
gradually removed. The Euphrates is dried, the
Devil is loosed, the unclean spirits have gone forth,
the last phase of the long war between good and evil,
between Christ and Belial, has been entered.

(9) And they went up on the breadth of the
earth. — The hostile multitudes spread like swarms
over the earth, and surrounded the camp of the saints
and the beloAred city. Jerusalem is the beloved city —
in it was the Mount Zion which God loved Ps. lxxviii.
68). It is the figure of the true spiritual Zion and
Jerusalem which has been faithful to her king. The
beloved city has its camp; it is ready for war. It has
waged its spiritual warfare against -all forms of evil.
Its citizens, like the returned exiles (Neli. iv. 17. 18),
could never lay down the sword (comp. Eph. vi. 10;
John ii. 14; v. 4); but the hostile demonstration is
arrested by divine intervention. There rum,- down
fire out of the heaven (the words ** f roin God" are of

625

Satan overthrown.

REVELATION, XX.

The Judgment.

heaven, and devoured them. <10^And
the devil that deceived them was cast
into the lake of fire and brimstone, where
the beast and the false prophet are, and
shall be tormented day and night for
ever and ever. (11)And I saw a great
Chap, xx, 11— white throne, and him that
15. The judg- sat on it, from whose face
WOrld. the earth and the heaven

fled away; and there was found no place
for them. (M» And I saw the dead, small
and great, stand before God; and the
books were opened : and another book"
was opened, which is the book of life : and
the dead were judged out of those things
which were written in the books, accord-
ing to their works. <13) And the sea gave
up the dead which were in it ; and death

doubtful authority) and devoured them. The Shechinah
light tabernacled over the holy city. Its light was
also a flame ready to break forth upon the wicked.
(Comp. chaps, i. 14 ; vh. 15, Note ; Heb. xii. 29 ;
2 Thess. i. 6' — 10.) There may be almsion to the over-
throw of the cities of the plains (Gen. xix. 24), but
other incidents may have been in the prophet's mind :
the fire which fell from heaven upon the enemies of
an earlier prophet, Elijah (2 Kings i. 9 — 14), and the
fire which broke forth from the tabernacle in the
wilderness upon those who defied the laws of the God
of Israel (Num. xvi. 16, 17, 35 ; Lev. x. 1, 2). It must
be remembered that, in the passage before us, the
prophet is using the incidents and actions of the past
as imagery, and that the present vision is figurative,
though of course not mere empty figure : for Christ will
thoroughly purge His floor (Matt. iii. 12).

(10) And the devil that deceived them . . .—
Better, And the devil that deceiveth them, or was
deceiving them, was cast into the lake of fire and brim-
stone, where are also the wild beasts and the false
prophet ; and they shall be tormented by day and by
night unto the ages of the ages. The devil cast from
heaven (chap. xii. 9), bound in the abyss (chap. xx. 3),
is now flung into the flaming lake. There they (i.e.,
the devil, the wild beast, and the false prophet) are
tormented unto the ages of ages. (Comp. chap. xiv.
10, 11 ; and Note on chap. xix. 20.)

The Judgment of the World. — The three
enemies have been overthrown and driven forth from
the earth which they have sought to destroy (chap. xi.
18). The judgment of human beings must follow.

(n) And I saw a great white throne . . .—
Or, And I saw a great white throne, and Him that was
seated thereon, from whose face fled the earth and the
heaven, and place ivas not found for them. The throne
is described as great and white, to set it in strong
contrast to other thrones mentioned in the book, e.g.,

imagery employed in chaps, yi. 12—14 and xvi. 19, 20,
should make us cautious of asserting that any great
physical catastrophe is described here. Doubtless re-
volution must precede renewal (chap. xxi. 1) ; but it is
never safe to ground our expectations of the nature of
such changes upon language which is confessedly
poetical in form: Some physical revolutions do in all
probability await our earth, but the eye of the prophet
looks more to the moral and spiritual regeneration
of the world — more to the spiritual well-being of man-
kind, than to any physical changes which may synchro-
nise with the culmination of the world's moral history.
(12, 13) And I saw the dead, small and great
. . . — Or rather, And I saw the dead, the great and the
small, standing before (not " God," as in text, but) the
throne, and books (or, rolls) were opened ; and another
booh (or, roll) was opened, which is (the book) of life ;
and the dead were judged out of the things which had
been written in the books (or, rolls) according to their
works. And the sea gave forth the dead that were in
it; and death and Hades gave forth the dead who
were in them ; and they were judged each according to
their works. The latter of these verses is added to
assure us that the dead, in whatever quarter, must appear
before the judgment throne. Death and Hades — " the
grave world," and " the great watery grave "—the sea,
"the universal hidden region of the dead," give up
its prey ; for there is One who sits upon the throne who
has the keys of death and Hades (chap. i. 18). It has
been said by some that the dead here spoken of as
coming forth from the grave are not all the dead, but
only " the rest of the dead " mentioned in chap. xx. 5.
Those who believe that the first resurrection there
mentioned is a literal physical resurrection are com-
pelled to limit the resurrection here to the resurrection
only of the remainder of the dead. But the verses
before us suggest no limitation, and the language most
assuredly tends to the idea that saints and faithful
servants of God take part in this later resurrection.
If all the saints and righteous men of old are raised
chaps, iv. 4 and xx. 4. It is a white throne, in token j prior to the millennium, and take no part in this last

of the purity of the judgment which follows. He
who sits upon it is of purer eyes than to behold
iniquity. It is asked, Who is He that is seated here ?
Throughout the book God is called " Him that sitteth
upon the throne " (chaps, iv. 3 and v. 1) ; but we must
not understand this as excluding the Son of God, who
sits with His Father on His throne (chap. iii. 21), and
who, as Son of Man, declared that He would sit upon
the throne of His glory and divide " all the nations " as a
shepherd divideth the sheep from the goats (Matt. xxv.
31, 32 ; comp. also chaps, vi. 16 and xi. 15 — 18). At
the face of Him who sits upon the throne the heaven
and earth flee. Hengstenberg interprets this of the
putting out of the way " all of the irrational creation
which had been pressed into the service of sin."
Gebhardt interprets it of " the destruction of the whole
present visible worlds A comparison, however, of the

626

judgment scene, then only the faithless and wicked are
left to be judged before the great white throne, and
as none of these can be found written in the book of
life, the bringing forth of that book becomes meaning-
less. This is one result of vicious literalism of inter-
pretations. The real significance of the scene lies in
the vivid picturing of that great and solemn truth that
we must all stand before the judgment-seat of Christ,
and that before Him there is nothing hidden which
shall not be revealed (Matt. x. 26 ; comp. 1 Cor. iv. 5).
Then shall every human life appear in its true light,
stripped of all the deceptive adornments which have
given a fictitious respectability to ingenious fraud, and
a fatal popularity to adroit wickedness and splendid
vice. Then shall men be judged, not by rank, or
success, or achievement, but according to their works,
as it is twice stated here, and according to whether

'he Second Death

REVELATION, XXI.

in the Lake of Fire.

and hell l delivered up the dead which
were in them : and they were judged
every man according to their works.
< 14> And death and hell were cast into the
lake of fire. This is the second death.

<15) And whosoever was not found written
in the book of life was cast into the lake
of fire.

CHAPTER XXI.— 0) And I saw a

they have any life towards God. The works and the
life towards God must be combined. A man may have,
from the activities of his Christian works, a name to
live, and yet be dead : the life-book and the work-
book combine to mark the real servant of Christ. If
he labours more abundantly than all, it is Christ who
works in him, for his life is a life by the faith of the
Son of God. (Comp. Gal. ii. 20; 1 Cor. xv. 10; Jas. ii.
14—26.)

(14,15) And death and hell were cast . . .—
Better, And death and Hades were cast into the lake of
fire. The latter part of the verse contains, according
to the best MS. authority, the additional words
" the lake of fire." We then read, not " This is the
second death " — as though the reference were to what
went before — but, This is the second death, the lake of
fire. The last verse then follows, And if any was not
found written in the book (or, roll) of life, he was cast
into the lake of fire. Thus, three times in these two
short verses, like a refrain at the close of each clause,
we have the terrible words " the lake of fire." Into
this lake of fire Death and Hades are thrown. It is
clearly figurative language, implying that Death, the
last enemy (1 Cor. xv. 20) is destroyed, together with
Hades, who was personified as Death's escort (chap. vi.
8). So we read in the next chapter (chap. xxi. 4)
"there shall be no more death." The lake of fire into
which Death is thrown is the second death ! We have
read of this before in this book (chaps, ii. 11 ; xx. 6). '
It is a death of which the first death — the physical
death, now destroyed — was but a faint figure. It is a
condition which needs no coarse exaggeration, or vulgar
literalisation of the prophetic imagery, to heighten the
horror of. Very awful is that spiritual death, which
knows not and loves not God, and from which Christ
has come to arouse us; more awful must be that
second death, in which the spirit, no longer the sinning
victim of hereditary evil, has become the victim of
habitual choice of wrong, loving darkness rather than
light, and choosing alienation rather than reconciliation
— the husks of the swine rather than the Father's house.
Of the full meaning of the words in their true and
future force we can have little conception. It is enough
for us to remember two things : they are figurative,
but they are figurative of something.

XXI.

The Final Regeneration. — All things new :
new Heavens; new Earth; new Jerusa-
lem (chaps, xxi. 1 — xxii. 5).

The new Heavens and new Earth.

(i) And I saw a new heaven . . .—The hope of
I lie renewal and restitution of all things had been long
cherished. Earlier prophets had sanctioned the hope :
Isaiah had told of new heavens and new earth (Isa. lxv.
17) ; Ezekiel had closed his prophecy with the splendid
vision of a renewed land of promise (Ezek. xl. — xlviii.);
Christ Himself had spoken of the era which He in-
augurated as the regeneration (Matt. xix. 28) ; His
followers soon caught the truth that the outcome of
the gospel age would be the realisation of all those

marvellous visions with which prophets had sustained
the fainting hopes of the people of God. The hope was
not to be for ever receding as new height after height
was surmounted. It will not always be said, " The
days are prolonged, and every vision faileth" (Ezek.
xii. 22). The fulfilment may seem to tarry; the
unbelieving might doubt or scoff (Matt. xxiv. 43;
1 Thess. v. 2 ; 2 Pet. iii. 4) ■ but those who felt that
the gospel was a power of spiritual regeneration,
making all things new (2 Cor. v. 17), learned to look
forward to the widest and fullest restoration, and to
expect new heavens and a new earth wherein dwelleth
righteousness (2 Pet. iii. 13). The characteristic word
which runs throughout the description is the word
" new." All things are to be made new : the heavens
and earth are new ; the Jerusalem is new. There are
two words which are translated new in our English
version : one of these (neos) relates to time ; the other
(kainos) relates to quality. The one would be applied
to what had recently come into existence ; the other to
what showed fresh features. The tomb, for example,
in which our Lord's body was laid was new, not in the
sense that it had been recently hewn out of the rock,
but in the sense that it had never been used before ; it
may have been long made, but it was one wherein
never man was yet laid. To describe it the second word
(kainos) is used (Matt, xxvii. 00 and John xix. 41). In
the same way, the wine-skins (called " bottles " in our
English version) required for the new wine were not
necessarily wine-skins only just prepared for service,
but they were skins which had not grown withered, but
retained their freshness and elasticity. Here, again,
the second word (kainos) is employed to describe them.
Now, it is this latter word which is used throughout
this chapter, and, indeed, throughout the book of
Revelation. The newness which is pictured is the new-
ness of freshness : the old, decaying, enfeebling, and
corrupting elements are swept away. The aspects and
features which will surround the inhabitants of that
new earth will be full of novelty to satisfy the pro-
gressive instincts of our nature ; but the imagery no
less conveys the assurance that the conservative in-
stinct, which clings to what is old, and finds sanctity in
the past, will not be disregarded. All things may be
new, full of fresh and fair beauty ; but all things will
not be strange ; there must be some coi-resnondency
between the old and the new, when the new things are
called new heavens, new earth, new Jerusalem. The
description is figurative, but the spirit of it implies that
in the restitution age the sweetness of things loved and
familiar will blend with the charm of all that is fresh
and new.

And there was no more sea.— Or, better, And
the sea is (exists) not any more. Among the more
detailed features of the new earth, this obliteration of
the sea stands first. It is strange that so many com-
mentators should vacillate between literal and figm-a-
tive interpretations of the chapter; the ornaments and
decorations of the new Jerusalem (verses 10 — 21) are
treated as symbolical; the annihilation of the sea is
considered as literal. It is wiser to leave the literal
meaning to the future, and to grasp the spiritual teach-
ings, which are of infinite and present interest. The

627

The New Heaven

KEVELATION, XXI.

and the Neu? Earth.

new heaven and a new eartli : a for the
Chap. xxi. l— first heaven and the first
Wens6 and earth were passed away;
new earth. and there was no more
sea. W And I John saw the holy city,
new Jerusalem, coming down from God
out of heaven, prepared as a bride
adorned for her husband. ^ And I

Ch xxi 3 4 near^- a great Voice Out of

The voice from heaven saving, Behold, the
the throne. tabernacle"' of God is with
men, and he will dwell with them,

and they shall be his people, and God
himself shall be with them, and be
their God. (4) And God shall wipe away
all tears from their eyes ; b and there
shall be no more death, neither sorrow,
nor crying, neither shall there be any
more pain : for the former things are
passed away. (5) And he that sat upon
the throne said, Behold, I Cnap- xxi. 5—
make all things new/ And 8. The voice
he said unto me, Write: L^Stn
for these words are true and the throne.

sea has played an important part in the symbolism of
the book : out of the sea rose the wild beast (chap. xiii.
1) ; the purple-clad Babylon sat enthroned upon many
waters (chap. xvii. 1); the restless, tumultuous ocean,
now discordant with its clamorous waves, now flooding
the earth in confederate force ; the troubled sea of evil,
which cannot rest, and casts up but mire and dirt (Isa.
lvii. 21), is no more to be found on the face of that earth,
or near that city whose peace is as a river, and whose
righteousness as the waves of the sea (Isa. xlviii. 18),
and whose inhabitants are delivered from " the waves
of this troublesome world."

(2) And I John saw the holy city . . .—Better,
And the holy city, neiv Jerusalem, I saw coming down
out of the heaven from God, prepared . . . The name
John is omitted in the best MSS. The new Jerusalem
is more fully described later on (verse 10 et seq.). The
city is also the bride (comp. verses 9, 10). Both images
— the "city" and the "bride" — are familiar to the
Bible student. The sacred city appears linked to God
by a sacred bond. (Comp. Ps. xlv. 13, 14; Isa. lxi.
10; lxii. 4, 5; Gal. iv. 26; Eph. v. 25—27.) The city-
bride is now adorned for her Husband. "We know
what her ornaments are, now that He is about to pre-
sent her to Himself a glorious Church : the meekness
and gentleness of Christ, and her loving obedience to
Him (1 Pet. iii. 4), are her jewels. She is seen, not
rising from earth or sea, like the foes of righteousness
(chap. xiii. 1, 11), but coming down from heaven. The
world will never evolve a golden age or ideal state.
The new Jerusalem must descend from God. The true
pattern, which alone will realise man's highest wishes,
is the pattern in the mount of God (Acts vii. 44).

The First Yoice. — The voice out of the throne
(verses 3, 4.)

(3) And I heard a great voice out of hea-
ven . . . . — According to the best MSS. the voice now
heard was heard " out of the throne," saying, Behold,
the tabernacle of God is with men, and He will taber-
nacle with them. Here, as in chap. vii. 15. the transla-
tion, " shall dwell," weakens the force of the allusion.
The tent, or tabernacle, is in the seer's mind. There
is a difference in the prepositions used here and in
chap. vii. : in the latter, God was spoken of as taber-
nacling over them; here He tabernacles with them.
He not only stretches His cloud-shelter over them, lint
He is with them. They shall be His people, and He
shall be God with them, their God. The introduction
of the words in italies ("and be") in our version is a
weakness; the force of the thought is spoiled. They
are God's people, and He is their Emmanuel — God with
them, their God. The prophet Ezekiel supplies parallel

thoughts (Ezek. xxxvii. 27, 28 ; comp. also Lev. xxvi,
11, 12).

(4) And God shall wipe away all tears . . .—
Instead of " all tears " we should translate " every
tear," and so possess the promise in its true and tender
form. The first, or former, things are passed away :
death shall not be any longer ; neither shall mourning,
nor crying, nor pain, be any longer. The splendid
array of negatives come as heralds of the positive peace
of the new Jerusalem : no sea, no tears, no death, no
mourning, no crying, no pain ; with the former things
these six shadows pass away from life. " The mourning
is that grief which so takes possession of the wdiole
being that it cannot be hid " (Abp. Trench). It is the
same Avord that is rendered " wailing " in our English
version (chap, xviii. 15). It is used of mourning for
the dead. Crying is the voice of despair and dismay,
as well as sorrow ; it is the loud outcry which is the
witness that " the times are out of joint." Pain in-
cludes painful labour and weariness. With the passing
away of these there must depart the ground for the
often-repeated cry of " Vanity of vanities ! " The sad
minor of the poet's song will cease, for —

" Time with a gift of tears,
Grief with a glass that ran,"

together with " travail and heavy sorrow," shall be no
more. On the whole passage, comp. Isa. xxv. 8 ; lxv. 19.

The Second Voice. — The voice of Him who sitteth
on the Throne (verses 5 — 8).

(5) And he that sat upon the throne . . .—
Better, And he who sitteth on the throne said, Behold,
I am making all things new. And he saith (the words
" unto me " should be omitted) write ; because these
tvords are faithful and true. It is the Throned one,
the One who rules over all things from the beginning,
and who has presided over all the changing scenes
of earth's history, who speaks ; it is He wdio makes
even the wrath of man to praise Him, and who causes
all things to work together for good to them that love
Him, who gives this heart-helping assurance. " I am
making all things new." In spite of the moral dis-
order, the pain and grief, the dark shadows of life and
history, the new creation is being prepared, and will
rise, like the early creation, out of chaos. The analogy
between the old and new creation is the reason why the
first chapter of Genesis and the earlier verses of this
chapter are appointed as the morning lessons for Sep-
tuagesima Sunday ; as out of an earth without form and
void rose the world of order and beauty, which God

I pronounced very good, so out of the world, so full of
distress and tears, and overshadowed by so many clouds

62S

The Water of Life,

REVELATION, XXI.

Doom oj the Wicked.

faithfttl. (G) And he Baid unto me, It is
done. I am Alpha and Omega, the
beginning and the end." I will give
unto him that is athirst of the fountain
of the water of life freely.* W He that
bvercometh shall inherit all things; and
I will be his God, and lie shall be my

son. (8^ But the fearful, and unbelieving,
and the abominable, and murderers, and
whoremongers, and sorcerers, and idola-
ters, and all liars, shall have their part
in the lake which burnetii with fire and
brimstone : which is the second death.
<9' And there came unto me one of the

of sin. will emerge the glad new world, wherein

dwcllcth righteousness. The closing words of the
verse, perhaps an instruction from the angel, but more
probably still the voice of Him that sits on the
throne, adds the further assurance, "These words are
true and faithful."

W And he said unto me, It is done.— Or,
rather. They (the things promised) have come to pass.
He spake, and it was done. The assurance, is made
trebly sure. " I am making all things new." " These
words are true." ■• They are fulfilled." " Twice," says
Bengel, "twice it is said in this book 'It is done.'
First at the completion of the wrath of God in chap,
xvi. 17, and here again at the making of all things
new."

I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and
the end . . .—The definite article must be placed be-
fore Alpha and Omega. I am the Alpha and the
Omega, the beginning and the end. He is the Alpha
and Omega, whose words are faithful and true, and He
is the beginning and the end. who is before all things
and by whom all things consist (Col. i. 17 ; John i.
1). He finishes as well as begins. He who begins the
good work will perform it (Phil. i. 6 ; Col. i. 20) ; all grace
Hows from Him ; and all love flows back to Him,
who is Love, who is the cause and end of all, who first
makes us, and lastly makes us rest in Him. All the un-
satisfied yearnings of the heart may find satisfaction
in Him. Hence, perhaps, this promise, I to him that
thirsteth will give out of the spring of the water of life
freely. No promise shall fail — the needy and thirsty
so often invited to Him may find fresh springs of
life in Him. (Comp. Isa. lv. 1 ; John iv. 10 — 14 ; vii.
37, 38.) The blessing is promised freely, as an un-
bought gift, without money and without price. This is
the genius of the good news of God — the gift is free
to all. He who understands this will not be afraid to
say, " Nothing in my hand I bring ; " and he who says
this will be he who will also say, "'What things were
gain to me, those I counted loss for Christ," so that
he who brings everything brings nothing; and he who
brings nothing brings everything, knowing that all is
nothing.

(7) He that overcometh shall inherit all
things . . . — Rather, He that conquereth shall inherit
these thing* ; mid I will be to him God. and he shall
be to me a son. The general promise of verse 3 is in
part repeated, and this time more individually. Again
we catch, as it were, the echo of the promises to the
Seven Churches, the blessing is for him that, con-
quereth. The idea of the war and the conquest is a
favourite one with St. John. (John xvi. 33, and 1 John
ii. 13, 14; v. I. 5; see also Note on chap. ii. 7.) The
source and weapon of victory have been before stated :
the blood of the Lamb, the word of their testimony
(chap. xii. 11), and the victory of faith (1 John v. 4).

(8) But the fearful, and unbelieving, and
the abominable . . .—Better, But for the cowardly
and unfaithful (or, unbelieving) and defiled with abomi-
nations, anil murderer*;, and fornicators, and son

and idolaters, and for all the false, their part (is) in the
lake that burnetii with fire and brimstone; which thing
is the second death. The list here given points to those
classes of character which cannot find a place in the Holy
City. Nothing that defileth shall enter in. The less
glaring faults stand first, the cowardly and unbelieving.
There is a high and holy fear in which the Christian
passes the time of his sojourn hero (1 Pet. i. 17) ; but
there is a base and selfish fear, a fear of man. which
brings a snare; those who have faith enter boldly the
strife, following the Lamb whithersoever He goeth, and
conquering by faith. The cowardly sink into com-
panionship with the faithless and unbelieving, with the
workers of iniquity. The abominations spoken of here
havo reference to those mentioned in chap. xvii. 4. The
characters, it has been thought, form four pairs. Fear
and unbelief go hand in hand (Dent. xx. 1 — 8; Matt
viii. 26) : the workers of abomination and the murderers,
the fornicators and the sorcerers are united as those
who sin in secret ; the idolaters and the false, as those
who change God's truth into a lie. (Comp. Eph. v. 5 ;
Col. iii. 5 ; Phil. iii. 19.) These who are thus shut out
from the heavenly city stand in contrast to those who
are admitted; yet among those admitted are such who
have sinned through fear, faithlessness, and fieshliness.
Sin indeed excludes from the city, but it. is sin loved,
sin unrepented of, which alone can close the gate of
the city whose gates lie open day and night.

The Heavenly Jerusalem described (9— xxii.
5). — Before entering upon this section it is -wise to
recall once more that .the descriptions here given are
figurative, and are not to be understood literally. '"There
is nothing in it as it seems saving the King." _ This
remark may well be thought needless; but the miscon-
ceptions and misrepresentations of the Christian's hope
have been many and reckless ; and, even were this not
the case, there 'is always a certain proportion of people
who seem incapable of understanding figurative lan-
guage. Half the errors of the Church have been due
to prosaic-minded men who could not discern the dif-
ference between figure and fact ; and men of unpoefical
and vehement temperament have blundered over these
descriptions, and their blunders have discredited the
whole Apocalypse in the eyes of some. The following
are the features of the heavenly city, which the descrip-
tion seems designed to enforce upon our thoughts.
The great and holy community will be one which draws
its glory from God (chaps, xxi. 11, 23 ; xxii. 5). Its
blessings arc not for a few, but open to all. for its gates
lie open to all quarters (chap. xxi. VI, 13). The
heavenly and the earthly will be at one; angels.
apostles, and patriarchs are there (chap. xxi. 12, 14).
Diverse characters will find entrance there; the gates
bear the names of the twelve tribes. The doqj of ad-
mission is alike for all. though diverse characters from
diverse quarters will enter In (chap. xxi. 21). It will be
the abode of all that is fair and good, and no dispropor-
tions will mar its loveliness (chap. xxi. 17. 18). The
ancient truths, spoken by various lips, will be found

G2y

Description of

EEVELATION, XXI.

the heavenly Jerusalem.

seven angels which had the seven vials
Chaps, xxi. 9- fullofthesevenlastplagues,
xxii. 5. The and talked with me, saying,
ruslS de"- Come hither, I will shew
scribed. thee the bride, the Lamb's

wife. (10) And he carried me away in
the spirit to a great and high mountain,
and shewed me that great city, the holy
Jerusalem, descending out of heaven
from God, &) having the glory of
God : and her light was like unto a

stone most precious, even like a jasper
stone, clear as crystal ; <12) and had a
wall great and high, and had twelve
gates, and at the gates twelve angels,
and names written thereon, which are
the names of the twelve tribes of the
children of Israel : (13> on the east three
gates ; on the north three gates ; on
the south three gates ; and on the west
three gates. <14) And the wall of the
city had twelve foundations, and in them

to be eternal truths, full of varied but consistent beauty
(chap. xxi. 14, 19, 20). The forms and helps which were
needful here will not be needful there (chap. xxi. 22,
23) ; all that the servants of God have righteously
hungered and thirsted for here will be supplied there
(chap. xxii. 1, 2). There will be blessings, various, con-
tinuous, eternal; new fields of labour and new possi-
bilities of service will be opened there (chap. xxii. 3, 4).

(9) And there came unto me one of the seven
angels . . . — The words "unto me "should be omitted.
One of the seven angels which had the seven vials of
wrath had shown to the seer the scarlet-clad harlot, the
great and guilty Babylon : so here does one of the same
company of angels show him the pure Bride of the
Lamb, the new and holy Jerusalem.

(io) And he carried me away in the spirit
. . . — Better, He carried me away in spirit on to a
mountain, great and high. It is not merely that the
height gives a fine view-ground, the symbolism carries
us further. The glimpse of God's coming glories is
best gained from the consecrated heights of self-sur-
render and prayer. On a mountain apart — the mountain
of supplication and separation from the world — is the
light and glory of God best seen. There are Beulah
heights and transfiguration heights from which we
may gain glimpses of the city and the glory of
the Lord of the city. (Comp. Matt. xvii. 1 — L) The
angel carried away the seer to a mountain great and
high, and showed him (not " that great city," but) the
holy city Jerusalem descending out of the heaven from
(having its origin fi*bm) God. The tempter showed to
our Lord the kingdoms of the world and the glory of
them ; the comforting angel shows to our Lord's prophet
the city that hath the foundations, and the glory of it —
the city that is of God, its builder and maker. (Comp.
Heb. xi. 10, where the right rendering is not " a city,"
but the city which hath the foundations.)

(ii) Having the glory of G-od . . .—The glory
of God is the glorious presence of God, the true She-
chinah, of which we have read before (chap. xv. 8, and
see verse 23). The light of the city is described : And
her light (or, brightness : it is the light which she gives ;
the same word is used as that employed in the LXX.,
Gen. i. 17, for the heavenly bodies) is like a stone most
precious, as it were a jasper stone crystallising. On
the meaning and appearance of this stone, see Note on
chap. iv. 3. It is in all probability a stone transparent
and clear as the crystal, but retaining the greenish hue
belonging to the jasper. The general brightness of the
city was lustrous as the diamond, but shot with the
green tint of the emerald bow which swept the throne.
(Comp. chap. iv. 3.)

(12, 13) And had a wall great and high . . .—
Or, better (for the construction is continued), Having a

wall great and high, and having twelve gate-towers, and
at the gate-towers twelve angels, and names inscribed
which are {names) of the twelve tribes of the sons of
Israel : from the sun-rising (i.e., facing east) three gate-
towers ; from the north three gate-towers, from the
south three gate-towers ; from the sun-setting three gate-
towers. On this arrangement of gates Num. ii., Ezek.
xlviii., and Rev. vii. should be compared. In the en-
campment in the wilderness (Num. ii.) the tribes were
arranged as follows : on the east, Judah, Issachar, Zebu-
lun ; on the south, Reuben, Simeon, Gad ; on the west,
Ephraim, Manasseh, Benjamin; on the north, Dan,
Asher, Naphtali. There is perhaps allusion in the pre-
sent passage to this wilderness encampment, and to the
re-ad justinent of the order of the tribes in Ezekiel
(chap, xlviii.) ; but there is more than order here : the
gates lie open to all quarters; there is no refusal of
admission to any people. The representatives of all
nations, and kindreds, and people, and tongues, are
(chap. vii. 9) in the city of Christ; in Him there is
neither barbarian, Scythian, bond nor free, but all are
one. The diversities of human nationality and charac-
ter, of age and race, and climate, are brought into one
communion and fellowship. (Coinp. Note on chap. vii.
4.) " The wall great and high " is mentioned to assure
us of the security and peace of that city where no foe
" or thief approacheth " (Isa. xxvi. 1 ; Zech. ii. 5).

(W) And the wall of the city had . . '.— Or.
rather, And the wall of the city having twelve founda-
tions, and on them twelve names of the twelve Apostles of
the Lamb. There were twelve large stones forming the
basement of the wall, the names of the Apostles were
inscribed on these. The whole Old and New Testa-
ment Church is represented in the appearance of the
city ; but the work of the Apostles receives its special
recognition; it is on their teaching and witness for
Christ that the great spiritual Jerusalem is built. There
is complete harmony of thought here between St.
Paid and St. John. St. Paul described the Church as
built upon the foundation of the Apostles and Prophets,
Jesus Christ Himself being the chief corner-stone (Eph.
ii. 20). We may compare the same illustration used by
our Lord (Matt. xvi. 18) and afterwards by St. Peter
(1 Pet. ii. 4 — 6). The argument that St. John could
not be the writer of the Apocalypse because he speaks
of the Apostles (and so includes himself) as the founda-
tion-stones of the celestial city, might be applied with
equal wisdom against the Pauline authorship of the
Epistle to the Ephesians; it is, moreover, a class of
argument which betrays a tendency to confusion of
thought, and to misapprehension of the meaning and
value of symbols. Historically and doctrinally the
Church of Christ is built upon the foundations here
described ; our creeds declare an acknowledgment of a
catholic and apostolic Church. Note the recurrence

Measurement of the City.

EEVELATION, XXI.

The Stones of the Wall

the names of the twelve apostles of the
Lamb. <15) And he that talked with
Chap. xxi. 15— me had a golden reed to

surementmeof meaSU™ the <** and the

the city. gates thereof, and the wall

thereof. (16> And the city lieth four-
square, and the length is as large as the
breadth : and he measured the city with
the reed, twelve thousand furlongs. The
length and the breadth and the height
of it are equal. <17) And he measured

the wall thereof, an hundred and forty
and four cubits, according to the measure
of a man, that is, of the angel. (18) And
the building of the wall Chap. xxi. 18_
of it was of jasper : and 21. The pre-
the city was pure gold, like cious stonea.
unto clear glass. (19) And the founda-
tions of the wall of the city tvere
garnished with all manner of precious
stones. The first foundation was jasper;
the second, sapphire ; the third, a

of the name, the Lamb, to describe our Lord. He is
still the Lamb ; the writer lingers over the well and
early known image. (Comp. John i. 29, 36.)

The Measurement of the City.

<15) And he that talked with me . . .—Or,

better, And he who was talking with me had a golden
reed . . . The allusion here is to the angel mentioned in
Ezekiel (E/ek. xv. 3) ; the reed, or measuring rod, is of
gold, that used in chap. xi. 1 was not said to be of gold;
the measurement there was the symbol of preservation
amid impending danger ; the measuring here is more
glorious — it is measuring which exhibits the beauty and
proportion of the city which is now dwelling at peace.
Gold is one of the features of the city ; the street is
gold (verses 18, 21) ; it may stand as a token of the
wealth (Ps. lxxii. 15 ; 1 Kings x. 14 — 21) of the royal
city ; but the wealth of that city is love. (Comp. Note
on chap. iii. 18.)

(W) And the city lieth foursquare . . .—The
city is foursquare, because the length and breadth are
equal ; but it is added that the height also is equal to
the length and breadth, the city thus presents the
symbol of perfect symmetry ; this is all that is needed.
Many interpreters are nervously anxious about the
monstrous appearance of a city whose walls measured
three thousand stadii (the word rendered "furlongs" is
properly stadii) ; but there is no need to be nervous
about the symbols ; the city is not designed, any more
than the vision of chap, iv., or the vision of Ezekiel (chap.
i.) to be represented by painting to the eye : the at-
tempt to do so only ends in the production of grotesque
and profane pictures. It is not needful, however, in
this case to suppose the actual wall to have been 3,000
stadii in height ; the city is placed on a hill, the foun-
dations are upon the holy hill, and the deep strong
mountain foundations may be included in the measure-
ment. The main thought, however, is to realise the
harmony and proportion of that community, in which
broad and low and high will meet, and in which no
truth will be exaggerated or distorted; in which no
disproportioned adjustments will mar its social order;
in which all those who are inbuilt as living stones will
be measured, not by the false estimates of worldly
thoughts (comp. Jas. ii. 4), but by the golden reed of
the sanctuary.

(i?) And he measured the wall thereof . . .—
Better, And he measured its wall by an hundred and
forty-four cxibits {i.e., in height), man's measure, which
is angel's. The measurement is in man's measure, but
the reed was handled by an angel ; the measure is true
for men and true for angels; it may mean that the
angel used the ordinary human measure, but may it
not imply that the vision is true for all, for the earthly

031

and for the heavenly? it is man's measure, it is angel's
measure ; the human will not find the picture untrue,
though the city is not literal : it is figurative, but not
mere figure. The recurrence of the number hundred
and forty-four recalls us to the figurative character of
the description. (Comp. Note on chap. vii. 4.) •

The Building or Material of the City.

(is) And the building of the waU . . .—Or, And

the building-work (or, the masonry, so Alford j of the
wall of it was jasper, and the city was pure gold, like
pure glass. The general aspect of the city was jasper-
like, because the material of the wall was of the jasper
stone. On this stone, see Note on chap. iv. 3, and on
verse 11 above. The city was gold. On the meaning
of the gold see Note on verse 15 and on chap. iii. 18.
To what has been said may be added the following : —
" Gold has an inalienable reference to the sun itself,
consequently, to the symbol of the face of God, or
Christ, i.e., to the manifestation of God's love" (Lauge).

The wealth of heaven is love; love is the circulating
medium of all holy activity and of all holy work : all
who dAvell within the heavenly city are encompassed
by it ; all who tread the streets of that city move along
the ways of love ; no dimness or obscurhig motives of
self-interest mar its lustre — the gold is clear as pure
glass.

(!9) And the foundations of the wall . . .—
Better, The fotmdations of the wall of the city (were)
adorned with every precious stone. We may compare
the adornment of the harlot (chap. xvii. 4). Her robe
was decked with gold, and precious stones, and pearls.
The Bride, the Lamb's wife, has her beautiful orna-
ments, richer and rarer than those which adorned the
world-mistress. The comparison reminds us, in a vivid
and figurative way, of our Master's often-repeated teach-
ing. He that saveth his life, loseth it ; he that loseth,
savethit; he that is content to pass by the dazzling
attractions of the world, refusing splendour from the
outstretched hand of Babylon, will win the true spiritual
riches. There is no man thai has turned away for
Christ's sake from the attractions of the world-spirit,
that hath forsaken houses and lands for Christ's sake
and the gospel, but shall receive manifold more, &c.
(Mark x. 28—31). The "jewels of right celestial
worth " are part of the heritage of him who can nobly
hold cheap the degrading hire of the world. (Comp.
Isa. liv. 12.)

The foundations are various. There were iu the
foundation of the Church diversities of gifts and
administrations, but the same Lord and the sam<-
spirit. In the heavenly city we have harmony, not
monotony ; variety, not sameness ; unity, not uni-
formity. The stones are not arranged in the order of

The twelve Gates.

REVELATION, XXI.

The Light of t/ie City.

chalcedony ; the fourth, an emerald ;
<20> the fifth, sardonyx; the sixth,
sardius ; the seventh, chrysolyte ; the
eighth, beryl ; the ninth, a topaz ; the
tenth, a chryspprasus ; the eleventh, a
jacinth ; the twelfth, an amethyst.
<21) And the twelve gates were twelve
pearls ; every several gate was of one
pearl : and the street of the city was
pure gold, as it were transparent

glass. <&) And I saw no temple there-
in : for the Lord God Almighty and
the Lamb are the temple of it.
(23> And the city had no need of the
sun, neither of the moon, to shine in
it : a for the glory of God did lighten it,
and the Lamb is the light thereof.
(21) And the nations of them which are
saved shall walk in the light of it : b and
the kings of the earth do bring their

the high priest's breastplate, but according to their
various shades of colour,, beginning from the founda-
tion.

1. Jaspis, dark opaque green.

2. Sapphirus, Lapis-lazuli, opaque blue.

3. Chalcedon, an Emerald of a greenish hue.

4. Smaragdus, bright transparent green.

5. Sardonyx, white and red.

6. Sardius, bright red.

7. Chrysolite, our Topaz, bright yellow.

8. Beryl, bluish green.

9. Topazion, or Peridot, yellowish green.

10. Chrysoprasus, a darker shade of the same

colour.

11. Hyacinthus, Sapphire, sky blue.

12. Amethystv.8, violet.

" Chrysoprasus is probably an error for Chrysopaston,
a dark blue stone, studded with gold, by which substi-
tution all the shades of blue will follow each other."
{See King. On Gems.)

With this blended harmony of colour the foundation-
stones would encircle the heavenly city as with a
rainbow belt. In the seer's view the light of the
heavenly city would shine with hues that betoken the
advent of the morning. The varying tints would glow
like pledges of a dayspring from on high.

•' Along the tingling desert of the sky.
Beyond the circle of the conscious hills
Were laid in .jasper-stone as clear as glass
The first foundations of that new, near Day,
Which should be buildcd out of heaven to God.

Jasper first, I said ;

And second, sapphire ; third, chalcedony;
The rest in order ;— last, an amethyst."

The foundation-stones are twelve. "As twelve, they
indicate their numerical completeness (chaps, vii. and
xiv.) ; as shining with a common lustre, their unity ; as
stones of different hues, their manif oldness ; as brilliant
stones, the glorification of this earthly life through the
light of Heaven " (Lange).

(21> And the twelve gates . . .—Or, gate-towers.
Each gate was of one pearl — i.e., made out of one pearl.
The foundations are diverse; the gates are alike.
There is one way, though there are many roads ; one
mode of entrance, through twelve gates. All find en-
trance through one new and living Way (John xiv. <i ;
Acts iv. 11, 12 ; 1 Cor. hi. 11 ; Heb. x. 20). The pearl
was esteemed of the greatest value among the ancients;
it is an appropriate emblem of the highest truth, and
30 of Him who is the Truth as well" as the Way of Life.
Lord Bacon compared truth to a pearl " that showeth
best by day." Another feature may be added. It is
the onty precious stone which the art and skill of man
cannot improve. The tools of the artificer may give
fresh lustre to the emerald and the sapphire ; but he
must lift no tool upon the pearl. So is it with the

truth, which sets men free (1 Cor. iii. 10). Tln-ough
truth, and Him who is Truth, we enter the city ; and
the street of the city was gold, pure as transparent
glass. (See Note on verse 18.)

(22) And I saw no temple therein . . .—
Rather, Ami temple I saiv not in it, for the Lord
God the Almighty is her temple, and the Lamb. In
Ezekiel's vision the vast and splendid proportions of
the Temple formed a conspicuous part : its gigantic pro-
portions declared it to be figurative (Ezek. xlviii. 8 — 20);
but the present vision passes on to a higher state of
things. " I saw no temple : " Ezekiel's vision declared
that the literal temple would be replaced by a far more
glorious spiritual temple. The age of the Christian
Church succeeds the age of the Jewish temple-worship ;
the age of the Church triumphing will succeed the age
of the Church toiling ; and there the external organi-
sations, helps, and instrumentalities required for the
edifying of the body of Christ will no longer bo
needed. Tongues, prophecies, knowledge, may pass
away (1 Cor. xiii. 9; Eph. iv. 11 — 13) ; churches will dis-
appear, absorbed in the one glorious Church ; ministries,
missionary organisations, helps, governments, may
cease. There God is all. The Lord is there — the
temple, the sanctuary, the dwelling-place of His people.
(Comp. Ezek. xlviii. 35.) Every merely local aspect of
worship is at an end (John iv. 21 — 24).

(23) And the city had no need of the sun . . .
— Bather, And the city hath not need of the sun, nor of
the moon that they should shine on (or, for) her ; for
the glory of God enlightened her, and her lamp is the
Lamb. The Shechinah is again alluded to. Light is the
emblem of knowledge and holiness. God is light, and
in Him is no darkness at all (1 John i 5). Christ the
Lamb, came as the Light of the World. Now in tho
heavenly Jerusalem is the light seen as a lamp that
burnetii. The imagery is drawn fro' A Isaiah. " The
sun shall be no more thy light by day ; neither for
brightness shall the moon give light unto thee; but
the Lord shall be unto thee an everlasting light, and
thy God thy glory" (Jsa. lx. 19). No more will there
be needed subsidiary or intermediate luminaries. He
who makes the righteous to shine like stars, and causes
His churches to shine like lights in the world, will be
Himself the Light and Sun of His people : they shall
see Him as He is. It is again to lie noticed that the
emblem of the Lamb is used to describe our Lord in
this verse, and in the last, as it was also in verse 14.
The memory of Christ's work on earth is never oblite-
rated : still in the intense splendour and joy of that
city of light the i*emembranee of Hvn who was led
as a lamb to the slaughter gives dr^th and fulness to
its joy.

(24) And the nations of the^ whic?- are saved
. . . — We must omit, with the best MS©., the words
" of them which are saved," and read, And the nations
shall walk by means of its light, and the kings of the

The Wicked sJitd out.

REVELATiOX, XX! L.

The River of tin' Water of Life.

glory and honour into it. (25) And the
gates of it shall not be shut at all by
day : " for there shall be no night there.
W And they shall bring the glory and
honour of the nations into it. (27) And
there shall in no wise enter into it any
thing that defileth, neither whatsoever
worketh abomination, or maketh a lie :
but they which are written in the
Lamb's book of life.

CHAPTEEXXII.— (^ And he shewed

me a pure river of water of life, clear as
crystal, proceeding out of the throne of
God and of the Lamb. (2> In the midst
of the. street of it, and on either side of
the river, was there the tree of life,
which bare twelve manner of fruits, and
yielded her fruit every month : and the
leaves of the tree were for the healing
of the nations. W And there shall be

earth carry their (/lory into her. The outlook of the
prophet is from the loneliness and depression of the
then persecuted and despised churches; but in the
vision he sees her beautiful and enlarged and honoured.
All nations and peoples Hock within the walls: it is the
echo of the ancient prophecies. "All kings shall fall
down before Him: all nations shall serve Him." The
Church and kingdom of Christ increase without end;
and all will east their glory at His feet, and call Him
blessed in whom all have been blessed (Ps. lxxii.
11, 17).

(25, 26) And the gates of it . . .—Better, And the
gates (or, gate-towers) shall never be shut by day, for
night shall not be there. The gates shall never be
shut : all day they shall be open, and that day shall be
for ever, for there shall be no night there. All that
darkens — the sin that brings night on the soul ; the
sorrow that brings night on the heart — shall bo
banished for ever. In peace by day, the city gates will
be open ; nor can there be night when God the
Almighty is the Sun. (Comp. Isa. lx. 11 ; Ezek.
xxviii. 11.) Through its open gates they (i.e., men)
will briny the glory and honour of the nations into her.
As men find that every good gift and every perfect
gift is from above, and that their strength is in Christ,
without whom they can do nothing, so will their lives
bring back to Him the lustre of all their achievements.
C2?) And there shall in no wise enter into
. . . — Better. And there shall never enter into her any-
thing unclean, and he that worketh abomination and
falsehood, but only (or, except) they that have been
written in the book of life. of the Lamb. The gates
stand open always, but no evil thing may find a home
there. The emphatic repetition here (see verse 8) of
the idea that all sin is excluded, is in harmony with all
other Scripture : no unholiness can dwell in the presence
of God. The allusion is to the care of the Jews to
exclude all things unclean from the precincts of the
sanctuary. The legal and ceremonial defilement had
its spiritual significance, which the Apostles utilised
elsewhere. (Comp. 2 Cor. vi. 17, 18; vii. 1; Rev.
xviii. 4. On the "'book of life," see chap. xx. 12.)

XXII.

The Restored Paradise (verses 1—5). — These
five verses complete the description of the new
heavens and new earth. The features of this last
section reflect those of the first and forfeited paradise :
the tree of life and the river that flows by the trees
are here, and The happy and willing service of God is
restored (verses 3, 1), and the curse has disappeared.

ft) And he shewed me a pure river . . .—
The adjective " pure " must be omitted, as it is wanting
in the best MSS. The river is full of water, and that
water is the emblem of life: it is the beautiful symbol
of life in its gladness, purity, activity, and fulness.

The garden of Eden (Gen. ii. 10) had its river. Even
in the wilderness Israel had from the smitten rock the
water which gushed out like a river (Ps. cv. 41). Pro-
phets, in their pictures of the ages of blessing, almost
invariably introduced the river, or broad stream. Joel
saw a fountain out of the house of the Lord (Joel iii.
18). Zechariah spoke of living waters from Jeru-
salem (Zech. xiv. 8) ; but Ezekiel had the fullest vision
when he beheld the stream which deepened and
broadened in its onward progress from under the
threshold of the house of God, and carried life in its
train : everything lived whither the water came (Ezek.
xlvii. 9) ; thus did all prophets speak of the river of
God's pleasures (Ps. xxxvi. 8). The teaching of our
Lord threw new light on the prophetic imagery; the
pure delights of spiritual joy and communion with
God were vouchsafed to men by the presence of the
Holy Spirit, the Giver of Life. In the bestowal of that,
spirit of life did Christ give true satisfaction to the
thirsting souls of men. (Comp. John iv. 10 — 14 ; vii.
37 — 39.) The source of the river is in the throne.
Ezekiel's river took rise in the temple; but in our
vision there is no temple (chap. xxi. 22). We are
brought nearer, even to the throne: it is the throne
(not "'thrones") — one throne of God and the Lamb.
(Comp. chap. iii. 21.)

(2) In the midst of the street of it . . .—Or
rather, In the midst of the street of it, and of the river,
on one side and on the other (was) a tree of life,
yielding twelve fruits, according to each month giving
its fruit ; and the leaves of the tree are for healing of
the nations. The hunger as well as the thirst of the
spirit is to be satisfied (Matt. v. 6). The tree of life, as
well as the river of life, is to be found in the new and
better Eden (Gen. ii. 9 ; iii. 22). The vision of Ezekiel
is exactly parallel to the present : " On the border of
the river there was wood very much, on both sides :
every kind of tree ; its leaf withers not, and its fruit
ceases not; all months does it ripen; its fruit serves
for food, and its leaf for healing " (Ezek. xlvii. 7 — 12).
The twelve.' manner of fruit : The recurrence of the
number — twelve — is to be noticed, for here, too, as
well as in the foundations and gates of the city. Ave
have variety allied with unity. Diverse and seasonable
fruits, and yet one tree of life. Thus does the
Almighty wisdom feed His people with food con-
venient for them (Prov. xxx. 8), though, in one sense.
there is but one food for all (John vi. 31); for true
divine wisdom is a tree of life to them that lay hold
upon her (Prov. iii. 18). That wisdom Is not the mere
knowledge of things (the tree of the knoAvledgc of good
and evil has no place in new Eden); but it is rather
the knowledge of life which makes the knowledge of
things available to the highest good. (Comp. 1 Cor. i.
22—24.30; Jas. iii. 17 ; Prov. viii.l

(:?) And there shall be no more curse . . .
Better, And every curse, or accursed thing, shall not be,

The Lord God is the Light.

REVELATION, XXII.

Words of Confirmation.

no more curse : but the throne of God
and of the Lamb shall be in it ; and his
servants shall serve him : W and they
shall see his face ; and his name shall
be in their foreheads. (5) And there
shall be no night there ; and they need
no candle, neither light of the sun ; ■
for the Lord God giveth them light :

and they shall reign for ever and ever,
W And he said unto me, These sayings
are faithful and true : and nito„ •• ~
the Lord God of the holy 15. Words of
prophets sent his angel confirmation.
to shew unto his servants the things
which must shortly be done. (7) Behold.
I come quickly: blessed is he that

any longer. There maybe an allusion to Josh. vii. 12 ;
there is certainly a borrowing of language from
Zechariah (Zech. xiv. 11). All accursed things are re-
moved, and with them passes the curse. The blessing
of God's presence, and the blessing of God's rule take
the place of the ascendancy of evil over the groaning
creation (Rom. viii. 22). " The throne of God and the
Lamb shall be in it." The song of the Psalmist
receives new force : '' the Lord reigneth : let the earth
rejoice; lot the multitudes of the isles be glad thereof; "
the accursed things, even all things that offend, are
gathered out of the kingdom (Matt. xiii. 41).

(3» 4) And. his servants shall serve him . . . —
We turn from the city to the inhabitants. They are
described as serving Him. seeing Him, and resembling
Him. They shall serve Him : they shall offer Him the
service of the priesthood — the word employed is that
used of temple service. The word translated " servants "
is the word which the Apostles used when they spoke
of themselves as slaves of Jesus Christ, owned as well
as employed by Him (Phil. i. 1 ; 2 Pet. ii. 1 ; Jude,
verse 1). Their service here was discharged in the
midst of discouragements and in difficulty; and they
walked by faith, not by sight. Now the servants shall
serve without hindrance or opposition, and they shall
be encouraged by His immediate presence. "They shall
see his face ; " they shall know even as they are known
(1 Cor. xiii. 12) ; they shall see Him as He is. No
wonder, then, that he should add (and observe that the
thought is exactly that which occurs in the First Epistle
of St. John (1 John iii. 2) : " His name shall be in (or,
on) their foreheads." The name stands for what God
is in holiness and righteousness, purity and love. The
name on the forehead indicates their resemblance to
their Master. On earth the servants of God are
changed from glory to glory into the same image
(2 Cor. iii. 18). They aim to be perfect, as their Father
in heaven is perfect (Matt. v. 48); but when they see
God as He is they shall be like Him. His name is on
their foreheads, for they behold His face : they wake up
after His likeness, and they are satisfied (Ps. xvii. 15).
There is a divine paradox in the double truth : those
who are like God see Him, and those who see Him are
like Him (Matt. v. 8). " There will come a time when
the service of God shall be the beholding of Him ; and
though in these stormy seas, where we are now driven
up and down, His Spirit is dimly seen on the face of the
waters, and we are left to cast anchors out of the stern
and wish for the day, that day will come, when, with
the evangelist on the crystal and stable sea, all the
creatures of God shall be full of eyes within, and there
shall be no more curse, but His servants shall serve
Him, and shall see His face " (Ruskin).

(5) And there shall be no night there . . . —
Rather, And night shall not be any more, and {they
shall not have) need of the light of lamp, and of light
of sun, because the Lord God shall give light upon
them, and they shall reign unto the ages of ages. There
shall be no night. Twice is it said (chap xxi. 25) that

all darkness shall cease; the darkness in which the
saints and sorrowing walked shall be dispelled", when
God gives them light. No artificial light is needed,
since He who is Light is their light. Those who were
children of light now dwell in the light of God's coun-
tenance ; and they reign Avho were made kings and
priests to God (chap. i. 6). With this utterance the
visions of the Apocalypse close. The saints of God
have been seen in the bitterness and toilf ulness of their
struggle and pilgrimage towards the Holy City; but
from point to point they have made progress. They
have gone from strength to strength, unto the God of
gods appeareth every one of them in Zion. The
Lord God is their sun and shield. He has given grace ;
He now gives glory. No good thing has been with-
held ; light, life, and love are theirs. " O Lord God of
Hosts, blessed is the man that trusteth in Thee "
(Ps. lxxxiv. 11, 12).

(6—21) These verses contain the concluding words.
It is the Epilogue of the Book ; it deals with practical
exhortations, warnings, and blessings.

Words of Confirmation and Warning.

(6) And he said unto me . . .—It is the angel who
speaks. (Comp. chap. xxi. and verse 9 of this chapter.) .
In verse 7 we hear the words of Christ Himself. These
sayings (or, words) are faithful and true. The reference
is to the whole book. The book contains the Revelation
of the faithful and true witness (chap. iii. 14), whose
words are faithful, trustworthy, and fulfilling the
desire of them that fear Him. Nor is there reason to
doubt this ; for " the Lord, the God of the spirits of
the Prophets — the God whose spirit moved the holy
men of old to speak (2 Pet. i. 21) — sent His angel to
show to His servants things which must come to pass
shortly." (Comp. Note on chap. i. 1.)

C) Behold, I come quickly.— The words of
Christ Himself follow (perhaps quoted by the angel), to
confirm the declaration of the last Arerse. These confirm-
ing words are an embodiment of the spirit of the whole
Apocalypse. And behold I am coming guichly ! The
Apocalypse is the revelation of the coming One ; it
reveals the dealings of Him who came, who comes, and
is to come. (Comp. Note on chap. i. 4.) The blessing
given in chap. i. 3 is in part repeated here, but it is a
benediction emphatically on those who keep the words
of the book. Blessed is he who heepeth the ivords of
the prophecy of this booh. It is not in reading, or
wondering, or talking, but in keeping, that the blessing
comes. He that loves Christ will keep His command-
ments (John xiv. 15), even as Christ loved His Father,
and kept His commandments (John xv. 10). Those
who so keep the sayings or words of Christ in this
book will stand firm as those who have built upon the
rock (Matt, vii. 24, 25). The blessing of Christ to
such was victory over death. "If a man keep My
saying, he shall never see death" (John viii. 51).

The. Apostle w forbidden

REVELATION, XXII.

to worship the Angei.

keepeth the sayings of the prophecy of
this book. <s) And I John saw these
thing?, and heard them. And when I
had heard and seen, I fell down to
worship before the feet of the angel
which shewed me these things. W Then
saith he unto me, See thou do it not:a
for I am thy fellowservant, and of thy
brethren the prophets, and of them
which keep the sayings of this book :
worship God. <10) And he saith unto
me, Seal not the sayings of the prophecy

of this book : for the time is at hand.
*in He that is unjust, let him be unjust
still: and he which is filthy, lei him bfl
filthy still : and he that is righteous, lei
him be righteous still: and he that is
holy, let him be holy still. 1-) And.
behold, I come quickly ; and my reward
is with me, to give every man according
as his work shall be.4 <13) I am Alpha
and Omega, the beginning and the end,
the first and the last." (14> Blessed are
they that do his commandments, that

(9) And I John saw these things . . .—Or
rather, And I John am he who hears and sees these
things. The words of the angel are confirmed by the
words of Christ. Now we liave the confirmatory
testimony of the seer to the truth of the vision. The
declaration reminds us of the opening of the Epistle
of St. John : " That which we have seen and heard
declare we unto you" (1 John i. 1 — 3). It is no mere
dream or ingenious fancy of his own that he has
recorded ; it is a veritable revelation.

And when I had heard . . .—Or better, When
I heard and saw, I fell down to worship before the
feet of the angel who was showing me these things.
Wonder and awe took possession of the seer, and for
the second time he was about to offer unlawful homage
to the angel-minister. (Oomp. chap. xix. 10.) This
twice offered and twice refused worship is full of
teaching. To render to all their due is wise and seemly
and Christlike ; to offer exaggerated homage to any is
to invert God's order, and to degrade by pretending to
exalt man, whose true glory is that he is God's creation.

(9) Then saith he unto me . . . — Better, And he
saith to me, See (or, Take heed) not. I am a fellow
servant of thee and of thy brethren the prophets, and
of those who keep the words of this book ; worship God
(or, to God give worship). This rebuke is similar to that
given in chap. xix. It is a wide affirmation of the truth
that all — whether angels, or prophets, or simple faithful
followers of Christ — are united in a grand bond of
common devotion and common service to the same Lord.

(10) And he saith to me . . .—The angel, in con-
trast to the injunctions given to Daniel (Dan. xii. 9 — 13),
bids the prophet 'r Seal not the words of the prophecy" :
the reason is added, " for the time is near." "Such is
ever the difference between the prophecy of the old,
and the prophecy of the new dispensation. The one
belonged to a preliminary and prefatory state j the
other to a completive and final condition. However
long the gospel age may have lasted, or may yet con-
tinue, it is the last time (1 John ii. 18) : after it there
is none other : then shall the end come" (Matt. xxiv. 14),
(Dean Vaughan).

01) He that is unjust, let him be unjust . . .—
Better, Let him that is unjust, do injustice still ; and
let the foul pollute himself still ; and let the righteous
do righteousness still ; and let the holy sanctify himself
still. Two pairs are selected to stand as representatives
of the good and of the bad : in these four are included
all classes of godly and ungodly : those who sin against
society, and those who sin against themselves : those
who act honourably, and those who keep themselves
pure. But what does the verse mean ? Does it mean
that the time is so short that it is hardly sufficient to
allow of men reforming themselves, so as to b« ready

for their Lord, and that therefore the lesson is, let those
who would be ready for Him remember that now is the
day of salvation? This is the view adopted by some :
it contains a truth, but the meaning of the verse seems-
more general. Is it not the declaration of the ever
terrible truth, that men are building up their destiny
by the actions and habits of their lives ? " Sow an act
— reap a habit : sow a habit — reap a character : sow
a character — reap a destiny." The righteous become-
righteous : the godly become godly.

" Thus, all characters
Must shrink or widen, as our wine-skins do,
For more or less that we can pass in them :
And added years give ever a new key
To fixed prediction."

So, slowly, but surely, may the power of being masters
of our fate pass out of our hands. It is in this law of
our nature that the key to many of the darkest problems
of the future may lie ; and not without a solemn decla-
ration of this law does the Book of Revelation close.

(12> And, behold, I come quickly . . .—Rather,
Behold, lam coming quickly, and My reward is withMs
to give back to each one as his work is. To give back
to each : here we have the truth declared by St. Paul
uttered in words borrowed from Isaiah (Isa. xl. 10).
" Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap,'"
wrote St. Paul (Gal. vi. 7, 8) : " God gives back to each
one his work," says St. John.

(13) I am Alpha . . .—Here (as in chap. xxi. 6) we
should render, I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first
and the last, the beginning and the end. (See Note as
above, and comp. John i. 1 ; Isa. xliv. 6.) The repetition
of these glorious titles is not a mere idle repetition, or
designed to give a rhetorical fulness to the peroration of
the book : it is closely allied with the preceding thought.
The warning has been given that men by continuing in
sin (verse 11) are inviting against themselves the law by
which act ripens to habit, and habit makes character,
and character forms destiny. The moral laws set going
by sin work thus : — Retribution is no dream : it is a
terrible fact : it is written large over nature. But t he-
eternal laws of God, though righteously ordered, are
not God : the refuge from the eternal laws which we
invoke against ourselves by our sin is to be found in the
Eternal God: "I am the Alpha and the Omega, the
first and the last, the beginning and the end." For
those hunted by the wickedness of their own doings,
God himself provides a refuge : underneath all laws
are the everlasting arms (Deut, xxxiii. 27). The next
verses set the way of refuge and safety before us.

(«) Blessed are they that do his command-
ments . . .—The reading of two of the best MSS;
is, "Blessed are' they that wash their robes." If
i we adopt, as we probably ought, this reading, the line

The Final Invitation.

EEVELATION, XXII.

The Final Warning.

they may have right to the tree of life,
and may enter in through the gates
into the city. (15) For without are dogs,
and sorcerers, and whoremongers, and
murderers, and idolaters, and whosoever
loveth and maketh a lie. <16) I Jesus
have sent mine angel to testify unto
you these things in the churches. I am
the root and the offspring of David, and
the bright and morning star. (17) And

•Chap. xxii. 17. the SPirit and tne bri.de
The final invi- say, Come. And let him
tation. that heareth say, Come.

And let him that is athirst come. And

whosoever will, let him take the
water of life freely." ' <18) For I testify
unto every man that heareth C1 xxii lg
the words of the prophecy 19. The finai
of this book, If any man earning,
shall add unto these things, God shall
add unto him the plagues that are
written in this book : * *19^ and if any
man shall take away from the words of
the book of this prophecy, God shall
take away his part out of the book of
life, and out of the holy city, and from
the things which are written in this
book. <20^ He which testifieth these

of thought suggested above is helped forward : there
is in Him who is the First and the Last, refuge from
the power of sin and law against which such solemn
warning has been given. The blood of Jesus Christ
cleanseth from all sin : the best who have striven and
conquered were victors not by their own might, but
by the blood of the Lamb (chap. xii. 11). If, how-
ever, we follow the Received text, we have a bene-
diction which echoes the blessing promised to obedience
in verses 7, 9 : this echoing of promises from point to
point is in harmony with the spirit of the whole epilogue.
(Cornp. verses 7, 9 ; and 7, 12.) The special blessing
held out to those who wash their robes (or do His
eoHimandments) is the right or authority over the tree
of life. Blessed are they . . . that they may have (and
■continue to have) authority over the tree of life, and
that they may enter in by the gates into the city,
;ssion into the city by the gate, which is of one
pearl, and the continuous access to the tree of life, are
the privileges of the faithful ; and these privileges are
free to all, for warnings do not forfeit privileges, but
.rather do they urge us to use them.

fl-3) For without are dogs and sorcerers . . .—
Better, Outside are the dogs, and the sorcerers, and
the fornicators, and the murderers, and the idolators,
and every one loving and doing falsehood. The lan-
guage is again an- echo of earlier words. (See chap,
xxi. 8.) The allusion to the dogs outside the city is
hardly appreciated by Westerns. In the East, however,
" troops of hungry and semi-wild dogs used to wander
about the fields and streets of the cities, devouring dead
bodies and other offal (1 Kings xiv. 11 ; xvi. 4 ; xxi. 19;
xxii. 38 ; 2 Kings ix. 10, 36 ; Jer. xv. 3 ; Ps. lix. 6),
and thus became such objects of dislike that fierce and
cruel enemies are poetically styled dogs in Ps. xxii.
16, 20." The dog, moreover, was an unclean animal ;
dogs, therefore, are represented as outside the city,
because nothing unclean is allowed to enter. The sins
enumerated here are similar to those- mentioned in the
last chapter (verse 8) ; it is the reiteration, therefore, of
the warning that those who would enter in must break
off their sins by righteousness.

(16> I Jesus have sent mine angel . . .—The
warning is followed by the voice of our Lord Himself
testifying to the truth of the revelation made, I Jesus
u "$ (not " have sent," as in the English version) my
messao'l0 testify to you these things to the churches. But

■ls t^g r0) merely a message, or the confirmation of a

and offspring we nave — we nave a^so stated what Christ

'.■norninq (star). ] Pledge of hoPe to a11- J am, the root

'Oavid, and the star, the bright, the

is David's Lord and David's Son,

possessing David's tb/one (Matt. xxii. 42—45; Luke
i. 32) ; He is the bright star which leads up the dawn
of everlasting day (Mai. iv. 2 ; 2 Pet. i. 19).

(!7) And the Spirit and the bride say, Come
. . .• — The cry of all creation is for its true Lord ; the
cry of the Spirit in prophecies and in the hearts of
God's people is for the coming Lord — the bride waiting
for the bridegroom cries " Come." The Apocalypse is
the book of the coming One ; it ends with the cry that
the coming One would come (comp. verse 20) ; but let
those who thirst for His coming come to Him. We
may draw near to Him, who is drawing near to us :
let him that thirsteth, come ; let him that will take the
water of life freely. (Comp. John vii. 37.) " The power
of the whole gospel," says Bengel, " concentrates itself
in this, that one should be able to respond to this Come,
and repeat it from the heart."

(18-19) i testify unto every man that heareth.—
Omit " For," and read, I testify to every one that hears
. . . The "I" is emphatic; it introduces the final
warning ; the revelation must not be tampered with.
If any oneyshall have added to them, God shall add to
him the plagues which are written in this booh ; and if
any one shall have taken away from the words of the book
of this prophecy, God shall take away his portion from
the tree of life, and out of the holy city which are writ-
ten (or printed) in this book. We may compare Dent,
iv. 2, and xii. 32. The words are a solemn protest
against the spirit which handles rashly or deceitfully
the word of God; which adds its own thoughts, or
makes its wishes the parent of its interpretation's ;
which dilutes the force of its warnings, or impoverishes
the fulness of its promises. The right of continual
access to the tree of life was the promise of verse 14 ;
this right or freedom is forfeited by those who deal
falsely or faithlessly by the words of Christ here. In a
minor degree, it is true that those who leave this book
unstudied and unprayed over, lose much spiritual sus-
tenance and comfort. How much more do they lose
who trifle with it, ignore its spiritual teachings, and
sin against the laws of that kingdom whose progress it
so vividly portrays.

(2°) He which testifieth these things . . .—
Better, He saith, who testifieth these things, Yea. I am
coming quickly. We have here the final witness ; it is
in the words of the faithful and true witness Himself.
It is the answer to the repeated cry, "Come;" it is
the warning to those who forget Him ; it is introduced
with the emphatic yea ! " Yea, I am coming quickly."
The answer breaks forth in prayer from the prophet's
lips — Amen. (We must omit- "even so") Come, Lord
The prophet is the mouthpiece of the Church j

63S

The final Witness.

REVELATION, XXII.

The final Bletsvng.

Chap. xxii. 20. things saith, Surely I come

Til.- final wit- quickly. Amen. Even so,

5S- come, LordJesus. <*U The

: £race of our Lord Jesus „ '''i'- *-yi- 2 ■

ri-, -17 ■<, 11 I he nnal Dies-

Christ be with you all. smK.
Amen.

his desire is one with the desire of call who love Christ's
appearing.

(21) The grace of our Lord Jesus Christ . . .—
There is some variety of reading among the MSS. Wo
ought probably to read, The grace of the Lord Jestis
Christ be with all (or else, following the Sinaitic MS.,
be with the saints). Amen. In any case, it is the grace
or free pardon of the Lord Jesus which is the lasl
word left, in our ears. It reminds us that whatever
be the dangers or difficulties, the afflictions or per-
secutions which have been pictured in the book, there
is strength and love in the Lord ; it reminds us that
whether we are readers or interpreters of this book,
or whether we are trying to carry out its teachings
practically in daily life, our power and wisdom must
come from Him. The testimony of Jesus is the spirit
of prophecy. Without Him it had not been written ;
without Him it cannot be understood ; without Him it
cannot be obeyed. This grace of Christ our Lord, for
mind and heart and life, the writer prays may rest
with those who read this Commentary, that they may
be led into deeper knowledge of Him who is our life.

The writer asks the reader to pray that this grace of
Christ may rest in forgiveness and love upon him
who lias now finished his task nf commenting on this
book, whose hidden meanings must far transcend our
knowledge and our expectations. May He (He alone
can) open our eyes to see the shining towers of the
Heavenly Jerusalem; may He unseal our ears to hear
the heavenly music to which it is being built ; may He
bind us by His love to that sweet service and citizen-
ship which is perfect freedom, and bring us to that
spiritual city which is full of divine enchantments —

" For there is nothing in it as it seems
Saving the King; though some there be that hold
The King a shadow, and the city real :
Yet take thou heed of Him. fur. so thou pass
Beneath this arehway, then wilt thou become,
A thrall to His enchantments, for the King
Will bind thee by such vows as is a shame
A man should not be bound by, yet the which
No man can keep; but so thou dread to swear,
l'ass not beneath this gateway, but abide
Without among the cattle of the field.
For, an ye heard a music, like enow
They are building still, seeing the city is built
To music, therefore never built at all,
And therefore built for ever."

EXCURSUS ON NOTES TO REVELATION.

EXCURSUS A: THE ANGELS OF THE CHURCHES.

The most usual interpretation regards the angels of the
churches as the chief ministers or presiding elders of the
congregations. This interpretation is so very widely
adopted that it has been mentioned in the Notes ; but
the reader will have perceived that it is not a view
which can be considered altogether satisfactory. In
the first place, whatever date we accept for the Apoca-
lypse, it is at least strange to find the titles, " elders " or
*' bishops," which were in common use exchanged for the
doubtful one of "angel." A common explanation is
that the term is derived from the synagogue staff, where
the messenger or " angel of the synagogue " was a
recognised office ; but the transference of such a title to
any office in the Christian Church is at least doubtful,
and as the officer so styled was only a subordinate in
the synagogue, a " clerk " or " precentor " to conduct j
the devotions of the worshippers, it becomes very im-
probable that such a term or title would have been em-
ployed to describe the presiding elder of a Christian
Church. Turning to the Old Testament, it is true that
the word "angel" is used in a higher sense (Hagg. i. 13 ;
Mai. ii. 7), being employed to describe the messen-
gers of God ; but the usage here is different. " It is
conceivable, indeed, that a bishop or chief pastor should
be called an angel, or messenger of God, or of Christ,
but he would hardly be styled an angel of the church
over which he presides." (Lightfoot, Epistle to the
Philippians. p. 197, note.) Thus the interpretation
under consideration appears scarcely satisfactory.

Others have thought the word " angel " is not to
be applied to the individual presiding elder, but to
the whole ministry of the Church, treated as one. i
This view, though in some senses approaching nearer j
to the truth, can hardly be sustained without con- |
siderable modification. Others, again, fall back upon >
Jewish authorities, and see in the angels the guar- ;
dian angels of the churches. " In Daniel every nation j
has its ruling angel; and, according to the Rab- |
bins, an angel is placed over every people." The j
angel, then, would be a literal, real angel, who has the j
guardianship of the church in question. In popular
thought, then, the angel would be one of the good j
angelic beings whose special duty it was to bear up the j
church during its trials, by such providential ministries j
as were needed and ordered. There are some difficul- j
ties in accepting this interpretation. In particular the ;
language of rebuke which is addressed directly to the
Angel himself — the threatening to remove his candle-
stick, for example — sounds meaningless.

But here it is that we may inquire whether the angel j
of a particular community, nation, or people is to be j
understood always of a good and powerful being sent
forth by the Almighty to love and watch over it. It is j
believed that this view does not satisfy the case. It is
certain that Daniel represents the guardian angels of j
nations as opposed to each other, and not co-operating [
always for the same great and good end. " The prince !

(guardian angel) of the kingdom of Persia withstood
me," is the language addressed to Daniel by him whose
face was like lightning (Dan. x. 13). (Compare also
verses 20, 21, and Dr. Currey's Notes in the Speaker's
Commentary on these passages.) Such passages seem
to suggest that the "angels" are the powers in the
spiritual sphere corresponding to the peoples or commu-
nities in the earthly ; and these may be on the side of
evil or of good. Next, it may be noticed that the
action of these angels in the spiritual sphere seems to
be the reflection of the action of the community or
people in the earthly. If the church at Ephesus has
left its first love, the angel is spoken of as sharing the
same fault. The influences seen on the spiritual side
correspond with those at work in the actual earthly
community. The angel of the church or of the individual
thus becomes their manifestation in the heavenly sphere.
For all our life is thus double ; our actions have an
earthly meaning, and also a heavenly ; what they touch
of worldly interests gives them their earthly meaning,
what they touch of spiritual welfare is their heavenly
meaning. Like the planets, we lie half in shadow
and half in light : from the earthly side the world-
meaning of our actions lies in the light, and their
spiritual value or force is only dimly seen, as it lies in
at least partial shadow; but seen from the heavenly
side the position is reversed, the worldly significance of
human actions is . cast into comparative shade, the
actual spiritual influences of them are brought into
clear light ; and it is the spiritual significance of our
actions which reveals what we are ; in this is concen-
trated the true force which we are exerting. Seen
from the heavenly side, the angel of our life mingles in
the great spiritual war, and takes its part as a com-
batant there ; while, on the earthly side, we are seen
carrying on our daily occupations. Measured on the
earthly side the balance is not struck ; there is in-
consistency in us ; we are partly good and partly bad,
sometimes helping, sometimes hindering the work of
God on earth, as we judge ; but the actual resultant of
these inconsistent powers is seen in the heavenly
sphere, either helping or thwarting the cause of good.
Thus are we double combatants — in the world, for our
livelihood, for our ease, for our advancement ; in the
heavenly, for good or for evil. And it is on the spiritual
side that we lie open to spiritual influences ; here.
where our true self is seen more clearly than anywhere
else, are the appeals to our better nature, as we say,
most powerful ; here, He who holds the stars in His
right hand, makes His voice to be heard when He
addresses, not merely the church or the individual, but
the angel of the church; here, He calls them to see
that there is a war in heaven, in which all are com-
batants, but in which He is the Captain of our
salvation. Her6 too, on the heavenly side, are the
wounds of the spiritual and better nature more plainly
seen ; the offence or blow given to the little one of

REVELATION.

Christ is not noticed on tho earthly side, but the inner
nature is wounded, and the wound is seen in its real
dimensions in the presence of God, for the angel
nature beholds God's face. It is this thought which
gives force and solemnity to our Lord's warning (Matt.
xviii 1"

The angel of the church, then, would be the spiritual
personification of the church ; but it must not be con-
cluded from this, as Zidlig does, that these angel* are
in "the mind of the poet himself nothing more than ima-
ginary existences," or reduce the angel to be " just the
-community or church itself." It is no more tho church
itself than the " star " is the same as tin? candlestick.
" The star is the supra-sensual counterpart, the heavenly
representative; the lamp, the earthly realisation, the
outward embodiment " (Lightfoot, Epistle to the Phi-
lippians, p. 198). The angel is the church seen in its
heaven]/ representative, and seen, therefore, in the
light of those splendid possibilities which are hers if
she holds fast by Him who holds fast the seven stars.

Space forbids any treatment of the wider questions
on the ministry of angels, or the nature of angelic
beings. That such are recognised in Scripture there
can be no doubt, and nothing written above is designed
to militate against such a belief; but it seems well to
remember that where we are dealing with a symbolical
book, it is more in harmony with its character to treat
symbols as symbols. The forces of nature are God's

messengers, and we may regard them as tridy such,
and fee] lliat the expressions " the angel of the waters."
'•the angel of fire," "the angel of the abyss." and
so forth, are designed to remind us that all things
serve Him. and are the ministers of Him, to do His
pleasure; we may even believe that the various forces
of nature, so little really understood by us, are under the
guardianship of special personal messengers of God; but
there is nothing in the imagery of the* book which ne-
cessarily demands such a belief. It is, moreover, surely
not inappropriate in our own day to reassert with some
pertinacity the lofty thoughts of ancient belief that
winds and storms, ocean and fire, do in truth belong to
Him round whom are the clouds and darkness, whose
is the sea, and whose hands prepared the dry land.

On the literature of this subject see Godet's Studies
on the New Testament ; Schaff , History of the Apostolic
Church; Lightfoot's article on "The Christian Minis-
try " in the Epistle to the Philippians, pp. 193 — 199 ;
Hengstenberg's lengthy note on Rev. i. 20; Professor
Milligan's article, " The Candlestick and the Star,"
in the Expositor of September, 1878 ; Gebhardt, Der
Lehrbegriff der Apolcalypse, article "Die Engel," p. 37,
or p. 36 in the English translation ( The Doctrine of the
Apocalypse) published by Messrs. Clark in the Foreign
Theological Library. Also "Excursus on Angelology "
in the Speaker's Commentary on Daniel, p. 34S ; article
" Angels" in Smith's Dictionary.

EXCURSUS B: THE WILD BEAST.

It is to be noticed that the interpretation of tho !
whole Apocalypse is coloured by the interpretation
.-hen to the wild beast. The book, as we have seen
(see Introduction), is one of hope, but it is also one of
warning; not without a struggle would tho foe be
driven from the earth where he had usurped power
for so long. The devil is cast down — in the higher,
heavenly sphere he is regarded as a fallen and defeated
enemy ; but this conflict has its counterpart on the
arena of the world. The Apocalypse gives us in
symbol some features of this conflict. It shows four
powers of evil : the dragon, the first and second wild
beasts, and Babylon the harlot. It is with the beast
that we are now concerned, but one or two remarks on
this family of evil will not be out of place.

I. The Family of Evil.

(1) The four antagonists of good are related to one
another. The resemblance between the dragon and
the wild beast (comp. Rev. xii. 3 ; xiii. 1 ; xvii.
3, 7, 10) is too obvious to be passed over; it seems
designed to show us that the same principle and spirit
of evil is at work in both. Again, the way in which
the first wild- beast gives place to the second wild beast,
or false prophet (comp. chaps, xiii. 11, 12; xvi. 13; xix.
20 ; xx.' 10), and yet retains its ascendency (comp. chap,
xiii. 14 — 17) makes plain, the close connection between
them ; and, lastly, the appearance of the harlot, riding
on the scarlet -coloured beast (chap. xvii. 3), completes
the chain of association between them. The same prin-
ciples and spirit of evil make themselves manifest w
different spheres.

(2) The four antagonists of good are arranged to
meet the four uorre.spouding manifestations of good.
For every power of good there is an analogous power
of evil. If on the side of good we have the three Per-
sons of the blessed Trinity— the Throned One, the Lamb,

639

and the Holy Spirit — besides the Church, the bride, the
Lamb's wife, the heavenly Jerusalem ; we have on the
side of evil — the dragon, the beast, the false prophet, as
a sort of trinity of evil — besides the harlot, Babylon.
The dragon being a kind of anti-God ; the wild beast, an
anti-Christ; the false prophet, an anti-Spirit; the Baby-
lon, an anti-Church. The minor features in the same way
correspond : the true Christ died and rose again ; the
anti-Christ, the wild beast, was wounded unto death, but
his deadly wound was healed. The crucified Christ
was exalted to be Prince and Saviour, and the out-
poured Spirit upon the Church glorified Him by taking
of the things of Christ and showing them to the
disciples, and by convincing the world of sin because
Christ went to the Father ; the second beast, or false
prophet, works wonders, causes an image of the first
wild beast to be made and worshipped. The followers
of the Lamb are sealed with, the Holy Spirit of Promise;
the worshippers of the wild beast receive from the
false prophet the mark of the beast. (See chap. xiii.
throughout.) It is desirable to keep these lines of
parody and correspondent antagonism in mind.

II. The Wild Beast— or Antichrist.— It is with
the beast that we are concerned in this Excursus ;
but we cannot altogether dissociate the first beast from
the second, though their work is diverse.

(1) The first wild beast is clearly to be connected
with the vision of Dan. vii. 2 — 7; the identification
of the beast described by Daniel with four great
empires is unquestionable: it is hardly our purpose to
inquire whether the four empires are Babylonia, Medo-
Persia, Macedonia, and Rome; or Babylonia. Media.
Persia, and Greece: the former, which is the niorw
ancient opinion, appears the more probable; hut it is
enough to remember that these four beasts represent
four great world-powers. St. John saw rising out of

KEVELATION.

the sea (comp. Dan. vii. 2), not seven diverse beasts,
but one seven-headed beast. Now it is perfectly true
that to the early Christians Pagan and Imperial Rome
was the one; great world-power whose sliadow darkened
the earth, and that a seven-headed monster might well
depict this Pagan Rome, as a four-headed beast had
represented to Daniel an earlier empire (Greece or
Persia) ; and the wild beast of Rev. xiii. from one
aspect undoubtedly represents this great tyrant power;
but it seems to the present writer that the genius of
the Apocalypse is concentration ; that which to earlier
prophets was seen in detail is to the Christian seer
grouped. Daniel saw four beasts rising one after
another; St. John saw one wild beast, uniting in him-
self all the early, present, and future manifestations of
that world-empire which has ever been hostile to the
spiritual kingdom. Two reasons may be noticed ; one
from the Book of Daniel, the other from Revelation.
This concentration of different world-powers into one
representative body was not foreign to the thought of the
earlier prophet. Daniel relates the vision in which the
diverse monarchies of the world were represented as
one huge human figure cast out of gold, silver, brass,
and iron (Dan ii. 31 — 49) ; the diverse powers were thus
seen as one. and the little stone, which represented the
true spiritual kingdom, in smiting upon one, caused the
whole image to fall. The world-kingdoms were thus
seen in prophetic vision as one great age-long world-
power, which must be smitten by Cln-ist's kingdom.
The Book of Revelation also gives us a hint that the
seven-fold aspect of the wild beast must not be given
too limited or too local an interpretation. The wild beast,
with seven heads and ten crowns, is in these features
reproducing the appearance of the red dragon, who is
also represented as having seven heads and ten horns.
(Comp. Rev. xii. 3 ; xiii. 1.) Now the dragon is surely the
type of the great arch-enemy the Devil— the Anti-God ;
the seven heads and ten horns denote that he is the
prince of this world, who has more or less animated
the successive great world-powers by hostility to
righteousness ; the empires of the world have been his
in so far as they have been founded on force, or fraud,
oppression, or unholiness. When, then, the seven-headed
wild beast rises from the sea, must we not see in the
seven heads the counterpart of those which the dragon
bore ? The dragon carries those seven heads as he is
the great spiritual prince of this world, the one
who is practically worshipped in all mere world-made
empires. The wild beast carries these seven heads
because he is the great representative of all these
world-powers themselves, and what may give almost
certainty to this interpretation is the fact that the wild
beast unites in himself the appearances of leopard, bear,
and lion, which were the emblems employed by Daniel
to represent earlier monarchies. Actually at the mo-
ment St. John saw the vision the wild beast was to
him Rome, because through Rome the great world-
empire was then working. The seven heads might
also look like types of successive emperors ; but the
more important, because ago-long reading of the vision
sets before us the concentration in one great monstrous
wild beast of all those powers. Powers which were
diverse and even politically hostile were yet ethically
one power opposed to the fundamental principles of
righteousness and peace, of purity and true godliness.
The first Avild beast, then, becomes the symbol of con-
federated and age-long world-powers.

(2) The second wild beast is allied with the first. His
origin is not of God, he is of the earth : he is more
peaceable in his appearance than the first beast, but

640

his speech bewrays hid ; the dragon-voice is his, and
he revives the worship of the first wild beast. In him,
therefore, are combined the powers of the dragon and
the first wild beast. Yet he yields homage to existing
order : unlike the first wild beast, which rises out of an
ocean of disorder and tumult, he springs out of the earth.
He assumes in part, also, a Christian appearance : he is as
a lamb. These features would lead us to expect a power
not Avholly irreligious — indeed, in some features Chris-
tian, yet practically Pagan : observing order, yet arro-
gant; a second power resembling the first, yet possessing
a more specious appearance to mankind. It is on this
second wild beast that the seer bids us fasten our more
marked attention. It is this second wild beast who
deceives by false wonders and false worship, and intro-
duces a great and grinding tyranny. It is this second
Avild beast to whom is attributed the mysterious number
666. It is well now to turn back to earlier writings.
In Dan. vii. we read of a "little horn," and in the
description there we find much that is parallel with the
description here. (Comp. Dan. vii. 8 with Rev. xiii. 5 ;
Dan. vii. 21 with Rev. xiii. 7.) This "little horn" of
Daniel has been identified (comp. Excursus on Inter-
pretation of 2 Thess. ii. 3 — 12) with the " Man of Sin "
spoken of by St. Paul (2 Thess. ii. 3). Some think
that the little horn of Dan. vii. is identical with the
horn of chap. viii. Into this question we have not
space to enter : it will be enough here to keep in mind
that St. Paul looked for the manifestation of an Anti-
christ, a Man of Sin, whose type in all likelihood he
found in the little horn of Dan. vii. ; and that the
picture of the Antichrist painted by St. Paul is that of
a power not professedly irreligious, but yet claiming
from mankind the homage due to God (2 Thess. ii. 4).
This seems quite in harmony with the characteristics of
the second wild beast, who, it is to be remembered, is
described (Rev. xvi. 13 ; xix. 20 ; xx. 10) as the " false
prophet." We may, then, take the second wild beast
as the picture of a power, cultured, quasi-religious,
borrowing much from Christianity, yet built upon anti-
Christian principles, and animated by an anti-Christian
spirit.

(3) The identification of the Wild Beast, False Pro-
phet, or Antichrist. — " Ye have heard that Antichrist-
shall come" (1 John ii. 18). This is St. John's acknow-
ledgment of the wide-spread belief that a great falling
away should precede the coming of Christ. Here he is
at one with St. Paul, but it is consistent with the spirit
of St. John's thought that he should remind his hearers
that the spirit of Antichrist was abroad already, and
that in a present antagonism to this spirit lay true
Christian duty : accordingly, he indicates in more than
one place what were some features of the anti-Christian
spirit (1 John ii. 22; iv. 1 — 3). It is also significant
that he uses the phrase " false prophet," reminding us
of the Apocalypse, which identifies, as we have seen,
the wild beast, or Antichrist, with the false prophet.
St. John thus appears to regard the spirits and false
prophets abroad in his day as at least anticipations
of the great future Antichrist and false prophet.
Actually there were Antichrists then in the world ;
but in the prophetic ideal all these were as one great
Antichrist. In the Apocalyptic vision the scattered
spirits grew into one great representative opponent — •
the wild beast, the false prophet. Is there, then, no
personal Antichrist ? It has been ably argued (see
Excursus on Prophecy of 2 Thess. ii.) that the Man of
Sin must be an individual. There are certain expressions
which seem to point to a single person — notably the
remarkable use of the masculine gender when the wild

REVELATION.

beast is referred to (see Rev. xiii. 5s) : but it seems more I
consonant with the symbolism of the Apocalypse 1" re-
gard the wild beast as the figurative embodiment of the
false, seductive, anti-Christian principle and spirit, which

belongs to more ages than one, which reveals itself in
diverse aspects, and yet always manifests the same lios- j
tility to the Divine Spirit, It must not, however, be sup- |
posed that this view denies a personal Antichrist. On
the contrary, it is perfectly in harmony with this view to
note that the wild-beast spirit has often culminated in
an individual : the typical forecasts of Antichrist have
often been individuals. Antiochus Epiphanes, Herod,
Nero, might fairly be regarded as the incarnation of l
the ungodly spirit. Similarly, in later ages, it is not
to be wondered at that holy, Christ-taught men, groan-
ing for the sorrows of the world and the corruptions of
Christianity, saw in many who occupied the Papal chair
the very representatives of the false prophet, the
Antichrist. Not more need it surprise us to find the
same thought passing through men's minds when pre-
tensions, which would be ridiculous if they were not
blasphemous, have been advanced on behalf of the
Roman pontiff, till the Church becomes a parody rather
than a witness of divine truths. It follows that the
view here maintained does not exclude the possibility
of a future personal Antichrist, in whom the typical
features shall yet find clearer and fuller manifestation
than in any previous age. But though all this may be,
and though godly men tell us that all these things
must be. it appears to the writer infinitely more impor-
tant to notice the principles Avhich may constitute the
Antichrist in every age : the denial of the Father and
the Son (1 John ii. 22). the denial of the Mediator and
Incarnate God (1 John iv. 2, 3). the arrogant claim of
divine honours, the specious resemblance to Him who
is the Lamb of God, the disregard of sacred ties
(2 Thess. ii. 10 ; 1 Tim. iv. 3), the possession of won-
derful power and culture (Rev. xiii. 11 — 14). The

spirit which is depicted is one which might well develop
out of the elements around us. It would not be im-
possible to imagine the rankest materialism allying itself
with a gorgeous ritual — to see the high priests of science
acquiescing in the most elaborate of ecclesiaslicisms,
and the agnostic in creed becoming a eerenionialist in
worship, till the satire should he only too sadly true,
"I found plenty of worshippers, but no God." "We
should then have every element in human nature
allowed its nutriment — for the mind, science ; for the
emotions, worship ; for the conduct, direction. The
tripartite nature of man would be thus provided for,
but the unity of his manhood would be at an end — for
the worship would bo unintelligent, the moral tone
lifeless, because deprived of the vital sense of personal
responsibility, and the intellect uninspired, because
godless. Such an age would be the reign of that climax
of anti-Christian spirit which is the perfection of man's
powers without God, foreshadowed by the mysterious
number 666, which is seeming oxaltation of all human
powers, but which is in truth their degradation and
their discord.

III. The Number of the Beast— It would serve
but little purpose to recapitulate the various solutions
of the number of the Beast. An account of them will
be found in Elliott (vol. iii.). The chief solutions are
those mentioned in the Notes. The most ancient, and
perhaps most general, solution sees in the number the
equivalent of Lateinos. Others see in it the numerical
equivalent of one of the Roman emperors : Nero, advo-
cated by Renan ; Otho, advocated by an Italian writer,
who accounts for the reading, " 616 " instead of " 666,"
by the alteration made by a copyist to suit the name
of another emperor, Caligula: Tcuos Kaiaap = 616. None
of these numerical solutions appears to the writer ade-
quate to the whole depth of the seer's meaning, though
they may be included in the significance of the symboj-

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Letts's Diaries and other Time-Saving Publications are published exclusively by

Cassell & Company, and particulars will be forwarded post free on application to the Publishers.

Cassell & Company, Limited, Ludgate Hill, London; Paris, New York and Melbourne.

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Ellicott

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A New Testament com-
mentarv. v. 3

9324-7

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