Animal breeding

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NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

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ANIMAL

BREEDING

Bv
THOMAS SHAW

Professor of Animal Husbandry at the University
of Minnesota

Author of

"Public School Agriculture"
"Weeds and How to Eradicate Them"
"Forage Crops other than Grasses"

The "Study of Breeds"
"Soiling Crops and the Silo," Etc.

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
1913

Copyright, 1901

By

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

Pfinted in U.S.A.

AchtoivledgfJients

THE AUTHOR DESIRES
TO ACKNOWLEDGE
HIS INDEBTEDNESS TO MR.
CHARLES P. TAYLOR AND
TO MR. W. C. PALMER, FOR
VALUABLE ASSISTANCE
RENDERED IN PREPARING
THE BOOK.

To MY BRETHREN THE TEACHERS OF
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, TO THE
STUDENTS OF THE AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGES, AND TO ALL INTERESTED IN
THE GROWING OF LIVE STOCK IN THE
UNITED STATES THIS WORK IS MOST
RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE
AUTHOR.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Chapter 1.
Breeding Live Stock 1

Chapter II.
A Standard of Excellence 14

Chapter III.
The Law that Like Produces Like 24

Chapter IV.
The Law on Principle of Variation 36

Chapter V.
The Law of Atavism 49

Chapter VL
Heredity of Normal, Abnormal and Acquired Characters. . 61

Chapter VII.
Heredity of Diseases 74

Chapter VIII.
The Law of Correlation 87

VIU CONTENTS.

Chapter IX. pack.
Prepotency 98

Chapter X.
In-and-in Breeding 112

Chapter XI.
Line Breeding 124

Chapter XII.
Fecundity 135

Chapter XIII.
The Relative Influence of Parents 152

Chapter XIV.
The Influence of a Previous Impregnation 164

Chapter XV.
Intra-Uterine Influences 175

Chapter XVI.
Influences that Afl'ect tlie Determination of Sex 187

Chapter XVII.
Nutrition 200

Chapter XVIII.
Quality in Live Stock 215

Chapter XIX.
The Coat and Influences Which Aflect It 228

Chapter XX.
The Influence of Artificial Conditions 240

CONTENTS. ix

Chapter XXI. page.

Early Maturity , , .253

Chapter XXII.
Pedigree 268

Chapter XXIII.
Animal Form as an Index of Qualities .283

Chapter XXIV.
Selection 301

Chapter XXV.
Cross Breeding 312

Chapter XXVI.
Improvement Through Grading 325

Chapter XXVII.
Forming New Breeds 338

Chapter XXVIII.
The Influence of Environment 350

Chapter XXIX.
Castration and Spaying 363

Chapter XXX.
Mating Animals 375

Appendix A.
Period of Gestation in Domestic Animals 386

Appendix B.
Reading and Writing Pedigrees 38P

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG. PAGE.

1. Red Poll Cow, Pretty Girl, with Heifer Calves, .

Illustrating Like Produces Like Frontispiece

2. Grade Dorset Ewe,

Illustrating Spontaneous Variation 42

3. Calf with Six Feet,

Illustrating Abnormal Transmission 65

4. Yearling Grade Heifer,

Illustrating Predisposition to Tuberculosis 81

5. Group of Hereford Bull Calves,

Illustrating Prepotency 100

6. Aberdeen Angus Cow, Rosella of Glendale, and her

Twin Calves^,

Illustrating Prolificacy 136

7. Hereford Grade Holstein Steer, Teddy Roosevelt,

Illustrating Early Maturity 252

8. Aberdeen Angus Steer, Advance,

Illustrating Typical Beef Form 285

9. Shropshire Ram, Diamond Prince, Imp.,

Illustrating Constitutional Vigor 291

10. Dual Purpose Cow, Contentment,

Illustrating Quietness of Disposition 296

11. Pigs of the Large Improved Yorkshire-Berkshire Cross,

Illustrating the Greater Potency of the Sire 316

THE AUTHOK'S PEEFACE.

Animal breeding is in many of its phases a most
intricate subje<3t. While it has its shallows it has
also its great deeps that have never yet been fathomed.
Thej would take an intellectual giant over his head
at the very first plunge. The difficulty, therefore, of
writing effectively on such a subject will be at once
apparent. Several authors have made the attempt,
and some of them have written well. It must how-
ever be apparent to those who have studied the sub-
ject that these books are all more or less wanting, first,
in the comprehensive treatment of the subject, or,
second, in orderly arrangement and sequence, or,
third, in simplicity. This book is written, therefore,
in the hope of, in some measure, removing these de-
fects and of giving to the public a more teachable
book. How far the author has succeeded is left with
an indulgent public to say.

University Experiment Farm^

St. Anthony Park Univ.

igoi.

CHAPTER I.

BKEEDING LIVE STOCK.

The term live stock is used to denote living ani-
mals such as are kept upon tlie farm. It is more com-
monly applied to cattle, sheep, and swine, but is also
used in a sense so wide as to include all domesticated
animals reared upon the farm. It has probably been
coined as an easy means of reference to the living ani-
mal as distinguished from the same in the dead meat
or dressed form.

Definition of Animal Breeding. — Animal breed-
ing is that science which treats of the reproduction
and improvement of domestic animals. Some knowl-
edge of the principles wdiich govern successful breed-
ing has been possessed from a very early period, but
just how early can never be certainly known. Both
ancient and modern writers are almost entirely silent
on the subject until within the last two or three
centuries. Almost the only reference to the subject,
as such, during the first four thousand years of the
w^orld's history, is that incidentally narrated in the
book of Genesis when speaking of the arts practiced
by Jacob to increase his flocks and herds. But, within
the past two or three centuries, great advances have
been made in this science. The principles which
govern it have not only come to be better understood,
but the knowledge of these is being diffused as
never before. Foremost among the agencies in dis-
seminating such knowledge have been the agricultural
press and the agricultural college.

2 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Breeding a Science and an Art. — Animal breed-
ing is at once a science and an art. It is a science in
so far as it discovers and systematically arranges the
truths and principles which relate to the improve-
ment of live stock. The value of in-and-in breeding,
for instance, as a quick means of improvement illus-
trates such discovery. (See Chapter X.) It does
not appear to have been known to the ancients. If
it were thus known the knowledge was subsequently
lost. The systematic arrangement of the truths and
principles which relate to the science is yet far from
complete, and it may be added, that many of these
truths and principles are not yet understood. It is
an art in so far as it successfully uses those principles
in effecting improvement. The importance, there-
fore, of understanding the principles which make
improvement possible will be at once apparent, since,
until so understood, they cannot be turned to profit-
able account.

Source of the Rules ivMch Govern Breeding. —
The rules which govern breeding are almost entirely
empirical in their origin since they have been almost
exclusively derived from the practice of the most
successful breeders. These rules, so far as known,
would seem to have been preserved only in a tradi-
tional wa}' until within the last two hundred years.
This would militate against the diffusion of such
knowledge, and it is partly responsible for the little
progress made in the science of breeding until recent
centuries.

Eobert Bakewell, of Dishley Hall, Leicester-
shire, England, is usually regarded as the originator
of improved breeding as now practiced. The value
of selection was no doubt understood previously. The

BREEDING LIVE STOCK. 3

renovating influence from judicious out-crossing was
also well known, and the knowledge had been turned
to good account. (See p. 129.) o^otwithstanding,
it remained for Robert Bakewell to make known to
the world the short cut to improvement and fixity
in type, through in-and-in breeding accompanied by
the most rigorous selection. Previously, improve-
ment had been sought chiefly through crossing, hence
the way of improvement was tedious and uncertain.

Xearly all the modern breeds possessed of value
have been evolved, or at least improved, on the prin-
ciples which Bakewell thus introduced and practiced.
In this fact the explanation is furnished of the com-
paratively recent origin of many of the improved
breeds that now stand high in the popular estimate.
The statement would not be extravagant, it is thought,
which would claim that Bakewell's discovery more
than anything else is responsible for the rapid ad-
vances that have been made in breeding domestic
animals since his time.

Live StocJc Improvement Neglected. — The im-
provement of live stock upon the average American
farm has not received that attention which its im-
portance demands. This is but another way of say-
ing that animal breeding has not been given the
attention that should have been accorded to it. Sev-
eral reasons may be given by way of explanation.
First, the opinion has extensively prevailed among
farmers that the growing of live stock is not so re-
munerative as the growing of grain or other products
of the soil, such as are sold directly from the land.
This opinion has arisen, first, from an incorrect basis
for computing profits. The advocates of growing
crops for direct sale usually overlook the value of

4 ANI3IAL BREEDING.

live stock in preserving fertility. But, the greater
prosperity of individuals and communities who give
much attention to the production of live stock and
live stock products, as milk, hutter, cheese, and wool,
is more and more arresting attention and paving the
way for the more rapid extension of the live stock
industry. Second, the present necessities of farmers
have retarded investments in live stock, and have thus
delayed their more rapid introduction on farms.
This accounts, in part at least, for the little attention
given to live stock production in more newly settled
areas. But third, the shortsighted and incorrect
views of farmers too commonly held regarding the
value of live stock improvement, more than anything
else, has hindered such improvement. This, more
than anything else, also accounts for the comparative-
ly unimproved condition of the flocks and herds kept
on so many of the farms of the United States and
Canada.

Many cling to the idea that improvement is to
be brought about chiefly through feeding. Because
of the prevalence of this view very many of the
growers of live stock do the work in an aimless way ;
grade sires are used indiscriminately; in-breeding
is nnconsciously practiced through the continued
choice of sires from within the herd or flock ; selection
is based on false premises, and other injudicious
practices, far too numerous to mention here, are
followed. As a result the scrub is still in evidence
on too many farms. (See p. 271.) In view of these
facts, the importance of quickly diffusing light on this
question becomes greatly significant, and more espe-
cially when it is remembered that in the keeping of
live stock correct practice and generous profits go
hand in hand.

BREEDING LIVE STOCE. 5

Live Stock, Machines for Manufacturing Food.
— Live stock upon tlie farm should be regarded as
machines for manufacturing agricultural products
into forms more concentrated and possessed of a
higher value. These products can then be shipped
to better advantage than the materials could be from
Avhich they are made, since, ordinarily the cost of
shipping decreases with the increase in the concen-
tration of the product shipped. The concentration
thus secured is usually very marked, as, for instance,
when bulky foods are turned into milk and flesh.
In addition to the freight thus saved, much coarse and
bulky food grown upon the farm, which would other-
wise be largely wasted, is given a money value.

The straw of what is termed the small grains,
and corn stover, that is corn stalks without the corn,
would be turned into money. While the animals are
thus employed, so to speak, in manufacturing food
into more concentrated products, they give back to
the farms the greater part of the fertility contained
in the food, where the management is correct. When-
ever, therefore, the living animal is used as a machine,
it is important that this living machine do its
work to the best advantage. If animals of a certain
type will make more and better beef than those of
another type, those of the first type should be given
the preference by the grower of meat, and if cows of a
certain type in the dairy will give a better return in
dairy products for the food consumed than cows of an-
other type, those of the first should, of course, be
chosen by the dairyman.

Animal Breeding Comprehensive. — The breed-
ing of live stock is a question at once comprehensive
and manv-sided. Notwithstanding that much has

6 ANIMAL BREEDING.

been gleaned in regard to the subject, it is likewise
true that many of the influences which affect breed-
ing are as yet obscure or but imperfectly understood.
Some of those principles are fairly constant in their
action as the law that like produces like, discussed
in Chapter III., and some are variable and uncertain
as the law of variation discussed in Chapter IV.
Again, some of the influences that govern transmis-
sion act together and in conjunction, while others are
apparently antagonistic. It is impossible, therefore,
at present to state in regular and orderly sequence,
all the different phases of animal breeding and the
influences which affect it. Indeed it is highly prob-
able that some of these have not been discovered, and
it is quite certain that the degree of influence which
each will exert is not known. Yet it will be correct
to say, first, that it considers the principles that
govern heredity as far as these have been determined.
Heredity is the transmission to the offspring of pe-
culiarities possessed by the parents. These peculiarities
may relate to form, function, qualities both mental
and physical and to habit. The law that like pro-
duces like furnishes an illustration of these principles,
as does also the law or principle of correlation dis-
cussed in Chapter VIII. Second, it considers certain
features of transmission not w^ell understood, as, for
instance, atavism or reversion discussed in Chapter V.
Third, it includes the effect of external influences on
transmission and development as contrasted with
those which may be termed internal and inherent.
Of this very numerous class are the influences of en-
vironment and food. And fourth, it includes the ap-
plication of every known principle of breeding and
also every feature of correct practice, to the improve-

BREEDING l^xTE STOCK. 7

ment of animals in form and in all useful qualities.

It would be necessary, therefore, for the breeder
who aims at the highest success in his work to have
a wide grasp of the subject. He should be familiar
with all the principles that govern breeding as far
as known. He should understand what is implied
in a standard of excellence, and should be able to
sit in judgment on the value of pedigree. He should
be versed in the effects of environment on develop-
ment. He ought to be familiar with recorded results
^ in the making* of breeds, in cross-breeding, and in
improvement through up-grading, and he ought to
know approximately the feeding value of the foods
available and the ends for which they are adapted,
and also the methods of feeding and blending them
so as to produce a given result. The last item is
in itself a large factor, since it virtually covers the
whole ground of feeding domestic animals.

A Problem Advanced and Difficult. — From what
has just been stated it will be apparent, that the suc-
cessful breeding of live stock furnishes one of the
most advanced and difficult problems relating to prac-
tical agriculture. This arises not alone from the
comprehensive character of the subject as above out-
lined, but also from irregailarities in transmission, the
causes of Avhich are not well understood. These crop
up so unexpectedly and so frequently as to perplex
the breeder betimes, and to make improvement less
rapid than it would other^ase be. It is not surpris-
ing, therefore, that the number of those who have
greatly distinguished themselves in breeding is not
numerous, not nearly so numerous as that of states-
men, who, by their successes, have graven their names
on the records of imf)erishable history. But the num-

8 ANIMAL BREEDING.

ber will increase with the greatly increased attention
that is being given to the subject during recent years.
Happily, however, the fundamental principles of the
science of breeding which are essential to a fair meas-
. ure of success are not numerous nor are they complex.

Fundamental Principles. — These include: 1.
Breeding to a standard of excellence, ideal or real.
2. Breeding only from parents which conform to
this standard in a marked degree. 3. Breeding from
parents, more especially males, which have long been
bred without intermixture of alien blood. 4. Mating
animals so as to correct the defects of the parent
in the offspring. 5. Practicing a selection at once
rigorous and persistent. And 6. Giving due atten-
tion to environment, sanitary conditions, and feeding.
Breeding to a standard of excellence is considered in
Chapter II. The great necessity for breeding only
from animals which conform to this standard is based
on the first and greatest law of heredity, viz. : that
like produces like. The necessity for breeding from
parents purely bred is based on the increased certain-
ty in transmission secured from such breeding. It has
been noticed that when alien blood of one or more
breeds is present in a marked degree, the tendencies
to variation in transmission are also marked. This
arises from the absence of what may be termed dom-
inant or controlling blood elements. The physiolog-
ical units of transmission, so to speak, that are sim-
ilar, are not present in a sufficient number to form a
preponderating, controlling factor in transmission.

With the elimination of alien blood there is an
increase in dominant or governing properties in the
direction desired, according to the end sought. By
the time that alien blood is eliminated so as to be an

BREEDING LITE STOCK. 9

inappreciable factor in ordinary transmission, the
animals may be considered pure. But the dominance
of the blood elements is further strengthened bv carry-
ing on the breeding in the same line. Theoretically,
the increase in the dominance of properties would go
on as long as the same line of breeding was continued,
but practically it would cease after many years of
such breeding. It is only theoretically true that the
oldest breed is absolutely the most prepotent. The
mating of animals is discussed in Chapter XXX., and
selection is discussed in Chapter XXIV. The in-
fluences of environment are discussed in Chapter
XXVIII., and less directly in some other chapters.
Sanitary conditions are only incidentally discussed
in the book, and the same is true of feeding, since the
discussion of these more properly belongs to a work
or works on the management and feeding of live
stock.

Obscure Features of Breeding. — The features
of breeding which are yet somewhat obscure and but
imperfectly understood are such as relate to varia-
tions in transmission. They include the laws of
variation and atavism. The existence of these laws
has been deduced from the results which they have
produced without being able to ascertain all the in-
fluences that have led to the results. But since they
are understood in part, their action can also be
controlled in part. For instance, it has been noticed
that the tendency to variation decreases, as previously
stated, with increased intensity in the purity of the
breeding, and that the tendency to atavic transmission
increases with increase in theadmixtureof alien blood.
Such knowledge can, therefore, be turned to excellent
accoimt in decreasing the tendency to variation in

10 ANIMAL BREEDING.

transmission and also to atavism. They also include
certain influences associated with conception, as the
influence of a previous impregnation, intra-uterine in-
fluences, and influences that determine the sex, dis-
cussed in Chapters XIV., XV., and XVI., respective-
ly. These features of breeding are even less under-
stood than those that relate to variations in trans-
mission, hence they are even less under the control
of the breeder. But experience has shown that some-
thing may be done to modify the results emanating
from these influences. While, therefore, the obscu-
rities which becloud some of the features of breeding
tend to hamper the breeder somewhat in his Avork,
the influences that tend to produce uniformity in
results are so many and so strong as to furnish a
guaranty of at least measurable uniformity in results
and in the direction sought.

The Chief Aim hi Breeding. — The chief aim
in breeding should be the improvement of animals
in those qualities w^hich have a definite value as
meat, milk, avooI, speed, and labor. These qualities
are usually associated with more or less of beauty
and symmetry of form. It would probably be correct
to say, that the strengthening of these is in no way
antagonistic to beauty and symmetry, since they are
never more markedly present than when they may be
said to be the outcome of fitness for the desired end.
To illustrate: the draft horse perfectly equipped
for his work, is quite as beautiful and symmetrical as
the carriage horse perfectly equipped for his, but it
is beauty and symmetry of a different character.
Useful qualities should never be sacrificed for what
may be termed fancy points. For the definition of
fancy points see page 21.

BREEDING LIVE STOCK. 11

Concentration in the Search for Improvement. —
The highest success has been achieved when the
breeder has sought improvement in but one essential
quality. In other words the breeder whose chief aim
is to effect improvement in meat production will
succeed better if content with a moderate amount of
milk production and vice versa. The breeder of the
draft horse cannot at the same time secure speed
in a marked degree, nor can the breeder of the
standard bred horse secure strength as in the draft
horse. When high development is sought in but one
direction the energies of the system may be made
to act, as it were, in that one direction. They may
be focused, so to speak, in the production of one end.
But such concentration should never be carried so far
as to react injuriously upon the system as a whole.
This result will certainly follow when what may be
termed extremest development in one direction is
sought. The breeders of the Saxony Merino sheep ob-
tained a finer staple in the wool than the breeders of
other types of the Merino, but they did so at the
sacrifice of vigor. And those who have secured what
may be termed phenomenal yields in milk production
have done so in many instances at the sacrifice of the
future usefulness of the cow. They drove the animal
machine, as it were, at too high a pressure, j^everthe-
less the fact remains, that high attainment in one di-
rection is not necessarily antagonistic to the mainte-
nance of a high degree of vigor.

While it is true that the highest attainment in
production is reached when the energies of the system
act in one direction, it is also true that there is no
inherent antagonism in the action of the same up to
a certain limit in more than one direction. Up to

12 ANIMAL BREEDING.

that limit, therefore, it follows, that production may
be attained in more than one line. Experience has
taught that liberal production may be reached in two
lines and even in more than two lines in the same
animal. For instance, liberal meat and milk produc-
tion is frequently foimd in the same breed. Up
to a certain limit development in more than one
direction is found mutually helpful. It is wdien de-
velopment in one direction becomes very marked that
it becomes detrimental to development in the other
direction. It is quite possible, therefore, to secure
even a high measure of development in more than
one line of production in the same animal. Whether
marked development should be sought in one direc-
tion, or medium development in more than one, will
depend upon conditions such as relate to soil, location,
food production, markets, and the tastes of the in-
dividual. Experience has demonstrated that there
is a place, and one of great importance, for the cow
that ranks well in meat and milk production, for the
horse that can plow in the field and carry loads to
the market, for the sheep well up in the production
of meat and wool, and for the fowl that lays eggs
abundantly when alive and serves well for the table
when dead. Such production is frequently spoken
of as being dual in character, hence the term dual pur-
pose cow. The large place for the special or one pur-
pose animal, no reasonable person will deny.

The Basis of Value in Animals. — The relative
value of animals depends upon their adaptation to one
or more particular uses and the returns they make
for the food consumed. The best animals are those
which convert the largest amount of food into animal
products of the best quality and with the least possible

BREEDING LIVE STOCK. 13

waste in the materials fed. But a large consumption
of food is not in itself a guaranty of profitable pro-
duction. The scrub steer is usually a large consumer
of food, but in the assimilation of the food he is
often faulty, hence, the increase in weight from
calfhood to maturity is not what it would be from a
pure bred steer of one of the beef breeds, the con-
sumption of food in both instances being the same.
Xor would the meat made by the first be nearly as
valuable as the meat made by the second. The only
profit obtained from the food fed to the animal is
from that assimilated beyond what is required for
sustenance. Take, for instance, a dairy cow of cor-
rect form and with good assimilative powers in diges-
tion. A certain amount of food is required to keep
running the machinery of her being. 'No return is
obtained from this. The return comes from the food
she consumes in excess of the food of maintenance.
It is evident, therefore, that the profit from the cow
will increase with the increase in her consumption
of food over the food of maintenance. Other things
being equal, then, the best returns will 'be obtained
from animals that consume the most food in propor-
tion to their live weight.

CHAPTER 11.

A STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE.

It is absolutely impossible to attain marked suc-
cess in breeding domestic animals without breeding
them to a certain standard. The man who makes the
attempt to do so is like the mariner who sails the
seas without a compass. He, himself, cannot tell
whither he is drifting. He is playing at what may
be termed a game of chance.

Definition of the Term. — A standard of ex-
cellence is an ideal for the guidance of the breeder,
and one which he should constantly aim to reach.
This standard may be written or unwritten. Written
standards are commonly prepared by the individual
associations which protect the interests of the respec-
tive breeds. Unwritten standards are ideals in breed-
ing which exist only in the minds of individuals en-
gaged in the work. These ideals may be original and
exist independently, or they may be based on what
may be termed popular opinion ; of the former class
were the ideals held by the originators and improvers
of breeds. These of necessity had to make their own
standards. Of the latter class are those held by
judges and breeders of stock in the absence of a
written standard. The necessity for a written stand-
ard is based on the desirability of reaching uniformity
and high excellence in the breeding of live stock. In
the absence of a standard in one or the other of its
forms, such uniformitv and hic^h excellence are ini-

A STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE. 15

possible. Even with the aid of a standard, absolute
uniformity can never be attained in breeding, because
of the existence of the law of variation. (See Chap-
ter IV.)

But it can certainly be more nearly approximat-
ed with than without a standard, and with the aid
of a written standard rather than with that of one
not written. Standards are also necessary to enable
the teachers of the science of animal husbandry to do
their work intelligently and with sufficient precision
and exactness. The standard points of the living
animal must be presented from a standard either
written or unwritten. The advantage of the first
method over the second will be at once apparent to all
fair-minded men. Again, good judges of live stock
have gone into the show ring with the boast upon
their lips that they did not believe in standards.
They claimed they were going to judge the animal
on its merits, and not by paper made standards, ob-
livious of the fact that every award made by them
was based on a standard existing in their own minds.

Standards for Purehreds. — In nearly all in-
stances the standards for purebreds are written, but
there are some exceptions. I^otable among these are
the Shorthorn and Hereford breeds of cattle. That
these breeds are yet without a written standard is not
to be set down to the credit of the associations which
guard the interests of the respective breeds. True,
they have attained much celebrity without written
standards, but that was before the era of standards
and in spite of their absence rather than because of
the same. The existence of written standards would
have made impossible the Jew and Samaritan-like
attitude that prevailed so long between the breeders

16 ANIMAL BREEDING.

of the Bates and Booth Shorthorns^ and it would al-
together have prevented the unfortunate controversy
between the advocates of the white and mottled faced
Herefords toward the close of the last century. It
does seem unfortunate there should be any necessity
to make a plea for the existence of written standards
in this progressive age.

When not written, the standard for judging
purebreds is regulated to a considerable extent by the
awards made in the show rings by men who are gen-
erally recognized as good judges. The type of animal
which more commonly gets the prize is recognized for
the time being as the standard type. To some extent
it is also influenced for a time by popular taste and
the demands of the market. Some years ago the
pojDular taste in this country proscribed white animals
among Shorthorns and showed a decided preference
for those that were red. To so great an extent was
this unfortunate prejudice carried, that white Short-
horns became almost unsalable for breeding uses, not-
withstanding their individual excellence, and roan
Shorthorns were much discriminated against. Again,
when the Cruikshank type of Shorthorns first came
before the public, many of the breeders of the Bates
and Booth types refused to introduce Cruikshank
sires into their herds. But the dealers in meat gave
the preference to animals low and blocky in type
and thickly fleshed, hence, the demands of the market
compelled the breeders of the Bates and Booth types
to introduce Scotch blood into their herds.

The originators of breeds must make their own
standards, as previously intimated. They are seeking
what may be termed a creation, that is something
different in the line of live stock from anything that

A STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE. 17

has previously existed. In the absence of a standard
they must create one, whether it be written or unwrit-
ten.

Standard for Grades. — The standard for grades
is unwritten, except in so far as it may have been or
may be committed to paper from time to time by
certain individual breeders. From the very nature
of things it must be so in the absence of organization
to protect the interest of grades of any class. Be-
cause of this, uniformity in the breeding of grades
can never be attained as in the breeding of purebreds
with a written standard. But whether the standard
is written or unwritten, the ideal type must be clearly
fixed in the mind of the breeder. His work will not
be that success which it ought to be unless his ideal
is as clearly present to his mental vision as though
it were on canvas or better still, a living presence
standing before him.

Such a standard will or should rest upon utility.
Fancy points may be tolerated in breeding purebreds
since they may so far evidence pure and even high
breeding. But there would seem to be no place for
them in o^rades. It will take into account the per-
formance of the animals, as, for instance, m relation
to speed, milk, or meat production, and prolificacy,
since in all these respects the relation is close between
animal form and performance resulting therefrom.
It will also take into account the demands of the
market. If the market should demand lean pork with
much side meat, or fat pork with but little side meat
the grower must give heed to such demands and
shape his ideal accordingly. This one influence has
tended to modify the ideal in certain breeds, as, for
instance, in the bacon breeds of swine in Britain.

18 ANIMAL BEEEDIXG.

The same is also true of certain of the types of the
American Merino in the United States. Happilv
those changes in the popular taste are not of frequent
occurrence and they are made but slowly. Were it
otherwise, the possibility of breeding to a fixed ideal
would scarcely be practicable.

The Makers of Standards. — From what has been
stated above it will be apparent, that in nearly all
instances the makers of standards are the members
of the associations formed to protect and promote
the interests of the various pure breeds. The work
is usually done by a committee appointed by the
members of the association. Sometimes it is admi-
rably done, but, in instances not a few, standards are
quite defective. The defects include, chiefly, a lack
of clearness, definiteness and precision in statement, .
and a want of comprehensiveness in the points cover-
ed. Such phrases, for instance, as, ^^A head well set
on," and "A good back/' are well-nigli meaningless
to the uninitiated in live stock lore. They arise, not
from a want of knowledge on the part of those who
frame them with reference to the requisite furnish-
ings of the animal, but rather from a lack of felicity
of expression in the use of language. The statement,
though clear to the framers of the standards, may be
far from clear to the average reader.

Some breeds are represented by several associa-
tions. The Poland China breed has a number of
these. Usually this multiplication of associations
is unfortunate, since it oftentimes results from strife
that has sprung up in one or more of the associations
previously formed. Happily these associations gen-
erally adopt the same standard. When they do not
the interests of the breed suifer.

A STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE. 19

Tloo Classes of Standards. — Two distinct classes
of standards have been drawn np for some of these
pure breeds. The first relates to the requisite furnish-
ings of the animal, more especially as to external
form, but it includes such evidences of disposition,
stamina, and performance as may be gleaned from
external form and also color. It is frequently spoken
of as a scale of points, although, strictly speaking, a
scale of points has reference to the numbers affixed
to the Tarious points in the standards. The terms scale
of points and standard of excellence have frequently
been regarded as synonymous and interchangeable.
But, from what has been said, it will be apparent
that the second is the more comprehensive term, since
it includes all kinds of standards as applied to live
stock, not excepting the scale of points. The second
class of standards is based upon performance. They
are in a sense supplemental to the first, and are usual-
ly referred to as advanced registration. They seek
to encourage higher achievement in the breeding
and management of live stock.

A Scale of Points. — A more extended descrip-
tion of a scale of points will make it to include : 1,
size, symmetry, style, and weight; 2, evidences of
disposition, digestion, constitution, and capacity; 3,
what is termed quality and the amount and kind of
bone; 4, the general outline of form as a whole and
the development of each part as far as discernible
to the eye, and 5, color and fancy points, as, for in-
stance, color markings. Symmetry relates to the
harmony, as to form, that exists between the different
members of the body. Style or carriage as it may be
termed relates to the movement of the different mem-
bers of the body and to the position of the same when

20 ANBIAL BREEDING.

in motion. Weight should always he included in a
scale of points though frequently it is not. For the
evidences of disposition, digestion, constitution, and
capacity, see Chapter XXIII., and for the evidences
of quality, see Chapter XVIII.

Advanced Registration. — Advanced registration
usually records performance in animal production,
absolutely or at different ages, and speed in trotting
horses. It may be made to record performance in
breeding and possibly in some other lines, as in wool
production. Heretofore it has been confined more
commonly to dairy cattle and to standard bred horses.

When aj^plied to dairy cows it takes into ac-
count performance in the production of milk or
butter, or both, for a term of days, Aveeks, months, or
years. Only purebreds have been admitted to ad-
vanced registration, among dairy animals, but it
would also be i:)0ssible to establish such registration
with unrecorded animals, whatever might be thought
of the expediency of such a course of action. When
applied to trotting horses it records the time made
in speeding on the track. Animals whose perform-
ance is recorded in the advanced Registry are also
recorded in the ordinary pedigree standards kept for
the breed.

Points in Standards. — In drawing up standards,
certain numbers are used to designate perfection in
the particular part or characteristic considered.
These numbers vary with the importance relatively
of the part under consideration. For instance, in
beef cattle, while but 1 point may be assigned to the
ear, 10 or 12 points will probably be assigned to
the back, because of its greater relative importance.
In some records they also vary with certain features

A STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE. 21

of development peculiar to the sexes. For instance,
in dairy cows, many points may be allowed for udder
development. In the male this could not be, but with
him more stress is put upon other indications, as, for
instance, those that relate to the evidences of constitu-
tion and other features of a well developed masculin-
ity. In other instances the numbers are affixed not to
a single feature of development, but to a group of
these considered collectively. For instance, so many
marks ^vill be assigned to the head as a whole briefly
described, rather than to each part of the head par-
ticularized in detail. To affix marks in detail rather
than to certain parts grouped furnishes a more com-
plete scale of points. And in yet other standards, ob-
jectionable features are stated even with some minute-
ness in detail, but no 2)oints have been affixed to these
to discount, as it were, the valuable points. The
numbers used in a scale of points are also sometimes
called counts, and 100 of these are fixed upon as the
standard of perfection.

Fancy Points. — Fancy points are those which
have little or no intrinsic value in themselves when
viewed from the standpoint of utility. They are such
as relate to color and color markings, the size and
shape of the ear, wool on the head and legs, and dish
in the face of pigs. It would not be correct to say that
fancy points are of no value at all, but that they are
only or chiefly valuable as indications of purity of
breeding. While thus far they are valuable, the fact
should not be overlooked that other indications could
be made to substitute them in time without necessarily
impairing the usefulness of the breed. They sliould
never be sought at the sacrifice of important features
of form unless when they are regarded as an essential

22 ANIMAL BREEDING.

evidence of purity of breeding. The red color, for
instance, would not be admissible in an Aberdeen
Angus, since black is the standard color. To select a
Shorthorn bull, red in color, but inferior in form and
pedigree, in preference to a roan would be carrying a
fancy point to an extreme, as would also the choice of
a Shropshire ram of but ordinary development in
preference to one of superior development because the
covering of the head in the first was superior.

Advantages of Standards. — It has already been'
intimated that standards are necessary to secure
uniformity in breeding and to make it practicable to
teach correctly the facts relating to form. In the ab-
sence of authorized standards, individual breeders
set up standards for themselves which may and which
do differ materially. The difference in type thus pro-
duced tends to confuse. An illustration is found in
the Bakewell and Border types of Leicesters and in
the Bates, Booth, and Cruikshank types of Short-
horns. Where such differences in type exist, contro-
versy regarding them arises, and the difficulty in plac-
ing awards in the show rings is increased, hence, the
reputation of the breed suffers proportionately. It
does not follow, however, that breed type should never
be modified, but when so modified the standard should
be made to accompany such modification.

Sta7idards May Change. — Standards may and
do change, but when they do the changes are usually
slight. They may change with the changing of
fashion, with the changed demands of the market or to
increase the usefulness of the breed. The favorite
standard color in Poland China swine ^alls for much
less white than formerly. The pork market calls for
a longer and leaner side to meet the changes in the

A STANDAKD OF EXCELLENCE. 23

popular taste, and to maintain sufficient stamina in
some of the breeds stronger bone is needed. Modi-
fications in some of the standards for swine have al-
ready been made in these directions and possibly
further modifications may yet be made. However,
after breeds are established, the aim should be to
conform type to standard rather than standard to
typei, hence, the necessity for keeping standards
abreast of the needs of the times.

Receiving Benefit from Standards.- — The merest
tyro in breeding will receive benefit from standards,
since they will furnish him with a guide in selection
as far as he may be capable of using them. But the
highest benefit from standards will come to those who
understand best the laws of breeding. In the absence
of knowledge regarding these, the information which
standards bring cannot be turned to the best account.
In the hope of simplifying the study of these laws,
the attemj)t will be made in the cha'J)ters which im-
mediately follow to so define and explain them that
the essential features thereof may be so grasped by
the ordinary intellect that they may be turned to
good account by anyone engaged in the breeding of
live stock.

CHAPTEE III.

THE LAW THAT LIKE PRODUCES LIKE.

Bkeeding, like everything else in the domain
of nature, is governed by laws. How far the action
of these is modified by the conditions which precede
and accompany such action is not fully known, nor
is it likely ever to be. Xor would it be correct to say
that all the laws or principles which relate to this
great subject have even been discovered. But some of
them have, and happily enough may be gleaned re-
garding them to enable the breeder to prosecute his
work with at least a fair measure of certainty and
success.

Fundamental Laws. — Of the laws or principles
which govern breeding three may be considered as
fundamental, viz. : 1. The law that like begets like ;
2. The law or principle of variation ; and 3. The law
or principle known as atavism.

Not Unvarying in their Action. — Much has yet
to be learned about these laws. They are only under-
stood in part since no one of them, as now understood,
is unvarying or uniform in its action. In practice
it can never be known with absolute certainty which
of them will dominate in determining the character
of the offspring. It sometimes happens that the
progeny of two parents will be possessed of high ex-
cellence in one instance, while in the next the progeny
of the same will be only ordinary if not indeed in-
ferior. The result is doubtless the outcome of the

THE LAW THAT LIKE PRODUCES LIKE. 2o

action of law in both instances, but why law should
produce results so dissimilar Avhen the conditions are
as nearly alike as man can make them, is one of the
inscrutable things that man will probably never be
able to discover.

It is true, nevertheless, that man is by no means
helpless in determining what the results from mating
animals will be. Xoting results has taught him much
and will doubtless teach him more in the future. It
has been noticed that the first law is more uniform
in its action than the second and the second than the
third. Uniformity in the action of the law that like
produces like increases with the purity of the breed-
ing, the duration of the period of such breeding, and
also up to a certain limit with the closeness of the
relationship of the animals so bred. The intensity of
action in the second laAv would seem to increase with
the increase in the distance from the conditions just
named. And it will probably be correct to say that
the law of atavism weakens as the starting point in
pure breeding is receded from. By properly utilizing
such knowledge the breeder can do much toward se-
curing uniformity in results. An excellent illustra-
tion of this is seen in the frontispiece representing the
Eed Poll cow ^Tretty Girl 4292" with heifer calves
at 5 and 17 months respectively, by '-Pando 125-1."
The property of Capt. Y. T. Hills, Delaware, O.

The First Law Defined. — The law^ that like pro-
duces like implies that the characters of parents w411
appear in their offspring, or to put it differently, that
the offspring will bear a close resemblance to the
parents in all important essentials. Because of this
it mav be said that this law is the sreat sheet anchor
of the breeder. It is the compass without which he

'Z6 ANIMAL BKEE-DING.

could never enter the harbor of success. The law
that like produces like pervades all animated nature.
It dominates the animal kingdom and it would seem
to be but little less potent in the domain of plant
life. When the parents are much alike in breeding
and in all essential characteristics, this law is suffi-
ciently uniform in its action to justify the breeder
in looking for progeny similarly endowed. But
where parents unlike in these respects are mated, it
would be unreasonable to look for progeny the coun-
terpart, in any marked degree, of both parents. In
fact it could not be.

The most that nature could do in that case would
be to produce progeny that would bear resemblances
to both parents. Those resemblances could not exist
equally in all features of the progeny, since they dif-
fer in the parents. But even where the mating is
eminently correct, there are some exceptions to uni-
formity of action in this law. Were it otherwise,
there would not be the same room for the existence of
the law of variation, nor would there be any necessity
for examples to illustrate it and proofs to support
it. Had it been unvarying in its action, it is probable
that it would not have received any other attention
than the mere recognition of its existence.

This Laiu Early Recognized. — We are too prone
to conclude that but little was known with reference
to the art of breeding until ^\dthin a comparatively
recent period. Such a view is not correct. The short
cut to improvement through in-and-in breeding does
not appear to have been practiced before the time of
Bakewell. But the existence of the law has unques-
tionably been recognized for a very long period. It
is equally certain that many of its principles were

THE LAW THAT LIKE PROIjUCES LIKE. 127

well understood. Evidence of the same is found in
the breeding operations conducted by the patriarch
Jacob. The narrative of the management of his
father-in-law's flocks makes it clear that much atten-
tion had been given to the subject at least eighteen
centuries before the modern era. The influence of ex-
ternal objects in determining color had been so far
recognized that the patriarch was enabled to turn the
knowledge to excellent account, that is to say, so far
as his own personal interests were concerned. The
statement of holy writ with reference to the color of
the males in actual service as seen in the vision, is
a clear recognition of the law now under discussion.
Further evidence is furnished in the monstrous forms
that were bred for the amusement of the Roman
people about the time that the decline of the empire
began. The very fact that such monstrosities were
then produced tends to show that experimental cross-
ing had been practiced long before that era. The
pedigrees kept by the Arabs of their horses centuries
before the era of pedigrees began among Anglo-Saxon
peoples furnish additional evidence of the certainty
of the comparatively early recognition of the law that
like produces like by that nation of wanderers, and
of the importance which they attached to it. The
justification of pedigrees could not exist in the ab-
sence of such a law.

Illustrations in the Human Family. — Wlien ap-
plied to the human family the law that like produces
like finds ample illustration in the distinctive pe-
culiarities of feature common to the different races.
Each of the five different races into which mankind
has been divided has distinctive peculiarities. These
are such as relate to physical form, color, and intellec-

28^ ANBIAL BEEEDING.

tual development. It is further illustrated by tlie
differences and resemblances observable in sub-divi-
sions within each race, and more especially in those
sub-divisions in which there has been no mingling of
alien blood. While the various tribes of ]^s'orth Amer-
ican Indians which dwelt amid the forests possessed
in common certain peculiarities, as, for instance, the
copper color and the straight hair, each individual
tribe possessed peculiarities more or less common to
all the individuals thereof and yet different from
those in other tribes. Yet, again, it is illustrated in
the resemblances discernible in very many instances
between the members of the same family. So strong
are these resemblances that oftentimes the family
relationship of each can thus be discerned. These
resemblances cannot be accidental. Admit the exist-
ence and the potency of the law that like produces
like, auvl the explanation is easy. Deny it and no
satisfactory explanation can be given.

Uniformity in Besults. — The degi'ee of imi-
formity in the results obtained in breeding will be
largely dependent on the methods of the breeder. In
no instance will they be absolutely uniform else
there could be no law of variation. But so generally
uniform will these results be that the skillful breeder
may carry on his operations with no little certainty.
But before he can succeed thus he must, in the first
place, breed to a standard of excellence. Such a
standard must determine his choice of breeding ani-
mals. It must guide him in mating them. It must
be ever present while selections are being made. It,
too, must determine which shall be discarded. Sec-
ond, he must set a proper value on improved blood.
The value of such blood as a factor in breeding has

THE LAW THAT LIKE PRODUCES LIKE. 29

already been referred to in Chapter I., and is further
discussed below in the present chapter. And third,
he must understand the art of selection and the prin-
ciples of management generally. The question of
selection is discussed in Chapter XXIV. The prin-
ciples of management are so comprehensive that they
cannot be stated here. The author hopes to discuss
these sometime in the future, when writing on the
subject of feeding.

Benefits Arising from this Law. — The following
are chief among the practical benefits that may result
to breeders because of the existence of the law that
like produces like: First, it makes it possible for
them to effect improvement until a certain standard of
excellence is reached. The standard thus set may
be placed where they are pleased to place it. The
standard of no breed in existence has been raised to
the level to which it is possible to bring it. Standard
bred horses have probably been brought nearest to
the limit of possible improvement, but there are no
good reasons for supposing that the speed of such
horses will not be farther increased. Second, it makes
it possible for breeders to maintain improvement. Tn
all animated nature there would seem to be an in-
herent tendency in the direction of deterioration in
the absence of influences, natural or artificial, such as
tend to secure the survival of the fittest. And to pre-
vent such deterioration it would seem to be necessary
that these influences are continually operative.

This statement may and doubtless will be chal-
lenged, and in certain instances with much show of
truth, but in the judgment of the author, the history
of the animal and vegetable kingdoms since man
left Eden, will sustain it. But the law is sufficiently

30 ANIMAL BREEDING.

uniform and constant in its action to enable the breed-
er to more than counteract such tendencies when the
work is properly conducted. Third, it makes it pos-
sible to form new breeds and to mold new types.
Mature can accomplish both because of the existence
of this law. Turn loose into nature's domain a num-
ber of cattle comprising representatives of several of
the improved breeds and where the conditions are such
that they can be maintained without the aid of man,
and in time nature will mold them into a new breed.
Give her time enough and the resemblances between
the progeny of those diverse breeds will be striking.
Take some of those animals and again relegate them
to the care of nature where the conditions are differ-
ent, and the type will be changed. These modifica-
tions would be impossible were it not for the fact that
in animal breeding, when alien blood is excluded,
the tendencies toward assimilation would seem to be
decidedly stronger than toward variation. What na-
ture, unaided, can do can be done more quickly when
man comes to the aid of nature, and makes a more
rigorous selection than nature could make without
the aid of man.

Benefits from Want of Uniformity in this Law.
— The exceptions to the want of uniformity in this
law have been taken advantage of, 1, to improve the
standard of the breed, and 2, to form certain breeds
and mold certain types which could not otherwise
have been called into existence. These statements,
though apparently contradictory to those just given,
are not really so. While the evolution of breeds is the
outcome of general uniformity in the action of the law
that like produces like when aided by selection, it is
equally true that some breeds could never have been

THE LAW^ THAT LIKE PRODUCES LIKE. 31

evolved at all but for the absence of such absolute
uniformity. Such are the polled breeds of cattle and
certain of the improved breeds of sheep from which
the horns have been eliminated. Nor could the level
of improvement have been raised had none of the
progeny varied to the extent of exceeding their par-
ents in desirable development. The discussion of
this question will be further considered in Chapter

It may also be proper to mention here that varia-
tions in type within a pure breed are seldom to be
desired, since, when made to the extent of practically
supplanting a type previously existing, they neces-
sitate a change in the standard of excellence. The
more of diversity in type found within a breed the
greater the w^ant of unity and harmony among the
breeders, and when such conditions exist the interests
of the breed suffer in proportion as these are present.

Transmission in Mixed Breeding. — In cross-
breeding and grading where different types are mated,
the result is in a sense a mean between the two. The
progeny cannot be exactly like either. The charac-
teristics of both parents are transmitted in part, but
they are seldom transmitted equally. There is in
nearly all instances a preponderance in resemblance
to one parent or the other, arising in a great measure,
at least, from the greater prepotency of that parent
which is most closely resembled in the progeny. Pre-
potency is discussed in Chapter IX.

Influences that Affect the Action of this Law. —
The influences that affect the action of the law that
like produces like are strong : First, in proportion to
the purity of the breeding in one or both parents.
This will be readily apparent from what has been

32 ANIMAL BREEDING.

said in Chapter I., page 8, when treating of breed-
ing from parents whose ancestors have long been bred
without any admixture of alien blood. The influence
of alien blood must prove a disturbing factor to
potency in transmission, since it is alien, and the de-
gree of such disturbance will be proportionate to the
degree in which alien blood is present, and to the de-
gree in which it fails to harmonize with the dominant
hlood elements in the animals. In other words it will
increase the tendency to variation in transmission.

Second, it will be strong in proportion to the
period during which the animals have been bred
pure. This, at least, is true up to a certain limit of du^
ration. Whether a time comes when antiquity in the
purity of the breeding ceases to affect the influences
concerned in transmission has not been determined*
In other words it has not been determined whether
purity of breeding for a thousand years is a greater
power than purity of breeding for five hundred years.
If there is a time, as would seem probable, when
duration in purity of breeding ceases appreciably tg
affect transmission, that time has not been determin*
ed, and if it could be, it would probabh^ not be tha
same in all breeds. Experience has shown that one
hundred years of pure breeding assures much potency
in transmission, as evidenced in more than one oi
the dark faced breeds of sheep.

Third, it is strong in proportion to the closentesa
of the blood relationship in the parents. For instance,
the progeny of animals closely related have usually
a closer resemblance to the parents and to one another
than the progeny of animals of the same breed but
not closely related. The blood elements in the former
would seem to have a stronger affinity; but why, ha«

THE LAW THAT LIKE PRODUCES LIKE. 33

not been fully explained. This fact, howevei-j has
been turned to good account by the originators of
new breeds. (See Chapter XXVII.)

Fourth, it will be strong in proportion to the
nearness of the resemblance of the parents to one
another in structure and form and in all leading
characteristics. Conversely, it will be weak in pro-
portion as the opposites of these are present in the
parents.

It is evident that the more nearly the parents
resemble one another in the features named, and in
fact in all features^ the less will be the gap to be
bridged over in the process of assimilation through
transmission. For instance, a well developed hind
flank is more likely to be present in the progeny when
this feature of form is correct in both parents than
when it is correct only in one. Potency in transmis-
sion, therefore, will be strong in proportion to the in-
tensity of the sum of all these influences acting in
conjunction.

Features of Resemblance in the Offspring. — The
resemblance of the offspring to the parents produced
by the action of this law is not, by any means, con-
fined to external form, although the evidences of such
resemblance are thus most readily observed. It ex-
tends to every physical feature of the organization,
as, for instance, structure, function, color, hair, and
handling qualities. The rounded out, somewhat
cylindrical form of Aberdeen polled cattle illustrates
transmission in structure. The progeny of these have
this form of body in contrast to the more square
body of the Shorthorn because the parents have the
same. The easy action of the limbs in the trotting
horse and the more labored action in the limbs of

34 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the draft horse are illustrations of transmission in
function. The black and white color in Holstein
cattle, the white hairs never mingling with the black,
illustrates transmission in color. The long, wavy hair
possessed, more or less, by all Galloways and the short
hair that characterizes Jerseys, illustrate transmis-
sion as to the nature of the hair. The strong, harsh
hide in the scrub, and the soft, pliant hide in the
Guernsey, illustrate transmission in handling quali-
ties.

This resemblance also extends to habit and to the
mental traits which frequently control habit and
govern the disposition. A cow whose ancestors have
grazed on the range for generations, will go dry in
five or six months from the date of calving, while the
period of lactation in the cow whose ancestors have
been in the dairy for an equal number of generations
will be not less than ten months. The difference
illustrates transmission in habit. The young collie
dog instinctively takes to the heels in driving because
its ancestors have done so from time immemorial.
The lambs of sheep used to the corral take kindly
to the same, while those of other sheep are restless for
a time under such restraint. These are illustrations
of mental traits which control habit. The progeny of
a bull, naturally vicious, are also likely to possess this
trait in at least some degree. The calf of a cow whose
ancestors have been in the dairy for generations can
usually be taught to drink in a day, while the calf of
a cow whose ancestors had roamed for several genera-
tions on the range would pretty certainly require
several days to accomplish the same end. These are
illustrations of mental traits that govern the disposi-
tion. Furthermore, this resemblance extends to al>

THE LAW THAT LIKE PRODUCES LIKE. 35

normal qualities including diseases. The transmis-
sion of abnormal qualities is discussed in Chapter VI.
and of diseases in Chapter VII.

Transmission Seldom Equal in Par^ents. — Theo-
retically one half of the characters possessed by the
progeny when the conditions are apparently equal will
be inherited from each parent. In fact, however, such
a result is probably very seldom found. Though the
qualities are apparently equal, they will probably not
be so in reality. One will almost certainly be more
prepotent than the other, while the evidences of this
difference may not be apparent in the external in-
dividuality of each. The same is sometimes true of
inherent vigor. When a preponderance of these and
kindred influences are present, they will certainly ac-
cord to the parent possessing the same, an excess
of influence in transmission, and yet, such preponder-
ance may not be known beforehand. The deduction,
therefore, is legitimate, that the sum of the characters
inherited from one parent seldom or never equals the
sum of the same inherited from the other.

CHAPTER IV.

THE LAW OR PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION.

It has been noticed that in many instances the
progeny are not like the parents in every particular.
Sometimes the difference is very slight and confined
to but few particulars. At other times it is very mark-
ed and extends to many features, both of form and
characteristics. And since these variations are never
entirely absent, it would seem to indicate the exist-
ence of a law or principle in heredity that produces
results different from the first great law of heredity,
that is, the law that like produces like.

The Law of Variation Defined. — The law of va-
iriation may be defined as the tendency in animals
to produce characters which differ from those of the
paternal type. It may not unfitly be termed the
law that like does not always produce like. These
two laws, viz., the law that like produces like and
the law of variation, would seem to be antagonistic
to one another. That two such principles should be
found concerned in transmission, however, is not more
improbable than that the two opposing principles of
good and evil should be found in the one moral nature.
These changes may relate to both form and function.
Lack of capacity in the barrel of a female as compared
with the same in her dam, illustrates the first, and
decreased milk production in the progeny as compar-
ed with milk production in the dam, illustrates the
second. In time, these changes may become so pro-

THE LAW OR PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION. 37

nounced in certain directions as to become modifica-
tions of the systems of animals. Such are some of
the changes that follow a change of environment.
Since these variations differ gTcatly in the time which
is necessary to produce them, and also in their in-
tensity, they may be classed as gradual, or general
and ordinary, and as sudden or spontaneous and ex-
traordinary.

General Variation Defined. — General variation
is that tendency to change from the original type
which characterizes in a greater or a less degree all
the individuals of a breed. Sometimes it is in the
line of improvement and sometimes in that of retro-
gression. The general direction which such variation
will take will depend upon the causes which lead to
it. These are given below under the proper head-
ing. In either case it is an effort of nature to adjust
the system to the surrounding conditions. But this
does not explain the cause of variations that constant-
ly occur in some degree in animals, when the condi-
tions are as imiform as man can make them. The
causes in these instances are to be looked for from
within rather than from without, and they are such as
relate to dominance in transmitting properties, or in
what may be termed units of transmission.

General Variation Illustrated. — Illustrations of
the principle of general variation may be found:
First, in the tendency of grain to deteriorate when it
has fallen upon an unkindly soil. This variation af-
fects not only the straw but also the grain. There
will, likewise, be variation in the time of maturing
and in the ability to withstand disease. Second, in the
quick deterioration of the heavy breeds of sheep when
confined to unproductive or rugged pastures. Such

38 ANIMAL BREEDING.

sheep cannot find sufficient sustenance on those pas-
tures without expending more strength and energy
than the system can spare. It, therefore, seeks adjust-
ment by reducing the size and weight of the sheep and
by lessening the weight of the fleece. And the oppo-
site is true of sheep taken to richer and more level pas-
tures than those which they have previously been ac-
customed to. Third, in the tendency to the produc-
tion of fat developed in the Hereford simultaneously
with a diminished production of milk. A cen-
tury ago many cows of this breed were abundant
producers of milk. Xow, that early maturity is
so much sought in this famous breed of grazing
cattle, free milk production in the dams is the excep-
tion. And fourth, in the exceeding fineness of fleece
developed in the Saxon Merino but at the cost of
diminished vigor. The causes which led to the joro-
duction of wool so fine grew out of the management
of the flocks and cannot now be further dwelt upon.

The Causes of General Variation. — The causes
of general variation in animals are numerous, but
chief among them are the following, viz. : Changed
conditions of life, as climate, food, and general en-
vironment, also habit and dominance in internal pow-
ers of transmission. Climate, food, and environment
are discussed in Chapters XX. and XXYIII. Habit
is largely the outcome of management. It is happily
illustrated in the more or less permanent increase or
decrease in milk production in females, based upon
the general management of the same through succes-
sive generations. The variations caused by domi-
nance in the internal powers of transmission are less
abiding. They are also less well understood, and
consequently less perfectly under the control of man.

THE LAW OR PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION. 39

These influences are so intimately connected that
oftentimes it is difficult to determine what is due to
each. Doubtless, in some instances, they all act in
conjunction. Probably in others some of them are
antagonistic forces and made so by natural conditions
or by management. A happy climate and sparse food
production Avould be an instance of the first, and
abundant food production accompanied by ill treat-
ment or neglect an instance of the latter. General
variation will be hastened or retarded very largely
in proportion as these causes act in the same direction
or otherwise.

Food a Powerful Factor in Variation. — The va-
riations in the improved breeds with reference to the
increased production of meat, milk, and wool are
largely due to a liberal supply of nutritious food dur-
ing the period of growth. Without such aid the mark-
ed improvement made during the past century could
never have been secured. Xor can it be maintained
in the absence of such supplies. It would probably
be correct to say that up to a certain point, food has
been more potent in affecting variation in the line of
improvement than any single influence. In some in'
stances this improvement has been realized in direc-
tions where primarily it was not sought. Illustrations
are found in the breeding of sheep both in England
and America. With many of the breeds in these
respective countries, the dominant aim of the breeder
was to effect improvement in the production of mut-
ton. But it was also found, that improvement was
effected in the production of wool. The weight of
the fleece was not only increased, but the strength
of the fiber was also improved. It has also been found
that when improvement has been carried beyond a

40 ANIMAL BREEDING.

certain limit in one direction, in some instances it has
been followed by retrogression in other directions.
Improvement in the beef and mutton form of cattle
and sheepj respectively, has frequently been carried
so far that it has resulted in a decrease in milk pro-
duction and also to a lessened power to breed well.
Increased compactness of form in some of the breeds
of swine has also been followed by decreased fecun-
dity.

Spontaneous Variation Defined. — Spontaneous
variation may be defined as that tendency sometimes
found in animals to produce progeny more or less un-
like either the parents or the ancestry of these. It
differs from general variation in its violence and in-
tensity, that is to say, it dilt'ers in degree, and it dif-
fers also in the greater tendency toward individualiza-
tion. The changes in ordinary variation are gradual.
They only become marked, when, by increase or de-
crease through repetition, there is, as it were, accumu-
lation in variation. When the changes are sudden
and extreme they may be said to be violent, and
when the tendency is strong in these sudden varia-
tions to reproduce and perpetuate themselves, they
may be said to be intense. Moreover, in ordinary
variation the tendency to change in certain directions
may affect many of the animals in a herd or even in
a breed, whereas, in spontaneous variation they relate
to but one animal. As with general variation, the
change is sometimes in the direction of improvement
and at other times in the direction of retrogression.
It is also less under the control of the individual than
ordinary variation. The latter is in many of its
phases measurably controlled by the breeder, but not
so the former, since it cannot be known beforehand
when it will appear nor in what form.

THE LAW OR PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION. 41

tipontcuicous Variation nob Well Understood. —
But little is known definitely regarding the action
of this law or the principles that control it. It is
thought in some instances that spontaneous variations
arise from a sudden shock given to the pregnant moth-
er, and in other instances from mental impressions at
the time of conception or during the early stages of
pregnancy. Thus, it is probable, that monstrosities
are sometimes produced. These influences, as already
intimated, w^ould seem to be much more potent during
the earlier stages of development in the foetus.
Whether this will apply to psychical as to physical
development has not been positively ascertained. But
these influences do not explain nearly all the instances
of spontaneous variation which occur. They do not
occur regularly or in any fixed order and since man
cannot anticipate them he is almost entirely helpless
to prevent them. And yet it may be true that they
are as much under the control of law as transmission
in the direction of likeness.

Illustrations of Spontaneous Variation. — Illus-
trations of the principle of spontaneous variation are
found, first, in the occasional production of monstros-
ities. These are products of conception, sometimes
alive, but more frequently not living at birth, and so
malformed as to shock the sense of the fitness of
things. Sometimes they are greatly defective in cer-
tain physical features of their being, and in other
instances they have these in excess. A rabbit with
but one ear would furnish what may be termed a
mild instance of the former, and a calf with two heads
or six legs an instance of the latter. The cause of mal-
formations is discussed in Chapter XV. They are
found, second, in the production of progeny very un-

42

ANIMAL r, HEEDING.

THE LAW OE PEIXCIPLE OF VARIATION. 43

like the parents or the ancestry in color, form, and
other characteristics. A black sheep appearing in a
Hock in which no animals of that color had ever ap-
jDcared before would furnish an instance of the first ;
a dairy bred calf possessed in a considerable degree of
the essentials of beef production furnishes an instance
of the second; and a child of unusual timidity, the
offspring of courageous parents and descended from
a courageous ancestry, furnishes an instance of the
third. A further illustration is found in the case of
a woman on exhibition in MinneajDolis in 1895, wdio
was more than eight feet high, although neither of her
parents were of more than average size. They are
found, third, in the various hornless breeds of cattle.
It is now considered certain that these are all descend-
ed from races wdiicli at one time were horned. This
conclusion is sustained by the absence of hornless
specimens in the more ancient of the geological forma-
tions in which the skeletons of cattle are found, and
also by what is known regarding the origin of at least
some of the hornless breeds.

Spontaneous Variations Cannot Perpetuate
Themselves. — That spontaneous variations cannot
perpetuate themselves unaided by man is owing large-
ly to the infrequency with which they occur. Even
under circumstances that are deemed most favorable
to their production their occurrence is infrequent. So
infrequent are they in some well bred herds, that the
owners may not be able to cite a single instance of
such variation at all pronounced in a lifelong experi-
ence in breeding.

It is certainly fortunate that it is so, for in a
large majority of instances they are disturbing factors
in breeding. So infrequent are they, that notAvith-

44 ANIMAL BREEDING.

standing the marked power Avliich they often have to
reproduce themselves they are soon obliterated
through the overwhelming preponderance of blood
flowing in normal channels. Because of this it would
probably be impossible for any instance of spontane-
ous variation to perpetuate itself so as to become a
peculiarity of the breed, without the aid of man. But
when man comes to the reseue_, as he has done in
forming the hornless breeds, he can, through judicious
selection, make the new characteristic a characteristic
of all the animals of the breed. The fact, however,
must not be overlooked that some forms of ordinary
variation are secured and perpetuated through chang-
ed conditions. Take, for instance, Shetland ponies
to a milder climate and surroundings of improved
food production, and they will increase in size even
though running wild.

Variations more readily Produced in Domestic
Animals. — Variations in both forms and the suscep-
tibility to them are more readily produced in domesti-
cated than in wild animals. This is owing to the
greater changes in the conditions that surround the
former. The conditions that surround wild animals
are much the same from generation to generation.
Those to which domesticated animals are subjected
are frequently changed, and in some instances the
changes are marked. All changes in surroundings
and management tend to produce variation, as pre-
viously shown, and this tendency is markedly
strengthened by the admixing of alien blood elements.
That variations would multiply, therefore, as changed
conditions and mixed breeding increase, is what is to
be expected, and that the violence of such changes
would increase with the intensity of changed condi-

THE LAW OR PRIXCIPLE OF VARIATION. 45

tions is a natural sequence. It is also owing to the
greater resistance to variation offered by wild animals
through fixity of type of long duration.

It has been shown that purity of breeding long
continued is a dominant factor in producing certainty
in transmission. (See page 32.) It follows, there-
fore, that the opposite of this will also prove true,
that is to say, that the decrease in the duration of
the period of pure breeding will lead to an increase
in variation. But it would not be quite safe to say
that duration in breeding in any line, however long
continued, would so intensify heredity that variations
even spontaneous in character would never occur.

Perpetuating Vai^tions. — In a preceding para-
graph it has been shown that variations cannot per-
petuate themselves unaided by man, save through
changed conditions, and that even with changed con-
ditions, spontaneous variations cannot perpetuate
themselves without such aid. It is true, nevertheless,
that when variations do occur, there is in them fre-
quently an inherent tendency to reproduce and per-
petuate themselves. Particularly is this true of some
forms of spontaneous variation. For instance, when,
in a pure horned breed a hornless male appears, and
is mated with females of the same breed, it is almost
certain that a majority of the progeny will be horn-
less. Because of this, improvement has been made
possible in breeds by selecting the desirable variants
and breeding from them so as to effect further im-
provement. On this principle, also, new breeds have
been formed possessed of distinct peculiarities, as, for
instance, one branch of the Polled Durhams.

IsTearly all the breeds of sheep and swine that
have been improved chiefly by using materials within

46 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the breed itself, have been so improved by taking ad-
vantage of distinctive variations that existed at the
time when the improvement began and that subse-
quently appeared and breeding the animals with a
view to render these permanent. ^N'otably was this
true of the old Dishley breed of sheep which the
genius of Bakewell transformed into what has since
been known as the Leicester breed. It is true never-
theless, that in a larger number of instances trans-
forming power has been brought in through cross-
breeding, and for the reason that the desirable varia-
tions were more readily secured in animals of another
breed. But when the latter method is chosen the
tendency to revert to the original type is much strong-
er, hence permanent improvement is slower. This
tendency to reversion is very marked in hybrid plants.
For many generations do they show a tendency to
reversion. Variations in type within a breed that
have assumed wdiat may be termed fixity of type,
have also been used to effect improvement by fusing
or intercrossing them, if the term may be thus used.
It was thus that the Cruikshank Shorthorns were
evolved through more or less of the blending of Bates
and Booth blood, accompanied by selecting to a type
different from either.

Variation Consonant with Highest Develop-
ment.— The repeated and systematic exercise of any
organ or set of organs is necessary to secure and main-
tain variation consonant with the highest develop-
ment, as witnessed in the training of athletes. Again
and again it is necessary for them to repeat the same
acts until performing them requires but little effort,
unless the performance of these particular acts is
very extreme. But even when thus secured in the in-

THE LAW OR PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION. 47

dividual, several generations of such training would
be necessary before what may be termed a family of
athletes could be produced. Such a necessity is also
shown in the development of the milk-giving function
in cows. Milking qualities of the highest type could
not be secured by transmission alone, that is to say,
by selecting from cows noted for milk production and
by breeding only from them. It is also further neces-
sary to milk them by hand so that all the milk may
be taken from them, to breed them young that the
energies of the system may be early turned to milk-
production, and to milk them for a long period that
persistence in milk production may be secured. In
other words it is necessary to strengthen the milk
giving function through what may be termed repeti-
tion in milk-giving.

The same is true of the strengthening of the in-
tellectual powers. By repetition in effort the mental
powers of the individual are strengthened. What is
thus gained is secured in part by transmission, and
through repetition in effort in the same direction,
a higher level is reached. Thus it is that nations
become possessed of individual characteristics, and
thus it is that they are lifted to higher levels of at-
tainment.

Power of Transmission in Some Families. —
Some families of a breed have a much greater power
in transmitting their peculiarities than others, and
for the reason that these have been intensified by a
certain line of breeding. Illustrations may be found
in the Webb Southdowns, in what is sometimes term-
ed the Dishley Leicesters and Longhorns, and in the
Ben Tompkins sort of Herefords. In these respective
instances families had been evolved within the breed.

48 ANIMAL BREEDING.

They had been so evolved through the aid of in-and-in
breeding, a process which speedily intensified proper-
ties. ]\[ales of correct form and qualities that have
been thus bred are able to secure desirable variations
in the progeny, and to render them permanent. It is
this persistency of transmission which makes varia-
tion possible in improving breeds in a certain direc-
tion already established and in producing new ones.
Were it otherwise, what would be gained in one gen-
eration would be lost in the next.

CHAPTER V.

THE LAW OF ATAVISM.

It has been shown, that by the first great law
of breeding, viz., the law that like produces like, im-
provement may be secured in a definite line through
judicious breeding. It has also been shown that
through the second law of breeding, viz., the law. of
variation, higher improvement may be secured when
the proper steps are taken to perpetuate desirable va-
riations and to eliminate those that are undesirable.
There is yet another feature of breeding frequently
spoken of as atavism, that cannot, properly speaking,
be said to come within the realm of either of the above
laws. The evidences of it are so frequently apparent
as to justify the conclusion, that, notwithstanding
the erratic character of its action, it is under the di-
rection of law. It will, therefore, be denominated
the third law of breeding.

Definition of Atavism. — By atavism is meant \
that innate tendency in animals to revert to the orig-
inal type. It is frequently spoken of as reversion, at
other times as throwing back and yet again as breed-
ing back. It differs from the law that like produces
like in the production of resemblances to an ancestry
more or less remote rather than to the parents or to
a near ancestry. How far back these resemblances
may be traced is not certainly known, but they have
been traced to several, even to many generations. It
differs from the law of variation in producing resem-

50 ANIMAL BREEDING.

blances to an ancestr}^ more remote than the parents
or the near ancestry, whereas tlie latter produces dis-
similarity to the ancestry whether near or remote.

Illustrations of Atavic T?^a7ismission.-^l\\\istra-
tions of atavic transmission may be found : 1, In the
occasional appearance of scurs or horns in the polled
breeds of cattle bred pure for many generations. 2,
In the Shorthorn herd books, where many instances
of atavic inheritance are found which appertain to
color. 3, In the occasional appearance of tan-colored
spots on the ears and face of the American Merino.
And 4, in the occasional out-cropping of physical de-
fects and peculiarities in the human family after the
interval of generations. Scurs or miniature horns
appear with more or less frequency in the polled
breeds, notwithstanding the efforts of the breeders
to remove them entirely. In some instances these
efforts have been persistent for more than a century.
The same is true of the white color in Shorthorns,
notwithstanding the deep rooted prejudice against
this color during the past decades. The breeders of
American Merinos have sought for more than half
a century to remove the tan-colored spots which at
one time more or less characterized the face and ears
of many individuals of the old Spanish Merino breed,
and yet they appear occasionally. Physical defects,
as, for instance, a deficiency in the proper number of
fingers, have frequently appeared in descendants re-
moved several generations from ancestors thus affect-
ed.

Forms of Atavic Transmission. — Atavic trans-
mission may relate to form, color, habits, mental
traits, predisposition to disease, and, indeed, to any
feature of the organization. The comparative fre-

THE LAW OF ATAVISM. 61

qiiency of the light thigh in the Hereford, notwith-
standing the efforts of breeders to remove it during
recent decades, illustrates atavic transmission relat-
ing to form. The occasional appearance of a belted
Galloway furnishes an illustration of atavic transmis-
sion relating to color in addition to that given above.
The occasional production of a superior milking cow
in breeds long bred almost wholly for beef production
is an instance of atavic transmission pertaining to
habit, and also to function. The love of the descend-
ants of the Indian for a comparatively idle life and
also for a roaming life after the lapse of generations
and after the effort of generations to teach him habits
of industry, furnishes an illustration of the atavic
transmission of mental traits. The appearance of
certain tuberculous diseases after the lapse of several
generations, not only illustrates the atavic transmis-
sion of those diseases, but of the tendency to the same
through the intervening generations. These illustra-
tions could be multiplied indefinitely. ISTot only is it
true that these peculiarities may appear in the off-
spring without having appeared for many generations
previously, but it is also true that they have been
transmitted without the possibility of detecting even
a trace of their presence, and yet it is doubtless true
that the tendency to produce them was present all the
while, though in wliat may be termed the latent form.
Other influences were doubtless present which kept
those tendencies quiescent for the time being.

Atavic Transmission not Well Understood. — •
The laws which control atavic transmission are very
imperfectly understood. Much less is known with
reference to the influences which control them than
with reference to those which control ordinary varia-

62 ANIMAL BREEDING.

tion. From certain lines of breeding, as, for instance,
cross-breeding, variation may be expected. The same
is true of animals of the same breed widely dissimilar
in form when bred together. It could not be other-
wise, since elements positively alien are blended in
the first instance and elements of dissimilarity in
form are fused in the second. The attempt, at least,
is made to blend in the one instance and to fuse in
the other. But it cannot be known beforehand just
when atavic transmission wdll appear any more than
the extent of the same may be known when it does
appear. The conclusion is legitimate then, that the
laws which control atavic transmission are apparently
uncertain and variable in their action. But this un-
certainty and variability is doubtless only apparent.
What appear to be erratic results is doubtless the out-
come of influences, some of which are so subtle as to
be beyond the realm of human scrutiny. In some
instances it is not easy to distinguish between what
appertains to atavic transmission from that which
is the outcome of spontaneous variation. It may be
that in some instances the two principles act in con-
junction.

Two Classes of Atavic Transmission. — The ob-
served instances of atavic transmission have been
divided into two classes. To the first class is re-
ferred the reappearance of lost characters in pure-
breds after the interval of a number of generations.
To this class would belong the reappearance of the
undesired dark muzzle in Shorthorns, the reappear-
ance of scvirs in the dark faced breeds of sheep, of
bristles in the improved breeds of swine, and of the
red color in the Aberdeen Angus Polls. It would not
be quite correct to say that these are in no degree

THE LAW OF ATAVISM. 53

under the control of man, since it has been observed
that the tendencies to reversion decrease with increase
in the duration of the breeding in a certain line. To
the second class belong those instances in cross-breed-
ing where a peculiarity of the animal used to effect
the cross appears which had not formerly occurred in
the cross-bred descendants, or which had been early
lost on the return to the use of a single strain upon
the descendants of the cross.

For instance, when a Galloway sire is used on
a pure-bred of one of the horned breeds, the horns
are almost certainly absent in the first cross because
of the greater prepotency of the Galloway blood,
based, doubtless, in a considerable degree on the long-
er period of pure breeding in the Galloways. The
absence of horns will almost certainly characterize
successive generations of the descendants when the
use of pure Galloway blood is continued. But there
might be instances when horns or scurs would again
crop out. If so, they would almost certainly arise as
a result of the cross-breeding, that is to say, as a result
of what may be termed latent potency in the pure
breed first crossed upon by the Galloway. Such a
conclusion finds countenance in the fact, that atavic
transmission is much less rare in the progeny of pure
bred animals than in the progeny of cross breds. Ob-
servation has also shown that atavic transmission is
much less frequent in the progeny of animals of mix-
ed breeding that are unexpectedly crossed upon by
pure breds, than if both breeds were pure when first
mated.

Influences thai tend to Produce Atavic Trans-
mission.— The tendencies to atavism would seem to
be strong in proportion : 1, To the want of duration

54 ANIMAL BREEDING.

in the purity of the breeding. 2, To the lack of purity
in the blood when alien pure breds are bred together.
3, To the lack of purity in the blood when animals
of the so-called pure breeds are mated, that is animals
of the same breed. And 4, to the lack of prepotency
on the part of the parents. Scurs appear more fre-
quently in the Aberdeen Angus Polls than in the
Galloways. This is doubtless owing to the less pro-
longed period during which the former have been bred
pure than the latter. Pure Yorkshire swine are very
rarely "off" in their color markings. The same can-
not be said of pure Berkshires. The former have been
bred pure for a considerably longer period. Rever-
sion is much less common in the Merinos than in the
Oxford Downs, since the former is the more ancient
breed, and thus it is Avith various other pure breeds
that may be thus contrasted. These facts point to the
conclusion, that sometime in the breeding of pure
breds a place will be reached where the influence of
atavic transmission would practically cease as far as
relates to the original characters of the breed. That
want of purity in breeding and duration in the same
increases the tendency to reversion has already been
touched upon in the preceding section.

The more nearly balanced then, that breeds are,
in antiquity of breeding, the more numerous will be
the instances of atavic transmission when they are
crossed, for then the resistance to fusion would be
stronger than under different conditions. Under such
circumstances it has been noticed that there is a tend-
ency to reversion to the original traits of one breed or
the other rather than to blending or fusion. The rea-
sons cannot be satisfactorily given. With animals of
a so-called pure breed of recent formation, the tend-

• THE LAW OF ATAVISM. 55^

encies to atavism will be strong in proportion to the
recentness of the formation of the breed. This, at
least, will be true of such breeds as are of composite
blood, for then alien blood is present more or less, and
it has been shown that the blood of cross-breds tends
to increase the inclination to atavism. That the
tendencies to atavism as to variation would increase as
prepotency is weak, would seem to be reasonable, since
prepotency from its very nature tends to produce
resemblance to the parents rather than to their an-
cestors, near or remote.

Alternations in Atavic Transmission. — In some
forms of atavic transmission there is a tendency to
alternations of generation in the inheritance and more
especially with reference to certain forms of disease.
Such transmission may be more or less regular in its
appearance, as, for instance, in every second or third
generation, or it may be irregular, owing, in part,
at least, to the presence or absence of exciting causes
acting upon the rudiments of yet future diseases that
have been transmitted. In many of the lower animals
the alternation of generations is a fixed law of trans-
mission. According to Miles, in a certain order of
plant lice, the aphides, nine or ten generations of in-
dividuals are produced in succession before those
having sexual organs that are capable of producing
eggs make their appearance. But alternations of this
class vary in the number of generations which they
cover in different orders.

Reversion surrounded with Difficulties. — Be-
cause of the alternations just referred to and also the
apparent irregularities in transmission, the theory
of reversion is surrounded with many difficulties.
'This irregularity may arise, in part, from the inherit^

56 ANIMAL BREEDING.

ance of two or more than two antagonistic characters,
either one of which may become dominant in the
offspring. They may dominate in a regular or ir-
regular alternation. That one or the other of these
characters should dominate in what may be termed
irregular alternation may be accounted for through
the influence of natural causes, as, for instance,
changed conditions, and to some extent they may be
and doubtless are influenced by the character of the
breeding. And yet these influences are so subtle in
their action that, heretofore, they have baffled all at-
tempts to explain them. This, at least, is true of
many of them. But the explanation just given does
not sufficiently account for transmission in an alter-
nation of generations whether the alternation be regu-
lar or irregular. External influences of an even
character should tend to produce uniformity in trans-
mission. When the external evidences, therefore, are
of this character, and yet there are alternations in
transmission, such transmission certainly points to
the conclusion that these belong as strictly to the
organization through inheritance as any other part of
the system.

Reversion not Spontaneous Variation. — Indi-
vidual instances of reversion cannot be referred to
spontaneous variation. The difference between these
has already been touched upon when defining atavism.
It was there explained that atavism produced re-
semblances to an ancestry more or less remote, where-
as spontaneous variation produced dissimilarity to
the ancestry whether near or remote. Spontaneous
variations are extremely irregTilar and they are not
only dissimilar to the ancestry, but also to one an-
other. In individual instances of atavic transmission,

THE LAW OF ATAVISM. 57

there is not only resemblance to the ancestry, but
resemblances to one another are frequent in the in-
stances of such transmission. There can be no effect
without a cause. The more constant the effect, the
more apparent is the cause. The constancy, there-
fore, with which some pre-existing characters are
transmitted proves the existence of definite physio-
logical laws governing atavic transmission. The mis-
take, however, must not be made that because spon-
taneous variations are so extremely irregular they
are not under the domain of law. But it must be
acknowledged that extremely little is known in the
meantime of the laws that control atavic transmission,
whatever may be known of these in the future.

Theorizing on Variation. — Some have accounted
for the phenomena of all variation, including rever-
sion, on the hypothesis that the union of two different
natures in reproduction may give a result essentially
different from either. If this were true, there could
be no assurance of constancy in the transmission of
ancestral forms. The first great law of breeding
could then be no longer looked upon as a law. It
would be of no value to the breeder because of the
extreme uncertainty of the character of the trans-
mission. This hypothesis is not true even in instances
of spontaneous variation that are quite pronounced
in character. In such instances the variation belongs
only to certain features of the animal. Take, for
instance. Polled Durham cattle. One branch of the
breed is purely Shorthorn. Through spontaneous
variation foundation animals were secured that were
hornless. ]N"otwithstanding such variation, the Polled
Durhams have all the characteristics of Shorthorns
with the exception that the horns are absent. Such

68 ANIMAL BREEDING.

a hypothesis Avould imply the correctness of the theory
that the elements of the organization may be again
resolved into their original constituents. This would
scarcely seem possible, for if it were so, accumulation
in dominant j^roperties could not be secured. The
tendencies to reversion might then be as strong as
those in the direction of transmitting like properties.
Dominant and Latent Characters. — In the dis-
cussion of the various forms of heredity it is neces-
sary to distinguish between dominant and latent char-
acters in heredity. The dominant characters include
those that are prominent and obvious. For instance,
the power to transmit fine and dense wool in the
]\Ierino sheej) is a dominant character. It is known
to be so, since it has been observed that they always
transmit wool fine and dense. A century ago the
Spanish Merino was narrow in body and flat in the
rib. American breeders have sought to widen the
body and round out the rib, and Avith considerable suc-
cess, and yet not infrequently individuals appear
with those characteristics as they Avere originally.
The characters which reproduce them are latent. The
presence of the dominant characters are known by the
constant character of the transmission. The latent
characters can only be shown to have existed by oc-
casional transmission in the offspring. It may be true
that all characters are transmitted as physiological
units, some of which are dominant and others latent.
This theory, if correct, would throw some light on
the subject of heredity, but it would not throw any
light on the causes of dominance in the various units
of transmission. On much that relates to transmission
the word mystery can be written, and it is the only
word that will fitly apply at present, whatever the
future may bring forth.

THE LAW OF ATAVISM. 59

An Assemblage of Characters not Inherited. —
It is not probable that the offspring inherits an as-
semblage of peculiarities representing the aggregate
of parental characters. That it is so is shown in the
inheritance of certain diseases. The morbid charac-
teristics of one or the other parent are frequently
either completely repeated or are altogether absent,
and yet other prominent characteristics will be in-
herited from the parent whose morbid characteristics
were not transmitted. It is doubtless true, therefore,
that dominant features in the offspring may be in-
herited from both parents, while other features in
each may not be inherited in any marked degree ex-
cept in what may be termed the latent form. Hence
it is, that the offspring may inherit the defects of one
parent and the good qualities of the other. It also
happens that a defect disappears for a number of
generations and then suddenly appears. Theoretical-
ly it has been bred out, but the fact of its reappear-
ance shows that it has been transmitted all the while
but has in the interval been quiescent.

Atavism not necessarily Antagonistic to Im-
provement.— Atavism is usually looked upon as an-
tagonistic to improvement in breeding, but good may
come from it in some instances on the principle that
good may result from Avhat is in itself an evil. So-
called improvement in breeding has not always been
unmixed improvement. Poland China swine have
been greatly improved as compared with their an-
cestors in form and feeding qualities, but in very
many instances at the sacrifice of stamina. When,
therefore, atavic transmission relating to inheritance
of this character appears it is distinct gain. But it
is only when improvement in some features has been

60 ANIMAL BREEDING.

accompanied by retrogression in others that any direct
benefit can be gained from atavic transmission.
When, however, breeders are led, through the fear of
atavic transmission, to discard the use of grade sires
on their farms and to avoid cross-breeding in an aim-
less and uncertain way, great good may result from
the fact of its existence. It then becomes a rod, as
it were, to whip the breeder into line who might other-
wise be careless in his methods.

CHAPTEK VL

HEREDITY OF NORMAL, ABNORMAL, AND
ACQUIRED CHARACTERS.

All transmission is the outcome of natural law.
But it has been sho^vn that the laws which govern
transmission are not equally apparent. For instance,
the laws that control variation and reversion are more
obscure in their action than the law that controls like-
ness in transmission. The same things may be said
of the heredity of normal, abnormal, and acquired
characters. While all such heredity is under the con-
trol of law the transmission of normal, abnormal, and
acquired characters is by no means equally uniform
or equally apparent.

Definition of Heredity. — Heredity is the result
of the operation of that law whereby characters and
qualities of like kind with those of the parents and
ancestors are transmitted to the offspring. It is an-
other name for inheritance, and is so closely akin to
transmission that the terms as applied to breeding
may be considered synonymous and interchangeable.
This transmission relates to structure, function,
habit, and qualities, and, indeed, to every feature of
the organization. Thus far it is on a par with trans-
mission which is the outcome of the law that like pro-
duces like. But, unlike the former, it relates to all
kinds of transmission as well as to the transmission
of like qualities. The inheritance of spavin in a colt
from one or both parents thus affected illustrates
heredity that relates to structure. The inheritance of

62 AKOIAL BREEDING.

high stepping and free knee action in the progeny of
one or both parents thus characterized, illustrates
heredity relating to function. The difficulty found in
teaching a calf to drink milk when immediately de-
scended from ancestry that have roamed on the range,
as previously stated, as compared with a Holstein
calf whose ancestry have been reared by hand for
generations, illustrates heredity which relates to
habit. And the superior handling qualities in an
Aberdeen Angus Poll descended from parents that
were thus furnished, as also previously stated, illus-
trates the heredity of a quality, that is to say, the
quality of good handling. The supposed exceptions to
heredity are doubtless the result of the predominant
influence for the time being of other laws acting in
opposition to the hereditary tendency. Heredity may
be characterized as normal, abnormal, and acquired.
These will be considered separately.

Heredity that is Normal. — By the heredity of
normal characters is meant the inheritance or trans-
mission of characters natural to the type. These char-
acters are of two classes. They have been original
traits bestowed upon the species, or they may have
been acquired, and rendered permanent by continued
transmission. To the former class may be referred
the readiness with which the horse obeys, the teacha-
bleness of the dog, the natural timidity of the sheep,
the thirst of the tiger for blood, the readiness with
which smne seek the wallow in time of heat, and the
eagerness of the collie dog to assist in driving the
flock without harming it. It is not always possible to
distinguish between heredity that is normal to the
type and heredity that is acquired. For instance,
the habit of milk giving in the cow is normal, but the

HEREDITY OF CHARACTERS. 63

habit of abundant milk giving is acquired. That
which is acquired may in time come to be looked upon
as normal when it becomes so engrafted on the species
as to be transmitted with as much regularity as char-
acters that were original traits.

Illustrations of Normal Heredity. — Illustra-
tions of the persistent and uniform action of the law
of heredity of normal characters may be readily
drawn from the different departments of organic life.
In geological formations covering immense periods of
time, fossil species and generic forms present the same
essential characters throughout the entire range. The
ox, for instance, has the essential features of anatom-
ical structure in his organization in the skeletons
found in the earliest geological formations, as he pos-
sesses to-day. The lapse of time represented in the
historic period has made no appreciable change in
the characters of wild animals. The lion is neither
more nor less fierce to-day than in the days Avhen he
was hunted by Nimrod. The wild hare is no less
timid than it was long centuries ago. The elephant
of to-day is characterized by his enormous size as he
was in the days when he trod down the enemy in battle
while Alexander the Great was conquering Persia.
The wild goat loves to graze upon the mountains as in
the days before the flood. And the eagle builds its
eyrie in the cleft of the rock as it did in the days when
the earth was green and young. The animals that
have been preserved in the monuments of Egypt from
a remote antiquity are essentially the same as those
now found on the banks of the I^ile. In these various
illustrations is evidenced the constancy and persist-
ency with which original traits are transmitted when
nature is not interfered with in her processes. It

64 ANIMAL BREEDING.

would, therefore, be correct to assume, that nature
unaided has not performed any important part in
the evolution of breeds. It is only, or at least chiefly,
when the guiding hand of man has come to the aid
of nature that evolution has become at all permanent.
Heredity of Individual Peculiarities. — The he-
redity of normal characters is by no means confined
to those that belong to the species as such. It extends
as well to individual peculiarities. Illustrations of
such transmission are found, first, in the families of
athletes and giants. In the Old Testament Scriptures
families of giants are referred to and in a way which
points to the conclusion that such extraordinary phys-
ical development was the outcome of inheritance. In
ancient Greece were families of athletes noted as such
from generation to generation. Second, in the very
large number of running horses descended from Her-
od and Eclipse and of trotting horses descended from
Messenger. The winners in the individual progeny
of these horses aggregate a large number. Third, in
the remarkable development of the musical talent
found in certain families for successive generations.
As Miles has stated, many of the descendants of Se-
bastian Bach, wdio lived in the sixteenth century, w^ere
organists and church singers in Thuringia, Saxony,
and Franconia. For nearly two centuries subsequent-
ly to his death they furnished many musicians of
great eminence. Fourth, in the longevity of certain
families even though the conditions are unfavorable
to such longevity. To so great an extent is longevity
in families taken as the estimate of the duration of
life, that insurance agents lay much stress upon it
when issuing policies. Fifth, in the fecundity or
sterility of certain families. This is witnessed in

HEREDITY OF CHARACTEES.

65

;;^||HM^

^|l

wMj^iii -■ ^^^^^t^^^K^

ft?. *

f^$i

'%i ■

i^t ^ '"^

^

.^

66 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the human race and also in domestic animals, and
these distinctions are noticeable where the conditions
of life are very similar. And sixth, in the inheritance
of mental and moral traits. Some families are noted
as being quarrelsome from generation to generation,
others are pre-eminently distinguished by their gen-
erosity, and yet again others are noted for the long
line of individuals who have devoted their lives to
the Christian ministry.

Heredity that is Abnormal. — The heredity of
abnormal characters means the inheritance of charac-
ters which have deviated from the natural and ac-
quired characteristics of the type. It would, perhaps,
be correct to say that all disease is abnormal, and
that the discussion of the same should be included in
the discussion of abnormal characters. But there are
some points of difference between disease and other
abnormal characters. While all disease is in a sense
abnormal, characters that are usually spoken of as
abnormal do not necessarily constitute disease. For
instance, there may be malformation of structure, as
an excess in the number of the fingers, or derangement
of function, as deafness, found in persons who have
excellent healtli. There is more of obscurity sur-
rounding abnormal characters which do not consti-
tute disease than in those Avhich do constitute the
same. It has, therefore, been deemed advisable to
discuss the two separately. Abnormal characters
which do not constitute disease may appear as mal-
formations of structure or derangement of function.
When they constitute disease they assume many forms
of the same as will be shown in Chapter YII., which
treats of the heredity of diseases.

Heredity of Malforrrations in Structure. — The

HEREDITY OF CHARACTERS. 67

heredity of malformations in structure may be illus-
trated as follows: 1. Certain families have been
found with an excess or with a deficiency in the num-
ber of fingers and toes or of joints in the same, and
these have been inherited with more or less of regu-
larity for generations. Females in the human family
have been able to give nurse to their children from
more than two nipples, and some of these have been
irregularly placed. 2. Dorking and Houdan fowls
have a fifth toe, which is, of course, supernumerary.
The Houdans especially were not ahvays character-
ized by this peculiarity, though now it is a constant
characteristic of the breed, and in the Dorkings the
tendency is strong to further variation in the pro-
duction of toes. 3. The Kiata breed of cattle graz-
ed by the river Plata. As described by Darwin in
^^^nimals and Plants under Domestication," they had
a peculiar malformation of the skull, by which its
nasal end was curved upward. The lower jaw pro-
jected beyond the upper, and had also a correspond-
ing upward curvature. It is reasonable to suppose
that this deformity is the outcome of inheritance in
malformation. 4. A family of one eared rabbits has
been originated, as described by Dr. Anderson in
^'Recreations in Agriculture," by breeding together a
closely related pair in which the abnormal character
had appeared. Illustrations of this feature of ab-
normal transmission could be multiplied indefinitely.
Heredity of the Derangement of Function. —
Illustrations of the derangement of function may be
found in the tendency of some families to use the left
hand. This tendency has frequently been transmitted
from generation to generation. The tribe of Benja-
min was noted for its left-handed slingers. These

68 ANIMAL BREEDING.

appear to have been so numerous that they constituted
the rule rather than the exception. The narrative
would seem to show, at least, that the most famous
of the slingers in the tribe were left handed. Further
illustration of the same is found in the inheritance
of deafness, dumbness, and impaired vision. These
are frequently transmitted from generation to genera-
tion though not by any means in an imbroken line of
transmission. The inheritance may be direct and ob-
vious in some members of a family, but not so obvious
in others, and yet it may reappear in the children or
in the descendants of the latter.

Abnormal Characters not Uniformly Inherited,
— Abnormal characters are not so likely to be per-
petuated through transmission as original traits or
acquired habits in harmony with the original pecul-
iarities of the animal. If a record were kept of all
the instances of inheritance of abnormal qualities in
the offspring thus affected, it would be found that as
a rule the number of the progeny not inheriting such
qualities would considerably exceed that of the prog-
eny in which such inheritance appeared. But this re-
sult may arise in part from the fact that parents
possessing abnormal peculiarities are usually mated
with those who do not possess them. !N^ormal inherit-
ance from the latter would tend to counteract ab-
normal inheritance from the former. But, some-
times, there is an increase in the development of an
abnormal character. Such would appear to be true of
Houdan fowls, which, according to Wright in his work
on poultry, very rarely showed the fifth toe when first
introduced into England, while now the absence of the
fifth toe is exceptional. Why the tendency to trans-
mit abnormal characters should be so much stronger

HEREDITY OF CHARACTERS. 69

in some instances than in others cannot be fully ac-
counted for in the present state of our knowledge.

Abnormal Transmission not always Apparent. —
It is not bj any means certain that the abnormal pe-
culiarities of parents have not been transmitted to the
offspring when they are not discernible. Sometimes
such transmission is not apparent for at least a limit-
ed number of generations, when suddenly it reappears
with more or less of completeness. The fact of such
reappearance as with ordinary atavic transmission
proves that the tendency to these abnormal characters
has been transmitted all the while. Their obscurity
in the meantime has been the result of the presence of
some more dominant character or characters. Their
non-inheritance can only be fully determined by an
exhaustive examination of all the individuals in the
direct and collateral lines of descent^ and for a period
that will cover several generations.

Functional Derangement not Always FoUoiv-
ed hy Structural Changes. — The transmission of
functional peculiarities does not always involve the
transmission of some corresponding structural change.
Functional derangements from an injured nervous
system have frequently been transmitted without mal-
formation of the nerves. ^N'or does the inheritance
of the use of the left hand involve any structural
change. In a majority of instances it would be cor-
rect to say that such transmission is accompanied by
structural changes. For instance, the inheritance of
diminished capacity for milk production, as when
the inheritance comes from the male, is accompanied
by less capacity in the development of the udder, and
by an udder less glandular in character. It should
also be remembered that in-and-in breeding tends to

70 ANIMAL BREEDING.

intensify all forms of abnormal inheritance. It
should, therefore, be most sedulously avoided when
the aim is to breed out abnormal characters that may
have appeared.

The Heredity of Acquired Characters. — By the
heredity of acquired characters is meant the inherit-
ance of characters engrafted upon those original traits
peculiar to the type. They differ from normal char-
acters in not having originally belonged to the type,
and they differ from abnormal characters in their
being in harmony with the original constitution of
the race, which the latter are not. They may be
produced by such influences as food, environment,
education, and training. The much greater size of
the American Merino as compared with the Spanish
Merino is an acquired character produced by good
food aided by good care. The relatively large de-
velopment of the forequarters of the sheep reared
on mountains is an acquired character produced by
environment. The readiness with which domestic
animals submit to human direction as compared with
wild animals of the same species is a character ac-
quired through education. And the tendency in the
collie dog, as previously intimated, to drive at the
heels rather than at the head is a character acquired
through generations of training. These characters
may be more quickly secured and intensified by the
aid of in-and-in breeding than in its absence. Espe-
cially is this true when they are in the formative
stage.

Heredity of Acquired Characters Ulustrated. —
Illustrations of the inheritance of acquired characters
are numerous: 1. It is seen in the sagacity and
fidelity of the collie dog and in the striking peculiar-

HEREDITY OF CHARACTERS. 71

ities of other breeds of dogs. The wisdom of the
collie dog is such that it would almost seem to be
guided by reason. The readiness with which the
Newfoundland dog takes to the water is simply
wonderful. So, too, is the service rendered by the
8t. Bernard dogs of the Swiss Alps, and by the point-
er and the setter. These distinguishing traits are all
acquired. 2. It is seen in the tendency of beef breeds
to lay on fat and of the dairy breeds to secrete an
abundant supply of milk and for a long period. The
marked differences which in these respects charac-
terize breeds did not always characterize them. They
have been first acquired and then intensified. 3. It is
seen in the speed of the American trotting horses, in
the ambling pace of those of the Cordilleras, and in
the readiness with which Norwegian ponies obey the
human voice. These characters have been developed
through long years of training, until they have come
to be transmitted with much regularity. 4. And it is
seen in the disposition to wariness which has come to
characterize various races of wild animals, Avhich at
one time manifested no uneasiness because of man's
presence. Birds, and also quadrupeds, inhabiting va-
rious islands when these were first discovered, mani-
fested no fear of man, but their descendants now
flee at his approach.

Acquired Characters and Original Traits Con-
flicting Elemeyits. — From what has been said it will
be apparent that acquired characters and original
traits are conflicting elements, either one of which,
from its intensity, may predominate in hereditary
transmission. The former are less certain to appear
for a time in heredity, but eventually they may be
looked for with as much certainty as the original

72 ANIMAL BREEDING.

traits. In many instances they supplant the former.
Such was the case with the wild birds just referred to
in which the absence of fear because of man's presence
was succeeded by great fear because of the same.
From a practical point of view, therefore, the en-
grafting of acquired characters is without any limit.

The fact is not to be lost sight of, however, that
the characters thus engrafted must be in harmony
with the original constitution of the race. The dog
is naturally teachable, hence, with the dog the en-
grafting of an acquired character is not usually dif-
ficult. Swine are not nearly so teachable by nature.
Generations of careful training would doubtless im-
prove them in this respect, but would never make
them so susceptible to training as the dog.

It is not difficult to so modify physical charac-
ters in animals that were of primal bestowment, that
in turn they become acquired characters. The strong
tail head possessed by many of the old time Galloways
is much less pronounced in the Galloways of to-day.
The reduced size of the tail head has, therefore, be-
come an acquired physical character of the breed.
But it is difficult to entirely eliminate an organ of
primal bestowment, as, for instance, the removal of
horns or tail in domestic animals without the help
of spontaneous variation. During past centuries it
has been customary with some, at least, of the English
breeds of sheep, to remove the tail at an early age,
with the exception of from one to two inches nearest
the root of the same, and yet when lambs of these
breeds are born, the tails are as long, apparently, as
they ever were. The change would probably be made
much more quickly by constantly selecting animals
for breeding possessed of the shortest tails. It would,

HEREDITY OF CHAEACTEES. 73

therefore, require many generations of breeding be-
fore dehorning alone would produce hornless animals,
if, indeed, that alone would ever produce such a
result.

CHAPTER VII.

HEREDITY OF DISEASES.

That certain forms of diseases are transmissible
does not for one moment admit of question. That
all forms of disease are transmissible is not true.
It is equally certain that in many instances disease
may be present, or the predisposing influences that
lead thereto, in a form so subtle as to escape notice,
and that when thus present it may be transmitted di-
rectly, or the tendency to it only may be transmitted,
requiring only certain conditions to develop into the
active form. This question, then, is one of great
practical moment to the breeder of live stock and
should receive at his liands the most careful considera-
tion.

Heredity of Disease Defined. — By the heredity
of diseases is meant the transmission to the progeny,
of certain abnormal conditions of the system which
characterized the parents. It has already been shown
in Chapter VI. that all a])normal conditions do not
constitute disease, and that while all disease is ab-
normal, all that is abnormal is not disease. It should
also be remembered that only certain kinds of disease
are transmissible. While it may not be easy in all
instances to distinguish between diseases that are
transmissible and those that are not, it would be cor-
rect to say that all diseases of that class known as
constitutional are transmissible. Those of a tuber-
culous character are by far the most numerous. Many

HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 75

contagious and infectious diseases are not only not
transmissible, but their having been once borne by the
individual would, in some instances, appear to render
the progeny less susceptible to the disease. Such it
has been claimed is true of hog cholera, although au-
thorities are not agreed as to this question.

Heredity of Diseases Structural and Functional.
— As with the heredity of abnormal characters which
do riot constitute diseases, such inheritance may relate
to a modification of structure or to a derangement of
function. When such heredity relates to the modi-
fication of structure it is seldom or never questioned,
since the evidences of its presence are so apparent to
the eye, but when it relates to derangement of func-
tion, it is more liable to be overlooked. For instance,
when ringbone has been present in one or both parents
and again appears in the offspring, the inheritance of
ringbone by the latter from the former is not ques-
tioned, since the evidences of it are so apparent to
the eye. But suppose that the udder of a dam is
tuberculous, the presence of the same, for a time at
least, may not be patent to the eye. Should the cow
so affected beget progeny it will inherit the tendency
to tuberculosis, and should she suckle the same, the
progeny will be almost certain to contract tuberculosis
from the dam. Xow suppose such inheritance is ex-
actly similar in kind, function in the udder of the
progeny will be deranged, and yet it may not be
possible to be absolutely assured of such derangement,
at least for a time, save through the process of a post-
mortem on the cow, and even then the functional de-
rangement would be accompanied by structural de-
rangement. It would seem to be true, therefore, that
all inherited disease is accompanied by structural

76 ANIMAL BREEDING.

modification or derangement and that this may be
so even when only the indications pointing to disease
are present. It wonld also seem to be true that any
peculiarity of the functional activity of an organ if
long continued, is likely to result in a habit of the
system which will be inherited by the offspring.

Hereditary Disease Congenital or of Latent
Transmission. — Hereditary disease is either con-
genital or there is a predisposition to it. It is con-
genital when it is apparent at birth. A brood mare
may have certain joints greatly enlarged. If, in her
offspring, the same is apparent at birth, it illustrates
congenital transmission. The same is true of goitre
in lambs when it is present at birth. Of course it
makes no difference how the disease came to be trans-
mitted, whether through the immediate ancestors or
those more remote, it is congenital when the indica-
tions of it are present at birth. The predisposition
to disease is inherited when the tendency only is
transmitted, but does not actually constitute disease
until some exciting cause develops it at a later period.

The tendency to tuberculosis may be transmitted.
This tendency for a time may be latent. The health-
giving influences surrounding the animal may be
such that for a time no evidence of tuberculosis is
apparent. Later, however, the surroundings become
unfavorable, and the disease appears. Again, it may
not appear until the next generation or even for a
longer period, but finally develops. In such instances
the conclusion is fair, that the predisposition to the
disease was transmitted all the while. It is evident,
therefore, that there is always more or less of hazard
in breeding from animals that are tainted with dis-
ease, though to the eve they may seem to be in per-

HEREDITY OP DISEASES. 77

feet health. The tuberculin test may single out ani-
mals that are affected with tuberculosis. It may be
that to the eye they are in perfect vigor. Possibly
they are pure bred and rich in blood lines of famous
ancestral descent. While the owner consents to quar-
antine them he continues to rear progeny from them.
In such instances the fact should not be lost sight of,
that the predisposition to tuberculosis has probably
been transmitted. There is the possibility, however,
that through wise management the predisposition
thus transmitted may eventually be eliminated. On
the other hand the predisposition to certain forms
of disease may become hereditary. The cattle beast
with a narrow chest falls an easy prey to the influ-
ences which produce tuberculosis. Breeding such
animals in direct descent for generations ensures the
lieredity of a predisposition to tuberculous diseases.
Diseases that are Hereditary. — While various
forms of disease are transmissible, those of a tuber-
culous character are peculiarly so. To so great an
extent is this true, that a close examination of the
question would probably show that the instances of
transmission of diseases, tuberculous in character,
would probably outnumber those of the transmission
of all other forms of disease combined. And this
is true of domestic animals to a greater extent than
it is true of the human family. Tuberculous diseases
are characterized by the formation of tubercles in
various organs of the body and by a perversion of
the nutritive functions. These tubercles are by no
means uniform in their location, even with the same
form of disease. For instance, in tuberculosis, the
tubercles may be found in one instance in the lungs,
in another in the bowels, and in a third instance, in

78 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the udder of females. In aggravated cases all these
organs and indeed various other organs are affected.
The most common forms of tuberculosis include con-
sumption, diarrhoea, dysentery, mesenteric disease,
hydrocephalus and glandular swellings.

Tuberculous Diseases Frequent Among Domes-
tic Animals. — Tuberculous diseases are frequent but
not equally so among horses, cattle, sheep, and swine.
Cattle are much more likely to be affected with such
ailments than horses, sheep, and possibly swine.
Horses are more frequently affected than sheep, and
the trouble in horses is much prone to assume the form
of swollen and otherwise diseased joints and limbs.
Tuberculosis may not have actually developed, and
yet there may be a predisposition to it, the indications
of which are manifest.

These indications are various. They include
the following, viz. : 1. A thin carcass and lacking in
depth, a narrow chest and loin, flat ribs, large barrel
depression and hollow flanks. 2. Extreme thinness
and fineness of the head, neck, and withers, want of
fullness in the eyes, hollow^ness behind the ears, un-
due fullness under the jaws, and a small and narrow
muzzle. 3. Much prominence of the bones in certain
parts as at the joints, and a coarse and ungainly ap-
pearance. And 4, a hard, unyielding skin, thin and
dry hair, and irregularity in changing the coat. A
thin carcass, of course, means one lacking in width
throughout its entire length. ^arro^vness of chest,
flatness of rib and smallness of muzzle are all asso-
ciated with circumscribed respiration and a low vi-
tality. Want of width and depth in body are asso-
ciated ^vith a lack of digestive capacity. The low
vitality and the lack of digestive capacity account for

HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 79

the lack of fullness in the eye, behind the ear and in
the flanks. They are the outcome of a weak nutrition,
which in turn is the outcome of the causes named.
The undue length of the limbs in such instances is
probably a result of the law of correlation discussed
in Chapter VIII. The undue prominence of the
joints arises from a perverted nutrition. The harsh,
unyielding skin, and the characteristics of coat men-
tioned are the outcome of a feeble circulation which
in turn grows out of a feeble digestion. Animals thus
formed fall an easy prey to tuberculous diseases,
hence, to breed from them would be very unwise.

Variations in the Inheritance of Diseases. — The
inheritance of the so-called constitutional diseases
varies in many instances in the organs affected. In
these there are sometimes alternations in the trans-
mission, that is to say, the parents may have diseased
lungs, and the transmission in the next generation
will manifest itself in the form of tumors or glandular
swellings, while in the following generation it may
again assume the form of lung disease in one or the
other of its forms. But it is also true that the loca-
tion of the disease may depend in many instances on
the method of infection, that is to say, whether
through the digestive organs or through the lungs.
The conditions to which the animals are subjected
may, in part, account for such alternations in trans-
mission, but they do not furnish the explanation of
all the instances of such variable transmission. The
injudicious treatment of animals predisposed to such
diseases may also aid in determining the particular
organ that will be affected. For instance, the injudi-
cious use of a violent cathartic may locate the in-
herited tendency to chronic diarrhoea.

80 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Cause of Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis is one of
the most common forms in which disease appears in
domestic animals. Because of the extent to which it
prevails, especially among cattle, it has been thought
that greater loss arises from this source than from
all the other forms of disease combined. It should,
therefore, not be out of place to give some special con-
sideration to this question. The direct cause of tuber-
culosis is a rod-like microscopic parasite w^hich may,
in various ways, be transferred from one animal to
another. In the congenital form the disease changes
may be in process of development or they may be
developed. The germs may be conveyed in the moth-
er's milk or in the nasal or bowel discharges. They
may also be inhaled in the atmosphere of surround-
ings where tuberculous cattle have recently been kept.
There is no way, however, in which the contagion
will more certainly be conveyed than in the milk of
the dams whose udders are tuberculous. It does not
happen with much frequency that the disease is trans-
mitted in the congenital form, but the predisposition
to it is probably invariably transmitted by tuberculous
parents.

Predisposing Causes of Tuberculosis. — There
are several predisposing causes of tuberculosis aside
from inheritance. These include disorder of the
digestive organs, food deficient in quantity and qual-
ity, impure water, confinement in dark, damp, filthy,
unventilated apartments, and undue exposure to cold
or to any other influence that lowers the action of the
vital powers. The extent to which cattle have been
confined in damp, dark, and ill-ventilated stables is
perhaps responsible for the great extent to which
tuberculosis prevails more than any other ^ngle ex-

HEREDITY OF DISEASES.

81

<9

K -

£3

82 ANIMAL BREEDING.

ternal cause. Cattle reared on the ranges are bnt
little subject to tuberculosis, not^^-ithstanding that
in many instances they are frequently subjected to
privation because of short supplies of food. This
fact should be carefully considered by those wlio re-
quire to keep cattle housed much of the time in
winter. It emphasizes the necessity for supplying
them with ample fresh air in the stables and also with
sufficient exercise.

Continued in-and-in breeding, or even protracted
close breeding and breeding from immature or en-
feebled parents are also responsible for much of the
tuberculosis that prevails. Of this fact there is evi-
dence in the greater extent to which tuberculosis has
prevailed in the families of Shorthorns and Jerseys
that have been thus bred, than in other families of
these respective breeds. It is also evidenced in the
less extent to which the disease prevails in semi-
mountain breeds, as the West Highland, which have
been subjected to less artificial conditions than the
breeds just named. But the conclusion must not be
reached that artificial conditions of necessity conduce
to the increase of tuberculosis. It is only when these
conditions are made such as to lower the vitality of
the animals that they foster tuberculosis. Of course,
when the predisposition to tuberculosis is inherited,
the conditions named become intensified in their ac-
tion. Similarly, Avhen the predisposition to any form
of disease is inherited, the action of the exciting
causes becomes intensified.

Inherited Predisposition to Disease from One or
Both Parents. — The inherited predisposition to dis-
ease may be derived from either parent or from both.
When such predisposition is derived from both par-

HEREDITY OF DISEASES. oo

ents it becomes intensified. It would follow, there-
fore, that the hazard of transmitting the predisposi-
tion to tuberculosis in the progeny will be greatly
increased when both parents are thus affected. To
lessen this danger herds should certainly be, at least
occasionally, subjected to the tuberculin test as other-
Avise there can be no certain assurance that such a
mistake will not be made. There are some instances
in which the limitation of disease is confined to one
sex and transmitted by the other, as, for instance,
when the inheritance of skin diseases is manifest in
the male descendants only, although the females trans-
mit the same with more or less of regularity to their
male progeny. ]\[any instances of such transmission
have been noted in the human family. Such transmis-
sion also occurs with more or less frequency among
domestic animals, although with them it has probably
been less noticed. This would seem to be akin to
similar transmission of abnormal qualities already
noticed.

Suspension in the Transmission of Disease. — In
the transmission of hereditary disease there may be
suspension for a time as well as alternation, that is
to say, the disease may not be transmitted for a time
and may again reappear. The suspension may con-
tinue for several generations. This may be due to
the absence of exciting causes, or it may be owing to
favorable sanitary conditions, followed by those less
sanitary or indeed of an entirely opposite character.
Such transmission is atavic in its nature, and is
probably subject to the same laws that control atavic
transmission. It is also true that alternations of de-
velopment are frequent in the transmission of heredi-
tary diseases. So frequent are those alternations that

84 ANIMAL BREEDING.

such transmission would, in many instances, seem to
be the rule rather than the exception.

These alternations in transmission, especially
in the human family, may relate, first, to alternation
in generations, and second, to alternation in the in-
dividuals affected in the same family. For instance,
certain diseases will sometimes be entirely absent
in the first generation, but will reappear in the second.
They will be absent in the third generation and re-
appear in the fourth. Again, in individual families,
the first born may be free from the taint, and the
second may inherit it, the third is free and the fourth
affected, and thus the transmission descends through
the entire family. And yet again, the alternation
may relate to sex, that is to say, the inherited dis-
ease will manifest itself only in one sex. In still
other instances, the disease will be confined to one sex
and transmitted only by or through the other, as
previously pointed out. These alternations in trans-
mission would appear to be under the control of in-
fluences which, though not understood, are regular
in their action. They would seem to be the outcome
of two antagonistic characters which alternate in
dominating power, but why they should act thus is
yet a veiled secret.

Disease may he Transmitted Potentially. — Dis-
ease still future in the parent or the tendencies to it,
though undeveloped, may be transmitted potentially
to the offspring. Such instances are of frequent oc-
currence in the transmission of cancers. The tend-
ency to these in the human family is probably trans-
mitted in all instances before the disease has appeared
in the parent, l^ov does it follow that the tendency
to disease in the parent thus transmitted potentially

HEREDITY OF DISEASES. 85

to the offspring will ever become operative, that is,
it may never develop into actual disease in the parent.
In breeding horses instances of such transmission are
not infrequent. Parents notorious for the develop-
ment of swollen limbs, or ringbones in some instances
beget progeny in which these ailments do not appear
until subsequently to the birth of the latter, and in
some instances they do not appear at all. Such trans-
mission is somewhat akin to transmission character-
ized by suspension, nevertheless they are not the
same. The strength of the predisposing conditions
acting in conjunction with other conditions, particu-
larly those of an external character, have an all pow-
erful influence in determining the exact character of
the heredity.

Predisposition to Disease through Faulty Con-
formation.— Animals free from constitutional taint
transmit indirectly to their ofl:'spring a predisposition
to certain forms of disease through the faulty con-
formation of certain physical features of develop-
ment. 1, A disproportion in the width and strength
of the leg above the hock to the width and strength
of the same below this part in the parent horse, pre-
disposes to spavin in the offspring. And this predis-
position may lead to the development, of the disease
even when spavin or the tendency to it has not been
transmitted directly from the parents. 2, In draft
horses round limbs containing an unusual proportion
of cellular tissue predispose the offspring to such dis-
eases as wTed and grease. 3, Chests that are narrow,
pasterns that are upright and toes that are turned out
beyond a certain limit, beget a tendency in the off-
spring to bone diseases of the foot, as, for instance,
ringbone. Such instances could easily be multiplied.

86 ANIMAL BREEDING.

The same principle has been referred to when treat-
ing above of the indications of tuberculosis. Because
of such danger, every care should be taken when
selecting breeding animals to avoid selecting those
that are thus constituted. In the choice of these, as
much importance should be placed upon freedom
from the taint of inherited disease as upon the absence
of the various features that indicate inferior physical
development.

CHAPTEE VIII.

THE LAW OF CORRELATION.

Theee principal laws have been given in previ-
ous chapters which govern the breeding of domestic
animals. These are the law that like produces like,
the law of variation, and the law of atavism. In ad-
dition to these there is another law, viz. : the law of
correlation. This law, however, is more of what
may be termed an inherent feature of the organization
than of modification in the same and yet it would not
be correct to say that it is not susceptible of modifica-
tion. The relation of the different parts of the organ-
ization in virtue of this law may be much modified
but this relation can never be entirely obliterated.

Definition of Correlation. — Correlation in its
relation to animal life means that correspondence or
relation which exists as to form and function between
the different organs of the body. In virtue of this re-
lation certain peculiarities of structure will obtain
between those organs which belong inherently to the
species. It may be said to form a dividing line be-
tween the species. In fact, without it the classifica-
tion of animal life would be impossible. Because of
this law there must be a certain relation in kind be-
tween the teeth of the cat and the claws of the cat and
between form in an animal and the breeding qualities
of the same animal. As intimated previously, these
relations may be greatly modified but never entirely
suppressed.

88 ANIMAL BREEDING.

The Law of Correlatimi Defined. — The law of
correlation means that interdependent principle of
development and suppression that seems to obtain
between the different organs of the body and the va-
rious functions of the same. By the operation of this
law a change in one organ or set of organs is followed
by a corresponding change in another organ or set
of organs, in some part of the body. For instance, in
wild cattle there is a certain relation between the
parts of the individual animal in virtue of the species
to which it belongs, that is to say, because the form
and action of the jaw are of such a kind, the form of
the digestive organs and the nature of the digestion
are of such a kind. This relation always obtains
without great modification. There will also be a
certain relation between development in the fore and
hind parts of the animal respectively. When they
must needs graze on rugged pastures and among en-
emies, development will be large and strong in the
muscles of the front limbs. They have both to climb
and run. Subject the same class of animals for gen-
erations to level pastures and domestic or semi-domes-
tic conditions, and these relations will change. The
muscles that help to control locomotion in the front
part of the body will grow less relatively, and those
that govern locomotion in the hind parts of the same
will increase. And the modification of the parts is
always or nearly always of an opposite character.

If there is increase in one part of the animal
there will be decrease in some other part of the same,
and the change is usually proportionate in degree to
the change made in the co-related organ or set of
organs. In some instances the corresponding change
is dependent on a change in structure, in others on a

THE LAW OF CORRELATION. 89

change in function, and is of like kind, that is to say,
a change in structure is dependent on a change in
structure, and a change in function on a change in
function, and in yet other instances the change^
whether of structui'e or function, may, to some extent,
be dependent on changes in both structure and func-
tion.

The Anatomist and Correlated Structure. — Cor-
related structure in an animal enables the anatomist
to determine from a single bone: 1, The class and
order to which it belongs; 2, its habits and modes
of life ; and 3, the food required for its support. For
instance, the jaw bone of the skeleton of an ox with
the teeth in it, tells the anatomist that the living
animal chewed the cud and that, therefore, it belonged
to the order of cloven hoofed mammals. Since it
chewed the cud its natural food was coarse herbage.
Because its natural food was coarse herbage it had
the grazing or browsing habit or both, and since it was
a mammal it suckled its young. These are only a few
of the conclusions that could be reached regarding the
animal and its kind from the jaw bone mentioned and
its bony belongings. How easily then could the
skilled anatomist construct a perfect skeleton of an
animal that no man had ever seen alive, from a con-
fused mass of skeleton materials which contained in
it all the parts of the bony framework of such an
animal.

Correlation with Reference to Structure. — Illus-
trations of the law of correlation with reference to
structure are numerous. 1. They may be found in
the highly organized carnivora, in whom, as Cuvier
has said, the form of the teeth has an intimate corre-
spondence to that of the condyle, blade bone, femur,

90 ANIMAL BREEDING.

and claws. In the lion, for instance, there are teeth
to lacerate and hold. There are also teeth to cut,
which plaj upon each other like scissor blades. This
calls for great strength of jaw and a cutting motion
up and do^vn. Both are made possible by the form
of the condyle, of the teeth and jaws and of the strong
muscles attached to the jaws. The blade bone is pow-
erful and so muscled as to give great strength. The
femur is so formed with the muscles attached to it as
to admit of crouching when lying in wait for prey,
and the claws are of a character to enable the animal
to grasp its prey and to lacerate it almost at will. 2.
In the structure of ruminants, in which there is an in-
timate relation between hoof and horn development,
and also between the form of the teeth, the articula-
tion of the jaw and the complex character of the di-
gestive organs. Ruminant animals have all the cloven
hoof and they all have horns that grow out from the
frontal bone. Moreover the number of the horns
corresponds to the number of the divisions in the hoof.
In ruminants the teeth are made to grind. The
joints of the jaw bones and the muscles of the
jaws provide for the lateral or grinding move-
ment of the latter, and the digestion in its com-
plexity provides for the grinding of the food in cIicav^
ing the cud Avhen the animal is otherwise at rest. 3.
In the development of the brain in men and reptiles
respectively and of the bones which surround these.
In the former the brain cavity is large and the bones
encircling it are relatively light, whereas in the latter
the opposite conformation exists. And 4, They are
further found in the development of the fore and hind
parts respectively of the bat and kangaroo. In the
bat the anterior members are widely extended and

THE LAW OF CORRELATION. 91

the posterior but slightly, so as to facilitate rising
easily. In the kangaroo there is much development in
the posterior members and relatively little in the an-
terior, so as to facilitate the taking of long leaps 5.
In the comparative unproductiveness of the male
sebright-bantams without sickle feathers and of rump-
less fowls. And 6, in the effect of castration upon
other organs of the body, as witnessed in the decreas-
ed development of the muscles of the neck which it
produces and the loss of fighting spirit wdiich results
from it. The two illustrations last given also bear
somewhat on the relation which structure has to func-
tion.

Correlation with Reference to Function. — Illus-
trations of the law of correlation with reference to
function are found: 1. In the influence of extreme
development of tlie beef form on milk production, and
vice versa. Experience in growing beef cattle has
shown that when the beef form is pushed to an ex-
treme, milk production is lessened, and that when
the dairy form is pushed to an extreme, beef produc-
tion is hindered. An illustration is thus "Ivon of
the influence of a cOiange in structure on function.
But in this instance, modification of structure is not
the sole cause of modification in function. The
former works hand in hand with habit in pi'oducing
such modification. N^or is the fact to be overlooked
that what may be termed middle ground modification
is not inconsistent with- the production of a fair
amount of meat and of milk in the one animal as
illustrated in the development of the dual purpose
cow. 2. In the influence of a marked increase or de-
crease in flesh production on locomotion. The wild
hog is swift as well as fierce. lie is well muscled

92 ANIMAL BREEDING.

but not loaded down with fat, hence he can run swift^
Ij. His descendant, the domestic hog, when loaded
with flesh cannot run fast. It is possible so to load
him with fat that he rises upon his feet with difficulty.
Here, again, is an illustration of the modifying in-
fluence of structure upon function. 3. In the close
relation between abundant milk production and pro-
lificacy. It has been noticed that females which pro-
duce milk freely, breed more regularly than those
which are shy milkers. They also breed more abun-
dantly when more than one animal is produced at a
birth, and, of course, the opposite of this is true.
In this fact an illustration is furnished of the modi-
fying influence of function on function, both in the
direction of suppression and increase. And 4, in the
unusual development of one sense where another is
deficient. Usually persons who are blind are possess-
ed of the sense of touch in an unusual degree. This,
of course, is owing chiefly to the care bestowed by the
individual in educating that sense, that is to say, in
developing the sense of touch. But it shows at the
same time the indirect influence of function on func-
tion. Similarly the sense of hearing is sometimes
developed in an unusual degree by persons who are
blind, and also the sense of smell. The same prin-
ciple is operative in plant life. When an unusual
growth is produced in grain or in fruit trees, it is so
produced at the expense of grain production in the
one instance and of fruit production in the other.

Influences that affect Correlatioii. — The chief
of the influences that affect correlation are : Environ-
ment, habit and use, food and selection. Illustrations
of the influence of environment on correlation may
be found in the lack of size in Shorthorns, confined

THE LAW OF CORRELATION. 93

to mountain pastures, without a corresponding der-
crease in the size of the bone ; also in the adverse influ-
ence of conditions too artificial on the breeding pow-
ers, though these conditions may secure good physical
development. The influence of habit and use on
correlation is shown in the increase of capacity in
brain power which is frequently obtained at the ex-
pense of diminished muscular development, and in
the increase in muscular development and staying
power which may be obtained in the hard workimg
boy and even in the athlete, though frequently at the
expense of mental development. But, as with the
development of milk and beef in the same animal in
equilibrium, so is it with physical and mental develop-
ment. It is only when either is carried to an extreme
that it becomes incompatible.

The influence exerted by food may be seen in
various ways. Keep a young and growing animal on
scant supplies, and the relation between the normal
development of muscle and bone will be disturbed.
There will be want of development in the former and
overmuch development in the latter. Again feed a
yoimg calf an undue quantity of hay tea and adjuncts
instead of new milk, and what may be termed the
correlated harmony of development will be disturbed.
The stomach will so distend that the animal will be
always somewhat paunchy, and this, of course, at the
expense of harmony of development. That selection
in breeding may be made to exercise a powerful influ-
ence on correlation may be readily shown from any
one of a hundred illustrations that may be given.
For instance, cross pure Southdown rams upon pure
American Merinos and upon the progeny for several
generations. Eventually the progeny will have the

y4 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Southdown form, that is to say, an excellent mutton
form, but it will have been obtained at a sacrifice of
quantity and fineness in the wool.

Value of the Knoivledge of Correlated Struc-
ture.— A knowledge of the correlated structure of
domestic animals is of great practical utility, as by
certain indications of external form cognizant to the
senses we can judge of qualities hidden from view.
For instance : 1. A strong horn and head and much
bone in the limbs and tail indicate an undue amount
of bone in the system for the highest production of
meat. Because of this an animal, large and heavy,
will frequently be rejected by the skilled butcher for
one considerably less in size but with bone less coarse,
for he knows the latter is likely to kill better, that
is to say, it is likely to have less wast^ in the carcass
and to possess a superior quality of meat. It is by
external form accompanied by handling qualities as
described in Chapter XVIII. that he is guided in
the choice of animals for the block. From what he
sees and finds without, he knows what to look for in
the matter of flesh and fat within. 2. A wide chest
and a low set, compact form are a guaranty of a good
constitution. These are not by any means all the
indications of a good constitution, as shown in Chap-
ter XXIII. But so frequently has such form been
found to indicate good constitution, that it is looked
upon as a reasonably safe guide in judging of
constitution, aside from the influence of the taint
of inherited disease. 3. A long neck, flat ribs^
hollow flanks, large joints, and ungainly limbs
are among the indications of a natural tendency
to delicacy of form as shown in Chapter VIL
4. Large capacity of body, a fine head, neck, and

THE LAW OF CORRELATION. 95

limbs, and a good development of udder, are among
the leading indications of good milking qualities.
Though they may not furnish an exact measure
of milking capacity they furnish so safe a guide as to
enable the dairyman to rely much upon these indica-
tions when choosing dairy animals. And 5, a hard,
unyielding skin and harsh coarse hair indicate poor
feeding qualities.

These indications are further discussed in Chap-
ter VII. From what has just been said, it will be
evident, that a knowledge of the laws of correlation
lies at the basis of all selection in live stock, whether
the selection has reference to the block, to the pail, or
to breeding.

Correlation and Highest Development of In-
dividual Qualities. — This law explains the difficulty
experienced by breeders whose aim has been to secure,
in the highest degree, development of essentially dif-
ferent characteristics and qualities in the same ani-
mal, as illustrated: 1, in the apparent antagonism
in the development of beef producing and milk pro-
ducing qualities in bo vines ; 2, in the difficulty in pro-
ducing wool and flesh of the highest excellence in the
one individual sheep; and 3, in the apparently im-
possible attainment of highest excellence in mental
and physical achievement by the one person. Push
beef production beyond a certain limit and it reacts
against milk production. Push milk production be-
yond a certain limit and it reacts against beef pro-
duction. These results have been experienced so fre-
quently as to put this question beyond the realm of
doubt. The highest excellence in wool production, at
least as regards fineness, has been found incompatible
with a high standard of mutton production, as wit-

96 ANIMAL BREEDING.

nessed in the breed known as Saxon Merino. The ex-
periments of Bakewell in perfecting the mutton form
were found to be antagonistic to equally high develop-
ment in wool production.

The most renowned thinkers in the world have
never stood in the first rank as athletes, and those
on the pinnacle of attainment in athletics have not
stood in the first rank as thinkers. Carry attainment
to its possible limit in any one of these directions and
by the action of this law of correlation it hinders at-
tainment in the other. It has the effect of lessening
stamina even in the athlete. Those, therefore, who
seek highest development in one quality will fail un-
less they give due heed to the retention of stamina
in the same. It must not be concluded, however, that
the development of antagonistic characters, at least in
degree, is strictly incompatible. Their simultaneous
development up to a certain limit is not only not in-
compatible but it is mutually helpful. The dairy
animal may be bred so far away from the beef form as
to weaken dairy qualities. The beef form may be
bred so far away from the dairy form as to almost
obliterate the milking qualities and thereby react
against beef production. Comparisons similar in
their results could be made between wool and flesh
production in sheep, and between mental and physical
attainments in men. Dual attainment, therefore, up
to a certain limit in each of the two kinds of develop-
ment thus contrasted is positively advantageous. This
is strikingly apparent in the adverse influence which
lack of physical vigor exercises on mental develop-
ment. But it may not be possible to tell just exactly
where the border line runs between action that is co-
operative and helpful in the development of these

THE LAW OF CORRELATION. 97

different characters, and action that becomes antago-
nistic and hurtful.

Equilibrium hi the Organization and Correla-
fion. — From what has been said it will be very evi-
dent that an equilibrium of the organization can only
be attained by the arrangement of its elements in
strict accordance with the laws of correlation. A
modification of a single character may involve re-
arrangement of the dominant characteristics, and this
may result in the transposition of latent character-
istics which generate atavic tendencies. And this
tendency to reversion may be much influenced by the
character of the surroundings. For instance, when
the attempt has been made to modify size in a breed
beyond what the natural food supplies will maintain
it has been noticed that the tendencies to reversion are
particularly strong, and that these tendencies are
further accentuated when cross breeding has been
called in to aid in making the change. This accounts,
in part, at least, for the many difficulties experienced
by those who have attempted to improve animals by
crossing them.

CHAPTEE IX.

PREPOTENCY.

The question of prej^otency is of great practical
moment to the breeder of live stock, because of the
direct influence which it has upon improvement or
the want of this, in a stud, herd, or flock. Like many
of the features of breeding it is only understood in
part, but happily enough is known regarding it to en-
able the skilled breeder to choose animals possessing
it with a reasonable degree of certaint3\

Prepotency Defined. — Strictly speaking pre-
potency is the superior power which one parent has
over the other in determining the character of the/
offspring. But the term is more commonly used to
indicate that power which an animal has to transmit
its own qualities. Sometimes prepotency is general,
liaving reference to breed, race, or species. When it
is said that a breed is prepotent, it is meant that ani-
mals of that breed are all possessed of mucli power
to transmit the characteristics of the breed. In other
instances prepotency is special, having reference to
the individual. When an individual is said to be
prepotent, it is meant that it has much power to trans-
mit its own qualities to the offspring, that is to say
when two animals are mated the parent possessed of
superior prepotency will transmit in a greater degree
than the other its OAvn properties to the progeny. The
great value of such power when breeding animals,
especially in males, will be at once apparent.

PREPOTENCY. 99

Prepotenc^j of Breed. — Prepotency of breed or
race is clearly brought out when two distinct breeds
are crossed. The offspring will more nearly resemble
the breed possessed of the most marked i^repotency.
There is a great difference in the prepotency of breeds
as such. The Galloways among cattle are noted for
their prepotency. When crossed upon other breeds
and especially upon grades, the progeny are nearly
all black and hornless. Similarly, the American Meri-
nos among the breeds of sheep have great power to
transmit the characteristics of the breed to the prog-
eny when crossed uj)on other breeds and more espe-
cially when crossed upon the grades of these. The
mule, the progeny of the ass and the mare, is possessed
of more of the features and characteristics of the
male parent. The cause, as is further shown below, is
the same in each instance, viz., the long periods dur-
ing which these animals have been bred pure. Breed
prepotency is also shown in the quick transformation
of the common or mixed classes of animals to the type
of the breed from which the males have been chosen.
All the breeds will not effect transformation with
equal rapidity, since all are not equally prepotent.
The most prepotent breeds will, of course, effect such
change the most quickly. And they will effect it more
quickly on animals mucli mixed in breeding than on
those more highly graded. The reasons are given at
length in Chapter XX VL, which treats of up-grad-
ing-

Individual Prepotency. — Prepotency in the in-
dividual is shown in the closeness of the resemblance
in the progeny to the parent and to one another. The
second result mentioned is, of course^ effected by the
same influences as produced the first, and is one of

100

ANIMAL BREEDING.

- K U

1-3 ^'^

o =<

fa o

PREPOTENCY. 101

the strongest evidences of prepotency in the indi-
vidual, since it shoves in a marked degree the power
of the one individual animal to transmit its o^vn in-
dividual characteristics to the progeny, though mated
with different individuals. These will, of course, be
possessed of different degrees of prepotency. The
power of the one animal so to' overcome these as to
produce a progeny that closely resemble one another is
the highest evidence of prepotency. And each animal
added to the list of such progeny is an additional
evidence of prepotency. The greater the diversity in
the parents of the progeny thus assimilated, the
stronger is the evidence of prepotency in the one par-
ent of the opposite sex which has effected such as-
similation. Prepotency is usually more manifest in
males, for reasons given below in the paragraph which
discusses prepotency specially important in males,
but it may also characterize females as well as males.
Instances are not uncommon in which the resemblance
between the different members of one family is so
close, that family relationship may readily be traced
from such resemblance, and it has been inherited from
the mother.

The evidences of prepotency are usually more
clearly apparent when the resemblance is manifest in
the offspring of animals of the same pure breed or of
different pure breeds as contrasted with grades. For
instance, if a pure male in the one instance were to
beget progeny from females of the same breed which
bear a close resemblance to the male parent, this result
would be a stronger evidence of prepotency in the
male than a similar result produced by mating him
with females of mixed breeding, since the resistance
to modification in the progeny of the females in the

102 ANIMAL BREEDING.

first instance would be stronger than resistance to the
same in the females in the second instance. And if
there was a close resemblance in the progeny of pure
females of different breeds, no stronger evidence of
prepotency in the males could be furnished, since in
these instances his potency had to effect change when
resistance was both strong and diverse in character.
In rare instances, however, the resemblance in the
progeny to one of the parents may be traced in grades.
The reason why those instances are rare arises from
the lack of dominant properties which characterize
grades because of the mixed character of their breed-
ing.

Influences that Produce Prepotency of Type, —
The following arc chief among the influences that
produce prejDotency of type or breed, viz. : the dura-
tion of the period during Avhich the animals have been
bred pure, and the inherent vigor of the type, race,
or breed. The fact has been noticed as stated previ-
ously in Chapter III. that animals whose pure breed-
ing is of great antiquity transmit their properties
with more certainty than those of breeds formed with-
in a comparatively recent period. Galloway cattle,
for instance, transmit their properties with more ex-
actness than Aberdeen Angus cattle. The progeny
which is the outcome of a Galloway crossed upon
grades, will more uniformly inherit the black color
and the hornlessness of Galloway sires, than the prog-
eny of Aberdeen Angus sires crossed upon similar
grades.

The progeny of American Merino rams crossed
upon grades will more surely inherit the form and
properties of the Merinos, than will the progeny of
Oxford Down sires crossed upon grades inherit the

PREPOTENCY. 103

properties of the Oxford Downs. Similarly the prog-
eny of Yorkshire swine crossed upon grades will in-
herit the properties of the Yorkshires more than will
the progeny of Poland Chinas thus crossed inherit
the properties of Poland Chinas. The progeny of
the Yorkshires will be almost uniformly white in
color^ that of the Poland Chinas will be variable in
color. The reason is the same in each instance, that
is to say, the Galloways, the American Merinos, and
the Yorkshire breeds have been bred pure for a longer
period than the Aberdeen Angus the Oxford Do^^m
and the Poland China breeds.

But it is probable, as previously intimated, that
there is a period when antiquity of breeding will cease
to add to the prepotency of animals, that is to say,
it is not certain that an animal from ancestry bred
pure for ^ve hundred years will be less prepotent
than an animal from ancestry bred pure for one
thousand years. It is not known, however, where
antiquity of breeding will cease to add to potency in
breeding. It is probable that the time will vary with
varying conditions. Inherent vigor of type, race, or
breed is a powerful factor in determining prepotency
in the breed as it is in the individual. The reasons
doubtless rest iipon the acknowledged superior trans-
mitting power which strength has over weakness and
stamina over the want of stamina. This in part ac-
counts for the superior transmitting power of Gallo-
way cattle. Merino sheep, and Yorkshire swine.

Influences that Produce Pre'potency in the Indi-
vidual.— The following are chief among the influ-
ences that affect prepotency in the individual, viz. :
Purity of blood, strong constitutional development,
and in-and-in breeding. Purity of breeding and dura-

104 ANIMAL BREEDING.

tion in the same strengthen jorepotency in the indi-
A'idual as thej^ do in the breed or race. They strength-
en prepotency because they make and maintain dom-
inance in properties. Each increment of alien blood
introduced becomes a disturbing factor to fixedness
in properties, and, therefore, it becomes a disturbing
factor to certainty in transmission. On the other
hand each generation of pure breeding adds to dom-
inance in properties till these become so dominant
that further improvement in that direction may not
easily be made. Because of this the unwisdom of us-
ing grade, cross bred, or scrub sires or any other sires
not purely bred will be at once apparent. The reasons
why strong constitutional development strengthens
prepotency in the individual as also in the breed or
race are the same. They come from that inherent
mastery which strength has over weakness. This
explains why breeding from animals in the meridian
of vigor, that is to say, neither young nor old, gives a
progeny superior to those bred from animals imma-
ture or declining through age.

The room for selection on the lines of vigor is far
greater in the individual than in the race, because of
the many individuals in the race or breed as compared
with the fewness of races. Vigor in the individual,
therefore, can be turned to more practical account
than vigor in the race. In-and-in breeding aids pre-
potency because it strengthens dominant properties.
The more inbred animals are, the more intense their
power to transmit such properties as they possess.
This explains why the masters in forming breeds al-
ways resorted to in-and-in breeding for a time when
they were doing this. It also shows the wisdom in
some instances of giving the preference to desirable

PREPOTENCY. 105

sires that are more or less inbred and that are at the
same time possessed of much bodily vigor. These
three influences acting in conjunction should give
the highest prepotency attainable.

Minor Influences that Affect Prepotency, — Pre-
potency is influenced more or less by certain minor
influences, as, 1. The existence of Avhat may be term-
ed secondary sexual characters. Sebright bantams
with the perfect hen-formed tail in the males are less
productive than those with a tendency to the develop-
ment of sickle feathers. Rumpless fowls with the
tail entirely wanting are much prone to lay infertile
eggs, and sires with what may be termed a feminine
head are rejected by skilled breeders, since it has
been noticed that they prove less satisfactory as breed-
ers.

2. The limitation to one sex of the power to trans-
mit certain characters. For instance, it has been
ascertained that in some instances only males, and
in other instances only females, transmit certain forms
of disease, at least for a time. The claim has also
been made, based on certain statistics, that some dis-
eases as consumption, for instance, are more readily
inherited in males from the male parent, and in
females from the female parent.

3. The lack of affinity in certain characters which
makes it difficult to blend them. These make the in-
fluences that modify and tend to unify stronger than
when there is more of affinity between alien properties.
The causes of variation are seldom well understood.
The fact, however, has been noticed, that animals of
known prepotency will beget much more of resem-
blance to themselves in the progeny resulting from
a cross upon certain pure breeds than upon certain
other pure breeds.

106 ANIMAL BREEDING.

4. By the effects of a previous fertilization of
the mother. In certain instances it has been noticed
that Avhcn a female of a certain breed produces by
a male of another pure breed, and is then bred to a
sire of her own breed, she does not always breed true
to type. And in some instances females thus mated
have never bred quite true to type again. But this
question is further discussed in Chapter XIV. Here
then are elements that disturb prepotency, but they do
not disturb it equally nor so seriously as to make
breeding a game of chance.

Animals Similarly Bred may Differ much in
Prepotency. — That animals similarly bred and pos-
sessing precisely the same blood elements frequently
differ widely in the degree of the prepotency which
they possess has been noticed again and again, hence,
there is no absolute guaranty of prepotency in near
relationship. Many instances could be cited in sup-
port of the statement just made. In few of these has
the contrast in prepotency between animals bred just
alike been more apparent than in the thoroughbred
horses. Touchstone and Launcelot. Stonehenge re-
cords of the progeny of the former, that they showed
much uniformity of color and on the whole possessed
high form as race horses, while tlie jDrogeny of the
latter were of all colors and below^ mediocrity on the
turf. These horses were full brothers. Instances
have come under the observation of the author in
which pure bred males have been purchased, because
of prepotency and good breeding qualities in mem-
bers of the same family, which were quite disappoint-
ing. The conclusion must not be reached, however,
that similarity iu breeding is no guaranty of pre-
potency, for in other instances several, if not, indeed,

PEEPOTENCY. 107

all, the members of the same family have been noted
for their prepotency. It is simply not an absolute
guaranty. Nor can prepotency be absolutely assured,
as being the outcome of any particular method of
breeding, as instances have been found in which high-
ly inbred animals have not been pre^DOtent. Again,
some animals are prepotent, if the term may be thus
used, in transmitting the qualities of their ancestors
rather than their own. This accounts for the fact
that some sires not possessed of sufficient finish them-
selves to enter the show ring, have proved noted sires
of prize winners. Such was the great stock bull,
Knight of Warlaby (29014) owned by ej. & R.
Hunter of Alma, Ontario.

Rules Governing Prepotency not easily Framed.
— ^The difficulties which surround the subject of pre-
potency are emphasized by what has been said in
the preceding paragraph. Because of these difficulties
it is impossible to formulate rules which govern it.
But, as previously stated, purity of breeding and in-
dications of bodily vigor taken together furnish a
strong guaranty of its presence. These are, indeed,
the most tangible guaranties of prepotency that can
be furnished before it has been proved by actual
test. It is also true that marked prepotency is likely
to be transmitted, at least in degree. If that were not
true the first gTcat laAV of breeding would not be to
the breeder a reasonably safe g-uide. An animal,
the progeny of prepotent ancestry, is certainly likely
to be more prepotent than an animal whose ancestors
have not been prepotent. There is also a close inter-
dependence between prepotency and in-and-in breed-
ing. But when practiced by those not well skilled
in the art of in-and-in breeding, it can scarcely be

108 ANIMAL BREEDING.

reckoned as a factor in choosing prepotent sires by the
average breeder. On the other hand it has been used
as an aid in producing some of the most prepotent
sires that have ever existed. But this result has only
been secured by skillful breeders.

Prepotency in Animals Inferior Individually. —
Prepotency somewhat marked is sometimes found in
animals inferior in individual characteristics, and in
those with a strong bias to certain forms of disease,
and the more pure the breeding the more likely is
such prepotency to be found. Because of this, there
is always much hazard in using sires possessed of
inferior individual qualities. In breeding pure breds
some inferior specimens will appear, even when the
work is wisely and skillfully conducted. When those
animals are offered for sale for breeding purposes,
they are usually held at reduced prices. Those who
are about to introduce pure bred sires into their herds,
it may be for the first time, are much prone to invest
in those inferior specimens, because of the compara-
tively low price at which such animals are offered.
It would appear that such purchasers expect pedigree
to make up for inferior individual merit. The effect
may be just the opposite. In fact, it is likely to be, as
a result of the first law of breeding. Because of this
hazard it is considered safer to breed from high grades
of superior individuality than from pure breds of in-
ferior individuality. There is the chance, however,
that the individually inferior pure-bred parent may
transmit the qualities of an ancestry superior to them-
selves, but that such transmission will follow is far
less probable than that the transmission will take
ftfter the yjarents. Inferior individuals, therefore,
^ow^.ver purely bred, should not be bred from.

PREPOTENCY, 109

MarTced Prepote7icy not of Great Frequency. —
Very marked prepotency is not of great frequency
even in pure-breds. Of this fact no stronger proof
can be furnished than that which comes from the
"Grasmere" herd of Shorthorns located near Lexing-
ton, Ky. This herd was founded in 1831, and was
owned and personally supervised by Mr. William
Warfield, the author of ''Cattle Breeding" and prob-
ably without a peer in the knowledge of the rules that
govern breeding. ]\Ir. AYarfield testifies that during
fifty-seven years of the existence of this herd, of the
twenty-seven sires used, only five or six of the entire
number possessed prepotency in a marked degree, al-
though without exception they had been chosen on
principles that were likely to insure prepotency as far
as these principles are known.

Each pure breed has its list of sires of outstand-
ing prepotency but the list is not a very long one,
Some of these animals were wonderfully impressivft
in their day, howsoever mated. So famous were they
as sires that breeders to this day frequently refer with
pride to the fact that animals o^^Tied by them trace to
these potent sires, even after the lapse of one hundred
years and more. But those who do thus would do well
to remember that with animals as with men, too much
may be made of memorable ancestry. The value of
such blood may have been greatly neutralized by sub-
sequent breeding. But even though not thus weak-
ened, after the lapse of a limited nmiiber of genera-
tions, it can only be present in an infinitesimal degree
except where more or less of continued in-and-in
breeding has been practiced.

Prepotency Specially Important in Males. —
The prepotent quality is specially important in males,

110 ANIMAL BREEDING.

owing first, to the much greater influence which they
exert relatively and absolutely in the stud, herd, or
flock, and second, to the use that is made of them in
the improvement of all classes of stock, hence, all
the great breeders aimed at choosing their males from
sub-families more highly inbred than the average
of their stock. When but one male is used in a stud,
herd or flock his influence on the progeny is equal to
that of the sum of the influence of all the females com-
bined when the individual excellence and prepotency
of each female is on a par wdth that of the male.
When, however, his individual excellence and pre-
potency are greater than that of each female, his in-
fluence on the progeny will be as much greater than
that of the combined influence of all the females as
his individual excellence and prepotency exceeds
theirs. The importance, therefore, of choosing sires
of the very highest excellence and prepotency cannot
easily be overestimated. If the desired prepotency
can be obtained \^dthout in-breeding it is usually
preferable to have it so, but marked prepotency is
more frequently found in animals more or less inbred.
Prepotency not Assured until Proven. — Pre-
potency in a sire is not assured nor can it be, until
it is proved in his progeny. All the requisites may be
present that tend to assure prepotency, and yet it
may not be present in a degree that is satisfactory.
Because of this a young sire should be used cautiously
at the first, that is to say he should be mated with
only a limited number of high bred females until
evidences of his prepotency are furnished in the
progeny. To mate a male whose prepotency is un-
proved with all the females in the stud, herd, or flock,
would be a hazard which no breeder of valuable, pure

PREPOTENCY. Ill

bred stock can afford. But as soon as it has been
ascertained that a sire is prepotent the most should
be made of his presence by using him to as great an
extent as is practicable, but not to the extent of
shortening the period of his usefulness.

A sire in the meridian of vigor whose prepotency
has been proved, is a far safer investment than a
younger sire equally good but whose prepotency has
not been proved. And yet in choosing sires the rule
with many is to purchase the latter in preference
to the former. Valuable sires that are markedly pre-
potent should never be discarded until they have
passed the meridian of their usefulness. If the owner
must make a change to avoid in-breeding, some one
else should secure the prepotent prize. The value of
a markedly prepotent sire, many of w^hose progeny
are good enough to win prizes in leading show rings
cannot be easily overestimated. There have been
instances in which the possession of one such animal
has brought competency to the owner.

CHAPTER X.

IN-AND-IN BREEDING.

l^o feature of animal husbandry has given rise
to more controversy than that of in-and-in breeding.
From the days of Bakewell onward there has been
a wide difference of opinion as to the place that should
be assigned to it in the experience of the ordinary
breeder. Some have regarded it as altogether helpful
and others as altogether harmful. Because of this
extreme difference in view the question has been much
discussed in the agricultural press, and frequently to
but little purpose. These differences in opinion are
doubtless the outcome of shortsighted and incomplete
views on this question. Many have looked only at
certain phases of the subject without viewing it in its
entirety, consequently they have failed to discern the
place that should and should not be assigned to it by
the breeder when conducting his operations. It will
be the aim in this chapter to discuss the question from
an unprejudiced standpoint.

Terms that IndlcatG Close-hreeding. — The terms
applied to the breeding of related animals are various,
and they have been used in a sense so loose that fre-
quently using them has brought confusion rather than
clearness of conception to the mind of the reader.
Such terms as in-breeding, close-breeding, inter-breed-
ing, and in-and-in breeding, have frequently been
used as though they were synonymous and legitimate-
ly interchangeable. This may be said, in a loose sense

IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 115

only, of the first three terms, but not of the fourth,
and even in the former a shade of difference in the
meaning is discernible. The terms in-breeding, close-
breeding, and inter-breeding, are generally used to
indicate the breeding together of animals more or
less closely related, in a single instance, or at intervals
of a greater or less distance. These terms have been
thus applied indiscriminately, and yet as stated above,
a shade of difference is discernible when they are
critically compared. Manifestly in-breeding denotes
the breeding together of related animals in a single
instance without much regard to the closeness of the
relationship. Close-breeding indicates closeness of
relationship in animals thus bred. And inter-breed-
ing naturally raises in the mind the breeding together
of related animals of alien blood, and should be so

used.

In-and-in Breeding Defined. — The term in-and-
in breeding properly indicates the breeding together ,
of animals that are closely related for a number of (
successive generations. It has reference to repetition
and close continuity in the breeding together of the
related animals, whereas in-breeding has reference to
single acts of coupling relatives, even though there
should be occasional repetition in these acts. Such
repetition in breeding even at intervals, Avould seem in
a sense to involve in-and-in breeding of a weak sort,
but to avoid ambiguity the author prefers to include
these imder the head of in-breeding.

ISTo absolute rule has been chosen to define the ex-
act degree of the relationship, nor, indeed, can it be
so chosen. The animals of kin may be of the closest
possible relationship, as parent and progeny, sister
and brother, or the relationship may be more distant.

114 ANIMAL BREEDING.

The more close the relationship in the animals mated
the more intense is the in-and-in breeding. Since the
degree of the relationship in the animals mated may
differ much, the results growing out of such mating
will also differ much, and this throws some light on
the wide difference in view as to the value of in-and-
in breeding.

Practiced Purposely and Inadvertently. — In-
and-in breeding has been practiced purposely and in-
advertently. It has been practiced purposely by the
improvers of live stock and as a means to an end, and
when judiciously practiced by them has effected great
good. The precise objects sought, or at least some of
them, are given below. It has also been practiced
inadvertently by the careless breeder of grades who
has chosen his males from within the same herd or
flock from generation to generation, and very much
to the injury of the same. The injury resulting has
not grown solely out of the in-and-in breeding as such,
but also from the lack of intelligence shown in the
selection of the males chosen. In the selection of such
males, size without regard to form has usually been
the determining factor. Under such a system of
breeding no substantial progress can be made.

Objects of l7i-and-in Breeding. — The objects of
in-and-in breeding are, or ought to be, 1, the more
speedily to secure desirable characters in animals,
and, 2, the more quickly to secure uniformity and per-
manence in the transmission of these. The first object,
then, is to secure the desirable characters and to
secure them quickly. Why in-and-in breeding can
effect this and do it quickly may be illustrated as
follows : —

In one instance take animals of mixed breeding

IN-AND-IX BREEDING. 115

and mate them. Choose sires of the form desired if
they can be obtained from outside sources and of
similar breeding and mate them. Such breeding,
howsoever long continued^ Avould not result in mark-
ed fixedness of type or indeed in fixedness of type at
all. In a second instance take animals of the same
breed, though differing in form, and mate them. Con-
tinue to choose sires within the breed of desirable
form, but unrelated, and mate them with the progeny
and ultimately but not for several, probably many
generations, will fixedness of type be reached. In a
third instance, choose females of the same breed but
unlike in form, select a male of desirable form within
the breed to mate with these, and select males from
the progeny to mate with the females of the same.
In a very limited number of generations unification
in type will have been reached.

In the first instance the alien blood in the sires
of mixed breeding becomes a disturbing factor an-
tagonistic to fixedness in type, hence it cannot be
reached by such breeding. In the second instance
purity in blood gives potency in transmission favor-
able to unification in form providing the unrelated
sires are carefully chosen with regard to such form,
hence in time fixedness in type is reached. In the
third instance related blood intensifies the transmis-
sion and usTUilly in proportion to the closeness of the
relationship in the animals mated, hence the shortness
of the time required to secure unification in type.
The influences that lead to unification in type also
lead to uniformity and permanence in the transmis-
sion of the same, hence the great power which in-and-
in breeding has to further these ends.

In-and-in Breeding a Necessity in Forming

116 ANIMAL BKEEDING.

Breeds, — In the formation of breeds, in-and-in breed-
ing has been found a necessity, as in no other way
can desirable qualities be unified speedily and render-
ed permanent, and in no other way can undesirable
variations be quickly eliminated. The quick uni-
fication of desirable qualities and securing per-
manency in them has just been illustrated. To secure
these quickly, let it be observed two things are neces-
sary; first, the animals mated must have these desir-
able qualities, and second, breeding them in-and-in
must be practiced. Similarly, in eliminating unde-
sirable qualities, the animals mated must be as free
as possible from these and they must be bred similar-
ly. But to secure these results in a marked degree
the greatest care must be exercised in selecting ani-
mals possessed of the desirable properties and as far
as possible free from the undesirable variations. That
a long time would elapse before similarity of type
could be reached without in-and-in breeding has also
been shown above.

In-and-in Breedi7ig Practiced in Forming new
Breeds. — Since in-and-in breeding has been found
a necessity in forming new breeds, it is only to be
expected that it would be practiced by the framers
of new breeds and also by the improvers ot all or
nearly all the improved breeds that have been so im-
proved. It was only m a few animals that the de-
sirable variations were found which they sought to
render permanent.

To some the statement just made may seem far
fetched, but it will not be challenged by anyone who
has had experience in the search for animals that ex-
actly represent an ideal. They are few, indeed, and
the higher the ideal the more rare are they. And in

IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 117

many instances these have been derived from a com-
mon ancestry. Especially is this true of animals
chosen within a breed as the materials to be used for
its improvement. This cannot be true, however, at
the first, of the materials with which new breeds are
formed from others of alien blood. But in forming
these it has frequently happened that crossing and
inter-crossing animals of those breeds has been prac-
ticed for some time before the attempt was made to
form them into new breeds. The excellent results
obtained from such inter-crossing created the idea of
distinct breed formation. The materials, therefore,
that were thus used, at the time when the idea crystal-
lized to form them into a new breed, were consequent-
ly in a sense derived from a common ancestry. Thus
it was that the Hampshire Down and Oxford Down
breeds of sheep were established.

In-and-in Breeding more Practiced to Produce
Sires. — Of course in the formation of new breeds or
types, all the animals, the progeny of these first chosen
as foundation materials, were more or less inbred.
But as time went on the in-breeding became less in-
tense as the progeny multiplied, and as other females
were added as they sometimes were from outside
sources. In other instances out-crosses were finally
introduced more or less, so that with the herd or type
as a whole it could scarcely be said that in-and-in
breeding was kept up. At the same time it was fre-
quently practiced more or less within one or more
families from which the sires were chiefly dra^\Ti,
as experience proved what science had proclaimed,
that such males were more prepotent than males not
thus inbred. The advantages from in-and-in breeding
are thus substantially secured with less hazard than

118 ANIMAL BREEDING.

if both males and females had been thus inbred. Be-
cause of this the in-and-in bred property in the males
is relatively more valuable than in the females.

Evils Resulting from In-and-in Breeding. — In
and-in breeding, when carried too far, will produce
I. along with other evils : loss of size, delicacy of consti- j\
' tution, and general deterioration. Illustrations of such \
loss are given below in each of the several ways men-
tioned, and these evils may be hastened or retarded
by the nature of the conditions to which the animals
are subjected. The influence growing out of these
conditions and which lead to delicacy Avill be intensi-
fied in their action through in-and-in breeding. These
results would seem to be a protest of nature against
the too persistent use of influences that hinder varia-
tion. Too much of sameness in form would perhaps
be a greater evil than too much of variation.

Loss of Size from In-and-in Breeding. — That
in-and-in breeding tends to loss of size is shown in
the necessity for it in breeding toy pigeons and ban-
tam fowls. With these want of size rather than size
is sought, and experience has shown, other things
being equal, that the more closely the fowls are inbred
the smaller they are. The same thing is also clearly
brought out in the condition of the common herds and
flocks where the sires are chosen as it were in an
aimless way from within the limits of the same. As
a rule the size grows less and less the longer and the
more rigidly the plan is adhered to. When such ani-
mals have been taken to other surroundings, and other
sires have been brought from outside sources, im-
provement has at once been noticeable, and this has
given rise to the popular but fallacious idea that a
change in pastures and surroundings will of itself
tend to renovate.

IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 119

Greater Delicacy from In-and-in Breeding. —
That in-and-in breeding tends to greater delicacy of
constitution is evidenced in the much greater fre-
quency of tuberculosis and otherdi&easesinthedescend-
ants of animals that have been long inbred. Among
the Shorthorn types none have been more persistently
inbred than the Bates families, and it would probably
be correct to say that in no other class of Shorthorns
is tuberculosis so frequently found. In-and-in breed-
ing has also been carried to a great length among cer-
tain families of Jerseys, and in these the tendency
to tuberculous affections has been quite pronounced. It
has further been noticed in the delicacy of many of
the calves of highly inbred females. The mortality
among these is much larger than among calves of
cows not thus inbred. It may not be easy to substan-
tiate these statements in the absence of figures col-
lected from the facts, but the belief in their correct-
ness among intelligent breeders is so general as to in-
fluence them when purchasing animals of either of the
classes named. Xor is it to be understood that they
apply to any but families that have been long and
persistently inbred.

This increased tendency to disease may in part
be accounted for by the greater certainty with which
vitiated powers arising from other causes are trans-
mitted. For instance, conditions unduly artificial
would sap general stamina, and the loss of stamina
would accentuate the tendency toward tuberculosis
begotten by in-and-in breeding.

Loss of Reproducing Power from In-and-in
Breeding. — That in-and-in breeding carried beyond
a certain limit eventually leads to impaired powers
of reproduction cannot be questioned, it has been so

120 ANIMAL BREEDING.

long and so frequently noticed in families that have
been closely bred together for a prolonged period.
Experiments in breeding swine in-and-in for several
generations have shown that the breeding powers
became greatly impaired in consequence, and that
physical degeneracy manifested itself in other ways.
This tendency to impaired reproduction may mani-
fest itself in various forms. It may come in the form
of impotency or the inability to beget, infertility or
the inability to reproduce, or in the form of impair-
ed fecundity, that is to say, a lessened power to breed
frequently and numerously. It may also be shown
in the greater tendency to abortion or in some form
of organic disease of the generative organs.

But the loss of reproductive power may in many
instances be intensified only, rather than caused by
in-and-in breeding, and in other instances the repro-
ductive power may be said to be latent or partially so.
This will be all the more apparent when it is remem-
bered that in-and-in breeding is only one of the causes
of a lessened power of reproduction. It has been
noticed that some females are incapable of breeding
to males near of kin to them, while they will breed
to males of alien blood or of the same blood though
unrelated. This would point to breeding powers in a
sense latent under certain conditions, but not so
under others.

General Deterioration from In-and-in Breeding.
— ^In-and-in breeding Avhen long continued evidently
leads to deterioration of the whole animal system,
as witnessed in the degeneracy manifested in Long-
horn cattle after the master builders had passed away.
The most noted breeders of these contemporary with
Bakewell and subsequent to his time, followed his

IN-AND-BKEEDING. 121

plan of breeding them too closelv. The final out-
come has been that the society for promoting the in-
terests of Longhorns in England has gone out of ex-
istence. It would not, perhaps, be correct to say that
in-and-in breeding alone is responsible for such a
result, as the Longhorns never stood so high in the
public estimate as the Shorthorns, yet the fact re-
mains that it was one of the potent factors which
contributed to such a result.

It is further witnessed in the necessity which
compels its virtual abandonment in families in w^hich
it has been long practiced. Xo instance is on record
in Avhich in-and-in breeding has been continued in-
definitely. In but few instances has it been prac-
ticed with entire success during the whole of the
period covered by the experience of one individual,
when such experience covered many years. It is
not recorded that Robert Bakewell was forced to
modify the intensity of the in-and-in breeding which
he practiced, but it should be remembered that the
material with which he began was vigorous. There
are no reasons for believing that it had upon it the
taint of weakened stamina, the outcome of previous
in-and-in breeding. It has also been noticed that dis-
astrous results have flowed from it wherever long prac-
ticed in the human family. The proportion of deaf
and dumb in such instances, of imbeciles, of idiots,
and deformed, is unusually large. Evidently no
mistake was made by the divine Lawgiver in the
legislation which He gave to the race prohibiting in-
cestuous marriages.

In-and-in Breeding Cannot he Carried on In-
definitely.— Although in-and-in breeding may be
adopted with much advantage for a time, under proper;

122 ANIMAL BREEDING.

conditions, there is a limit which it cannot safely
pass. This limit line beyond which it cannot be
carried without hazard cannot be fixed by rule, as
so much depends on the vigor and stamina of the
stock used where in-and-in breeding is practiced. A
breed with powers unimpaired by artificial conditions
of domestication will longer withstand the undermin-
ing tendencies of in-and-in breeding. The more of
stamina and vigor possessed by the animals at the
outset, the longer, of course, can the process be con-
tinued before the evils that have been named appear.
The in-and-in breeding practiced in the famous Sitty-
ton herd was less intense than that practiced in
the herds of some of the master Shorthorn builders,
created at an earlier period, hence the Sittyton
^^sage," the immortal Amos Cruikshank, was able to
close his useful work on the lines on which he had
all along conducted it.

In the formation of breeds, the stock chosen to
be inbred are the best formed and most vigorous
types that are to be found. The process is safe,
therefore, and helpful for a time. But suppose a
new departure were made from foundation animals
already so highly inbred that they showed signs of
weakened vigor, it would result in the most complete
failure, however skillfully conducted. Thomas Bates,
one of the most skillful of the breeders which his cen-
tury has produced, was compelled to introduce certain
out-crosses to mate with at least some of the animals
of his herd that had been highly inbred.

Since, therefore, certain evils eventually grow
out of in-and-in breeding no matter how wisely con-
ducted, it should be discontinued before such evils
appear. It may be difiicult to tell just where the

IN-AND-IN BREEDING. 123

danger line is before the indications manifest them-
selves. These indications should be taken as warning
signals by the breeder and he should govern his work
accordingly.

In-and-in Breeding Conducted Understandingly.
— In-and-in breeding should not be adopted by those
who do not understand it, or who may practice it in a
haphazard way. It is like a sword with two edges,
which cuts backward and forward according as it
is wielded. When the animals so in-and-in bred are
wisely chosen desirable properties will be secured and
so stamped upon the progeny as to be rendered per-
manent. But if the materials should be unwisely
chosen then undesirable properties would appear and
with a persistence that would tend to discourage those
engaged in the Avork. The task of selecting animals
to be thus inbred is not an easy one even for the
skilled breeder. How much more then is it difficult for
the unskilled. Defects may be present such as those,
for instance, which are not apparent to the eye, and
when they are they become intensified by in-and-in
breeding.

CHAPTEK XL

LINE BREEDING.

Line breeding has been practiced by not a few
who object to in-and-in breeding in the full meaning
of the term. It would probably be correct to say that
but a few of the more noted herds and flocks have
been long maintained without more or less of line
breeding having been practiced in the families from
which the males have been chosen.

Line Breeding Defined. — Line breeding may be|
/ defined as the process of breeding within the mem-
/ hers of one family or of a limited number of families
possessed of similar types. As usually conducted no
' animals are inter-bred which are not closely connect-
ed in the general lines of their blood. Strictly speak-
ing it is in a sense a continuation of in-and-in breed-
ing, the relationships in line breeding, however, being
more distant. The animals that are line bred are
more commonly descended from animals that have
been bred in-and-in. For instance, from a few
foundation animals closely in-and-in bred, sever-
al divergent streams may flow out. These divergent
streams represent families and very probably more
or less divergent types. When the streams become
fully divergent, that is to say, from the time the
families become distinctly separate, the males are
chosen from within these families, sometimes called
strains, and from that separating period line breed-
ing may be said to begin.

LINE BREEDING. 125

But line breeding may also be the outcome of
the blending of two distinct strains, each of which
has probably been more or less in-bred. It differs
from in-breeding in the virtual exclusion of alien
blood and in continuity. The relationships in the
former are in a sense closer. When in-breeding, the
blood may be promiscuous in its near origin. When
line breeding, it is unmixed mth extraneous blood
from what may be regarded as its starting point.
Line breeding may be spoken of as repeated acts of
in-breeding, the relations becoming less close as the
starting point is receded from, because of the increase
in the number of the individuals.

The Starting Point in Line Breeding. — As now
understood it would not be possible in all instances
to define exactly the starting point of line breeding.
It may commence with a pair of animals, or with
a limited number. When it does, in-and-in breeding
of necessity is practiced at the first. But it may also
commence at a later period in the history of the
breed. More commonly it begins at that point where
the outcome of in-and-in breeding diverges sufficiently
to admit of the formation of distinct families descend-
ed wholly or chiefly from one ancestor. In line breed-
ing the males are subsequently chosen from this
family.

J Close Breeding Denned. — Close breeding signi- /
'fies the mating of animals closely related. Its relation-
ship to in-and-in breeding has already been pointed
out (see page 112). In some instances it may mean
the same thing as line breeding, but ordinarily it
differs from the latter in the relationships being
closer, and from in-and-in breeding in their not being
so close. It differs further from liue breeding in the

126 ANIMAL BREEDING,

less degree of the continuity in the breeding. As
with the other terms applied to breeding it is not
easily defined. It is not easy to distinguish in all
instances between what should be regarded as close
breeding and what as line breeding.

High Breeding Defined. — High breeding signi-i
fies a rigorous selection of breeding stock with vefer-l
ence to a definite standard. It is sometimes regarded
as synonymous with close breeding, but it differs from
close breeding and also from line breeding in allowing
the selections to extend to unrelated animals. High
breeding may have reference to form only or to pedi-
gree or to both. Usually it has reference to both.
Where practiced, a high standard is set as to both
form and pedigree, and the animals to be mated are
chosen accordingly. They may be related or unrelat-
ed, that is to say, this line of breeding may be the
same as in-and-in breeding or the same as line breed-
ing, or it may be neither, or a combination of these
systems.

When it considers only animal form it is not like-
ly to be markedly successful. IN'or will it be any more
successful if it simply regards pedigree without con-
sidering form. When it duly considers both form
and pedigree and does not include too much of line
breeding or of in-and-in breeding, and when, more-
over, good judgment is shown in the selections, high
breeding is but another name for wise breeding, and
is worthy of all consideration. But when it is follow-
ed practically on the lines of in-and-in breeding, the
results will be practically the same.

The Objects of Line Breeding. — The chief ob-
jects of line breeding are to obtain uniformity of type
in the stud, herd, or flock, and to maintain the same

LINE BREEDING. 127

in these. In other words it is an effort to obtain
greater average prepotency in the animals. Similar-
ity of type in the whole herd is at once an evidence of
prepotency in the parent or parents and a guaranty
of the same in the offspring. IN'ow this result is
facilitated by the maintenance of identity or of simi-
larity of blood in both sexes. This will, of course,
secure and render permanent certain dominant prop-
erties.

But the same end may be obtained though not
so quickly by carefully selecting males from a line
bred family. This method of line breeding is consid-
ered safer than the former and many of those who
practice it now do so on these lines. But eventually
it becomes line breeding of the first class rather than
of the second, where no fresh blood is brought into the
stud, herd, or flock, through the purchase of females.
And just here it may be stated that there is a magic
influence about that word uniformity when applied to
animal breeding, which is apt to lead the average
breeder to place too high an estimate upon it. The
advantages of uniformity depend almost entirely on
the character of the uniformity. There may be uni-
formity of a low type as well as uniformity of a high
type. In breeding, the first is not so desirable as less
of uniformity of a higher type. It is when the uni-
formity sought is of a high standard that it is to be
prized.

The Evils from Successive Line Breeding. —
Line breeding is usually beneficial for a time, but it
should not be carried too far, as there is danger that
it will intensify defects, as well as useful qualities.
When it does it becomes so far an evil. Ultimately
it will produce all the evils consequent upon in-and-in

128 ANIMAL BREEDING.

breeding, though less in degree. These include loss of
size, delicacy of constitution, impaired powers of re-
production and gradual deterioration. As these have
been discussed in Chapter X. they will not be further
discussed here. It should be noticed, however, that
some of those evils may be gendered in the system
before they become markedly apparent. For instance,
the seeds of increasing delicacy of constitution may
be so^vn before they are distinctly apparent, as evi-
denced by the results that flow from them. The re-
sults come later. When the evils do appear in a mark-
ed degree, they have become so incorporated in the
animals, so much a part of the system, that much loss
results before they can be corrected by judicious out-
crossing. In this tendency first to create defects and
then to transmit them, lies the greatest danger from
in-and-in breeding and also from line breeding.

Illustrations of Excessive Line Breeding. — Il-
lustrations of long continued line breeding are fur-
nished in the various herds of wild cattle sheltered by
certain parks in Great Britain during the past cen-
tury. Wliile at the beginning of the century there
were at least seven herds, now more than half the
number are gone, and their total extinction in the not
distant future is by no means improbable. It would
seem peculiarly fortunate that illustrations of this
question are furnished by herds which cover so long a
a period. Some of them have been kept within the
inclosed grounds of certain noblemen for more than
500 years. The most famous of these herds, viz., that
at Chillingham Park, has been line bred for more
than seven hundred years. These wild or semi-wild
cattle have been bred under circumstances the most
favorable to successful line breeding that could well

LINE BREEDING. 129

be imagiiled. The continuity of sameness in blood-
lines has not been disturbed by out-crosses. The
breeding has been from the most vigorous sires, as
each in turn secured the mastery in the herd. The
exemption from the enervating influences of domesti-
cation was most complete, since they were not con-
fined. They were also supplied with food when
necessary in winter. And yet, from natural causes,
these herds are gradually waning ~in numbers, inso-
much that it is feared that the extinction of those
that yet survive is only a question of time. These
cattle are not prolific, although their surroundings are
eminently ^favorable to prolificacy. Xor are they
of large size. Is not the conclusion legitimate, there-
fore, that these results are the outcome of too long
continued line breeding ?

The results of the experience of the molders of
the various leading types of Shorthorns point in the
same direction. The CoUings Bros, inbred closely as
a rule, though not at the outset, but their practice
varied. It was they who introduced into their herd
the Galloway blood, and the resultant fact remains
that the highest priced animals at their dispersion sale
were those possessed of this blood. But too much
should not be made of this fact as the per cent of
Galloway blood in many of the animals possessing
it was small indeed. Darwin states that during the
first thirteen years of breeding at Kirklevmgton,
Thomas Bates bred most closely, and during the next
seventeen years of breeding he made several out-
crosses, that is to say, he introduced Shorthorn bulls
from other herds. It was after he began the introduc-
tion of these out-crosses that his greatest triumphs
were made in the showing. During the earlier period

130 ANOIAL BREEDING.

of the breeding conducted by the Booths, new blood
was repeatedly introduced by purchasing females, and
an occasional out-cross was also made by bringing
males from other herds, and for a time all went well.
Later the breeding was closer, with the final outcome
that it was found necessary to introduce fresh blood
freely to preserve the high average of excellence in
these cattle.

The Cruikshank cattle were much mixed in their
blood lines during the first decades of the breeding
conducted at Sittyton, that is to say, many of the
females brought into the herd from without were
chosen from various sources and were not specially
line bred. Later the breeding was more closely in
line and probably for the reason, among others, that
by breeding thus, Mr. Cruikshank was the better able
to reap the fruits which gTew out of his great reputa-
tion as a breeder. The fame which in time came to
those cattle was doubtless due to the great skill shown
in the selection of males to use upon females of varied
breeding. But the herd was dispersed at a period
too early to show what the outcome would finally have
been from the closer breeding practiced. The experi-
ence of those breeders, therefore, as far as it goes,
is cerif^'^ly less favorable to long continued line breed-
ing than to the more promiscuous blending of blood
elements within the breed.

Line Breeding Cannot he Carried on Indefinite-
ly.— From what has been said above it is manifest
that line breeding cannot be carried on indefinitely
without sovv^ing the seeds of ultimate deterioration.
The postponement of the evil day will depend upon
such conditions as the skill of the breeder, the num-
bers of the herd or flock, the naturalness, or othei-wase,

LINE BREEDING. 131

of the conditions of keep, and the management genei
ally.

Of course the more skillful the breeder, the
greater the number of animals in the herd or flock,
the more natural the conditions and the more sensible
the management the less quickly will the evils from
line breeding too long continued show themselves.
At least one excellent flock of line bred sheep is now
in existence into which an out-cross has not been in-
troduced for about a century. The reference is to the
famous flock of Border Leicester at Mertoun Lodge in
Berwickshire, Scotland. But the fact is greatly sig-
nificant that American purchasers at the present time
are looking to other flocks not thus line bred when
making selections. They assign as a reason, that
while the Mertoun Lodge flock furnishes sires of much
prepotency, they are somewhat lacking in scale.

Re^nedy for Evils from Breeding too Closely. —
The evils consequent upon line breeding or in-and-in
breeding too long continued may be remedied in part
by the judicious introduction of an out-cross or a
succession of out-crosses, carefully made. The timelj^
introduction of the same may be made to ward off
those evils or to prevent them entirely. That line
breeding may be made to aid in furnishing prepotent
sires cannot be questioned and in this fact lies one
of the strongest arguments for practicing it. That
a time eventually comes when it ought to be discon-
tinued even for this purpose is equally true. There
is decided difliculty, however, in knowing when and
where to stop, that is, just when and where to intro-
duce the out-cross. As soon, however, as signs of de-
terioration in any direction become apparent, the;^
should be taken as danger signals calling to the breed
er to halt

132 ANIMAL BEEEDING.

When the evils have become at all pronounced
this remedy may Avork slowly, since the evils may
have become in a sense dominant. Whether there is
any way by which the benefits of line breeding in
the production of sires may be secured continuously
without gendering the evils complained of does not
yet appear to have been demonstrated. Possibly it
would be practicable to draw sires, for a time, from
a line bred family, and at the same time to have
another line bred family coming from which sires
could be chosen later. Such breeding would, however,
encounter tAvo difficulties, viz. : That the period cov-
ered by the breeding of the average individual is too
short for such a demonstration, and the results from
the males of the second line bred family Avould be un-
certain until proved. With all the merit that line
breeding possesses it must be acknowledged that it is
a steed which breeders cannot always control to their
satisfaction.

A71 Out-cross Defined. — An out-cross may be de-
fined as the use of a sire of unrelated blood upon
females of the same breed that have been bred in line
or that are in-and-in bred, but it may also mean cross-
ing high grade or pure bred females with a male of
another breed. It is only in the former sense that
it will be discussed in the present chapter. Unre-
lated blood, if healthy and vigorous, infuses fresh
vigor into the stocks upon which it has been crossed.
The reasons for this increase of vigor are not well
understood, but it has been noticed that it is frequent-
ly greater when the animals used in making the out-
cross have been brought from places wide apart, and
when the conditions such as relate to climate and
production are different. Thus it is that Shorthorn

LINE BREEDING. 133

blood brought from Britain seems to have a renovat-
ing influence on herds in this country though not
bred in line, and probably the same would be true of
Shorthorn blood exported from the United States to
Britain. This would seem to be akin to the renova-
tion which in many instances comes through the in-
troduction of the seeds of plants from outside sources.
But it would not be correct to say that all such
changes with animals or plants bring renovation.

Benefits from Introducing an Out-cross. — The
benefits which flow from increased vigor the result
of an out-cross include : 1. An increase of size and
flesh-forming qualities ; 2. An increase of milk pro-
duction ; 3. Increased productivity ; and 4. Extended
longevity. These benefits are virtually the opposites
of the evils created by too close breeding and too long
continued. They grow out of that upward, onward
stimulus which increased vigor brings along with it,
and which extends to every part of the system. Thus
it is that prize winning animals are so frequently
found in the earlier progeny from out-crosses.

Animals Long Line Bred Produce few Specl-
7nens of Highest Excellence. — While animals long-
bred in line or in-and-in bred may produce an oc-
casional specimen of high excellence, they do not
produce nearly so many of these as pure bred animals
of what may be termed mixed breeding. Such has
been the record written on the page of history in the
breeding of Shorthorns for the past one hundred
years. Xo class of Shorthorn cattle have been line
bred to a greater extent than certain of the Bates
families. They have been in the hands of many skill-
ful breeders, and yet the prize winners from such
herds have not been relatively numerous for the past

134 ANIMAL BREEDING.

fifty years. But when those cattle have been judicious-
ly crossed by Cruikshank males, the results have been
of the most satisfactory character. The progeny of
these out-crosses stand high in favor in the herd, in
the show ring and on the block. That mixed breed-
ing, or, as it is sometimes termed, "natural breeding,"
when judiciously conducted will produce a high per-
centage of excellent animals has been clearly demon-
strated in the Grasmere herd already referred to (see
page 109). The fact only can be stated here.

Out-crosses Should he Made Cautiously. — Out-
crosses should be introduced with much care lest the
variations resulting should be in a different direction
from what was intended. The prepotency even of a
vigorous animal cannot be measured definitely by
conjecture. When these out-crosses are made they
should be made in a tentative way, that is to say, in
about the same manner as sires are tested to judge
of their prepotency. They should be mated with only a
few animals until the results of the out-cross are appar-
ent in the progeny. When these are quite favor-
able those sires should then be used freely on th^
herd and for as long a period as may be judicious.

CHAPTEK XIL

FECUNDITY.

The relation between the breeding properties
of animals that are kept for breeding and the profits
arising therefrom is both intimate and close. ]^o
sooner has an animal reached the proper age for
breeding when kept for that purpose, than the relative
profit from keej)ing it grows less than it would other-
wise be, every day that it is kept subsequently with-
out discharging, at least in reasonable degree, the
breeding function. And this is more especially true
of animals that are kept chiefly for the milk that they
furnish. It is greatly important, therefore, that
every attention shall be given by those who keep do-
mestic animals to the maintenance of a high standard
in productivity in the stud, herd, or flock.

Fecundity Defined. — Fecundity means the qual-
ity of bringing forth offspring freely, regularly, and
in many instances abundantly. It means about the
same thing as prolificacy when the latter is applied
to animal breeding, but prolificacy is the broader term
and therefore has a wider range of application. Fe-
cundity has reference to frequency in reproduction
as well as to the numbers produced. Of' course, in
those classes of animals which produce but one at
a birth, it can only have reference to frequency and
regularity in production. In such instances the most
fecund animals will be those which produce the most
freely and reg-ularly from the time that breeding

136

ANIMAL BliEEDING,

FECUNDITY. 137

should begin. But when more than one is produced at
a birth, the most fecund animals will be those that
produce the most freely and regularly, and that bring
forth most numerously at each season of parturition.
It will be noticed that this property is the attribute of
females only, but it is doubtless influenced more or
less by the males used in sendee. It differs from
fertility in that it has reference to the numbers pro-
duced rather than to the ability to produce. Fertility
is of varying degrees, but an animal that is susceptible
of impregnation is fertile. It is the opposite of
sterility and barrenness in females. Females that
breed irregularly and infrequently are commonly
spoken of as shy breeders, and males that are unable to
beget are spoken of as impotent.

Influences that Affect Reproduction. — The re-
productive powers of animals are much influenced by
changes in their_surroundings_ and habiXs and by the
modes of life to which they are subjected. All such
changes as tend to equalize conditions are favorable
to reproduction. For instance, when regular supplies
of food supplant those where food has been in excess
a part of the year and insufficient another portion of
the same, the influence on productivity is favorable,
and so of all other influences that tend to equalize.
RfgTilarity even in the habit of breeding tends to
perpetuate such regularity. But the results are ad-
verse when the changes in themselves are unfavorable
to the healthy action of the system. The African
ostrich, for instance, has been transplanted to certain
other countries where the surroundings are considered
less favorable than in South Africa, and with the
result that there has been a decrease in productivity.
The influences that affect productivity favorably and

138 ANIMAL BREEDING.

adversely are much the same as those that affect fe-
ciinditv similarly, and they are given below,
v/ Influences that Affect Fecundity Adversely. —

The following are chief among the influences that
affect fecundity adversely: 1. Confinement and lack
of exercise. 2. Irregular supplies of food and lack
of uniformity in conditions. 3. Food lacking in suc-
culence or containing too much sugar. 4. A plethoric
condition of the system. 5. Meager milk production.
And 6, In-and-in breeding, line breeding, close breed-
ing, excessive breeding, and in some instances hered-
ity. These influences may act singly or more or less
in conjunction. The more they act in conjunction
the more adversely will they influence fecundity.
They will now be considered somewhat in detail.

Influence of Confinement on Fecundity. — Fe-
cundity is affected adversely by confinement and the
lack of exercise which confinement brings with it.
This may be shown in various ways. It is seen in
the relative frequency of impotency in males and of
barrenness in females among domestic animals that
have been much confined. To so great an extent has
this fact been recognized by breeders that they invari-
ably adopt some measures whereby such exercise can
be obtained for breeding animals. Paddocks are
provided for those which may not usually run with
the females, and pastures of more or less extent are
provided for females which must needs be kept on the
soiling system. Devices are sometimes resorted to
which shall compel the animals to take exercise, as,
for instance, when bulls and stallions are made to
work. In the human family the relation between
a life of labor or the opposite on reproduction is
sharply drawn. Large families are usually found
only among the classes who toil.

FECUNDITY. 139

It is seen in the impaired or destroyed powers of
reproduction in wild animals when deprived of their
liberty and in the inability of their offspring to breed.
Animals once wild and confined, as in a menagerie,
breed very shyly and when they do, in but few in-
stances beyond the first generation. The males be-
come impotent and the females barren. The same
principle has also been demonstrated, as stated by
Darwin, in certain experiments conducted with fowls
in France. These were given different degrees of
liberty. The fecundity increased with the increase
of liberty given to the fowls, at least, up to a certain
limit.

Influence of Food Supplies and of Conditions on
Fecundity. — Irregular supplies of food and lack of
uniformity in conditions affect fecundity adversely.
This has been shown in the shy breeding qualities
of the Spanish Merino sheep in its native country
as compared with the same in other lands. In Spain
prior to the present century the traveling flocks were
oftentimes on short supplies, especially when journey-
ing to and from the mountains. The conditions other-
wise were uneven, as, for instance, when exposed to
adverse weather. When those sheep were first brought
to the United States their want of fecundity was dis-
tinctly noticeable. Since that time their breeding
qualities have improved, especially on arable farms
where they can be given regular supplies of suitable
food and subjected to fairly uniform conditions. On
the western ranges not only Merinos but also other
breeds of sheep breed more shyly than when suitably
cared for on the farm. It is also shown in the less
prolific character of the mountain breeds of sheep
as compared with those of the lower land.

140 ANIMAL BREEDING.

It would not be easy to give statistics that would
form a just comparison, but the fact has been noticed
to the extent of being commonly recognized by those
who are acquainted with sheep husbandry. The
reasons for the less fecundity of the mountain breeds
are very similar to those which explain the same in
range flocks. It is further shown in the greater
fecundity of domesticated animals as compared with
the same when wild, as instanced in pigeons, geese,
and ducks, rabbits, dogs, swine, and other animals.
Some varieties of pigeons breed but twice a year in
a wild condition, and when domesticated the same
varieties will breed much oftener. Swine seldom
breed in the wild state and produce but few at a
litter. Under domestication they may be made to pro-
duce litters regularly twice a year and of about twice
the number in each litter produced by the wild
species. The increase in the prolificacy of tame rab-
bits as compared with wild ones is even more marked.

Influence of Nutrition on Fecundity. — Nutri-
tion materially affects the activity of reproduction,
since it supplies the organs of the latter with materials
concerned in its operations. If these materials are in-
sufficient or unsuitable the generative powers suffer
accordingly. Sometimes there is a certain degree of
antagonism between the nutritive and generative func-
tions, the one operating unduly at the expense of the
other. This antagonism always exists more or less
when the normal equilibrium of suitable conditions
is disturbed, and this will probably be true let the
disturbance arise from whatsoever cause it may. It
may not always be easily possible to tell just where
this equilibrium lies. It is to be gathered from cumu-
lative experience and observation. Any excess in the

FECUNDITY. 141

nutritive activity of the system acts prejudicially on
the powers of reproduction as shown in the partial or
total sterility of fat animals, over-luxuriant plants
and nut bearing trees. Animals that have been made
excessively fat for show purposes are usually indiffer-
ent breeders. To so great an extent has this fact
come to be recognized that it affects their sale adverse-
ly for breeding iTses. Many of them breed irregular-
ly, and produce progeny lacking in size and stamina
at birth or do not breed at all. But poor breeding
qualities are less frequently found in show animals
kept in uniformly high condition from birth than in
those subjected to alternations of high and low condi-
tions.

In over-luxuriant plants and nut bearing trees
the energies of the plant and of the tree are so con-
centrated in the production of stems and leaves in the
one case, and of wood in the other, that little or no
fruit is produced. The opposite is also true, namely,
that any marked deficiencies in nutrition impair and
hinder breeding properties and in some instances de-
stroy thern altogether. This finds ample illustration
in the decline of life. The nutritive processes weaken
with advancing age till at length these cannot sustain
the generative function in the male or the reproduc-
tive function in the female, until impotencj is pro-
duced in the former and sterility in the latter. Cer-
tain forms of disease lead to similar results, more
especially those forms which seriously impair the nu-
tritive function. The intimate relation between
abundant food supplies and the judicious feeding of
the same may be further illustrated in various ways.

Cows regularly supplied with enough suitable
food will breed at almost any season of the year.

142 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Those kept on innutritious food in the winter and on
good pastures in summer will mate only in the sum-
mer after the grasses have become plentiful. During
the winter while on innutritious and dry food, the
whole system languishes including the generative
function. The rich and abundant pastures stimulate
the whole being of the animal including the organs of
reproduction. They at once become active.

Flockmasters have found that when ewes whose
lambs have been weaned are put upon rich pastures
they breed more quickly than when on poor pastures,
and when the pasture is supplemented with some
stimulating grain food, as barley or wheat, the ten-
dencies to breed quickly are intensified. The func-
tion of breeding shares in the renovation of the sys-
tem, hence, the stimulus given to the breeding impulse
which leads to early mating. In this way more uni-
formity is secured in the time when the lambs are
dropped and more lambs are produced. The bearing
of suitable food, w^hen suitably fed, on increased fe-
cundity is thus very clearly shown. The wisdom of
feeding females liberal supplies of nutritious food
when reduced in flesh through nursing their young
when it is desired to have them breed quickly again
will be at once apparent, as also the necessity for feed-
ing males similarly when preparing them for active
and prolonged service.

Stallions in charge of intelligent grooms are thus
prepared for the service of the mating season. When
males are much used in service they also require lib-
eral nourishment. This explains why intelligent
stockmen feed nourishing and suitable food freely to
their sires during any seasons of breeding in which
the instances of mating are frequent. It has been

FECUNDITY. 143

noticed that such treatment has a marked influence on
ability to beget as well as upon increased numbers in
the progeny begotten when more than one is produced
at a birth.

Influerice of the Quality of the Food on Fecund-
ity.— The quality of the food exercises an important
influence on fecundity. A large proportion of sugar
in the same injures the reproductive functions. This
arises, in part, at least, from the abundance of carbo-
hydrate elements in such food. When fed in large
quantities and for a prolonged period it also tends
to cloy the appetite. Foods rich in sugar stand in
high favor with many who prepare animals for ex-
hibition. For such a use sugar is frequently fed
in the pure form and it has been noticed that when
thus fed freely to young animals their breeding pow-
ers are affected adversely, and the general tone of the
system likewise suffers more or less.

A dry dietary is unfavorable to impregnation,
and a rich, juicy and succulent vegetation is favorable
to the same. A diet unduly lacking in succulence, as,
for instance, hay long stored, is unfavorable to repro-
duction when fed alone. Such a diet tends to induce
a constipated condition of the digestion and the breed-
ing powers suffer in consequence. When, in addition
to the dr}Tiess, the nutritive quality of the food is low,
as when straw constitutes the food, the outcome is still
more adverse to breeding. This explains why seasons
of extraordinary drouth are unfavorable to fe-
cundity. The grasses are both dry and innutritions.
It is easily possible, however, to feed foods too suc-
culent to get the best results from breeding. In sea-
sons of excessive rainfall the grasses though abundant
are not sufficiently nutritious, and not infrequently

144 ANIMAL BREEDING.

they keep the bowels in a condition too lax. Foods
rich, juicy and succulent are favorable to free and
regular breeding. Kichness in food furnishes the
needed nutrition, juiciness tempts the appetite, and
when the foods are also succulent they act beneficially
on the digestion. A fresh Dwarf Essex Rape pasture
well matured, furnishes an excellent instance of a
single food possessing all these properties in a marked
degree.

A carbonaceous diet is also unfavorable to fe-
cundity, while a nitrogenous diet is favorable. The
carbonaceous diet tends to produce fat and heat, while
the foetus during development is more in need of mus-
cular sustenance. This is obtained from the elements
of a diet nitrogenous in character. Brood sows reared
on a corn diet are shy breeders. When fed on the
same during pregnancy the pigs are likely to be small
and deficient in vigor at birth, and the danger is im-
minent that the sow may have trouble in farrowing.
In the distinct corn belt such a diet has diminished
the fecundity of swine.

A Plethoric Condition Diminishes Fecundity. —
Diminished fecundity may arise from a plethoric con-
dition of the system. Such a condition is accom-
panied by overloading with flesh, which begets sluggish
tendencies in the whole being unfavorable to repro-
duction. It may also arise from congestion and in-
flammation in the organs concerned in procreation, in-
duced or at least aggravated by these influences. The
correctives for the first are, active exercise even
though enforced, and a diminished diet, but the deple-
tion of the system should be gradual. In this way
the breeding powers of males that have become im-
potent and females barren through over high fitting

FECUNDITY. 145

for the shows have been restored. When organic dis-
ease, however, is present in either of the forms named
or in other forms, the most skillful treatment will
often fail to remove the same.

When the Breeding Powers are Most Active. —
The breeding powers are most active when animals
are in what may be termed moderate condition as
to flesh, and in the meridian of vigor. x\ marked ten-
dency to lay on fat is frequently accompanied by a
delicacy of condition and a diminished secretion of
milk, as well as by a loss of fecundity. The first
comes from the sluggishness which it induces. The
second results from the energies of the system being
too much concentrated in the opposite direction, that
is, in the production of milk. And the third is the
outcome of the antagonistic influence of these causes
acting in conjunction. When breeding is rendered
impossible, as by castration or spaying, the tendency
to lay on fat is increased. This arises from the more
restful habits of castrated or spayed animals and from
the less extent to which the energies of the system are
divided. The moment that either operation takes
place the generative function no longer requires to be
sustained. N'or is milk production any longer, usually,
possible in females. Castration and spaying are fur-
ther discussed in Chapter XXIX.

Sterility in Fat Animals. — The immediate cause
of sterility in fat animals frequently rests in what
may be termed fatty degeneration. It is caused by
the conversion of the albuminous or gelatinous mate-
rials of the tissues of the reproductive organs into fat.
While in that condition reproduction is impossible.
In other instances the tubes in females that convey
the seminal fluid to the ovum fail to do so, they are

146 ANIMAL BREEDING.

SO filled with fatty matter, hence impregnation cannot
take place, howsoever vigorous the male may be. The
mistake, however, must not be made, that a fat con-
dition of the animals is essentially incompatible w^ith
the ability to breed, since both males and females have
gone through years of successful exhibiting without
ceasing to breed with normal certainty. In such in-
stances, however, the animals have been high fleshed
from the beginning and have been subjected to much
uniformity of treatment. But the progeny, notwith-
standing, are not often the equal of the parents in
vigor or individualit3\ Long continued succession
in the generations of great prize winners, at least in
animals kept for meat, has never occurred.

The Relation Between Milk Production and Re-
production.— There is an intimate relation between
the milk producing powders and those of reproduction.
This is owing, in part at least, to the dependence of
milk secretion on the mammary glands. These in
turn are under the direct influence of the breeding
organs, or they sympathize very closely with them,
hence animals which breed with the least difliculty
and which produce the most healthy and vigorous off-
spring, usually yield the best supplies of milk among
animals of that particular type. The logical conclu-
sions from these premises are, flrst, that it is quite
possible in meat-producing animals to reduce the
milk-giving function below what would be for the
best results in breeding, and for the best maintenance
of the progeny, and second, that mere selection in
dairy herds based on abundant milk-giving should of
itself improve the breeding qualities of the animals
of the herd. Regular breeding in meat-producing
herds or flocks will therefore exist in the most marked

FECUNDirr, 147

degree when no little attention is given to the reten-
tion of milking qualities in the females. But in
dairy herds it would be possible to so stimulate the
milk-giving function as to react injuriously on the
whole animal by reducing its vigor and consequently
injuring both the breeding and milk-giving functions.
These results however are not of frequent occurrence.

The projDer sustenance of the animal during
gestation has also an important bearing on milk giv-
ing and consequently on subsequent reproduction.
Many fear to keep the pregnant animal in a good
condition of flesh during the period of pregnancy, lest
there should be trouble at parturition. Such a fear
is groundless, providing the food producing the flesh
has been duly succulent and has had in it a suflicient
proportion of protein. It is a mistake to have animals
thin in flesh, beyond a certain limit, when they bring
forth their young. It is not fair to the progeny
before birth and it will react against abundant milk-
giving.

If a female is low in flesh when her progeny is
born she is dependent entirely on food supplies for
the milk that she gives. If she is in a good condition
of flesh when her progeny is born she has a residuum
of milk-producing materials stored up in her own
body which in due time is turned into milk. This ex-
plains why a brood sow in good flesh when her large
litter of young are born is usually thin by the time
they are ready to wean. When the dam is low in
flesh at parturition the drain upon the energies that
follows reduces her vigor. This reduction of vigor
extends to the assimilative powers, hence she remains
low in flesh during the milk giving period. The
breeding powers through sympathy are also enervated,
hence time is lost before the animal can be bred again.

148 ANIMAL BREEDING.

The Influences of Over-Breeding and of Hered-
ity on Fecundity. — The term over-breeding is used
here to mean breeding excessively, that is to say,
breeding from relatives so close that injurious results
follow. It also means breeding too young and too
frequently. Reference has already been made to the
adverse influence which in-and-in breeding, line breed-
ing, and close breeding have on fecundity. (See
Chapters X and XI.) Immature breeding produces
results similar in kind and usually even more quick-
ly. When at all excessive it tends not only to reduce
stamina, and to weaken seriously if not indeed to
destroy the generative functions.

Force a young child to walk before its limbs have
strength enough to support it, and the limbs become
weak and unshapely. Encourage it to tax the brain
imduly at too young an age and the danger is im-
minent that it will become a physical and probably a
mental wreck. So when a sire is used in breeding
at too young an age the whole being of the same is
injured, including the generative organs. And when
a female is bred too young, normal size in her is
not likely ever to be reached. When she is bred too
frequently the stamina of both the dam and progeny
suffers. The latter always suffer when the dam has
been bred excessively. In many lines live stock has
thus suffered from excessive breeding during recent
years.

But the greatest mistakes have probably been
made by dairymen in breeding heifers too young,
by some swine growers in breeding sows too early
and by the growers of beef and mutton in the extent
to which young sires have been used. The first have
to some extent been influenced by the desire to estab-

FECUNDITY. 149

lish the habit of milk-giving in the joimg female so
that the energies of the system would be encouraged
to concentrate in that direction. The second have
sought profit in trying to reduce the duration of the
rearing period prior to the time of reproducing, and
the third have been influenced by the low price at
which old males must be sold when they cannot longer
be used in the herd. All have erred. Good breeders
are opposed to breeding sows so as to reproduce under
the age of twelve months, and to produce twice a
year, to breeding ewes under the age of nineteen
months, and to using young males with much fre-
quency until they are quite beyond the age at which
they become capable of begetting. But the age at
which animals may be used in breeding depends some-
what upon the individuality of the same, as, for in-
stance, on the development and vigor, hence no cast
iron rules can be framed that will equally apply to
every case. But there can be no question of the
wisdom of not allowing males to run with females, as
a rule, at the mating season, lest the energies of
the latter shall be taxed to no purpose by excessive
service.

Heredity will influence the breeding qualities
of animals favorably or otherwise according to the
breeding qualities of the ancestry. The assumption
is no doubt correct that fecundity is quite as much
a matter of inheritance as of form. This has been
repeatedly demonstrated in the practice of breeding.
When it is desirable, therefore, to increase the fe-
cundity, much care should be taken to choose both
males and females from families which have been
free producers. Free production is probably as much
dependent on heredity as on food supplies in the

150 ANIMAL BREEDING.

ordinary operations of the breeder. The proper selec-
tion of breeding stock will therefore have much in-
fluence upon the rate of increase in a flock or herd.

Heredity not only influences fecundity as such,
but it may also be made to exercise a powerful influ-
ence on the season of breeding. Under normal con-
ditions grade ewes of mixed breeding drop their
lambs in the spring. In experiments conducted by
the author at the Minnesota University Experiment
Station, the breeding habit has been so changed in the
first generation of the female progeny, that a large
percentage of them, when bred, dropped lambs in
the autumn, that is to say, between the end of Septem-
ber and the close of the year. In a few instances
females of the first cross dropped lambs in September.
But those lambs were not of the first birth. Pure
bred Dorset sires were used, and the change in the
time of breeding already noted was unquestionably
due to inheritance from them, although it was influ-
enced to some extent by the food given to the dams.

Relation Between Size in Animals and Fe-
cundity.— There is a marked relation between the
size of animals and fecundity throughout the animal
kingdom. The smaller species breed more frequent-
ly, more numerously, and at an earlier age. Cattle
breed but once a year and produce but one at a birth.
Swine breed twice a year and produce several at a
birth. Belgian hares breed many times a year and
also produce several at a birth. This may be owing
in part to the modifying influence of the nutritive
functions, but it would seem to be owing more to the
inherent original constitution bestowed upon the dif-
ferent species. While, as has been shown, fecundity
may be influenced favorably in various ways, there is

FECUNDITY. 151

a limit to the possibilities of such influence. The
cow could never be made to produce as the sow does,
nor the ewe as the female Belgian hare.

Freemartlns Usually Barren, — When a male
and a female are produced at one birth, the barren-
ness of one has only been observed in the progeny of
bovines. The female is generally barren. Such fe-
males are called ^^freemartins.'' It is only among
bovines that this peculiarity occurs, and it is confined
to instances in which one of the pair is a female and
the other a male. The male would seem as able to
beget as males ordinarily are. In rare instances the
females also breed. The primary reasons for this
peculiarity are as yet unexplained. The internal
generative organs of the female partake somew^hat of
the nature of those of the male. This explains the
immediate cause of the barrenness, but no light is
forthcoming as to the cause of such inheritance.

CHAPTEK XIII.

THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS.

Xo question pertaining to breeding has given
rise to more controverted opinions than that which
relates to the relative influence of parents as male and
female, in determining the characteristics of the off-
spring. Many have claimed, and with much positive-
ness, that certain characters are derived chiefly from
the male and certain other characters are derived
chiefly from the female. But, since there is not much
agreement between the leading advocates of these
theories, even when the same in some leading essen-
tials, and since the arguments presented in support of
them are chiefly of a negative character, they fall
short of incontrovertible demonstration.

The Relative Influence of Parents in Breeding
Defined. — By the relative influence of parents in
breeding is meant the influence which they exert as
male or female in determining the character of the
progeny. It differs from prepotency in drawing the
contrast between the influence of the parents as male
and female in determining transmitted characters,
whereas prepotency has a regard to the influence ex-
erted by either parent without inquiring as to wdiether
any peculiarities of transmission belong to one sex
or the other. And it may be mentioned here that if
the contention were true that one parent because of its
sex influences certain features of transmission, then
such transmission would be a disturbing factor an-

153

tagonistic at least in some instances to prepotency.
Such disturbance would complicate the laws that
govern transmission to such an extent as to seriously
hinder successful breeding. At the outset, therefore,
it would seem improbable that influences so antagonis-
tic should inhere in the same animals.

Sex Alone Does Not Affect Transmissive Pow-
er.— Much of what will be said in the remaining por-
tion of this chapter will have a bearing on the affir-
mation just made. The correctness of any theory that
would assign a greater relative influence to one parent
as such in determining the characteristics of the off-
spring has not as yet been established. It has been
claimed that there is a preponderance in resemblance
in the offspring to the male parent. It has also been
claimed that there is a preponderance in resemblance
to the female parent. But more commonly both
claims have reference to certain characters in the
progeny rather than to the whole being, otherwise
their absurdity would be so manifest that it would
not be necessary to consider them. Some have said
that the male parent transmits certain features of
form, function, or of disposition, while others have
said that the female parent transmits like properties.
But the theory that the male parent exerts on the
whole the greater influence because it is a male has
long been popular. That it does exert the greater
influence, on the whole, is true, as will be shown be-
low, but not in virtue of its sex. Were it true that this
greater influence was exerted because of its sex, there
would not be so many instances in which there is a
preponderance in resemblance to the female.

In the human family children very frequently
resemble the mother more than the father in form.

154 ANIMAL BREEDING.

in features and in mental powers. This preponder-
ance in resemblance to the female parent among do-
mestic animals is also frequent, though not so fre-
quent relatively as in the human family, and for
the reason that in the latter there is no selection in
breeding as with domestic animals, hence the averagv*^
female is likely to be as prepotent as the average
male.

Why the Male Parent Exerts the Greater In-
fluence in Transmission. — The theory that the male
parent exerts the greater influence in virtue of its sex
has arisen probably from the greater number of in-
stances, in which, in breeding domestic animals a
preponderance of resemblance may be traced to the
male parent. But this may be owing first, to the
greater care used ordinarily in breeding males, which
renders them more prepotent, and to the greater pains
taken in choosing them, and, second, to the larger num-
ber of the progeny relatively tracing to one male.
Males are usually more purely bred than females,
and they are usually possessed of a greater average
individual vigor. They are in consequence more
prepotent than females as shown in Chapter IX. It
could not be otherwise then, but that the resemblance
to the males w^ould preponderate in each of the indi-
vidual progeny. And since the progeny of one male
is in nearly all instances in practical breeding much
more numerous than the progeny of each female, the
sum of the resemblance in the progeny to the male
is greater than the sum of the same to all the females
combined.

The Offspring Resemble Most the Parent Most
Highly Bred. — The probability is strong that there
will be a preponderance in resemblance to the parent

THE RELATIVE I^FLUENCE OF PARENTS. 155

most highly bred, whether male or female. It has
been shown above why the progeny more frequently
resemble the male. But suppose the conditions of
choice were reversed, that is to say, that more pains
were taken in breeding and choosing females, then it
would doubtless follow that in the progeny of each
female there would be more of resemblance to the
female than to the male parent. This is well brought
out in crossing a well established breed with one but
recently established, and in mating a pure bred with
an animal of mixed breeding.

If a male chosen from a well established breed
is mated with a female of a breed but recently estab-
lished, other things being equal, there will be a pre-
ponderance of resemblance in the progeny to the male
parent. Reverse the process and there will be a
preponderance in resemblance to the female parent.
Both results are due to the greater potency of the
breed that has been long established. Similarly, if
a pure bred male is mated with a female of mixed
breeding, there will be more of resemblance in the
progeny to the male. Reverse the process and there
will be more of resemblance in the progeny to the
female. Both results are due to the greater potency of
pure blood as compared with that from mixed blood.
Ordinarily therefore the progeny will bear the closer
resemblance to the parent of the more ancient lineage
in the one instance, and to that of the purest breeding
in the other. But there may be some exceptions for
reasons that will now be given.

Unexpected Variations in Transmission. — Al-
though the predominant influence of the best bred
parent is the rule in transmission, the intensity of
other conditions may interfere so as to produce unex-

156 - ANIMAL BREEDING.

pected variations. For instance, where liigli breed-
ing is practiced/witli reference to securing a single
quality only, or a limited number of desirable qual-
ities, in securing these strength and constitution may
have been so neglected as to result in transmission
that is variable. Much depends upon the strength
and constitution of each parent, as well as upon
the composition of the blood. Under normal condi-
tions the best bred parent would almost certainly
transmit a preponderance in properties to the off-
spring. But a weakened constitution, sometimes at
least and generally, Aveakens potency in transmission.
Diminished strength of constitution including present
vigor may therefore tend to counteract potency in
transmission, the result of pure breeding. The an-
tagonism maj" become so strong even, that its influence
in producing variation may be stronger than that of
good breeding in perpetuating likeness in transmis-
sion. It is possible, therefore, that in many instances
as much depends upon the strength and constitution
of each parent as upon the composition of the blood.

This variableness in transmission may arise, in
part at least, from the inheritance of variable charac-
ters represented in the ancestral line, and it may be
that impaired vigor enables these to assert themselves
in a way which would be hardly possible where much
vigor is present, since the latter probably would prove
a controlling influence running counter to them.
Whatever may be said of the explanation, the fact
remains, that in both sexes, animals possessing blood
precisely similar have shown a marked difference in
their powers of transmission, whether male or female.

The InffiiPnce of Age on Transmission. — The
ability of either parent as male or female in trans-

THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 157

mitting characteristics to the progeny is to some ex-
tent influenced by old age and consequently by bodily
vigor. As the bodily vigor of an animal decreases
with advancing age, its prepotency in many instances
would seem to suffer more or less. In such instances
the decrease in prepotency is charged up to a
decrease in bodily vigor. As this decrease in bodily
vigor will affect alike male and female, it follows that
it will affect the ability of either to transmit char-
acters. If it were true therefore that sex as such
were capable of certain kinds of transmission, because
of sex, advancing age with its decrease in bodily
vigor would step in and form a disturbing factor, that
is to say, an animal declining in vigor would have
less power than one of the opposite sex in the zenith
of bodily vigor, to transmit properties when mated
with the same. Such mating would therefore so far
disturb transmission in virtue of the sex, if such trans-
mission did exist. But advancing old age and dimin-
ished bodily vigor are not always accompanied by
diminished prepotency, as in some instances animals
deficient in strength and vigor are highly prepotent.
Such transmission is oftentimes readily apparent in
the progeny of animals with an inclination to certain
diseases or already suffering from the same. In this
fact lies the great hazard m breeding from pure bred
animals deficient in these qualities.

Transmission When Pt^epotency is Not Marhed.
• — Wlien there is no marked prepotency on the part
of either parent it has been claimed that the male
offspring frequently resemble the sire and the female
offspring the dam. Such resemblances have been no-
ticed in the transmission of disease. Carefully gath-
ered statistics have shown, as qiioted by Miles, that in

158 ANIMAL BREEDING.

a certain number of cases of consumption and also of
insanity, the instances of inheritance of these respec-
tive diseases from the male parent were more numer-
ous in males, and of inheritance of the same from the
female parent were more numerous in females.

This would seem to favor the view that it is pos-
sible for a male or a female in virtue of its sex to
transmit certain peculiarities to the progeny. But
the force of such an argument is greatly weakened
by what is said in the succeeding paragraph, that is
to say, by the power of transmission which one sex
sometimes possesses to transmit peculiarities which
affect only the other sex. The principle involved,
however, tends to emphasize the importance of careful
selection in the sires introduced into the stud, herd
or flock.

Transmission of Peculiarities Through the Op-
posite Sex. — Instances are not infrequent wherein
disease and other peculiarities are limited to one sex
and transmitted by the other. This has already been
referred to in Chapter VII., but will now be further
enlarged upon, because of its bearing on the subject
that is being discussed. Such transmission has been
observed in the inheritance of certain forms of ichthy-
osis. There have been instances in which the disease
was confined to one sex and transmitted through the
other, that is to say, it would affect only males though
transmitted by females in which it was not apparent.
But the opposite of this has happened with the same
forms of disease, that is to say, the disease was appar-
ent only in females though inherited from males. It
has been observed in the inheritance of a tendency
to obesity when only one sex will be thus affected.
But as with the inheritance of skin diseases, such

THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS 159

a tendency has at one time manifested itself in one
sex, at another time in the opposite sex, and in yet
other instances the transmission is variable and mix-
ed.

It has also been observed in the influence of the
dairy sire in transmitting form and functional activ-
ity to the udder of the same. It is claimed, however,
that such transmission is more marked when the
females are grades. This is just what may be looked
for, and it is doubtless the outcome of that greater
prepotency which a pure bred sire has when mated
with a female of mixed breeding. The greater pre-
potency of the male affects the whole organism of the
female though of the opposite sex. !N"or has it been
proved to a demonstration that one sex as male or fe-
male has the power of transmitting those peculiarities
in a greater degree than the other. And the whole
question is still further obscured by the preponderance
in resemblance to one parent which is observable at
one period of development, and to the other parent at
another period of development.

Theories Regarding Transmission hy Parents as
Male and Female. — Various theories have been ad-
vanced to the effect that in generation the male prog-
eny determines the character of certain organs, and
also of other features of the organization, and that
the female parent likewise determines the nature of
yet other features and characteristics of the organiza-
tion. Chief among those theories are the following:

1. That the male parent influences chiefly the
external characters of the offspring and the female the
internal characters of the same, xiccording to this
theory the male parent chiefly determines the nature
of the bony framework, its covering and locomotion,

160 ANIMAL BREEDING.

and consequently its appearance, while the female
parent chiefly determines the internal structures, as
the vital and digestive organs, thus controlling very
largely the stamina and growth of the animal. Such
^propagation is done as it were in parts, one parent
determining certain characters of the organization
and the other parent determining other characters of
the same.

2. That one parent will chieflj^ determine the
character of the forehead and organs of sense along
with the vital and nutritive organs, while the other
parent chiefly determines the character of the back of
the head and also the locomotive organs. This theory
claims also that which parent will produce these pe-
culiarities will depend somewhat on sameness of
blood, difference in blood, and closeness of relation-
ship.

3. That propagation is done, as it were, by halves,
that is to say, that each parent gives to the offspring
the shape of one half of the body more or less. Ac-
cording to this theory as propounded by certain of
its advocates the male parent generally determines
the character of the back, loins and hind-quarters, the
size, skin and general shape, while the female chiefly
determines the character of the fore-quarters, head,
vital and nervous system. In other words this theory
virtually claims that the female parent determines
chiefly the nature of the anterior part of the body
including what may be termed the higher features
of the organization, while the male parent determines
chiefly the nature of the posterior parts, and what
may be termed the lower features of the same.

The first theory was propagated by Orton, the
second by Walker and the third by Spooner and

THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 161

others. They all agree in claiming that in transmis-
sion certain features of the organization are more in-
fluenced by one parent than by the other, but when
they attempt to particularize regarding the organs
affected, the disagreement is most marked. Other
theories have been propounded which only tend to
further complicate and obscure the question.

Ohjedions to Theories Advanced Above. — The
probable if not indeed the absolute incorrectness of the
theories just submitted may be shown without great
difficulty.

1. It is evidenced in the marked lack of agree-
ment in the theories themselves and in the advocates
of what is practically the same theory. There is a
wide gap between the theories as enunciated. While
they all rest on a substratum of the idea that propa-
gation is done by halves, they differ most widely as to
what constitutes the half. For instance Orton is posi-
tive that size is governed chiefly by the female parent,
and Spooner is equally positive that it is governed by
the male parent. ISTor have the advocates of any
of those theories sustained them by arguments strong
and convincing.

2. It is evidenced in the influence of a prepotent
male on the whole organization, that is to say, on
internal structure as well as external form, on the
higher as well as the lower parts of the organization,
and on the anterior as well as the posterior parts of
the being. Mate a vigorous pure bred sire with a
grade female whose blood elements are much mixed,
and the whole being of the progeny will bear the
stamp of the male upon it. The same will be manifest
in the external form, in the color, size and locomotion
of the progeny, and in vital, digestive and nervous

162 ANIMAL BREEDING.

action. Reverse the process and there will be a like
preponderance of resemblance to the female in all the
avenues of the being of the progeny. This one argu-
ment alone should prove fatal to any theory that
claims that one parent, in virtue of its sex, influences
only certain characters in the progeny.

3. It is further evidenced in the fact of the
antagonism of several of those theories to what has
been ascertained regarding the progress of develop-
ment in the embryo. But the discussion of this phase
of the question cannot be considered here.

Practical Deductions. — From what has been ad-
vanced the conclusion is inevitable that at the present
time it would not be safe to attribute a preponder-
ance of influence in transmission to either male or
female in virtue of its sex. From the whole ground
gone over it is apparent: —

1. That the relative influence of parents upon the
offspring evidently depends upon conditions that can-
not always be determined. Potency is sometimes
absent when all the conditions would seem to favor
its presence, and in other instances it is present when
the conditions are against it.

2. The transmission of characters resembling the
parent in which they have become dominant are
likely to prevail. This is but another way of saying
that the most prepotent parent is likely to have the
greater influence in determining the character of the
offspring. The guaranties of prepotency, as purity
of blood and superior individual vigor, w^ill therefore
ordinarily be the strongest guaranties of likeness in
transmission by either parent in the progeny.

3. On the other hand this wdll not exclude the
inheritance of peculiarities from either or both par-

THE RELATIVE INFLUENCE OF PARENTS. 163

ents other than those which are dominant. Particu-
larly will this be true in cross breeding. The unex-
pected will then happen more frequently than in other
lines of breeding

CHAPTEE XIV.

THE INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION.

That the succeeding progeny of the female pre-
viously impregnated, does in some instances possess
resemblances to the male by which she was thus im-
pregnated cannot be gainsaid. The instances in which
it has been noticed have been so many and the resem-
blances have been so marked that they cannot be ac-
counted for in any other way than by attributing
them to the influence of such impregnation. On the
other hand the instances in which such resemblances
cannot be traced are also numerous. As the different
results that follow such impregnation cannot positive-
ly be determined beforehand, the whole question is
obscured by the uncertainty of the results. Enough,
however, has been gleaned from observation and other-
wise, to make it clear to the breeder of high class
stock, that to breed thus is always attended with an
element of hazard, since it may introduce into the
progeny variations that are not desirable.

The Influence of a P7'evious Impregnation De-
fined.— The defining of this question has been in a
manner anticipated in what has just been said. In
more precise language, it may be said to mean that in
the process of procreation, the influence of the male
sometimes extends to the offspring of the female by
another male. The fact, as already intimated, has
been abundantly established by observation. The
instances in which it has so occurred have been

THE INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 165

numerous, not only among the lower animals but also
in the human family. So marked has been this in-
fluence that it has in many instances proved a source
of serious loss to the breeders of pure bred stock.
Especially has this been the case when certain color
markings are required as an evidence of purity of
breeding.

Illustrations of the Influence of a Previous Im-
pregnation.— The recorded instances of such inherit-
ance are so many that the only difliculty found is in
choosing betw^een them. The following have been
selected : —

1. In the Koyal stud at Hampton Court, Eng-
land, it is stated on the authority of Goodale, that
several colts were dropped in one year sired by the
thoroughbred stallion Acteon, but which had the
markings of the thoroughbred stallion Colonel to
whom the mares had been bred the previous year.
These markings consisted of a white hind fetlock and
a white mark or stripe on the face. Acteon had no
white markings.

2. The same authority states that Mr. A. Morri-
son, Bognie, Scotland, had a superior Clydesdale
mare bred to a Spanish ass in the year 1843. The
progeny of course was a mule. She was subsequently
bred to a horse, Svith the result that the progeny so
closely resembled a mule that parties who saw it
at a distance took it for a mule. And what is even
more remarkable this animal inherited in a marked
degree certain attributes of the mule, as for instance
endurance.

3. Miles records from his own observation the
case of a Chester white sow, owned by the Michigan
State Agricultural College, which had been bred to

166 ANIMAL BREEDING.

an Essex boar, and the following year Avas bred to a
pure Chester white boar. The pigs were all more or
less spotted with black. This could be accounted for
in no other way than through inheritance from the
Essex boar, which is of course black.

4. Professor Agassiz states that he coupled a
Newfoundland bitch with a water dog and subse-
quently with a greyhound. The progeny from the
second mating bore a close resemblance to the prog-
eny from the first, wdiich were a mixture of Newfound-
land and water dog with scarcely any resemblance to
the greyhound.

5. This influence has also been detected in many
instances in the close resemblance which children by
a second husband have borne to those by the first
husband. This has been specially noticeable in the
children of white parents when the mother had pre-
viously borne one or more children to a negro fpther.
The children subsequently begotten by the white
father are in many instances darker in color than
other white children, and they also frequently have
certain features of the negro.

The Influence of a Previous Impregnation May
Extend to Successive Births. — In some instances the
influence of a previous impregnation extends to the
progeny of a number of births successively by the
same mother. The following illustrations are select-
ed:—

1. Mr. Shaw of Leochel-Cushnie, Scotland, as
recorded in the Farmers' Magazine^ had six pure
Black faced ewes bred to a pure Leicester ram. Other
Black faced ewes were mated with a Down ram. The
Black faced ewes were all horned. The produce were
of course cross-breds, and showed more or lesjs the

THE INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 167

characteristics of sire and dam. The next year all
the Black faced ewes were bred to a pure Black faced
ram. The progeny had brown faces and were horn-
less. When mated a second time with a Black faced
ram, the progeny showed less resemblance to the
Leicester and also the Southdown than they did the
previous year, but two of the produce were still
polled, one was dun faced like the Southdown and had
small horns, and three ^vere white faced like the
Leicester.

2. Mr. Geo. T. Allman, of Tennessee, testifies
that he bred a pure Berkshire sow successively to a
pure bred Berkshire boar, and in every instance the
progeny had little or no hair, in this respect re-
sembling a Neapolitan sire, with which she had been
first mated. The Country Gentleman records the
testimony of Mr. A. W. Frizzell of Maryland which
in summary is as follows: He had a pair of prize
winning Dark Brahma fowls which w^ere inadvert-
ently mated with pure White Brahma cocks, and with
the result that three years hence White Brahma mark-
ings still manifested themselves in the progeny.

Instances are also on record where pure bred
mares bred to an ass and subsequently mated only
with pure bred stallions of kindred blood, never again
bred true to type. On the other hand it is also true
that in many instances of breeding, similar in kind,
like results have not followed, that is to say, the
females that have thus been coupled wdth males of
another breed do again breed true to type.

A First Explanation of the Influence From a
Previous Impregnation. — From the instances cited,
and from a great array of other instances that may
be cited, it cannot be doubted that the influence of

168 ANIMAL BREEDING.

one impregnation does frequently extend to the prog-
eny from succeeding impregnations. Three explana-
tions have been offered which will now be submitted,
but no one of the three is entirely satisfactory. The
first submitted, however, is more so than either of
the others.

The first explanation of the influences under
consideration supposes that the mother has been im-
pressed with the paternal characteristics of the foetus
during its intra-uterine existence, that is to say, that
the blood of the female has imbibed from that of the
male through the placental circulation some of the
attributes which the foetus has derived from the male
parent, and that the female may communicate these
with those proper to herself to the subsequent off-
spring of a different male parent. Dr. Carpenter and
others have advocated this theory. This exj)lanation
is probably the most satisfactory that has yet been
offered of the reasons for the influence imder dis-
cussion. It does not seem unreasonable nor contrary
to the laws of physiology. If correct, it not only fur-
nishes an explanation of the resemblances in the off-
spring from a different male, to that from a male of
a different breed previously coupled with the mother,
in the first birth that follows such coupling, but also in
succeeding births where such resemblances continue
to manifest themselves. Where they do, it has been
noticed that they become less pronounced a^ time
goes on. This is just what would be expected, as the
attributes of the male thus imbibed, as explained
above, would in the absence of renewal, naturally be-
come obscured by the attributes proper to the female
which are continually being renewed by the processes
*^hich sustain life.

THE INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 169

But the objection has been raised, on the ground
that similar inHuences have been observed in fowls
where the egg is separated from the mother before
the incubating process begins. The core of the ob-
jection raised is found in the fact, that during the
entire process of incubation, in w^hich the materials
furnished bj the mother fowl in the egg are being
U'ansformed into new life, the entire process goes on
entirely separate from the mother. Because of this, it
would seem impossible that during the process its
character could be in any way influenced by her.
The plausible answer, however, may be offered to this
objection, that the attributes of the male may have
been imbibed through the circulation, while the egg
was in process of development.

A Second Explanation of the Influences From a
Previous Impregnation. — A second explanation sup-
poses that the impregnated ovum impresses its own
characters on the mass of the decidua, and through
this on the maternal placenta, and that the maternal
placenta in tttrn impresses its characters on the de-
cidua and embryo of the next succeeding generation.
The objections to this theory are, that the placenta
and decidua are temporary organs that disappear at
the time of parturition, or within a short time sub-
sequently, and that the mucous membrane itself is
removed and replaced with new tissue. It is possible,
however, that the new mucous membrane formed to
take the place of the old one may in some way have
been impressed by the former which it replaces.
On the principle that adjacent cells do tend in some
instances to ingraft their plastic or formative powers
upon each other, the new mucous membrane may have
become impressed more or less by characters of the

170 ANIMAL BREEDING.

one which it supplants, since the former begins to
appear some time before the latter is removed, in
the human family as early as the eighth month of
pregnancy. It would seem impossible, however, to
apply this theory to fowls, as Miles has intimated,
when the embryo is separated from the mother during
incubation.

A Third Explanation of the Influences From a
Previous Impregnation. — A third explanation of the
influences from a previous impregnation claims that
through the tendencies of habit the female reproduc-
tive system is inclined to repeat strongly marked char-
acters which it may have produced. It has been ob-
served that impressions transmitted by males of the
purest breeding are the most marked on the future
progeny. For instance, the influence from mating an
ass with a mare is more far reaching on the suc<^eed-
ing progeny from stallions to which the mare has been
subsequently bred, than would be the case had the
mare been bred to a stallion of another breed rather
than to the ass. Likewise, the influence of a Gallo-
way sire w^ould be more far reaching on subsequent
progeny than the influence from a grade sire. It has
also been observed that in some instances all the suc-
ceeding progeny are more or less affected by the first
impregnation, but that the influence traceable is
usually less and less pronounced as subsequent breed-
ing from the same female progresses. It is easy to
understand why intensity of breeding should more
powerfully affect the sexual system of the females,
but on the recognized principle that habit is usually
strengthened with repetition, wdiy should not those
influences which first gave bias to the sexual system
in a certain direction grow stronger rather than weak-

THE INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS OIPREGNATION. 171

er? The argument therefore that these influences
result from habit is not satisfactory.

The Intensity of the Male Element m Fertiliza-
tion Differs Widely. — The intensity of the influence
of the male element of fertilization upon the ova
seems to vary widely in different species, and also in
animals of the same species. In many species of
fowls a single act of copulation is sufficient to impreg-
nate a number of eggs, while in other species a repeti-
tion of the act is necessary. In the hen, for instance,
eggs are fertile from four to sixteen days after the
act of copulation, while with turkeys a single act of
copulation is sufficient to impregnate all the eggs of
one laying. It has even been claimed that in some
instances the single act of copulation will fertilize the
eggs of a second period of laying. But it has been
noticed, that incubation is not so satisfactory nor are
the young birds so strong and vigorous as when the
male turkey mates more frequently with the female.

Agassiz states that certain varieties of turtles
which begin to copulate at seven years do not begin
to lay eggs until four years later, and copulation twice
a year seems thenceforth necessary to fertilize succeed-
ing sets of eggs. Impregnation therefore is a question
of degree, and this may at least in part account for
the influence of a previous impregnation upon impreg-
nations that follow.

It has been noticed that, in some instances at
l-east, the whole female sexual system is tlius impress-
ed when the male animals used in breeding are from
any cause deficient in bodily vigor. Then it is, that
when the reproductive energies of cocks have been
overdrawn upon, through overmuch mating, the hatch-
ing process which begins is never completed because

172 ANIMAL BREEDING.

of inadequate fertilization. In other words, the
sexual system of the female has heen so feebly influ-
enced, that it does not properly perform the function
of which it is capable through strong impressions
made upon it by the male element of fertilization.

Fecundation Sometimes Affects the Whole Sys-
tem.— It is very probable, therefore, that the act of
fecundation does, in some instances at least, aifect the
whole system, and more especially the whole sexual
system, hence, the ovary to be impregnated afterwards
is so modified by the first act, that later impregna-
tions do not efface the first impressions. This theory
finds support in analogous observations made with
reference to plant fertilization. Darwin inclines to
the belief that in such fertilization the male element
not only affects the germ, but also the surrounding
tissues of the mother plant, and that therefore the
male element acts directly on the reproductive organs
of the females, and not simply through the interven-
tion of the crossed embryo. If it is true, therefore,
that the sexual system as a whole is influenced by
impregnation then it follows that traces of such im-
pressions may show themselves in progeny from sub-
sequent impregnations.

Injiuence Greatest From a First Impregnation.
' — It seems probable that the influence of the male
upon succeeding impregnations by other males is more
marked in the first impregnation. General observa-
tion most assuredly gives countenance to this view,
and the influence is greater in proportion as the male
used in fertilization is prepotent. Such a result may
arise, first, from the greater impressibility of the
sexual system when first capable of being impregnat-
ed, on the principle that youth is always more plastic

THE INFLUENCE OF A PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 173

and therefore more easily impressed than age. In
other words, impressibility lessens with the increase
of the impressions already made. In the second
place it arises from the power which the potent sire
has to impress. The counter fact, however, should
not be lost sight of, that in many instances a pre-
vious impregnation makes no perceptible influence on
the progeny from succeeding impregnations. This
may possibly arise from the greater potency of the
female to resist impression on the part of the male of
another breed that may have been coupled with her.
This phase of the question does not seem to have
been much discussed, if indeed at all, hence, evidence
bearing on the question does not seem to have been
collated.

Practical Bearing on Stoch Breeding. — The
practical bearing of this question on stock breeding
is very direct. It follows, first, that it would be very
unwise to use valuable pure bred females for purposes
of cross breeding, if they are again to be used in
breeding pure breds. As has been shown, there is more
or less probability that they may not again breed true
to type. In other words, when pure females have
been used in cross-breeding they should not, as a rule,
be again kept for producing breeding animals of the
same pure breed. It follows, second, that young
females especially should not be thus crossed, because
of the greater certainty that they will not again breed
true to type. And it follows, third, that young fe-
males especially should be carefully guarded from
impregnation through inferior or ill bred sires.

In other words, it follows that inferior sires
should be shunned because of the influence that they
may exercise upon succeeding impregnations as well

174 ANIMAL BREEDING.

as upon the immediate progeny. But it is fair to con-
cede, that the influence from a sire of mixed breeding
upon the progeny from subsequent impregnations is
likely to be less than that of a sire vigorous and pure-
ly bred.

CHAPTEE XV.

INTEA-UTERINE INFLUENCES.

The relation between influences chiefly external
in their origin and certain features of development
more or less abnormal in their character, has been af-
firmed and denied. These abnormal characters are
generally apparent at birth, but when they are not
physical in their character, they may not be noticed
until sufficient time has elapsed to enable them to
manifest themselves. Observation has shown that in
development in utero, certain results occasionally ap-
pear of such a character that it would seem reasonable
to link them with certain occurrences, in the relation
that result bears to cause. Others again claim that it
is not necessary to link these occurrences with the
external causes to which they are frequently attribut-
ed, since they may be otherwise accounted for.

Intra-Uterine Influences Defined. — Intra-uter-
ine influences in the broad sense of the term are
those influences which affect development in the em-
bryo, but in the present discussion only such of those
are considered as in the main tend to produce ab-
normal characters. That abnormal peculiarities
which cannot be recognized as family characters are
occasionally observed in animals when they are born
cannot be denied. They occur not only in mammals
where the relation between the mother and the embryo
during the period of utero-gestation is both close and
intimate, but also in fowls and reptiles where the Qgg

176 ANIMAL BREEDING.

is separated from the mother before there are any
indications of embrvological development.

Illustrations of Influences Affecting Intra-
Uterine Development. — 1. Within a few months after
the violent cannonading and explosion of the arsenal
which occnrred at the siege of Landau, in 1793, Baron
Percy states that ninety-two children were born in
the district, fifty-nine of whom were still born, or
died soon after birth, or were possessed of abnormal
peculiarities. These results have been assigned to
the alarm caused by the influences referred to and
the natural results therefrom upon the organization
of the mothers who bore the children. Two of them
were born with numerous fractures of the bones and
limbs.

2. The color of animals has frequently been in-
fluenced by that of external objects presented to the
vision of the parent or parents at the time of con-
ception. The relation between the influence and the
results named had evidently been noticed at a very
early period. So well was this relation understood
in the days of the patriarch Jacob, that he was enabled
to utilize the knowledge in a way that greatly en-
hanced his wealth, as recorded in Gen. xxx. 25-43.
The knowledge of this relation has also been turned
to good account in practical breeding, as when, for
instance, colts have been sought from a valuable
stallion but possessed of an undesirable color. In
many cases colts of pleasing colors have been obtain-
ed by introducing an animal before the vision of the
mother at the time of conception, which possessed
the color or colors desired.

3. Deformed children have frequently been pro-
duced by mothers whose attention has been 'strikingly

INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 177

arrested wliile the said children were in process of
development in the uterus, by objects possessed of
deformity more or less similar to those which have
characterized the children. These, it has been no-
ticed, are more liable to occur when the pregnant
mother has been suddenly startled or affrighted by
some sight or sound that has made a vivid impression
on the mind. So frequent are those instances and so
prevalent is the belief as to their cause, that mothers
are oftentimes careful to warn their pregnant daugh-
ters to avoid, when possible, the sight of objects that
are calculated to produce impressions that are dis-
agreeable or repulsive, and more especially during
their first pregnancy. These results have also been
traced to causes which were operative some time be-
fore conception. Dr. Allen Thompson, as quoted by
Miles, cites the case of a woman, who six "weeks
before conception was suddenly affrighted by a beggar
who had a wooden leg and who also presented a
stumped arm as he threatened to embrace her. The
next child had two stump arms and one stump leg.
Peculiarities have also characterized individuals
which would seem to be the outcome of the habitual
mental condition of the mother. In Minneapolis, in
1895, a woman was on exhibition who had a long and
flowing beard. She was married and had borne chil-
dren, which, however, had died yoimg. She was
gentle and ladylike in manner. In conversation with
a young physician who accompanied the author, she
accounted for the beard by saying that her mother had
been passionately fond of looking at the pictures of
men with handsome beards.

4. But the most remarkable instance probably
on record of what would seem to be the influence of

178 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the perceptive powers on intra-uterine development
occurred at Maysville, Kentucky, in the year 1864.
In that year a Jersey heifer owned by John B.
Poyntz, produced a calf with the letters U. S. distinct-
ly traceable on the left shoulder. The heifer was
reddish or fawn in color, and the letters were dis-
tinctly traceable in the white hairs that composed
them. This heifer along with others of the same
breed was being* pastured in a wood lot simultaneous-
ly with some twenty to thirty horses belonging to the
United States government, each one of which on the
left shoulder bore the brand of the letters U. S. The
heifer in due time produced a calf with similar
markings, except that the S was not quite so distinct
as in the dam. Sworn statements to these facts
were secured by Dr. Miles in 1875 from John B.
Poyntz and others personally cognizant of these facts.
Tiuo Theories as to the Cause of Intra-Uterine,
Peculiarities. — Two theories have been advanced as
to the cause of abnormal peculiarities in the develop-
ment of the foetus. The first associates them with
some mysterious influence exerted on the imagination
of one or both parents at the time of conception, or
with impressions violent or otherwise made upon
the mental or emotional nature of the mother during
the process of intra-uterine development. These in-
fluences however are usually considered as applicable
only to the female. The only influence of course that
could possibly be attributed to the male would be
that which affects the imagination and it would not
eeem possible for it to exert any influence on the
progem subsequent to the time of mating, that is to
say, it would seem absolutely impossible that any

INTRA-UTERINE INFLUENCES. 179

mental condition of the male subsequent to that
period could have any influence on his progeny al-
ready in process of development.

Whether the imagination of the male exerts any
influence is a question not easily susceptible of
demonstration. There should be little doubt, how-
ever, but that the habitual mental condition of the
male does affect transmission in virtue of the first
law of breeding, but w^hether any vivid conception
that may possess the male at the time of rnating
or but a short time previously does affect the progeny,
is not so apparent. The second theory attributes them
to the operation of natural laws governing physio-
logical and pathological conditions, nearly all of
which are understood and which interfere with the
natural processes of development.

Reasons Sustaining the First Theory. — The fol-
lowing are the principal reasons advanced in support
of the first theory: 1. The instances are numerous
in which the relation between the alleged causes of
intra-uterine malformation and the results is both
intimate and close. This has been shown in the illus-
trations given above, and as intimated, many more
could be given equally strong in character. So direct
does the relation seem to be in many of those instances
that to deny such a relation in the absence of reasons
positive in character which account for those peculiar-
ities in some other way, would do violence to the
claims of evidence positive in character over that
which is negative.

2. It is a fact that the arguments which would
assign such malformations to other causes is chiefly
of a negative character. This of course so far weak-
ens their value as testimony. The chief of these will
be given in the paragraph below.

180 ANIMAL BREEDING.

3. The correctness of the assumption has been
utilized with advantage in breeding. This has al-
ready been referred to when speaking of the possi-
bility of obtaining desirable colors in the progeny by
j^lacing an animal possessed of such color before the
vision of the female at the time of conception. It is
not reasonable to suppose that such practices would
have been resorted to had experience not shown that
there was at least reasonable certainty in the results
that were to be looked for.

Reasons Opposed to the First Theory. — The fol-
lowing are some of the objections urged against the
first theory: 1. Malformations of the foetus often-
times do not agree with the apprehensions, a priori,
of pregnant mothers. For instance in the human
family pregnant mothers who have been greatly con-
cerned lest they should bear malformed children be-
cause of some sudden shock given to the system
through fright or otherwise, have borne children quite
free from any deformities. Mothers who have borne
one or more deformed children and who are greatly
apprehensive lest such deformity should again mani-
fest itself in the offspring, frequently bear children
subsequently that are perfectly healthy. The most
that this objection would seem to prove would be, that
the alleged causes of such deformity are not always
operative. »

2. Malformations occur among the inferior ani-
mals in which the development of physical life is
very imperfect and when oviparous generation would
seem to preserve the young from the influence of
disordered maternal imagination. Malformations oc-
cur with serpents and other inferior orders of animals
when it would be scarcely possible to link the imag-

INTRA-UTEKINE INFLUENCES. 181

ination with the malformation that occurs. In
ovii^arous generation it would seem difficult to link
any influence of the imagination of the mother with
the generation of malformed progeny, since the latter
are developed in embryo entirely apart from the moth-
er. The most, however, that such evidence proves, is,
that all instances of malformation would not seem
to be dependent on a disordered condition of the
mind or nerves of the mother.

3. When twins are born in the human family,
one child may be well-formed and the other malform-
ed. With domestic animals that produce two at a
birth the same is sometimes true, and with those
that produce more than two, some may be normally
developed while others will be malformed. It would
seem reasonable to suppose that any influence of the
imagination that would cause malformation in one
of the progeny would similarly affect others of the
same birth. But this idea must not be pressed too
far, since w^here all the influences are normal, there
is frequently a marked difference in the size, form
and color of individuals in the progeny, and yet but
little is known as to why those differences exist.

4. The more deeply situated organs, the existence
of which may be unknown to the pregnant mother,
are frequently malformed. For instance, the internal
structure of the ear may be so malformed as to pro-
duce deafness, and yet the mother may know nothing
of the structure of that part of the organ of hearing,
not apparent to the eye. This argument however
like the preceding, only proves that instances of mal-
formation may occur from causes altogether separate
from any influence that can be exerted by the imag-
ination.

182 ANIMAL BREEDING.

5. The anatomical relations of the embryo and
its uterine envelopes wonld seem to render it im-
probable that any mental impression of the mother
can be made to affect any particular part of the fcetus.
The limitations of our knowledge, however, may only
be thus rendered more apparent, since some instances
of malformation seem to result so directly from the
influence of the imagination that it would seem haz-
ardous to separate the result from the alleged cause.

Reasons Sustaining the Second Theory. — The
following are chief among the reasons given to sup-
port the view that natural causes furnish a sufficient
explanation of the abnormal peculiarities which mani-
fest themselves during the process of intra-uterine
development : —

1. In malformed births dissimilar parts are
seldom fused into or united with each other. While
the gullet sometimes fuses with the larynx, not being
originally dissimilar but formed from a common
mass, neither larynx nor gullet ever fuse for instance
with the bladder or rectum.

2. !N'o malformed organ loses entirely its ovni
character or determinate place, and no malformed
animal loses its generic distinction. For instance,
the malformed fore-leg is associated Avith the develop-
ment of the fore quarter rather than with that of the
intestines, and the malformed sheep never so far
loses its identity as to be mistaken for the bovine
species.

3. ISTature does not deviate ad infinitum, since
even in monstrosities a distinct gradation and natural
order are observable. These are observable, as Vrolik
has shown, (a) in the number or proportion in which
they occur within a certain period of time; (&) in the

INTHA-UTEKINE INFLUENCES. 183

sex; (c) ill the definite proportion between the species
of animals and the more frequent monstrosities in
them; (d) in the constant form of monsters even
among heterogeneous animals; and (e) in the greater
predisposition to monstrosity among some animals.
From certain statistics compiled it has been found
that one monster occurs in the human family in about
3,000 births. In females, malformations more fre-
quently occur from impeded development and in
males from what may be termed excessive develop-
ment, but there are exceptions. Monsters with one
eye and which have a snout are more frequent in
swine, and double monsters in man. Headless mon-
sters and also other forms have the same characters
in the mammalia as in birds.

The occurrence of monsters is more frequent in
the higher orders of animals and it becomes less fre-
quent as the scale descends. According to the author
quoted above, three fourths of the entire number of
monsters occur among mammalia and one fourth
among birds. They are infrequent among reptiles
and still less frequent among fishes. They are also
more frequent among domestic than among wild ani-
mals. These arguments tend to show that even the
development of monsters is subject to fixed organic
laws so far at least as the immediate cause is concern-
ed. This fact it has been argued would exclude
the influence of paroxysmal causes. In the judgment
of the author, such a conclusion is not necessary, since
it fails to distinguish between what may be an original
and an immediate or secondary cause. The conclu-
sion would seem to be legitimate that the greater fre-
quency of monstrosities among the higher orders of
animals tends to sustain the view that mind, when

184 ANIMAL BREEDING.

viewed as the original cause, does exercise an influ-
ence through paroxysmal conditions for which it is
responsible, in the production of monsters.

Erseinhlance in Foetal Development in its Early
Stages. — The fancied resemblance in the foetus in the
human family to that in some of the lower animals
may be explained in accordance with the known laws
of embryological development. There is a close re-
semblance in the embryo of all vertebrated animals in
the early stages of development. This arises from
the fact that animal development is general at the
first. As development progresses the more special
features evolve themselves. Up to a certain stage of
foetal development the order even to which the foetus
belongs cannot be known from its characters. But,
with the progress of development, the order, the
family, the genus, the species, the variety, the sex
and the individual, gradually unfold themselves, and
in the order named. It follows, therefore, that the
earlier the cessation in development occurs, the closer
is the resemblance likely to be between malformations
in the human family and tliose in the lower orders
of animals.

The Immediate Cause of Malformations. — Ref-
erence has alread}^ been made to the immediate or
secondary, and original or first causes in the pro-
duction of these phenomena. The latter influence is
much better understood than the former. The im-
mediate cause of the malformations under considera-
tion is impaired nutrition of the embryo or of some
of its parts. This may arise from any severe shock
of the nervous system in the mother by fright or
otherwise. But why these influences should thus
affect nutrition, or how, is yet a mystery. The de-

INTRA-UTEKINE IN^FLUENCES. 185

pendence of the immediate cause, however, on the
primary cause, would seem to be so clear as not to
be gainsaid. The habitual mental condition of the
mother may also tend to arrest development by im-
pairing nutrition.

This influence is better understood when the
habit of the mind of the pregnant mother in the hu-
man family is continually sorrowful, the vital ener-
gies are lowered, in consequence of which the foetus
suffers in common Avith all parts of the system. But
this influence may be operative and yet it may not
produce any form of malformation. In fact it may
be questioned whether malformations ever result from
this cause alone. The extent of the malformation is
largely owing to the stage of pregnancy when the
development of the deformed organ or organs begins.
The earlier that it occurs the greater will be the
deformity since the individual parts are then less
distinctly evolved.

Obscurity That Yet Veils the Subject.— The ex-
planations given throw some light on the causes of
these phenomena, but they do not satisfactorily ac-
count for all classes of abnormal peculiarities. Some
of these appear to arise from influences which act
upon the imagination and which are not paroxysmal
in character. Such are color markings and in some
instances possibly even certain peculiarities of form.
The relation between the influence of the imagination
that is not paroxysmal in character and the results,
is even more mysterious than those results which
appear to come from paroxysmal influences.

In the present state of our knowledge the whole
question may be thus summarized : 1. The immedi-
ate cause of malformations is arrested development.

186 ANIMAL BREEDING.

2. But many, at least, of those instances of arrested
development would appear to be in some way de-
pendent on original or primary causes such as strong
mental impressions made on the mind of the mother
at or shortly before conception, and paroxysmal in-
fluences such as arise from sudden fright. 3. The
way however in which those influences tend to pro-
duce arrested development is not clearly understood.

CHAPTER XVI.

INFLUENCES THAT AFFECT THE DETERMINATION
OF SEX.

The influences that determine sex have formed
a common battle ground for those who have written
upon the subject for many years. 'No question re-
lating to the breeding of animals has been more con-
troverted. And no phase of the subject probably
has been so much discussed in the agricultural press.
Adventurers into the domain of animal breeding
have, one after another, given out to the world that
they had discovered the secret of the influences that
control the determination of sex. So positive have
some of those men been in their assertions, that they
have ofi^ered to stake high wagers as to the correctness
of the claims which they have made, and yet, in all,
or nearly all, lines of animal increase, the world goes
on producing about an equal number of males and
females on tlie average.

Theories Regarding the Determination of Sex.—
Several theories have been propounded as to the in-
fluences that lead to the determination of sex in
procreation. Seven of these will be noticed in this
discussion. They include the more important of the
many theories put forward on the subject. That the
influences concerned in the production of sex are
controlled by definite physiological laws which are
uniform in their action cannot be questioned, since
there can be no eifect without a cause. But up to
the present time, it would be correct to say, that they

188 ANIMAL BREEBINtt.

have in the main, if not entirely, eluded the grasp of
the most patient investigators. Notwithstanding the
immense amount of research given to the study of this
question and the much experimenting done regarding
it, the little progress that has been made in the in-
quiry thus conducted is in a sense humiliating. But
some things have been learned with reference to it
that probably can be turned to some useful account
by the breeder, as will be shown below.

First Theory Regarding the Determination of
Sex, — This theory claims that the right ovary and
the right testicle are concerned in the production
of males, and that the left ovary and the left testicle
are concerned in the production of females. In
various ways it may be shown that this theory is
untenable.

1. Males with but one testicle and females with
but one ovary produce offspring of both sexes. This
has been noticed in the human family and also in
the breeding of domestic animals. Since the defect
mentioned is apparent to the eye in males, and it is
not so apparent in females, the evidence showing that
males with but one testicle beget progeny of both
sexes is cumulative, and this result would seem to
follow equally wliichevei' testicle may be wanting.
But jDost mortem iuvestigatious have shown that fe-
males in which one ovary was wanting, or imperfect,
or diseased, have produced animals of both sexes, re-
gardless of the fact as to whether the right or the left
ovary was missing.

2. Experiments have been conducted to test
the correctness of the theory. That conducted by Mr.
J. Buckingham of Zanesville, O., is probably the
most significant of these that have been recorded. It

THE DETERMINATION OF SEX. 189

is significant because of the number of the animals
in the experiment. It included nine sows and three
boars. The sows were divided equally into three lots.
From one in each lot the right ovary ^vas removed,
from another the left ovary, and the third sow in
each instance was left in possession of both ovaries.
The sows in iot one were mated with a boar from
which the right testicle had been removed and those
in lots two and three respectively were mated with
a different boar, from each of which in each instance
the left testicle had been removed. Each sow pro-
duced from seven to nine pigs. In each litter there
were not less than three males nor more than five.
The males and females in the aggregate were nearly
equal in number. The facts relating to the experi-
ment were given in the Country Gentleman as early
as 1865, and yet this theory still finds some advocates.

3. Instances are on record in the human family
wherein females with but one ovary have produced
twins and this has happened when the right ovary has
been wanting in some instances and the left ovary in
others. The evidence then against the correctness
of the theory under consideration is simply over-
whelming.

Second Theory Regarding the Determination of
Sex. — This theory affirms that the sex is determined
by the degree of the maturity of the egg at the time
of fecundation. That wdiich has not reached a certain
degree of maturity at the time of impregnation pro-
duces a female, and that which is impregnated later
produces a male. In other words early impregnation
produces females and late impregnation males. This
theory was first advanced by Prof. Theury of the
Academy of Geneva, and for a time it met with con-

190 ANIMAL BREEDING.

siderable favor. It is based on the assumption that
the production of male organs arises from the greater
maturity and consequently the more complete de-
velopment of the germ. But the observed results
from ordinary farm practice in breeding are sufficient
to disprove this theory, for, when males and females
run together, the service always takes place during
an early stage of the period of heat in the female, and
yet the proportion of the females is not materially in-
creased.

Were this theory correct the entire progeny from
males and females which run together would be fe-
males. In other instances, when the time of mating
has been under the control of the individual and has
not taken place until a late stage of the period of
heat in the females, the proportion of the males
has not been increased. In such instances impregna-
tion could not have taken place early. But there is
the further objection to this theory growing out of
the fact that the conjunction of the male and female
elements of generation does not always take place at
the time of copulation, hence, it is impossible to tell
the precise time of fecundation. Impregnation can-
not of course take place until the male element in
generation, the spermatozoa, comes in contact with
the ovum, the female element of generation. Kow,
it has been ascertained that the ovum in some in-
stances escapes early from the ovary during the period
of heat and at other times late. The time of its escape
then is uncertain. Consequently the exact time of
the impregnation is uncertain. It is possible, there-
fore, that copulation may take place early during
the period of heat in the female and impregnation at
a later period of the same than in other instances

THE DETERMINATION OF SEX. 191

when the copulation is also late in the period of heat.
With some animals, as dogs and rabbits, several days
may elapse after copulation before the male and fe-
male elements of generation come together to pro-
duce impregnation. This theory therefore cannot
be accepted.

Third Theory Regarding the Deiermination of
Sex. — This theory claims that the degree of the im-
pregnation influences the sex. It holds that a pre-
ponderance in the male element in impregnation
would produce males and in the female element^ fe-
males. In other words when just enough of the
male element unites with the ovum of the female to
produce impregnation or when there is a preponder-
ance in the female element the result will be a
female, but when the opposite is true the result will
be a male. It finds some countenance in the number
of males begotten by sires possessed of marked vigor.
But the number and striking character of the ex-
ceptions tend to bring discredit on the theory. For
instance, some males apparently vigorous have be-
gotten females largely in excess of males, howsoever
they may have been mated.

It is also in direct conflict with apparently well
authenticated facts observed among certain insects.
In bees, for instance, the queen is a perfect female,
the drones are males, and the neuter workers which
gather the honey are imperfect females. If the last
named lay eggs they produce drones. When the queen
is unimpregnated the eggs which she lays produce
drones. When impregnated her eggs produce females,
that is to say the neuter workers. With bees therefore
the male element of fertilization would seem to be
necessary only for the production of females. But

192 ANIMAL BREEDING.

granting that the theory under consideration were
true, it would scarcely be possible so to control mating
that the results could be relied on with any great
degree of certainty.

Fourth Theory Regarding the Determination of
Sex. — This theory affirms that every alternate egg or
germ produced by the female is of the same sex.
According to this theory, therefore, the sex of the
offspring will depend upon the egg or ovum impreg-
nated. For instance, if a cow had produced a bull
calf, and a heifer calf were next desired, she should
be served during the first heat after calving, or dur-
ing some period of heat subsequently indicated by an
odd number. But if a bull calf were desired then
service should take place during the second period
of heat after calving or at some subsequent period
indicated by even numbers. But the production of
one sex only or mainly by certain individuals regard-
less of the order of the period of heat at which the
service takes place, discounts this theory. Kor can
it be reconciled with the instances in which twins
are produced, one of which is a male and the other
a female. With animals that produce several at a
birth as swine, for instance, the respective litters
almost invariably include animals of both sexes. The
theory is also in conflict with the observed influence
of nutrition on the sex of certain insects and plants.
In the development of these, the sex is chiefly de-
termined by the character of the nutrition as is
further shown below. (See page 195.)

Fifth Theory Regarding the Determination of
Sex. — This theory claims that a preponderance of
influence in determining the sex lies with the female.
This conclusion has been reached because of the fre-

THE DETERMINATION OP SEX. 193

qiientlj observed fact, that some females usually pro-
duce animals of one sex no matter how mated. That
some females do breed thus cannot be disputed, but
in some instances the progeny are all or nearly all
males. If the theory were true, therefore, it would
be of no practical value, since it could not be deter-
mined beforehand which sex would be in excess in the
progeny. ^N'or can it be denied that a far larger num-
ber of females beget animals of both sexes without any
apparent bias toward one line of production or the
other.

If the theory under discussion were true, the
numerical superiority of females could be made to
have a marked influence on the relative numbers of-
the sexes. But in extended experience any bias one
way or the other has not been observable. N'or should
the fact be lost sight of that what is true of some
females is also true of probably as large a percentage
of males in proportion to the entire number of both
used in breeding. In instances, not a few, males will
beget nearly all male progeny and yet other males will
beget all or nearly all female progeny. The most
that can be said with positiveness is that some indi-
viduals and also some families have a tendency to
produce more of one sex than another. The fact has
been observed but it cannot be pre-judged beforehand
in which direction the bias to the production of more
of one sex than another will lie. This theory there-
fore must be set aside.

Sixth Theory Regarding the Determination of
Sex. — This theory claims that the number of the
males or females will be in excess in proportion as
the sire or dam is strong or weak, in vigor of maturity
or otherwise. The most extensive experiment on

194 ANIMAL BREEDING.

record that has yet been made hearing upon this
theory is that conducted by M. C. Giron de Buzar-
eingues, in France^ in 1826. Two flocks were ex-
perimented upon. To obtain ewe lambs young males
not yet matured were mated with strong and well
fed ewes, and to obtain ram lambs, vigorous and ma-
tured rams were mated with the weaker ewes of the
flock. When young males were mated with mature
and well fed females the female progeny were con-
siderably in excess, and when vigorous and matured
rams were mated with weaker ewes the male progeny
were considerably in excess. These experiments,
therefore, would seem to show that there is an ele-
ment of truth in this theory. Statistics compiled
from the birth records of the British peerage also lend
countenance to this theory, but as Miles has shown,
these are not in entire agreement with figures bearing
upon the question and gathered from a wider field.
The variations that may have arisen from the causes
which this theory is based upon can scarcely be said
to be sufficient to establish incontrovertibly its cor-
rectness. There does, however, seem to be some rela-
tion between a preponderance of vigor in the sire
or dam and excess in the numbers of the sex in the
progeny to correspond, in some measure at least, with
such preponderance. And this theory is in agree-
ment with that which relates to the influence of
nutrition on the sex as noted below.

This theory may not seem in accord with the
actual results obtained in breeding, since in breeding
pure breeds and high grades more care is taken in the
selection of the male than of the average female in
the herd or flock. The males are usually possessed
of more individual vigor, and yet there is not any

THE DETERMINATION OF SEX. 195

noticeable predominance in the production of males.
But the excess of vigor inherent in such males as com-
pared with that possessed by the females may be
counteracted by the extent to which he is used in
service, at least at certain seasons of the year. The
fair way to test this theory Avould be to mate only
one such male with one female, or to mate him only
with that frequency which could not in any way les-
sen his vigor, and then compare the results.

Seventh Theory Regarding the Deto-niuiatlon
of Sex. — This theory argues that the determination
of sex is influenced by the activity of the functions of
nutrition. It finds some countenance in the develop-
ment of queen bees from neuter eggs and in the in-
fluence of light and heat in determining the sex of
plants. A queen bee may be produced from neuter
eggSjthat is to say, the eggs that ordinarily produce
working bees, and they are so produced when a queen
bee is lost to the hive. The process in the transforma-
tion in the development would seem to depend first,
on enlarging the quarters in which development takes
place, and second, on feeding to the larvae when
hatched food more stimulating in character than the
ordinary bee bread laid up for the sustenance of
the workers. In the development of the perfect fe-
male among bees, therefore, liberal nutrition would
seem to exercise an important influence. Experi-
ments conducted with certain insects show that when
the larvae are not well sustained before going into
the chrysalis state, the perfected animals developed
from them are males, but when the opposite is true
they are females.

As the result of careful observations made with
plants the conclusion has been reached that the sex

196 ANIMAL BREEDING.

in plants is largely dependent on the kind and more
especially the degree of the nutrition. The higher
grades of nutrition produce females and the lower
males. Light and heat in proper balance and accom-
panied with liberal nutrition seem to favor the pro-
duction of females. With certain plants, however, ac-
cording to Knight, if exposed to heat excessive in
proportion to the light, the flowers produced are male,
but if light is excessive in proportion to the heat fe-
male flowers only are produced. The evidence is
certainly clear that with certain orders of insect life
and also with certain kinds of plant life, nutrition
does exercise an influence on the sex. By analogy,
therefore, the inference would seem fair, that the
same physiological law would apply to domestic ani-
mals, in the absence of evidence to the contrary. This
theory throws some light on the observed fact, that
in some seasons there is a great preponderance in
males in tlie domestic animals produced, and in other
seasons in females. The character of the nutrition
in the pastures is probably at least measurably respon-
sible for the results.

According to the theory under consideration, a
liberal nutrition, and of course suitable in kind, should
prove favorable to the production of females. But
with live stock grown u23on the farm the evidence
would seem to be wanting to show Avhether the actual
facts chord with the theory. Data bearing on this
question, as far as known to the author, have not been
gathered, ^or does the fact that in one class of
domestic animals as cattle, males should be in excess,
while in another class as sheep, females should be in
excess necessarily invalidate the argument, since the
kind of nutrition favorable to the development of but

THE DETEEMIXATIOX OF SEX. 197

one sex in the former may not be exactly the same aa
that favorable to the development of the same in the
latter. For instance, pastures in that condition best
suited to dairy cows are not those best suited to sheep.
And along with succulence in the pastures the element
of nutrition must not be overlooked, since succulent
pastures are not necessarily nutritious.

Prepotency not a Factor in Producing Sex. —
The use of the term prepotency as a factor in pro-
ducing sex is objectionable, as it relates rather to
the transmission of qualities than of sex. Xeverthe-
less, it has been frequently applied thus. That it
should not be so applied is apparent from the fact
that in many instances a pure male may stamp his
characters upon the offspring and yet they may be
of both sexes, or many of them may be females. An
animal therefore may be prepotent in the highest de-
gree, in the correct sense of the term, and yet have no
special power to beget progeny of the one sex or the
other.

Uniformity in the Proportion of the Sexes. —
The uniformity in the respective numbers of each
sex produced indicates the existence of some general
law, though it is not yet discovered, that is uniform
in its action. In this way, the equilibrium in the
sexes is maintained under all the changed conditions
to which animal life may be subjected. The propor-
tion of males born is perhaps slightly in excess of that
of females. This at least would seem to be true of
the human family. Statistics gathered from various
sources would seem to indicate that it is so, but the
excess is slight. Whether the same is true of the
lower animals cannot be known until sufficient data
are gathered on which to base a conclusion. So far as.

198 ANIMAL BREEDING.

such data have been compiled it would seem to show
that the proportion of females born in domestic ani-
mals was slightly in excess. In the human family
the slight excess in the number of males would seem
to be a wise provision, as the early mortality and the
death rate from other causes among males is greater.
These causes are such as relate to accident and war.
Because of these influences, the number of females
who reach maturity is probably somewhat greater
than that of the males. Whether the laws that re-
late to the production of sex can ever be so fully
ascertained that it can certainly be controlled at
Avill the future alone can disclose. And whether such
knowledge would be helpful to mankind in regulating
the sex of the human family is problematical. It
would seem to be true, however, that in breeding
domestic animals it could be made a source of legiti-
mate gain, hence the search for light on the question
should bo continued.

Summary of What is Knoivn Regarding the De-
termination of Sex. — From the discussion of the
whole question it will be apparent that but little is
known as to the precise influences that control sex.
Of the seven theories considered five at least when
Aveighed in the balances are found wanting. The
theories that relate to the influence of vigor of body
in the one instance and of nutrition in the other
Avould seem to be possessed of some value, but in
actual practice they are not easy of application. It
would seem to be true, other things being equal, that
the animal possessed of greater vigor and maturity
at the time of mating does exercise the greater in-
fluence in determining the sex, and that an abundant
nutrition during the period of gestation and probably

THE DETERMINATION OF SEX. 199

earlier, is favorable to the production of females. In
seeking an excess of females, therefore, in the prog-
eny, the females should be relatively strong and
liberally sustained with a suitable nutrition. These
two influences may also act in conjunction with other
influences not as yet understood. It is also true that
some individuals and families have this power in a
greater degree than others. But the reasons for such
preponderance are so obscure that but little can be
offered regarding them that will throw any light
on the question. The fact, however, makes it clear
that vigor and nutrition are by no means the only in-
fluences concerned in the production of sex.

CHAPTEK XVIL

NUTRITION.

The relation between nutrition and development
is so intimate and close that it may be said the latter
is regulated by the former more than by any other
individual influence. The question of feeding ani-
mals suitably is simply another name for supplying
them with suitable nutrition, and consequently the
study of this question is simply a study of nutrition.
The whole art of feeding is based upon the proper
adjustment of the relation between nutrition and de-
velopment. But the influence of nutrition is not by
any means confined to development as such. It so
influences the whole animal system that it more or
less affects transmission, generation, fecundity and
vigor.

Nutrition Defined. — Nutrition is the act or
process by which organisms, whether vegetable or ani-
mal, absorb into their system their proper food. When
restricted to animals it may be defined as the process
of assimilating food taken into the stomach. When
confined to plants it means the proper appropriation
of food secured by the plant through the medium of
its roots and leaves. In animals nutrition is most
intimately associated with digestion, in fact it is the
outcome of the latter. The whole process of digestion
in the stomach is simply a process wdiereby the food
taken into the same is prepared for being assimilated
by the system, that is to say, appropriated by it.

NUTRITION. 201

Through the medium of the assimilative and circula-
tory processes, every part of the system receives its
appropriate food.

Conditions upon Which Nutrition in Animals
Depends. — The activity of nutrition in animals is
dependent upon such influences as age, inheritance,
bodily vigor and food. Digestion and assimilation,
and consequently a well sustained nutrition, is more
active at birth and gradually becomes less so as the
animal becomes older. This fact furnishes the ex-
planation why, as a rule, animals make less gain and
require more food to make the gain, the further the
birth period is receded from. It also explains why the
food of maintenance increases with advancing age,
and why as old age advances decline becomes inevi-
table. But this question is further discussed in the
chapter on early maturity. These qualities, that is
to say, the qualities of digestion and assimilation, are
as much a matter of transmission as of bodily form.

This has been abundantly shown in the much
greater increase in weight that has been obtained from
animals whose parents showed much capacity for
making such increase, than could be obtained from
animals of similar age and similarly fed whose par-
ents shoAved little capacity for such increase in propor-
tion to the food fed. It explains why, in the growing
of meat, it is so important to use sires possessed of
"good feeding qualities," which me^ns, that they have
good appetites and therefore consume much food,
good digestion to prepare it for assimilation, good
assimilation to prepare it for absorption into the
system and the capacity to produce meat of a good
quality and abundantly where specially valuable.
Digestion and assimilation are also vigorous in pro-

202 ANIMAL BREEDING.

portion to the inherent bodily vigor of the animal as
they suffer along with the other organs through a
naturally weak or impaired bodily vigor, hence the
great importance of seeking to secure all necessary
stamina in the animal produced.

But the fact should not be lost sight of that
stamina alone is not a sufncient guaranty of the
highest type of digestion and food assimilation, since
animals possessed of apparently equal stamina in
many instances do not show an equal capacity for
appropriating food. These qualities are, moreover,
vigorous in proportion to the abundance of the food
supplies up to a certain limit, and to the easily di-
gestible and nutritious character of the same. Put an
animal on an insufficient supply of food and it will
not only lose flesh and weight, but if the food is in-
sufficient beyond a certain degree the digestion and
assimilation through sympathy with a decreased vigor
will also become less vigorous. A parallel is found in
the running of a steam engine on an insufficient sup-
ply of steam. That foods easy of digestion and also
rich in nutriment would favorably affect digestion
and assimilation is so apparent that further discus-
sion thereon is unnecessary.

When a Defective Nutrition is Most Harmful, —
Defective nutrition is most harmful when animals
are young and immature, and the nearer the birth
period that it is defective or insufficient the more
harmful is it.

1. Defective nutrition at the period indicated
begets assimilation unduly concerned in building
up those parts of the body which are not so intrinsical-
ly valuable, and building them up in a way not in
consonance with the highest types of development at

NUTEITION. 203

a more advanced period. Feed a calf for instance on
food insufficient in quantity and the bones, hide and
hair will develop more relatively than the muscles.
Feed it food innutritions and excessive in quantity
and it will become paunchy as when it is fed on whey.
Feed it food with an excess of nutriment in propor-
tion to the bulk and the stomach will not distend
sufficiently for the most effective work at a later
period. And these features of development will in
a greater or less degree characterize the animal when
matured and subsequently. Xo later management,
howsoever orthodox, will ever completely obliterate
them, and they will be permanently harmful in pro-
portion to the intensity of the causes that produced
Ihem, the duration of the period that these were
operative and the earliness of the period in develop-
ment at which they occurred. As with the youth who
has gone astray and come back again to the paths of
rectitude, the scar remains.

2. It hinders development when it can be most
cheaply and effectively made, that is to say, during
the growing period.

3. When any periods of stagnation in develop-
ment occur there is not only present loss during the
continuance of the same but the capacity for future
development is weakened, and it is so weakened in
proportion to the duration of such periods of arrested
development and to the extent to which the nutrition
is defective in them. Thus it is that young animals
passing through such periods of arrested development
can never again be made as profitable as they other-
wise would have been, and the loss from the last
named source is often much greater than from that
first named.

204 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Insufficient Nutrition Attended with Loss. —
An insufficient nutrition is always attended with
loss. When it occurs before maturity it prolongs the
period of development. The extent of such prolonga-
tion will be somewhat proportionate to the length of
time during which the nutrition was not sufficient to
fully meet the requirements of the animal. When it
occurs after maturity, what may be termed the w^ork-
ing capacity of the animal is hindered. A horse thus
fed will not be able to perform a maximum of labor.
A steer thus fed will not be able to produce a maxi-
mum return in meat. A cow thus fed will not be
able to give a maximum amoimt of milk. Thus it will
be with all other domestic animals. They will not
give to the owner the best return that they are capable
of. When it happens during gestation the animal is
measurably incapacitated for properly sustaining its
young after birth. And if the nutrition is wanting
before birth beyond a certain degree, the foetus also
will suffer deprivation along with the dam which
carries it.

In all instances an insufficient nutrition tends to
increase the cost of the food of maintenance. This
may be readily shown when it is remembered that the
only profit that can be obtained from keeping an
animal is the return which it gives above the cost
of maintenance. Reduce the power of a horse below
what may be its maximum capacity for labor and the
c<)st of maintenance is relatively increased in pro-
portion as the said capacity goes below the maximum.
Keep a growing animal on an insufficient food supply
and the cost of the food of maintenance will increase
relatively in proportion to the extent that its capacity
for gain is kept below what may be termed the normaJ

ISTUTRITION-. 205

maximum. Give it only enough food to maintain it,
and there is no increase in weight whatever.

It follows, therefore, that when growing animals
are so wintered that they weigh no more in the spring
than they did in the fall, there is no direct return
whatever for the food fed during that period. There
may be in some instances a prospective return, as
when animals are wintered on cheap fare that they
may make increase on cheap pastures the following
season. It is greatly important, therefore, that as a
rule, growing animals should have enough of suitable
food during the maturing period to enable them to
make a maximum increase in weight, without forced
feeding.

To attain the highest possible increase in weight,
as with animals that are forced for exhibition, it
may be necessary to feed foods that will unduly in-
crease the cost of production to admit of any profit
accruing. And it is equally important that a matured
animal should receive food enough at all times to
enable it to give a maximum return without forced
feeding. If the highest possible production in milk is
to be obtained from a cow for a limited period, forced
feeding must be resorted to which will unduly in-
crease the cost of production.

Relative Importance of a Free Nutrition. —
What may be termed a free nutrition, that is a liberal
nutrition, is more important relatively for improved
animals than for those inured to what may be termed
a scant fare, that is, an insufficient fare. The reasons
for this are, that the inherited qualities of digestion
and assimilation in the former call for full supplies
of food, whereas, with those inured to a scant fare
the digestive habit of the system is not seriously inter-

206 ANIMAL BREEDING.

fered with when food supplies are short. In other
words the former suffers more than the latter when
food supplies are insufficient for any prolonged
period. And the degree of the ill-doing that follows
will be proportionate to the extent to which they have
inherited the high capacity for profitable digestion
and food assimilation, but on the condition that the
food supplies shall be sufficient.

This accounts in part for the ill-doing, not infre-
quently noticed, of pure bred animals which may have
fallen into the hands of careless owners. It also ex-
plains, in part, why a large breed or grade of animals
introduced into pastures that do not furnish sufficient
food for those of so much weight, fare less well than
smaller animals. In both instances the equilibrium
in digestion is upset.

Abundant Nutrition Wards Off Disease. — An
abundant nutrition is a safeguard against the inroads
of disease. By strengthening the system it gives it
a power to resist the influences of disease which it
could not otherwise have. The principle is so gener-
ally conceded that a system naturally weak, debili-
tated or lacking in robustness falls an easy prey to
disease that it does not require to be argued. Any
influence therefore that tends to build up and to
tone the system, gives it increased power to withstand
the inroads of disease, hence the value of an abundant
nutrition for such a purpose. When the tendency to
disease is transmitted it is also much more likely to
remain quiescent when the nutrition is abundant, and
for the reason that such abundance in the food tends
to keep the system of the animal so well sustained
that those inherited tendencies are more than matched
by the vigorous condition of the animal.

NUTRITION. 207

An Excessive Nutrition Harmful. — In young
animals it may so weaken the digestive and assimila-
tive powers as to permanently injure them, after
which perfection in growth and in future well-doing
are impossible. Overtax the arm of a child and
weakness in the arm more or less harmful and more
or less permanent follows. Overtax the brain of a
child and its capacity for labor is permanently les-
sened. The extent of the injury in both instances
will be propoi'tionate to the earliness of the period
at which the overtaxing occurred and to the severity
and prolongation of such overtaxing. Likewise when
the digestion of a young animal is overtaxed by feed-
ing excessively, strong, stimulating and concentrated
foods, as for instance, certain kinds of rich meal, in-
jury to the digestive organs more or less permanent
follows. When this happens the completest develop-
ment can never be secured in the animal thus overfed.
Partial recovery may follow by promptly changing
the system of feeding, that is, by feeding less con-
centrated foods and more or less limited in quantity
according to the appetite of the animal, which for
a time should be whetted by feeding a little less food
than the animal would consume if allowed to feed at
will.

Matured animals may be permanently injured
in the same way, but this does not happen so fre-
quently in breeding stock as when they are young,
for the reason that they are less frequently overfed.
But it often happens with animals that are being
fattened. The remedy is virtually the same in both
instances. It consists in promptly lessening the
amount of food fed, and changing the variety of the
same for a time. With animals intended for the dairy

208 ANIMAL BREEDING.

an excessive nutrition would be fatal to a capacity
for milk production of the first order. An excessive
nutrition in such an instance would not necessarily
imply food excessive in quantity to secure sufficient
growth in the animal so much as food excessive in
richness, that is, in fat producing ingredients. Such
a diet would beget in the young dairy animal a habit
in the system of laying on flesh which would be more
or less permanent, and which so far militates against
milk-giving because of the food that would be utilized
in making flesh rather than milk during each period
of lactation that would follow. And in any event an
excessive nutrition is wasteful. But the loss which
thus arises from wasting the food is frequently less
than the loss in other respects which arises from ex-
cessive feeding.

Nutrition and Fecundity. — Nutrition has an im-
portant bearing on fecundity. An insufficient nutri-
tion and an excessive nutrition are both adverse to the
healthy and vigorous action of the generative func-
tions. There is a close relation between activity in
the breeding powers and nutrition. When the latter
is unduly wanting the breeding impulse is not called
into exercise. Thus it is that the rutting season
with wild animals is at that time when the system has
been brought into an equilibrium of condition through
the abundance of food supplies (see p. 140), that
cows poorly wintered will not come into heat until
some time after the pastures have become plentiful
(see p. 141), and that brood sow^s much reduced in
flesh through nursing young will not breed again
until the emaciated form is at least partially built up
again. It also explains why the lamb crop is so
deficient numerically from range ewes in seasons

NUTRITION.

209

following those of marked deprivation arising from
storms or other causes at the mating season.

On the other hand if the nutrition is excessive,
that is to say, if it is present in oversupply and is
unsuitable in character, as when it induces a sluggish
and plethoric condition of the system, it acts prejudi-
cially on the organs concerned in generation, as shown
in Chapter XII. when discussing fecundity. A dry
dietary is less favorable to generation than one suc-
culent and juicy (see p. 143). The fact has been
noticed again and again. This partly explains why
a flock of ewes taken from dry grass pastures and
put upon abundant pastures of well grown rape will
soon come into heat. Similarly an excess of carbo-
naceous food tends to weaken and impair the genera-
tive functions (see also p. 144). Thus it is that females
under forced feeding on a dry diet and abundantly
supplied with grain carbonaceous in character, as
corn, do not conceive readily. It would not be pos-
sible perhaps to give all the reasons for the results
mentioned, but a potent reason is found in the inabil-
ity of a dry dietary and likewise one carbonaceous
to supply the organs of generation with the materials
necessary to the full performance of their respective
functions.

An improving condition is peculiarly favorable
to generation. The generative organs are stimulated
into action by such improvement. Hence it is that
animals insufficiently supplied with food in the winter
breed soon after the system has felt the renovating
influence of good pastures. It also explains why a
generous and more or less stimulating diet is recom-
mended to be fed to animals to hasten the breeding
impulse.

210 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Nutrition and the Embryo. — ^N'utrition mate-
rially affects the embryo during gestation. A car-
bonaceous diet does not adequately furnish to the
foetus the requisite materials for growth, any more
than it furnishes the materials concerned in concep-
tion. As a result the young animal will be lacking
in size and vitality at the time of birth. It may
also be deficient in hair and when the deprivation has
been excessive it may be still born. Such a diet is
also unfavorable to easy delivery, hence it has fre-
quently occurred that both mother and young have
been lost at the time of parturition from no other
cause. A diet insufficient in strength or quantity
also tends to hinder development of the foetus. But
it sometimes happens that the deprivation mentioned
will affect the female adversely more relatively than
the foetus which she carries. In other ^vords she may
produce a well-developed calf apparently at the ex-
pense of her own flesh and vigor. The opposite of
this also occurs frequently, as when an overfat fe-
male produces progeny small and lean. In such in-
stances the elements of nutrition would seem to be
unevenly distributed whatsoever the cause may be.
Why the currents of nutrition should thus vary and
should also vary in their intensity in individual in-
stances when flowing in the same direction is not well
understood.

Nutrition and Malformations. — The relation is
close between nutrition and malformations in the
embryo. The immediate cause of these is arrested
nutrition as shown in Chapter XV., when discussing
intra-uterine influences. This question, treated at
some length in the said chapter, will not be further
discussed here, b^it it will be proper to add, that the

NUTRITION. ^1\

causes which thus arrest nutrition may be quite be-
yond the control of the feeder. The food may be
unexceptionable in character, and fed with the high-
est of skill, and yet abnormal development may fol-
low, arising from causes which are as yet imperfectly
imderstood.

Nutrition and Sex.—That nutrition may pos-
sibly exercise an influence in determining the sex
has been shown in Chapter XVI., which treats of sex.
It was there shown that a generous and proper nutri-
tion would seem to favor the production of females.
The understanding of this question, however, is as
yet so imperfect that what is known regarding it
must not be too confidently relied upon to produce
results. This question has already been discussed at
some length in the chapter just mentioned (see page

195).

Nutrition and Inherited Qualities. — Nutrition
is much influenced by inherited qualities. Animals
of improved breeding adapted to meat making or milk
production in a marked degree are through inherit-
ance possessed of a vigorous digestion and consequent-
ly of a vigorous nutrition. With the latter the food
consumed is not absorbed into the system to remain
as in the former, but the large milk production result-
ing is none the less the outcome of a vigorous diges-
tion. On the other hand animals descended from
those of unimproved breeding and ill adapted to the
uses named cannot turn the food given to equally good
account, since they inherit digestive qualities of a
different character. That such inheritance extends to
breeds or types has been denied, but if the character
of the digestion is a matter of inheritance, which it
certainlv is, such an aflRrmation is most reasonable.

212 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Experience in handling such animals and careful
observation favor the same view, but more extended
experimentation is wanted before all who take the
other view will be silenced. The following illustra-
tion has a very direct bearing upon the subject: —

Take a vigorous Hereford calf descended from
parents which have been noted for flesh production,
and place it in a box stall when born. Feed it all
the food suitable in kind that it ought to have to
produce a maximum of growth until it is one year
old. In a box stall beside the former put a scrub
calf at birth, and subject it to precisely similar treat-
ment. Weigh both at the end of one year. The
Hereford will certainly weigh more in proportion to
the food consumed than the other. The weak point
in the illustration is, that it is to an extent hypothet-
ical. The author can only point to one experiment
actually conducted to throw light on this question
though others may have been so conducted. The facts
Avhich relate to this experiment are given in Bulletin
LXX, issued by the Ontario Agricultural College in
1892. The increase in Aveight was in favor of the well
bred animals.

Nutrition and Profits. — Nutrition has an im-
portant bearing on the profits obtained from animals.
That it should have is the inevitable conclusion that
must be reached from much that has been said above
on the subject. When the food is insufficient or
unsuitable in character, there is a proportionate waste
in the food of support. The loss from this source is,
in the aggregate, very great, and this applies more or
less to every state and to all countries where live stock
is kept. It has also been shown that when the food
fed is entirely suitable, but given in excess, there is

NUTRITION. 213

waste and consequently loss through the lack of ability
on tne part of the animals to which it is fed to digest
and assimilate it properly. It has further been shown
that food too concentrated impairs digestion and re-
sults in loss. The best results are obtained when
the food is exactly adapted in character and quality to
the present needs of the animal. The importance
of an intelligent understanding of all the principles
that bear upon the feeding of animals by those who
feed them is thus strikingly apparent.

Nutrition and the Improvement of Breeds. —
^^utrition has a marked effect on the improvement
of breeds. The advantages gained by careful selec-
tion and breeding in size, vigor, and good digestive
qualities cannot be maintained without a suitable and
abundant nutrition. Too many illustrations of this
fact may be cited from the rapid degeneration of
pure-breds of good form and faultless breeding in
the hands of owners who have not cared for them
properly. Xutrition alone will not lift breeds to
a higher standard, in the absence of suitable breed-
ing and selection. Xor will these lift breeds to a
higher standard in the absence of a suitable nutrition.
The three go hand in hand wherever improvement
made is to be maintained and wherever further im-
provement is to be made.

Nutrition and the Coat of Animals. — The char-
acter of the coat and handling in animals is a good
indication of the character of the nutrition. The
coat and the skin underneath it are nourished through
the medium of the blood vessels beneath the latter,
that is to say, through the medium of an active cir-
culation. This circulation sustains the sebaceous
glands and stimulates them into action in proportion

214 ANIMAL BREEDING.

as it is strong or weak. These glands in turn oil
the skin, so to speak, and the hair which covers it.
The active circulation is the outcome of a vigorous
digestion and correct food assimilation, growing out
of good digestion, hence, when assimilation is active,
the handling of the skin will be soft, mellow, pliant,
and elastic, and the coat will be plentiful, glossy and
soft to the touch. When the assimilation is of the
opposite character, indications the opposite are found
in the hide and hair. But the skin and coat will be
further discussed in the respective chapters which
bear upon quality and the coat, that is to say, in
Chapters XVIII. and XIX.

CHAPTER XVIII.

QUALITY IN LIVE STOCK.

This chapter will be devoted to the discussion
of a term that has been used for many years by those
Avho grow live stock and who deal in the same. The
reference is to the term 'Equality." Those who use
the term have doubtless some well defined idea of
what it expresses to them, but, since it has various
shades of meaning, as will be shown below, the idea
intended to be conveyed may in many instances
be obscure to the persons addressed. Because of those
various shades of meaning and the loose sense in
which the term is used, it should be given more than
a passing notice.

Tlie Term Quality Frequently Used. — So fre-
iquently has the term quality been used by the breed-
ers of live stock, and so frequently is it used, that
it may not be longer ignored when discussing the ques-
tion of animal breeding. As implied from what has
been said above, it has been variously used and not
always with due precision. Those who write on live
stock in the agricultural press are constantly using
it and in nearly all instances in an indefinite way,
that is to say, they refer to an idea that is prominent
in their own mind while the reader may have a some-
what different apprehension of their meaning. Such
misapprehension may readily arise from the various
shades of meaning which the term may be made to
convey, as will be shown below. Because of those

216 ANIMAL BREEDING.

differences in application of which the term is sus
ceptible, and of the very loose and careless way in
which it is used, the need is urgent that an attempt
be made to define its meaning or meanings with
some degree of accuracy. As a result of the free and
easy way in which the term has been used and of the
many shades of meaning which it may be made to ex-
press to the average mind, it is surrounded with a
mist that ought to be dispelled.

Quality and Ripeness in Animals. — In some in-
stances the term quality has been used in comparing
animals when ready for the block. When thus used
it has reference to the amount of flesh as compared
with the offal and to the distribution and ripeness
of the same. The contrast in the relative amounts
of flesh and offal respectively, that is to say, in the
amounts of dressed meat and offal respectively, is
very great. The same is true of the way in which
the flesh is distributed over the body. In some ani-
mals the relative weight of the good cuts, as for in-
stance, the loin, is large, and of the cheap cuts, as
the neck, is light, and in other instances the opposite
is true. E'ow when the term quality is used with
reference to these features of the body, alive or dead,
it means that in them the proportion of meat to the
offal and of good meat to that less valuable is large
in both instances.

A ripe condition of flesh is that which cannot
be profitably improved upon by further feeding. Its
indications are a good covering of flesh on the portions
more usually bare and more particularly firmness of
flesh. The extent of the covering, however, on the
more bare parts will vary much with the character of
the animal. When the animal is ripe, there will be

QUALITY IX LITE STOCK. 217

a resistance to gentle pressure on the fleshy portion
that is not found in unfinished animals. The degree
of the resistance will be proportional to the degree of
the ripeness, but it is also increased somewhat bj age.
The idea of ripeness therefore arises through the
sensation of touch rather than through the medium of
the eye.

Quality and Present Thrift of Animals. — Qual-
ity in other instances has been used to denote present
condition as to thrift or well doing. For instance,
when an animal is lean in flesh and rough in coat,
that is to say, what is frequently termed '^out of
condition," it is said to be off in quality. Such an
application of the term, however, should be made
with great caution, if indeed it should be made at all,
as these conditions may arise from neglect, and
may not therefore be incompatible with the highest
quality. And just here it may be stated that the
ability to detect the indications of future well-doing
in such animals, that is, the indications of high feed-
ing qualities, bespeaks a skill and judgment that are
found all too seldom among those who feed and breed
live stock.

Quality and ^y ell-Doing. — In yet other instances
the term quality has been used to denote capacity for
well-doing, as indicated chiefly by what are termed
the ''handling qualities." This is perhaps the most
common use made of the term. These are readily
cognizant to the sense of touch and they furnish the
most tangible and important index of good digestion
and assimilation. Just exactly what is meant by
good handling cannot be easily explained in words
and for the reason that it is an indication that is dis-
cerned through the medium of touch. An exact idea

218 ANIMAL BKEEDING.

of the sensation thus conveyed bj toncli mnst be felt,
to be fully understood, hence the impossibility of
showing exactly what it means by the use of language.
But enough may be said to enable the individual to
get the idea approximately, hence the justification for
dwelling on this question in the paragraph that im-
mediately follows. A thorough knowledge of what is
meant by good handling can only be secured through
correct teaching followed up bv much experience or
practice in handling animals.

Handling Qualifies Defined. — By good handling
qualities is meant those indications of good digestion
cognizant to the sense of touch, as for instance : —

1. A hide of medium thickness for the breed,
which sways readily under gentle lateral pressure,
more especially over the ribs, and which when grasped
oti that part will readily fill the hand. When making
this test place the inside of the hand and especially of
the fore-fingers flatly over the ribs. Press gently and,
while doing so, move the hand back and forth laterally
on the side, with a rather qiiick movement. When the
handling is good, the skin will vibrate or tremble
over much of, or the whole of, the space covered by
the ribs. It does so because it rests on a well oiled
cushion of glandular substance underneath, and this
condition is the outcome of active secretions, which
in turn are the outcome of good digestion and good
assimilation. If the handling is not good, there will
be but little vibration. But in making this test, the
animal should stand straight. If the head and neck
turn toward the individual making the test, it will
appear unduly favorable, but if turned in the opposite
direction not sufiiciently favorable. Then catch the
skin over the ribs between the thumb and two fins^ers

QUALITY IN LIVE STOCK. 219

and lift it up from the side. The proportional ease
with which this can be done is the indication of the
character of the handling. Or, grasp the skin gently
in the whole hand. The more easily the hand is filled
the stronger indication is it of good quality. In poor
handling animals the skin cannot be grasped, as it
will not lift np from the flesh underneath. The test
of handling over the ribs, as thus described, is the
most readily made and it is also one of the most re-
liable tests of quality. But the present condition of
the animal as to flesh exerts an influence. This test
is however sufficiently accurate to furnish in itself
a reasonably safe guide as to the quality of an animal.
The thickness of the hide is largely influenced by
the breed. The average Hereford for instance has a
somewhat thicker hide than the average Shorthorn.
A reasonable degree of thickness in the hide is not
objectionable, providing it handles well. A hjde
inclining to strong is one indication of constitution.
A thin ^^papery" hide is objectionable as it is fre-
quently associated with forms inclining to spareness
and delicacy.

2. These indications further signify an impres-
sibility and elasticity of flesh on various parts of the
body under gentle pressure. This is measurably true
of the flesh on every part of the body, but there are
some parts of the same where the indications are
more readily apparent, that is to say, where judgment
may more easily be made in regard to them, as for
instance, the covering of the ribs already referred to,
the loin and the shoulder blades. If these are covered
with flesh impressible and elastic, they furnish the
assurance that other parts of the body will be properly
covered, since the parts which are most difficult to

220 ANIMAL BREEDING.

cover with suitable flesh are those just named. But
due allowance ought to be made for the degree of
flesh which the animal carries as a whole. If it is
lean, these parts cannot be well covered. When the
more muscular parts of the body, as the hips and
buttock, are thus subjected to gentle pressure of the
finger tips, and they show much of impressibility witli
but little of elasticity, there is too much of a leaning
in the meat to what may be termed flabbiness i,n
character. If in an unfattened animal there is but
little impressibility, the meat will be over-fibrous, and
the carcass wanting in power of expansiveness, but
here again the character of the food given will exercise
an influence that may tend to mislead the judgment.
A. diet too succulent tends to the production of muscle
too soft, and a diet too dry to the production of muscle
too firm.

3. The indications of good handling also include
a soft and mossy coat, agreeable to the sense of touch
and withal abundant. The abundance of the hair, its
softness and mossiness are largely but not entirely
the outcome of good digestion, hence, the importance
attached to them as indications of digestion. When
nutrition is wanting, the coat will become dry and
harsh to the sense of touch. When cattle are on a
poor diet in winter, as of straw, the hair becomes stiif
and inclines to stand at right angles to the body. Af-
ter the same animals have been out on pasture for
a time, the new hair which pushes off the old becomes
glossy and lies closer to the skin as a result of its
greater pliancy. Contrast also the glossy character
of the hair of a young man or maiden as compared
with the dry character of the same in old age.

Quality in its Widest Sense. — Quality in its

QUALITY IN LIVE STOCK. 221

widest sense has reference to capacity for well-doing
as previously intimated, or for fulfilling in a high
degree the end for which the animal is designed. In
this broad use of the term, quality is simply another
name for capacity. When thus used it will include :
1, the form of the body and tlie relation of the differ-
ent parts to one another ; 2, the character of the flesh
and the distribution of the same; 3, the nervous
temperament ; and 4, the nature of the covering of the
body including the skin. Quality therefore in its
most comprehensive sense may be defined as an aggre-
gation of good properties, but as ordinarily used it
more commonly has reference to the handling qual-
ities as described in the preceding section.

Quality Di^ event in Different Species. — The in-
dications of quality in the different species of ani-
mals are not always identical, nor are they always
identical in different classes of the same species.
They will differ somewhat in the dairy cow and in
the beef producer, as will be shown below. They are
not the same precisely in the sheep as in the hog, nor
will they be exactly the same in either of the three
classes of cattle. In the discussion that will now be
submitted of the essentials of quality as belonging
to these different classes of animals, the term will
be used in the broad sense.

Quality in Beef Cattle. — The chief indications
of quality in beef cattle include: 1, certain requi-
sites of form essential to a high order of beef produc-
tion (see p. 286) ; 2, good handling qualities; and 3,
a quiet disposition (see p. 297). Correct form is not,
strictly speaking, so much of a quality in itself as
an essential to quality in the sense in which the word
is more commonly used, for, with good form in a

222 ANIMAL BREEDING.

beef animal, the value of good handling would pro-
portionately be discounted as good form was wanting.
Likewise a quiet disposition is an attribute or char-
acteristic rather than a quality, as the term is usually
applied to animals^ and yet in beef production it en-
hances the value of good handling qualities as correct
form does, in proportion as it is present, for a restless
animal does not fatten so readily as one not thus rest-
less, other things being equal.

Quality m Dairy Cattle. — The chief indications
of quality in dairy cattle include : 1, certain requi-
sites of form essential to milk production of a high
order (see p. 287) ; good handling qualities though
not necessarily so marked as in beef animals ; 2, indi-
cations of sufficient nerve power (see page 297) ; and
3, good development of the lacteal system (see page
287). In beef animals the other essentials, in a sense,
center in the handling qualities, in milk production
they center in the leading indications of free milk
elaboration, that is to say, free milk production.
Without these, good handling qualities will not avail,
as these may be quite as much present Aviien the lead-
ing indications of milk production are absent as when
the opposite is true. In other words they may be
quite as much present in a dairy cow inclined to beef
production as in a dairy cow inclined to milk produc-
tion.

Handling qualities in a dairy cow are not so im-
portant relatively as in a beef cow as an indication of
fitness for the end for which each is kept. The im-
portant place given to nerve power among essentials
in a dairy cow should be duly noticed. These indica-
tions strongly accentuated are antagonistic to beef
production, being the opposite of that quiet disposi-

QUALITY IN LIVE STOCK. 223

tion so essential to fattening qualities of a high order
in the beef animal.

Quality in Sheep. — The chief indications of
quality in sheep include: 1, certain requisites of
form, essential to making good mutton freely (see
p. 286), and 2, good handling qualities, including a
pinkish color of the skin and lustrous wool possessed
of a plentiful supply of yolk (see p. 288). Handling
qualities in sheep are not ascertained in quite the
same way as those in cattle. On the body generally
they are sought through gentle pressure of the fingers
laid flat on the part of the animal being examined
rather than through pressure of the finger tips. Such
handling would mar the appearance of the well trim-
med fleece, more especially in the medium and fine
wooled breeds. In applying the handling over the
ribs the hand may be placed flatly on the same as in
cattle and moved laterally or back and forth over the
side, but it would not answer to try and fill the hand
with skin, as in cattle, or even to grasp it between the
finger and thumb as sheep are so easily injured. The
handling is ascertained chiefly through the covering
of the essential parts, the elasticity of the flesh, and
readiness of vibration in the skin under gentle lateral
pressure over the ribs. The pinkish color of the skin
is one indication of present good health. When
sheep are out of health the skin becomes pale from
a defective nutrition. But in some instances the skin
may be dark as a breed or type characteristic and yet
be perfectly healthy.

The wool is an important indicator of present
and past well doing or the opposite. If it has not been
well nourished at any time the fiber will be weak just
at that point where the nutrition was defective in

224 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the gro^\1;h of the wool. When nutrition is ample,
which of course is a consequent of good food and good
digestion, the wool will be as indicated, lustrous and
amply supplied with jolk. When lustrous, that is,
when it is bright, in a sense shining, it is also strong.
Ample yolk indicates active secretions.

Quality in Swine. — The chief indications of
quality in swine include: 1, certain requisites of
form essential to the production of a large quantity
of meat on the more valuable parts (see p. 286), and
2, good handling qualities. Good handling qualities
in sw^ine differ materially from those in cattle and
sheep. The handling in the former relates more to
the hair than to the skin. The skin should be smooth
and clean and not inclined to the production of scurf
or scales. If the digestion is good, these will be
practically absent when the food supplies are suitable
and ample. The skin in swine hugs the flesh more
closely than in cattle and sheep, hence to the sense of
touch it is not so important an indicator of quality.
But to the sense of sight it is an important indicator
of the same as has been shown. Handling in swine
therefore as an indicator of quality relates chiefly to
the hair. The brighter it is and the more pliant and
strong, the better does it indicate quality. These are
to be taken together rather than separately, as hair
may be plentiful and dull rather than bright, and it
may be pliant and yet too weak. Hair such as in-
dicated in swine goes along with size, thrift and vigor.
Coarse bristly hair is objectionable, since it indicates
lack of refinement in breeding and coarseness in the
grain of the flesh.

Indications of Quality Not Clearly Apparent at
Birth. — The indications of quality are not so clearly

QUALITY IN LIVE STOCK. ^^5

apparent at birth as at a later period, since good di-
gestion is one of the most important requisites in
evidencing quality, and some time must transpire be-
fore the exact character of the digestion can be ascer-
tained. At birth it may be apparently correct, but
the degree of its power cannot be ascertained until
demonstrated by the results. Forceful assimilativQ
power does not always accompany large food consump-
tion, and digestion that is all that can be desired.
Nor can form be judged of accurately when it is
judged prospectively, especially when near the birth
period. Animals change in relative development with
advancing age. Hence it is, that a calf or a lamb
of great promise at birth, frequently gives place at a
later period of development to one of less promise.
In a litter of young pigs those of most perfect sym-
metry and plumpest form are frequently left in the
race of subsequent development by others of less
promise. Because of these changes in relative de-
velopment, experienced breeders prefer not to select
animals for future breeding at any age quite near the
b:uh period. In fact the longer the choice can be
deferred up to the age when breeding may begin, the
more certain are the assurances of correctness in
choice.

Quality More Frequent in Well Bred Animals. —
Quality is more frequent in well bred animals than
in those of common or mixed breeding. It is so
because the former have been reared with a view to
secure the capacity for well doing in a high degree.
In other words more attention has been given to the
presence of quality in the former when making the
selections. It is only reasonable that it should be so,
since the former are more valuable and therefore

226 ANIMAL BREEDING.

should be selected with greater care, and the guaranty
of quality through inheritance from the ancestry
can be more readily ascertained, j^evertheless there
is much difference in the quality of animals bred
alike, even in those possessed of blood precisely sim-
ilar. It has been shown that this also is true of rel-
ative form in the same (see p. 37), and of relative
prepotency (see p. lOG). In each instance, much
obscurity hangs over the reasons for those differences,
but a partial explanation is probably furnished by
the condition of the parents at the time of mating,
and of the dam during the period of maternity.

Quality and Quantity. — With reference to qual-
ity, the aim should be to secure the largest quantity
and of the best quality in the same animal. ]^ot in-
frequently animals deficient in size are possessed of
good quality, and yet they are not the most profitable
from lack of capacity for development. Much differ-
ence of opinion has existed in the past with reference
to the standard size that will best represent various
breeds, and so it may be in the future. It would
seem to be a simple solution of this question to say,
that the more of size the better in the individual ani-
mal, and in the breed, so long as it is not obtained at
the expense of quality. Thus it is that size standards
may properly shift with changed conditions of en-
vironment. It is not so easy perhaps to secure and
maintain good quality in large as in small animals,
but since the food of maintenance is less relatively
in large animals, it would seem commendable to try
to secure them possessed of all the size compatible
with the retention of high quality.

Becognizing Quality in Aniynals. — It is an in-
dispensable requisite in the successful breeder and

QUALITY IN LH^E STOCK. 227

feeder to be an apt judge as to the presence or absence
of quality in live stock. Several reasons may be ad-
vanced in support of this view : —

1. Animals not possessed of high quality should
not be selected or retained for breeding. The indi-
vidual who is not apt in recognizing quality cannot
therefore judge correctly as to what should be selected
for future breeding or as to what should be discarded.

2. When store animals, that is to say unfattened
animals, though ready for being fattened are pur-
chased for the block, quality has to be relied upon
almost entirely as the basis of selection, since reliable
information cannot usually be obtained as to the exact
breeding of the same. Quality in the broad sense of
the term should therefore govern in the selection of
these animals. But, in the absence of the knowledge
of what constitutes high quality, it cannot be thus
applied. It is always more satisfactory when the
stock thus purchased can be tested by handling, but
in purchasing animals reared under range or semi-
range conditions, this cannot be done. In these
quality must be judged chiefly by the eye.

3. Where large profits are looked for from the
rearing or feeding of animals deficient in quality,
disappointment will almost invariably follow. The
only exceptions will be when animals are purchased
for feeding and when the conditions of purchase and
sale and of feeding have been exceptionally favorable.
But with animals of good quality, the results would
have been just so much the more favorable.

4. When animals deficient in quality do appear
in a herd or flock, the aim should be to send them to
the block, and at an early age. Supplanting them
with animals possessed of quality will show better
business judgment.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE COAT AND THE INFLUENCES WHICH
AFFECT IT.

The difference in the character of the covering
of animals of the same species is very great. Take for
instance the sheep. In some of its varieties the wool
fibers have attained the length of fully eighteen inches
in one year, Avhereas in others it is said that they do
not exceed one inch in the same time. And the
difference of the fibers in relative coarseness and fine-
ness is no less marked. These differences are not
accidental, but result from causes which are the out-
come of influences natural and artificial that produce
them. It Avill be the aim in this chapter to discuss
the more important of the influences that produce
variation in the covering of animals.

The Term Coat Defined. — In the discussion of
this question, the term coat is used to denote the skin
and that which covers it, whether hair or wool. The
relations between these are so close and intimate, that
what affects the former will, in many instances, affect
the latter. For instance, the skin handles nicely when
the secretions are active. They then form that soft
cushion under it which makes vibration of the skin
so easy under pressure from the hand. When these
conditions prevail the underlying blood vessels and the
sebaceous glands are active. When these are active,
the hair or wool fibers, as the case may be, are well
fed and oiled, with the result, that they are attractive
fco the eye and pleasant to the touch. The condition

THE COAT AND INFLUENCES AFFECTING IT. 229

of the skin, therefore, cannot be imjDroved without im-
proving the condition of the coat, and generally speak-
ing the opposite of this is also true.

Two Classes of Influences Affect the Coat. — The
influences which affect the coat of animals may be
divided into tw^o classes, viz., those which are internal
and which may be said to properly belong to the ani-
mal itself, and those which are external and come
from outside sources without regard to the inherent
qualities of the animals. These influences are further
discussed below. Usually these two classes of in-
fluences act in unison. For instance, heredity, an
internal influence, may transmit hair fine and dense in
character, and cold, an external influence, may further
intensify the tendency to fineness and density in
the hair. But sometimes they act antagonistically,
as when heredity may transmit fine and dense wool,
and weather excessively hot tends to thin the fibers
and to render them less dense. The measure there-
fore of the relative strength of those influences cannot
be accurately taken. It will be a quantity that will
continually vary with varying conditions.

Internal Influences Which Affect the Coat. —
The chief of the internal influences which affect the
coat are: 1. Those which come through heredity.
2. Those that come through digestion and food as-
similation. And 3. Those which come through sex,
as such. Here also it may not be easy to say how
much of the influence exerted may be due to each
of these factors. The character of the digestion and
food assimilation, for instance, are largely the out-
come of heredity, hence, in a sense, a part of the
influence exerted by these should, strictly speaking, be
credited to heredity, but how much, in a given case,

230 ANIMAL BREEDING.

cannot be accurately determined. These influences
will be further discussed separately.

External Influences Which Affect the Coat. —
The chief of the external influences which affect the
coat include: 1. Exposure to cold, heat, sunshine
and moisture. 2. Protection from adverse influences.
And 3. The character and quantity of the food. It
Avas stated above that the various influences affecting
the coat sometimes act antagonistically. Whenever
this happens the aim should be so to neutralize any
antagonism between influences through the aid of
artificial environment, that these will not be greatly
harmful. It is also eminently wise to try to har-
monize the ends sought Avith reference to the hide
and its covering, that these will be in imison with the
natural environment of the locality in which the ani-
mals are grown.

To illustrate: It would not be wise to try to
grow a covering for cattle in a hot climate such
as would be suited to the needs of Galloway or West
Highland cattle in their native home. The influ-
ence of natural environment cannot be too carefully
considered in all its details. Though the cattle just
named were introduced into latitudes equally cold but
less moist, it would be found difficult to sustain the
length of the outer coat in them, notwithstanding the
ease Avith Avhich density in the inner coat could be
sustained.

Influence of Heredity on the Coat. — The pe-
culiarities of hide, hair and avooI which distinguish
the breeds as such, and also certain families of the
same, are largely due to heredity. The hide of the
West Highland cattle for instance is thicker than
that of the Hereford, and the hide of the Hereford

THE COAT AND INFLUENCES AFFECTING IT. 231

thicker than that of the Shorthorn. The reference
here is to breeds rather than to individuals, for these
differences niav not be always true of the latter. The
West ITighlauxl cattle have a denser coat than the
Devons, and also one that is longer; the contrast in
density and length of ffeece between Cotswold and
American Merino breeds of sheep is very great, ind
the difference in the hair on the well fed Poland
(?hina pig and the vagrant razorback is marked.

Again, certain families of the Herefords have
the hair more curled than others, certain families of
Merino sheep have folds and wrinkles on the skin
more numerous than others, and certain families of
Yorkshire swine have the hair more plentiful and
fine than others. Such inheritance, however, does
not preclude the conjoined action of several of the
influences named or indeed of all of those of a char-
acter which makes it possible for them to act in con-
junction in the establishment of these peculiarities.
For instance, exposure to cold and damp weather
along w^ith certain peculiarities of food acting on the
digestion, are largely responsible for producing the
thick hide, the fine thick under coat, and the long
shaggy outer coat that characterize the West Highland
cattle, but the transmission of these is due to heredity,
and the further fact that these peculiarities appear in
some families of the breed in greater degree than in
others, is also to be charged up to the same influence.
It is easy to see therefore how these qualities may
become intensified or otherwise through careful selec-
tion and breeding.

Influence of Digestion and Food Assimilation
on the Coat. — The hide and hair, like other parts of
the physical structure, are nourished through the

232 ANIMAL BREEDING.

medium of the circulatory system. The circulation
will be active in proportion as the vital forces are
vigorous, as the food is suitable in kind, as the
digestion is correct and as the secretions do their
W)rk well. Every part of the system appropriates
materials suited to its growth or maintenance in plen-
tiful supply, with the result that all parts of the
system are well sustained as long as food supplies
are suitable and properly given. When the other
conditions are right, such animals possess good hand-
ling qualities (see p. 218). For the more particular
influence exerted on the coat by food (see p. 213).

Influence of Sex on the Coat. — As a rule males
have somewhat thicker hides and a coarser and strong-
er coat than females. The reasons for such peculiar-
ities of structure and the precise causes which produce
them are but little understood. The fact however
cannot be disputed that the greatest strength and
vigor of body are in some sense associated with what
may be termed a strong hide and strong hair. Thus
it was that the targe of the Scottish clans was covered
preferably with the hide of bulls. On certain parts of
the body, as the crest for instance, these conditions
are intensified. The crest of the bull has stronger
hair than is found on the top line of the neck of
the cow, and the top line of the neck of the boar has
stronger, coarser and longer hair than the same in
the sow, and these peculiarities frequently charac-
terize more or less the covering of the whole head and
neck. Long wavy hair about the head, neck, shoulders
and also other parts of the Galloway and West High-
land cattle is more pronounced in the males than iu
the females, and doubtless the microscope would dis-
cover the same contrasts in the wool of males and fe-

THE COAT AND INFLUENCES AFFECTING IT. 233

males of the various breeds of sheep, even of those
that produce the finest wool.

These exist in consonance with that law which
associates more of strong development and less of
refinement with masculinity. The coat of castrated
animals occupies an intermediate place, and is influ-
enced more or less by the age at Avhich the castration
is done. The earlier that males are castrated the
more nearly do they resemble females in coat and
hide, and the later they are castrated the more nearly
do they resemble uncastrated males in their char-
acteristics. But, though castration is done at an age
quite early, the male so castrated has less of average
refinement in this particular than the female. The
exact ways in which creative and developing forces
thus influence the coat in virtue of the sex as such,
and in virtue of castration and noncastration in
males, are as yet among the inscrutable things.

Influence of Cold on the Coat. — Cold tends to
thicken the coat, and when the animals are subjected
to certain forms of privation it has the further ten-
dency to strengthen it, that is to make it longer and
probably thicker, but at the sacrifice of flesh. In the
polar bear the hair is thick. The same is true of fur-
bearing animals that frequent northern waters. J^a-
ture has thus made provision for protection from the
cold. When animals under domestication are much
exposed to inclement weather, the hair in time be-
comes longer and thicker than when they are shielded
from the same in a marked degree. Such increase
in the development of the coat, however, is made at
the sacrifice of flesh, at least in some degree, since
a portion of the materials that would otherwise be
used in making muscle is diverted to strengthening

234 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the hide and hair. Thus it is that the hair of animals
ill nourished in winter and much exposed becomes
stronger, notwithstanding that they shrink much in
flesh. In some instances the exposure produces a
double coat of hair, as it were, an upper and an under
one, the upper being long and wavy or shaggy, and
the under one fine like fur. Such is the coat of
Galloway cattle and also of some other animals in
northern exposures.

Influence of Heat on the Coat. — Heat consider-
ed in itself, tends to shorten the coat, and to reduce
it in closeness, as witnessed in the covering of sheep
in hot countries. It also tends to increase the coarse-
ness of the fiber. But too much must not be made of
the influence of either heat or cold acting singly, since
some of the fine wooled breeds are native to countries
Avith high summer temperatures, as for instance the
Merino of Spain. On the other hand some of the
very coarse Avooled breeds are native to bleak climates,
as for instance, the Black-faced Highland sheep of
Scotland. Yet the fact remains, that without any
selection on the part of man, the tendency in hot cli-
mates is, as stated above, to shorten the wool fibers
and, more particularly, to lessen density in the same,
and the tendency in cold climates is just the opposite.

Influence of Sunshine on the Coat, — Sunshine
in moderation is helpful to the production of a good
covering for the body. In excess it gives the outer
surfaces of the hair a dry, singed appearance. When
animals are kept entirely shut away from sunlight
and its influences the whole system will at length be
affected adversely and, in sympathy with it, the coat
will lose its accustomed bloom. But on the other
hand constant exposure to glaring sunlight will pro-

THE COAT AXD INFLUENCES AFFECTING IT. 235

duce the effects mentioned. Hence it is, that cattle, for
instance, that are being fitted for exhibition are not
exposed in the heat of the daj, although there is also
the further reason, that thej shall be protected from
excessive heat. Undue exposure to very hot sunshine,
as in the case of pigs. but thinly covered with hair,
will sometimes cause the skin to blister. In this fact
is found a reason for breeding pigs with a sufficient
covering of hair to resist such an influence.

Influence of Moisture on the Coat. — Moisture
tends to strengthen the fiber of hair and wool, and also
to lengthen it, as witnessed in the greater length of
covering relatively on cattle and sheep in Great
Britain as compared with the same in the drier
regions of the Central West in the United States and
Canada. But this idea must not be pressed too far.
The buffalo which were native to those same regions
had long and strong coats, and withal dense in the
under covering, thus admirably fitting them for brav-
ing the intensity of the cold in winter. Yet the fact
remains, that under artificial conditions it is easier to
maintain length and mossiness in the coat of the cattle
in Great Britain than in the cattle reared between the
Mississippi river and the Kooky Mountains. The
character of the food, however, may be quite as much
responsible for the differences noted as the character
of the climate.

Influence of Protection on the Coat. — Judicious
protection has the effect of refining the coat and of
rendering it more pliable and mossy. Such protec-
tion may take the form of housing or of blanketing,
or of the two combined. It is necessary to protect
aninwils intended for the show ring from undue ex-
posure to s»ijishine, prolonged rains and low tempera-

236 ANIMAL BREEDING.

tures. The breeders of Merino sheep in Saxony were
careful to protect their sheep thus when they sought
much of fineness and pliancy in the wool fibers. It
is said that they were even careful to protect them
from exposure to the dews of night. Cattle and
sheep that are to be put in high show condition are
kept much of the time under the cover of light
blankets, especially as the season for showing ap-
proaches. The moisture' which exudes through the
pores of the skin is thus retained in the hair to a
greater degree than it would otherwise be, with
the result, that a mossiness of touch is given to it and
also a pliancy that could not be attained in the absence
of such blanketing. From what has been said regard-
ing the influences that affect the coat, it will be ap-
parent that temperate regions are the most favorable
to the production of what may be termed a desirable
coat, as well as of a desirable form underneath it.

Influence of Food on the Coat. — It is probable
that no one influence affects the coat so much as food.
Succulent food, when properly nourished and fed
in due balance, improves the coat by strengthening it,
and rendering it more abundant, by imparting to it a
sleek, glossy, and attractive appearance, and by
rendering it soft, pliant, and mossy to the touch.
This influence is much in evidence in the spring of
the year, when cattle have been changed from dry
and ill balanced vv^inter diet to a diet of succulent
and nutritious grasses. The old hair will loosen and
fall off much more quickly than if they had still been
maintained on the winter diet just referred to. The
new coat will also be much more abundant than under
the other conditions and it wnll possess more of that
luster and glossiness which adds so much to the at-

THE COAT AND INFLUENCES AFFECTING IT. 237

tractiveness of the coat. The favorable influence ex-
erted on the coat from the liberal feeding of field
roots in winter furnishes an illustration of the benefit
to the coat resulting from feeding succulent food at
that season. But it is possible, under some conditions,
to secure these desirable qualities in the coat without
feeding succulent foods, although it is not so easy
to do so, nor can they be so well maintained in the ab-
sence of succulent foods. When these conditions are
secured in the absence of what may be termed succu-
lent foods, it is through the specific action of certain
foods on digestion in the animals to which they are
fed, and through digestion on the coat.

For instance, to feed steamed barley for a time
exerts a favorable influence on the coat of horses.
Oil meal and linseed meal properly fed will affect
favorably the coat of all kinds of animals. The same
is true of skim milk, but its best effects are probably
seen in the improvement which it effects in the coat
of swine. A deficiency in the quantity of the food
has the effect of lengthening the coat to protect the
animal in the absence of a sufficient supply of animal
heat. But such increase in the coat is secured at the
expense of development in other directions. Irregu-
larity in food supplies strengthens and weakens alter-
nately the fiber in wool. It probably exerts a similar
influence in degree on the hairs that cover other ani-
mals, but less in degree because of the slower growth
in the same. The value of wool affected thus is much
impaired.

An excess of carbonaceous food destroys the
handling qualities of an animal, through the medium
of deranged digestion. When cattle have been thus
fed the hide is less pliant and the hair loses its bloom.

238 ANIMAL BREEDING.

It also becomes more harsh to the touch. Both hair
and hide are insufficiently nourished notwithstanding
the abundance of the food supplies as specified.

How Influences that Affect the Coat May Act. —
Several of these influences may be operative at the
same time. For instance, suppose that a cattle beast
is come of an ancestry noted for the excellent char-
acter of the covering that they possessed. Suppose
that in winter they are given a diet in which turnips
and oil-cake are prominent factors, and suppose that
at the same time they are kept sufficiently protected
from the cold by proper housing and suitable blanket-
ing. In the instance supposed, all these factors exert
a favorable influence on the coat. They act in con-
junction but it is not possible at the same time to
determine exactly the proportionate influence exerted
by each. Suppose cattle are fed chiefly on straw
in one instance and unprotected, and in another in-
stance they are fed and exposed similarly, with the
difference that in the second instance a liberal diet
of turnips is given. The coat of the cattle to which
the turnips are fed w^ll be much superior to that of
those fed straw only. Here then is an illustration of
the power exerted by a single influence.

The Best Coat. — The best coat is that which is
best adapted to the wants of the animal subject to the
conditions under which it must be kept, and to the
needs of the market when it has a market value. A
sheep for instance may have wool which keeps it in
the highest comfort possible in a certain coimtry, and
the said wool may bring the highest price in the
market because of its adaptability to the needs of the
manufacturers of that country, and yet it would be
easily possible to find countries in w^iich these con-

THE COAT AND INFLUENCES AFFECTING IT. 239

ditions would be reversed if the attempt was made
to rear the breed in these. An excess of hair or wool
beyond the requirements of the animal for protection
is an unnecessary drain upon the system. It is differ-
ent with wool because of its relatively high market
value. But the production of wool should not be so
stimulated as to bring positive discomfort to the ani-
mals because of its length or density. On the other
hand an insufficiency in the covering as is sometimes
found in the case of pigs is a serious mistake.

CHAPTER XX.

THE INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS.

Animals in a state of nature dwell amid sur-
roundings which nature has furnished them with, and
which in themselves thej have no power to change.
When subjected to the human race, even when in the
savage state, the conditions are somewhat changed,
and these chano-ed conditions brino^ alone; with them
corresponding changes in the animals, and the only
limit to these changes is the limit of the change in the
conditions. The influence of these conditions there-
fore is worthy of the most careful consideration.

Artificial Conditions Defined. — Artificial con-\
ditions are those changed conditions of life to which
animals are subjected, as compared with those sur-
rounding them in a state of nature. Those conditions
therefore are such as man has made or may make
for the animals under his care, and to which
he may subject them. The only limit to these
changes so far as their creation is concerned is
the limit of man's ingenuity. And the only limit
to their successful application is the limit of the sus-
ceptibility of the animals to improve under the con-
ditions to which they are subjected. Here then is a
wide sea in which the breeders of live stock may
virtually sail forever.

The chief of these influences are such as relate
to food, shelter, exercise, habit and selection in breed-
ing. The gap that separates the various breeds of

INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS. 241

wild animals in a state of nature and improved is a
verv wide one, as instanced in the wild hog and the
same domesticated. The bridging over of this gap is
due to the influence of artificial conditions, hence it
would not be putting it too strongly to say that all or
nearly all the improvement made in the various breeds
of live stock is due to the influence of those conditions.
But the fact should not be lost sight of, that artificial
conditions can be carried to such an extreme, that
deterioration rather than improvement may follow.
The breeders of Saxony subjected the Saxon Merino
to conditions of keep so artificial that they injured
stamina in the same. The improvers of Longhorn
cattle inbred them to such an extent and managed
them otherwise so artificially that retrogression rather
than advance came to them.

The breeders of dairy cattle during those decades,
when prolonged confinement in stables in the winter
season was popular, reaped as a result a greatly in-
creased harvest of tuberculosis. So greatly has dis-
ease been created and disseminated because of artifi-
cial conditions, that it would not be stating the fact too
strongly to say, that nearly all the maladies that afflict
domestic animals, and the degi-ee of the virulence ot
such is due to the artificial conditions to which live
stock have been subjected. This great lever to the
improvement of domestic animals that has come to
man, if not used with discretion, may easily be turned
into a boomerang that will bring disastrous results
out of well intent ioned effort.

Seeking Improvement Through Artificial Con-
ditions,—\Y\ieii the attempt is made to improve live
stock through artificial treatment, improvement
should be sought first in those lines in consonance with

242 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the original constitution, and second, without doing
violence to any of those principles concerned in the
maintenance of sufficient stamina. The attempt to
ingraft the leading traits of the dog for instance upon
the pig, would be labor expended to but little purpose
as intimated in Chapter VI., when discussing acquir-
ed characters. The dog is useful chiefly because
of the use that can be made of the higher intelligence
that he possesses. The pig is useful chiefly because of
the meat which he furnishes in a machine like fash-
ion. Far better then to seek to turn to still higher
account the intelligence of the dog by improving him
still further in teachableness and obedience and in
the development of physical features as strength or
swiftness that will enable him to turn these to better
account, than to try so to change the pig that he will
render service in the line that the same is rendered by
ihe dog. And yet the fact remains that labor ex-
pended in improving the intelligence of the pig is not
all lost. He must be measurably obedient before he
can become profitable.

The improvement that can be made without too
much reducing stamina is a question of conditions.
It may be thought that it would not be possible to
have an excess of stamina. That is true, providing it
can be attained and maintained without interfering
with development in other important lines. When-
ever it does so interfere it is excessive. Although in
breeding domestic animals the reverse is generally
true, it would be possible to have stamina in excess of
the needs of the animal as a meat or as a milk pro-
ducer. For instance, the wild hog has an amount of
stamina far above the actual needs of the same in
domestic swine. In the former it is actually neces-

INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS. 243

sary to enable him to run, to endure and to fight.
In the latter so much of it would be associated with
restlessness not in keeping with the highest quality
of meat making. The razorback still found in some
parts of this republic furnishes another illustration
of the same. But stamina maj^ be readily reduced
beyond that line that would be in keeping with the
realization of highest profit. This should be guarded
against. In fact the reduction of stamina has seldom
or never to be considered in the practice of breeding
but rather the maintenance of the same.

The Influence of Food. — Food artificially sup-
plied more than anything else, probably, has been
instrumental in the improvement of live stock. In a
state of nature the energies of the system are largely
expended in securing food, and the animals are on
short rations during a portion of the year. When-
ever an animal not kept for purposes of labor has to
expend energy in securing food beyond that sufiicient
to keep it in normal health, it is so expended at the
sacrifice of production in meat or milk, and in some
instances of both. When the animals are on short
rations during a part of the year, they lose in flesh
proportionately, and the loss has to be all made up
again before any advance in production can begin.
Wild animals therefore cannot advance beyond a cer-
tain standard of performance in any direction, and
that standard will not be a high one. Its measure
will be the measure of the adaptation in the conditions
which surround them to their needs. But w^hen suita-
ble food supplies are furnished regularly and abun-
dantly the energies of the system are concentrated on
building up the frame or in useful production, hence
the standard of improvement may be advanced in-

244 ANIMAL BREEDING.

definitely. And when these supplies are suitable in
kind as well as ample, every feature of development
is so sustained that one part of the system is not
built up at the expense of another part as when food
supplies are short.

Suitable and abundant food supplies, aided by
careful choosing of the breeding animals, have eifect-
ed much improvement in digestion and food assimila-
tion. In virtue of this second law of breeding, speci-
mens appear with the evidences of increased digestive
power. Food adapted to the needs of such makes
it possible to secure an advance on previous develop-
ment. It does so by furnishing fuel that drives
efficiently the whole machinery of digestion and all
the vital forces of the being. Thus improvement is
not only secured but the way is opened for still
further improvement by increasing the capacity for
the same. There is therefore no limit to the improve-
ment that may thus be made in domestic animals.

The character of the food supplies and the proper
combination are but less important than their abun-
dance. This fact is apt to be overlooked. The variety
and the suitability of the food products in Great
Britain are unquestionably largely responsible for the
high standard of average excellence in the many
breeds of live stock grown there. The same is true
of Ontario in Canada. In the United States and espe-
cially in the corn and sorghum growing states, the
danger exists that because of the super-abundance of
the production in corn and sorghum, that these will
be made to form too large a proportion of the entire
food ration to be compatible with highest develop-
ment.

To secure the highest possible development from

INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS. 245

food, it must in everj respect be suitable, that is to
say, it must have the food nutrients in due balance
and must also have sufficient succulence and digesti-
bility. And this adaptation in the food is relatively
more important while the animals are yet short of
maturity, and less important as the birth period is
receded from. Suitable variety and the proper blend-
ing of foods therefore cannot be ignored when stock
is to be advanced. Happily, with animals under
domestication, these influences can all be controlled.
!N"otwithstanding all the advance that has been made
in the improvement of live stock, the whole question
of feeding is yet very imperfectly understood.

The Influence of Shelter. — Shelter artificially
provided has proved a potent factor in the improve-
ment of live stock under domestication. Expose ani-
mals to cold beyond what may be termed the line of
comfort, and additional food is wanted to provide
animal heat. Expose them to storms that produce dis-
comfort, and the same holds true. In the absence of
shelter at such times, the excess in food consumption
over what would otherwise suffice, is just equal to
the difference between the amount required to sustain
animal heat under normal conditions and under the
conditions named. Consequently there will not only
be the waste in food referred to but the machinery of
digestion will be necessarily taxed to the extent of the
energy expended in digesting the afore-mentioned
excess of food.

When the exposure is severe and prolonged, high
attainment in performance cannot be sustained though
food supplies should be abundant. Too large a pro-
portion of the food is utilized in defense against the
cold through the production and maintenance of ani-

246 ANIMAL BREEDING.

mal heat. While the aim should be to protect domes-
tic animals from any exposure to weather that will
injure them, it is specially important that they shall
be protected from cold storms of rain or sleet. The
latter more or less endanger the health in addition
to the intensity of the discomfort produced. Dry
cold, tliough much more intense, is less injurious in
every way, and changeful temperatures, especially
when the changes are violent as in winter in certain
states far inland, are far more injurious than lower
temperatures in which the cold is steady. Suitable
shelter therefore is more of a necessity in the former
than in the latter.

But animals require protection not only from
cold and storms, but from heat and flies, and indeed
from anything that would cause worry and annoy-
ance. Protection from heat in many climates is
far more important than protection from cold.
Protection from heat means the furnishing of
shade either indoors or out. Ventilation is also
necessary Avith indoor protection. Removing the
fleece from sheep on the approach of warm weather is
one of the most important means of protecting them.
Such protection may call for shearing twice a year,
at least with some breeds. Darkening the sheds in
Avhich the animals are kept is the surest means of
protecting them from flies that has yet been discover-
ed. But it is scarcely practicable when animals are
kept in large numbers. The various chemical prepara-
tions heretofore used as remedies for flies, protect only
for a short time. The frequency with which they
have to be renewed makes them expensive. Some
preparation that would be at once cheap and effective,
that would not need to be renewed frequently, and

INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS. 247

th'at would not injure the animals on whicli it is
applied, would be an inestimable boon to stockmen.

While protection from undue cold and from
storms is verv necessary, it is at least problematical if
live stock do not suffer more in the aggregate from
heat and also from flies than from cold and storms.
Shelter and protection can only be said to be adequate
when the animals are protected from causes which
worry and annoy, or produce any form of discomfort.
When protection secures this end in the simplest and
least expensive manner and with the greatest saving
of labor to the attendants, it is then also likely to be
economical. But when it promotes discomfort, as, for
instance, when it produces undue heat along with a
faulty ventilation, shelter certainly becomes excessive
and may result in greater harm than good.

The Influence of Exercise. — Under domestica-
tion, the degree of exercise given to animals has been
so modified as to effect great improvement. Exces-
sive exercise wastes the energies of the system to no
good purpose, as, for instance, when animals have
to search unduly for food in sparse pastures. Exer-
cise may be said to be excessive when it is more than
is necessary for the maintenance of sufficient stamina.
It has already been shown that sufficient stamina
does not necessarily involve the idea of a maximum
of stamina in the absolute sense of the term, but
rather the idea of stamina enough to enable animals
from generation to generation to give a maximum of
production. On the other hand, insufficient exercise
weakens the constitution and impairs the breeding
powers. Immense injury has been brought to domes-
tic animals of the more highly improved types by un-
duly reducing the amount of exercise. That degree

248 ANIMAL BREEDING.

of exercise which Avill be enough will vary with the
object for which animals are kept. Under domes-
tication improvement in performance has usually been
attained by materially reducing the amount of the
exercise unless when the improvement sought has been
in the direction of food and labor. The bearing of
this question on the adaptation of breeds to pastures
is very direct. The small breeds are less labored
in their movements than those that are large, hence,
the wisdom of choosing breeds relatively smaller in
proportion as the pastures on which they are to
graze are more sparse. The proper amount of exercise
Avill vary with such conditions as the class of the
stock, the use for which it is kept, size, age, sex and
present condition.

Horses and especially brood mares require
more exercise than other classes of domestic animals,
since action is more in consonance with the require-
ments of their being. Even enforced exercise moderate
in character maybe advantageous in the cases of heavy
draft mares that are pregnant. Animals used for
labor require more exercise than animals kept for
other uses. Breeding animals certainly require more
exercise than those that are being fattened. Small
animals exercise more than those that are large.
Young animals need more than those that are mature.
In young animals exercise is necessary to develop
properly the various functions of the being, and to
keep them healthy and in due equilibrium. Exer-
cise is on the whole probably more needful for fe-
males than for males, because of the influence that
such exercise has upon the development of the foetus.
But owing to the more restricted conditions under
which males are sometimes kept, especially stock

INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS. 219

bulls, enforced exercise with tliem may sometimes be
advantageous.

When animals are being fattened some exercise
is necessary to strengthen the apj^etite and thus pro-
mote the consumption of food. The frequency with
which animals must be exercised depends upon con-
ditions. Usually breeding animals should be allowed
to take voluntary exercise every day when the weather
is suitable. It is not so necessary for animals that
are being fattened. But when these even can be al-
lowed to take some exercise daily, under favorable
conditions, thej- are probably all the better for it.
Large liberty to exercise indoors and out is indispen-
sable to the well being of breeding sheep, and cows
and brood sows should have the chance to take exer-
cise outdoors every fair dav.

The Infucnce of HahiL—Thc habit of the sys-
tem of animals under domestication has been so modi-
fied as to effect great improvement in certain direc-
tions. Habit is simply, in a sense, another name for
repetition, continued long enough to secure uniform-
ity of action, or uniformity in results in one direction.
Thus it would be correct to say that the uniformity
in transmission shovm by animals long bred pure
is simply a result of habit repeated sufficiently often
to secure action in one direction. And this will ap-
ply to those repetitions in transmission which relate
to form as well as to function. And as with those
habits which are the outcome of intelligence in the
human family, every repetition strengthens the ten-
dency to further repetition in the same direction.
Illustrations of such transmission may be found in
the maintenance and increase of speed in the running
horse, of milk production in the cow, various kinds

250 ANI3IAL BREEDING.

of wool in the sheep and sagacity in the shepherd's
dog.

Repetition in function aided bv careful training
and careful selection in breeding have made those
horses what they are. The habit of giving milk in
the cow for ten months in the year rather than for six
months has been developed through the repetition
Avhich j)ersistent milking necessitates. Succession in
the production of wool of a certain kind through suc-
cessive years, and it may be centuries, has fixed the
habit of such wool production with much certainty.
Sagacity in the shepherd's dog has been so fixed by the
repetition in sagacious acts, that it has become, as it
were, an essential part of the being of the dog. And
thus it is Avith all the acts which constitute habit, as
shown in Chapter YI. when treating of acquired
characters. The increased streng'th of habit has thus
been secured through the increased exercise given
to the organs concerned aided by selection. All such
advances have been more or less gradual, since time is
necessary to develop habit in any one direction. By
thus gTadually intensifying the action of habit, as it
were, through selection, further improvement is se-
cured.

The Infliience of Selection. — Selection has been
materially aided in intensifying the various modifica-
tions of the system secured through the other influ-
ences that have been named. The only law of selec-
tion among animals in a state of nature is the law
of strength, hence, with them change and material
variation are impossible under normal conditions.
They are not in any sense subjected to artificial con-
ditions. But when man steps in he not only seizes
accidental variations Avhich are likely to prove help-

INFLUENCE OF ARTIFICIAL CONDITIONS. 251

ful with a view to perpetuate them, but he labors
to produce variations that will be a distinct gain.
The only decided variations produced bv nature are
accidental, and as has been shown (see p. 43), nature
cannot perpetuate these. By improving artificial
conditions, man can secure variation which he may
use still further in effecting improvement. Thus the
field which opens to him for improvement has no
limit. At least it has in itself no limit. The only
limitations which hedge it in are the limitations of
human capability. Through judicious selection in
mating he secures a uniformity and excellence wliich
would be impossible even though all the other con-
ditions essential to improvement were utilized to the
utmost in the absence of selection.

Thus it is that the proper selection of the ani-
mals for breeding and the judicious mating of the
same assume a significance in its bearing upon live
stock production that cannot be overestimated. But,
when it is impossible to improve the food conditions
and also those which relate to shelter, as where the
animals have to forage for their own living through
all the year on lands that cannot be cultivated, the
benefits from selection will be much more restricted.
Such is open range country where cattle rove in bands
so large that sufficient protection caimot be provided
for them in the conditions under which they are
kept.

252

ANIMAL BREEDING.

CHAPTEK XXL

EARLY MATURITT.

Until recent years early maturity was not given
that close attention which its importance demands.
During the more recent of the decades it has made
greater advances than in all time previously. The
two influences that have contributed to this end more
than any other are, first, the fat stock shows in the
United States and Great Britain, chiefly the former,
and second, the market demand for carcasses quickly
grown but not overgrown. This demand is, of course,
the outcome of modification in the taste of the con-
sumers.

Early Maturity Defined. — Maturity means that
period in the life of an animal when it may be said
to have attained complete development. Ordinarily
it means complete physical development, but to this
there are some exceptions, as when development in
performance is included. A dairy cow, for instance,
does not always reach the maximum of development
in performance as soon as she reaches the maximum
of physical development. Early maturity means the
completion of development in form and function at a
period earlier than is or has been usual in the average
of the breed or class, and late maturity means just
the opposite, that is to say, the completion of develop-
ment in form and function at a period later than is
usual in the average of the breed or class. In the use
of both terms the contrast is frequently drawn between

254 ANIMAL BREEDING.

breeds as such. For instance it may be said that the
Hereford breed matures earlier than the West High-
land, but very commonly it is also drawn between in-
dividuals in a breed as compared with the average in
the same.

Early Maturity m Dairy Stock. — Early matu-
rity as commonly applied to dairy stock has reference
rather to the free and abundant production of milk at
an early period, than to the completion of growth, but
strictly speaking it means the completion of develop-
ment in form and function at an early period, or, at
a period that is earlier than usual in the average of
the breed or class. The period of growth in the
dairy animal cannot be hastened as in the beef pro-
ducer, since the rapid forcing of the physical powers
is antagonistic to the highest development of the milk
producing function. Milk production in the dairy
animal begins at a period considerably earlier than
completed physical development. Yet, notwithstand-
ing, complete development in form takes place at an
earlier period as already intimated than complete de-
velopment in function. If dairy animals were to be
forced for growth beyond a certain limit, and espe-
cially for growth accompanied by any considerable
degree of fat production, a habit of the system would
be begotten that would too much tend to the produc-
tion of flesh, and when once produced, this tendency
Avould remain with the animal. The free feeding of
suitable food to young dairy animals tends to secure
large growth rather than early maturity. It is evi-
dent therefore, first, that early maturity cannot be
reached so early in milk producing as in flesh pro-
ducing animals, and second, that it is less influenced
by food than the production of meat.

EARLY MATURITY. 255

Influences Which Produce Early Maturity. —
The chief of the influences concerned in producing
early maturity are three, viz. : 1, A careful selection
of animals for breeding that have evidenced an apti-
tude for quick growth when young; 2, furnishing
plentiful supplies of suitable food; and 3, breeding
from animals at an early age.

Selection such as that just referred to has a
very important bearing upon early maturity, espe-
cially when supported by liberal supplies of suitable
food. In this way advance is continually made upon
previous maturity, and when thus made it may
similarly be retained. In time, it will become a habit
of the system, so fixed, that the tendency is regularly
transmitted. The difference in the tendency in in-
dividual animals to mature early is very marked, and
should be carefully noted by the person seeking to
hasten maturity in his flock or herd. Especially is
this true when selecting breeding males.

Furnishing jDlentiful and suitable food supplies
is one of the surest means of promoting early matu-
rity. When food is thus supplied, a maximum of
growth is secured from day to day and without any
cessation in the same until maturity is reached. If
the supply is insuflicient, growth is proportionately
retarded, and if made up at all, must be made up at
a later period, that is by prolonging the period of
growth. But, as has been shown (see p. 203), stagna-
tion in development takes away the capacity for de-
velopment, consequently, the size of the animal may
be materially lessened when matured.

Breeding from animals at an early age will
unquestionably hasten maturity, and because of this,
it has been recommended as a means to this end. But

256 ANEVIAL BREEDING.

if used at all for such an end it sliorJd be nsed with
great caution. If animals are mated while far short
of maturity, the tendency of such mating is to re-
duce size and to weaken stamina, as has already been
sho^\Ti (see p. 263), hence, any gain to maturity ac-
cruing from this source is of questionable ultimate
.idvantaoe. But Avhen breeding dairv heifers, it mav
be proper to do so while they are yet quite immature,
that in them the tendency to milk-giving may be early
develojited. And when growing animals for meat,
especially those that are being freely fed, if breeding
were delayed until the animals were first matured
they would i:)robably breed less freely. When females
produce young while quite immature the burden is
put upon them of completing their own growth and
of mahitaining their young and this tends to lessen
size. The better plan, therefore, is to avoid extremes
when determining the age at which animals shall be
bred.

Advance in Early Maturity. — Great improve-
ment has been effected in recent years in the early
maturing of meat producing animals. The average
age at which they are now put upon the market has
been shortened nearly, if not quite, one half. Less
than half a century ago the favorite age for marketing
cattle was from three to five years; now it is one
and one half to two and one half years when the cattle
are grown on arable farms. Wethers were formerly
sold at two years and upwards ; now they are sold at
one year and under. Swine were marketed at
eighteen months, now they are marketed at nine
months and short of that age. It would not be quite
correct to say that these respective classes of animals
attain the average weights of those sold in former

EAELY MATURITY. 257

years, but it is correct to say, first, that they do attain
far greater weights at similar ages, and second, that
they may easily be made to attain these weights at the
respective ages mentioned, to meet the favorite re-
quirements of the market. That such shortening of
the period required for maturing animals should ma-
terially enhance the profit to the grower will be shown
below.

Laws Governing the Cost of Development. —
Physical development in animals with reference to
relative gain and the cost of producing it would seem
to be governed by the following laws, viz. : 1. The
nearer the birth period the more rapid the daily
gains when the food is given in sufficient quantities,
and as the birth period is receded from the relative
daily gains continually decrease. 2. The nearer the
birth period the less the amoimt of food required to
produce a pound of increase in live weight, and as the
birth period is receded from the food required to pro-
duce the same is increased. 3. A period is at length
reached after which further gain ceases, notwithstand-
ing tliat a large amount of food is required to main-
tain the processes of life.

These laws are so generally operative as to be
fairly uniform and constant in their action. Take
a calf for instance, of the pronounced beef type.
Such a calf may easily be made to gain two pounds a
day on an average the first year. The second year
on food not more forced it will not gain much more
than one and three quarters pounds per day and the
third year not more than one and one quarter pounds
per day. The difference will be even more than the
figures given to represent the decreased relative gains
as the birth period is receded from. But while there

258 ANIMAL BREEDING.

is usually decreased relative increase in weight with
advance in the age, there is continual increase in the
food consumption up to the period of maturity. This
is owing probably to the greater activity of the organs
concerned in digestion and food assimilation near
the birth period, and to a continual decrease in the
relative activity of the same with advancing age.

From what has been said the following deduc-
tions will be in order : 1, Animals increase in weight
less rapidly as the birth period is receded from ; 2, the
relative cost of producing a pound of gain increases as
the birth period is receded from; and 3, the cost of
the food of maintenance will increase as the birth
period is receded from. But the first and second of
these deductions, though generally true, may require
some modification. It has not yet been proved con-
clusively that yoimg animals will make less gain
per day every day as the birth period is receded from.
Young pigs, for instance, would seem to be capable
of making more gain per day some time after the
weaning period than earlier. But suppose the matur-
ing period , were divided into three parts equal in
duration, then the statement would seem to be invari-
ably true, which claims that the relative gains would
be considerably greater during the first period than the
second and the second than the third.

Again, while the consumption of food increases
as the birth period is receded from, it does not follow
that the relative cost of food is always more, though
it generally is. For instance, a calf may be fed for
several months on new milk to force growth. Such
a diet is so costly, that it would involve more outlay
to make a pound of increase during the milk period
than during a period equal in duration immediately

EARLY MATURITY. 259

following. If, however, the calf had been fed skim
milk and adjuncts, then the reverse would probably
be true. The greater relative cost of the food of
maintenance with advancing age arises from the con-
stantly decreasing activity of the digestive organs and
of the secretions.

The further deduction is also generally true, viz.,
that the greater profits are secured from animals
grown for meat when pushed on all the while through
liberal feeding from birth until they reach the block.
But exceptions may be found in locations where the
animals are reared much on pastures, and where the
pastures grow on low priced lands. To such animals
food supplies in winter, not costly, and producing but
little increase in weight for a time, may be followed
by more profit ultimately than would accrue from
more rapid gains during those wintry periods, but
secured through feeding costly grain foods. Let it
be observed that the exception applies rather to range
and semi-range conditions than to the conditions of
the arable farm.

Meat May he Marheted too Youiig. — ^N'otwith-
standing the general uniformity of the laws given
above it may not be profitable to market animals while
yet quite immature, as, in reckoning the cost of pro-
duction, there must be taken into account: 1,
the cost of the keep of the dam when pregnant and
not producing any direct return ; 2, the extra cost of
maintenance during the period of development in the
embryo ; 3, a proportion of the cost of the keep of the
sire ; and 4, the hazard attendant upon breeding.
Take for instance two sows in the one case, and one
in the other. Suppose the sows rear sixteen pigs in
the first instance and these are sold at the age of four

260 ANIMAL BREEDING.

months, and that in the second instance the sow rears
eight pigs which are sold at eight months. It does not
folloAv that becanse the sixteen pigs weigh more
than the eight pigs, that the profit on these has been
greater. The cost of the two sows during the period
of gestation and subsequently would be greater than
the cost of the one. In other words the cost of pro-
duction increases with increase in the number of dams
kept to produce a certain weight in meat in the prog-
eny. This argument is less applicable to animals that
are producers during much of the period of preg-
nancy, as for instance in the case of dairy cows. It
is also true that a dam will require more food when
pregnant than when not pregnant, that is to say, she
will require additional what is necessary to develop
the foetus during all the period of its growth.

Thus, animals cost for maintenance and develop-
ment before they are born, and this must not be lost
sight of when estimating relative profits from the sale
of animals at different stages of development. If, in
order to multiply animals more rapidly than would
be necessary if not marketed quite young, another
male must be secured and maintained. This also
would bear upon the question of profit. And there is
also some hazard in breeding. The young of the dam
may be injured prior to birth. The dam herself is
more liable to take harm when pregnant. And rel-
ative hazard increases somewhat with the multiplica-
tion of animals on the farm. All these influences have
a bearing on the cost of production. Each points to
the conclusion that it would be easily possible to
market animals quite too soon to produce the greatest
profit.

Most Profitable Age for Marheiing Meat. — The

EAKLY MATURITY. 261

must j)rofitable age at which to send meat making
animals to the block will depend : 1, on the age most
in favor with the dealer and consumer; 2, on the
prices that can be obtained at certain seasons; 3, on
the prices of food as compared with those of the
finished product ; and 4:, on the cost of the animal at
birth.

The public taste decides what the dealer must
furnish. The dealer will only buy what the public
taste decides that the dealer must furnish. The deal-
er will only buy what the public taste demands. The
public taste therefore decides virtually at what age the
grower shall market animals grown for meat. High-
er prices will be paid per pound for animals which
approximate a certain weight and age than for those
older or younger. The grower therefore who is wise
will study the taste of the consumer not only in regard
to the character of the meat product which he puts
upon the market, but also as to the age at which he
shall market it, and that age at which the meat prod-
uct will sell for the highest price after the animal
has been at least reasonably well grown. As markets
are, quickly grown cattle should sell at about the age
of not more than thirtv months to brino- the STcatest
profit. Sheep should sell at not more than twelve
months and swine at not more than eight or nine
months. These statements relate to the conditions
of the arable farm.

The price of meat varies more or less at differ-
ent seasons of the year. On the approach of winter
the market is usually glutted with nearly all kinds
of meat and the price falls more or less. The aim
should be, therefore, to market the animal when the
market is not so glutted. And to be in a better posi-

262 ANIMAL BREEDING.

tion to do SO5 attention ought to be given prospectively
to the regulation of the age before the dam is served,
so that the progeny shall be ready for the market at
that time which experience has shown to be the most
profitable age of disposal. Usually the greatest profit
is obtained when the animals are brought to a high
degree of finish, but there are times, as when food is
unduly dear, that more profit may be obtained from
disposing of the animals before they are thus highly
finished. At such times when feed is both scarce
and dear, the highest profit may be made by selling
directly from the autumn pastures, and doing so will
of course have a bearing on the age at which to sell.

From the ages given above as those considered
the most profitable for disposing of cattle, sheep and
swine, respectively, it will be noticed that there is a
relation betw^een the cost of the animal at birth and
the age of marketing. The more the animal has cost
at the time of birth, as in the case of the calf, the
later is the period for most profitably disposing of the
same.

Maturity Affected by Various Conditions. —
Under some conditions early maturity can only be
measurably attained. For instance when flocks and
herds gather their food wholly from the pastures
on ranches and ranges, Avhich it is not easily possible
to improve, only a certain standard of maturity Avill
be reached. The measure of that standard will be
the character of the pastures in relation, first, to their
abundance, second, to their nutrition, and third, to
their accessibility during all seasons of the year. The
climate, more especially the winter climate, will also
exert an influence imder those conditions. Some influ-
ence may be exercised by man, first, in placing breeds

EARLY MATURITY. 263

upon the pastures which will best sustain them, and
second, by regulating the closeness of the grazing of
the same, llaturitj may thus be advanced somewhat
by placing small breeds on the past ures and not allow-
ing them to be grazed too closely, but maturity quite
early cannot thus be attained or maintained.

Advance in Maturity and Food Supplies. — •
When the tendency to an earlier maturity has been
secured, it should be maintained by liberal food sup-
plies, otherwise there will be serious disturbance of
the system followed by ill doing. In such animals
a habit of vigorously appropriating food has been
begotten. If this habit of the system is not sustain-
ed by liberal supplies of food, the equilibrium of
the system as a whole is thrown out of balance. Thus
it is that pure bred animals of much merit usually
fare much worse than common animals when subject-
ed to hard fare in the hands of inexperienced stock-
men who may have purchased them.

Early Maturity and the Constitution. — Early
maturity may be made to affect the constitution ad-
versely, owing: 1, to the undermining influence of
breeding from immature animals, and 2, to the ex-
tremely artificial conditions which frequently attend
such breeding. This has l)een already referred to,
(see p. 256). An illustration of the weakening ten-
dencies of breeding from animals quite immature is
found in many herds of Poland China swine as now
reared in the corn belt. To hasten maturity, animals
are also kept under extremely artificial conditions,
especially with reference to confinement, and they are
fed foods unduly forcing. Such management will
result in decreased vigor. Yet the fact should not be
lost sight of, that early maturity may be attained in

264 ANIMAL BREEDING.

a marked degree without hazard to constitutional
vigor.

Early Maturity and Size. — There appears to be
some antagonism between early maturity and large
size in breeds and in animals of the same breed.
Observation shows that the smaller breeds mature
more quickly than the larger. Southdown sheep ma-
ture more quickly than the Lincolns. Small York-
shire swine mature more quickly than Yorkshires of
the large types. This principle of development seems
to pervade the animal kingdom. The rabbit for in-
stance reaches full size in much less time than the
mastiff, and likewise the horse matures much more
quickly than the elephant. It has also been noticed
that individuals within a breed or type that are small
in size, fine in limb and neat in form, mature more
quickly than those that are of large size and more
rangy in form. It follows, therefore, that where the
attempt is made to shorten the period of maturity
in animals it will not be possible to so reduce the
same that the period for full development in a large
breed will be no longer than the same in a small breed
of the same species, the conditions being the same.

Early Maturity and Longevity. — Early matu-
rity is also in some respects antagonistic to longevity.
The relation between the duration of life and the
rapidity with which maturity is reached seems to be
close and intimate. This relation pervades all life,
vegetable as well as animal. Since domestic animals
except horses and mules are usually slaughtered, it
is almost impossible to state what would be the aver-
age duration of life with each class, but it will be
approximately correct to say, that the domestic sheep
which matures in from two to three years, would die

EARLY MATURITY. 265

of old age in I'rum eight to twelve years, and that
cattle which mature fully in from four to six years
would die of old age in from sixteen to twenty-four
years. Small song birds live only a few years. Some
eagles it is thought live for more than a century.

The quick growing cottonwood tree in many
localities does not usually survive fifty years. The
slow growing yew tree will in some situations live
for more than a thousand years. 'No sooner is the
maximum of development reached than decline at
once sets in, hence the conclusion would seem to be
legitimate, that the life period will be shortened in
proportion to the degree to which early maturity is
hastened, although in the meantime it would be
scarcely possible to furnish facts that would trans-
form what is simply a seemingly correct conclusion
into an actual demonstration.

The practical bearing of this question upon the
development of animals from which years of service
are expected in the line of performance is by no means
unimportant. It would mean that rushing the horse
on to maturity would tend to shorten the entire period
during which he could labor; and likewise rushing
the dairy cow to maturity would tend to shorten the
period of her ability to milk profitably. It Avould
therefore seem to be easily possible to hasten maturity
in horses and dairy cows overmuch.

Hindrances to Early Maturity. — Hindrances to
early maturity may arise: 1, from insufficient food
supplies; 2, from excessive feeding; and 3, from
stagnation of growth arising from any cause what-
ever. That maturity will be delayed by insufficient
food supplies is so self evident that it'does not re-
quire demonstration, but that excessive feeding may

266 AXIMAL BREEDING.

delay maturity may not be so clear at first thought.
It does so by overtaxing the digestive powers. Such
overtaxing is accompanied by loss of appetite and
consequently insufficient food consumption. The
remedy is comparative rest for the digestive organs
for a time, which means delay in development while
such rest continues. It may also mean lessened ca-
pacity for quick development subsequently, as the
digestive powers may be more or less permanently
weakened. But digestive and assimilative capacity
may likewise be weakened from insufficient food sup-
plies though otherwise suitable, hence stagnation in
growth is also followed by diminished capacity for
growth (see p. 203), and this in turn means deferred
maturity.

Economic Value of Eavly Maturity. — The value
of early maturity in meat producing animals viewed
from the standpoint of economy cannot be well over-
estimated, as it effects a saving: 1, in the food of
maintenance; 2, in the food of production, and 3,
in the labor of attendance.

The saving in the food of maintenance is of
course effected by shortening the period of growth.
The extent of the saving is proportionate to the period
during which maturity has been hastened. If, for
instance, one animal is matured in thirty months, and
another in thirty-six months, a saving has been effected
in the food of maintenance for six months. And the
fact should not be lost sight of that the cost of the
food of maintenance increases with the advancing
age (see p. 257).

The saving in the food of production is effected
by the increase in digestive and assimilative capacity
in the early maturing animal. Without effective

EARLY MATURITY. 267

digestive power it cannot be a quick maturing animal.
Effective food assimilation means economy in the
utilization of food. Economy in the labor of attend-
ance will be at least measurably proportionate to the
extent to which maturity is hastened. It is not ab-
solutely thus proportioned since the quick maturing
of animals may call for more attentive care than
would otherwise be necessary.

CHAPTEE XXII.

PEDIGREE.

Pedigrees of domestic animals may be kept by
individuals for their own guidance in breeding, but
usually they are kept by associations formed to protect
the interests of individual breeds. It will never be
known, probably, when the keeping of pedigrees first
began. That the Arabs kept records of the breeding
of their horses many centuries ago is a well establish-
ed fact. If all the facts were kno\vn, however, it
w^ould pretty certainly be found, that individual
records were kept of the pedigrees of horses long be-
fore the modern era. The fact remains, nevertheless,
that the era of keeping public records of the pedigrees
of domestic animals is essentially modern. The first
herdbook published was that which recorded English
Shorthorn cattle, the first volume of which appeared
in 1822. At the present time public records are
kept of every pure breed of horses, cattle, sheep and
sw^ine now found in the United States and Great
Britain, and those public records now extend to
various other classes of domestic animals, as dogs and
goats.

The Term Pedigree Defined. — Pedigree is a
record of the ancestry of an animal for a longer or
a shorter period. It is said to be complete when it
traces back on the side of both sire and dam to the
foundation animals first admitted into the herdbook.
The idea originated doubtless in the desire to trace

PEDIGREE. 269

descent to noted performers, hence, the prevailing
opinion underlying it is the fundamental law of
breeding that like produces like, and hence also the
popular view, that it is in itself a guaranty of supe-
riority. A pedigree therefore usually enhances the
commercial value of an animal, and in proportion
as it contains noted performers in the ancestry and
especially in the near ancestry. That it should do
so is perfectly legitimate, since it costs more to pro-
duce pedigreed animals than those not so pedigreed.
The added cost will usually be proportionate to the
high performance in the ancestry. The public there-
fore should not expect to purchase good pedigreed
animals at meat values. On the other hand it is easily
possible to pay too high a price for pedigree. That
pedigree is in itself a guaranty of superiority is not
always true, though generally true, since it is possible
to breed animals with so little judgment for genera-
tions, that pedigree may prove a bane because of the
harm that may result from it.

Objects Sought in Keeping Pedigrees. — Prom-
inent among the objects sought in keeping pedigrees
are: 1, in all instances to enable the breeder to
trace lineage; 2, in some instances to enable him to
trace performance in the ancestry; and 3, in nearly
all instances to furnish him with a guaranty of purity
of breeding.

The extent to which pedigree enables the breeder
to trace lineage will depend upon the length of the
pedigree. In some of the pedigrees of Shorthorn
cattle, lineage may be traced for more than twenty
generations. The limit of such tracing is usually the
period when records of the breed began to be com-
piled. Lineage, therefore, at the present time, cannot

270 AXIMAL BKEEDIXG.

usually be traced beyond one hundred years, but the
duration of the period during which it can be traced in
the future will increase continually with the lapse
of years. The question, therefore, as to how far back
it is important that lineage may be traced will soon be
one of much significance, for the labor of such
tracing becomes increasingly cumbersome as the pedi-
gree grows longer. But more will be said upon this
point below. Let it be observed, that it is only in
some instances that pedigree enables the individual
to trace performance in the ancestry.

It is only pedigrees of a certain character that
give the pedigree of performance, as is shown further
on. When such performance is not given in the pedi-
gree, it can only be gleaned from historic records,
usually more or less fragmentary when these may
have been kept, or from traditional sources. In all
instances pedigree would furnish the breeder with an
absolute gauiranty of purity of breeding, were it not
for the fact that designing men may forward pedi-
grees for record that are either not genuine or authen-
tic. How this may be done is shown below. There
are good reasons for believing, however, that such
deception is seldom practiced.

Terms Used to Indicate Lineage. — The more
common of the terms used to indicate lineage are:
thoroughbred, pure-bred, cross-bred, grade, and scrub
or native. Thoroughbred in the strictest sense de-
notes the English race horse. That w^as the primary
use of the tenn and it is so applied yet, but it is also
now frequently used to denote any class of horses,
cattle, sheep or swine that are purely bred. The
term pure-bred is frequently used as synonymous with
full blood, and thoroughbred, as the latter is now un-

PEDIGREE. 271

derstood. It indicates animals of a well defined breed
without admixture of other blood. So frequently is
the term pure-bred applied to animals without admix-
ture of alien blood, that they are seldom referred to
by the use of the other terms mentioned, except in the
instance of the running horse. The term cross-bred in
the primary sense, denotes the progeny of two distinct
breeds bred together, but it has also a more extended
use as shown in Chapter XXV.

A grade is the produce of a cross between a pure
bred and an animal of mixed breeding. But this
term also is of wider application as shown in Chapter
XXVI. A scrub or native denotes the produce of
animals of mixed blood, bred in an aimless way, and
without individual excellence. There is usually at
least a shade of derision associated with the use of
the term scrub, because of the inferior individuality
of the animals to which it is applied.

Pedigree and Purity of Blood. — Pedigree does
not necessarily bring along with it purity of blood,
nor is it in itself any guaranty of individual ex-
cellence. Grade animals may also have pedigrees.
Such pedigrees in practice are seldom kept, since the
animals are not usually considered sufficiently valu-
able to justify the labor of keeping them. Xeverthe-
less, where grades are of high excellence, and more
especially where they are kept for milk-giving, and
when records are kept of the milk production, it may
also be advantageous to keep private records of the
breeding. Individually, pure bred animals are fre-
quently inferior to grades. This does not arise from
any law necessarily leading to such a result, but
rather from improper breeding.

The Pedigree of Lineage. — The pedigree of

272 ANIMAL BREEDING.

lineage more commonly gives only the names of
the female ancestry and the sire of each female for
a number of generations, although in some instances
it furnishes a record of both the sires and the dams.
When the names of the female ancestry only are given,
with the sire of each, the herdbook number of each
sire is also given, which makes it possible to trace
the lineage of each sire as well. When the names of
both sires and dams are given, the record of lineage
is, of course, more complete than in the former in-
stance. Examples of both forms of pedigree are
given in Appendix A. It will be observed that neither
of these forms of pedigree necessarily give any facts
regarding the historj- of the animal, aside from line-
age, other than those which relate to ownership) and
the date of birth.

The Pedigree of Performance. — The pedigree
of performance more commonly applies to speed in
horses and to milk production in cows. It also in-
cludes the pedigree of lineage. In fact, it is simply
the pedigree of lineage with certain facts added there-
to relating to performance. These may relate to one,
or to several of the animals named in the pedigree of
lineage, and in the second form of pedigree above
referred to, they are stated immediately in connection
with the name of the animal (see p. 276). In the
form of pedigree first given, it would not be possible
to give such information otherwise than by append-
ing it in the form of foot notes under the pedigree of
lineage. See also what has been said in Chapter II.
under the division relating to advanced registry (p.
20).

Pedigree Not a History of the Ancestry. — Pedi-
gree is not necessarily a history of the ancestry of

PEDIGREE. 273

the animal, only in so far as it relates to lineage or
to lineage and performance taken together. Other
facts relating to the history of the individual animal
must be obtained from other sources. These are such
as relate to size, weight, breeding qualities, prize win-
nings and disposal. The chief of the sources of such
information are, the private records of the breeder,
the prize lists as published by the agricultural press
and in some instances herd records. The histories of
the various breeds also give more or less of such in-
formation. In private catalogues of studs and herds
issued from time to time, it is customary to give such
details in foot notes immediately below the pedigree.
Measure of Value in Pedigrees. — The value of
a pedi^ee depends largely: 1, On its authenticity;
2, on its genuineness ; and 3, on the excellence of the
individuals in the ancestry, more especially in those
that are near rather than remote. If a pedigree is
not authentic, its value is lessened in proportion as
its authenticity is wanting, as is shown below. If not
g-enuine, it is valueless. The common measure of
pedigree in the popular mind is, in many instances,
its length, and the noteworthiness of the ancestry in
or near the foundation crosses. That this view is not
correct is shown below (see p. 275).

Authenticity in Pedigree. — The authenticity of
a pedigree has reference to the truthfulness of the
statements of fact regarding it. If facts such as re-
late to the date of birth, to the breeder, to the circum-
stance of importation, or in the case of more than
one at a birth, to relationship, are incorrectly stated,
the authenticity of the pedigree is so far impaired and
along with it the value of the pedigree, l^or can it
be authentic unless consistent with itself and the

274 ANIMAL BREEDING.

known facts regarding the history of the breed. For
instance, sujDpose the date of birth assigned to the
animal was prior to the age at which it w^ould be
possible for the dam to produce, or the sire to beget,
it would not be consistent with itself. If any trans-
position was made in the proper order in which the
dams or sires should come, the same would also be
true. If, moreover, a Shorthorn sire of ancestry
somewhat remote, were given an American herdbook
number, and yet it was certainly known that the said
sire was never imported into America, this fact would
at least presumably be contrary to the known history
of the breed. The same would be true of an American
born Shorthorn with an English record number, un-
less within the more recent of the decades, since the
current of Shorthorn exportation has been from Eng-
land to the United States rather than the opposite.

The only protection from such misstatements of
fact is, 1, the integrity of the breeders, and 2, the
vigilance of the party or parties wdio pass on the
completed pedigrees forAvarded for registration. But
the said persons can only certainly detect inconsist-
ences of statement. Frequently, it may be impossible
for them to detect incorrectness of statement, as, for
instance, misrepresentation regarding the sire used.

Genuineness in Pedigrees. — The genuineness of
a pedigree has reference to correctness of personation.
This means that one animal shall not be substituted
for another in applications for registration. This
species of fraud is happily not frequent, but there
are good reasons for believing that in some in-
stances it has been practiced. The temptation
to misrepresent thus, comes only with the breed-
ing of animals of much value. A pure bred cow.

PEDIGREE. 275

for instance, of a noted famil}- loses a calf. An-
other cow of a much less noted family produces a
calf about the same time. If the breeder is dishonest
enough to forward for registration an entry form
filled out which represents the calf as the progeny of
the cow first referred to, by so doing he may add much
to the selling price of the calf. The editor of the
herdbook may have no good grounds for suspecting
fraud, and though he had, it may be quite impossible
for him to get the true facts. The only real protec-
tion, therefore, against such misrepresentation is the
integrity of the breeder.

Excellence in the Ancestry. — Excellence in the
ancestry is much more important in the near than in
the remote parentage, since the preponderance in the
blood elements of the latter greatly exceeds that of
the former. Suppose that in one instance a Shorthorn
traces to the famous bull Hubback (319) and
that more than twenty generations of Shorthorn blood
intervene. It is very evident that the inheritance of
blood elements from Hubback is so infinitesimal that
it is scarcely worthy of being taken into account at
all. Suppose that in another instance a Shorthorn has
been sired by some famous stock and show bull. The
said Shorthorn has at least 50 per cent of the blood
elements represented in that sire. The influence
therefore exercised by the sire in the second instance
will be beyond all comparison greater than that exer-
cised by the remote ancestor, Hubback, in the first
instance.

It is manifest, therefore: 1, that the value of a
pedigree depends more upon the excellence of the
individuals in the nea^ ancestry than in that remote ;
2, that such value is enhanced hy each instance of

376 AXIMAL BREEDING.

individual excelleuce in the near ancestry on the side
of sire or dam ; and 3, that general excellence in the
near ancestors in a pedigree is of far more conse-
quence than length of pedigree in the absence of such
excellence.

Leading Methods of Writing Pedigrees. — Two
leading methods of writing pedigrees have been adopt-
ed. The first of these gives : 1, the name of the ani-
mal, its sex, color, and date of birth ; 2, the name,
post office address, and state, province or country of
the breeder, and also similar particulars relating to
the owner or successive owners, if the animal has
changed hands once or oftener ; 3, the name of the
sire and his record number; and 4, the name of the
dam and her sire and of all the dams in the ancestry
with the sire of each and the record numbers of all the
respective sires. The record numbers of the dams
are also given when numbers have been assigned to
these. But in the case of several breeds, especially
those for which records were earliest begun, imfortu-
nately no numbers have been assigned to the dams.

The second method of recording pedigrees gives :
1. The name of the animal to be recorded, and also
the date of its birth. 2, The name of the sire and
dam connected by a bracket and the record number
of each. 3. The name likewise of each successive sire
and dam in the ancestry with the record number of
each and similarly linked. And 4, In some instances
particulars are added with reference to some of the
more noted of the ancestry. These particulars may
relate to any fact which is considered greatly impor-
tant with reference to the animal, but usually they are
restricted to facts which relate to some kind of per-
formance in the individual. The pedigree to be re-

PEDIGREE. 277

corded is made out by the owner of the animal and
usually on a blank form furnished on application, by
the secretary of the association. For the illustration
of these two methods of writing pedigrees and also
of the way to read them see Appendix A.

Designation of Herd Records. — Pedigrees are
now generally recorded in some public record, more
commonly known as a herdbook, but other designa-
tions are used, some of which have reference to the
class or species to which the animals belong whose
pedigrees are recorded. Thus, the public records of
horses are usually called ''stud books," of cattle ''herd-
books," of sheep "flock-books," and of swine simj)ly
"records." But the last mentioned are usually pre-
ceded by the name of the breed. For instance, the
records for Poland Chinas have such designations as
the "Standard Poland China Eecord" and the "Ohio
Poland Cliina Record." But the designations given
above do not apply in all cases. For instance, the
book which records Cotswold sheep in the United
States is designated the "American Cotswold Record,"
and that which records Devon cattle as the "American
Devon Record."

Objects in Keeping Piiblic Records. — The ob-
jects sought in keeping public records include the fol-
lowing : 1, To preserve the purity of the breed with
a view to the advancement of its interests. It has
already been shown that one idea underlying pedigree
is to furnish the breeder with a guaranty of purity
of breeding (see p. 269). But in the absence of
public records, such a guaranty would only be of value
to a very limited number of persons. This is true of
all records privately kept. But when pedigrees are
recorded in public records the guaranty becomes pub-

278 ANIMAL BKEEDIXG.

lie property, since public records are open to the
world.

2. To guard the integrity of pedigrees as far
as may be practicable. It has been shown above that
even with the safeguards of public registration it
may not be possible in some instances to prevent de-
signing breeders from forwarding pedigrees for entry
of their own manufacture (see p. 273). Public rec-
ords, however, greatly limit the area within which
such crooked work may be carried on, since no fact
can be stated in a manufactured pedigree that is in-
consistent with what has already been put on public
record.

3. To furnish a ready means of tracing pedigrees.
If only private records existed, it would be absolutely
impracticable to trace pedigrees when the numbers
of the breed had multiplied and become distributed
to any considerable extent, since the labor and cost
of such tracing would be great. How pedigrees are
traced is explained in Appendix A. It may also be
stated that the information commonly given in the
records will in itself furnish to the reader the key
that will enable him to trace pedigrees. Such tracing
is seldom so involved as to make it greatly difficult.

The associations which issue public r<?cords are
usually controlled by breeders who are members of the
same. When the recording of pedigi-ees first began,
the issuing of the records which contain them was
done of necessity by private enterprise, as associations
had not then been formed in the interests of the
breed. ^\Tien these associations were formed, sooner
or later they secured the rights to such records by
purchase, hence, now, in scarcely a single instance
are proprietary rights held by any party or parties

PEDIGREE. 279

other than the associations formed to promote the
interests of the respective breeds. Although such
records are open to anyone who pays the recording fee,
in the price charged there is usually discrimination,
and very properly so, in favor of those who are mem-
bers of the association.

Mode of Recording Pedigj^ees Not Uniform. —
The mode of recording pedigrees in the various public
records is by no means uniform. In the past they
have more commonly been recorded as written in the
first method given (see p. 276), but the tendency now
is more and more to record them by the second method
given (see p. 276), because of its greater complete-
ness. In some records, however, the former method is
followed to secure greater brevity in recording. The
pedigree in these records is not followed further than
the names and respective numbers of the sire and dam.
If tlie breeder wishes to know further particulars
about the lineage, he must trace the ancestry from the
key or starting point thus given. It is probable that as
pedigrees multiply some such method will have to be
adopted in all records. Some records have certain
features which throw added light on the ancestry
or the history of the breed.

The following are samples of the same : In the
Eed Polled herdbook the tribal ancestry are given in
abbreviated form, and a reference to the same is
prefixed to the pedigree by the use of a letter known
as the tribal letter. When this letter is seen the tribe
or family to which the animal belongs is thus at once
communicated to the individual who knows its sig-
nificance. In other records as, for instance, the Ohio
Poland China, a sketch is given in condensed form
of the w^ork of certain of the breeders, The wisdom

280 ANIMAL BREEDING.

of inserting such sketches is at least open to question,
since the way is thus opened as to discrimination in
admitting the sketches thus given. The more fitting
place for these would seem to be in some distinctive
history of the breed. In the advanced registry of
Holstein Friesian cattle in the United States, an ac-
curate description of the animal admitted is required
of the examiners. This description relates not only
to color but also to form and measurements of the
same. A properly attested record of performance
is also required.

Distinguishing Marhs in Records, — In some
records certain marks precede and follow the record
numbers. The chief object in using them is to fur-
nish a ready means of distinguishing between the
records, more especially when more than one record
has been established for the same breed. For ex-
ample, suppose the number 25 has been assigned to
an animal in the English, the Canadian and the
American Shorthorn herdbooks respectively, in the
first it will be written thus, (25), in the second thus,
=25=, and in the third simply 25. But this ex-
planation does not account for the use of all such
marks, as the numbers used in the English Shorthorn
herdbooks were inclosed in round brackets from the
first, and at a time when no other records of the
breed Avere being kept.

In Britain the tendency is to use brackets, and in
the United States not to use them. When more than
one record exists of the breed and especially in the
same country these marks are decidedly helpful as
a 'ready means of distinguishing between records, but
when only one record exists of a breed, the use of any
form of distinguishing marks would seem to be quit©

PEDIGEEE. 28]

unnecessary. Other marks than those given above are
also used, as for instance, the sign — placed before
and after the record number. In the Canadian York-
shire record the number 25 assigned to an animal
on record would read — 25 — .

Terms Referring to Parentage. — When speaking
of the descent of the progeny from the female parent
the term out of or f?'om is more commonly used.
For example, if reference were being made in herd-
book language to the fact that Princess 2d was a
daughter of Princess,* it would more commonly be
said that Princess 2d is out of the dam Princess.
When speaking of descent from the male parent the
term got by or by is used in the language of the herd-
book. For example, if reference were being made to
the fact that Scotsman 2d was a son of Scotsman,
it would be said that Scotsman 2d was got by or by
Scotsman.

Choosing Names for Animals. — Usage govern-
ing the choice of names varies in the different live
stock associations. All are agreed that the frequent
repetition of the same name is undesirable except
when it denotes family descent as indicated by the
number in the famih^ affixed to it. Thus Duchess
27th at once conveys the idea that this female is of
the Duchess family, and * that preceding her were
twenty-six females of that family whose pedigrees
were recorded. When family names are affixed, or
the name of the breeder's farm comes before or after
the name given to the animal, information is thus
conveyed in the first instance as to the family to
which the animal belongs, and in the second, as to
the farm where it was bred. The names Lord Mac-
duff, Earl Macduff' or Prince Macduff convey to the

282 ANIMAL BREEDING.

mind the idea of relationship to some previous noted
ancestor named Macduff. And the names Mary of
Kinnoul Park, Jennie or Lizzie of Kinnoul Park tell
the reader at once that these animals were bred at the
Kinnoul Park farm.

Where the ancestor in the first instance has been
quite famous, and where the farm in the second in-
stance has been noted for the production of stock of
high excellence, such names are doubtless of some
advantage to the breeder when viewed from a financial
standpoint, but there is the objection that names are
thus made cumbrouslj long. In yet other records
the name of the animal is the proper name of the
individual in conjunction with the ear tag number
given by the association. Thus if Mr. Jackson were
recording Shropshire sheep the records would run or
may run, Jackson's 1, 2, and 3. This method is adopl-
ed by the American Shropshire Association in record-
ing Shropshire sheep, and also by some other associa-
tions. The plan is most commendable. It gives regis-
tration that is brief and simple. In the very name of
tlie animal it gives information as to the breeder, and
in the number of the same as to the extent of his previ-
ous breeding.

CHAPTEE XXIII.

ANIMAL FORM AS AN INDEX TO QUALITIES.

That animal form is an index of qualities can-
not any longer be questioned. It is at least a general
index of the same. But to say that it is an infallible
index of the degree to which they possess qualities
would scarcely be true. For instance, from the gen-
eral form of a dairy cow it may be known with
certainty that she is a large milk producer. But two
dairy cows may be about equal in form, and yet one
will produce more abundantly than the other, and
the best of judges may not be able to say which will be
the superior producer of the two. This may arise
from the influence of some internal forces the exact
strength of which can only be known accurately
by the actual results. Yet the fact remains that the
indications of external form, when correctly inter-
preted, are sufficient to furnish the breeder with a
safe guide when making selections for breeding.

Interpreting Animal Form. — The channels
through which such interpretation must come prin-
cipally, if not indeed wholly, are the senses of sight
and touch. The judgments formed through these
respective mediums are based on what observation and
experience have taught with reference to the relation
l)etween form and qualities. It follows, therefore,
that the best interpreters of what is indicated by form
will be the best judges of live stock. The qualities
referred to are such as relate to capacity for speed,

284 ANOIAL BREEDING.

labor, meat making, milk secretion and wool produc-
tion. These will be further considered and somewhat
in detail.

Intimately concerned in the production of the
aforementioned qualities are indications of breeding,
strength of constitution or the opposite, the activity
of the nutritive processes, nervous energy, present con-
dition as to bodily vigor and age. These also will
likewise be further considered. They differ some-
what in some instances in the different classes of
live stock, though more generally they are the same.
To illustrate: Roominess of barrel in all classes of
females is associated with capacity for breeding, but
the shaj^e of the roomy barrel differs somewhat in
these respective classes. In sheep the shape is cylin-
drical. In swine it is a deep parallelogram.

Indications of Speed and Labor. — The indica-
tions of speed and labor are such as relate chiefly
to the horse, and they will be submitted only in a
summary and general way. Chief among them are
strong chest development, light relative development
of the hind quarters, lightness of limb and quality
of bone. Strong chest development indicates bodily
vigor and endurance. In its absence the vital organs
work more feebly, hence nerve power and staying
power so essential to the maintenance of speed will
not be sufficiently present. Development of the hind
quarters beyond a certain degree would add unneces-
sary weight. A certain degree of length and light-
ness of limb is so necessary to speed that in its ab-
sence it would be vain to look for speed.

The character of the bone is indicated by its
shape and cleanness and by the nature of the joints.
Among the leading indications of capacity for labor

ANIMAL FORM INDEX OF QUALITIES.

285

286 ANIMAL BREEDING.

are good muscular development, generally strong rel-
ative development of the fore quarters and strength
of limb. The general muscular development should
relate to every part, but nowhere should it be more
strikingly manifest than in the collar, shoulders,
arms, back and thighs. Without sufficient strength of
limb the latter must break down when subjected to a
severe strain.

Indications of Meat Production. — The indica-
tions of capacity for meat production in the bodily
form include all the essentials of bodily form which
belong to the respective meat producing classes of
live stock, as cattle, sheep and swine. To give them in
detail would be to give in substance the standards of
excellence for these respective breeds. This the au-
thor has done in the book ^^The Study of Breeds.'^
If, however, the two most important indications of
capacity for meat production were asked for, the an-
swer would probably be correct that would say, first, a
compact form, and second, good handling qualities.
The first includes a good back and a good development
of fore and hind quarters. It furnishes a framework
which experience has taught is most easily covered
with meat, see "Study of Breeds," p. 10. T^ie second
furnishes evidence of good digestive capacity (see
Chapters XVIII. and XIX.).

Bodily Form in the Various Classes of Meat
Producing Animals. — Although the essentials as to
form in all meat producing animals are in many
respects the same, they are not so in all. In the
various breeds of beef cattle, sheep and swine, the
following essentials are possessed in common, viz. :
a certain lightness and cleanness of head and some
degree of lightness and shortness of limb, a fair

ANIMAL FORM INDEX OF QUALITIEcJ. 287

length of bodj of good depth and width, and the
parallelogrammic shape. In sheep the parallelogram-
mic shape merges more into the cylindrical, and in
swine the parallelogram is relatively deeper and
narrower, the neck is relatively thicker and the body
is relatively longer. Of course, from the very na-
ture of things, notwithstanding the resemblance in
these essentials, they will all differ somewhat. Yet,
it will be found that in the features of outline noted,
there will be,Avhat may be termed, general resemblance
in a certain direction. Thus, although the heads of
swine and cattle differ materially in shape, and the
leg's differ in relative length, coarseness of head and
limb are equally condemned in both. The three
classes should also be covered with a coat indicative
of proper digestive capacity. This coat in each
should be long and plentiful for the breed, attractive
to the eye and soft to the touch, since all these evi-
dences bear testimony to activity in the assimilating
processes.

Indications of Milh Production. — The indica-
tions of capacity for milk production in the bodily
form of dairy cattle have been given by the author in
detail in Lecture No. 5 in the book "The Study of
Breeds," and also of the dual-purpose form, that is,
the meat and milk form combined, in Lecture l^o. 6 of
the same. The most prominent of these indications
are barrel capacity and refinement of form. The
first means a long and capacious barrel for the recep-
tion of much food. The second means a head, neck
and limbs inclining to long and fine and what may
be termed spareness of form, that is an absence of all
tendency to an overmuch covering of flesh. The in-
dications of good milk production in other animals

288 ANIMAL BREEDING.

will be present or absent in proportion as they in a
general way resemble or are unlike the typical dairy
form in the cow.

But in meat making animals, the principal ob-
ject for which they are kept is of course to produce
meat. In order, however, to secure vigorous growth
in the progeny, the dams should give milk enough to
promote excellent growth in the young during the
nursing period. This they will not do if of the ex-
tremest beef form. On the other hand they will not
produce meat enough nor of sufficiently high quality
if they lean too much toward the dairy form. Some
leaning toward the dual-purpose form therefore is
desirable in such females, that is to say, they should
first be capacious in the barrel, and inclining to fine
in the head, neck and limbs. To guard against swing-
ing too far in the direction of dairy form and to main-
tain constitution, the sires ought to be kept in near
conformity to the high type of the beef form.

Indications of Wool Production. — The indica-
tions of capacity for wool production as to quantity
are essentially the same as those which indicate
capacity for good mutton production. Indications
of the latter are given in Part II., Lecture No. 3 in
''The Study of Breeds." The fact has been noticed
that in the improvement of the mutton form in the
breeds of sheep, there has also come a corresponding
improvement in the growth of the wool as regards
quantity, and in some respects as regards quality, as
for instance, in increased strength of fiber. But it
would be possible to push flesh production to the
extreme of reacting against abundant wool produc-
tion. This may arise from the strengthening by selec-
tion of that habit of the system fostered by abundant

ANIMAL FORM INDEX OF QUALITIES. 289

feeding which tends to produce meat rather than the
covering for the same. The indications of capacity
for improving the quality in wool would seem to be-
long to breed rather than to form. But form also
would seem to be a factor in such improvement. The
statement is certainly true that extreme fineness in
the wool has never yet been associated with the high-
est type of development in the mutton form. It has
been rather associated with that form which in a
sense approximates to the dairy form in cattle. The
less heat generated in such a form would seem to call
for increasing density and fineness in the wool. But
this great question cannot be further discussed here.

Indications of Breeding and of Breeding Capac-
ity.— In the form can be traced evidences of the de-
gree in which improved blood is present or absent
and of the particular breed or breeds from which
it has come. These indications are especially valuable
in the selection of grades, since they furnish safe
data for judgment based upon what is known of the
economic value of such blood. To illustrate : When
a grade steer has a compact form, a wide and level
back, a white head bearing long, flat and spreading
horns, and more or less white on the legs and under-
line, it is safe to conclude with reference to him that
he is rich in Hereford blood. Likewise an approx-
imate estimate of the blood of the grades of any breed
may be approximated by the nearness or otherwise to
which they approach any pure breed which they
resemble in form and color.

The evidences of productive capacity in females
is recognized in that form which has ample and
Bymmetrical development accompanied by that ten-
dency to refinement in the head, neck and limbs which

290 ANIMAL BREEDING.

belong to femininity of the most approved type,
These indications are not easily described, but when
once understood are readily recognized. The indica-
tions of the same in males include, evidences of
masculinity, as strength in the head, chest, neck and
limbs, but without grossness, and they also include
that inherent activity of movement begotten of irre-
pressible vigor. These distinguishing evidences have
in the judgment of the author been too much ignored
by the average judge at public exhibitions.

Indications of Constitutional Vigor. — The lead-
ing indications of constitutional vigor are beautifully
illustrated in Fig. 9, an exact representation of the
Shropshire Ram Diamond Prince, Imp. (542),
144139, owned by Boynton & Welch, Dexter, Minn.
They include the following: —

1. A broad, deep and compact form, with coup-
ling or barrel medium or less, rather than long. In
all classes of animals more vigor and strength may be
looked for when this form is present, rather than
that which is opposite in character. Obesity may,
however, reduce both strength and vigor in such a
form, and its powers of locomotion and action gener-
ally will probably be somewhat less than when these
characteristics of form are really pronounced.

2. A head short rather than long and wide be-
tween the ears. This form of head through correla-
tion has been found associated with a body, similar in
kind, that is to say, a compact body. Much width
between the ears is linked with large development
of the spinal chord, which in turn is associated with
nervous force.

3. A full, clear eye. This reflects a vigorous
condition of health, which in turn is the outcome of
constitution.

AXIMAL FOE:^! TyPEX OF QUALITIES.

291

292 ANIMAL BREEDING.

4. A wide expansive nostril. This feature is as
sociated with roomy air passages, and a strong and
vigorous play of the lungs.

5. A short neck well rounded out and strong and
full at the base. This indication like some of the
others is an index of present strength, but by correla-
tion it is also associated with a strong constitution.
This feature, like some of the other indications of
constitution, is more desirable in males, since in fe-
males some of these in highest development are not
favorable to abundant milk-production.

6. A wide breast, broad brisket and capacious
chest. These are associated with roominess within
the chest cavity, hence, the vital forces within, as
the heart and lungs, have abundant room for vigor-
ous action. They also furnish that form which is
the embodiment of strength.

7. A good round deep spring of the ribs and
closely spaced. Through correlation the round spring
of rib follows much width through the chest and the
deep rib the deep frame. The close spacing of the
ribs prevents undue length in the coupling which is so
far associated with weakness. The round and deep
spring of ribs insures the capacious barrel, and this in
turn is associated with the large consumption of food
and vigorous digestion which are essential to robust-
ness as well as utility.

8. Deep full flanks. These are associated with
Suflicient heart and flank girth. The hind flank,
especially, when thus filled, is indicative of an abun-
dant nutrition.

9. Limbs inclining to short and well apart •and
possessed of smooth joints. Short limbs by correlation
accompany the compact body. Width between them

ANIIVIAL FORM INDEX OF QUALITIES. 293

accompanies width in the frame, and smooth joints
indicate a correct nutrition.

10. A lively carriage. This is the outcome of
much power in the vital forces, and of much activity
in the digestive processes driven by these. It would
not now be possible to place all the above in the exact
order of relative importance, but the wide breast,
broad brisket, capacious chest and good heart girth
should unquestionably be given the first place. ITor
is it to be understood that a really vigorous constitu-
tion cannot be obtained without all these indications
being present in a marked degree, since in the run-
ning horse length of limb is wanted, and in the dairy
cow a neck long and fine. The absence of that de-
velopment in these that would link them with the
highest vigor is atoned for by marked indications of
vigor in other directions.

Indications of a Lach of Constitution. — These
are of course the opposites of the indications given
above. They have been discussed with some fullness
in Chapter VII. But it will not be repeating to state
that prominent among these are a dull eye, a long
thin neck, a narrow chest and body, flat ribs, hollow
flanks and long legs.

Indications of an Active Nutrition. — Prominent
among these are good handling, and associated with
them are indications of strength of constitution, a
large mouth and much barrel capacity. Good hand-
ling has been discussed in Chapter XVIII. In apply-
ing this test present condition as to flesh should al-
ways be duly considered. In some instances nutrition
naturally active has been perverted during the period
of development. If perverted because of insufficient
food supplies, the evidences of such perversion will

294 ANIMAL BREEDING.

remain more or less in an undue development of bone,
large joints, a thick and unyielding skin, and want
of symmetry in form. The earlier the period at
which such perversion takes place, and the more pro-
longed it is, the more marked will be those instances.
Nutrition is also perverted when it is too much drawn
away from the purpose which it is most intended to
serve, as when, for instance, the fleshing habit is too
much encouraged in animals that are being grown
for the dairy.

Indications of a Good Quality of Flesh. — The
chief indications of a good quality of flesh include the
following : —

1. Good general development of the meat-making
form. This has already been discussed in the present
chapter (see p. 286). Without such a form flesh will
not be sufficiently present on the frame, inchiding
those parts where it is most valuable. It would be
as reasonable to expect marked symmetry and adapta-
tion in a building with an unsuitable framework, as
to look for successful meat-production from a frame
ill adapted to such production.

2. Marked development in those parts of the
body w^here the meat is most valuable as the back, loin
and hind quarter in cattle and sheep, and the side and
ham in swine. The loin and sirloin furnish the
highest priced cuts in the carcass of horned cattle,
hence it is specially important that these shall possess
large development.

3. Bone, moderate to fine, as evidenced in the
head, horns, tail and limbs. With bone unduly coarse
in these it will be so also through the entire frame-
work, hence, the amount of the flesh will be lessened
proportionately to the excess in the development of

ANIMAL FOKM INDEX OF QUALITIES. 295

bone, and such a framework is almost certain to
carry flesh coarse in the grain.

4. The absence of coarseness of texture in horn
and hoof. Such coarseness may be detected by ex-
amining the grain of the same and also in some de-
gree by the tendency in these to scale off.

5. The absence of a thin, papery hide. Such
a hide shows an insufficient nutrition and it covers
flesh that is flabby and lacking in firmness.

6. The absence of protuberance at the buttocks.
The flesh in these is coarse in fiber and dry, and
when markedly pronounced they accompany sparse
laying on of internal fat and scant distribution of the
same throughout the system. They also, include the
absence of undue development in the parts less val-
uable, as the dewlap. But it would be easily possible
to press this idea too far, since a wide and large
brisket is absolutely essential to wide chest capacity
so important in furnishing constitution, and yet the
meat in the entire brisket is relatively quite low in
price.

7. The absence of patchiness in the outer sur-
faces. Patchiness means development in which the
flesh imderneath the skin accumulates in puffs and
rolls or ridges. These are most frequently seen at
the rumps, ribs and shoulders. They are made up
of soft oily fat and in addition to the low value of
such flesh these patches indicate too much of a ten-
dency to separate the fat and lean during the breeding
period.

8. The absence of the indications of old age.
These are given below. With advancing age, in-
creasing toughness of filler may be looked for. Other
indications of quality in flesh are given with more or
less of directness in Chapter XVIIL

296

ANIMAL BE ENDING.

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ANIMAL FORM INDEX OF QUALITIES. 297

Indications of a Quiet Disposition. — Among the
indications of a quiet disposition are: 1, A calm
expression of the eve ; 2, An easy moderate plav of
the ears, which should also be of good size fo/ the
breed ; and 3, The absence of tokens of timidity and
unrest when approached. When the disposition is
restless there is much movement of the ball of the eje,
and a wariness that is not in keeping with the restful-
ness which is necessary to secure Avell-doing in domes-
tic animals in a high degree. A quick play of the
ears is also incompatible with the same. Quick move-
ment of the ear and erection of the same in a con-
siderable degree usually go together. But care
should be taken to distinguish between the restful and
the languid eye, and the sufficiently active and the
drooping ear. Indications of timidity and unrest
on being approached, as shown in more or less of rest-
lessness of movement, are antagonistic to meat pro-
duction in proportion as they are present. But here
also due allowance must be made for the character of
the previous surroundings. Animals handled but
little when young will all show much timidity at first
when approached, but even in these the same will be
manifested in different degrees.

Indications of Nervous Force. — The indications
of nervous force include: 1. An active eye and ear.
There is a difference, however, between activity which
is the outcome of strong vigor and abundant nerve
power and activity which is the outcome of natural
timidity and unrest. The first is always more or
less present, and is not violent in its action. The
second is the outcome of exciting causes which the
animals always interpret, with or without reason, as
danger signals. 2. A wide, expansive, and active

298 ANIMAL BEEEDING.

nostril. The wide nostril favors free respiration,
which in turn helps to strengthen all the vital powers.
When thus strengthened, vigor is generated and like-
wise nerve power. 3. A broad forehead. This means
a large brain and frequently not a little of will power,
Avhich in a certain sense is nerve power. They also
include, 4. A prominent and open spine. The large
spine means also a large spinal column, that is to say,
a large distributer of nervous energy. 5. Activity of
movement. Here again that natural activity of move-
ment which is easy and spontaneous should be dis-
tinguished from fitful activity generated by disturb-
ing causes. The first indicates the spontaneous ac-
tion of strong and healthy nerves, the latter may indi-
cate nerve power not under proper control.

Indications of Present Bodily Health. — Chief
among the prominent indications of present bodily
health are the following: 1. A full bright eye. The
moment that the general health becomes impaired the
eye begins to lose its brightness, and as disease pro-
gresses, it sinks and becomes languid, the immediate
cause being lack of sustenance. 2. A moist, dewy
muzzle. With derangement in the circulation and a
rising temperature moistness in the muzzle, which is
always abundant in a healthy animal, grows less, the
inmiediate cause being inactivity in the excretory
organs. 3. A fairly active play of the ears. Such ac-
tion is the evidence of generated power seeking op-
portunity to expend itself. 5. A smooth, glossy coat.
The same influences that produce elasticity in the
hide produce glossiness in the coat. 6. An active car-
riage. An active carriage bears testimony to health-
ful action in all the organs of the system, and espe-
cially of those concerned in digestion. 'No sooner

ANIMAL FORM INDEX OF QUALITIES. 299

do these organs lose -vigor than there is a correspond-
ing loss of freeness of movement and activity in the
carriage.

But natural disposition also affects action of the
body in some degree. ^N'or is it possible to determine
how much of an active carriage is to be attributed to
natural organization or to good health. However,
action the outcome of disposition will not long be
maintained unless sustained by the support which
comes from the healthy action of all the organs of
the body.

Indications of Old Age. — The indications of old
age include : 1. Many wrinkles on the horns. These
are only general indications of age, since there is
not absolute uniformity in the time at which the
first wrinkle appears, and it is probably true that a
period is also reached in old age when, if made at all,
they will become less well pronounced. Each wrinkle
is supposed to represent a year, after the first two
or three years have passed. This indication is only
to be understood as general, rather than specific.

2. Diminished prominence of the eye. The eye
sinks in the orbit. It also gradually more and more
loses the luster of youth.

3. Usually more or less depression at the chine
and sagging of the paunch. The first arises from the
decrease in strength in the spinal column, without any
decrease in weight in the paunch. The latter gradu-
ally lowers with the weakening of the muscles that sus-
tain it and repeated distensions of the stomach when
packed with coarse food.

4. Bareness of the shoulder blades and loin when
otherwise in fair flesh. These are among the most
difficult parts to cover wlien the secretions are active,

300 ANIMAL BREEDING.

and in consequence are among the first to suffer when
the activity of the secretions begins to wane.

5. Prominence of the bones, as at the shoulder
points, hooks and rumps. This prominence is caused
by the shrinking of the flesh that surrounds and covers
these points. But the fact must not be overlooked,
that insufficient food in a young animal will also
produce these results at least in some degree.

G. Harsh, dry handling of the hair. It handles
thus because it is not well nourished, but such hand-
ling may also arise from other causes.

7. Lack of activity of movement. When an
animal has a labored gait and indications of good
health are present it may be safely charged up to
old age.

CHAPTEK XXIV.

SELECTION.

The importance of the ability to select animal^j
with skill and judgment when breeding them cannot
easily be overestimated. In the absence of such
ability mistakes will be made all along the line of
the breeder's work. He will not be able to make
improvement save in a sort of accidental way, nor
will he be able to maintain it if perchance he should
be so fortunate as to make it. His work as a breeder
can never rise above the level of mediocrity, howso-
ever much wisdom and care he may exercise in other
respects in conducting his work.

What is Meant by Selection. — Selection in
breeding means the ability so to choose animals for
propagating their kind, that, with proper care, a high
standard of excellence w^ill be acquired and main-
tained. As implied in what has been said above, such
ability is indispensable to the highest success in
breeding. That it should be so is self evident, for
it is only through the skillful mating of animals ac-
companied by judicious management in other respects
that improvement can be made. If the improvement
thus secured is made the basis of wise selection, it
will result in still further improvement, but in the
absence of such selection it is likely to sink again to
former levels. And yet, this acquisition, notwith-
standing its great importance, is possessed in a high
degree by the few only, even among breeders of pure

302 ANIMAL BREEDING.

breds. It is an acquisition that money alone cannot
purchase. It is in itself an intuitive gift, but is sus-
ceptible of cultivation in a high degree. The evi-
dences of it are not found in show yard successes, un-
less the animals who are winners have been bred by
the exhibitor. They are manifest in the uniformity
shown in the average of the herd or flock, in the high
average of the standard of uniformity, and in the
number of outstanding animals produced, that is to
say, of animals of high excellence.

The Necessity for Selection. — The necessity for
selection is based on the tendencies to variation found
in all animals. These tendencies have been referred
to at length in Chapter IV. When they are down-
ward as they frequently are, selection eliminates
them. As is also shown in Chapter IV. the tendencies
to variation that is downward manifest themselves
more or less, howsoever skillfully the work of the
breeder may be conducted. Such downward varia-
tions may be eliminated lest they should be repro-
duced in the progeny. When these variations are up-
ward, selection utilizes them to secure still further
improvement. The field that is thus opened up for
improvement has no limitations other than those of
the skill of the breeder and the inherent capacity
of the animals which he breeds to be improved. It
is reasonable therefore to expect that the greatest
triumphs in breeding are yet to come.

Selection Covers the Whole Art of Breeding. —
The art of breeding may in a sense be said to be
epitomized in the one word selection, since it involves
a consideration of every peculiarity of form and the
application of every established principle of practice.
While more attention must be given to those peculiar-

SELECTION.

303

ities of form that are important, no feature thereof
can be overlooked. Even fancy points must not be
lightly passed over as long as they are included in
the standard of excellence, and in fact as long as they
have any traditional significance such as may affect
market values. It is pre-supposed that the principles
of practice referred to are correct, since sometimes
practices prevail widely that tend to lower the level
of attainment in breeding. The practice of breeding
from sires too immature, which is of this character, is
all too prevalent at the present time.

Considerations Included in Selection. — Selec-
tion in breeding includes the following among other
considerations : 1. The breed in its relation to adapta-
tion. 2. The choice of animals with reference to a
standard of excellence. 3. The consideration of pedi-
gree. 4. Individual merit in the animal. 5. Special
care in the choice of sires. 6. Allowing no animals to
come within the flock or herd which are liable to
transmit undesirable characters, however excellent
in themselves. 7. The unsparing elimination of all
undesirable animals. And 8, Judicious mating.
These various features pertaining to selection will
in turn be further considered.

Selection and Adaptation.— When determining
which breed or class of animals may be advantage-
ously introduced into any particular locality,
the character of the surroundings and the natural
capabilities of the country should be most carefully
considered, and that breed or class should be chosen
which these natural conditions will best maintain.
Any mistake in the choice thus made will hinder suc-
cess, and in proportion to the degree of the mistake,
even though the work in other respects should be

304 ANIMAL BREEDING.

judiciously carried on. Amateur farmers are mudi
prone to allow what may be termed fancy preferences
to lead them in this matter without giving due weight
to the question of adaptation to the conditions. They
overlook the fact that intrinsic merit is one thing
and adaptation another, and that inherent suitability
to some conditions may mean inherent unsuitability
to other conditions. Hereford cattle have been found
eminently adapted to the Southwestern ranges of the
United States, hence, they should be freely grown
there rather than on the arable farm where both milk
and meat are wanted. Some other breed as Shorthorns
and Red Polls, which are more suitable for meeting
this combined need, should be kept on the arable
farm rather than on Southwestern ranges. South-
down sheep are small in body and active in limb.
Lincolns are large and massive. The former there-
fore may prove profitable on upland and broken pas-
tures of sparse production on which the latter would
fail, and the latter may prove more profitable than
the former on rich levels.

Illustrations could be multiplied indefinitely.
The attempt to maintain animals under conditions
unadapted to their needs is likely to lead to failure,
as shown in the results of the effort to improve
Cheviot sheep while on their native pastures by cross-
ing them with Leicester rams. The cross thus made
created a tendency to increased size. The tendency
thus created was not well sustained by the pastures,
hence, eventually, the progeny of this cross were
found inferior to pure Cheviots and it had to be
abandoned. It would of course be possible in some
instances to so change the animals that their neces-
sities would in time conform to the conditions of

SELECTION. ^^^

environment. But why engage in so perilous and
profitless a work when breeds exist adar)ted to all
the varied conditions that may arise?

Selection and Standards.— In breeding pure
breds as intimated in Chapter II. the standard must
conform to that which truly represents the breed
whether that standard is drawn up by an association
or not. Any distinct variation from the recognized
standard, especially in the foundation animals, is
likely to lead to similar variation in the progeny, and
any distinct variation in the choice of sires is likely
to lead to modification of type. While distinct va-
riation is thus to be shunned, it is not to be shunned
to the exclusion of what may be termed outstanding
individualitv in individuals, especially when that
individuality is of the character of improvement.
For instance, more than average fullness in the Here-
ford thigh should be welcomed, though marked full-
ness there is more characteristic of the Shorthorn.

In breeding grades the breeder has much more
latitude. He can fix his own type. But it must
first be clearly defined in his own mind, and m fixing
it due recognition should be given to useful qualities
and to the needs of the market. Progress will be more
rapid and success more pronounced when the founda-
tion animals are possessed of similarity rather than
of divergent characters. For instance, when select-
ino- foundation animals for a Shorthorn herd, uni-
fication or resemblance in the progeny will be more
complete when the foundation females have similar-
ity of type rather than divergence in the same.
But even when such dissimilarity does exist, pre-
potent males may ere long produce unification.

Selection in Pedigree.— In the absence of pedi-

30G ANIMAL BREEDING.

gree there can be no certainty in transmission except
in the case of animals of known purity of breeding.
For instance, early in the nineteenth century, South-
down sires w^ere used in the formation of certain
breeds as the Hampshire and the Oxford. They were
so used because of the known prepotency which they
possessed, although at that time pedigrees as such
were not kept of the breed. But for many genera-
tions previously Southdowns had been bred pure. They
haa, Avhat may be termed, unw^ritten pedigrees. The
relation between certainty in transmission and purity
of breeding has been shown in Chapter III. But
even when j)edigree is present, transmission may be
of a character far from desirable, as has been wit-
nessed in very many instances. Such transmission
however is not to be charged up against pedigree as
such, but rather to pedigree linked with inferiority,
the result of improper breeding. It follows therefore
that selection in pedigree is more important than pedi-
gree in itself. The best pedigree is that which has
the largest number of animals in it distinguished
for high merit. But this definition should be modi-
fied by the further proviso, that the value of the
pedigree is enhanced by excellence in the near rather
than in the remote ancestry. (See p. 273.) The
little attention that is given to pedigree in the choice
of sires i's costing the United States millions of dollars
every year.

Selection and Individual Merit. — Ko selection
of any kind is admissible in breeding that is not
possessed of at least fair individual merit, even
though it should be selection based on the best pedi-
grees that exist. High individual merit means the
possession in a marked degree of the useful qualities

SELECTION. 307

essential to the breed. Opinion differs as to the
relative value of individual merit and pedigree. The
tendency has been to exalt pedigree over individual
merit. In discussing this question, the character of
the pedigree should be most carefidly considered. If
it is possessed of no other merit than its length, then
unquestionably individual merit is more important
than pedigree, for transmission cannot then be of a
high order. If, however, the pedigree has in it many
animals noted for individual merit, then pedigree
becomes relatively more important, since the trans-
mission may resemble the near ancestors quite as
much as the parent.

This explains the fact not infrequently observed,
that some sires which never won prizes themselves,
because of want of the requisite individual merit,
have begotten animals noted for a successful show
yard career. If the choice must be made between
individual merit and pedigree, the former should be
given the first place, since the danger is always im-
minent, that a pedigreed animal inferior in its in-
dividuality will transmit its OAvn qualities to the prog-
eny rather than those of its ancestors which may have
been superior. In choosing breeding animals the aim
should be to combine high individual merit and ex-
cellence in pedigree. The most suitable animals for
breeding, therefore, are those possessed of the best
pedigrees and also the highest individual merit.

Selection and the Sire. — Special care should be
exercised in the choice of the sire, since he is likely to
exert an influence on the stud, breed or flock, equal to
the sum of the influence exerted by all the females
of the same, when as male and female they stand on
an equal plane with reference to breeding and indi-

308 ANIMAL BREEDING.

viduality. In this comparison it is presupposed that
but one sire is used in the stud, herd or flock. If,
however, the male should be sujDerior in both these
respects, the influence Avhich he exerts on the progeny
is likely to be proportionately superior to that of the
conjoined influence exerted by the females of the
same. It will be as much superior to the sum of the
influence exerted by all the females, as the individual-
ity of the sire conjoined with his prepotency exceeds
the same in each individual female.

It is thus apparent, that the statement so often
repeated, that the male is half the herd may not tell
the whole truth. He may indeed be much more than
half the herd, especially when he is pure bred and
the females are mixed in breeding. The most im-
portant qualities in the male in addition to good
lineage and high individuality, are masculinity, bodi-
ly vigor and prepotency. Masculinity and bodily
vigor so far evidence the presence of prepotency.
(See p. 107.) Observation has shown that both, as a
rule, tend to accentuate the impressiveness, that is
to say, the prepotency of the sire.

Selection and TJndesirahle Transmission. — Se-
lection should most rigidly exclude the admittance
of animals into the herd that are liable to admit un-
desirable characters, notwithstanding their individual
excellence. Such are animals in whose near ancestry
have been shy breeders, indifferent performers, and
those which have evidenced a tendency to certain
forms of disease. Shy breeding will influence profit-
able returns adversely in addition to the disappoint-
ment which it brings, and it is certainly transmissible
even to the extent of becoming a herd trait. A dairy
cow ma}^ have great beauty of form, but she is low in

SELECTIO>". 309

milk production. She also comes of an ancestry in-
different in milk production. Her beauty of form
should not entitle her to a place in the breeding herd,
since she is not likely to produce good milkers. The
exclusion of animals as breeders which have evidenced
a tendency to certain forms of disease should be most
rigid, as, for instance, horses with tendencies to
spavin, cattle with leanings to tuberculous diseases,
sheep affected with goitre and swine whose limbs are
weak. The germs of undesirable qualities thus ad-
mitted may crop out for generations, howsoever ju-
dicious the breeding may be that follows their ad-
mittance.

Selection and Unsparing Elimination. — The se-
lection of breeding animals should be of that character
which will rigidly and persistently eliminate all
animals possessed of undesirable characters. It
should extend : —

1. To all animals below the average in essentials
as to form, otherwise a high average of excellence can
never be reached, nor if reached could it be main-
tained. There will be that lack of resemblance to one
another that should not obtain between animals of
the same pure breed.

2. To all such animals as are poor feeders and
indifferent producers. The first will not give a
profitable return for the food fed, and transmission
from them would also be undesirable.

3. To all shy breeders whether male or female,
and to those deficient in fecundity. Xon-breeders
are simply a bill of expense and shy breeders are
unprofitable in proportion as they fail to breed regu-
larly. When more than one may be produced at a
birth the profits are proportionate to the numbers

310 ANIMAL BREEDING.

produced up to the limit of capability to produce and
nurse properly young animals not below the normal
standard.

4. To those which have shown themselves
lacking in prepotency. Lack of prepotency in the
male would be far more serious than deficiency in the
same in the female. Especially would this be true
in the breeding of grades. (See Chapter XXVI.)
But in the breeding of pure brcds prepotency in the
female also is of much value. The elimination of
uuprepotent males should be most unsparing, since
to breed from them may result in much loss.

5. To those among purebreds possessed of color
markings which are highly objectionable. Such would
be color markings which bar from registry in pure
breds, and color markings Avhich seriously discount
the selling value of animals, though they may not bar
them from registry. Such would be Shorthorn nuiles
white in color. This course should be adopted though
the animals should be possessed of high merit, since
the power of fashion with reference to fancy points
is stronger to compel rejection than the power of good
individuality linked with objectionable color mark-
ings is to overcome such prejudice.

6. To all who have passed the meridian of best
usefulness through old age, unless in the case of
breeding animals of rare value. Such dams are more
costly to keep, are not so likely to produce animals of
high individual merit as at an earlier age, and are
not so likely to nourish them so well during the nurs-
ing period.

7. To those animals which give indications of ab-
normal tendencies. Even tliough these tendencies
should be inherently unobjectionable in tliemselves.

SELECTION. 311

their elimination should be of the most unsparing
character. Such would be the absence of horns in
any of the horned breeds, unless the accidental va-
riation thus manifested were to be utilized in pro-
ducing a hornless breed. How much more then would
it be fitting to eliminate all such variations as are
objectionable in themselves. All such animals should
be sent quickly to the block. They ought not to
be sold as breeders. The ethics of the golden rule
Avould forbid such sales.

Selection and Judicious Mating. — Animals
should be so mated that their mutual weaknesses will
be likely to be corrected, and with that object in view
they should be selected accordingly. For instance,
suppose a herd of Tamwoilh swine becomes unduly
lengthy in the barrel or coupling, and that they are
also too long of limb. The proper selection of a
male to correct these defects would mean choosing
one with requisites of form bearing in the opposite
direction, and so of all mating. Where points are
weak in one sex they should be strong in the other.
The eventual outcome will be an equilibrium in de-
velopment. In small herds or flocks such mating may
be impossible in practice, for a time at least, when a
marked diversity exists -in the females, since in such
herds or flocks it is usually impracticable to keep
but one male. The evening up process in such herds
therefore Avill be more prolonged, and while it pro-
gresses, the elimination of undesirable variations
should of course be continued. It may also be men-
tioned that violent crosses should be avoided. For
the fuller discussion of this question as also the whole
question of mating see Chapter XXX.

CHAPTER XXV.

CROSS BREEDING.

Cross breeding may be so conducted under cer-
tain limitations that it will become a source of profit
while in other instances, under different conditions,
it will be a source of loss. Again, it may be so con-
ducted as to prove a stepping stone to improvement,
while in yet other instances it may lead to retrogi'es-
sion. It will be the object in this chapter to so in-
vestigate the question that some at least of the benefits
to be derived from cross breeding under suitable con-
ditions may be pointed out, and likewise some of the
evils that flow from injudicious cross breeding, that
the kreeder may be enabled to shun them.

^ /Definition of the Term Cross Bred. — In the
highest and strictest use of the term it may be said
that a cross bred is the progeny of two distinct breeds.
For instance, suppose the Hereford and Shorthorn
breeds are crossed, and then only Hereford or Short-
horn sires were used for a number of generations, the
progeny would still be cross breds. Ultimately they
would of course become possessed of all the essential
characteristics of Herefords, or Shorthorns, according
as the sires were chosen from the one or the other of
these breeds. Still, they would not be recognized as
pure. The term may also be applied and with some
propriety to the progeny of animals possessed in
various degrees of the blood chiefly of but two breeds.
For instance, suppose a high grade Hereford and a

CKOSS BREEDING. 313

high grade Shorthorn are mated the progeny is called
a cross bred. The term cross bred is also frequently
applied, though improperly, to the progeny of animals
from two different families or tribes within the same
l)ure breed.** Suppose that Booth and Bates cattle are
mated, the mating is spoken of as a cross, which in
reality it is not in the sense of crossing breeds. It is
only a cross in the sense of crossing families or tribes
within a breed, Avhich in reality is not a cross. In
the proper use of the term there cannot be a cross in
the absence of alien blood. But, for convenience, and
because of the w^ant of a more specific word, the terms
crossing, making a cross, out breeding and cross
breeding are frequently applied to the mating of those
difl'erent families and tribes. y^

Cross Breeding and Early Improvement. — Cross
breeding was a favorite method of seeking improve-
ment in animals before the time of Bakewell. In
fact it would probably be correct to say that it was
one of the chief means by w^hich improvement was
sought. The door for practicing it among pure breds
stood then wide open, as it was before the age of
herdbooks. The advent of these have probably for-
ever closed that door. The idea probably grew out
of the observed fact, which is true, that increased
vigor was imparted by it, and in many instances
individual improvement. It would not be correct to
say that all cross breeding brings renovating power
any more than it would be correct to say that all
cross breeding brings individual improvement, but
in many instances it does both.

The instances in which it will effect improve-
ment, or the opposite, cannot certainly be predicted
beforehand. This question is one of the great deeps

314 ANIMAL BREEDING.

in which the investigator still flounders. The prob-
able results must rest on experience. When cros?
breeding was carried on without any definite plan,
these early breeders found the results were usually
disappointing in the end. So it is to-day and so it
will be always. Yet the fact is to be recognized that
the abundant crossing practiced by those early breed-
ers, especially in Great Britain, gave to many of the
animals of the eighteenth century a plasticity of con-
stitution that prepared them for the quick improve-
ment which followed, and which was sought, on what
may be termed the Bakewell system already outlined.
(See page 2.) ^'

Three Methods of Cross Breeding. — Three meth-
ods of cross breeding have been adopted, viz. : 1. Con-
tinuing to interfuse the blood of two breeds indefinite-
ly ; 2, Making the results of the first series of crosses
the basis of a new breed ; and o, introducing the cross
for a time to remedy some particular defect, or to
secure some desirable quality. **

Thej&i'st of these methods has not proved satis-
factory. Experience in practicing it has shown that
the results, like the swing of a pendulum, are first
forward and tlien backward. They do not advance
beyond a certain level. Such breeding tends to pro-
duce variation, and ^variation that is vexatiously va-
riable and uncertain.__

JMor can it be said that the second method has
proved a great success, where a regard has not been
had to a most rigorous selection in the progeny. Such
a selection is imperative, since the tendency to varia-
tion is alwaj^s accelerated by cross breeding. When
however^such crossing^ has been judiciously done, and
the'selection following has been rigid and wise, great

CROSS BREEDING. 315

service has been rendered, as the history of many
of the improved breeds will show that have been
evolved from composite materials.

The third method has been turned to good ac-
count more especially in the improvement of grades.
FoY instance, when improved mutton qualities were
sought inlh"e"TrampshTfe breed, these were obtained
through Cotswold crosses, and when the w^ool of the
Shropshire was to bo lengthened, this.^-lso-wa« -effected
through Cotswold crosses. Suppose one is breeding
a grade flock of sheep and he finds they are losing
size. He may introduce an outcross from some larger
breed. Having made the cross he may at once return
to the old line of breeding. For instance, suppose
that a breeder of grades has high grade Shropshires
that are degenerating in size and also in the length of
the wool staple, by introducing an Oxford Down cross
he will increase both the size of the progeny and the
length of the fleece. Having made the improvement
he can at once go on breeding from Shropshires, if
that is the sheep which has shown itself reasonably
well suited to his conditions. When such crosses are
made, preference should be given to those breeds
which will effect improvement with the least change
as to form and color in the progeny. In the illustra-
tion given above the Oxford Dcwi? cross would be
preferable to the Lincoln, for the reason just given.
In effecting sucli change in high grade Leicesters the
Lincoln cross would seem preferable to the Oxford
Down.

Cross Breeding and Improvement. — Cross breed-
ing has rendered invaluable service in the formation
of new breeds. But few breeds of cattle, sheep and
swine have been evolved during the recent centuries

316

ANIMAL BREEDING.

: cxc

OBOSS BREEDING. 317

without resorting to more or less of crossing in the
foundation animals and for a few generations sub-
sequently. In this way among the breeds of sheep
the Hampshire Downs and the Oxford Downs were
evolved and among swine the Poland Chinas and
Duroc Jerseys. Some, however, of the old breeds, as
Galloway cattle and Leicester sheep, would seem to
have been improved entirely by selections within the
breed. Cross breeding has also rendered great serv-
ice in the improvement of old breeds, as shown in the
improvement effected in certain of the long-wooled
breeds by the use of Leicester sires. But all this was
done before the period of public registration. Kec-
ords shut off the possibility of attempting to bring
renovation in this way. The benefits that are to be
secured from cross breeding in the future will of
necessity be confined to grade stocks. On this prin-
ciple, in the new breeds that will yet be evolved, cross
breeding must cease as soon as public records come
to be kept.

When cross breeding is resorted to in the forma-
tion of new breeds, a most careful regard must be had
to selection in the animals produced by the earlier
crosses, and indeed by all the crosses. Those animals
with undesirable variations must be most rigidlv
eliminated. Uniformity will be hindered or facil-
itated in proportion to the fidelity shown in such
elimination. The judicious inbreeding of these for
a time will also further intensify and render perma-
nent the improvement, although the two systems are
apparently the opposite, (See Chapter X.)

Cross Breeding and Undesirable Variations. — ■
Where two distinct breeds are crossed when the ani-
mals have about equal powers of transmission, there

318 ANIMAL BREEDING.

is frequently a tendency to produce undesirable va-
riations, more especially when the work is carried
further than the first cross. ,The reasons for this
cannot be fully given in the present state of our
knowledge. The fact has been recognized that the
original characters common to both are likely to be
made more dominant, and special characters, that is,
characters secured by improvement, are likely to
be obscured. '(En other words the tendency is toward
retrogression. The greater the contrast of the two
breeds, the stronger is the tendency frequently to
obscure the best characters of each, and also to restore
the original characters of each.' It is not surprising
therefore that the introduction of alien blood has in
many instances given a tendency to reversion. Let
it be observed, however, that it is when the breeds
have about equal prepotency that these results are
most marked. It would seem like unto a war of blood
elements for the mastery, with the curious result
that atavic tendencies are strengthened. When one
breed so crossed is decidedly the more prepotent, the
atavic tendencies are proportionately obscured.

Crossing a Neiv Upon an Older Breed. — When
the attempt is made to engraft the characters of a
composite though a distinct breed upon one that is
more ancient, it may be necessary first to weaken the
dominant characters of the latter by intercrossing it
with some other breed or type, and then crossing the
composite breed upon the progeny. Composite here
is but another name for new, for the newer breeds are
all composite. It is this newness which gives a less
prepotency than that possessed by the ancient breeds.
To illustrate: Suppose it were desired to engraft
Oxford Down characters upon the Merino, the process

CROSS BREEDING. 319

would be hastened by first diluting the Merino blood
by crossing upon Merino some other breed, and then
following with the Oxford Down cross. The process
would probably be further hastened by first crossing
one distinct breed on the pure Merino, as the South-
down, and then on other pure Merinos another dis-
tinct breed, as the Shropshire, next intercrossing the
cross breds from each, and then following up with a
succession of Oxford Down crosses. The tendencies
to reversion to Merino characteristics would thus be
more quickly removed than by making a succession
of straight Oxford Down crosses at the first. The
reasons will be apparent. Tlie more ancient breed,
the Merino, has gTeater power to resist change. This
is owing to the greater accumulation of dominant
characters within it, and to the more complete incor-
poration of these in the system as a whole. When the
potency of Merino blood has been weakened, as indi-
cated, the way is paved for the blood of the newer
breed, the Oxford Down, to assert its supremacy.

Crossing for Increased Size. — When the attempt
is made to improve the size of an established breed
either in the pure or high graded form, by crossing
upon it a larger breed, a due regard must be had to
improved conditions of keep, that is to say, to fur-
nishing increased food supplies, since the tendency
to increase in size will demand mote liberal feeding
and very probably somewhat modified conditions of
exercise and protection from exposure. Wlien these
are not forthcoming the disturbance in the equilib-
rium of the system may result disastrously. The
tendency to increased size calls for the consumption
of more food, and if the pastures do not furnish it,
unless supplemented in some way, the tendencies thus

320 ANIMAL BREEDING.

imparted to the system in the direction of increased
size results in deranged growth, which means unsatis-
factory growth. Thus it is, that mistakes grievous in
character have been m.ade in the attempt to secure
increased size.

The last condition of the breed thus crossed has
been found greatly inferior to the same when cross-
ing began. Thus it was, that attempts to improve
the Cheviots by crossing the larger Leicester upon
them failed, and likewise the attempts to improve
the Black-faced Highland sheep by crossing them wdth
the Cheviots. Because of this, the attempt should not
be made to introduce on to the ranges, or on to rugged
and ungenerous pastures where animals must gather
their own food during much of the yeaf, those breeds
in which the standard of size cannot be readily main-
tained by the natural conditions.

Crossing Females to he Sent to the Bloclc. —
Cross breeding may sometimes be resorted to when
seeking progeny from the females of a breed, which,
along with their dams are to be fed for the block.
Illustrations are furnished by the Black-faced High-
land and Cheviot breeds of sheep, at least in many
instances, when the ewes are to be put upon the
market the following season. The ewes thus drafted
are frequently driven down to lower pastures. They
are then crossed Avith rams of a larger breed, and
along with their progeny are in due time sent to
market. The same plan may some day be adopted
with aged females from the American ranges. It
would also be legitimate to select such ewes at a
younger age and breed thus from them yearly, until
they are finally disposed of. It is at least question-
able if, in ordinary farm practice, cross breeding

CROSS BREEDING.

321

should be carried much further than has been out-
lined above.

This statement, however, has some limitations.
Exceptions to it are found in those instances already
referred to in which one outcross may be introduced
for a specific purpose and also in the case of high
grade Dorset sheep, when the object is to combine the
property of producing in the autumn with a more
perfect mutton form than that possessed by the Dor-
set. But, let it be observed, that the general principle
thus laid down does not apply to improvement
through grading, which is discussed in the following
chapter. The distinction between these should be
carefully preserved.

'• Cross Breeding on the Ordinary Farm.— Cross
breeding should not be commonly practiced by the
breederin his ordinary operations for the reasons, 1,
that it would too much tend to destroy the identity of
breeds ; 2, the results are frequently very uncertain ;
3, it would render pure bred females less capable of
again breeding true to type ; and 4, it would probably
result in financial loss generally. These several re-^
suits to which it leads will be further discussed below.
Cross Breeding and Breed Identity. — That the
crossing of pure bred animals would destroy breed
identity needs no demonstration, since animals thus
crossed could not be registered. And such crossing,
if it became general, would prove fatal to records.
These are supported by all the breeders of pure bred
stock in America. They are considered indispensable
to the maintenance of a high standard of excellence.
Such breeding, therefore, would run counter to
focused opinion from all the breeders of pure breds
on the continent, if not indeed in the world. It would

322 AXIMAL BREEDING.

prove fatal to the integrity of breeds. Even though
the immediate results from such a cross were an im-
provement, they would eventually prove disastrous,
since sooner or later such crossing would tend to the
disposal of all the material from which such crosses
could be made.

Such a contingency once threatened the Aber-
deen Angus breed when the Shorthorn Aberdeen
Angus cross was so popular in Scotland many years
ago. Had the integrity of the Aberdeen Angus breed
been destroyed at that time, the results w'ould have
proved calamitous to the live stock interest. Such
crossing would also be fatal to that potenc}^ for im-
proving grades wdiich in so marked a degree is pos-
sessed by animals of the pure breeds. The reasons
for this have already been given. (See p. 31.) In
fact such crossing would just be undoing the great
grand ^vork wdiich the builders of pure breeds have
done.

Cross Breeding and Uncertainty in Results. —
As already intimated, the results from cross breeding
are frequently very uncertain. In some instances
the outcome is an improvement on either ancestor,
owing to what may be termed an affinity in dominant
characters. Such are the results frequently obtained
from crossing Galloways upon West Highland cattle.
This affinity w^ould seem to bring along with it reno-
vating power. Such renovating power would seem
to be in a sense inherent, as the outcome of a cross.
In some instances it would be striking, as when vigor-
ous Tamworth swine are crossed upon the Poland
China swane of the corn belt. But in the present state
of our knowdedge, such improvement cannot be cer-
tainly assured before it has been demonstrated by
actual test.

CROSS BREEDING. 323

In other instances the progeny is inferior to
either ancestor, owing to what may be termed antag-
onism in dominant characters, which begets a tend-
ency to reversion. Such Avonld seem to be the out-
come when Herefords are crossed upon Galloways.
Whj there should be affinity in some instances in
dominant characters and want of affinity in others is
one of those deep questions in breeding that cannot
be measured by the measuring lines of to-day. Some
of the probable results from crossing may, however,
be prejudged beforehand, as, for instance, when the
more robust Simmenthaler animal is crossed upon
the more refined eTersey, increased vigor will assuredly
result. Again when the Jersey is crossed upon the
Holstein, an increase in butter fat in the milk
may be confidently looked for, and when the Holstein
is crossed upon the Jersey an increase in the milk
product may be looked for with equal confidence.
But whether the blending will result in all round im-
provement or in general retrogression cannot be
confidently prejudged beforehand in the absence of
previous experience. Since many of the results of
crosses yet untried cannot with any degree of cer-
tainty be foretold, there are always some elements
of hazard present except when the crossing is based
on the determinations of previous experience.

Cross Breeding and Type. — Cross breeding ren-
ders pure bred females less capable of again breeding
true to type when bred again to males of the breed to
which they belong. This is owing to the influence
of one impregnation on succeeding ones, as shown in
Chapter XIV. The value of such females for future
breeding would, therefore, be so far impaired. But
there may be instances in which such breeding would

324 ANIMAL BREEDING.

be legitimate, as when females were to be thus bred
repeatedly to males of another breed because of the
excellence of the results obtained.

Cross Breeding and Financial Results. — Cross
breeding, unless in the exceptions already given, Avould
be more likely to result in financial loss than in
financial gain. The pure progeny of any one of the
pure breeds that may be crossed, should have a greater
money value than the cross bred progeny of the same.
This at least is true of them, as long as they are capa-
ble of breeding in good form. If this were not true
there would not be sufficient reasons for maintaining
the breed in the pure form. If the day ever comes
in the history of any breed, when, in the pure form,
the value of the average animal is Avorth no more
than that of the average cross bred from the same, the
argument for maintaining such a breed in its purity
would be gone. If it were not true that pure breds
are usually more valuable than their cross bred prog-
eny pure breeds would be wiped out of existence, and
this would of course react disastrously upon live stock
production.

CHAPTER XXVI.

IMPROVEMENT THROUGH GRADING.

The improvement of live stock through grading
is a matter of much moment to those engaged in
breeding grade stock, and this inchides the great mass
of the farmers. It would be no exaggeration to say
that through this process alone, in less than half a
dozen generations the value of the live stock on the
continent of America could be improved at least from
25 to 50 per cent., providing a sufficient number of
pure bred sires of the various pure breeds could be
secured for service, and this general improvement
would of course be accompanied by a gradual increase
in purity of breeding, so that by the time half a dozen
generations and probably a less number had been pro-
duced through using pure bred sires from some pure
breed, it would not be possible to distinguish the ani-
mals thus graded from pure breds of that breed, be-
cause of the closeness of the resemblance in form and
also in qualities.

A. Grade Defined. — \ grade strictly speaking is
the offspring of a pure bred and an animal of com-
mon or mixed breeding. Either the male or female
may be pure, but in practice the male is usually pure
and the female of mixed blood. The reasons for
breeding thus will be apparent when it is remembered
that to mate pure females with males of mixed blood
would be to lessen the value of the offspring. Nor
could a sufficient number of females be secured for

326 ANIMAL BREEDING.

such breeding. But the term grade is also applied
to the offspring of two animals of common or mixed
breeding. Such a use of the term, however, should
not be confounded Avith the use of the term cross bred,
sometimes used in a sense nearly but not quite sim-
ilar.

It is not easy to give to a nicety all the shades of
distinction that appertain to the use of these terms
as they have been applied in the past. Strictly
speaking, however, it is necessary, that in breeding
grades, one ancestor shall be pure and the other of
mixed breeding. Whereas, in breeding cross breds
both ancestors are pure. But in a looser sense the
parents of cross breds may each possess the blood
elements of two breeds the same in kind, although
it is not necessary that they shall possess these in
the same degrees, whereas each of the parents of
grades may be possessed of the blood elements of
more than two breeds. To state the question more
briefly cross breds may sometimes mean the progeny
of cross breds, and grades may sometimes mean the
progeny of grades. A grade, therefore, may contain
any percentage of the blood of one breed less than
one hundred.

A High Grade Defined. — A high grade is an ani-
mal of mixed breeding, in which the blood of a pure
bred largely predominates. To obtain this marked
predominance in pure blood elements, it must possess
at least three or four crosses of the same, and may
possess any number beyond this. In all leading es-
sentials it may be practically equal to a pure bred,
but it cannot be recorded. In stamina it may be
superior to a pure bred, owing to the renovating in-
fluence which the judicious blending of blood seems

IMPROVEMENT THROUGH GRADING. 327

to bring with it. This explains why, in fat^ stock
contests, high grade animals are usually the winners
when shown against pure breds.

Object in Breeding Grades. — The object in
breeding grades is to secure a higher average of ex-
cellence among common stocks, hence it is frequently
spoken of as grading up. This object is usually
sought througli the use of pure bred males upon fe-
males of common or mixed breeding, since to use
sires of common or mixed breeding upon pure bred
females, as show^n above, would be breeding down
rather than up. Such breeding would not only be
foolish, but it w^ould also be in a sense impracticable,
owing to the relatively small number of the females
that could be obtained for such breeding.

Benefit from Up-Gradi7ig.—T\ie great advantage
in grading up lies in the ingrafting of the charac-
teristics of a superior breed upon an inferior one, for
the purpose of improving the latter. The improve-
ment is due to the superior qualities of the males
used. This superiority has reference not only to in-
dividual qualities, but also in degree even greater to
the superior power which such a parent has to trans-
mit such qualities to the offspring. But the improve-
ment thus secured cannot be maintained unless ac-
companied by suitable care and management. For
instance suppose that a choice pure bred male is mated
with common females, a tendency to improved form
will be begotten in the progeny. If this tendency is
not sustained by liberal feeding, the promised im-
provement will not be realized. Along with this
tendency to improved form may be transmitted less
ability to withstand (he more or less hard conditions
to which the dams may have been subjected. If no

328 ANIMAL BREEDING.

improvement is made in these conditions, then im-
provement is not likely to be made, much less main-
tained, in the progeny. Improved blood, therefore,
without suitable care and feeding, will not effect
the improvement looked for by those who introduce
it.

Plan to Follow hi Up-Grading. — The plan to
be adopted in up-grading would be substantially as
follows : —

1. Decide upon the breed to be chosen for effect-
ing improvement, that is to say, decide upon the breed
from which the sires shall be chosen. The influences
that should determine such choice are such as en-
vironment, the present and prospective market de-
mands, the intrinsic merit of the breed and the prefer-
ences of the individual. On no account should a
breed be introduced into unsuitable environment
when kept for the profit that is in it. Such would be
the introduction of Lincoln sheep on to mountain pas-
tures, or Shorthorn cattle on to the soils low in produc-
tive power. When the present and prospective market
demands favor animals of a certain size and breed,
as they sometimes do, the profits should be greater
than could be obtained from breeds for which there
was less demand. At the present time this would lead
to the selection of dark faced rams of the Down breeds
in preference to Merino rams when seeking to grade
up mutton sheep. The breed should also be possessed
of much intrinsic merit, as shown by its previous his-
tory, and if the choice of the breed is in the line of
the preferences of the individual, more interest will
naturally be taken in its development.

2. Choose pure sires of high individuality from
the same breed as frequently as they may be wanted.

IMPKOYEMENT THEOUGH GRADING. 329

Such choosing will be sufficiently frequent to avoid in-
and-in breeding. If the sires were line bred and wise-
ly chosen, uniformity in the animals that are being
graded wp would be attained more speedily, but those
not skilled in the art of breeding would be more likely
to succeed by choosing wholly unrelated sires.

3. Cross the iirst sire chosen upon females of
common or mixed breeding, since such material is not
costly, and continue to use the sires thus chosen from
generation to generation, upon the selected females
of the progeny. The blood elements in the founda-
tion females, though a factor of some importance, is
not so important as form in the same. For instance,
Avhen grading up a flock of sheep for mutton uses, if
the foundation females should be largely of Merino
blood, the process will be slower than if they possessed
mainly the blood of some of the mutton breeds. But
it is important that they shall have as good form as
the average of the class furnishes, otherwise, the
grading up will cover a longer period than is really
necessary. The stocks therefore which constitute the
foundation females should be selected when prac-
ticable and selection should be made from each gen-
eration of the progeny, always rejecting those below
a certain standard.

High Grade Sires not Suitahle. — The practice
of using high grade sires to effect improvement is to
be discouraged, where good pure breds can be obtained
at reasonable rates, as dominant characters in them
have been so little intensified that the results are
likely to be variable. The strong temptation to in-
troduce such a sire into the stud, herd or flock should
be resisted, notwithstanding any individual excellence
which he may possess, but such a sire when prepotent.

330 ANIMAL BREEDING.

and in rare instances those sires are, is to be preferred
to a pure bred of inferior individuality. The latter
may reproduce his own individuality on the offspring.
Zigzag Grading to he Shunned. — What may be
termed zigzag grading ought not to be practiced.
Such grading means a frequent change in the breed
from which the sires are chosen. The results from
such a course of breeding will be increasingly va-
riable and uncertain, the longer that it is pursued.
Suppose a pure Shropshire sire has been crossed upon
grade ewes of mixed breeding, the progeny will be
possessed of much resemblance to the Shropshires in
form, appearance and qualities. Improvement has
been made in a certain direction, that is to say, in
the direction of Shropshire characteristics. Suppose
that a Lincoln cross follows. ImjDrovement in the
line of Shropshire characteristics is arrested, and
diverted in the direction of Lincoln characteristics.
Increase in size Avill follow, and in the length of the
fleece, but the latter will have lost in density, and the
fiber of the muscle will be somewhat less fine in the
grain. It may be found that the size is too great for
the pastures to sustain, and a Southdown cross is next
introduced. There will then follow a decrease in
size and in the length and weight of the fleece, but
it will be finer and the same will be true of the fiber
of the muscle. A Shropshire cross follows, and there
is further modification in the direction of the results
obtained from the first cross. It is very evident,
therefore, that such crossing, which is simply zigzag
crossing, cannot secure any stable or permanent re-
sults. It is simply advancing and receding, achieving
and undoing. The individuals who follow it, and
their name is legion, sail in a circle. Those thus

IMPROVEMENT THROUGH GRADING. 331

engaged carry on a never ending experiment withont
being able to make any substantial or permanent
progress.

Up-Grading and Mingled hlood Elements in Fe-
males.— When breeding grades the more mingled the
blood elements in the females, the more marked will
be the improvement in the progeny, since their power
to resist change weakens with the increase of diversity
in the blood elements. This conclusion is the logical
outcome of the opposite idea, viz., that the longer the
period that the animals have been bred pure the great-
er power they have when mated to transmit their
properties to the progeny, that is to say, their power
to transmit these properties increases with the diver-
sity of the blood elements in the females, and each
such additional diverse blood element tends to weaken
the power to resist change on the part of the females,
since it tends further to disunite the resisting power
to change in these blood elements, rather than to unite
them. In other words, in the first instance, unity
of action and consequently potency of action increases
with increased purity of blood, and in the second in-
stance separate and independent action, and conse-
quently weakened action, increases with increasing
diversity in the blood elements. Diversity in blood
elements, therefore, may be a positive advantage in
females when the effort to improve them through up-
grading begins. Suppose that high grade Merino
sheep in one instance are to be improved for the
block through up-grading, and in another instance
sheep with blood elements very diverse are to be
similarly improved, the sires in both instances being
chosen from the same pure breed, the object will be
attained more quickly with the latter than with the
former.

332 ANIMAL BREEDING.

The present condition, therefore, of the common
stocks of the country render them susceptible of rapid
improvement through grading. But the fact should
not be overlooked, that up-grading will be more quick-
ly accomplished when the females to be graded are
already possessed of blood elements the same in kind
as those from which the males are chosen, and it will
be facilitated proportionately to the degree in which
these are possessed by the said females. For instance,
females of mixed blood with more or less of Shrop-
shire blood elements, can be graded up more quick-
ly through using Shropshire males than if such ele-
ments were not present.

Up-grading and a Lesseiied Ratio of Improve-
ment.— When improvement is sought through up-
grading, the more marked is the improvement rela-
tively which is effected by the first cross, and the
ratio of improvement lessens with each succeeding
cross. This fact has been noticed by the most casual
observers. The explanation is not difficult. To illus-
trate: Suppose females much mixed in their blood
elements are to be graded up through the use of pure
Galloway sires of good individuality. When the work
of improvement begins the difference in the blood ele-
ments, that is, in properties and characteristics may
be fitly represented by 100, on the supposition that
the females have in them no Galloway blood. Care-
less observers would say that the progeny from the
first mating would inherit properties from each parent
that would be represented by 50. This, in reality, is
not true. Each animal of the progeny would inherit
more than 50 per cent, of the properties of the sire
and less than 50 per cent, of the properties of the
dam. The excess in the properties inherited from

IMPROVEMENT THROUGH GRADING. 333

the sire would be equal to the excess in the trans-
mitting power of the male as compared with that of
each female. In other words it would equal the pre-
ponderance in the transmitting power in the male to
effect change over that of each female to resist change.
The power of the male to transmit properties would
be much greater than that of each female, because of
his marked purity of breeding and high individual
excellence. Let the number 75 represent the proper-
ties inherited from the sire in each of the progeny,
then 25 will represent the properties inherited from
the dam. The progeny will therefore resemble the
sire very much more closely than the dam. It could
not be otherwise, because of the excess in properties
inherited from the sire as compared with those in-
herited from the dam.

N^ow suppose that an equally prepotent pure
Galloway sire is chosen for mating with the female
progeny begotten by the first mating, the difference
in properties between this sire and each female will
be represented by 25, whereas at the beginning it was
represented by 100. In other words, a gap or differ-
ence in properties represented by 25 is to be bridged
over. The change effected by the second sire there-
fore cannot be so great relatively as that effected by
the first, since the difference in blood elements, thai
is to say, in properties, is only one fourth of what it
was at the beginning. The chance therefore for im-
provement is proportionately narrowed. Let the
number 15 represent the essentially Galloway prop-
erties inherited from the sire in the second instance,
then 10 will represent the resistant properties to
assimilation inherited from the dam. The difference
in properties between pure Galloways and the prog-

334 ANIMAL BREEDINQ.

enj of tlie second mating will therefore be represented
by 10. The progeny in this instance will more close-
ly resemble the Galloways than that from the first
mating, but the increase in resemblance will be much
less relatively than in the first instance. It could not
be otherwise. It is very evident, therefore, that by
the time the fourth or fifth Galloway sire had been
thus used in up-grading, the difference in properties
between the animals thus graded and the pure Gallo-
ways would be imperceptible. They would be pos-
sessed essentially of the characteristics of pure Gal-
loways, but, of course, they could not be recorded as
the rules for the registration of Gallowavs now stand.

In this way common animals thus graded by
using successively pure bred males from any breed,
can speedily be graded up to the level of that breed in
individuality, and they will probably excel it in aver-
age vigor. This level, as has been showm, may be
attained through a very limited number of crosses
when the work is judiciously done. The number of
these crosses will depend, first, upon the preponder-
ance of prepotency in the sires ; second, upon the
judgment used in selecting and mating; and third,
upon the management.

Up-Gmdlng and Retrogression. — The opinion
has gained currency, that, while a first cross in grad-
ing is likely to effect marked improvement, succeed-
ing crosses are not so likely to effect further improve-
ment, and in many instances they are not likely to
maintain the standard of improvement obtained in
the first cross. This opinion is doubtless based on
observation, but such observation has led to erroneous
conclusions as to the true cause of such retrogression
as will be shown below. Where the work is properlj'

IMPROVEMENT THROUGH GRADING. ' 335

done, such results from up-grading would be im-
possible, though they might easily arise from cross
breeding under certain conditions as has been shown.
(See Chapter XXV.)

When Retrogression May Follow. — In the at-
tempt to up-grade, even though pure bred sires are
used, retrogression may follow in the second and suc-
ceeding crosses. It may follow when the blood ele-
ments have been strong on the side of the dam, as well
as on the side of the sire. To illustrate : Suppose the
attempt is made to change the American Merino
whose blood is almost pure into the mutton type by
crossing upon it some of the more recently established
of what may be termed the composite mutton breeds,
as the Hampshire Down. The powers of the Merino
in that case may be stronger to resist change than
those of the Hampshire Down to effect it. If so there
will be a tendency to reversion in the second and
probably in some of the succeeding crosses. Such an
instance, however, is more nearly allied to cross breed-
ing than to up-grading. It may also follow when the
changes effected are not in keeping with the condi-
tions of environment, and when the animals suffer
from neglect. Such would be the result from the at-
tempt to introduce a coarse-wooled mountain breed
into a hot climate and to engraft upon the same the
characteristics of a very fine wooled breed. If the
progeny from pure sires were subjected to conditions
less favorable than the breed from which the sires
chosen were accustomed to, there may also be retro-
gression. (See p. 319.)

Up-Grading and Sustenance. — Grading with a
view to increase the size and quality must be accom-
panied with liberal sustenance, otherwise, such in-

336 ANIMAL BREEDING.

crease in size and also in fattening properties would
be a source of weakness, owing to the disturbance
that would arise in the equilibrium of the system.
The increased impulse in both directions unsupported
by the necessary food supplies, would lead to retro-
gression. Because of this, many of the ranchmen
of the American Western ranges have been forced to
abandon such crosses. (See p. 320.)

Excluding Grades from Record. — The wisdom
of excluding all grades from the American stud, herd,
and flock records which are intended to guard the
interests of the pure breeds is, at least, questionable.
Such exclusion is eminently wise when applied to
animals with a limited number of crosses, owing to
tendencies in them to atavic transmission, but, in
continuous up-grading, a time comes when the ele-
ments of the common blood originally possessed by
the dams become so small a factor as to have no
appreciable influence. Thus barring the door of ad-
mittance to every form of grades, howsoever excellent
in themselves, tends to discourage up-grading of the
highest order.

The only advantage that those who improve
through grading can look for is increased market
values consequent upon individual improvement,
whereas, could they record such grades after a suf-
ficient number of crosses additional value would be
given to them as soon as admitted to registry, that
is, as soon as they were recognized as pure breds.
The additional benefit would also follow that comes
from the infusion of vigorous alien blood. Such
blood is forever excluded by the rules of the American
Live Stock Association Records as they now stand.
The averae^e individual excellence of Shorthorns in

IMPROVEMENT THROUGH GRADING. 337

Great Britain is at least equal to that of the average
of the same in the United States, and yet at no time
during the period of recording Shorthorns in that
country have more than five crosses from pure Short-
horn sires been necessary to secure registration in the
English Shorthorn herdbook. In a country where the
common stocks are inferior, the number of pure bred
crosses to admit to registry should be more than five,
but that number could be fixed upon that would fur-
nish a reasonably sure guaranty of good individuality
in the animals admitted. The bars that guard the
herd records may never again be thus lowered in this
country, but, if such should prove to be the case, the
price thus paid for the exclusion of alien blood with
its renovating power will probably be a dear one.

CHAPTER XXVII.

FORMING NEW BREEDS.

Much difference of opinion prevails as to the
wisdom of trying further to mnhiplj breeds, or as to
the necessity for such multiplication. Some intelli-
gent breeders are of the opinion that too many breeds
already exist, and that the needs of the country would
be better served by utilizing to a greater extent the
blood of the more important and popular of these,
the others being allow^ed to drop out of existence.
Such a view ^vould seem to be extreme. It may be
true that some breeds or sub-breeds do exist which
so closely resemble one another in form and appear-
ance, that there would seem to be no good reasons
why they should not be blended to form one breed,
as was the case with the cattle of l^orfolk and Suffolk
when the Eed Polls w^ere evolved as one distinct
breed. This is certainly true of some of the types of
Delaine Merinos as now bred in this country, yet
the fact remains, that the breeds which we now have
exist because they have been found useful, and many
of them exist because they have been found useful
under conditions in which no other breed would have
been found equally useful.

Changed conditions create new necessities, so
that it is by no means certain that the necessity for
further evolution in breeds does not exist even in
these United States. "No breed has yet been evolved
that has complete adaptation to much of the range

rORMIXG XEW BREEDS. 339

country and at the same time to the demands of the
markets. Such adaptation will not be complete until
the necessity for introducing rams from abroad inta
that country will not exist. Here then is a field for
the profitable evolution of more than one breed or
type. Again, the practice of dehorning recently in-
troduced is prompting experimenters to try to re-
move the horns from some of the existing breeds of
cattle. Some of these are doing so by the aid of alien
blood, and if they succeed the result will be the pro-
duction of a new breed. If a breed of hornless sheep
were evolved with all the distinct characteristics of
the Dorsets, except the horns, it is probable that they
would supersede the latter. The time therefore has
not yet arrived when this country would not be made
richer bv the forming of some new breeds of live
stock.

Considering the Necessity for New Breeds. —
\Yhile there would seem to be room for some new
breeds or sub-breeds in this country, the reasons for
calling them into existence should be most carefully
considered, before such a work is undertaken. The
simple desire to introduce something different would
not be a sufficient reason for evolving a new breed.
It should not be attempted before the necessity is felt
for a breed which will more completely meet the needs
of certain conditions than any breed now in the
country. The process is tedious and will of necessity
involve more or less outlay. Unless the breed so
produced is distinctly superior in some respects, and
for some important uses to those now existing, nothing
will have been gained.

Few Men Competent to Evolve Neiu Breeds. — •
The men who are fully equipped for such work are

340 ANIMAL BREEDING.

rare. More rare are tliej than legislators in the high-
est legislative body in the nation. To carry such a
Avork to a successful completion, requires the exercise
of a rare combination of talents. It calls for great
judgment in selecting the foundation materials and
in the elimination of animals with undesirable va-
riations . It requires a correct and far-reaching knowl-
edge of the principles that govern breeding. And
it calls for the exercise of perseverance w^ithout any
limit. That but few persons possess these requisites
in a marked degree is evident from the small number
relatively of those who have made a success of evolv-
ing a new breed in proportion to the nimiber of those
who have failed. Of the many Avho have engaged in
such a work, but few have so far perfected the same
as to render it abiding.

The Time Required in Breed Formation. — The
formation of a breed usually requires not less than
the work of an ordinary lifetime. In some instances
successive lives have been expended in establishing
and improving a breed, before it attained any marked
prominence. And the same is true of the establish-
ment of a type within a breed. But the length of
time required will depend largely on the materials
used and the method pursued. The greater the diver-
sity of the foundation materials used and the less
close the breeding from tliese, the longer will be the
period which the work will cover. Affinity and an-
tagonism in blood elements in different breeds has ah
ready been referred to. (See p. 323.) This should
be well understood regarding the materials chosen
for the evolution of breeds.

Forming Breeds Through the Influence of Natu-
ral Conditions. — Distinct breeds may originate large-

FORMING NEW BREEDS. 341

ly through the influence of the conditions to which
they have been subjected in the locality which came to
be the abiding home of the breed. The influence of
these natural conditions was of course further ac-
centuated by selection. The more or less divergent
foundation stocks come at length to assume distinc-
tiveness of type which becomes permanent. Such
has been the origin doubtless of several of the breeds
of cattle and also other classes of domestic animals
found in Great Britain. The type which they assimi-
ed woidd be greatly influenced by environment. (See
Chapter XXVIII.) The gap between the cattle of
the Shetland Islands and those of Galloway is now
very great, and yet it is possible that both came from
the same aboriginal race. Selection alone could be
made to modify form, color and other characteristics,
more especially as the supplies of food increased.
Crossing may also have exerted an influence, owing
to the frequency of raiding in the early centuries of
the modern era. Through these influences the mixed
stocks of the range if undisturbed by crossing would
in time assume fixed characters in harmony with the
environment on that particular part of the range.
Such doubtless would not be the very best way of
forming new breeds in the range country, but it
would be one way of accomplishing such an end.

Forming Breeds Through Crossing Followed hg
Selection. — In some instances breeds have been form-
ed by indiscriminate and promiscuous crossing for
a time, followed by a period of careful selection.
Such was the origin of that excellent breed of swine,
the Poland China. The promiscuous crossing gave
a plasticity to the system which the later molders of
the breed turned to good account in giving to it uni-

342 ANIMAL BREEDING.

formity of type and high excellence of form. Such
a system of breed forming* is of necessity slow. The
evolution of the breed covered more than three quar-
ters of a century when it might have been as fully
completed in less than half the time through crossing
with more of dcfiniteness of purpose. The story of
the evolution of some of the breeds of swine in Britain
is very similar. The first crosses made are frequently
tentative. The results, if satisfactory, encourage oth-
ers to do likewise. Thus it is that breed modification
may extend to the breeders over a large area before
the effort is made to secure dcfiniteness in breed
characteristics.

Forming Breeds Through Selection and In-and-
in Brcedi7ig. — In other instances improvement has
been made by a rigid selection within a type or breed,
aided by in-and-in breeding. The improvement thus
secured has been carried still further by accompany-
ing it with improved methods of feeding and care.
In evolution of this character, not many foundation
animals were chosen at first, but they were possessed
of the desired characteristics in a high degree. Such
has been the origin of some of the best breeds that
now exist, notably the Leicester breed of sheep, the
blood of which has been so freely used in improving
other breeds and also in forming some of these. The
foundation animals being the outcome of variation
that reaches around rather than backward would
necessarily be few. The in-and-in breeding of these
and their descendants for a time speedily fixed those
variations. The rigid selection that usually has ac-
companied such breeding tended still further to secure
uniformity, and the liberal food supplies carried the
desired variation to a hierher level.

FORMING NEW BREEDS. 343

Xo system of breed evolution is so rapid, since
the tendency to variation is less markedly present
than when alien blood has been used in making the
foundation crosses. Strictly speaking such a system
is more one of breed improvement than of breed for-
mation. Because of this, it has been oftener resorted
to in evolving types than in forming breeds. Since
Bakewell's time all the noted improvers of breeds
have followed this plan. The Colling Bros., the
elder Booth, Thomas Bates, and Benjamin Tomp-
kins are prominent in the list of such improvers.

Forming Breeds to Render Permanent Some
Feature of Variation. — Some breeds have been es-
tablished to render permanent a distinct feature of
variation that has been considered valuable. Such,
doubtless, were the facts all known, Avas the origin
of the polled races of cattle, as there are good reasons
for believing that their progenitors at one time were
all horned. The distinctive feature in these instances
was the absence of horns. Foundation animals that
were hornless were doubtless secured at first by spon-
taneous variation. Careful breeding and selection
did the rest. In other instances the desired feature
belonged to animals of alien blood, and the character-
istics of a superior breed have been engrafted upon
it. The original branch of Polled Durham cattle
furnishes an illustration of breed forming by this
method, and the more recently formed branch of the
breed further referred to below furnishes an illustra-
tion of the same by the other method previously re-
ferred to.

When the attempts were first made to breed
Polled Durhams, pure Shorthorn sires w^ere crossed
Tipon muley cows which more or less resembled Short-

344 ANIMAL BREEDING.

horns in their essential characteristics. Only the
hornless progeny and such as were possessed of form
and characteristics essentially Shorthorn were retain-
ed for breeding. These were mated and the selecting
and eliminating process continued until hornlessness
and other desirable qualities were fixed. As more
than one breeder was pursuing the same line of ex-
perimentation the necessity for in-and-in breeding
of the closest kind was not so necessary since it was
possible for the various breeders who engaged almost
simultaneously in the work to secure males to head
their herds that were unrelated and also hornless.
The other branch of the Polled Durham tree came
from absolutely pure Shorthorn ancestry, the founda-
tion animals being the unlookcd for outcome of spon-
taneous variation. The method of engrafting the
characters of a superior breed upon foundation blood
more or less alien brings along with it a vigor that
is distinctly advantageous, but it requires a longer
time to secure uniformity in type than is called for by
the other system.

Forming Breeds Through Males from Another
Breed. — In yet other instances breeds have been
formed by using, for a time more or less limited, males
from another breed with certain desirable character-
istics not possessed by the females of the foundation
stocks. In this way these characteristics would be
secured in the progeny, and this method of breeding
would be continued until they had become so fixed
that its further continuance would be no longer neces-
sary; sires would then be chosen from within the
new breed. But in some instances it has been found
necessary again to resort to an occasional outcross of
sires from the breed which furnished the sires at the

FOKMING NEW BREEDS. 345

first. The Cotswold breed of sheep as they now are,
Avere thus evolved, sires having been chosen from the
Leicester breed. The Hampshire Downs were also
produced in this way by the use of Southdown sires,
with the difference that now and then through the
evolution period ewes were occasionally chosen from
the native foundation stocks.

Leading Principles in Fanning New Breeds. —
From what has been said above, it will be very evi-
dent that in forming new breeds careful attention
must be given : 1. To a most rigid and careful selec-
tion of the foundation animals chosen and also of the
progeny of these. 2. To in-and-in breeding in a great-
er or lesser degree, whenever the work is to be ac-
complished within a reasonably limited period. And
-'>. To some out-crossing at certain stages of the work.
The degree to which these principles should be ap-
plied will vary with the nature of the work to be
done. They will be further enlarged upon below.

Selecting Foundation Animals. — In forming
breeds, selection has reference mainly to the choice of
foundation animals possessed of the characteristics
sought in a marked degree and most of all in the
choice of males. The choice of these therefore will
be very limited and to secure them may involve much
labor. The necessity for the utmost care in selecting
such sires will be apparent because of the first great
law of breeding. (See Chapter III.) It has also a
regard to the continued elimination of all but the
most desirable specimens as to form and quality. Un-
desirable specimens will appear in proportion as pre-
potency is wanting in the males, and also in propor-
tion as it is present in the females possessed of un-
desirable variations. (See Chapter IX.) Unifica-

346 ANIMAL BREEDING.

tion and stability in properties will be secured in
proportion as the elimination of animals with unde-
sirable variations is rigid and severe, and it is greatly
necessary that it shall be rigid and severe in the choice
of males from within the new breed. Judicious selec-
tion will at once discard all sires deficient in pre-
potency of the kind sought, as soon as such deficiency
has been discovered, howsoever excellent the said
males may be in other respects. When crosses have
been introduced selection must be specially rigid, ow-
ing to the great tendency in cross breds to atavic
transmission. (See p. 317.) The influence which
the character of the selection has in accelerating or re-
tarding the work of breed formation is thus very
apparent.

Artificial Characters and Selection. — The char-
acters secured through selection may be fitly termed
artificial characters, since they are created. They can
only be secured in the greatest perfection by the most
persistent effort in the systematic accumulation of
slight variations in the desired direction. Such va-
riations, as a rule, are only slight, hence the importance
of carefully using them as stepping stones toward
further variation in the same direction. They can
only be retained or further developed by breeding
from those animals in which they are most apparent,
and they can only be engrafted upon animals of no
particular breeding by persevering in the same meth-
od of carrying on the work for a longer or a shorter
period.

Forming Breeds and hi-and-in Breeding. — In-
and-in breeding has been resorted to more or less in
the formation and establishment of all the newer
breeds, and for the purpose of securing and unifying,

FORMING NEW BKEEDSw 347

the more speedily, uniformity and prepotency of tlie
kind sought. But it has been practiced in degrees
which vary much, by the molders of these breeds.
With some of them the motto was to breed for a time
from animals of the closest affinities and possessed of
the requisite qualities, while that of others was to
breed from the best, regardless of relationships. Bake-
well's practice furnislies an example of the first and
that of Hugh Watson, of Keillor, an example of the
second. The latter course is probably the less dan-
gerous, although much slower than the former. The
respective merits of the two systems will be influenced
by the degree of the inherent vigor possessed by the
foundation animals and also by the degree to which
alien blood is present or absent. The greater the
vigor of the foundation stocks, the closer the degree of
the in-and-in breeding that may be practiced, and the
longer the period during which it may be so practiced
without injury to the animals. And the more diverse
and numerous, as a rule, the alien blood elements in
the foundation stocks, the closer also may be the in-
and-in breeding, because of the renovating power
which the commingling of alien blood elements usual-
ly brings along with it. The time when breeding thus
closely should be discontinued and the degree of such
discontinuance call for the exercise of much discrim-
ination on the part of the breeder.

Artificial Variations May Become Latent. — If
the hereditary transmission of desirable variations
were not intensified by in-and-in breeding, they would
to a greater or lesser extent become latent, owing to
the preponderance in the more stable characters of the
original type. The more concentrated the dominant
blood elements in the foundation animals the more

348 ANIMAL BREEDING.

«

likely are these to revert to the original type when
breeds are being formed. This constitntes one real
difficulty in forming breeds when the effort is made
to engraft new characters on animals possessed es-
sentially of the blood elements of some ancient breed.
And the more highly artificial the variation, the more
likely is it to be obscured. In other words, the more
that the variation is unlike the characters possessed b^'
the original materials from which the breed is
evolved, the more likely is such a result to follow.
Without close breeding such characters might be in-
herited, but if so, it would only be inheritance more
accidental than stable. True, persistent selection
would eventually enable the molders to reach the
goal, but not nearly so quickly. In breed formation
as in other things, why would it not be much wiser
to reach a given point by traversing one side of a
triangle rather than by traversing the two sides of
the same ?

Breed Forming and Out-Crossing. — In forming
breeds out-crossing is usually effected by the intro-
duction of males possessed of the desired qualities,
and chosen from unrelated or not closely related
families within the breed. In forming new breeds
sucli out-crossing may not be possible, owing to the
smallness of the number of the foundation animals.
In such instances, if an outcross is introduced it
would have to be from unrelated blood brought in
from some one of the breeds or strains from which
the foundation animals were drawn. To make it from
a breed wholly alien would probably make too violent
an outcross. And it should be drawn from that breed
or strain which will furnish it in that form best cal-
culated to effect the purpose sought. The chief ob

FOEMING NEW BREEDS. 349

ject of such an outcross is to impart additional stam-
ina to the breed, as soon as any indications of the
necessity for so doing are apparent. The time at
which the outcross or outcrosses must be introduced
will depend, to some extent, on the close and prolonged
diaracter of the in-and-in breeding. The outcross
should be introduced in a tentative and cautious way,
as increased stamina accompanied by retrogression in
desirable form would be purchased at too high a
price.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIKONMENT.

The environment, that is to say the surround-
ings of animals, is all powerful in tlie influence which
it exercises upon their development. This alone may
swell out enormously the proportions to which the
animals develop, or it may even dwarf them into
pigmies though of the same hreed. The influence of
environment is all too little considered hy the many
when sitting in judgment on the choice of a hreed.
It is one thing that a breed shall suit the personal
preferences of the individual, and quite another thing
that it shall suit the conditions of environment.

Environment Defined. — Environment, as inti-
mated above, has reference to the influences which the
surroundings have upon live stock. Thece influences
include climate, pastures, and food supplies for
winter and summer. Strictly speaking they also in-
clude every feature of management even in its mi-
nutest details. There is virtually no limit to the ex-
tent to which these may be made to modify the type
of the animal and to qualify its powers of usefulness.
These various influences except that last mentioned
will be further discussed. To enlarge upon the in-
fluence of the various features of management would
not be opportune in a work of this nature.

The Influence of Climate. — Climate affects : 1,
the constitution of animals. 2, the character of the
coat and 3, through these their general usefulness.

THE INFLUENCE OF ENYIEONMENT. 351

Of course it affects these in varying degrees, accord-
ing as it is rigorous, temperate or hot. The degree
of the humidity or the want of this also exerts a
qualifying influence. These various features of the
influence of climate will be further enlarged upon.

Influence of Climate on the Constitution. — The
influence of climate upon the constitution of animals
is very decided. The extent of this influence is of
course greatly modified by the degree of the exposure.
They are hardy, fii*st, in proportion to the rigors of the
climate, and, second, to the degree to which they are
exposed to it. The hardiest breeds of domestic ani-
mals therefore are found on the northern and south-
ern extremes of the north and south temperate zones
respectively, that is to say, when they are not artifi-
cially protected during much of the year. It would
also be correct to say, that but for the unartificial
conditions under which animals are reared in the tor-
rid zone, they would there be the least hardy. But
animals may be raised in a cold climate and, not-
withstanding, be lacking in hardihood, owing to the
extremely artificial conditions under which they are
reared. This explains why cattle reared in cold
latitudes fall an easy prey to tuberculous diseases
when unduly confined to stables too warm and un-
ventilated. But while hardihood is a valuable qual-
ity, the fact should not be overlooked that it is only
of practical value when it is linked with productivity.

An animal may be possessed of hardihood in a
marked degree and yet such hardihood may not be
accompanied by an abundant flesh production, nor
may the flesh when produced be of a sufficiently high
character to make it desirable. It may also be de-
ficient as a milk producer. Likewise the character of

352 ANIMAL BREEDING.

the coat may not rank high as in the case of some of
the hardy breeds of goats and sheep. Constitution,
therefore, of which hardihood is the core is a question
of degree. The razorback swine of the south are
infinitely hardier than the delicate over refined swine
not unfrequently found in the corn belt. Likewise
they are hardier than the swine of the northern states
fed on a balanced ration, and yet the latter are more
desirable and more valuable than either. That degree
of constitution, therefore, that is consonant with the
highest productivity in the broad sense of the term
is sufficient, and it will vary with the object for
which the animals are kept. More hardihood is
wanted in the cattle kept under semi-range conditions
than on the arable farm, and in those kept on the open
range than in those kept under semi-range conditions.
Accommodating Breeds to Climatic Conditioim.
— All breeds of domestic aniinals have some power to
accommodate themselves to changed climatic condi-
tions, but some breeds have this power in a much
greater degree than others. So it is with plants.
Experience has shown that one variety of wheat, for
instance, will have greater power, at least for a term of
years, than any other variety to accommodate itself to
the various conditions of the soil and climate found in
any one state or even in a group of states that may be
contiguous. The reasons for this greater power of
accommodation in plants or in animals cannot all be
given now, and possibly they never can be so given.
It would seem reasonable to say that this greater
power of accommodation in some breeds may arise,
in part at least, from a greater plasticity in materials
of the entire organism. This at least in some in-
stances would seem to arise from the influence of com-

THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT.^ 353

posite blood in the ancestry not too remote. This maj
account in part for the high adaptation of Shropshire
sheep to changed conditions.

Greater resistance to violent climatic changes
mav, therefore, be looked for on the part of old es-
tablished breeds that have long been habituated to cer-
tain characteristics of climate than on the part of
breeds more recently formed. The fact is significant
in this connection, that the Anglo-Saxon race so com-
posite in blood elements in the ancestry, have been the
greatest colonizers in the world. Bnt size is also an
important factor in acclimatizing power. As a rule
the medium and even the smaller breeds may be suc-
cessfully distributed over wider areas than the larger,
and this again is influenced by production.

The Influence of Climate on the Coat. — Climate
materially affects the character of the coat. This
has already been discussed to some extent. (See
Chapter XIX.) It was there shown that a cold cli-
mate thickened the coatof animals, and tended to make
it finer, that a hot climate tended to make it open and
coarse, that a dry climate tended to make it short, and
that a moist climate tended to make it long. It was
also shown that these influences were modified by
ffther conditions, as heredity, food, digestion, sun-
shine and protection. It may be added that the influ-
ences thus exerted are probably relativel^^ greater in
degree with those classes of live stock that are heavi-
ly covered, as sheep. It is only natural that it should
be so, since the longer the covering and the more
dense, the greater relatively is the bulk and super-
ficies to be affected.

The Influence of Climate Upon Utility. —
Through the influence of climate upon tTie constitu-

354 ANIMAL BREEDING.

tion and coat of animals their utility is materially
affected. A change from a climate extreme in heat
or cold to one temperate is usually favorable to higher
development. For instance, if an animal is taken
from a very cold climate to one temperate, while
hardihood in the sense of ability to endure may be
lessened, yet, under proper care it will not be lessened
so as to interfere with utility. Utilitj^ is almost cer-
tain to be increased since less of the food is wasted
in the fight with rigors of climate. The coat may
be made less dense, but there w^ll probably be more
than compensation in the increased length of the
same. This when the coat is manufactured means
added value. On the other hand a change from a
hot climate to one temperate strengthens the constitu-
tion, and thickens and lengthens the coat. It holds
good therefore that a change from a climate extreme
in heat or cold to one temperate is usually favorable
to higher development, w^hile a change from a temper-
ate climate to one of extremes is usually unfavorable
to development. But in sitting in judgment on this
question, the effect of other influences should not be
overlooked.

Influence of the Pastures. — The character of
the pastures influences: 1. The size of the animals.
2. The relative development of certain parts of the
body. 3. The quality of the flesh and fleece, and, 4,
The health of the animals. These influences will be
further considered separately.

The Influence of Pastures on Size. — The influ-
ence of the pastures upon the size of animals is all-im-
portant. In its relation to adaptation in breeds this
influence should never be overlooked. As a rule, the
more sparse the pastures, the smaller the breed which

THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIKONMENT. 355

they will maintain. This arises, first, from the less
quantity of food required to maintain a small animal ;
second, from the less effort required by the same to
carry about its less ponderous body in search of food ;
and third, from the gTeater ease with which in con-
sequence it travels over the relatively large area to
gather the food of each meal. In consequence small
breeds can oftentimes maintain themselves in the
pink of condition when large breeds of the same
species would go on short supplies and would con-
sequently fare badly. When heavy breeds are put up-
on sparse pastures they deteriorate not only in size
but also in useful qualities.

In the future ^'battle of the breeds," this fact
will always enable the small breeds to win out under
such conditions. These, therefore, will never be sup-
planted by those larger in their own proper domain,
and failure Avill never cease to be written on the work
of those who attempt to supplant them with breeds
too large, unless increased productivity in the pas-
tures accompanies increased size in the animals. The
reverse is also true. Rich pastures and especially
those level in character tend to make small breeds
larger when grazed upon them, hence it is usually
considered more profitable to stock such pastures with
breeds that are already large. But while large breeds
cannot be maintained on sparse pastures without
supplementary food, it does not follow that a small
breed will not prove profitable on rich pastures.
Southdown sheep may prove highly profitable on the
best of pastures. Again, pastures intermediate in
character are best adapted to sustain animals inter-
mediate in size and this fact should be duly regarded
when choosing breeds to put upon these. But climate

356 ANIMAL BREEDING.

exercises a j)owerfiil influence upon size, as well as
pastures.

As a rule the extremes of heat and cold alt'ect
size adversely. The latter is more antagonistic to
size than the former, especially when linked with ir-
regular and insufficient food supplies. Because of
this, the smallest specimens of any breed are found in
the distant north. The largest and most perfect of
these are found in temperate regions. Hence it is,
that the largest breeds of cattle, sheep and swine have
not usualJy been found so well adapted to the con-
ditions of the southern states as to those further north.
But to this there may be some exceptions. The larger
breeds suffer more relatively from the summer heat
when carrying around their heavier bodies Avhile get-
ting food through grazing.

Pastures and Special Development. — The char-
acter of the pastures exercises no small measure of
influence on what may be termed special develop-
ment, that is, development of certain parts of the
body. When the pastures are rugged there is an
increase of development in the fore parts of the body.
The muscles of the forearm and certain other parts of
the front quarter being much used in climbing are
made strong. There is also decrease more or less in
the development of the hind parts of the same, not-
withstanding that the muscles of the thighs remain
large. But too much should not be made of such de-
crease since so much depends upon the degree of the
climbing.

The relations also between the relative propor-
tions of bone and flesh are more or less altered by the
character of the pastures. Those deficient in lime
cannot maintain a sufficiency of bone, hence, breeds

THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT. 357

reared upon tlicm are certain to deteriorate in size
and in other useful qualities, notwithstanding that
the grasses maj be abundant. Such are some of the
pastures of the upland regions of some of the south-
eastern states. Kentucky has long been famed not
only for the abundance of its blue grass pastures
springing out of a soil rich in lime, but also for the
robust development in form and limb of the animals
which feed oh these. The pastures of the downs in
the south of England, which are short and sweet and
greatly nutritious, produce an abundance of flesh but
without any excess in bone.

The Influence of Pastures on Flesh and Fleece.
— The finer the pastures the finer the grain of tlie
flesh produced. Pastures coarse in character produce
flesh coarse in fiber though it may be abundant. What
are known as chalk soils are proverbial for the fine
quality of the flesh which they produce. The greater
the variety of the pastures and the more numerous
the aromatic plants which they contain, the more
highly flavored is the meat. In this fact is found
one explanation of the high character of the meat of
the mountain breeds of sheep and also of the cattle
that feed upon the slopes of the mountains. The same
is true of meat grown on certain of the western ranges.
These pastures, however, are usually less succulent
than those of the mountains and the meat in conse-
quence is less juicy.

The richer and the more succulent the pastures,
the more superior the quality of the wool which they
produce in sheep. Such pastures stimulate the cir-
culation concerned in the nourishment of the wool and
also the action of the glands which lubricate it. As
a result the fiber of the wool is strengthened, its

358 ANEVIAL BREEDING.

length is increased^ its luster is improved, the yolk
in it is ample. Its appearance externally and espe-
cially when the fleece is opened is healthy and at-
tractive. The fact is also significant that usually a
short staple of wool and denseness in the same are
oftenest found on pastures short and fine, and more
length of staple and less density upon pastures more
rank and coarse. But caution should be exercised in
weighing these questions, lest too much stress shall be
laid upon the influence of pastures on the wool rather
than on that of breeds and breeding.

Pastures and Health in the Animals. — Good
health in domestic animals as in the human family
is afi^ected by their surroundings. Low pastures
affect adversely the health of nearly all the breeds of
sheep, even though these should be drained. They
do so for the reason, first, that in them parasites so
fatal relatively to sheep are much prone to breed in
low lands, and second, that it is more in consonance
with the nature of sheep to graze upon undulating
slopes and uplands. Some large breeds of sheep,
however, as the Lincoln and Romney Marsh breeds
are reared on just such low lands, but these are con-
tiguous to the sea and, because of the saline nature
of the rains resulting from proximity to the sea, para-
sites do not abound in these pastures. Pastures wet
and undrained affect adversely the health of nearly all
classes of domestic animals but not equally. They
injure sheep more than other animals, and swine less.
In fact sheep cannot prosper when confined to such
pastures even though located near the sea. But it
would scarcely be correct to say the same of swine,
since they love to wallow in moist and wet places in
hot Vv^eather. But even swine will thrive better on

THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIEONMENT. 359

drained pastures if they can at the same time have
access to such waters. Stagnant waters, especially
during the season of hot weather, are injurious to ani-
mals as they usually become a refuge for parasites
of various kinds and in time they become more or
less befouled by droppings from the animals which
drink from them.

The Inftuence of Food Supplies in Whiter. —
An abundance or scarcity of food supplies in winter,
the character of the same as to variety, the relative
coarseness and fineness of the fodders, and the degree
of the aroma, influence development similarly to the
presence or absence of these in the pastures. Abun-
dance in winter foods tends, of course, to promote de-
velopment. Scarcity in the same retards it. Variety
is appetizing and because of the influence which it
exercises on increased consumption is favorable to
growth. Variety also generally tends to produce a
more perfect balance in the ration. Coarseness in
the fodder tends to produce coarseness of fiber in the
flesh. Fineness in the same exerts an opposite influ-
ence. Aroma in the fodder by making it more ai>
petizing increases consumption of the same and in
this way promotes development. It also exerts a
favorable influence on the flavor of the flesh which it
produces. Succulence in the winter food and also
nutrition up to a certain degree influence favorably
development, fecundity and productivity generally.
(See Chapter XVII.) The flavor of the milk pro-
duced is also much influenced by the food fed. Cer-
tain foods, as turnips and rutabagas, tend to produce
odors more or less offensive in the milk. The same
is also true of certain pastures in summer, as rape or
rye. Such taint however may usually be prevented

360 ANIMAL BREEDING.

by allowing the animals to partake of such foods only
within a limited period after each milking.

The Influence of Shelter in Winter. — Suitable
shelter in winter intensifies all the influences of
suitable winter feeding that have been mentioned
above. It is sufficient when the animals, according
to their kind, are kept in comfort. The degree of the
shelter necessary varies much with various classes
of animals. Sheep and horses not at work require
less shelter relatively than cattle and swine, since
the former are much protected by the fleece and the
latter tend to neutralize the influences of cold by the
abundant exercise which they take. Sw^ine require
shelter greater in degree than horses, cattle or sheep,
since nature has furnished them with a less dense
covering than is possessed by the animals just named.
Humidity or dryness in the climate also exercises an
important influence on the degree of shelter neces-
sary.

A moist climate with much rainfall in winter
calls for more jDrotection relatively than a dry climate
with lower temperatures, and more of winter sun-
shine. Exposure to cold rains or sleet storms is
specially harmful to all kinds of domestic animals.
When unduly exposed to these their development will
be correspondingly hindered and also the profit from
keeping them. Winter shelter is excessive when it so
impairs vigor and hardihood as to hinder future de-
velopment, and when it interferes with profitable re-
turns. Sheep especially are susceptible to injury
from too close confinement in winter. The stamina
of many excellent dairy herds has also been injured
in the same way. Good health in animals is no sooner
injured by such treatment than profits diminish.

THE INFLUENCE OF EXVIKON3IENT. 361

The Influence of Shelter in Summer. — Shelter
ill summer furthers development and productivity
and chieflv for the reason that it keeps the animals
so sheltered from discomfort and worry. It is suf-
ficient when the animals according to their kind are
kept in comfort. The chief influences to be guarded
against are first, annoyance from flies, and second,
undue exposure to sunshine. The unrest caused by
flies is sometimes very great, so great that growing
animals otherwise well cared for, make but little prog-
ress during the fly season, unless protected from flies.
The bite or sting of the fly causes the unrest.

Two modes of protection have been adopted. By
the first, some substance usually liquid, offensive be-
cause of its odor, and in some instances more or less
destructive to the flies is applied, as by spraying or
sponging. By the second, the animals are kept in
sheds or stables sufficiently ventilated and the win-
dows of which are darkened. The second method is
the most effective. Flies shun the darkness. But it is
only applicable to studs, herds and flocks, limited in
numbers. The Aveak points about external applica-
tions are, first, tlieir cost, and second, the short dura-
tion of the period during which they protect Avithout
renewal. The person who will introduce an external
application, cheap and easily ]n'epared, that will be
greatly destructive to flies and not injurious to the
live stock and that will not call for renewal oftener
than once or twice a week, is sure of an earthly im-
mortality.

The method most commonly adopted in protect-
ms: from excessive sunshine is to 2:ive the animals
access to the shade of groves or trees growing singly
or in clumps. Because of this, pastures amply fur-

362 ANIMAL BREEDING.

nished with such shade and also supplied with run-
ning streams are greatly desired by the keepers of
stock. But while shade from trees is good that from
darkened sheds is better and especially when of the
basement character, since basement stables are cooler,
and they also protect from flies.

Environment and Adaptation. — From what has
been said it will be clearly evident that environment
exercises a marked influence on adaptation. The
degree therefore of the success in planting any breed
in a certain locality will depend very largely on en-
vironment in relation to the natural adaptation of the
breed. With environment ill adapted to the needs of
the breed, it can scarcely be made profitable. And just
here it may be added that, in placing breeds, it has
been found that more satisfactory results have been
obtained where they have been planted in localities
with a producing poAver rather beyond than short of
the requirements of the same. In other words, ani-
mals more readily accommodate themselves to condi-
tions in advance of their exact needs than to those that
fall short of the same, and on the broad principle, per-
haps, that accommodation in the line of expansion is
usually more easy than accommodation in the line of
contraction.

CHAPTEK XXIX.

CASTRATION AND SPAYING.

Castration and spaying, that is to say, remov-
ino^ the testicles in the one case and the ovaries in
the other, have long been practiced. It cannot now
he known when or how these practices first came to
1)0 introdneed, since both have been practiced for a
period so long that the dim and distant past will never
disclose the period when they Avere first introduced.
I'rom the very nature of the operation and the re-
sults flowing therefrom, it is probable that castration
was practiced at an earlier period than spaying. It
would be discovered sooner because more easily dis-
covered, and the necessity for it would be more ap-
parent because of the less need for as many males as
females to sustain reproduction.

Castration Defined. — By castration is meant the
artificial removal of the testicles in males. Among
the objects sought by such removal the following are
prominent: 1. To render them incapable of repro-
duction so that careful selection for breeding pur-
poses may be easily possible. And 2. To secure more
profitable returns when growing them for meat. In
nature selection in the males is made on the ground
of physical strength. It is simply an illustration of
the survival of the fittest. But when man selects
he improves upon nature by giving careful attention
to other features of form in addition to those which
constitute strength, and he is enabled to do so by

364 ANIMAL BREEDING.

rendering nndesirable males incapable of begetting
by castrating them. The argument has been brought
against castration, that since nature produces about
an equal 'number of males and females, it was intend-
ed that thev should be mated accordingly, but the
answer is also found in the domain of nature, since,
when animals are not under the guidance of man,
generation comes through only a limited number of
males, and as has been pointed out, because of their
physical strength. The reason why returns are more
profitable from castrated than from uncastrated ani-
mals as viewed from the standpoint of meat and labor
are considered below.

The Principal Benefits From Castration. — The
following are chief among the beneficial influences
that follow castration: 1. It promotes absolute devel-
opment. 2. It hinders undue development of the parts
less valuable as food. 3. It tends to cause the energies
of the system to concentrate in a much greater degree
upon the development of those parts of the body suit-
able for food. 4. It cheapens the cost of producing
meat. 5. It prevents the production of meat possess-
ed of an offensive taint. 6. It usually corrects all
tendencies to viciousness. And 7. It promotes the
ease with wdiich the animals may be managed. These
respective benefits \\\\\ be further considered.

Castration and Absolute Development. — Castra-
tion promotes absolute development by arresting that
division of the energies of the system necessary to the
development of the generative organs. The organs of
o'eneration and the o:enerative function are as much a
matter of growth as any other part of the system. If
left undisturbed, therefore, they draw upon the ener-
gies of the system for sustenance. When the testicles

CASTEATION AND SPAYING. 365

are removed, and usually thej are at an early age,
sncli drafts cease. The sustenance, therefore, which
would otherwise be required for such develop-
ment is left free to assist in developing the system
as a whole. The relative amount of nutrition called
for in developing and sustaining the generative func-
tions is a factor that cannot be determined with preci-
sion, but it is thought to be considerable. Practical
stockmen claim that castrated animals require con-
siderably more feed to develop them than those un-
castrated. How much more food is thus required does
not appear to have been made a matter of experimen-
tation. They also claim that the difference is greater
relatively after that period is reached when the gener-
ative functions become sufficiently developed to beget
or to conceive. Castration also aids in securing that
quietness of disposition in consonance with the high-
est possible development. After reproduction be-
comes possible the animals become less restful ; espe-
cially is this true when the females are in heat. The
highest possible development, therefore, is hindered
in proportion as such restlessness exists. A quicker
maturity is therefore possible in the castrated animals
and in all probability a greater absolute weight.

Castration and Arrested Development. — Castra-
tion hinders undue development of certain of the
parts less valuable as food. In the uncastrated ani-
mal there is relatively large development of the head ;
of bone throughout the system, including horn; of
neck, hide and hair, and of some other parts of little
or no value as food. The meat value of the head is
trifling. Bone is in a sense oifal and therefore dis-
counts the value of the dressed carcass in proportion
as it is excessive. The relative market value of the

366 ANIMAL. BREEDING.

neck and breast, always abundantly developed in nn-
cast rated animals, is low compared with that of cer-
tain other parts of the carcass. The discrimination,
therefore, in the meat markets against uncastrated
animals which have passed a certain age is not fanci-
ful, but is grounded on the best of reasons. The ex-
tent of such discrimination against the carcass of un-
castrated lambs from nine to tw^elve months old in the
]N^ew York markets during recent years has run from
10 to 20 per cent, of the value of the entire carcass.
The older the animals become the greater is the dis-
crimination against uncastrated males in all markets.
In the case of aged boars it is in some instances con-
siderably more than 50 per cent. 'No sooner has
castration been effected than undue development of
the parts named ceases entirely or is arrested in a
marked degree.

Castration and Useful Development. — Castra-
tion not only favors increase in absolute development,
and hinders undue increase in the development of the
parts that are less valuable, but it also promotes rela-
tive development in parts that are most valuable. It
does so by enabling the energies of the system to act
more in concert in promoting useful development.
Nutrition that would otherwise be used in developing
the less valuable parts of the system is thenceforth di-
verted to the development of the system as a whole,
hence a more perfect development of the more useful
parts is secured than would be possible under the op-
posite conditions. The energies of the system utilized
in developing and sustaining the generative organs
and function in uncastrated animals would also be
devoted, in part at least, to the development of the
more useful parts of the system in castrated animals.

CASTRATION AND SPAYING. 367

And the waste of energy consequent upon that greater
degree of unrest that characterizes uncastrated ani-
mals would, instead of being dissipated to no purpose,
act in the same direction. With these forces thus
acting in conjunction, the value of the entire carcass
could not but be considerably enhanced, first through
suppression in the less valuable parts of the carcass,
and second, through increase in the more valuable
parts.

Castration and Cheapness of Production. — That
castration at the proper age cheapens the cost of pro-
duction in meat will be evident from what has been
said above regarding its influence, first, on absolute
development, second, in arresting development, and
third, in promoting useful development. It has been
shown : 1. That it insures in a greater or a less degree
of immunity from that restlessness which hinders
flesh development in proportion as it is present. 2.
That it insures the production of meat superior to
what it would otherwise be by suppressing develop-
ment in the less valuable parts, and by promoting it
in those more valuable. And 3. That it secures a
greater return in quantity. The conclusion therefore
is self-evident, that castration materially cheapens the
cost of production in meat, even without taking into
account the greater ease with which castrated animals
are managed, as shown below. When to this is added
the increased value of such meat on the block, the im-
portance of giving due attention to castration will be
abundantly evident.

Castration and Taint. — Castration hinders the
production of meat with that taint which is sometimes
imparted to it from activity in the generative func-
tions. When the reproductive organs have become

368 ANIMAL BREEDING.

sufficiently developed to insure generation, they
sometimes give to the meat more or less of a peculiar
taint. This taint is imparted to it or at least accentu-
ated through activity in the generative functions.
It is not easily described. When present in a marked
degree, it is discernible both through the organs of
taste and smell. It has some resemblance to musk.
When referring to it, it is common to speak of the
meat as being "strong," but such language is very
indefinite. The taint is more marked in well matured
animals, at the special seasons for service, and in
proportion to the frequency with which the animals
are used in service. Such taint is entirely absent
before the males are capable of begetting, and it usu-
ally increases Avith the age of the animal. While it
is present only in a slight degree and frequently not
at all at certain seasons of the year, it is markedly
present during the mating season. Activity in the
generative functions and the reflex influence of the
same on the system as a whole is probably the cause.
To lessen this taint, aged males are frequently bled to
death by a slow and gradual process. In other in-
stances they are subjected to the hazard of castration
l)efore the final fattening process.

Castration and Viciousness. — Castration usually
corrects all tendencies to viciousness, at least it does
so generally in no small degree. The influence which
it thus exerts upon the sjiirit and temper of the animal
is even greater than that Avhich it exercises upon
development. But when done at a comparatively ear-
ly period, the immediate results are not so apparent
since a sufficient age has not been reached to manifest
in any striking way the characteristics of tempera-
ment. The influence tlius exercised is always of a

CASTRATION AND SPAYING. 369

softening character, and so patent is it that after
castration the element of danger from males previous-
ly pronouncedly vicious in character is almost wholly
eliminated. Thus it is that in horses and oxen kept
for labor, castration is almost universally practiced.
The animals are thereby also rendered more useful,
since, in addition to an increased mildness of temper,
they are also possessed of more reliability in the line
of obedience. This greater tractability is doubtless
owing, in part, to the complete elimination of the un-
settling influences arising from sexual desire. It has
been noticed that castration enhances fidelity even in
the dog. In the absence of castration it would scarce-
ly be possible to. manage animals kept for labor with-
out the hazard of many accidents to those engaged in
handling them and in some instances the loss of life.
Castration and Ease in Managing Animals. —
Castration j^romotes the ease with which animals may
be managed. 1. They are more easily restrained by
fences. With uncastrated males on one side of a
fence and females of the same species in heat on the
other side, no ordinary fence would suffice to prevent
stallions or bulls from breaking through it. The habit
once learned would not readily be forgotten. 2. Males
and females may be kept together when necessary in
the pasture, or in the feed lot or feed yard. In the
absence of castration it would be necessary to keep
males and females in distinctly separate inclosures,
otherwise mating would be promiscuous and this
would be fatal to the further improvement of live
stock. While such measures would be expensive and
difficult of accomplishment in summer they would also
be still more expensive and difficult of accomplish-
ment in winter. 8. The animals are more submissive

370 ANIMAL BREEDING.

to restraints put upon them and this will hold true
whatsoever the character of the restraints. It is
evident therefore that castration makes the entire
management of animals much easier in every way
that it would otherwise be.

The Beneficial Effects of Early Castration. —
The beneficial effects from early castration are usu-
ally, if not indeed always, proportionate to the near-
ness to the birth period when it is done. It is usually
deemed advisable, however, to allow all young animals
to remain uncastrated for at least a week from the
time of birth. Time is thus given to the young ani-
mal to safely adjust itself to the new conditions of its
being before anything is done that will even tempora-
rily weaken the action of the vital forces. When
castration is done early there is then practically no
undue development of the parts less valuable as meat.
(See page 304.) Nor are the energies of the system
diverted from building up the true meat-producing
form. The best age therefore at which to castrate
meat making animals is Avhen they are young.

The most satisfactory results are obtained when
swine are castrated while yet on the dam and even
when not yet one month old. The same is also true
of lambs. Calves may also be best castrated under
the age of a month, whether reared on the dam or
by hand. But it is not to be understood that results
seriously unsatisfactory will folloAV if the animals
are allowed to reach a greater age before they are
castrated. When preserving only the choicest of the
males as sires, it is frequently necessary to defer
castration until the animals are so far developed that
the ultimate form which they will assume can be
pretty certainly known. Thus it may be necessary

CASTRATION AND SPAYING. 371

sometimes to defer castration in meat making ani-
mals until that period is closely approached when they
become capable of begetting. Since colts are not
grown for meat, it is usual to defer castrating them
until they have reached the age of several months or
even a year, and partly for the reason, that time is
thus given for the development of that spirit and
nerve so essential to the usefulness of the horse.

Castration and Advancing Age.— The danger
attendant upon castration increases with the advanc-
ing age of the animal. This is owing, in part at least,
to the greater violence of the shock produced upon
the system. At maturity the forces of the system
have become so set in their action, that to thus divert
any part of them thus suddenly produces serious
disturbance to tlie whole system, and so serious in
occasional instances as to result in the death of the
animal. Such a result may also be owing in part to
the decreased activity of the functions which sustain
the system generally, including those concerned in the
repair of the injured parts. Thus it is that the re-
pair of injured parts is increasingly difficult as the
birth period is receded from.

Spaying Defined.— Bj spaying is meant the re-
moval of the ovaries in females. The objects sought
in spaying are, first, to render females incapable of
breeding, and second, to render them more capable
of being easily fattened. In many instances it may
not be desirable to keep females for breeding because
of undesirable form or because of excess of numbers.
In such instances, therefore, the goal of these is the
block and at an early age. If not spayed as soon as
these animals become capable of breeding, they are
notably restless during the period of heat, and are

372 ANIMAL BREEDING.

also at such times more or less of a disquieting factor
to the animals with whom they feed. Such dis-
quietude is unfavorable to flesh production. When
the ovaries are removed the energies of the system
that were previously concentrated on building up and
sustaining those parts concerned in generation are
diverted to the production of meat. Beyond these
advantages no others that are very marked would seem
to be secured, since spaying does not arrest the de-
velopment of the less useful parts as castration does
in males.

Spaying More Difficult than Castration. — Spay-
ing is a more delicate operation than castration. It
is also more difficult and it is attended with more of
hazard. That it is a more diflScult operation to per-
form will be manifest from its nature, the ovaries
being not so readily accessible to the operator. The
greater difficulty of the operation increases the liabil-
ity that it will not be performed with the necessary
precision, hence the increased hazard. Spaying
should not be done therefore unless by a properly in-
structed operator. This does not mean that no one
save a professional man should do this work, for non-
professional men have in many instances been pro-
nouncedly successful in the same, but that no one should
attempt it who has not been carefully instructed as
to how it should be done, and that none should engage
extensively in the work until they have ff.rst proved
their fitness for the same by the success that has previ-
ously attended efforts restricted in their scope. ISTor
should spaying ever be done unless some distinctive
advantage is to be expected from it that will more
than make up for the temporarily arrested develop-
ment that immediately follows the operation.

CASTKATION AND SPAYING. 373

Spay'uig Less Necessary thcui Castration, — The
necessity for spajing females in localities where stall
feeding is practiced and where early maturity is
sought is not so great as for castrating males. In
such localities males kept for service are not usually
allowed to run at large with the females, hence the
latter are easily preserved from becoming pregnant.
The early maturing of animals has also shortened the
period required for their development^ and in pro-
portion as this period has been shortened, the neces-
sity for spaying has been lessened. ]^evertheless, it
may be advantageous in pastoral countries where
fencing and building materials are not plentiful. The
same is true and even in a greater degree of open
ranges Avhere the animals run at large during all or
nearly all the year. Under such conditions it would
scarcely be practicable to prevent them from becom-
ing pregnant in any other way than through spaying.

Animals With Imperfect Procreative Organs. —
Animals with but one testicle and one ovary are quite
capable of begetting and conceiving as the case may
be when the development of one or the other of these
is perfect. Young males greatly prized because of
their lineage have been frequently rejected as sires
because of the absence or imperfect development of
one testicle, when, at the same time, they would beget
surely and with much potency. The objection, how-
ever, remains, that on the principle of the first great
law of breeding, the offspring might inherit in some
degree the tendency to such development. In some
instances males possess the power to beget when the
only testicle developed is wanting in complete de-
velopment. In other instances they cannot beget. Of
course animals of this class should not be kept for

374 ANIMAL BREEDING.

breeding where the defect is known. It should also
he remembered that it is not wise to allow a male
wdth but one testicle, though ill-developed, to run at
large with females, even though incapable of be-
getting. Such an animal disturbs them more or less
and such disturbance is prejudicial in proportion as it
is present.

CHAPTER XXX.

MATING ANIMALS.

The question of mating animals properly is not
well understood by the many. 'Nov is it surprising
that it is so, since it virtually involves the application
of every principle concerned in selection. (See p.
303.) That it is not better understood is unfortunate
for live stock interests, since, without a proper knowl-
edge of mating animals so as to eliminate defects, a
high standard of attainment cannot be reached when
breeding them.

One Chief Object in Mating. — In mating ani-
mals one chief aim should be so to pair them as to
correct in the progeny what is deficient in either
parent or in both. For example : if one parent is weak
in the hind flank the other should be strong there.
Or, should one parent be unduly long of limb the
other should be more than ordinarily short of limb.
It may not be possible in practice to always choose
animals thus when mating them, for the reason that
when a number of types are found in one herd on the
side of the females, to mate them thus would involve
the purchase of as many males as there were different
types among the females. Such conditions are fre-
quent when the materials are brought together to
found a herd. It is a result that is generally the out-
come of inexperience, or of lack of knowledge on the
part of those establishing herds. It does not follow
that the types chosen are inferior, but simply that
they are different.

376 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Under the circumstances therefore, Avhere one
male will suffice in a stud, herd or flock, it is greatlj
important that the said male shall be a typical speci-
men of the kind of animals which it may be desired
to breed. If the same plan of breeding is continued
from year to year, in a few generations the diversity
in type in the foundation females will disappear in
the progeny. Such mating may not at the first con-
form fully with the principle of so mating animals,
male and female, that each parent shall help the de-
fects of the other in the progeny, but it is the nearest
approach that can be made to it in practice when only
one male can be kept for service. It is of course dif-
ferent when several males are so kept, for then there
is more latitude in the choice of the male that shall be
paired with each female.

Defects that Belong to Both Parents Intensified.
— When the same defect belongs to both parents, it
will almost certainly be intensified in the offspring.
Breeding on such lines should be sedulously avoided,
since, first, it will tend to perpetuate in animals that
which is faulty in type. Such breeding would be a
mistake, viewed from the standpoint of financial
gains, and serious in proportion as the defect is rela-
tively serious. And second, the danger Avould exist
that the longer such breeding was practiced the more
difficult would it be to correct the evil.

How to CotTect Characteristic Defects. — When
any defect is so common that it may be looked upon
as a characteristic of the herd or flock, rather than an
accidental variation, it is greatly important that a
prepotent sire shall be chosen possessed of character-
istics that are likely to remedy the defect. If such
a defect is an original trait of the species, it may stub-

MATING ANIMALS. 377

bornly resist such correction. Examples are found in
the attempts that have been made to remove lightness
uf thigh in the Hereford, over-nervousness in the Ayr-
shire and the white color in Shorthorns. After many
years of careful breeding some Herefords are yet
a little light in the thigh. Ayrshires are yet in some
instances over-sensitive, and the white color in Short-
horns is still more or less frequent. Usually, how-
ever, some progress will be made in correcting such
defects each successive mating with prepotent sires.

Mating and Compactness in the Sires. — In
breeding or mating animals when there is a difference
in male and female, as such, as to compactness, it is
considered preferable to have the male the more com-
pact of the two. This, by many good breeders, has
come to be recognized as a principle that should apply
in the selection of males and females for breeding.
It rests first in the fact that the compact form is
associated more or less closely with vigor of constitu-
tion, which is considered more important relatively
in the male. In this way the careful choice of males
may be made a safeguard in protecting constitutional
vigor, and it should never be lost sight of when select-
ing them. It rests, second, in the fact that the body
of the female ought to be more roomy relatively
tlian that of the male, so that in the process of genera-
tion the well developed foetus within the former will
not press too much on the space occupied by and be-
longing to certain other organs of the body. The
relation is also close between the large, roomy barrel
in the female and free milk production after the
young have been brought forth. And such females
breed more regularly and are more reliable as breed-
ers than those of the blocky type. But care should

378 ANIMAL BREEDING,

be taken not to press these distinctions too far, nor
can thej be applied in equal degree with all classes
of live stock.

Mating Females Unreliable as Breeders. — When
the breeding powers of the female are unreliable, it
is important that she shall be mated with a vigorous
male. Such mating will be more certain to insure
conception. And if the male is possessed of mixed
or alien blood, conception in the female, it is thought, is
more assured. Whether such a result is to be at-
tributed to the simple fact that such blood is alien is
vet an open question. Mixed blood especially is fre-
quently associated Avith greater individual vigor than
blood long bred without any admixture of alien blood.
But the effort tlius to improve the breeding powers
of females unreliable as breeders will not avail, unless
care is taken at the same time to maintain the system
in such a condition as will be favorable to conception,
by feeding food eminently suited to such an end, and
by giving all the exercise practicable under the cir-
cumstances. It may even be advantageous to insist
upon enforced exercise, as, for instance, using such
a female upon a tread power. Such exercise with
mares kept for breeding is more easily controlled than
Avith females of other classes of animals.

liestoring Power to Beget in Males. — AVhen the
begetting powers of valuable males have become im-
paired to the extent of being unable to procreate, they
may in some instances be restored. The measures
that favor such restoration will depend upon the na-
ture of the loss in begetting power. Usually, however,
they will include the following: 1. Giving the liberty
of a pasture. Such liberty is usually very helpful when
the animals have previously been more or less confined.^

MATING ANIMALS. 379

2. Enforcing exercise by labor. Bulls especially may be
managed thus in winter when pastures are not acces-
sible. 3. Reducing the system gradually by feeding
foods less concentrated. Gradual reduction is recom-
mended, since sudden changes tend to disturb yet
further rather than to correct derangement in the
system of animals. 4. Feeding a small quantity of
ground wheat or of some other food well capable of
nourishing the procreative powers. The effectiveness
of these measures will be considerably dependent up-
on the cause of the impotency. If it has arisen simply
from the want of exercise or from excessive feeding
as in fitting for the shows, the hope of restored power
to beget may be cherished. If on the other hand
organic derangement has been the cause, the hope of
restoration is much weakened.

Females Irregularly in Heat. — It will not avail
to have females served which manifest the breeding
impulse at irregular periods. The recurrence of those
periods in mares, cows, ewes, and sows is at intervals
of twenty-one days. Their duration is usually from
two to three days. And their regular occur-
rence at such intervals is a pretty sure in-
dication of healthy action in the organs con-
cerned in generation. On the otlier hand when
the periods of heat come at otlier times they
bring; with them evidence of derangement in the
breeding or.o-aus. And the evidence is strong in pro-
por

•tion as the irreffularitv is marked. If such de-

rangement cannot be corrected by treatment of one
kind or another, conception cannot take place.

Females too Frequently in Heat. — When fe-
males manifest the breeding impulse every few days
and go about the pastures restless and continually

380 ANIMAL BREEDING.

disturbing the other animals of the herd, they should
be sent to the block. Sometimes such instances occur
in herds of cows. The individual thus affected will
roam about the pastures disturbing the other animals
of the herd and lowing more or less. These mani-
festations indicate such derangement of the reproduc-
tive functions as ordinarily resist remedial measures.
To have such animals served is simply to waste to no
purpose the energies of the male. The disquietude
Avhich such an animal may cause in a herd may soon
lead to serious loss, hence it should at once be re-
moved and made ready for the block. And since it
may not fatten readily because of the unrest which
characterizes it, there may be wisdom in sending it
directly to the block, even though at an apparent
sacrifice.

Sudden Changes of Condition Unfavorable to
Breeding. — When animals have been pampered by
high feeding, sudden changes of condition are un-
favorable to regular breeding. For instance, when
they have been forced into high flesh as for the show
ring, they are more likely to breed if kept in a fairly
high condition of flesh subsequent to having been ex-
hibited than they would be if the condition of flesh
was suddenly reduced. While reduction of flesh at
such a time will probably prove favorable to breeding,
it ought to be a gradual reduction such as follows a
reduction in the carbonaceous food elements and an
increase in succulence in the food given. A uniform
condition of what is termed as being in good flesh and
even high flesh is more favorable to regular breeding
than marked alternations in condition. This partly
explains why some herdsmen succeed in getting show
animals to breed with no little reliability while others

MATING ANIMALS. 381

fail. Nor should the fact be overlooked, that when
there is a necessity for feeding carbonaceous foods,
those of this class that are succulent will be much
more favorable to conception and generation than if
the succulent element were lacking. (See p. 208.)

Violent Crossing or Mating Defined. — Violent
crossing or violent mating may relate : 1. To the mat-
ing of animals dissimilar in species. The mating of
the ass and the mare illustrates such mating. 2. To
the mating of animals of the same breed but of lines
of blood or of families unrelated, and differing much
in type. For instance, if in breeding Aberdeen Angus
cattle a line bred female of the Pride family were
mated with a male of some obscure family and es-
sentially of a different type, though of the same breed,
such crossing may be spoken of as violent crossing.
3. It may further relate to the mating of animals
between whom there is great disparity in size, even
though of the same species, as, for instance, mating a
ponderous Clydesdale stallion wuth a Cleveland bay
mare. Such crosses are not desirable as will be shown
below, and consequently should be avoided unless a
definite purpose is to be served by making them.

Mating Different Species. — Such mating is un-
favorable to continued reproduction, as witnessed in
the total inability of the mule to beget, and the almost
total inability of the hinny to breed. The hinny is
the female progeny of the stallion and the female
ass. This cross is smaller and less desirable in every
respect than the mule. Both crosses are made with
a view to unite certain good qualities possessed by
each species in the progeny. The former is the f avori te
cross. The mule has much more size and speed than the
ass, and linked with such increase in size and speed, is

382 ANEVIAL BREEDING.

much of the patience, fortitude and endurance of
the ass, along* with ability to thrive on fare which
would not maintain the horse in good form. But this
combination of qualities cannot be thus perpetuated
by breeding from the progeny. Xature has erected a
barrier between the species which is unquestionably
intended to protect the same. Because of this, man
cannot break down such barriers with impunity.
Hence it is that efforts to perpetuate the progeny re-
sulting from the union of the buffalo male with Gallo-
way cows has not heretofore been successful.

Mating Dissimilar Types. — The great objection
to crossing or mating types that are dissimilar, arises
from the danger of producing undesirable variations.
Good qualities secured by generations of careful
breeding may thus be sacrificed in a single cross.
Outcrossing within a breed may sometimes be neces-
sary as previously shown (see p. 133) but whenever
done it ought to be done cautiously and in a tentative
way at the first. Since, however, types long bred in
line and in consequence weakened in stamina, may in
some instances be renovated and improved in this
way, such crossing or mating should not be too pro-
nouncedly discriminated against.

Mating Animals Differing Much in Size and
Shapes. — Mating or crossing animals between whom
there is great disparity in size is not desirable.
Trouble may arise at parturition, especially when the
male is larger than the female, not so much from the
absolute size of the young animals when born, as from
peculiarities in development. It is at least ques-
tionable if the size of the foetus when fully developed
is affected by the size of the male or by the amount of
the male element of generation present at the time of

MATING AXI.MALS. 3So

iniDregnation. That would seem to be controlled al-
most entirely, if not indeed entirely, by the extent
to which the foetus is nourished by the female during
the period of intra-uterine development. This may
be contrary to the popular view, but is it not sustained
by the facts ? After parturition, however, there can
be no question but that size is affected by^ inheritance
from both parents, and it is also true that form is
influenced by the male parent as well as by the fe-
male. And because of this, peculiarities of form may
arise, Avhich, as a direct result of certain kinds of
mating give trouble at the time of birth. When the
disparity in size is very marked it has been noticed
that more difficulty is found in obtaining form that is
desirable than when the mating is of an opposite
character.

Service Soon After Parturition. — It is not con-
sidered good practice to serve females, as sows for in-
stance, within a few days of the date of parturition.
This practice has been followed by some breeders who
have tlie sow served within two to four days of the
birth of the pigs. Such breeding would incur the
hazard : 1. That the vigor of the female would be
injured by overtaxing; 2, that the litter she was feed-
ing would not be so generously fed; and 3, that the
foetus of the future litter would also be deprived of
that nourishment necessary to insure desirable devel-
opment. Sows will not always accept service at such
a time, but when they do, the machinery of the vital
forces is being driven too rapidly. During the nurs-
ing period it is difficult in any case to prevent reduc-
tion in the condition of the sow. When the tax is put
upon her of sustaining such a family, and of nourish-
ing the foetus at the same time while in process of

384 ANIMAL BREEDING.

development, the burden must nnduly tax the energies
of the soAv. The litter she is nursing cannot but ii.
some degree fall short of the sustenance that they
would otherwise get from the soav, and the litter in
embryo, as intimated, is also deprived of a full measure
of susteuanee. It would not be long possible to main-
tain sufficient vigor in swine where such a method ol
breeding was generally practiced. Xor is it neces-
sary in sows even where two litters are produced in
a year, for this result can be accomplished though
the matino' of the sow should be deferred for two
months from the date of the birth of the young pigs.

When two crops of lambs in one year are exacted
of ewes in a climate wdiere the winter is stern and
long, it is very doubtful if sufficient size and stamina
in the same can be maintained. It may be different,
however, in mild climates. ^N^or do experienced stock-
men care to have cows served the first time they come
in heat after having produced a calf. If the cows are
well sustained this frequently takes place in about
six weeks from the time of parturition. They claim
that conception is less certain than when the mating
is longer deferred. But when mares are to raise coits
every year, it is necessary that they shall again be
mated a few days subsequently to the birth of the
foal. The favorite time is nine days after the foal has
been born. If such mating is to be commended in rhe
mare, why should it be condemned in the sow ? The
conditions are different. The mare has eleven months
to grow the foetus, the sow has less than four. The
mare can nurse the foal for half a year and more, the
sow has only a few weeks in which to nourish her
litter. The drain, therefore, on the system or the
former in producing her young is much less relatively
than on the system of the latter.

MATING ANIMALS. 385

Overtaxing Prior to Mating. — When the ener-
gies of the animal have been overtaxed, or when ani-
mals have been violently exercised just before mating,
the danger of failure in conception is more imminent.
These facts should be given due recognition when
animals are to be mated. The reference here is not
so much to energies reduced through severe and pro-
longed labor as to the overtaxing of the same during
the period of heat. Where females are to be taken
a long distance to be mated, they should either be
carted, led or driven slowly. Violent exercise at suci?
a time is quite unfavorable to conception. And after
females have been mated it is equally important that
they shall not be allowed or required to take violent
exercise.

APPEISTDIX A.

PERIOD OF GESTATION IN DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The average duration, approximately, of the
period of gestation in domestic quadrupeds may be
given as stated below :

The Ass 365 days. The Sow 113 days.

*' Mare 330 " " Dog .63 "

*' Cow 282 " " Cat «. 50 "

" Sheep ....149 " " Rabbit 30 "

" Goat 149 " " Guinea Pig 21 '♦

The average duration, approximately, of the

period required in hatching the eggs of the various

domestic breeds of fowls may be set down as follows ;

The Goose 30 days. The Guinea Hen . 26 days.

" Turkey 29 " " Hen 21 "

" Duck 29 " " Pigeon 18 "

*' Peahen 28 "

The extremes in the duration of the period of
gestation in the mare, the cow, the ewe and the sow
may be set down as follows :

The Mare 295 days to 370 days.

" Cow 265 " 300 "

" Ewe 145 " 154 '•

" Sow 110 " 118 "

The extremes in the duration of the period of in-
cubation in the various classes of domestic fowls
named below may be given as follows :

The Goose 27 days to 33 days.

♦' Turkey 26 ♦' 30 "

" Duck 26 " 32 "

" Peahen 28 *' 30 "

" Guinea Hen 25 " 26 "

•' Pigeon 16 " 20 ••

APPENDIX A. 3S7

It is not Intended that the figures given above
will cover every possible variation that may occur,
but that they fix the limits beyond Avhich extremes
occur but rarely in the period included in gestation
and incubation respectively.

Observations, — 1. There is unquestionably some
relation between the size of the various classes of ani-
mals and the duration of the periods covered by ges-
tation and incubation respectively. While the period
during which the female elephant carries her young
may be given as from twenty to twenty-three months,
that during which the female sheej) carries hers is
approximately five months, and Avhile the period of in-
cubation with geese may be given as thirty days, with
hens it is only twenty-one days. And this relation
would seem to hold true, in some degree at least, be-
tween the larger and smaller breeds of the same
species.

2. It is probably true tliat early maturity exer-
cises some influence on the period covered by gesta-
tion and incubation, the early maturing breeds coming
into existence in a somewhat shorter period than those
which mature later.

3. In the process of incubation it has been
noticed that eggs from the smaller species of fowls
hatch rather more quickly when incubated under fowls
of a larger species, owing, it is thought, to the greater
heat which descends from their bodies.

4. The opinion is prevalent that males take a
somewhat longer period to mature in embryo than
females, and it would seem to be true, but further evi-
dence is necessary before the correctness of the opin-
ion can be looked upon as established.

5. The influences that lead to the great varia-

388 ANIMAL BREEDING.

tions noticed in the period of gestation in animals of
the same species are by no means clearly understood,
but it will doubtless be correct to say that they include
size, heredity, bodily vigor, food and climate, and, in
some instances, disease.

6. The influences that tend to produce variation
in the period covered by incubation in the same class
of fov^ls, include size, heredity, freshness or staleness
in the eggs, atmospheric changes and disturbances,
and attention or inattention on the part of the sit-
ters.

APPENDIX B.

READING AND AVfflTING TEDIGREES.

As intimated in Chapter XXII, there are essen-
tially but two systems of writing pedigrees. An ex-
ample of each is now submitted with the necessary
explanations. The pedigree of an in-and-in bred ani-
mal will also be submitted.

Writing Pedigrees hy the first System. — The ex-
ample which follows represents a fictitious pedigree
made out and ready for entry in the Dominion Short-
Horn Herd Book. It is made out on an entry form
furnished by the secretary of the Dominion Short-
Hom Breeders' Association. The enti-y form of this
association has been chosen because of its comprehen-
sivenessj which brings along with it the opportunity to
make explanations more full and complete. Owing
to the great volume of business done by many of the
American associations, they publish only as much of
the pedigree as makes it practicable to trace it
readily, hence, the entry forms only call for such in-
formation as will enable the secretary to record the

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APPENDIX B.

391

animal. * As previously intimated, the blank entry
lorms are furnishedj on ai:>plication, by the secretary
of the association. Usually no charge is made for
them, but to this there are some exceptions.

Explamdions. — The folloAving explanations are
given in the hope that they will enable those not fa-
miliar with pedigrees the more readily to understand
the facts stated and the relation which they bear to
one another.

1. Observe the record signs of the numbers.
The American record number is written without any
sign. Tlic English record number is enclosed in
round brackets, and the Canadian record number is
preceded and followed by the sign of equality. Thus
in the fourth sire, Risingham, the American record
number is 150611, the English record number
(65342), and the Canadian=8204:=. The tendency
in the United States is to write the record number
without associating with it any sig-n.

2. The facts relating to ownership signify that
John Anderson bred Jessamine 2d, that he sold her to
John Riley, and that she was sold by John Riley to
Samuel Gray before the application was made by
John Anderson to have Jessamine 2d registered.
Otherwise the fact of the sale to Samuel Gray could
not have been mentioned.

3. Bolivar (75418), the sire of Jessamine 2d, as
his record number implies, is recorded in the English
Shorthorn Herd Book, and the fact of his importation
is stated by the use of the abbreviated word (imp.)
Conrad = 10314= is the sire of Jessamine = 6306=,
and he too was imported, though the fact is not of
necessity stated, since he is recorded in the English

392 ANIMAL BREEDING.

Herd Book. Camperdown==9607=is the sire of
Rosebud=5211=, and each sire preceding in the an-
cestry is in turn the sire of the dam which stands to
the left and opposite to it. 'No two of these sires are
of necessity related to one another, although some of
them may be related.

4. Jessamine=6306=, it will be observed, is
the dam of Jessamine 2d, and Rosebud=5211=is the
dam of Jessamine=6306=. This order in relation-
ship is observed down to the end of the list of the
dams. The female ancestry of Jessamine 2d, there-
fore, are given in an unbroken succession, tracing
back to Arabella, which was imported, and since the
name Arabella appears so many times in the earlier
female ancestry, Jessamine 2d would be said to be of
the Arabella family.

5. As nothing more is stated in the pedigree re-
garding the sires than the name and pedigree number,
if further information is desired with reference to the
pedigree of any one of them, it may be obtained by
noting the record number and referring to the volume
which contains it. The record numbers included in
any volume of the herd book are usually stated on the
back of the same. For instance, to obtain the pedi-
gree of Risingham, which is recorded in the Amer-
ican, English and Canadian shorthorn herd books
respectively, it would be necessary to refer to the vol-
ume in one of the aforementioned records which has
in it the record number assigned to Risingham.

6. As nothing more is stated in the pedigree re-
garding the dams than the name and number of the
sire and the respective names of the ancestry in the
dams, to obtain the full pedigree it will be necessary

APPENDIX B. 393

to consult the herd book, as in the case of the sire.
But since numbers are not assigned to the dams in the
American or English herd books thepedigrees can only
be found by referring to the index of the respective
volumes issued by the association which has recorded
the dam whose pedigTee is sought, and since several
of the recorded dams may have the same name, the
search for the pedigree becomes frequently a labored
work. But in nearly all records numbers are assigned
to the dams as well as to the sires.

Observations. — 1. Because of the labor involved
in looking up a pedigree in the records of some of the
live stock associations, and since in some of these pedi-
grees are only recorded in the abbreviated form, it
will be fomid advantageous in such instances to have
a private record which contains a complete pedigree
of every animal purchased or bred upon the farm.
Such a record would be most convenient for refer-
ence.

2. In preparing pedigrees for private or sale
catalogues, it is customary to append historical facts
to the same. These are given in the form of foot-
notes, and they are such as relate to the performance
of the animals in production, or action, and winnings
in the show ring.

Writing Pedigrees by the Second System. — The
illustration given below of writing pedigrees by the
second system, represents the pedigree of an animal
that has already been recorded. But the system and
method of making out the pedigree of an animal not
yet recorded would be the same except that the num-
ber of the said animal could not be stated. It reads
as follows : —

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p:2

APPENDIX B. 395

Explanations, — 1. The preceding pedigree is that
of the noted prize winning Guernsey Bull Primeval
4812, which was bred bj George C. Hill & Son,
Rosendale, Wis. The date of birth was Nov. 29th,
1896. Primeval was for three years at the head of
the Guenasej herd of the Wisconsin Live Stock Com-
pany, located at Stanley, Wis. The last fact stated
does not appear in the pedigree nor do any facts re-
lating to the winnings of Primeval in the show ring.
But these and any number of facts desired pertaining
to any of the animals in the pedigree could be ap-
pended in the form of footnotes.

2. Observe the plan of the pedigree. It g^ives
the ancestry on the side of both sire and dam with
equal fullness, where the names of these can be ob-
tained. They can always be so obtained except in
the ease of some animals of the foundation stock.
The sire of Primeval 4812 is Viscount 2177, and his
dam is Benjamin's Primrose 7820. The sire of Vis-
count is Bonny Boy 1097 and the dam Countess of
Fernwood 1464. The sire of Benjamin's Primrose
is Benjamin 1931, and the dam Fair Lad's Primrose
3244. Similarly the relationship of each sire and
dam in the ancestry is shown, the sire always being
written at the top of the bracket and the dam at the
bottom of the same.

3. Certain facts are given with reference to the
history and performance of several of the animals in
the pedigree. Countess of Ferndale 1464 is shown to
have been imported by the abbreviated word ^^Imp"
prefixed to her name. It is further indicated that she
gave 14 lbs. 12 oz. of butter in seven days, the time
for brevity's sake being implied rather than stated.

39G ANIMAL BREEDING.

The prizes won by Benjamin 1931, or at least some of
them, are given. It is recorded of Bonnie Lassie, of
Fernwood 1485, that she was imported and that in
the two-year-old form she gave 8000 pounds of milk
in one year, the time being implied rather than stated.
Facts are given regarding the performance of Trick-
sey 1760 at the pail and in the show ring, and divers
facts are similarly stated regarding certain other ani-
mals in the pedigree.

4. The letters "G. II. B." indicate the Guernsey
Herd Book as distinguished from the American
Guernsey Herd Book. The letters "F. S." indicate
foundation stock, and the letters ^'P. S." pedigree
st.ock.

Observations. — 1. By the above system it is pos-
sible to give certain facts regarding each animal in
the pedigree if sufficiently meritorious, but it should
be remembered that such facts become relatively less
valuable with increasing remoteness in the ancestry.
The tendency now is to confine the facts stated in the
pedigree to performance and to state historical facts
in the form of footnotes.

2. The more complete lineage of any animal in
the pedigree may be obtained by consulting the vol-
ume of the herd book in which such animal is
recorded. This can be ascertained from the number
of the animal.

Pedigree Representing Close In-and-in Breed-
ing.— For the pedigree given below, wdiich names the
ancestors of the closely in-and-in bred Jersey Two
Hundred Per Cent 33592, the author is indebted to
Mr. Thomas J. Hand, of ISTew York City. It repre-
sents in full the ancestry for three generations : —

APPENDIX B.

397

rOne Hundred
Per Cent. 16590.

Two Hundred,
Percent. 33592.

>Leclair'8 Mar-
joram 36355.

r Stoke Pogis
'StokePogis 5th J (846 E.H.B.) 1259 Imp.
5987. 1

I Marjoram 3239, Imp.
with Stoke Pogis.

Leclair'8 Mar- ( Stoke Pogis, as above,
joram 36355. j Marjoram, " "

r Young Rioter
(751 E.H.B.) by Rioter
(746) Dauncey's.

Es8ay,by Young Rioter

f Dr. Syntax (240 E.H.B.)

( Magnet, by The Gipsy

Stoke Pogis
(846 E. H. B.)

(^Mar joram 3239

'(3£S E.H.B.)

Observations. — 1. In the seven male ancestors
given in the three generations, the blood of Stoke
Pogis (846 E. H. B.) appears directly or in his sons
five times. It also appears twice in the dams. In
the seven female ancestors the blood of Marjoram
3239 likewise appears five times, and it also is present
in two of the seven sires.

2. The results of such in-and-in breeding must
speedily lead to disaster, as shown in Chapter X.

INDEX.

PACK.

Abnormal characters, not uni-

loiinly inherited 67

Abnorjpal, heredity that is 66

Acquired characters, heredity

of 70

Acquired characters, illustrated 70
Acquired characters and
original traits conflicting

elements 71

Adaptation and environment.. . 362

Advanced registration 20

Age, its influence on transmis-
sion 156

Age, old, Indications of 299

Animal Form as an Index of
Qualities — Chapter XXIII.

283-300

Interpreting 283

Indications of speed and labor 28-1
Illustrating tvpical beef form,

Fig. 8 ' 285

Indications of meat produc-
tion 286

Bodily form in the various
classes of meat producing

animals 28G

Indications of milk produc-
tion 287

Indications of wool produc-
tion 288

Indications of breeding and

breeding capacity 289

Indications of constitutional

vigor 290

Illustrating constitutional

vigor, Fig. 9 291

Indications of lack of con-
stitution 293

Indications of active nutri-
tion 293

Indications of a good quality

of flesh 294

Illustrating quietness of dis-
position, Fig. 10 296

Indications of quietness of

disposition 297

Indications of nervoua force.. 297
Indications of present bodily

health 298

Indications of old age 299

Appendix A, Period of Gesta-
tion in Domestic Animals. 386-388
Appendix B, Reading and Writ-
ing Pedigrees 389 397

By first ivstem 389

By second system 393

Close in-and-in breeding 39t>

PAGE.

Artificial Conditions — Chapter

XX 240-252

Defined 240

Seeking improvement

through 241

Influence of food 243

Influence of shelter 245

Influence of exercise 247

Influence of habit 249

Influence of selection 250

Atavism, Law of — Chapter V.. 49-60

Defined 49

Illustrations of 50

Forms of atavic transmission 50

Not well understood 51

Two classes of 52

Influences that tend to pro-
duce 53

Alternations in atavic trans-
mission 55

Reversion surrounded by dif-
ficulties 55

Reversion not spontaneous

variation 56

Theorizing on variation 57

Dominant and latent charac-
ters 58

An assemblage of characters

not inherited 59

Not necessarily antagonistic

to improvement 59

Barren, freemartin usually 151

Breed formation, time req'uired

for 340

Breed, prepotency in 99

Breeding :
Breeding capacity, indica-
tions of 289

Close breeding, terms that

indicate 112

Cross breeding 312

Fundamental laws of 24

Not unvarying in ilieir

action 24

High, defined 126

In-and-in 112

Line breeding 124

Powers of, when most active. 145
Selection covers the whole art

of 303

Sudden changes unfavorable

to 380

Transmission in mixed breed-
ing 31

Breeding Live Stock— Chapter 1 1-13

Definition of breeding 1

A science and an art 2

400

INDEX.

PACK.

Breeding Live Stock— Continued
Source of rules which govern. 2

Comprehensive 5

A problem advanced and dif-

ticult V

Fundamental principles 8

Obscure features of 9

The chief aim in 10

Breeds, Forming New — Chap-
ter XXVII 338-349

Considering the necessity for. 339

Few men competent to 339

Time required for breed

formation 340

Through the influence of nat-
ural conditions 340

Through crossing followed by

selection 341

Through selection and in-
and-in breeding 342

To render permanent some

feature of variation 343

Through males from another

breed 344

Leading principles in 345

Selecting foundation animals 345
Artificial characters and selec-
tion in 346

In-and-in breeding when 346

Artificial variations may be-
come latent 347

Breed forming and out-crosa-

ing : 348

Breeds, in-and-in breeding a

necessity in forming 115

Breeds, nutrition and the im-
provement of 213

Castration and Spaying — Chap-
ter XXIX 363-374

Castration 363-371

Defined 363

Principal benefit from 364

And absolute development.. 364
And arrested development. . 365
And useful development — 366
And cheapness of produc-
tion 367

And taint 367

And viciousness 368

And ease in management.. 369

Benefits of early 370

And advanced age 371

Spaying 371-374

Defined 371

More difficult than castra-
tion 372

Less necessary than castra-
tion 373

Animals with imperfect pro-
creative organs 373

Climate, influence of 350

Climate, influence of, on consti-
tution 351

Climate, influence of, on coat.. 353
Climate, influence of, on utility 354
Climatic conditions, accom-
modating breeds to 352

PAGS.

Close breeding, terms that indi-
cate 112

Close breeding defined 125

C jf t and Influences that AfEect

— Chapter XIX 228-239

Defined 228

Two classes of influences .... 229

Internal influences 229

External influences 230

Influence of heredity on 230

Influence of digestion and

food assimilation on 231

Influence of sex on 232

Influence of cold on 233

Influence of heat on 234

Influence of sunshine on 234

Influence of moisture on 235

Influence of protection on ... . 235

Influence of food on 236

How influences may act.» — 238

The best coat 238

Coat, influence of climate on.. 353
Coat of animals and nutri-
tion 213

Confinement, influence of on

fecundity 138

Constitution and early matu-
rity 263

Constitution, indications of lack

of 293

Constitutional vigor and animal

form 290

Correlation, The Law of — Chap-
ter VIII 87-97

Defined 87

The anatomist and correlated

structure 89

With reference to structure . . 89
With reference to function. . . 91

Influences that affect 92

Value of knowledge of corre-
lated structure 94

And highest development of

individual qualities 95

Equilibrium in organization

and 97

Cost of development, laws gov-
erning 267

Cross Breeding— Chapter XXV.

312-324

Defined 312

And early improvement 313

Methods of 814

And improvements 314

Illustrating greater potency

ofsire, Fig.ll 316

And undesirable variations . . 317
Crossing a new upon an older

breed 318

Crossing.for increased size .... 319
Crossing females to be sent to

the block 820

On the ordinary form 321

And breed intensity 321

And uncertainty of results. . . . 322

And type 323

And financial restilts 324

INDEX.

401

PAGE.

Definition of

Animal breeding i

Artificial conditions -^*"

Atavism *»

Castration f^^

Close breeding i^

Coat ^^°

Correlation ° '

Cross breeding ^l^

Early maturity ^5^

Environment ^5U

Fecundity l^f

Grade **^^

Handling qualities 218

Heredity ol

Heredity of disease 74

High breeding 12b

High grade 3Jb

In-and-in breeding 11^

Intra-uterine influences 1 <5

Like produces like 25

Line breeding 124

Nutrition 200

Out-cross 1^^

Pedigree ^o°

Prepotency 98

Previous impregnation, influ-
ence of 164

Relative influence of parents

inbreeding 152

Sex, determination of 18<

Spaying 371

Spontaneous variation 40

Standard of excellence 14

Variation, law or principle of. 36
Violent crossing or mating.. 381
Derangement of function,

heredity of 67

Derangement not always fol-
lowed by structural

changes 69

Development, highest, variation

consonant with 46

Digestion and food assimila-
tion, influence of on coat.. 231
Disease; see Heredity of —

Chapter VII 74

Abundant nutrition wards off. 206
Predisposition to, through

faulty conformation 85

Inherited predisposition to,

from one or both parents.. 82
May be transmitted poten-
tially 84

Suspension in transmission of 83

That is hereditary 77

Disposition, quiet, indications

of 297

Domestic animals, period of

gestation in 386

Domestic animals, variation

more readily produced in.. 44
Dominant and latent charac-
ters 58

Early Maturity — Chapter XXI.

253-2G7
Illustration of. Fig. 7 252

PAGE.

Early Maturity — Continued

Defined 253

In dairy stock 254

Influences which produce — 255

Advance in • 256

Laws governing the cost of

development 257

Meat may be marketed too

young •••• 259

Most profitable age for

marketing meat 260

Affected by various condi-
tions / • • 262

Advance in, and food supplies. 263

And the constitution 263

And size 264

And longevity 264

Hindrances to 265

Economic value of 266

Embryo and nutrition 210

Environment, The Influence of

— Chapter XXVIII 360-362

Defined 350

Influence of climate on 350

Influence of climate on con-
stitution 351

Accommodating breeds to

climatic conditions 352

Influence of climate on coat.. 353
Influence of c 1 i m a t e on

utility 354

Influence of pastures 354

Influence of pastures on size . . 354
Pastures and special develop-
ment 356

Influence of pastures on flesh

and fleece 357

Pastures and health of ani-
mals 3Ci8

Influence of food supplies in

winter 359

Influence of shelter in winter 360
Influence of shelter in summer 361

Adaptation to 362

Excellence, A Standard of —

Chapter II 14-23

Defined Jf

Forpurebreds 15

For grades 1"

Makers of 18

Scale of points 19

Advanced registration 20

Points in standards 20

Fancy points 21

Advantages of 22

Standards may change 22

Receiving benefits from 23

Exercise, influence of 247

Fancy points 21

Fecundity — Chapter XII ... . 135-151

Defined 135

Illustrated, Fig. 6 136

Influences that affect repro-
duction 137

Influences that attect adverse-
ly 138

Influence of confinement on . . 138

402

INDEX.

pa<;e.
Fecundity — Continued
Intluence of fooil supplies on. 139

Influence of nutrition on 140

Influence of (jual i t.v of food on 143
A plethoric condition dimin-
ishes 144

When breeding powers are

most active 145

Sterility in fat animals 145

Relation between milk pro-
duction and reproduction.. 146
The influence of over-breeding

and of heredity on 148

Relation between size in ani-
mals and 150

Freemartins usually barren . . 151

Fecundity and nutrition 208

Flock book 277

Food :
Assimilation and digestion,

influence of, on coat 231

Influence of 243

Influence of, on coat 236

Influence of quality of, on

fecundity 143

Supplies, influence of, on fe-
cundity 139

Supplies, influence of, in win-
ter 359

Forming new breeds 338

Full blood 271

Function with reference to cor-
relation 91

■Prestation, period of, in domes-
tic animals 386

ftrade 271

Grades, standard of excellence

for 17

Grading, Improvement Through

— Chapter XXVI 325 337

Defined 325

High grade defined 32(5

Objects in breeding grades. .. 327
Benefits from up-grading — 327
Plan to follow in up-grading.. 328
High grade sires not suitable.. 329
Zigzag grading robe shunned 330
Up-grading and mingled blood

elements in female 331

Up-grading and a lessened

ratio of improvement 332

Up-grading and retrogression. 334
When retrogression may fol-
low 335

Up-grading and sustenance . . 335
Excluding grades from regis-
try 336

Habit, influence of 249

Handling qualities defined — 218
Heat, females irregularly in — 379
Heat, females too frequently

in 379

Heat, influence on coat 234

Herd books 277

Herd records, designation of.. 277
Heredity and over-bree(Mng, in-
fluence of, on fecum.ity 148

PAGE.

Heredity, influence of on coat. . 230
Heredity of Disease — Chapter

VII 74-86

Defined 74

Structural and functional 75

Congenital or of latent trans-
mission 76

Diseases that are hereditary. . 77
Tuberculous diseases frequent
among domestic animals.. 78

Variations in 78

Cause of tuberculosis 8ii

Predisposing cause of tuber-
culosis 80

Animal predispo.sed to tuber-
culosis, Fig. 4 81

Inherited predisposition to,

from one or both parents.. 82
Suspension in transmission

of disease 83

Disease may be transmitted

potentially 84

Predisposition to disease
through faulty conforma-
tion 85

Heredity of Normal, Abnormal,
and Acquired Characters —

Chapter VI 61 73

Heredity defined 61

Heredity that is normal 62

Heredity that is normal, illus-
trations of 63

Heredity of individual pecul-
iarities 64

Heredity that is abnormal 66

Heredity of malformations in

structure 66

Heredity of derangement of

function 67

Abnormal characters not uni-
formly inherited 68

Abnormal transmission not

always apparent 69

Functional derangement not
always followed by struc-
tural changes 69

Heredity of acquired charac-
ters 70

Heredity of acquired charac-
ters illustrated 70

Acquired characters and
original traits conflicting

elements 71

High breeding defined 12G

Illustrations of
Abnormal transmission, Fig. 3. 65
Animal predisposed to tuber-

culosis, Fig. 4 81

Atavic transmission .50

Constitutional vigor, Fig. 9.. 291

Early maturity, Fig. 7 252

General variation 37

Greater potency of sire, Fig.

11... 316

j Heredity of acquired charac-

! ters 70

Intra-uteriue iuflueuces 176

INDEX.

403

PAGE.

Illustrations of— Continved
Like producing like in human

family JiT

Line breeding, excessive 128

Nonnal heredity 63

Prepotency, Fig. 5 100

Previous impregnation, in-
fluence of 165

Quietness of disposition, Fig.

10.... 296

Spontaneous variation 41

Spontaneous variation, Fig. 2. 42

Typical beef form, Fig. 8 2»5

Impregnation, previous, influ-
ence of , 164

Improvement of breeds and

nutri tion 213

Improvement, atavism ii o t

necessarily antagonistic to. 59
Improvement, concentra tion

in the search for 10

Improvement of live stock

neglected 3

Improvement through grading 325
In-and-in breeding, pedigree

ilhistrating...... , 396

In-and-in Breeding — Chap-

terX 112-123

Terms that indicate close

breeding 112

Defined 113

Practiced purposelyann inad-
vertently 114

Objects of 114

A necessity in forming breeds 115
Practiced in forming new

breeds 116

More practiced to produce

sires 117

Evils resulting from lis

Loss of size from - 11-^

Greater delicacy from 119

Loss of reproducing power

from 119

General deterioration from.. 120
Cannot be carried on indefi-
nitely I'l

Conducted understandingly. . 123
Individual peculiarities, hered-
ity of 64

Individual prepotency, causes

that produce 103

Intra-Uterine Influences— Chap-
ter XV 175 186

Defined 175

Illustration of 176

Two theories regarding 178

Reasonssustainingfirst theory 179
Reasons opposedto first theory 180
Reasons siistaining second

theory 182

Resemblance inf o'tal develop-
ment in its earl V stages — 184
Immediate cause ol malforma-
tions 184

Obscurity that yet veils the
subject 185

PAOE.

Latentand duminant characters 58
Like produces like, frontispiece.
Like Produces Like, The Law of

— Chapter III 24-35

Fundamental laws 24

Not unvarying in their action 24

Defined 26

Early recognized 26

Illustrations in the human

family 27

Uniformity in results 28

Benefits arising from this law 29
Benefits from want of unifor-
mity in 30

Transmission in mixed breed-
ing 31

I.iHuences that affect the ac-
tion of 31

Features of resemblance in

spaying 33

Transmission seldom equal in

parents 35

Lineage, pedigree of 271

Line Breeding — Chapter XI. 124-134

Defined 124

Starting point in 125

Close breeding defined 125

High breeding defined 126

Objects of 126

The evils from excessive 127

Illustrations of excessive — 128
Cannot be carried on indefi-
nitely 131

An out-cross defined 132

Benefits from introducing an

out-cross 133

Animals longlinebred produce
few specimens of highest de-
velopment 133

Out-cross should be made cau-
tiously 134

Live stock, machines for manu-
facturing food 5

Longevity and early maturity. . . •;64
Malformations in structure,

heredity of 66

Malf ormations,immediate cause

of 184

Malformations and nutrition . . 210
Mating Animals — Chapter

XXX 375.!85

One chief object in 375

Defects that belong to both

parents intensified 376

How to correct characteristic

defects 376

Mating and compactness in

the sires 377

Mating females unreliable as

breeders 378

Restoring power te beget in

males 378

Females irregularly in heat.. 379
Females too frequently in

heat 37»

Sudden changes of condition
unfavorable to breeding.... 380

404

INDEX.

PAGE.

Mating Animals — Continued
Violent crossing and mating

defined 381

Mating different species 381

Mating dissimilar types 382

Mating animals differing

much in size and shape.. 382
Service soon after parturition. 383
Overtaxing prior to mating.. 385

Maturity, early 253

Meat production, indications of. 286
Milk production, indications of. 287
Milk production and reproduc-
tion, relation between 146

Moisture, influence of, on coat.. 235

Native, defined 271

Nervous force, indications of.. 297
Nutrition — Chapter XVII. . .200-214

Defined 200

Conditions upon which it de-
pends 201

When a defective nutrition is

most harmful 202

Insufficient, attended with loss 204
Relative importance of a free 205
Abundant nutrition wards off

disease 206

And fecundity 208

And embryo 210

And malformations 210

And sex 211

And inherited qualities 211

And profits 212

And improvement of breeds. . 213

And coat of animals 213

Nutrition, active, indications of 293
Nutrition, influence of, on

fecundity 140

Out-cross defined 132

Out-cross, benefits from intro-
ducing 133

Out-cross should be made cau-
tiously 134

Parents, Relative Influence of

— Chapter Xin 152-163

Defined 152

Sex alone does not affect

transmissi ve power 153

Why the male parent exerts
the greater power in trans-
mission , 15i

The offspring resemble most

the parent most highly bred 154
Unexpected variations in

transmission 155

Influence of age on transmis-
sion 156

Transmission when prepo-
tency is not marked 157

Transmission of peculiarities

through the opposite sex. ... 158
Theories regarding transmis-
sion by parents as male and

female 169

Objections to theories ad-
vanced 161

Practical deductions 162

PAGB.

Parents, inherited predisposi-
tion to disease from one or

both 82

Parents, transmission seldom

equal in 35

Parentage, terms relating to.. 281
Parturition, service soon after. 383

Pastures, influence of 354

Pastures and health of animals. 358
Pedigree — Chapter XXIII. . .268-282

Defined 268

Objects sought in keeping 269

Terms used to denote lineage. 270
Term thoroughbred defined.. 270

Pure-bred, defined 270

Cross-bred, defined 270

Full blood, defined 270

Grade, defined 271

Scrub, defined 271

Native, defined 271

And purity of blood 271

Of lineage 271

Of performance 272

Not a history of the ancestry.. 272

Measure of value in 273

Authenticity in 273

Genuineness in 274

Excellence in the ancestry 275

Leading methods of writing. . 276
Designation of herd records . . 277
Stud book, herd book, flock

book 277

Objects in keeping public rec-
ords 277

Modes of recording pedigrees

not uniform 279

Distinguishing marks in rec-
ords 280

Terms referring to parentage.. 281
Choosing names for animals . . 281

Pedigree, selection in 305

Pedigree, writing and reading. . 389

By first system 389

By second system 393

Close in-and-in breeding 396

Performance, pedigree oi 272

Period of gestation in domestic

animals 386

Plethoric condition diminishes

fecundity 144

Points in standards 20

Points, fancy 21

Points, scale* of 19

Potential transmission of dis-
ease 84

Predisposition to disease in-
herited from one or both

parents 82

Predisposition to disease

through faultvconformation 85
Prepotency — Chapter IX.... 98-111

Defined .*. 98

Of breed 99

Individual 99

Illustrating, Fig. 5 100

Influences that produce pre-
potency of type 102

INDEX.

405

PAGE.

Prepotency — Continned
Influences that produce pre-
potency in individual 103

Minor influences that affect.. 105
Animals similarly bred may

differ much in 106

Rules governing not easily

framed 107

In animals inferior individu-
ally 108

Marked prepotency not of

great frequency 109

Specially important in males.. 109

Notassured till proven 110

Prepotency, transmission when

not marked 157

Prepotency not a factor in de-
termining sex 197

Previous Impregnation, Influ-
ence of — Chapter XIV. . . 164-174

Defined 164

lUuBtrations of 165

May extend to successive

births 166

A first, second, and third ex-
planation of 167

The intensity of male element

in fertilization differs widely 171
Fecundation sometimes af-
fects whole system 172

Influence greater from a first 172
Practical bearing on stock

breeding 173

Profits and nutrition 212

Protection, influence on coat.. 235

Pure-bred, defined 270

Pure-bred, standard of excel-
lence for 15

Quality in Live Stock, — Chap-
ter XVIII 215-227

The term frequently used.. .. 215

And ripeness in animals 216

And present thrift of animals 217

And well doing 217

Handling qualities defined 218

In widest sense 220

Different in different species 221

In beef cattle 221

In dairy cattle 222

In sheep 223

In swine 224

Indications of. not clearly ap-
parent at birth '. 224

More frequent in well bred

animals 225

And quantity 226

Recognizing' quality in ani-
mals 226

Animal form an index of 283

Records, herd, designations of.. 277
Records, public, objects of keep-
ing 277

Registration advanced 20

Reproduction and milk produc-
tion, relation between 146

Reproduction, influences that
affect 137

PAGE.

Reproducing power, loss of,

from in-and-in breeding... 119
Reversion not spontaneous vari-
ation 56

Reversion surrounded by difl[i-

culties 55

Ripeness and quality in animals 216

Scale of points 19

Scrub defined 271

Selection — Chapter XXIV. . .301-311

What is meant by 301

Necessity for 302

Covers the whole art of breed-
ing 302

And standards 305

In pedigree 305

And individual merit 306

And the sire 307

And undesirable transmis-
sion 308

And unsparing limitation 309

And judicious mating 311

Selection, influence of 250

Service soon after parturition. . 383
Sex, Determination of — Chap-
ter XVI 187-199

First theory 1»8

Second theory 189

Third theory 191

Fourth theory 192

Fifth theorv 192

Sixth theory 192

Seventh theory 195

Prepotency not a factor in

producing 197

Uniformity in the proportion

of the sexes 197

Summary of what is known

regarding it 198

Sex and nutrition 211

Sex and influence on coat 232

Shelter, influence of 245

Shelter, influence of, in winter. 360
Shelter, influence of, in summer 361

Size and early maturity 264

Size and fecundity, relation be-
tween .' 150

Size and influence of pastures

on 354

Size, increased crossing for ... 319

Spaying 371

Spontaneous variation defined.. 40

Standards, points in 20

Standards and selection 305

Sterility in fat animals 145

Structure with relation to

correlation 89

Stud book 277

Sunshine, influence of, on coat. 234

Thoroughbred 270

Transmission :
Abnormal, illustrated, Fig. 3.. 65
Abnormal, not always appar-
ent 69

Atavic, illustration of 50

Atavic, influences that tend to
produce 53

406

INDEX.

PAGB.

Transmission — Continued
Atavic, surrounded by diffi-
culties 65

Atavic, not well understood.. 51

Atavic, two classes of 52

By parents as male and female. 159

Forms of atavic 50

Influences of age on 156

In mixed breedin|? 31

Of disease potentially 84

Of peculiarities through op-
posite sex 1.58

Power of, in some families.... 47

Seldom equal in parents 35

Suspension in transmission of

disease 83

Unexpected results in 155

Undesirable, and selection.... 308
"When prepotency is not

marked 157

Why male parent exerts

greater power in 154

Transmissive powers, sex does

not affect 153

Tuberculous disease frequent

among domestic animals 78

Causeof 80

Predisposing cause of 80

Animal predisposed to, Fig. 4 81
Type, prepotency of, influences

that produce 102

Up-grading, benefits from 327

Up-grading, plan to follow 328

PAGE.

Variation, Law or Principle of

— Chapter IV 3«}-48

Defined 36

General variation defined 37

fxcneral variation illustrated .37
Causes of general variation.. 38
Food a powerful factor in ... 39
Spontaneous variation defined 40
Spontaneousvariation not well

understood 41

Illustrations of spontaneous

variation 41

Illustrations of spontaneous

variation, Fig. 2 42

Spontaneous variations can-
not perpetuate themselves . . 43
More readily produced in do-
mestic animals 44

Perpetuating variations 45

Variation consonant with

highest development 46

Power of transmission in some

families 47

Variations, in the inheritance

of disease 79

Variations, theorizing: on 67

Variations, undesirable, and

cross breeding 317

Variations, unexpected results

in 155

"Wool production, indications

of 288

Zigzag breeding to be shunned 330